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, a PAF spokesperson said that in light of the interest shown by various countries , it has been decided that production capacity of JF @-@ 17 Thunder at PAC Kamra will be expanded .
Russia signed an agreement in August 2007 for re @-@ export of 150 RD @-@ 93 engines from China to Pakistan for the JF @-@ 17 . In 2008 , the PAF was reportedly not fully satisfied with the RD @-@ 93 engine and that it would only power the first 50 aircraft ; it was alleged that arrangements for a new engine , reportedly the Snecma M53 @-@ P2 , may have been made . Mikhail Pogosyan , head of the MiG and Sukhoi design bureaus , recommended the Russian defence export agency Rosoboronexport block RD @-@ 92 engine sales to China to prevent export competition from the JF @-@ 17 against the MiG @-@ 29 . At the 2010 Farnborough Airshow , the JF @-@ 17 was displayed internationally for the first time ; aerial displays at the show were intended but were cancelled due to a late attendance decision as well as license and insurance costs . According to a Rosoboronexport official at the Airshow China 2010 , held on November 16 – 21 , 2005 in Zhuhai , China , Russia and China had signed a contract worth $ 238 million for 100 RD @-@ 93 engines with options for another 400 engines developed for the FC @-@ 1 .
According to media reports , Pakistan plans to increase production of JF @-@ 17s by 25 % in 2016
= = = Further development = = =
Pakistan negotiated with British and Italian defence firms regarding avionics and radars for the JF @-@ 17 development . Radar options include the Italian Galileo Avionica 's Grifo S7 , the French Thomson @-@ CSF 's RC400 ( a variant of the RDY @-@ 2 ) , and the British company SELEX Galileo 's Vixen 500E active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) radar . In 2010 , the PAF had reportedly selected ATE Aerospace Group to integrate French @-@ built avionics and weapons systems over rival bids from Astrac , Finmeccanica and a Thales @-@ Sagem joint venture . Fifty JF @-@ 17s were to be upgraded and an optional fifty from 2013 onwards , at a cost of up to US $ 1 @.@ 36 billion . The RC @-@ 400 radar , MICA AAMs , and several air @-@ to @-@ surface weapons are believed to be in the contract . The PAF also held talks with South Africa for the supply of Denel A @-@ darter AAMs .
In April 2010 , after eighteen months of negotiations , the deal was reportedly suspended ; reports cited French concerns about Pakistan 's financial situation , the protection of sensitive French technology , and lobbying by the Indian government , which operates many French @-@ built aircraft . France wanted the PAF to purchase several Mirage 2000 @-@ 9 fighters from the United Arab Emirates Air Force , which would overlap with the upgraded JF @-@ 17 . In July 2010 , the PAF 's Chief of Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Rao Qamar Suleman , said these reports were false . He said , " I have had discussions with French Government officials who have assured me that this is not the position of their government " . Suleman also speculated that " someone was trying to cause mischief — to put pressure on France not to supply the avionics we want " .
On 18 December 2013 , production of Block 2 JF @-@ 17s began at PAC 's Kamra facility . These aircraft have air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling capability , improved avionics , enhanced load carrying capacity , data link , and electronic warfare capabilities . Block 2 construction activity is planned to run until 2016 , after which the manufacturing of further developed Block 3 aircraft is planned . In December 2015 , it was announced that the 16th Block II aircraft had been handed over resulting in standing up of the 4th squadron .
Usman Shabbir of the Pakistan Military Consortium has said that Block 3 aircraft might include AESA radar , HMD , avionics improvements , and perhaps some reworking of the airframe . Local media has indicated that a 2 @-@ seat version will also be part of Block III package Unconfirmed reports says that Block III will also have better flight management system / software On 17 June 2015 , Jane 's Defence Weekly confirmed this that Block 3 will have an AESA radar and will also include a helmet @-@ mounted display ( HMD ) and possibly an internal infrared search and tracking ( IRST ) system .
Selex ES next @-@ generation cockpit includes a new mission computer , an enhanced head @-@ up display and contemporary multi @-@ function displays , plus the capability for the pilot to instead use a single , large @-@ area display . Selex is positioning the cockpit as a possible upgrade of JF @-@ 17 Block III .
= = Design = =
= = = Airframe and cockpit = = =
The airframe is of semi @-@ monocoque structure constructed primarily of aluminium alloys . High strength steel and titanium alloys are partially adopted in some critical areas . The airframe is designed for a service life of 4 @,@ 000 flight hours or 25 years , the first overhaul being due at 1 @,@ 200 flight hours . Block 2 JF @-@ 17s incorporate greater use of composite materials in the airframe to reduce weight . The retractable undercarriage has a tricycle arrangement with a single steerable nose @-@ wheel and two main undercarriages . The hydraulic brakes have an automatic anti @-@ skid system . The position and shape of the inlets is designed to give the required airflow to the jet engine during manoeuvres involving high angles of attack .
The mid @-@ mounted wings are of cropped @-@ delta configuration . Near the wing root are the LERX , which generate a vortex that provides extra lift to the wing at high angles of attack encountered during combat manoeuvres . A conventional tri @-@ plane empennage arrangement is incorporated , with all @-@ moving stabilators , single vertical stabiliser , rudder , and twin ventral fins . The flight control surfaces are operated by a computerised flight control system ( FCS ) , which also adjusts the slats / flaps for improved manoeuvrability . Up to 3 @,@ 629 kg ( 8 @,@ 001 lb ) of ordnance , equipment , and fuel can be mounted under the hardpoints , two of which are on the wing @-@ tips , four are under the wings and one is under the fuselage .
The glass cockpit is covered by a transparent , acrylic canopy that provides the pilot with a good , all @-@ round field of view . A centre stick is used for pitch and roll control while rudder pedals control yaw . A throttle is located to the left of the pilot . The cockpit incorporates hands @-@ on @-@ throttle @-@ and @-@ stick ( HOTAS ) controls . The pilot sits on a Martin @-@ Baker Mk @-@ 16LE zero @-@ zero ejection seat . The cockpit incorporates an electronic flight instrument system ( EFIS ) and a wide @-@ angle , holographic head @-@ up display ( HUD ) , which has a minimum total field of view of 25 degrees . The EFIS comprises three colour multi @-@ function displays , providing basic flight information , tactical information , and information on the engine , fuel , electrical , hydraulics , flight control , and environment control systems . The HUD and MFD can be configured to show any available information . Each MFD is 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) and 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) tall and is arranged side @-@ by @-@ side in portrait orientation . The central MFD is placed lowest to accommodate a control panel between it and the HUD .
= = = Avionics = = =
The avionics software incorporates the concept of open architecture . Instead of the military @-@ optimised Ada programming language , the software is written using the popular C + + programming language , enabling the use of the numerous civilian programmers available . The aircraft also includes a health and usage monitoring system , and automatic test equipment . The flight control system ( FCS ) comprises conventional controls with stability augmentation in the yaw and roll axis and a digital fly @-@ by @-@ wire ( FBW ) system in the pitch axis . The leading edge slats / flaps and trailing edge flaps are automatically adjusted during manoeuvring to increase turning performance . The FCS of serial production aircraft reportedly have a digital quadruplex ( quad @-@ redundant ) FBW system in the pitch axis and a duplex ( dual @-@ redundant ) FBW system in the roll and yaw axis .
The JF @-@ 17 has a defensive aids system ( DAS ) composed of various integrated sub @-@ systems . A radar warning receiver ( RWR ) provides data such as direction and proximity of enemy radars , and an electronic warfare ( EW ) suite housed in a fairing at the tip of the tail fin interferes with enemy radars . The EW suite is also linked to a Missile Approach Warning ( MAW ) system to defend against radar @-@ guided missiles . The MAW system uses several optical sensors across the airframe to detect the rocket motors of missiles across a 360 @-@ degree coverage . Data from the MAW system , such as direction of inbound missiles and the time to impact , is shown on cockpit displays and the HUD . A countermeasures dispensing system releases decoy flares and chaff to help evade hostile radar and missiles . The DAS systems will also be enhanced by integration of a self @-@ protection radar @-@ jamming pod that will be carried externally on a hardpoint .
The first forty @-@ two PAF production aircraft are equipped with the NRIET KLJ @-@ 7 radar , a variant of the KLJ @-@ 10 radar developed by China 's Nanjing Research Institute of Electronic Technology ( NRIET ) and also used on the Chengdu J @-@ 10 . Multiple modes can manage the surveillance and engagement of up to forty air , ground , and sea targets ; the track @-@ while @-@ scan mode can track up to ten targets at BVR and can engage two simultaneously with radar @-@ homing AAMs . The operation range for targets with a radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) of 5 m2 ( 54 sq ft ) is stated to be ≥ 105 km ( 65 mi ) in look @-@ up mode and ≥ 85 km ( 53 mi ) in look @-@ down mode . A forward looking infrared ( FLIR ) pod for low @-@ level navigation and infra @-@ red search and track ( IRST ) system for passive targeting can also be integrated ; the JF @-@ 17 Block 2 is believed to incorporate an IRST .
A helmet @-@ mounted sight ( HMS ) developed by Luoyang Electro @-@ Optics Technology Development Centre of AVIC was developed in parallel with the JF @-@ 17 ; it was first tested on Prototype 04 in 2006 . It was dubbed as EO HMS , ( Electro @-@ Optical Helmet Mounted Sight ) and was first revealed to the public in 2008 at the 7th Zhuhai Airshow , where a partial mock @-@ up was on display . The HMS tracks the pilot 's head and eye movements to guide missiles towards the pilot 's visual target . An externally carried day / night laser designator targeting pod may be integrated with the avionics to guide laser @-@ guided bombs ( LGBs ) . An extra hardpoint may be added under the starboard air intake , opposite the cannon , for such pods . To reduce the numbers of targeting pods required , the aircraft 's tactical data link can transmit target data to other aircraft not equipped with targeting pods . The communication systems comprise two VHF / UHF radios ; the VHF radio has the capacity for data linking for communication with ground control centres , airborne early warning and control aircraft and combat aircraft with compatible data links for network @-@ centric warfare , and improved situation awareness .
In April 2016 , Air Marshal Muhammad Ashfaque Arain said that , " JF @-@ 17 needs a targeting pod , as the jets ’ usefulness in current operations was limited due to lack of precision targeting . To fulfill this gap the Air Force was interested in buying the Thales @-@ made Damocles , a third @-@ generation targeting pod ; which was a priority .
= = = Propulsion and fuel system = = =
The first two blocks of JF @-@ 17 is powered by a single Russian RD @-@ 93 turbofan engine , which is a variant of the RD @-@ 33 engine used on the MiG @-@ 29 fighter . The engine gives more thrust and significantly lower specific fuel consumption than turbojet engines fitted to older combat aircraft being replaced by the JF @-@ 17 . The advantages of using a single engine are a reduction in maintenance time and cost when compared to twin @-@ engined fighters . A thrust @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of 0 @.@ 99 can be achieved with full internal fuel tanks and no external payload . The engine 's air supply is provided by two bifurcated air inlets ( see airframe section ) .
The RD @-@ 93 is known to produce smoke trails . The Guizhou Aero Engine Group has been developing a new turbofan engine , the WS @-@ 13 Taishan , since 2000 to replace the RD @-@ 93 . It is based on the Klimov RD @-@ 33 and incorporates new technologies to boost performance and reliability . A thrust output of 80 to 86 @.@ 36 kN ( 17 @,@ 980 to 19 @,@ 410 lbf ) , a lifespan of 2 @,@ 200 hours , and a thrust @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of 8 @.@ 7 are expected . An improved version of the WS @-@ 13 , developing a thrust of around 100 kN ( 22 @,@ 000 lbf ) ( 22 @,@ 450 lb ) , is also reportedly under development . During the 2015 Paris Air Show , it was announced that flight testing of a JF @-@ 17 equipped with the WS @-@ 13 engine had begun . In 2015 , a representative of Pakistan Aeronautical Complex said that Pakistan would continue to use the RD @-@ 93 engine on their fighters . Local media reports in Jan 2016 say that , Russia is planning to sell engines for JF @-@ 17 directly to Pakistan . According to a PAC representative , Pakistan is looking to collaborate with Russia in developing and repairing engines
The fuel system comprises internal fuel tanks located in the wings and fuselage with a capacity of 2 @,@ 330 kg ( 5 @,@ 140 lb ) ; they are refuelled through a single point pressure refuelling system ( see turbine fuel systems ) . Internal fuel storage can be supplemented by external fuel tanks . One 800 @-@ litre ( 180 imp gal ) drop tank can be mounted on the aircraft 's centerline hardpoint under the fuselage and two 800 @-@ litre or 1 @,@ 110 @-@ litre ( 240 imp gal ) drop tanks can be mounted on the two inboard under @-@ wing hardpoints . The fuel system is compatible with in @-@ flight refuelling ( IFR ) , allowing tanker aircraft to refuel inflight , and increasing its range and loitering time significantly . All production aircraft for the PAF are to be fitted with IFR probes . In June 2013 , PAF Air Chief Marshal Tahir Rafique Butt said ground tests on the JF @-@ 17 's refuelling probes had been successfully completed and the first mid @-@ air refuelling operations would commence that summer .
= = = Weaponry = = =
The JF @-@ 17 can be armed with up to 3 @,@ 629 kg ( 8 @,@ 001 lb ) of air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ ground weaponry , and other equipment mounted externally on the aircraft 's seven hardpoints . One hardpoint is located under the fuselage between the main landing gear , two are underneath each wing , and one is at each wing @-@ tip . All seven hardpoints communicate via a MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1760 data @-@ bus architecture with the Stores Management System , which is stated to be capable of integration with weaponry of any origin . Internal armament comprises one 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) GSh @-@ 23 @-@ 2 twin @-@ barrel cannon mounted under the port side air intake , which can be replaced with a 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) GSh @-@ 30 @-@ 2 twin @-@ barrel cannon .
The wing @-@ tip hardpoints are typically occupied by short range infra @-@ red homing AAMs . Many combinations of ordnance and equipment such as targeting pods can be carried on the under @-@ wing and under @-@ fuselage hardpoints . Underwing hardpoints can be fitted with multiple ejector racks , allowing each hardpoint to carry two 500 lb ( 230 kg ) unguided bombs or LGBs — Mk.82 or GBU @-@ 12 . It is unknown whether multiple ejector racks can be used for ordnance such as beyond visual range ( BVR ) AAMs . Active radar homing BVR AAMs can be integrated with the radar and data @-@ link for mid @-@ course updates . The Chinese PL @-@ 12 / SD @-@ 10 is expected to be the aircraft 's primary BVR air @-@ to @-@ air weapon , although this may change if radars of other origin are fitted . Short range , infra @-@ red homing missiles include the Chinese PL @-@ 5E and PL @-@ 9C , and the AIM @-@ 9L . The PAF is also seeking to arm the JF @-@ 17 with a fifth generation close @-@ combat missile such as the IRIS @-@ T or A @-@ darter . These will be integrated with the HMS / D and the radar for targeting .
Unguided air @-@ to @-@ ground weaponry includes rocket pods , gravity bombs and Matra Durandal anti @-@ runway munitions . Precision @-@ guided munitions such as LGBs and satellite @-@ guided bombs are also compatible with the JF @-@ 17 , as are other guided weapons such as anti @-@ ship missiles and anti @-@ radiation missiles . Pakistan planned to bring the Brazilian MAR @-@ 1 anti @-@ radiation missile into service on its JF @-@ 17 fleet in 2014 .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Initial delivery , evaluation , and induction = = =
Small batch production of the single @-@ seat , single @-@ engine JF @-@ 17s began in China in June 2006 . The first two small @-@ batch @-@ produced aircraft were delivered on 2 March 2007 and first flew in Pakistan on 10 March . They took part in an aerial display on 23 March 2007 as part of the Pakistan Day Joint Services Parade in Islamabad . Another six small @-@ batch @-@ produced aircraft were delivered by March 2008 . These were extensively flight @-@ tested and evaluated by the PAF . Two serial production aircraft were delivered from China in 2009 and the first Pakistani @-@ manufactured aircraft was delivered to the PAF in a ceremony on 23 November 2009 .
On 18 February 2010 , the first JF @-@ 17 squadron , No. 26 Black Spiders , was officially inducted into the PAF with an initial strength of 14 fighter planes . These aircraft first saw service in the anti @-@ terrorist operation in South Waziristan , during which various types of weapons were evaluated . They took part in the PAF 's High Mark 2010 exercise from 29 April , where they were used by the Blue Force to attack Red Land surface targets with precision air @-@ to @-@ surface weapons . A re @-@ equipment ceremony for No. 26 Black Spiders Squadron took place on 11 April 2011 , during which it was stated that the JF @-@ 17 had " revolutionised the PAF 's operational concepts " . The then Chief of the Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Rao Qamar Suleman said : " Today as we re @-@ equip No 26 squadron , we have also raised No. 16 Squadron with the JF @-@ 17 Thunder aircraft . I would like to mention and appreciate the contribution and support of the Chinese in helping us acquire a technological breakthrough in the shape of this aircraft . " According to Pakistani forums , No 27 Squadron " Zarrars " replaced its Mirage 5EF with JF @-@ 17 in 2013 . No 2 Squadron currently tasked with sea strikes reequipped with JF @-@ 17s in Sept 2015 replacing the F7s . No 16 Squadron " Black Panthers " has already stood up . The next squadron is supposed to be No 7 Squadron .
= = = Potential operators = = =
Various countries including Algeria , Argentina , Bangladesh , Myanmar , Egypt , Iran , Lebanon , Malaysia , Morocco , Nigeria , Sri Lanka , and Uruguay have shown interest in the JF @-@ 17 .
The Azerbaijani Air Forces has negotiated with China for several dozen JF @-@ 17s worth approximately US $ 16 to 18 million each . The Sudanese Air Force was reportedly negotiating to buy twelve aircraft . The Air Force of Zimbabwe reportedly had plans to purchase twelve JF @-@ 17s in 2004 , as part of the $ 240 million deal with China . But none of the aircraft sales have been materialized . In 2010 , China was reportedly in talks about the JF @-@ 17 with five or six countries , some of which had sent pilots to China to undergo test flights .
Argentine officials at the 2013 Paris Air Show said they had discussed JF @-@ 17 co @-@ production with Chinese officials , calling it the first formal effort potentially leading to the co @-@ production of a modern Chinese fighter in Latin America . Fábrica Argentina de Aviones ( FAdeA ) officials said the co @-@ produced FC @-@ 1 could be called the " Pulqui @-@ III " , recalling FAdeA 's Pulqui @-@ II , Latin America 's first swept wing jet fighter . On 15 February 2015 , after a three @-@ day visit to Beijing by Argentine president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner , Argentina completed negotiations to purchase twenty FC @-@ 1s from Chengdu Aircraft Corporation . In January 2014 , the Royal Saudi Air Force was reportedly examining potential technology transfer and co @-@ production opportunities for the JF @-@ 17 . Saudi Defence Minister Prince Salman bin Sultan toured the JF @-@ 17 project during a visit to Pakistan .
The Burma Times reported on 15 June 2014 that Myanmar was considering local production of the JF @-@ 17 with China and Pakistan assistance .
In December 2014 , during the International Defence Exhibition and Seminar in Karachi , Nigeria was reportedly buying between 25 and 40 JF @-@ 17s from Pakistan . Nigerian Air Force chief Air Marshal Adesola Nunayon Amosu had visited Pakistan earlier in October 2014 . Nigeria became the second customer in 2016 by placing an order for 3 planes . However , as the news reports value the deal at US $ 25 million , so it is not clear if the item is miseported . June 2016 article in Jane 's re @-@ affirmed NAF budget for 3 JF @-@ 17 , 10 Super Mushshak , and 2 Mi @-@ 35M aircraft in 2016 .
In June 2015 , Pakistani media reports suggested that export orders have also been confirmed and signed with the Sri Lanka Air Force , according to Pakistan @-@ based 92 News while some other sources claim that Myanmar is the first buyer of Pakistani JF @-@ 17 Thunder jets . The article goes on to say that deliveries are likely to begin in 2017 . According to the report , the order will be for around 18 @-@ 24 aircraft , potentially confirming claims made at the 51st Paris Air Show that the first contract for the sale of the JF @-@ 17 had been signed with the Sri Lanka Air Force .
Though there are reports that Sri Lanka signed an agreement to buy eight JF @-@ 17 Thunders from Pakistan during a state visit by Nawaz Sharif in January 2016 , but Sri Lankan government denies that any such deal happened . The deal was cancelled after Indian pressure . The deal would have been for 10 @-@ 12 planes , valuing each plane at US $ 35 million for a total of US $ 400 million
Moroccan media has revealed that the country is interested in buying JF @-@ 17 and has invited the sales team to showcase the aircraft in the Marrakech Air Show 2016 According to a local analyst , the deal might be difficult to come to fruition , as the JF @-@ 17 Block I and Block II do not match the on @-@ board electronics suites and air @-@ to @-@ air / air @-@ to @-@ surface munitions inventories of Morocco 's current western avionics equipped Mirage F @-@ 1 ( MF2000 ) , F @-@ 5E / F Tiger II and Alpha Jets
Egypt in 2015 reportedly expressed an interest again in the JF @-@ 17 despite buying French and Russian planes earlier that year . This has come as a surprise to analysts who had considered the possibility of Egypt acquiring the JF @-@ 17 to be lost .
= = Notable accidents and incidents = =
A JF @-@ 17 Thunder crashed in Attock , Pakistan on 14 November 2011 killing its pilot .
= = Variants = =
= = = Prototypes = = =
Two airframe configurations were tested during the prototype stage . The first configuration was tested on the first three prototype aircraft ; PT @-@ 01 , PT @-@ 02 , and PT @-@ 03 . The next three prototypes PT @-@ 04 , PT @-@ 05 , and PT @-@ 06 were of the second configuration , incorporating modifications such as DSI , wider LERX , extended ventral fins , and a taller , less swept vertical stabiliser with a rectangular fairing at the tip containing electronic warfare equipment and small blister fairings at the base containing Missile Approach Warning sensors . The PT @-@ 04 prototype was primarily used for avionics and weapon qualification tests . Prototype @-@ 01 first flew in August 2003 ; Prototype @-@ 03 followed in April 2004 . On 10 May 2006 , Prototype 04 made its maiden flight .
In 2007 , a dual @-@ seat version for training and strike roles was proposed and due to the customer interests the development started in 2015 .
According to local media , the newly launched JF @-@ 17B dual seat fighter jet will be inducted in the Air Force by April 2017 with the maiden flight by the end of the year .
= = = Production versions = = =
JF @-@ 17 Block 1 — Production in China began in June 2006 . The first three Chinese weapons to be integrated are the PL @-@ 5E II AAM , the SD @-@ 10 AAM , and the C @-@ 802A anti @-@ shipping missile . Block 1 aircraft had performed " better than expected " according to PAF Air Commodore Junaid . Production of Block 1 was completed on 18 December when the fiftieth aircraft — 58 % of which was produced in Pakistan — was delivered . A Block 1 JF @-@ 17 had cost approximately US $ 15 million per unit .
JF @-@ 17 Block 2 — Production began on 18 December 2013 and initial testing began on 9 February 2015 . These aircraft have air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling capability , improved avionics , enhanced load carrying capacity , data link , and electronic warfare capabilities . The construction will continue until 2016 , after which the manufacture of Block 3 is planned . A Block 2 JF @-@ 17 costs approximately US $ 25 million per unit . Chairman of PAC , Air Marshal Javaid Ahmed said : " We will hand over 16 Block @-@ II JF @-@ 17s to the PAF every year " , and that the manufacturing plant has the capacity to produce 25 units in a year . According to local media , PAC rolled out the 16th Block 2 aircraft in December 2015 enabling the 4th JF17 squadron to be stood up . The JF @-@ 17B two seat version would start testing in September 2016 .
JF @-@ 17 Block 3 — Projected to feature further avionics advancements such as an AESA radar , more use of composites , a new engine , helmet mounted display , and a two @-@ seater cockpit option , with a top speed of 2 @.@ 0 + Mach . Pakistani Air Force officials have described it as a " fourth generation plus " fighter jet . According to unconfirmed media reports the induction is expected to start around 2019 . As of January 2016 , the design of the JF @-@ 17 Block III has not been finalized .
JF @-@ 17B - is a twin seater variant and is to be inducted into the Pakistan Air Force by 2017 , it 's multi @-@ roles include use for training and for enhanced surveillance and support capability
= = Operators = =
Pakistan
Pakistan Air Force : 66 units in servicePAF Base Minhas
JF @-@ 17 TEF ( Test and Evaluation Flight ) ( 2007 – 2010 )
PAF Base PeshawarNo . 26 Squadron Black Spiders ( 2010 )
No. 16 Squadron Black Panthers ( 2011 )
PAF Base Masroor
No. 2 Squadron Minhas ( 2015 )
PAF Base Mushaf
Combat Commanders School ( 2015 )
= = Specifications ( Block 1 ) = =
Data from Pakistan Aeronautical Complex
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 14 @.@ 93 m ( 49 ft )
Wingspan : 9 @.@ 45 m ( 31 ft , including 2 wingtip missiles )
Height : 4 @.@ 72 m ( 15 ft 6 in )
Wing area : 24 @.@ 4 m ² ( 263 ft ² )
Empty weight : 6 @,@ 586 kg ( 14 @,@ 520 lb )
Loaded weight : 9 @,@ 100 kg ( 20 @,@ 062 lb )
Useful load : 3600kg ( Block 1 ) ( )
Max. takeoff weight : 12 @,@ 500 kg ( 28 @,@ 000 lb )
Powerplant : 1 × Klimov RD @-@ 93 or Guizhou WS @-@ 13Dry thrust : 49 @.@ 7 kN / 51 @.@ 2 kN ( 11 @,@ 106 lbf / 11 @,@ 510 lbf )
Thrust with afterburner : 84 @.@ 6 kN ( 19 @,@ 000 lbf )
G @-@ limit : + 8 g / -3 g
Internal Fuel Capacity : 2 @,@ 350 kg ( 5 @,@ 130 lb )
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 1 @.@ 6 ( 1 @,@ 217 @.@ 9 mph ; 1 @,@ 960 @.@ 1 km / h )
Combat radius : 1 @,@ 352 km ( 840 mi )
Ferry range : 3 @,@ 482 km ( 1 @,@ 880 NM )
Service ceiling : 16 @,@ 920 m ( 55 @,@ 500 ft )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 95
Armament
Guns : 1 × 23 mm GSh @-@ 23 @-@ 2 twin @-@ barrel cannon or 1x 30 mm GSh @-@ 30 @-@ 2
Hardpoints : 7 in total ( 4 × under @-@ wing , 2 × wing @-@ tip , 1 × under @-@ fuselage ( Joint Hardpoint ) ; pylon stations number 3 , 4 and 5 are wet @-@ plumb capable ) with a capacity of 8 @,@ 001 lb ( 3 @,@ 629 kg ) for external fuel and ordnance
Missiles : Air @-@ to @-@ air missiles :
MAA @-@ 1 Piranha ( Short @-@ range )
AIM @-@ 9L / M ( Short @-@ range )
PL @-@ 5EII ( Short @-@ range )
PL @-@ 9C ( Short @-@ range )
PL @-@ 12 / SD @-@ 10 ( Beyond visual range )
Air @-@ to @-@ surface missiles :
MAR @-@ 1 ( Anti @-@ radiation missile )
Ra 'ad ALCM ( Nuclear @-@ capable Subsonic Cruise missile )
CM @-@ 400AKG supersonic anti @-@ shipping missile , export version of YJ @-@ 12
C @-@ 802A Anti @-@ ship missile
CM 102 supersonic Anti radiation missile
GB @-@ 6 Air @-@ Launched Standoff Submunition Dispenser Precision Guided Weapon
Bombs :
Unguided bombs :
Mk @-@ 82 ( general purpose bomb )
Mk @-@ 84 ( general purpose bomb )
Matra Durandal ( anti @-@ runway bomb )
CBU @-@ 100 / Mk @-@ 20 Rockeye ( anti @-@ armour cluster bomb )
Precision guided munitions ( PGM ) :
GBU @-@ 10 ( Laser @-@ guided )
GBU @-@ 12 ( Laser @-@ guided )
LT @-@ 2 ( Laser @-@ guided )
H @-@ 2 ( electro @-@ optically guided )
H @-@ 4 ( electro @-@ optically guided )
LS @-@ 6 ( satellite @-@ guided glide bombs )
Satellite @-@ guided bombs
Others :
Rocket Pods
Countermeasures ( Flares , Chaff )
Up to 3 external drop tanks ( 2 × under @-@ wing 1 @,@ 100 litres ( 240 imp gal ; 290 US gal ) , 1 × under @-@ fuselage 800 litres ( 180 imp gal ; 210 US gal ) ) for extended range / loitering time
Avionics
DEEC electronic warfare suite
NRIET KLJ @-@ 7 multi @-@ mode fire @-@ control radar
Night vision goggles ( NVG ) compatible glass cockpit
Externally mounted avionics pods :
KG @-@ 300G self @-@ protection radar jamming pod
WMD @-@ 7 day / night targeting pod
= Carbon =
Carbon ( from Latin : carbo " coal " ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . On the periodic table , it is the first ( row 2 ) of six elements in column ( group ) 14 , which have in common the composition of their outer electron shell . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent — making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , 12C and 13C being stable while 14C is radioactive , decaying with a half @-@ life of about 5 @,@ 730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity .
Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18 @.@ 5 % ) after oxygen .
The atoms of carbon can be bonded together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb " γράφειν " which means " to write " ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally @-@ occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen .
The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is + 4 , while + 2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions .
= = Characteristics = =
The allotropes of carbon ( see below ) includes graphite , one of the softest known substances , and diamond , the hardest naturally occurring substance . It bonds readily with other small atoms including other carbon atoms , and is capable of forming multiple stable covalent bonds with such atoms . Carbon is known to form almost ten million different compounds , a large majority of all chemical compounds . Carbon also has the highest sublimation point of all elements . At atmospheric pressure it has no melting point as its triple point is at 10 @.@ 8 ± 0 @.@ 2 MPa and 4 @,@ 600 ± 300 K ( ~ 4 @,@ 330 ° C or 7 @,@ 820 ° F ) , so it sublimes at about 3 @,@ 900 K.
Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc which has a temperature of about 5 @,@ 800 K ( 5 @,@ 530 ° C ; 9 @,@ 980 ° F ) . Thus , irrespective of its allotropic form , carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest melting point metals such as tungsten or rhenium . Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation , carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper that are weaker reducing agents at room temperature .
Carbon compounds form the basis of all known life on Earth , and the carbon @-@ nitrogen cycle provides some of the energy produced by the Sun and other stars . Although it forms an extraordinary variety of compounds , most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions . At standard temperature and pressure , it resists all but the strongest oxidizers . It does not react with sulfuric acid , hydrochloric acid , chlorine or any alkalis . At elevated temperatures , carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon oxides , and will rob oxygen from metal oxides to leave the elemental metal . This exothermic reaction is used in the iron and steel industry to smelt iron and to control the carbon content of steel :
Fe
3O
4 + 4 C ( s ) → 3 Fe ( s ) + 4 CO ( g )
with sulfur to form carbon disulfide and with steam in the coal @-@ gas reaction :
C ( s ) + H2O ( g ) → CO ( g ) + H2 ( g ) .
Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides , such as the iron carbide cementite in steel , and tungsten carbide , widely used as an abrasive and for making hard tips for cutting tools .
As of 2009 , graphene appears to be the strongest material ever tested . The process of separating it from graphite will require some further technological development before it is economical for industrial processes .
The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes :
= = = Allotropes = = =
Atomic carbon is a very short @-@ lived species and , therefore , carbon is stabilized in various multi @-@ atomic structures with different molecular configurations called allotropes . The three relatively well @-@ known allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon , graphite , and diamond . Once considered exotic , fullerenes are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research ; they include buckyballs , carbon nanotubes , carbon nanobuds and nanofibers . Several other exotic allotropes have also been discovered , such as lonsdaleite ( questionable ) , glassy carbon , carbon nanofoam and linear acetylenic carbon ( carbyne ) .
The amorphous form is an assortment of carbon atoms in a non @-@ crystalline , irregular , glassy state , which is essentially graphite but not held in a crystalline macrostructure . It is present as a powder , and is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal , lampblack ( soot ) and activated carbon . At normal pressures , carbon takes the form of graphite , in which each atom is bonded trigonally to three others in a plane composed of fused hexagonal rings , just like those in aromatic hydrocarbons . The resulting network is 2 @-@ dimensional , and the resulting flat sheets are stacked and loosely bonded through weak van der Waals forces . This gives graphite its softness and its cleaving properties ( the sheets slip easily past one another ) . Because of the delocalization of one of the outer electrons of each atom to form a π @-@ cloud , graphite conducts electricity , but only in the plane of each covalently bonded sheet . This results in a lower bulk electrical conductivity for carbon than for most metals . The delocalization also accounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at room temperature .
At very high pressures , carbon forms the more compact allotrope , diamond , having nearly twice the density of graphite . Here , each atom is bonded tetrahedrally to four others , forming a 3 @-@ dimensional network of puckered six @-@ membered rings of atoms . Diamond has the same cubic structure as silicon and germanium , and because of the strength of the carbon @-@ carbon bonds , it is the hardest naturally occurring substance measured by resistance to scratching . Contrary to the popular belief that " diamonds are forever " , they are thermodynamically unstable under normal conditions and transform into graphite . Due to a high activation energy barrier , the transition into graphite is so slow at normal temperature that it is unnoticeable . Under some conditions , carbon crystallizes as lonsdaleite , a hexagonal crystal lattice with all atoms covalently bonded and properties similar to those of diamond .
Fullerenes are a synthetic crystalline formation with a graphite @-@ like structure , but in place of hexagons , fullerenes are formed of pentagons ( or even heptagons ) of carbon atoms . The missing ( or additional ) atoms warp the sheets into spheres , ellipses , or cylinders . The properties of fullerenes ( split into buckyballs , buckytubes , and nanobuds ) have not yet been fully analyzed and represent an intense area of research in nanomaterials . The names " fullerene " and " buckyball " are given after Richard Buckminster Fuller , popularizer of geodesic domes , which resemble the structure of fullerenes . The buckyballs are fairly large molecules formed completely of carbon bonded trigonally , forming spheroids ( the best @-@ known and simplest is the soccerball @-@ shaped C60 buckminsterfullerene ) . Carbon nanotubes are structurally similar to buckyballs , except that each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that forms a hollow cylinder . Nanobuds were first reported in 2007 and are hybrid bucky tube / buckyball materials ( buckyballs are covalently bonded to the outer wall of a nanotube ) that combine the properties of both in a single structure .
Of the other discovered allotropes , carbon nanofoam is a ferromagnetic allotrope discovered in 1997 . It consists of a low @-@ density cluster @-@ assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three @-@ dimensional web , in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven @-@ membered rings . It is among the lightest known solids , with a density of about 2 kg / m3 . Similarly , glassy carbon contains a high proportion of closed porosity , but contrary to normal graphite , the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book , but have a more random arrangement . Linear acetylenic carbon has the chemical structure - ( C : : : C ) n- . Carbon in this modification is linear with sp orbital hybridization , and is a polymer with alternating single and triple bonds . This carbyne is of considerable interest to nanotechnology as its Young 's modulus is forty times that of the hardest known material – diamond .
In 2015 , a team at the North Carolina State University announced the development of another allotrope they have dubbed Q @-@ carbon , created by a high energy low duration laser pulse on amorphous carbon dust . Q @-@ carbon is reported to exhibit ferromagetism , fluorescence , and a hardness superior to diamonds .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon is abundant in the Sun , stars , comets , and in the atmospheres of most planets . Some meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk . Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts .
In 2014 NASA announced a greatly upgraded database for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) in the universe . More than 20 % of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs , complex compounds of carbon and hydrogen without oxygen . These compounds figure in the PAH world hypothesis where they are hypothesized to have a role in abiogenesis and formation of life . PAHs seem to have been formed " a couple of billion years " after the Big Bang , are widespread throughout the universe , and are associated with new stars and exoplanets .
It has been estimated that the solid earth as a whole contains 730 ppm of carbon , with 2000 ppm in the core and 120 ppm in the combined mantle and crust . Since the mass of the earth is 5 @.@ 972 × 1024 kg , this would imply 4360 million gigatonnes of carbon . This is much more than the amount of carbon in the oceans or atmosphere ( below ) .
In combination with oxygen in carbon dioxide , carbon is found in the Earth 's atmosphere ( approximately 810 gigatonnes of carbon ) and dissolved in all water bodies ( approximately 36 @,@ 000 gigatonnes of carbon ) . Around 1 @,@ 900 gigatonnes of carbon are present in the biosphere . Hydrocarbons ( such as coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) contain carbon as well . Coal " reserves " ( not " resources " ) amount to around 900 gigatonnes with perhaps 18 000 Gt of resources . Oil reserves are around 150 gigatonnes . Proven sources of natural gas are about 175 1012 cubic metres ( containing about 105 gigatonnes of carbon ) , but studies estimate another 900 1012 cubic metres of " unconventional " deposits such as shale gas , representing about 540 gigatonnes of carbon .
Carbon is also found in methane hydrates in polar regions and under the seas . Various estimates put this carbon between 500 , 2500 Gt , or 3000 Gt .
In the past , quantities of hydrocarbons were greater . According to one source , in the period from 1751 to 2008 about 347 gigatonnes of carbon were released as carbon dioxide to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels . Another source puts the amount added to the atmosphere for the period since 1750 at 879 Gt , and the total going to the atmosphere , sea , and land ( such as peat bogs ) at almost 2000 Gt .
Carbon is a constituent ( about 12 % by mass ) of the very large masses of carbonate rock ( limestone , dolomite , marble and so on ) . Coal is very rich in carbon ( anthracite contains 92 – 98 % ) and is the largest commercial source of mineral carbon , accounting for 4 @,@ 000 gigatonnes or 80 % of fossil fuel .
As for individual carbon allotropes , graphite is found in large quantities in the United States ( mostly in New York and Texas ) , Russia , Mexico , Greenland , and India . Natural diamonds occur in the rock kimberlite , found in ancient volcanic " necks " , or " pipes " . Most diamond deposits are in Africa , notably in South Africa , Namibia , Botswana , the Republic of the Congo , and Sierra Leone . Diamond deposits have also been found in Arkansas , Canada , the Russian Arctic , Brazil , and in Northern and Western Australia . Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope . Diamonds are found naturally , but about 30 % of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now manufactured .
Carbon @-@ 14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere at altitudes of 9 – 15 km by a reaction that is precipitated by cosmic rays . Thermal neutrons are produced that collide with the nuclei of nitrogen @-@ 14 , forming carbon @-@ 14 and a proton .
Carbon @-@ rich asteroids are relatively preponderant in the outer parts of the asteroid belt in our solar system . These asteroids have not yet been directly sampled by scientists . The asteroids can be used in hypothetical space @-@ based carbon mining , which may be possible in the future , but is currently technologically impossible .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Isotopes of carbon are atomic nuclei that contain six protons plus a number of neutrons ( varying from 2 to 16 ) . Carbon has two stable , naturally occurring isotopes . The isotope carbon @-@ 12 ( 12C ) forms 98 @.@ 93 % of the carbon on Earth , while carbon @-@ 13 ( 13C ) forms the remaining 1 @.@ 07 % . The concentration of 12C is further increased in biological materials because biochemical reactions discriminate against 13C . In 1961 , the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) adopted the isotope carbon @-@ 12 as the basis for atomic weights . Identification of carbon in nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) experiments is done with the isotope 13C .
Carbon @-@ 14 ( 14C ) is a naturally occurring radioisotope , created in the upper atmosphere ( lower stratosphere and upper troposphere ) by interaction of nitrogen with cosmic rays . It is found in trace amounts on Earth of up to 1 part per trillion ( 0 @.@ 0000000001 % ) , mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits , particularly of peat and other organic materials . This isotope decays by 0 @.@ 158 MeV β − emission . Because of its relatively short half @-@ life of 5730 years , 14C is virtually absent in ancient rocks . The amount of 14C in the atmosphere and in living organisms is almost constant , but decreases predictably in their bodies after death . This principle is used in radiocarbon dating , invented in 1949 , which has been used extensively to determine the age of carbonaceous materials with ages up to about 40 @,@ 000 years .
There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest @-@ lived of these is 8C which decays through proton emission and alpha decay and has a half @-@ life of 1.98739x10 − 21 s . The exotic 19C exhibits a nuclear halo , which means its radius is appreciably larger than would be expected if the nucleus were a sphere of constant density .
= = = Formation in stars = = =
Formation of the carbon atomic nucleus requires a nearly simultaneous triple collision of alpha particles ( helium nuclei ) within the core of a giant or supergiant star which is known as the triple @-@ alpha process , as the products of further nuclear fusion reactions of helium with hydrogen or another helium nucleus produce lithium @-@ 5 and beryllium @-@ 8 respectively , both of which are highly unstable and decay almost instantly back into smaller nuclei . This happens in conditions of temperatures over 100 megakelvin and helium concentration that the rapid expansion and cooling of the early universe prohibited , and therefore no significant carbon was created during the Big Bang .
According to current physical cosmology theory , carbon is formed in the interiors of stars in the horizontal branch by the collision and transformation of three helium nuclei . When those stars die as supernova , the carbon is scattered into space as dust . This dust becomes component material for the formation of second or third @-@ generation star systems with accreted planets . The Solar System is one such star system with an abundance of carbon , enabling the existence of life as we know it .
The CNO cycle is an additional fusion mechanisms that powers stars , wherein carbon operates as a catalyst .
Rotational transitions of various isotopic forms of carbon monoxide ( for example , 12CO , 13CO , and 18CO ) are detectable in the submillimeter wavelength range , and are used in the study of newly forming stars in molecular clouds .
= = = Carbon cycle = = =
Under terrestrial conditions , conversion of one element to another is very rare . Therefore , the amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant . Thus , processes that use carbon must obtain it from somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else . The paths of carbon in the environment form the carbon cycle . For example , photosynthetic plants draw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere ( or seawater ) and build it into biomass , as in the Calvin cycle , a process of carbon fixation . Some of this biomass is eaten by animals , while some carbon is exhaled by animals as carbon dioxide . The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop ; for example , some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans ; if bacteria do not consume it , dead plant or animal matter may become petroleum or coal , which releases carbon when burned .
= = Compounds = =
= = = Organic compounds = = =
Carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting C @-@ C bonds , a property that is called catenation . Carbon @-@ carbon bonds are strong and stable . Through catenation , carbon forms a countless number of compounds . A tally of unique compounds shows that more contain carbon that those that do not . A similar claim can be made for hydrogen because most organic compounds also contain hydrogen .
The simplest form of an organic molecule is the hydrocarbon — a large family of organic molecules that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms . Chain length , side chains and functional groups all affect the properties of organic molecules .
Carbon occurs in all known organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry . When united with hydrogen , it forms various hydrocarbons that are important to industry as refrigerants , lubricants , solvents , as chemical feedstock for the manufacture of plastics and petrochemicals , and as fossil fuels .
When combined with oxygen and hydrogen , carbon can form many groups of important biological compounds including sugars , lignans , chitins , alcohols , fats , and aromatic esters , carotenoids and terpenes . With nitrogen it forms alkaloids , and with the addition of sulfur also it forms antibiotics , amino acids , and rubber products . With the addition of phosphorus to these other elements , it forms DNA and RNA , the chemical @-@ code carriers of life , and adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , the most important energy @-@ transfer molecule in all living cells .
= = = Inorganic compounds = = =
Commonly carbon @-@ containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not contain hydrogen or fluorine , are treated separately from classical organic compounds ; the definition is not rigid ( see reference articles above ) . Among these are the simple oxides of carbon . The most prominent oxide is carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . This was once the principal constituent of the paleoatmosphere , but is a minor component of the Earth 's atmosphere today . Dissolved in water , it forms carbonic acid ( H
2CO
3 ) , but as most compounds with multiple single @-@ bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable . Through this intermediate , though , resonance @-@ stabilized carbonate ions are produced . Some important minerals are carbonates , notably calcite . Carbon disulfide ( CS
2 ) is similar .
The other common oxide is carbon monoxide ( CO ) . It is formed by incomplete combustion , and is a colorless , odorless gas . The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly polar , resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules , displacing oxygen , which has a lower binding affinity . Cyanide ( CN − ) , has a similar structure , but behaves much like a halide ion ( pseudohalogen ) . For example , it can form the nitride cyanogen molecule ( ( CN ) 2 ) , similar to diatomic halides . Other uncommon oxides are carbon suboxide ( C
3O
2 ) , the unstable dicarbon monoxide ( C2O ) , carbon trioxide ( CO3 ) , cyclopentanepentone ( C5O5 ) cyclohexanehexone ( C6O6 ) , and mellitic anhydride ( C12O9 ) .
With reactive metals , such as tungsten , carbon forms either carbides ( C4 − ) , or acetylides ( C2 −
2 ) to form alloys with high melting points . These anions are also associated with methane and acetylene , both very weak acids . With an electronegativity of 2 @.@ 5 , carbon prefers to form covalent bonds . A few carbides are covalent lattices , like carborundum ( SiC ) , which resembles diamond .
= = = Organometallic compounds = = =
Organometallic compounds by definition contain at least one carbon @-@ metal bond . A wide range of such compounds exist ; major classes include simple alkyl @-@ metal compounds ( for example , tetraethyllead ) , η2 @-@ alkene compounds ( for example , Zeise 's salt ) , and η3 @-@ allyl compounds ( for example , allylpalladium chloride dimer ) ; metallocenes containing cyclopentadienyl ligands ( for example , ferrocene ) ; and transition metal carbene complexes . Many metal carbonyls exist ( for example , tetracarbonylnickel ) ; some workers consider the carbon monoxide ligand to be purely inorganic , and not organometallic .
While carbon is understood to exclusively form four bonds , an interesting compound containing an octahedral hexacoordinated carbon atom has been reported . The cation of the compound is [ ( Ph3PAu ) 6C ] 2 + . This phenomenon has been attributed to the aurophilicity of the gold ligands .
= = History and etymology = =
The English name carbon comes from the Latin carbo for coal and charcoal , whence also comes the French charbon , meaning charcoal . In German , Dutch and Danish , the names for carbon are Kohlenstoff , koolstof and kulstof respectively , all literally meaning coal @-@ substance .
Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known in the forms of soot and charcoal to the earliest human civilizations . Diamonds were known probably as early as 2500 BCE in China , while carbon in the form of charcoal was made around Roman times by the same chemistry as it is today , by heating wood in a pyramid covered with clay to exclude air .
In 1722 , René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur demonstrated that iron was transformed into steel through the absorption of some substance , now known to be carbon . In 1772 , Antoine Lavoisier showed that diamonds are a form of carbon ; when he burned samples of charcoal and diamond and found that neither produced any water and that both released the same amount of carbon dioxide per gram . In 1779 , Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that graphite , which had been thought of as a form of lead , was instead identical with charcoal but with a small admixture of iron , and that it gave " aerial acid " ( his name for carbon dioxide ) when oxidized with nitric acid . In 1786 , the French scientists Claude Louis Berthollet , Gaspard Monge and C. A. Vandermonde confirmed that graphite was mostly carbon by oxidizing it in oxygen in much the same way Lavoisier had done with diamond . Some iron again was left , which the French scientists thought was necessary to the graphite structure . In their publication they proposed the name carbone ( Latin carbonum ) for the element in graphite which was given off as a gas upon burning graphite . Antoine Lavoisier then listed carbon as an element in his 1789 textbook .
A new allotrope of carbon , fullerene , that was discovered in 1985 includes nanostructured forms such as buckyballs and nanotubes . Their discoverers – Robert Curl , Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley – received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996 . The resulting renewed interest in new forms lead to the discovery of further exotic allotropes , including glassy carbon , and the realization that " amorphous carbon " is not strictly amorphous .
= = Production = =
= = = Graphite = = =
Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world , but the most important sources economically are in China , India , Brazil and North Korea . Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin , found in association with quartz , mica and feldspars in schists , gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins , sometimes of a metre or more in thickness . Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale , Cumberland , England were at first of sufficient size and purity that , until the 19th century , pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood . Today , smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water .
There are three types of natural graphite — amorphous , flake or crystalline flake , and vein or lump . Amorphous graphite is the lowest quality and most abundant . Contrary to science , in industry " amorphous " refers to very small crystal size rather than complete lack of crystal structure . Amorphous is used for lower value graphite products and is the lowest priced graphite . Large amorphous graphite deposits are found in China , Europe , Mexico and the United States . Flake graphite is less common and of higher quality than amorphous ; it occurs as separate plates that crystallized in metamorphic rock . Flake graphite can be four times the price of amorphous . Good quality flakes can be processed into expandable graphite for many uses , such as flame retardants . The foremost deposits are found in Austria , Brazil , Canada , China , Germany and Madagascar . Vein or lump graphite is the rarest , most valuable , and highest quality type of natural graphite . It occurs in veins along intrusive contacts in solid lumps , and it is only commercially mined in Sri Lanka .
According to the USGS , world production of natural graphite was 1 @.@ 1 million tonnes in 2010 , to which China contributed 800 @,@ 000 t , India 130 @,@ 000 t , Brazil 76 @,@ 000 t , North Korea 30 @,@ 000 t and Canada 25 @,@ 000 t . No natural graphite was reported mined in the United States , but 118 @,@ 000 t of synthetic graphite with an estimated value of $ 998 million was produced in 2009 .
= = = Diamond = = =
The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses , and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world ( see figure ) .
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds . The ore is crushed , during which care has to be taken in order to prevent larger diamonds from being destroyed in this process and subsequently the particles are sorted by density . Today , diamonds are located in the diamond @-@ rich density fraction with the help of X @-@ ray fluorescence , after which the final sorting steps are done by hand . Before the use of X @-@ rays became commonplace , the separation was done with grease belts ; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore .
Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in southern India . India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BCE to the mid @-@ 18th century AD , but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non @-@ Indian diamonds were found in 1725 .
Diamond production of primary deposits ( kimberlites and lamproites ) only started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond fields in South Africa . Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of 4 @.@ 5 billion carats have been mined since that date . About 20 % of that amount has been mined in the last 5 years alone , and during the last ten years 9 new mines have started production while 4 more are waiting to be opened soon . Most of these mines are located in Canada , Zimbabwe , Angola , and one in Russia .
In the United States , diamonds have been found in Arkansas , Colorado and Montana . In 2004 , a startling discovery of a microscopic diamond in the United States led to the January 2008 bulk @-@ sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana .
Today , most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia , Botswana , Australia and the Democratic Republic of Congo . In 2005 , Russia produced almost one @-@ fifth of the global diamond output , reports the British Geological Survey . Australia has the richest diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons ( 41 long tons ; 46 short tons ) per year in the 1990s . There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada , Siberia ( mostly in Yakutia territory ; for example , Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe ) , Brazil , and in Northern and Western Australia .
= = Applications = =
Carbon is essential to all known living systems , and without it life as we know it could not exist ( see alternative biochemistry ) . The major economic use of carbon other than food and wood is in the form of hydrocarbons , most notably the fossil fuel methane gas and crude oil ( petroleum ) . Crude oil is distilled in refineries by the petrochemical industry to produce gasoline , kerosene , and other products . Cellulose is a natural , carbon @-@ containing polymer produced by plants in the form of wood , cotton , linen , and hemp . Cellulose is used primarily for maintaining structure in plants . Commercially valuable carbon polymers of animal origin include wool , cashmere and silk . Plastics are made from synthetic carbon polymers , often with oxygen and nitrogen atoms included at regular intervals in the main polymer chain . The raw materials for many of these synthetic substances come from crude oil .
The uses of carbon and its compounds are extremely varied . It can form alloys with iron , of which the most common is carbon steel . Graphite is combined with clays to form the ' lead ' used in pencils used for writing and drawing . It is also used as a lubricant and a pigment , as a molding material in glass manufacture , in electrodes for dry batteries and in electroplating and electroforming , in brushes for electric motors and as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors .
Charcoal is used as a drawing material in artwork , barbecue grilling , iron smelting , and in many other applications . Wood , coal and oil are used as fuel for production of energy and heating . Gem quality diamond is used in jewelry , and industrial diamonds are used in drilling , cutting and polishing tools for machining metals and stone . Plastics are made from fossil hydrocarbons , and carbon fiber , made by pyrolysis of synthetic polyester fibers is used to reinforce plastics to form advanced , lightweight composite materials .
Carbon fiber is made by pyrolysis of extruded and stretched filaments of polyacrylonitrile ( PAN ) and other organic substances . The crystallographic structure and mechanical properties of the fiber depend on the type of starting material , and on the subsequent processing . Carbon fibers made from PAN have structure resembling narrow filaments of graphite , but thermal processing may re @-@ order the structure into a continuous rolled sheet . The result is fibers with higher specific tensile strength than steel .
Carbon black is used as the black pigment in printing ink , artist 's oil paint and water colours , carbon paper , automotive finishes , India ink and laser printer toner . Carbon black is also used as a filler in rubber products such as tyres and in plastic compounds . Activated charcoal is used as an absorbent and adsorbent in filter material in applications as diverse as gas masks , water purification , and kitchen extractor hoods , and in medicine to absorb toxins , poisons , or gases from the digestive system . Carbon is used in chemical reduction at high temperatures . Coke is used to reduce iron ore into iron ( smelting ) . Case hardening of steel is achieved by heating finished steel components in carbon powder . Carbides of silicon , tungsten , boron and titanium , are among the hardest known materials , and are used as abrasives in cutting and grinding tools . Carbon compounds make up most of the materials used in clothing , such as natural and synthetic textiles and leather , and almost all of the interior surfaces in the built environment other than glass , stone and metal .
= = = Diamonds = = =
The diamond industry falls into two categories : one dealing with gem @-@ grade diamonds and the other , with industrial @-@ grade diamonds . While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists , the two markets act in dramatically different ways .
Unlike precious metals such as gold or platinum , gem diamonds do not trade as a commodity : there is a substantial mark @-@ up in the sale of diamonds , and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds .
Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity , with the gemological qualities of clarity and color being mostly irrelevant . About 80 % of mined diamonds ( equal to about 100 million carats or 20 tonnes annually ) are unsuitable for use as gemstones are relegated for industrial use ( known as bort ) . synthetic diamonds , invented in the 1950s , found almost immediate industrial applications ; 3 billion carats ( 600 tonnes ) of synthetic diamond is produced annually .
The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting , drilling , grinding , and polishing . Most of these applications do not require large diamonds ; in fact , most diamonds of gem @-@ quality except for their small size can be used industrially . Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades , or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications . Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments ( see diamond anvil cell ) , high @-@ performance bearings , and limited use in specialized windows . With the continuing advances in the production of synthetic diamonds , new applications are becoming feasible . Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable for microchips , and because of its exceptional heat conductance property , as a heat sink in electronics .
= = Precautions = =
Pure carbon has extremely low toxicity to humans and can be handled and even ingested safely in the form of graphite or charcoal . It is resistant to dissolution or chemical attack , even in the acidic contents of the digestive tract . Consequently , once it enters into the body 's tissues it is likely to remain there indefinitely . Carbon black was probably one of the first pigments to be used for tattooing , and Ötzi the Iceman was found to have carbon tattoos that survived during his life and for 5200 years after his death . Inhalation of coal dust or soot ( carbon black ) in large quantities can be dangerous , irritating lung tissues and causing the congestive lung disease , coalworker 's pneumoconiosis . Diamond dust used as an abrasive can harmful if ingested or inhaled . Microparticles of carbon are produced in diesel engine exhaust fumes , and may accumulate in the lungs . In these examples , the harm may result from contaminants ( e.g. , organic chemicals , heavy metals ) rather than from the carbon itself .
Carbon generally has low toxicity to life on Earth ; but carbon nanoparticles are deadly to Drosophila .
Carbon may burn vigorously and brightly in the presence of air at high temperatures . Large accumulations of coal , which have remained inert for hundreds of millions of years in the absence of oxygen , may spontaneously combust when exposed to air in coal mine waste tips , ship cargo holds and coal bunkers , and storage dumps .
In nuclear applications where graphite is used as a neutron moderator , accumulation of Wigner energy followed by a sudden , spontaneous release may occur . Annealing to at least 250 ° C can release the energy safely , although in the Windscale fire the procedure went wrong , causing other reactor materials to combust .
The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as tetrodotoxin , the lectin ricin from seeds of the castor oil plant Ricinus communis , cyanide ( CN − ) , and carbon monoxide ; and such essentials to life as glucose and protein .
= = Bonding to carbon = =
= Hurricane Ekeka =
Hurricane Ekeka was an unusual Pacific tropical cyclone that attained major hurricane status during the month of February . The first storm of the 1992 Pacific hurricane season , Ekeka developed on January 28 well to the south of Hawaii . It gradually intensified to reach major hurricane status on February 2 , although it subsequently began to weaken due to unfavorable wind shear . It crossed the International Date Line as a weakened tropical storm , and shortly thereafter degraded to tropical depression status . Ekeka continued westward , passing through the Marshall Islands and later over Chuuk State , before dissipating on February 9 about 310 miles ( 500 km ) off the north coast of Papua New Guinea . The storm did not cause any significant damage or deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
During the El Niño of 1991 – 92 , as typical with other such events , the monsoon trough extended into the central north Pacific Ocean , which is the body of water between the International Date Line and 140 ° W. At the same time , sea surface temperatures near the equator were anomalously warm , and wind shear values were low . At the end of January , a large area of convection persisted for several days near the north side of the equator . By January 23 , several ships reported squalls and strong southwesterly winds in the region . The Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) began monitoring the system on January 26 , while it was located about 950 miles ( 1530 km ) south of Ka Lae , the southernmost point in Hawaii . The disturbance organized further as it tracked westward , and on January 28 it developed into Tropical Depression One @-@ C , located a short distance north of Kiritimati and east of Tabuaeran .
With favorable conditions , the depression quickly intensified into a tropical storm ; upon doing so , it was named Ekeka by the CPHC , which is Hawaiian for Edgar . Ekeka continued gradually intensifying while moving slowly west @-@ northwestward , and it attain hurricane status on January 30 about 100 miles ( 160 km ) northwest of Palmyra Atoll . On February 2 , the hurricane attained peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , making Ekeka a major hurricane , or Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . Subsequently , it began to weaken due to increased wind shear , and concurrently its forward motion increased as the subtropical ridge strengthened to the north of the hurricane . A large trough in the Westerlies increased the wind shear , which weakened Ekeka to a tropical storm early on February 3 . Later that day , it crossed the International Date Line into the western Pacific Ocean ; both of the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) assessed the storm 's winds at 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Shortly before that , the JMA assessed the pressure as 985 mbar , which is the lowest known minimum central pressure associated with the storm ; the CPHC did not include pressure in their year @-@ end report .
Tropical Storm Ekeka continued weakening , degrading to tropical depression status by February 4 . The depression moved quickly through the Marshall Islands , and on February 6 turned to the west @-@ southwest . On February 8 , the JMA declared Ekeka dissipated ; however , the JTWC continued monitoring the system , with Ekeka passing over Chuuk as a weak depression . Early on February 9 , the JTWC declared Ekeka dissipated about 800 miles ( 1300 km ) east @-@ southeast of Palau , or about 310 miles ( 500 km ) off the north coast of Papua New Guinea .
= = Impact and records = =
No deaths were reported in association with Ekeka . The storm passed through the Marshall Islands without causing significant impact . When Ekeka hit the island of Chuuk , winds of 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) were reported . While in the central Pacific Ocean , Ekeka became one of only three tropical cyclones on record to be located within the Palmyra Atoll Exclusive Economic Zone ; Ekeka was the only hurricane within the area .
Ekeka is most unusual for its formation in January . Tropical cyclones rarely form east of the International Date Line outside of the tropical cyclone season , which starts May 15 in the eastern Pacific and June 1 in the central Pacific , and ends on November 30 in both regions . In the official Pacific hurricane database , Ekeka was the second tropical cyclone on record to occur in January or February within the Pacific Ocean east of the International Date Line , after Tropical Storm Winona of 1989 . It is third earliest cyclone on record within the basin , behind Hurricane Pali of 2016 , and the aforementioned Winona .
= Knicks – Nuggets brawl =
The Knicks – Nuggets brawl was an on @-@ court altercation at a National Basketball Association ( NBA ) game between the New York Knicks and Denver Nuggets at Madison Square Garden in New York City , New York , U.S. on December 16 , 2006 . This altercation was the most penalized on @-@ court fight in the NBA since the Pacers – Pistons brawl two years before .
The fight began with a flagrant foul by Knicks guard Mardy Collins on Nuggets guard J. R. Smith in the closing seconds of the game . Several players joined in the confrontation , and began to make physical contact . The fight briefly spilled into the stands , and also stretched to the other end of the court . All ten players on the floor at the time were ejected after the altercation was finished . When suspensions were announced , seven players were suspended without pay for a combined total of 47 games .
Although they were not penalized , Nuggets coach George Karl and Knicks coach Isiah Thomas were both scrutinized for their part in the brawl . Carmelo Anthony was also criticized for harming his image as a star , and several writers said the league had penalized the players excessively because it wanted to keep its image free from violence .
= = Game recap = =
Entering the game , the New York Knicks had a record of 9 – 17 while the Denver Nuggets sported a 13 – 9 record . Despite trailing the entire game , the Knicks came as close as 2 points in the first half but the Nuggets regrouped and closed the half with a 13 @-@ point advantage and continued to lead in the second half by as much as 26 points in the third quarter . The Knicks briefly came within 10 points with ten minutes left in the game , but the Nuggets went on a 12 – 2 run and were never threatened again . Carmelo Anthony scored 24 points to lead the Nuggets , and Marcus Camby added 24 points and 9 rebounds ; Stephon Marbury scored a season @-@ high 31 points for the Knicks .
= = = Altercation = = =
The incident occurred with 1 : 15 remaining in the Knicks ' home game at Madison Square Garden , where the Nuggets were leading 119 – 100 . The Knicks ' Mardy Collins fouled the Nuggets ' J. R. Smith on a fast break by slapping his arms around Smith 's neck , knocking him to the ground . As Smith stood up to confront Collins , Nate Robinson pulled Smith away , and then began pushing and shouting at him . David Lee tried to hold Smith back , but Smith broke free and charged into Robinson , causing both players to fall into the photographers and front row courtside seats , before they were quickly separated by teammates .
As the fighting was seemingly coming to an end , Carmelo Anthony confronted Collins and punched him in the face , knocking him to the ground . Jared Jeffries immediately tried to attack Anthony but tripped over Marcus Camby , before being restrained by coaches and teammates , while Anthony backed up towards the Nuggets ' bench . Collins also ran down the court to get at Anthony but was blocked by Nenê and Smith . All ten players on the court at the time of the incident were ejected by the officiating crew that consisted of Dick Bavetta , Violet Palmer , and Robbie Robinson .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Suspensions = = =
NBA commissioner David Stern reacted with strict penalties for the players involved , stating , " It is our obligation to take the strongest possible steps to avoid such failures in the future . " Seven players were suspended for a total of 47 games , and the players lost in excess of $ 1 @.@ 2 million in salary . Each team was also fined $ 500 @,@ 000 .
Because Anthony 's suspension was longer than 12 games , he was eligible to appeal to an arbitrator ; however , Anthony eventually announced he would not attempt one , saying he did not " want to be a further distraction " .
= = = Public reaction = = =
Several sportswriters said the brawl was not as violent as the Pacers – Pistons brawl two years before , and 81 % of respondents in a SportsNation poll said the biggest difference between the two brawls was that it " didn 't involve players going into the stands and fighting fans " . However , Michael Ventre said that the Knicks and Nuggets brawl was worse because " it was touched off by the actions of players , and it escalated because of them . " Several writers said that the penalties were more severe because of the Pacers – Pistons brawl , because the league was on a " very serious image @-@ cleanup campaign . "
Steve Francis claimed that the media reaction to the fight and the suspensions itself were " racially motivated . " He argued that Major League Baseball and the National Hockey League had " incidents that are way worse than basketball , " but did not face the scrutiny that the NBA received " because there are more black players in the NBA . " This was echoed by several writers , and sportswriter @-@ television personality Michael Wilbon said that " NBA players have endured more scrutiny , pertaining to image , than any other professional athletes in America . " Martin Luther King III called for a meeting to end the violence in the NBA , stating , " Individuals who play a game should be able to conduct themselves appropriately . " However , the NBA said through a spokesman that they " don 't think that meeting is necessary . "
= = = Coaches ' role in the brawl = = =
Minutes before the brawl started , Knicks coach Isiah Thomas asked Carmelo Anthony not to go into the painted area around the basket , despite the fact that they were not members of the same team . Thomas later said that because Denver head coach George Karl kept his team 's starting players on the court for the closing minutes of the game , which Thomas thought showed a lack of sportsmanship , his orders to Anthony were to " show some class . " However , Karl responded by saying the brawl " was directed by Isiah " .
Thomas was not penalized after the brawl , as an NBA investigation ruled that they did not have " adequate evidence upon which to make a determination , " but several writers criticized the NBA for not including Thomas in the suspensions . ESPN analyst Marc Stein called Thomas ' explanations of his comments " laughable , " and commentator Greg Anthony , a former Knicks player , said he " never had a coach say that to an opponent . " It was also suggested that Thomas was attempting to resurrect the physical tactics of his former team , the " Bad Boy " Pistons .
In response to Thomas saying that keeping the Nuggets starters on the floor in the final minutes of the game was unsportsmanlike , Karl said that he " never thought about running up the score , " and only wanted to " get a big win on the road . " However , several sportswriters criticized his decision , and some said that he should also have been penalized . It was also suggested that Karl was trying to humiliate Thomas due to the perception that Thomas had mistreated Larry Brown , a friend of Karl 's . Karl was also blamed for putting his players in a position to start a fight .
= = = Carmelo Anthony = = =
The day following the brawl , Anthony issued a statement and apology to his family , the league , and fans . He also specifically apologized to Mardy Collins , whom he directly struck during the incident . At the time of the brawl , Anthony was the league 's leading scorer ; his suspension was also the longest of the players suspended , and the sixth @-@ longest in NBA history . According to former NBA player Steve Kerr , Anthony had " tarnished " his image , and Ric Bucher said that Anthony had " torched his own career " . Sports Illustrated writer Marty Burns said that Anthony faced becoming known by sports fans across America as the player who punched Collins in the face and then ran away . An example of the backlash was Northwest Airlines pulling Anthony from its in @-@ flight magazine cover , as it said it did not want " to condone the behavior of Anthony " .
= = Events after the brawl = =
A day after Anthony was suspended , Denver acquired Allen Iverson , who was then second in the league in scoring behind Anthony . After Anthony and Smith returned from their suspensions , the trio led the Nuggets to 45 wins and the sixth seed in the Western Conference for the playoffs . However , they were eliminated in the first round by the San Antonio Spurs . The Knicks finished 33 – 49 , 12th in the Eastern Conference , and did not make the playoffs .
The two teams faced each other for the first time since the altercation on November 17 , 2007 , which the Nuggets won 115 – 83 . Opposing players Renaldo Balkman and Linas Kleiza began arguing with each other after Balkman was called for a hard foul on Kleiza , but the incident was defused after Balkman was given a technical foul . Iverson , Anthony , and Marcus Camby were all removed early in the fourth quarter . Balkman and Kleiza later became teammates after Balkman was traded to the Nuggets in the 2008 off @-@ season .
As of the 2010 – 11 season , of the seven suspended players , three were still with their respective teams . Mardy Collins was traded to the Los Angeles Clippers in 2008 . Jerome James was traded to the Chicago Bulls a year later , but never played for the Bulls as he suffered a torn Achilles tendon . Jeffries and Robinson were traded at the 2010 trade deadline to the Houston Rockets and Boston Celtics , respectively . Robinson then signed a multi @-@ year deal with the Denver Nuggets on July 26 , 2013 . Carmelo Anthony was traded to the Knicks before the 2011 trade deadline . Meanwhile , Jeffries ' contract was bought out by the Rockets and he rejoined the Knicks . In addition , J.R. Smith was signed by the Knicks in February of the 2012 season , which will make him the second former Nugget involved in the brawl to join the Knicks . Though not directly involved in the brawl , 2006 Nuggets C / PF Marcus Camby also joined the Knicks during the 2012 off @-@ season , making him the third 2006 Nugget to join the Knicks for the 2012 @-@ 2013 season . Also not directly involved in the brawl , PF Kenyon Martin joined the Knicks on February 21 , 2013 ( initially on a 10 @-@ day contract ) , making him the 4th member of the 2012 @-@ 2013 Knicks to have been on the ' 06 Nuggets team .
= Tropical Storm Linda ( 1997 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Linda , known in the Philippines as Tropical Depression Openg , was the worst typhoon in southern Vietnam in at least 100 years , killing thousands of people and leaving extensive damage . It formed on October 31 , 1997 in the South China Sea , between Indochina and the Philippines . Strengthening as it moved westward , Linda struck extreme southern Vietnam on November 2 with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , dropping heavy rainfall . Once in the Gulf of Thailand it strengthened further to minimal typhoon status , but weakened to tropical storm strength before crossing the Malay Peninsula into the Bay of Bengal , the first storm to do so in five years . It restrengthened in the Indian Ocean to typhoon status , but increasing wind shear and weakened steering currents caused Linda to dissipate on November 9 .
The worst of Linda 's impact was in Vietnam , where 3 @,@ 111 people were killed , and damage totaled $ 385 million ( USD ) . Heavy rainfall caused flooding , which damaged or destroyed about 200 @,@ 000 houses and left about 383 @,@ 000 people homeless . Widespread crop and transportation damage also occurred , the latter which impeded relief efforts . Several countries around the world sent relief aid , including medical teams , food , and clothing . However , the food supply and health status of the storm victims proved not as bad as originally feared . Linda later struck Thailand , causing flash flooding and at least 164 deaths . The storm also affected Burma ( Myanmar ) , Indonesia , Malaysia , and Cambodia to a lesser degree .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Linda were from an area of convection that were first noted east of the Philippines on October 26 . A subtropical ridge persisted to the north , which caused the disturbance to move generally westward . On October 29 , the system crossed the Philippines and entered the South China Sea . It subsequently began to organize , and late on October 31 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 30W . At that time , the system was located off the northwest coast of Borneo . The PAGASA organization named it " Openg " .
Shortly after developing , the depression intensified into a tropical storm , and was named " Linda " by the JTWC . It continued to intensify , reaching winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) as it approached southern Vietnam . At 0900 UTC on November 2 , Linda made landfall in the Vietnamese province of Cà Mau . It maintained its strength over land , and the storm quickly reached typhoon status after entering the Gulf of Thailand ; a typhoon is a tropical cyclone with winds of at least 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , although Linda did not intensify beyond minimal typhoon status . Turning northwestward , Linda deteriorated to tropical storm strength , and struck Thailand late on November 3 with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) .
Linda weakened further over the mountainous terrain of the Malay Peninsula , and the storm emerged into the Andaman Sea with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . This made Linda the first tropical cyclone since Tropical Storm Forrest in 1992 to cross from the western Pacific Ocean into the Indian Ocean . Additionally , upon reaching the Indian Ocean , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classified the storm as Cyclonic Storm BOB 08 , with winds of 40 mph ( 70 km / h ) . With warm waters , Tropical Storm Linda gradually re @-@ intensified as it slowed down , due to a weakness in the subtropical ridge . On November 6 , it again attained typhoon status while located off the southwest coast of Burma ( Myanmar ) . Initially , it was expected to cross the Bay of Bengal and make landfall near the India / Bangladesh border . The cyclone only maintained peak strength for 18 hours , due to an increase in wind shear from a mid @-@ latitude trough . Linda 's motion became nearly stationary , and it gradually weakened for several days . On November 9 , Linda dissipated about 375 miles ( 600 km ) southwest of Yangon , Burma . That day , the IMD also terminated advisories .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Prior to the arrival of the storm , officials in Vietnam issued warnings to the residents , although its approach was faster than expected , and the region rarely experiences tropical cyclones . Tropical Storm Linda dropped heavy rainfall across southern Vietnam , peaking at 9 @.@ 17 inches ( 23 @.@ 3 cm ) in Cần Thơ . The storm caused heavy damage in the country , particularly in the southernmost province of Cà Mau where it struck , but also in Bạc Liêu , Sóc Trăng , and Kiên Giang . The most severely affected regions were poor fishing communities . Overall , the storm damaged 139 @,@ 445 houses and wrecked 76 @,@ 609 more , which left 383 @,@ 045 people homeless . Thousands of schools were damaged , and 130 @,@ 815 dykes were breached . Additionally , the storm destroyed at least 3 @,@ 122 boats . The rainfall also flooded 1 @,@ 750 square miles ( 4 @,@ 500 km2 ) of rice paddy crop , about half of which in Cà Mau . A preliminary damage total was estimated at 7 @.@ 18 trillion dongs ( $ 385 million USD ) .
Typhoon Linda caused considerable deaths in Vietnam . Many fishermen and sailors were caught at sea in the path of the storm , unable to escape its path . Within three days , the death toll in Vietnam was set at over 150 , with thousands missing , many of them fishermen . By the fourth day after the storm , the toll reached 390 , and on November 14 , eight days after the storm , the death toll reached 464 . Ultimately , the death toll was set at 3 @,@ 111 . Eight days after Linda 's passage , a United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs ( DHA ) report indicated 857 people were injured by the storm . The government quickly established search and rescue teams , particularly for missing fishermen , and a total of 3 @,@ 513 people were rescued after the storm . In the weeks after the storm , hundreds of dead bodies washed ashore in Vietnam and Thailand .
The Vietnamese government identified basic supplies that it needed in response to the storm ; those included various foods , clothing , medicine , shelter supplies , and sanitation equipment . The country made a formal request for international assistance , noting that the storm was the worst in 100 years , and officials had limited resources due to the unexpected destruction . Prior to the request , the government of Switzerland sent about 500 @,@ 000 Swiss francs ( $ 360 @,@ 000 USD ) for immediate relief assistance . Subsequently , ten other countries sent cash or relief supplies worth $ 2 @.@ 6 million , including medical shelters from the United States , clothing from the United Kingdom , tents from Russia , and transport goods from Japan . Red Cross workers had to travel by riverboat to bring aid to the most affected communities , due to the poor state of the roads . After two months , the Red Cross distributed 65 @,@ 401 roofing sheets , 390 metric tons of rice , 11 @,@ 990 mosquito nets , 6 @,@ 871 blankets , 3 @,@ 664 medical kits , and abundant clothing supplies to about 150 @,@ 000 affected people ; the supplies were purchased in Ho Chi Minh City . Eventually , the food supply and health status of the storm victims proved not as bad as originally feared . After the assistance was distributed , the Red Cross shifted focus toward reconstruction . Reconstruction was slow , partly due to a slowdown in economic activity from the Vietnamese New Year . Additionally , the two primary factories responsible for making iron and construction frames were only intermittently open , due to machines failing .
Elsewhere , moderate damage was also reported in Thailand , where at least 12 casualties were reported on land , and at least 152 fishermen were killed at sea . Flash flooding occurred in six districts , which damaged about 88 square miles ( 230 km2 ) of croplands and destroyed 12 houses . Land transportation was affected , with 184 roads and 14 bridges damaged . The government of Thailand sent 20 medical teams to the most affected areas . Following the storm , about 10 @,@ 600 people became sick from flood related diseases . Heavy rains fell in Tanintharyi Division in southeastern Burma ( Myanmar ) , although because the winds were not strong , there was little damage . The typhoon increased smog and haze in Indonesia and Malaysia , which had been occurring for weeks . In Indonesia , the typhoon also removed atmospheric moisture , which lowered the chance for rain in areas affected by wildfires . Cambodia was also affected by the outskirts of the storm .
= Cape Moreton Light =
Cape Moreton Light , also listed as North Point Range Rear Light , is an heritage @-@ listed active lighthouse located on Cape Moreton , a rocky headland located at the north eastern tip of Moreton Island , a large sand island on the eastern side of Moreton Bay , on the coast of South East Queensland , Australia . It marks the northern entrance to Moreton Bay and Brisbane and also serves as the rear light for the North Point Range . With its two distinctive red bands , it also serves as a daymark . It is the oldest lighthouse in Queensland , and the only one to be built by the New South Wales Government before the separation of Queensland , which took place in 1859 . It is also the only lighthouse in Queensland to be built of stone .
The lighthouse was established following an increase in traffic through the northern entrance to Moreton Bay in the 1840s . It was designed by Edmund Blacket in 1854 and established in 1857 . Over the years the light source went through several changes , from oil wick , to kerosene , to acetylene gas , to electricity , and finally to solar power . The structures also went through various modifications , the major one being an increase in the lighthouse height and rebuilding of several structures , in 1928 – 1930 .
The station includes the lighthouse , three lighthouse keeper residences , and various buildings . The lighthouse is made of sandstone and topped by a concrete gallery and a cast iron lantern . The residences and most other structures are timber framed and fibro clad .
= = Establishment = =
In 1825 , Brisbane was established as a penal settlement . In spite of the hazards , the preferred access to Moreton Bay and Brisbane was through the southern entrance , between Moreton Island and North Stradbroke Island , mainly due to shorter shipping route and better shipping conditions . The southern entrance was therefore marked in 1825 and a pilot station was established at Amity Point on North Stradbroke Island in 1827 . Although the northern entrance was considered in the 1830s , it was only with the increased shipping activity due to proclamation of Moreton Bay as a free settlement in 1842 that vessels began to use the northern entrance . Buoys marking the entrance were laid in 1846 – 1847 , and in 1848 the Pilot Station was moved to Bulwer on Moreton island . By then the northern entry was regarded as the main entry .
In 1850 , Brisbane residents petitioned the New South Wales Government , which controlled the Queensland area until Queensland 's separation in 1859 , to establish a lighthouse on Cape Moreton . The government also wanted to encourage ships to use the broader and safer northern passage . Planning for the structure therefore commenced in 1852 . The site was selected and surveyed in 1853 , and the lighthouse was designed in 1854 by Edmund Blacket the New South Wales Colonial Architect of the time . However , Blacket resigned on 10 June 1854 , for the private market , and left the office on 25 August . The office remained vacant until 1 October 1854 , when Blacket was succeeded by William Weaver . Drawings for the tower which were completed in September 1854 were signed by Alexander Beazeley , Foreman of Works in the Colonial Architect 's office . The tower was finally built during the office of Alexander Dawson who succeeded Weaver in 1856 , and signed further drawings made in April 1856 .
The tower was constructed by a contractor , Mark Farrell , for the cost of £ 15 @,@ 232 , using prison labor , and supervised by Beazeley . Both the lighthouse and three sandstone lighthouse keeper cottages were constructed from locally quarried sandstone . The lighthouse was first displayed in February 1857 , though tenders for painting the tower were called for only in December 1858 .
The original optical apparatus was a catoptric system consisting of 21 oil wick lamps with parabolic reflectors . The lighthouse was 67 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 20 m ) , visible for 26 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 49 @.@ 1 km ; 30 @.@ 5 mi ) .
= = = Development = = =
In 1859 , control of the lightstation passed to the Government of Queensland , but it continued to be managed by the New South Wales Marine Board until the formation of the Queensland Department of Ports and Harbours in 1862 . In 1864 a telegraph office was opened at the Cape . In 1873 , the oil wick lamps were replaced with kerosene . During the 1860s and 1870s some further structures were constructed in the station including a schoolhouse ( opened in 1879 ) , a stable , and other storage buildings . A telegraph line was constructed during the 1890s , and a Morse lamp visible for 20 miles ( 32 km ) was installed in the 1910s . In 1913 the timber parts of the structures , which were damaged by ants , were replaced . A 1911 – 1913 survey found the light in good shape , though the apparatus was found out of date and needing replacement . This replacement was to be delayed for a long time due to the transfer of all coastal lights to the Commonwealth , occurring officially October 1913 , though practically in July 1915 . A post office was operated by the light keepers between 1915 and the early 1920s .
In 1928 , the tower was extended and the lighthouse reached its current height of 75 feet ( 23 m ) to increase its range . In 1928 – 1930 , the keepers ' cottages were replaced with timber framed fibro clad structures . In 1930 , the lantern underwent major modification . The lantern house was replaced with 7 feet 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 16 m ) diameter Chance Brothers lantern room . The optical apparatus was replaced with either a third order Chance Bros dioptric lens or a four panel 375 millimetres ( 14 @.@ 8 in ) AGA catadioptric lens on an AGA pedestal . The light source was replaced by an AGA incandescent gas mantle operated by acetylene gas , and a sun valve was also installed .
= = = Electricity = = =
In 1937 , the light was converted to 110 V DC electricity . The two distinctive red bands were painted in 1942 . In 1967 the power source was replaced with 240 V AC power , being supplied by two diesel alternators , and a new lens , pedestal , bearing and optic drive may have been installed . The range of the 1967 light was 27 nautical miles ( 50 km ; 31 mi ) . The light was modernised in July 1988 , with the installation of a 120 V 1 Kw tungsten halogen lamp . In 1990 , the handrails and stanchions of the balcony and external staircase were replaced and an access ladder to the dome was installed . On 8 December 1993 , the light was converted to solar powered operation and a VRB @-@ 25 apparatus was installed .
= = Current display = =
The light characteristic shown is four white flashes , separated by 3 @.@ 3 seconds , every 20 seconds ( Fl . ( 4 ) W. 20s ) , visible for 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) . The light source is a 12 V 35 W Halogen lamp producing an intensity of 14 @,@ 000 cd . The light revolves three times per minute .
= = = Front light = = =
Cape Moreton Light is located 0 @.@ 86 nautical miles ( 1 @.@ 59 km ; 0 @.@ 99 mi ) at 132 ° 30 ′ from North Point Range Front Light . The front light is a square 22 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) concrete house with a white lantern . It displays a quickly flashing white or red light , depending on the direction ( Q.W.R. ) . The white light , shown at 04 ° -192 ° and 244 ° -258 ° , is visible for 9 nautical miles ( 17 km ; 10 mi ) . The red light , shown at 192 ° -244 ° and 258 ° -294 ° , is visible for 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ; 9 @.@ 2 mi ) .
= = Structures = =
The structures of the station are built in three levels . On the highest level is the lighthouse , surrounded by the workshop , former powerhouse and fuel store , the head keeper cottage to the north and an office further north . On the second level is the first assistant keeper residence and two sheds , a garage and a powerhouse . On the bottom level is the second assistant keeper residence , some distance to the south , and a fuel store to the north .
= = = Lighthouse = = =
The circular tower , 18 @.@ 5 metres ( 61 ft ) high from the ground to the lantern , is made of sandstone blocks laid in regular courses . The ground level has thicker walls , topped by a timber floor . The tower shaft tapers slightly toward the top , where the cast iron lantern sits . Entrance to the tower is either through a timber door on the ground level , or through a timber door on the top of the original 1857 external masonry staircase ( with a modern 1990 handrail ) that circles the first floor , leading to the first floor . Two horizontal bands are painted close to the top , and the tower is otherwise unpainted , showing the sandstone color . Both the ground floor and the lantern floor are made of concrete . Access from the ground floor to the lantern is first via a ladder leading to a trapdoor in the first floor , then via the original internal cast iron spiral stair , ending in a landing below the lantern , and finally another short ladder leading to a trapdoor in the lantern floor . The internal is painted , and lit by small square glass panels in timber frames .
The tower is topped by the 1930 7 feet 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 16 m ) diameter Chance Brothers lantern , painted white . The lantern cylindrical wall is made of six bolted cast iron panels . These support a continuous band of curved glass with cast iron glazing bars , and a small catwalk between the wall and the glazing . The cupola on top of the lantern is made of sheet copper , painted red , and it is topped by ball vent and a wind vane . An access ladder and safety rails , installed in 1990 , provide access to the cupola . In the center of the lantern is the VRB @-@ 25 apparatus , mounted on steel box .
Surrounding the lantern is a concrete gallery , accessible through a door in the lantern wall , with a white painted balustrade , and a 1990 railing . The solar panels are mounted on the gallery .
= = = Other structures = = =
The three keepers ' cottages were constructed in 1928 – 1930 . The head keeper 's house is located close to the lighthouse , and on the tallest ground , and also includes a small fenced garden . The assistant keeper residence is located right to the west , but geographically lower . The second assistant residence is located at some distance from the main cluster of buildings , to the south , and even lower . The residences are square one storey structures , timber framed and fibro clad , with central rooms , no corridors , enclosed verandahs and hipped roofs . The head keeper 's house and the second assistant 's house have corrugated fibrous cement rood while the first assistant house has a newer corrugated zinc / aluminium alloy ( ZINCALUME ) metal roof . A museum was set in the second assistant 's quarters in 1988 . Two spherical steel rainwater tanks are set next to each of the houses .
The three sheds surrounding the lighthouse are the workshop to the south , the former powerhouse to the west and the fuel store to the north . They are all rectangular structures , timber framed and fibro clad with corrugated fibrous cement gable roofs . The workshop appears to be built on the remains of one of the early stone buildings , lying on a plinth with sandstone steps . It consists of two rooms with pivoting sash windows and timber framed doors and no internal lining . The former powerhouse and the fuel store have reinforced concrete floors , fibro lining , double @-@ hung sash windows and double timber framed doors .
The office to the north of the head keeper house is a small square room raised on short concrete pillars , constructed of timber framed fibro clad walls and corrugated fibrous cement roof . It has a continuous band of windows . The last three buildings , the garage , powerhouse and fuel store , are small brick buildings with metal roofs and reinforced concrete floors .
= = Site operation and visiting = =
The site and the light are operated by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority . The island can be reached by ferry service from Scarborough , though visiting requires a permit and a four @-@ wheel drive is mandatory . The station is accessible , but the lighthouse is closed to the public .
= = Heritage listing = =
The lighthouse was added to the Queensland Heritage Register in 2004 .
= History of American football =
The history of American football can be traced to early versions of rugby football and association football . Both games have their origin in varieties of football played in Britain in the mid @-@ 19th century , in which a football is kicked at a goal or kicked over a line , which in turn were based on the varieties of English public school football games .
American football resulted from several major divergences from association football and rugby football , most notably the rule changes instituted by Walter Camp , a Yale University and Hopkins School graduate considered to be the " Father of American Football " . Among these important changes were the introduction of the line of scrimmage , of down @-@ and @-@ distance rules and of the legalization of interference . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , gameplay developments by college coaches such as Eddie Cochems , Amos Alonzo Stagg , Parke H. Davis , Knute Rockne , and Glenn " Pop " Warner helped take advantage of the newly introduced forward pass . The popularity of college football grew as it became the dominant version of the sport in the United States for the first half of the 20th century . Bowl games , a college football tradition , attracted a national audience for college teams . Boosted by fierce rivalries and colorful traditions , college football still holds widespread appeal in the United States .
The origin of professional football can be traced back to 1892 , with William " Pudge " Heffelfinger 's $ 500 contract to play in a game for the Allegheny Athletic Association against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club . In 1920 the American Professional Football Association was formed . This league changed its name to the National Football League ( NFL ) two years later , and eventually became the major league of American football . Primarily a sport of Midwestern industrial towns in the United States , professional football eventually became a national phenomenon .
The modern era of American football can be considered to have begun after the 1932 NFL Playoff game , which was the first American football game to feature hash marks , the legalization of the forward pass anywhere behind the line of scrimmage , the first indoor game since 1902 , and the movement of the goal posts back to goal line . Other innovations to occur immediately after 1932 , were the introduction of the AP Poll in 1934 , the tapering of the ends of the football in 1934 , the awarding of the first Heisman Trophy in 1935 , the first NFL draft in 1936 and the first televised game in 1939 . Another important event was the American football game at the 1932 Summer Olympics , which combined with a similar demonstration game at 1933 World 's Fair , led to the first College All @-@ Star Game in 1934 , which in turn was an important factor in the growth of professional football in the United States . American football 's explosion in popularity during the second half of the 20th century can be traced to the 1958 NFL Championship Game , a contest that has been dubbed the " Greatest Game Ever Played " . A rival league to the NFL , the American Football League ( AFL ) , began play in 1960 ; the pressure it put on the senior league led to a merger between the two leagues and the creation of the Super Bowl , which has become the most watched television event in the United States on an annual basis .
= = History of American football before 1869 = =
= = = Prehistory of American football = = =
Forms of traditional football have been played throughout Europe and beyond since antiquity . Many of these involved handling of the ball , and scrummage @-@ like formations . Several of the oldest examples of football @-@ like games include the Greek game of Episkyros and the Roman game of Harpastum . Over time many countries across the world have also developed their own national football @-@ like games . For example , New Zealand had Ki @-@ o @-@ rahi , Australia marn grook , Japan kemari , China cuju , Georgia lelo burti , the Scottish Borders Jeddart Ba ' and Cornwall Cornish hurling , Central Italy Calcio Fiorentino , South Wales cnapan , East Anglia Campball and Ireland had caid , which was an ancestor of Gaelic football .
These archaic forms of football , typically classified as mob football , would be played between neighboring towns and villages , involving an unlimited number of players on opposing teams , who would clash in a heaving mass of people struggling to drag an inflated pig 's bladder by any means possible to markers at each end of a town . By some accounts , in some such events any means could be used to move the ball towards the goal , as long as it did not lead to manslaughter or murder . Sometimes instead of markers , the teams would attempt to kick the bladder into the balcony of the opponents ' church . A legend that these games in England evolved from a more ancient and bloody ritual of kicking the " Dane 's head " is unlikely to be true .
These antiquated games went into sharp decline in the 19th century when the Highway Act 1835 was passed banning the playing of football on public highways .
= = = Football in America = = =
Although there are some mentions of Native Americans playing football @-@ like games , modern American football has its origins in the traditional football games played in the cities , villages and schools of Europe for many centuries before America was settled by Europeans . Early games appear to have had much in common with the traditional " mob football " played in England . The games remained largely unorganized until the 19th century , when intramural games of football began to be played on college campuses . Each school played its own variety of football . Princeton University students played a game called " ballown " as early as 1820 . A Harvard tradition known as " Bloody Monday " began in 1827 , which consisted of a mass ballgame between the freshman and sophomore classes . In 1860 , both the town police and the college authorities agreed the Bloody Monday had to go . The Harvard students responded by going into mourning for a mock figure called " Football Fightum " , for whom they conducted funeral rites . The authorities held firm and it was a dozen years before football was once again played at Harvard . Dartmouth played its own version called " Old division football " , the rules of which were first published in 1871 , though the game dates to at least the 1830s . All of these games , and others , shared certain commonalities . They remained largely " mob " style games , with huge numbers of players attempting to advance the ball into a goal area , often by any means necessary . Rules were simple , violence and injury were common . The violence of these mob @-@ style games led to widespread protests and a decision to abandon them . Yale , under pressure from the city of New Haven , banned the play of all forms of football in 1860 .
The game began to return to college campuses by the late 1860s . Yale , Princeton , Rutgers University , and Brown University began playing the popular " kicking " game during this time . In 1867 , Princeton used rules based on those of the London Football Association . A " running game " , resembling rugby football , was taken up by the Montreal Football Club in Canada in 1868 .
= = Intercollegiate football ( 1869 – present ) = =
= = = Pioneer period ( 1869 – 1875 ) = = =
On November 6 , 1869 , Rutgers University faced Princeton University ( then known as the College of New Jersey ) in a game that was played with a round ball and , used a set of rules suggested by Rutgers captain William J. Leggett , based on the Football Association 's first set of rules , which were an early attempt by the former pupils of England 's public schools , to unify the rules of their public schools games and create a universal and standardized set of rules for the game of football and bore little resemblance to the American game which would be developed in the following decades . It is still usually regarded as the first game of intercollegiate American football . The game was played at a Rutgers field . Two teams of 25 players attempted to score by kicking the ball into the opposing team 's goal . Throwing or carrying the ball was not allowed , but there was plenty of physical contact between players . The first team to reach six goals was declared the winner . Rutgers won by a score of six to four . A rematch was played at Princeton a week later under Princeton 's own set of rules ( one notable difference was the awarding of a " free kick " to any player that caught the ball on the fly , which was a feature adopted from the Football Association 's rules ; the fair catch kick rule has survived through to modern American game ) . Princeton won that game by a score of 8 – 0 . Columbia joined the series in 1870 , and by 1872 several schools were fielding intercollegiate teams , including Yale and Stevens Institute of Technology .
Rutgers was first to extend the reach of the game . An intercollegiate game was first played in the state of New York when Rutgers played Columbia on November 2 , 1872 . It was also the first scoreless tie in the history of the fledgling sport . Yale football starts the same year and has its first match against Columbia , the nearest college to play football . It took place at Hamilton Park in New Haven and was the first game in New England . The game used a set of rules based on association football with 20 @-@ man sides , played on a field 400 by 250 feet . Yale wins 3 @-@ 0 , Tommy Sherman scoring the first goal and Lew Irwin the other two .
By 1873 , the college students playing football had made significant efforts to standardize their fledgling game . Teams had been scaled down from 25 players to 20 . The only way to score was still to bat or kick the ball through the opposing team 's goal , and the game was played in two 45 minute halves on fields 140 yards long and 70 yards wide . On October 20 , 1873 , representatives from Yale , Columbia , Princeton , and Rutgers met at the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York City to codify the first set of intercollegiate football rules . Before this meeting , each school had its own set of rules and games were usually played using the home team 's own particular code . At this meeting , a list of rules , based more on the Football Association 's rules than the rules of the recently founded Rugby Football Union , was drawn up for intercollegiate football games .
Harvard refused to attend the rules conference organized by the other schools and continued to play under its own code . While Harvard 's voluntary absence from the meeting made it hard for them to schedule games against other American universities , it agreed to a challenge to play McGill University , from Montreal , in a two @-@ game series . Inasmuch as Rugby football had been transplanted to Canada from England , the McGill team played under a set of rules which allowed a player to pick up the ball and run with it whenever he wished . Another rule , unique to McGill , was to count tries ( the act of grounding the football past the opposing team 's goal line ; it is important to note that there was no end zone during this time ) , as well as goals , in the scoring . In the Rugby rules of the time , a touchdown only provided the chance to kick a free goal from the field . If the kick was missed , the touchdown did not count .
Harvard quickly took a liking to the rugby game , and its use of the try which , until that time , was not used in American football . The try would later evolve into the score known as the touchdown . On June 4 , 1875 , Harvard faced Tufts University in the first game between two American colleges played under rules similar to the McGill / Harvard contest , which was won by Tufts . The rules included each side fielding 11 men at any given time , the ball was advanced by kicking or carrying it , and tackles of the ball carrier stopped play . Further elated by the excitement of McGill 's version of football , Harvard challenged its closest rival , Yale , to which the Bulldogs accepted . The two teams agreed to play under a set of rules called the " Concessionary Rules " , which involved Harvard conceding something to Yale 's soccer and Yale conceding a great deal to Harvard 's rugby . They decided to play with 15 players on each team . On November 13 , 1875 , Yale and Harvard played each other for the first time ever , where Harvard won 4 @-@ 0 . At the first The Game — the annual contest between Harvard and Yale , among the 2000 spectators attending the game that day , was the future " father of American football " Walter Camp . Walter , who would enroll at Yale the next year , was torn between an admiration for Harvard 's style of play and the misery of the Yale defeat , and became determined to avenge Yale 's defeat . Spectators from Princeton , also carried the game back home , where it quickly became the most popular version of football .
= = = = Walter Camp : Father of American football = = = =
Walter Camp is widely considered to be the most important figure in the development of American football . As a youth , he excelled in sports like track , baseball , and association football , and after enrolling at Yale in 1876 , he earned varsity honors in every sport the school offered .
Following the introduction of rugby @-@ syle rules to American football , Camp became a fixture at the Massasoit House conventions where rules were debated and changed . Dissatisfied with what seemed to him to be a disorganized mob , he proposed his first rule change at the first meeting he attended in 1878 : a reduction from fifteen players to eleven . The motion was rejected at that time but passed in 1880 . The effect was to open up the game and emphasize speed over strength . Camp 's most famous change , the establishment of the line of scrimmage and the snap from center to quarterback , was also passed in 1880 . Originally , the snap was executed with the foot of the center . Later changes made it possible to snap the ball with the hands , either through the air or by a direct hand @-@ to @-@ hand pass . Rugby league followed Camp 's example , and in 1906 introduced the play @-@ the @-@ ball rule , which greatly resembled Camp 's early scrimmage and center @-@ snap rules . In 1966 , Rugby league introduced a four @-@ tackle rule based on Camp 's early down @-@ and @-@ distance rules .
Camp 's new scrimmage rules revolutionized the game , though not always as intended . Princeton , in particular , used scrimmage play to slow the game , making incremental progress towards the end zone during each down . Rather than increase scoring , which had been Camp 's original intent , the rule was exploited to maintain control of the ball for the entire game , resulting in slow , unexciting contests . At the 1882 rules meeting , Camp proposed that a team be required to advance the ball a minimum of five yards within three downs . These down @-@ and @-@ distance rules , combined with the establishment of the line of scrimmage , transformed the game from a variation of rugby football into the distinct sport of American football .
Camp was central to several more significant rule changes that came to define American football . In 1881 , the field was reduced in size to its modern dimensions of 120 by 531 ⁄ 3 yards ( 109 @.@ 7 by 48 @.@ 8 meters ) . Several times in 1883 , Camp tinkered with the scoring rules , finally arriving at four points for a touchdown , two points for kicks after touchdowns , two points for safeties , and five for field goals . Camp 's innovations in the area of point scoring influenced rugby union 's move to point scoring in 1890 . In 1887 , game time was set at two halves of 45 minutes each . Also in 1887 , two paid officials — a referee and an umpire — were mandated for each game . A year later , the rules were changed to allow tackling below the waist , and in 1889 , the officials were given whistles and stopwatches .
The last , and arguably most important innovation , which would at last make American football uniquely " American " , was the legalization of interference , or blocking , a tactic which was highly illegal under the rugby @-@ style rules . Interference remains strictly illegal in both rugby codes to this day . The prohibition of interference in the rugby game stems from the game 's strict enforcement of its offsides rule , which prohibited any player on the team with possession of the ball to loiter between the ball and the goal . At first , American players would find creative ways of aiding the runner by pretending to accidentally knock into defenders trying to tackle the runner . When Walter Camp witnessed this tactic being employed against his Yale team , he was at first appalled , but the next year had adopted the blocking tactics for his own team . During the 1880s and 1890s , teams developed increasignly complex blocking tactics including the interlocking interference technique known as the Flying wedge or " V @-@ trick formation " , which was developed by Lorin F. Deland and first introduced by Harvard in a collegiate game against Yale in 1892 . Despite its effectiveness , it was outlawed two seasons later in 1894 through the efforts of the rule committee lead by Parke H. Davis , because of its contribution to serious injury . Non @-@ interlocking interference remains a basic element of modern American football , with many complex schemes being developed and implemented over the years , including zone blocking and pass blocking .
After his playing career at Yale ended in 1882 , Camp was employed by the New Haven Clock Company until his death in 1925 . Though no longer a player , he remained a fixture at annual rules meetings for most of his life , and he personally selected an annual All @-@ American team every year from 1889 through 1924 . The Walter Camp Football Foundation continues to select All @-@ American teams in his honor .
= = = = Scoring table = = = =
= = = Period of the American Intercollegiate Football Association ( 1876 – 1893 ) = = =
On November 23 , 1876 , representatives from Harvard , Yale , Princeton , and Columbia met at the Massasoit House in Springfield , Massachusetts to standardize a new code of rules based on the rugby game first introduced to Harvard by McGill University in 1874 . The rules were based largely on the Rugby Football Union 's code from England , though one important difference was the replacement of a kicked goal with a touchdown as the primary means of scoring ( a change that would later occur in rugby itself , favoring the try as the main scoring event ) . Three of the schools — Harvard , Columbia , and Princeton — formed the Intercollegiate Football Association , as a result of the meeting . Yale did not join the group until 1879 , because of an early disagreement about the number of players per team .
The first game where one team scored over 100 points happened on October 25 , 1884 when Yale routed Dartmouth 113 – 0 . It was also the first time one team scored over 100 points and the opposing team was shut out . The next week , Princeton outscored Lafayette by 140 to 0 .
In 1879 , the University of Michigan became the first school west of Pennsylvania to establish a college football team . On May 30 , 1879 Michigan beat Racine College 1 – 0 in a game played in Chicago . The Chicago Daily Tribune called it " the first rugby @-@ football game to be played west of the Alleghenies . " Other Midwestern schools soon followed suit , including the University of Chicago , Northwestern University , and the University of Minnesota . The first western team to travel east was the 1881 Michigan team , which played at Harvard , Yale and Princeton . The nation 's first college football league , the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives ( also known as the Western Conference ) , a precursor to the Big Ten Conference , was founded in 1895 .
Organized intercollegiate football was first played in the state of Virginia and the south on November 2 , 1873 in Lexington between Washington and Lee and VMI . Washington and Lee won 4 – 2 . Some industrious students of the two schools organized a game for October 23 , 1869 – but it was rained out . Students of the University of Virginia were playing pickup games of the kicking @-@ style of football as early as 1870 , and some accounts even claim it organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871 ; but no record has been found of the score of this contest . Due to scantness of records of the prior matches some will claim Virginia v. Pantops Academy November 13 , 1887 as the first game in Virginia .
On April 9 , 1880 at Stoll Field , Transylvania University ( then called Kentucky University ) beat Centre College by the score of 13 ¾ – 0 in what is often considered the first recorded game played in the South . The first game of " scientific football " in the South was the first instance of the Victory Bell rivalry between North Carolina and Duke ( then known as Trinity College ) held on Thanksgiving Day , 1888 , at the North Carolina State Fairgrounds in Raleigh , North Carolina .
On November 13 , 1887 the Virginia Cavaliers and Pantops Academy fought to a scoreless tie in the first organized football game in the state of Virginia . Students at UVA were playing pickup games of the kicking @-@ style of football as early as 1870 , and some accounts even claim that some industrious ones organized a game against Washington and Lee College in 1871 , just two years after Rutgers and Princeton 's historic first game in 1869 . But no record has been found of the score of this contest . Washington and Lee also claims a 4 to 2 win over VMI in 1873 .
College football expanded greatly during the last two decades of the 19th century . Several major rivalries date from this time period .
November 1890 was an active time in the sport . In Baldwin City , Kansas , on November 22 , 1890 , college football was first played in the state of Kansas . Baker beat Kansas 22 – 9 . On the 27th , Vanderbilt played Nashville ( Peabody ) at Athletic Park and won 40 – 0 . It was the first time organized football played in the state of Tennessee . The 29th also saw the first instance of the Army – Navy Game . Navy won 24 – 0 .
The first nighttime football game was played in Mansfield , Pennsylvania on September 28 , 1892 between Mansfield State Normal and Wyoming Seminary and ended at halftime in a 0 – 0 tie . The Army @-@ Navy game of 1893 saw the first documented use of a football helmet by a player in a game . Joseph M. Reeves had a crude leather helmet made by a shoemaker in Annapolis and wore it in the game after being warned by his doctor that he risked death if he continued to play football after suffering an earlier kick to the head .
= = = Period of Rules Committees and Conference ( 1894 – 1932 ) = = =
The beginnings of the contemporary Southeastern Conference and Atlantic Coast Conference start in 1894 . The Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) was founded on December 21 , 1894 , by Dr. William Dudley , a chemistry professor at Vanderbilt . The original members were Alabama , Auburn , Georgia , Georgia Tech , North Carolina , Sewanee , and Vanderbilt . Clemson , Cumberland , Kentucky , LSU , Mercer , Mississippi , Mississippi A & M ( Mississippi State ) , Southwestern Presbyterian University , Tennessee , Texas , Tulane , and the University of Nashville joined the following year in 1895 as invited charter members . The conference was originally formed for " the development and purification of college athletics throughout the South " .
It is thought that the first forward pass in football occurred on October 26 , 1895 in a game between Georgia and North Carolina when , out of desperation , the ball was thrown by the North Carolina back Joel Whitaker instead of punted and George Stephens caught the ball . On November 9 , 1895 John Heisman executed a hidden ball trick utilizing quarterback Reynolds Tichenor to get Auburn 's only touchdown in a 6 to 9 loss to Vanderbilt . It was the first game in the south decided by a field goal . Heisman later used the trick against Pop Warner 's Georgia team . Warner picked up the trick and later used it at Cornell against Penn State in 1897 . He then used it in 1903 at Carlisle against Harvard and garnered national attention .
The 1899 Sewanee Tigers are one of the all @-@ time great teams of the early sport . The team went 12 – 0 , outscoring opponents 322 to 10 . Known as the " Iron Men " , with just 13 men they had a six @-@ day road trip with five shutout wins over Texas A & M ; Texas ; Tulane ; LSU ; and Ole Miss . It is recalled memorably with the phrase " ... and on the seventh day they rested . " Grantland Rice called them " the most durable football team I ever saw . "
The first college football game in Oklahoma Territory occurred on November 7 , 1895 when the ' Oklahoma City Terrors ' defeated the Oklahoma Sooners 34 to 0 . The Terrors were a mix of Methodist college students and high schoolers . The Sooners did not manage a single first down . By next season , Oklahoma coach John A. Harts had left to prospect for gold in the Arctic . Organized football was first played in the territory on November 29 , 1894 between the Oklahoma City Terrors and Oklahoma City High School . The high school won 24 to 0 .
In 1891 , the first Stanford football team was hastily organized and played a four @-@ game season beginning in January 1892 with no official head coach . Following the season , Stanford captain John Whittemore wrote to Yale coach Walter Camp asking him to recommend a coach for Stanford . To Whittemore 's surprise , Camp agreed to coach the team himself , on the condition that he finish the season at Yale first . As a result of Camp 's late arrival , Stanford played just three official games , against San Francisco 's Olympic Club and rival California . The team also played exhibition games against two Los Angeles | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Girls " ) , which had been published in Swedish translation 1762 . Like Rückerschöld , Fénelon strongly advocated household education to for young women .
= = Housekeeping and cooking = =
In 1785 , fifteen years after she wrote her plea for female household education , Rückerschöld published En Liten Hushålls @-@ Bok ( " A Small Household Book " ) . It was published in her own name , and contains various practical advice on efficient household management ; cooking , cleaning , washing , brewing , butchering , etc . Rückerschöld was influenced by the mercantilistic economic ideas of her time , and advised readers to take better advantage of local produce , such as berries and mushrooms and using locally available products in favor of imports , such as substitution of wine with juice or vinegar made from homegrown fruit . There are few actual recipes for cooking , and all of them describe more everyday dishes such as simpler porridge and soup . For more refined cooking , Rückerschöld recommended other contemporary cookbooks , of which Cajsa Warg 's is described as the foremost .
The book proved to be popular enough to be printed in two more editions and in 1796 Rückerschöld 's first genuine cookbook was published , Den Nya och Fullständiga Kok @-@ Boken ( " The New and Complete Cookbook " ) . It was far larger than her previous work , over 300 pages , and included recipes for more refined dishes . Nevertheless , Rückerschöld tried to hold fast to her frugal ideals . In the foreword to the book , she described Cajsa Wargs cookbook as being too extravagant , though this is partially excused because it was written in a time of more abundance and by an author used to the lavish resources of a wealthy kitchen . In the book Rückerschöld continued to promote her goal that all women should be skilled homemakers and cooks ; without such knowledge , they would not be able to fulfill their duties as women . Other than recommendations in the foreword , the book also contained a short chapter with descriptions of fictitious housewives that served as warning examples about neglecting housework in favor of beautification , reading , religion , or doing the chores of the servants . The ideal housewife is embodied only by the final example , Beningnia . By being humble , studious and knowledgeable , and being first to rise and last to go to bed , she becomes " the pride of her husband , pinnacle of the household , joy of servants , delight of friends , assuager of the poor , solace of the inconsolable , haven of the oppressed , and , finally , the envy of mean @-@ spirited neighbors " .
Before her death , Rückerschöld would write two more books on the topic of housekeeping and cooking : Fattig Mans Wisthus och Kök , ( " Poor Man 's Larder and Kitchen " ) and En Liten Hushålls @-@ Cateches ( " A Small Household Catechism " ) . The first book was published in 1796 , and aimed for a broader readership than the previous books . This included not just modest urban households , but also peasant wives who made up the majority of the population in Sweden at the time . Again Rückerschöld stressed the importance that women know proper housekeeping skills , and urged them to take good care of the household economy to keep incompetent husbands from wrecking the family budget . Other than directions for simple dishes , there was money @-@ saving strategies like baking one 's own bread or cooperating with neighbors to buy larger quantities of food at lower prices . In the book Rückerschöld portrays herself as going on inspection in a peasant household , being shown the barn , larder , vegetable garden , etc . , and having suggestions for improvements everywhere . Fattig Mans Wisthus och Kök was awarded a silver medal by Patriotiska Sällskapet ( " The Patriotic Society " ) for being the first cookbook written for poorer households . Twenty years earlier , the society had issued a challenge with this aim , but no one before Rückerschöld had managed to write such a book . In 1797 , one year after the book was first published , a second edition came out .
En Liten Hushålls @-@ Cateches came out in 1800 and was only 43 pages long . In her last book Rückerschöld repeated her previous stances about the importance of knowing household skills , and that girls should be allowed to partake in household work from an early age rather than being pampered and taught impractical skills . While stressing that a woman 's God @-@ given station was in the home and that she should be accustomed to humility and obedience , she also encouraged women to take matters in their own hands ; the lack of household education could only be alleviated by sharing information and passing on knowledge from one generation to the other .
= Imagination ( magazine ) =
Imagination was an American fantasy and science fiction magazine first published in October 1950 by Raymond Palmer 's Clark Publishing Company . The magazine was sold almost immediately to Greenleaf Publishing Company , owned by William Hamling , who published and edited it from the third issue , February 1951 , for the rest of the magazine 's life . Hamling launched a sister magazine , Imaginative Tales , in 1954 ; both ceased publication at the end of 1958 in the aftermath of major changes in US magazine distribution due to the liquidation of American News Company .
The magazine was more successful than most of the numerous science fiction titles launched in the late 1940s and early 1950s , lasting a total of 63 issues . Despite this success , the magazine had a reputation for low @-@ quality space opera and adventure fiction , and modern literary historians refer to it in dismissive terms . Hamling consciously adopted an editorial policy oriented toward entertainment , asserting in an early issue that " science fiction was never meant to be an educational tour de force " . Few of the stories from Imagination have received recognition , but it did publish Robert Sheckley 's first professional sale , " Final Examination " , in the May 1952 issue , and also printed fiction by Philip K. Dick , Robert A. Heinlein and John Wyndham .
= = History = =
American science fiction magazines first appeared in the 1920s with the appearance of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . The beginnings of science fiction as a separately marketed genre can be traced to this time , and by the end of the 1930s the field was undergoing its first boom , but World War II and its attendant paper shortages led to the demise of several titles . By the late 1940s the market began to recover again . From a low of eight active magazines in 1946 , the field expanded to 20 in 1950 , and a further 22 had commenced publication by 1954 . Imagination was launched in the middle of this publishing boom .
The groundwork was laid in 1947 , when Clark Publishing , the company that would publish the first issue of Imagination , was incorporated in Evanston , Illinois , by Raymond Palmer . He worked for Ziff @-@ Davis as the editor of Amazing Stories and did not leave until the end of 1949 , but he launched two magazines under the Clark name before that date : Fate , in the spring of 1948 , and Other Worlds , the first issue of which was dated November 1949 . Both of these magazines listed their editor as " Robert N. Webster " , a pseudonym Palmer adopted while he was still at Ziff @-@ Davis because of the conflict of interest . The second issue of Other Worlds reported that Webster and Palmer were going to edit together ; by the third issue , dated March 1950 , the pretense had been dropped and although there was no masthead listing the editor , the editorial was simply signed " Rap " ( for " Raymond A. Palmer " ) . At the 1949 World Science Fiction Convention in Cincinnati , held over the weekend of 3 – 5 September , Palmer announced that he had left Ziff @-@ Davis and described his plans for Clark Publishing . He also met and hired Bea Mahaffey , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old science fiction fan attending her first convention , as his assistant editor .
With Fate and Other Worlds launched , Palmer began to plan for a new magazine , to be called Imagination . Material for the first two issues had been assembled by mid @-@ 1950 , but in the early summer Palmer fell down his basement stairs and was left paralyzed from the waist down . While he was hospitalized , much of the work of editing both Other Worlds and Imagination was done by Mahaffey , who coped well , despite her inexperience . An assistant , Marge Budwig Saunder , was hired to read the slush pile and help out . The magazine 's first issue , dated October 1950 on a planned bi @-@ monthly schedule , appeared on news stands 1 August 1950 . However , in September that year , Ziff @-@ Davis made the decision to move to New York from Chicago ; Palmer promptly contacted William Hamling , who did not want to relocate and suggested that Hamling take over Imagination . Like Palmer , Hamling had made preparations to leave Ziff @-@ Davis by establishing a separate publishing company , Greenleaf Publishing , and in November 1950 Hamling left Ziff @-@ Davis and became Imagination 's editor and publisher .
In 1954 Hamling started a companion magazine , Imaginative Tales ; in addition , his company Greenleaf Publishing was the publisher of Rogue , a men 's magazine modelled after Playboy . In 1957 the liquidation of American News Company , a major distributor , meant that many magazines had to scramble to find new distributors . Independent distributors often required that the magazines be monthly , and that they be in a larger format than the digest @-@ size common in science fiction magazines . The larger format required higher revenue to be profitable , but in many cases it proved impossible to attract the additional advertising income that would have kept the magazines afloat . By the end of 1958 , many titles had disappeared as a result , with Imagination one of the victims ; Hamling closed down both Imagination and its sister magazine to invest the money in Rogue instead . The last issue of Imagination was October 1958 , the 63rd issue , while Imaginative Tales , retitled Space Travel , ceased with the November 1958 issue . There was no indication in either magazine that the end had come , though the last issue of Imagination omitted its letter , book review and pen @-@ pal columns , all of which had appeared regularly in prior issues .
Circulation figures were not required to be published annually until the 1960s , so the actual circulation figures are not known . For comparison , the more successful Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction , which had been launched the previous year , is known to have had a circulation of just under 60 @,@ 000 copies for its first issue , dated Fall 1949 .
= = Contents and reception = =
The cover story for the first issue was " The Soul Stealers " by Chester S. Geier , a regular in the Ziff @-@ Davis magazines Amazing Stories and Fantastic Adventures . The story was a science fantasy tale of Leeta , a beautiful woman from another dimension stealing the souls of men to try to save her father . The cover illustration , by Hannes Bok , showed Leeta on her flying steed . Other contributors included Rog Phillips , another prolific magazine author , and Kris Neville , whose first story had been published only the year before . Neville 's work appeared regularly in the first few years of the magazine ; other prolific contributors included Dwight V. Swain , Daniel F. Galouye and Milton Lesser . Edmond Hamilton 's work also appeared frequently towards the end of the magazine 's life . The magazine often contained a long novel as the lead attraction .
In addition to less well @-@ known regulars , some more prominent writers occasionally appeared . Ray Bradbury 's " The Fire Balloons " was published in the April 1951 issue , under the title " ' … In This Sign ' " ; the story was later incorporated into Bradbury 's fixups , The Martian Chronicles and The Illustrated Man . Robert Sheckley 's first story , " Final Examination " , appeared in the May 1952 issue . Other well @-@ known authors who were published in Imagination include Poul Anderson , John Wyndham ( as " John Beynon " ) , James Blish , Philip K. Dick , Harlan Ellison , Robert A. Heinlein , Frederik Pohl and Robert Silverberg .
Imagination is generally thought of by historians of science fiction as one of the weaker magazines of the 1950s , despite its relative longevity . Donald Tuck , in his Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy , dismissed the novels it published , saying , " not many were noteworthy , most being in the interplanetary / space opera / adventure field " , and Brian Stableford , a science fiction writer and critic , described it as dealing " primarily in routine space opera . " James Blish , writing under the pseudonym " William Atheling , Jr . " , which he used for some of his critical writing , remarked that it was a " widely unread " magazine . Hamling 's editorial policy was consciously slanted against intellectualism . In the November 1951 issue he commented that " science fiction was never meant to be an educational tour de force . The so @-@ called adult story is nothing more than an attempt to show the reader how dumb he is and how smart the editor is . " Imagination 's approach , he said , was to publish entertainment : " What we need is a little relaxation . And entertaining reading is one way to get it . " Some readers agreed with Hamling ; a 1952 issue of Rhodomagnetic Digest , a fanzine , contains approving commentary on Hamling 's editorial by Gregg Calkins , a fan of the period .
Starting with the April 1951 issue , a regular column on science fiction fandom began , titled " Fandora 's Box " . It was written by Mari Wolf , an active fan , for five years , and was taken over by Robert Bloch from June 1956 through the end . The column had an excellent reputation , and was one of the few such columns in the professional magazines . Every issue carried an editorial , and a letter column appeared in every issue but the very last . A book review column began in June 1953 , and appeared in every issue except the last one . It was initially by Mark Reinsberg , and was taken over by Henry Bott in May 1954 after two months in which both reviewers contributed to the column . A " Cosmic Pen Club " column , where fans could post requests for pen @-@ pals , began in February 1957 ; as with the book reviews it appeared regularly , excepting only the last issue . Beginning in September 1951 , the inside front cover was often used for an " Introducing the Author " feature , with short pieces by and about a writer or artist who appeared in the issue . These included photographs of the authors in question , a feature not typically found in other magazines . Among the better @-@ known authors featured were Heinlein , Evan Hunter and Philip K. Dick . " Introducing the Author " skipped four issues from October 1954 to January 1955 , and ceased altogether with the April 1956 issue . One issue , May 1953 , included pictures from that year 's World Science Fiction in Chicago , rather than a feature about an author . The most frequently appearing cover artists were Harold W. McCauley , Lloyd Rognan , Malcolm Smith and William Terry .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Imagination was digest size ( 7 @.@ 5 × 5 @.@ 5 inches or 19 @.@ 1 × 14 @.@ 0 cm ) for its first 17 issues , and then shrank slightly to a short digest size ( 7 @.@ 25 × 5 @.@ 5 inches or 18 @.@ 4 × 14 @.@ 0 cm ) for the rest of its run , a further 46 issues . The volume number rose by one at the start of each calendar year , regardless of the number of issues . Volume 1 , 1950 , contained only two issues ; subsequent volumes contained five to twelve issues , depending on frequency of publication . The overall issue number was printed on the spine ( an unusual practice ) along with the volume number . The first issue had a publication date of October 1950 , and the schedule was bimonthly through the September 1952 issue except that June 1951 was followed by September 1951 . The next four issues were dated October 1952 , December 1952 , January 1953 and February 1953 , and then a monthly run began with April 1953 that lasted without a break until the July 1955 issue . The next issue was October 1955 , which inaugurated another bimonthly period that ran with perfect regularity until the last issue , October 1958 . The price remained at 35 cents throughout .
The title of the magazine was initially " Imagination : Stories of Science and Fantasy " ; it changed with the October 1955 issue to " Imagination : Science Fiction " , though this change was only on the cover and spine and was never reflected on the masthead .
The first 28 issues were 166 pages long . The page count dropped to 134 with the April 1954 issue and stayed at that length for the remainder of the run . The cover layout initially strongly resembled that of Other Worlds but was changed with the fifth issue , June 1951 , to have a white background banner for the title . This format was retained for the rest of the magazine 's life , with occasional slight variations such as using a different color for the banner background . The spine also changed from a colored spine with pale lettering , which was similar to the spine style used by Other Worlds , to a white spine with red or blue lettering .
The publisher was Clark Publishing Company for the first two issues . The editor for those issues was Raymond Palmer , but as he was hospitalized much of the work was done by Bea Mahaffey . As a result , these two issues are sometimes indexed with Mahaffey as editor . With the third issue , Greenleaf Publishing Company became the publisher and William Hamling took over as editor , a position he retained throughout the magazine 's life .
= Adventure ( Atari 2600 ) =
Adventure is a video game for the Atari 2600 video game console , released in ca. late 1979 – 1980 . In the game , the player controls a square avatar whose quest is to explore an open world environment to find a magical chalice and return it to the golden castle . The game world is populated by roaming enemies : three dragons that can eat the avatar and a bat that randomly steals and hides items around the game world . Adventure introduced a number of innovative game elements to console games , including a playing area that spanned several different screens and enemies that continued to move even when not displayed on the screen .
Adventure was conceived as a graphical version of the 1977 text adventure Colossal Cave Adventure . It took developer Warren Robinett approximately one year to design and code the game , during which time he had to overcome a variety of technical limitations in the Atari 2600 console hardware , as well as difficulties with management within Atari . In this game , he introduced the first widely known video game Easter egg , a secret room containing text crediting himself for the game 's creation . Robinett 's Easter egg became a tradition for future Atari 2600 titles .
Adventure received mostly positive reviews at the time of its release and has continued to be viewed positively in the decades since , often named as one of the industry 's influential titles . It is considered the first action @-@ adventure and console fantasy game , and inspired other titles in the genres . More than one million cartridges of Adventure were sold , and the game has been included in numerous Atari 2600 game collections for modern computer hardware . The game 's prototype code was used as the basis for the 1979 Superman game , and a planned sequel eventually formed the basis for the Swordquest games . The Easter egg concept pioneered by the game has transcended video games and entered popular culture .
= = Gameplay = =
In Adventure , the player 's goal is to recover the Enchanted Chalice that an evil magician has stolen and hidden in the kingdom and return it to the Golden Castle . The kingdom includes two other castles ( White and Black ) and various obstacles and mazes within them . Further , the kingdom is guarded by three dragons : Yorgle ( yellow dragon ) , Grundle ( green dragon ) , and Rhindle ( red dragon who moves much faster than the other two ) , that protect various items in the game and will try to chase and eat the player 's avatar . There is also a bat that can roam across the kingdom freely , carrying a single item ( which can include the player 's avatar or a dragon ) around ; the bat was to be named Knubberrub but the name did not make it into the manual . The bat has two states , agitated and non @-@ agitated ; when in the agitated state , the bat will either pick up or swap what it currently carries with an object in the present room , eventually returning to the non @-@ agitated state where it will not pick up an object . The bat continues to fly around even if not present on the player 's current screen and may continue moving or swapping around objects .
The player 's avatar is represented by a simple square shape that can move within and between rooms , each represented by a single screen . While Robinett originally intended for all rooms to be bidirectionally connected , a few such connections ( including one inside the White Castle ) were unidirectional , which he considered to be bugs . Such problems were explained away as " bad magic " in the game 's manual . The player 's goal is to find objects to help defeat the dragons and recover the Chalice . These include various keys that open the castles , a magnet that pulls items towards the player , a magic bridge that the player can use to cross certain obstacles , and a sword which can be used to defeat the dragons . Only one object can be carried at a time . The player can be eaten by a dragon if it is caught in its " bite " cycle , at which point the avatar is stuck in the dragon 's stomach . At this point , the player can opt to restore their avatar 's life instead of completely restarting the game , reappearing at the Golden Castle while leaving all objects where they were last left , but this will also regenerate any dragon previously killed as well . The ability to reset the player 's avatar without resetting the entire game is considered the first known " continue game " option in video games .
The game offers three different skill levels . Level 1 is the easiest , as it uses a simplified room layout missing one of the castles and one of the mazes , and doesn 't include the bat and one of the dragons . Level 2 is the full version of the game , with the various objects appearing in set positions at the start of the game . Level 3 is similar to Level 2 , but the location of the objects is randomized to provide a more challenging game . In addition , the player can use the difficulty switches on the Atari 2600 to further control the game 's difficulty by affecting the behavior of the dragons : one switch controls the dragons ' bite speed , and one causes them to flee when the player is wielding the sword .
= = Development = =
Adventure was published by the developer of the 2600 console , Atari , Inc , and programmed by Atari employee Warren Robinett . At the time , Atari programmers were generally given full control on the creative direction and development cycle for their games , but this required them to plan for their next game as they neared completion of their current one to stay productive . Robinett was finishing his work on Slot Racers when he was given an opportunity to visit the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory by Julius Smith , one of several friends he was sharing a house with . There , he was introduced to the 1977 version of the computer text game Colossal Cave Adventure , created by Will Crowther and modified by Don Woods . After playing the game for several hours , he was inspired to create a graphical version of the game . Adventure was named after Colossal Cave Adventure .
Robinett began designing the graphics @-@ based game , loosely based on the text game , on a Hewlett @-@ Packard 1611A microprocessor computer around May to June 1978 . Robinett was aware early on that memory use was going to be critical : Atari 2600 cartridges had room for only 4096 bytes ( 4 KB ) on the cartridge ROM , and 128 bytes for program variables in the 2600 's RAM ; in contrast , Colossal Cave Adventure took over hundreds of kilobytes of memory . The final game used nearly all of the available memory ( including 5 % of the cartridge storage for Robinett 's Easter egg ) , with 15 unused bytes from the ROM capacity . Robinett credits Ken Thompson , his professor at University of California Berkeley , with teaching him the skills needed to use the limited memory efficiently . Thompson had required his students to learn the C programming language ; Robinett carried techniques from that language into his programming of Adventure .
Robinett first identified ways to translate the elements of Colossal Cave Adventure into simple , easy @-@ to @-@ recognize graphics that the player could interact with directly , replacing text @-@ based commands with joystick controls . Due to the limitations of the system 's graphical hardware , Robinett noted the dragons ended up looking more like ducks . Robinett developed workarounds for various technical limitations of the Atari 2600 . The system has only one playfield and five memory @-@ mapped registers available to represent moving objects . Only two of these registers are capable of representing more complex sprites . Robinett used those for objects and creatures within the game . He used the register originally designated for the ball in games such as Pong to represent the player 's avatar . Finally , he used the registers assigned for missiles , such as the bullets in Combat , for additional walls in the playing field to be able to represent different rooms within the game with the same playfield . Another hardware limitation forces the left and right sides of nearly every screen to be mirror images of each other ; this fostered the creation of the game 's confusing mazes . The notable exceptions are two screens in the black castle catacombs and two in the main hallway beneath the Yellow Castle . These two hallway screens are mirrored , but contain a vertical " wall " object in the room in order to achieve a non @-@ symmetrical shape , as well as act as a secret door for an Easter egg .
Despite the limitations , Robinett was able to introduce concepts that at the time were unfamiliar to players . He had been able to construct different rooms in the games ( thirty in the final version ) , in days where most games took place only on a single screen . Further , off @-@ screen objects such as the bat would continue to move according to their programming behavior .
In additional to the technical limitations , Robinett had struggled with Atari 's management over the game . Around the time of Adventure 's development , Atari , now owned by Warner Communications , had hired Ray Kassar as general manager of their Consumer Division , and he was later promoted to president and CEO of Atari in December 1978 . Kassar interacted with the programmers rarely and generally treated their contributions with indifference . Robinett was initially discouraged from working on Adventure by his supervisor , George Simcock , who said the ambitious game could not be done based on knowing how much memory Colossal Cave Adventure used . When Robinett developed a working prototype within a month , the management at Atari were impressed , encouraging him to continue the game despite his supervisor 's initial response . The management later tried to convince Robinett to make it a tie @-@ in work for the upcoming Superman movie , which was owned by Warner Communication . Robinett remained committed to his initial idea . Instead , Atari had developer John Dunn offered to take Robinett 's prototype source code to make the 1979 Superman game .
A second prototype , completed near the end of 1978 , had only about eight rooms , a single dragon , and two objects , and Robinett recognized that the game , though demonstrating what he had set out to do , was boring . He put the game aside for a few months and came back with additional ideas to improve the game , finishing it by June 1979 . Two changes that Robinett added were the possibility of being eaten by the dragon , as well as the means to reset the avatar if this should happen , and the addition of the sword object , which could kill the dragon . Robinett found the various possibilities that arose from this combination of elements improved the excitement of the game , and subsequently made three dragons , reusing the same code for the behavior of all three . The magnet was created to work around a potential situation where the player could drop an object into a wall space and make it irretrievable .
Robinett worked with Steve Harding , the author for nearly all Atari 2600 game manuals at that point in time , to develop the plot for the game . Harding developed most of the plot after playing the game himself , with Robinett revising elements where he saw fit . Robinett states that he had come up with the names for the three dragons as well as offering a friend 's suggestion for " Knubberrub " for the bat .
Robinett submitted the source code for Adventure to Atari management in June 1979 ; he left Atari soon afterward . The game was released by Atari some time later , though the exact date is unclear . In a 2003 interview , Robinett recalled the release date as being Christmas 1979 though noted he had left the company by this point and was traveling in Europe at that time , but knew the game had been released worldwide by early 1980 . A 1979 date is also listed in various other sources . Atari began advertising the game as " coming soon " in its 1980 catalog , and several sources indicate the game was released that year , after the Atari 2600 version of Space Invaders was released in early 1980 .
= = = Easter egg = = =
Generally defined as a " message , trick , or unusual behavior hidden inside a computer program by its creator " , the Easter egg concept was popularized by Adventure , influenced by the corporate culture at Atari . Atari removed the names of game developers from their products , seeing it as a means to prevent competitors from identifying and luring away Atari 's programmers . Atari 's decisions led to several programmers leaving the company ; notably , David Crane , Larry Kaplan , Alan Miller , and Bob Whitehead all left Atari due to lack of recognition and royalties from the company , and formed Activision .
Robinett , as a means to maintain his name on his game , included a hidden message in Adventure identifying himself as the creator , inspired by the supposedly hidden messages left on various songs recorded by The Beatles . In discussing the game in 2015 , Robinett considered the message as a means of self @-@ promotion , noting that he had only been paid around $ 22 @,@ 000 a year from Atari without any royalties , while Atari would sell a million units of a game at $ 25 a piece . This secret is one of the earliest known Easter eggs in a video game .
Within Adventure , the Easter egg is located inside the black castle catacombs ( on difficulty level 2 or 3 ) , embedded in the south wall of a sealed chamber ( accessible only with the bridge ) , where there is an invisible 1 @-@ pixel object referred to as the Gray Dot . The player must bounce the avatar along the bottom wall to pick up the dot . The dot is not actually invisible , but is simply the same color as the wall and is easily seen when placed in a catacombs passage or over a normal wall . The dot is not attracted to the magnet , unlike most other objects in Adventure . Bringing this dot to the east end of the corridor below the Yellow Castle while other differently colored objects are present causes the wall object to similarly become effectively invisible , allowing the player to pass into a room displaying the words " Created by Warren Robinett " .
Robinett kept the Gray Dot a secret for over a year , and did not mention it to anyone at Atari prior to his departure . He was unsure of whether or not it would be discovered by other Atari personnel prior to publishing ; the dot was not mentioned in the game 's manual , as the manual 's author was unaware of the dot 's existence . After the game was released , Adam Clayon , a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old from Salt Lake City , discovered the Dot and sent a letter to Atari explaining how to retrieve it . Robinett had already quit the company by this point , so Atari tasked designers with finding the responsible code . The one who found it said that if he were to fix it , he would change the message in the game to say " Fixed by Brad Stewart " . Further , the cost of creating a new read @-@ only memory ( ROM ) mask , or memory chip , was around $ 10 @,@ 000 US at the time of the game 's release , making this change a costly endeavor . Steve Wright , the director of software development of the Atari Consumer Division , argued for retaining the message , believing it gave players additional incentive to find it and play their games more , and suggested these were like Easter eggs for players to find . Atari eventually decided to leave the Dot in @-@ game , and dubbed such hidden features Easter eggs , saying they would be adding more such secrets to later games . Wright made it an official policy at Atari that all future games should include Easter eggs , often limited to being the initials of the game developer .
The Easter egg text with Warren Robinett 's name was removed from the version on the Atari Classics 10 @-@ in @-@ 1 TV Games standalone gaming unit , replaced with " TEXT ? " .
= = Reception = =
Adventure received mostly positive reviews in the years immediately after its release and has generally been viewed positively in subsequent decades .
Bill Kunkel and Frank Laney in the January 1981 issue of Video magazine called Adventure a " major design breakthrough " and said that it " shatters several video @-@ game conventions " such as scoring and time limits . They added that it was " much more ambitious " than average home video games , but noted that the graphics were underwhelming , such as the hero being a simple square . The 1982 book How to Win at Home Video Games called it too unpredictable with an " illogical mission " , concluding that " even devoted strategists may soon tire of Adventure 's excessive trial and error . " Electronic Games in 1983 stated that the game 's " graphics are tame stuff " , but it " still has the power to fascinate " and that " the action adventure concepts introduced in Adventure are still viable today " .
Atari Headquarters scored the game 8 of 10 , and noted its historical importance while panning the graphics and sound , concluding that Adventure was " very enjoyable " regardless of its technological shortcomings .
Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com wrote in 2010 that Adventure is " a work of interpretive brilliance " that " cleverly extracted the basic elements of exploration , combat and treasure hunting from the text games and converted them into icons " , but also conceded that it " seems almost unplayably basic these days " .
= = Legacy = =
Atari 's Adventure yielded sales of one million copies . As the first action @-@ adventure video game and first console fantasy game , Adventure established its namesake genres on video game consoles . In addition to being the first graphical adventure game on the Atari 2600 console , it is the first video game to contain a widely known Easter egg , and the first to allow a player to use multiple , portable , on @-@ screen items . The game is also the first to use a fog of war effect in its catacombs , which obscures most of the playing area except for the player 's immediate surroundings . The game has been voted the best Atari 2600 cartridge in numerous polls , and has been noted as a significant step in the advancement of home video games . GamePro ranked it as the 28th most important video game of all time in 2007 . In 2010 , 1UP.com listed it as one of the most important games ever made in its " The Essential 50 " feature . Entertainment Weekly named Adventure as one of the top 10 games for the Atari 2600 .
A sequel to Adventure was first announced in early 1982 . The planned sequel eventually evolved into the Swordquest series of games . In 2005 , a sequel written by Curt Vendel was released by Atari on the Atari Flashback 2 system . In 2007 , AtariAge released a self @-@ published sequel called Adventure II for the Atari 5200 , which is heavily inspired by the original ; its name is used with permission from Atari Interactive . Robinett himself took the idea of using items from Adventure into his next game , Rocky 's Boots , but added the ability to combine them to form new items .
The Adventure Easter egg became a cornerstone of the hunt for the Easter egg hidden in the fictional virtual reality game OASIS in the novel Ready Player One .
= = = Ports and re @-@ releases = = =
Adventure has been ported to or re @-@ released on several platforms :
Atari Classics 10 @-@ in @-@ 1 TV Games ( Standalone hardware unit , 2003 )
Atari : 80 Classic Games in One ( PC , 2003 )
Atari Flashback ( Standalone hardware unit , 2004 )
Atari Anthology ( PlayStation 2 , Xbox , 2004 )
Atari Flashback 2 ( Standalone hardware unit , 2005 )
Game Room ( Xbox 360 , PC , 2010 )
Atari Greatest Hits ( Nintendo DS , iOS , 2010 )
Atari Flashback 3 ( Standalone hardware unit , 2011 )
Atari Flashback 4 ( Standalone hardware unit , 2012 )
Atari Vault ( PC , 2016 )
= Joshua Prawer =
Joshua Prawer ( Hebrew : יהושע פרַאוֶור ; November 22 , 1917 – April 30 , 1990 ) was a notable Israeli historian and a scholar of the Crusades and Kingdom of Jerusalem .
His work often attempted to portray Crusader society as a forerunner to later European colonialist expansion . He was also an important figure in Israeli higher education , was one of the founders of the University of Haifa and Ben @-@ Gurion University , and was a major reformer of the Israeli education system .
= = Life = =
Prawer was born on November 10 , 1917 to a prosperous Jewish merchant family in Będzin , a small city in the Polish part of Silesia . He grew up speaking Polish and German , learned Hebrew , French , and Latin at school , and after joining a Zionist group , learned Yiddish as well . He immigrated to Palestine in 1936 , where he learned English , and became a student of mathematics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem . An invitation to study at the university was one of the few legal ways for Jews to enter the British Mandate of Palestine at the time . His mother died at the outbreak of World War II , and most of his family died in the Holocaust .
Prawer found that he was unhappy with mathematics , and his father suggested he study history instead since he had always enjoyed history in high school . His professor , Richard Koebner , an Anglophile historian of imperialism , set him on the course of studying the crusader colonies in the Holy Land . The close ties to Koebner were likely to have instilled in Prawer his interest in the history of settlements and colonialization . Prawer began his teaching career at the Hebrew University in 1947 and ( after fighting in the 1948 siege of Jerusalem ) soon rose through the faculty ranks . He became deputy dean of the Faculty of Humanities from 1953 – 55 , was made professor and chair of medieval history in 1958 , was dean of the Faculty of Humanities from 1962 – 66 , and served as prorector at the university in the years 1975 @-@ 78 . In the process , he succeeded in making the university into a " global center " for Crusade Studies , and trained many future Israeli historians in that specialty . Prawer has been described as an outstanding teacher and lecturer who combined thorough preparation with a charismatic style . He was often invited to lecture abroad .
= = = Other roles = = =
In addition to his work at the Hebrew University , Joshua Prawer was involved in the creation of other Israeli institutions of higher learning , namely Ben Gurion University of the Negev and especially the University of Haifa , where he was the first dean and academic chairman in the years 1966 @-@ 8 .
Prawer was a key contributor to Israeli government policy as well . Between 1957 and 1959 , at the request of David Ben @-@ Gurion , he chaired the Pedagogic Secretariat of the Education Ministry which was responsible for setting up new norms for Israeli secondary education . He fought against graded fees and for wider free compulsory education , and gave high priority to social integration and the rights of Sephardi students . During that time and as advisor to education minister Zalman Aranne afterwards , he helped draft the principles for teaching " Jewish awareness " that were incorporated into the primary and secondary school curricula . In 1963 @-@ 65 , he chaired a committee of experts bearing his name that recommended a radical reform of the entire Israeli education system . Its suggestions included making preschool enrollment universal for disadvantaged children , shortening elementary school to grades 1 @-@ 6 ; admitting all pupils without tests into integrated junior high schools ( grades 7 @-@ 9 ) , raising the age of free compulsory education to fifteen ( later raised to eighteen ) , establishing two @-@ year and three @-@ year comprehensive schools that provided a choice of tracks towards either a vocational diploma or a matriculation certificate , further integrating students of different skills and social classes , and establishing a new curriculum division in the Ministry of Education and Culture . The plan was approved by the Knesset and government , which allocated substantial resources to it , and the program began to be implemented in the summer of 1968 .
Together with Professor H. Hanani , Prawer initiated the mechina university preparatory programs in 1963 , which were originally intended to provide an additional year of study for Sephardic students after discharge from the defense forces , but were later expanded to include foreign educated students and immigrants .
Prawer served as chief editor of the Encyclopaedia Hebraica from 1967 onwards , with volume 21 the first to be published under his tenure . He advised and helped shape the Tower of David Museum of the History of Jerusalem , and was asked to advise the government on cultural agreements with other countries .
= = = Honors and later life = = =
In 1967 , Prawer served as chairman of the Humanities Section of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities , and was elected as Corresponding Fellow of the Medieval Academy of America .
In 1969 , he received the Israel Prize in the humanities .
In 1969 , he also received an honorary doctorate from the University of Montpellier .
In 1974 , Prawer was honored as Visiting Fellow of All Souls College , Oxford ,
In 1974 , he was also awarded the Rothschild Prize and the Order of the Chevalier de L 'Ordre Nationale du Mérite .
In 1982 , he was presented with a festschrift containing papers by twenty @-@ two historians during a special conference in Jerusalem .
In 1987 , Prawer and his colleagues hosted the Second International Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East .
In 1989 , he was honored as a Yakir Yerushalayim ( Distinguished Citizen of Jerusalem ) .
In an interview a year before his death , Joshua Prawer said his message for the Jerusalem of today is " that it is a universal city , belonging to all cultures and conquering time . " Prawer died in Jerusalem on April 30 , 1990 .
= = Research = =
Prawer was part of a cadre of historians , including Claude Cahen and Jean Richard , who freed crusader studies from the old conception of crusader society as an exemplar of pure , unchanging feudalism that spontaneously emerged from the conquest . This view , which originated with feudal jurists in the thirteenth century , was held to by modern historians since the early thirties . Through the work of Prawer , particularly his two papers from the fifties , and his colleagues , crusader society began to be seen as dynamic , with the nobility gradually putting checks on the monarchy . The combined efforts of these historians led to a surge of new research into crusader society . Prawer 's research extended to a wide variety of other aspects of the crusader states . Among the topics he addressed were land development projects and urban settlement , agriculture , the Italian quarters of port cities , the types of landed property , and legal issues in the Assises des Bourgeois .
One of Prawer 's best known works is the Histoire du Royaume Latin de Jérusalem , which won him the Prix Gustave Schlumberger of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles @-@ Lettres . The two @-@ volume work presents the crusader states as a working immigrant society , and shows the importance of immigration and labor shortages . Another book by Prawer , The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem : European Colonialism in the Middle Ages , which was intended for a larger audience , was more controversial . In it , he portrays the crusaders as a society of Frankish immigrants living in complete political and social segregation from the local Muslim and Syro @-@ Christian population , and terms this phenomenon " Apartheid " . To Prawer , it is the settlers ' refusal to assimilate and their reconstruction of a European @-@ type society on foreign soil , as well as the persistence of indigenous institutions without any interference , that mark the Crusader settlement as colonialist . His thesis is that the economy , society , and institutions of the Latin states are best understood in the light of their colonial status . The 1980 book Crusader Institutions collected a number of his earlier publications and expanded upon them with revisions and new chapters . The book continues his treatment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem as a European colonial product but focuses attention on five topical areas , while throughout employing the tools of textual criticism and commentary on sources . Especially prominent is his coverage of the status and administrative role of burgesses , which had not received such attention before . In his last years , he published a book on a topic of especial interest to him , The History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem , which examined the tightly @-@ knit isolated Jewish communities of the Levant , the Jewish philosophical feuds they engaged in , and their dreams of restoring Israel .
= = Comparison of Zionism to the Crusades = =
An analogy has frequently been drawn between the European Crusades of the Middle Ages and the modern day Zionist movement . This view , which has been espoused by Arab media and political leaders , has also been discussed in Israeli academia . Prawer was often asked to comment on this analogy , and claimed that a major difference was that the Jews settled the land and worked it , whereas the Crusaders lorded over a conquered land worked by the natives . Ronnie Ellenblum , a lecturer at Hebrew University , identifies a subliminal objective in Prawer 's work to draw a distinction between the two : " He 's always writing about the Crusaders ' manpower shortage and about their not settling the land ... He claims that their presence here was principally urban , consisting of nobility and merchants . This is why they lost in the end . The implications are obvious : If we bring enough immigrants , and if we settle the land , we are bound to succeed . " ( Ellenblum himself has shown that Crusader settlement in the Holy Land was much more widespread than previously thought and has found evidence of hundreds of Crusader farms . ) But he also notes that " if Joshua Prawer were alive today he would no doubt deny any linkage between his Zionist political beliefs and the model of segregation that he developed . "
Ziad J. Asali , who considers Zionism " the heir — albeit illegitimate — of the Crusader movement , " goes further and writes that Prawer " recognized the extent of the similarity in the individual and social experience of Crusaders and Zionists . Rather than studying the comparison and denying its validity , he chose to study the Crusader 's experience as if it were a historical model which could be completely analyzed and dissected in order to benefit from its experience and avoid its mistakes . " To Zionist author Yoram Hazony , however , it is exactly because of Prawer 's readiness to draw the analogy that he considers him a subverter of Zionism and a progenitor of post @-@ Zionist thought . David Ohana , a professor of history at Ben Gurion University who rejects the Zionist @-@ Crusader analogy , writes that the subject has now become a litmus test for clarifying one 's views on Zionism , with post @-@ Zionists freely making the analogy and sympathizers with the Zionist viewpoint rejecting it .
= = Selected publications = =
( 1969 – 70 ) . Histoire du royaume Latin de Jérusalem . Le Monde byzantin . Paris : Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique .
( 1972 ) . The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem : European colonialism in the Middle Ages . London : Weidenfeld and Nicolson .
( 1972 ) . The world of the Crusaders . London : Weidenfeld and Nicolson .
( 1980 ) . Crusader institutions . Oxford : Clarendon Press .
( 1988 ) . The History of the Jews in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem . Oxford : Clarendon Press .
= Malpuech facial clefting syndrome =
Malpuech facial clefting syndrome , also called Malpuech syndrome or Gypsy type facial clefting syndrome , is a rare congenital syndrome . It is characterized by facial clefting ( any type of cleft in the bones and tissues of the face , including a cleft lip and palate ) , a caudal appendage ( a " human tail " ) , growth deficiency , intellectual and developmental disability , and abnormalities of the renal system ( kidneys ) and the male genitalia . Abnormalities of the heart , and other skeletal malformations may also be present . The syndrome was initially described by Guilliaume Malpuech and associates in 1983 . It is thought to be genetically related to Juberg @-@ Hayward syndrome . Malpuech syndrome has also been considered as part of a spectrum of congenital genetic disorders associated with similar facial , urogenital and skeletal anomalies . Termed " 3MC syndrome " , this proposed spectrum includes Malpuech , Michels and Mingarelli @-@ Carnevale ( OSA ) syndromes . Mutations in the COLLEC11 and MASP1 genes are believed to be a cause of these syndromes . The incidence of Malpuech syndrome is unknown . The pattern of inheritance is autosomal recessive , which means a defective ( mutated ) gene associated with the syndrome is located on an autosome , and the syndrome occurs when two copies of this defective gene are inherited .
= = Characteristics = =
Malpuech syndrome is congenital , being apparent at birth . It is characterized by a feature known as facial clefting . Observed and noted in the initial description of the syndrome as a cleft lip and palate , facial clefting is identified by clefts in the bones , muscles and tissues of the face , including the lips and palate . The forms of cleft lip and palate typically seen with Malpuech syndrome are midline ( down the middle of the lip and palate ) or bilateral ( affecting both sides of the mouth and palate ) . Facial clefting generally encompasses a wide range of severity , ranging from minor anomalies such as a bifid ( split ) uvula , to a cleft lip and palate , to major developmental and structural defects of the facial bones and soft tissues . Clefting of the lip and palate occurs during embryogenesis . Additional facial and ortho @-@ dental anomalies that have been described with the syndrome include : hypertelorism ( unusually wide @-@ set eyes , sometimes reported as telecanthus ) , narrow palpebral fissures ( the separation between the upper and lower eyelids ) and ptosis ( drooping ) of the eyelids , frontal bossing ( prominent eyebrow ridge ) with synophris , highly arched eyebrows , wide nasal root and a flattened nasal tip , malar hypoplasia ( underdeveloped upper cheek bone ) , micrognathia ( an undersized lower jaw ) , and prominent incisors . Auditory anomalies include an enlarged ear ridge , and hearing impairment associated with congenital otitis media ( or " glue ear " , inflammation of the middle ear ) and sensorineural hearing loss .
Another feature identified with Malpuech syndrome is a caudal appendage . A caudal appendage is a congenital outgrowth stemming from the coccyx ( tailbone ) . Present in many non @-@ human animal species as a typical tail , this feature when seen in an infant has been described as a " human tail " . This was observed by Guion @-@ Almeida ( 1995 ) in three individuals from Brazil . The appendage on X @-@ rays variously appeared as a prominent protrusion of the coccyx . On a physical examination , the appendage resembles a nodule @-@ like stub of an animal tail .
Deficiencies such as mental retardation , learning disability , growth retardation and developmental delay are common . Psychiatric manifestations that have been reported with the syndrome include psychotic behavior , obsessive – compulsive disorder , loss of inhibition , hyperactivity , aggression , fear of physical contact , and compulsive actions like echolalia ( repeating the words spoken by another person ) . Neuromuscular tics have also been noted .
Urogenital abnormalities , or those affecting the urinary and reproductive systems , are common with the syndrome . Malpuech et al . ( 1983 ) and Kerstjens @-@ Frederikse et al . ( 2005 ) reported variously in affected males a micropenis , hypospadias ( a congenital mislocation of the urinary meatus ) , cryptorchidism ( ectopic or undescended testes ) , bifid ( split ) and underdeveloped scrotum , and an obstructive urethral valve . An affected boy was also reported by Reardon et al . ( 2001 ) with left renal agenesis , an enlarged and downwardly displaced right kidney , cryptorchidism and a shawl scrotum . Other malformations that have been noted with the syndrome are omphalocele and an umbilical hernia .
Congenital abnormalities of the heart have also been observed with Malpuech syndrome . From a healthy Japanese couple , Chinen and Naritomi ( 1995 ) described the sixth child who had features consistent with the disorder . This two @-@ month @-@ old male infant was also affected by cardiac anomalies including patent ductus arteriosus ( PDA ) and ventricular septal defect . The opening in the ductus arteriosus associated with PDA had been surgically repaired in the infant at 38 days of age . A number of minor skeletal aberrations were also reported in the infant , including wormian bones at the lambdoid sutures .
= = Classification = =
Malpuech syndrome has been shown to have physical , or phenotypical similarities with several other genetic disorders . A report by Reardon et al . ( 2001 ) of a nine @-@ year @-@ old boy exhibiting facial , caudal and urogenital anomalies consistent with Malpuech syndrome , who also had skeletal malformites indicative of Juberg @-@ Hayward syndrome , suggests that the two disorders may be allelic ( caused by different mutations of the same gene ) .
Along with several other disorders that have similar , or overlapping features and autosomal recessive inheritance , Malpuech syndrome has been considered to belong under the designation " 3MC syndrome " . Titomanlio et al . ( 2005 ) described a three @-@ year @-@ old female known to have Michels syndrome . In their review of the physical similarities between Michels , Malpuech and Mingarelli @-@ Carnevale syndromes — particularly the facial appearance including instances of cleft lip and palate , and ptosis , and a similarity of congenital abdominal and urogenital anomalies — they believed the syndromes may represent a spectrum of genetic disorders rather than three individual disorders . They initially suggested this spectrum could be named 3MC ( Michels @-@ Malpuech @-@ Mingarelli @-@ Carnevale ) syndrome . This conclusion and the name 3MC syndrome was supported by Leal et al . ( 2008 ) , who reported a brother and sister with an array of symptoms that overlapped the various syndromes . Further assertion of 3MC syndrome was by Rooryck et al . ( 2011 ) in an elaboration of its cause .
= = Cause and genetics = =
Malpuech syndrome , as with the other disorders within the 3MC syndrome consideration , is caused by mutations in the COLLEC11 and MASP1 genes . In an investigation by Rooryck et al . ( 2011 ) , eleven families affected by 3MC syndrome were studied , which resulted in the identification of these two mutations . Both genes encode proteins of the lectin complement pathway , which plays a role in the complement system of innate , or non @-@ specific immunity in humans and other species .
The COLLEC11 , or CL @-@ K1 gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 2 ( 2p25.3 ) in humans . The CL @-@ K1 protein is a C @-@ type lectin , and belongs to the collectin family of these proteins . Other than its role in innate immunity , the protein is thought to be involved in the development of tissues including craniofacial cartilage , the heart and kidney during embryogenesis . This function in facial development was corroborated through study of the zebrafish , where mutations in its version of CL @-@ K1 contributed to craniofacial abnormalities possibly associated with errors in neural crest cell migration .
The MASP1 , or Mannan @-@ binding Serine Protease I gene is located on the long arm of human chromosome 3 at 3q27 @-@ q28 . The protein is a type of connectin called a mannan @-@ binding lectin , which plays a role in innate immunity by binding to pathogens such as viruses including HIV .
As described by Sirmaci et al . ( 2010 ) , three Turkish individuals from two consanguineous families ( the children of relatives such as cousins are said to be in a consanguineous family ) with various characteristics of 3MC syndrome , including facial dysmorphism and a caudal appendage , were evaluated . Investigation of homologous chromosomes through gene mapping revealed an autozygous region ( a location on a chromosome where both alleles of a gene originate from a common ancestor ) at chromosome 3q27 in both families . In one family , a missense mutation in MASP1 at this location resulted in the replacement of the amino acid glycine by arginine at position 687 in the gene sequence . The mutation cosegregated with the observed phenotype . In individuals from the second family , DNA sequencing of MASP1 showed a nonsense mutation that resulted in a deactivation of tryptophan at position 290 in the gene , that also cosegregated with the phenotype . Both mutations occur in a form of MASP1 known to process IGFBP5 ; loss of this function associated with mutation of MASP1 causes disruptions in the availability of insulin @-@ like growth factor during craniofacial and musculoskeletal development during the embryonic period . These results indicate that mutations in MASP1 are responsible for an array of features found with malformation disorders including Malpuech syndrome .
The syndrome is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner . This means the defective gene ( s ) responsible for the disorder ( COLLEC11 , MASP1 ) is located on an autosome ( chromosomes 2 and 3 are autosomes ) , and two copies of the defective gene ( one inherited from each parent ) are required in order to be born with the disorder . The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disorder both carry one copy of the defective gene , but usually do not experience any signs or symptoms of the disorder .
= = Diagnosis = =
It is suggested that the diagnostic criteria for Malpuech syndrome should include cleft lip and / or palate , typical associated facial features , and at least two of the following : urogenital anomalies , caudal appendage , and growth or developmental delay . Due to the relatively high rate of hearing impairment found with the disorder , it too may be considered in the diagnosis . Another congenital disorder , Wolf @-@ Hirschhorn ( Pitt @-@ Rogers @-@ Danks ) syndrome , shares Malpuech features in its diagnostic criteria . Because of this lacking differentiation , karyotyping ( microscopic analysis of the chromosomes of an individual ) can be employed to distinguish the two . Whereas deletions in the short arm of chromosome 4 would be revealed with Wolf @-@ Hirschhorn , a karyotype without this aberration present would favor a Malpuech syndrome diagnosis . Also , the karyotype of an individual with Malpuech syndrome alone will be normal .
= = Management = =
Many of the congenital malformations found with Malpuech syndrome can be corrected surgically . These include cleft lip and palate , omphalocele , urogenital and craniofacial abnormalities , skeletal deformities such as a caudal appendage or scoliosis , and hernias of the umbillicus . The primary area of concern for these procedures applied to a neonate with congenital disorders including Malpuech syndrome regards the logistics of anesthesia . Methods like tracheal intubation for management of the airway during general anesthesia can be hampered by the even smaller , or maldeveloped mouth of the infant . For regional anesthesia , methods like spinal blocking are more difficult where scoliosis is present . In a 2010 report by Kiernan et al . , a four @-@ year @-@ old girl with Malpuech syndrome was being prepared for an unrelated tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy . While undergoing intubation , insertion of a laryngoscope , needed to identify the airway for the placement of the endotracheal tube , was made troublesome by the presence of micrognathia attributed to the syndrome . After replacement with a laryngoscope of adjusted size , intubation proceeded normally . Successful general anesthesia followed .
A rare follow @-@ up of a male with Malpuech syndrome was presented by Priolo et al . ( 2007 ) . Born at term from an uneventful pregnancy and delivery , the infant underwent a surgical repair of a cleft lip and palate . No problems were reported with the procedure . A heart abnormality , atrial septal defect , was also apparent but required no intervention . At age three years , mental retardation , hyperactivity and obsessive compulsive disorder were diagnosed ; hearing impairment was diagnosed at age six , managed with the use of hearing aids . Over the course of the decade that followed , a number of psychiatric evaluations were performed . At age 14 , he exhibited a fear of physical contact ; at age 15 , he experienced a severe psychotic episode , characterized by agitation and a loss of sociosexual inhibition . This array of symptoms were treated pharmocologically ( with prescription medications ) . He maintained a low level of mental deficiency by age 17 , with moments of compulsive echolalia .
= = Epidemiology and history = =
The incidence of Malpuech syndrome has not been determined . A 1999 report by Crisponi et al. suggested that only about 12 individuals worldwide were affected by the disorder at that time . The syndrome was first reported by Guilliaume Malpuech and colleagues in 1983 , observed in four children of unspecified gender in what was described as a gypsy family . The children included three siblings and their first cousin ; the family was known to be highly consanguineous .
= Battle of Ceresole =
The Battle of Ceresole ( or Cérisoles ) was an encounter between a French army and the combined forces of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain during the Italian War of 1542 – 46 . The lengthy engagement took place on 11 April 1544 , outside the village of Ceresole d 'Alba in the Piedmont region of Italy ; the French , under François de Bourbon , Count of Enghien , defeated the Imperial @-@ Spanish army of Alfonso d 'Avalos d 'Aquino , Marquis del Vasto . Despite having inflicted substantial casualties on the Imperial troops , the French subsequently failed to exploit their victory by taking Milan .
Enghien and d 'Avalos had arranged their armies along two parallel ridges ; because of the topography of the battlefield , many of the individual actions of the battle were uncoordinated with one another . The battle opened with several hours of skirmishing between opposing bands of arquebusiers and an ineffectual artillery exchange , after which d 'Avalos ordered a general advance . In the center , Imperial landsknechts clashed with French and Swiss infantry , with both sides suffering terrific casualties . In the southern part of the battlefield , Italian infantry in Imperial service were harried by French cavalry attacks and withdrew after learning that the Imperial troops of the center had been defeated . In the north , meanwhile , the French infantry line crumbled , and Enghien led a series of ineffectual and costly cavalry charges against Spanish and German infantry before the latter were forced to surrender by the arrival of the victorious Swiss and French infantry from the center .
Ceresole was one of the few pitched battles during the latter half of the Italian Wars . Known among military historians chiefly for the " great slaughter " that occurred when columns of intermingled arquebusiers and pikemen met in the center , it also demonstrates the continuing role of traditional heavy cavalry on a battlefield largely dominated by the emerging pike and shot infantry .
= = Prelude = =
The opening of the war in northern Italy had been marked by the fall of Nice to a combined Franco @-@ Ottoman army in August 1543 ; meanwhile , Imperial @-@ Spanish forces had advanced from Lombardy towards Turin , which had been left in French hands at the end of the previous war in 1538 . By the winter of 1543 – 44 , a stalemate had developed in the Piedmont between the French , under the Sieur de Boutières , and the Imperial army , under d 'Avalos . The French position , centered on Turin , reached outward to a series of fortified towns : Pinerolo , Carmagnola , Savigliano , Susa , Moncalieri , Villanova , Chivasso , and a number of others ; d 'Avalos , meanwhile , controlled a group of fortresses on the periphery of the French territory : Mondovì , Asti , Casale Monferrato , Vercelli , and Ivrea . The two armies occupied themselves primarily with attacking each other 's outlying strongholds . Boutières seized San Germano Vercellese , near Vercelli , and laid siege to Ivrea ; d 'Avalos , meanwhile , captured Carignano , only fifteen miles south of Turin , and proceeded to garrison and fortify it .
As the two armies returned to winter quarters , Francis I of France replaced Boutières with François de Vendôme , Count of Enghien , a prince with no experience commanding an army . Francis also sent additional troops to the Piedmont , including several hundred heavy cavalry , some companies of French infantry from Dauphiné and Languedoc , and a force of quasi @-@ Swiss from Gruyères . In January 1544 , Enghien laid siege to Carignano , which was defended by Imperial troops under the command of Pirro Colonna . The French were of the opinion that d 'Avalos would be forced to attempt a relief of the besieged city , at which point he could be forced into a battle ; but as such pitched battles were viewed as very risky undertakings , Enghien sent Blaise de Lasseran @-@ Massencôme , seigneur de Montluc , to Paris to ask Francis for permission to fight one . Montluc apparently convinced Francis to give his assent — contingent on the agreement of Enghien 's captains — over the objections of the Comte de St. Pol , who complained that a defeat would leave France exposed to an invasion by d 'Avalos 's troops at a time when Charles V and Henry VIII of England were expected to attack Picardy . Montluc , returning to Italy , brought with him nearly a hundred volunteers from among the young noblemen of the court , including the young Gaspard de Coligny .
D 'Avalos , having waited for the arrival a large body of landsknechts dispatched by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , set off from Asti towards Carignano . His total force included 12 @,@ 500 – 18 @,@ 000 infantry , of which perhaps 4 @,@ 000 were arquebusiers or musketeers ; he was only able to gather about 800 – 1 @,@ 000 cavalry , of which less than 200 were gendarmes . D 'Avalos recognized the relative weakness of his cavalry , but considered it to be compensated by the experience of his infantry and the large number of arquebusiers in its ranks .
Enghien , having learned of the Imperial advance , left a blocking force at Carignano and assembled the remainder of his army at Carmagnola , blocking d 'Avalos 's route to the besieged city . The French cavalry , shadowing d 'Avalos 's movements , discovered that the Imperial forces were headed directly for the French position ; on 10 April , d 'Avalos occupied the village of Ceresole d 'Alba , about five miles ( 8 km ) southeast of the French . Enghien 's officers urged him to attack immediately , but he was determined to fight on ground of his own choosing ; on the morning of 11 April 1544 , the French marched from Carmagnola to a position some three miles ( 5 km ) to the southeast and awaited d 'Avalos 's arrival . Enghien and Montluc felt that the open ground would give the French cavalry a significant tactical advantage . By this point , the French army consisted of around 11 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 infantry , 600 light cavalry , and 900 – 1 @,@ 250 heavy cavalry ; Enghien and d 'Avalos each had about twenty pieces of artillery . The battle came at a fortunate time for Enghien , as his Swiss troops were — as they had before the Battle of Bicocca — threatening to march home if they were not paid ; the news of the impending battle restored some calm to their ranks .
= = Battle = =
= = = Dispositions = = =
Enghien 's troops were positioned along the crest of a ridge that was higher in the center than on either side , preventing the wings of the French army from seeing each other . The French army was divided into the traditional " battle " , " vanward " , and " rearward " corps , corresponding to the center and right and left wings of the French line . On the far right of the French position was a body of light cavalry , consisting of three companies under Des Thermes , Bernadino , and Mauré , with a total strength of around 450 – 500 men . To their left was the French infantry under De Tais , numbering around 4 @,@ 000 , and , farther to the left , a squadron of 80 gendarmes under Boutières , who was nominally the commander of the entire French right wing . The center of the French line was formed by thirteen companies of veteran Swiss , numbering about 4 @,@ 000 , under the joint command of William Frülich of Soleure and a captain named St. Julian . To their left was Enghien himself with three companies of heavy cavalry , a company of light horse , and the volunteers from Paris — in total , around 450 troopers . The left wing was composed of two columns of infantry , consisting of 3 @,@ 000 of the recruits from Gruyères and 2 @,@ 000 Italians , all under the command of Sieur Descroz . On the extreme left of the line were about 400 mounted archers deployed as light cavalry ; they were commanded by Dampierre , who was also given command of the entire French left wing .
The Imperial line formed up on a similar ridge facing the French position . On the far left , facing Des Thermes , were 300 Florentine light cavalry under Rodolfo Baglioni ; flanking them to the right were 6 @,@ 000 Italian infantry under Ferrante Sanseverino , Prince of Salerno . In the center were the 7 @,@ 000 landsknechts under the command of Eriprando Madruzzo . To their right was d 'Avalos himself , together with the small force of about 200 heavy cavalry under Carlo Gonzaga . The Imperial right wing was composed of around 5 @,@ 000 German and Spanish infantry under Ramón de Cardona ; they were flanked , on the far right , by 300 Italian light cavalry under Philip de Lannoy , Prince of Sulmona .
= = = Initial moves = = =
As d 'Avalos 's troops , marching from Ceresole , began to arrive on the battlefield , both armies attempted to conceal their numbers and position from the other ; Enghien had ordered the Swiss to lie on the ground behind the crest of the ridge , while only the left wing of the Imperial army was initially visible to the French . D 'Avalos sent out parties of arquebusiers in an attempt to locate the French flanks ; Enghien , in turn , detached about 800 arquebusiers under Montluc to delay the Imperial advance . The skirmishing between the arquebusiers continued for almost four hours ; Martin Du Bellay , observing the engagement , described it as " a pretty sight for anyone who was in a safe place and unemployed , for they played off on each other all the ruses and stratagems of petty war . " As the extent of each army 's position was revealed , Enghien and d 'Avalos both brought up their artillery . The ensuing cannonade continued for several hours , but had little effect because of the distance and the considerable cover available to the troops on both sides .
The skirmishing finally came to an end when it seemed that Imperial cavalry would attack the French arquebusiers in the flank ; Montluc then requested assistance from Des Thermes , who advanced with his entire force of light cavalry . D 'Avalos , observing the French movement , ordered a general advance along the entire Imperial line . At the southern end of the battlefield , the French light cavalry drove Baglioni 's Florentines back into Sanseverino 's advancing infantry , and then proceeded to charge directly into the infantry column . The Italian formation held , and Des Thermes himself was wounded and captured ; but by the time Sanseverino had dealt with the resulting disorder and was ready to advance again , the fight in the center had already been decided .
= = = " A wholesale slaughter " = = =
The French infantry — mostly Gascons — had meanwhile started down the slope towards Sanseverino . Montluc , noting that the disorder of the Italians had forced them to a standstill , suggested that De Tais attack Madruzzo 's advancing column of landsknechts instead ; this advice was accepted , and the French formation turned left in an attempt to strike the landsknechts in the flank . Madruzzo responded by splitting his column into two separate portions , one of which moved to intercept the French while the other continued up the slope towards the Swiss waiting at the crest .
The pike and shot infantry had by this time adopted a system in which arquebusiers and pikemen were intermingled in combined units ; both the French and the Imperial infantry contained men with firearms interspersed in the larger columns of pikemen . This combination of pikes and small arms made close @-@ quarters fighting extremely bloody . The mixed infantry was normally placed in separate clusters , with the arquebusiers on the flanks of a central column of pikemen ; at Ceresole , however , the French infantry had been arranged with the first rank of pikemen followed immediately by a rank of arquebusiers , who were ordered to hold their fire until the two columns met . Montluc , who claimed to have devised the scheme , wrote that :
In this way we should kill all their captains in the front rank . But we found that they were as ingenious as ourselves , for behind their first line of pikes they had put pistoleers . Neither side fired till we were touching — and then there was a wholesale slaughter : every shot told : the whole front rank on each side went down .
The Swiss , seeing the French engage one of the two columns of landsknechts , finally descended to meet the other , which had been slowly moving up the hillside . Both masses of infantry remained locked in a push of pike until the squadron of heavy cavalry under Boutières charged into the landsknechts ' flank , shattering their formation and driving them down the slope . The Imperial heavy cavalry , which had been on the landsknechts ' right , and which had been ordered by d 'Avalos to attack the Swiss , recoiled from the pikes and fled to the rear , leaving Carlo Gonzaga to be taken prisoner .
The Swiss and Gascon infantry proceeded to slaughter the remaining landsknechts — whose tight order precluded a rapid retreat — as they attempted to withdraw from the battlefield . The road to Ceresole was littered with corpses ; the Swiss , in particular , showed no mercy , as they wished to avenge the mistreatment of the Swiss garrison of Mondovì the previous November . Most of the landsknechts ' officers were killed ; and while contemporary accounts probably exaggerate the numbers of the dead , it is clear that the German infantry had ceased to exist as a fighting force . Seeing this , Sanseverino decided that the battle was lost and marched away to Asti with the bulk of the Italian infantry and the remnants of Baglioni 's Florentine cavalry ; the French light cavalry , meanwhile , joined in the pursuit of the landsknechts .
= = = Engagements in the north = = =
On the northern end of the battlefield , events had unfolded quite differently . Dampierre 's cavalry routed Lannoy 's company of light horse ; the Italians and the contingent from Gruyères , meanwhile , broke and fled — leaving their officers to be killed — without offering any real resistance to the advancing Imperial infantry . As Cardona 's infantry moved past the original French line , Enghien descended on it with the entire body of heavy cavalry under his command ; the subsequent engagement took place on the reverse slope of the ridge , out of sight of the rest of the battlefield .
On the first charge , Enghien 's cavalry penetrated a corner of the Imperial formation , pushing through to the rear and losing some of the volunteers from Paris . As Cardona 's ranks closed again , the French cavalry turned and made a second charge under heavy arquebus fire ; this was far more costly , and again failed to break the Imperial column . Enghien , now joined by Dampierre 's light cavalry , made a third charge , which again failed to achieve a decisive result ; fewer than a hundred of the French gendarmes remained afterwards . Enghien believed the battle to be lost — according to Montluc , he intended to stab himself , " which ancient Romans might do , but not good Christians " — when St. Julian , the Swiss commander , arrived from the center of the battlefield and reported that the Imperial forces there had been routed .
The news of the landsknechts ' defeat reached Cardona 's troops at about the same time that it had reached Enghien ; the Imperial column turned and retreated back towards its original position . Enghien followed closely with the remainder of his cavalry ; he was soon reinforced by a company of Italian mounted arquebusiers , which had been stationed at Racconigi and had started towards the battlefield after hearing the initial artillery exchange . These arquebusiers , dismounting to fire and then remounting , were able to harass the Imperial column sufficiently to slow its retreat . Meanwhile , the French and Swiss infantry of the center , having reached Ceresole , had turned about and returned to the battlefield ; Montluc , who was with them , writes :
When we heard at Ceresole that M. d 'Enghien wanted us , both the Swiss and we Gascons turned toward him — I never saw two battalions form up so quick — we got into rank again actually as we ran along , side by side . The enemy was going off at quick march , firing salvos of arquebuses , and keeping off our horse , when we saw them . And when they descried us only 400 paces away , and our cavalry making ready to charge , they threw down their pikes and surrendered to the horsemen . You might see fifteen or twenty of them round a man @-@ at @-@ arms , pressing about him and asking for quarter , for fear of us of the infantry , who were wanting to cut all their throats .
Perhaps as many as half of the Imperial infantry were killed as they were attempting to surrender ; the remainder , about 3 @,@ 150 men , were taken prisoner . A few , including the Baron of Seisneck , who had commanded the German infantry contingents , managed to escape .
= = Aftermath = =
The casualties of the battle were unusually high , even by the standards of the time , and are estimated at 28 percent of the total number of troops engaged . The smallest numbers given for the Imperial dead in contemporary accounts are between 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 , although some French sources give figures as high as 12 @,@ 000 . A large number of officers were killed , particularly among the landsknechts ; many of those who survived were taken prisoner , including Ramón de Cardona , Carlo Gonzaga , and Eriprando Madruzzo . The French casualties were smaller , but numbered at least 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 killed . These included many of the officers of the Gascon and Gruyères infantry contingents , as well as a large portion of the gendarmerie that had followed Enghien . The only French prisoner of note was Des Thermes , who had been carried along with Sanseverino 's retreating Italians .
Despite the collapse of the Imperial army , the battle proved to be of little strategic significance . At the insistence of Francis I , the French army resumed the siege of Carignano , where Colonna held out for several weeks . Soon after the city 's surrender , Enghien was forced to send twenty @-@ three companies of Italian and Gascon infantry — and nearly half his heavy cavalry — to Picardy , which had been invaded by Charles V. Left without a real army , Enghien was unable to capture Milan . D 'Avalos , meanwhile , routed a fresh force of Italian infantry under Pietro Strozzi and the Count of Pitigliano at the Battle of Serravalle . The end of the war saw a return to the status quo in northern Italy .
= = Historiography = =
A number of detailed contemporary accounts of the battle have survived . Among the French chronicles are the narratives of Martin Du Bellay and Blaise de Montluc , both of whom were present at the scene . The Sieur de Tavannes , who accompanied Enghien , also makes some mention of the events in his memoirs . The most extensive account from the Imperial side is that of Paolo Giovio . Despite a number of inconsistencies with other accounts , it provides , according to historian Charles Oman , " valuable notes on points neglected by all the French narrators " .
The interest of modern military historians in the battle has centered primarily on the role of small arms and the resulting carnage among the infantry in the center . The arrangement of pikemen and arquebusiers used was regarded as too costly , and was not tried again ; in subsequent battles , arquebuses were used primarily for skirmishing and from the flanks of larger formations of pikemen . Ceresole is also of interest as a demonstration of the continuing role of traditional heavy cavalry on the battlefield . Despite the failure of Enghien 's charges — the French , according to Bert Hall , held to their belief in " the effectiveness of unaided heavy cavalry to break disciplined formations " — a small body of gendarmes had been sufficient , in the center , to rout infantry columns that were already engaged with other infantry . Beyond this tactical utility , another reason for cavalry 's continued importance is evident from the final episode of the battle : the French gendarmes were the only troops who could reasonably be expected to accept an opponent 's surrender , as the Swiss and French infantry had no inclination towards taking prisoners . The cavalry was , according to Hall , " almost intuitively expected to heed these entreaties without question " .
= Surface weather observation =
Surface weather observations are the fundamental data used for safety as well as climatological reasons to forecast weather and issue warnings worldwide . They can be taken manually , by a weather observer , by computer through the use of automated weather stations , or in a hybrid scheme using weather observers to augment the otherwise automated weather station . The ICAO defines the International Standard Atmosphere ( ISA ) , which is the model of the standard variation of pressure , temperature , density , and viscosity with altitude in the Earth 's atmosphere , and is used to reduce a station pressure to sea level pressure . Airport observations can be transmitted worldwide through the use of the METAR observing code . Personal weather stations taking automated observations can transmit their data to the United States mesonet through the Citizen Weather Observer Program ( CWOP ) , the UK Met Office through their Weather Observations Website ( WOW ) , or internationally through the Weather Underground Internet site . A thirty @-@ year average of a location 's weather observations is traditionally used to determine the station 's climate .
= = Airports = =
Surface weather observations have traditionally been taken at airports due to safety concerns during takeoffs and landings . The ICAO defines the International Standard Atmosphere ( also known as ICAO Standard Atmosphere ) , which is the model of the standard variation of pressure , temperature , density , and viscosity with elevation / altitude in the Earth 's atmosphere . This is useful in calibrating instruments and designing aircraft , and is used to reduce a station 's pressure to sea level pressure ( SLP ) where it can then be used on weather maps .
In the United States , the FAA mandates the taking of weather observations at larger airports for safety reasons . To help facilitate the purchase of an automated airport weather station , such as ASOS , the FAA allows federal dollars to be used for the installation of certified weather stations at airports . The airport observations are then transmitted worldwide using the METAR observing code . METAR reports typically come from airports or permanent weather observation stations . Reports are generated once an hour ; however , if conditions change significantly , they may be updated in special reports called SPECIEs .
= = Data Reported = =
Surface weather observations can include the following elements :
The Station Identifier , or Location identifier , consists of four characters for METAR observations , with the first representing the region of the world the station lies within . For example , the first letter for areas in and around the Pacific ocean is P , and for Europe is E. The second character may represent the country / state the location lies within . For Hawaii , the first two letters are " PH " while for Great Britain , the first two letters of the station identifier are " EG " . Canada and the contiguous United States are an exception , with the first letters C and K representing the regions , respectively . The final two or three letters normally represent the name of the location or airport .
Visibility , measured in meters for most sites worldwide , except in the United States where statute miles are reported .
Runway visibility , measured in meters in many locations worldwide , or feet within the United States .
Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of a sample of matter . Temperature is the unique physical property that determines the direction of heat flow between two objects placed in thermal contact . If no heat flow occurs , the two objects have the same temperature ; otherwise heat flows from the hotter object to the colder object . Temperature , within meteorology , is measured with thermometers exposed to the air but sheltered from direct solar exposure . In most of the world , the degree Celsius scale is used for most temperature measuring purposes . However , the United States is the last major country in which the degree Fahrenheit temperature scale is used by most lay people , industry , popular meteorology , and government . Despite this , METAR reports from the United States also report the temperature ( and dewpoint , see below ) in degrees Celsius .
Dew point is the temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled , at constant atmospheric pressure , for water vapor to condense into water . The condensed water is called dew . The dew point is a saturation point . When the dew point temperature falls below freezing it is called the frost point , as the water vapor no longer creates dew but instead creates frost or hoarfrost by deposition . The dew point is associated with relative humidity . A high relative humidity indicates that the dew point is closer to the current air temperature . If the relative humidity is 100 % , the dew point is equal to the current temperature . Given a constant dew point , an increase in temperature will lead to a decrease in relative humidity . At a given barometric pressure , independent of temperature , the dew point determines the specific humidity of the air . The dew point is an important statistic for general aviation pilots , as it is used to calculate the likelihood of carburetor icing and fog . When used with the air temperature , a formula can be used to estimate the height of cumuliform , or convective , clouds .
Wind is determined using anemometers and wind vanes , or aerovanes , located a standard 10 metres ( 33 ft ) above ground level ( AGL ) . Average wind speed is measured using a two @-@ minute average in the United States , and a 10 @-@ minute average elsewhere . Wind direction is measured using degrees , with north representing 0 or 360 degrees , with values increasing from 0 clockwise from north . Wind gusts are reported when there is variation of the wind speed of more than 10 knots ( 5 @.@ 1 m / s ) between peaks and lulls during the sampling period .
Sea level pressure ( SLP ) is the pressure at sea level or ( when measured at a given elevation on land ) the station pressure reduced to sea level assuming an isothermal layer at the station temperature . This is the pressure normally given in weather reports on radio , television , and newspapers or on the Internet . When barometers in the home are set to match the local weather reports , they measure pressure reduced to sea level , not the actual local atmospheric pressure . The reduction to sea level means that the normal range of fluctuations in pressure is the same for everyone . The pressures which are considered high pressure or low pressure do not depend on geographical location . This makes isobars on a weather map meaningful and useful tools .
Altimeter setting is a term and quantity used in aviation . The regional or local air pressure at mean sea level is called the altimeter setting , and the pressure which will calibrate the altimeter to show the height above ground at a given QNH airfield .
Present weather , which present restrictions to visibility or presence of thunder or squalls , are reported in observations to indicate to aviation any possible threats during landings and takeoffs from airports . Types included in surface weather observations include precipitation , obscurations , other weather phenomena such as , well @-@ developed dust / sand whirls , squalls , tornadic activity , sandstorms , volcanic ash , and dust storms .
Intensity of precipitation is primarily measured for meteorological concerns . However , it can be of concern to aviation as heavy precipitation can limit visibility . Also , intensity of freezing rain can determine how hazardous it is for pilots to fly nearby certain locations since it can be an in @-@ flight hazard by depositing ice on the wings of aircraft , which can be detrimental to flight .
Precipitation amount over the past 1 , 3 , 6 or 24 hours is of particular interest to meteorologists in verifying forecast amounts of precipitation and determining station climatologies .
Snowfall amount during the past 6 hours is taken for meteorological and climatological concerns . However , it may also be reported hourly using " SNOINCR " remarks to provide air field technicians information on how frequently snow must be plowed from runways and taxiways .
Snow depth is measured for meteorological and climatological concerns once a day . However , during periods of snowfall , it is measured each six hours to determine amount of recent snowfall .
= = = Example of a METAR surface weather observation = = =
METAR LBBG 041600Z 12003MPS 310V290 1400 R04 / P1500N R22 / P1500U + SN BKN022 OVC050 M04 / M07 Q1020 NOSIG 9949 / / 91 =
Personal weather stations , maintained by citizens rather than government officials , do not use METAR code . Software allows information to be transmitted to various sites , such as the Weather Underground globally , or the CWOP within the United States , which can then be used by the appropriate meteorological organizations either to diagnose real @-@ time conditions , or be used within weather forecast models .
= = Use of weather maps = =
Data collected by land locations coding in METAR are conveyed worldwide via phone lines or wireless technology . Within many nations ' meteorological organizations , this data is then plotted onto a weather map using the station model . A station model is a symbolic illustration showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to plot a number of weather elements in a small space on weather maps . Maps filled with dense station @-@ model plots can be difficult to read , but they allow meteorologists , pilots , and mariners to see important weather patterns .
Weather maps are used to display information quickly showing the analysis of various meteorological quantities at various levels of the atmosphere , in this case the surface layer . Maps containing station models aid in the drawing of isotherms , which more readily identifies temperature gradients , and can help in the location of weather fronts . Two @-@ dimensional streamlines based on wind speeds show areas of convergence and divergence in the wind field , which are helpful in determining the location of features within the wind pattern . A popular type of surface weather map is the surface weather analysis , which plots isobars to depict areas of high pressure and low pressure .
= = Ship and buoy reports = =
For over a century , reports from the world 's oceans have been received real @-@ time for safety reasons and to help with general weather forecasting . The reports are coded using the synoptic code , and relayed via radio or satellite to weather organizations worldwide . Buoy reports are automated , and maintained by the country that moored the buoy in that location . Larger moored buoys are used near shore , while smaller drifting buoys are used farther out at sea .
Due to the importance of reports from the surface of the ocean , the voluntary observing ship program , known as VOS , was set up to train crews how to take weather observations while at sea and also to calibrate weather sensors used aboard ships when they arrive in port , such as barometers and thermometers . The Beaufort scale is still generally used to determine wind speed from manual observers out at sea . Ships with anemometers have issues with determining wind speeds at higher wind speeds due to blockage of the instruments by increasing high seas .
= = Use in establishing climate of a location = =
Climate , ( from Ancient Greek klima ) is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period of time . The standard averaging period is 30 years for an individual location , but other periods may be used . Climate includes statistics other than the average , such as the magnitudes of day @-@ to @-@ day or year @-@ to @-@ year variations . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) glossary definition is :
Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the “ average weather ” , or more rigorously , as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years . The classical period is 30 years , as defined by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) . These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature , precipitation , and wind . Climate in a wider sense is the state , including a statistical description , of the climate system .
The main difference between climate and everyday weather is best summarized by the popular phrase " Climate is what you expect , weather is what you get . " Over historic time spans there are a number of static variables that determine climate , including : latitude , altitude , proportion of land to water , and proximity to oceans and mountains . Degree of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption , water retention , and rainfall on a regional level .
= Steve Irwin =
Stephen Robert " Steve " Irwin ( 22 February 1962 – 4 September 2006 ) , nicknamed " The Crocodile Hunter " , was an Australian wildlife expert , television personality , and conservationist . Irwin achieved worldwide fame from the television series The Crocodile Hunter , an internationally broadcast wildlife documentary series which he co @-@ hosted with his wife Terri . Together , the couple also owned and operated Australia Zoo , founded by Irwin 's parents in Beerwah , about 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) north of the Queensland state capital city of Brisbane .
Irwin died on 4 September 2006 after being pierced in the chest by a stingray barb while filming an underwater documentary film titled Ocean 's Deadliest . The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society ship MY Steve Irwin was named in his honour .
= = Early life = =
Irwin was born on his mother 's birthday to Lyn and Bob Irwin in Essendon , a suburb of Melbourne , Victoria . He is of Irish descent on his father 's side . He moved with his parents as a child to Queensland in 1970 , where he attended Landsborough State School and Caloundra State High School . Irwin described his father as a wildlife expert interested in herpetology , while his mother Lyn was a wildlife rehabilitator . After moving to Queensland , Bob and Lyn Irwin started the small Queensland Reptile and Fauna Park , where Steve grew up around crocodiles and other reptiles .
Irwin became involved with the park in a number of ways , including taking part in daily animal feeding , as well as care and maintenance activities . On his sixth birthday , he was given a 12 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) scrub python . He began handling crocodiles at the age of nine after his father had educated him on reptiles from an early age . Also at age nine , he wrestled his first crocodile , again under his father 's supervision . He worked as a volunteer for Queensland 's East Coast Crocodile Management program and captured over 100 crocodiles , some of which were relocated , while others were housed at the family park . Irwin took over the management of | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
= =
In a New York City park , hippies have gathered with guitars to sing protest songs . Fritz and his buddies show up in an attempt to meet girls . When a trio of attractive females walk by , Fritz and his friends exhaust themselves trying to get their attention , but find that the girls are more interested in the crow standing a few feet away . The girls attempt to flirt with the crow , making unintentionally condescending remarks about blacks , while Fritz looks on in annoyance . Suddenly , the crow rebukes the girls with a snide remark and walks away . Fritz invites the girls to " seek the truth " , bringing them up to his friend 's apartment , where a wild party is taking place . Since the other rooms are crowded , Fritz drags the girls into the bathroom and the four of them have group sex in the bathtub . Meanwhile , the police ( portrayed as pigs ) arrive to raid the party . As the two officers walk up the stairs , one of the partygoers finds Fritz and the girls in the bath tub . Several others jump in , pushing Fritz to the side where he takes solace in marijuana . The two officers break into the apartment , but find that it is empty because everyone has moved into the bathroom . Fritz takes refuge in the toilet when one of the pigs enters the bathroom and begins to beat up the partygoers . As the pig becomes exhausted , a very stoned Fritz jumps out , grabs the pig 's gun , and shoots the toilet , causing the water main to break and flooding everybody out of the apartment . The pigs chase Fritz down the street into a synagogue . Fritz manages to escape when the congregation gets up to celebrate the United States ' decision to send more weapons into Israel .
Fritz makes it back to his dormitory , where his roommates ignore him . He decides to ditch his bore of a life and sets all of his notes and books on fire . The fire spreads throughout the dorm , finally setting the entire building ablaze . In a bar in Harlem , Fritz meets Duke the Crow at a billiard table . After narrowly avoiding getting into a fight with the bartender , Duke invites Fritz to " bug out " , and they steal a car , which Fritz drives off a bridge , leading Duke to save his life by grabbing onto a railing . The two arrive at the apartment of a drug dealer named Bertha , whose cannabis joints increase Fritz 's libido . While having sex with Bertha , he comes to a realization that he " must tell the people about the revolution ! " He runs off into the city street and incites a riot , during which Duke is shot and killed .
Fritz hides in an alley where his older fox girlfriend , Winston Schwartz , finds him and drags him on a road trip to San Francisco . When the car runs out of gas in the middle of the desert , he decides to abandon her . He later meets up with Blue , a heroin @-@ addicted rabbit biker . Along with Blue 's horse girlfriend , Harriet , they take a ride to an underground hide @-@ out where several other revolutionaries tell Fritz of their plan to blow up a power station . When Harriet tries to get Blue to leave , he hits her several times and ties her down with a chain . When Fritz objects to their treatment of her , he is hit in the face with a candle by a member of the group . After setting the dynamite at the power plant , Fritz suddenly has a change of heart , and unsuccessfully attempts to remove it before being caught in the explosion . At a Los Angeles hospital , Harriet ( disguised as a nun ) and the girls from the New York park come to comfort him in what they believe to be his last moments . Fritz , after reciting the speech he used to pick up the girls from New York , becomes revitalized and has sex with the trio of girls while Harriet watches in astonishment .
= = Cast = =
Skip Hinnant as Fritz the Cat
Rosetta LeNoire as Big Bertha / Additional voices
John McCurry as Duke / Additional voices
Judy Engles as Winston Schwartz / Lizard Leader
Phil Seuling as Pig Cop # 2 / Additional voices
Ralph Bakshi ( uncredited ) as Pig Cop # 1 / Narrator
Mary Dean ( uncredited ) as Girl # 1 / Girl # 2 / Girl # 3 / Harriet
Charles Spidar ( uncredited ) as Bar Patron / Duke the Crow
= = Background = =
Robert Crumb ( b . 1943 ) was still a teenager when he created the character Fritz the Cat for self @-@ published comics magazines he made with his older brother Charles . The character first appeared to a wider public in Harvey Kurtzman 's humor magazine Help ! in 1965 . The strips place anthropomorphic characters — normally associated with children 's comics — in stories with drugs , sex , and other adult @-@ oriented content . Crumb left his wife in 1967 and moved to San Francisco , where he took part in the counterculture and indulged in drugs such as LSD . He had countercultural strips published in underground periodicals and in 1968 published the first issue of Zap Comix . Crumb 's cartoons became progressively more transgressive , sexually explicit , and violent , and Crumb became the center of the burgeoning underground comix movement . Fritz became one of Crumb 's best @-@ known creations , particularly outside the counterculture .
Ralph Bakshi majored in cartooning at the High School of Art and Design . He learned his trade at the Terrytoons studio in New York City , where he spent ten years animating characters such as Mighty Mouse , Heckle and Jeckle , and Deputy Dawg . At the age of 29 , Bakshi was hired to head the animation division of Paramount Pictures as both writer and director , where he produced four experimental short films before the studio closed in 1967 . With producer Steve Krantz , Bakshi founded his own studio , Bakshi Productions . In 1969 , Ralph 's Spot was founded as a division of Bakshi Productions to produce commercials for Coca @-@ Cola and Max , the 2000 @-@ Year @-@ Old Mouse , a series of educational shorts paid for by Encyclopædia Britannica . However , Bakshi was uninterested in the kind of animation he was producing , and wanted to produce something personal . Bakshi was quoted in a 1971 article for the Los Angeles Times as saying that the idea of " grown men sitting in cubicles drawing butterflies floating over a field of flowers , while American planes are dropping bombs in Vietnam and kids are marching in the streets , is ludicrous . " Bakshi soon developed Heavy Traffic , a tale of inner @-@ city street life . However , Krantz told Bakshi that studio executives would be unwilling to fund the film because of its content and Bakshi 's lack of film experience .
While browsing the East Side Book Store on St. Mark 's Place , Bakshi came across a copy of R. Crumb 's Fritz the Cat ( 1969 ) . Impressed by Crumb 's sharp satire , Bakshi purchased the book and suggested to Krantz that it would work as a film . Bakshi was interested in directing the film because he felt that Crumb 's work was the closest to his own . Krantz arranged a meeting with Crumb , during which Bakshi showed Crumb drawings that had been created as the result of Bakshi attempting to learn Crumb 's style to prove that he could translate the look of Crumb 's artwork to animation . Impressed by Bakshi 's tenacity , Crumb lent him one of his sketchbooks as a reference .
As Krantz began to prepare the paperwork , preparation began on a pitch presentation for potential studios , including a poster @-@ sized painted cel setup featuring the strip 's cast against a traced photo background , as Bakshi intended the film to appear . In spite of Crumb 's enthusiasm , he was unsure about the film 's production , and refused to sign the contract . Cartoonist Vaughn Bodé warned Bakshi against working with Crumb , describing him as " slick " . Bakshi later agreed with Bodé 's assessment , calling Crumb " one of the slickest hustlers you 'll ever see in your life " . Krantz sent Bakshi to San Francisco , where Bakshi stayed with Crumb and his wife Dana in an attempt to persuade Crumb to sign the contract . After a week , Crumb left , leaving the film 's production status uncertain , but Dana had power of attorney and signed the contract . Crumb received US $ 50 @,@ 000 , which was delivered throughout different phases of the production , in addition to ten percent of Krantz 's take .
= = Production = =
= = = Funding and distribution = = =
With the rights to the character , Krantz and Bakshi set out to find a distributor . " When I say that every major distributor turned it down , this is not an exaggeration " , remembers Krantz . " There has never been a project that was received with less enthusiasm . Animation is essentially a dirty word for distributors , who think that only Disney can paint a tree , and in addition to that , Fritz was so far out that there was a failure to understand that we were onto something very important . "
In the spring of 1970 , Warner Bros. agreed to fund and distribute the film . The Harlem sequences were the first completed . Krantz intended to release these scenes as a 15 @-@ minute short in case the film 's funding was pulled ; Bakshi was nevertheless determined to complete the film as a feature . Late in November , Bakshi and Krantz screened a presentation reel for the studio with this sequence , pencil tests , and shots of Bakshi 's storyboards . Bakshi stated , " You should have seen their faces in the screening room when I first screened a bit of Fritz . I 'll remember their faces until I die . One of them left the room . Holy hell , you should have seen his face . ' Shut up , Frank ! This is not the movie you 're allowed to make ! ' And I said , Bullshit , I just made it . "
Warner executives wanted the sexual content toned down celebrities cast for the voices . Bakshi refused , and Warner pulled their funding from the film , leading Krantz to seek funds elsewhere . This led to a deal with Jerry Gross , the owner of Cinemation Industries , a distributor specializing in exploitation films . Although Bakshi did not have enough time to pitch the film , Gross agreed to fund its production and distribute it , believing that it would fit in with his grindhouse slate . Further financing came from Saul Zaentz , who agreed to distribute the soundtrack album on his Fantasy Records label .
= = = Direction = = =
Bakshi was initially reluctant to direct Fritz the Cat because he had spent years working on animated productions featuring animal characters and wanted to make films focusing on human characters . He became interested in working on the film because he loved Crumb 's work and considered him a " total genius " . During the development of the film , Bakshi says that he " started to get giddy " when he " suddenly was able to get a pig that was a cop , and this particular other pig was Jewish , and I thought , ' Oh my God — a Jewish pig ? ' These were major steps forward , because in the initial Heckle and Jeckle for Terrytoons , they were two black guys running around . Which was hysterically funny and , I think , great — like Uncle Remus stuff . But they didn 't play down south , and they had to change two black crows to two Englishmen . And I always told him that the black crows were funnier . So it was a slow awakening . "
In his notes to animator Cosmo Anzilotti , Bakshi is precise , and even specifies that the crows smoked marijuana rather than tobacco . Bakshi states that " The weed had to read on screen . It 's an important character detail . " The film 's opening sequence sets the satirical tone of the film . The setting of the story 's period is not only established by a title , but also by a voiceover by Bakshi playing a character giving his account of the 1960s : " happy times , heavy times " . The film 's opening dialogue , by three construction workers on their lunch break , establishes many of the themes discussed in the film , including drug use , promiscuity , and the social and political climate of the era . When one of the workers urinates off of the scaffold , the film 's credits play over a shot of the liquid falling against a black screen . When the credits end , it is shown that the construction worker has urinated on a long @-@ haired hippie with a guitar . Karl F. Cohen writes that the film " is a product of the radical politics of the period . Bakshi 's depiction of Fritz 's life is colorful , funny , sexist , raw , violent , and outrageous . "
Of his direction of the film , Bakshi stated , " My approach to animation as a director is live action . I don 't approach it in the traditional animation ways . None of our characters get up and sing , because that 's not the type of picture I 'm trying to do . I want people to believe my characters are real , and it 's hard to believe they 're real if they start walking down the street singing . " Bakshi wanted the film to be the antithesis of any animated film produced by the Walt Disney Company . Accordingly , Fritz the Cat includes two satirical references to Disney . In one scene , silhouettes of Mickey Mouse , Daisy Duck , and Donald Duck are shown cheering on the United States Air Force as it drops napalm on a black neighborhood during a riot . Another scene features a reference to the " Pink Elephants on Parade " sequence from Dumbo . A sequence of the camera panning across a garbage heap in an abandoned lot in Harlem sets up a visual device which recurs in Hey Good Lookin ' .
= = = Writing = = =
The original screenplay consisted mostly of dialog and featured only a few changes from Crumb 's stories . The script and storyboards went largely unused in favor of more experimental storytelling techniques . Bakshi said , " I don 't like to jump ahead on my films . The way you feel about a film on Day One , you may not feel the same way forty weeks down the road . Characters grow , so I wanted to have the option to change things , and strengthen my characters ... It was sort of a stream of consciousness , and a learning process for myself . " Bakshi wrote the characters without feral animal behavior to lend the material greater realism .
The first part of the film 's plot was adapted from a self @-@ titled story published in a 1968 issue of R. Crumb 's Head Comix , while the second part is derived from " Fritz Bugs Out " , which was serialized in the February to October 1968 issues of Cavalier , and the final part of the story contains elements of " Fritz the No @-@ Good " , first published in the September / October 1968 issue of Cavalier . The last half of the film makes a major departure from Crumb 's work . Animation historian Michael Barrier describes this section of the film as being " much grimmer than Crumb 's stories past that point , and far more violent . " Bakshi stated that he deviated from the comics because he felt that the strips lacked depth :
" It was cute , it was sweet , but there was nowhere to put it . That 's why Crumb hates the picture , because I slipped a couple of things in there that he despises , like the rabbis — the pure Jewish stuff . Fritz can 't hold that kind of commentary . Winston is ' just a typical Jewish broad from Brooklyn ' . ... [ The strip ] was cute and well @-@ done , but there was nothing that had that much depth . "
Bakshi 's unwillingness to use anthropomorphic characters that behaved like feral animals led him to rewrite a scene in " Fritz Bugs Out " where Duke saves Fritz 's life by flying while holding Fritz ; in the film , Duke grabs a railing before the car crashes into the river , a solution that Bakshi wasn 't entirely satisfied with , but prevented him from having to use any feral animal behavior in that scene .
In the film , there are two characters named " Winston " – one appears at the beginning and end of the film , the other is Fritz 's girlfriend Winston Schwartz . Michael Barrier notes that Winston Schwartz ( who appears prominently in " Fritz Bugs Out " and " Fritz the No @-@ Good " ) never has a proper introduction in Bakshi 's film , and interprets the naming of a separate character as Bakshi 's attempt to reconcile this ; however , the two characters look and sound nothing alike . Bakshi intended to end the film with Fritz 's death , but Krantz objected to this ending , and Bakshi eventually changed it to the final ending .
= = = Casting = = =
The film 's voice cast includes Skip Hinnant , Rosetta LeNoire , John McCurry , Phil Seuling , and Judy Engles . Hinnant , who would become known as a featured performer on The Electric Company , was cast because he " had such a naturally phony voice " , according to Bakshi . Bakshi and Seuling improvised their dialogue as comically inept pig officers ; Bakshi enjoyed working as a voice actor and later went on to provide voice roles for some of his other films . Bakshi re @-@ created the voice he did in this film for the part of a storm trooper in his 1977 animated science fiction film Wizards .
= = = Audio design = = =
Some scenes used documentary recordings which were made by Bakshi and edited to fit the scene ; these were used because Bakshi wanted the film to " feel real " . According to Bakshi , " I made tons and tons of tapes . ... When I went to have the film mixed , the sound engineers gave me all kinds of crap about the tracks not being professionally recorded ; they didn 't even want to mix the noise of bottles breaking in the background , street noise , tape hiss , all kinds of shit . They said it was unprofessional , but I didn 't care . " Although the sound designers insisted that Bakshi needed to re @-@ record the dialogue in the studio , Bakshi persisted on their inclusion .
Almost all of the film 's dialogue , except for that of a few of the main characters , was recorded entirely on the streets of New York City . For the film 's opening sequence , Bakshi paid two construction workers US $ 50 each , and drank Scotch with them , recording the conversation . In the Washington Square Park sequence , only Skip Hinnant was a professional actor ; Fritz 's friends were voiced by young males Bakshi found in the park . One of the sequences that was not based upon Crumb 's comics involved a comic chase through a synagogue full of praying rabbis . For the voices of the rabbis , Bakshi used a documentary recording of his father and uncles . This scene continued to have a personal significance on Bakshi after his father and uncle died . Bakshi states , " Thank God I have their voices . I have my dad and family praying . It 's so nice to hear now . " Bakshi also went to a Harlem bar with a tape recorder and spent hours talking to black patrons , getting drunk with them as he asked them questions .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's score was composed by Ed Bogas and Ray Shanklin . The soundtrack was released by Fantasy Records and Ampex Tapes , along with the single , " You 're the Only Girl " b / w " Winston " . The film also featured songs by Charles Earland , Cal Tjader , Bo Diddley , and Billie Holiday . Bakshi bought the rights to use Holiday 's performance of the song " Yesterdays " for $ 35 .
= = = Animation = = =
Many of the animators who worked on the film were professionals that Bakshi had previously worked with at Terrytoons , including Jim Tyer , John Gentilella , Nick Tafuri , Martin Taras , Larry Riley , and Cliff Augustine . According to Bakshi , it took quite a long time to assemble the right staff . Those who entered with a smirk , " wanting to be very dirty and draw filthy pictures " , did not stay very long , and neither did those with a low tolerance for vulgarity . One cartoonist refused to draw a black crow shooting a pig policeman . Two female animators quit ; one because she could not bring herself to tell her children what she did for a living , the other because she refused to draw exposed breasts .
In order to save money by eliminating the need for model sheets , Bakshi let animator John Sparey draw some of the first sequences of Fritz . Bakshi states that he knew that " Sparey would execute them beautifully . " Poses from his sequences were photocopied and handed out to the rest of the crew . The film was produced almost entirely without pencil tests . According to Bakshi , " We pencil tested I 'd say a thousand feet [ of footage ] , tops . [ ... ] We do a major feature without pencil tests — that 's tough . The timing falls off . I can always tell an animator to draw it better , and I know if the attitude of the characters is right , but the timing you really can 't see . " Bakshi had to judge the timing of the animation simply by flipping an animator 's drawings in his hand , until he could see the completed animation on the screen . Veteran Warner Bros. animator Ted Bonnicksen was incredibly dedicated to his work on the film , to the point where he completed his animation for the synagogue sequence while suffering from leukemia , and would take the scenes home at night to work on them .
In May 1971 , Bakshi moved his studio to Los Angeles to hire additional animators there . Some animators , including Rod Scribner , Dick Lundy , Virgil Walter Ross , Norman McCabe , and John Sparey , welcomed Bakshi 's presence , and felt that Fritz the Cat would bring diversity to the animation industry . Other animators disliked Bakshi 's presence , and placed an advertisement in The Hollywood Reporter , stating that Bakshi 's " filth " was unwelcome in California . According to Bakshi , " I didn 't know who these guys were because I was from New York , so I threw the ad away . " However , Bakshi found the negative reaction to the film from his peers to be disheartening .
= = = Cinematography = = =
Because it was cheaper for Ira Turek to trace photographs to create the backgrounds , Bakshi and Johnnie Vita walked around the streets of the Lower East Side , Washington Square Park , Chinatown and Harlem to take moody snapshots . Turek inked the outlines of these photographs onto cels with a Rapidograph , the technical pen preferred by Crumb , giving the film 's backgrounds stylized realism that had never been portrayed in animation before . After Turek completed a background drawing in ink on an animation cel , the drawing would be photocopied onto watercolor paper for Vita and onto animation paper for use in matching the characters to the backgrounds . When Vita finished his painting , Turek 's original drawing , on the cel , would be placed over the watercolor , obscuring the photocopy lines on the painting . However , not every background was taken from live @-@ action sources . The tones of the watercolor backgrounds were influenced by the " Ash Can style " of painters , which includes George Luks and John French Sloan . The film also used bent and fisheye camera perspectives in order to replicate the way the film 's hippies and hoodlums viewed the city .
= = Rating = =
By the time production finished , Cinemation had released Melvin Van Peebles ' Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song to considerable success , and the distributor hoped that Fritz the Cat would be even more profitable . Fritz received an X rating from the Motion Picture Association of America , the first animated film to receive such rating . Producer Krantz stated that the film lost playdates due to the rating , and 30 American newspapers rejected display advertisements for it or refused to give it editorial publicity . The film 's limited screenings led Cinemation to exploit the film 's content in its promotion of the film , advertising it as containing " 90 minutes of violence , excitement , and SEX ... he 's X @-@ rated and animated ! " According to Ralph Bakshi , " We almost didn 't deliver the picture , because of the exploitation of it . "
Cinemation 's advertising style and the film 's rating led many to believe that Fritz the Cat was a pornographic film . When it was introduced as such at a showing at the University of Southern California , Bakshi stated firmly , " Fritz the Cat is not pornographic . " In May 1972 , Variety reported that Krantz had appealed the X rating , saying " Animals having sex isn 't pornography . " The MPAA refused to hear the appeal . The misconceptions about the film 's content were eventually cleared up when it received praise from Rolling Stone and The New York Times , and the film was accepted into the 1972 Cannes Film Festival . Bakshi later stated , " Now they do as much on The Simpsons as I got an X rating for Fritz the Cat . "
Before the film 's release , American distributors attempted to cash in on the publicity garnered from the rating by rushing out dubbed versions of two other adult animated films from Japan , both of which featured an X rating in their advertising material : Senya ichiya monogatari and Kureopatora , re @-@ titled One Thousand and One Arabian Nights and Cleopatra : Queen of Sex . However , neither film was actually submitted to the MPAA , and it is not likely that either feature would have received an X rating . The film Down and Dirty Duck was promoted with an X rating , but had not been submitted to the MPAA . The French @-@ Belgian animated film Tarzoon : Shame of the Jungle was initially released with an X rating in a subtitled version , but a dubbed version released in 1979 received an R rating .
For the DVD release , MGM / UA Home Entertainment has surrendered the X rating for an unrated video release , although the tagline " He 's X @-@ Rated and Animated ! " is still used on the cover . Also , the MPAA " This film has been rated X " screen is seen just before the MGM logo at the end of the film on the DVD .
= = Reception = =
Fritz the Cat opened on April 12 , 1972 , in Hollywood and Washington , D.C. Although the film only had a limited release , it went on to become a worldwide hit . Against its $ 850 @,@ 000 budget , it grossed $ 25 million in the United States and over $ 90 million worldwide , and was the most successful independent animated feature of all time . The film earned $ 4 @.@ 7 million in video rentals in North America . )
In Michael Barrier 's 1972 article on its production , Bakshi gives accounts of two screenings of the film . Of the reactions to the film by audiences at a preview screening in Los Angeles , Bakshi stated , " They forget it 's animation . They treat it like a film . ... This is the real thing , to get people to take animation seriously . " Bakshi was also present at a showing of the film at the Museum of Modern Art and remembers , " Some guy asked me why I was against the revolution . The point is , animation was making people get up off their asses and get mad . "
The film also sparked negative reactions because of its content . " A lot of people got freaked out " , says Bakshi . " The people in charge of the power structure , the people in charge of magazines and the people going to work in the morning who loved Disney and Norman Rockwell , thought I was a pornographer , and they made things very difficult for me . The younger people , the people who could take new ideas , were the people I was addressing . I wasn 't addressing the whole world . To those people who loved it , it was a huge hit , and everyone else wanted to kill me . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reaction was mixed , but generally positive . Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote that the film is " constantly funny ... [ There 's ] something to offend just about everyone . " New York magazine film critic Judith Crist reviewed the film as " a gloriously funny , brilliantly pointed , and superbly executed entertainment ... [ whose ] target is ... the muddle @-@ headed radical chicks and slicks of the sixties " , and that it " should change the face of the animated cartoon forever " . Paul Sargent Clark in The Hollywood Reporter called the film " powerful and audacious " , while Newsweek called it " a harmless , mindless , pro @-@ youth saga calculated to shake up only the box office " . The Wall Street Journal and Cue both gave the film mixed reviews . Thomas Albright of Rolling Stone wrote an enthusiastic preview in the December 9 , 1971 issue based on seeing thirty minutes of the film , declaring that it was " sure to mark the most important breakthrough in animation since Yellow Submarine " . But in a review published after its release , Albright recanted his earlier statement and wrote that the visuals were not enough to save the finished product from being a " qualified disaster " due to a " leaden plot " and a " juvenile " script that relied too heavily on tired gags and tasteless ethnic humor . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a score of 56 % positive reviews based on 18 critic reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 4 / 10 .
Film critic Andrew Osmond wrote that the epilogue hurt the film 's integrity for " giving Fritz cartoon powers of survival that the film had rejected until then " .
Patricia Evans found scenes with Jewish stereotypes " vicious and offensive " , and stated , " Only the jaundiced eye of director Ralph Bakshi , which denigrates all of the characters , the hero included , makes one reflect on the nature of the attack . "
= = = Crumb 's response = = =
Crumb first saw the film in February 1972 , during a visit to Los Angeles with fellow underground cartoonists Spain Rodriguez , S. Clay Wilson , Robert Williams , and Rick Griffin . According to Bakshi , Crumb was dissatisfied with the film . Among his criticisms , he said that he felt that Skip Hinnant was wrong for the voice of Fritz , and said that Bakshi should have voiced the character instead . Crumb later said in an interview that he felt that the film was " really a reflection of Ralph Bakshi 's confusion , you know . There 's something real repressed about it . In a way , it 's more twisted than my stuff . It 's really twisted in some kind of weird , unfunny way . ... I didn 't like that sex attitude in it very much . It 's like real repressed horniness ; he 's kind of letting it out compulsively . " Crumb also criticized the film 's condemnation of the radical left , denouncing Fritz 's dialogue in the final sequences of the film , which includes a quote from The Beatles song " The End " , as " red @-@ neck and fascistic " and stated , " They put words into his mouth that I never would have had him say . "
Reportedly , Crumb filed a lawsuit to have his name removed from the film 's credits . San Francisco copyright attorney Albert L. Morse said that no suit was filed , but an agreement was reached to remove Crumb 's name from the credits . However , Crumb 's name has remained in the final film since its original theatrical release . In response to his distaste for the film , Crumb had " Fritz the Cat — Superstar " published in People 's Comics later in 1972 , in which a jealous girlfriend kills Fritz with an icepick ; he has refused to use the character again. and wrote the filmmakers a letter saying not to use his characters in their films . Crumb later cited the film as " one of those experiences I sort of block out . The last time I saw it was when I was making an appearance at a German art school in the mid @-@ 1980s , and I was forced to watch it with the students . It was an excruciating ordeal , a humiliating embarrassment . I recall Victor Moscoso was the only one who warned me , ' if you don 't stop this film from being made , you are going to regret it for the rest of your life ' — and he was right . "
In a 2008 interview , Bakshi referred to Crumb as a " hustler " and stated , " He goes in so many directions that he 's hard to pin down . I spoke to him on the phone . We both had the same deal , five percent . They finally sent Crumb the money and not me . Crumb always gets what he wants , including that château of his in France . ... I have no respect for Crumb . Is he a good artist ? Yes , if you want to do the same thing over and over . He should have been my best friend for what I did with Fritz the Cat . I drew a good picture , and we both made out fine . " Bakshi also stated that Crumb threatened to disassociate himself from any cartoonist that worked with Bakshi , which would have hurt their chances at getting work published .
= = Legacy = =
In addition to other animated films aimed at adult audiences , the film 's success led to the production of a sequel , The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat . Although producer Krantz and voice actor Hinnant returned for the follow @-@ up , Bakshi did not . Instead , Nine Lives was directed by animator Robert Taylor , who co @-@ wrote the film with Fred Halliday and Eric Monte . Nine Lives was distributed by American International Pictures , and was considered to be inferior to its predecessor . Both films have been released on DVD in the United States , Canada and the UK . Bakshi states that he felt constricted using anthropomorphic characters in Fritz , and focused solely on non @-@ anthropomorphic characters in Heavy Traffic and Hey Good Lookin ' , but later used anthropomorphic characters in Coonskin .
While review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes , which compiles contemporary reviews from a wide range of critics , gives the film a score of 56 % , the film is widely noted in its innovation for featuring content that had not been portrayed in animation before , such as sexuality and violence , and was also , as John Grant writes in his book Masters of Animation , " the breakthrough movie that opened brand new vistas to the commercial animator in the United States " , presenting an " almost disturbingly accurate " portrayal " of a particular stratum of Western society during a particular era , ... as such it has dated very well . " The film 's subject matter and its satirical approach offered an alternative to the kinds of films that had previously been presented by major animation studios . Michael Barrier described Fritz the Cat and Heavy Traffic as " not merely provocative , but highly ambitious " . Barrier described the films as an effort " to push beyond what was done in the old cartoons , even while building on their strengths " .
As a result of these innovations , Fritz was selected by Time Out magazine as the 42nd greatest animated film , ranked at number 51 on the Online Film Critics Society 's list of the top 100 greatest animated films of all time , and was placed at number 56 on Channel 4 's list of the 100 Greatest Cartoons . Footage from the film was edited into the music video for Guru 's 2007 song " State of Clarity " .
= Nea Salamis Famagusta FC =
Nea Salamis Famagusta FC or Nea Salamina Famagusta FC ( Greek : Νέα Σαλαμίνα Αμμοχώστου ) is a professional football club based in Ammochostos ( also known by its romanized name , Famagusta ) , Cyprus . It has been a refugee club since the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus , when Turkey occupied the northern part of the island . The club is temporarily based in Larnaca .
Nea Salamina 's most notable achievements were its victories in the Cypriot Cup and the Cypriot Super Cup in 1990 . Its highest finish in the Cypriot First Division is third place . During its first five years ( 1948 – 1953 ) , the team participated in the Cyprus Amateur Football Federation championships . In 1953 the club joined the Cyprus Football Association ( CFA ) , participating regularly in association championships and cup competitions . It has played in more than 50 Cypriot First Division seasons , ranking seventh in that category .
The team participated for the first time in European competition in 1990 at the European Cup Winners ' Cup , and played in the 1995 , 1997 and 2000 UEFA Intertoto Cups . The team is part of the Nea Salamina Famagusta sports club , which was founded in 1948 ; the parent club also fields a men 's volleyball team . The club is named after the ancient city of Cyprus , Salamis or Salamina , which is located nearby modern Famagusta ( " Nea " means " new " in Greek language ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
When Nea Salamina Famagusta was founded , Greece was entering a period of civil war between leftists and rightists . The situation in Greece affected Cyprus , both politically and socially ; most athletes were also involved in politics . At this time , Famagusta had two sports clubs : the Evagoras Gymnastic Association , or GSE ( Greek : Γυμναστικός Σύλλογος Ευαγόρας ) and the Anorthosis Famagusta FC . The GSE had many talented leftist athletes on its rosters . At Anorthosis , many players were also leftists . Under the influence of the contemporary right @-@ wing political climate , the GSE and Anorthosis began to restrict leftist athletes . In early 1947 a group from Famagusta ( including leftists , members and non @-@ members of GSE and Anorthosis ) concluded there was room for another sports club in the city . Due to the existing restrictions , they envisioned a club which would appeal to everyone in Famagusta regardless of political affiliation .
On 14 February 1948 the decision was made to establish the club , and the Nea Salamina sports club was formed on 7 March 1948 as the first leftist athletic club in Cyprus . After the club 's founding , many citizens expressed a desire to join ; however , the football side was weak .
= = = GSE Stadium banning and the CAFF = = =
Before the Pancyprian Games in May 1948 , the Hellenic Amateur Athletic Association ( SEGAS ) asked all gymnastics associations in Cyprus , their members and athletes , to sign a public declaration that would express their support to the rightists in Greek Civil War , to declare that they espoused " nationalist beliefs " and to repudiate the leftists . The right @-@ wing athletic clubs and athletes signed the statements ; the only club refusing to sign the statement was the Kinyras Paphos gymnastic association , which was excluded from the games . The left @-@ wing athletes were opposed to the declaration , and refused to sign the statement . Among the first athletes who refused were GSE champions Antonis Totsis ( Greek : Αντώνης Τότσης ) and Nikis Georgiou ( Greek : Νικής Γεωργίου ) . The GSE invited both athletes to apologize , but they insisted on their position that sports should be separate from politics . The left @-@ wing athletes decided to support the Kinyras Paphos association if the decision to exclude it from the Pancyprian Games stood . The GSE was favored to win the competition , but finished third . As a reaction to the fact that athletes of Nea Salamina were not involved in the Pancyprian Games , the GSE president informed the club it was not welcome at the GSE Stadium . Persecution of GSE and Anorthosis athletes who supported their teammates followed . The stadium @-@ use prohibition meant that Nea Salamina had nowhere to play .
Negative attitudes toward left @-@ wing athletes prevailed in other Cypriot cities . In Larnaca , the Alki Larnaca F.C. was founded in April 1948 . A month later , the Gymnastics Club Zeno ( GSZ ) banned Alki from using its GSZ Stadium ; a similar proposal to exclude Turks and Catholics was rejected . The GSZ amended its constitution , prohibiting enrollment of new members unless they signed a declaration that " they espouse the Hellenic nationalistic ideals " . This excluded left @-@ wing athletes from becoming members or using its stadium . In May , Orfeas Nicosia was founded in Nicosia ; that month , APOEL F.C. sent a greeting by telegram to SEGAS ( " cordial brotherly greetings to the entire Greek youth athletes " ) , on the occasion of national games , and wished for the cessation of inner @-@ nation mutiny . APOEL asked all members and athletes of the club to sign a declaration , supporting the content of the telegram . Leftist members and athletes of APOEL considered " inner @-@ nation mutiny " as a challenge and political statement of the club , thus they distanced themselves from that statement . The Cypriot press encouraged a hostile climate with articles and commentary . This was followed by the indefinite suspension of five APOEL athletes ( Lympouris , Tsialis , Gogakis , Xatzivasileiou and Christodoulou ) , who founded AC Omonia in June 1948 with former members of the APOEL . AS Kyrenia was later founded .
Due to their left @-@ wing political beliefs , members of the new clubs were not accepted into the Cyprus Football Association ( CFA ) and they established a new football federation ( the Cyprus Amateur Football Federation , or CAFF ) in December 1948 . The new federation organized leagues and cups , which attracted thousands of fans . The CAFF matches became more popular than those of the CFA . Six teams belonged to the CAFF : Nea Salamina in Famagusta , Omonia and Orfeas in Nicosia , Alki at Larnaca , AMOL at Limassol ( renamed Antaeus in 1951 ) and Neos Asteras in Morphou .
= = = Unification of Cypriot football = = =
CAFF members favored the unification of football in Cyprus . They tried for three years to persuade the CFA to accept them as members , without success . The existence of two football federations ( with two separate championships ) in a country such as Cyprus was unprecedented . The situation created economic hardship , and hampered the development and improvement of Cypriot football . The clubs felt that sports should reflect fraternity and friendship rather than discrimination . In December 1952 , the first issue of the sports newspaper Athlitiki supported the unification of Cypriot football . Foreign coaches of CFA clubs also supported unification , leading the CFA to respond that " their statements opposed the spirit of the Federation " . Coaches of CFA 's teams were initially hostile towards consolidation supporters . In summer 1953 , the majority of Cypriot sportspeople expressed support for football unification . In August of that year Nea Salamina , Omonia , Alki and Antaeus submitted a joint application to the CFA to join the Cypriot First Division . On 19 September , the CFA accepted Nea Salamina and Omonia for membership . However , the organization 's negative attitude towards those clubs continued . The league rejected applications from Alki , Orfeas and Neos Asteras ( although the former two joined a year later ) , arguing that according to its constitution one team must participate in the Cypriot First Division and two teams in the second division . The CAFF clubs accepted these conditions in the interest of unification . In an ad hoc meeting of CAFF , members agreed that Omonia would join the first division and Nea Salamina and Antaeus the second division . Following these decisions , CAFF disbanded . The first game between teams from the two federations ( a friendly ) was played by Nea Salamina and Anorthosis at GSE Stadium on 27 September 1953 . 5 @,@ 200 fans were present at the game between the two Famagustian clubs . The final result was 3 – 1 in favor of Anorthosis , and the match was described as an evidence of superior sportsmanship and brotherhood of fans by Athlitiki .
= = = Famagusta municipal stadium = = =
After being denied access to the GSE stadium , the club did not have a venue for training . They initially practiced at the Saint Lukas pitch ( Proodou ) in Famagusta and began efforts to build a privately owned stadium . In December 1948 Israel made a CYP £ 3 @,@ 000 donation to the city of Famagusta , in gratitude for aid by its inhabitants to Jewish refugees , for a community @-@ service project . Gabriel Makris , a Famagusta alderman and Nea Salamina footballer , supported the association 's recommendation to build the stadium . The city council recognized the " financial assistance granted to the Jews to create Municipal Sports Stadium , which is available to Famagustans for the promotion and spread of mass popular sport " . The stadium was available to Nea Salamina and other sports clubs .
In early 1949 , volunteer construction work began on a municipal stadium in Saint John Famagusta parish . The stadium — the first in Cyprus with a roof over the stands — was built by supporters of the club and footballers and completed in 1952 . It served as Nea Salamina 's headquarters from 1952 to 1953 .
In 1953 , after the unification of football federations , Nea Salamina used GSE Stadium . The city 's Municipal Stadium was used by the team for training . This period lasted until 1974 , when Famagusta was occupied by the Turkish Army after the Turkish invasion in Cyprus and the club was forced to move its headquarters .
= = = Ammochostos Stadium = = =
From 1974 to 1991 Nea Salamina used GSZ Stadium in Larnaca , Dasaki Stadium in Dasaki Achnas , Municipal Stadium in Deryneia and Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium in Larnaca . In 1991 the team built its own stadium , Ammochostos Stadium .
Ammochostos Stadium , owned by Nea Salamina in Larnaca , has a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ seat capacity and is primarily used for football . The club offices are in the same area . The stadium is named for the town of Famagusta ( Greek : Αμμόχωστος ; Ammochostos ) , the original home of Nea Salamina before the Turkish occupation , and was built in 1991 near the refugee camps . The decision to build the stadium was made in 1989 ; construction began in December of that year , and thanks to club supporters in Cyprus and abroad , the Cyprus Sports Organisation and volunteer labor , the stadium was completed on schedule . The first Nea Salamina Famagusta game in the new stadium was played on Saturday , 12 October 1991 , against Evagoras Paphos . Nea Salamina won , 4 – 1 . The stadium hosted the 1992 UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship final on 17 May 1992 between Germany and Spain , which Germany won 2 – 1 .
= = = Emblem and colors = = =
Nea Salamina 's emblem incorporates the Olympic flame , the color red and the five rings of the Olympic Games . The club 's colors during its first two years were yellow and crimson , when it was part of the Cyprus Amateur Football Federation . After 1950 , the governing council changed its colors to red and white : red symbolizing power , and white symbolizing peace . Red @-@ and @-@ white striped jerseys were chosen because they resembled those worn by Olympiakos Piraeus .
= = = Αnthem = = =
The anthem of Nea Salamina is ( translated from Greek ) :
= = Competitions = =
= = = CAFF = = =
In five leagues of the Cyprus Amateur Football Federation , Nea Salamina failed to win a title ; during its last two years , it finished second . The 1952 – 53 season saw the cup finalists losing 2 – 0 to AC Omonia at Gkooul stadium ( Omonia 's home pitch ) .
For 1948 – 49 , no statistics are available . Nea Salamina played ten games , winning three ( two at Neos Asteras and one against Alki ) , losing six and drawing once ( against Alki ) .
= = = Cypriot championships = = =
= = = = 1953 – 1959 = = = =
After the 1953 unification of Cypriot football , Nea Salamina played in the Cypriot Second Division ; its goal during the first season was winning promotion to the first division . Games were played in GSE Stadium , and the Famagusta Municipal Stadium was used for training . The second division had two groups ; Nea Salamina was in the Nicosia @-@ Larnaca @-@ Famagusta group . The group winner faced the winner of the Limassol @-@ Paphos group for promotion to first division . Nea Salamina finished second in its group , losing the chance at promotion . In the 1953 – 54 Cypriot Cup , the team reached the semifinals . Nea Salamina was the first team , although struggling in the second division , qualified to the semi @-@ finals of the Cypriot Cup
The next season the team led the second division , ensured its promotion . The league now had three groups , with Nea Salamina playing in the Larnaca @-@ Famagusta group . With the conquest of the first position in the group , fought for the promotion with the first teams of the other two groups : the champion of the Limassol @-@ Paphos group , Antaeus Lemesos , and the champion of the Nicosia group , Orfeas , in a new three teams championships . Nea Salamina finished in first place . During the same period , in the 1954 – 55 Cypriot Cup , excluded from subsequent phases one of the strongest teams of the season , APOEL with 3 – 2 win in GSE stadium . After 57 years , in the 2001 – 02 Cypriot Cup the team repeated this success ; after struggling in the second division , it defeated future champion APOEL F.C. 1 – 0 , winning away at GSP Stadium .
The 1955 – 56 Cypriot First Division saw the team participating for the first time as a newly promoted side . It finished third , four points behind champion AEL Limassol . Third position has been the team 's highest finish , a position it has reached four times . Nea Salamina 's first first @-@ division game was against rival Anorthosis at their common ground , GSE Stadium . Nea Salamina won 3 – 2 , its first victory against Anorthosis . The team 's first years in first division saw victories over traditional league powerhouses APOEL FC , EPA Larnaca FC , Anorthosis Famagusta FC , Pezoporikos Larnaca and AC Omonia , at home and away .
= = = = 1960s = = = =
During the early years of the decade , Nea Salamina was strong in home games but weak away . Noteworthy is the conquest of the amateur championship from farm team the period 1960 – 61 , The games of the farm team gathered the same interest with the main team among fans , who enthusiastically celebrated winning the title . During this period the nucleus for a successful team was created , including Kyriakos Koureas ( who later played for Olympiakos Piraeus ) . In December 1963 , the league disbanded ; at that time , Nea Salamina was in a tight three @-@ way race with Omonia and APOEL . With the creation of Cypriot National Guard , many Nea Salamina 's players joined the army ; players would often come straight from camps throughout Cyprus to play league games with no training .
The 1965 – 66 season was one of the best ( but painful ) periods for Nea Salamina ; the team arguably played the best football in Cyprus . The team contended for the championship until the last game of the season and lose its first cup final . In a game against APOEL at the old GSP stadium , Nea Salamina was leading 3 – 0 . In the 62nd minute , an APOEL player hit a Nea Salamina 's player ; an APOEL grabbed and hid a linesman 's flag . The game was halted , and the CFA ordered a rematch . The dispute lasted more than three weeks ; in the meantime Nea Salamina was defeated by the bottommost team , Aris Limassol F.C .. In the penultimate match of the tournament Omonia and Salamina were tied for first place on points , and Olympiacos was one point behind . In the game against Olympiakos Nicosia Nea Salamina was leading 2 – 1 , but Olympiakos tied the game in allegedly excessive extra time . After clashes in the last few seconds , the game was halted and ordered replayed . Omonia was in first place with 50 points ; Nea Salamina was second with 47 and Olympiakos third with 46 . With a victory over Olympiakos Nea Salamina would won the championship , since it had more goals than Omonia . On 31 May 1966 many buses and cars drove from Famagusta to Nicosia , where Nea Salamina was defeated 6 – 3 . The best defense in the league , which had allowed fifteen goals in nineteen games , allowed six in one game . For a second time , Nea Salamina finished third . This defeat affected team morale in the cup final with rival Apollon Limassol ; although it was favored , the team lost 4 – 2 . During this period Salamina had the best defense in the league , with 21 goals in 20 games ( a team record ) .
Near the end of the 1966 – 67 season the board of Olympiakos reported rumors of future match @-@ fixing between Nea Salamina and Anorthosis to the team , which its president denied . Nea Salamina defeated Anorthosis ; Olympiacos won the league championship , despite its defeat by Omonia . The Olympiakos board apologized , congratulating Nea Salamina on its victory . By the end of the decade Nea Salamina was finishing mid @-@ table , despite an outflow of players to other teams or the army .
= = = = 1970s = = = =
During the first two seasons of the 1970s , Nea Salamina finished in the middle of the table ; the next two seasons threatened relegation , which was avoided . The club 's low point was 14 August 1974 , when the occupation of Famagusta by Turkish troops led to Nea Salamina becoming a refugee club . Fans and players scattered to unoccupied areas of Cyprus and abroad . In October , board members met at the offices of Aris Limassol , deciding to revive the club . Since most players were in Larnaca , it was decided to make Larnaca the club 's temporary home . Its offices were housed temporarily at the offices of Alki Larnaca F.C. and in January 1975 acquired a rented building . Expenses were paid with contributions from members and friends of the club . Two youth academies were founded , in Larnaca and Limassol .
In late 1974 , the CFA decided to schedule a special championship . Although board members were uncertain whether Nea Salamina should play ( due to the refugee problem ) , they decided to participate so the team could remain in the Cypriot First Division and stay alive . Since there was no permanent stadium , the team used GSZ Stadium in 1974 – 75 , the Deryneia municipal stadium in 1975 – 76 , the GSZ Stadium again in 1976 – 77 , Dasaki Stadium in Dasaki Achnas in 1977 – 78 and GSZ Stadium from 1978 to 1980 .
By 1979 , Nea Salamina was established in the first division . Despite a good start to the 1978 – 79 season , the team was demoted in the decisive last game to the second division after a quarter @-@ century in the first division . The team 's hopes rested both on defeating Enosis Neon Paralimni FC and Evagoras Paphos not to beat AC Omonia or Olympiakos Nicosia FC to lose by Alki Larnaca F.C .. Nea Salamina won over Enosis Neon Paralimni FC ( 3 @-@ 2 ) , but none of the others happened as Evagoras won and Olympiakos tied with Alki .
In the summer of 1974 , before the Turkish occupation , Nea Salamina signed Bulgarian coach Iancho Arsov , who went on to win titles with Omonia decades later . The agreement was canceled when financial problems caused by the team 's refugee status made it impossible to pay for a foreign coach .
= = = = 1980s = = = =
During the 1979 – 80 season , Nea Salamina played in the second division . Many times fans at its matches outnumbered those of teams competing in the first division . The team easily won the league and returned to the first division for the 1980 – 81 season . At the first game they beat the later champion Omonia , 2 – 1 , in an away game at Makario Stadium in Nicosia . This defeat was the first Omonia suffered at the stadium since they began competing in it . Nea Salamina finished seventh for the season .
For the 1981 – 82 season , Nea Salamina acquired foreign footballers for the first time , Bulgarians Nazca Michailiof and Stefan Pavlov . An unprecedented incident occurred during the 1982 – 83 season when , in a game against Enosis Neon Paralimni FC in GSZ Stadium , three Nea Salamina 's players were expelled and the remaining players surrounded the linesman to protest . The linesman , claiming to have received blows , was transported to the hospital where radiographs failed to show injuries caused by the players . After the linesman made a formal complaint , a court imposed a sentence of 45 days . This was unprecedented for Cypriot football . The players remained in jail for five days and were released after public outcry , but then CFA authorities imposed crippling sanctions on them , ordering them to stay off the court for several months .
The next football seasons was not accompanied by discrimination . Until 1985 , the team played at GSZ Stadium . In the 1985 – 86 season , they played seven games at Municipal Stadium in Deryneia and six in GSZ Stadium . They used GSZ Stadium exclusively for the 1986 – 87 season . From 1987 to 1988 , the team used Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium in Larnaca for home games . The team finished fourth in the 1988 – 89 season , denied participation in the final by the subsequent winners AEL Limassol . During this period , Nea Salamina 's player Nigel Maknil was named the league 's top scorer , with 19 goals .
= = = = 1990s = = = =
Cup winner
The 1989 – 90 season was the most successful in the history of the team when Nea Salamina won its first football title , the Cypriot Cup . The week before the final , many fans traveled to Cyprus from abroad to attend the game . Nea Salamina was the second refugee team to win a title since the 1974 occupation . In the final , on 8 June 1990 , Nea Salamina defeated Omonia 3 – 2 at Tsirion Stadium in Limassol . Players competing in the final included Christakis Christofi , Artemis Andreou , Kipros Tsigkelis , Elissaios Psaras , Floros Nicholaou ( captain ) , Kenny Dyer , Vangelis Adamou , Takis David , Christakis Mavros , Elias Elia , Charalambos Andreou ( Pambis Andreou ) and S. Anastasiou . Elias Elia , Christakis Mavros and Pambis Andreou scored the goals , and the coach was former Nea Salamina 's player Andreas Mouskallis .
Shield winner
Salamina went on to take its second title in only a few months , the LTV Super Cup Shield , against rival APOEL , 1 – 0 , at Makario Stadium , the opponents ' home ground . Nigel Maknil scored the lone goal . That year , the shield was dedicated to 30 years of Cypriot independence .
European participation
As cup winner , Nea Salamina played for the first time in a European cup ( 1990 – 91 European Cup Winners ' Cup ) and was eliminated in the first round by Aberdeen F.C. Aberdeen , who had won the 1982 – 83 European Cup Winners ' Cup by defeating Real Madrid in the final , was a strong team . The first game was at Tsirion Stadium on 19 September 1990 before 8 @,@ 000 fans . Nea Salamina was defeated , 2 – 0 , after a scoreless tie at halftime . A rematch , played at Pittodrie Stadium in Aberdeen on 3 October , resulted in a 3 – 0 loss . Lineups for the two games were Christakis Christofi , Artemis Andreou , Kipros Tsigkelis , Elissaios Psaras , Floros Nikolaou , Kenny Dyer , Pambis Andreou , Takis David ( replaced by Stavros Efthymiou in the 68th minute ) , Nigel Maknil ( replaced by Christakis Mavros in the 85th minute ) , Elias Elias and Vangelis Adamou ( home ) , and Yiannakis Ioannou , Andreas Artemis , Kipros Tsigkelis , Elissaios Psaras , Floros Nicholaou , Kenny Dyer , Vangelis Adamou , Mavros Christakis , Nigel Maknil ( replaced by Pambis Andreou in the 47th minute ) , Elias Elias and Vassos Mavros ( away ) .
The 1990s were the most successful decade for Nea Salamina . Apart from winning the cup , shield , and the right to play in the Cup Winners Cup , the team claimed the championship . In addition , the team acquired Ammochostos Stadium in Larnaca , built by volunteer supporters .
Nea Salamina claimed the 1992 – 93 Cypriot First Division championship . At the end of the first round they were in first place , ultimately finishing third . During the 1994 – 95 season , they were the first Cypriot team to participate in the Intertoto Cup . Pambis Andreou was the league 's top scorer , with 25 goals . The team also played in the 1997 UEFA Intertoto Cup .
= = = = 2000s = = = =
During the first decade of the 21st century , Nea Salamina was relegated four times . The 1999 – 2000 season saw the team finish in fourth place , winning a spot in the 2000 UEFA Intertoto Cup . During the 2000 – 01 season , Nea Salamina finished twelfth and was relegated to the second division for the second time in its history . By the season 's last game , the team 's hopes rested both on defeating Digenis Akritas Morphou and Doxa Katokopias F.C. not to beat Apollo Limassol or Enosis Neon Paralimni FC to beat Ethnikos Achna FC . Nea Salamina easily won over Digenis , but Doxa also defeated Apollo and Ethnikos Achna 's match with Enosis Neon Paralimni FC resulted in a draw . After defeating APOEL in the semifinals , the team lost the 2000 – 01 Cypriot Cup final on 12 May 2012 to Apollo , 1 – 0 , at GSP Stadium , becoming the first Cypriot football team to play in a cup final despite being relegated .
Nea Salamina became 2001 @-@ 02 second @-@ division champions , winning promotion to first division . The team eliminated future champion APOEL away in the 2001 – 02 Cypriot Cup , its second defeat of APOEL in several months , and made the quarterfinals .
In the 2002 – 03 season , the team was relegated again to second division , winning the championship of that division the following year and promoted again to first division . The 2004 – 05 season saw the squad finish sixth . With its stadium closed for repairs , the team played at Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium ( except for two games at Makario Stadium ) . Nea Salamina returned to Ammochostos Stadium for the 2005 – 06 season , again finishing sixth . It finished 10th in the 2006 – 07 season and 13th in 2007 – 08 , again relegated to the second division . After a difficult season in 2008 – 09 , the team returned to first division , winning in the final game and leaving opponents Olympiacos , who only needed a draw to win the promotion , in the second division .
= = = = Since 2010 = = = =
Nea Salamina was again relegated to the second division during the 2009 – 10 season but was promoted to first division the following year . In the 2011 – 12 season , the team finished in seventh place . Due to finishing eleventh in the 2012 – 13 season , the team faced the 2012 – 13 Cypriot Second Division side Anagennisi Deryneia in a single @-@ legged playoff for one spot in the 2013 – 14 Cypriot First Division . Nea Salamina won by 3 – 0 , retaining its first division spot for the 2013 – 14 season . The next season , the team finished in seventh place .
1 : Nea Salamina won 54 points , but because on 17 May 2013 the team were deducted three points by CFA because they failed to meet the financial criteria of UEFA , they finished the season with 51 points .
= = = European participation = = =
Playing in European competition for the first time in 1990 , Nea Salamina was defeated in the first round by Aberdeen FC . The team played in the Intertoto Cup in 1995 and 1997 . In the 2000 UEFA Intertoto Cup , the team qualified for the second round , with two victories against the Albanian KS Vllaznia Shkodër , but were eliminated in Vienna by Austria Wien , 3 – 0 .
= = CFA competition = =
= = = Class A statistics = = =
The table below shows the overall record of Nea Salamina in the Cypriot First Division from 1955 to 2013 . The score is the sum of the actual score of each period , regardless of the scoring system . Using the modern scoring system ( win , three points ; draw , one point ; loss , no points ) , the score is 1631 points . The interrupted 1963 – 64 season is not included .
Club records include :
Wins ( 17 ) in 1994 – 95 ( 33 games ) and 2013 – 14 ( 36 games ) . Next is 1992 – 93 , with 15 victories . The fewest wins ( two ) were during the 2009 – 10 season .
Draws ( 12 ) in 1977 – 78 and 1984 – 85 . The 1997 – 98 season had one draw .
Defeats : Fewest defeats ( four ) in 1955 – 56 and 1965 – 66 ( excluding the 1963 – 64 season , when the team had one ) . The most defeats ( 17 ) were in 2012 @-@ 2013 and 2015 @-@ 2016 .
Most goals ( 59 ) : 1994 – 95 , with a three @-@ round championship . Next is 1999 – 2000 ( 58 ) . The fewest goals ( 14 ) were scored in 1973 – 74 .
The fewest goals against ( 21 ) were scored in 1965 – 66 ( when the team had the best defense in the league ) and 1966 – 67 ( second @-@ best defense in the league ) , excluding the shortened 1963 – 64 season when Nea Salamina had 10 goals against . The team 's most goals against ( 72 ) came in 2015 – 16 .
The best goal difference ( 24 ) was in 1999 – 2000 ; the worst ( -28 ) came in 2015 – 16 .
The most points earned ( 57 ) came in 1994 – 95 season ( 33 games ) , followed by 2013 – 14 ( 36 games ) with 54 points and 1961 – 62 with 52 points ( 22 games , scoring 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 ) . The fewest points ( 14 ) came in 1956 – 57 and 2009 – 10 .
Source : Stilianou ( 1998 ) , Gavreilides ; Papamoiseos ( 2001 ) , RSSSF [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] , [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 7 ] , [ 8 ] , [ 9 ] , [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] , CFA [ 13 ] , [ 14 ] , [ 15 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 17 ]
= = = = Statistics by opponent = = = =
The table below has statistics for Nea Salamina for all Cypriot First Division matches from 1955 / 56 to 2015 / 16 by opponent .
Points calculated under the contemporary scoring system : 2 – 1 – 0 , 3 – 2 – 1 or the current 3 – 1 – 0 system.1963 – 64 season not included . Source :
From 1948 – 1998 : Stilianou ( 1998 )
From 1953 @-@ 2001 : Gavreilides ; Papamoiseos ( 2001 ) .
From 2001 @-@ 2013 : RSSSF [ 18 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] , [ 21 ] , [ 22 ] , [ 23 ] , [ 24 ] , [ 25 ] , [ 26 ] , [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] , [ 29 ] , [ 30 ]
From 2008 @-@ 2014 : CFA [ 31 ] , [ 32 ] , [ 33 ] , [ 34 ] , [ 35 ] , [ 36 ] , [ 37 ]
= = = Nea Salamina in Cypriot Cup = = =
Nea Salamina has 60 entries in the Cypriot Cup , having one win , three appearances in the final , semi @-@ final appearances in 12 and 32 appearances in the quarter @-@ finals . The table below shows the statistics of Nea Salamina for all cup matches in Cyprus ( 1953 / 1954 @-@ 2015 / 2016 ) per opponent .
Source :
From 1948 – 1998 : Stilianou ( 1998 )
From 1953 @-@ 2001 : Gavreilides ; Papamoiseos ( 2001 ) .
From 2001 @-@ 2010 : RSSSF [ 38 ] , [ 39 ] , [ 40 ] , [ 41 ] , [ 42 ] , [ 43 ] , [ 44 ] , [ 45 ] , [ 46 ]
From 2008 @-@ 2014 : CFA [ 47 ] , [ 48 ] , [ 49 ] , [ 50 ] , [ 51 ] , [ 52 ] , [ 53 ] , [ 54 ] , [ 55 ] , [ 56 ]
= = = Cypriot Second Division = = =
= = Current squad = =
As of July 8 , 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
For recent transfers , see List of Cypriot football transfers summer 2016 .
= = Managers = =
Source : 1948 – 98 : Stilianou , 1988 , p . 126 και Stilianou , 1998 , p . 150
= = Former players = =
Players with more than 100 appearances with the team :
For more former players , see Nea Salamina FC players .
1Less than 100 appearances , but he started his career at Nea Salamina FC and later became the player with more appearances for Cyprus national football team than any other player in history.Main source : Stilianou , 1998
= = Relations with Turkish Cypriots = =
Since its founding Nea Salamina sought to develop friendly relations with the Turkish Cypriots in Famagusta , and Turkish Cypriots ( including Siekkeris , Nita and Moustafa ) played during the early 1950s . When the team joined the CFA , it played against Turkish teams ( including Demir Sports , Gençlik Gücü and the Mağusa Türk Gücü ) in the second division . When Turkish Cypriot clubs began withdrawing from CFA tournaments of CFA in late 1955 , the club tried to convince them to continue and Turkish players remained welcome in Nea Salamina . In 1962 Kallikas was transferred to the club , and in 1970 Neziak ( of Turkish origin ) was also transferred . In 2004 Turkish Cypriots Imam and Oulousoi were transferred to Nea Salamina , the first Turkish Cypriot footballers in the CAF in thirty years .
On 26 March 2005 Nea Salamina played a friendly against the Turkish Cypriot Yenicami at Ammochostos Stadium , defeating them 6 – 0 ; it was the first match between Greek and Turkish Cypriot clubs in 50 years . About 2 @,@ 500 fans sat together in the stands , and the match was attended by political leaders , local sports authorities and representatives of the Church of Cyprus .
= = Women 's football = =
In 2006 , Nea Salamina organized a women 's football team . In its first season ( 2006 – 07 ) in the Cypriot First Division , the team finished third and qualified for the Cypriot Women 's Cup ( losing 3 – 1 to AEK Kokkinochorion at GSP Stadium ) . That year it won the Super Cup , beating AEK Kokkinochorion 2 – 1 at Ammochostos Stadium in Larnaca .
In 2007 – 08 , the team finished second . In 2008 – 09 ( when it also finished second ) , it forfeited the championship game ( at home , against Apollon Limassol ) when the referee stopped the match due spectator overcrowding .
In 2008 – 09 , Skevi Antoniou was leading scorer in the Cypriot First Division with 64 goals . The women 's team disbanded in 2010 for economic reasons .
= = Honours = =
Cypriot Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1989 – 90
Cypriot Super Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1990
Cypriot Second Division
Winners ( 4 ) : 1954 – 55 , 1979 – 80 , 2001 – 02 , 2003 – 04
= = Gallery = =
= Arnold Bax =
Sir Arnold Edward Trevor Bax , KCVO ( 8 November 1883 – 3 October 1953 ) was an English composer , poet , and author . His prolific output includes songs , choral music , chamber pieces , and solo piano works , but he is best known for his orchestral music . In addition to a series of symphonic poems he wrote seven symphonies and was for a time widely regarded as the leading British symphonist .
Bax was born in the London suburb of Streatham to a prosperous family . He was encouraged by his parents to pursue a career in music , and his private income enabled him to follow his own path as a composer without regard for fashion or orthodoxy . Consequently , he came to be regarded in musical circles as an important but isolated figure . While still a student at the Royal Academy of Music Bax became fascinated with Ireland and Celtic culture , which became a strong influence on his early development . In the years before the First World War he lived in Ireland and became a member of Dublin literary circles , writing fiction and verse under the pseudonym Dermot O 'Byrne . Later , he developed an affinity with Nordic culture , which for a time superseded his Celtic influences in the years after the First World War .
Between 1910 and 1920 Bax wrote a large amount of music , including the symphonic poem Tintagel , his best @-@ known work . During this period he formed a lifelong association with the pianist Harriet Cohen – at first an affair , then a friendship , and always a close professional relationship . In the 1920s he began the series of seven symphonies which form the heart of his orchestral output . In 1942 Bax was appointed Master of the King 's Music , but composed little in that capacity . In his last years he found his music regarded as old @-@ fashioned , and after his death it was generally neglected . From the 1960s onwards , mainly through a growing number of commercial recordings , his music was gradually rediscovered , although little of it is regularly heard in the concert hall .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Bax was born in the London suburb of Streatham , Surrey , to a prosperous Victorian family . He was the eldest son of Alfred Ridley Bax ( 1844 – 1918 ) and his wife , Charlotte Ellen , née Lea ( 1860 – 1940 ) . The couple 's youngest son , Clifford Lea Bax , became a playwright and essayist . Alfred Bax was a barrister of the Middle Temple , but having a private income he did not practise . In 1896 the family moved to a mansion in Hampstead . Bax later wrote that although it would have been good to be raised in the country , the large gardens of the family house were the next best thing . He was a musical child : " I cannot remember the long @-@ lost day when I was unable to play the piano – inaccurately " .
After a preparatory school in Balham , Bax attended the Hampstead Conservatoire during the 1890s . The establishment was run – " with considerable personal pomp " , according to Bax – by Cecil Sharp , whose passion for English folk @-@ song and folk @-@ dance excited no response in his pupil . An enthusiasm for folk music was widespread among British composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries , including Parry , Stanford , Vaughan Williams and Holst ; Sullivan and Elgar stood aloof , as did Bax , who later put into general circulation the saying , " You should make a point of trying every experience once , excepting incest and folk @-@ dancing . "
In 1900 Bax moved on to the Royal Academy of Music , where he remained until 1905 , studying composition with Frederick Corder and piano with Tobias Matthay . Corder was a devotee of the works of Wagner , whose music was Bax 's principal inspiration in his early years . He later observed , " For a dozen years of my youth I wallowed in Wagner 's music to the almost total exclusion – until I became aware of Richard Strauss – of any other " . Bax also discovered and privately studied the works of Debussy , whose music , like that of Strauss , was frowned on by the largely conservative faculty of the Academy .
Although Bax won a Macfarren Scholarship for composition and other important prizes , and was known for his exceptional ability to read complex modern scores on sight , he attracted less recognition than his contemporaries Benjamin Dale and York Bowen . His keyboard technique was formidable , but he had no desire for a career as a soloist . Unlike most of his contemporaries , he had private means that made him free to pursue his musical career as he chose , without the necessity of earning an income . The Times considered that Bax 's independence and disinclination to heed his teachers ultimately damaged his art , because he did not develop the discipline to express his imagination to the greatest effect .
After leaving the Academy Bax visited Dresden , where he saw the original production of Strauss 's Salome , and first heard the music of Mahler , which he found " eccentric , long @-@ winded , muddle @-@ headed , and yet always interesting " . Among the influences on the young Bax was the Irish poet W. B. Yeats ; Bax 's brother Clifford introduced him to Yeats 's poetry and to Ireland . Influenced by Yeats 's The Wanderings of Oisin , Bax visited the west coast of Ireland in 1902 , and found that " in a moment the Celt within me stood revealed " . His first composition to be performed – at an Academy concert in 1902 – was an Irish dialect song called " The Grand Match " .
= = = Early career = = =
Musically , Bax veered away from the influence of Wagner and Strauss , and deliberately adopted what he conceived of as a Celtic idiom . In 1908 he began a cycle of tone poems called Eire , described by his biographer Lewis Foreman as the beginning of the composer 's truly mature style . The first of these pieces , Into the Twilight , was premiered by Thomas Beecham and the New Symphony Orchestra in April 1909 , and the following year , at Elgar 's instigation , Henry Wood , commissioned the second in the cycle , In the Faëry Hills . The work received mixed notices . The Manchester Guardian 's reviewer wrote , " Mr Bax has happily suggested the appropriate atmosphere of mystery " ; The Observer found the piece " very undeterminate and unsatisfying , but not difficult to follow " . The Times commented on the " rather second @-@ hand language " at some points , derivative of Wagner and Debussy , although " there is still a great deal which is wholly individual " . The Musical Times praised " a mystic glamour that could not fail to be felt by the listener " although the coherence of the piece " was not instantly discernible " . A third work in the cycle , Roscatha , was not performed in the composer 's lifetime .
Bax 's private means enabled him to travel to the Russian Empire in 1910 . He was in pursuit of Natalia Skarginska , a young Ukrainian whom he had met in London – one of several women with whom he fell in love over the years . The visit eventually proved a failure from the romantic point of view but musically enriched him . In Saint Petersburg he discovered and immediately loved ballet ; he absorbed Russian musical influences that inspired material for the First Piano Sonata , the piano pieces , " May Night in the Ukraine " and " Gopak " , and the First Violin Sonata , dedicated to Skarginska . Foreman describes him in this period as " a musical magpie , celebrating his latest discoveries in new compositions " ; Foreman adds that Bax 's own musical personality was strong enough for him to assimilate his influences and make them into his own . Russian music continued to influence him until the First World War . An unfinished ballet Tamara , " a little @-@ Russian fairy tale in action and dance " , provided material the composer reused in post @-@ war works .
Having given up his pursuit of Skarginska , Bax returned to England ; in January 1911 he married the pianist Elsita Luisa Sobrino ( b . 1885 or 1886 ) , daughter of the teacher and pianist , Carlos Sobrino , and his wife , Luise , née Schmitz , a singer . Bax and his wife lived first in Chester Terrace , Regent 's Park , London , and then moved to Ireland , taking a house in Rathgar , a well @-@ to @-@ do suburb of Dublin . They had two children , Dermot ( 1912 – 1976 ) and Maeve Astrid ( 1913 – 1987 ) . Bax became known in Dublin literary circles under the pseudonym " Dermot O 'Byrne " ; he mixed with the writer George William Russell and his associates , and published stories , verses and a play . Reviewing a selection of the prose and poetry reissued in 1980 , Stephen Banfield found most of Bax 's earlier poems " like his early music , over @-@ written , cluttered with the secondhand lumber of early Yeats , though the weakness is one of loosely chosen language rather than complexity . " Banfield had better things to say of the later poems , where Bax " focuses matters , whether laconically and colloquially upon the grim futility of the 1916 Easter Uprising ... or pungently upon his recurrent disillusionment about love . " Some of Bax 's writings as O 'Byrne were regarded as subversively sympathetic to the Irish republican cause , and the government censor prohibited their publication .
= = = First World War = = =
At the beginning of the war Bax returned to England . A heart complaint , from which he suffered intermittently throughout his life , made him unfit for military service ; he acted as a special constable for a period . At a time when fellow composers including Vaughan Williams , Arthur Bliss , George Butterworth and Ivor Gurney were serving overseas , Bax was able to produce a large body of music , finding , in Foreman 's phrase , " his technical and artistic maturity " in his early thirties . Among his better @-@ known works from the period are the orchestral tone poems November Woods ( 1916 ) and Tintagel ( 1917 – 19 ) .
During his time in Dublin Bax had made many republican friends . The Easter rising in April 1916 and the subsequent execution of the ringleaders shocked him deeply . He expressed his feelings in some of his music such as the orchestral In Memoriam and the " Elegiac Trio " for flute , viola , and harp ( 1916 ) , as well as in his poetry .
In addition to his Irish influences , Bax also drew on a Nordic tradition , being inspired by the Norwegian poet Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson and Icelandic sagas . Bax 's Symphonic Variations for Piano and Orchestra ( 1917 ) is seen by the musicologist Julian Herbage as the turning @-@ point from the Celtic to the Nordic in Bax 's oeuvre ; Herbage views it as a further indication of the shift that Winter Legends , composed thirteen years later , has a Nordic rather than a Celtic setting .
During the war Bax began an affair with the pianist Harriet Cohen , for whom he left his wife and children . Musically , she was his muse for the rest of his life ; he wrote numerous pieces for her , and she was the dedicatee of eighteen of his works . He took a flat in Swiss Cottage , London , where he lived until the start of the Second World War . He sketched many of his mature works there , often taking them in short score to his favoured rural retreats , Glencolmcille in Ireland and then from 1928 onwards Morar in Scotland , to work on the full score at leisure .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
In a study of Bax in 1919 his friend and confidante , the critic Edwin Evans , commented on the waning of the Celtic influence in the composer 's music and the emergence of " a more austere , abstract art " . From the 1920s onwards Bax seldom turned to poetic legend for inspiration . In Foreman 's view , in the post @-@ war years Bax was recognised for the first time as an important , though isolated , figure in British music . The many substantial works he wrote during the war years were heard in public , and he started writing symphonies . Few English composers had so far written symphonies that occupied a secure place in the repertoire , the best known being Elgar ( A ♭ and E ♭ symphonies ) and Vaughan Williams ( Sea , London and Pastoral symphonies ) . During the 1920s and into the 1930s Bax was seen by many as the leading British symphonist .
Bax 's First Symphony was written in 1921 – 22 , and when first given it was a great success , despite its ferocity of tone . The critics found the work dark and severe . The Daily News commented , " It is full of arrogant , almost blatant , virility . Its prevailing tone colour is dark , very dark – thick clouds with only here and there a ray of sunlight . " The Daily Telegraph suggested that if there was any humour in the piece , it was sardonic . The Manchester Guardian noted the severity of the work , but declared it " a truly great English symphony " . The work was a box @-@ office attraction at the Proms for several years after the premiere . In Foreman 's view , Bax was at his musical peak for a fairly short time , and his reputation was overtaken by those of Vaughan Williams and William Walton . The Third Symphony was completed in 1929 and , championed by Wood , remained for some time among the composer 's most popular works .
In the mid @-@ 1920s , while his affair with Cohen continued , Bax met the twenty @-@ three @-@ year @-@ old Mary Gleaves , and for more than two decades he maintained relationships with both women . His affair with Cohen ripened into warm friendship and continuing musical partnership . Gleaves became his companion from the later 1920s until his death .
In the 1930s , Bax composed the last four of his seven symphonies . Other works from the decade include the popular Overture to a Picaresque Comedy ( 1930 ) , several works for chamber groups , including a nonet ( 1930 ) , a string quintet ( 1933 ) , an octet for horn , piano , and strings ( 1934 ) and his third and last string quartet ( 1936 ) . The Cello Concerto ( 1932 ) was commissioned by and dedicated to Gaspar Cassadó , who quickly dropped the work from his repertoire . Although Beatrice Harrison championed the concerto in the 1930s and 1940s , Bax said , " The fact that nobody has ever taken up this work has been one of the major disappointments of my musical life " .
Bax was knighted in 1937 ; he had neither expected nor sought the honour , and was more surprised than delighted to receive it . As the decade progressed , he became less prolific ; he commented that he wanted to " retire , like a grocer " . Among his compositions from the period was the Violin Concerto ( 1938 ) . Although not written to commission , he had composed it with the violin virtuoso Jascha Heifetz in mind . Heifetz never played it , and it was premiered in 1942 by Eda Kersey with the BBC Symphony Orchestra and Wood .
= = = 1940s and 50s = = =
After the death of the Master of the King 's Music , Sir Walford Davies , in 1941 , Bax was appointed to succeed him . The choice surprised many . Bax , despite his knighthood , was not an Establishment figure ; he himself had expressed a disinclination to " shuffle around in knee @-@ breeches " . In the opinion of The Times the appointment was not a good one : " Bax was not cut out for official duties and found their performance irksome " . Nonetheless , Bax wrote a handful of occasional pieces for royal events , including a march for the Coronation in 1953 .
After the Second World War began , Bax moved to Sussex , taking up residence at the White Horse Hotel , Storrington , where he lived for the rest of his life . He abandoned composition and completed a book of memoirs about his early years , Farewell , My Youth . The Times found it at times waspish , at times reticent , surprising in parts , and regrettably short . Later in the war Bax was persuaded to contribute incidental music for a short film , Malta G. C. ; he subsequently wrote music for David Lean 's Oliver Twist ( 1948 ) and a second short film , Journey into History ( 1952 ) . His other works from the period include the short Morning Song for piano and orchestra , and the Left @-@ Hand Concertante ( 1949 ) , both written for Cohen . Bax and the Poet Laureate , John Masefield , worked on a pageant , The Play of Saint George in 1947 , but the project was not completed .
In his last years , Bax maintained a contented retirement for much of the time . Walton commented , " an important cricket match at Lord 's would bring him hurrying up to town from his pub at Storrington with much greater excitement than a performance of one of his works " . In 1950 , after hearing his Third Symphony played at Bournemouth , he said , " I ought perhaps to be thinking of an eighth " , but by this time he had begun to drink quite heavily , which aged him rapidly and impaired his ability to concentrate on a large @-@ scale composition . He wrote in 1952 , " I doubt whether I shall write anything else … I have said all I have to say and it is of no use to repeat myself . " Celebrations were planned by the Hallé Orchestra and others to celebrate Bax 's seventieth birthday in November 1953 . The celebrations became memorials : while visiting Cork in October 1953 Bax died suddenly of heart failure . He was interred in St. Finbarr 's Cemetery , Cork .
= = Music = =
Bax 's fellow composer Arthur Benjamin wrote that Bax was " a fount of music " , whose " spontaneous and inexhaustible outpourings " , unique among his contemporaries , were comparable to those of Schubert and Dvořák . Evans has suggested that Bax 's music paradoxically combines robustness and wistfulness , a view that later commentators including Herbage have endorsed . The early music is often instrumentally difficult or orchestrally and harmonically complex ; from about 1913 onwards he moved towards a simpler , sparer style . The composer and musicologist Anthony Payne considers that Bax 's best works date from the period between 1910 and 1925 : he instances The Garden of Fand , Tintagel , November Woods , the Second Piano Sonata , Viola Sonata , and first two symphonies . By the 1930s Bax 's music ceased to be regarded as new and difficult , and towards the end of that decade it was attracting less attention than before .
The conductor Vernon Handley , long associated with Bax 's music , commented that the composer 's influences include Rachmaninoff and Sibelius as well as Richard Strauss and Wagner : " He was aware of jazz and many more composers on the European scene than we are now . That finds its way into a person 's psyche and personality and into his technique as a musician . "
The critic Neville Cardus wrote of Bax 's music :
The paradox is that Bax 's methods , his idiom and tonal atmosphere are impersonal : that is to say , there is no direct unfolding of an individual state of mind or soul as we find in Elgar or Gustav Mahler . Yet there is no mistaking the Bax physiognomy or psychology : always through the gloom and thickets of the symphonies the warm rays of an approachable , lovable man and nature may be felt .
York Bowen thought it regrettable that Bax 's orchestral works frequently call for exceptionally large forces : " When the score demands such luxuries as triple or quadruple woodwind , six horns , three or four trumpets , extra percussion and perhaps organ , it is undoubtedly throwing extra difficulties in the way of performance . " The composer Eric Coates commented that Bax 's music appealed greatly to orchestral players : " whichever instrument he wrote for , it was as if he played that instrument himself , so well did he seem to write for it " .
= = = Symphonies = = =
While in Dresden in 1907 Bax began work on what he later called " a colossal symphony which would have occupied quite an hour in performance , were such a cloud @-@ cuckoo dream to become an actuality " . He added " Happily , it never has ! " , but he left a complete piano sketch , which was orchestrated in 2012 – 13 by Martin Yates , and recorded for the Dutton Vocalion label ; it lasts for 77 minutes . The four @-@ movement work , more conventional in structure than his completed symphonies , shows a strong Russian influence in its material .
Bax wrote his seven completed symphonies between 1921 and 1939 . In a study of the seven , David Cox wrote in 1967 that they were " often dismissed as amorphous by those who imagine that Bax consists only of Celtic mistiness and ' atmosphere ' . In fact they have considerable strength and frequent astringence ; and formally the thematic material is presented with consistency and purpose . " In Herbage 's view , the cycle can be seen to fall into two groups – the first three and the last three – with the Fourth Symphony as " an extrovert interlude between these largely introspective works " . Handley agreed that the first three could be grouped together ; Foreman sees a Celtic influence in all three , with Bax 's emotions about the Easter rising and its aftermath discernible . The Fourth is generally regarded as a more optimistic work than its predecessors and successors . Handley calls it " festive " , but comments that its ideas developed into darker mood in the Fifth and Sixth . The Fifth is , for Herbage , " the greatest tour @-@ de @-@ force " ; the Sixth stands out for its " magnificent final movement " , which the critic Peter Pirie said " tears the earth up by its roots " ; and the Seventh , in the view of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , has an elegiac tone , its simplicity far removed from the discursive and complex music of Bax 's earlier years .
= = = Concertante works = = =
Bax 's first work for solo instrument and orchestra was the 50 @-@ minute Symphonic Variations in E ♭ ( 1919 ) , written for Harriet Cohen . The Times considered it " like one of those deeds of recklessness which in the Army may be followed either by a Court @-@ martial or a V.C. We incline to favour the Court @-@ martial , and to award the V.C. to Miss Harriet Cohen for her part in the enterprise . "
The Cello Concerto ( 1932 ) was Bax 's first attempt at a full @-@ scale conventional concerto . It calls for a smaller orchestra than he customarily employed , with no trombones or tuba , and no percussion apart from timpani . Foreman points to many subtleties of scoring , but notes that it has never ranked high among the composer 's mature works . The Violin Concerto ( 1937 – 38 ) is , like the last symphony , in a more relaxed vein than most of Bax 's earlier music . Cardus singled it out as " unusually fine " , although Heifetz may have felt it not virtuosic enough . The composer described it as in the romantic tradition of Joachim Raff .
Among the minor concertante works is Variations on the Name Gabriel Fauré ( 1949 ) for harp and strings , in a style more neoclassical than most of Bax 's music . Bax 's last concertante piece was a short work for piano and orchestra ( 1947 ) written in his capacity as Master of the King 's Music , marking Princess Elizabeth 's twenty @-@ first birthday .
= = = Other orchestral works = = =
Bax 's tone poems are in a variety of styles and have varied sharply in their popularity . His impressionistic tone poems In the Faëry Hills and the Debussy ' La Mer ' like Nympholept are described by Grove as " a succinct and attractive pieces " . The former was modestly successful , but Spring Fire and Nympholept ( 1913 ) instanced by Foreman as difficult works ; were not performed in Bax 's lifetime . During the First World War Bax wrote three tone poems , two of which – The Garden of Fand ( 1913 – 16 ) and November Woods ( 1917 ) – have remained on the fringes of the modern repertoire , and a third – Tintagel ( 1917 – 19 ) – which in the decade after his death was the only work by which Bax was known to the public . Grove characterises all three as musical evocations of nature , with little expression of subjective personal response . The orchestral piece that was neglected longest was In memoriam ( 1917 ) , a lament for Patrick Pearse , who was shot for his part in the Easter rising ; the work was not played until 1998 . Bax reused the main melody for his incidental music to Oliver Twist ( 1948 ) .
Oliver Twist was the second of Bax 's film scores . The first was for a short wartime propaganda film , Malta , G. C .. A four @-@ movement suite was published after the release of the latter , containing what The Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music calls " a notable March with a genuine nobilmente theme in the best Elgarian tradition " . Bax 's third and last cinema score was for a ten @-@ minute short film Journey into History in 1952 .
Other orchestral works include Overture , Elegy and Rondo ( 1927 ) – a lightweight piece , according to Grove . The Overture to a Picaresque Comedy ( 1930 ) , was for a time one of his most popular works . It was described by the composer as " Straussian pastiche " and by The Times as " gay and impudent , and with that tendency to vulgarity which so easily besets the instinctively refined composer determined to let himself go " , Cardus thought the work so appealing that to live up to the overture the putative comedy would have to be " written by Hofmannsthal and Shaw in collaboration . Not often is English music so free and audacious as this , so gay and winning . "
= = = Vocal music = = =
The critic Peter Latham remarked that he was surprised that Bax had never set any of Yeats 's poems to music . Bax replied , " What , I ? I should never dare ! " . Latham added that Bax 's sensitiveness to poetic values made him " painfully aware of the violence that even the best musical setting must do to a poem " . Eventually this feeling caused him to give up song @-@ writing completely .
At the start of his composing career , songs , together with piano music , formed the core of Bax 's work . Some of the songs , mainly the early ones , are conspicuous for the virtuosity of their piano parts , which tend to overwhelm the voice . Grove contrasts the virtuoso accompaniment of " The Fairies " ( 1905 ) with the simpler " The White Peace " ( 1907 ) , one of his most popular songs . The musical analyst Trevor Hold writes that the piano " goes berserk " in " Glamour " ( 1920 ) . Among the poets whose verses Bax set were his brother Clifford , Burns , Chaucer , Hardy , Housman , Joyce , Synge and Tennyson . The composer himself singled out for mention in his Who 's Who article " A Celtic Song @-@ Cycle " ( 1904 ) to words by " Fiona Macleod " ( a pen name of the poet William Sharp ) . Among the post @-@ war songs , Hold considers Bax 's " In the Morning " ( 1926 ) to be one of the best of all settings of Housman 's works , " and it makes you wish that Bax had made further explorations into the Shropshire landscape . " Hold classes that song , together with " Across the Door " ( 1921 ) , " Rann of Exile " ( 1922 ) and " Watching the Needleboats " ( 1932 ) , as " truly modern , 20th @-@ century masterpieces of song " .
Bax wrote a substantial number of choral works , mostly secular but some religious . He was a nominal member of the Church of England , but in the view of the critic Paul Spicer , " None of Bax 's choral music can be described as devotional or even suitable for church use … Here is a secular composer writing voluptuous music . " The choral works with religious texts include his largest @-@ scale unaccompanied vocal piece , Mater ora Filium ( 1921 ) , inspired by William Byrd 's Five Part Mass ; it is a setting of a medieval carol from a manuscript held by Balliol College , Oxford . The composer Patrick Hadley considered it " an unsurpassed example of modern unaccompanied vocal writing " . Bax 's other choral works include settings of words by Shelley ( Enchanted Summer , 1910 ) , Henry Vaughan ( The Morning Watch , 1935 ) , Masefield ( To Russia , 1944 ) , and Spenser ( Epithalamium , 1947 ) .
= = = Chamber and solo piano music = = =
In his overview of Bax 's earlier chamber works , Evans identifies as among the most successful the Phantasy for viola , the Trio for piano , violin , and viola and " a String Quintet of such difficulty that an adequate performance has seldom if ever been possible " . He rates the Second Violin Sonata ( 1915 ) as the composer 's most individual work to that date . For Evans , the culminating point of Bax 's early chamber music was the Piano Quintet , a work " of such richness of invention that it would be an ornament to the musical literature of any country or period " . Foreman makes particular mention of the First String Quartet ( 1918 – " a classical clarity of texture and form to its Celtic inspiration " , and the " grittier " Second Quartet ( 1925 ) , the Viola Sonata ( 1922 ) , the Phantasy Sonata for viola and harp ( 1927 ) and the Sonata for Flute and Harp ( 1928 ) .
The composer and musical scholar Christopher Palmer writes that Bax was unusual among British composers in composing a substantial oeuvre for solo piano . Bax published four piano sonatas ( 1910 – 32 ) , which are , in Palmer 's view , as central to the composer 's piano music as the symphonies are to the orchestral output . The first two sonatas are each in a single movement , of about twenty minutes ; the third and fourth are in conventional three @-@ movement form . The First Symphony was originally planned as a large @-@ scale piano sonata in E ♭ ( 1921 ) ; the manuscript score of the latter came to light in the early 1980s and was performed for the first time in 1983 . Bax 's own virtuosity as a pianist is reflected in the demands of many of his piano pieces . Palmer cites Chopin and Liszt as major influences on Bax 's piano style as well as Balakirev and the other Russians whose influence is seen throughout the composer 's work . For piano duo Bax composed two tone poems , Moy Mell ( 1917 ) and Red Autumn ( 1931 ) . His shorter piano pieces include picturesque miniatures such as In a Vodka Shop ( 1915 ) , A Hill Tune ( 1920 ) and Water Music ( 1929 ) .
= = Neglect and revival = =
In his later years Bax 's music fell into neglect . Sir John Barbirolli wrote , " I think he felt keenly that his richly wrought and masterly scores were no longer ' fashionable ' to @-@ day , but nothing could deter him from the path of complete honesty and sincerity in his musical thought . " The neglect became more complete after the composer 's death . He had always sustained a Romantic outlook , distancing himself from musical modernism and especially Arnold Schoenberg 's serialism , of which Bax wrote in 1951 :
I believe that there is little probability that the twelve @-@ note scale will ever produce anything more than morbid or entirely cerebral growths . It might deal successfully with neuroses of various kinds , but I cannot imagine it associated with any healthy and happy concept such as young love or the coming of spring .
Neither Bax 's views nor his works were fashionable in the two decades after his death . The critic Michael Kennedy writes that the mid @-@ 1950s were a time of " immense change and transition in influential musical circles . " The music favoured by the cultural establishment until then was regarded as having made Britain musically parochial and indifferent to the developments of the past half @-@ century . In Kennedy 's words , " Rubbra , Bax and Ireland found themselves out in the cold " .
Foreman comments that in the years after Bax 's death his reputation was kept alive by a single work – Tintagel . Kennedy estimates that it took " twenty painful years " before the music of the British romantics including Bax made headway against the dominance of modernism . Foreman dates the revival of Bax 's music to Handley 's performances of the Fourth Symphony and other works with the Guildford Philharmonic Orchestra in the 1960s , and the pioneering recordings by Lyrita Recorded Edition of five of the symphonies . Scholarly consideration of Bax 's life and music came with studies by Colin Scott @-@ Sutherland ( 1973 ) and Foreman ( 1983 ) . Bax 's centenary in 1983 was marked by twenty programmes on BBC Radio 3 , covering a wide range of the composer 's music . In 1985 the Sir Arnold Bax Trust was established to promote the composer 's work including the sponsoring of live performances and recording and publication of his music and writings . Since then a large number of Bax 's works , major and minor , have been recorded ( see below ) . The proliferation of Bax recordings has not been matched by a revival in his fortunes in the concert hall ; the critic Stephen Moss observed in The Guardian in 2007 , " Bax is considered the promotional kiss of death . " In 1999 the Oxford University Press published a complete catalogue of Bax 's works compiled and annotated by Graham Parlett ; Music & Letters called it " a benchmark for any future researchers seeking to compile a catalogue of a composer 's works " .
= = Recordings = =
Two recordings of Bax as a pianist were made in 1929 . With Lionel Tertis he recorded his own Viola Sonata for Columbia , and with May Harrison he recorded Delius 's Violin Sonata No 1 for the rival HMV label . Of the symphonies , only the Third was recorded in the composer 's lifetime ; it was played by the Hallé under Barbirolli and released in 1944 . The Viola Sonata , Nonet and Mater ora Filium were recorded under the auspices of the English Music Society in 1937 and 1938 . The Phantasy Sonata for Viola and Harp , the Sonata for Two Pianos and a handful of the songs were recorded on 78 rpm discs . Of the tone poems , Eugene Goossens conducted the first recording of Tintagel , in 1928 ; twenty years later a set of The Garden of Fand with Beecham and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra was released by HMV . By 1955 Bax on record was so scarce that The Record Guide listed only Tintagel , the Coronation March , the unaccompanied choral work What is it Like to be Young and Fair ? and the solo piano piece Paean .
Parlett included an extensive discography in his 1999 A Catalogue of the Works of Sir Arnold Bax , later expanded and updated in a website . At 2015 the latter lists more than 250 works by Bax that have been recorded and published . The discography includes three complete cycles of Bax 's symphonies released on CD , two by Chandos Records , the first conducted by Bryden Thomson ( recorded 1983 – 88 ) and the second by Handley ( 2003 ) ; between them was a cycle issued by Naxos Records conducted by David Lloyd @-@ Jones ( recorded 1997 – 2001 ) . The major tone poems and other orchestral works have been recorded , many of them in several different versions . , however Nympolept arguably Bax greatest tone poem , was never performed during Bax life and was first recorded by Bryden Thomson in 1984 . Bax 's chamber music is well represented on disc , with recordings of most of the works , and multiple versions of many , including the Elegiac Trio , the Clarinet Sonata and the Fantasy Sonata . Much of the piano music has been recorded by pianists including Iris Loveridge , John McCabe , Ashley Wass and Michael Endres , though by 2015 no integral survey had yet been recorded . Of the vocal works , by far the most often recorded is Mater ora Filium , but other choral works , and a representative selection of the songs are on disc .
= = Honours and legacy = =
Bax received the gold medals of the Royal Philharmonic Society ( 1931 ) and the Worshipful Company of Musicians ( 1931 ) , and the Cobbett medal for chamber music ( 1931 ) . He was awarded honorary doctorates by the universities of Oxford ( 1934 ) and Durham ( 1935 ) and the National University of Ireland ( 1947 ) . A Bax Memorial Room at University College , Cork , was opened by Vaughan Williams in 1955 . After Bax 's knighthood in the 1937 Coronation Honours he was advanced to KCVO in 1953 . An English Heritage blue plaque , unveiled in 1993 , commemorates Bax at his birthplace , 13 Pendennis Road in Streatham .
In 1992 Ken Russell made a television film dramatising Bax 's later years , The Secret Life of Arnold Bax . Russell himself portrayed Bax and Glenda Jackson , in her final acting role , appeared as Harriet Cohen .
= Nathaniel Backus House =
The Nathaniel Backus House is a two @-@ story Greek Revival clapboarded house with a gable roof in Norwich , Connecticut . The house was built around 1750 by Nathaniel Backus and served as his home , it was later moved to its current location in 1952 . The house originally began as a Colonial , but was greatly modified to Greek Revival around 1825 , reconfiguring the central door to the left of the facade and adding two chimneys . The house is a historic house museum operated by the Faith Trumbull Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution .
The Nathaniel Backus House was submitted to the National Register of Historic Places for its historical value in local history and as an example of Greek Revival domestic architecture . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) in 1970 and was also included in the NRHP 's Chelsea Parade Historic District designation in 1989 .
= = Nathaniel Backus = =
The Nathaniel Backus House 's namesake is its builder Nathaniel Backus , a descendent of William Backus and William Backus , Jr . , two of the founders of Norwich , Connecticut . Nathaniel Backus was born on April 5 , 1704 and he married Hannah Baldwin in 1726 . Together they would have seven children . Nathaniel Backus was also recorded to be one of six men in Norwich to own their own carriages before the American Revolutionary War . Nathaniel Backus died in 1773 .
= = Design = =
The Nathaniel Backus House 's construction date is unknown , but it is believed to have been around 1750 . The History of Norwich , Connecticut places it around 1734 and makes mention of a highway being added in 1750 specifically by Nathaniel Backus ' house . In the 1970 National Historic Register of Places nomination , the Daughters of the American Revolution indicated it dates from 1750 .
The house originally stood on Broadway Street in the center of Norwich , Connecticut . It was originally Colonial at its time of construction , but has been modified to Greek Revival style . The renovation itself may date to around 1825 . The house is a white two @-@ story clapboarded structure with its gable end facing the street . The three @-@ bay facade faces south and the front entrance is located on the left bay . The eaves cornice is decorated with mutules that span the length of the gable ends and combines with the roof cornice to make a pediment that encloses an elliptical window in the center . The window is of the " rising sun pattern " with glass panes radiating out through two rings . The entrance on the left of the facade has a paneled door , stated to be original , that is enclosed in a rectangular frame , supported by Ionic columns and framed by fluted moldings . The frames of the 6 @-@ over @-@ 6 windows project slightly from the clapboard exterior . The foundation and steps to the house is of stone .
An alteration saw the addition of two chimneys and additional alterations to the window and door openings on the northeast and southwest sides of the house . It is believed that the central door and window alterations were done as part of the Greek Revival renovations . Luyster states , " [ f ] urther investigation would undoubtedly reveal additional changes in the interior , including changes in the position of the fireplaces and their chimney connections . "
= = Importance = =
The Nathaniel Backus House is a historic house museum operated by the Faith Trumbull Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution following its completed move in 1952 . The Nathaniel Backus House was submitted to the National Register of Historic Places for its historical value in local history and as an example of Greek Revival domestic architecture . Luyster writes , " The simplicity of the Backus house contrasts pleasantly with the verandahs and asymmetric forms of the surrounding buildings . " It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 . The house was also included as part of the Chelsea Parade Historic District in 1989 .
= Chris Traeger =
Christopher " Chris " Traeger is a fictional character played by Rob Lowe in the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation on NBC . He began on the show as an Indiana state auditor who visits the fictional city of Pawnee to help solve their crippling budget problems , and eventually becomes Pawnee 's acting city manager . Chris is an extremely positive person who is constantly upbeat and energetic . Extremely health @-@ conscious , he exercises constantly and eats only healthy foods , and hopes to be the first human being to live 150 years .
Chris first appeared in the second season episode " The Master Plan " . Originally expected to appear in eight episodes as a guest star , Lowe eventually signed on to remain on the show as a permanent cast member . Chris was a romantic interest for Ann Perkins ( Rashida Jones ) throughout the show 's run . Chris imposes a strict policy against workplace dating at city hall , but series protagonist Leslie Knope ( Amy Poehler ) and Ben Wyatt ( Adam Scott ) begin secretly dating anyway .
The idea of Chris as a state auditor was inspired by real @-@ life reports of government shutdowns amid the global financial crisis . The Chris Traeger character has received highly positive reviews from critics , and has been described as " one of the great comedic creations of the past couple years " and " one of the funniest performances of Rob Lowe 's career " .
= = Character biography = =
= = = Background and personality = = =
Portrayed by Rob Lowe , Chris Traeger begins the show as an auditor working for the Indiana state government in Indianapolis , but eventually becomes the acting city manager of Pawnee , the fictional Indiana city where Parks and Recreation is set . Originally from Wisconsin , he is an excessively positive and optimistic person , who is constantly upbeat and extremely energetic . As a baby , Chris was diagnosed with a rare blood disorder and was not expected to live longer than three weeks , but miraculously survived . As a result , he sees every day he is alive as a gift , which results in his intensely cheerful and enthusiastic personality . In " Lucky " , Chris mentions that he has a stepbrother who lives in London .
Chris is extremely health @-@ conscious and exercises constantly ; he runs 10 miles during his lunch break alone , and considers a 15 km run to be " light " exercise . He avoids eating red meat and fatty foods in favor of dishes like lean turkey burgers and vegetable loaf sweetened with fruit reduction , and takes a huge assortment of unusual vitamins . Chris always stays extremely well @-@ hydrated , and as a result of his extreme exercise regimen has only 2 @.@ 8 % body fat , which makes him very susceptible to illness due to a weakened immune system . His ambition is to become the first human being to live 150 years . Chris always greets people with a firm handshake and direct eye contact , and to remember their names often points directly at people and repeats their names upon first meeting them . His constant desire to make everyone around him happy means Chris hates having to deliver bad news , a task he often assigns to his subordinates , usually Ben Wyatt . He often declares things to be " literally " the best thing he 's ever seen or done , strongly emphasizing the word and pronouncing it " littrally " . He is very specific about his needs , giving long , drawn out requests , often making only one point per sentence , as can be seen in the episode " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " , his beer order is as follows : " I would like a local beer ... I 'd like it in a bottle ... And I 'd like that bottle to be cold . "
= = = Season two = = =
Starting in the penultimate second season episode " The Master Plan " , Chris Traeger and fellow state auditor Ben Wyatt ( Adam Scott ) are sent to Pawnee to help solve the city 's crippling budget deficit . Despite the seriousness of the problems , Chris presents the situation in an extremely positive light and tries to make all the city hall employees around him happy , leaving the hard decisions and delivery of bad news up to Ben . Due to the poorly managed Pawnee government , Chris and Ben need to slash every city budget by up to 50 percent , much to the disappointment of deputy parks and recreation director Leslie Knope ( Amy Poehler ) .
During an outing at a bar , Chris meets Leslie 's best friend Ann Perkins ( Rashida Jones ) , who is drunk and experiencing conflicting emotions following her recent breakup with Mark Brendanawicz ( Paul Schneider ) . Ann makes out with Chris and , although she was too drunk to even remember the incident the next day , he develops romantic feelings for her . Ann rebuffs his requests for dates , and finds him too intense , but the ever @-@ optimistic Chris does not become discouraged and insists he will continue courting her . Meanwhile , in " Freddy Spaghetti " , Chris and Ben reveal Pawnee 's budget problems are worse than anticipated , which would require the government to be temporarily shut down , much to the horror of Leslie , but the delight of parks and recreation director Ron Swanson ( Nick Offerman ) , an anti @-@ government libertarian . Chris and Ben even consider firing Leslie to save money , but Ron persuades them otherwise .
= = = Season three = = =
In " Go Big or Go Home " , after three months of closure , the Pawnee government reopens in a limited capacity , but Chris and Ben insist the parks and recreation department 's budget can only sustain existing park maintenance . Leslie , however , wants to offer better programs and services for the Pawnee citizens . She asks Ann to go on a date with Chris , then try to convince him to increase the budget . Ann reluctantly agrees to the plan , but as the date progresses , she finds she actually enjoys herself and develops feelings for Chris . When Leslie accidentally gives away her secret plan , Chris is hurt and disparaged by Ann 's ulterior motive . The next day , however , Ann apologizes and asks to continue dating Chris , who happily accepts .
Ann finds she likes Chris very much , but is intimidated because she cannot find a single flaw with him , which causes her to act socially awkwardly around him . However , when a flu outbreak strikes Pawnee in " Flu Season " , Chris becomes severely ill , as due to his extreme workout regimen , he has a poor immune system and low body fat . He suffers a complete physical breakdown and becomes delirious from fever , which causes Ann ( who works as a local nurse and treats his illness ) to feel less intimidated by him . Later , when he recovers , Chris and Ben are called back to Indianapolis for another assignment , but Chris requests an extension to stay in Pawnee , seemingly due to his feelings for Ann .
In " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " , Ann begins to question why Chris has not asked her to move with him to Indianapolis when he eventually returns there , especially after he offers for Ron 's assistant April Ludgate ( Aubrey Plaza ) to come there to work for him . After Ann insists they need to decide what their future holds , Chris breaks up with Ann . However , he does so in such a positive and upbeat way that she does not actually realize they have broken up . When Chris returns to Indianapolis , Ann becomes confused about why they have had such little contact and suspects he is cheating on her . In the episode " Indianapolis " , Ann confronts Chris about her suspicions , only to become humiliated to learn he had actually intended to break up with her .
In the episode " Camping " a few months later , Chris returns to Pawnee to work as acting city manager after former manager Paul Iaresco ( Phil Reeves ) suffers a major heart attack . A still devastated Ann meets with him to try and clear the air . However , Chris is once again so optimistic while discussing their break @-@ up that she falsely believes they have gotten back together and tries to kiss him , thus embarrassing herself further . Meanwhile , Chris offers Ben a full @-@ time job working at the Pawnee government , which Ben accepts .
Chris proves to be an energetic city manager , encouraging Leslie to pursue ambitious , grand @-@ scale projects like the harvest festival she organized before he returned to Pawnee . In " Soulmates " , he also attempts to combat Pawnee 's notorious obesity problem by enacting a government @-@ wide health initiative . In that same episode , when he sees Leslie kiss fellow employee Tom Haverford ( Aziz Ansari ) and falsely believes they are dating , Chris warns her he maintains a strict policy against workforce dating and insists she could be fired if she engages such a relationship . He is unaware , however , that Leslie and Ben actually have romantic feelings for each other , and eventually start dating without his knowledge .
During the season finale " Li 'l Sebastian " , Chris learns he has tendinitis . Although it is not particularly serious , it terrifies the health @-@ conscious Chris and makes him begin to ponder his own mortality . He is eventually comforted by Ann , who now works part @-@ time at city hall as the health department 's public relations director . Chris feels better and appears to begin developing feelings again for her .
= = = Season four = = =
In " Ron and Tammys " , Chris helps Ann shoot a health @-@ related PSA . His determination to make it perfect , filming take after take , reminds Ann of some of her reasons not to date him . In " Pawnee Rangers " , Chris meets Jerry 's daughter Millicent ( Sarah Wright ) . The two start dating and Chris makes sure that it is okay with Jerry . Jerry says that he is fine with the two of them dating , much to Chris ' delight . Chris and Millicent go together to April and Andy 's Halloween party , with Chris dressing as Sherlock Holmes , his favorite character . After Chris starts to lose contact with Millie , he enlists Jerry , Donna , and Ann to help him , against Jerry 's wishes . Ann tells him that he is too accessible and needs to back off a little bit so he can continue dating Millie . In " Bowling for Votes " , Millie dumps Chris , leaving him depressed . In " Operation Ann " , Leslie convinces Chris that he is still a likable person and that Millecent 's opinion does not mean anything . He immediately loses his depression . In " Dave Returns " , Chris discovers Tom 's relationship with Ann and confronts Tom about it , making Chris realize that he has to " ... adjust . " He then freezes and stares sadly into space . In the same episode , when Andy , asks Chris to sing for him ( since he is working as a backing vocalist on Andy 's song for the campaign ) , he sings " Take Me Out to the Ball Game " out of tune and with the wrong lyrics , causing everyone else there to wince . Chris helps Leslie 's campaign however he can , even taking on a large amount of busy work to distract him from his loneliness " Bus Tour " . He has a brief liaison with Bobby Newport 's campaign manager , which cheers him up .
= = = Season five = = =
In season five , Chris is still working as Pawnee 's City Manager . He is no longer depressed , but is continuously seeing a therapist . He is also asked to be the father of Ann Perkins ' child via in vitro fertilization . He is hesitant at first and turns to Ben and others to help him make a decision . After " Bailout " , he tells Ann that he will be the father and the two begin parenting compatibility testing to see how well they will work together with raising a child . During " Jerry 's Retirement " , they get back together but Ann is not sure if they should continue their relationship the way they are now .
= = = Season six = = =
With Ann pregnant at the beginning of season six , Chris is preparing to be a father . In addition , when Ann expresses interest in leaving Pawnee to be closer to her family in Michigan , Chris decides to go with her . Some time after the pair leaves , Ann gives birth to their son Oliver Perkins @-@ Traeger .
= = = Season seven = = =
Chris and Ann return for a guest appearance in the series finale in order to advise Leslie in 2025 . It is revealed that after Oliver , the couple had a second child , a daughter named Leslie .
= = Development = =
Shortly following his departure from the ABC drama series Brothers & Sisters , Rob Lowe accepted the role of Chris Traeger on Parks and Recreation . He made his first appearance on the show in " The Master Plan " , the penultimate episode of the second season . The character debuted the same episode that Adam Scott began his role as Ben Wyatt . Originally , Chris Traeger was only meant to be a guest role , with Lowe portraying him in the final two episodes of the second season and the first six episodes of the third season before departing the series . However , Lowe instead became a regular cast member starting with the third season , and signed a multi @-@ year contract to remain on the show . The idea of Chris as a state auditor visiting Pawnee , and the subsequent government shutdown , was inspired by news reports at the time of a number of states that were considering a shut down of schools , parks and other services due to the global financial crisis .
Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Michael Schur said Chris ' habit of pointing directly into the faces of people he meets and repeating their names was one of the first elements of his character that the writing staff conceived . Chris ' desire to live 150 years was inspired by Schur 's wife , J. J. Philbin , who had read an article which stated that scientists believe the first human who will live 150 years has already been born , and felt it applied to the Chris Traeger character . Lowe 's first day of filming on the series was his birthday ( March 17 , 2010 ) , which was the day his kiss scene with Rashida Jones in " The Master Plan " was shot . Lowe said he loved his character 's " unrelenting enthusiasm " and the fact that he is not a romantic lead , but rather a " big , fat nerd " . Parks and Recreation star Amy Poehler said of Chris Traeger : " It 's a really fun character to play against because what you ’ ll see start to happen is Chris doesn ’ t want to deliver any bad news , but he ’ s actually like the Bad News Bear . " Like much of the rest of the cast , Lowe occasionally improvises lines and actions for his character that are not included in the script . The writers hoped to use Ann Perkins ' breakup with Chris , and the drastic changes in her behavior afterward , as a way of tapping into more comedic potential of her character rather than having her fill the role of straight man as she had in the past . Schur said : " Ann is a very intelligent and attractive woman , and it 's hard to knock someone like that off balance . And the way to knock that person off balance is to get Rob Lowe in a relationship with you . "
Once Lowe joined the permanent cast , Chris ' role changed into more of an authority figure concerned with integrity and efficiency , although he continued to maintain his positive attitude and personality . Schur said of this second role : " He doesn ’ t like frayed ends or controversies – he wants the body politic to be as clean @-@ running and organic as his own human body . Part of the design of the character was to give the other characters a true boss – an actual authority figure whose rules and regulations meant they had to toe certain lines , even while his endlessly cheery disposition made it hard to argue with him . " As a result , Chris Traeger changed in minor ways once he became a regular character . In his earlier episodes , Chris avoided associating himself with anything negative and constantly made Ben report bad news to people . As city manager in later episodes as a regular , however , Chris started imposing rules or changes around the office that were not popular and seemed less resistant about enforcing them . For example , Chris began to enforce his strict no @-@ dating policy around city hall . Additionally , in the episode " Jerry 's Painting " , Chris forcefully orders Leslie to destroy a painting when it proves to be controversial , and becomes angry with her when she tries to resist those orders .
= = Reception = =
The Chris Traeger character has received critical acclaim . Rick Porter of Zap2it described him as " one of the great comedic creations of the past couple years " , and Hitfix writer Alan Sepinwall called it " one of the funniest performances of [ Rob Lowe 's ] career " . David Hinckley of the New York Daily News said both Lowe and Adam Scott were excellent additions to the cast , and Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com said Chris was " exactly what the show needed to push itself to another level of silliness " . Some reviewers believed Chris ' over @-@ the @-@ top personality would be funny in the short run , but that the character would not prove three @-@ dimensional enough to have long @-@ term sustainability . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell initially described him as " funny , but sorta one @-@ note " , and Eric Hochberger of TV Fanatic first found Chris funny , but likewise said he was " not sure how great he 'll be long term " . Matt Fowler of IGN expressed the same sentiments after earlier episodes , but by the third season said Chris proved to be a great addition to the show .
The relationship between Chris and Ann was described by Sundermann as " one of the most interesting parts of the show and the reason , specifically , is Chris " . Likewise , Porter said Lowe and Rashida Jones had developed a " fantastic dynamic " . Joel Keller of TV Squad said he found Chris " a little two @-@ dimensional " , and believed the relationship was poorly handled because it made Ann too passive . Lowe received particularly strong praise for his role in " Flu Season " , in which Chris became extremely ill and hallucinatory when infected with the flu . Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter said Lowe 's character seemed well @-@ integrated into the cast by the episode " Flu Season " , and added " If you 've never believed Lowe can make you laugh out loud , pay attention to that episode . " Steve Kandell said Lowe stole the show from the usual Parks powerhouses of Nick Offerman and Chris Pratt , and called one scene , when Lowe tries to will away his flu by yelling to himself in the mirror " Stop ... pooping ! " , the " single greatest self @-@ effacingly comic moment of his long , handsome career " .
Parks and Recreation has traditionally experienced poor Nielsen ratings , and NBC officials hoped the addition of Lowe to the cast would help increase viewership . His premiere on the second season episode " The Master Plan " was heavily publicized in commercials with the hopes of drawing new viewers . However , ratings continued to be low after he joined the show , and his appearances only resulted in what HitFix writer Daniel Fienberg called " a statistically irrelevant bump " in the ratings .
Following actor Charlie Sheen 's departure from the CBS comedy series Two and a Half Men in March 2011 , rumors began to circulate that Rob Lowe might leave Parks and Recreation to take Sheen 's place on that show . People magazine reported that Two and a Half Men creator Chuck Lorre was " seriously discussing the possibility " of signing Lowe , and Sheen himself said he would be a " fabulous " successor . Those rumors proved unfounded , however , and were flatly denied by Michael Schur , who called it " complete gibberish " . Although widely considered a supporting role , Lowe 's performance as Chris Traeger was submitted for a 2011 Primetime Emmy Award in the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series category .
= Eyeshield 21 =
Eyeshield 21 ( Japanese : アイシールド21 , Hepburn : Aishīrudo Nijūichi ) is a Japanese manga series written by Riichiro Inagaki and illustrated by Yusuke Murata . The series tells the story of Sena Kobayakawa , an introverted boy who joins an American football club as a secretary , but after being coerced by Yoichi Hiruma , turns out to play wearing an eyeshield and the number 21 , under the pseudonym of " Eyeshield 21 " . Inag | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
$ 1 per year . The club demolished some of the buildings , renovated and expanded others , widened the road , and filled in a new embankment for boating . Further renovations were done in 1952 and the 1960s , adding verandahs to the two clubhouses ( one of which dates to 1808 and was used as a warden 's house ) and remodelling their interiors . Though the club 's lease was initially year @-@ to @-@ year , in 1956 it began a 99 @-@ year lease from the Department of National Defence . The club dredged Melville Cove , added a " marine railway " , and created a large marina , at which dozens of boats are now docked .
= = Culture = =
During certain periods , Melville Island was a social destination for Halifax residents . Haligonians visited the " town fair " run by French inmates during the Napoleonic period . The peninsula was called a " great resort of the ladies of Halifax " by an 1855 newspaper . However , from the beginning of the First World War to 1947 , visitors to Melville were restricted . Though it was re @-@ opened with the arrival of the Armdale Yacht Club , the area 's history was largely forgotten until the 2000 establishment of Deadman 's Island Park on the adjacent peninsula . Since then , the site has become a tourist attraction , though its historicity is limited by the land 's current use as a marina . A model made from beef and pork bones by French prisoners and a cell key to Melville Island are preserved at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax .
The peninsula has also been the subject of artistic and literary treatments . A number of writings by Melville prisoners have been preserved , including a diary by François @-@ Lambert Bourneuf and an account credited to Benjamin Waterhouse ( though historians are unsure of its true authorship ) . Politician Joseph Howe wrote a poem describing its use as a military prison ( See Poem ) . The site 's history has been the subject of a book by Brian Cuthbertson , and another by Iris Shea and Heather Watts . The prison is the subject of a painting held by the UK National Trust and a Nova Scotian folk song , among other cultural works .
= Saskatchewan Highway 7 =
Saskatchewan Highway 7 is a major paved undivided provincial highway in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan , running from the Alberta border to Saskatoon . Highway 7 continues west into Alberta where it becomes Alberta Highway 9 .
Highway 7 is an important trade and travel route linking Saskatoon with several of its bedroom communities such as Delisle and Vanscoy , as well as larger centres farther afield such as Rosetown and Kindersley . Its primary use , however , is by travelers heading for Calgary , Alberta and the Canadian west coast .
Despite being one of the most heavily used roads in the province , as of 2015 only short stretches of the highway between Saskatoon and Rosetown have been divided to add passing lanes . The only passing lanes west of Rosetown 's eastern elevator access interchange , is a small section East and West of Flaxcombe . Extensive oil exploration and development has been occurring since 2010 , primarily in the Kindersley Region , from Brock to the Alberta Border . Heavy traffic , agriculture , grain transport , and oilfield service , as well as oil and fuel transports , are common on this highway . Agriculture , and oilfield services are the main industries of the area . The only District hospital on Hwy 7 is located at Kindersley .
Agrium Vanscoy Potash Operations is Canada 's third largest producer of potash fertilizer . In the 1930s early homesteaders would maintain Highway 7 as a means to supplement their income . Provincial Highway 7 followed the Canadian Northern railway grade for direction of travel with the actual road way being on the square on the Dominion survey township lines . Highway 7 was widened in 1944 and rebuilt between 1960 and 1961 .
Highway 7 currently terminates at its junction with 22nd Street West ( Highway 14 ) in west Saskatoon , although it is marked to run concurrently to Highway 11 ( Idylwyld Drive ) . In 2005 , work began on realigning Highway 7 in order to make way for the Blairmore Suburban Centre development including the Bethlehem High School , Tommy Douglas Collegiate and the Shaw Centre located where Highway 7 linked with 22nd Street prior to 2006 . Realignment is being conducted in two phases .
= = Route description = =
The entirety of Highway 7 is a primary weight asphalt concrete ( AS ) national highway within the Ministry of Highways and Infrastructure ( SHS ) West Central Municipal Government Committee planning jurisdiction . Travel on Highway 7 begins east at the Alberta - Saskatchewan provincial border through the Missouri Coteau which features mixed prairie vegetation . Entering Alberta , the highway continues west as Alberta Highway 9 . Alsask is a village of about 150 people on the border and Highway 44 . The Military Dome site radar station is a heritage site and has been acquired by Alsask along with the 1960s airforce base . At Alsask , Highway 7 turns north east until km 3 @.@ 9 when again the highway is routed east . Again at km 6 @.@ 1 the highway turns north east until km 19 @.@ 8 just past the intersection with Highway 317 . Marengo , a small village of about 50 residents is 0 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) north of the junction . Highway 7 continues for several kilometres east reaching the village of Flaxcombe , which has a population of just over 100 . Highway 307 north provides access to the villages of Coleville and Smiley . This area belongs to the West Central Regional Economic Development Authority ( REDA ) . The town of Kindersley is the largest center featuring both oil and agricultural industries along Highway 7 and with a population of about 4 @,@ 500 is almost at city status of 5 @,@ 000 residents . As of 2009 , the Average Annual Daily Traffic ( AADT ) ranges from approximately 1 @,@ 600 to 2 @,@ 000 vehicles per day ( vpd ) near the Alberta @-@ Saskatchewan border to over 3 @,@ 000 vpd near Kindersley , updated statistics , and vehicle types in 2013 show evidence that the 2009 vehicle count is out of date and severely understates actual traffic flow . Due to its being a key route between Calgary , the fast @-@ growing city of Saskatoon , and economic drivers such as regional oil activity , inland grain terminal locations adjacent to Hwy 7 , and Saskatchewan 's strong economy , this highway 's capacity is under pressure .
Continuing east , Highway 7 comes to a short 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) concurrency between Highway 658 south and Highway 658 north . The village of Netherhill is also located between the Highway 658 junction and Highway 30 junction .
Highway 30 south provides access to the hamlet of McMorran . The highway takes a few gentle curves north east at km 106 @.@ 1 through the unincorporated areas of Fiske and McGee to the junction with Highway 4 . Rosetown is a town about half the size of Kindersley located at this junction . The Goose Lake Plain landscape area of the Moist Mixed Prairie ecoregion is the main feature between Rosetown and Saskatoon . The bearing of the highway continues north east until the town of Zealandia whose population is hovering around 100 people . After Zealandia , the highway continues in a north @-@ northeast direction coming to junction with Highway 768 north and the junction with Highway 655 west and with Highway 655 south . The village of Tessier is next along this north east section of highway , and then Delisle . Delisle , a town , with a population of about 800 residents is located at the intersection of Highway 7 , Highway 45 south , and Saskatchewan Highway 673 east on the south west side of town . The AADT along the route fluctuates between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 vpd until Delisle . The intersection with Highway 766 is to the north east of Delisle . The corner of Highway 672 ( South and east ) is at the intersection with Highway 7 at the village of Vanscoy . Agrium Vanscoy Potash Mine is located 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) south west of Saskatoon , just to the north west of Vanscoy . The potash mine was established in 1931 as Cominco Fertilizers Ltd. changing names in 1995 to Agrium Inc . , the nation 's third largest producer of potash The AADT on Highway 7 near Vanscoy increases to over 5 @,@ 600 vpd . Both Highway 672 east and Highway 766 east provide access to Pike Lake Provincial Park . Highway 7 continues north westerly arriving at the first interchange at km 249 @.@ 7 with Highway 60 south .
The twinned overpass is 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) in length continuing on as a 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) length of twinned highway . This twinned section of the highway
handles between 7 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 vpd on average throughout the year . The 11th Street West intersection provides access from the south end of the City of Saskatoon to Highway 7 . Highway 7 becomes concurrent with Highway 14 at the west end of Saskatoon . This is the new Blairmore Suburban Development Area ( SDA ) hosting seven new neighbourhoods and a future interchange at the intersection of Highway 14 west , Dalmeny Road north , and 22nd Street West . Highway 7 continues east along 22nd Street West , concurrent with Highway 14 .
= = History = =
The Old Bone Trail was the name of the red river cart trail between Saskatoon and Rosetown . The Saskatchewan Highway Act was established in 1922 , in compliance with the 1919 Canadian highway act . At the initial stages of the Saskatchewan Highway Act , 10 miles ( 16 km ) of provincial highways were gravel and the rest were earth roads . The road allowances were laid out as a part of the Dominion Land survey system for homesteading . Travel along the Provincial Highway 7 before the 1940s would have been traveling on the square following the township road allowances , barbed wire fencing and the Canadian Northern rail line . As the surveyed township roads were the easiest to travel , the first highway was designed on 90 @-@ degree , right @-@ angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads .
Mr. Ralph Glen Chapman an early 20th century settler in Pleasant Valley maintained 10 miles ( 16 km ) of Highway 7 . Mr. Block of the German Mennonite settlement at Fiske maintained a stretch of Highway 7 as a means of supplementing his income in the 1930s . In 1939 , Andy Anderson in the same fashion , kept a 10 miles ( 16 km ) stretch of Highway 7 clear .
In 1944 the widening of Highway 7 was undertaken . The Elma rural municipality ( R.M. ) requested that an automatic warning system should be established at the level crossing of the Canadian National Railway and Highway 7 . At this same time , the rural municipality requested that the hills be gravelled which are situated on either side of Flaxcombe . The third concern in 1948 was to construct an all @-@ weather highway between Kindersley and Alsask , and this too was requested of the Department of Highways ( DOH ) . In 1950 , the rates of pay for roadwork were 60 cents an hour for a single labourer , 80 cents an hour for man and two horses , a labourer with four horses would earn C $ 1 @.@ 00 per hour and for man with six horses $ 1 @.@ 20 per hour In the 1950s the R.M. provided grants to the local snow plough club to keep the highway clear after storms . The 1951 oil strike at Coleville resulted in a Husky service station and bulk plant opening at Flaxcombe on Highway 7 in 1955 . It was located on the railroad to facilitate loading crude oil into rail cars . Highway 7 was rebuilt between 1960 and 1961 . Highway 7 currently terminates at its junction with 22nd Street West ( Highway 14 ) in west Saskatoon . In 2005 , work began on realigning Highway 7 in order to make way for the Blairmore Suburban Centre development including the Bethlehem High School , Tommy Douglas Collegiate and the Shaw Centre located where Highway 7 linked with 22nd Street prior to 2006 . Realignment is being conducted in two phases . Starting in 2006 , Highway 7 was linked with Betts Avenue , a new city street , which in turn intersected 22nd Street at a traffic signal . The city and province have begun to build an interchange farther west ( but still with the city limits ) at the junction of Highway 14 and Highway 684 ( Dalmeny Road ) , at which point the new Highway 7 alignment links with this interchange . Long @-@ term plans call for a link to be created from Highway 684 to the Yellowhead Highway in Saskatoon 's north side , though it has not yet been announced whether the Highway 7 designation will be applied north of Highway 14 . There are plans for a major construction in 2008 @-@ 2009 west of Saskatoon on Highway 7 .
= = Intersections from west to east = =
= Edward Millen =
Edward Davis Millen ( 7 November 1860 – 14 September 1923 ) was an Australian journalist and politician who served as the first Minister for Repatriation .
Millen emigrated to Australia from England around 1880 and established himself as a journalist , subsequently serving in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly from 1894 to 1898 , during which time he fiercely opposed the proposed Federation despite supporting the principle . He was a member of the New South Wales Legislative Council from 1899 until his election to the Australian Senate as a Free Trader from New South Wales at the first federal election in 1901 . Millen led the conservative parties in the Senate from 1907 until shortly before his death in 1923 .
He served as Vice @-@ President of the Executive Council ( 1909 – 10 ) and Minister for Defence ( 1913 – 14 ) in two short @-@ lived Liberal governments before his appointment as the first Minister for Repatriation in 1917 . He organised the new department and co @-@ ordinated Australia 's repatriation effort , and was briefly acting Prime Minister in 1919 , when he settled a seamen 's strike . Millen resigned from the ministry in February 1923 and died later that year , his illness attributed to his heavy workload in the post @-@ war years .
= = Early life = =
Millen was born in Deal , Kent in 1860 to John Bullock Millen , who was a pilot of the Cinque Ports , and Charlotte ( née Davis ) . He migrated to New South Wales in 1880 , having been educated in England and employed in the marine insurance business . On 19 February 1883 he married Constance Evelyn Flanagan at Bourke ; they settled as graziers in Brewarrina . Millen , who had worked as a journalist in Bourke and Walgett and wrote for the Central Australian and Bourke Telegraph ( of which he reputedly became part @-@ owner ) , became editor of the Western Herald and Darling River Advocate around 1889 , part @-@ owning the business together with Philip Chapman until 1901 . During this period he also worked as a land agent , acquiring an office in O 'Connell Street in Sydney and a house in Burwood by 1902 .
Millen stood for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly as the Free Trade candidate for Bourke in 1891 , but was defeated ; he contested the seat again in 1894 and won . He became known as a strong advocate for land reform , urging changed pastoral conditions and suggesting additional government assistance to deal with Australia 's dry climate , particularly during the 1890s drought .
= = State politics = =
Millen was a foundation member of the New South Wales Australasian Federation League in 1893 , formed to campaign for the unification of the six Australian colonies into a single Commonwealth , and in 1896 was active at the Bathurst People 's Federation Council . His distrust of Edmund Barton 's leadership led to his defeat as a candidate for the Australian Federal Convention in 1897 . In the Legislative Assembly , he objected strenuously to the proposed nature of the Senate , calling equal representation for all states " objectionable and dangerous " , and claimed that the New South Wales conventional delegates were elected because of their proficiency at " political business " , absolving New South Wales of the obligation of endorsing their decisions . As a result , Millen opposed the 1898 Federation referendum , becoming a founding member of the Anti @-@ Convention Bill League in April .
At the 1898 election , Millen was defeated by nine votes by a National Federal candidate . Having overcome his opposition to Federation , he was appointed to the New South Wales Legislative Council on 8 April 1899 as one of Premier George Reid 's twelve appointments to guarantee the passage of legislation for the 1899 referendum . At the first federal election in March 1901 , Millen stood for the Senate as a Free Trade candidate and was elected as the second of six senators for New South Wales . He resigned his Legislative Council seat in May of that year .
= = Early Senate career = =
Millen was an early leader in the Senate , serving as deputy to Josiah Symon 's unofficial leadership of the Free Trade Senators in 1901 . He advocated against high tariffs and bounties , claiming that industries that could not withstand free trade were " not entitled to much consideration at [ the Senate 's ] hands " . He was also a vigorous supporter of the White Australia policy , advocating the cessation of Kanaka immigration and the gradual deportation of those who had already arrived in Queensland ; his opposition was based on a concern that " inferior labour would ... tend to degrade labour throughout the Commonwealth " , as well as concerns about racial purity .
Millen succeeded Symon as leader of the Free Traders in the Senate in 1907 , and following the Fusion with the Protectionists in 1909 became Leader of the Government in the Senate and Vice @-@ President of the Executive Council under Prime Minister Alfred Deakin ; he would lead the various conservative parties in the Senate continuously until his death . In 1913 , following Joseph Cook 's one @-@ seat victory in the election , Millen became Minister for Defence , a position he held at the outbreak of World War I. In April 1914 he refused Winston Churchill 's suggestion that Australia need not maintain a fleet in its own territorial waters , and expressed " the sharpest criticism of the British " in a memorandum tabled in the Senate . He continued to privately criticise Britain 's management of the war , but the Cook Government ultimately placed the navy under the control of the British Admiralty in August 1914 . He oversaw the initial recruitment of 20 @,@ 000 men for the Australian Imperial Force and initialised the defence proposals for the war , but following the Labor Party 's victory at the 1914 election he returned to leading the Opposition in the Senate , although he did become a member of the parliamentary war committee .
= = Minister for Repatriation = =
Following the 1916 Labor split over conscription , Millen was included in Billy Hughes 's Nationalist ministry in February 1917 , initially as Vice @-@ President of the Executive Council but by September as Australia 's first Minister for Repatriation , dealing largely with veterans ' affairs . Together with Major Nicholas Lockyer , the controller of repatriation , Millen had responsibility for the creation of a new governmental department . The many returned servicemen in the department 's staff , most of whom had little administrative experience , caused problems ; Charles Bean wrote in 1918 that soldiers had " a dread of Millen as a politician first , last and all the time " . Millen organised the passage of the War Service Homes Act 1918 – 19 , which established the War Service Homes Commission , but the administration of the scheme by Commissioner J. T. Walker led to a series of parliamentary inquiries by the joint committee of public accounts . Walker 's appointment by Millen came into question , and the resulting investigation into the Commissioner 's accountability to the Minister and to Parliament has been described as " one of the fullest examinations of ... ministerial responsibility for the actions of an autonomous public corporation in the history of the Commonwealth Parliament " .
Millen introduced the Australian Soldiers Repatriation Bill , which provided for a paid repatriation commission and higher pensions for servicemen , into the Senate in March 1920 . In response to the bill , and vigorous lobbying of Hughes by the veterans ' movement , the bill faced difficulty in its passage and Senator Josiah Thomas successfully moved a resolution that a minister in one house might appear on the floor of the other . This bill would have allowed Millen to address the House of Representatives , where he was facing fierce criticism from the Country Party , although ultimately neither house acted on the resolution .
During Hughes 's absence in Europe in mid @-@ 1919 , the acting Prime Minister was the Treasurer , William Watt ; Millen served as acting Prime Minister when Watt fell ill during July . Millen and Watt brought a successful resolution to the seamen 's strike . In 1920 he was sent to Geneva as Australia 's delegate to the first meeting of the General Assembly of the League of Nations , where he secured mandated Pacific protectorates for Australia despite opposition from Japan . He returned to Australia in 1921 , having arranged for the funding of Australia 's debts and reorganised Australia House .
Millen 's heavy workload had begun to affect his health and he considered retirement , but he ultimately decided to continue and was re @-@ elected to the Senate at the 1922 election . He retired from the ministry in February 1923 , and in March was granted leave of absence because of his deteriorating health . He died aged 63 from chronic nephritis on 14 September 1923 at Caulfield in Melbourne , survived by his wife and two daughters . Presbyterian services were held at Parliament House in Melbourne and St Stephen 's Church in Sydney , and Millen was given a state funeral . He is buried at Rookwood Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
Millen experienced fierce criticism from both the press and parliament during his time as Minister for Repatriation , but he is remembered as an important figure in Australia 's war effort and subsequent recovery . He has been described as the " most significant " contributor to the development of repatriation in Australia , which he as inaugural minister largely defined . After his death , Billy Hughes described him as unequalled in Senate leadership , and George Pearce remembered him as " one of the ablest and most destructive critics the Federal Parliament ever had " .
= 1941 Florida hurricane =
The 1941 Florida hurricane was a compact but strong tropical cyclone that affected the Bahamas , Florida , and the southeastern United States in October 1941 . The fifth known storm of the 1941 Atlantic hurricane season , it was first observed to the north of the Virgin Islands on October 3 . The storm tracked generally westward , reaching peak winds of 120 miles per hour ( 193 km / h ) before passing through the Bahamas . After weakening somewhat , the storm later passed across southern Florida with winds of 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) . The hurricane then emerged into the Gulf of Mexico as a tropical storm , but regained hurricane intensity and made another landfall along the Florida Panhandle . Turning northeast , it crossed Georgia and South Carolina , and entered the Atlantic Ocean on October 8 .
In advance of the storm , preparations were extensive ; residents boarded up homes and businesses , while evacuations were recommended in some coastal areas . In the Bahamas , where winds reached 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) , the storm killed three people . The city of Nassau was struck particularly hard . In Florida , damage was relatively severe , and included the deaths of several people . High winds brought down trees and power lines , though the storm was characterized by highly unusual rainfall patterns . In the Everglades region , a storm surge flooded local streets . As the storm progressed northward , the city of Tallahassee suffered widespread power outages and damage to numerous vehicles . Throughout the state , the hurricane inflicted $ 675 @,@ 000 USD ( $ 10 @.@ 9 million 2011 USD ) in damage . The cyclone later killed one person in Georgia .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 3 , the first indications of a tropical system were observed 300 miles ( 483 km ) to the north of the Virgin Islands . A tropical storm is estimated to have been present late that day , though observations were very sparse near the cyclone . The next day , morning observations confirmed the presence of a circulation center , and soon afterward the cyclone underwent rapid intensification : it became a hurricane late that day , and 24 hours later , on October 5 , the storm reached a peak of 120 mph ( 193 km / h ) — equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . Shortly afterward , the smaller @-@ than @-@ average , fast @-@ moving cyclone tracked over Cat Island in the Bahamas , where a weather station indicated a pressure of 28 @.@ 48 inches of mercury ( 964 mb ) inside the eye . The measurement coincided with light winds of 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) , meaning it was not in the exact center of the eye , so a recent reanalysis found the central pressure to be somewhat lower , at 962 mb ( 28 @.@ 41 inHg ) . After striking Cat Island , the cyclone began a weakening trend and passed south of New Providence , seat of the Bahamian capital Nassau , early on October 6 . At the time , the storm was still found to be a compact , well @-@ developed hurricane .
Later that day , it made landfall 13 mi ( 21 km ) south of Miami in South Florida ; observers reported that the small eye produced calm conditions at Goulds , near Homestead . The storm contained peak winds of 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) — equivalent to low @-@ end Category 2 status — and a radius of maximum wind just 10 mi ( 16 km ) from the center . Originally , the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) listed winds of 120 mph ( 193 km / h ) at landfall in South Florida , but reanalysis determined that these winds occurred somewhat earlier , over the eastern Bahamas . Maintaining a small size , the hurricane moved through the Everglades , passing between Everglades City and Fort Myers . The storm entered the Gulf of Mexico as a strong tropical storm and broadly curved toward the northwest , tracking offshore along the west coast of Florida . It remained over open waters and recovered its intensity until the following day , when it made landfall at Carrabelle with winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , equivalent to a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane , and a measured central pressure of 29 inHg ( 982 mb ) . The cyclone still exhibited a small radius of outermost closed isobar but had reduced its forward speed .
Turning north and then northeast , the storm moved beyond Tallahassee and entered Georgia . It weakened as it progressed inland , and after passing through South Carolina , the storm re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic Ocean on October 8 with winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . While over water , the storm re @-@ intensified , reaching peak winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) on October 9 . The cyclone kept its intensity for two more days as it moved toward the southeast , executed a small loop , and turned generally toward the east @-@ northeast , passing south of Bermuda on the night of October 11 . The storm became extratropical on October 12 , fully dissipating the next day .
= = Preparations = =
During the days before the storm 's arrival in Florida , the Weather Bureau issued 40 tropical cyclone @-@ related advisories . Extensive preparations that resulted in a low loss of life and property were attributed to the warnings . In southern Florida , residents boarded up homes and businesses , and sought shelter in large structures . Hurricane parties took place in bars and hotel rooms , while some residents sat in hotel lobbies , listening to radio broadcasts . In Miami , stores sold out of various essentials — including bread and butter — as people prepared for the storm . Evacuations were recommended from Homestead to Key West , and three Coast Guard planes dropped warnings to boats near the Florida coast . The Civilian Conservation Corps also evacuated 150 of its workers from West Summerland Key to Key West .
Local chapters of the American Red Cross organized first @-@ aid stations and shelters ; transportation was provided to those who were unable to reach the shelters . In advance of the storm , Pan American World Airways suspended flights departing from and arriving at Miami and redirected them to Havana , Cuba . The United States Navy also prepared its bases in the Florida Keys for the arrival of the storm by securing boats to piers and canceling all shore leaves , while the United States Army Air Corps moved its planes from Morrison Field to a safer location inland . The state of Florida stockpiled food for those affected by the storm , establishing depots in West Palm Beach , Miami , and Fort Myers , and the Governor of Florida , Spessard Holland , ordered state agencies to prepare for relief work . A detachment of officers from the Florida Highway Patrol was sent to Miami and patrolled along highways to provide gasoline to motorists evacuating the storm . The state also opened all of the school buildings in Dade County as emergency shelters .
= = Impact = =
= = = Bahamas = = =
In the Bahamas , where considerable property damage was reported , the storm killed three people . Winds in Nassau reached 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . City streets were filled with debris , including a schooner , four sloops , and numerous other boats deposited by the winds on Nassau 's Bay Street . The winds knocked down trees and power lines , resulting in fires and extensive power outages . Along the coast , boats were ripped from their moorings and smashed against seawalls . No casualties occurred in the city . A schooner , the Goodwill II , sank during the storm . Properties and gardens received significant damage . On Cat Island , the storm produced 1 @.@ 62 inches ( 40 mm ) of rainfall .
Two men , Christopher Whymss and Salathiel Johnson drowned near Andros Island after trying to reach shore from a drowning schooner . One man , Samuel Seymour , was killed on Cat Island after his home was toppled by the wind , and several other injuries were reported on the island . " Most homes , all churches , and most public buildings " on Cat Island were also destroyed by the storm . The storm also downed telephone lines and destroyed crops . As a result , the Duke of Windsor , governor @-@ general of the Bahamas , cabled to the Red Cross for assistance , and a ship carrying " food , clothing , building materials and seeds " was quickly dispatched to Cat Island . According to a survey conducted a few days after the hurricane , 300 families on Cat Island were left homeless as were 120 families on Watlings Island . To aid these families , the Duke of Windsor announced on October 7 that he would establish a relief fund for those affected by the storm .
= = = United States = = =
On making landfall , the storm generated high winds at the Fowey Rocks Light , although they were below hurricane force . A peak wind gust of 123 mph ( 198 km / h ) was reported at Dinner Key with sustained winds up to 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . Unusually little rain fell in association with the storm ; 0 @.@ 35 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 mm ) of precipitation was reported in Miami , while locations closer to the center of the cyclone received less than 1 inch ( 25 mm ) . The light rainfall was evident throughout southeastern Florida , except for the Florida Keys , where thunderstorms enhanced the precipitation . This aspect of the storm was considered highly unusual , as most tropical cyclones are characterized by heavy rainfall . According to one study , the unusual precipitation patterns can be attributed to one of two possible conditions : " the air might have been too dry " , or " the horizontal convergence of air might have been insufficient to produce a large enough transport of moisture upwards " . The intense winds blew salt water several miles inland ; due to the lack of rainfall , the salt burned vegetation throughout the region . The high winds brought down trees and utility poles and shattered some windows in Dade County .
No deaths were reported in the region , although minor damage was inflicted on communication lines and homes and several injuries were reported . Several communities lost electricity . Some hospitals were left without power , forcing the delivery of six babies by candlelight . The storm injured seven people in the Miami area , including five firefighters who were injured " as they fought a blaze fanned by the high winds " of the hurricane . As the hurricane tracked inland , it passed over the Everglades , producing winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) at Everglades City . Along the southern shore of Lake Okeechobee , winds gusted to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) ; barometric pressure there fell to 995 mb ( 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) . Storm surge in the region triggered foot @-@ deep flooding of some streets in local towns . Docks and fishing equipment suffered extensive damage in the region . As the hurricane passed offshore , winds reached 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) near Tampa Bay . The storm also grounded a fishing schooner from Cuba off the coast of Collier County , Florida . Although no one was injured , members of the schooner crew were detained by immigration authorities .
After emerging into the Gulf of Mexico , the hurricane made another landfall at Carrabelle on the Florida Panhandle . Winds in the region were estimated at 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , and tides ran at up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal . In Tallahassee , the winds downed trees and power lines and scattered debris , rendering roads impassable . The Tallahassee Democrat reported that " at the height of the wind several hundred Tallahasseeans were seen rushing into their yard to gather pecans which were knocked down by the swaying trees " . The storm destroyed vehicles throughout the region ; replacement automobiles were sparse , as assembly plants were producing cars for the Army . Despite a lack of electricity due to the winds , the Tallahassee Democrat managed to publish 6 @,@ 000 copies of a special storm edition . Initial fears of severe damage along the coast prompted rescue crews to push toward St. Marks ; however , upon arrival a group of local residents convinced the crew that their assistance was unnecessary . Considerable crop and property damage was reported ; total losses in the state were estimated at $ 675 @,@ 000 USD ( $ 10 @.@ 9 million in today 's terms ) . Seven injuries were reported , and five men drowned in the storm tide at a fishing net drying yard in Panacea , Florida . Initially , there were reports of 20 missing fishermen . Thirty @-@ four Cuban fishermen were also trapped off the coast near Carrabelle , Florida , when ten boats ran aground and were damaged after the storm surge subsided . The fishermen 's supply of food was destroyed by salt water , but they were rescued by the Coast Guard cutter Nemesis without any injuries . After their rescue , they reported that five men had drowned in a small boat nearby .
The storm was still producing high wind gusts as it tracked into Georgia , killing one person and leaving a trail of considerable damage as far north as Albany . The single death in Georgia was a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl , Frances Hester , of Pavo , Georgia , who died after tripping over an electrical wire downed by the storm . Up to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of rain fell within the state . The storm passed through South Carolina with little damage . Throughout parts of the southeastern United States , rainfall associated with the hurricane was unusually light and unevenly distributed along its track .
= Helvellyn =
Helvellyn ( pronunciation : / hɛlˈvɛ.lɪn / ) ( possible meaning : pale yellow moorland ) is a mountain in the English Lake District , the highest point of the Helvellyn range , a north @-@ south line of mountains to the north of Ambleside , between the lakes of Thirlmere and Ullswater .
Helvellyn is the third @-@ highest point both in England and in the Lake District , and access to Helvellyn is easier than to the two higher peaks of Scafell Pike and Sca Fell . The scenery includes three deep glacial coves and two sharp @-@ topped ridges on the eastern side ( Striding Edge and Swirral Edge ) .
The volcanic rocks of which the mountain is made were formed in the caldera of an ancient volcano , many of them in violently explosive eruptions , about 450 million years ago during the Ordovician period . During the last ice age these rocks were carved by glaciers to create the landforms seen today .
Since the end of the last ice age , small populations of arctic @-@ alpine plants have survived in favourable spots on rock ledges high in the eastern coves . Rare to Britain species of alpine butterfly , the Mountain Ringlet , also live on and around Helvellyn .
Mineral veins , some with deposits of the lead ore galena , do exist within Helvellyn ’ s rocks , but attempts to find sufficient quantities of lead to be worth mining have not been successful .
Tourism has been a more successful industry in the area . For over two hundred years visitors have been drawn by the lake and mountain scenery of the Lake District , and many have made their way to the top of Helvellyn . Among the early visitors to Helvellyn were the poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth , both of whom lived nearby at one period . Many routes up the mountain are possible so that it may be approached from all directions . The view from the top is one of the most extensive over the Lake District , and on a clear day the view can also stretch from Scotland to Wales .
However , traversing the mountain is not without dangers ; over the last two hundred years there have been a number of fatalities . The artist Charles Gough is more famous for his death on Striding Edge in 1805 than for what he achieved in his life .
Among many human feats upon the mountain , one of the strangest was the landing and take @-@ off of a small aeroplane on the summit in 1926 .
= = Topography = =
The top of Helvellyn is a broad plateau , trending roughly from north @-@ west to south @-@ east for about a kilometre between Lower Man and the start of Striding Edge . Throughout this distance it remains more than 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) high . To the west the ground drops gently at first but then more steeply down to Thirlmere , while on the eastern side three deep glacial coves , each backed by high cliffs , are separated by two spectacular sharp ridges or arêtes . The middle of these coves contains Red Tarn .
Like much of the main ridge of the range , Helvellyn stands on the watershed between Thirlmere and the Derwent river system to the west , and Ullswater and the Eden river system to the east .
Streams on the west side drain directly into Thirlmere , apart from Helvellyn Gill which flows into a parallel valley to the east of Great How and empties into St John 's Beck . However , when Thirlmere reservoir was built , a leat was constructed to capture the water of Helvellyn Gill , so that it is now directed into the reservoir .
A never @-@ failing spring called Brownrigg Well exists 90 m ( 300 ft ) below the summit of Helvellyn , about 500 m ( 550 yd ) due west of the highest point , at the head of Whelpside Gill . In the nineteenth century a leat was constructed to direct the water of this spring into the gill to its north to serve the needs of the Helvellyn Mine further down . This leat has now fallen into disuse . The gill it led to is not named on any map , but some authors have referred to it as Mines Gill .
Whelp Side , between Whelpside Gill and Mines Gill , appears as a distinct shoulder of the mountain when seen from the west , largely grassy though with a few crags and boulders in places , and with coniferous plantations on its lower slopes which were planted to stabilise the land around the reservoir . North of Mines Gill are the Helvellyn Screes , a more craggy stretch of hillside , beneath the north @-@ west ridge , with a loose scree covering in places .
The deep coves on the rocky eastern side of Helvellyn drain into Ullswater . Water from Brown Cove and Red Tarn unite below Catstye Cam to form Glenridding Beck , which flows through Glenridding village to the lake , while Nethermost Cove drains into the same lake via Grisedale Beck and Patterdale village .
Red Tarn , enclosed between Striding Edge and Swirral Edge , is about 25 m ( 82 ft ) deep , but in the mid @-@ nineteenth century a dam was built to increase its capacity and supply the needs of the Greenside Mine near Glenridding . That dam has now gone and the tarn has returned to its natural size . It contains brown trout and schelly , a species of whitefish found in only four bodies of water in the Lake District .
A second reservoir was built around 1860 in Brown Cove , between Swirral Edge and Lower Man , along with one further down the valley in Keppel Cove . These provided water to generate hydroelectric power for the lead mine . The dam in Keppel Cove is still in place , but water now leaks through its base . The remains of the dam in Brown Cove can be seen , but again water leaks freely through it . It is unclear whether there ever was a natural tarn in Brown Cove . Guidebook writers before 1860 refer only to Keppel Cove Tarn to the north of Swirral Edge .
= = = Ridges = = =
A total of five ridges diverge from the summit ridge of Helvellyn at different points .
The north @-@ west ridge continues from Lower Man over Browncove Crags , becoming almost insignificant when it reaches the shore of Thirlmere , yet still separating the valley of Helvellyn Gill from the reservoir , before finally rising again to the wooded height of Great How at its terminus .
The north ridge , the main ridge of the range , also descends from Lower Man , passing over White Side and Raise to Sticks Pass , then over Stybarrow Dodd and Great Dodd to terminate at Clough Head .
The north @-@ east ridge is known as Swirral Edge , a sharp arête which joins the summit ridge at a point half @-@ way along , and which terminates in the shapely pyramid of Catstye Cam .
The east ridge is another sharp arête known as Striding Edge . This joins the summit ridge at its southern end , not far from Helvellyn 's summit . It passes over the subsidiary top of High Spying How and leads to Birkhouse Moor before descending to its final top , Keldas , beside the south end of Ullswater .
The south ridge continues the main ridge of the Helvellyn range over Nethermost Pike , High Crag and Dollywagon Pike to terminate at Grisedale Tarn .
The former county boundary between Cumberland and Westmorland lay along the Helvellyn Ridge ; this meant that the summit of Helvellyn was the highest point in Westmorland , making it a Historic County Top .
= = = Subsidiary tops = = =
= = Routes = =
The whole of Helvellyn , above the conifer plantations to the west and the intake walls surrounding the valleys of Glenridding and Grisedale to the east , is Open Access land .
Routes up Helvellyn can begin from the villages of Glenridding or Patterdale to the east , Grasmere to the south , or from a number of places along the A591 road to the west , and can follow any of the mountain 's five ridges , or the ridges of its neighbours , as well as some of the gills and shoulders on the west side of the range . Walkers can choose between many routes .
= = = The eastern ridges = = =
Striding Edge is a popular route which involves some scrambling , linking the summit ridge of Birkhouse Moor to Helvellyn 's summit by what becomes a sharp arête .
Striding Edge begins at Hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Wall and then stretches for over 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ) to the Helvellyn summit plateau . This starting point is accessible from both Glenridding and Patterdale . Hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Wall used to be a prominent gap in the stone wall on the top of the ridge where a gate was missing . Today the gap has been filled in and a ladder stile crosses the wall . From here the initial part of the ridge is relatively rounded and has a solid path running along the right @-@ hand side . This changes upon reaching High Spying How , the highest point on the ridge - 863 m ( 2 @,@ 831 ft ) . At this point a narrow path continues close to the top of the ridge , which becomes increasingly narrow , and scramblers will often follow the very top of the arête .
The path on the right @-@ hand side continues until near the end of the ridge where it switches over to the left @-@ hand side . Scramblers who continue on the top of the ridge are forced to descend an awkward short gully down from the final rock tower to rejoin the path . At this point the ridge connects with the main Helvellyn massif . Reaching the summit plateau involves a steep walk or scramble up about 80 m ( 260 ft ) of rough rocky terrain , known as The Abyss by W. A. Poucher , author of a popular series of mountain guide books between 1940 and the late 1960s . From the top of this climb the summit is only 200 m ( 220 yd ) away .
Striding Edge is a notorious accident spot among hikers and scramblers . In winter conditions the climb from Striding Edge up to the summit plateau can involve crossing steep icy ground and a snow cornice , and can be the most dangerous part of the walk . Without an ice axe or crampons this presents a serious obstacle . In January 2008 two walkers died after falling from the ridge in separate incidents . Another walker died after falling from Striding Edge in May 2008 .
Swirral Edge offers a shorter but equally exciting scramble along a similar sharp arête . The main path to it comes up from Red Tarn , which is linked by a surprisingly level path to Hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Wall , making this ridge equally accessible from Patterdale as from Glenridding . The ridge walk can be extended to include the summit of Catstye Cam .
The climb up or down from the summit plateau onto Swirral Edge is another well known accident spot . In winter it involves climbing down another snow cornice onto steep icy ground . There have been a number of accidents at this spot in recent years , making it as dangerous as Striding Edge .
Nethermost Pike also has an east ridge which gives an alternative route to Helvellyn from Grisedale , which many walkers overlook . It can be combined with a scramble on Eagle Crag , or this part can be bypassed by taking the path to Nethermost Cove before joining the ridge .
= = = Other approaches from the east = = =
From Patterdale a long but safe and easy walk ( 11 @.@ 5 km ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) ) on a good path follows the track up Grisedale to the tarn , and then takes the old pony track up the south ridge of Helvellyn . The second part of this walk takes a safe route well away from crags on the side of the ridge ( see The south ridge below . )
From Glenridding a similar long but safe and easy walk ( 11 @.@ 5 km ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) ) follows Greenside Road , past the old lead mine and towards Keppel Cove . This track , another old pony track , then zig @-@ zags up the fellside to join the main ridge path at the col between Raise and White Side .
= = = The south ridge = = =
Grisedale Tarn is the starting point for the south ridge of Helvellyn , and may be reached from Grasmere or Patterdale , or from Dunmail Raise by a path alongside Raise Beck . Above the tarn the old pony track zig @-@ zags up the fellside , and takes a safe but unexciting route well away from crags on the side of the ridge , and avoiding all the intermediate tops . In suitable weather a more interesting and scenic route is to follow the edge of the crags as closely as possible , over the tops of Dollywagon Pike , High Crag and Nethermost Pike .
= = = The western approaches = = =
Shorter and quicker routes to the top of Helvellyn , though with less attractive scenery , begin from several points along the A591 road along the west side of the mountain . Two of these may be combined to create a circular walk . Incorporating the south ridge in the route can restore much of the scenic interest .
Stannah at Legburthwaite is the starting point for the bridleway to Sticks Pass , from which Helvellyn can be approached along the main ridge track from the north .
From Thirlspot two routes lead up Helvellyn . The old pony route took a very safe and steady route for the benefit of early visitors , who took horses and a guide from the inn . The route traverses the flank of White Side to join the ridge at the col just below Lower Man . The other route , known as the White Stones Route , originally marked by stones painted white , crosses the fellside at a lower level and fords Helvellyn Gill to join the path from Swirls .
Swirls is the start of the most direct route to the top of Helvellyn , " the modern pedestrian highway " which has been paved where necessary . It zig @-@ zags up the fellside above Helvellyn Gill , over Browncove Crags and joins the main ridge at Lower Man .
Several possible routes begin at Wythburn church . A bridleway winds up the fellside , over Comb Crags and traverses the slopes of Nethermost Pike to arrive on the ridge at Swallow Scarth , the col just below Helvellyn . Other routes from Wythburn follow Comb Gill or Whelpside Gill , or Middle Tongue between these two gills . The shortest route of all follows the gill past the old lead mine , perhaps better used as a descent . Wainwright warned walkers with weak ankles to avoid it .
= = = Longer routes = = =
Helvellyn may be included in a traverse of the full length of the Helvellyn range in either direction , but with a greater sense of climax when starting from the north . Most of the ridge track is a bridleway and so the route can be completed by mountain bike in a challenging six @-@ hour circular route of 16 miles off @-@ road and 10 miles on @-@ road riding . This may begin ( and finish ) at Mill Bridge near Grasmere .
Helvellyn can also be included in a circular walk from Patterdale : up Striding Edge , down to Grisedale Tarn and back over St Sunday Crag .
= = = Climbing routes = = =
Helvellyn is a popular area for winter climbing in the Lake District . The steep headwall above Red Tarn contains several graded routes , clustered around the prow @-@ shaped buttress on the right hand side of the face , known to climbers as Viking Buttress , and in a couple of gullies which lead to the summit .
Nethermost Cove also has some routes , including a large gully between Striding Edge and the back of the cove .
Browncove Crags on the western side of the mountain has some north @-@ facing routes . These are easier to access from a car park , and they can be linked with the Red Tarn routes .
= = Fell top assessors = =
The Lake District National Park Authority employs two " Fell top assessors " during the winter months , usually between December and March . Working alternate weeks , one of these walks up Helvellyn each day during that period to check the weather , snow and walking conditions . Their report and daily photograph appear on Weatherline , the Lake District weather forecast website and phone line service , which also includes a local weather forecast from the Met Office . The fell top assessors also put their assessments and photos on Twitter . This information is important for people who go out hillwalking and climbing in winter , helping them to plan their routes and get an idea of the mountain conditions .
= = Wild camping = =
Many people do camp on Helvellyn throughout the year , often near Red Tarn which gives good views of Striding Edge , Swirral Edge , and the summit of Helvellyn itself . Although camping in England is illegal without the permission of the landowner , there is a tradition of wild camping in the Lake District . This has often been tolerated so long as people have camped unobtrusively , for no more than one night , and have left no trace of their campsite behind .
= = Summit = =
The summit of Helvellyn takes the form of a broad plateau , sloping gently to the south @-@ west , but dropping abruptly to the north @-@ east into Red Tarn cove . So smooth and large is this summit that a small aeroplane was able to land on it in 1926 ( see History below ) . The highest point , 950 m ( 3 @,@ 120 ft ) above sea level , is the top of a small rocky knoll , marked by a loose cairn . In former times this knoll used to be known as Helvellyn High Man ( or Higher Man . ) Nearby there is a cross @-@ shaped stone shelter ; to the north is an Ordnance Survey trig point , slightly lower than the summit at 949 m ( 3 @,@ 114 ft ) .
The view from the top on a clear day extends across the whole of the Lake District to the Solway Firth and hills of south @-@ west Scotland to the north @-@ west , Cheviot and the Pennine Hills to the north @-@ east , Morecambe Bay , Blackpool and the coast of North Wales to the south , and the Irish Sea to the west . Snowdon is hidden by the Coniston Fells , and the Isle of Man is largely hidden behind the Great Gable and Pillar group of fells .
The subsidiary top , Helvellyn Lower Man , is about 700 m ( 770 yd ) to the north @-@ west . Its summit is small compared to the plateau of Helvellyn , but it offers better views to the north @-@ west , as the ground falls steeply away from it on that side .
= = History = =
= = = Tourism = = =
For centuries shepherds have walked over all parts of Helvellyn in the course of their work . It is only since the late eighteenth century that people have visited the mountain for pleasure or recreation .
One of the earliest accounts of an ascent of Helvellyn for the pleasure of doing so is contained in James Clarke 's guidebook of 1787 . He quotes the account of an unnamed gentleman from Penrith who wanted to eat his dinner on Midsummer Day while sitting in a snowdrift on top of Helvellyn . The man left home at two in the morning , rode to Glencoyne and left his horse at a house in the valley there . He started to walk up the mountain at between four and five in the morning and after five hours hot and hard work he reached the snow and the summit . The snow was covered with dust so he had to dig for clean snow to eat with his dinner . He returned by a different route , reaching Glencoyne ten hours after leaving it . This story seems to reflect the colder climatic conditions of the eighteenth century , during the so @-@ called " Little Ice Age . "
Poets and artists were among the early visitors to Helvellyn at the beginning of the nineteenth century . Samuel Taylor Coleridge did a lot of fellwalking during the years when he lived near Keswick . In August 1800 , barely a month after moving there , he went to visit his friends William and Dorothy Wordsworth in Grasmere , taking a route over Helvellyn and arriving at ten in the evening .
A few days later William Wordsworth with his brother John and their friend Mr Simpson made a trip up Helvellyn , setting out after breakfast and returning home at ten that evening . A year later , in October 1801 , William and his sister Dorothy rode to Legburthwaite ( to the inn at Thirlspot ) and then to the top of Helvellyn before returning the same way . Dorothy recorded that it had been a glorious day . They had mists both above and below them , but the sun shone through and their views extended from the Scottish mountains to the sea at Cartmel . Wordsworth ’ s poem , Inmate of a mountain dwelling ( 1816 ) , celebrating the captivating power of the old mountain , was dedicated " To ... on her first ascent to the summit of Helvellyn . "
John Keats speaks of Wordsworth " on Helvellyn 's summit , wide awake ... " in a sonnet that celebrates the poet and other artists . A portrait of Wordsworth , deep in thought among the clouds on the summit of Helvellyn , was painted by Benjamin Robert Haydon in 1842 , an example of romanticism in portraiture .
An early casualty of the mountain was the artist Charles Gough , who slipped and fell from Striding Edge in April 1805 . Three months later a shepherd heard a dog barking near Red Tarn and went to investigate . He found Gough 's skeleton , his hat split in two , and his dog still in attendance . Initial newspaper reports that the dog had survived by eating the remains of her dead master were quickly forgotten . Gough became regarded as a martyr to the romantic ideal , and his dog Foxie was celebrated for her attachment and fidelity to her long @-@ dead master . William Wordsworth and Sir Walter Scott both wrote poems about the scene ; Francis Danby and Edwin Landseer both painted it . A memorial stone to Gough was erected on Helvellyn in 1890 and quotes part of Wordsworth 's poem " Fidelity . "
A small tourist industry began to grow up around the mountain , with inns providing ponies and guides as well as accommodation for the visitors , and guidebooks being published for visitors . Jonathan Otley ’ s guidebook of 1823 described the view from the summit and claimed it gave a more complete view of the Lake District than any other point . William Ford , in his guidebook of 1839 recommended the Horse Head Inn at Wythburn as a good place to stay and where a guide could be hired " at a moderate charge " ; he went on to describe the climb up Whelp Side and the view from the top . Harriet Martineau in 1855 described the ascent from Patterdale . Ponies could be taken as far as Red Tarn , where there were stakes to tether them while undertaking the final part on foot via Swirral Edge . " Though trying to unnaccustomed nerves , " she said , " there is no real danger " ; the other ridge " is always fool @-@ hardy to do " , and " every one knows " the story of Charles Gough . She also mentioned three routes from the west : one by Grisedale Tarn , one from the Nag ’ s Head at Wythburn , " the shortest , but by far the steepest , " and a third from Legburthwaite ( that is , from the inn at Thirlspot . ) An advertisement in her book , placed by the King 's Head Inn at Legburthwaite , claimed " A guide always in readiness at this inn . "
A further fatality on Striding Edge in 1858 is commemorated by the Dixon Memorial . Robert Dixon from Patterdale was killed while following foxhounds on the ridge .
= = = Aeroplane landing = = =
In 1926 a small aeroplane landed on the summit plateau of Helvellyn and took off again . The plane was an Avro 585 Gosport , a two @-@ seater biplane flown by Bert Hinkler , a test pilot who worked for A V Roe , the plane 's manufacturers , at Woodford Aerodrome near Manchester .
A ground party had cleared and marked a landing strip . Attempts on 15 December and on 21 December were abandoned .
On 22 December Hinkler , accompanied by John F. Leeming , president of the Lancashire Aero Club , made another attempt . The landing was no problem . On the steep slope and with a strong headwind the plane stopped quickly . Professor E. R. Dodds witnessed the landing . The uphill take @-@ off was more difficult and the plane dived off the edge of the summit with insufficient airspeed , but picked up speed as it dived , narrowly missing Striding Edge , to return to Manchester .
A stone tablet on Helvellyn , 40 yards ( 37 m ) south of the shelter , commemorates this landing .
= = Ecology = =
Mountain birds around Helvellyn include the raven ( Corvus corax ) , which has now become common . Peregrine falcons ( Falco peregrinus ) , buzzards ( Buteo buteo ) and ring ouzels ( Turdus torquatus ) have all bred in the immediate area . Skylarks ( Alauda arvensis ) and wheatears ( Oenanthe oenanthe ) are frequently encountered . At one time eagles ( probably Aquila chrysaetos ) soared over the mountain and bred on the steep cliffs above Red Tarn , but even in Wordsworth ’ s day they had gone , having been persecuted to extinction .
The three coves to the east of Helvellyn are all important sites for remnant populations of arctic @-@ alpine plants . Species such as Downy Willow ( Salix lapponum ) , Mountain Avens ( Dryas octopetala ) , Alpine Mouse @-@ ear ( Cerastium alpinum ) , Alpine Meadowgrass ( Poa alpina ) and others have been able to survive in these coves since the last glaciation through a combination of rocks rich in basic minerals , a harsh micro @-@ climate , and inaccessibility to grazing sheep on cliff ledges . However , these populations are small and are not reproducing well . Natural England has introduced a recovery plan for them .
Red Tarn , a classic corrie tarn , is a high altitude tarn with low nutrient levels and poor in the number of species it supports . Characteristic vegetation zones include a water @-@ starwort ( Callitriche ) in shallower areas and the alga Nitella flexilis in deeper water and around the inlet . Other species include a pondweed ( Potamogeton ) which grows in 2 – 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) of water and the rush Juncus bulbosus . Brown trout and schelly , a species of whitefish , are found in the tarn .
Grassland on the Helvellyn range has been heavily overgrazed for many years , yet it supports a diversity of acid grassland species including Sheep ’ s fescue ( Festuca ovina ) on the summit ridge , Matgrass ( Nardus stricta ) on the middle slopes , and fescue @-@ bent swards on the lower slopes . The Nardus grasslands are the haunt of the scarce Mountain Ringlet butterfly ( Erebia epiphron ) , the only alpine species of butterfly found in Britain . Acidic flushes ( areas of water seepage ) with their carpets of sphagnum mosses are common . Less common are basic flushes , which support a greater diversity of species .
The summit and the eastern side of the mountain are part of the Helvellyn & Fairfield Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) . This covers an area of 2 @,@ 418 @.@ 8 hectares ( 5 @,@ 977 acres ) and was designated in 1975 because of the area 's geological and biological features . Natural England , which is responsible for choosing SSSIs , tries to ensure that the management and use of the area is sustainable .
= = Geology = =
All the rocks of Helvellyn are part of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group , formed on the margin of an ancient continent during a period of intense volcanic activity during the Ordovician period , roughly 450 million years ago .
Helvellyn lies within a geological structure which is interpreted as evidence of a volcanic caldera . This is a semi @-@ circular series of faults which sweep eastwards to encompass Helvellyn , Patterdale , Deepdale and Fairfield , and which abut against a major north @-@ south fault to the west ( along the line of the A591 road ) .
This caldera was formed by an eruption of exceptional magnitude which produced a series of pyroclastic flows , fast moving currents of hot gas and rock , which buried the whole district of roughly 500 km2 ( 190 sq mi ) beneath at least 150 m ( 490 ft ) ( in places up to 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) of ignimbrite ) . This succession of ignimbrites is known as the Lincomb Tarns Tuff Formation , the most widespread volcanic formation in the Lake District . The eruption of such a huge quantity of magma emptied the magma chamber beneath the volcano and led to the collapse of the overlying rocks to form the caldera .
The lowest and oldest rocks on Helvellyn are those of this Lincomb Tarns Tuff Formation , which outcrop along the western side , up to roughly the 550 m ( 1 @,@ 800 ft ) contour on Whelp Side . The lowest part of the formation here is the densely welded lapilli @-@ tuff of the Thirlmere Member , in which the individual pieces of semi @-@ molten lava were flattened under the weight of deposits above them . Contemporaneous movement on the caldera 's boundary fault has produced a thick deposit of breccia above the Helvellyn Screes and on Browncove Crags . The Thirlmere Member is overlain by a deposit of volcaniclastic sandstone , the Raise Beck Member , deposited in water during a break in the volcanism , but succeeded by further thick ignimbrite deposits .
Above these ignimbrites are found sedimentary rocks of the Esk Pike Sandstone Formation . These were deposited in water , probably in a caldera lake , as the volcanic rocks weathered and were eroded . Structures in these rocks suggest the faults were still active and the caldera was still subsiding . Layers of tuff and lapilli @-@ tuff indicate some ongoing volcanism .
Higher still on Helvellyn , as well as in the coves to the east and covering Swirral Edge and Catstye Cam , are rocks of the Helvellyn Tuff Formation . This consists of up to 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) of ignimbrite , representing another series of pyroclastic flows . This Helvellyn Tuff is found only within the boundary faults of the caldera , and mainly in its western half .
The highest surviving rocks on Helvellyn , found on the summit plateaux of Helvellyn itself and of Nethermost Pike , and along the crest of Striding Edge , are the volcaniclastic sandstones of the Deepdale Sandstone Formation . Again , this formation is confined to the limits of the caldera , and represents another return to erosion and sedimentary deposition within a caldera lake , though with layers of pyroclastic rock showing that the volcanism had not entirely finished .
= = = Glaciation = = =
During the Late Devensian glaciation , which occurred 28 @,@ 000 to 14 @,@ 700 years Before Present ( BP ) , the whole of northern England was covered by an ice sheet . Helvellyn was one of a small number of nunataks which protruded above the ice .
A short period of glacial conditions returned between 12 @,@ 650 and 11 @,@ 550 years BP , known in Britain as the Loch Lomond Stadial ( and elsewhere as the Younger Dryas stadial ) , when the Gulf Stream current ceased to flow past the British Isles . Small cirque and valley glaciers formed in north and east facing valleys , including Grisedale and the coves on the east side of Helvellyn . The results are seen in moraines of unsorted boulder gravel in the valleys , the spectacular coves with steep headwalls , and the sharp arêtes formed where the rock was eroded on both sides between adjacent glaciers .
Glacial conditions ended suddenly , 11 @,@ 550 years BP , when the Gulf Stream current was re @-@ established . Periglacial processes in seasonal freeze @-@ thaw conditions , both present and past , have produced sorted stone stripes and solifluction lobes and sheets on the summit ridge of Helvellyn . These are one reason why the area was included in the Helvellyn & Fairfield SSSI .
= = Mining = =
Two unsuccessful attempts to find lead ore on Helvellyn have been made .
Brown Cove Mine was high up at the head of Brown Cove , where some disused spoil heaps remain , with a couple of levels , one of which ran about 70 m ( 80 yd ) into the mountainside .
Helvellyn Mine or Wythburn Mine opened in 1839 by the gill between Whelpside and Helvellyn Screes . It was operated by a succession of different owners , driving five levels through mostly barren rock to explore three mineral veins . It finally closed in 1880 when Manchester Corporation acquired the land for the Thirlmere reservoir . Only a few hundred tons of galena came out of the mine ; probably insufficient to cover its costs .
Little can be seen of the levels now for the entrances were destroyed when the mine closed , but several spoil heaps remain , one covering the gill , along with the old miners ’ path which zig @-@ zags up the hillside , a self @-@ acting incline to lower ore to the dressing floor , and the old winding drum house . The narrow leat which once diverted water from Brownrigg Well into the gill beside the mine may also be seen , much higher up the fellside .
= = Names = =
Helvellyn . The earliest known record of the name dates from 1577 , but early records are spelling variations of the modern name ( such as Helvillon , Helvelon or Hell Belyn ) rather than any help with the etymology . Various attempts to interpret the name have been made in the past . Some , misled by the present spelling , thought the final syllable was the Welsh word llyn , " lake " . Richard Coates in 1988 proposed a Celtic derivation from the deduced Cumbric word hal , " moorland " , and velin , the Cumbric equivalent of the Welsh word melyn meaning " yellow . "
Recent place @-@ name studies have accepted the " yellow moorland " derivation , but have struggled to understand how Helvellyn can be regarded as a yellow mountain . Colour , in the Celtic languages , is perceived differently from the way it is seen and described in modern English . For example , in Scottish Gaelic the spectrum of colours was " pastel rather than primary , gentle rather than bold . " Colours were related to a landscape context in which blues , greens , greys and whites in particular were both more diverse and more differentiated than in English . People who relied on the system of transhumance for their livelihood gained the ability to assess the nutritional value of upland grasses from a distance before moving their stock to a summer shieling , and used appropriate colour terms for grasses which would become progressively more green as the spring advanced . Yellow , at least in Gaelic hill names , is not a bright colour . It describes hills which are distinguished by grasses such as Nardus stricta and Deschampsia flexuosa , both of which appear pale and bleached in winter . These grasses are common on the Helvellyn range , in an area where transhumance also used to be practiced . Nardus stricta in particular is an unpalatable and unproductive grass , and the Flora of Cumbria specifically notes a possible connection between areas of late snow cover and Nardus grassland at high altitudes in the Helvellyn range . A name describing the mountain as " pale yellow moorland " is therefore meaningful in a Celtic context .
Lower Man . The mountain has two tops , which used to be distinguished as Helvellyn Low Man ( or Lower Man ) and Helvellyn High Man ( or Higher Man ) . Both are drawn and labelled on a panoramic view of the range found in Jonathan Otley 's guidebook of 1823 .
Striding Edge . An edge in mountain place @-@ names is a steep escarpment , on either one side or ( as here ) on both sides . The first reference to Striding Edge was by Walter Scott in 1805 as Striden @-@ edge . A map of 1823 called it Strathon Edge . It is possible that " Striding Edge " has replaced an earlier name , now lost .
Swirral Edge may be either " The precipitous ridge that causes giddiness " or " The precipitous ridge where the wind or snow swirls around . " An edge is a steep escarpment , as above . Swirrel , a dialect variation of " swirl " has two possible explanations . It can be used to mean " giddiness , vertigo " , but it can also be used of a place in the mountains where wind or snow swirls around .
= Toni Preckwinkle =
Toni Preckwinkle ( née Reed ; March 17 , 1947 ) is the current Cook County Board President and a former alderman in the Chicago City Council representing Chicago 's 4th ward in Cook County , Illinois , United States . She was elected on November 2 , 2010 , as President of the Cook County Board , the Executive Branch of Cook County government . Preckwinkle first sought office in 1983 and was defeated twice before securing election in 1991 and subsequently being re @-@ elected as alderman four times .
Preckwinkle had been an occasional critic of Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley . In her first four terms in office she emerged as the council 's prominent defender of affordable housing . Among other issues , she is known for her sponsorship of living wage ordinances , her expressed concerns regarding the costs and benefits of the city 's Olympic bid , and her strong stance against police brutality and excessive force .
= = Early life , family , and career = =
Preckwinkle was born in St. Paul , Minnesota , moving to Chicago to study at the University of Chicago in the Hyde Park community area , where she earned her bachelor 's and master 's degrees . From 1969 to 2013 , she was married to Zeus Preckwinkle , a retired seventh- and eighth @-@ grade teacher at Ancona Montessori School . They have two children . Her former husband is Caucasian , which at times was a campaign issue .
After college , Preckwinkle spent ten years teaching history in several high schools in the Chicago metropolitan area , including Calumet High School , the Visitation School , and Aquinas . In 1985 and 1986 Preckwinkle was President of the Disabled Adult Residential Enterprises ( DARE ) . Preckwinkle has been a member of the Board of Directors of the Illinois Council Against Handgun Violence , Political Action Director of the Near South Chapter of the Independent Voters of Illinois ( IVI @-@ IPO ) . During and after her 1987 aldermanic election campaign , she worked as a planner for the Chicago Department of Economic Development . By 1990 , she had become executive director of the Chicago Jobs Council , and become allied with civil rights attorney R. Eugene Pincham .
= = The 4th Ward = =
Chicago 's fourth ward is on the South Side of Chicago , adjacent to the Lake Michigan lakefront . It includes all of the Kenwood and Oakland community areas , the northern portion of Hyde Park and the eastern portions of the Washington Park , Grand Boulevard and Douglas community areas . The northern part of the ward ( North of 45th Street ) is predominantly poor and African American , while the more racially diverse southern half is predominantly middle and upper middle @-@ class .
= = Unsuccessful campaigns for alderman = =
In her first two aldermanic election attempts for the 4th ward , in 1983 and 1987 , Preckwinkle lost to the incumbent , Timothy C. Evans . Evans was Chicago Mayor Harold Washington 's City Council floor leader and lieutenant . In 1983 , she gained enough support to force a runoff election . ( Chicago Aldermen are elected without regard to political party affiliation , but must earn a majority of votes or the top two candidates have a runoff election . ) In the runoff , Preckwinkle carried traditionally " independent " precincts in Hyde @-@ Park , but Evans was able to win by carrying the precincts in the north of the Ward .
In the 1987 elections , Evans defeated Preckwinkle by a 77 % to 21 % margin . In 1987 , although both the Chicago Tribune and Chicago Sun @-@ Times endorsed Evans , they praised Preckwinkle for her numerous qualities , including intelligence and independence , and expressed hopes she would continue in politics . Preckwinkle was endorsed by state Rep. Carol Moseley Braun and also by the Independent Voters of Illinois @-@ Independent Precinct Organization , but not by Harold Washington , who endorsed Evans .
= = Third campaign for alderman = =
In 1991 Preckwinkle and four others challenged Evans for the 4th ward alderman 's position . In the first round of voting on February 26 , 1991 , she won nearly one @-@ third popular vote in the ward by winning 20 of 58 precincts ( all in the Hyde Park @-@ Kenwood community ) . Evans and Preckwinkle again advanced to a runoff election , as they had in 1983 , but this time the majority of the eliminated candidates endorsed Preckwinkle . On April 2 , 1991 , Preckwinkle performed better in the northern part of the ward and was elected by a 109 @-@ vote margin , defeating the 17 @-@ year incumbent alderman Evans .
= = Alderman = =
On February 27 , 2007 , Preckwinkle was elected to her fifth four @-@ year term .
Preckwinkle has developed a reputation for progressiveness . On the City Council Preckwinkle was known as a progressive member , independent of then @-@ Mayor Richard M. Daley , with whom she dissented more often than any other alderman . Preckwinkle was one of the few aldermen on the City Council occasionally critical of the policies of former Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley . In 2004 , she and Dorothy Tillman were the only aldermen to vote against the Mayor 's city budget , and in 2005 , Preckwinkle was the lone dissenter . Preckwinkle has supported the majority of legislation advanced by the mayor and his allies , including most of Daley ’ s annual budget proposals ; his controversial use of tax increment financing , an economic development program in which tax revenues are funneled into accounts controlled almost exclusively by the mayor ; and , ultimately , his quest to host the 2016 Summer Olympics .
Preckwinkle has championed set @-@ asides for affordable housing as her signature issue , and the municipal ordinances she sponsored in 1993 and 1999 for affordable housing increased city expenditures on low and moderate income housing by 50 percent . In 2007 , she pushed for increases in the existing Affordable Requirements Ordinance . This mandates housing developers using land bought at a discount from the city to make at least 10 percent of their housing units " affordable " , or to contribute money to an affordable @-@ housing fund by increasing the percentage to 15 percent . The issue is considered a key element in the debate about ending homelessness in Chicago . Her detailed knowledge of public housing has been recognised in the national press , which has cited her defense of the maligned Vince Lane when the federal government took over Chicago 's public housing projects .
Preckwinkle was a co @-@ sponsor of the living wage ordinances that passed the city council in 1998 and 2002 . On July 26 , 2006 , Preckwinkle was one of 35 aldermen who voted to approve the 2006 Chicago Big Box Ordinance sponsored by Alderman Joe Moore ( 49th ) which for 7 weeks made Chicago the largest United States city that required big @-@ box retailers to pay a " living wage . "
In October 2007 Preckwinkle opposed naming a landmark in the 4th ward for 1976 Nobel literature laureate Saul Bellow , reportedly on the grounds that Bellow had made remarks that Preckwinkle considered racist . She also opposed the renaming of a stretch of street near the original Playboy Club " Hugh Hefner Way . "
In 2006 , Preckwinkle decided to paint over two 36 @-@ year @-@ old , unmaintained and severely damaged public murals in the 47th Street Metra underpass . The murals had been created by graffiti artists , working with permission from the Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs , and had represented themes that included Latin @-@ American , African , Mayan , Indian , and Native American spiritual practices . The walls were later covered with newly commissioned murals : one is made up of a series of ceramic tiles and the other is a traditional painted mural featuring the city and important historical South Side figures , including former Alderman Dorothy Tillman .
Preckwinkle has been outspoken in support of the city settling the Jon Burge torture case , rather than continuing to spend money in the litigation process . Preckwinkle has also been proactive in the effort to pursue compensation for victims of police brutality in the Jon Burge cases and sought hearings on the initial special prosecutor 's report . She has been a critic of the decades @-@ long delay in settling the case , and she was a proponent of the settlement .
In 2007 , Preckwinkle pursued disclosure of Chicago Police Department officers who used excessive force . The United States District Court had ruled that the records be unsealed and made available to the public . However , on July 13 , 2007 , the city filed an emergency motion to stay the judge 's order . When the city argued in the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals to against disclosure , it made the point that aldermen would have access to the information . Preckwinkle 's August 23 , 2007 , request for disclosure was denied .
The unsuccessful Chicago 2016 Olympic bid placed the main site of the $ 1 @.@ 1 billion residential complex , which would have accommodated athletes in an Olympic Village in the 4th Ward . Preckwinkle expressed her reservations about the initial plan , and was involved in plan revisions . Since the planned construction was almost entirely in her ward , she expressed concern that her constituents were not offered a chance to voice their concerns with the plan . She was an early advocate of moving what would have been the Olympic Village from the McCormick Place truck yard to the Michael Reese Hospital site . On March 14 , 2007 , Preckwinkle joined four other South Side aldermen in voting against a $ 500 million public @-@ funded guarantee to back up Chicago 's Olympics bid . On September 9 , 2009 , Preckwinkle voted to authorize Mayor Richard Daley to sign the International Olympic Committee 's host city contract that included financial guarantees putting full responsibility for the Olympics and its proposed $ 4 @.@ 8 billion operating budget on taxpayers .
= = Democratic Party Committeeman = =
Preckwinkle is also the Democratic Committeeman for the 4th Ward , a position within the Cook County Democratic Party . Each of the 50 wards of the city and the 30 townships of Cook County elect a Democratic Committeeman to the Cook County Central Committee . These committeemen form the official governing body of the Cook County Democratic Party which , among other purposes , endeavors to attract , endorse , and support qualified Democratic candidates for office .
Preckwinkle succeeded Evans as 4th Ward Democratic committeeman in 1992 , defeating former Evans administrative assistant Johnnie E. Hill by 6 @,@ 227 to 2 @,@ 327 votes in the March 17 , 1992 primary election ; Evans had filed nominating petitions to run for re @-@ election as committeeman and run for judge , but withdrew his name from the ballot for committeeman so his name would only appear once on the ballot , for the judgeship ( to which he was elected ) . Preckwinkle was re @-@ elected as 4th Ward Democratic committeeman on March 19 , 1996 , running unopposed on the ballot after her successful challenges to the nominating petitions of Charles S. Williams and her 1995 and 1999 aldermanic challenger Kwame Raoul , who were both just a few dozen signatures short of the number required to earn a place on the ballot . Preckwinkle was re @-@ elected , again running unopposed on the ballot , as 4th Ward Democratic committeeman in March 2000 , March 2004 and February 2008 .
On November 6 , 2004 , the 10 Democratic ward committeemen whose wards make up parts of the 13th Illinois legislative district voted to appoint Kwame Raoul to the state senate seat vacated two days earlier by then U.S. Senator @-@ elect Barack Obama ; 4th Ward Democratic committeeman Preckwinkle and 5th Ward Democratic committeeman Leslie Hairston had the largest says in the appointment with 29 % and 27 % , respectively , of the weighted @-@ vote based on the percentage of votes cast in each ward in the 13th legislative district for Obama in the November 5 , 2002 general election .
Preckwinkle chairs the ward organization , the Fourth Ward Democratic Organization , which was one of sixteen Chicago Democratic ward organizations named in a complaint filed on August 31 , 2005 with the Illinois State Board of Elections by the Cook County Republican Party charging that Democratic Party ward organizations are illegally housed in City @-@ funded neighborhood ward offices . Taxpayers fund aldermanic service centers , which are open to the public . State law prohibits the use of public funds by any candidate for political or campaign purposes . The complaint against Preckwinkle 's ward organization was one of nine that a Hearing Officer appointed by the Board recommended proceed to the next step of the hearing process , an Open Preliminary Hearing . On October 17 , 2005 , at a regularly scheduled meeting of the Board of Elections , the Board entered an executive session and voted , in a 4 – 4 tie , along strict party lines , failing to adopt the recommendation of the Hearing Officer , and ordered the complaints dismissed . The complaint against Preckwinkle 's ward organization was one of eight that the Cook County Republican Party appealed all the way to the Supreme Court of Illinois . On January 23 , 2009 , the Illinois Supreme Court unanimously ordered the Illinois appellate court to conduct a judicial review of the Board 's dismissals of the complaints .
Preckwinkle nominated Joseph Berrios for re @-@ election as Chairman of the Democratic Party of Cook County at a meeting of the Cook County Democratic Central Committee on March 3 , 2010 . At the time Berrios was the incumbent chairman as well as a commissioner with the Cook County Board of Review and the Democratic candidate for Cook County Assessor . Berrios was re @-@ elected .
= = Relationship with Barack Obama = =
Preckwinkle 's views on Obama were prominently featured in a July 2008 New Yorker cover story on Barack Obama 's political origins . The article begins by recounting a 1995 meeting between Preckwinkle and Obama in which he discussed a possible run for the Illinois Senate seat then held by Alice Palmer . According to the New Yorker 's account , Preckwinkle " soon became an Obama loyalist , and she stuck with him in a State Senate campaign that strained or ruptured many friendships but was ultimately successful . " In 1995 , she successfully challenged the signatures of Obama 's opponents in the Democratic Primary for the Illinois Senate , allowing Obama to run unopposed .
Preckwinkle supported Barack Obama early in his political career , endorsing him in his campaigns for Illinois Senate in 1995 – 6 , U.S. House in 1999 – 2000 , and U.S. Senate in 2003 – 4 . She was among those who encouraged Barack Obama to make his first run for the United States Congress in 2000 , and she was an early supporter when he ran in 2004 . When Obama later became a United States Senator following the 2004 United States Senate election in Illinois , Preckwinkle had a large say in his Illinois State Senate replacement . She became Obama 's Alderman when he moved from Hyde Park to South Kenwood in June , 2005 .
According to the New Yorker article , Preckwinkle had since become " disenchanted " with Obama . The article ’ s author suggested that Preckwinkle 's " grievances " against Obama were motivated by Preckwinkle 's perception that Obama was disloyal . Notwithstanding any such concerns , Preckwinkle was an Obama delegate at the 2008 Democratic National Convention .
= = Cook County Board President = =
Preckwinkle announced that she would run for President of the Cook County Board in January 2009 . She launched her campaign website on June 18 , 2009 . On February 2 , 2010 she won the Democratic Primary , defeating the incumbent Board President Todd Stroger , among others . Preckwinkle faced Roger Keats , the Republican nominee , in the November general election . On November 2 , Preckwinkle became the first woman elected as Cook County President by capturing over two @-@ thirds of the vote . Her Republican opponent received only 26 % of the vote , and then moved out of Illinois . She recommended that Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley appoint Will Burns to succeed her as Fourth Ward Alderman , but Burns preferred to run in an open primary . Mayor Daley appointed Shirley Newsome as a " caretaker " alderman on January 12 , 2011 . Burns handily won the special election for the seat a month later .
In August 2012 , Dr. Nancy Jones , former head of the Cook County Morgue , declared " This woman is evil " regarding Preckwinkle 's handling of the management and budgeting of the Morgue , which had led to alleged bodies piling up and filthy conditions . Also in August 2012 , Preckwinkle stated at a conference hosted by former Governor Jim Edgar that former President Ronald Reagan deserved a " special place in hell " for his involvement in " making drug use political " . Preckwinkle was defending Chicago 's move to decriminalize possession of small amounts of cannabis by allowing police to write tickets , asserting that drug laws unfairly lead to more minorities behind bars . She later stated her regret for her " inflammatory " remark .
On March 22 , 2016 , Preckwinkle announced that Brian Hamer , who served as the state 's revenue director under Gov. Rod Blagojevich and then Quinn , would replace Tasha Green Cruzat as chief of staff .
Some political observers considered Preckwinkle a potentially viable candidate in the 2015 Chicago mayoral election .
= Kill the Alligator and Run =
" Kill the Alligator and Run " is the nineteenth episode of the eleventh season of the American animated television sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 30 , 2000 . In the episode , Homer suffers from a nervous breakdown after taking a quiz that reveals he only has three years left to live . To calm himself down , he and the rest of the Simpson family go to Florida for vacation . There , they end up in the middle of a raucous spring break . Homer joins in on the party and ends up getting himself and his family in trouble for killing the state 's beloved mascot – an alligator named Captain Jack . The Simpsons run from the law and take jobs at a small restaurant while hiding from the police .
Diedrich Bader guest starred in " Kill the Alligator and Run " as a sheriff that tries to arrest the Simpson family , while Robert Evans and Charlie Rose guest starred in a scene in which Homer watches the two in an interview on television . Kid Rock and Joe C. also made guest appearances as themselves in the episode , performing at a concert in Florida that Homer attends . The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Jen Kamerman . According to The Simpsons showrunner Mike Scully , it is despised by many fans of the show particularly for having an outlandish plotline . The reception of " Kill the Alligator and Run " by critics has been negative . Around 7 @.@ 46 million American homes tuned in to watch the episode during its original airing . In 2008 , it was released on DVD along with the rest of the episodes of the eleventh season .
= = Plot = =
Homer gets a magazine loaded with personality tests and quizzes his friends and family with them . Later on , he takes his own test which reveals that has only three years left to live . Terrified of his supposedly impending death , he develops insomnia and goes insane . Homer visits the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant 's psychiatrist , who suggests that he take a long vacation . The Simpsons go on a trip to Florida and find themselves in the middle of a raucous spring break when they get there . Marge wants Homer to stay in his hotel room , but he escapes to party and attends a concert featuring Joe C. and Kid Rock . Homer becomes the life of spring break until it ends and the wild college students return to their studies .
Homer , who still wants to party , rents an airboat and forces his family to come with him . He races through a swamp , accidentally killing the state 's most famous resident and reptile – an alligator named Captain Jack , whom Marge , Maggie , Lisa , and Bart saw on a tour earlier while Homer made a fool of himself at the concert . A sheriff quickly arrives on the scene and despite the fact that Homer is the sole guilty culprit , the entire family is charged for killing the alligator . The family members flee from the sheriff and during a car chase they are hit by a train that pushes their car on the rail for several miles . When the Simpsons get off of the rail , they escape to a restaurant where they are given employment . They live in a nearby trailer and progressively turn into hillbillies . The sheriff eventually tracks them down and kidnaps them while they are sleeping . For their crimes ( and Homer 's foolish attempt at defending himself in court ) , the family is put into forced labor . One night when they are working at a party held by a judge in front of the capitol , tending to the guests ( and failing to escape ) , Captain Jack strolls out of the capitol 's doors . It turns out that he was never dead but rather knocked out . The family is acquitted , though they are banned from entering the state of Florida again ( and several other states , excluding Arizona and North Dakota ) .
= = Production = =
" Kill the Alligator and Run " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Jen Kamerman as part of the eleventh season of The Simpsons ( 1999 – 2000 ) . When the animation department finished its work on the episode , it had ended up being about four minutes too long and the staff of the show was forced to make some difficult cuts . One scene that was cut saw Captain Jack lying in state at the capitol in Florida , with Kid Rock being one of the people present to pay their respects to the alligator . The Simpsons showrunner Mike Scully has expressed regret for cutting this scene out because it " hurts the logic " later in the episode when Captain Jack crawls out of the capitol and reveals himself to everyone , without any explanation to how he got there .
Actor Diedrich Bader guest starred in the episode as the sheriff . The Simpsons producer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham directed Bader during his recording session , telling the guest star to do a Southern accent . The episode also features guest appearances from talk show host Charlie Rose and film producer Robert Evans as themselves . Evans and Rose appear in a scene at the beginning of the episode , when Homer stays up late and watches television because of his fear that he might die in his sleep . Rose is seen interviewing Evans on the television , and as they are talking about Evan 's film Love Story , Rose says : " And the critics loved it , too . I remember Vincent Canby said , [ turns to the camera ] ' I 'm going to kill you , Homer . You are so dead . ' " The last part is imagined by Homer , who has become incredibly sleepy . Later in the interview , when talking about his unsuccessful film The Two Jakes , Evans says : " I said to myself , ' Evans , you forgot Hollywood Rule No. 1 : [ turns to the camera ] Kill Homer Simpson . ' "
Musicians Kid Rock and Joe C. guest starred in the episode as themselves , performing at the annual spring break concert that Homer sneaks out to attend . When Joe C. makes his first appearance on stage in the episode , Homer mistakes him for a child that has lost his parents . After performing his song " Bawitdaba " , Kid Rock tells the audience that he is going to pour out forty gallons of malt liquor on the curb as a way of showing respect to his homies that could not make it to the concert . When Homer hears this he starts to drink the malt liquor . Just as Kid Rock and Joe C. are about to stop him by hurling Joe C. ( now wearing a spiked helmet ) at him with a slingshot , the sheriff arrives and settles the situation . Scully said in an interview with the Detroit Free Press that the staff of the show chose Kid Rock and Joe C. for the episode because the two " have a lot of stage presence " and visually are " a funny combination , " and because the staff thought " they would be funny playing off Homer . " According to Scully , the two musicians " had a great sense of humor [ ... ] about themselves , " with Kid Rock asking if " he could add a couple of his own lines . He wanted to introduce himself as ' the pimp of the nation . ' We kept that in the show . It 's quite a title . " Kid Rock recorded some of his dialog over the phone , but also paid a 45 @-@ minute visit to the Simpsons studio in Los Angeles to record lines . Scully thought it looked like the singer enjoyed the experience and was surprised to see that he arrived on time . " My first reaction to that was , ' What kind of rock star is this ? ' , " Scully jokingly told the Detroit Free Press . All of Joe C. ' s lines were recorded over the phone .
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 30 , 2000 . It was viewed in approximately 7 @.@ 46 million households that night . With a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 4 , the episode finished 46th in the ratings for the week of April 23 – 30 , 2000 . It was the third highest @-@ rated broadcast on Fox that week , following an episode of Malcolm in the Middle ( which received an 8 @.@ 2 rating ) and an episode of The X @-@ Files ( which received a 7 @.@ 7 rating ) . On October 7 , 2008 , " Kill the Alligator and Run " was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season . Staff members Mike Scully , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , George Meyer , Matt Selman , Julie Thacker , and Steven Dean Moore , as well as cast member Dan Castellaneta and guest star Diedrich Bader , participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . Deleted scenes from the episode were also included in the box set .
According to Scully , " Kill the Alligator and Run " is often cited by fans of The Simpsons as one of the worst episodes ever because of its structure and outlandish nature . Scully has said that the episode is " kind of three stories in one . " Meyer , a writer and producer on the show , said in the DVD audio commentary that the fans thought it was " kind of a frenetic and crazy , chaotic episode , " adding : " I can 't disagree . But we had a lot of fun writing it , and we stand by it . " While reviewing the eleventh season of The Simpsons , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented on the episode , writing : " Wow – this may be the most jumbled Simpsons to date ! The episode seems to suffer from ADD as it can ’ t focus on any topic for very long . It flits from one gag to another with abandon and rarely makes much sense – or produces many laughs . Yeah , it has a few amusing moments , but it ’ s too scattershot to succeed . " Annie Alleman of The Herald News , on the other hand , named " Kill the Alligator and Run " her eighth favorite Simpsons episode . Nancy Basile of About.com thought the best scene of the episode is the one where the Simpsons have become hillbillies and are sitting on their porch , and Bart says " I 'm getting used to this country life . Teacher says I 'm whittling at a tenth @-@ grade level . " Corey Deiterman of the Houston Press listed Kid Rock at number one in his list of the top five worst musical guests in Simpsons history .
= Noel Gallagher =
Noel Thomas David Gallagher ( born 29 May 1967 ) is an English musician , singer , guitarist , and songwriter . He served as the lead guitarist , co @-@ lead vocalist and principal songwriter of the rock band Oasis . Raised in Burnage , Manchester , Gallagher began learning guitar at the age of thirteen . After a series of odd jobs in construction , he worked for local Manchester band Inspiral Carpets as a roadie and technician in 1988 . Whilst touring with them , he learned that his brother Liam Gallagher had formed a band of his own , known as The Rain , which eventually took on the name Oasis . After Gallagher returned to England , he was invited by his brother to join Oasis as songwriter and guitarist .
Oasis ' debut album , Definitely Maybe ( 1994 ) , marked the beginning of the band 's rise to fame as part of the Britpop movement . Oasis ' second album , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1995 ) , reached the top of the album charts in many countries and their third studio album , Be Here Now ( 1997 ) , became the fastest @-@ selling album in UK chart history . Britpop eventually declined in popularity and Oasis ' next two albums failed to revive it . However , the band 's final two albums , Don 't Believe the Truth ( 2005 ) and Dig Out Your Soul ( 2008 ) , were hailed as its best efforts in over a decade and found renewed success . On 28 August 2009 , following an altercation with Liam prior to a gig in Paris , Noel Gallagher announced his departure from Oasis and on 23 October 2009 , he confirmed he would embark on a solo career . Gallagher would go on to form Noel Gallagher 's High Flying Birds .
Gallagher 's run with Oasis was marked by turbulence , especially during the peak of Britpop , during which he was involved in several disputes with Liam , and the brothers ' fights and wild lifestyles regularly made headlines in British tabloid newspapers . Gallagher ( along with Oasis ) also shared a personal rivalry with fellow Britpop band Blur . However , he was often regarded as the spear @-@ head of the Britpop movement , and at one point of time , NME termed a number of Britpop bands ( including Kula Shaker , Ocean Colour Scene and Cast ) as " Noelrock " , citing Gallagher 's influence on their success . Many have praised Gallagher 's songwriting , with George Martin claiming him to be ' the finest songwriter of his generation ' .
= = Early life = =
Gallagher was born in Longsight , Manchester , the son of Irish parents Peggy and Thomas Gallagher . He was the couple 's second child , after the birth of Paul Anthony Gallagher . Soon after the birth of younger brother Liam in 1972 , the Gallaghers moved to Ashburn Avenue in the Manchester suburb of Burnage . Gallagher had an unhappy childhood . He and his brothers were often beaten by their father , who was an alcoholic , and he was often reclusive . Liam described him as " the weirdo in the family " . Due to their unease around their father , he and Paul both developed stammers . As the oldest child , Paul was given a room to himself , and Noel was forced to share with Liam .
Peggy Gallagher acquired a legal notice of separation from her husband in 1976 . Six years later , she finally left him , taking the three boys with her . As teenagers , the Gallagher brothers ( especially Noel ) were regular truants , often getting into trouble with the police . When his mother took a job working in the school canteen , Gallagher ensured that he stopped by to visit her during lunch before skipping the rest of the day . He was expelled from school at the age of 15 for throwing a bag of flour over a teacher . He used to hang around with the football hooligan firms Maine Line Crew , Under @-@ 5s , and Young Guvnors in the 1980s , and at the age of 13 , he received six months ' probation for robbing a corner shop . It was during this period of probation , with little else to do , that he first began to teach himself to play a guitar his father had left him , imitating his favourite songs from the radio . Gallagher was particularly inspired by the debut of The Smiths on Top of the Pops in 1983 , performing their single " This Charming Man " . He later reflected that " from that day on ... [ he ] wanted to be Johnny Marr " . He also appeared ( and scored ) for Manchester Gaelic football outfit CLG Oisín at Croke Park , Dublin in 1983 .
As teenagers , the Gallagher brothers maintained limited contact with their father in order to secure jobs in construction . However , the relationship between father and sons continued to be tempestuous ; Gallagher said that " because we were always arguing we 'd still be working at nine o 'clock every night " . Having left his father 's building company , he took a job at another building firm sub @-@ contracted to British Gas . There he sustained an injury when a heavy cap from a steel gas pipe landed on his right foot . Following a period of recuperation , Gallagher was offered a less physically demanding role in the company 's storehouse , freeing up time for him to practise guitar and write songs . He claimed to have written at least three of the songs on Definitely Maybe in this storehouse ( including " Live Forever " and " Columbia " ) . He later called the storehouse " The Hit Hut " and claimed the walls were painted gold . Much of the late 1980s found Gallagher unemployed and living in a bedsit , occupying his time with recreational drug use , songwriting , and guitar playing . He is left @-@ handed , but plays right @-@ handed .
In May 1988 , Gallagher met guitarist Graham Lambert of Inspiral Carpets during a Stone Roses show . The two struck up an acquaintanceship and he became a regular at Inspiral Carpets shows . When he heard singer Steve Holt was leaving the band , Gallagher auditioned to be the new vocalist . He was rejected , but became part of their road crew for two years . Singer Tom Hingley said Gallagher owes his own career to the band , since " his business sense , work ethic , message , and humour are Inspiral down to the core " . He struck up a friendship with monitor engineer Mark Coyle over their love of The Beatles , and the pair spent soundchecks dissecting the group 's songs .
= = Career with Oasis = =
= = = Joining the band = = =
In 1991 , Gallagher returned from an American tour with the Inspiral Carpets to find that his brother Liam had become a singer with a local band called The Rain . He attended one of their concerts at Manchester 's Boardwalk , but was unimpressed by the group 's act . After rejecting an offer from Liam to be the band 's manager , Gallagher agreed to join the band , on the condition that he take creative control of the group and become its sole songwriter . According to another source , Gallagher told Liam and the rest of the group after having heard them play for the first time : " Let me write your songs and I 'll take you to superstardom , or else you 'll rot here in Manchester " . His control over the band in its early years earned him the nickname " The Chief " .
In May 1993 , the band heard that a record executive from Creation Records would be scouting for talent at King Tut 's in Glasgow . Together , they found the money to hire a van and make the six @-@ hour journey . When they arrived , they were refused entry to the club because no one notified the venue that Oasis had been added to the bill . The band eventually secured the opening slot and played a four @-@ song set that impressed Creation founder Alan McGee .
McGee then took the Live Demonstration tape to Sony America and invited Oasis to meet with him a week later in London , at which point they were signed to a six @-@ album contract . Gallagher has since claimed that he only had six songs written at the time , and has put his success in the interview down to " bullshitting " . However , McGee believes that when they met , Gallagher had fifty or so songs written , and merely lied about how prolific he had been following the contract . Richard Ashcroft was so impressed with Oasis during the time , that he invited them to tour with his band The Verve as an opening act .
Gallagher claimed to have written Oasis ' first single , " Supersonic " , in " the time it takes to play the song . " " Supersonic " was released in early 1994 and peaked at No.31 on the official UK charts . The single was later followed by Oasis ' debut album Definitely Maybe , which was released in August 1994 and was a critical and commercial success .
It became the fastest @-@ selling debut album in British history at the time , and entered the UK charts at number one . Despite their rapidly growing popularity , Gallagher briefly left Oasis in 1994 during their first American tour . The conditions were poor , and he felt the American audience — still preoccupied with grunge and metal — did not understand the band . Gallagher stated that his early songs , especially " Live Forever " , were written to refute grunge 's pessimism . Tensions mounted between him and Liam , culminating in a fight after a disastrous L.A. gig . Having effectively decided to quit the music industry , he flew to San Francisco without telling the band , management or the crew . It was during this time that Gallagher wrote " Talk Tonight " as a " thank you " for the girl he stayed with , who " talked him from off the ledge " . He was tracked down by Creation 's Tim Abbot and during a trip by the pair to Las Vegas , Gallagher decided to continue with the band . He reconciled with his brother and the tour resumed in Minneapolis .
= = = Britpop and the height of fame = = =
Gallagher followed up the debut in 1995 with Oasis ' | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
church authorities .
Comprising nine undergraduate and graduate schools , the university enrolls approximately 7 @,@ 000 undergraduate and 10 @,@ 000 post @-@ graduate students from a wide variety of religious , ethnic , and geographic backgrounds , including 130 foreign countries . The university 's most notable alumni are prominent in public life in the United States and abroad . Among them are former U.S. President Bill Clinton , U.S. Chief Justice Edward Douglass White , U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice Antonin Scalia , dozens of U.S. governors and members of Congress , heads of state or government of more than a dozen countries , royalty and diplomats .
Campus organizations include the country 's largest student @-@ run business and largest student @-@ run financial institution . Georgetown 's athletic teams , nicknamed the Hoyas , include a men 's basketball team that has won a record @-@ tying seven Big East championships , appeared in five Final Fours , and won a national championship in 1984 , as well as a co @-@ ed sailing team that holds nine national championship and one world championship title .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
Jesuit settlers from England founded the Province of Maryland in 1634 . However , the 1646 defeat of the Royalists in the English Civil War led to stringent laws against Roman Catholic education and the extradition of known Jesuits from the colony , including missionary Andrew White , and the destruction of their school at Calverton Manor . During most of the remainder of Maryland 's colonial period , Jesuits conducted Catholic schools clandestinely . It was not until after the end of the American Revolution that plans to establish a permanent Catholic institution for education in the United States were realized .
Because of Benjamin Franklin 's recommendation , Pope Pius VI appointed former Jesuit John Carroll as the first head of the Roman Catholic Church in America , even though the papal suppression of the Jesuit order was still in effect . Carroll began meetings of local clergy in 1783 near Annapolis , Maryland , where they orchestrated the development of a new university . On January 23 , 1789 , Carroll finalized the purchase of the property in Georgetown on which Dahlgren Quadrangle was later built . Future Congressman William Gaston was enrolled as the school 's first student on November 22 , 1791 , and instruction began on January 2 , 1792 .
During its early years , Georgetown College suffered from considerable financial strain . The Maryland Society of Jesus began its restoration in 1805 , and Jesuit affiliation , in the form of teachers and administrators , bolstered confidence in the college . The school relied on private sources of funding and the limited profits from local lands which had been donated to the Jesuits . To raise money for Georgetown and other schools in 1838 , Maryland Jesuits conducted a mass sale of some 272 slaves to two Deep South plantations from their six in Maryland , ending their slaveholding .
The United States Congress issued Georgetown the first federal university charter in 1815 , which allowed it to confer degrees , and the first bachelor 's degrees were awarded two years later . In 1844 , the school received a corporate charter , under the name " The President and Directors of Georgetown College " , affording the growing school additional legal rights . In response to the demand for a local option for Roman Catholic students , the Medical School was founded in 1851 .
= = = Civil War = = =
The U.S. Civil War greatly affected Georgetown as 1 @,@ 141 students and alumni enlisted in one army or the other , and the Union Army commandeered university buildings . By the time of President Abraham Lincoln 's May 1861 visit to campus , 1 @,@ 400 troops were living in temporary quarters there . Due to the number of lives lost in the war , enrollment levels remained low until well after the war . Only seven students graduated in 1869 , down from over 300 in the previous decade . When the Georgetown College Boat Club was founded in 1876 , the school 's rowing team , it adopted blue , used for Union uniforms , and gray , used for Confederate uniforms , as its colors to signify the peaceful unity among students . Subsequently , the school adopted these as its official colors .
Enrollment did not recover until during the presidency of Patrick Francis Healy from 1873 to 1881 . Born in Georgia as a slave by law and mixed @-@ race by ancestry , Healy was the first head of a predominantly white American university of acknowledged African descent . He identified as Irish Catholic , like his father , and was educated in Catholic schools in the United States and France . He is credited with reforming the undergraduate curriculum , lengthening the medical and law programs , and creating the Alumni Association . One of his largest undertakings was the construction of a major new building , subsequently named Healy Hall in his honor . For his work , Healy is known as the school 's " second founder . "
= = = Expansion = = =
After the founding of the Law Department in 1870 , Healy and his successors hoped to bind the professional schools into a university , and focus on higher education . The School of Medicine added a dental school in 1901 and the undergraduate School of Nursing in 1903 . Georgetown Preparatory School relocated from campus in 1919 and fully separated from the University in 1927 . The School of Foreign Service ( SFS ) was founded in 1919 by Edmund A. Walsh , to prepare students for leadership in diplomacy and foreign commerce . The School of Dentistry became independent of the School of Medicine in 1956 . The School of Business was separated from the SFS in 1957 . In 1998 it was renamed the McDonough School of Business in honor of alumnus Robert E. McDonough .
Besides expansion of the University , Georgetown also aimed to expand its resources and student body . The School of Nursing has admitted female students since its founding , and most of the university classes were made available to them on a limited basis by 1952 . With the College of Arts and Sciences welcoming its first female students in the 1969 – 1970 academic year , Georgetown became fully coeducational .
Georgetown ended its bicentennial year of 1989 by electing Leo J. O 'Donovan as president . He subsequently launched the Third Century Campaign to build the school 's endowment . In December 2003 , Georgetown completed the campaign after raising over $ 1 billion for financial aid , academic chair endowment , and new capital projects . John J. DeGioia , Georgetown 's first lay president , has led the school since 2001 , and has continued its financial modernization and sought to " expand opportunities for intercultural and interreligious dialogue . " He opened a campus in Qatar .
= = = Jesuit tradition = = =
Georgetown University was founded by former Jesuits in the tradition of Ignatius of Loyola ; it is a member of the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities . Georgetown is not a pontifical university , though seven Jesuits serve on the thirty @-@ six member Board of Directors , the school 's highest governance . Fifty @-@ two members of the Society of Jesus live on campus , and are employed by Georgetown mostly as professors or administrators . Jesuit Heritage Week has been held every year since 2001 to celebrate the contributions of Jesuits to the Georgetown tradition .
The role that Georgetown 's Catholic heritage has played in its policies has been controversial at times , even as its influence is relatively limited . Stores in University @-@ owned buildings are not allowed to sell or distribute birth control products . Georgetown University Medical Center and Georgetown University Hospital , operated by MedStar Health , are prohibited from performing abortions . As recently as 2004 , the hospital did perform research using embryonic stem cells . Georgetown has been criticized by religious groups such as the Cardinal Newman Society for hosting speakers such as John Kerry and Barack Obama , prominent pro @-@ choice politicians . Washington 's Archbishop , Donald Wuerl , criticized the university for inviting Kathleen Sebelius to be a commencement speaker . The university hosts the Cardinal O 'Connor Conference on Life every January to discuss the pro @-@ life movement .
Between 1996 and 1999 , the administration added crucifixes to many classroom walls , a change that attracted national attention . Before 1996 , crucifixes had hung only in hospital rooms and historic classrooms . Some of these crucifixes are historic works of art , and are noted as such . According to Imam Yahya Hendi , the school 's on @-@ campus Muslim cleric , pressure to remove the crucifixes comes from within the Catholic community , while he and other campus faith leaders have defended their placement . The Intercultural Center is an exception to this controversy , rotating displays of various faith and culture symbols in the lobby .
= = Academics = =
As of 2014 , the University has 7 @,@ 636 undergraduate students , and 10 @,@ 213 graduate students . Bachelor 's programs are offered through Georgetown College , the School of Nursing and Health Studies , the Robert Emmett McDonough School of Business , the School of Continuing Studies , and the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service , which includes the Qatar campus . The now @-@ defunct School of Dentistry closed in 1990 after 89 years in operation . Some high school students from Georgetown Visitation are permitted to attend classes for Advanced Placement credit .
Georgetown University offers undergraduate degrees in forty @-@ eight majors in the four undergraduate schools , as well as the opportunity for students to design their own individualized courses of study . All majors in the College are open as minors to students in the College , the School of Nursing and Health Studies , and the School of Business . Students in the School of Foreign Service cannot receive minors , but can complete certificates instead . All courses are on a credit hour system . Georgetown offers many opportunities to study abroad , and about 50 % of the undergraduate student body spends time at an institution overseas .
Master 's and doctoral programs are offered through the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences , the Law Center , the School of Medicine , the McCourt School of Public Policy , and the School of Continuing Studies . Masters students occasionally share some advanced seminars with undergraduates , and most undergraduate schools offer abbreviated bachelors and masters programs following completion of the undergraduate degree . The McDonough School of Business and the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service both offer masters programs . The School of Foreign Service is renowned for its academic programs in international affairs . Its graduate program was ranked first in the world by Foreign Policy and its undergraduate program was ranked fourth . The Center for Contemporary Arab Studies also offer a Master 's of Arab Studies , as well as certificates .
Each graduate school offers at least one double degree with another graduate school . Additionally , the Law Center offers a joint degree with the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health . The School of Continuing Studies includes the Center for Continuing and Professional Education , and operates four types of degree programs , over thirty professional certificates and non @-@ degree courses , undergraduate and graduate degrees in Liberal Studies , as well as summer courses for graduates , undergraduates , and high school students .
= = = Faculty = = =
As of 2012 , Georgetown University employed 1 @,@ 354 full @-@ time and 880 part @-@ time faculty members across its three Washington , D.C. campuses , with additional staff at SFS @-@ Qatar . The faculty comprises leading academics and notable political and business leaders , and are predominantly male by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin . Politically , Georgetown University 's faculty members give more support to liberal candidates , and while their donation patterns are generally consistent with those of other American university faculties , they gave more than average to Barack Obama 's presidential campaign .
The current faculty includes scholars such as the former President of the American Philological Association James J. O 'Donnell , theologian John Haught , social activists Sam Marullo and Chai Feldblum , Nobel laureate George Akerlof , and preeminent hip @-@ hop scholar Michael Eric Dyson . Many former politicians choose to teach at Georgetown , including the former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright , former U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Jeane Kirkpatrick , U.S. Agency for International Development administrator Andrew Natsios , National Security Advisor Anthony Lake , and CIA director George Tenet . Internationally , the school attracts numerous former ambassadors and heads of state , such as Prime Minister of Spain José María Aznar , Saudi Ambassador Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud , and President of Colombia Álvaro Uribe .
= = = Research = = =
Georgetown University is a self @-@ described " student @-@ centered research university " considered by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education to have " very high research activity . " As of 2014 , Georgetown 's libraries held over 3 @.@ 5 million printed items , including 1 @.@ 25 million e @-@ books , in seven buildings , with most in Lauinger Library . The Blommer Science Library , located in the Reiss Science Building on campus , houses most of the Science collection . Additionally , the Law School campus includes the nation 's fifth largest law library . Georgetown faculty conduct research in hundreds of subjects , but have priorities in the fields of religion , ethics , science , public policy , and cancer medicine . Cross @-@ institutional research is performed with Columbia University and Virginia Tech .
In 2014 , Georgetown received $ 172 million in external research grants , ranking # 113 amongst all universities in the United States , for research . In 2012 , Georgetown spent $ 180 million on research , ranking it 108th nationwide . In 2007 , it received about $ 14 @.@ 8 million in federal funds for research , with 64 % from the National Science Foundation , National Institutes of Health , the United States Department of Energy , and the Department of Defense . In 2010 , the school received $ 5 @.@ 6 million from the Department of Education to fund fellowships in several international studies fields . Georgetown 's Vincent Lombardi Cancer Center is one of 41 research @-@ intensive comprehensive cancer centers in the United States , and developed the breakthrough HPV vaccine for cervical cancer and Conditionally Reprogrammed Cells ( CRC ) technology .
Centers which conduct and sponsor research at Georgetown include the Berkley Center for Religion , Peace , and World Affairs , the Prince Alwaleed Center for Muslim – Christian Understanding and the Woodstock Theological Center . Regular publications include the Georgetown Journal on Poverty Law and Policy , the Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal , the Georgetown Law Journal , the Georgetown Journal of International Affairs , and the Georgetown Public Policy Review .
= = = Admissions = = =
Admission to Georgetown has been deemed " most selective " by U.S. News & World Report , with the university receiving nearly 20 @,@ 000 applications and admitting 16 @.@ 4 % of those that applied during the 2014 – 2015 admissions cycle . The Fiske Guide to Colleges states that " only Stanford and a handful of Ivy League schools are tougher to get into than Georgetown . " As of 2011 , Georgetown 's graduate schools have acceptance rates of 3 @.@ 6 % to the School of Medicine , 19 % to the Law Center , 25 % to the MSFS , and 34 @.@ 9 % to the MBA program . In 2004 , a National Bureau of Economic Research study on revealed preference of U.S. colleges showed that Georgetown was the 16th most @-@ preferred choice .
The undergraduate schools maintain a restrictive Early Action admissions program , as students who have applied through an Early Decision process at another school are not permitted to apply early to Georgetown . 94 % of students accepted for the class of 2014 were in the top 10 % of their class and the interquartile range of SAT scores was 660 – 760 in Critical Reading and 670 – 770 in Math . Georgetown accepts both the SAT and ACT , though does not consider the writing portion of either . Over 55 % of undergraduates receive financial aid , and the university meets 100 % of demonstrated need , with an average financial aid package of $ 23 @,@ 500 and about 70 % of aid distributed in the forms of grants or scholarships .
= = Campuses = =
Georgetown University has four campuses in Washington , D.C. : the undergraduate campus , the Medical Center , the School of Continuing Studies ( in Chinatown ) and the Law Center . The undergraduate campus and Medical Center are together in the Georgetown neighborhood and form the main campus . Other centers are located around Washington , D.C. , including the Center for Continuing and Professional Education at Clarendon in Arlington , Virginia . Transit between these locations and the Washington Metro is supplied by a system of shuttles , known as GUTS buses . Georgetown also operates a facility in Doha , Qatar , and villas in Alanya , Turkey and Fiesole , Italy . In their campus layout , Georgetown 's administrators consistently used the traditional quadrangle design .
= = = Main campus = = =
Georgetown 's undergraduate and medical school campuses are situated on an elevated site above the Potomac River overlooking Northern Virginia . Because of this , Georgetown University is often referred to as " The Hilltop . " The main gates , known as the Healy Gates , are located at the intersection of 37th and O Streets NW , and lead directly to the heart of campus . The main campus is relatively compact , being 104 acres ( 0 @.@ 4 km2 ) in area , but includes fifty @-@ four buildings , student residences and apartments capable of accommodating 80 % of undergraduates , and various athletic facilities . Most buildings employ collegiate Gothic architecture and Georgian brick architecture . Campus green areas include fountains , a cemetery , large clusters of flowers , groves of trees , and open quadrangles . Georgetown received a B grade on the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card , and new buildings and major renovations are required to meet LEED Silver criteria .
Healy Hall , designed by Paul J. Pelz in Neo @-@ Medieval style and built from 1877 to 1879 , is the architectural gem of Georgetown 's campus , and is a National Historic Landmark . Within Healy Hall are a number of notable rooms including Gaston Hall , Riggs Library , and the Bioethics Library Hirst Reading Room . Both Healy Hall and the Georgetown University Astronomical Observatory , built in 1844 , are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . In front of the Healy and Copley Hall buildings is the large front lawn area , which is crossed by walkways and paths that center on the statue of John Carroll . In addition to the front lawn , the main campus has traditionally centered on Dahlgren Quadrangle behind Healy Hall , which is home to Dahlgren Chapel ; however , in recent decades , Red Square has replaced the Dahlgren Quadrangle as the focus of student life . North of Red Square is an extended pathway that is home to buildings such as the Intercultural Center ( ICC ) , the Reiss Science building , and the large Leavey Student Center . The northern terminus of the undergraduate campus is marked by St. Mary 's Hall adjacent to Reservoir Road , home to the School of Nursing and Health Sciences . Across Reservoir Road is the Burleith neighborhood , where some upperclassmen rent houses off @-@ campus . The medical school is located in the northwestern part of the main campus on Reservoir Road , and is integrated with Georgetown University Hospital . The Medical campus includes the historic Medical @-@ Dental Building , the Dahlgren Memorial Library , and other research and classroom facilities .
In the last decade , the West side of the Hilltop has emerged as a new developing area of the main campus . The university completed the Southwest Quadrangle Project in late 2003 , and brought a new 907 @-@ bed upperclassmen residence hall , the Leo J. O 'Donovan dining hall , a large underground parking facility , and a new Jesuit Residence to the campus . The school 's first performing arts center , named for Royden B. Davis , was completed in November 2005 . The new business school headquarters , named for Rafik Hariri , opened in Fall 2009 , and Regents Hall , the new science building , opened in the Fall of 2012 . These two large buildings , along with the adjacent Leavey Student Center , have become popular study spaces , and overlook a newly developed scenic lawn space . Additionally , in the fall of 2014 , the university opened a new student center , the Healey Family Student Center ( HFSC ) to complement the longstanding Leavey Center . The Healey Family Student Center is located on the 1st floor of New South Hall , a space which had functioned as the university 's main dining facility until the opening of the Leo J. O 'Donovan dining hall in 2003 . It features over 43 @,@ 000 square feet including a number of study spaces , conference rooms , dance and music studios , as well as a pub called " Bulldog Tavern " and a salad store " Hilltoss , " which is operated by The Corp. The university owns many of the buildings in the Georgetown neighborhood east of the main campus and west of 35th Street NW , including all buildings west of 36th Street . This area is known as " East Campus " and is used for upperclassmen housing , classroom space , along with specific institutions , offices , and alumni facilities . Additionally , the Walsh School of Foreign Service and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences both have classroom buildings in this area . Georgetown Visitation , a private Roman Catholic girls high school , is located on the northeast side of campus , on land adjoining the undergraduate campus .
As a location , Georgetown is ranked nationally as the second best college town by the Princeton Review . The Georgetown neighborhood west of Wisconsin Avenue NW , is dominated by the presence of university students . Students have easy access to the M Street commercial area , the Georgetown Waterfront , and numerous trails that lead to the National Mall and other parks . Despite this , " town and gown " relations between the university communities and other Georgetown residents are often strained by facilities construction , enlargement of the student body , as well as noise and alcohol violations . More recently , several groups of neighborhood residents have attempted to slow University growth in Georgetown , creating friction between students and the surrounding neighborhood . Despite the relative safety of the neighborhood , crime is nonetheless a persistent issue , with campus security responding to 257 crimes in 2008 .
= = = Law Center campus = = =
The Law Center campus is located in the Capitol Hill neighborhood on New Jersey Avenue , near Union Station and consists of five buildings . First @-@ year students at the Law Center can live in the single on @-@ campus dormitory , the Gewirz Student Center . Most second- and third @-@ year students , as well as some first @-@ year students , live off @-@ campus . As there is little housing near the Law Center , most are spread throughout the Washington metropolitan area . The " Campus Completion Project " , finished in 2005 , saw the addition of the Hotung International Building and the Sport and Fitness Center . G Street and F Street are closed off between 1st and 2nd Streets to create open lawns flanking McDonough Hall , the main building on the campus .
= = = Facilities abroad = = =
In December 1979 , the Marquesa Margaret Rockefeller de Larrain , granddaughter of John D. Rockefeller , gave the Villa Le Balze to Georgetown University . The Villa is in Fiesole , Italy , on a hill above the city of Florence . The Villa is used year @-@ round for study abroad programs focused on specialized interdisciplinary study of Italian culture and civilization . The main facility for the McGhee Center for Eastern Mediterranean Studies was donated to Georgetown in 1989 by alumnus and former United States Ambassador to Turkey George C. McGhee . The school is in the town of Alanya , Turkey within the Seljuq @-@ era Alanya Castle , on the Mediterranean . The Center operates study abroad programs one semester each year , concentrating on Turkish language , architectural history , and Islamic studies .
In 2002 , the Qatar Foundation for Education , Science and Community Development presented the School of Foreign Service with the resources and space to open a facility in the new Education City in Doha , Qatar . SFS @-@ Qatar opened in 2005 as a liberal arts and international affairs undergraduate school for regional students . In December 2007 , Georgetown opened a liaison office in Shanghai , China to coordinate with Fudan University and others . In 2008 , the Georgetown University Law Center in conjunction with an international consortium of law schools established the Center for Transnational Legal Studies in London , England .
= = Student life = =
The Georgetown undergraduate student body , at 7 @,@ 636 as of 2014 , is composed primarily of students from outside the District of Columbia area , with 34 % of new 2010 students coming from Mid @-@ Atlantic states , 11 % being international students and the remainder coming from other areas of the US . The student body also represented 129 different countries , with 11 % being international , including over 330 undergraduate and 1 @,@ 050 graduate students who chose to come to Georgetown as a study abroad destination in 2009 – 10 . In 2014 – 2015 , the racial diversity of the undergraduate student body was 57 @.@ 0 % white , 8 @.@ 8 % Asian , 6 @.@ 2 % black , and 7 @.@ 5 % Hispanic ; Additionally , 55 @.@ 1 % of undergraduates are female .
Although it is a Jesuit university , only 41 % of the student body identify as Roman Catholic , while 22 % identify as Protestant as of 2009 . Georgetown employs a full @-@ time rabbi , as 6 @.@ 5 % of undergraduates are Jewish . It was the first U.S. college to have a full @-@ time imam , to serve the over four @-@ hundred Muslims on campus , and in 2014 , they appointed their first Hindu priest to serve a weekly community of around one hundred . Georgetown also sponsors student groups for Bahá 'i , Buddhist , and Mormon traditions . The student body consists of both religious and non @-@ religious students , and more than four @-@ hundred freshmen and transfer students attend a nonreligious Ignatian retreat annually , called ESCAPE .
A 2007 survey of undergraduates also suggests that 62 @.@ 8 % are sexually active , while 6 @.@ 2 % identify as LGBTQ . Discrimination can be an issue on campus , and three @-@ fourths of a 2009 survey considered homophobia a campus problem . Newsweek , however , rated Georgetown among its top " Gay @-@ Friendly Schools " in 2010 . A survey by the school in 2016 showed that 31 % of females undergraduates reported experiencing unwanted sexual contact , and 86 % of LGBTQ students reported some form of sexual harassment at the college . In 2011 , College Magazine ranked Georgetown as the tenth most hipster U.S. college , while People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals considered it the third most vegan friendly small U.S. school .
Almost all undergraduates attend full @-@ time . A majority of undergraduates , 76 % , live on @-@ campus in several dormitories and apartment complexes , including all underclassmen . As of 2011 , 1255 undergraduates and 339 graduate students live off @-@ campus , mostly in the Georgetown , Glover Park , Burleith , and Foxhall neighborhoods . Although many of the University 's hall directors and area coordinators attend graduate level courses , on @-@ campus housing is not available for main campus graduate students . The school hopes to build such housing by 2020 . All students in the Medical School live off @-@ campus , most in the surrounding neighborhoods , with some in Northern Virginia and elsewhere through the region .
= = = Student groups = = =
As of 2012 , 92 @.@ 89 % of Georgetown University undergraduates are involved in at least one of the 179 registered student organizations which cover a variety of interests : student government , club sports , media and publications , performing arts , religion , and volunteer and service . Students also operate campus stores , banks , and medical services . Students often find their interests at the Student Activities Commission Club Fair , where both official and unofficial organizations set up tables . The Georgetown University Student Association is the student government organization for undergraduates . There are also student representatives within the schools , to the Board of Directors , and , since 1996 , to the Georgetown Advisory Neighborhood Commission .
Georgetown 's student organizations include one of the nation 's oldest debating clubs , the Philodemic Society , founded in 1830 , and the oldest university theater group , the Mask and Bauble Dramatic Society . Nomadic Theatre , founded in 1982 as an alternative troupe without an on @-@ campus home , produces " plays which educate and challenge all members of the university community through thought @-@ provoking theatre . " The Georgetown Improv Association , founded in 1995 , performs monthly long @-@ form improvisational shows on @-@ campus at Bulldog Alley in addition to hosting " Improvfest " , one of the oldest improv festivals in the country . The Model United Nations team that is run by the Georgetown International Relations Club , the largest club on campus , and its affiliate , Georgetown International Relations Association , has attained the status of best in the world on several occasions .
There are a total of seven a cappella groups on campus , including The Georgetown Saxatones , The Georgetown Chimes , the Phantoms , Superfood , The GraceNotes , the Chamber Singers , Essence , Harmony , and the Capitol G 's . These groups perform annually at the " D.C. A Cappella Festival " , held since 1991 , and the " Cherry Tree Massacre " concert series , held since 1974 . The Georgetown University Band is composed of the Georgetown Pep Band and the Georgetown Wind Ensemble , and performs on campus , in Washington , D.C. , and at post @-@ season basketball tournaments .
In addition to student organizations and clubs , Georgetown University is home to the nation 's largest entirely student @-@ owned and -operated corporation , Students of Georgetown , Inc . Founded in 1972 , " The Corp " operates three coffee shops , two grocery stores , a salad and health food service , catering and printing services , as well as running seasonal storage and airport shuttles for students . The business has annual revenues of about $ 2 million , and surpluses are directly re @-@ invested into the Georgetown student body through Corp Philanthropy , which gave out over $ 85 @,@ 000 in scholarships and donations to Georgetown groups in 2014 – 2015 . Georgetown University Alumni & Student Federal Credit Union is the oldest and largest all student @-@ run financial institution , with over $ 17 million in assets and 12 @,@ 000 members . The Georgetown University Student Investment Fund is one of a few undergraduate @-@ run investment funds in the United States , and hosted CNBC 's Jim Cramer to tape Mad Money in September 2006 .
Another student @-@ run group , the Georgetown Emergency Response Medical Service , " GERMS " , is an all @-@ volunteer ambulance service founded in 1982 that serves campus and the surrounding communities . Georgetown 's Army Reserve Officer Training Corps ( ROTC ) unit , the Hoya Battalion , is the oldest military unit native to the District of Columbia , and was awarded the top ranking among ROTC programs in 2012 . The proportion of ROTC students at Georgetown was the 79th highest among universities in the United States as of 2010 . GUGS , the Georgetown University Grilling Society , has been a Georgetown tradition since 2002 , selling half @-@ pound hamburgers in Red Square on most Fridays .
= = = Activism = = =
Georgetown University student organizations include a diverse array of groups focused on social justice issues , including organizations run through both Student Affairs and the Center for Social Justice . Oriented against gender violence , Take Back the Night coordinates an annual rally and march to protest against rape and other forms of violence against women . Georgetown Solidarity Committee is a workers ' rights organization whose successes include ending use of sweatshops in producing Georgetown @-@ logoed apparel , and garnering pay raises for both university cleaning staff and police . Georgetown Students for Fair Trade successfully advocated for all coffee in campus cafeterias to be Fair Trade Certified .
Georgetown has many additional groups representing national , ethnic , and linguistic interests . Georgetown 's has the second most politically active student body in the United States according to the Princeton Review . Groups based on local , national , and international issues are popular , and political speech is protected on campus . Student political organizations are active on campus and engage their many members in local and national politics . The Georgetown University College Republicans represent their party , while the Georgetown University College Democrats , the largest student organization on campus in 2008 , represent theirs .
The reproductive rights organization H * yas for Choice is not officially recognized by the University as its positions on abortion are in opposition to University policy , prompting the asterisk in " Hoyas . " While not financially supported by the school , the organization is permitted to meet and table in university spaces . The issue contributes to Georgetown 's ' red light ' status on free speech under the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education rating system . In 2010 , the " Plan A : Hoyas for Reproductive Justice " campaign led several protests against the school policy against the sale of birth control on campus , and in 2007 , Georgetown University Law Center students protested the University 's decision to cease funding for a student 's internship at Planned Parenthood 's litigation department despite funding it previous years . Law Center student Sandra Fluke petitioned the university to change its health insurance policy to include coverage for contraception for three years prior to addressing the issue before the House Democratic Steering and Policy Committee in 2012 . Though the remarks Rush Limbaugh subsequently directed at Fluke were criticized by Georgetown administrators as both misogynist and vitriolic , the school remains opposed to the coverage of contraception .
= = = Media = = =
Georgetown University has several student @-@ run newspapers . The Hoya is the University 's oldest newspaper . It has been in print since 1920 , and since 1987 , has been published twice weekly . The Georgetown Voice , known for its weekly cover stories , is a newsmagazine that was founded in March 1969 to focus more attention on citywide and national issues . The Georgetown Independent is a monthly journal of news , commentary and the arts . Founded in 1966 , the Georgetown Law Weekly is the student @-@ run paper on the Law Center campus , and is a three @-@ time winner of the American Bar Association 's Best Newspaper award . The Georgetown Journal of International Affairs , established in 2000 , is a student @-@ managed , semi @-@ annual publication on current affairs and international relations . The Hoya and The Georgetown Voice both run online blogs , and there are other popular blogs written about the school and its sports teams .
The Georgetown Academy , restarted in 2008 after a hiatus , targets traditionalist Catholic readers , and the Georgetown Federalist , founded in 2006 , purports to bring a conservative and libertarian viewpoint to campus . Other political publications include the Georgetown Progressive , an online publication run by the Georgetown University College Democrats , and Counterpoint Magazine , a liberal monthly founded in the spring of 2011 . The Fire This Time is Georgetown 's minority newssource . The Georgetown Heckler is a humor magazine founded on the Internet in 2003 by Georgetown students , releasing its first print issue in 2007 . The Gonzo was a former student humor magazine , published from 1993 to 1998 .
The University has a campus @-@ wide television station , GUTV , which began broadcasting in 1999 . The station hosts an annual student film festival in April for campus filmmakers . WGTB , Georgetown 's radio station , is available as a webcast and on 92 @.@ 3 FM in certain dormitories . The station was founded in 1946 , and broadcast on 90 @.@ 1 FM from 1960 to 1979 , when university president Timothy S. Healy gave away the frequency and broadcast capabilities to the University of the District of Columbia because of WGTB 's far left political orientation . The station now broadcasts through the Internet in its headquarters in the Leavey Center .
= = = Greek life = = =
Although Jesuit schools are not obliged to disassociate from Greek systems , many do , and Georgetown University officially recognizes and funds only one of the many Greek organizations on campus , Alpha Phi Omega , the national co @-@ ed community service fraternity . Despite this , other Greek organizations exist on campus , however , none require members to live in fraternal housing . Additionally , Georgetown University students are affiliated , in some cases , with fraternities at other nearby universities and colleges .
Active fraternities at Georgetown include Delta Phi Epsilon , a professional foreign service fraternity and sorority ; Alpha Kappa Psi , a professional co @-@ ed business fraternity ; Alpha Phi Omega , a national co @-@ ed community service fraternity ; Alpha Epsilon Pi , a Jewish social fraternity ; and social fraternities Sigma Phi Epsilon , Zeta Psi , and Sigma Alpha Epsilon . Delta Phi Epsilon was founded at Georgetown in 1920 , and members of their Alpha Chapter include Jesuits and several deans of the School of Foreign Service . The Delta Phi Epsilon foreign service sorority , founded in 1973 , is the only professional sorority active at Georgetown . In October 2013 the first social Greek sorority came to the Georgetown campus with the Eta Tau chapter of Kappa Kappa Gamma , followed by the Theta Iota chapter of Kappa Alpha Theta in the spring of 2014 . Georgetown 's chapter of Alpha Epsilon Pi , was established in 2002 . Sigma Phi Epsilon chartered its chapter as a general social fraternity in 2007 . The Omega Lambda chapter of professional business fraternity Alpha Kappa Psi replaced Delta Sigma Pi , which lost its charter in 2006 . The Zeta Psi chapter , named Gamma Epsilon , was chartered in March 2009 after a year as a colony .
= = = Events = = =
Annual events on campus celebrate Georgetown traditions , culture , alumni , sports , and politics . In late April , Georgetown University celebrates Georgetown Day . Besides the full @-@ day carnival , the day rewards the best professor of the year with the Dorothy Brown Award , as voted by students . Halloween is celebrated with public viewings of alumnus William Peter Blatty 's film The Exorcist , which takes place in the neighborhood surrounding the university .
Homecoming coincides with a home football game , and festivities such as tailgating and a formal dance are sponsored by the Alumni Association to draw past graduates back to campus . The largest planned sports related celebration is the first basketball practice of the season . Dubbed Midnight Madness , this event introduces the men 's and women 's basketball teams shortly after midnight on the first day the teams are allowed by NCAA rules to formally practice together . In 2013 , Georgetown hosted the east regional finals round of the NCAA Men 's Basketball Tournament .
Georgetown University hosts notable speakers each year , largely because of the success of the Georgetown Lecture Fund and the Office of Communications . These are frequently important heads of state who visit Georgetown while in the capital , as well as scholars , authors , U.S. politicians , and religious leaders . Many prominent alumni are known to frequent the main campus . The Office of the President hosts numerous symposia on religious topics , such as Nostra aetate , Pacem in terris , and the Building Bridges Seminar .
= = Athletics = =
Georgetown fields 23 varsity teams and the Club Sports Board supports an additional 23 club teams . The varsity teams participate in the NCAA 's Division I. The school generally competes in the Big East Conference , although the football team competes in the Division I FCS Patriot League , the sailing team in Middle Atlantic Intercollegiate Sailing Association , and the rowing teams in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges . U.S. News & World Report listed Georgetown 's athletics program among the 20 best in the nation . Georgetown 's student athletes have a 94 % graduation success rate , and over one @-@ hundred have gone on to play professionally .
The school 's teams are called " Hoyas " , a name whose origin is uncertain . Sometime before 1893 , students well versed in classical languages invented the mixed Greek and Latin chant of " Hoya Saxa " , translating roughly as " what ( or such ) rocks . " The school 's baseball team , then called the Stonewalls , began in 1870 , and football in 1874 , and the chant likely refers to one of these teams . By the 1920s , the term " Hoyas " was used to describe groups on campus , and by 1928 , campus sports writers started using it instead of the older team name , the " Hilltoppers . " The name was picked up in the local publications , and became official shortly after . Jack the Bulldog has been the mascot of Georgetown athletics programs since 1962 , and the school fight song is There Goes Old Georgetown .
The men 's basketball team is particularly noteworthy as it won the NCAA championship in 1984 under coach John Thompson . The current coach is his son , John Thompson III , who coached the team to the Final Four in the 2007 NCAA tournament . The team is tied for the most Big East conference tournament titles with seven , and has made twenty @-@ seven NCAA tournament appearances . Well @-@ known team alumni include Sleepy Floyd , Patrick Ewing , Dikembe Mutombo , Alonzo Mourning , Allen Iverson , Jeff Green , and Roy Hibbert . Georgetown 's NBA alumni are collectively among the highest earners from a single program .
The sailing team has won nine national championships since 2001 , as well as one World Championship in match racing . Over that time they have graduated 79 All @-@ Americans and 6 College Sailors of the year . Georgetown has been nationally successful in both cross country and track and field , and in 2011 , the women 's cross country team won Georgetown 's only other NCAA Championship . The rowing teams are perennial contenders as well for national titles . The men 's and women 's lacrosse teams have both been ranked in the top ten nationally , as have both soccer teams , with the men making the national championship game in 2012 , and the women making the national quarterfinals in 2010 . The rugby club team also made it to the Division II Final Four in 2005 and 2009 .
= = Alumni = =
Georgetown graduates have found success in a wide variety of fields , and have served at the heads of diverse institutions both in the public and private sector . Immediately after graduation , about 54 – 61 % of undergraduates enter the workforce , while others go on to additional education . Georgetown graduates have been recipients of 23 Rhodes Scholarships , 21 Marshall Scholarships , 26 Truman Scholarships , and 14 Mitchell Scholarships . Georgetown is also one of the top @-@ ten yearly producers of Peace Corps volunteers as of 2010 , with 35 active and 866 total volunteers since 1961 . Georgetown alumni have a median starting salary of $ 55 @,@ 000 with a median mid @-@ career salary of $ 110 @,@ 000 , according to Payscale.com. NNDB , the Notable Names Database , lists 493 notable alumni as of 2015 .
Eight former heads of state are alumni . Former President of the United States Bill Clinton is a 1968 graduate of the School of Foreign Service , and other former world leaders include Laura Chinchilla of Costa Rica , Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo of the Philippines , Saad Hariri of Lebanon , and Alfredo Cristiani of El Salvador . Two SFS graduates are also currently elected presidents , Dalia Grybauskaitė of Lithuania , who completed a six @-@ month program in 1992 , and Željko Komšić , one of the tripartite Presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina . Six alumni serve in the United States Senate , and thirteen in the House of Representatives . Current congressional alumni include Dick Durbin , Senate minority whip , and Steny Hoyer , House minority whip . Governor Pat Quinn of Illinois graduated from the SFS in 1971 while Governor Terry McAuliffe of Virginia received his J.D. from the Law Center in 1984 . On the U.S. Supreme Court , alumni include former Associate Justice Antonin Scalia and former Chief Justice Edward Douglass White . Members of the current Obama Administration cabinet include Treasury Secretary Jack Lew who graduated from the law school in 1983 and White House Chief of Staff Denis McDonough who received his master 's degree in 1996 .
King Felipe VI of Spain , King Abdullah II of Jordan , Prince Guillaume of Luxembourg , Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud of the Saudi Arabia royal family , and Prince Pavlos of Greece and Denmark are among the royals who attended Georgetown . Besides numerous members of the senior diplomatic corps , graduates have also headed military organizations on both the domestic and international level , such as former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates and former National Security Advisor General James L. Jones . Notable alumni in business include Mary Callahan Erdoes , CEO of J.P. Morgan Asset Management , Patricia Russo , former Alcatel @-@ Lucent CEO , William J. Doyle of the Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan , and Ted Leonsis , owner of the Washington Capitals , Wizards , and Mystics franchises and former America Online executive . Leonsis is among four other undergraduate alumni who own professional sports teams , making Georgetown the most popular undergraduate university for major North American sports franchise owners . Actor Bradley Cooper , People Magazine 's Sexiest Man Alive 2011 , is also a graduate of Georgetown and its English program . Actors / comedians Nick Kroll , John Mulaney , Jim Gaffigan , and Mike Birbiglia are also graduates of Georgetown .
= The Boat Race 1858 =
The 15th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 27 March 1858 . Typically held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . The 1858 race , disrupted by poor rowing and a collision with a barge , was won by Cambridge who defeated Oxford by seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 21 minutes 23 seconds .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Oxford went into this year 's race as reigning champions , having defeated Cambridge by eleven lengths in the previous year 's race . Cambridge however led overall with eight wins to Oxford 's six .
Cambridge were coached for the fifth time by Thomas Selby Egan , ( who had coxed the Light Blues in the 1836 , 1839 and 1840 races ) , while Oxford 's coach was Alfred Shadwell ( cox for the Dark Blues in the 1842 race and coach for the fourth time ) . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 8 @.@ 875 lb ( 73 @.@ 7 kg ) , 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Archibald Levin Smith , Robert Wharton and Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd ( who was rowing his third Boat Race for the Light Blues ) had featured in Cambridge 's 1857 crew . Oxford 's crew included five participants who had competed in the previous race , including J. T. Thorley , who was making his third appearance in the event .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The race commenced at 1pm and almost immediately the Oxford boat club president and stroke J. T. Thorley " caught a crab " which " completely brought their eight to standstill . " Cambridge took the lead but were caught following a clash of their port @-@ side oars with a barge . The boats were level at the Crab Tree pub but here Cambridge began to draw ahead and passed under Hammersmith Bridge with a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lead . The Light Blues continued to increase their lead and passed the flag @-@ boat at Mortlake seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths ahead of Oxford in a time of 21 minutes 23 seconds .
It was the fastest time since the 1846 race ( which was held on the ebb tide ) , and took the overall record in the event to 9 – 6 in Cambridge 's favour . Although it was hoped that a rematch would be conducted at the Henley Royal Regatta , Oxford failed to make up a crew , and Cambridge went on to defeat Leander Club before winning the Grand Challenge Cup against London Rowing Club .
= Old Church of St Gwenllwyfo , Llanwenllwyfo =
The Old Church of St Gwenllwyfo , Llanwenllwyfo is a medieval ruined church near Dulas , in Anglesey , north Wales , perhaps built in the 15th century to replace another church from which only the 12th @-@ century font survived . Dedicated to Gwenllwyfo , a 7th @-@ century female saint about whom nothing else is known , it was used as a chapel of ease for the church in Amlwch , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) away . Restored in 1610 and again in the 18th and 19th centuries , it contained an oak screen and pulpit from 1610 .
It was replaced in the middle of the 19th century by a larger church about two @-@ thirds of a mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) away , to which some of the contents , including a memorial brass plaque from the early 17th century and the church bell , were removed ; other items were left behind . The disused church was noted to be in bad condition in 1937 , and the roof collapsed in 1950 . Little of the structure now remains , as the walls have been reduced to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in height .
= = History and location = =
The ruins of St Gwenllwyfo 's Church stand near Dulas , in the north @-@ east of Anglesey , Wales . The date of construction of the first church on the site is unknown . There was a church here in medieval times : one 19th @-@ century writer suggested that the present building dates from the 15th century and that the font , probably 12th century in date , was the only surviving part of an earlier church on the site . Restoration work was carried out in about 1610 and in the 18th century ; the latter changes eradicated the church 's historical details .
The church ( dedicated to Gwenllwyfo , a 7th @-@ century woman about whom nothing else is known ) was a chapel of ease attached to the parish of Amlwch , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) away . The parish tithes , however , were divided between the Bishop of Bangor and the incumbent of St Eilian 's Church , Llaneilian . The area takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " ‑ wenllwfyo " is a modified form of the saint 's name .
In 1812 , the priest responsible for the church was Edward Hughes , whose wife was the niece of the owner of Llys Dulas , the landed estate in the area . He employed an architect to carry out some further restoration work , although the details are unknown . The church was in need of further repair by the middle of the 19th century , and the congregation needed a larger building . A new church was therefore built between 1854 and 1856 about two @-@ thirds of a mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) away , financed largely by the widow of William Hughes , 1st Baron Dinorben ( the son of Edward Hughes ) . The old church , which was allowed to fall into ruins , stands in a disused cemetery surrounded by trees .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The nave and chancel of the church were not structurally divided , and measure 39 feet 6 inches by 15 feet 9 inches ( 12 by 4 @.@ 8 m ) . The walls are 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) thick . In 1844 , it was recorded as having a coved roof , doors in the north and south walls and windows in the east , north and west walls . It also had a pulpit and an oak screen , 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high , both dated 1610 . The screen had inscriptions in Welsh and Latin , and a note that " Richard Williams of Rhodogeidio who married Marcelly Lloyd at his own charge caused all this worke to be don to the honor of God and his church " . A brass plaque , erected in 1609 by Williams in memory of his wife , was moved to the new church . Another screen was later added at the west end to stop the wind blowing into the nave , and two windows were added on opposite sides of the chancel . Two box pews were installed during the 18th century , and a bell ( now used by the new church ) was added .
At the time of a survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire in 1937 , although the building was in bad condition with an insecure roof , it still retained an 18th @-@ century oak communion table , a rectangular font dating from the 12th century , the 1610 screen ( damaged ) , the pulpit , fragments of an oak sounding board ( also dated 1610 ) and some 18th @-@ century memorials . There were also stone benches along the north and south walls , and some wooden benches from the 18th or early 19th century . The medieval roof trusses were also still in place in 1937 , but the roof collapsed in 1950 . The walls have since been lowered to a height of 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) .
= = Assessment = =
The antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church in 1833 as " a small neat edifice , appropriately fitted up for the performance of divine service " . Samuel Lewis , writing in the middle of the 19th century , said that the church was " a conspicuous and interesting object " in a parish that " partakes much of the general character of dreary sterility by which the mining districts in the immediate vicinity are distinguished " . However , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones , writing in 1859 about the church as it had been 15 years earlier , said that " the whole building was in bad repair " . One writer described the church in the 1970s as " a roofless , forgotten shell " .
= The Boat Races 2015 =
The 2015 Boat Races took place on 11 April 2015 . Held annually , The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between male crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) tidal stretch of the River Thames in south @-@ west London . For the first time in the history of the event , the men 's , women 's and both reserves ' races were all held on the Tideway ; in the men 's reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie faced Oxford 's Isis after the women 's race , as a preliminary to the main men 's race , while the women 's reserve race , held the day before , saw Oxford 's Osiris race against Cambridge 's Blondie .
Oxford 's women won the first running of the Women 's Boat Race on the Tideway , and the 70th overall , by six and a half lengths , to take the overall record in the event to 41 – 29 in Cambridge 's favour . Oxford also won the men 's reserve race , with Isis winning by three lengths . In the main men 's race , umpired by the six @-@ time Blue Boris Rankov , Oxford won by six lengths in a time of 17 minutes 35 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 81 – 79 in Cambridge 's favour . The women 's reserve race was won by Oxford 's Osiris by fifteen lengths , making the overall record 21 – 20 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course , between Putney and Mortlake on the River Thames in south @-@ west London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as champions , having won the 2014 race by a margin of eleven lengths , but Cambridge led overall with 81 victories to Oxford 's 78 ( excluding the " dead heat to Oxford by five feet " of 1877 ) .
It was the first time in the history of The Boat Race that the three main races , the men 's , women 's and men 's reserves ' , were held on the same day and on the same course along the Tideway . Prior to this year , the women 's race which first took place in 1927 , was usually held at the Henley Boat Races along the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) course . However , on at least two occasions in the interwar period , the women competed on the Thames between Chiswick and Kew . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 2014 race by four lengths , with Cambridge leading 41 – 28 overall . For the third year , the men 's race was sponsored by BNY Mellon while the women 's race saw BNY Mellon 's subsidiary Newton Investment Management as sponsors . It was part of the sponsorship deal with Newton Investment Management that mandated the women 's race to be rowed on the same course and with the same funding as the men 's race . According to their chief executive , Helena Morrissey , the company " didn 't just want a name on a shirt ; [ it ] wanted to do something meaningful " . The women 's race was scheduled to take place at 4 : 50 p.m. , the men 's reserves ' race half an hour later and the men 's race a further half @-@ hour after that at 5 : 50 p.m. The women 's reserve race between Cambridge 's Blondie and Oxford 's Osiris took place on the Tideway for the first time , one day before the main races , at 4 : 05 p.m.
The television historian and former Oxford rower Dan Snow ( who represented the Dark Blues in the 1999 , 2000 and 2001 races ) said : " Most televised sport is a carnival of misogyny so it is great news that the Boat Race is leading the way in ensuring that women take their rightful place alongside men . " The BBC sports broadcaster Eleanor Oldroyd suggested that scheduling the races on the same course and day was " a game @-@ changing move " for female sport , and " now they 've achieved equality – same course , same distance , same prize money [ sic ] , same BBC TV coverage , to an expected global audience of 100 million " . The television presenter Clare Balding opted to cover the women 's race instead of the 2015 Grand National , claiming that the combined rowing event would have a " ripple effect all across society , business and sport " .
The autumn reception was held at the London headquarters of BNY Mellon . As Oxford had won the previous year 's race , it was Cambridge 's responsibility to offer the traditional challenge to the Dark Blues . To that end , Alexander Leichter and Caroline Reid , presidents of the Cambridge boat clubs , challenged Constantine Louloudis and Anastasia Chitty , their counterparts , who duly accepted . Umpires for the senior races were announced on 4 March : the former Cambridge rower Simon Harris , who represented the Light Blues in the 1982 and 1983 races oversaw the Women 's race , while the six @-@ time Oxford Blue Boris Rankov umpired the men 's race for the fourth time . Rob Clegg , the umpire of the 2011 race oversaw the men 's reserve race while the Olympic bronze medallist Sarah Winckless umpired the women 's reserve race .
= = Coaches = =
The Cambridge men 's crew coaching team was led by their Chief Coach Steve Trapmore . Appointed to the post in 2010 , Trapmore was a gold medal @-@ winning member of the men 's eight at the 2000 Summer Olympics . He was assisted by Ed Green , the former head coach at University College Cork and development coach at Molesey Boat Club . Green 's primary responsibility will be to coach Goldie . Mark Beer , former Cambridge University Boat Club assistant coach , was appointed as the development coach for the Light Blues . Sean Bowden returned as Chief Coach for Oxford , having been responsible for the senior men 's crew since 1997 . He was a former Great Britain Olympic coach and coached the Light Blues in the 1993 and 1994 Boat Races . His assistant coach was Andy Nelder who has coached the senior boat since 2006 .
Oxford 's women 's Head Coach was the Canadian Christine Wilson who had previously assisted in coaching the United States Olympic team and held the position of Head Coach of women 's rowing at Yale University . She was assisted by Natasha Townsend who had represented Great Britain in the women 's eights at two Olympics . Cambridge were coached by the former Goldie coach Rob Baker who was assisted by Paddy Ryan and Nick Acock , along with two guest coaches in Jonathan Condor and Annie Vernon ; Ed Hallam was their strength and conditioning coach .
= = Trials = =
= = = Women 's trials = = =
The trials took place on The Championship Course on 9 December 2014 , in each case being the first and only time the crews would have to practice the route while racing side @-@ by @-@ side . Both races were umpired by Simon Harris in windy conditions .
Oxford University Women 's Boat Club 's ( OUWBC ) trial eights , Real Life and Fantasy , set off at 1 : 15 p.m. Real Life , starting from the Middlesex station , made a better start and were three seats ahead at the Town Buoy before holding a length 's lead after the first bend . Following a warning from Harris as the crews approached Hammersmith Bridge , the lead was reduced to half @-@ a @-@ length around the Surrey bend . Fantasy allowed Real Life to take a clear water advantage by the Bandstand , and they pulled away at Barnes Bridge to win by three lengths . The Oxford coach Christine Wilson noted that " today the crews pushed each other to know the course and to take risks when a racing opportunity presents itself " .
The two boats in the Cambridge University Women 's Boat Club ( CUWBC ) trials were denoted as Rise and Grind , with the race commencing at 2 : 30 p.m. Starting from the Surrey station , Rise , despite the lower stroke rate , were half a length ahead within the first 20 strokes , and held a length 's lead by Craven Cottage . They gradually extended their lead to two lengths by Hammersmith Bridge , three by Chiswick Steps and finished five lengths ahead of Grind . Cambridge 's coach Rob Baker was mildly disappointed but remained upbeat , suggesting " Though I would have liked a closer race , I saw some excellent performances " .
= = = Men 's trials = = =
The men 's trials took place along The Championship Course on 11 December 2014 , and according to the author Chris Dodd , were held in conditions " perfect ... for coaches in the process of testing their men and trying to seat people in the right order . " Both races were umpired by Boris Rankov , the former Oxford Blue who rowed for the Dark Blues on a record six occasions .
Cambridge 's senior men 's trial boats were called 63 and Not Out in honour of the Australian Test cricketer Phillip Hughes who had died earlier in the year after being struck in the neck by a bouncer during a domestic match . Not Out made the better start but lost their canvas @-@ length lead by Barn Elms , and the crews passed the Mile Post level . Shooting Hammersmith Bridge , 63 were half a length down , and a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half down by Chiswick Steps . Not Out held a two @-@ length lead by the time the crews passed under Barnes Bridge which they extended to two @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarters by the finishing post . Dodd described the race as " epic " , while senior coach Trapmore expressed his contentment with the trial suggesting " it is an invaluable exercise . "
The Oxford trial saw Per Terram line up against Per Mare , so named to commemorate the 350th anniversary of the foundation of the Royal Marines whose motto is " Per Mare , Per Terram " ( " By sea , by land " ) . Per Terram , stroked by the Oxford University Boat Club president Louloudis , took an early lead and were half @-@ a @-@ length ahead before Per Mare recovered the deficit to be level by Barn Elms . A spurt from Per Terram at the Mile Post saw them regain the lead but at Harrods Furniture Depository , Per Mare took the lead back , shooting Hammersmith Bridge precisely and holding a three @-@ quarter length lead by St Paul 's School . Both crews experienced fierce winds with Per Terram coping better and taking a half @-@ length advantage . Per Mare kept in touch through to Barnes Bridge but Per Terram pushed on and passed the finishing post with a winning margin of two lengths . Oxford 's coach Bowden was cautious , stating that the " trial shows that Oxford is in good shape , but this race is not the only bit of the trials process " . Dodd described the race as " cracking " .
= = Build @-@ up = =
= = = Women 's = = =
On 25 January 2015 , a CUWBC crew raced against a crew from Newcastle University Boat Club along three sections of the Championship Course . Cambridge won all three races with relative ease , and their boat club president Reid , rowing at number four , reflected that it had been " a useful experience " . Cambridge raced against an Imperial College Boat Club crew on 8 March over two sections of the Tideway course , first between the start and Hammersmith Bridge , before racing between the Mile Post and Chiswick Steps . The first leg was declared to be too close to call by the umpire Simon Harris , while the second ended in a two @-@ thirds length victory to the Light Blues . OUWBC raced against Molesey Boat Club on 21 February 2015 , in three stages on the Tideway , and comfortably won each race . This was followed by a race against Imperial College Boat Club on 22 March over three sections of the Thames . Imperial were waterlogged in the first piece , but Oxford easily won the second and third races .
OUWBC were rescued by the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ( RNLI ) on the Thames on 1 April 2015 after becoming waterlogged in rough conditions . They were inadvertently discovered stranded during an RNLI exercise . Prior to race day , Rachel Quarrell , the former Oxford cox ( who steered OUWBC in the 1991 race ) writing in The Daily Telegraph noted that " since the start of this season the Oxford women have been notably faster " .
= = = Men 's = = =
On 16 March 2015 , CUBC raced in two pieces along the Tideway against a Leander Club crew steered by Oxford 's 2012 race cox Zoe De Toledo . Cambridge won the first race , from the Boat Race start to the top of Chiswick Eyot , by two and a half lengths , and the second , between the Eyot and Mortlake by four lengths . OUBC faced a crew from Molesey Boat Club in three races along the Tideway five days later . Despite Imperial being given a head start in two of the three races , Oxford won all three pieces relatively easily . The same day , Cambridge faced a Netherlands Eight in two races on the Thames . The Light Blues easily won the first race , but finished the second level against " experienced and accomplished opposition . "
= = Crews = =
The official weigh @-@ in for both women 's and men 's crews took place at the Royal Academy of Arts on 19 March 2015 , hosted by Clare Balding .
= = = Women 's = = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 6 lb 2 oz ( 72 @.@ 5 kg ) , 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw four rowers with Boat Race experience return , including bow Maxie Sheske and Anastasia Chitty who was making her third appearances in the event . Cambridge 's crew included three former Blues in Caroline Reid , Claire Watkins and Melissa Wilson ( who was also making her third appearance in the event ) . Oxford 's stroke , the American Caryn Davies , was a three @-@ time Olympic medallist , having taken silver in the women 's coxed eights at the 2004 Summer Olympics and gold at both the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics . Cambridge 's cox Rosemary Ostfeld steered Goldie the previous year . Over the Easter weekend , Oxford switched their number five and seven , moving Nadine Graedel Iberg behind stroke . Cambridge swapped bow for stroke , switching Hannah Evans for Fanny Belais .
= = = Men 's = = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 14 st 4 lb 11 oz ( 90 @.@ 8 kg ) , 11 @.@ 5 pounds ( 5 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw four rowers with Boat Race experience return , including number seven Sam O 'Connor and stroke Louloudis who made their third consecutive appearances in the event . Louloudis was an Olympic bronze medallist , having stroked Great Britain to third place in the men 's eight at the 2012 Summer Olympics . The New Zealand brothers Sam and James O 'Connor were the first siblings to row in the event since the Winklevoss twins represented Oxford in the 2010 race . Cambridge 's crew contained five Blues who participated in the 2014 race , including their cox Ian Middleton . During " Tideway week " , James Mountain replaced James O 'Connor , the latter suffering from illness . On O 'Connor 's return to the boat , he was switched with Thomas Swartz at number two .
= = Races = =
Over 250 @,@ 000 spectators lined the Thames to watch the three races . Around eighty people needed to be rescued as the river level rose from the high tide and the wake of the flotilla .
= = = Reserves = = =
The women 's reserve race , the 41st since 1968 , was contested between Oxford 's Osiris and Cambridge 's Blondie on 10 April 2015 . Osiris won by 15 lengths in a time of 18 minutes 58 seconds , their fourth consecutive victory and thirteenth win in the past fifteen years . It took the overall record in the event to 21 – 20 in CUWBC 's favour .
The men 's reserve race was the 51st contest between Isis and Goldie , and started at 5 : 20 p.m. on 11 April 2015 . The overall record in the event stood at 29 – 21 in Goldie 's favour . The Light Blue reserves won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Isis . Goldie took an early lead , despite warnings from the umpire around Barn Elms , and Isis were behind by five seconds at Hammersmith Bridge . Coming round to St Paul 's School , both crews came into a strong head wind and Isis rating 34 to Goldie 's 36 began to close the gap . The crews were level by the Bandstand , but Isis had taken a half length lead by Barnes Bridge , and they pulled away again to win by three lengths . This was the fifth consecutive victory for Isis , taking the overall event to 29 – 22 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = = Main races = = =
= = = = Women 's = = = =
The women 's race was the 70th contest between OUWBC and CUWBC , and started at 4 : 50 p.m. on 11 April 2015 . The overall record in the event before the race stood at 41 – 28 in Cambridge 's favour , but Oxford were considered favourites to win . Prior to the race , The Boat Race Company Limited announced that the two boats had been named to honour this auspicious occasion . Cambridge elected to name their boat Project Ely while Oxford had opted for Catalyst . OUWBC won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to CUWBC . The conditions were sunny but very windy . OUWBC took an immediate lead and were five seconds ahead at the Mile Post . Despite out @-@ rating their opponents , Cambridge failed to make any ground on Oxford , and were around three lengths down by St Paul 's School . Approaching Barnes Bridge , Oxford 's cox called for a push , and OUWBC passed below the central arch with a substantial lead . OUWBC won by a margin of six and a half lengths in a time of 19 minutes 45 seconds , taking the overall record to 41 – 29 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = = = Men 's = = = =
The men 's race was the 161st contest between OUBC and CUBC , and was held at 5 : 50 p.m on 11 April 2015 . Prior to the race , the overall record in the event stood at 81 – 78 in Cambridge 's favour , with one dead heat . The Dark Blues went into the race as the " strongest favourites in the history of the race " . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Oxford made the better start and were quickly ahead , with a quarter @-@ length lead after a minute . Cambridge drew back into contention and held a canvas lead after two minutes where both crews were warned by Rankov as they closed . Cambridge marginally out @-@ rated the Dark Blues as Oxford took a slight lead and were one second ahead by the Mile Post . Rankov issued further warnings as the crews passed beside Harrods Furniture Depository , Oxford half a length ahead , but with the Light Blues holding the advantage of the bend in the river as they approached Hammersmith Bridge .
Cambridge failed to make the best of the bend , and Oxford went clear after a push , taking an additional half a length and crossed in front of the Light Blues nine minutes into the race . The Dark Blues were over a length clear by the end of Chiswick Eyot and continued to pull away , holding a seven @-@ second lead by Chiswick Steps . Passing through Barnes Bridge , Oxford were around five lengths ahead . Oxford passed the finishing post six lengths ahead in a winning time of 17 minutes 35 seconds . It was the Dark Blues ' third consecutive victory and took the overall record in the event to 81 – 79 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Reaction = =
The trophies were presented to the winning crews by the five @-@ time Olympic gold medallist Steve Redgrave . OUWBC 's winning president Chitty said " It 's a really special moment , something I 've been working towards for three years " while her counterpart Reid accepted that Cambridge " didn 't get off to [ their ] best start and Oxford did " and that the conditions were " pretty horrendous around the halfway mark with the wind against the tide and some pretty high waves " . Oxford 's stroke Davies said : " I 'm so glad we can be role models to all the young women out there . " Cambridge 's coach Baker noted " We ’ ve got a young crew that has come a long way and they raced their best ... We ’ ve improved quite a lot , but it just wasn ’ t good enough " .
The Cambridge 's men 's president Leichter was generous in defeat : " It was 100 % fair . It was very painful but they took us round the outside of Surrey and we couldn 't respond " while four @-@ time winner Louloudis was content : " We stuck to our plan and executed a really good race " . Oxford 's coach Bowden said of his eleven victories with the Dark Blues in the event , " they are all different and tough but we came together well " . He went on to honour the former Oxford coach Dan Topolski who had died in February : " We definitely had Dan in our hearts throughout the campaign and we ’ re just so pleased to have won in style for him " .
= Joyas Prestadas =
Joyas Prestadas : Pop and Joyas Prestadas : Banda ( English : Borrowed Jewels ) are the twelfth and final studio albums released by American recording artist Jenni Rivera on November 21 , 2011 by Fonovisa Records . Joyas Prestadas consists of eleven cover versions , with the first album being recorded in Latin pop , while the second was recorded in banda . Both albums were produced by Enrique Martinez . According to Rivera , the songs she chose to cover were those she was enamored with while working as a cashier in a record store . It was her first production to include ballad recordings .
Joyas Prestadas : Pop reached number one on the Mexican Albums Chart and number one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart in the United States while Joyas Prestadas : Banda peaked at number three on the Mexican Albums Chart and number two on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart . Three singles were released from the album : " ¡ Basta Ya ! " , " A Cambio de Qué " , and " Detrás de Mi Ventana " . David Jeffries of Allmusic gave both albums a positive review and called the productions " polished " .
Joyas Prestadas : Pop received a Lo Nuestro award for Pop Album of the Year and Billboard Latin Music Award nomination for Latin Pop Album of the Year and a nomination for Pop Album of the Year by a Female Artist at the 2013 Oye ! Awards . Joyas Prestadas : Banda was awarded two Oye ! awards for Banda Albums of the Year and Popular Album of the Year and a Billboard Latin Music Award nomination for Regional Mexican Album of the Year .
= = Background = =
On August 23 , 2011 , Jenni Rivera renewed her contract with Universal Music Latin Entertainment / Fonovisa Records . To celebrate this event , she performed at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , California , becoming the first female Regional Mexican singer to do so . Rivera also announced she would be recording two albums in pop and banda titled Joyas Prestadas . The album was her first production to include ballads in a recording .
= = Recording and covers = =
Joyas Prestadas is a double album consisted of eleven tracks originally performed by other singers . Rivera recorded these songs on two versions : pop and banda . According to her , the songs she chose were recordings she listened to while working as a record store cashier . The albums were produced by Enrique Martinez and were recorded at the Twin Recording Studio in Burbank , California . A deluxe version of Joyas Prestadas : Pop was released on August 28 , 2012 which contains a DVD of her performing the album live at the Teatro de la Ciudad in Mexico City , Mexico .
The first track , " A Cambio de Qué " , was first recorded by Mexican singer Marisela on her album Completamente Tuya ( 1985 ) . The second track , " A Que no le Cuentas " , was first performed by Puerto Rican singer Ednita Nazario on her album , Ednita ( 1982 ) . " Así Fue " and " Resulta " were both composed by Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Juan Gabriel and originally performed by Isabel Pantoja and Lucha Villa respectively . Rivera also covers Pantoja 's song , " Porque Me Gusta a Morir " . " ¡ Basta Ya " and " Como Tu Mujer " were composed by Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Marco Antonio Solís and first performed by Olga Tañón and Rocío Dúrcal . Rivera had previously collaborated with Tañón with their cover of " Cosas del Amor " on the latter 's album Exitos en 2 Tiempos ( 2007 ) . Solís himself appears on both tracks .
The sixth track , " Detrás de Mi Ventana " , was written by Ricardo Arjona in 1993 and included in Nueva era ( 1993 ) , a studio album by Mexican singer Yuri , who performed the song for the first time . Melina Leon also performed the song for Arjona in his compilation album Trópico , released in 2009 . " Lo Siento Mi Amor " and " Señora " are covers of Rocío Jurado 's songs . " Que Ganas de No Verte Más " was first performed by Argentine singer Valeria Lynch .
= = Promotion = =
Jenni Rivera performed the pop version of " ¡ Basta Ya ! " live at La Voz ... México on November 27 , 2011 . Four months later at the end of Yuri 's concert at the National Auditorium , Rivera was invited to sing with her . After which Rivera took over the concert and performed ballads from the album as well as songs from her career . At the 19th Latin Billboard Awards ceremony , Rivera performed the pop versions of " Como Tu Mujer " and " Asi Fue " . The tour for the album officially began on May 18 , 2012 where she performed throughout concerts Mexico and the United States . It abruptly ended on December 9 , 2012 after her concert in the Monterrey Arena when a plane carrying her and five other members crashed near Near Iturbide , Nuevo León killing her and everyone else on board .
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = Album = = =
In Mexico , Joyas Prestadas : Pop peaked at number one on the Top 100 Mexico albums chart while Joyas Prestadas : Banda peaked at number three on the Top 100 Mexico albums chart . Joyas Prestadas : Pop was certified quadruple platinum and gold by AMPROFON for shipping 270 @,@ 000 copies in the country while Joyas Prestadas : Banda was certified triple platinum by AMPROFON for shipping 180 @,@ 000 copies . In the United States , Joyas Prestadas : Pop peaked at number one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums and number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums charts . Similarly , Joyas Prestadas : Banda peaked at number two on the Top Latin Albums chart and number one on the Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart . Within the week of her death , sales for both albums soared in the United States selling over 2 @,@ 000 copies . Both albums were certified double platinum ( Latin field ) by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . Joyas Prestadas : Pop was the best @-@ selling Latin pop album of 2013 in the United States . As of December 2013 , both albums have sold over 300 @,@ 000 copies combined .
= = = Singles = = =
Both versions of " ¡ Basta Ya ! " were released as the lead single from the album on August 29 , 2011 . In the United States , the song peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and number six on the Billboard Regional Mexican Songs chart . In Mexico , the song reached number one the Monitor Latino charts and number three on the Billboard Mexican Airplay chart . A music video was released for the pop version of the song which was directed by Ricardo Moreno and filmed in Los Angeles , California . " A Cambio de Qué " was the second single to be released from the album on February 28 , 2012 . In the United States , the song peaked at number forty @-@ nine on the Hot Latin Songs chart and at number twenty @-@ one on the Regional Mexican Songs chart . In Mexico , the song peaked at number twenty @-@ one on the Mexican Airplay chart . " Detrás de Mi Ventana " was the final single released from the album on July 3 , 2012 . The song peaked at number sixteen on the Hot Latin Songs chart and number six on the Regional Mexican Songs chart .
= = Reception = =
David Jeffries of Allmusic gave the album a 3 @.@ 5 of 5 stars and called the productions for both album " polished " . At the 2012 Juventud Awards , the album received a nomination for Best Music Album . At the second Billboard Mexican Music Awards in 2012 , Joyas Prestadas : Banda received an award for Banda Album of the Year and a nomination for Album of the Year . At the 25th Lo Nuestro Awards in 2013 , Rivera was posthumously awarded Pop Female Artist of the Year , Pop Album of the Year for Joyas Prestadas : Pop and Pop Song of the Year for her cover of " A Cambio de Qué " . A tribute to Rivera was made during the ceremony .
At the 2013 Latin Billboard Awards , Joyas Prestadas : Pop was awarded Album of the Year by a Female Artist while both albums were nominated Latin Pop Album of the Year and Regional Mexican Album of the Year . At the 2013 Mexican Oye ! Awards , Joyas Prestadas : Banda was recognized Popular Album of the Year and Banda Album of the Year by a Soloist or Group , while Joyas Prestadas : Pop was nominated Pop Album of the Year by a Female Artist . Joyas Prestadas : Banda was nominated Album of the Year and Banda Album of the Year at the third Billboard Mexican Music Awards . Joyas Prestadas : Pop was nominated Top Latin Album of the Year and Latin Pop Album of the Year at the 2014 Billboard Latin Music Awards .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Allmusic :
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= M @-@ 186 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 186 , is a state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan . It functions as a connector highway wholly contained in Grand Traverse County , which is located in the northwestern Lower Peninsula . The western terminus is at M @-@ 113 east of Kingsley and the eastern terminus is at U.S. Highway 131 ( US 131 ) west of downtown Fife Lake . The current incarnation of M @-@ 186 is the second usage of the designation . The first was used for a highway in the Upper Peninsula in the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 186 forms an easterly extension of M @-@ 113 from Kingsley to Fife Lake . M @-@ 186 starts south of a ninety @-@ degree curve in M @-@ 113 and runs east through flat , wooded terrain to Fife Lake . The roadway runs parallel to the survey section lines in Fife Lake Township , and it passes several residences along the whole length . From the eastern terminus , State Street connects M @-@ 186 and US 131 with downtown Fife Lake .
In 2007 , the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) surveys conducted by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) showed that 2 @,@ 100 vehicles used M @-@ 186 . M @-@ 113 west of M @-@ 186 logged an average of 7 @,@ 800 vehicles a day north of the junction and 4 @,@ 400 vehicles south of the junction . On the east end , US 131 carried 5 @,@ 100 vehicles north and 4 @,@ 800 vehicles south of the junction in Fife Lake . Of the 2 @,@ 100 vehicles on M @-@ 186 , only 140 trucks travelled the highway each day on average .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designation = = =
In the 1930s , M @-@ 186 was designated on a 4 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 9 km ) connector route in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan between US 2 / US 41 at Rapid River and M @-@ 35 near Brampton . This designation existed from 1933 until July 26 , 1939 , forming a route for westbound US 2 traffic to access M @-@ 35 northbound towards Gwinn and Negaunee .
= = = Current designation = = =
In 1940 , US 131 ended at a threeway convergence with M @-@ 113 and M @-@ 131 four miles ( 6 km ) north of Walton Junction in Paradise Township . From this intersection , US 131 ran south to Walton Junction , M @-@ 113 ran west to Kingsley , and M @-@ 131 ran east toward Fife Lake before turning north to Petoskey . A new alignment of US 131 was built from Walton Junction directly to Fife Lake . This formed a third leg of a triangle of roads , allowing US 131 to bypass the Paradise Township intersection . US 131 replaced M @-@ 131 north from Fife Lake to Petoskey . M @-@ 113 was extended along the former section of US 131 south to Walton Junction . The remaining leg of the triangle from Paradise Township to Fife Lake along a portion of the former M @-@ 131 was designated M @-@ 186 at this time .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Fife Lake Township , Grand Traverse County .
= Globular cluster =
A globular cluster is a spherical collection of stars that orbits a galactic core as a satellite . Globular clusters are very tightly bound by gravity , which gives them their spherical shapes and relatively high stellar densities toward their centers . The name of this category of star cluster is derived from the Latin globulus — a small sphere . A globular cluster is sometimes known more simply as a globular .
Globular clusters , which are found in the halo of a galaxy , contain considerably more stars and are much older than the less dense galactic , or open clusters , which are found in the disk . Globular clusters are fairly common ; there are about 150 to 158 currently known globular clusters in the Milky Way , with perhaps 10 to 20 more still undiscovered . These globular clusters orbit the Galaxy at radii of 40 kiloparsecs ( 130 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ) or more . Larger galaxies can have more : Andromeda , for instance , may have as many as 500 . Some giant elliptical galaxies , particularly those at the centers of galaxy clusters , such as M87 , have as many as 13 @,@ 000 globular clusters .
Every galaxy of sufficient mass in the Local Group has an associated group of globular clusters , and almost every large galaxy surveyed has been found to possess a system of globular clusters . The Sagittarius Dwarf galaxy and the disputed Canis Major Dwarf galaxy appear to be in the process of donating their associated globular clusters ( such as Palomar 12 ) to the Milky Way . This demonstrates how many of this galaxy 's globular clusters might have been acquired in the past .
Although it appears that globular clusters contain some of the first stars to be produced in the galaxy , their origins and their role in galactic evolution are still unclear . It does appear clear that globular clusters are significantly different from dwarf elliptical galaxies and were formed as part of the star formation of the parent galaxy rather than as a separate galaxy .
= = Observation history = =
The first globular cluster discovered was M22 in 1665 by Abraham Ihle , a German amateur astronomer . However , given the small aperture of early telescopes , individual stars within a globular cluster were not resolved until Charles Messier observed M4 . The first eight globular clusters discovered are shown in the table . Subsequently , Abbé Lacaille would list NGC 104 , NGC 4833 , M55 , M69 , and NGC 6397 in his 1751 – 52 catalogue . The M before a number refers to the catalogue of Charles Messier , while NGC is from the New General Catalogue by John Dreyer | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Though the exact year is not clear , most scholars agree that El Greco went to Venice around 1567 . Knowledge of El Greco 's years in Italy is limited . He lived in Venice until 1570 and , according to a letter written by his much older friend , the greatest miniaturist of the age , Giulio Clovio , was a " disciple " of Titian , who was by then in his eighties but still vigorous . This may mean he worked in Titian 's large studio , or not . Clovio characterized El Greco as " a rare talent in painting " .
In 1570 , El Greco moved to Rome , where he executed a series of works strongly marked by his Venetian apprenticeship . It is unknown how long he remained in Rome , though he may have returned to Venice ( c . 1575 – 1576 ) before he left for Spain . In Rome , on the recommendation of Giulio Clovio , El Greco was received as a guest at the Palazzo Farnese , which Cardinal Alessandro Farnese had made a center of the artistic and intellectual life of the city . There he came into contact with the intellectual elite of the city , including the Roman scholar Fulvio Orsini , whose collection would later include seven paintings by the artist ( View of Mt . Sinai and a portrait of Clovio are among them ) .
Unlike other Cretan artists who had moved to Venice , El Greco substantially altered his style and sought to distinguish himself by inventing new and unusual interpretations of traditional religious subject matter . His works painted in Italy were influenced by the Venetian Renaissance style of the period , with agile , elongated figures reminiscent of Tintoretto and a chromatic framework that connects him to Titian . The Venetian painters also taught him to organize his multi @-@ figured compositions in landscapes vibrant with atmospheric light . Clovio reports visiting El Greco on a summer 's day while the artist was still in Rome . El Greco was sitting in a darkened room , because he found the darkness more conducive to thought than the light of the day , which disturbed his " inner light " . As a result of his stay in Rome , his works were enriched with elements such as violent perspective vanishing points or strange attitudes struck by the figures with their repeated twisting and turning and tempestuous gestures ; all elements of Mannerism .
By the time El Greco arrived in Rome , Michelangelo and Raphael were dead , but their example continued to be paramount , and somewhat overwhelming for young painters . El Greco was determined to make his own mark in Rome defending his personal artistic views , ideas and style . He singled out Correggio and Parmigianino for particular praise , but he did not hesitate to dismiss Michelangelo 's Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel ; he extended an offer to Pope Pius V to paint over the whole work in accord with the new and stricter Catholic thinking . When he was later asked what he thought about Michelangelo , El Greco replied that " he was a good man , but he did not know how to paint " . And thus we are confronted by a paradox : El Greco is said to have reacted most strongly or even condemned Michelangelo , but he had found it impossible to withstand his influence . Michelangelo 's influence can be seen in later El Greco works such as the Allegory of the Holy League . By painting portraits of Michelangelo , Titian , Clovio and , presumably , Raphael in one of his works ( The Purification of the Temple ) , El Greco not only expressed his gratitude but also advanced the claim to rival these masters . As his own commentaries indicate , El Greco viewed Titian , Michelangelo and Raphael as models to emulate . In his 17th century Chronicles , Giulio Mancini included El Greco among the painters who had initiated , in various ways , a re @-@ evaluation of Michelangelo 's teachings .
Because of his unconventional artistic beliefs ( such as his dismissal of Michelangelo 's technique ) and personality , El Greco soon acquired enemies in Rome . Architect and writer Pirro Ligorio called him a " foolish foreigner " , and newly discovered archival material reveals a skirmish with Farnese , who obliged the young artist to leave his palace . On 6 July 1572 , El Greco officially complained about this event . A few months later , on 18 September 1572 , El Greco paid his dues to the Guild of Saint Luke in Rome as a miniature painter . At the end of that year , El Greco opened his own workshop and hired as assistants the painters Lattanzio Bonastri de Lucignano and Francisco Preboste .
= = = Spain = = =
= = = = Move to Toledo = = = =
In 1577 , El Greco migrated to Madrid , then to Toledo , where he produced his mature works . At the time , Toledo was the religious capital of Spain and a populous city with " an illustrious past , a prosperous present and an uncertain future " . In Rome , El Greco had earned the respect of some intellectuals , but was also facing the hostility of certain art critics . During the 1570s the huge monastery @-@ palace of El Escorial was still under construction and Philip II of Spain was experiencing difficulties in finding good artists for the many large paintings required to decorate it . Titian was dead , and Tintoretto , Veronese and Anthonis Mor all refused to come to Spain . Philip had to rely on the lesser talent of Juan Fernández de Navarrete , of whose gravedad y decoro ( " seriousness and decorum " ) the king approved . However , Fernández died in 1579 ; the moment should have been ideal for El Greco .
Through Clovio and Orsini , El Greco met Benito Arias Montano , a Spanish humanist and agent of Philip ; Pedro Chacón , a clergyman ; and Luis de Castilla , son of Diego de Castilla , the dean of the Cathedral of Toledo . El Greco 's friendship with Castilla would secure his first large commissions in Toledo . He arrived in Toledo by July 1577 , and signed contracts for a group of paintings that was to adorn the church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo in Toledo and for the renowned El Espolio . By September 1579 he had completed nine paintings for Santo Domingo , including The Trinity and The Assumption of the Virgin . These works would establish the painter 's reputation in Toledo .
El Greco did not plan to settle permanently in Toledo , since his final aim was to win the favor of Philip and make his mark in his court . Indeed , he did manage to secure two important commissions from the monarch : Allegory of the Holy League and Martyrdom of St. Maurice . However , the king did not like these works and placed the St Maurice altarpiece in the chapter @-@ house rather than the intended chapel . He gave no further commissions to El Greco . The exact reasons for the king 's dissatisfaction remain unclear . Some scholars have suggested that Philip did not like the inclusion of living persons in a religious scene ; some others that El Greco 's works violated a basic rule of the Counter @-@ Reformation , namely that in the image the content was paramount rather than the style . Philip took a close interest in his artistic commissions , and had very decided tastes ; a long sought @-@ after sculpted Crucifixion by Benvenuto Cellini also failed to please when it arrived , and was likewise exiled to a less prominent place . Philip 's next experiment , with Federico Zuccari was even less successful . In any case , Philip 's dissatisfaction ended any hopes of royal patronage El Greco may have had .
= = = = Mature works and later years = = = =
Lacking the favor of the king , El Greco was obliged to remain in Toledo , where he had been received in 1577 as a great painter . According to Hortensio Félix Paravicino , a 17th @-@ century Spanish preacher and poet , " Crete gave him life and the painter 's craft , Toledo a better homeland , where through Death he began to achieve eternal life . " In 1585 , he appears to have hired an assistant , Italian painter Francisco Preboste , and to have established a workshop capable of producing altar frames and statues as well as paintings . On 12 March 1586 he obtained the commission for The Burial of the Count of Orgaz , now his best @-@ known work .
The decade 1597 to 1607 was a period of intense activity for El Greco . During these years he received several major commissions , and his workshop created pictorial and sculptural ensembles for a variety of religious institutions . Among his major commissions of this period were three altars for the Chapel of San José in Toledo ( 1597 – 1599 ) ; three paintings ( 1596 – 1600 ) for the Colegio de Doña María de Aragon , an Augustinian monastery in Madrid , and the high altar , four lateral altars , and the painting St. Ildefonso for the Capilla Mayor of the Hospital de la Caridad ( Hospital of Charity ) at Illescas ( 1603 – 1605 ) . The minutes of the commission of The Virgin of the Immaculate Conception ( 1607 – 1613 ) , which were composed by the personnel of the municipality , describe El Greco as " one of the greatest men in both this kingdom and outside it " .
Between 1607 and 1608 El Greco was involved in a protracted legal dispute with the authorities of the Hospital of Charity at Illescas concerning payment for his work , which included painting , sculpture and architecture ; this and other legal disputes contributed to the economic difficulties he experienced towards the end of his life . In 1608 , he received his last major commission : for the Hospital of Saint John the Baptist in Toledo .
El Greco made Toledo his home . Surviving contracts mention him as the tenant from 1585 onwards of a complex consisting of three apartments and twenty @-@ four rooms which belonged to the Marquis de Villena . It was in these apartments , which also served as his workshop , that he passed the rest of his life , painting and studying . He lived in considerable style , sometimes employing musicians to play whilst he dined . It is not confirmed whether he lived with his Spanish female companion , Jerónima de Las Cuevas , whom he probably never married . She was the mother of his only son , Jorge Manuel , born in 1578 , who also became a painter , assisted his father , and continued to repeat his compositions for many years after he inherited the studio . In 1604 , Jorge Manuel and Alfonsa de los Morales gave birth to El Greco 's grandson , Gabriel , who was baptized by Gregorio Angulo , governor of Toledo and a personal friend of the artist .
During the course of the execution of a commission for the Hospital Tavera , El Greco fell seriously ill , and a month later , on 7 April 1614 , he died . A few days earlier , on 31 March , he had directed that his son should have the power to make his will . Two Greeks , friends of the painter , witnessed this last will and testament ( El Greco never lost touch with his Greek origins ) . He was buried in the Church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo , aged 73 .
= = Art = =
= = = Technique and style = = =
The primacy of imagination and intuition over the subjective character of creation was a fundamental principle of El Greco 's style . El Greco discarded classicist criteria such as measure and proportion . He believed that grace is the supreme quest of art , but the painter achieves grace only if he manages to solve the most complex problems with obvious ease .
El Greco regarded color as the most important and the most ungovernable element of painting , and declared that color had primacy over form . Francisco Pacheco , a painter and theoretician who visited El Greco in 1611 , wrote that the painter liked " the colors crude and unmixed in great blots as a boastful display of his dexterity " and that " he believed in constant repainting and retouching in order to make the broad masses tell flat as in nature " .
Art historian Max Dvořák was the first scholar to connect El Greco 's art with Mannerism and Antinaturalism . Modern scholars characterize El Greco 's theory as " typically Mannerist " and pinpoint its sources in the Neoplatonism of the Renaissance . Jonathan Brown believes that El Greco endeavored to create a sophisticated form of art ; according to Nicholas Penny " once in Spain , El Greco was able to create a style of his own — one that disavowed most of the descriptive ambitions of painting " .
In his mature works El Greco demonstrated a characteristic tendency to dramatize rather than to describe . The strong spiritual emotion transfers from painting directly to the audience . According to Pacheco , El Greco 's perturbed , violent and at times seemingly careless @-@ in @-@ execution art was due to a studied effort to acquire a freedom of style . El Greco 's preference for exceptionally tall and slender figures and elongated compositions , which served both his expressive purposes and aesthetic principles , led him to disregard the laws of nature and elongate his compositions to ever greater extents , particularly when they were destined for altarpieces . The anatomy of the human body becomes even more otherworldly in El Greco 's mature works ; for The Virgin of the Immaculate Conception El Greco asked to lengthen the altarpiece itself by another 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) " because in this way the form will be perfect and not reduced , which is the worst thing that can happen to a figure ' " . A significant innovation of El Greco 's mature works is the interweaving between form and space ; a reciprocal relationship is developed between the two which completely unifies the painting surface . This interweaving would re @-@ emerge three centuries later in the works of Cézanne and Picasso .
Another characteristic of El Greco 's mature style is the use of light . As Jonathan Brown notes , " each figure seems to carry its own light within or reflects the light that emanates from an unseen source " . Fernando Marias and Agustín Bustamante García , the scholars who transcribed El Greco 's handwritten notes , connect the power that the painter gives to light with the ideas underlying Christian Neo @-@ Platonism .
Modern scholarly research emphasizes the importance of Toledo for the complete development of El Greco 's mature style and stresses the painter 's ability to adjust his style in accordance with his surroundings . Harold Wethey asserts that " although Greek by descent and Italian by artistic preparation , the artist became so immersed in the religious environment of Spain that he became the most vital visual representative of Spanish mysticism " . He believes that in El Greco 's mature works " the devotional intensity of mood reflects the religious spirit of Roman Catholic Spain in the period of the Counter @-@ Reformation " .
El Greco also excelled as a portraitist , able not only to record a sitter 's features but also to convey their character . His portraits are fewer in number than his religious paintings , but are of equally high quality . Wethey says that " by such simple means , the artist created a memorable characterization that places him in the highest rank as a portraitist , along with Titian and Rembrandt " .
= = = Painting materials = = =
El Greco painted many of his paintings on fine canvas and employed a viscous oil medium . He painted with the usual pigments of his period such as azurite , lead @-@ tin @-@ yellow , vermilion , madder lake , ochres and red lead , but he seldom used the expensive natural ultramarine .
= = = Suggested Byzantine affinities = = =
Since the beginning of the 20th century , scholars have debated whether El Greco 's style had Byzantine origins . Certain art historians had asserted that El Greco 's roots were firmly in the Byzantine tradition , and that his most individual characteristics derive directly from the art of his ancestors , while others had argued that Byzantine art could not be related to El Greco 's later work .
The discovery of the Dormition of the Virgin on Syros , an authentic and signed work from the painter 's Cretan period , and the extensive archival research in the early 1960s , contributed to the rekindling and reassessment of these theories . Although following many conventions of the Byzantine icon , aspects of the style certainly show Venetian influence , and the composition , showing the death of Mary , combines the different doctrines of the Orthodox Dormition of the Virgin and the Catholic Assumption of the Virgin . Significant scholarly works of the second half of the 20th century devoted to El Greco reappraise many of the interpretations of his work , including his supposed Byzantinism . Based on the notes written in El Greco 's own hand , on his unique style , and on the fact that El Greco signed his name in Greek characters , they see an organic continuity between Byzantine painting and his art . According to Marina Lambraki @-@ Plaka " far from the influence of Italy , in a neutral place which was intellectually similar to his birthplace , Candia , the Byzantine elements of his education emerged and played a catalytic role in the new conception of the image which is presented to us in his mature work " . In making this judgement , Lambraki @-@ Plaka disagrees with Oxford University professors Cyril Mango and Elizabeth Jeffreys , who assert that " despite claims to the contrary , the only Byzantine element of his famous paintings was his signature in Greek lettering " . Nikos Hadjinikolaou states that from 1570 El Greco 's painting is " neither Byzantine nor post @-@ Byzantine but Western European . The works he produced in Italy belong to the history of the Italian art , and those he produced in Spain to the history of Spanish art " .
The English art historian David Davies seeks the roots of El Greco 's style in the intellectual sources of his Greek @-@ Christian education and in the world of his recollections from the liturgical and ceremonial aspect of the Orthodox Church . Davies believes that the religious climate of the Counter @-@ Reformation and the aesthetics of mannerism acted as catalysts to activate his individual technique . He asserts that the philosophies of Platonism and ancient Neo @-@ Platonism , the works of Plotinus and Pseudo @-@ Dionysius the Areopagite , the texts of the Church fathers and the liturgy offer the keys to the understanding of El Greco 's style . Summarizing the ensuing scholarly debate on this issue , José Álvarez Lopera , curator at the Museo del Prado , Madrid , concludes that the presence of " Byzantine memories " is obvious in El Greco 's mature works , though there are still some obscure issues concerning his Byzantine origins needing further illumination .
= = = Architecture and sculpture = = =
El Greco was highly esteemed as an architect and sculptor during his lifetime . He usually designed complete altar compositions , working as architect and sculptor as well as painter — at , for instance , the Hospital de la Caridad . There he decorated the chapel of the hospital , but the wooden altar and the sculptures he created have in all probability perished . For El Espolio the master designed the original altar of gilded wood which has been destroyed , but his small sculptured group of the Miracle of St. Ildefonso still survives on the lower center of the frame .
His most important architectural achievement was the church and Monastery of Santo Domingo el Antiguo , for which he also executed sculptures and paintings . El Greco is regarded as a painter who incorporated architecture in his painting . He is also credited with the architectural frames to his own paintings in Toledo . Pacheco characterized him as " a writer of painting , sculpture and architecture " .
In the marginalia that El Greco inscribed in his copy of Daniele Barbaro 's translation of Vitruvius ' De architectura , he refuted Vitruvius ' attachment to archaeological remains , canonical proportions , perspective and mathematics . He also saw Vitruvius ' manner of distorting proportions in order to compensate for distance from the eye as responsible for creating monstrous forms . El Greco was averse to the very idea of rules in architecture ; he believed above all in the freedom of invention and defended novelty , variety , and complexity . These ideas were , however , far too extreme for the architectural circles of his era and had no immediate resonance .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Posthumous critical reputation = = =
El Greco was disdained by the immediate generations after his death because his work was opposed in many respects to the principles of the early baroque style which came to the fore near the beginning of the 17th century and soon supplanted the last surviving traits of the 16th @-@ century Mannerism . El Greco was deemed incomprehensible and had no important followers . Only his son and a few unknown painters produced weak copies of his works . Late 17th- and early 18th @-@ century Spanish commentators praised his skill but criticized his antinaturalistic style and his complex iconography . Some of these commentators , such as Acislo Antonio Palomino de Castro y Velasco and Juan Agustín Ceán Bermúdez , described his mature work as " contemptible " , " ridiculous " and " worthy of scorn " . The views of Palomino and Bermúdez were frequently repeated in Spanish historiography , adorned with terms such as " strange " , " queer " , " original " , " eccentric " and " odd " . The phrase " sunk in eccentricity " , often encountered in such texts , in time developed into " madness " .
With the arrival of Romantic sentiments in the late 18th century , El Greco 's works were examined anew . To French writer Théophile Gautier , El Greco was the precursor of the European Romantic movement in all its craving for the strange and the extreme . Gautier regarded El Greco as the ideal romantic hero ( the " gifted " , the " misunderstood " , the " mad " ) , and was the first who explicitly expressed his admiration for El Greco 's later technique . French art critics Zacharie Astruc and Paul Lefort helped to promote a widespread revival of interest in his painting . In the 1890s , Spanish painters living in Paris adopted him as their guide and mentor . However , in the popular English @-@ speaking imagination he remained the man who " painted horrors in the Escorial " in the words of Ephraim Chambers ' Cyclopaedia in 1899 .
In 1908 , Spanish art historian Manuel Bartolomé Cossío published the first comprehensive catalogue of El Greco 's works ; in this book El Greco was presented as the founder of the Spanish School . The same year Julius Meier @-@ Graefe , a scholar of French Impressionism , traveled in Spain , expecting to study Velásquez , but instead becoming fascinated by El Greco ; he recorded his experiences in Spanische Reise ( Spanish Journey , published in English in 1926 ) , the book which widely established El Greco as a great painter of the past " outside a somewhat narrow circle " . In El Greco 's work , Meier @-@ Graefe found foreshadowing of modernity . These are the words Meier @-@ Graefe used to describe El Greco 's impact on the artistic movements of his time :
To the English artist and critic Roger Fry in 1920 , El Greco was the archetypal genius who did as he thought best " with complete indifference to what effect the right expression might have on the public " . Fry described El Greco as " an old master who is not merely modern , but actually appears a good many steps ahead of us , turning back to show us the way " .
During the same period , other researchers developed alternative , more radical theories . The ophthalmologists August Goldschmidt and Germán Beritens argued that El Greco painted such elongated human figures because he had vision problems ( possibly progressive astigmatism or strabismus ) that made him see bodies longer than they were , and at an angle to the perpendicular ; the physician Arturo Perera , however , attributed this style to the use of marijuana . Michael Kimmelman , a reviewer for The New York Times , stated that " to Greeks [ El Greco ] became the quintessential Greek painter ; to the Spanish , the quintessential Spaniard " .
As was proved by the campaign of the National Art Gallery in Athens to raise the funds for the purchase of Saint Peter in 1995 , El Greco is loved not just by experts and art lovers but also by ordinary people ; thanks to the donations mainly of individuals and public benefit foundations the National Art Gallery raised 1 @.@ 2 million dollars and purchased the painting . Epitomizing the consensus of El Greco 's impact , Jimmy Carter , the 39th President of the United States , said in April 1980 that El Greco was " the most extraordinary painter that ever came along back then " and that he was " maybe three or four centuries ahead of his time " .
= = = Influence on other artists = = =
El Greco 's re @-@ evaluation was not limited to scholars . According to Efi Foundoulaki , " painters and theoreticians from the beginning of the 20th century ' discovered ' a new El Greco but in process they also discovered and revealed their own selves " . His expressiveness and colors influenced Eugène Delacroix and Édouard Manet . To the Blaue Reiter group in Munich in 1912 , El Greco typified that mystical inner construction that it was the task of their generation to rediscover . The first painter who appears to have noticed the structural code in the morphology of the mature El Greco was Paul Cézanne , one of the forerunners of cubism . Comparative morphological analyses of the two painters revealed their common elements , such as the distortion of the human body , the reddish and ( in appearance only ) unworked backgrounds and the similarities in the rendering of space . According to Brown , " Cézanne and El Greco are spiritual brothers despite the centuries which separate them " . Fry observed that Cézanne drew from " his great discovery of the permeation of every part of the design with a uniform and continuous plastic theme " .
The Symbolists , and Pablo Picasso during his Blue Period , drew on the cold tonality of El Greco , utilizing the anatomy of his ascetic figures . While Picasso was working on Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon , he visited his friend Ignacio Zuloaga in his studio in Paris and studied El Greco 's Opening of the Fifth Seal ( owned by Zuloaga since 1897 ) . The relation between Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon and the Opening of the Fifth Seal was pinpointed in the early 1980s , when the stylistic similarities and the relationship between the motifs of both works were analysed .
The early cubist explorations of Picasso were to uncover other aspects in the work of El Greco : structural analysis of his compositions , multi @-@ faced refraction of form , interweaving of form and space , and special effects of highlights . Several traits of cubism , such as distortions and the materialistic rendering of time , have their analogies in El Greco 's work . According to Picasso , El Greco 's structure is cubist . On 22 February 1950 , Picasso began his series of " paraphrases " of other painters ' works with The Portrait of a Painter after El Greco . Foundoulaki asserts that Picasso " completed ... the process for the activation of the painterly values of El Greco which had been started by Manet and carried on by Cézanne " .
The expressionists focused on the expressive distortions of El Greco . According to Franz Marc , one of the principal painters of the German expressionist movement , " we refer with pleasure and with steadfastness to the case of El Greco , because the glory of this painter is closely tied to the evolution of our new perceptions on art " . Jackson Pollock , a major force in the abstract expressionist movement , was also influenced by El Greco . By 1943 , Pollock had completed sixty drawing compositions after El Greco and owned three books on the Cretan master .
Contemporary painters are also inspired by El Greco 's art . Kysa Johnson used El Greco 's paintings of the Immaculate Conception as the compositional framework for some of her works , and the master 's anatomical distortions are somewhat reflected in Fritz Chesnut 's portraits .
El Greco 's personality and work were a source of inspiration for poet Rainer Maria Rilke . One set of Rilke 's poems ( Himmelfahrt Mariae I.II. , 1913 ) was based directly on El Greco 's Immaculate Conception . Greek writer Nikos Kazantzakis , who felt a great spiritual affinity for El Greco , called his autobiography Report to Greco and wrote a tribute to the Cretan @-@ born artist .
In 1998 , the Greek electronic composer and artist Vangelis published El Greco , a symphonic album inspired by the artist . This album is an expansion of an earlier album by Vangelis , Foros Timis Ston Greco ( A Tribute to El Greco , Φόρος Τιμής Στον Γκρέκο ) . The life of the Cretan @-@ born artist is the subject of the film El Greco of Greek , Spanish and British production . Directed by Ioannis Smaragdis , the film began shooting in October 2006 on the island of Crete and debuted on the screen one year later ; British actor Nick Ashdon has been cast to play El Greco .
= = Debates on attribution = =
The exact number of El Greco 's works has been a hotly contested issue . In 1937 , a highly influential study by art historian Rodolfo Pallucchini had the effect of greatly increasing the number of works accepted to be by El Greco . Pallucchini attributed to El Greco a small triptych in the Galleria Estense at Modena on the basis of a signature on the painting on the back of the central panel on the Modena triptych ( " Χείρ Δομήνιχου " , Created by the hand of Doménikos ) . There was consensus that the triptych was indeed an early work of El Greco and , therefore , Pallucchini 's publication became the yardstick for attributions to the artist . Nevertheless , Wethey denied that the Modena triptych had any connection at all with the artist and , in 1962 , produced a reactive catalogue raisonné with a greatly reduced corpus of materials . Whereas art historian José Camón Aznar had attributed between 787 and 829 paintings to the Cretan master , Wethey reduced the number to 285 authentic works and Halldor Sœhner , a German researcher of Spanish art , recognized only 137 . Wethey and other scholars rejected the notion that Crete took any part in his formation and supported the elimination of a series of works from El Greco 's oeuvre .
Since 1962 , the discovery of the Dormition and the extensive archival research has gradually convinced scholars that Wethey 's assessments were not entirely correct , and that his catalogue decisions may have distorted the perception of the whole nature of El Greco 's origins , development and oeuvre . The discovery of the Dormition led to the attribution of three other signed works of " Doménicos " to El Greco ( Modena Triptych , St. Luke Painting the Virgin and Child , and The Adoration of the Magi ) and then to the acceptance of more works as authentic — some signed , some not ( such as The Passion of Christ ( Pietà with Angels ) painted in 1566 ) , — which were brought into the group of early works of El Greco . El Greco is now seen as an artist with a formative training on Crete ; a series of works illuminate his early style , some painted while he was still on Crete , some from his period in Venice , and some from his subsequent stay in Rome . Even Wethey accepted that " he [ El Greco ] probably had painted the little and much disputed triptych in the Galleria Estense at Modena before he left Crete " . Nevertheless , disputes over the exact number of El Greco 's authentic works remain unresolved , and the status of Wethey 's catalogue raisonné is at the center of these disagreements .
A few sculptures , including Epimetheus and Pandora , have been attributed to El Greco . This doubtful attribution is based on the testimony of Pacheco ( he saw in El Greco 's studio a series of figurines , but these may have been merely models ) . There are also four drawings among the surviving works of El Greco ; three of them are preparatory works for the altarpiece of Santo Domingo el Antiguo and the fourth is a study for one of his paintings , The Crucifixion .
= Film noir =
The film noir genre generally refers to mystery and crime dramas produced from the early 1940s to the late 1950s . Movies of this genre were characteristically shot in black and white , and featured stories involving femmes fatales , doomed heroes or anti @-@ heroes , and tough , cynical detectives .
The term film noir , French for " black film " ( literal ) or " dark film " ( closer meaning ) , first applied to Hollywood films by French critic Nino Frank in 1946 , was unrecognized by most American film industry professionals of that era . Cinema historians and critics defined the category retrospectively . Before the notion was widely adopted in the 1970s , many of the classic films noir were referred to as " melodramas " . Whether film noir qualifies as a distinct genre is a matter of ongoing debate among scholars .
Film noir encompasses a range of plots : the central figure may be a private eye ( The Big Sleep ) , a plainclothes policeman ( The Big Heat ) , an aging boxer ( The Set @-@ Up ) , a hapless grifter ( Night and the City ) , a law @-@ abiding citizen lured into a life of crime ( Gun Crazy ) , or simply a victim of circumstance ( D.O.A. ) . Although film noir was originally associated with American productions , films now so described have been made around the world . Many pictures released from the 1960s onward share attributes with film noir of the classical period , and often treat its conventions self @-@ referentially . Some refer to such latter @-@ day works as neo @-@ noir .
= = Problems of definition = =
The questions of what defines film noir , and what sort of category it is , provoke continuing debate . " We 'd be oversimplifying things in calling film noir oneiric , strange , erotic , ambivalent , and cruel [ … ] " — this set of attributes constitutes the first of many attempts to define film noir made by French critics Raymond Borde and Etienne Chaumeton in their 1955 book Panorama du film noir américain 1941 – 1953 ( A Panorama of American Film Noir ) , the original and seminal extended treatment of the subject . They emphasize that not every film noir embodies all five attributes in equal measure — one might be more dreamlike ; another , particularly brutal . The authors ' caveats and repeated efforts at alternative definition have been echoed in subsequent scholarship : in the more than five decades since , there have been innumerable further attempts at definition , yet in the words of cinema historian Mark Bould , film noir remains an " elusive phenomenon [ … ] always just out of reach " .
Though film noir is often identified with a visual style , unconventional within a Hollywood context , that emphasizes low @-@ key lighting and unbalanced compositions , films commonly identified as noir evidence a variety of visual approaches , including ones that fit comfortably within the Hollywood mainstream . Film noir similarly embraces a variety of genres , from the gangster film to the police procedural to the gothic romance to the social problem picture — any example of which from the 1940s and 1950s , now seen as noir 's classical era , was likely to be described as a " melodrama " at the time .
While many critics refer to film noir as a genre itself , others argue that it can be no such thing . While noir is often associated with an urban setting , many classic noirs take place in small towns , suburbia , rural areas , or on the open road ; so setting cannot be its genre determinant , as with the Western . Similarly , while the private eye and the femme fatale are character types conventionally identified with noir , the majority of film noirs feature neither ; so there is no character basis for genre designation as with the gangster film . Nor does film noir rely on anything as evident as the monstrous or supernatural elements of the horror film , the speculative leaps of the science fiction film , or the song @-@ and @-@ dance routines of the musical .
A more analogous case is that of the screwball comedy , widely accepted by film historians as constituting a " genre " : the screwball is defined not by a fundamental attribute , but by a general disposition and a group of elements , some — but rarely and perhaps never all — of which are found in each of the genre 's films . However , because of the diversity of noir ( much greater than that of the screwball comedy ) , certain scholars in the field , such as film historian Thomas Schatz , treat it as not a genre but a " style " . Alain Silver , the most widely published American critic specializing in film noir studies , refers to film noir as a " cycle " and a " phenomenon " , even as he argues that it has — like certain genres — a consistent set of visual and thematic codes . Other critics treat film noir as a " mood " , characterize it as a " series " , or simply address a chosen set of films they regard as belonging to the noir " canon " . There is no consensus on the matter .
= = Background = =
= = = Cinematic sources = = =
Film noir 's aesthetics are deeply influenced by German Expressionism , an artistic movement of the 1910s and 1920s that involved theater , photography , painting , sculpture , and architecture , as well as cinema . The opportunities offered by the booming Hollywood film industry , and , later , the threat of growing Nazi power , led to the emigration of many important film artists working in Germany who had either been directly involved in the Expressionist movement or studied with its practitioners . Fritz Lang 's M ( 1931 ) , shot only a few years before his departure from Germany , is among the first major crime films of the sound era to join a characteristically noirish visual style with a noir @-@ type plot , one in which the protagonist is a criminal ( as are his most successful pursuers ) . Directors such as Lang , Robert Siodmak , and Michael Curtiz brought a dramatically shadowed lighting style and a psychologically expressive approach to visual composition , or mise @-@ en @-@ scène , with them to Hollywood , where they would make some of the most famous of classic noirs .
By 1931 , Curtiz had already been in Hollywood for half a decade , making as many as six films a year . Movies of his such as 20 @,@ 000 Years in Sing Sing ( 1932 ) and Private Detective 62 ( 1933 ) are among the early Hollywood sound films arguably classifiable as noir — scholar Marc Vernet offers the latter as evidence that dating the initiation of film noir to 1940 or any other year is " arbitrary " . Giving Expressionist @-@ affiliated filmmakers particularly free stylistic rein were Universal horror pictures such as Dracula ( 1931 ) , The Mummy ( 1932 ) — the former photographed and the latter directed by the Berlin @-@ trained Karl Freund — and The Black Cat ( 1934 ) , directed by Austrian émigré Edgar G. Ulmer . The Universal horror that comes closest to noir , both in story and sensibility , however , is The Invisible Man ( 1933 ) , directed by Englishman James Whale and photographed by American Arthur Edeson . Edeson would subsequently photograph The Maltese Falcon ( 1941 ) , widely regarded as the first major film noir of the classic era .
The Vienna @-@ born but largely American @-@ raised Josef von Sternberg was directing in Hollywood at the same time . Films of his such as Shanghai Express ( 1932 ) and The Devil Is a Woman ( 1935 ) , with their hothouse eroticism and baroque visual style , specifically anticipate central elements of classic noir . The commercial and critical success of Sternberg 's silent Underworld ( 1927 ) was largely responsible for spurring a trend of Hollywood gangster films . Successful films in that genre such as Little Caesar ( 1931 ) , The Public Enemy ( 1931 ) , and Scarface ( 1932 ) demonstrated that there was an audience for crime dramas with morally reprehensible protagonists . An important , and possibly influential , cinematic antecedent to classic noir was 1930s French poetic realism , with its romantic , fatalistic attitude and celebration of doomed heroes . The movement 's sensibility is mirrored in the Warner Bros. drama I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang ( 1932 ) , a key forerunner of noir . Among those films not themselves considered films noir , perhaps none had a greater effect on the development of the genre than Citizen Kane ( 1941 ) , directed by Orson Welles . Its visual intricacy and complex , voiceover @-@ driven narrative structure are echoed in dozens of classic films noir .
Italian neorealism of the 1940s , with its emphasis on quasi @-@ documentary authenticity , was an acknowledged influence on trends that emerged in American noir . The Lost Weekend ( 1945 ) , directed by Billy Wilder , another Vienna @-@ born , Berlin @-@ trained American auteur , tells the story of an alcoholic in a manner evocative of neorealism . It also exemplifies the problem of classification : one of the first American films to be described as a film noir , it has largely disappeared from considerations of the field . Director Jules Dassin of The Naked City ( 1948 ) pointed to the neorealists as inspiring his use of on @-@ location photography with nonprofessional extras . This semidocumentary approach characterized a substantial number of noirs in the late 1940s and early 1950s . Along with neorealism , the style had a homegrown precedent , specifically cited by Dassin , in director Henry Hathaway 's The House on 92nd Street ( 1945 ) , which demonstrated the parallel influence of the cinematic newsreel .
= = = Literary sources = = =
The primary literary influence on film noir was the hardboiled school of American detective and crime fiction , led in its early years by such writers as Dashiell Hammett ( whose first novel , Red Harvest , was published in 1929 ) and James M. Cain ( whose The Postman Always Rings Twice appeared five years later ) , and popularized in pulp magazines such as Black Mask . The classic film noirs The Maltese Falcon ( 1941 ) and The Glass Key ( 1942 ) were based on novels by Hammett ; Cain 's novels provided the basis for Double Indemnity ( 1944 ) , Mildred Pierce ( 1945 ) , The Postman Always Rings Twice ( 1946 ) , and Slightly Scarlet ( 1956 ; adapted from Love 's Lovely Counterfeit ) . A decade before the classic era , a story by Hammett was the source for the gangster melodrama City Streets ( 1931 ) , directed by Rouben Mamoulian and photographed by Lee Garmes , who worked regularly with Sternberg . Wedding a style and story both with many noir characteristics , released the month before Lang 's M , City Streets has a claim to being the first major film noir .
Raymond Chandler , who debuted as a novelist with The Big Sleep in 1939 , soon became the most famous author of the hardboiled school . Not only were Chandler 's novels turned into major noirs — Murder , My Sweet ( 1944 ; adapted from Farewell , My Lovely ) , The Big Sleep ( 1946 ) , and Lady in the Lake ( 1947 ) — he was an important screenwriter in the genre as well , producing the scripts for Double Indemnity , The Blue Dahlia ( 1946 ) , and Strangers on a Train ( 1951 ) . Where Chandler , like Hammett , centered most of his novels and stories on the character of the private eye , Cain featured less heroic protagonists and focused more on psychological exposition than on crime solving ; the Cain approach has come to be identified with a subset of the hardboiled genre dubbed " noir fiction " .
For much of the 1940s , one of the most prolific and successful authors of this often downbeat brand of suspense tale was Cornell Woolrich ( sometimes under the pseudonym George Hopley or William Irish ) . No writer 's published work provided the basis for more films noir of the classic period than Woolrich 's : thirteen in all , including Black Angel ( 1946 ) , Deadline at Dawn ( 1946 ) , and Fear in the Night ( 1947 ) .
Another crucial literary source for film noir was W. R. Burnett , whose first novel to be published was Little Caesar , in 1929 . It would be turned into a hit for Warner Bros. in 1931 ; the following year , Burnett was hired to write dialogue for Scarface , while The Beast of the City ( 1932 ) was adapted from one of his stories . At least one important reference work identifies the latter as a film noir despite its early date . Burnett 's characteristic narrative approach fell somewhere between that of the quintessential hardboiled writers and their noir fiction compatriots — his protagonists were often heroic in their way , a way just happening to be that of the gangster . During the classic era , his work , either as author or screenwriter , was the basis for seven films now widely regarded as films noir , including three of the most famous : High Sierra ( 1941 ) , This Gun for Hire ( 1942 ) , and The Asphalt Jungle ( 1950 ) .
= = Classic period = =
= = = Overview = = =
The 1940s and 1950s are generally regarded as the " classic period " of American film noir . While City Streets and other pre @-@ WWII crime melodramas such as Fury ( 1936 ) and You Only Live Once ( 1937 ) , both directed by Fritz Lang , are categorized as full @-@ fledged noir in Alain Silver and Elizabeth Ward 's film noir encyclopedia , other critics tend to describe them as " proto @-@ noir " or in similar terms . The film now most commonly cited as the first " true " film noir is Stranger on the Third Floor ( 1940 ) , directed by Latvian @-@ born , Soviet @-@ trained Boris Ingster . Hungarian émigré Peter Lorre — who had starred in Lang 's M — was top @-@ billed , though he did not play the lead . He would play secondary roles in several other formative American noirs . Though modestly budgeted , at the high end of the B movie scale , Stranger on the Third Floor still lost its studio , RKO , $ 56 @,@ 000 , almost a third of its total cost . Variety magazine found Ingster 's work " too studied and when original , lacks the flare to hold attention . It 's a film too arty for average audiences , and too humdrum for others . " Stranger on the Third Floor was not recognized as the beginning of a trend , let alone a new genre , for many decades .
Most of the films noir of the classic period were similarly low- and modestly budgeted features without major stars — B movies either literally or in spirit . In this production context , writers , directors , cinematographers , and other craftsmen were relatively free from typical big @-@ picture constraints . There was more visual experimentation than in Hollywood filmmaking as a whole : the Expressionism now closely associated with noir and the semi @-@ documentary style that later emerged represent two very different tendencies . Narrative structures sometimes involved convoluted flashbacks uncommon in non @-@ noir commercial productions . In terms of content , enforcement of the Production Code ensured that no film character could literally get away with murder or be seen sharing a bed with anyone but a spouse ; within those bounds , however , many films now identified as noir feature plot elements and dialogue that were very risqué for the time .
Thematically , films noir were most exceptional for the relative frequency with which they centered on women of questionable virtue — a focus that had become rare in Hollywood films after the mid @-@ 1930s and the end of the pre @-@ Code era . The signal film in this vein was Double Indemnity , directed by Billy Wilder ; setting the mold was Barbara Stanwyck 's unforgettable femme fatale , Phyllis Dietrichson — an apparent nod to Marlene Dietrich , who had built her extraordinary career playing such characters for Sternberg . An A @-@ level feature all the way , the film 's commercial success and seven Oscar nominations made it probably the most influential of the early noirs . A slew of now @-@ renowned noir " bad girls " would follow , such as those played by Rita Hayworth in Gilda ( 1946 ) , Lana Turner in The Postman Always Rings Twice ( 1946 ) , Ava Gardner in The Killers ( 1946 ) , and Jane Greer in Out of the Past ( 1947 ) . The iconic noir counterpart to the femme fatale , the private eye , came to the fore in films such as The Maltese Falcon ( 1941 ) , with Humphrey Bogart as Sam Spade , and Murder , My Sweet ( 1944 ) , with Dick Powell as Philip Marlowe . Other seminal noir sleuths served larger institutions , such as Dana Andrews ' police detective in Laura ( 1944 ) , Edmond O 'Brien 's insurance investigator in The Killers , and Edward G. Robinson 's government agent in The Stranger ( 1946 ) .
The prevalence of the private eye as a lead character declined in film noir of the 1950s , a period during which several critics describe the form as becoming more focused on extreme psychologies and more exaggerated in general . A prime example is Kiss Me Deadly ( 1955 ) ; based on a novel by Mickey Spillane , the best @-@ selling of all the hardboiled authors , here the protagonist is a private eye , Mike Hammer . As described by Paul Schrader , " Robert Aldrich 's teasing direction carries noir to its sleaziest and most perversely erotic . Hammer overturns the underworld in search of the ' great whatsit ' [ which ] turns out to be — joke of jokes — an exploding atomic bomb . " Orson Welles 's baroquely styled Touch of Evil ( 1958 ) is frequently cited as the last noir of the classic period . Some scholars believe film noir never really ended , but continued to transform even as the characteristic noir visual style began to seem dated and changing production conditions led Hollywood in different directions — in this view , post @-@ 1950s films in the noir tradition are seen as part of a continuity with classic noir . A majority of critics , however , regard comparable films made outside the classic era to be something other than genuine film noirs . They regard true film noir as belonging to a temporally and geographically limited cycle or period , treating subsequent films that evoke the classics as fundamentally different due to general shifts in filmmaking style and latter @-@ day awareness of noir as a historical source for allusion .
= = = Directors and the business of noir = = =
While the inceptive noir , Stranger on the Third Floor , was a B picture directed by a virtual unknown , many of the films noir still remembered were A @-@ list productions by well @-@ known film makers . Debuting as a director with The Maltese Falcon ( 1941 ) , John Huston followed with Key Largo ( 1948 ) and The Asphalt Jungle ( 1950 ) . Opinion is divided on the noir status of several Alfred Hitchcock thrillers from the era ; at least four qualify by consensus : Shadow of a Doubt ( 1943 ) , Notorious ( 1946 ) , Strangers on a Train ( 1951 ) and The Wrong Man ( 1956 ) . Otto Preminger 's success with Laura ( 1944 ) made his name and helped demonstrate noir 's adaptability to a high @-@ gloss 20th Century @-@ Fox presentation . Among Hollywood 's most celebrated directors of the era , arguably none worked more often in a noir mode than Preminger ; his other noirs include Fallen Angel ( 1945 ) , Whirlpool ( 1949 ) , Where the Sidewalk Ends ( 1950 ) ( all for Fox ) and Angel Face ( 1952 ) . A half @-@ decade after Double Indemnity and The Lost Weekend , Billy Wilder made Sunset Boulevard ( 1950 ) and Ace in the Hole ( 1951 ) , noirs that were not so much crime dramas as satires on Hollywood and the news media . In a Lonely Place ( 1950 ) was Nicholas Ray 's breakthrough ; his other noirs include his debut , They Live by Night ( 1948 ) and On Dangerous Ground ( 1952 ) , noted for their unusually sympathetic treatment of characters alienated from the social mainstream .
Orson Welles had notorious problems with financing but his three film noirs were well budgeted : The Lady from Shanghai ( 1947 ) received top @-@ level , " prestige " backing , while The Stranger , his most conventional film and Touch of Evil , an unmistakably personal work , were funded at levels lower but still commensurate with headlining releases . Like The Stranger , Fritz Lang 's The Woman in the Window ( 1945 ) was a production of the independent International Pictures . Lang 's follow @-@ up , Scarlet Street ( 1945 ) , was one of the few classic noirs to be officially censored : filled with erotic innuendo , it was temporarily banned in Milwaukee , Atlanta and New York State . Scarlet Street was a semi @-@ independent , cosponsored by Universal and Lang 's Diana Productions , of which the film 's co @-@ star , Joan Bennett , was the second biggest shareholder . Lang , Bennett and her husband , the Universal veteran and Diana production head Walter Wanger , made Secret Beyond the Door ( 1948 ) in similar fashion .
Before he was forced abroad by political persecution , Jules Dassin made two classic noirs that also straddled the major – independent line : Brute Force ( 1947 ) and the influential documentary @-@ style The Naked City were developed by producer Mark Hellinger , who had an " inside / outside " contract with Universal similar to Wanger 's . Years earlier , working at Warner Bros. , Hellinger had produced three films for Raoul Walsh , the proto @-@ noirs They Drive by Night ( 1940 ) , Manpower ( 1941 ) and High Sierra ( 1941 ) , now regarded as a seminal work in noir 's development . Walsh had no great name during his half @-@ century as a director but his noirs White Heat ( 1949 ) and The Enforcer ( 1951 ) had A @-@ list stars and are seen as important examples of the cycle . Other directors associated with top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ bill Hollywood film noirs include Edward Dmytryk ( Murder , My Sweet [ 1944 ] , Crossfire [ 1947 ] ) — the first important noir director to fall prey to the industry blacklist — as well as Henry Hathaway ( The Dark Corner [ 1946 ] , Kiss of Death [ 1947 ] ) and John Farrow ( The Big Clock [ 1948 ] , Night Has a Thousand Eyes [ 1948 ] ) .
Most of the Hollywood films considered to be classic noirs , fall into the category of " B movie " . Some were Bs in the most precise sense , produced to run on the bottom of double bills by a low @-@ budget unit of one of the major studios or by one of the smaller Poverty Row outfits , from the relatively well @-@ off Monogram to shakier ventures such as Producers Releasing Corporation ( PRC ) . Jacques Tourneur had made over thirty Hollywood Bs ( a few now highly regarded , most forgotten ) before directing the A @-@ level Out of the Past , described by scholar Robert Ottoson as " the ne plus ultra of forties film noir " . Movies with budgets a step up the ladder , known as " intermediates " by the industry , might be treated as A or B pictures depending on the circumstances . Monogram created Allied Artists in the late 1940s to focus on this sort of production . Such films have long been colloquially known as B movies . Robert Wise ( Born to Kill [ 1947 ] , The Set @-@ Up [ 1949 ] ) and Anthony Mann ( T @-@ Men [ 1947 ] and Raw Deal [ 1948 ] ) each made a series of impressive intermediates , many of them noirs , before graduating to steady work on big @-@ budget productions . Mann did some of his most celebrated work with cinematographer John Alton , a specialist in what James Naremore called " hypnotic moments of light @-@ in @-@ darkness " . He Walked by Night ( 1948 ) , shot by Alton and though credited solely to Alfred Werker , directed in large part by Mann , demonstrates their technical mastery and exemplifies the late 1940s trend of " police procedural " crime dramas . Put out , like other Mann @-@ Alton noirs , by the small Eagle @-@ Lion company , it was the inspiration for the Dragnet series , which debuted on radio in 1949 and television in 1951 .
Several directors associated with noir built well @-@ respected oeuvres largely at the B @-@ movie / intermediate level . Samuel Fuller 's brutal , visually energetic films such as Pickup on South Street ( 1953 ) and Underworld U.S.A. ( 1961 ) earned him a unique reputation ; his advocates praise him as " primitive " and " barbarous " . Joseph H. Lewis directed noirs as diverse as Gun Crazy ( 1950 ) and The Big Combo ( 1955 ) . The former — whose screenplay was written by the blacklisted Dalton Trumbo , disguised by a front — features a bank hold @-@ up sequence shown in an unbroken take of over three minutes that was influential . The Big Combo was shot by John Alton and took the shadowy noir style to its outer limits . The most distinctive films of Phil Karlson ( The Phenix City Story [ 1955 ] and The Brothers Rico [ 1957 ] ) tell stories of vice organized on a monstrous scale . The work of other directors in this tier of the industry , such as Felix E. Feist ( The Devil Thumbs a Ride [ 1947 ] , Tomorrow Is Another Day [ 1951 ] ) , has become obscure . Edgar G. Ulmer spent most of his Hollywood career working at B studios and once in a while on projects that achieved intermediate status ; for the most part , on unmistakable Bs . In 1945 , while at PRC , he directed a noir cult classic , Detour . Ulmer 's other noirs include Strange Illusion ( 1945 ) , also for PRC ; Ruthless ( 1948 ) , for Eagle @-@ Lion , which had acquired PRC the previous year and Murder Is My Beat ( 1955 ) , for Allied Artists .
A number of low- and modestly @-@ budgeted noirs were made by independent , often actor @-@ owned , companies contracting with larger studios for distribution . Serving as producer , writer , director and top @-@ billed performer , Hugo Haas made films like Pickup ( 1951 ) and The Other Woman ( 1954 ) . It was in this way that accomplished noir actress Ida Lupino established herself as the sole female director in Hollywood during the late 1940s and much of the 1950s . She does not appear in the best @-@ known film she directed , The Hitch @-@ Hiker ( 1953 ) , developed by her company , The Filmakers , with support and distribution by RKO . It is one of the seven classic film noirs produced largely outside of the major studios that have been chosen for the United States National Film Registry . Of the others , one was a small @-@ studio release : Detour . Four were independent productions distributed by United Artists , the " studio without a studio " : Gun Crazy ; Kiss Me Deadly ; D.O.A. ( 1950 ) , directed by Rudolph Maté and Sweet Smell of Success ( 1957 ) , directed by Alexander Mackendrick . One was an independent distributed by MGM , the industry leader : Force of Evil ( 1948 ) , directed by Abraham Polonsky and starring John Garfield , both of whom were blacklisted in the 1950s . Independent production usually meant restricted circumstances but Sweet Smell of Success , despite the plans of the production team , was clearly not made on the cheap , though like many other cherished A @-@ budget noirs , it might be said to have a B @-@ movie soul .
Perhaps no director better displayed that spirit than the German @-@ born Robert Siodmak , who had already made a score of films before his 1940 arrival in Hollywood . Working mostly on A features , he made eight films now regarded as classic @-@ era film noirs ( a figure matched only by Lang and Mann ) . In addition to The Killers , Burt Lancaster 's debut and a Hellinger / Universal co @-@ production , Siodmak 's other important contributions to the genre include 1944 's Phantom Lady ( a top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line B and Woolrich adaptation ) , the ironically titled Christmas Holiday ( 1944 ) , and Cry of the City ( 1948 ) . Criss Cross ( 1949 ) , with Lancaster again the lead , exemplifies how Siodmak brought the virtues of the B @-@ movie to the A noir . In addition to the relatively looser constraints on character and message at lower budgets , the nature of B production lent itself to the noir style for economic reasons : dim lighting saved on electricity and helped cloak cheap sets ( mist and smoke also served the cause ) ; night shooting was often compelled by hurried production schedules ; plots with obscure motivations and intriguingly elliptical transitions were sometimes the consequence of hastily written scripts , of which there was not always enough time or money to shoot every scene . In Criss Cross , Siodmak achieved these effects with purpose , wrapping them around Yvonne De Carlo , playing the most understandable of femme fatales , Dan Duryea , in one of his many charismatic villain roles and Lancaster as an ordinary laborer turned armed robber , doomed by a romantic obsession .
= = Outside the United States = =
Although the term " film noir " was originally coined to describe Hollywood movies , film noir was an international phenomenon . Even before the beginning of the generally accepted classic period , there were films made far from Hollywood that can be seen in retrospect as film noirs , for example , the French productions Pépé le Moko ( 1937 ) , directed by Julien Duvivier , and Le Jour se lève ( 1939 ) , directed by Marcel Carné . In addition , Mexico experienced a vibrant film noir period from roughly 1946 to 1952 , around the same time film noir was blossoming in the U.S.
During the classic period , there were are many films produced in Europe , particularly in France , that share elements of style , theme , and sensibility with American film noirs and may themselves be included in the genre 's canon . In certain cases , the interrelationship with Hollywood noir is obvious : American @-@ born director Jules Dassin moved to France in the early 1950s as a result of the Hollywood blacklist , and made one of the most famous French film noirs , Rififi ( 1955 ) . Other well @-@ known French films often classified as noir include Quai des Orfèvres ( 1947 ) and Les Diaboliques ( 1955 ) , both directed by Henri @-@ Georges Clouzot ; Casque d 'Or ( 1952 ) and Touchez pas au grisbi ( 1954 ) , both directed by Jacques Becker ; and Ascenseur pour l 'échafaud ( 1958 ) , directed by Louis Malle . French director Jean @-@ Pierre Melville is widely recognized for his tragic , minimalist film noirs — Bob le flambeur ( 1955 ) , from the classic period , was followed by Le Doulos ( 1962 ) , Le deuxième souffle ( 1966 ) , Le Samouraï ( 1967 ) , and Le Cercle rouge ( 1970 ) .
Scholar Andrew Spicer argues that British film noir evidences a greater debt to French poetic realism than to the expressionistic American mode of noir . Examples of British noir from the classic period include Brighton Rock ( 1947 ) , directed by John Boulting ; They Made Me a Fugitive ( 1947 ) , directed by Alberto Cavalcanti ; The Small Back Room ( 1948 ) , directed by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger ; The October Man ( 1950 ) , directed by Roy Ward Baker ; and Cast a Dark Shadow ( 1955 ) , directed by Lewis Gilbert . Terence Fisher directed several low @-@ budget thrillers in a noir mode for Hammer Film Productions , including The Last Page ( a.k.a. Man Bait ; 1952 ) , Stolen Face ( 1952 ) , and Murder by Proxy ( a.k.a. Blackout ; 1954 ) . Before leaving for France , Jules Dassin had been obliged by political pressure to shoot his last English @-@ language film of the classic noir period in Great Britain : Night and the City ( 1950 ) . Though it was conceived in the United States and was not only directed by an American but also stars two American actors — Richard Widmark and Gene Tierney — it is technically a UK production , financed by 20th Century @-@ Fox 's British subsidiary . The most famous of classic British noirs is director Carol Reed 's The Third Man ( 1949 ) , from a screenplay by Graham Greene . Set in Vienna immediately after World War II , it also stars two American actors , Joseph Cotten and Orson Welles , who had appeared together in Citizen Kane .
Elsewhere , Italian director Luchino Visconti adapted Cain 's The Postman Always Rings Twice as Ossessione ( 1943 ) , regarded both as one of the great noirs and a seminal film in the development of neorealism . ( This was not even the first screen version of Cain 's novel , having been preceded by the French Le Dernier tournant in 1939 . ) In Japan , the celebrated Akira Kurosawa directed several films recognizable as film noirs , including Drunken Angel ( 1948 ) , Stray Dog ( 1949 ) , The Bad Sleep Well ( 1960 ) , and High and Low ( 1963 ) .
Among the first major neo @-@ noir films — the term often applied to films that consciously refer back to the classic noir tradition — was the French Tirez sur le pianiste ( 1960 ) , directed by François Truffaut from a novel by one of the gloomiest of American noir fiction writers , David Goodis . Noir crime films and melodramas have been produced in many countries in the post @-@ classic area . Some of these are quintessentially self @-@ aware neo @-@ noirs — for example , Il Conformista ( 1969 ; Italy ) , Der Amerikanische Freund ( 1977 ; Germany ) , The Element of Crime ( 1984 ; Denmark ) , As Tears Go By ( 1988 ; Hong Kong ) , and El Aura ( 2005 ; Argentina ) . Others simply share narrative elements and a version of the hardboiled sensibility associated with classic noir , such as The Castle of Sand ( 1974 ; Japan ) , Insomnia ( 1997 ; Norway ) , Croupier ( 1998 ; UK ) , Blind Shaft ( 2003 ; China ) , and The Square ( 2008 ; Australia ) .
= = Neo @-@ noir and echoes of the classic mode = =
The neo @-@ noir film genre developed mid @-@ way into the Cold War . This cinematological trend reflected much of the cynicism and the possibility of nuclear annihilation of the era . This new genre introduced innovations that were not available with the earlier noir films . The violence was also more potent than in earlier noir films .
= = = 1960s and 1970s = = =
While it is hard to draw a line between some of the noir films of the early 1960s such as Blast of Silence ( 1961 ) and Cape Fear ( 1962 ) and the noirs of the late 1950s , new trends emerged in the post @-@ classic era . The Manchurian Candidate ( 1962 ) , directed by John Frankenheimer , Shock Corridor ( 1962 ) , directed by Samuel Fuller , and Brainstorm ( 1965 ) , directed by experienced noir character actor William Conrad , all treat the theme of mental dispossession within stylistic and tonal frameworks derived from classic film noir . The Manchurian Candidate examined the situation of American prisoners of war ( POWs ) during the Korean War . These incidents that occurred during the war as well as post @-@ war incidents that ensued , functioned as an inspiration for a different " subgenre of Cold War Noir " . The television series The Fugitive ( 1963 – 67 ) brought classic noir themes and mood to the small screen for an extended run .
In a different vein , films began to appear that self @-@ consciously acknowledged the conventions of classic film noir as historical archetypes to be revived , rejected , or reimagined . These efforts typify what came to be known as neo @-@ noir . Though several late classic noirs , Kiss Me Deadly in particular , were deeply self @-@ knowing and post @-@ traditional in conception , none tipped its hand so evidently as to be remarked on by American critics at the time . The first major film to overtly work this angle was French director Jean @-@ Luc Godard 's À bout de souffle ( Breathless ; 1960 ) , which pays its literal respects to Bogart and his crime films while brandishing a bold new style for a new day . In the United States , Arthur Penn ( Mickey One [ 1964 ] , drawing inspiration from Truffaut 's Tirez sur le pianiste and other French New Wave films ) , John Boorman ( Point Blank [ 1967 ] , similarly caught up , though in the Nouvelle vague 's deeper waters ) , and Alan J. Pakula ( Klute [ 1971 ] ) directed films that knowingly related themselves to the original film noirs , inviting audiences in on the game .
A manifest affiliation with noir traditions — which , by its nature , allows different sorts of commentary on them to be inferred — can also provide the basis for explicit critiques of those traditions . In 1973 , director Robert Altman flipped off noir piety with The Long Goodbye . Based on the novel by Raymond Chandler , it features one of Bogart 's most famous characters , but in iconoclastic fashion : Philip Marlowe , the prototypical hardboiled detective , is replayed as a hapless misfit , almost laughably out of touch with contemporary mores and morality . Where Altman 's subversion of the film noir mythos was so irreverent as to outrage some contemporary critics , around the same time Woody Allen was paying affectionate , at points idolatrous homage to the classic mode with Play It Again , Sam ( 1972 ) . The " blaxploitation " film Shaft ( 1971 ) , wherein Richard Roundtree plays the titular African @-@ American private eye , John Shaft , takes conventions from classic noir .
The most acclaimed of the neo @-@ noirs of the era was director Roman Polanski 's 1974 Chinatown . Written by Robert Towne , it is set in 1930s Los Angeles , an accustomed noir locale nudged back some few years in a way that makes the pivotal loss of innocence in the story even crueler . Where Polanski and Towne raised noir to a black apogee by turning rearward , director Martin Scorsese and screenwriter Paul Schrader brought the noir attitude crashing into the present day with Taxi Driver ( 1976 ) , a crackling , bloody @-@ minded gloss on bicentennial America . In 1978 , Walter Hill wrote and directed The Driver , a chase film as might have been imagined by Jean @-@ Pierre Melville in an especially abstract mood .
Hill was already a central figure in 1970s noir of a more straightforward manner , having written the script for director Sam Peckinpah 's The Getaway ( 1972 ) , adapting a novel by pulp master Jim Thompson , as well as for two tough private eye films : an original screenplay for Hickey & Boggs ( 1972 ) and an adaptation of a novel by Ross Macdonald , the leading literary descendant of Hammett and Chandler , for The Drowning Pool ( 1975 ) . Some of the strongest 1970s noirs , in fact , were unwinking remakes of the classics , " neo " mostly by default : the heartbreaking Thieves Like Us ( 1973 ) , directed by Altman from the same source as Ray 's They Live by Night , and Farewell , My Lovely ( 1975 ) , the Chandler tale made classically as Murder , My Sweet , remade here with Robert Mitchum in his last notable noir role . Detective series , prevalent on American television during the period , updated the hardboiled tradition in different ways , but the show conjuring the most noir tone was a horror crossover touched with shaggy , Long Goodbye – style humor : Kolchak : The Night Stalker ( 1974 – 75 ) , featuring a Chicago newspaper reporter investigating strange , usually supernatural occurrences .
= = = 1980s and 1990s = = =
The turn of the decade brought Scorsese 's black @-@ and @-@ white Raging Bull ( cowritten by Schrader ) ; an acknowledged masterpiece — the American Film Institute ranks it as the greatest American film of | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
veniles consume a greater amount and variety of crustaceans than adults , including smaller types such as mysids and hyperiid amphipods . Adults favor relatively large fish prey and have been known to take other sharks and rays and smaller members of the same species . The importance of cephalopod prey across ages differs between regions . The stomachs of some blackmouth catsharks have found to contain pieces of animals too large for a single shark to overwhelm , suggesting that it may sometimes attack in groups . Scavenging has been infrequently documented , including of human refuse .
When foraging , the blackmouth catshark swings its head from side to side to employ its senses more effectively . It likely relies mainly on vision and electroreception to find food , and less on smell . As in most sharks , its visual acuity is greatest along the median horizontal plane . The lens and cone cells of its eyes are large , allowing smaller or farther objects to be discerned from the background . The rod cells of its eyes are most sensitive to the wavelengths emitted by bioluminescence , which is exhibited by most of the organisms it hunts . For electroreception , the blackmouth catshark has a high number of ampullae of Lorenzini that are evenly arranged , which enhances spatial resolution and is best suited for localizing fast @-@ moving prey .
= = = Life history = = =
Unlike most members of its genus , the blackmouth catshark exhibits multiple oviparity , in which more than one egg can mature within each oviduct simultaneously . Females may contain up to 13 developing eggs , though 1 – 4 per oviduct is typical . The number of eggs laid annually per female has been estimated at between 60 and 100 , increasing with female size . Only the right ovary is functional in mature females . The egg case is vase @-@ shaped and bears a slight flange along the lateral margins ; the anterior end is squared off , with a pair of stubby , coiled horns at the corners , while the posterior end is rounded . The surface of the case is somewhat translucent , smooth , and glossy . The case is a golden brown color when first laid , and becomes dark brown in sea water . Egg cases produced by Atlantic sharks measure 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) long and 1 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 55 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) across . Those produced by Mediterranean sharks tend to be smaller at 4 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 in ) long and 1 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 67 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) across . Larger females produce slightly larger egg cases .
Mating and egg @-@ laying proceeds year @-@ round ; reproductive activity is highest in winter and summer , though not all studies have found such a seasonal pattern . The eggs are deposited on muddy substrates in relatively shallow water . Maturation size varies between geographical regions , and is generally larger in the Atlantic than in the Mediterranean . Lengths at maturity for males and females have been variously reported from 48 to 79 cm ( 19 to 31 in ) and 56 to 79 cm ( 22 to 31 in ) respectively in the Atlantic , and from 42 to 55 cm ( 17 to 22 in ) and 39 to 61 cm ( 15 to 24 in ) respectively in the Mediterranean .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans and of little economic value , the blackmouth catshark is caught incidentally in large numbers by commercial bottom trawl and longline fisheries . In particular , it is among the most commonly bycaught sharks in trawls targeting deepwater lobsters and shrimps ( Nephrops norvegicus , Parapenaeus longirostris , Aristeus antennatus , and Aristaeomorpha folicea ) , operating off Portugal and in the Mediterranean . Most captured sharks are discarded , probably with heavy mortality . Some fisheries , such as those off Portugal and Italy , retain and utilize a small subset of the largest individuals for human consumption fresh or dried and salted , and for leather ; the fishing fleet of Viareggio , Tuscany reported landing 700 kg ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) in 2005 . In the northeastern Atlantic , this shark is being increasingly targeted by fishers following the decline of other deepwater shark species .
Off Corsica , Sicily , and southern Portugal , and in the Ionian , southern Adriatic , and Aegean Seas , most of the blackmouth catsharks captured are immature , suggesting there has been a negative impact of fishing pressure . However , the species remains extremely abundant in a number of areas , and survey and fishery data have not shown any evidence of overall population decline . The wide range of depths it occupies likely afford it some protection against fishing , particularly given a 2005 ban on trawling deeper than 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) in the Mediterranean . Therefore , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the blackmouth catshark under Least Concern . In the waters of the European Commission , fishing for this species is managed as part of the Total Allowable Catch ( TAC ) for deepwater sharks .
= New York State Route 359 =
New York State Route 359 ( NY 359 ) is a state highway located entirely within the town of Skaneateles in Onondaga County , New York in the United States . At 1 @.@ 71 miles ( 2 @.@ 75 km ) in length , it is one of the shortest signed state highways in all of New York . The route begins at NY 38A a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north of the Onondaga @-@ Cayuga County county line and ends at NY 41A in the hamlet of Mandana . It lies between Skaneateles Lake and Owasco Lake . Excluding its termini , there are only two junctions with other roadways along the entire route . NY 359 was assigned in the early 1940s and was part of the original NY 26 from 1924 to 1930 .
= = Route description = =
NY 359 begins in the town of Skaneateles at an intersection with Heifer Street , a local road , and NY 38A . The route goes north , intersecting with Weeks Road 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km ) north of NY 38A . Here , NY 359 begins to curve to the east with Weeks Road carrying on the northward alignment of NY 359 . Upon meeting Lacy Road , the route takes over its east – west routing and heads east . NY 359 comes to an end just under a mile later at NY 41A in the lakeside hamlet of Mandana . East of NY 41A , the roadway continues for roughly 400 feet ( 120 m ) to a boat launch on the western shore of Skaneateles Lake , 1 @.@ 71 miles ( 2 @.@ 75 km ) from NY 38A .
Signed as a north – south route , it lies that way at the southern end , but about midway along its length the road turns and thence travels east – west . Excluding its termini , there are only two junctions with other roadways along the entire route . It is the only instance in New York of a route designated without an alphabetic suffix that terminates at both ends at suffixed routes .
= = History = =
The origins of NY 359 date back to the assignment of the first state routes in New York in 1924 . At this time , all of modern NY 359 became part of NY 26 , a highway that continued north along what is now NY 41A toward the village of Skaneateles and south on modern NY 38A toward the village of Moravia . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 26 was reassigned elsewhere in the state . Its former routing was incorporated into several new routes , including part of NY 38A from Moravia to the modern junction of NY 38A and NY 359 and part of NY 41A from Mandana to Skaneateles . The portion that is now NY 359 , however , received no designation and became unnumbered . It was designated as NY 359 in the early 1940s .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Skaneateles , Onondaga County .
= Edward Low =
Captain Edward " Ned " Low ( also spelled Lowe or Loe ; ca . 1690 – ca . 1724 ) was a notorious English pirate during the latter days of the Golden Age of Piracy , in the early 18th century . He was born around 1690 into poverty in Westminster , London , and was a thief from an early age . Low moved to Boston , Massachusetts , as a young man . His wife died in childbirth in late 1719 . Two years later , he became a pirate , operating off the coasts of New England and the Azores , and in the Caribbean .
He captained a number of ships , usually maintaining a small fleet of three or four . Low and his pirate crews captured at least a hundred ships during his short career , burning most of them . Although he was active for only three years , Low remains notorious as one of the most vicious pirates of the age , with a reputation for violently torturing his victims before killing them .
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle described Low as " savage and desperate , " and a man of " amazing and grotesque brutality " . The New York Times called him a torturer , whose methods would have " done credit to the ingenuity of the Spanish Inquisition in its darkest days " . The circumstances of Low 's death , which took place around 1724 , have been the subject of much speculation .
= = Early life = =
According to Charles Johnson 's A General History of the Pyrates , Edward Low was born in Westminster , London , England , around 1690 . He was described as illiterate , having a " quarrelsome nature " , and always ready to cheat , running " wild in the streets of his native parish " . As a young man , he was said to be a pickpocket and gambler , playing games of chance with the footmen of the nearby House of Commons .
Most of his family appear to have been thieves . While young , his brother , Richard , was small for his age and is said to have been carried around in a basket on a friend 's back ; in a crowd , Richard would snatch the hats and wigs of passers @-@ by . Richard Low later took to other forms of criminal activity and ended up hanged at Tyburn in 1707 for the burglary of a house in Stepney .
= = Life in Boston = =
As he grew older , Low tired of pickpocketing and thievery and turned to burglary . Eventually , he left England , and travelled alone to the New World around 1710 . He spent three to four years in various locations , before settling in Boston , Massachusetts . On 12 August 1714 , he married Eliza Marble at the First Church of Boston . They had a son , who died when he was an infant , and then a daughter named Elizabeth , born in the winter of 1719 .
Eliza died in childbirth , leaving Low with his daughter . The loss of his wife had a profound effect on Low : in his later career of piracy , he would often express regret for the daughter he left behind , and refused to press @-@ gang married men into joining his crews . He would also allow women to return to port safely . At first working honestly as a rigger , in early 1722 he joined a gang of twelve men on a sloop headed for Honduras , where they planned to collect a shipment of logs for resale in Boston .
Low was employed as a patron , supervising the loading and carrying of the logs . One day , he returned to the ship when hungry , but was told by the captain he would have to wait to eat , and that he and his men would have to be satisfied with a ration of rum . At this , Low " took up a loaded musket and fired at the captain but missed him , [ and ] shot another poor fellow through the throat " .
Following this failed mutiny , Low and his friends were forced to leave the boat . A day later , Low led the twelve @-@ man gang — which included Francis Farrington Spriggs , who went on to become a notorious pirate in his own right — in taking over a small sloop off the coast of Rhode Island . Killing one man during the theft , Low and his crew turned pirate , determined " to go in her , make a black Flag , and declare War against all the World . "
= = Piracy = =
= = = Lieutenant = = =
Low , using his newly captured ship , lay in wait on the popular shipping route between Boston and New York . Within a few days , he and his crew seized a sloop out of Rhode Island , and plundered it . His crew cut the rigging away to prevent the sloop returning too quickly to port to raise the alarm . He then captured a number of unarmed merchantmen near Port Rosemary .
Low headed south and began operating in the waters of Grand Cayman , with a period as lieutenant to the established pirate George Lowther , who captained the Happy Delivery , a 100 @-@ ton Rhode Island sloop with eight cannon and ten swivel guns . When she was " destroyed by Indians " , Lowther and his crew transferred to a sloop named the Ranger . Lowther 's crew was constantly expanded by desperate sailors willing to join him . Fast acquiring a taste for cruelty , Low taught Spriggs a torture technique which involved tying a victim 's hands with rope between their fingers and setting it alight , burning their flesh down to the bones .
Following a number of successful raids , Lowther eventually captured a large 6 @-@ gun brigantine ( named Rebecca ) on 28 May 1722 . He gave it to Low to captain . With a crew of 44 , Low amicably dissolved his partnership with Lowther .
= = = Pirate captain = = =
In one notable raid in June 1722 , Low and his crew attacked thirteen New England fishing vessels sheltering at anchor in Port Roseway , Shelburne , Nova Scotia . Although outnumbered , Low hoisted his Jolly Roger flag and declared that no mercy would be given to the fishermen if any resisted . The fleet submitted and Low 's men robbed every vessel . Low chose the largest , an 80 @-@ ton schooner which he renamed The Fancy and armed with 10 guns , to become his flagship .
He sank the other ships of the fleet , and abandoned the Rebecca . The Boston News Letter of 9 July 1722 published a list of those captured by Low . A number of the fishermen were forced to join Low , including Philip Ashton who escaped in May 1723 on Roatán Island in the Bay Islands of Honduras , and who wrote a detailed account of life aboard Low 's pirate ship . Before Ashton 's escape , he had been beaten , whipped , kept in chains , and threatened with death many times , as he refused to sign Low 's articles and become a pirate .
Low 's tactics consisted primarily of hoisting false colours and approaching an unsuspecting vessel . Off the coast of St John 's , Newfoundland , Low mistook a fully armed man @-@ of @-@ war for a fishing boat , and barely escaped . He moved on to Conception Bay , capturing a number of boats around the Grand Banks southeast of Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic to the Azores . There , he captured a French ( or Portuguese — sources differ ) pink , a narrow @-@ sterned former man of war , which Low rearmed and refitted as his new flagship , naming it the Rose Pink .
He also captured an English vessel with two Portuguese passengers aboard . Low had his crew hoist them up and drop them back down from the yard arm several times , until they died . He moved on to the Canaries , Cape Verde and then back across to the coast of Brazil , where he was driven back by foul weather .
Low abandoned his plans for plundering the rich shipping trade off the coast of Brazil , and moved on to the Caribbean . George Roberts , a mate on the British ship King Sagamore , recounted a meeting with Low aboard the Pink . Roberts ' ship was captured by Low 's fleet , of which he was now styling himself " Commodore " .
= = = Capsizing of the Rose Pink = = =
Forty leagues ( 120 nautical miles or around 220 km ) to the east of Surinam , Low and his fleet of two ships ( the Rose Pink and the Fancy , captained by a young Charles Harris ) dropped anchor to remove growth such as seaweed and barnacles from the outside of the boats , in a process known as careening , necessary because no dry dock was available to pirates .
Still relatively inexperienced , Low ordered too many men to the outside of the boat to work on the buildup , and the Rose Pink tipped over too far . The portholes had been left open , and the vessel took on water and sank , with the death of two men . The Pink had been carrying most of the provisions , and Low — by now captaining a captured schooner , the Squirrel — and his crew were forced to strictly ration their fresh water to half a pint ( around 275 ml ) per man , per day .
Failing to reach their initial destination of Tobago due to light winds and strong currents , Low 's depleted fleet made it to Grenada , a French @-@ owned island . Hiding most of his men belowdecks , he was permitted to send men ashore for water . The following day , a French sloop was sent out to investigate , but was captured when Low 's men came out from hiding . Low , now commanding the captured sloop ( renamed the Ranger ) , gave the schooner Squirrel to his quartermaster , Spriggs , who renamed it the Delight before sailing away in the middle of the night with a small crew following a disagreement with Low over the disciplining of one of Spriggs ' crew .
= = = Early 1723 = = =
The new fleet captured many more sloops , including one Low kept , naming it the Fortune . During a trial on 10 July 1723 for a number of Low 's crew , a sailor on board the Fortune named John Welland recalled how Low stripped his boat , including gold to the value of £ 150 , then beat him and cut off his ear with a cutlass .
Following this , Low 's fleet captured a Portuguese ship called the Nostra Signiora de Victoria on 25 January 1723 . The Victoria 's Portuguese captain allowed a bag containing approximately 11 @,@ 000 gold moidores ( worth at the time around £ 15 @,@ 000 ) to fall into the sea rather than see it captured . One of Low 's most noted episodes of cruelty followed : in his rage , he slashed off the Portuguese captain 's lips with a cutlass , broiled them , and forced the victim to eat them while still hot . He then murdered the remaining crew . Low 's own men described him as " a maniac and a brute " .
A story describes Low burning a French cook alive , saying he was a " greasy fellow who would fry well " , and another tells he once killed 53 Spanish captives with his cutlass . Some historians , including David Cordingly , believe this was deliberately done to cultivate a ferocious image . Historian Edward Leslie described Low as a psychopath with a history filled with " mutilations , disembowelings , decapitations , and slaughter " .
Low , like other pirates of the time , tried to intimidate his victims into surrendering , by threatening to kill or torture them . The crew of the targeted ship would hinder the officers from defending the ship , so afraid were they of reprisals . One failed torture session led to one of Low 's crew members accidentally cutting him in the mouth . Botched surgery left Low scarred .
A snow called the Unity was added to the fleet , and used as a tender , but was abandoned during an encounter with a man of war named the Mermaid . As Low 's success increased in the Caribbean , so did his notoriety . Eventually , a bounty was placed on his head , and Low set out for the Azores , again teaming up with Charles Harris . As they terrorised the Azores , the pressure increased from the authorities , who by then had taken special notice of Edward Low , despite the hordes of pirates in operation at the time .
= = = A defeat = = =
Low , Harris and their ships left the Azores for the Carolinas . On 10 June 1723 , they suffered a resounding defeat in a battle with HMS Greyhound , a heavily armed man of war . Greyhound had been dispatched under the command of Peter Solgard to hunt down Low and his fleet . Low fled in the Fancy with a skeleton crew and £ 150 @,@ 000 in gold on board and headed back to the Azores , leaving Harris and the Ranger behind .
Twenty @-@ five of the crew of the Ranger , including the ship 's doctor , were tried between 10 July and 12 July , with Solgard giving evidence and recounting the battle . The men were hanged for felony , piracy and robbery , near Newport , Rhode Island , on 19 July 1723 . Harris was sent back to England and hanged at Execution Dock in Wapping . When Solgard returned to New York , he was presented with the freedom of the city and a gold snuffbox for his part in bringing some of Low 's crew to justice .
= = = End of Low 's career = = =
Low , still captaining the Fancy , sailed north . He captured a whaling vessel 80 miles ( 130 km ) out at sea , and in a foul mood following the encounter with the Greyhound and the loss of his right @-@ hand man , Harris , tortured the captain before shooting him through the head . He set the whaler 's crew adrift with no provisions , intending them to starve to death ( they were lucky , and reached Nantucket after a difficult journey ) .
Remaining off the coast of North America , his crew took a fishing boat near Block Island . Low decapitated the ship 's master , and sent the crew ashore . When he captured two more fishing boats near Rhode Island , his actions became so savage his crew refused to carry out his orders to torture the fishermen .
Heading south again , Low captured a 22 @-@ gun French ship and a large Virginian merchant vessel , the Merry Christmas , in late June 1723 . Following the defeat by the Greyhound , Low became " peculiarly cruel " to his English victims . His fleet of three ships rejoined forces with George Lowther in July . In late 1723 , Low and Lowther 's fleet captured the Delight off the coast of Guinea , mounting fourteen guns on her , with command being given to Spriggs . Two days later , Spriggs and Lowther both abandoned Low , leaving him the Merry Christmas , by now mounted with 34 guns , as his sole ship .
= = = Fate = = =
There are conflicting reports on the circumstances of Edward Low 's death . Charles Johnson — considered by some to be Daniel Defoe writing under a pseudonym — stated in his A General History of the Pyrates , at odds with other sources , that Edward Low and the Fancy were last sighted near the Canaries and Guinea , but at the time of his 1724 book no further reports had surfaced . He noted one rumour that Low was sailing for Brazil and another that Low 's ship sank in a storm with the loss of all hands . The National Maritime Museum in London states that he was never caught , ending his days in Brazil .
The Pirates Own Book and Ossian both suggest that Low was set adrift without provisions by the crew of the Merry Christmas , in a mutiny brought about by Low 's murdering of a sleeping subordinate following an argument . Low was subsequently rescued by a French ship ; when the French authorities learned of his identity he was brought to trial , and was hanged in Martinique , in 1724 .
= = Flags = =
Initially , Low used the same flag as Edward Teach ( " Blackbeard " ) . Later , he used his own flag , a red skeletal figure on a black background , which became notorious . He first flew his own flag in late July 1723 .
Low also used a green silk flag with a yellow figure of a man blowing a trumpet ; this Green Trumpeter was hoisted on the mizzen peak to call his fleet 's captains to meetings aboard the flagship .
= = Articles = =
Low had a set of Articles , a code of conduct and an ironic reference to the Royal Navy 's own Articles of War . The Articles listed below are attributed to Low by the Boston News @-@ Letter . The first eight of these articles are essentially identical to those attributed to Lowther by Charles Johnson .
It is likely that both reports are correct and that Low and Lowther shared the same articles , with Low 's two extra articles being an ordonnance , or amendment , adopted after the two crews separated .
I. The Captain is to have two full Shares ; the [ Quarter ] Master is to have one Share and one Half ; The Doctor , Mate , Gunner and Boatswain , one Share and one Quarter .
II . He that shall be found guilty of taking up any Unlawfull Weapon on Board the Privateer or any other prize by us taken , so as to Strike or Abuse one another in any regard , shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall see fit .
III . He that shall be found Guilty of Cowardice in the time of Ingagements , shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit .
IV . If any Gold , Jewels , Silver , & c. be found on Board of any Prize or Prizes to the value of a Piece of Eight , & the finder do not deliver it to the Quarter Master in the space of 24 hours he shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit .
V. He that is found Guilty of Gaming , or Defrauding one another to the value of a Royal of Plate , shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit .
VI . He that shall have the Misfortune to loose a Limb in time of Engagement , shall have the Sum of Six hundred pieces of Eight , and remain aboard as long as he shall think fit .
VII . Good Quarters to be given when Craved .
VIII . He that sees a Sail first , shall have the best Pistol or Small Arm aboard of her .
IX . He that shall be guilty of Drunkenness in time of Engagement shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and Majority of the Company shall think fit .
X. No Snaping of Guns in the Hould .
= = Legacy = =
Edward Low 's acts , along with those of other pirates of the period such as Edward Teach , Bartholomew Roberts ( " Black Bart " ) , and William Fly , led to a great increase in the military presence to protect shipping lanes , resulting in the effective end of the Golden Age of Piracy .
By 1700 , the European states had enough troops and ships at their disposal , following the end of a number of wars , to begin better protecting their important colonies in the West Indies and in the Americas , without relying on the aid of privateers . Pirates based in the Caribbean were chased from the seas by a new British Royal Navy squadron based at Port Royal , Jamaica , and a smaller group of Spanish privateers , sailing from the Spanish Main , known as the Guarda de Costa ( Coast Guard in English ) , or simply the Guarda .
Less is recorded of Low than of other equally prolific pirates such as Teach and Stede Bonnet . Howard Pyle , in an 1880 children 's book on pirates , said : " No one stood higher in the trade than [ Low ] , and no one mounted to more lofty altitudes of bloodthirsty and unscrupulous wickedness . ' Tis strange that so little has been written and sung of this man of might , for he was as worthy of story and of song as was Blackbeard . " Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , in his work The Green Flag , described Low as " savage and desperate " , and a man of " amazing and grotesque brutality " . The New York Times said " Low and his crew became the terror of the Atlantic , and his depredations were committed on every part of the ocean , from the coast of Brazil to the Grand Banks of Newfoundland " .
Low has featured on stamps and commemorative currency around the Caribbean . A postage stamp featuring Low was commissioned by the Cayman Islands in 1975 , and in 1994 the government of Antigua and Barbuda featured Edward Low and his brigantine , Rebecca , on a legal tender one hundred @-@ dollar bill made of gold leaf .
" Ned Low " is one of the pirates featured on the Pirates of the Caribbean ride at the Disneyland theme park in California . A duplicate of Low 's flag was used for the flag of the fictional pirate Sao Feng in Disney 's Pirates of the Caribbean films . Ned Low is played by Tadhg Murphy in the Starz TV series Black Sails .
Some of Low 's haunts , such as the waters around the Isles of Shoals off New Hampshire and Isle Haute in Nova Scotia , attract treasure hunters who seek artifacts in the ships he sank .
= Henry Rollins =
Henry Rollins ( born Henry Lawrence Garfield ; February 13 , 1961 ) is an American musician , actor , television and radio host , and comedian . He hosts a weekly radio show on KCRW , and is a regular columnist for LA Weekly and Rolling Stone Australia .
After performing for the short @-@ lived Washington , D.C. band State of Alert in 1980 , Rollins fronted the California hardcore punk band Black Flag from August 1981 until mid @-@ 1986 . Following the band 's breakup , Rollins established the record label and publishing company 2 @.@ 13 @.@ 61 to release his spoken word albums , and formed the Rollins Band , which toured with a number of lineups from 1987 until 2003 , and during 2006 .
Since Black Flag disbanded , Rollins has hosted numerous radio shows , such as Harmony in My Head on Indie 103 , and television shows such as The Henry Rollins Show , MTV 's 120 Minutes , and Jackass . He had recurring dramatic roles in the second season of Sons of Anarchy , in the final seasons of the animated series The Legend of Korra as Zaheer , and has also had roles in several films . Rollins has campaigned for various political causes in the United States , including promoting LGBT rights , World Hunger Relief , the West Memphis Three and an end to war in particular .
As of 2013 , Rollins is the host of the educational history television series 10 Things You Don 't Know About , joining the show for its second and third seasons . New episodes air weekly on H2 in the U.S.
= = Early life = =
Rollins was born in Washington , D.C. , the only child of Iris and Paul Garfield . When he was three years old , his parents divorced and he was raised by his mother in Glover Park , an affluent neighborhood of Washington . As a child and teenager , Rollins was sexually assaulted . He suffered from depression and low self @-@ esteem . In the fourth grade , he was diagnosed with hyperactivity and took Ritalin for several years so that he could focus during school . He attended The Bullis School , an all @-@ male preparatory school in Potomac , Maryland ( Bullis became co @-@ educational in 1981 after Rollins graduated ) . According to Rollins , the Bullis School helped him to develop a sense of discipline and a strong work ethic . It was at Bullis that he began writing . In 1987 , Rollins said he had not seen his father since he was 18 .
= = Music career = =
= = = State of Alert = = =
After high school , Rollins attended American University in Washington D.C. for one semester , but dropped out in December 1979 . He began working minimum @-@ wage jobs , including a job as a courier for kidney samples at the National Institutes of Health . Rollins developed an interest in punk rock after he and his friend Ian MacKaye procured a copy of The Ramones 's eponymous debut album ; he later described it as a " akin to shooting heroin . " From 1979 to 1980 , Rollins was working as a roadie for Washington bands , including Teen Idles . When the band 's singer Nathan Strejcek failed to appear for practice sessions , Rollins convinced the Teen Idles to let him sing . Word of Rollins 's ability spread around the punk rock scene in Washington ; Bad Brains singer H.R. would sometimes get Rollins on stage to sing with him .
In 1980 , the Washington punk band the Extorts lost their frontman Lyle Preslar to Minor Threat . Rollins joined the rest of the band to form State of Alert ( S.O.A. ) , and became its frontman and vocalist . He put words to the band 's five songs and wrote several more . S.O.A. recorded their sole EP , No Policy , and released it in 1981 on MacKaye 's Dischord Records . S.O.A. disbanded after a total of a dozen concerts and one EP . Rollins had enjoyed being the band 's frontman , and had earned a reputation for fighting in shows . He later said , " I was like nineteen and a young man all full of steam and loved to get in the dust @-@ ups . " By this time , Rollins had become the manager of the Georgetown Häagen @-@ Dazs ice cream store ; his steady employment had helped to finance the S.O.A. EP .
= = = Black Flag = = =
In 1980 , a friend gave Rollins and MacKaye a copy of Black Flag 's Nervous Breakdown EP . Rollins soon became a fan of the band , exchanging letters with bassist Chuck Dukowski and later inviting the band to stay in his parents ' home when Black Flag toured the East Coast in December 1980 . When Black Flag returned to the East Coast in 1981 , Rollins attended as many of their concerts as he could . At an impromptu show in a New York bar , Black Flag 's vocalist Dez Cadena allowed Rollins to sing " Clocked In " , a song Rollins had asked the band to play in light of the fact that he had to drive back to Washington , D.C. to begin work .
Unbeknownst to Rollins , Cadena wanted to switch to guitar , and the band was looking for a new vocalist . The band was impressed with Rollins ' singing and stage demeanor , and the next day , after a semi @-@ formal audition at Tu Casa Studio in New York City , they asked him to become their permanent vocalist . Despite some doubts , he accepted , in part because of MacKaye 's encouragement . His high level of energy and intense personality suited the band 's style , but Rollins ' diverse tastes in music were a key factor in his being selected as singer ; Black Flag 's founder Greg Ginn was growing restless creatively and wanted a singer who was willing to move beyond simple , three @-@ chord punk .
After joining Black Flag in 1981 , Rollins quit his job at Häagen @-@ Dazs , sold his car , and moved to Los Angeles . Upon arriving in Los Angeles , Rollins got the Black Flag logo tattooed on his left biceps and also on the back of his neck , chose the stage name of Rollins , a surname he and MacKaye had used as teenagers . Rollins played his first show with Black Flag on August 21 , 1981 at Cuckoo 's Nest in Costa Mesa , California . Rollins was in a different environment in Los Angeles ; the police soon realized he was a member of Black Flag , and he was hassled as a result . Rollins later said : " That really scared me . It freaked me out that an adult would do that . [ ... ] My little eyes were opened big time . "
Before concerts , as the rest of the band tuned up , Rollins would stride about the stage dressed only in a pair of black shorts , grinding his teeth ; to focus before the show , he would squeeze a pool ball . His stage persona impressed several critics ; after a 1982 show in Anacortes , Washington , Sub Pop critic Calvin Johnson wrote : " Henry was incredible . Pacing back and forth , lunging , lurching , growling ; it was all real , the most intense emotional experiences I have ever seen . "
By 1983 , Rollins ' stage persona was increasingly alienating him from the rest of Black Flag . During a show in England , Rollins assaulted a member of the audience , who attacked Ginn ; Ginn later scolded Rollins , calling him a " macho asshole " . A legal dispute with Unicorn Records held up further Black Flag releases until 1984 , and Ginn was slowing the band 's tempo down so that they would remain innovative . In August 1983 , guitarist Dez Cadena had left the band ; a stalemate lingered between Dukowski and Ginn , who wanted Dukowski to leave , before Ginn fired Dukowski outright . 1984 's heavy metal music @-@ influenced My War featured Rollins screaming and wailing throughout many of the songs ; the band 's members also grew their hair to confuse the band 's hardcore punk audience .
Black Flag 's change in musical style and appearance alienated many of their original fans , who focused their displeasure on Rollins by punching him in the mouth , stabbing him with pens , or scratching him with their nails , among other methods . He often fought back , dragging audience members on stage and assaulting them . During a Black Flag concert , Rollins punched a fan repeatedly in the face that had continuously reached for his microphone . Rollins became increasingly alienated from the audience ; in his tour diary , Rollins wrote " When they spit at me , when they grab at me , they aren 't hurting me . When I push out and mangle the flesh of another , it 's falling so short of what I really want to do to them . " During the Unicorn legal dispute , Rollins had started a weight @-@ lifting program , and by their 1984 tours , he had become visibly well @-@ built ; journalist Michael Azerrad later commented that " his powerful physique was a metaphor for the impregnable emotional shield he was developing around himself . " Rollins has since replied that " no , the training was just basically a way to push myself . "
= = = Rollins Band and solo releases = = =
Before Black Flag disbanded in August 1986 , Rollins had already toured as a solo spoken word artist . He released two solo records in 1987 , Hot Animal Machine , a collaboration with guitarist Chris Haskett , and Drive by Shooting , recorded as " Henrietta Collins and the Wifebeating Childhaters " ; Rollins also released his second spoken word album , Big Ugly Mouth in the same year . Along with Haskett , Rollins soon added Andrew Weiss and Sim Cain , both former members of Ginn 's side @-@ project Gone , and called the new group Rollins Band . The band toured relentlessly , and their 1987 debut album , Life Time , was quickly followed by the outtakes and live collection Do It . The band continued to tour throughout 1988 ; in 1989 another Rollins Band album , Hard Volume was released . Another live album , Turned On , and another spoken word release , Live at McCabe 's , followed in 1990 .
In 1991 the Rollins Band signed a distribution deal with Imago Records and appeared at the Lollapalooza festival ; both improved the band 's presence . However , in December 1991 , Rollins and his best friend Joe Cole were accosted by two armed robbers outside Rollins 's home . Cole was murdered by a gunshot to the head , Rollins escaped without injury but police suspected him in the murder and detained him for ten hours . Although traumatized by Cole 's death , as chronicled in his book Now Watch Him Die , Rollins continued to release new material ; the spoken @-@ word album Human Butt appeared in 1992 on his own record label , 2 @.@ 13 @.@ 61 . The Rollins Band released The End of Silence , Rollins 's first charting album .
The following year , Rollins released a spoken @-@ word double album , The Boxed Life . The Rollins Band embarked upon the End of Silence tour ; bassist Weiss was fired towards its end and replaced by funk and jazz bassist Melvin Gibbs . According to critic Steve Huey , 1994 was Rollins 's " breakout year " . The Rollins Band appeared at Woodstock 94 and released Weight , which ranked on the Billboard Top 40 . Rollins released Get in the Van : On the Road with Black Flag , a double @-@ disc set of him reading from his Black Flag tour diary of the same name ; he won the Grammy for Best Spoken Word Recording as a result . Rollins was named 1994 's " Man of the Year " by the American men 's magazine Details and became a contributing columnist to the magazine . With the increased exposure , Rollins made several appearances on American music channels MTV and VH1 around this time , and made his Hollywood film debut in 1994 in The Chase playing a police officer .
In 1995 , the Rollins Band 's record label , Imago Records , declared itself bankrupt . Rollins began focusing on his spoken word career . He released Everything , a recording of a chapter of his book Eye Scream with free jazz backing , in 1996 . He continued to appear in various films , including Heat , Johnny Mnemonic and Lost Highway . The Rollins Band signed to Dreamworks Records in 1997 and soon released Come in and Burn , but it did not receive as much critical acclaim as their previous material . Rollins continued to release spoken @-@ word book readings , releasing Black Coffee Blues in the same year . In 1998 , Rollins released Think Tank , his first set of non @-@ book @-@ related spoken material in five years .
By 1998 , Rollins felt that the relationship with his backing band had run its course , and the line @-@ up disbanded . He had produced a Los Angeles hard rock band called Mother Superior , and invited them to form a new incarnation of the Rollins Band . Their first album , Get Some Go Again , was released two years later . The Rollins Band released several more albums , including 2001 's Nice and 2003 's Rise Above : 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three . After 2003 , the band became inactive as Rollins focused on radio and television work . During a 2006 appearance on Tom Green Live ! , Rollins stated that he " may never do music again " , a feeling which he reiterated in 2011 when talking to Trebuchet magazine . In an interview with Culture Brats , Henry admitted he had sworn off music for good – " ... and I must say that I miss it every day . I just don 't know honestly what I could do with it that 's different . "
In 2014 , Rollins admitted a disdain for rehashing old music for the sake of it - " I don ’ t want to play old music . To me , it is fighting battles that are already over and calling yourself a warrior . For me , I see no courage or adventure in doing the old thing over again . If others want to , that ’ s for them . For myself , I have to move on . Life is too short to live in the past . There is a lot to be done . " On the same topic , Henry more recently said in 2016 " For me , music was a time and a place . I never really enjoyed being in a band . It was in me and it needed to come out , like a 25 @-@ year exorcism . One day , I woke up , and I didn ’ t have any more lyrics . I just had nothing to contribute to the form , and I was done with band practice and travelling in groups . "
= = = Musical style = = =
As a vocalist , Rollins has adopted a number of styles through the years . He was noted in the Washington , D.C. hardcore scene for what journalist Michael Azerrad described as a " compelling , raspy howl . " With State of Alert , Rollins " spat out the lyrics like a bellicose auctioneer . " He adopted a similar style after joining Black Flag in 1981 . By their album Damaged , however , Black Flag began to incorporate a swing beat into their style . Rollins then abandoned his State of Alert " bark " and adopted the band 's swing . Rollins later explained : " What I was doing kind of matched the vibe of the music . The music was intense and , well , I was as intense as you needed . "
In both incarnations of the Rollins Band , Rollins combined spoken word with his traditional vocal style in songs such as " Liar " ( the song begins with a one @-@ minute spoken diatribe by Rollins ) , barked his way through songs ( such as " Tearing " and " Starve " ) , and employed the loud @-@ quiet dynamic . Rolling Stone 's Anthony DeCurtis names Rollins a " screeching hate machine " and his " hallmark " as " the sheets @-@ of @-@ sound assault " .
With the Rollins Band , his lyrics focused " almost exclusively on issues relating to personal integrity , " according to critic Geoffrey Welchman .
= = = As producer = = =
In the 1980s , Henry Rollins produced an album of acoustic songs for the famed convict Charles Manson titled Completion . The record was supposed to be released by SST Records , but the project was canceled because the label received death threats for working with Manson . Only five test presses of Completion were pressed , two of which remain in Rollins ' possession .
In 1995 , Henry Rollins produced Australian hard rock band the Mark of Cain 's third full @-@ length album Ill at Ease .
= = Joe Cole = =
Rollins and his best friend Joe Cole , son of actor Dennis Cole , were involved in a shooting when they were assaulted by robbers in December 1991 outside their shared Venice Beach , California , home . Cole died after being shot in the face , but Rollins escaped . The murder remains unsolved .
In an April 1992 Los Angeles Times interview , Rollins revealed he kept a plastic container full of soil soaked with the blood of Joe Cole . Rollins said " I dug up all the earth where his head fell — he was shot in the face — and I 've got all the dirt here , and so Joe Cole 's in the house . I say good morning to him every day . I got his phone , too , so I got a direct line to him . So that feels good . "
In a 2001 interview with Howard Stern , Rollins was asked about rumors that he had Joe Cole 's brain in his house . Rollins stated that he only has the soil from the spot Cole was killed . During the interview , Rollins also speculated that the reason they were targeted may have been because days prior to the incident , record producer Rick Rubin - who was a fan of Rollins Band - had requested to hear the then newly recorded album , The End of Silence , and turned up and parked outside their Venice Beach home in his Rolls @-@ Royce , carrying a cell phone . Because of the notoriety of the neighborhood , Rollins suspected that this would bring trouble because of the implication that they had a lot of money in the home ; he even wrote in his journal the night of Rubin 's visit : " My place is going to get popped " .
Rollins has included Cole 's story in his spoken word performances .
= = Media work = =
= = = Television = = =
As Rollins rose to prominence with the Rollins Band , he began to present and appear on television . These included Alternative Nation and MTV Sports in 1993 and 1994 respectively . Rollins also co starred in The Chase with Charlie Sheen . In 1995 Rollins appeared on an episode of Unsolved Mysteries that explored the murder of his best friend Joe Cole and present State of the Union Undressed on Comedy Central . Rollins began to present and narrate VH1 Legends in 1996 . Rollins , busy with the Rollins Band , did not present more programs until 2001 , but made appearances on a number of other television shows , including Welcome to Paradox in 1998 in the episode " All Our Sins Forgotten " , as a therapist who develops a device that can erase the bad memories of his patients . Rollins also voiced Mad Stan in Batman Beyond in 1999 and 2000 .
Rollins was a host of film review programme Henry 's Film Corner on the Independent Film Channel , before presenting the weekly The Henry Rollins Show on the channel . The Henry Rollins Show is now being shown weekly on Film24 along with Henry Rollins Uncut . The show also lead to a promotional tour in Europe that led to Henry being dubbed a “ bad boy goodwill ambassador ” by a NY reviewer . He also hosted Fox 's short @-@ lived 2001 horror anthology Night Visions .
In 2002 Rollins guest @-@ starred on an episode of the sitcom The Drew Carey Show as a man whom Oswald found on eBay and paid to come to his house and " kick his ass " . He co @-@ hosted the British television show Full Metal Challenge , in which teams built vehicles to compete in various driving and racing contests , from 2002 to 2003 on Channel 4 and TLC . He has made a number of cameo appearances in television series such as MTV 's Jackass and an episode of Californication , where he played himself hosting a radio show . In 2006 , Rollins appeared in a documentary series by VH1 and The Sundance Channel called The Drug Years .
Rollins appears in FX 's Sons of Anarchy 's second season , which premiered in the fall of 2009 in the United States . Rollins plays A.J. Weston , a white @-@ supremacist gang leader and new antagonist in the show 's fictional town of Charming , California , who poses a deadly threat to the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club . In 2009 , Rollins voiced " Trucker " in American Dad ! ' s fourth season ( episode eight ) . Rollins voiced Benjamin Knox / Bonk in the 2000 animated film Batman Beyond : Return of the Joker .
In 2010 , Rollins appeared as a guest judge on Season 2 episode 6 of RuPaul 's Drag Race . In 2011 , he was interviewed in the National Geographic Explorer episode " Born to Rage " , regarding his possible link to the MAO gene ( warrior gene ) and violent behavior . In 2012 , he hosted the National Geographic Wild series " Animal Underworld " , investigating where the real boundaries lay in human @-@ animal relationships . Rollins also appeared in the Hawaii Five @-@ 0 episode " Hoʻopio " that aired on May 6 , 2013 .
In November 2013 , Rollins started hosting the show 10 Things You Don 't Know About on the History Channel 's H2 . In 2014 , he voiced the antagonist Zaheer in the third season of the animated series The Legend of Korra .
= = = Radio = = =
On May 19 , 2004 , Rollins began hosting a weekly radio show , Harmony in My Head , on Indie 103 @.@ 1 radio in Los Angeles . The show aired every Monday evening , with Rollins playing music ranging from early rock and jump blues to hard rock , blues rock , folk rock , punk rock , heavy metal and rockabilly , and touching on hip hop , jazz , world music , reggae , classical music and more . Harmony in my Head often emphasizes B @-@ sides , live bootlegs and other rarities , and nearly every episode has featured a song either by the Beastie Boys or British group The Fall .
Rollins put the show on a short hiatus to undertake a spoken @-@ word tour in early 2005 . Rollins posted playlists and commentary on @-@ line ; these lists were expanded with more information and published in book form as Fanatic ! through 2 @.@ 13 @.@ 61 in November 2005 . In late 2005 , Rollins announced the show 's return and began the first episode by playing the show 's namesake Buzzcocks song . In 2008 , the show was continuing each week despite Rollins 's constant touring with new pre @-@ recorded shows between live broadcasts . In 2009 Indie 103 @.@ 1 went off the air , although it continues to broadcast over the Internet .
In 2007 , Rollins published Fanatic ! Vol . 2 through 2 @.@ 13 @.@ 61 . Fanatic ! Vol . 3 was released in the fall of 2008 . On February 18 , 2009 , KCRW announced that Rollins would be hosting a live show on Saturday nights starting March 7 , 2009 , which has since been moved to Sunday nights at 8PM . In 2011 Rollins was interviewed on Episode 121 of American Public Media 's podcast , " The Dinner Party Download " , posted on November 3 , 2011 .
= = = Film = = =
Rollins began his film career appearing in several independent films featuring the band Black Flag . His film debut was in 1982 's The Slog Movie , about the West Coast punk scene . An appearance in 1985 's Black Flag Live followed . Rollins ' first film appearance without Black Flag was the short film The Right Side of My Brain with Lydia Lunch in 1985 . Following the band 's breakup , Rollins did not appear in any films until 1994 's The Chase . Rollins appeared in the 2007 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD sequel to Wrong Turn ( 2003 ) , Wrong Turn 2 : Dead End as a retired Marine Corps officer who hosts his own show which tests the contestants ' will to survive . Rollins has also appeared in Punk : Attitude , a documentary on the punk scene , and in American Hardcore ( 2006 ) . In 2012 , Henry Rollins appeared in a short documentary entitled " Who Shot Rock and Roll " discussing the early punk scene in Los Angeles as well as photographs of himself in Black Flag taken by esteemed photographer Edward Colver .
Some feature @-@ length movies Henry Rollins has appeared in include :
Kiss Napoleon Goodbye ( 1990 ) , with Lydia Lunch and Don Bajema
The Chase ( 1994 ) , with Charlie Sheen
Johnny Mnemonic ( 1995 ) , with Keanu Reeves , Ice @-@ T and Dolph Lundgren
Heat ( 1995 ) , with Al Pacino , Robert De Niro and Val Kilmer
Lost Highway ( 1997 ) , with Bill Pullman and Patricia Arquette ; directed by David Lynch
Jack Frost ( 1998 ) , with Michael Keaton
Batman Beyond : Return of the Joker ( 2000 ) ( voice ) , with Kevin Conroy and Mark Hamill
Morgan 's Ferry ( 2001 ) , with Billy Zane and Kelly McGillis
Dogtown and Z @-@ Boys ( 2001 documentary )
Scenes of the Crime ( 2001 ) , with Jeff Bridges
The New Guy ( 2002 ) , with Tommy Lee and DJ Qualls
Jackass The Movie ( 2002 ) with Johnny Knoxville and Bam Margera
Bad Boys II ( 2003 ) with Will Smith and Martin Lawrence
Deathdealer : A Documentary ( 2004 )
Feast ( 2005 ) , with Balthazar Getty and Navi Rawat
Jackass Number Two ( 2006 ) , with Preston Lacy , Steve @-@ O and Chris Pontius
The Alibi ( 2006 )
Wrong Turn 2 : Dead End ( 2007 )
The Devil 's Tomb ( 2009 ) , with Cuba Gooding , Jr. and Ron Perlman
H for Hunger ( 2009 documentary ) , directed by Neil Hollander
William Shatner 's Gonzo Ballet ( 2009 documentary )
Suck ( 2009 ) , with Alice Cooper , Iggy Pop and Malcolm McDowell
Green Lantern : Emerald Knights ( 2011 ) ( voice ) as Kilowog
West of Memphis ( 2012 documentary )
Downloaded ( 2013 documentary )
Salad Days ( 2014 documentary )
He Never Died ( 2015 ) , with Steven Ogg and Booboo Stewart
Gutterdämmerung ( 2015 ) , with Iggy Pop and Grace Jones , directed by Björn Tagemose
The Last Heist ( 2016 )
= = = Books and audiobooks = = =
Rollins has written a variety of books , including Black Coffee Blues , Do I Come Here Often ? , The First Five ( a compilation of High Adventure in the Great Outdoors , Pissing in the Gene Pool , Bang ! , Art to Choke Hearts , and One From None ) , See a Grown Man Cry , Now Watch Him Die , Smile , You 're Traveling , Get in the Van , Eye Scream , Broken Summers , Roomanitarian , and Solipsist .
For the audiobook version of the 2006 novel World War Z Rollins voiced the character of T. Sean Collins , a mercenary hired to protect celebrities during a mass panic caused by an onslaught of the undead . Rollins ' other audiobook recordings include 3 : 10 to Yuma and his own autobiographical book Get in the Van , for which he won a Grammy Award .
= = = Online journalism = = =
In September 2008 , Rollins began contributing to the " Politics & Power " blog at the online version of Vanity Fair magazine . Since March 2009 , his posts have appeared under their own sub @-@ title , Straight Talk Espresso . His posts consistently direct harsh criticism at conservative politicians and pundits , although he does occasionally target those on the left . In August 2010 , he began writing a music column for LA Weekly in Los Angeles . In 2012 , Rollins began publishing articles with The Huffington Post and alternative news website WordswithMeaning ! . In the months leading up to the 2012 United States Presidential election , Rollins broadcast a YouTube series called " Capitalism 2012 " , in which he toured the capital cities of the US states , interviewing people about current issues .
= = = Spoken word = = =
Rollins also has toured all over the world doing spoken word performances and his shows frequently last for over three hours . His spoken word style encompasses stand up comedy , accounts of experiences he 's had in the world of music and during his extensive travels around the globe , self @-@ deprecating stories about his own shortcomings , introspective recollections from his own life ( such as the death of his friend , Joe Cole ) , commentaries on society and playful , sometimes vulgar , anecdotes .
= = = Video games = = =
Rollins was a playable character in both Def Jam : Fight for NY and Def Jam Fight for NY : The Takeover . Rollins is also the voice of Mace Griffin in Mace Griffin : Bounty Hunter .
= = Campaigning and activism = =
Rollins has become an outspoken human rights activist , most vocally for gay rights . Rollins frequently speaks out on social justice on his spoken word tours and promotes equality , regardless of sexuality . He was the host of the WedRock benefit concert , which raised money for a pro @-@ gay @-@ marriage organization .
During the 2003 Iraq War , he started touring with the United Service Organizations to entertain troops overseas while remaining against the war , leading him to once cause a stir at a base in Kyrgyzstan when he told the crowd : " Your commander would never lie to you . That 's the vice president 's job . " Rollins believes it is important that he performs to the troops so that they have multiple points of contact with the rest of the world , stating that " they can get really cut loose from planet earth . " He has made eight tours , including visits to bases in Djibouti , Kuwait , Iraq , Kyrgyzstan , Afghanistan ( twice ) , Egypt , Turkey , Qatar , Honduras , Japan , Korea and the United Arab Emirates .
He has also been active in the campaign to free the " West Memphis Three " — three young men who were believed by their supporters to have been wrongfully convicted of murder , and who have since been released from prison , but not exonerated . Rollins appears with Public Enemy frontman Chuck D on the Black Flag song " Rise Above " on the benefit album Rise Above : 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three , the first time Rollins had performed Black Flag 's material since 1986 .
Continuing his activism on behalf of US troops and veterans , Rollins joined Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America ( IAVA ) in 2008 to launch a public service advertisement campaign , CommunityofVeterans.org , which helps veterans coming home from war reintegrate into their communities . In April 2009 , Rollins helped IAVA launch the second phase of the campaign which engages the friends and family of Iraq and Afghanistan veterans at SupportYourVet.org.
On December 3 , 2009 , Rollins wrote of his support for the victims of the Bhopal disaster in India , in an article for Vanity Fair 25 years – to the day – after the methyl isocyanate gas leak from the Union Carbide Corporation 's pesticide factory exposed more than half a million local people to poisonous gas and resulted in the death of 17 @,@ 000 . He spent time in Bhopal with the people , to listen to their stories . In a later radio interview in February 2010 Rollins summed up his approach to activism , " This is where my anger takes me , to places like this , not into abuse but into proactive , clean movement . "
In August 2015 , Rollins discussed his support for Bernie Sanders as a candidate in the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries .
= = Works = =
= = = Musical releases = = =
= = = = With State of Alert = = = =
No Policy ( 1981 )
three songs on the sampler Flex Your Head ( 1982 )
= = = = With Black Flag = = = =
Damaged ( December 1981 )
My War ( March 1984 )
Family Man ( September 1984 )
Slip It In ( December 1984 )
Live ' 84 ( December 1984 )
Loose Nut ( May 1985 )
In My Head ( October 1985 )
Who 's Got the 10 ½ ? ( 1986 )
= = = = As Henry Rollins = = = =
Hot Animal Machine ( 1987 )
Drive by Shooting ( 1987 )
Live ( 1987 ) - split album with Dutch band Gore
= = = = With Rollins Band = = = =
Life Time ( 1987 , re @-@ release 1999 )
Hard Volume ( 1989 , re @-@ release 1999 )
Turned On ( 1990 )
The End of Silence ( 1992 , double @-@ CD re @-@ release 2002 ) # 160 US
Weight ( 1994 ) # 33 US , # 22 UK
Come in and Burn ( 1997 ) # 89 US
Insert Band Here ( 1999 )
A Clockwork Orange Stage ( 2000 )
Get Some Go Again ( 2000 ) # 180 US
Nice ( 2001 ) # 178 US
A Nicer Shade of Red ( 2002 )
End Of Silence Demos ( 2002 )
The Only Way to Know for Sure : Live in Chicago ( 2002 )
Rise Above : 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three ( 2002 )
= = = = With Wartime = = = =
Fast Food For Thought ( 1990 )
= = = Spoken word = = =
Short Walk on a Long Pier ( 1985 )
Big Ugly Mouth ( 1987 )
Sweatbox ( 1989 )
Live at McCabe 's ( 1990 )
Human Butt ( 1992 )
The Boxed Life ( 1993 )
Think Tank ( 1998 )
Eric the Pilot ( 1999 )
A Rollins in the Wry ( 2001 )
Live at the Westbeth Theater ( 2001 )
Talk Is Cheap : Volume 1 ( 2003 )
Talk Is Cheap : Volume 2 ( 2003 )
Talk Is Cheap : Volume 3 ( 2004 )
Talk Is Cheap : Volume 4 ( 2004 )
Provoked ( 2008 )
Spoken Word Guy ( 2010 )
Spoken Word Guy 2 ( 2010 )
= = = Spoken word videos = = =
Talking from the Box ( 1993 )
Henry Rollins Goes to London ( 1995 )
You Saw Me Up There ( 1998 )
Up for It ( 2001 )
Live at Luna Park ( 2004 )
Shock & Awe : The Tour ( 2005 )
Uncut from NYC ( 2006 )
Uncut from Israel ( 2006 )
San Francisco 1990 ( 2007 )
Live in the Conversation Pit ( 2008 )
Provoked : Live From Melbourne ( 2008 )
50 ( 2012 )
= = = Audio books = = =
Get in the Van : On the Road with Black Flag ( 1994 )
Everything ( 1996 )
Black Coffee Blues ( 1997 )
Nights Behind the Tree Line ( 2004 )
= = = Guest appearances and collaborations = = =
= = = Essays = = =
I Am an Audiophile , an editorial essay in Stereophile magazine .
Iron and The Soul , an editorial essay in Details magazine .
= Mulder and Scully ( song ) =
" Mulder and Scully " is a song by Catatonia , released as a single from their 1998 album , International Velvet . The song makes direct reference to fictional FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , the two main characters of the popular sci @-@ fi TV series The X @-@ Files who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In an interview Cerys Matthews , co @-@ writer of the song , explained that while she was not a serious fan of the show , the basic premise of the series matched the conceit of what she was trying to express .
" Mulder and Scully " was released as the second single from the band 's album International Velvet . Originally , it was supposed to be the first single , but was delayed due to circumstances beyond the band 's control . The song was Catatonia 's first single in the United States . " Mulder and Scully " became the group 's break @-@ out hit and received a mixed to positive from the music press ; many critics felt that , musically , the song was well played , but that the track 's pop culture references were out of place .
A music video was released that featured the band performing the track while Mulder and Scully , played by look @-@ alikes , search the concert venue with torches . It was popular in both the United Kingdom and the United States . The song reached number three in the UK Singles Chart , making it Catatonia 's highest UK charting song . It also charted in Ireland , peaking at number 17 .
= = Lyrics and composition = =
The song makes direct reference to FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , the two main characters of the popular sci @-@ fi TV series The X @-@ Files who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Although the title and refrain reference the popular show , the song has little to do with the two characters . The use of Mulder and Scully are used to represent a metaphor for a relationship being so " strange " that it could be " a case for Mulder and Scully " , a reference to the paranormal cases — the titular X @-@ Files — the two investigate on the show . Cerys Matthews , the co @-@ writer of the song , explained that the conceit of the song was " about asking Mulder and Scully to figure out this thing called love . I like the idea of two people going round the planet investigating odd phenomena , in this case love " .
Matthews later admitted that she was not a serious fan of the show , but that she only used the line because it adequately described the type of relationship she was singing about . In an interview with the Daily Record , she explained , " I 'm not a big fan of [ The X @-@ Files ] but I got the line about things getting strange for Mulder and Scully from watching the odd episode " . After questioning , she later said that she would " prefer to go out for a night on the town with Gazza and Chris Evans than meet [ The X @-@ Files ] stars Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny " . Matthews also related that " I 'm sure loads of people bought the record by mistake , but who cares ? They should be flattered we wrote a song about [ The X @-@ Files ] anyway " .
= = Release and acclaim = =
The song was met with mixed to positive reviews from critics ; many reviewers lauded the band 's musical composition , but maligned the track for its heavy reliance on pop culture references . The Sunday Mirror wrote positively of the song and called it " hard rockin ' " . Ben Myers from the now @-@ defunct music magazine Melody Maker named the song the " Single of the Week " and called it " fantastic " . He noted that " they 've damn near written a perfect pop song . The first best single of the year " . Jerry Rubino , host of the popular radio show " Left of Center " , named the song one of his favorite " Brit Things " . A review from PopMatters noted that the song was built around " somewhat silly X @-@ Files references " , but that it possessed " hooks to die for " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , from AllMusic gave the song a relatively positive review and singled it out as an " AllMusic Pick " . He also praised the song 's " terrific [ hook ] " but was slightly critical of the " self @-@ conscious pop culture references " . Despite this , he noted the band was successfully able to " bring memorable melodies to the [ song ] " . A subsequent review by AllMusic awarded the single , by itself , two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . NME called the song " little more than fodder for nostalgia TV " , written by a " lazy television researcher 's imagination " .
Cerys Matthews and the band were extremely pleased with the final product , calling it a " better song " than " All Around the World " by Oasis , the single 's main competitor at the time . Matthews later said that the lyrics for " Mulder and Scully " were " good , top to bottom " . Catatonia later released the song as part of their 2002 greatest hits album , And the song was later included on various Britpop compilations , including the Common People : The Britpop Story album , and the 100 Hits of the 90s album , released by the BBC .
= = Chart performance = =
Originally , Catatonia wished to release " Mulder and Scully " during the summer of 1997 . However , due to complications , these plans were scrapped and the song " I Am the Mob " was released instead . " Mulder and Scully " was eventually released in January 1998 and , due to heavy promotion via BBC Radio 1 , soon became the band 's break @-@ out hit , propelling them " into the limelight [ … ] numerous interviews and television appearances " . The band 's record label , Blanco y Negro Records , promoted the single with a press release that described the song as " [ s ] pooky but spiky " and a " clever grower of a track " . The song debuted on the United Kingdom chart on 31 January 1998 and made its last appearance on 4 April 1998 . During its first week of release , the single performed exceptionally well . Music stores reported that the physical release of " Mulder and Scully " was selling slightly fewer copies than Usher 's single " You Make Me Wanna ... " . Cerys Matthews later told Melody Maker that the single out @-@ sold Oasis " for two days " . During its first week , " Mulder and Scully " peaked on the chart at number three and spent a total of 10 weeks on the chart . The song also charted on the Irish Singles Chart , entering the charts on 2 May 1998 . It peaked at number 17 and spent five weeks charting . Later , a Japanese EP was released under the name " Mulder and Scully EP " . It combined tracks from the title single , as well as the " I Am the Mob " and " Road Rage " singles .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Mulder and Scully " was directed by Gerald McMorrow and features the band performing at a venue intercut with scenes of life on a tour bus at night . All the while , Mulder and Scully — played by look @-@ alikes — investigate the area around the concert with torches . Eventually , the agents begin passionately kissing while Catatonia plays their song on a stage . The video was filmed at T.J. ' s , a rock concert venue in Newport , Wales . A call was made for fans of the band to arrive and play the part of the audience . While actor Rhys Ifans , one year before his breakout performance in Notting Hill , features prominently . The entire video shoot took a full day to film . The video for " Mulder and Scully " was extremely popular ; according to Billboard magazine , the video for " Mulder and Scully " received " heavy rotation " and was played " 30 to 35 " times weekly in the United Kingdom . The video was heavily promoted in the United States , due in part to its direct allusion to The X @-@ Files , and it received decent airplay .
= = Track listing = =
UK CD single
" Mulder and Scully " – 4 : 10
" No Stone Unturned " – 3 : 28
" Mantra for the Lost " – 2 : 47
" Mulder and Scully " ( The Ex @-@ Files mix ) – 4 : 53
Japanese EP
" Mulder and Scully " ( album version ) – 4 : 10
" Road Rage " ( radio edit ) – 5 : 10
" Jump or Be Sane " – 4 : 00
" No Stone Unturned " – 3 : 28
" Mantra for the Lost " – 2 : 47
" I 'm Cured " – 2 : 55
" Blow the Millennium Pt.2 " – 2 : 30
" I Am the Mob " ( Luca Brasi mix ) – 3 : 41
" Mulder and Scully " ( The Ex @-@ Files mix ) – 4 : 53
" Road Rage ( Ghia ) " – 5 : 10
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
Cerys Matthews – Vocals
Mark Roberts – Guitar
Paul Jones – Bass
Owen Powell – Guitar
Aled Richards – Drums
= Cynfarwy =
Cynfarwy was a Christian in the 7th century about whom little is known . He was venerated by the early church in Wales as a saint , although he was never formally canonised . St Cynfarwy 's Church in Anglesey is dedicated to him , and his name is also preserved in the name of the settlement around the church , Llechgynfarwy ( or sometimes " Llechcynfarwy " ) . His feast day is in November , although the date varies between sources .
= = Life and commemoration = =
Little is known for certain about Cynfarwy ; his dates of birth and death are not given in the Bonedd y Saint ( a Welsh genealogical tract compiled in the late 18th century using material from older manuscripts ) . According to the 19th @-@ century Celtic scholar Robert Williams , Cynfarwy was active in the 7th century . According to the Bonedd y Saint , he was the son of the otherwise unknown " Awy ab Llehenog , Lord of Cornwall " .
Cynfarwy is venerated as a saint , although he was never canonized by a pope : as the historian Jane Cartwright notes , " In Wales sanctity was locally conferred and none of the medieval Welsh saints appears to have been canonized by the Roman Catholic Church " .
= = Church and feast day = =
Cynfarwy is the patron saint of St Cynfarwy 's Church , Llechgynfarwy in Anglesey , north Wales . According to the 19th @-@ century Welsh historian Angharad Llwyd , he established the first church there in about 630 . The present church ( which is a Grade II listed building ) mainly dates from the 19th century , but has some medieval fabric and a 12th @-@ century font .
Until the 19th century , there was a stone more than 9 feet ( 3 m ) high in the field next to church , known Maen Llechgynfarwy ( maen meaning " stone " , llech meaning " slate " and " ‑ gynfarwy " being a modified form of the saint 's name ) . The settlement around the church , which is about 10 miles ( | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
16 km ) from the port of Holyhead , is known as Llechgynfarwy ( or sometimes as " Llechcynfarwy " ) .
The traditional date for the feast of St Cynfarwy varies between antiquarian sources , although all place it in November . Some manuscripts say that it falls on the 10th , some on the 11th , whilst according to Angharad Llwyd and others the festival is marked on the 7th .
= Carl Michael Bellman =
Carl Michael Bellman ( listen ; 4 February 1740 – 11 February 1795 ) was a Swedish poet , songwriter , composer and performer . Bellman is a central figure in the Swedish song tradition and remains a powerful influence in Swedish music , as well as in Scandinavian literature , to this day .
Bellman is best known for two collections of poems set to music , Fredman 's songs ( Fredmans sånger ) and Fredman 's epistles ( Fredmans epistlar ) . Each consists of about 70 songs . The general theme is drinking , but the songs " most ingeniously " combine words and music to express feelings and moods ranging from humorous to elegiac , romantic to satirical .
Bellman 's patrons included the King , Gustav III of Sweden , who called him the master improviser . Bellman has been compared to Shakespeare , Beethoven , Mozart , and Hogarth , but his gift , using elegantly rococo classical references in comic contrast to sordid drinking and prostitution , which are at once regretted and celebrated in song , is unique .
Bellman 's songs continue to be performed and recorded by musicians from Scandinavia and in other languages including English , French , German , Italian and Russian . Several of his songs including Gubben Noak and Fjäriln vingad are known by heart by many Swedes .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Carl Michael Bellman was born on 4 February 1740 in the Stora Daurerska house , which was one of the finest in the Södermalm district of Stockholm . The house was the property of his maternal grandmother , Catharina von Santen , who had brought up his father , orphaned as a small child . Carl Michael 's parents were Johan Arndt Bellman , a civil servant , and Catharina Hermonia , daughter of the priest of the local Maria parish . Her family was wholly Swedish , whereas Johan 's family had German origins : they had come from Bremen in about 1660 . When Carl Michael was four the family moved to a smaller , single storey dwelling called the Lilla Daurerska house . He briefly went to a local school , but was educated mainly by private tutors . He was the eldest of 15 children who lived long enough for their births to be registered . His parents had intended him to become a priest , but he fell ill with a fever , and on recovering found he could express any thought in rhyming verse . His parents appointed a tutor called Ennes who Bellman called " a genius " . Bellman was taught French , German , Italian , English and Latin . He read Horace and Boileau ; Ennes taught him to write poetry and to translate French and German hymns . He was familiar with stories from the Bible including the Apocrypha , many of which found their way into the songs he composed in later life . However , expenses including the Swedish tradition of hospitality left the family with no money to start him off in life with a journey to the south of Europe , such as to Spain to visit his uncle , Jacob Martin Bellman , who was the Swedish Consul in Cádiz . Carl Michael translated a French book by Du Four and dedicated it to his uncle , but the hint was ignored . Deep in debt , at the end of 1757 the family sent Carl Michael to the State Bank as an unpaid trainee . He had no aptitude for numbers , instead discovering the taverns and brothels which were to figure so largely in his songs .
As the banking career was not working out – and as trainees were ( after a period with a relaxed regime ) again required to sit an exam , for which Bellman was ill equipped – he took a break in 1758 , going to the university of Uppsala , where Linnaeus was professor of botany . The idea of attending lectures was no more congenial than banking , and he stayed only one term ; one of his songs ( FS 28 ) records that " He contemplated Uppsala — the beer stung his mouth — love distracted his wits ... " However , he met young men ( such as Carl Bonde ) from wealthy and noble families , went drinking with them , and started to entertain them with his songs . Bellman returned to the bank job , and seems quickly to have fallen into financial difficulty : " a jungle of debts , sureties and bondsmen began to proliferate around him . " The character of bailiff Blomberg appears in his songs ( e.g. FS 14 ) , constantly trying to track down debtors and seize all their property . The law allowed the bankrupt only one way to escape from debtors ' prison : to leave Sweden . In 1763 , Bellman ran away to Norway . From the safety of Halden ( then called Fredrikshald ) he writes to the Council applying first for a passport , and then for a safe @-@ conduct , both of which were granted . Meanwhile , his father had first mortgaged the Lilla Daurerska house , and then sold it : the family 's finances were no better than his own . Even worse , by April 1764 the Bank had become tired of the riotous behaviour of its young men : its investigations showed that Bellman had been the ringleader , leading them ( the Bank wrote ) into " gambling , masquerades , picnics and suchlike " . Bellman resigned , his safe banking career at an end .
= = = Poetry and song = = =
In 1765 , Bellman 's parents died ; deeply moved , he wrote a religious poem . Then his fortunes improved : someone found him a job , first in the Office of Manufactures , then in the Customs , and he was able once again to live happily in Stockholm , observing the people of the city , with at least a modest salary . In 1768 his life 's work as we now know it got under way :
Bellman had begun to compose an entirely new sort of song . A genre which ' had no model and can have no successors ' ( Kellgren ) , these songs were to grow swiftly in number until they made up the great work on which Bellman 's reputation as a poet chiefly rests .
Bellman mostly played the cittern , becoming the most famous player of this instrument in Sweden . His portrait by Per Krafft shows him playing an oval instrument with twelve strings , arranged as six pairs . His first songs were " parody songs " , a common form of entertainment at the time .
Between 1769 and 1773 , Bellman wrote 65 of 82 of his Epistles , as well as many poems . He attempted to publish the poems in 1772 , but was unable to obtain the permission of the king , Gustav III , as a political coup intervened . He finally managed to obtain the permission in 1774 , but soon discovered that the cost of printing , especially as he was determined to publish the sheet music alongside the text , was prohibitive given his ruinous finances , and he was forced to put off his plans . In 1776 the king gave him a sinecure job as secretary to the national lottery ; this supported him for the rest of his life .
On 19 December 1777 , at the age of 37 , he married the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Lovisa Grönlund in Klara Church . They had four children , Gustav , Elis , Karl and Adolf ; Elis died young . Throughout his life , but especially during the 1770s , Bellman also wrote religious poetry , seeing no conflict with his bacchanalian works ; he published collections of his religious poems in 1781 and 1787 . He wrote some ten plays ( none with particularly strong plots ) as divertimentos , some of them later serving as entertainments at the royal court . The plays fill Volume 6 of his collected works . In 1783 , Bellman brought out The Temple of Bacchus ( Bacchi Tempel ) , perhaps hoping to establish his reputation as a poet , rather than the merry entertainer that he was in fact known as at the time ; but he always stood out in people 's minds as unique , a different kind of writer and performer .
Bellman 's main works are the 65 Fredman 's songs ( Fredmans sånger , 1790 ) and the 82 Fredman 's epistles ( Fredmans epistlar , 1791 ) . Their themes include the pleasures of drunkenness and sex . Against this backdrop , Bellman deals with themes of love , death , and the transitoriness of life . The settings of his songs reflect life in 18th century Stockholm , but often refer to Greek and Roman mythological characters such as the goddess of love , Venus ( or her Swedish equivalent , Fröja ) , Neptune and his retinue of water @-@ nymphs , the love @-@ god Cupid , the ferryman Charon and Bacchus , the god of wine and pleasure . Many of Fredman 's Epistles are peopled by a cast which includes the clockmaker Jean Fredman , the prostitute or " nymph " Ulla Winblad , the alcoholic ex @-@ soldier Movitz , and Father Berg , a virtuoso on several instruments . Some of these were based on living models , others probably not . Ulla Winblad was widely believed to have been closely based on Maria Kristina Kiellström , though the real woman , a silk worker once arrested for alleged prostitution , was not the ideal romantic figure of Bellman 's songs . Fredman 's songs also include Old Testament figures such as Noah and Judith .
Bellman achieved his effects of rococo elegance and humour through precisely organised incongruity . For example , Epistle 25 , " Blåsen nu alla ! " ( All blow now ! ) , begins with Venus crossing the water , as in François Boucher 'sTriumph of Venus , but when she disembarks , Bellman transforms her into a lustful Ulla Winblad . Similarly , the ornate and civilized minuet melody of " Ack du min Moder " ( Alas , thou my mother ) contrasts with the text : Fredman is lying with a hangover in the gutter outside a tavern , complaining bitterly about life . Ulla Winblad ( " vineleaf " ) recurs through the Epistles ; Britten Austin comments that
Ulla is at once a nymph of the taverns and a goddess of a rococo universe of graceful and hot imaginings .
The songs are " most ingeniously " set to music , the melodies accentuated by the bold construction of music , word pictures and choice of words , while the music brings out a hidden dimension not seen if the words are simply read as verse . The poems themselves , far from being the brilliant improvisations that they appear , are striking in their " formal virtuosity " . They may be drinking songs in name , but in structure they are tightly woven into a precise metre , situating the " frenzied bacchanalia within a strict and decorous rococo frame . "
Bellman was a gifted entertainer and mimic . He was able to
go into a room apart and behind a half @-@ open door mimic twenty or thirty people at the same time , a crowd pushing its way on to one of the Djurgården ferries , perhaps , or the uproarious atmosphere of a seaman 's tavern . The illusion was so startling , his listeners could have sworn a mob of ' shoe @-@ polishers , customs spies , seamen … coalmen , washerwomen … herring packers , tailors and bird @-@ catchers ' had burst into the next room .
In 1790 , the Swedish Academy awarded Bellman its annual Lundblad prize of 50 Riksdaler for the most interesting piece of literature of the year . Although Fredman 's Epistles was neither exactly literature as understood by the academy , nor meeting the standards of elegant taste , Johan Henric Kellgren and the King ensured that Bellman won the prize .
= = = Later life = = =
After the assassination of the King at the Stockholm opera in 1792 , support for the liberal arts was withdrawn . Bellman , already in poor health from alcoholism , went into decline , drinking increasingly heavily . His drinking very likely contributed to his gout , which troubled him badly in 1790 . He also caught tuberculosis : the disease had already killed his mother , and by the winter of 1792 , he was seriously ill .
As well as being ill , he was imprisoned — after struggling with debts and haunted by the threat of ruin and imprisonment all his life — " for a wretched [ ly small ] debt of 150 Rdr " . The rumour was that a former Customs colleague , E. G. Nobelius , had had his advances to Louise Bellman rejected , and in revenge had sued Bellman for the debt , knowing he was penniless : he owed a total of almost 4 @,@ 000 Riksdaler . On 11 February 1795 , he died in his sleep in his house in Gamla Kungsholmsbrogatan . He was buried in Klara churchyard with no gravestone , its location now unknown . The Swedish Academy belatedly placed a memorial in the churchyard in 1851 , complete with a bronze medallion by Johan Tobias Sergel .
= = Reception = =
King Gustav III called Bellman " Il signor improvisatore " ( The master improviser ) .
Bellman has been compared with poets and musicians as diverse as Shakespeare and Beethoven . Åse Kleveland notes that he has been called " Swedish poetry 's Mozart , and Hogarth " , observing that
The comparison with Hogarth was no accident . Like the English portrait painter , Bellman drew detailed pictures of his time in his songs , not so much of life at court as of ordinary people 's everyday .
Paul Britten Austin says instead simply that :
Bellman is unique among great poets , I think , in that virtually his entire opus is conceived to music . Other poets , of course , notably our Elizabethans , have written songs . But song was only one branch of their art . They did not leave behind , as Bellman did , a great musical @-@ literary work nor paint in words and music a canvas of their age . Nor are their songs dramatic .
= = Legacy = =
Bellman 's poetry continued to be read and sung throughout the nineteenth century , contrary to the widespread belief among researchers that he was largely forgotten during this period . His songs were sung especially by the urban bourgeoisie and in fraternities , but also in aristocratic circles and ordinary people in the countryside . The Orphei Drängar Vocal Society , named after a phrase in Epistle 14 , was founded in Uppsala in 1853 ; the song became their trademark . The Epistles and Songs were published in chapbooks , sung at festivals and performed in a variety of concerts and entertainments . Figures such as Fredman , Ulla Winblad and Movitz , as well as Bellman himself were painted on tavern walls and memorabilia such as plates , beer tankards and hipflasks . Curiously , Bellman was celebrated at least as enthusiastically in polite and abstemious circles , though with bowdlerized versions of the songs .
Major interpreters of Bellman 's songs include the modern Swedish singer Fred Åkerström and the Dutch @-@ born Cornelis Vreeswijk . Other recordings have been made by Evert Taube and his son Sven @-@ Bertil Taube , and as rock music by Joakim Thåström , Candlemass or Marduk . They are also performed as choral music and as drinking songs .
Bellman has been translated into at least 20 languages , including English , most notably by Paul Britten Austin , and into German , for example by Hannes Wader . German Communist leader Karl Liebknecht liked Bellman 's songs and translated some into German . Hans Christian Andersen was one of the first to translate Bellman into Danish . Bellman 's songs have been translated and recorded in Icelandic ( by Bubbi ) , Italian , French , Finnish ( for instance by Vesa @-@ Matti Loiri ) , Russian , Chuvash and Yiddish . English interpretations have been recorded by William Clauson , Martin Best , Freddie Langrind made some Norwegian translations in 2008 . Sven @-@ Bertil Taube , Roger Hinchliffe and Martin Bagge . Schoolchildren two hundred years on still learn some of his songs , and several including Gubben Noak and Fjäriln vingad are known by heart by many Swedes .
Books in English with translations of Bellman 's work have been written by Charles Wharton Stork in 1917 , Hendrik Willem van Loon in 1939 , Paul Britten Austin in 1967 and 1990 , and the historian Michael Roberts in 1977 – 1991 . In English the most thorough treatment of Bellman 's life is also by Britten Austin . Van Loon 's The Last of the Troubadours : The Life and Music of Carl Michael Bellman ( 1740 – 1795 ) was inspired by a visit to Sweden , and tried to introduce the unknown Bellman to an American audience , but critics felt his version of twenty of the songs was " stiff and often ungraceful " , not doing justice to their composer .
Bellman was the subject of an 1844 ballet choreographed by August Bournonville . Bellman features as a character , along with Ulla Winblad and King Gustav III , in the first episode of the Swedish television series " Nisse Hults historiska snedsteg " ( Nisse Hult 's historical slips ) by SVT Drama . Bellman appears with his cittern and various objects from Fredman 's Epistles and Fredman 's Songs on a 100 Swedish kroner postage stamp issued in 2014 and designed by Beata Boucht ; he was shown on earlier Swedish stamps in 1940 and 1990 , commemorating the 200th and 250th anniversaries of his birth , and again in 2006 . Bellmansgatan in Stockholm 's Södermalm district is named for Bellman ; Stieg Larsson places the apartment of his Millennium trilogy hero Mikael Blomkvist in Bellmansgatan , which Dan Burstein and Arne de Keijzer suggest is meant to provide Bellman associations .
Swedish schoolchildren tell Bellman jokes about a person named Bellman , an antihero or modern @-@ day trickster with little or no connection to the poet . The first known Bellman joke is in a book from 1835 , which quoted a letter written in 1808 by a contemporary of Bellman . 19th century Bellman jokes were told by adults and focused on Bellman 's life at court ; they often related to sex . In the 20th century , the ' Bellman ' character became generic , the jokes were told by schoolchildren , and often related to bodily functions . The jokes have been studied by anthropologists and psychologists since the 1950s .
= = = Bellmanmuseet = = =
Stora Henriksvik , also called the Bellman museum ( Bellmanmuseet ) for its small permanent Bellman exhibition , celebrates his life and work with paintings , replica objects and a beachside café in a 17th @-@ century Stockholm house . The place , beside the beach at Långholm , was in Bellman 's time called Lilla Sjötullen ( The Small Lake @-@ Customs House ) where farmers from Lake Mälaren had to pay a toll on the goods they were taking to market in Stockholm 's Gamla stan . The place is mentioned in Epistle No. 48 , Solen glimmar blank och trind .
= = = Bellmansällskapet = = =
The Bellman Society ( Bellmansällskapet ) , founded in Stockholm on the anniversary of Bellman 's birth in 1919 , fosters interest in Bellman and supports research into the man and his work . To these ends it organises concerts , lectures and excursions . It produces the series of Bellmanstudier , starting in 1924 , so far running to 24 volumes , as well as facsimile prints of Bellman documents , essay collections , and Yngve Berg 's Bellman porcelain . It has published recordings including Alla Fredmans Epistlar ( All Fredman 's Epistles ) and Alla Fredmans Sånger ( All Fredman 's Songs ) . The Society 's newsletter is called Hwad behagas ? .
= = Works = =
Månan ( The Moon ) , Nyström och Stolpe , 1760
Bacchi Tempel ( Temple of Bacchus ) , 1783
Fredmans Epistlar ( Fredman 's Epistles ) , 1790
Fredmans Sånger ( Fredman 's Songs ) , 1791
Samlade verk ( Collected Works )
= = = English = = =
Britten Austin , Paul . The Life and Songs of Carl Michael Bellman : Genius of the Swedish Rococo . Allhem , Malmö American @-@ Scandinavian Foundation , New York , 1967 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 932759 @-@ 00 @-@ 0
Britten Austin , Paul . Carl Michael Bellman : Sweden 's Shakespeare of the Guitar Song . Stockholm : Proprius , 1998 .
Britten Austin , Paul . Fredman 's Epistles and Songs . Stockholm : Proprius , 1990 and 1999 .
Van Loon , Hendrik Willem and Grace Castagnetta . The Last of the Troubadours . New York : Simon and Schuster , 1939 .
Massengale , James . The Musical @-@ Poetic Method of Carl Michael Bellman . PhD thesis , self @-@ published . ISBN 978 @-@ 9 @-@ 15540 @-@ 849 @-@ 7
Roberts , Michael . Epistles and Songs . Grahamstown , three volumes , 1977 – 1981 .
Stork , Charles Wharton . Anthology of Swedish lyrics from 1750 to 1915 . New York : The American @-@ Scandinavian Foundation , 1917 .
= = = Swedish = = =
Andersson , Ingvar , Agne Beijer , Bertil Kjellberg , Bo Lindorm ( 1979 ) . Ny svensk historia – Gustavianskt 1771 – 1810 [ New Swedish history – Gustavian 1771 – 1810 ] . ISBN 91 @-@ 46 @-@ 13373 @-@ 9 .
Brunner , Ernst ( 2002 ) . Fukta din aska [ Moisten your ashes ] . Bonnier . ISBN 91 @-@ 0 @-@ 058026 @-@ 0 .
Eriksson , Lars @-@ Göran , ed . ( 1982 ) . Kring Bellmann [ Around Bellman ] . Stockholm : Wahlström & Widstrand . ISBN 91 @-@ 46 @-@ 14135 @-@ 9 .
Hassler , Göran ( 1989 ) . Bellman – en antologi [ Bellman – an anthology ] . Peter Dahl ( illus . ) . En bok för alla . ISBN 91 @-@ 7448 @-@ 742 @-@ 6 .
Henrikson , Alf ( 1986 ) . Ekot av ett skott – öden kring 1792 [ The echo of a shot – life around 1792 ] . Höganäs : Bra Böcker . ISBN 91 @-@ 7752 @-@ 124 @-@ 2 .
Huldén , Lars ( 1991 ) . Carl Michael Bellman . Stockholm : Natur och kultur . ISBN 91 @-@ 27 @-@ 03767 @-@ 3 .
Hägg , Göran ( 1996 ) . Den svenska litteraturhistorien [ The Swedish literature history ] . Stockholm : Wahlström & Widstrand . ISBN 91 @-@ 46 @-@ 17629 @-@ 2 .
Jonshult , Bengt Gustaf ( 1990 ) . Med Bellman på Haga och Carlberg [ With Bellman at Haga and Carlberg ] . Solna : Solna Hembygdsförening . ISBN 91 @-@ 971109 @-@ 1 @-@ 4 , ISSN 0280 @-@ 3062 .
Kleveland , Åse ( 1984 ) . Fredmans epistlar & sånger [ The songs and epistles of Fredman ] . Svenolov Ehrén ( illus . ) . Stockholm : Informationsförlaget . ISBN 91 @-@ 7736 @-@ 059 @-@ 1 . ( with facsimiles of sheet music from first editions in 1790 , 1791 )
Matz , Edvard ( 2004 ) . Carl Michael Bellman – Nymfer och friskt kalas [ Carl Michael Bellman – Nymphs and splendid feasts ] . Lund : Historiska Media . ISBN 91 @-@ 89442 @-@ 97 @-@ 0 .
Hjord , Bengt , ed . ( 1989 ) . " " Carl Michael Bellmans okända släkt " by Marianne Nyström pp. 209 @-@ 226 and " Skalde @-@ Anor : Carl Michael Bellmans härstammning " by Håkan Skogsjö pp. 227 @-@ 236 " . Stadsbor i gångna tider : Släktforskaren och staden : Årsbok 1989 [ City dwellers in olden times : The genealogist and the town ] . Stockholm : Sveriges Släktforskarförbund , Norstedts Tryckeri . ISBN 91 @-@ 87676 @-@ 03 @-@ 6 .
= Lions ( album ) =
Lions is the sixth studio album by American rock band The Black Crowes . It was released in 2001 as their first album on V2 Records following their departure from Columbia , and is their only studio album to feature guitarist Audley Freed . Lions was recorded in New York City in January and February of that year , and was produced by Don Was . Bass guitar duties were shared by Rich Robinson and Was , as Greg Rzab had left the band and was not replaced until the tour that followed the release of the album .
The album debuted on the Billboard 200 at its peak position of 20 , selling more than 53 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Lions received mixed reviews ; although the overall sound of the album generally garnered praise , a frequent complaint was the lack of " memorable " songs . The critics who rated Lions lowest considered it a poor imitation of the band 's influences , such as Led Zeppelin .
The band supported Lions with two North American tours ( one with Oasis co @-@ headlining ) , and a short tour of Europe and Japan in between . Soundboard recordings of several concerts were available for download to those who owned the album . Following the tour , the band went on hiatus until 2005 .
= = Background = =
The Black Crowes began writing songs for the follow @-@ up to their 1999 album By Your Side as free agents , having left Columbia Records through a loophole in their contract . The decision to leave was driven by Columbia 's promotion of By Your Side . According to band member Rich Robinson , " That record was destined to fail because ... [ Columbia executives ] just said , ' It 's not going to do well ... It 's no use wasting time or money . ' " The band also was frustrated by the label 's request for albums sounding similar to their first , 1990 's Shake Your Money Maker .
In late 1999 , lead vocalist Chris Robinson began a relationship with Kate Hudson , which would influence subtly the lyrics on Lions . The pair met at a Friday night party in Manhattan , which led to a Saturday stroll through Central Park and a Sunday move @-@ in . Their wedding at the Aspen , Colorado , ranch of Kurt Russell and Kate 's mother , Goldie Hawn , followed on December 31 , 2000 .
Before the 2000 tour with Jimmy Page , bassist Sven Pipien was fired after arriving late for a performance and missing the return flight . Rich said it was not enough to warrant termination , but Pipien 's defensiveness when confronted about the incident was too much to handle . Greg Rzab and Andy Hess were considered as replacements ; the band chose Rzab because he had more touring experience than Hess . Rzab , however , departed before the recording of Lions .
In mid @-@ 2000 , the band signed with Richard Branson 's V2 Records . Rich explained , " The cool thing about V2 , the reason that we chose them , is that they told us , ' You guys go make the record you want to make . Then give it to us and we 'll sell it . ' That 's what we needed to hear . " The freedom V2 afforded through its hands @-@ off approach influenced not only the music , but the album title as well . According to Chris , " Lions is a symbol that stands for the fierce feeling and freedom that music allows you . "
= = Writing and production = =
Chris Robinson granted that the experience of playing Led Zeppelin songs with Jimmy Page influenced Lions , but not on a song @-@ by @-@ song basis . " Led Zeppelin 's music is very dramatic and very dynamic . That 's something we 've attempted to do with our style also . I think it definitely affected how we make our music . " Funk and R & B were bigger influences than on past albums , and " Miracle to Me " was influenced by Nick Drake .
Chris claimed Kate Hudson 's influence on his lyrics was subtle : " More so than a literal reference to her , it 's the vantage point from where I 'm writing . It 's the reasons that I 'm singing and it 's the feeling . That is an influence far greater than the literal influence . " He did grant , however , that " Soul Singing " and " Miracle to Me " were written with Hudson in mind , and explained that the album 's track order roughly follows a path from confusion to clarity that mirrored his own . Producer Don Was said of Chris , " I realized he was taking on something that was significant . He was writing about becoming a man ... There 's a lot of old man / young man symbolism that 's a self @-@ conversation ... I don 't know that anyone has actually chronicled being 33 [ years old ] as well as this album . "
Heated discussions during the writing of Lions were rare , owing to the Robinson brothers ' usual method in which Rich writes the music and Chris writes the lyrics . " Soul Singing " was the only song to cause disagreement ; " I 'd written this part where although the vocals changed the music stayed the same throughout . I thought we should add something or just not finish it , but Chris thought it was already a song , and a good one . So we talked about that one for a while " , Rich recalled .
The Black Crowes had previously sent Was demos to interest him in producing By Your Side , but Was believed the demos were good enough to be the album . Columbia Records disagreed with Was ' assessment , however , leading to Kevin Shirley 's hiring . With complete artistic control under V2 Records , the band was free to hire Was for Lions . Recording took place in January and February 2001 at Montana Rehearsal Studios and Theater 99 Recording in New York City . The recording sessions progressed as smoothly as the writing ; only " Come On " caused conflict between the band and Was . Rich acknowledged , " We must have recorded ' Come On ' about five times in different ways ... Then [ Was ] just took it away with him and came back with this different mix " , which impressed the band , leading to its inclusion on the album . The band ultimately was satisfied by the recording experience , finding that Was was devoted to helping realize their vision for the album rather than imposing his own .
The sessions were recorded on tape and Pro @-@ Tools simultaneously ; the band ultimately chose to use the tape version , as they preferred its sound quality . Most songs were recorded live with the band members playing together in one room , and microphones set up to capture the overall sound rather than that of individual instruments . Was felt this approach best approximated the feel of a Black Crowes concert , later noting that the Lions songs debuted at a private show in February 2001 " sounded exactly like the record . " Most of the recordings that comprise the album were recorded during preproduction , the purpose of which was to test arrangements . " [ W ] e didn 't think we were recording the record . And it turned out to be great " said Rich . Audley Freed played guitar on only three tracks because Rich did not want " the meat of the song , which is the riff " , to get lost in a " wall of sound " . Though Rich brought his entire collection of guitars and a number of amplifiers , he mostly recorded with a 1954 Fender Esquire through a Harry Joyce amp . To achieve a resonator @-@ like tone on " Soul Singing " , he used a James Trussart metal @-@ bodied electric . Since Andy Hess did not join The Black Crowes until the above private show , the band did not have a bassist during the recording sessions ; Rich thus played bass on most tracks . On " Lay It All on Me " , however , Rich played piano , leaving the bass guitar duties to Don Was .
A total of twenty songs were recorded during the Lions sessions . Of the seven cut from the album , four were mixed and mastered for potential release ; three ( " Last Time Again " , " Love Is Now " and " Sleepyheads " ) appeared as B @-@ sides , and the other ( " The Pretty Gurl Song " ) circulates on a bootleg recording .
= = Promotion and release = =
Soon after the Lions sessions , V2 Records threw a " completion party " at The Bank in New York City , at which The Black Crowes performed four songs from the new album , five songs from their catalog and a cover of Fleetwood Mac 's " Oh Well " . The band then played scattered dates in the U.S. and UK , including an appearance on Later ... with Jools Holland , ahead of Lions ' release . During this sequence of concerts , every song from the album was performed except " Losing My Mind " and " Ozone Mama " ; the remaining two would be played on the album @-@ supporting tour .
Lions was released on May 7 , 2001 , in the UK and a day later in the U.S. ; it subsequently debuted at its peak position of number 20 on the Billboard 200 chart , and sold over 53 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . As of January 2002 , the album had sold 192 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S.
Around the album 's release , band members made numerous promotional appearances . Chris Robinson guested on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart the day before the album was released in the U.S. , and Chris and Steve Gorman appeared on The Howard Stern Show the following day . The band performed " Soul Singing " on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on May 10 , and was inducted into Hollywood 's RockWalk four days later . A second late night television performance of " Soul Singing " took place on June 6 , this time on the Late Show with David Letterman .
" Lickin ' " was the first single from the album ; it peaked at number 9 on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Tracks on May 19 . The song 's promotional video was a compilation of various takes of a static , low @-@ angle shot of the band performing the song on a tiny stage . Second single " Soul Singing " peaked at number 12 on the same chart on August 18 ; its promotional video featured the band playing in a grassy field as the sun rises in the sky . A third single , " Miracle to Me " , was canceled , but not before a promotional video was shot of the band ostensibly recording the song in a studio . Videos also were filmed for " Come On " , " Greasy Grass River " and " Cypress Tree " . Despite not playing on the album , Andy Hess appears in some of these videos , all of which are available as streaming media on the band 's official website .
= = Critical reception = =
Media reviews of Lions were mixed . Numerous writers detected a Led Zeppelin influence ( which was praised by some , but panned by others ) and attributed it to The Black Crowes ' recent tour with Jimmy Page . Dave McKenna , writing for The Washington Post , compared Steve Gorman 's drumming to that of John Bonham and found analogs to specific guitar and keyboard tones in Led Zeppelin albums . Nigel Williamson of The Times found similarities in Chris Robinson 's voice on " Come On " to that of Robert Plant , and wrote that the song " could almost be a Led Zeppelin II cast off . " Other reviewers noted similarities to Aerosmith ; Howard Cohen of The Miami Herald called " Lickin ' " " the best Aerosmith single that band hasn 't recorded in years . " The perceived lack of originality , though , turned off some critics . The Herald Sun 's Andrew McUtchen inferred " The Black Crowes are unaware it 's no longer the ' 70s and after one listen to Lions ... it 's clear someone should tell them . " Everett True of Playlouder concurred , writing " It 's blindingly obvious the Crowes are imitators , and always will be " , though Elysa Gardner , writing for USA Today , recognized the band " exhibit an energy and dexterity that compensate — at least somewhat — for their lack of invention . "
Many reviewers praised the sound of Lions but felt the songs were weak . Writing for dotmusic , John Mulvey highlighted the " gutsy , no @-@ messing sound " , but appreciated " Cosmic Friend " for being " as impressively mad as you 'd hope , too , beginning like Beatles psychedelia , taking in massive Brazilian drumming and a touch of pedal steel , before coalescing into furious heavy rock . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic described Lions as a " powerful , textured hard rock record that covers a lot of ground , surging from powerful riffs to gospel choruses and funkier @-@ than @-@ expected riffs " , though he also complained that " the songs can seem incomplete . " Critics disagreed on which songs were lacking , though . " Losing My Mind " and " Young Man , Old Man " were called " highlights " by Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun , though elsewhere the former was called " woeful " and the latter a " ' Freddie 's Dead ' vamp " that should have been skipped .
The lyrics of Lions were another target for the critics . Mark Beaumont of NME stated that the eloquence ends at the " Come awn come awn ! / Everyone ! " chorus of " Come On " , and Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club bemoaned that " hoary tropes abound " .
= = Concert tours = =
Shortly after the release of Lions , The Black Crowes and Oasis , with opening band Spacehog , embarked on a co @-@ headlining tour of North American theaters and amphitheaters . The Black Crowes had previously met Liam and Noel Gallagher and hit it off ; " ... so we called them and asked them if they were interested [ in touring together ] . And so they were like , ' Yeah , we 'd love to ! ' " said Rich . The Black Crowes performed last each night , and their seventy @-@ five @-@ minute set always included numerous songs from Lions . Members of Oasis typically would join them for an encore cover such as " Lucifer Sam " , " Can 't You Hear Me Knocking " or " Road Runner " .
The Black Crowes followed the tour with one @-@ off dates and festivals across Europe and Japan , including shows opening for Neil Young . Most of these shows , as well as most of the dates with Oasis , were made available by V2 Records as soundboard recordings . With Lions loaded in a CD @-@ ROM drive , one could stream each show , as well as download one live track per week and one show in its entirety .
Following a month @-@ long break , the group returned to the road in late August for their Listen Massive Tour , with Beachwood Sparks as the opening band . The tour was billed as a return to two @-@ hour shows featuring a rotating set list . The September 11 show at the Greek Theatre in Los Angeles was canceled , but the band performed the next evening in Tucson , Arizona , as scheduled . All profits and merchandise sales from the following week 's three shows at the Beacon Theatre in New York City were donated to the New York State World Trade Center Relief Fund and the New York City Public / Private Initiative . While in New York City , Chris and Rich performed " By Your Side " on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . The Listen Massive Tour concluded with a 140 @-@ minute show at the Orpheum Theatre in Boston , Massachusetts , on October 31 . This would be Andy Hess and Audley Freed 's last show as band members , as The Black Crowes went on hiatus shortly thereafter .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Rich and Chris Robinson .
" Midnight from the Inside Out " – 4 : 21
" Lickin ' " – 3 : 42
" Come On " – 2 : 58
" No Use Lying " – 4 : 57
" Losing My Mind " – 4 : 26
" Ozone Mama " – 3 : 54
" Greasy Grass River " – 3 : 20
" Soul Singing " – 3 : 54
" Miracle to Me " – 4 : 42
" Young Man , Old Man " – 4 : 14
" Cosmic Friend " – 5 : 23
" Cypress Tree " – 3 : 41
" Lay It All on Me " – 5 : 29
Japanese version
" Love Is Now " – 4 : 22
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= Above All State Park =
Above All State Park is an undeveloped Connecticut state park located in the town of Warren . Founded in 1927 , the park became the site of a military radar installation from 1957 to 1968 . Remnants of the Cold War defense installation may be seen . The park 's only amenities are unmarked , informal trails that are not maintained by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection .
= = History = =
In his book on Connecticut 's state parks , author Joseph Leary traces the name to when the land was used by the Stone family , who claimed it was the highest working farm by elevation in all of Connecticut . During the 19th century , the site was considered for the " Above @-@ All Mountain House , " a holiday resort that was never built . Leary writes that despite its name , the park is not " above all " in terms of scale , views or elevation and cites the scale of Lake Waramaug State Park , the views of Mount Tom State Park , and the elevation of Dennis Hill State Park . According to Connecticut : A Guide to Its Roads , Lore , and People , the park 's name came from its " top of the world " isolation .
The park was founded in 1927 when the heirs of Seymour Strong gifted three acres of land to the state . The State of Connecticut decided to purchase 28 additional acres from the Stanley estate in December 1927 . Above All State Park was the 36th state park to be designated . From June 1957 to June 1968 , the state park became a military installation known as the New Preston Gap @-@ Filler RADAR Annex P @-@ 50A / Z @-@ 50A . In 1968 , a dirt road and cinder block building , a bunker , were added to the top of the hill as part of an upgrade to the site . Located behind the bunker was the launchpad for the Nike missiles , each carrying a 2 @-@ to @-@ 40 kiloton nuclear warhead . The site also functioned as the command and control center , but Bedell states that it was the command center for the twelve Nike sites across Connecticut . However , the site is also described as an unmanned gap @-@ filler that " providing low altitude coverage " that " consisted of the radar and tower along with the building which contained the radar equipment and a diesel generator . " Bedell states that the park reappeared on the maps after its decommissioning , but has since reverted to secrecy . This claim of secrecy is countered by it being listed on the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection website .
In 1981 , the park was the subject of a study by Northeast Utilities as a possible wind power site . An anemometer and wind vane were placed atop a 65 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) tower to record wind data for no less than one year .
= = Status = =
The Above All State Park is managed by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection , but it is unmarked and undeveloped . The location of the military site is the subject of debate because the website Radomes states that the site is " not within a state park as earlier reported , " but proceeds to give the same directions and description as Leary and Bedell . Photos included on the Radome website show the condition of the site in 2001 and 2006 : both show the buildings are extant in " excellent condition , " but the site says the radar tower and chain @-@ link fencing are missing . The site has been vandalized by graffiti .
The park is accessed off Connecticut Route 341 and requires passing a barred gate . There are no markers , toilets , or other facilities at the Above All State Park ; there are some informal trails near the top of the park that are not maintained or marked by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection .
= Paul Kariya =
Paul Tetsuhiko Kariya ( born October 16 , 1974 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey winger who played 15 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Known as a skilled and fast @-@ skating offensive player , he played in the NHL for the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim , Colorado Avalanche , Nashville Predators and St. Louis Blues .
After a two @-@ year career with the Penticton Panthers , in which he was named Canadian Junior A Player of the Year in 1992 , Kariya joined the college ranks with the University of Maine 's Black Bears men 's ice hockey team . In his freshman year , he received the Hobey Baker Award while leading his team to the 1993 NCAA title . Selected fourth overall in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft by the Mighty Ducks , he joined the team in 1994 – 95 and was named to the NHL All @-@ Rookie Team . During his nine @-@ year tenure with Anaheim , Kariya formed an effective duo with fellow winger Teemu Selänne that helped him to three NHL First All @-@ Star Team distinctions , while also finishing as the first runner @-@ up for the Hart Memorial Trophy in 1997 . Not an aggressive player , he won back @-@ to @-@ back Lady Byng Trophies in 1996 and 1997 as the League 's most gentlemanly player . Serving as a captain for seven seasons , he led the Mighty Ducks to the 2003 Stanley Cup Finals , where they lost to the New Jersey Devils in seven games . After a single @-@ season stint with the Avalanche for the purpose of reuniting with Selänne , who had previously been traded away from Anaheim , Kariya signed with the Predators in August 2005 . He played two seasons in Nashville , setting team records for assists and points scored in a single @-@ season in 2005 – 06 . Kariya then finished his career playing three seasons with the Blues .
Internationally , Kariya represented Canada on numerous stages and at different levels . He won gold at the 1993 World Junior Championships , his second appearance at the tournament . He made his first appearance at the Winter Olympics in 1994 as an amateur , winning silver . Eight years later , he helped Canada win gold at the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City . In between Olympic appearances , he won gold and silver at the 1994 and 1996 World Championships , respectively .
Throughout his NHL career , Kariya struggled with concussions , which eventually forced his retirement in June 2011 after sitting out the 2010 – 11 season because of post @-@ concussion syndrome . Psychiatrist Daniel Amen provided diagnosis and therapy for Kariya , advising him to retire as a professional , which he did .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
Kariya played two seasons of Junior A with the Penticton Panthers of the British Columbia Junior Hockey League ( BCJHL ) , beginning in 1990 – 91 . Recording 45 goals and 112 points over 54 games in his first season , he was awarded the Vern Dye and Bruce Allison Memorial Trophies as the Interior Conference 's most valuable player ( MVP ) and rookie of the year , respectively . The following season , he improved to 46 goals and 132 points over 40 games and was awarded the Vern Dye Memorial Trophy for a second consecutive year ; he was also further distinguished as the Canadian Junior A Player of the Year .
During his second BCJHL season , in November 1991 , he verbally committed to joining the Maine Black Bears of the National Collegiate Athletics Association ( NCAA ) ' s Hockey East conference for the 1992 – 93 campaign . Before deciding to join the University of Maine , Kariya was also accepted and had visited Boston University and Harvard University for their respective programs , while entertaining offers from several other NCAA teams . He also turned down major junior teams from the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . His WHL rights originally belonged to the Victoria Cougars before they were traded to the Tri @-@ City Americans in October 1991 .
In his first year with the Black Bears , Kariya scored 100 points ( 25 goals and 75 assists ) in 39 games . He was named Hockey East 's Rookie and Player of the Year , becoming the second player to receive both awards in the same year after Brian Leetch did so with Boston College in 1987 . Kariya also received Hockey East First All @-@ Star Team honours alongside teammates Jim Montgomery , Chris Imes and Mike Dunham . Nationally , Kariya was recognized with the Hobey Baker Award as the NCAA 's top player , becoming the first freshman in history to earn the distinction . During the Black Bears ' playoff run , Head Coach Shawn Walsh heralded him as one of the top three college players all @-@ time . Kariya 's efforts led Maine to a record of 42 wins , one loss and two ties , en route to the Lamoriello Trophy as the Hockey East 's playoff champion and the NCAA title as the country 's top college team . Facing Lake Superior State University in the NCAA final , Kariya registered three assists in the third period to help Maine overcome a two @-@ goal deficit ; they won the game 5 – 4 .
A top prospect heading into the off @-@ season , Kariya was projected to be selected between second and fifth overall in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft . Kariya went on to be chosen fourth overall by the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim , one of the League 's two expansion teams . In addition to becoming Anaheim 's first @-@ ever draft pick , he also became the second @-@ highest pick from Vancouver ( after Barry Beck was chosen by the Colorado Rockies second overall in 1977 ) . Following his draft , Kariya returned to the University of Maine for his sophomore year as team captain . He had been voted by his teammates for the role , along with defenceman Chris Imes . With Imes joining the United States ' national team full @-@ time in 1993 – 94 , however , Kariya returned as the lone captain . Kariya was also committed to the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1994 Winter Olympics and left the Black Bears in December 1993 . Following the Olympics , Kariya chose not to return to Maine , foregoing his remaining college hockey eligibility to turn professional with the Mighty Ducks . He finished the season with seven goals and 41 points over 23 games with the national team , as well as eight goals and 24 points over 12 games with Maine .
Five years after his tenure with the Black Bears , Kariya was selected for induction into the University of Maine Sports Hall of Fame . The ceremony was held on October 15 , 1999 , at Wells Conference Center on the University 's Orono campus . Two years later , in July 2001 , Kariya 's number 9 was retired by the Black Bears .
= = = Mighty Ducks of Anaheim = = =
= = = = 1994 – 98 = = = =
Upon returning from the 1994 Olympics , Kariya began contract negotiations with the Mighty Ducks in hopes of joining the team for the remainder of the 1993 – 94 NHL season . However , a deal failed to materialize and there was speculation in the media that he would instead play in Europe . It was reported that Kariya was seeking a US $ 12 million contract over five years from the Ducks . As both sides continued contract talks leading up to training camp for the 1994 – 95 season , Kariya agreed to a three @-@ year , $ 6 @.@ 5 million deal on August 31 , 1994 . The majority of the contract consisted of a signing bonus worth $ 4 @.@ 775 million , while the annual base salary was valued at $ 575 @,@ 000 . Clarification regarding Kariya 's free agency status had he not signed was required from the League before the contract was agreed upon ; it was ruled that he would have become a free agent on June 1 , 1995 , had the Mighty Ducks not signed him by then .
Garnering a great degree of attention from the Mighty Ducks ' fanbase , Kariya 's first public practice at Arrowhead Pond drew an attendance of 9 @,@ 000 , while 16 @,@ 000 fans watched his first exhibition game . Due to the NHL lockout , resulting from a dispute between players and owners , his regular season debut was delayed until January 1995 and the campaign was shortened to 48 games . During the suspension , Kariya participated in a charity tournament held in Hamilton , Ontario , sponsored by the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) .
As NHL play resumed , Kariya made his debut against the Edmonton Oilers . He later scored his first career NHL goal on January 21 , 1995 , against Winnipeg Jets goaltender Tim Cheveldae . The goal came after a scramble around the crease knocked the puck loose in front of the net on a power play ; Anaheim won the game 4 – 3 . During his rookie season , he played on a line with Stéphan Lebeau and Shaun Van Allen . Early in the campaign , Kariya held the scoring lead amongst League rookies , but was later overtaken by Quebec Nordiques centre Peter Forsberg . Playing in 47 games , Kariya finished the season with a team @-@ leading 18 goals and 39 points . As a team , however , the Mighty Ducks struggled in their second year since joining the NHL , finishing last in the Western Conference . Nominated for the Calder Memorial Trophy as the League 's rookie of the year , Kariya lost the award to Forsberg . Despite being edged out , Kariya was named to the NHL All @-@ Rookie Team . His play during his first NHL season earned him comparisons to Wayne Gretzky for his vision and Pavel Bure for his speed , while also earning accolades from Gretzky himself .
During Kariya 's second season , he was chosen to play for the Western Conference in the 1996 All @-@ Star Game as the lone Ducks representative . At the time of his selection , in January 1996 , he was ranked 14th in League scoring with 51 points ( 23 goals and 28 assists ) over 42 games . He later replaced the injured Pavel Bure of the Vancouver Canucks on the West 's starting lineup . Kariya scored a goal and an assist for the Western Conference in a 5 – 4 loss to the Eastern Conference . Less than a month after the All @-@ Star Game , the Mighty Ducks acquired Finnish winger Teemu Selänne in a trade with the Winnipeg Jets . Despite Kariya 's efforts , the Ducks were low @-@ scoring as a team ; the deal was designed to give Kariya offensive support . Following the trade , Ducks centre Steve Rucchin commented , " Paul had a lot of pressure on him ... He singlehandedly won some games for us this year ... Now that we have Teemu , there 's no way everybody can just key on Paul . " Selänne was immediately placed on Kariya 's line ; centred by Rucchin , the two wingers formed one of the League 's most high @-@ scoring duos for several seasons . In the last month of the 1995 – 96 campaign , Kariya achieved the 100 @-@ point single @-@ season mark with a goal and three assists in a 5 – 3 win against the San Jose Sharks on April 7 , 1996 . A week later , he became the 14th @-@ youngest NHL player to register 50 goals in one season , scoring twice in the final game of the campaign , a 5 – 2 win over Winnipeg . With seven goals and seven assists over the final seven games of the season , Kariya was named NHL Player of the Month for April . He finished the season with 50 goals and 58 assists for 108 points , tying him with Selänne for seventh overall in NHL scoring . His three overtime goals set a team record . With 20 penalty minutes over 82 games , Kariya won the Lady Byng Trophy as the League 's most gentlemanly player and was also named to the season @-@ ending NHL First All @-@ Star Team . Following the addition of Selänne , the Mighty Ducks pushed for a playoff spot , winning 12 of their final 15 games , but finished the season ninth place in the West ( the top eight teams qualify for the playoffs ) ; they had an equal 78 points to the eighth @-@ ranked Jets , but finished a spot below them by virtue of having fewer wins .
Following the 1995 – 96 season , Ducks captain Randy Ladouceur retired , leaving the team 's leadership position vacant . After serving as an alternate captain the previous year , Kariya was chosen as the third captain in team history , following Ladoceur and Troy Loney . At 21 years old , he was the youngest active captain in the NHL and remained so until defenceman Bryan McCabe became captain of the New York Islanders two years later . Also during the off @-@ season , there was speculation that the Mighty Ducks would acquire Wayne Gretzky , whose contract had expired with the St. Louis Blues . Gretzky 's agent had publicly declared that the All @-@ Star centre had interest in joining the Ducks , particularly to play with Kariya and Selänne , though the team had not contacted him with an offer . Instead , the Ducks signed 36 @-@ year @-@ old centre Jari Kurri from the New York Rangers . Following the signing , Ducks Head Coach Ron Wilson commented that " A veteran player is much better prepared to play with guys like Teemu and Paul . " ( Though Kariya began the season centred by Kurri , the Finnish veteran did not often play on the top line in his lone season with the team . )
As the ensuing 1996 – 97 season began , Kariya was out of the lineup with a pulled abdominal muscle . After missing the first 11 games of the season , he returned to the lineup at the end of October 1996 . Two weeks after his return , however , he was injured again after suffering a concussion during a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs on November 13 , 1996 , after opposing defenceman Mathieu Schneider hit Kariya in the head with his elbow . While the play was not penalized during the game , Schneider was suspended by the League following the contest . Kariya missed two games as a result of the hit . In the 13 games that he was out of the Ducks ' lineup , the team won one game , lost ten and tied two . Later in the season , Kariya was voted in by fans to the West 's starting lineup in the 1997 All @-@ Star Game . Receiving 210 @,@ 015 votes , he was second among Western Conference wingers to Brett Hull 's 254 @,@ 414 . Joining him on the Western squad were Ducks teammates Selänne and Guy Hebert . During the Game , he scored one goal in an 11 – 7 loss to the East . Returning to club play with the Ducks , he scored the fastest goal to start a game in team history , eight seconds into a match against Colorado on March 9 , 1997 . The contest ended in a 2 – 2 tie . Kariya finished the season with 44 goals and 55 assists , one point short of reaching the 100 @-@ point mark for the second consecutive year . Limited to 69 games due to his injuries , he still ranked third in League point @-@ scoring , behind Selänne and Pittsburgh Penguins captain Mario Lemieux . His + 36 plus @-@ minus rating and ten game @-@ winning goals set Ducks records ( the latter mark was tied by Selänne twice in 1997 – 98 and 2006 – 07 , then broken by Corey Perry 's 11 game @-@ winning goals in 2010 – 11 ) . Nominated for the Hart Memorial Trophy as the League 's MVP , alongside Lemieux and Buffalo Sabres goaltender Dominik Hašek , Kariya finished as a runner @-@ up to Hašek . Kariya did , however , win the Lady Byng Award after recording six penalty minutes during the season . In doing so , he became the third player in NHL history to win the award in consecutive years after Mike Bossy ( 1983 and 1984 ) and Wayne Gretzky ( 1991 and 1992 ) . He was also named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team once more , an honour he shared with Selänne . His efforts helped the Ducks achieve a winning record ( 36 wins , 33 losses and 13 ties ) and reach the playoffs for the first time in team history . Trailing three @-@ games @-@ to @-@ two against the Phoenix Coyotes in the opening round of the 1997 playoffs , the Ducks faced elimination in Game 6 of the series . Kariya scored two goals in the contest , including the overtime @-@ winner , leading the Ducks to a 3 – 2 win . In the ensuing Game 7 , Anaheim won 3 – 0 to eliminate Phoenix . Facing the ( eventual Stanley Cup champions ) Detroit Red Wings in the second round , they were swept in four games . Of the four @-@ game series , one went to overtime , one went to double overtime and one went to triple overtime . Playing 11 games in his first NHL playoff season , Kariya had seven goals and 13 points , which ranked first in team scoring .
With his original NHL contract expiring in the off @-@ season , Kariya and the Ducks struggled to agree on a new deal . As a result , Kariya missed the first 32 games of the 1997 – 98 campaign . After making $ 2 @.@ 1 million the previous season , he was reportedly asking for a three @-@ year deal worth $ 27 million , while the Ducks countered with five @-@ year , $ 25 million and seven @-@ year , $ 49 million contracts . Both sides eventually agreed on a two @-@ year , $ 14 million deal in December 1997 . While the initial year of the contract paid Kariya a pro @-@ rated salary of $ 5 @.@ 5 million ( it was also agreed in contract negotiations that Kariya would donate $ 2 million of his first year 's salary to Orange County charities ) , the second year of the contract paid him $ 8 @.@ 5 million , making him the second @-@ highest paid player in League history ( behind Mario Lemieux 's $ 11 million salary in 1996 – 97 ) . During his absence from the Ducks , Kariya trained with the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , Japan . Due to the contract impasse , he missed an opportunity to play in his father 's home country , Japan , as the Mighty Ducks opened the season with a two @-@ game series against the Vancouver Canucks in Tokyo — an effort on the NHL 's part to attract attention to the sport ahead of the Olympics . In his first game back , he recorded two goals and two assists , helping the Mighty Ducks rally from a three @-@ goal deficit to beat the Washington Capitals 6 – 4 . During the second period of the contest , he took a team record seven shots on goal .
With several weeks remaining until the start of the Olympics , Kariya suffered another concussion after receiving a cross @-@ check to the face from Chicago Blackhawks defenceman Gary Suter during a game on February 1 , 1998 . Kariya had scored a goal and was standing still at the side of the Blackhawks ' net when Suter hit him . As a result , the Blackhawks defenceman received a four @-@ game suspension from the League . There was wide speculation in the media that the incident was an intentional effort to keep Kariya from playing for Canada at the Olympics ; Suter and teammate Chris Chelios were both members of the United States ' national team . In the past , Suter was also accused of intentionally injuring Wayne Gretzky during a game between Canada and the United States in the 1991 Canada Cup . Canada 's general manager , Bobby Clarke , called the hit a " cheap shot " and publicly echoed the sentiment that Suter wanted to eliminate Kariya from Olympic play . While Kariya was initially expected to recover in time for the Olympics , the injury ( his fourth concussion in three years ) ultimately sidelined him from the competition , as well as the remaining three months of NHL play . Limited to 22 games in 1997 – 98 , Kariya recorded 17 goals and 31 points .
Following Suter 's return from suspension , NHL Senior Vice President Brian Burke was supposed by Ducks Head Coach Pierre Pagé to have said that he would have given Suter a longer ban if the extent of Kariya 's injuries were immediately known . Later in the season , prior to a game between the Blackhawks and Maple Leafs in April 1998 , Suter received a death threat , presumably for his actions against Kariya , forcing the NHL to position added security at the Blackhawks bench for the contest . With Kariya away from the team for extended periods of time , the Ducks struggled and finished second @-@ last in the West .
Suffering from post @-@ concussion syndrome , Kariya experienced headaches and a loss of short @-@ term memory . During his recovery , he was personally encouraged by fellow NHL players Eric Lindros and Pat LaFontaine , who were also dealing with serious concussions . He was not permitted by doctors to begin training until May 1998 . Leading up to the 1998 – 99 season , Kariya told reporters he was ready to play a rougher style to protect himself from the opposition , including " getting [ his ] stick up " against oncoming players . He also adopted a helmet with increased protection , featuring extra padding and a tighter chin strap . In a similar effort , the Ducks additionally acquired enforcers Stu Grimson and Jim McKenzie during the off @-@ season . During his recovery , Kariya was outspoken regarding the culture of the league regarding excessive physicality , as well as the lack of deterrence . In an article from the Sporting News , he commented that , " There 's too much of a lack of respect players have for one another ... If the league wants to stop that kind of conduct , it will have to punish players ... Ten @-@ game suspensions ... and more , have to be brought back to help wake up players . " He also added that " There probably isn 't a player in the league who hasn 't had a concussion . "
= = = = 1998 – 2003 = = = =
Fully recovered for the start of the 1998 – 99 season , Kariya returned to NHL play in October 1998 . During a 3 – 2 loss against the Red Wings in November 1998 , he put a team @-@ record 12 shots on goal . Kariya established several other Ducks records in the first half of the campaign , including a 17 @-@ game point @-@ scoring streak on home ice that ended on January 15 , 1999 . He finished with the second 100 @-@ plus point season of his career with 39 goals and a personal best 62 assists . His assists total set a Ducks record that stood for ten years until Ryan Getzlaf recorded 66 in 2008 – 09 . He ranked third in point @-@ scoring among League scorers , behind Selänne and leader Jaromír Jágr of the Pittsburgh Penguins , while ranking first in the League with 429 shots on goal . Ranked sixth in the West , the Mighty Ducks drew the Red Wings in the opening round of the 1999 playoffs . In Game 3 , Kariya blocked a shot with his skate , breaking his right foot . Unavailable for Game 4 , the Ducks lost to the Red Wings and were eliminated . Prior to his injury , Kariya had a goal and four points over three games . Kariya 's comeback season following injury was capped off with his third NHL First Team All @-@ Star distinction , receiving 47 of the possible 58 first @-@ place votes for the left wing position from the Professional Hockey Writers ' Association . Kariya was also nominated for the League 's Bill Masterton Trophy , awarded for perseverance , sportsmanship and dedication to hockey ; he lost to Tampa Bay Lightning forward John Cullen , who attempted to return to the NHL after missing the previous season with non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . While Selänne finished as second runner @-@ up for the Lady Byng Trophy , Kariya finished sixth in voting .
Having played the final year of his contract , Kariya agreed on a new three @-@ year deal with the Ducks , reported to be worth between $ 32 and $ 33 million , during the ensuing summer . The contract was signed on June 30 , 1999 , one day before he was set to become a restricted free agent . In the three seasons that ensued , Kariya 's offensive production decreased , a period that coincided with the Mighty Ducks failing to qualify for the playoffs each year .
During the 1999 – 2000 season , Kariya 's younger brother Steve Kariya began playing for the Vancouver Canucks . On December 8 , 1999 , the Ducks and Canucks met for a contest , marking the first time that the brothers played against each other at any level . Steve recorded an assist on the Canucks ' first goal of the game , before being called for a penalty . On the ensuing Ducks power play , Kariya scored to tie the game at a final score of 2 – 2 . Later in the season , Kariya was speared by San Jose Sharks defenceman Bryan Marchment during a game in March 2000 . Kariya was not injured on the play , though Marchment received a three @-@ game suspension from the NHL . Kariya finished the season with the third @-@ highest goals total of his career with 42 , though his points total dipped to 86 . Nevertheless , he ranked fourth in League scoring , behind Jaromír Jágr , Pavel Bure and Mark Recchi . In the NHL 's season @-@ ending awards , Kariya was named to the NHL Second All @-@ Star Team , having been outvoted for left wing on the First Team by Red Wings forward Brendan Shanahan . He also ranked seventh in Lady Byng voting .
During pre @-@ season play in September 2000 , Kariya received a one @-@ game suspension after slashing Minnesota Wild player Aaron Gavey , though he was able to serve the suspension during exhibition play . Several months into the 2000 – 01 season , Kariya suffered a broken right foot after blocking a shot from Tampa Bay Lightning defenceman Pavel Kubina during a game in December 2000 . Missing 15 games , he returned to the lineup in late @-@ January 2001 . The Ducks struggled as a team while both Kariya and Selänne 's paled in comparison to previous years . In March 2001 , Selänne was traded to the San Jose Sharks , marking the end of his duo with Kariya . Despite he and Kariya 's success playing with each other , the Ducks had advanced to the second round of the playoffs just once in their tenure together . While disappointed with the trade , Kariya later commented that with the tandem constituting nearly half of the Ducks ' $ 39 million payroll , " If [ he ] were running the business , [ he ] would have done something too . " Kariya finished the season with 67 points ( 33 goals and 34 assists ) over 66 games . In addition to losing Selänne via trade , Kariya played the majority of the season without centre Steve Rucchin , who was suffering from post @-@ concussion syndrome .
Without Selänne for a full season in 2001 – 02 , Kariya 's points total continued to decrease . During the opening month of the campaign , he went ten consecutive game without a goal . Nevertheless , at mid @-@ season , he was named to his sixth NHL All @-@ Star Game in January 2002 ( although it marked the first time he had been named to the All @-@ Star Game without being voted in as a starter by fans ) . Kariya played on a line with Mario Lemieux and Joe Sakic ( a trio that remained intact two weeks later for the 2002 Winter Olympics ) and notched an assist in an 8 – 5 victory for the North American All @-@ Stars . Shortly thereafter , Kariya played in his 500th career NHL game , against the Philadelphia Flyers , a contest in which he recorded a hat @-@ trick to lead his team to a 5 – 4 win . Though he finished with a team @-@ leading 57 points over 82 games , the 2001 – 02 season marked Kariya 's worst statistical year as a Duck and the third @-@ straight year his points total had decreased . The Ducks also suffered as a team , finishing with the third @-@ worst record in the West . Losing fan support , the team drew the worst attendance in franchise history at home games during the season . During the season , he was often asked by reporters how long he was willing to remain with the Ducks while the franchise floundered . In the Canadian media especially , there was a widespread position that Kariya should be moved to a better club .
During the off @-@ season , Kariya became a restricted free agent before re @-@ signing with the Ducks to a one @-@ year , $ 10 million contract in July 2002 . Prior to the signing , the Ducks made two key acquisitions , signing playmaking centre Adam Oates to a one @-@ year deal and trading for winger Petr Sýkora from the New Jersey Devils . Both acquisitions were made with Kariya 's input , as well as with the expectation they would play on a line with him . Although Oates was injured at the beginning of the season ( during which time Kariya played with his usual centre , Rucchin ) , the trio formed the Ducks ' top line . Despite playing under a defensive system , implemented by new head coach Mike Babcock , the arrival of Kariya 's new linemates coincided with a resurgence in offensive production for him in 2002 – 03 . Several months into the campaign , however , his father died of a heart attack . The Ducks gave Kariya the option to sit out the following game against the Vancouver Canucks , which he played nonetheless on December 28 , 2002 . He recorded an assist in a 7 – 3 loss . At mid @-@ season , Kariya was selected as a reserve to his seventh and final NHL All @-@ Star Game , held in February 2003 . He scored the deciding shootout goal for the Western Conference , as his team beat the East 6 – 5 . While his 25 goals marked the lowest total of his career since his 22 @-@ game 1997 – 98 season , his 56 assists approached a personal best . With 81 points over 82 games , he led the Ducks in scoring for the fifth time . His efforts helped the Mighty Ducks to the seventh seed in the West , marking the team 's return to the playoffs for the first time in four years . Matching up against the second @-@ seeded Red Wings in the first round , Kariya opened the playoffs with a triple @-@ overtime winner in Game 1 , resulting in a 2 – 1 Ducks win . Anaheim went on to sweep the Red Wings in four games ; Kariya scored his second goal of the series in the deciding contest , a 3 – 2 overtime win . It marked the second time in league history that a team eliminated the defending Stanley Cup champion in four @-@ straight games in the first round . The Mighty Ducks went on to eliminate the Dallas Stars and Minnesota Wild in the next two rounds to advance to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in franchise history . During Game 6 of the series against New Jersey , a contest in which the Ducks faced elimination , Kariya received a hard open @-@ ice hit from opposing defenceman Scott Stevens . Laying motionless on the ice for several minutes , he needed to be helped to the dressing room . Many felt Kariya 's equipment changes following his first concussion may have saved him from being rendered unconscious from the Stevens hit . Four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes of playing time later , he returned to the game . Following his return , he scored on a slapshot while skating down the wing to give the Ducks a 4 – 1 lead . Anaheim went on to win the game 5 – 2 to force a Game 7 ; Kariya finished the contest with a goal and two assists . Reactions regarding Stevens ' hit were divided following the game . Kariya told reporters that after looking at replays that Stevens had used his elbow , while Ducks Head Coach Mike Babcock described it as a late hit . The play was not penalized during the game , however , and Stevens received no disciplinary measures from the League . Playing the deciding Game 7 in New Jersey , the Ducks lost the Stanley Cup by a 3 – 0 score . Over 21 games , Kariya finished third on the team in playoff scoring ( behind Adam Oates and Petr Sýkora ) , scoring six goals and 12 points . Much of Anaheim 's success was predicated on goaltender Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère 's performance , who was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP . Kariya , meanwhile , was often singled out for his lack of consistent impact throughout the playoffs . As the highest @-@ profile player on the Ducks , he drew matchups against opposing teams top defencemen during the post @-@ season , such as Willie Mitchell against the Wild and Stevens against the Devils . He had also played part of the post @-@ season with a separated shoulder .
Game 7 of the Finals marked Kariya 's last game as a Mighty Duck . After nine seasons , he left Anaheim as the team 's all @-@ time leader in games played ( 606 ) , goals ( 300 ) , assists ( 369 ) , points ( 669 ) , short handed goals ( 16 ) and shots ( 2 @,@ 455 ) . His seven seasons as team captain also set a Ducks record . After Selänne returned to the Ducks in 2005 , Kariya 's marks in games played , goals , assists and points were all broken .
= = = Colorado Avalanche = = =
Following the Mighty Ducks ' Stanley Cup run , Kariya became an unrestricted free agent in the off @-@ season . With Kariya requiring a $ 10 million qualifying offer from Anaheim to remain the team , General Manager Bryan Murray let him go to free agency . Murray went on record saying , " We understand that he is an important player for the franchise ... but when you are trying to build a team it 's hard to have one player at $ 10 million when your payroll is the mid to low ( $ 40 million range ) . " It was reported that the team had tried negotiating a longer @-@ term deal with a decreased salary , while Murray told media at the time that he would remain in negotiations with Kariya to sign him for less . With former linemate Teemu Selänne also entering unrestricted free agency that summer after three years with San Jose ( he decided to opt out of his final year , valued at $ 6 @.@ 5 million ) , the duo agreed to reunite and sign with the same team . Together , they approached the Colorado Avalanche , having decided the team had the best chance of winning the Stanley Cup . On July 3 , 2003 , the Avalanche announced the signing of Kariya and Selänne to one @-@ year contracts . In order for the team to afford both players , Kariya took an $ 8 @.@ 8 million paycut from his $ 10 million salary with Anaheim the previous year , marking the highest decrease in compensation for a player in NHL history . At $ 1 @.@ 2 million , his salary was below the NHL average , ensuring that he would have the freedom of unrestricted free agency at the end of the season . Selänne , meanwhile , signed for $ 5 @.@ 8 million . Their deals were partially facilitated by goaltender Patrick Roy 's retirement , which freed up $ 8 @.@ 5 million in salary .
Kariya and Selänne joined an already high @-@ powered Avalanche team that included such forwards as Joe Sakic , Peter Forsberg , Milan Hejduk and Alex Tanguay . Despite high expectations for the duo 's reunion , Kariya and Selänne both struggled in their sole years with Colorado . After beginning the 2003 – 04 season on a line with Selänne centred by Joe Sakic , Kariya suffered a sprained right wrist in a game against the Boston Bruins on October 21 , 2003 . After being sidelined for ten games , he returned in mid @-@ November , but re @-@ injured his wrist in his first contest back . Due to the injury , Kariya missed playing against the Ducks for the first time in a home game on November 18 . Still recovering a month later , he remained sidelined for a return to Anaheim 's Arrowhead Pond on December 20 . Kariya 's departure from the Ducks drew criticism from his previous team 's fans . In anticipation of the Avalanche @-@ Ducks game on December 20 , Anaheim fans began a fund that raised over $ 1 @,@ 200 to be given to the favourite charity of the Ducks player who scores the game @-@ winning goal against Colorado . The idea was precipitated by reports that Kariya had given Selänne $ 3 @,@ 000 for scoring the game @-@ winning goal against the Ducks on November 18 ( it is an informal tradition in the NHL for players to offer rewards to teammates who score against former teams ) . Kariya returned to the Avalanche lineup in time for their next game against the Ducks on January 13 , 2004 , at the Pepsi Center . He scored one goal in a 3 – 1 win . Later that month , he played his first game against the Ducks in Anaheim on January 30 . Booed every time he touched puck , he recorded two assists , as the Avalanche lost 4 – 3 in overtime . Limited by injuries , Kariya scored below his career pace with 11 goals and 36 points over 51 games . Selänne recorded 32 points , while playing in 78 games . In the final game of the regular season , Kariya injured his right ankle against the Nashville Predators on April 4 . As a team , Colorado lost their division for the first time in nine years to the Vancouver Canucks . Qualifying for the 2004 playoffs as the fourth seed in the West , they lost in the second round to the Sharks . Kariya returned to the Colorado lineup in time for Game 6 against the Sharks , recording an assist as the Avalanche were eliminated by a score of 3 – 1 .
= = = Nashville Predators = = =
Due to the NHL lockout , Kariya was professionally inactive for the 2004 – 05 season , using the time to recover from several nagging injuries . He incorrectly predicted that the dispute would last " a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half [ or ] two years , " as the players and owners agreed on a new collective bargaining agreement ( CBA ) in July 2005 . With NHL play set to resume for the 2005 – 06 season , Kariya became an unrestricted free agent in August 2005 . Entertaining offers from 10 different teams , Kariya signed a two @-@ year , $ 9 million contract with the Nashville Predators on August 5 , 2005 , making him the highest @-@ paid player in team history . Four days later , he was officially introduced as a member of the Predators at a news conference . Predators General Manager David Poile heralded the acquisition as " unquestionably the biggest signing in [ the ] club 's history . " He ultimately chose the Predators for their style of play emphasizing skating and speed . Following the lockout , the NHL adopted several rule changes meant to benefit fast and skilled players such as Kariya . He was one of many NHL players who had publicly spoken out regarding the League 's failed attempts in the past to reduce obstruction . During an earlier League @-@ sponsored conference call with the media , Kariya criticized league rules , stating , " As an offensive player , I 'm going through the neutral zone , and I have a player tugging me the whole way . If I don 't go down , I 'm not going to get a call because they are not going to make the call . " Having come off the worst statistical season of his career in 2003 – 04 , Kariya was admittedly looking to have a bounce @-@ back season .
During the Predators ' training camp in September 2005 , Kariya suffered separate ankle and groin injuries that limited his participation in team practices and pre @-@ season games . Recovering in time for the season @-@ opener , he debuted with the Predators on October 5 , 2005 , at home against the San Jose Sharks . Early in the game , Kariya was routinely cheered by fans when he touched the puck . Trailing 2 – 1 in the third period , he scored on goaltender Evgeni Nabokov to the tie the game , en route to a 3 – 2 win . The following game , Kariya participated in his first NHL shootout ( the tie @-@ breaker was newly implemented by the League for the 2005 – 06 season ) after the Predators remained tied with the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim 2 – 2 following overtime . The last of three shooters for the Predators , Kariya was the lone player to score in the shootout , leading Nashville to a 3 – 2 win . The two wins helped Nashville go undefeated in their first eight games , two wins shy of the League 's record for consecutive victories to start a season . On April 18 , 2006 , the last day of the regular season , Kariya scored a hat @-@ trick against the Detroit Red Wings in a 6 – 3 win , helping the Predators secure the fourth seed in the Western Conference . In his first season with Nashville , Kariya set team records with 31 goals , 54 assists and 85 points . His 14 power play goals also tied defenceman Andy Delmore 's team record set in 2002 – 03 , while his 245 shots came within three of Cliff Ronning 's mark set in 1998 – 99 . With five shootout goals over seven attempts , Kariya ranked fourth in the NHL in shootout scoring percentage at 71 @.@ 4 % ( among players who had taken at least five attempts ) . On a team basis , the Predators set franchise records with 49 wins and 106 points , ranking fourth in the West . Matching up against the San Jose Sharks in the first round of the 2006 playoffs , Kariya opened the post @-@ season with four assists in Game 1 to lead Nashville to a 4 – 3 win . After taking Game 1 , the Predators went on to lose the next four contests and were eliminated from the playoffs . The team was markedly weakened for the playoffs with starting goaltender Tomáš Vokoun unavailable due to injury and Kariya 's linemate Steve Sullivan playing hurt . Kariya had two goals and seven points over the series .
After the Predators ' regular season success in 2005 – 06 , the team bolstered their lineup by acquiring centre Jason Arnott and winger Jean @-@ Pierre Dumont . In response to Arnott 's signing , Kariya commented that the centre position , as well as size , were weaknesses for the team the previous year , especially when they matched up against the Sharks ' top two centres , Joe Thornton and Patrick Marleau , in the playoffs . Leading up to the 2006 – 07 season , the Predators were picked by many analysts in the media ( including those from The Globe and Mail and ESPN ) to contend for the Stanley Cup . Prior to the start of the campaign , the Predators announced defenceman Kimmo Timonen as the team 's new captain , while naming Kariya and Steve Sullivan as alternates ( the two served in that role the previous season , as well , but not on a permanent basis ) . With Kariya leading the team in scoring , the team boasted the top record in the league by the All @-@ Star break . At the NHL trade deadline , the team further bolstered their lineup by acquiring high @-@ profile centre Peter Forsberg from Philadelphia . Forsberg joined Kariya on the top line , though not consistently . With 76 points ( 24 goals and 52 assists ) — the second highest total in team history — over 82 games , Kariya led the Predators in scoring for a second @-@ straight year . His seven shootout goals ( over 11 attempts ) tied for second in the league , one behind Erik Christensen of the Pittsburgh Penguins . The Predators continued to improve and finished with a new team record of 51 wins and 110 points . Despite ranking as the second @-@ best team in the West , Nashville seeded fourth in their conference ( divisional winners within the conference take the top three seeds ; Detroit beat the Predators by there points in the Central Division ) . Playing against the San Jose Sharks for the second consecutive year , the Predators were once again eliminated in five games . Kariya struggled with two assists during the series .
During the off @-@ season , Predators owner Craig Leipold put the team up for sale ; two of the leading candidates to buy the franchise both had plans to relocate the team . With Kariya 's contract expiring , he chose not to re @-@ sign with Nashville , citing the team 's uncertain future .
= = = St. Louis Blues = = =
On July 1 , 2007 , Kariya signed a three @-@ year contract worth $ 18 million with the St. Louis Blues . In similar fashion to his signing with Nashville , his arrival in St. Louis marked one of the team 's first notable free agent acquisitions in a while ( arguably since the team signed Brendan Shanahan in 1991 ) . While the Predators were a team on the rise when he joined them , the Blues had contrastingly missed the playoffs in the previous two seasons .
Although Blues winger Jay McClement was in possession of the jersey number 9 upon Kariya 's arrival in the off @-@ season , he surrendered it so Kariya could retain his usual number . Assigned as an alternate captain for the team , Kariya rotated the position with Keith Tkachuk , and Barret Jackman throughout the 2008 – 09 season . Kariya debuted with the team on October 4 , 2007 , registering an assist in a 3 – 2 loss to the Phoenix Coyotes . After recording six assists in his first four games as a Blue , Kariya scored his first goal with St. Louis on October 17 , 2007 , in a 3 – 1 win against the Chicago Blackhawks . Two months later , Kariya recorded his tenth career NHL hat @-@ trick against the Dallas Stars on December 29 , scoring the Blues ' final three goals , including the game @-@ tying marker with ten seconds remaining in regulation . He was stopped in the shootout , however , by Mike Smith as the Stars won the game 5 – 4 . With the hat trick , Kariya reached the 900 @-@ point mark in his NHL career . Despite a decrease in offensive production , Kariya tied winger Brad Boyes for the team lead in scoring with 65 points ( 16 goals and 49 assists ) over 82 games . The Blues finished with the second @-@ worst record in the Western Conference with 33 wins and 79 points .
A month into 2008 – 09 season , Kariya suffered a hip injury after being hit from behind in a game against the Anaheim Ducks on November 5 , 2008 , tearing muscle fibers near the top his left thigh . The injury was initially undisclosed at the time and was erroneously reported as having resulted from a blocked shot . At the time of the injury , he had 15 points ( 2 goals and 13 assists ) over 11 games , tying him for sixth in NHL scoring . After nearly two months of recovery , he began practicing with the Blues , but had a setback in late @-@ December ; a subsequent MRI exam revealed additional hip damage . Undergoing surgery for a torn acetabular labrum on January 5 , 2009 , the team listed him as sidelined indefinitely , while Blues President John Davidson told reporters he might be back late that season or the next . The following month , another MRI revealed a torn labrum in the opposite side of his hip , as well , requiring a second surgery . Despite the loss of Kariya , the Blues made the playoffs for the first time since 2004 . With the Blues matching up against the Vancouver Canucks in the first round , Kariya began practicing with the team in hopes of a comeback for the playoffs . He told reporters that he felt " stronger that [ he had ] ... since 1999 . " The Blues were swept in four games however , before Kariya could return .
Fully recovered by the start of the 2009 – 10 season , Kariya made his return to the Blues lineup on October 2 , 2009 , a game played in Stockholm . He scored two goals in a 4 – 3 win against the Detroit Red Wings . On March 18 , 2010 , Kariya scored the 400th goal of his NHL career , against the New York Rangers . A week later , he recorded the 402nd and final goal of his career , in a 3 – 1 win against the Los Angeles Kings . Kariya played his last NHL game on April 11 , 2010 , against his former team , the Nashville Predators . With the Blues trailing by one goal in the third period , Kariya helped set up David Backes ' game @-@ tying goal , marking his 25th assist of the season and final point of his career . The Blues went on to lose the game 2 – 1 in a shootout .
During his last season in the NHL , the League began expanding their efforts to eliminate hits to the head with new rules and stiffer penalties . League officials also began looking to penalize " blindside hits , " defined as a bodycheck against a player from the side , where he cannot see the ensuing player coming . At the time , Kariya called the pending rule changes " long overdue , " adding that , " hav [ ing ] been through so much with that ... It 's something that should 've been in place years and years ago . "
With his contract expiring in the off @-@ season , Teemu Selänne , who had since returned to the Ducks , was reportedly in talks with team management to sign Kariya . On August 27 , 2010 , however , on the advice of doctors who refused to clear him to play , Kariya announced that he would sit out the 2010 – 11 season with post @-@ concussion syndrome . While the symptoms eventually did subside somewhat , the same doctors advised Kariya that it was too risky to try to play again , and Kariya officially announced his retirement from hockey on June 29 , 2011 , through the NHLPA . He continued to be outspoken regarding the prevalence of concussions among hockey players ; in an interview with the Globe and Mail , he commented , " The thing I worry about is that you 'll get a guy who is playing with a concussion , and he gets hit , and he dies at centre ice . "
= = International career = =
In the summer of 1991 , Kariya joined the Canadian Under @-@ 18 Selects Team at the Phoenix Cup , the inaugural tournament of what would go on to become the Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament . Kariya led all scorers with ten points in six games while being named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team . Canada won the silver medal , losing out to the Soviet Union .
The following year , he moved up to the Canadian under @-@ 20 team for the 1992 World Junior Championships in Germany . The youngest player on the team , he recorded a goal and an assist over six games as Canada finished in sixth place . Playing in the tournament a second consecutive year in 1993 , Kariya improved to two goals and eight points over seven games , ranking second in team scoring behind Martin Lapointe . Helping Canada to a record of six winsand one loss , they tied Sweden for first overall in the standings , but won the gold medal by way of their 5 – 4 win against them in their second game . The championship marked Kariya 's first international gold medal and began a streak of five consecutive gold medals for Canada at the tournament . He was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team , alongside Canadian goaltender Manny Legace and defenceman Brent Tully . Nearly ten years later , TSN held a fan @-@ voted poll on the Internet to select Canada 's all @-@ time World Junior team . The poll garnered in excess of 350 @,@ 000 votes with Kariya chosen as one of 13 forwards on the team .
Four months later , in April 1993 , Kariya debuted with the Canadian men 's team in the IIHF World Championships , held in Germany . At 18 years and six months , he became the youngest player in Canadian history to play at the tournament . He scored nine points in eight games as Canada finished in fourth place .
Later that year , in December 1993 , Kariya left his college team , the Maine Black Bears , to join the Canadian national team in preparation for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer , Norway . At the start of the tournament , Canada was seeded seventh overall and were not considered favourites to do well . Playing on a line with Chris Kontos and Petr Nedved , Kariya led his team in scoring with three goals and seven points over eight games , helping Canada to a silver medal . Tied with the Czech Republic 2 – 2 in the quarterfinal , Kariya scored the game @-@ winning goal after 16 minutes of overtime play to help the Canadians advance . In the gold medal game , Kariya scored the first goal as Canada went on to lose 3 – 2 in a shootout to Sweden . With a chance to tie the shootout after Swedish forward Peter Forsberg scored , Swedish goaltender Tommy Salo stopped Kariya with a glove save .
Two months later , Kariya joined Team Canada for the 1994 Men 's World Championships in Italy . He was the lone player on the team to have continued on from the Olympics , as well as the youngest , while playing on a line with Jason Arnott and Brendan Shanahan . During round @-@ robin play , he netted a hat trick against Austria in a 6 – 1 win . In the quarterfinal , he added a goal and an assist in a win over the Czech Republic . Canada advanced to the final , where they defeated Finland 2 – 1 to capture the gold medal . It marked the first championship at the tournament for Canada in 33 years . Kariya finished the tournament with a team @-@ high five goals and 12 points over eight games and received Best Forward and All @-@ Star Team honours on the latter , he was joined by Canadian goaltender Bill Ranford . With his success at the 1994 Winter Olympics and World Championships , Wayne Gretzky heralded Kariya as the next NHL superstar .
In January 1996 , Kariya finished as a runner @-@ up to Wayne Gretzky for the inaugural Jean Beliveau Award , an annual distinction from Hockey Canada for players who have demonstrated " outstanding playing ability and international experience while maintaining the fundamentals of sportsmanship and fair play . " Unlike most annual awards , the distinction did not take into account players ' performances in the prior year , but their contributions on a career @-@ basis . The initial three nominees were chosen by a selection committee , while the winner was determined by fan vote . Randy Gregg was the other nominee .
Following his second NHL season , Kariya was named to Canada 's team for the 1996 World Championships in Vienna . During the round @-@ robin , he scored a hat @-@ trick against the United States , helping Canada to a 5 – 1 win , qualifying them for the quarterfinals . During their semifinal against Russia , Kariya scored in the shootout to help Canada to a 3 – 2 win . Advancing to the gold medal game , they lost 4 – 2 to the Czech Republic . Kariya finished the competition with four goals and seven points over eight games , earning him a spot as Canada 's lone representative on the Tournament 's First All @-@ Star Team . Over three World Championship appearances , Kariya recorded 28 points ( 11 goals and 17 assists ) over 24 games , which at the time , ranked him at third all @-@ time among Canadian scorers , behind Steve Yzerman 's 39 points and Marcel Dionne 's 32 .
Prior to the World Championships , Canada also named Kariya to their team for the 1996 World Cup , which was held in August and September . However , Kariya was kept from competing due to a groin inflammation . During a news conference , he called his withdrawal the " biggest disappointment of [ his ] hockey career . " The World Cup would have marked his first international appearance in a best @-@ on @-@ best tournament , as the competition did not interfere with the Stanley Cup playoffs as the World Championships did . Kariya was replaced in the lineup by New York Rangers winger Adam Graves . Canada went on to finish as runner @-@ up to the United States in the tournament .
In June 1997 , Kariya was again nominated for the Jean Beliveau Award , alongside Gregg , but lost to Bobby Orr .
Four years after his first Olympic appearance as an amateur , the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , Japan , were set to become the first Games in which NHL players could compete in ice hockey . While Kariya was involved in a contract dispute with the Mighty Ducks , causing him to miss the start of the 1997 – 98 NHL season , Hockey Canada contacted Kariya , asking him to provide a training regimen by December 1 , 1997 , ensuring that he would be physically ready to play in the Olympics , given his inactivity in the NHL . Before agreeing to a contract with the Ducks in December , he joined the Canadian national team in training . On November 29 , 1997 , Canadian General Manager Bobby Clarke announced his roster for the Games , which included Kariya . He was the youngest player named to the team , behind defenceman Chris Pronger , who was born six days earlier . Less than a month to go before the start of the tournament , held in February 1998 , however , he suffered a concussion , resulting from an on @-@ ice crosscheck to the head from Chicago Blackhawks defenceman Gary Suter . The hit received much publicity as Suter , a member of the United States ' national team , was accused by many in the media , as well as Bobby Clarke for targeting Kariya specifically in order to sideline him for the Olympics . He again described the missed opportunity as the " biggest disappointment of [ his ] career , " adding that he was looking forward to playing in Japan , having family there .
Leading up to the next Winter Olympics , Kariya was chosen as one of eight initial players to Canada 's roster on March 23 , 2001 . Playing on the top line with Mario Lemieux , Kariya scored three goals and one assist over six games , tying for fourth in Canadian point @-@ scoring . He registered his first goal of the tournament in Canada 's second game , a 3 – 2 win against Germany . His second came against Belarus in the semi @-@ final , qualifying Canada for the gold medal game . Playing the United States in the final , Kariya scored Canada 's first goal of the game , tying the score at 1 – 1 in the first period . Canada went on to win 5 – 2 , capturing their first Olympic gold medal since 1952 . Canada 's roster was later inducted into the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame under the team category on March 26 , 2009 , during a ceremony in Vancouver .
Despite Kariya 's success with Canada at the 2002 Olympics , he had come off the worst statistical season of his career prior to the national team 's summer development camp in preparation for the 2006 Winter Olympics . His omission was singled out by the media ; General Manager Wayne Gretzky , who selected the camp 's participants , explained publicly , " Paul is a great player , but at some point you have to have a cutoff , " while also asserting that he had spoken to Kariya personally regarding the situation . After a strong start to the 2005 – 06 NHL season , Kariya was one of 49 forwards chosen in October 2005 to Canada 's preliminary list of players to be selected from for the final roster . When the team was announced in December 2005 , however , he was not chosen .
During his career , Kariya became involved with Hockey Canada off the ice , as well . In the late 1990s , he joined the organization as a national spokesperson with women 's team forward Jayna Hefford for the Initiation Program , promoting a safe and positive experience for children first becoming involved with hockey .
= = Playing style = =
Kariya was known for his skilled and entertaining style of play . An offensive player , he was a fast skater with strong puck @-@ handling and passing abilities . Prior to and early in his NHL career , Kariya drew comparisons to Wayne Gretzky . During the 1994 Winter Olympics , American Head Coach Tim Taylor likened his skating and playmaking ability to Gretzky 's , while Kariya 's linemate , Chris Kontos , described his on @-@ ice vision as " Gretzky @-@ like . " Canadian Head Coach Tom Renney heralded him as " think [ ing ] and play [ ing ] at a better speed than anybody else , " adding that his teammates " are usually a half @-@ step behind him . " His speed made him particularly adept in international competition , as games were played on a larger ice surface in comparison to the NHL . Following his first NHL goal against Winnipeg , Jets Head Coach John Paddock told reporters , " like with Gretzky the puck seems to following him around ... It looks like he 's cherry @-@ picking , but he 's not . That 's just great instinct . " Kariya himself cited Gretzky , as well as Brett Hull , Jeremy Roenick and Pavel Bure as players he liked patterning his game after . Kariya was also recognized for his " hockey sense " and the cerebral aspect of his game , which included analyzing the game at a high level . His first NHL coach , Ron Wilson , also once described Kariya as " the hardest @-@ working athlete [ he 's ] ever been associated with . "
While recognized primarily as a playmaker leading up to his NHL career , Kariya was forced into shooting more as the Mighty Ducks lacked scorers in his first two seasons with the team . During his third NHL season , he commented that , " If Teemu [ Selänne ] had been here right off the bat , then maybe I wouldn 't have focused so much on shooting . " Kariya was able to put many shots on goal due to his quick release . In 1998 – 99 , he led the League with 429 shots on goal , which at the time was the second @-@ highest recorded total in NHL history . Nonetheless maintaining his passing ability , Kariya was particularly adept at making plays from deep in the offensive zone and beside the opposing team 's net .
= = Personal life = =
Kariya was born in Vancouver , British Columbia , to parents Tetsuhiko and Sharon Kariya . His father , a Japanese @-@ Canadian born in a World War II internment camp , worked as a math teacher . Tetsuhiko died from a heart attack suffered on December 27 , 2002 . Kariya 's mother , a Scottish @-@ Canadian , was also a teacher . Coming from an athletic family , his father played rugby with the Canadian national team . Kariya is one of four siblings that play professional sports . Brothers Steve and Martin are also hockey players . His sister , Noriko , played hockey , as well , before turning to boxing .
As a teenager , Kariya worked for a summer in construction . At age 16 , he left home to play Junior A hockey in Penticton , British Columbia , where he also worked at a clothing store that belonged to the team 's coach and general manager . Two years later , he enrolled at the University of Maine to join the school 's hockey team and was a dean 's list student . During his rookie NHL season , Kariya lived in the Anaheim area with a family that was close friend with Mighty Ducks Head Coach Ron Wilson . Following his departure from the Ducks in 2003 , he maintained a summer home in Orange County , California . With a background in competitive swimming as a child , he became an avid surfer in the area . He still resides in California , nearby another former Ducks player , Scott Niedermayer . Kariya has maintained a close friendship with Teemu Selänne , and even attended Selänne 's final regular season game at the Honda Center in 2014 . Despite Kariya having only once attended the arena following his retirement , Selänne made sure to invite his old teammate as " he has meant so much to me , all my best years and the chemistry I ’ ve had with him . Selanne even went so far to threaten to tie him up and toss him in his trunk of his car , then drive him to the stadium himself if Kariya refused . Paul Kariya was shown on the Jumbotron during the third period . "
As captain of the Mighty Ducks , Kariya made a cameo appearance in Disney 's D3 : The Mighty Ducks movie , which was released in October 1996 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= = Records = =
Anaheim Ducks record ; most overtime goals , single season – 3 in 1995 – 96
Anaheim Ducks record ; highest plus @-@ minus , single season – + 36 in 1996 – 97
Anaheim Ducks record ; most shots , single season – 429 in 1998 – 99
Anaheim Ducks record ; longest tenured captain – 8 years from 1996 – 2003
Nashville Predators record ; most assists , single season – 54 in 2005 – 06
Nashville Predators record ; most points , single season – 85 in 2005 – 06
Most Puck Control Relay wins at NHL SkillsCompetition – 1999 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002
= Simpson and Delilah =
" Simpson and Delilah " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 18 , 1990 . Homer uses the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant medical insurance plan to buy ' Dimoxinil ' , a miracle hair growth formula . Homer grows hair , and is given a promotion at work which allows him to hire a secretary named Karl . The episode was directed by Rich Moore and written by Jon Vitti , and guest starred Harvey Fierstein as Karl .
= = Plot = =
Homer sees an advertisement for Dimoxinil , a new " miracle breakthrough " for baldness . He visits a store which sells Dimoxinil , but at $ 1000 it is far out of Homer 's price range . At work , Lenny suggests Homer pay for Dimoxinil through the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant medical insurance plan . The druggist yells that Dimoxinil is a frivolous product that is not covered by any medical insurance , but whispers to Homer that he will arrange an under @-@ the @-@ table trade . Homer successfully applies the drug , and after using it , he wakes up the next day to the thrill of having a full head of hair , and runs throughout the town blissfully . At work , Mr. Burns surveys the security monitors to find a new person to promote to an executive position . He sees Homer with hair and , mistaking him for a young go @-@ getter , chooses Homer for the job .
As he is about to become an executive , Homer tries to look for a good secretary , but all the applicants fail due to being seductive young women – until Homer finds a man named Karl , who earnestly persuades Homer to tell himself that he deserves everything he has and is the finest creature God ever created . Homer eventually picks Karl , and they go shopping for a suit . At an executive board meeting , Homer is singled out by an impressed Burns to give a suggestion to increase worker productivity , and Homer meekly suggests that he give more tartar sauce in the lunch room , which Mr. Burns does . Following the increase in tartar sauce distribution , Mr. Burns is glad to hear that workplace safety is on the up @-@ and @-@ up and accidents are down . Smithers remarks that all the past accidents were either caused by Homer or believed to be traced to him . However , Burns tells Smithers to stop being negative and even accuses him of harboring jealousy towards Homer . Homer forgets his wedding anniversary , but Marge forgives him due to his new demanding schedule . Karl covers for Homer by hiring a singing telegram service to serenade Marge with " You Are So Beautiful " , which Marge loves .
Homer becomes successful and receives the honor of being given the key to the executive washroom . Smithers begins to feel jealous of Homer for his high standing with Mr. Burns and searches Homer 's file , finding the damaging information he seeks in the case of insurance fraud that gave Homer hair in the first place . Smithers gleefully prepares to fire Homer for the fraud , but Karl takes the blame for Homer and writes the $ 1000 check to repay the company . Frustrated , Smithers is instead forced to fire Karl , who has sacrificed his own job to save Homer 's . Homer is deeply saddened to see Karl go after all Karl had done for him , including lending Homer his umbrella before finally leaving in the rain . Homer is invited to give a speech at the next meeting , and Smithers does his best to ruin Homer 's confidence . Homer is nervous about giving the speech without Karl , but reasons that as long as he has hair , everything will be fine .
Meanwhile , at home , Bart uses some of the Dimoxinil in a misguided attempt to grow a beard . When Homer enters and catches Bart , Bart accidentally drops the Dimoxinil , spilling it all onto the floor . By the next day , Homer has lost all his hair and , bald again , arrives at the meeting . His fears are alleviated when Karl appears with a pre @-@ written speech for him , but Homer is still convinced he is incapable of accomplishing anything without his hair . Karl impatiently tells Homer what he had been trying to teach him all along — that all of Homer 's achievements had been the result of his own will and effort , not of his hair . Karl urges Homer to think higher of himself and give the speech , even kissing him on the lips to prove his point . Reassured , Homer presents a brilliant speech on the Japanese art of self @-@ management , but the audience is unable to take him seriously because he has no hair . Everyone leaves , leaving Homer greatly disappointed . Burns angrily summons Homer , threatening to fire him , but reveals photographs of himself with strawberry curly hair in his younger years when girls flocked to him until he went bald , and as a fellow sufferer of male pattern baldness , sympathizes with Homer 's situation and merely demotes him back to his old position rather than terminating him .
At home later that night , Homer confesses to Marge he is afraid that his life has returned to a dead @-@ end job , that his kids will be disappointed because he can no longer buy the things for them he promised he would , and most of all that Marge will no longer love him as much . However , Marge reminds Homer that his safety inspector job has always brought food to the table , and that the kids will get over not being spoiled . Marge then reaffirms her love for Homer as they sing " You Are So Beautiful " together into the night .
= = Production = =
Homer 's hair product Dimoxinil is a spoof on a similar product , Minoxidil , which fascinated the writers . After growing hair , the production staff tried to give Homer a new hair design in every scene . The character Karl was played by openly gay actor Harvey Fierstein . Groening had originally intended to design Karl to look like Fierstein , who objected to the idea because he felt he did not " look like gay people , how they 're supposed to look . " Fierstein suggested that the character be made " blond , and tall , and gorgeous , and skinny , and [ given ] a beautiful place to live . "
The episode features a kiss between Homer and Karl , which occurred a decade prior to US television 's first real man @-@ on @-@ man kiss on Dawson 's Creek . In the episode , Karl is implied to be homosexual ; creator Matt Groening says that when people began asking " was he gay ? " the day after the episode aired , his response was " he 's whatever you want him to be . " However , Groening points out , " he does kiss Homer : He does give him a nice pat on the butt " which is " beyond [ what ] any other cartoon " had done at the time .
Karl was originally supposed to return for a cameo appearance in the season 14 episode " Three Gays of the Condo " . In the script , Homer was thrown out of the house by Marge , and encountered Karl . The purpose of the appearance was to introduce a gay couple that Homer would live with . Fierstein however felt that " the script was a lot of very clever gay jokes , and there just wasn 't that Simpsons twist " and turned the role down .
= = Cultural references = =
The scene in which Homer is running through town after he got his hair is a reference to the film It 's a Wonderful Life .
The scene in which Homer receives the key to the executive washroom is a reference to the movie Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? .
The title of the episode is a reference to Cecil B. DeMille 's Biblical film Samson and Delilah .
= = Reception = =
During the second season , The Simpsons aired on Fox on Thursdays at 8 PM , which was the same time as The Cosby Show , which aired on NBC . The supposed " Bill vs. Bart " rivalry had been heavily hyped by the media . The first airing of " Simpson and Delilah " on Fox had a 16 @.@ 2 rating and 25 % share , while The Cosby Show , which aired during the same timeslot had an 18 @.@ 5 rating . However , viewer @-@ wise , The Simpsons won with 29 @.@ 9 million viewers . It is one of the highest rated episodes of The Simpsons . " Bart Gets an F " , the season premiere and episode that aired the week before , averaged an 18 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating , had 29 % of the audience and was watched by an estimated 33 @.@ 6 million viewers .
This episode was placed twenty @-@ third on Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episodes list . Harvey Fierstein is number two on TV Guide 's " All @-@ time Favorite Guest Voices . " The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes . " In a 2008 article , Entertainment Weekly named Harvey Fierstein 's role as Karl as one of the sixteen best guest appearances on The Simpsons . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , praised Fierstein 's performance , saying the episode was " brought to life by the superb character of Karl , helped no doubt by Harvey Fierstein 's unique vocal drawl . "
= Opus Dei =
Opus Dei , formally known as The Prelature of the Holy Cross and Opus Dei ( Latin : Praelatura Sanctae Crucis et Operis Dei ) , is an institution of the Roman Catholic Church that teaches that everyone is called to holiness and that ordinary life is a path to sanctity . The majority of its membership are lay people , with secular priests under the governance of a prelate ( bishop ) elected by specific members and appointed by the Pope . Opus Dei is Latin for " Work of God " ; hence the organization is often referred to by members and supporters as the Work .
Founded in Spain in 1928 by the Catholic saint and priest Josemaría Escrivá , Opus Dei was given final Catholic Church approval in 1950 by Pope Pius XII . In 1982 , by the apostolic constitution Ut sit , St. John Paul II made it a personal prelature — that is , the jurisdiction of its own bishop covers the persons in Opus Dei wherever they are , rather than geographical dioceses .
As of 2015 , members of the Prelature numbered 93 @,@ 986 . Lay persons , men and women , numbered 91 @,@ 020 while there were 2 @,@ 094 priests . These figures do not include the diocesan priest members of Opus Dei 's Priestly Society of the Holy Cross , estimated to number 2 @,@ 000 in the year 2005 . Members are in more than 90 countries . About 70 percent of Opus Dei members live in their private homes , leading traditional Catholic family lives with secular careers , while the other 30 per cent are celibate , of whom the majority live in Opus Dei centres . Opus Dei organizes training in Catholic spirituality applied to daily life . Aside from personal charity and social work , Opus Dei members are involved in running universities , university residences , schools , publishing houses , and technical and agricultural training centers .
Opus Dei has been described as the most controversial force within the Catholic Church . According to several journalists who researched Opus Dei separately , many criticisms against Opus Dei are based on fabrications by opponents , and Opus Dei is considered a sign of contradiction . Several popes and other Catholic leaders have endorsed what they see as its innovative teaching on the sanctifying value of work , and its fidelity to Catholic beliefs . In 2002 , Pope John Paul II canonized Escrivá , and called him " the saint of ordinary life . " Criticism of Opus Dei has centered on allegations of secretiveness , controversial recruiting methods , strict rules governing members , elitism and misogyny , and support of or participation in authoritarian or right @-@ wing governments , especially the Francoist Government of Spain until 1978 . The mortification of the flesh practiced by some of its members is also criticized . Within the Catholic Church , Opus Dei is also criticized for allegedly seeking independence and more influence . In recent years , Opus Dei has received international attention due to the novel The Da Vinci Code and its film version of 2006 , both of which prominent Christians and non @-@ believers criticized as misleading , inaccurate and anti @-@ Catholic .
= = History = =
= = = Foundational period = = =
Opus Dei was founded by a Catholic priest , Josemaría Escrivá de Balaguer , on 2 October 1928 in Madrid , Spain . According to Escrivá , on that day he experienced a vision in which he " saw Opus Dei " . He gave the organization the name " Opus Dei " , which in Latin means " Work of God " , in order to underscore the belief that the organization was not his ( Escrivá 's ) work , but was rather God 's work . Throughout his life , Escrivá held that the founding of Opus Dei had a supernatural character . Escrivá summarized Opus Dei 's mission as a way of helping ordinary Christians " to understand that their life ... is a way of holiness and evangelization ... And to those who grasp this ideal of holiness , the Work offers the spiritual assistance and training they need to put it into practice . "
Initially , Opus Dei was open only to men , but in 1930 , Escrivá started to admit women , based on what he believed to be a communication from God . In 1936 , the organization suffered a temporary setback with the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War , as many Catholic priests and religious figures , including Escrivá , were forced into hiding ( the Catholic Church actively supported the Nationalist rebels ) . The many atrocities committed during the civil war included the murder and rape of religious figures by anti @-@ Franco Anarchists . After the civil war was won by General Francisco Franco , Escrivá was able to return to Madrid . Escriva himself recounted that it was in Spain where Opus Dei found " the greatest difficulties " because of traditionalists who he felt misunderstood Opus Dei 's ideas . Despite this , Opus Dei flourished during the years of the Franquismo , spreading first throughout Spain , and after 1945 , expanding internationally .
In 1939 , Escrivá published The Way , a collection of 999 maxims concerning spirituality for people involved in secular affairs . In the 1940s , Opus Dei found an early critic in the Jesuit Superior General Wlodimir Ledóchowski , who told the Vatican that he considered Opus Dei " very dangerous for the Church in Spain , " citing its " secretive character " and calling it " a form of Christian Masonry . "
In 1947 , a year after Escrivá moved the organization 's headquarters to Rome , Opus Dei received a decree of praise and approval from Pope Pius XII , making it an institute of " pontifical right " , i.e. under the direct governance of the Pope . In 1950 , Pius XII granted definitive approval to Opus Dei , thereby allowing married people to join the organisation , and secular clergy to be admitted to the Priestly Society of the Holy Cross .
= = = Post @-@ foundational years = = =
In 1975 , Escriva died and was succeeded by Álvaro del Portillo . In 1982 , Opus Dei was made into a personal prelature . This means that Opus Dei is part of the universal Church , and the apostolate of the members falls under the direct jurisdiction of the Prelate of Opus Dei wherever they are . As to " what the law lays down for all the ordinary faithful " , the lay members of Opus Dei , being no different from other Catholics , " continue to be ... under the jurisdiction of the diocesan bishop " , in the words of John Paul II 's Ut Sit . In 1994 , Javier Echevarria became Prelate upon the death of his predecessor .
One @-@ third of the world 's bishops sent letters petitioning for the canonization of Escrivá . Escriva was beatified in 1992 in the midst of controversy prompted by questions about Escriva 's suitability for sainthood . In 2002 , approximately 300 @,@ 000 people gathered in St. Peter 's Square on the day Pope John Paul II canonised Josemaría Escrivá . According to one author , " Escrivá is ... venerated by millions " .
There are other members whose process of beatification has been opened : Ernesto Cofiño , a father of five children and a pioneer in paediatric research in Guatemala ; Montserrat Grases , a teenage Catalan student who died of cancer ; Toni Zweifel , a Swiss engineer ; Tomás Alvira and wife , Paquita Domínguez , a Spanish married couple ; Isidoro Zorzano , an Argentinian engineer ; Dora del Hoyo , a domestic worker ; and Father José Luis Múzquiz de Miguel .
During the pontificate of John Paul II , two members of Opus Dei , Juan Luis Cipriani Thorne and Julián Herranz Casado , were made cardinals .
In September 2005 , Pope Benedict XVI blessed a newly installed statue of Josemaría Escrivá placed in an outside wall niche of St Peter 's Basilica , a place for founders of Catholic organisations .
During that same year , Opus Dei received some unwanted attention due to the extraordinary success of the novel The Da Vinci Code , in which both Opus Dei and the Catholic Church itself are depicted negatively . The film version was released globally in May 2006 , further polarising views on the organisation .
In 2014 , Pope Francis through a delegate beatified Alvaro del Portillo and said that " he teaches us that in the simplicity and ordinariness of our life we can find a sure path to holiness .
At the end of 2014 , the prelature has been established in 69 countries , while its members are present in 90 countries .
= = Spirituality = =
= = = Doctrine = = =
Opus Dei is an organisation of the Catholic Church . As such , it shares the doctrines of the Catholic Church and has " no other teaching than the teaching of the Magisterium of the Holy See " , as per the founder .
Opus Dei places special emphasis on certain aspects of Catholic doctrine . A central feature of Opus Dei 's theology is its focus on the lives of the ordinary Catholics who are neither priests nor monks . Opus Dei emphasises the " universal call to holiness " : the belief that everyone should aspire to be a saint , as per Jesus ' commandment to " Love God with all your heart " ( Matthew 22 : 37 ) and " Be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect . " ( Matthew 5 : 48 ) Opus Dei also teaches that sanctity is within the reach of everyone , not just a few special individuals , given Jesus ' teaching that his demands are " easy " and " light , " as his divine assistance is assured . ( Matthew 11 : 28 – 30 )
Opus Dei does not have monks or nuns , and only a minority of its members are priests . Opus Dei emphasizes uniting spiritual life with professional , social , and family life . Members of Opus Dei lead ordinary lives , with traditional families and secular careers , and strive to " sanctify ordinary life " . Indeed , Pope John Paul II called Escrivá " the saint of ordinary life " .
Similarly , Opus Dei stresses the importance of work and professional competence . While some religious institutes encourage their members to withdraw from the material world , Opus Dei exhorts its members and all lay Catholics to " find God in daily life " and to perform their work excellently as a service to society and as a fitting offering to God . Opus Dei teaches that work not only contributes to social progress but is " a path to holiness " , and its founder advised people to : " Sanctify your work . Sanctify yourself in your work . Sanctify others through your work . "
The biblical roots of this Catholic doctrine , according to the founder , are in the phrase " God created man to work " ( Gen 2 : 15 ) and Jesus 's long life as an ordinary carpenter in a small town . Escrivá , who stressed the Christian 's duty to follow Christ 's example , also points to the gospel account that Jesus " has done everything well " ( Mk 7 : 37 ) .
The foundation of the Christian life , stressed Escrivá , is divine filiation : Christians are children of God , identified with Christ 's life and mission . Other main features of Opus Dei , according to its official literature , are : freedom , respecting choice and taking personal responsibility ; and charity , love of God above all and love of others .
At the bottom of Escrivá 's understanding of the " universal call to holiness " are two dimensions , subjective and objective , according to Fernando Ocariz , a Catholic theologian and Vicar General of Opus Dei . The subjective is the call given to each person to become a saint , regardless of his place in society . The objective refers to what Escrivá calls Christian materialism : all of creation , even the most material situation , is a meeting place with God , and leads to union with Him .
Different qualifiers have been used to describe Opus Dei 's doctrine : radical , reactionary , faithful , revolutionary , ultraconservative , most modern , conservative. and liberal .
= = = Prayers = = =
All members – whether married or unmarried , priests or laypeople – are trained to follow a ' plan of life ' , or ' the norms of piety ' , which are some traditional Catholic devotions . This is meant to follow the teaching of the Catholic Catechism : " pray at specific times ... to nourish continual prayer , " which in turn is based on Jesus ' " pray at all times " ( Luke 18 : 1 ) , echoed by St. Paul 's " pray without ceasing " ( 1 Thessalonians 5 : 17 ) . According to Escriva , the vocation to Opus Dei is a calling to be a " contemplative in the middle of the world , " who converts work and daily life into prayer .
Daily norms :
Heroic minute , waking up punctually and saying " Serviam ! " ( Latin : I will serve )
Morning offering , fixing one 's intentions to do everything for the glory of God
Spiritual reading and reading the New Testament , a practice recommended by St. Paul and other saints
Mental prayer , conversation with God
Mass , Communion and Thanksgiving after Comm | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
[ Dead or Alive ] keeps its breasts in context . " MSNBC described her attire as " the pinnacle of preposterous " , noting that while it revolved around her femme fatale design , it appeared physically painful and made little sense to wear into combat . Former GameSpot editor Jeff Gerstmann described the alterations to her appearance for Soulcalibur IV as unnecessary , stating " boobs are awesome , but there 's a line . Ivy is over this line . " GamesRadar content editor David Houghton described her alongside similar characters as " festering adolescent wank @-@ fantasies " , adding directly regarding Ivy " [ t ] his is not female empowerment " . The subject was later brought up again at the 2011 PAX East convention , in which an all @-@ female journal panel led by The Escapist 's Susan Arendt agreed that while the character was strong and difficult but rewarding to master in the original Soulcalibur , she was reduced to " a nice ass bouncing around the room " in later games .
In contrast , British magazine CVG cited her appearance in Soulcalibur IV as appealing , stating " Ivy ... we like because she barely wears anything . Yes , we like videogame girls . " IGN in their " Babes of Soulcalibur " article noted that while her outfit pushed the line even by game standards , they had no actual complaint towards that aspect of the character . Team Xbox emphasized that while her appearance played a factor in her allure , her fighting skills and unique weapon were significant as well , adding that " Ivy never disappoints in a swordfight " . Leigh Alexander in an article for GameSetWatch noted that while characters such as Samus Aran served as " bastions of dignity " , characters such as Ivy filled an important role in video games too , stating " [ i ] t looks like Ivy ’ s back is set to snap – but she ’ s a game character ; she ’ ll be fine . Why not just enjoy it ? " The Escapist noted that the character 's behavior and sex appeal defined the character rather than serving as an extraneous aspect , stating " Ivy 's oversexed dominatrix demeanor perfectly compliments her confident , punishing move set . " UGO.com repeated the sentiment , noting in their " Top 11 Girls of Gaming " article " Soul Calibur 's mega @-@ bombastic whip @-@ wielding hottie isn 't the only babe in the game , or even the best @-@ endowed ... but her combination of sultry moves and revealing outfits shoots her up the charts . " In an examination of feminist viewpoints regarding women in gaming , comedian and writer Liana Kerzner cited Ivy as an example of misperception of an empowered female character , noting that when compared to characters such as Wonder Woman the latter was considered a positive character for being " empowered " despite sharing similar exposing outfits and physical builds . She further went on to state that the character was interesting for having " to fight her own flawed battle with no help from anyone " , and that women passionate about gaming had more in common with the character : " aggressive , intimidating , combative , and scrabbling through life by sheer will , armed with homemade weapons " .
= Rudd Concession =
The Rudd Concession , a written concession for exclusive mining rights in Matabeleland , Mashonaland and other adjoining territories , was granted by King Lobengula of Matabeleland to Charles Rudd , James Rochfort Maguire and Francis Thompson , three agents acting on behalf of the South African @-@ based politician and businessman Cecil Rhodes , on 30 October 1888 . Despite Lobengula 's retrospective attempts to disavow it , it proved the foundation for the royal charter granted by the United Kingdom to Rhodes 's British South Africa Company in October 1889 , and thereafter for the Pioneer Column 's occupation of Mashonaland in 1890 , which marked the beginning of white settlement , administration and development in the country that eventually became Rhodesia , named after Rhodes , in 1895 .
Rhodes 's pursuit of the exclusive mining rights in Matabeleland , Mashonaland and the surrounding areas was motivated by his wish to annex them into the British Empire as part of his personal ambition for a Cape to Cairo Railway — winning the concession would enable him to gain a royal charter from the British government for a chartered company , empowered to annex and thereafter govern the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed on Britain 's behalf . He laid the groundwork for concession negotiations during early 1888 by arranging a treaty of friendship between the British and Matabele peoples and then sent Rudd 's team from South Africa to obtain the rights . Rudd succeeded following a race to the Matabele capital Bulawayo against Edward Arthur Maund , a bidding rival employed by a London @-@ based syndicate , and long negotiations with the king and his council of izinDuna ( tribal leaders ) .
The concession conferred on the grantees the sole rights to mine throughout Lobengula 's country , as well as the power to defend this exclusivity by force , in return for weapons and a regular monetary stipend . Starting in early 1889 , the king repeatedly tried to disavow the document on the grounds of alleged deceit by the concessionaires regarding the settled terms ; he insisted that restrictions on the grantees ' activities had been agreed orally , and apparently considered these part of the contract even though the written text had been translated and repeatedly explained to him just before he signed it . He attempted to persuade the British government to deem the concession invalid , among other things sending emissaries to meet Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle , but these efforts were unsuccessful .
After Rhodes and the London consortium agreed to pool their interests , Rhodes travelled to London , arriving in March 1889 . His amalgamated charter bid gathered great political and popular support over the next few months , prompting the Prime Minister Lord Salisbury to approve the royal charter , which was formally granted in October 1889 . The Company occupied and annexed Mashonaland about a year later . Attempting to create a rival for the Rudd Concession , Lobengula granted similar rights to the German businessman Eduard Lippert in 1891 , but Rhodes promptly acquired this concession as well . Company troops conquered Matabeleland during the First Matabele War of 1893 – 94 , and Lobengula died from smallpox in exile soon after .
= = Background = =
During the 1810s , the Zulu Kingdom was established in southern Africa by the warrior king Shaka , who united a number of rival clans into a centralised monarchy . Among the Zulu Kingdom 's main leaders and military commanders was Mzilikazi , who enjoyed high royal favour for a time , but ultimately provoked the king 's wrath by repeatedly offending him . When Shaka forced Mzilikazi and his followers to leave the country in 1823 , they moved north @-@ west to the Transvaal , where they became known as the Ndebele or " Matabele " — both names mean " men of the long shields " . Amid the period of war and chaos locally called mfecane ( " the crushing " ) , the Matabele quickly became the region 's dominant tribe . In 1836 , they negotiated a peace treaty with Sir Benjamin d 'Urban , Governor of the British Cape Colony , but the same year Boer Voortrekkers moved to the area , during their Great Trek away from British rule in the Cape . These new arrivals soon toppled Mzilikazi 's domination of the Transvaal , compelling him to lead another migration north in 1838 . Crossing the Limpopo River , the Matabele settled in the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed 's south @-@ west ; this area has since been called Matabeleland .
Matabele culture mirrored that of the Zulus in many aspects . The Matabele language , Sindebele , was largely based on Zulu — and just like Zululand , Matabeleland had a strong martial tradition . Matabele men went through a Spartan upbringing , designed to produce disciplined warriors , and military organisation largely dictated the distribution of administrative responsibilities . The inkosi ( king ) appointed a number of izinDuna ( or indunas ) , who acted as tribal leaders in both military and civilian matters . Like the Zulus , the Matabele referred to a regiment of warriors as an impi . The Mashona people , who had inhabited the north @-@ east of the region for centuries , greatly outnumbered the Matabele , but were weaker militarily , and so to a large degree entered a state of tributary submission to them . Mzilikazi agreed to two treaties with the Transvaal Boers in 1853 , first with Hendrik Potgieter ( who died shortly before negotiations ended ) , then with Andries Pretorius ; the first of these , which did not bear Mzilikazi 's own mark , purported to make Matabeleland a virtual Transvaal protectorate , while the second , which was more properly enacted , comprised a more equal peace agreement .
After Mzilikazi died in 1868 , his son Lobengula replaced him in 1870 , following a brief succession struggle . Tall and well built , Lobengula was generally considered thoughtful and sensible , even by contemporary Western accounts ; according to the South African big @-@ game hunter Frederick Hugh Barber , who met him in 1875 , he was witty , mentally sharp and authoritative — " every inch a king " . Based at his royal kraal at Bulawayo , Lobengula was at first open to Western enterprises in his country , adopting Western @-@ style clothing and granting mining concessions and hunting licences to white visitors in return for pounds sterling , weapons and ammunition . Because of the king 's illiteracy , these documents were prepared in English or Dutch by whites who took up residence at his kraal ; to ascertain that what was written genuinely reflected what he had said , Lobengula would have his words translated and transcribed by one of the whites , then later translated back by another . Once the king was satisfied of the written translation 's veracity , he would sign his mark , affix the royal seal ( which depicted an elephant ) , and then have the document signed and witnessed by a number of white men , at least one of whom would also write an endorsement of the proclamation .
For unclear reasons , Lobengula 's attitude towards foreigners reversed sharply during the late 1870s . He discarded his Western clothes in favour of more traditional animal @-@ skin garments , stopped supporting trading enterprises , and began to restrict the movement of whites into and around his country . However , the whites kept coming , particularly after the discovery in 1886 of gold deposits in the South African Republic ( or Transvaal ) , which prompted the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the founding of Johannesburg . After rumours spread among the Witwatersrand ( or Rand ) prospectors of even richer tracts , " a second Rand " , north of the Limpopo , the miners began to trek north to seek concessions from Lobengula that would allow them to search for gold in Matabeleland and Mashonaland . These efforts were mostly in vain . Apart from the Tati Concession , which covered a small strip of land on the border with the Bechuanaland Protectorate where miners had operated since 1868 , mining operations in the watershed remained few and far between .
The foremost business and political figure in southern Africa at this time was Cecil Rhodes , a vicar 's son who had arrived from England in 1870 , aged 17 . Since entering the diamond trade at Kimberley in 1871 , Rhodes had gained near @-@ complete domination of the world diamond market with the help of Charles Rudd , Alfred Beit and other business associates , as well as the generous financial backing of Nathan Mayer Rothschild . Rhodes was also a member of the Cape Parliament , having been elected in 1881 . Amid the European Scramble for Africa , he envisioned the annexation to the British Empire of territories that would connect the Cape , at Africa 's southern tip , with Cairo , the Egyptian city at the northern end of the continent , and allow for the construction of a railway linking the two . This ambition was directly challenged in the south by the presence of the Boer republics and , just to the north of them , Lobengula 's domains . The fact that the Zambezi – Limpopo region did not fall into any of the " spheres of influence " defined at the 1884 – 85 Berlin Conference further complicated matters ; the Transvaalers , Germans and Portuguese were all also showing interest in the area , much to the annoyance of both Lobengula and Rhodes .
= = Prelude : the Moffat treaty = =
Rhodes began advocating the annexation by Britain of Matabeleland and Mashonaland in 1887 by applying pressure to a number of senior colonial officials , most prominently the High Commissioner for Southern Africa , Sir Hercules Robinson , and Sidney Shippard , Britain 's administrator in the Bechuanaland Crown colony ( comprising that country 's southern part ) . Shippard , an old friend of Rhodes , was soon won over to the idea , and in May 1887 the administrator wrote to Robinson strongly endorsing annexation of the territories , particularly Mashonaland , which he described as " beyond comparison the most valuable country south of the Zambezi " . It was the Boers , however , who were first to achieve diplomatic successes with Lobengula . Pieter Grobler secured a treaty of " renewal of friendship " between Matabeleland and the South African Republic in July 1887 . The same month , Robinson organised the appointment of John Smith Moffat , a locally born missionary , as assistant commissioner in Bechuanaland . Moffat , well @-@ known to Lobengula , was given this position in the hope that he might make the king less cordial with the Boers and more pro @-@ British .
In September 1887 , Robinson wrote to Lobengula , through Moffat , urging the king not to grant concessions of any kind to Transvaal , German or Portuguese agents without first consulting the missionary . Moffat reached Bulawayo on 29 November to find Grobler still there . Because the exact text of the Grobler treaty had not been released publicly , it was unclear to outside observers precisely what had been agreed with Lobengula in July ; in the uncertainty , newspapers in South Africa were reporting that the treaty had made Matabeleland a protectorate of the South African Republic . Moffat made enquiries in Bulawayo . Grobler denied the newspaper reports of a Transvaal protectorate over Lobengula 's country , while the king said that an agreement did exist , but that it was a renewal of the Pretorius peace treaty and nothing more .
In Pretoria , in early December , another British agent met Paul Kruger , the President of the South African Republic , who reportedly said that his government now regarded Matabeleland as under Transvaal " protection and sovereignty " , and that one of the clauses of the Grobler treaty had been that Lobengula could not " grant any concessions or make any contact with anybody whatsoever " without Pretoria 's approval . Meeting at Grahamstown on Christmas Day , Rhodes , Shippard and Robinson agreed to instruct Moffat to investigate the matter with Lobengula and to secure a copy of the Grobler treaty for further clarification , as well as to arrange a formal Anglo @-@ Matabele treaty , which would have provisions included to prevent Lobengula from making any more agreements with foreign powers other than Britain .
Lobengula was alarmed by how some were perceiving his dealings with Grobler , and so was reluctant to sign any more agreements with foreigners . Despite his familiarity with Moffat , the king did not consider him above suspicion , and he was dubious about placing himself firmly in the British camp ; as Moffat said of the Matabele leadership in general , " they may like us better , but they fear the Boers more " . Moffat 's negotiations with the king and izinDuna were therefore very long and uneasy . The missionary presented the proposed British treaty as an offer to renew that enacted by d 'Urban and Mzilikazi in 1836 . He told the Matabele that the Boers were misleading them , that Pretoria 's interpretation of the Grobler treaty differed greatly from their own , and that the British proposal served Matabele interests better in any case . On 11 February 1888 , Lobengula agreed and placed his mark and seal at the foot of the agreement . The document proclaimed that the Matabele and British were now at peace , that Lobengula would not enter any kind of diplomatic correspondence with any country apart from Britain , and that the king would not " sell , alienate or cede " any part of Matabeleland or Mashonaland to anybody .
The document was unilateral in form , describing only what Lobengula would do to prevent any of these conditions being broken . Shippard was dubious about this and the fact that none of the izinDuna had signed the proclamation , and asked Robinson if it would be advisable to negotiate another treaty . Robinson replied in the negative , reasoning that reopening talks with Lobengula so soon would only make him suspicious . Britain 's ministers at Whitehall perceived the unilateral character of the treaty as advantageous for Britain , as it did not commit Her Majesty 's Government to any particular course of action . Lord Salisbury , the British Prime Minister , ruled that Moffat 's treaty trumped Grobler 's , despite being signed at a later date , because the London Convention of 1884 precluded the South African Republic from making treaties with any state apart from the Orange Free State ; treaties with " native tribes " north of the Limpopo were permitted , but the Prime Minister claimed that Matabeleland was too cohesively organised to be regarded as a mere tribe , and should instead be considered a nation . He concluded from this reasoning that the Grobler treaty was ultra vires and legally meaningless . Whitehall soon gave Robinson permission to ratify the Moffat agreement , which was announced to the public in Cape Town on 25 April 1888 .
For Rhodes , the agreement Moffat had made with Lobengula was crucial as it bought time that allowed him to devote the necessary attention to the final amalgamation of the South African diamond interests . A possible way out of the situation for Lobengula was to lead another Matabele migration across the Zambezi , but Rhodes hoped to keep the king where he was for the moment as a buffer against Boer expansion . In March 1888 , Rhodes bought out the company of his last competitor , the circus showman turned diamond millionaire Barney Barnato , to form De Beers Consolidated Mines , a sprawling national monopoly that controlled 90 % of world diamond production . Barnato wanted to limit De Beers to mining diamonds , but Rhodes insisted that he was going to use the company to " win the north " : to this end , he ensured that the De Beers trust deed enabled activities far removed from mining , including banking and railway @-@ building , the ability to annex and govern land , and the raising of armed forces . All this gave the immensely wealthy company powers not unlike those of the East India Company , which had governed India on Britain 's behalf from 1757 to 1857 . Through De Beers and Gold Fields of South Africa , the gold @-@ mining firm he had recently started with Charles Rudd , Rhodes had both the capacity and the financial means to make his dream of an African empire a reality , but to make such ambitions practicable , he would first have to acquire a royal charter empowering him to take personal control of the relevant territories on Britain 's behalf . To secure this royal charter , he would need to present Whitehall with a concession , signed by a native ruler , granting to Rhodes the exclusive mining rights in the lands he hoped to annex .
= = Concession = =
= = = Race to Bulawayo = = =
Rhodes faced competition for the Matabeleland mining concession from George Cawston and Lord Gifford , two London financiers . They appointed as their agent Edward Arthur Maund , who had served with Sir Charles Warren in Bechuanaland between 1884 and 1885 , towards the end of this time visiting Lobengula as an official British envoy . Cawston and Gifford 's base in England gave them the advantage of being better connected with Whitehall , while Rhodes 's location in the Cape allowed him to see the situation with his own eyes . He also possessed formidable financial capital and closer links with the relevant colonial administrators . In May 1888 , Cawston and Gifford wrote to Lord Knutsford , the British Colonial Secretary , seeking his approval for their designs .
The urgency of negotiating a concession was made clear to Rhodes during a visit to London in June 1888 , when he learned of the London syndicate 's letter to Knutsford , and of their appointment of Maund . Rhodes now understood that the Matabeleland concession could still go elsewhere if he did not secure the document quickly . " Someone has to get the country , and I think we should have the best chance , " Rhodes told Rothschild ; " I have always been afraid of the difficulty of dealing with the Matabele king . He is the only block to central Africa , as , once we have his territory , the rest is easy ... the rest is simply a village system with separate headmen ... I have faith in the country , and Africa is on the move . I think it is a second Cinderella . "
Rhodes and Beit put Rudd at the head of their new negotiating team because of his extensive experience negotiating the purchase of Boers ' farms for gold prospecting . Because Rudd knew little of indigenous African customs and languages , Rhodes added Francis " Matabele " Thompson , an employee of his who had for years run the reserves and compounds that housed the black labourers at the diamond fields . Thompson was fluent in Setswana , the language of the Tswana people to Lobengula 's south @-@ west , and therefore could communicate directly and articulately with the king , who also knew the language . James Rochfort Maguire , an Irish barrister whom Rhodes had known at Oxford , was recruited as a third member .
Many analysts find the inclusion of the cultured , metropolitan Maguire puzzling — it is often suggested that he was brought along so he could couch the document in the elaborate legal language of the English bar , and thus make it unchallengeable , but as the historian John Galbraith comments , the kind of agreement that was required was hardly complicated enough to merit the considerable expense and inconvenience of bringing Maguire along . In his biography of Rhodes , Robert I Rotberg suggests that he may have intended Maguire to lend Rudd 's expedition " a touch of culture and class " , in the hope that this might impress Lobengula and rival would @-@ be concessionaires . One of the advantages held by the London syndicate was the societal prestige of Gifford in particular , and Rhodes hoped to counter this through Maguire . Rudd 's party ultimately comprised himself , Thompson , Maguire , J G Dreyer ( their Dutch wagon driver ) , a fifth white man , a Cape Coloured , an African American and two black servants .
Maund arrived in Cape Town in late June 1888 and attempted to gain Robinson 's approval for the Cawston – Gifford bid . Robinson was reserved in his answers , saying that he supported the development of Matabeleland by a company with this kind of backing , but did not feel he could commit to endorsing Cawston and Gifford exclusively while there remained other potential concessionaires , most prominently Rhodes — certainly not without unequivocal instructions from Whitehall . While Rudd 's party gathered and prepared in Kimberley , Maund travelled north , and reached the diamond mines at the start of July . On 14 July , in Bulawayo , agents representing a consortium headed by the South African @-@ based entrepreneur Thomas Leask received a mining concession from Lobengula , covering all of his country , and pledging half of the proceeds to the king . When he learned of this latter condition Leask was distraught , saying the concession was " commercially valueless " . Moffat pointed out to Leask that his group did not have the resources to act on the concession anyway , and that both Rhodes and the London syndicate did ; at Moffat 's suggestion , Leask decided to wait and sell his concession to whichever big business group gained a new agreement from Lobengula . Neither Rhodes 's group , the Cawston – Gifford consortium nor the British colonial officials immediately learned of the Leask concession .
In early July 1888 , Rhodes returned from London and met with Robinson , proposing the establishment of a chartered company to govern and develop south @-@ central Africa , with himself at its head , and similar powers to the British North Borneo , Imperial British East Africa and Royal Niger Companies . Rhodes said that this company would take control of those parts of Matabeleland and Mashonaland " not in use " by the local people , demarcate reserved areas for the indigenous population , and thereafter defend both , while developing the lands not reserved for natives . In this way , he concluded , Matabele and Mashona interests would be protected , and south @-@ central Africa would be developed , all without a penny from Her Majesty 's Treasury . Robinson wrote to Knutsford on 21 July that he thought Whitehall should back this idea ; he surmised that the Boers would receive British expansion into the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed better if it came in the form of a chartered company than if it occurred with the creation of a new Crown colony . He furthermore wrote a letter for Rudd 's party to carry to Bulawayo , recommending Rudd and his companions to Lobengula .
Maund left Kimberley in July , well ahead of the Rudd party . Rudd 's negotiating team , armed with Robinson 's endorsement , was still far from ready — they left Kimberley only on 15 August — but Moffat , travelling from Shoshong in Bechuanaland , was ahead of both expeditions . He reached Bulawayo in late August to find the kraal filled with white concession @-@ hunters . The various bidders attempted to woo the king with a series of gifts and favours , but won little to show for it .
Between Kimberley and Mafeking , Maund learned from Shippard that Grobler had been killed by a group of Ngwato warriors while returning to the Transvaal , and that the Boers were threatening to attack the British @-@ protected Ngwato chief , Khama III , in response . Maund volunteered to help defend Khama , writing a letter to his employers explaining that doing so might lay the foundations for a concession from Khama covering territory that the Matabele and Ngwato disputed . Cawston tersely wrote back with orders to make for Bulawayo without delay , but over a month had passed in the time this written exchange required , and Maund had squandered his head start on Rudd . After ignoring a notice Lobengula had posted at Tati , barring entry to white big @-@ game hunters and concession @-@ seekers , the Rudd party arrived at the king 's kraal on 21 September 1888 , three weeks ahead of Maund .
= = = Negotiations = = =
Rudd , Thompson and Maguire immediately went to present themselves to Lobengula , who came out from his private quarters without hesitation and politely greeted the visitors . Through a Sindebele interpreter , Rudd introduced himself and the others , explained on whose behalf they acted , said they had come for an amiable sojourn , and presented the king with a gift of £ 100 .
After the subject of business was eschewed for a few days , Thompson explained to the king in Setswana what he and his confederates had come to talk about . He said that his backers , unlike the Transvaalers , were not seeking land , but only wanted to mine gold in the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed . During the following weeks , talks took place sporadically . Moffat , who had remained in Bulawayo , was occasionally called upon by the king for advice , prompting the missionary to subtly assist Rudd 's team through his counsel . He urged Lobengula to work alongside one large entity rather than many small concerns , telling him that this would make the issue easier for him to manage . He then informed the king that Shippard was going to pay an official visit during October , and advised him not to make a decision until after this was over .
Accompanied by Sir Hamilton Goold @-@ Adams and 16 policemen , Shippard arrived in mid @-@ October 1888 . The king suspended concession negotiations in favour of meetings with him . The colonial official told the king that the Boers were hungry for more land and intended to overrun his country before too long ; he also championed Rudd 's cause , telling Lobengula that Rudd 's team acted on behalf of a powerful , financially formidable organisation supported by Queen Victoria . Meanwhile , Rhodes sent a number of letters to Rudd , warning him that Maund was his main rival , and that because the London syndicate 's goals overlapped so closely with their own , it was essential that Cawston and Gifford be defeated or else brought into the Rhodes camp . Regarding Lobengula , Rhodes advised Rudd to make the king think that the concession would work for him . " Offer a steamboat on the Zambezi same as [ Henry Morton ] Stanley put on the Upper Congo ... Stick to Home Rule and Matabeleland for the Matabele [ , ] I am sure it is the ticket . "
As October passed without major headway , Rudd grew anxious to return to the Witswatersrand gold mines , but Rhodes insisted that he could not leave Bulawayo without the concession . " You must not leave a vacuum , " Rhodes instructed . " Leave Thompson and Maguire if necessary or wait until I can join ... if we get anything we must always have someone resident " . Thus prevented from leaving , Rudd vigorously tried to persuade Lobengula to enter direct negotiations with him over a concession , but was repeatedly rebuffed . The king only agreed to look at the draft document , mostly written by Rudd , just before Shippard was due to leave in late October . At this meeting , Lobengula discussed the terms with Rudd for over an hour . Charles Helm , a missionary based in the vicinity , was summoned by the king to act as an interpreter . According to Helm , Rudd made a number of oral promises to Lobengula that were not in the written document , including " that they would not bring more than 10 white men to work in his country , that they would not dig anywhere near towns , etc . , and that they and their people would abide by the laws of his country and in fact be his people . "
After these talks with Rudd , Lobengula called an indaba ( conference ) of over 100 izinDuna to present the proposed concession terms to them and gauge their sympathies . It soon became clear that opinion was split : most of the younger izinDuna were opposed to the idea of any concession whatsoever , while the king himself and many of his older izinDuna were open to considering Rudd 's bid . The idea of a mining monopoly in the hands of Rudd 's powerful backers was attractive to the Matabele in some ways , as it would end the incessant propositioning for concessions by small @-@ time prospectors , but there was also a case for allowing competition to continue , so that the rival miners would have to compete for Lobengula 's favour .
For many at the indaba , the most pressing motivator was Matabeleland 's security . While Lobengula considered the Transvaalers more formidable battlefield adversaries than the British , he understood that Britain was more prominent on the world stage , and while the Boers wanted land , Rudd 's party claimed to be interested only in mining and trading . Lobengula reasoned that if he accepted Rudd 's proposals , he would keep his land , and the British would be obliged to protect him from incursions by the Boers .
Rudd was offering generous terms that few competitors could hope to even come close to . If Lobengula agreed , Rudd 's backers would furnish the king with 1 @,@ 000 Martini – Henry breech @-@ loading rifles , 100 @,@ 000 rounds of matching ammunition , a steamboat on the Zambezi ( or , if Lobengula preferred , a lump sum of £ 500 ) , and £ 100 a month in perpetuity . More impressive to the king than the financial aspects of this offer were the weapons : he had at the time between 600 and 800 rifles and carbines , but almost no ammunition for them . The proposed arrangement would lavishly stock his arsenal with both firearms and bullets , which might prove decisive in the event of conflict with the South African Republic . The weapons might also help him keep control of the more rambunctious factions amid his own impis . Lobengula had Helm go over the document with him several times , in great detail , to ensure that he properly understood what was written . None of Rudd 's alleged oral conditions were in the concession document , making them legally unenforceable ( presuming they indeed existed ) , but the king apparently regarded them as part of the proposed agreement nonetheless .
The final round of negotiations started at the royal kraal on the morning of 30 October . The talks took place at an indaba between the izinDuna and Rudd 's party ; the king himself did not attend , but was nearby . The izinDuna pressed Rudd and his companions as to where exactly they planned to mine , to which they replied that they wanted rights covering " the whole country " . When the izinDuna demurred , Thompson insisted , " No , we must have Mashonaland , and right up to the Zambezi as well — in fact , the whole country " . According to Thompson 's account , this provoked confusion among the izinDuna , who did not seem to know where these places were . " The Zambezi must be there " , said one , incorrectly pointing south ( rather than north ) . The Matabele representatives then prolonged the talks through " procrastination and displays of geographical ignorance " , in the phrase of the historian Arthur Keppel @-@ Jones , until Rudd and Thompson announced that they were done talking and rose to leave . The izinDuna were somewhat alarmed by this and asked the visitors to please stay and continue , which they did . It was then agreed that inDuna Lotshe and Thompson would together report the day 's progress to the king .
= = = Agreement = = =
After speaking with Lotshe and Thompson , the king was still hesitant to make a decision . Thompson appealed to Lobengula with a rhetorical question : " Who gives a man an assegai [ spear ] if he expects to be attacked by him afterwards ? " Seeing the allusion to the offered Martini – Henry rifles , Lobengula was swayed by this logic , and made up his mind to grant the concession . " Bring me the fly @-@ blown paper and I will sign it , " he said . Thompson briefly left the room to call Rudd , Maguire , Helm and Dreyer in , and they sat in a semi @-@ circle around the king . Lobengula then put his mark to the concession , which read :
Know all men by these presents , that whereas Charles Dunell Rudd , of Kimberley ; Rochfort Maguire , of London ; and Francis Robert Thompson , of Kimberley , hereinafter called the grantees , have covenanted and agreed , and do hereby covenant and agree , to pay to me , my heirs and successors , the sum of one hundred pounds sterling , British currency , on the first day of every lunar month ; and further , to deliver at my royal kraal one thousand Martini – Henry breech @-@ loading rifles , together with one hundred thousand rounds of suitable ball cartridge , five hundred of the said rifles and fifty thousand of the said cartridges to be ordered from England forthwith and delivered with reasonable despatch , and the remainder of the said rifles and cartridges to be delivered as soon as the said grantees shall have commenced to work mining machinery within my territory ; and further , to deliver on the Zambesi River a steamboat with guns suitable for defensive purposes upon the said river , or in lieu of the said steamboat , should I so elect , to pay to me the sum of five hundred pounds sterling , British currency . On the execution of these presents , I , Lobengula , King of Matabeleland , Mashonaland , and other adjoining territories , in exercise of my sovereign powers , and in the presence and with the consent of my council of indunas , do hereby grant and assign unto the said grantees , their heirs , representatives , and assigns , jointly and severally , the complete and exclusive charge over all metals and minerals situated and contained in my kingdoms , principalities , and dominions , together with full power to do all things that they may deem necessary to win and procure the same , and to hold , collect , and enjoy the profits and revenues , if any , derivable from the said metals and minerals , subject to the aforesaid payment ; and whereas I have been much molested of late by divers persons seeking and desiring to obtain grants and concessions of land and mining rights in my territories , I do hereby authorise the said grantees , their heirs , representatives and assigns , to take all necessary and lawful steps to exclude from my kingdom , principalities , and dominions all persons seeking land , metals , minerals , or mining rights therein , and I do hereby undertake to render them all such needful assistance as they may from time to time require for the exclusion of such persons , and to grant no concessions of land or mining rights from and after this date without their consent and concurrence ; provided that , if at any time the said monthly payment of one hundred pounds shall be in arrear for a period of three months , then this grant shall cease and determine from the date of the last @-@ made payment ; and further provided that nothing contained in these presents shall extend to or affect a grant made by me of certain mining rights in a portion of my territory south of the Ramaquaban River , which grant is commonly known as the Tati Concession .
As Lobengula inscribed his mark at the foot of the paper , Maguire turned to Thompson and said " Thompson , this is the epoch of our lives . " Once Rudd , Maguire and Thompson had signed the concession , Helm and Dreyer added their signatures as witnesses , and Helm wrote an endorsement beside the terms :
Lobengula refused to allow any of the izinDuna to sign the document . Exactly why he did this is not clear . Rudd 's interpretation was that the king considered them to have already been consulted at the day 's indaba , and so did not think it necessary for them to also sign . Keppel @-@ Jones comments that Lobengula might have felt that it would be harder to repudiate the document later if it bore the marks of his izinDuna alongside his own .
= = Validity dispute = =
= = = Announcement and reception = = =
Within hours , Rudd and Dreyer were hurrying south to present the document to Rhodes , travelling by mule cart , the fastest mode of transport available . Thompson and Maguire stayed in Bulawayo to defend the concession against potential challenges . Rudd reached Kimberley and Rhodes on 19 November 1888 , a mere 20 days after the document 's signing , and commented with great satisfaction that this marked a record that would surely not be broken until the railway was laid into the interior . Rhodes was elated by Rudd 's results , describing the concession as " so gigantic it is like giving a man the whole of Australia " . Both in high spirits , the pair travelled to Cape Town by train , and presented themselves to Robinson on 21 November .
Robinson was pleased to learn of Rudd 's success . The High Commissioner wanted to gazette the concession immediately , but Rhodes knew that the promise to arm Lobengula with 1 @,@ 000 Martini – Henrys would be received with apprehension elsewhere in South Africa , especially among Boers ; he suggested that this aspect of the concession should be kept quiet until the guns were already in Bechuanaland . Rudd therefore prepared a version of the document omitting mention of the Martini – Henrys , which was approved by Rhodes and Robinson , and published in the Cape Times and Cape Argus newspapers on 24 November 1888 . The altered version described the agreed price for the Zambezi – Limpopo mining monopoly as " the valuable consideration of a large monthly payment in cash , a gunboat for defensive purposes on the Zambesi , and other services . " Two days later , the Cape Times printed a notice from Lobengula :
But the king was already beginning to receive reports telling him that he had been hoodwinked into " selling his country " . Word abounded in Bulawayo that with the Rudd Concession ( as the document became called ) , Lobengula had signed away far more impressive rights than he had thought . Some of the Matabele began to question the king 's judgement . While the izinDuna looked on anxiously , Moffat questioned whether Lobengula would be able to keep control . Thompson was summoned by the izinDuna and interrogated for over 10 hours before being released ; according to Thompson , they were " prepared to suspect even the king himself " . Rumours spread among the kraal 's white residents of a freebooter force in the South African Republic that allegedly intended to invade and support Gambo , a prominent inDuna , in overthrowing and killing Lobengula . Horrified by these developments , Lobengula attempted to secure his position by deflecting blame . InDuna Lotshe , who had supported granting the concession , was condemned for having misled his king and executed , along with his extended family and followers — over 300 men , women and children in all . Meanwhile , Rhodes and Rudd returned to Kimberley , and Robinson wrote to the Colonial Office at Whitehall on 5 December 1888 to inform them of Rudd 's concession .
= = = Lobengula 's embassy = = =
While reassuring Thompson and Maguire that he was only repudiating the idea that he had given his country away , and not the concession itself ( which he told them would be respected ) , Lobengula asked Maund to accompany two of his izinDuna , Babayane and Mshete , to England , so they could meet Queen Victoria herself , officially to present to her a letter bemoaning Portuguese incursions on eastern Mashonaland , but also unofficially to seek counsel regarding the crisis at Bulawayo . The mission was furthermore motivated by the simple desire of Lobengula and his izinDuna to see if this white queen , whose name the British swore by , really existed . The king 's letter concluded with a request for the Queen to send a representative of her own to Bulawayo . Maund , who saw a second chance to secure his own concession , perhaps even at Rudd 's expense , said he was more than happy to assist , but Lobengula remained cautious with him : when Maund raised the subject of a new concession covering the Mazoe valley , the king replied " Take my men to England for me ; and when you return , then I will talk about that . " Johannes Colenbrander , a frontiersman from Natal , was recruited to accompany the Matabele emissaries as an interpreter . They left in mid @-@ December 1888 .
Around this time , a group of Austral Africa Company prospectors , led by Alfred Haggard , approached Lobengula 's south @-@ western border , hoping to gain their own Matabeleland mining concession ; on learning of this , the king honoured one of the terms of the Rudd Concession by allowing Maguire to go at the head of a Matabele impi to turn Haggard away . While Robinson 's letter to Knutsford made its way to England by sea , the Colonial Secretary learned of the Rudd Concession from Cawston and Gifford . Knutsford wired Robinson on 17 December to ask if there was any truth in what the London syndicate had told him about the agreed transfer of 1 @,@ 000 Martini – Henrys : " If rifles part of consideration , as reported , do you think there will be danger of complications arising from this ? " Robinson replied , again in writing ; he enclosed a minute from Shippard in which the Bechuanaland official explained how the concession had come about , and expressed the view that the Matabele were less experienced with rifles than with assegais , so their receipt of such weapons did not in itself make them lethally dangerous . He then argued that it would not be diplomatic to give Khama and other chiefs firearms while withholding them from Lobengula , and that a suitably armed Matabeleland might act as a deterrent against Boer interference .
Surprised by the news of a Matabele mission to London , Rhodes attempted to publicly downplay the credentials of the izinDuna and to stop them from leaving Africa . When the envoys reached Kimberley Rhodes told his close friend , associate and housemate Dr Leander Starr Jameson — who himself held the rank of inDuna , having been so honoured by Lobengula years before as thanks for medical treatment — to invite Maund to their cottage . Maund was suspicious , but came anyway . At the cottage , Rhodes offered Maund financial and professional incentives to defect from the London syndicate . Maund refused , prompting Rhodes to declare furiously that he would have Robinson stop his progress at Cape Town . The izinDuna reached Cape Town in mid @-@ January 1889 to find that it was as Rhodes had said ; to delay their departure , Robinson discredited them , Maund and Colenbrander in cables to the Colonial Office in London , saying that Shippard had described Maund as " mendacious " and " dangerous " , Colenbrander as " hopelessly unreliable " , and Babayane and Mshete as not actually izinDuna or even headmen . Cawston forlornly telegraphed Maund that it was pointless to try to go on while Robinson continued in this vein .
= = = Rhodes and the London syndicate join forces = = =
Rhodes then arrived in Cape Town to talk again with Maund . His mood was markedly different : after looking over Lobengula 's message to Queen Victoria , he said that he believed the Matabele expedition to England could actually buttress the concession and associated development plans if the London syndicate would agree to merge its interests with his own and form an amalgamated company alongside him . He told Maund to wire this pitch to his employers . Maund presumed that Rhodes 's shift in attitude had come about because of his own influence , coupled with the threat to Rhodes 's concession posed by the Matabele mission , but in fact the idea for uniting the two rival bids had come from Knutsford , who the previous month had suggested to Cawston and Gifford that they were likelier to gain a royal charter covering south @-@ central Africa if they joined forces with Rhodes . They had wired Rhodes , who had in turn come back to Maund . The unification , which extricated Rhodes and his London rivals from their long @-@ standing stalemate , was happily received by both sides ; Cawston and Gifford could now tap Rhodes 's considerable financial and political resources , and Rhodes 's Rudd Concession had greater value now the London consortium no longer challenged it .
There still remained the question of Leask 's concession , the existence of which Rudd 's negotiating team had learned in Bulawayo towards the end of October . Rhodes resolved that it must be acquired : " I quite see that worthless as [ Leask 's ] concession is , it logically destroys yours , " he told Rudd . This loose end was tied up in late January 1889 , when Rhodes met and settled with Leask and his associates , James Fairbairn and George Phillips , in Johannesburg . Leask was given £ 2 @,@ 000 in cash and a 10 % interest in the Rudd Concession , and allowed to retain a 10 % share in his own agreement with Lobengula . Fairbairn and Phillips were granted an annual allowance of £ 300 each . In Cape Town , with Rhodes 's opposition removed , Robinson altered his stance regarding the Matabele mission , cabling Whitehall that further investigation had shown Babayane and Mshete to be headmen after all , so they should be allowed to board ship for England .
= = = Lobengula 's enquiry = = =
Meanwhile , in Bulawayo , South African newspaper reports of the concession started to arrive in the middle of January 1889 . William Tainton , one of the local white residents , translated a press cutting for Lobengula , adding a few embellishments of his own : he told the king that he had sold his country , that the grantees could dig for minerals anywhere they liked , including in and around kraals , and that they could bring an army into Matabeleland to depose Lobengula in favour of a new chief . The king told Helm to read back and translate the copy of the concession that had remained in Bulawayo ; Helm did so , and pointed out that none of the allegations Tainton had made were actually reflected in the text . Lobengula then said he wished to dictate an announcement . After Helm refused , Tainton translated and transcribed the king 's words :
This notice was published in the Bechuanaland News and Malmani Chronicle on 2 February 1889 . A grand indaba of the izinDuna and the whites of Bulawayo was soon convened , but because Helm and Thompson were not present , the start of the investigation was delayed until 11 March . As in the negotiations with Rudd and Thompson in October , Lobengula did not himself attend , remaining close by but not interfering . The izinDuna questioned Helm and Thompson at great length , and various white men gave their opinions on the concession . A group of missionaries acted as mediators . Condemnation of the concession was led not by the izinDuna , but by the other whites , particularly Tainton .
Tainton and the other white opponents of the concession contended that the document conferred upon the grantees all of the watershed 's minerals , lands , wood and water , and was therefore tantamount to a purchase receipt for the whole country . Thompson , backed by the missionaries , insisted that the agreement only involved the extraction of metals and minerals , and that anything else the concessionaires might do was covered by the concession 's granting of " full power to do all things that they may deem necessary to win and procure " the mining yield . William Mzisi , a Fengu from the Cape , who had been to the diamond fields at Kimberley , pointed out that the mining would take thousands of men rather than the handful Lobengula had imagined , and argued that digging into the land amounted to taking possession of it : " You say you do not want any land , how can you dig for gold without it , is it not in the land ? " Thompson was then questioned as to where exactly it had been agreed that the concessionaires could mine ; he affirmed that the document licensed them to prospect and dig anywhere in the country .
Helm was painted as a suspicious figure by some of the izinDuna because all white visitors to Bulawayo met with him before seeing the king . This feeling was compounded by the fact that Helm had for some time acted as Lobengula 's postmaster , and so handled all mail coming into Bulawayo . He was accused of having hidden the concession 's true meaning from the king and of having knowingly sabotaged the prices being paid by traders for cattle , but neither of these charges could be proven either way . On the fourth day of the enquiry , Elliot and Rees , two missionaries based at Inyati , were asked if exclusive mining rights in other countries could be bought for similar sums , as Helm was claiming ; they replied in the negative . The izinDuna concluded that either Helm or the missionaries must be lying . Elliot and Rees attempted to convince Lobengula that honest men did not necessarily always hold the same opinions , but had little success .
Amid the enquiry , Thompson and Maguire received a number of threats and had to tolerate other more minor vexations . Maguire , unaccustomed to the African bush as he was , brought a number of accusations on himself through his personal habits . One day he happened to clean his false teeth in what the Matabele considered a sacred spring and accidentally dropped some eau de Cologne into it ; the angry locals interpreted this as him deliberately poisoning the spring . They also alleged that Maguire partook of witchcraft and spent his nights riding around the bush on a hyena .
Rhodes sent the first shipments of rifles up to Bechuanaland in January and February 1889 , sending 250 each month , and instructed Jameson , Dr Frederick Rutherfoord Harris and a Shoshong trader , George Musson , to convey them to Bulawayo . Lobengula had so far accepted the financial payments described in the Rudd Concession ( and continued to do so for years afterwards ) , but when the guns arrived in early April , he refused to take them . Jameson placed the weapons under a canvas cover in Maguire 's camp , stayed at the kraal for ten days , and then went back south with Maguire in tow , leaving the rifles behind . A few weeks later , Lobengula dictated a letter for Fairbairn to write to the Queen — he said he had never intended to sign away mineral rights and that he and his izinDuna revoked their recognition of the document .
= = = Babayane and Mshete in England = = =
Following their long delay , Babayane , Mshete , Maund and Colenbrander journeyed to England aboard the Moor . They disembarked at Southampton in early March 1889 , and travelled by train to London , where they checked into the Berners Hotel on Oxford Street . They were invited to Windsor Castle after two days in the capital . The audience was originally meant only for the two izinDuna and their interpreter — Maund could not attend such a meeting as he was a British subject — but Knutsford arranged an exception for Maund when Babayane and Mshete refused to go without him ; the Colonial Secretary said that it would be regrettable for all concerned if the embassy were derailed by such a technicality . The emissaries duly met the Queen and delivered the letter from Lobengula , as well as an oral message they had been told to pass on .
The izinDuna stayed in London throughout the month of March , attending a number of dinners in their honour , including one hosted by the Aborigines ' Protection Society . The Society sent a letter to Lobengula , advising him to be " wary and firm in resisting proposals that will not bring good to you and your people " . The diplomats saw many of the British capital 's sights , including London Zoo , the Alhambra Theatre and the Bank of England . Their hosts showed them the spear of the Zulu king Cetshwayo , which now hung on a wall at Windsor Castle , and took them to Aldershot to observe military manoeuvres conducted by Major @-@ General Evelyn Wood , the man who had given this spear to the Queen after routing the Zulus in 1879 . Knutsford held two more meetings with the izinDuna , and during the second of these gave them the Queen 's reply to Lobengula 's letter , which mostly comprised vague assurances of goodwill . Satisfied with this , the emissaries sailed for home .
= = = Rhodes wins the royal charter = = =
In late March 1889 , just as the izinDuna were about to leave London , Rhodes arrived to make the amalgamation with Cawston and Gifford official . To the amalgamators ' dismay , the Colonial Office had received protests against the Rudd Concession from a number of London businessmen and humanitarian societies , and had resolved that it could not sanction the concession because of its equivocal nature , as well as the fact that Lobengula had announced its suspension . Rhodes was originally angry with Maund , accusing him of responsibility for this , but eventually accepted that it was not Maund 's fault . Rhodes told Maund to go back to Bulawayo , to pose as an impartial adviser , and to try to sway the king back in favour of the concession ; as an added contingency , he told Maund to secure as many new subconcessions as he could .
In London , as the amalgamation was formalised , Rhodes and Cawston sought public members to sit on the board of their prospective chartered company . They recruited the Duke of Abercorn , an affluent Irish peer and landowner with estates in Donegal and Scotland , to chair the firm , and the Earl of Fife — soon to become the Duke of Fife , following his marriage to the daughter of the Prince of Wales — to act as his deputy . The third and final public member added to the board was the nephew and heir apparent of the erstwhile Cabinet minister Earl Grey , Albert Grey , who was a staunch imperialist , already associated with southern Africa . Attempting to ingratiate himself with Lord Salisbury , Rhodes then gave the position of standing counsel in the proposed company to the Prime Minister 's son , Lord Robert Cecil . Horace Farquhar , a prominent London financier and friend of the Prince of Wales , was added to the board at Fife 's suggestion later in the year .
Rhodes spent the next few months in London , seeking out supporters for his cause in the West End , the City and , occasionally , the rural estates of the landed gentry . These efforts yielded the public backing of the prominent imperialist Harry Johnston , Alexander Livingstone Bruce ( who sat on the board of the East Africa Company ) , and Lord Balfour of Burleigh , among others . Along with Grey 's active involvement and Lord Salisbury 's continuing favour , the weight of this opinion seemed to be reaping dividends for Rhodes by June 1889 . The amalgamation with the London syndicate was complete , and Whitehall appeared to have dropped its reservations regarding the Rudd Concession 's validity . Opposition to the charter in parliament and elsewhere had been for the most part silenced , and , with the help of Rhodes 's press contacts , prominently William Thomas Stead , editor of the Pall Mall Gazette , opinion in the media was starting to back the idea of a chartered company for south @-@ central Africa . But in June 1889 , just as the Colonial Office looked poised to grant the royal charter , Lobengula 's letter repudiating the Rudd Concession , written two months previously , arrived in London .
Maguire , in London , promptly wrote to the Colonial Office , casting doubt on the letter 's character on the grounds that it lacked the witnessing signature of an unbiased missionary . He concurrently wrote to Thompson , who was still in Bulawayo , to ask if there was any sign that the king had been misled during the repudiation letter 's drafting . Around the same time , Robinson 's strident attacks on parliamentary opponents of the Rudd Concession led to Lord Salisbury replacing him with Sir Henry Brougham Loch . Rhodes claimed not to be worried , telling Shippard in a letter that " the policy will not be altered " . Indeed , by the end of June 1889 , despite the removal of Robinson and the sensation caused by Lobengula 's letter rejecting the concession , Rhodes had got his way : Lord Salisbury 's concerns of Portuguese and German expansionism in Africa , coupled with Rhodes 's personal exertions in London , prompted the Prime Minister to approve the granting of a royal charter . Rhodes returned victorious to the Cape in August 1889 , while back in London Cawston oversaw the final preparations for the chartered company 's establishment .
" My part is done , " Rhodes wrote to Maund , soon after reaching Cape Town ; " the charter is granted supporting Rudd Concession and granting us the interior ... We have the whole thing recognised by the Queen and even if eventually we had any difficulty with king [ Lobengula ] the Home people would now always recognise us in possession of the minerals [ ; ] they quite understand that savage potentates frequently repudiate . " A few weeks later , he wrote to Maund again : with the royal charter in place , " whatever [ Lobengula ] does now will not affect the fact that when there is a white occupation of the country our concession will come into force provided the English and not Boers get the country " . On 29 October 1889 , nearly a year to the day after the signing of the Rudd Concession , Rhodes 's chartered company , the British South Africa Company , was officially granted its royal charter by Queen Victoria . The concession 's legitimacy was now safeguarded by the charter and , by extension , the British Crown , making it practically unassailable .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Occupation of Mashonaland = = =
Babayane and Mshete had arrived back in Bulawayo in August , accompanied by Maund , and Lobengula had immediately written again to Whitehall , reaffirming that " If the Queen hears that I have given away the whole country , it is not so . " But this letter only reached the Colonial Office in London in late October , too late to make a difference . Meanwhile , the British appointed an official resident in Bulawayo , as Lobengula had requested ; much to the king 's indignation , it was Moffat . Maund counselled Lobengula that the concession was legal beyond doubt and that he would just have to accept it . Lobengula rued the situation to Helm : " Did you ever see a chameleon catch a fly ? The chameleon gets behind the fly and remains motionless for some time , then he advances very slowly and gently , first putting forward one leg and then another . At last , when well within reach , he darts out his tongue and the fly disappears . England is the chameleon and I am that fly . "
The charter incorporating the British South Africa Company committed it to remaining " British in character and domicile " , and defined its area of operations extremely vaguely , mentioning only that it was empowered to operate north of Bechuanaland and the Transvaal , and west of Mozambique . Northern and western bounds were not indicated . This was done deliberately to allow Rhodes to acquire as much land as he could without interference . The Company was made responsible for the safeguarding of peace and law in its territory , and licensed to do so " in such ways and manners as it shall consider necessary " . It was vested with the power to raise its own police force , and charged with , among other things , abolishing slavery in all of its territories and restricting the sale of liquor to indigenous Africans . Local traditions were to be respected . The Company 's charter was otherwise made extremely equivocal with the intention that this would allow it to operate freely and independently , and to govern and develop its acquired territories while also turning a profit .
Rhodes capitalised the Company at £ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , split into £ 1 shares , and used his other business interests to pump capital into it . Rhodes 's diamond concern , De Beers , invested more than £ 200 @,@ 000 , while his gold firm , Gold Fields , put in nearly £ 100 @,@ 000 . He himself put in £ 45 @,@ 000 , along with another £ 11 @,@ 000 jointly with Beit . Overall , about half of the Chartered Company 's capital was held by its main actors , particularly Rhodes , Beit , Rudd and their confederates . During the Company 's early days , Rhodes and his associates set themselves up to make millions over the coming years through what Robert Blake describes as a " suppressio veri ... which must be regarded as one of Rhodes 's least creditable actions " . Contrary to what Whitehall and the public had been allowed to think , the Rudd Concession was not vested in the British South Africa Company , but in a short @-@ lived ancillary concern of Rhodes , Rudd and others called the Central Search Association , which was quietly formed in London in 1889 . This entity renamed itself the United Concessions Company in 1890 , and soon after sold the Rudd Concession to the Chartered Company for 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 shares . When Colonial Office functionaries discovered this chicanery in 1891 , they advised Knutsford to consider revoking the concession , but no action was taken .
Rhodes became Prime Minister of the Cape Colony in July 1890 on the back of widespread support among Cape Afrikaners . He announced that his first objective as premier was the occupation of the Zambezi – Limpopo watershed . His Chartered Company had by this time raised the Pioneer Column , a few hundred volunteers referred to as " pioneers " whose lot was to both occupy Mashonaland and begin its development . To this end its ranks were filled with men from all corners of southern African society , including , at Rhodes 's insistence , several sons of the Cape 's leading families . Each pioneer was promised 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 12 km2 ) of land and 15 mining claims in return for his service .
Lobengula impassively acquiesced to the expedition at the behest of his friend Jameson , much to the fury of many of the izinDuna , who saw the column 's march to Mashonaland as an appropriation of Matabele territory . Led by Major Frank Johnson and the famed hunter Frederick Courteney Selous , and escorted by 500 British South Africa Company 's Police under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Edward Pennefather , the pioneers skirted their way around Lobengula 's heartlands , heading north @-@ east from Bechuanaland and then north , and founded Fort Tuli , Fort Victoria and Fort Charter along the way . They stopped at the site of the future capital , Fort Salisbury ( named after the Prime Minister ) , on 12 September 1890 , and ceremonially raised the Union Jack the next morning .
The administration of Mashonaland did not immediately prove profitable for the Company or its investors , partly because of the costly police force , which Rhodes dramatically downsized in 1891 to save money . There also existed the problem of land ownership ; Britain recognised the Company 's subsoil rights in Mashonaland , but not its possession of the land itself , and the Company therefore could not grant titles to land or accept rents and other payments from farmers .
= = = Lippert concession = = =
Edward Renny @-@ Tailyour , representing the Hamburg businessman Eduard Lippert — an estranged cousin of Beit — had been attempting to gain a concession from Lobengula since early 1888 . Rhodes saw Lippert 's activities as unwelcome meddling and so repeatedly tried ( and failed ) to settle with him . In April 1891 , Renny @-@ Tailyour grandly announced that he and Lobengula had made an agreement : in return for £ 1 @,@ 000 up front and £ 500 annually , the king would bestow on Lippert the exclusive rights to manage lands , establish banks , mint money , and conduct trade in the territory of the Chartered Company . The authenticity of this document was disputed , largely because the only witnesses to have signed it , apart from inDuna Mshete , were Renny @-@ Tailyour 's associates , one of whom soon attested that Lobengula had believed himself to be granting a concession to Theophilus Shepstone 's son , " Offy " Shepstone , with Lippert merely acting as an agent . The Lippert concession therefore had a number of potential defects , but Lippert was still confident he could extract a princely fee for it from the Chartered Company ; he named his price as £ 250 @,@ 000 in cash or shares at par .
Rhodes , backed by Loch , initially condemned the Lippert concession as a fraud and branded Lippert 's locally based agents enemies of the peace . Loch assured Rhodes that if Lippert tried to gazette his agreement , he would issue a proclamation warning of its infringement on the Rudd Concession and the Company 's charter , and threaten Lippert 's associates with legal action . The Colonial Office agreed with Loch . Rhodes initially said that he would not pay Lippert 's price , which he described as blackmail , but after conferring with Beit decided that refusing to buy out Lippert might lead to drawn @-@ out and similarly expensive court proceedings , which they could not be sure of winning . Rhodes told Beit to start bargaining . Lippert 's agreement turned out to be an unexpected blessing for Rhodes in that it included a concession on land rights from Lobengula , which the Chartered Company itself lacked , and needed if it were to be recognised by Whitehall as legally owning the occupied territory in Mashonaland . After two months and a number of breakdowns in talks , Rudd took over the negotiations . He and Lippert agreed on 12 September 1891 that the Company would take over the concession from Lippert on the condition that he returned to Bulawayo and had it more properly formalised by Lobengula ; in return the Company would grant the German 75 square miles ( 190 km2 ) of his choice in Matabeleland ( with full land and mineral rights ) , 30 @,@ 000 shares in the Chartered Company and other financial incentives .
The success of this plan hinged on Lobengula continuing to believe that Lippert was acting against Rhodes rather than on his behalf . The religious Moffat was deeply troubled by what he called the " palpable immorality " of this deceit , but agreed not to interfere , deciding that Lobengula was just as untrustworthy as Lippert . With Moffat looking on as a witness , Lippert delivered his side of the deal in November 1891 , extracting from the Matabele king the exclusive land rights for a century in the Chartered Company 's operative territories , including permission to lay out farms and towns and to levy rents , in place of what had been agreed in April . As arranged , Lippert sold these rights to the Company , whereupon Loch approved the concession , expressing contentment at the solving of the Company 's land rights problem ; in an internal Whitehall memorandum , the Colonial Office affably remarked how expediently that administrative obstacle had been removed . The Matabele remained unaware of this subterfuge until May 1892 .
= = = Conquest of Matabeleland : the end of Lobengula = = =
Lobengula 's weakened Matabele kingdom uneasily coexisted with Rhodes 's Company settlements in Mashonaland and north of the Zambezi for about another year . The king was angered by the lack of respect he perceived Company officials to have towards his authority , their insistence that his kingdom was separated from Company territory by a line between the Shashe and Hunyani Rivers , and their demands that he stop the traditional raids on Mashona villages by Matabele impis . After Matabele warriors began slaughtering Mashonas near Fort Victoria in July 1893 , Jameson , whom Rhodes had appointed Company administrator in Mashonaland , unsuccessfully tried to stop the violence through an indaba . Lobengula complained that the Chartered Company had " come not only to dig the gold but to rob me of my people and country as well " . Monitoring events from Cape Town , Rhodes gauged Jameson 's readiness for war by telegraph : " Read Luke 14 : 31 " . Jameson wired back : " All right . Have read Luke 14 : 31 " .
On 13 August 1893 , Lobengula refused to accept the stipend due him under the terms of the Rudd Concession , saying " it is the price of my blood " . The next day , Jameson signed a secret agreement with local settlers at Fort Victoria , promising each man 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) of farm land , 20 gold claims and a share of Lobengula 's cattle in return for service in a war against Matabeleland . Lobengula wrote again to Queen Victoria , and tried to send Mshete to England again at the head of another embassy , but Loch detained the izinDuna at Cape Town for a few days , then sent them home . Following a few minor skirmishes , the First Matabele War started in earnest in October : Company troops moved on Lobengula , using the inexorable firepower of their Maxim machine guns to crush attacks by the far larger Matabele army . On 3 November , with the whites nearing Bulawayo , Lobengula torched the town and fled ; the settlers began rebuilding atop the ruins the next day . Jameson sent troops north from Bulawayo to bring the king back , but this column ceased its pursuit in early December after the remnants of Lobengula 's army ambushed and annihilated 34 troopers who were sent across the Shangani River ahead of the main force . Lobengula had escaped the Company , but he lived only another two months before dying from smallpox in the north of the country on 22 or 23 January 1894 .
Matabeleland was conquered . The Matabele izinDuna unanimously accepted peace with the Company at an indaba in late February 1894 . Rhodes subsequently funded education for three of Lobengula 's sons . The name applied to the Company 's domain by many of its early settlers , " Rhodesia " , was made official by the Company in May 1895 , and by Britain in 1898 . The lands south of the Zambezi were designated " Southern Rhodesia " , while those to the north were divided into North @-@ Western and North @-@ Eastern Rhodesia , which merged to form Northern Rhodesia in 1911 . During three decades under Company rule , railways , telegraph wires and roads were laid across the territories ' previously bare landscape with great vigour , and , with the immigration of tens of thousands of white colonists , prominent mining and tobacco farming industries were created , albeit partly at the expense of the black population 's traditional ways of life , which were varyingly disrupted by the introduction of Western @-@ style infrastructure , government , religion and economics . Southern Rhodesia , which attracted most of the settlers and investment , was turning a profit by 1912 ; Northern Rhodesia , by contrast , annually lost the Company millions right up to the 1920s . Following the results of the government referendum of 1922 , Southern Rhodesia received responsible government from Britain at the termination of the Company 's charter in 1923 , and became a self @-@ governing colony . Northern Rhodesia became a directly administered British protectorate the following year .
= 1920 Buffalo All @-@ Americans season =
The 1920 Buffalo All @-@ Americans season was the franchise 's inaugural season with the American Professional Football Association ( APFA ) , an American football league , and fifth total as a team . The All @-@ Americans entered 1920 coming off a 9 – 1 – 1 record in 1919 as the Buffalo Prospects in the New York Pro Football League ( NYPFL ) . Several representatives from another professional football league , the Ohio League , wanted to form a new national league , and thus the APFA was created .
Buffalo reshaped itself for the 1920 season . Only two players from the 1919 season stayed , and the team went into new management . Tommy Hughitt ( one of the returning players ) became the new coach , and Frank McNeil became the new owner . The All @-@ Americans opened the season with a 32 – 6 victory over the local semi @-@ pro team West Buffalo , en route to a 9 @-@ win , 1 – loss , 1 @-@ tie ( 9 – 1 – 1 ) record . Its only loss of the season was a 3 – 0 game against the Canton Bulldogs . A meeting was held by the officials of the APFA to determine a winner , with each coach having a vote . The All @-@ Americans stated their cases ; they believed they should deserve the championship trophy because they had the most wins and were undefeated against the Akron Pros and the Decatur Staleys . The officials , however , awarded the Brunswick @-@ Balke Collender Cup to the Akron Pros because they had a 1 @.@ 000 winning percentage . Had standings been counted as they are as of today , the All @-@ Americans would be co @-@ champions .
The sportswriter Bruce Copeland compiled the 1920 All @-@ Pro list , but no players from the All @-@ Americans were on it . That is because Copeland wrote for the Rock Island Argus and did not see any players from the easternmost teams in the league . As of 2012 , no player from the 1920 All @-@ Americans has been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame .
= = Offseason = =
In the 1919 season , the franchise was named the Buffalo Prospects , and finished with a 9 – 1 – 1 in the NYPFL . As a result , they won the New York Championship . After the 1919 season , the Prospects went under new management , and the name was changed to the All @-@ Americans . Tommy Hughitt became the coach , and several players from the 1919 squad left . Of the 33 players on the 1919 team , only Barney Lepper and Tommy Hughitt remained on the team for the 1920 season .
After the 1919 season , representatives of four Ohio League teams — the Canton Bulldogs , the Cleveland Tigers , the Dayton Triangles , and the Akron Pros — called a meeting on August 20 , 1920 to discuss the formation of a new league . At the meeting , they tentatively agreed on a salary cap and pledged not to sign college players or players already under contract with other teams . They also agreed on a name for the circuit : the American Professional Football Conference . They then invited other professional teams to a second meeting on September 17 .
At that meeting , held at Bulldogs owner Ralph Hay 's Hupmobile showroom in Canton , representatives of the Rock Island Independents , the Muncie Flyers , the Decatur Staleys , the Racine Cardinals , the Massillon Tigers , the Chicago Cardinals , and the Hammond Pros agreed to join the league . Representatives of the All @-@ Americans and Rochester Jeffersons could not attend the meeting , but sent letters to Hay asking to be included in the league . Team representatives changed the league 's name slightly to the American Professional Football Association and elected officers , installing Jim Thorpe as president . Under the new league structure , teams created their schedules dynamically as the season progressed , so there were no minimum or maximum number of games needed to be played . Also , representatives of each team voted to determine the winner of the APFA trophy .
= = Schedule = =
The table below was compiled using the information from The Pro Football Archives , which used various contemporary newspapers . A dagger ( ) indicated a non @-@ APFA team . For the results column , the winning team 's score is posted first . For the attendance , if a block has " N / A " , then that means there is an unknown figure for that game . The green @-@ colored cells indicates a win ; the yellow @-@ colored cells indicates a tie ; and the red @-@ colored cells indicate a loss .
= = Game summaries = =
= = = Week 2 : vs. West Buffalo = = =
October 3 , 1920 at Canisius Field
To open the season , the All @-@ Americans defeated the local , semi @-@ pro team West Buffalo . Running back John Weldon scored a rushing touchdown early in the first quarter . Quarterback Tommy Hughitt and Weldon added touchdowns in the second quarter to make the score 19 – 0 going into halftime . Hughitt scored from a yard out in the third quarter to make the score 25 – 0 . West Buffalo got on the scoreboard when Bob Langdon intercepted a Buffalo pass and ran it back 75 yards for a touchdown . This was West Buffalo 's only points scored their entire year . Buffalo finished off the scoring in the fourth quarter and won the game 32 – 6 .
= = = Week 3 : vs. All @-@ Buffalo = = =
October 10 , 1920 at Canisius Field
For their second game of the season , the All @-@ Americans played against another local team , the Buffalo All @-@ Buffalo . Once again , the All @-@ Americans shut out their opponents , winning 51 – 0 . In the first quarter , Weldon scored a rushing touchdown . In the second quarter , the All @-@ Americans scored three times : Running back Ockie Anderson returned a punt for a touchdown , Hughitt ran for a rushing touchdown , and Weldon caught a receiving touchdown from Hughitt . To start the second half , Anderson scored another rushing touchdown , and that was the only score of the third quarter . In the final quarter , Anderson kicked a 35 @-@ yard field goal . Also , defensive end Murray Shelton recovered a fumble and returned it for a touchdown . Hughitt 's rushing touchdown was the final score of the game .
= = = Week 4 : vs. McKeesport Olympics = = =
October 17 , 1920 at Canisius Field
The McKeesport Olympics , a team from McKeesport , Pennsylvania , was the All @-@ Americans next opponent . This game had to be played outside of Pennsylvania because of that state 's blue laws which disallowed football on Sundays . In fact , this was one of only two away games for the Olympics . Hughitt scored a rushing touchdown in the first quarter to start the game . In the second quarter , Hughitt threw a touchdown pass to offensive lineman Heinie Miller to bring the All @-@ Americans ' lead to 14 – 0 going into halftime . The Olympics scored their only points of the game in the third quarter . A player with the last name of Schreiner caught a receiving touchdown . The All @-@ Americans answered when offensive lineman Lou Little blocked a field goal and ran it back for a touchdown . The final score of the game came when Shelton caught a receiving touchdown in the fourth quarter from Hughitt .
= = = Week 5 : vs. Toledo Maroons = = =
October 24 , 1920 at Canisius Field
For the All @-@ Americans ' next game , they played against the Toledo Maroons . Based in Toledo , Ohio , the Maroons were an independent team but became part of the APFA in 1922 . Coming into the game , the Maroons had not scored a point for the entire season , and that streak continued this game . Six thousand people were in attendance for the 38 – 0 All @-@ Americans victory . In the first quarter , Anderson returned a 40 @-@ yard and a 50 @-@ yard punt for two touchdowns . Hughitt scored a rushing touchdown in the second quarter , and Weldon kicked a 35 @-@ yard field goal to make the score 24 – 0 at halftime . Anderson scored the final two touchdowns of the game . He scored two rushing touchdowns : one in the third quarter and one in the fourth quarter .
= = = Week 6 : vs. Rochester Jeffersons = = =
October 31 , 1920 at Canisius Field
In week six , the All @-@ Americans played their first game against an APFA team , challenging the Rochester Jeffersons . The All @-@ Americans received the kickoff , and on its opening drive kicked a 30 @-@ yard field goal . The Jeffersons ' first drive resulted a turnover on downs . Weldon scored a 3 @-@ yard rushing touchdown on the resulting All @-@ Americans ' drive . Rochester running back Jim Laird scored all of his team 's points . In the second and the fourth quarter , he kicked a 30 @-@ yard and a 33 @-@ yard field goal , respectively . The All @-@ Americans ' final score of the game came from a blocked punt . Red Quigley was punting from his own end zone when Swede Youngstrom blocked the punt , and defensive guard Bill Brace ran it back .
= = = Week 7 : vs. All @-@ Tonawanda Lumberjacks = = =
November 7 , 1920 at Canisius Field
The All @-@ Americans next game was against the All @-@ Tonawanda Lumberjacks , who would join the APFA the following year . Anderson scored a rushing touchdown to put the All @-@ Americans up 7 – 0 at the end of the first quarter . The All @-@ Americans followed up with three touchdowns in the next quarter . Anderson rushed for two , and running back Barney Lepper rushed for another one . Hughitt scored the All @-@ Americans ' last touchdown of the game in the third quarter when he rushed for a touchdown . The final score of the game was 35 – 0 . This game was the Lumberjacks only loss of the season , and the only game in which they failed to score a point .
= = = Week 8 : vs. Columbus Panhandles = = =
November 14 , 1920 at Canisius Field
With 9 @,@ 000 fans in attendance , the All @-@ Americans played an APFA opponent , the Columbus Panhandles . At the end of the first quarter , the Panhandles were winning 7 – 6 . After that , the game " proved disastrous " , according to football historian Chris Willis , to the Panhandles . The final score was 43 – 7 . The Panhandles ' only score was a receiving touchdown from Homer Ruh . The All @-@ Americans had six rushing touchdowns , four of which came from Smith . The other two came from Anderson and Hughitt . From these six rushing touchdowns , five of the extra points were converted , and the All @-@ Americans ' defense got a safety .
= = = Week 9 : vs. Canton Bulldogs = = =
November 21 , 1920 at Buffalo Baseball Park
In week nine , the All @-@ Americans played the Bulldogs . Jim Thorpe , who was later inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame , started the game for the Bulldogs , but he came out at halftime because he believed it would end in a tie . Both teams were slowed by a muddy field , and the football became soggy after three quarters . Neither the All @-@ Americans nor the Bulldogs could gain a lot of yards during the game . The lone score of the game came with under four minutes to play : a field goal from the Bulldogs ' Al Feeney . He never missed a field goal the entire 1920 season , and the final score of the game was 3 – 0 .
= = = Week 10 : vs. Cleveland Tigers = = =
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8 – 19 over the two series . The team showed promise in the first game of their World Series rematch series with the Tampa Bay Rays , winning 10 – 1 , but were defeated in the last two games of the series and lost a fourth straight game to Toronto on June 26 . However , the Phillies were able to exact a modicum of revenge for both their 1993 World Series defeat and the first series sweep by the Jays by winning the last two games . Happ played the role of stopper by pitching his first career complete game shutout , and Moyer followed by earning his 252nd victory in the following game . To close the month , the Phillies lost the opener of their next series with the Braves to finish the month with a 10 – 16 record .
= = = July = = =
Struggles continued for the Phillies to open July , as the Braves completed a three @-@ game series sweep in the first two days of the month ; however , a face @-@ off with the Mets over the Independence Day weekend revitalized the team 's fortunes . The Phillies swept their northern rivals as the Mets managed only three runs in three games . During the series , the team 's 2009 All @-@ Stars were announced : Utley and Ibáñez were elected as starters , and Howard was named as a reserve , one of four first basemen selected to the National League squad . It was also announced that Victorino was one of the five " Final Vote " candidates . Though the Phillies had played much better on the road to this point in the season , home @-@ field advantage paid off the next night , as the offense chased Reds starter Johnny Cueto after 2 ⁄ 3 of an inning by scoring nine runs ; the team went on to score 10 in the first inning and 22 in the entire game . Every Phillies starter had at least one hit , Werth hit an eighth @-@ inning grand slam off of Reds infielder Paul Janish , and Rollins and Victorino , at the top of the order , combined to go 7 @-@ for @-@ 9 with three doubles , a home run , nine runs scored , and five RBIs between them . Though closer Lidge suffered a tough loss on July 7 , sacrificing a run in the ninth inning to earn his fourth of the season , the Phillies bounced back with a dramatic ninth @-@ inning win the following night . Victorino hit a walk @-@ off single to drive in Pedro Feliz and solidify his victory in the All @-@ Star Final Vote , which was announced the next day . Werth was named to replace the New York Mets ' Carlos Beltrán on the All @-@ Star roster due to injury ; Victorino replaced Beltrán as the starter in center field .
After the All @-@ Star break — during which the American League defeated the National League , 4 – 3 — Moyer , Ryan Madson , and J. C. Romero combined for a one @-@ hit , complete @-@ game shutout of the Marlins in the first game back , extending the Phillies ' winning streak to six games , and their record to 10 – 3 in the month of July . The streak was extended to eight straight games as the Phillies swept Florida in three games of the series ( one game was postponed due to weather ) . Happ raised his record to 7 – 0 on the season with another seven @-@ inning shutout performance . The streak continued as the Phillies opened a series at home against the Chicago Cubs ; Chad Durbin earned his first save in 11 months by pitching three scoreless innings of relief . Werth 's three @-@ run home run in the 13th inning the next night gave the Phillies a walk @-@ off win for their tenth consecutive , but Chicago ended the season @-@ high streak with a 10 – 5 defeat on July 22 . The Phillies won three of their next four , and bolstered their rotation by trading for Cliff Lee . The 2008 American League Cy Young Award winner came from the Cleveland Indians along with outfielder Ben Francisco on July 29 ; the Phillies gave up four minor leaguers — catcher Lou Marson , infielders Jason Donald and pitchers Carlos Carrasco and Jason Knapp . Lee and Francisco joined the Phillies in San Francisco after the Phillies ' series victory over the Arizona Diamondbacks , and both started the final game in July . Lee pitched a complete @-@ game four @-@ hitter on July 31 , allowing one run over nine innings of work . The Phillies finished July with a 20 – 7 record , their first 20 @-@ win month since May 2001 .
= = = August = = =
The Phillies opened the month of August with three straight losses , but the stopper 's role again fell to the rookie Happ , who pitched his second shutout of the season — and the second of his career — against the Rockies on August 5 . He earned the team 's 60th win of the season while allowing four hits and striking out ten batters for the first time in his career . In accordance with his 8 – 2 record and strong performances , Amaro announced that Happ would remain in the Phillies ' starting rotation despite the team 's acquisitions of Lee and Pedro Martínez ; rumors regarding Happ 's status had been rampant since Martínez ' signing and during the trade season when Happ was rumored to be the centerpiece of a potential trade for the Blue Jays ' Roy Halladay . New pitcher Lee stifled the Rockies the following day to win the series for the Phillies with a second consecutive strong performance , allowing one run over seven innings and allowing only six hits . In the following series with Florida , however , the Phillies struggled . The Marlins swept all three games of the series , which included Victorino 's first career ejection on several close calls by umpire Ed Rapuano , and a crucial error by Victorino 's center field replacement , Werth , in the final game of the series . Moyer pitched against the Marlins in that game , a team against which he had prior success in his career ( 13 – 3 , 2 @.@ 87 ERA in 1001 ⁄ 3 innings pitched ) , and allowed two earned runs on eleven singles through five innings ; however , with a rotation @-@ high 5 @.@ 47 ERA , the Phillies demoted Moyer to the bullpen to allow Martínez to start . Francisco hit his second Phillies home run against the Cubs on August 11 ; it came in the 12th inning and scored the game @-@ winning run for the Phillies . It became the first win of a three @-@ game series sweep , which Lee closed out with a third straight dominant performance ( eight innings pitched , one run allowed , eight strikeouts ) . The Phillies took two of three games from the Braves in their next series , and completed a three @-@ game homestand against the Diamondbacks with a complete game from Lee , who carried a no @-@ hitter into the sixth inning , and eight innings of three @-@ run baseball from Blanton .
Martínez faced off against his former club on August 23 , with the series tied 1 – 1 . Mets starter Óliver Pérez allowed six runs in the first inning and was pulled in the middle of Martínez ' first at @-@ bat , down in the count 3 – 0 . Ángel Pagán led off the Mets ' first with an inside @-@ the @-@ park home run after the ball became lodged underneath the outfield wall . Martínez pitched six innings , allowing four runs , but the score was 9 – 6 by the end of the eighth inning . Lidge allowed another run to score and had runners on first and second , thanks in part to a booted base hit and an error by Eric Bruntlett . The Mets had no outs and Jeff Francoeur was at the plate representing the go @-@ ahead run . Francoeur hit a line drive over the second base bag , where Bruntlett caught it , stepped on second base , and tagged Daniel Murphy coming from first , completing the 15th unassisted triple play in baseball 's modern era and the second in Phillies history ( Mickey Morandini ) in a game called " the league 's quirkiest of the season " . The Phillies closed the series with a 6 – 2 win behind Lee 's eighth straight victory ( seven innings pitched , no earned runs ) . With a win on August 26 , the Phillies claimed victory in the year 's series over the Pirates ; however , the Bucs won two games in a three @-@ night set wherein the game @-@ winning run was scored in the eighth inning or later each night . Andrew McCutchen hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run off of Lidge in the ninth inning of the opener ; Howard hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run shot for the Phillies in the top of the tenth on August 26 after the Pirates tied it in the ninth on a Brandon Moss home run . Garrett Jones set a Pirates rookie record with his 15th home run off of Happ in the eighth inning of the series finale . The Phillies closed the month by taking two of three games from the Braves . For his 11 home run performance in August , Howard won the National League Player of the Month award .
= = = September = = =
The Phillies opened the month by taking two of a three @-@ game series against the Giants , besting Jonathan Sánchez , who threw a no @-@ hitter earlier in the 2009 season , and Tim Lincecum , who won the 2008 NL Cy Young Award . This was followed by a trip to Texas for a four @-@ game series against the Houston Astros ; the Phillies were unable to muster much offense during the series and were swept . On September 8 , in the first game of the series against the Washington Nationals , Ibañez and Utley each hit their 30th home runs of the season , making them members of the 12th quartet of teammates in major league history to each reach 30 in a single season , joining Howard and Werth . The Phillies offense backed Lee to his sixth win the following night , with Madson earning his second consecutive save after assuming the de facto closer 's role from Lidge . However , the Phillies could not overcome a pair of three @-@ run home runs by Adam Dunn and Ian Desmond to secure the sweep in the last game of the series , despite Stairs ' grand slam ; it was their third loss of the season to Washington in fifteen games . The Mets came to Philadelphia for their last series of the season , which began on September 11 . The Phillies won game one , 4 – 2 , but the Mets came from behind in the second game of the series , scoring five runs in the final two innings to win 10 – 9 . Making up a postponed game from earlier in the season , the Phillies won the first game of a day @-@ night doubleheader behind Kyle Kendrick 's first major league victory in 13 months . Eight shutout innings from Martínez in the nightcap gave the Phillies a 1 – 0 win , a 3 – 1 win in the 4 @-@ game set , and a 12 – 6 win in the season series . Martínez ' eight innings also began a streak of 26 consecutive scoreless innings by Phillies pitchers : Madson followed with a scoreless ninth for his eighth save of the season ; Cliff Lee pitched a complete game shutout against the Nationals the following night ; and Blanton , Park , and Madson combined for eight scoreless innings against Washington on September 16 until Tyler Walker allowed a run in the top of the ninth inning , an RBI single by Willie Harris which scored Justin Maxwell . Hamels closed out the series with a strong performance , perfect through his first five innings and finishing with one run allowed in eight ; with their 15th win over the Nationals , the Phillies matched their best season record against the franchise , set against the 1976 Montréal Expos .
The Phillies continued to Atlanta , where they took two of three from the Braves , with Kendrick 's second win and Lidge 's 30th save in the first game of the series . Martínez was outdueled by Javier Vázquez in the second game of the series , but the Phillies avoided a loss by defeating the Braves , 4 – 2 , on September 20 . A doubleheader followed against the Marlins ; the Phillies won game one , while the Marlins won game two . In the rubber game , Lidge blew his 11th save after a rain delay to give the Marlins a series victory , keeping the team 's number to clinch the division at five . The Phillies and the Brewers split the next series at two games each , with Philadelphia winning the first and last game of the series . The Phillies returned to Citizens Bank Park for their final homestand to close out the season , opening with a fifth consecutive loss to the Astros . However , the Phillies broke the streak with a 7 – 4 win on September 29 , thanks to a Feliz grand slam . The following night , the Phillies clinched their third consecutive division title with a 10 – 3 win over Houston , guaranteeing a split in the series and a playoff berth , and tying the franchise record for consecutive division titles set by Danny Ozark 's teams from 1976 to 1978 . After the clinching game , the Phillies rested most of their regular starters , six of whom had started over 150 games during the season ; they lost four straight games while the regulars regained their strength , but won the final game of the season in extra innings as Paul Hoover hit a walk @-@ off single in the bottom of the 10th inning . The Phillies finished with a record of 93 wins and 69 losses , one game better than their record in the previous season .
= = = Standings = = =
= = = Record vs. opponents = = =
= = = Game log = = =
= = = Roster = = =
All players who made an appearance for the Phillies during 2009 are included .
= = Postseason = =
= = = National League Division Series = = =
The Phillies , as the No. 2 seed in the National League , faced off against the wild card Colorado Rockies in the first round of the playoffs . Cliff Lee pitched a complete game in the opener of the series , shutting out the Rockies through 8 2 ⁄ 3 innings before allowing a single run in the ninth . He threw 113 pitches in the game , in addition to getting a hit and a stolen base in his first postseason start . The Rockies evened the series in the second game , as Cole Hamels left the stadium early to be with his wife , who went into labor with their first child . The Phillies staged comebacks twice to bring them within a run of tying the game , but could not close the door as Huston Street saved the game for Aaron Cook .
After Charlie Manuel named Pedro Martínez his Game 3 starter , the game was postponed a day due to the weather forecast of snow and record @-@ low temperatures . The postponement prompted Manuel to change his plans , naming rookie left @-@ hander J. A. Happ the new starter for the game . Happ pitched three innings , allowing three runs , but Manuel brought Joe Blanton out of the bullpen , who pitched 2 2 ⁄ 3 innings and allowed only one run . Brad Lidge , after 11 blown saves during the regular season , preserved the win for the Phillies , a 6 – 5 victory . In a back @-@ and @-@ forth affair , the Phillies and Rockies traded leads through Game 4 at Coors Field , but the Phillies scored three runs in the top of the ninth to win by one run . Combined with the sweeps in the other three Division Series , 2009 became the first year since the implementation of the wild card in 1995 that all four Championship Series berths were clinched on the road .
Game 1
Game 2
Game 3
Game 4
= = = National League Championship Series = = =
The Los Angeles Dodgers were the National League 's No. 1 seed by virtue of the best record entering the playoffs ; thus , the Phillies traveled to Chavez Ravine for the opener of the playoffs ' second round , the fifth postseason meeting between the two clubs . James Loney opened the scoring for the Dodgers with a solo home run in the bottom of the second inning , but the Phillies answered back with a five @-@ run fifth inning , chasing starter Clayton Kershaw . Manny Ramírez ' two @-@ run home run in the bottom of the inning made the score 5 – 4 , but Raúl Ibañez followed with a three @-@ run home run in the top of the eighth . Lidge , appearing in his third consecutive postseason game , notched his third consecutive save . Martínez started the second game for the Phillies , throwing 7 scoreless innings on 87 pitches . After his departure , the Phillies used five bullpen pitchers to get three outs in the eighth inning ; those pitchers allowed three hits and two walks , allowing two runs to score . Jonathan Broxton saved the second game for the Dodgers , as Los Angeles won , 2 – 1 .
The series moved to Philadelphia for the third game , and the Phillies capitalized on their home crowd immediately , scoring four runs in the first inning of the game . Lee continued his " superb " postseason performance with an eight @-@ inning shutout performance , allowing three singles and a stolen base . Lee and his batterymate Ruiz had higher offensive production in Game 3 ( three hits in six at @-@ bats , three runs scored , one run batted in ) than the entire Dodger lineup ( three hits in twenty @-@ seven at bats , no runs scored ) . The Phillies won the game , 11 – 0 . In Game 4 , Howard continued to slug , hitting a two @-@ run home run off of former @-@ Phillie Randy Wolf in the first inning ; with the run batted in , he tied Lou Gehrig 's Major League record of eight consecutive postseason games with an RBI . The Dodgers came back to score two runs on a defensive miscue in the fourth inning , adding one run in the fifth on a Matt Kemp home run and one in the sixth on a Casey Blake single . The Phillies got one back in the bottom of the sixth on a Victorino triple and a single by Utley , but were held scoreless until the bottom of the ninth . Los Angeles closer Broxton entered the game in the bottom of the eighth — after George Sherrill allowed two runners to reach base — and coaxed Werth to fly out . Broxton returned to the mound in the bottom of the ninth , inducing a ground ball from Ibáñez before walking Matt Stairs and hitting Ruiz . Greg Dobbs pinch @-@ hit for the pitcher 's spot , lining out to third base . With two outs and two runners aboard , Jimmy Rollins hit a 99 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 159 km / h ) fastball to the right @-@ center field gap , scoring Eric Bruntlett ( who had pinch @-@ run ) and Ruiz . In the fifth game , the Phillies hit four home runs , including two by Jayson Werth , as Hamels allowed three runs in his second start of the series . The Phillies bullpen pitched 4 2 ⁄ 3 innings in the game , allowing only one run as Philadelphia defeated Los Angeles , 10 – 4 . The win clinched the Phillies ' first consecutive National League pennants in franchise history , and the first back @-@ to @-@ back World Series appearances by a National League franchise since the Atlanta Braves in 1995 and 1996 . Howard was named the MVP of the National League Championship Series .
Game 1
Game 2
Game 3
Game 4
Game 5
= = = World Series = = =
The Phillies played the New York Yankees in a three @-@ game series over the Memorial Day weekend during the regular season in May . Rollins said :
How great would that be ? A World Series here , us against the Yankees ? … We 've proved we can put on a pretty good show .
The Yankees defeated the Phillies , four games to two , to win the franchise 's record 27th World Series championship . The Yankees had home field advantage for the series , due to an American League victory in the 2009 All @-@ Star Game . In addition to the 27th championship for New York , several records were tied , extended , or broken during the Series , including postseason wins ( Andy Pettitte with 18 ) , home runs in a World Series ( Utley with 5 ) , strikeouts by a batter in a World Series ( Howard with 13 ) , World Series saves ( Mariano Rivera with 11 ) , and RBI in a single World Series game ( Hideki Matsui with 6 ) .
= = = = Game 1 = = = =
The two previous years ' American League Cy Young Award winners started the game : CC Sabathia , for the Yankees ; and Lee , for the Phillies . Sabathia , who had been 3 – 0 in the postseason to date , pitched seven innings and allowed two earned runs on four hits ; Lee , however , pitched a complete game and allowed no earned runs to go the distance for the second time during the 2009 postseason . The Phillies offense was paced by Utley , who walked in the first inning to set a record of 26 consecutive postseason games reaching base , and hit solo home runs in the third and sixth innings . Philadelphia led 2 – 0 until the eighth inning , when an Ibáñez single scored Rollins and Victorino , and added two more runs in the top of the ninth inning on a Victorino single and a Howard double . The Phillies allowed an unearned run in the bottom of the ninth when Rollins committed a throwing error , tossing the ball past Howard at first base and into the Yankee dugout .
= = = = Game 2 = = = =
The Phillies scored first for the second game in a row in the second inning ; Raúl Ibáñez hit a ground rule double , and a Matt Stairs single off of A. J. Burnett drove him in . It was the only run allowed by the New York pitching staff . Mark Teixeira tied the game with a solo home run in the fourth inning , and Hideki Matsui broke the tie in the sixth with another , giving the Yankees their first lead . Chan Ho Park allowed an RBI single to Jorge Posada after Martínez put two baserunners on in the top of the seventh . Burnett departed after seven innings , replaced by Mariano Rivera in the eighth . The Phillies put two runners on with a walk to Jimmy Rollins and a single by Shane Victorino with one out in the eighth . However , Chase Utley grounded into an inning @-@ ending double play ending on a close play at first base that drew controversy . Rivera completed the ninth inning for his 38th postseason save .
= = = = Game 3 = = = =
After an 80 @-@ minute rain delay , the Phillies scored first in the second inning with Jayson Werth 's lead @-@ off home run followed by a bases @-@ loaded walk and a sacrifice fly . In the fourth inning , Alex Rodriguez hit a ball down the right field line , which struck a camera at the fence and was ruled a home run after review . Nick Swisher opened the top of the fifth inning with a double and scored on a single to center field by Andy Pettitte . Jeter followed with a single , and both he and Pettite were driven in by a Johnny Damon double . J. A. Happ replaced Hamels and allowed a solo home run to Swisher in the sixth inning . Werth answered with a second home run of the game leading off the bottom of the sixth . Mariano Rivera recorded his 38th career postseason save to close out the Yankees ' second consecutive win .
= = = = Game 4 = = = =
The Yankees opened the scoring in the first inning with two runs , but the Phillies answered with back @-@ to @-@ back doubles by Shane Victorino and Chase Utley in the bottom of the inning . The Phillies tied the game in the bottom of the fourth as Ryan Howard singled , stole second , and scored on a single by Pedro Feliz . Replays showed that Howard did not touch home plate as he slid across ; however , the Yankees did not appeal . Swisher led off the fifth inning with a walk , scoring on a single by Derek Jeter , and Melky Cabrera scored on a single by Damon . Park relieved Blanton in the seventh and held the Yankees scoreless . Chase Utley hit his third home run of the series in the bottom of the seventh with two outs . Dámaso Marte struck out Howard to end the inning . After a game @-@ tying home run by Feliz , Lidge entered the game in the ninth and gave up a two @-@ out single to Damon . With Teixeira batting , Damon stole second and advanced to third as the base was uncovered due to the pull shift against Teixeira . Rodriguez put the Yankees ahead with a double to left field , scoring Damon . Posada added to that lead with a single which scored Teixeira , who had singled , and Rodriguez . Mariano Rivera entered in the bottom of the ninth and notched his second save of the series .
= = = = Game 5 = = = =
The Yankees scored first for the second straight game , but Utley gave the lead back to Philadelphia on a three @-@ run home run . Werth and Ibáñez drove in Utley and Howard in the third inning , which chased the starter , Burnett . David Robertson allowed another run to score on a Carlos Ruiz groundout . Eric Hinske , who entered as a pinch @-@ hitter , scored on a ground out by Johnny Damon . Utley tied Reggie Jackson 's record for most home runs in a World Series with a solo home run in the seventh inning , his fifth of the series . Howard struck out for the 12th time in the series , tying Willie Wilson 's 1980 record for most strikeouts in a World Series . Ibáñez hit a solo home run to chase pitcher Phil Coke . After being hit in the hand in the first inning , Victorino was replaced defensively in the eighth inning by Ben Francisco . Lee left the game after allowing two runs to score , and Park gave up a sacrifice fly to Robinson Canó to add another earned run to Lee 's line . Ryan Madson entered in the ninth to close the game , allowing one run on a double play but earning his first career World Series save .
= = = = Game 6 = = = =
The Yankees scored first when Matsui hit a two @-@ run home run with Rodriguez on base after a walk . The Phillies responded with a triple by Ruiz , who scored on a sacrifice fly by Rollins in the top of the third inning . Matsui added to the Yankee lead with a bases @-@ loaded single in the bottom of the inning , scoring Jeter and Damon . Martínez was relieved after four innings by Durbin , who allowed a ground rule double to Jeter , who later scored on a Teixeira single . Durbin hit Rodriguez and was relieved by Happ after recording one out . Happ allowed a two @-@ run double to Matsui , his fifth and sixth RBI of the game which tied a World Series record for most RBI in a single game set by Bobby Richardson in the 1960 World Series .
In the sixth inning , Howard 's home run following a walk issued to Utley brought the game to 7 – 3 . After Ibáñez hit a double into right field , Joba Chamberlain relieved Pettitte , allowing no further runs in the inning . In the top of the eighth inning , Dámaso Marte struck out Howard , which set a new World Series record for most strikeouts by a batter in a single series ( 13 ) . After the strikeout , Marte was relieved by Rivera in a non @-@ save situation , who allowed one hit and one walk before closing out the game and the Yankees ' 27th championship .
= = Awards = =
The 2009 Phillies captured the Warren C. Giles Trophy , as winners of the National League pennant . Baseball America named the Phillies as its Organization of the Year . The Philadelphia Sports Writers Association named the Phillies its " Team of the Year " .
Individual awards were won by Rollins , who won a third straight Rawlings Gold Glove Award at shortstop , Victorino , who won a second Gold Glove in the outfield ; Utley , who won his fourth consecutive Silver Slugger Award at second base ; Werth , who was named the " This Year in Baseball Awards " Unsung Player of the Year , and Howard , who was named the Most Valuable Player of the National League Championship Series . Happ was named the Players Choice Awards NL Outstanding Rookie by his fellow players and the " This Year in Baseball Awards " Rookie of the Year . He also received the Sporting News NL Rookie of the Year Award and was named to the Baseball America All @-@ Rookie Team ( as one of five pitchers ) and the Topps All @-@ Star Rookie team ( as the left @-@ handed pitcher ) .
The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) presented its annual franchise awards to Ryan Howard ( " Mike Schmidt Most Valuable Player Award " ) , J.A. Happ ( " Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher Award " ) , Jamie Moyer ( " Dallas Green Special Achievement Award " ) , and Brad Lidge ( " Tug McGraw Good Guy Award " ) .
Rubén Amaro , Jr . , was named the " This Year in Baseball Awards " Executive of the Year and the Philadelphia Sports Writers Association Executive of the Year . He was also inducted into the Philadelphia Jewish Sports Hall of Fame .
The Phillie Phanatic was awarded the " Great Friend to Kids " Award by the Please Touch Museum ( the Children 's Museum of Philadelphia ) .
On December 9 , 2009 , Sports Illustrated named Chase Utley as the second baseman on its MLB All @-@ Decade Team . On December 22 , Sports Illustrated named Pat Gillick as number 7 on its list of the Top 10 GMs / Executives of the Decade ( in all sports ) .
= = Regular season player statistics = =
All statistics are current through the 2009 regular season .
= = = Batting = = =
Note : G
= Games played ; AB =
At bats ; R
= Runs scored ; H =
Hits ; 2B
= Doubles ; 3B =
Triples ; HR
= Home runs ; RBI =
Runs batted in ; AVG
= Batting average ; SB =
Stolen bases
= = = Pitching = = =
Note : W
= Wins ; L =
Losses ; ERA
= Earned run average ; G =
Games pitched ; GS
= Games started ; SV =
Saves ; IP
= Innings pitched ; R =
Runs allowed ; ER
= Earned runs allowed ; BB =
Walks allowed ; K = Strikeouts
= = Broadcasting = =
Over @-@ the @-@ air television returned to WPHL @-@ TV ( My PHL 17 ) for a three @-@ year period after a ten @-@ year stint at WPSG @-@ TV ( CW 57 ) , when the Phillies and the Tribune Broadcasting station signed a three @-@ year contract on November 19 , 2008 . This marks the third time the station has become the territorial flagship station , the first being from 1971 to 1982 — as the successor to WFIL @-@ TV Channel 6 ( now WPVI @-@ TV ) — and again from 1993 to 1998 . Between those dates , games were telecast by WTXF @-@ TV Channel 29 ( known as WTAF @-@ TV from 1983 through 1987 and prior to becoming a Fox – owned @-@ and @-@ operated station ) .
Tom McCarthy , Chris Wheeler , and Gary Matthews are the current members of the television broadcast team . McCarthy took over full @-@ time play @-@ by @-@ play duties from Harry Kalas after his death in mid @-@ April 2009 . Wheeler is the color commentator for the first and last three innings of each game , while Matthews does color commentary in the middle three innings . On the radio , Scott Franzke and Larry Andersen are the play @-@ by @-@ play and color commentators , respectively , for the English language broadcasts on WPHT @-@ AM ( 1210 ) , while Danny Martinez and Bill Kulik provide the Spanish language commentary on WUBA ( 1480 AM ) .
The Phillies ' postseason radio duties were split between the TV crew and the regular radio crew , while the television broadcasts on TBS were covered by Brian Anderson , Joe Simpson , and David Aldridge for the Division Series , and Chip Caray , Ron Darling , and Buck Martinez for the League Championship Series . The World Series broadcasters were Joe Buck and Tim McCarver on the Fox telecasts , and Joe Morgan and Jon Miller on ESPN Radio for the national broadcast .
= = Farm system = =
LEAGUE CHAMPIONS : Lakewood
= American Idiot ( musical ) =
American Idiot is a sung @-@ through stage adaptation of punk rock band Green Day 's rock opera , American Idiot . After a run at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre in 2009 , the show moved to the St. James Theatre on Broadway . Previews began on March 24 , 2010 and the play officially opened on April 20 , 2010 . The show closed on April 24 , 2011 after 422 performances . While Green Day did not appear in the production , vocalist / guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong performed the role of " St. Jimmy " occasionally throughout the run .
The story , expanded from that of the concept album , centers on three disaffected young men , Johnny , Will , and Tunny . Johnny and Tunny flee a stifling suburban lifestyle and parental restrictions , while Will stays home to work out his relationship with his pregnant girlfriend , Heather . The former pair look for meaning in life and try out the freedom and excitement of the city . Tunny quickly gives up on life in the city , joins the military , and is shipped off to war . Johnny turns to drugs and finds a part of himself that he grows to dislike , has a relationship and experiences lost love .
The book was written by Armstrong and director Michael Mayer . The music was composed by Green Day and the lyrics were by Armstrong . The score included all the songs from the original American Idiot album , as well as additional Green Day songs from other sources , such as the album 21st Century Breakdown , and unreleased songs originally recorded for the American Idiot musical .
The musical won two 2010 Tony Awards : Best Scenic Design of a Musical for Christine Jones , and Best Lighting Design of a Musical for Kevin Adams . It also received a nomination for Best Musical . In 2011 , its Broadway cast recording won a Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album .
= = Plot = =
Set in the recent past , the musical opens on a group of suburban youths living unhappily in " Jingletown , USA " and saturated with TV . Fed up with the state of the union , the company explodes in frustration ( " American Idiot " ) . One of the youths , Johnny ( " Jesus of Suburbia " ) , goes to commiserate with his friend Will . A third friend , Tunny , joins the two and they party until they run out of beer , prompting them to pick up more at the local 7 @-@ Eleven . Tunny soon exposes the do @-@ nothing go @-@ nowhere quicksand of their lives ( " City of the Damned " ) . They get riled up , and Johnny challenges his friends to engage ( " I Don 't Care " ) . Will 's girlfriend , Heather , soon makes an appearance . She is pregnant and doesn 't know what to do ( " Dearly Beloved " ) . Johnny borrows money and buys bus tickets to the city for the three young men , eager to escape suburbia . Before the boys are able to leave , Heather tells Will of her pregnancy . With no other choice , he stays home ( " Tales of Another Broken Home " ) . Johnny and Tunny depart for the city with a group of other jaded youths ( " Holiday " ) .
While Johnny wanders the city and pines for a woman he sees in an apartment window ( " Boulevard of Broken Dreams " ) , Tunny finds it hard to adjust to urban life and is seduced by a television ad for the army ( " Favorite Son " ) . Tunny realizes that his generation has been so numbed and apathetic that nothing , not even the bright lights of the city , will excite him ( " Are We the Waiting " ) . He enlists in the army .
A frustrated Johnny manifests a rebellious drug @-@ dealing alter ego called St. Jimmy , and injects heroin for the first time ( " St. Jimmy " ) . His newfound courage thanks to St. Jimmy and the drugs allow Johnny to make a successful move on the girl in the window . Back in Jingletown , Will sits on the couch as his girlfriend 's pregnancy progresses . He drinks beer and begs for a release . Meanwhile , Tunny is deployed to a war zone , and is soon shot and wounded ( " Give Me Novacaine " ) .
Johnny spends the night with the girl he saw in the window , whom he calls " Whatsername " . Johnny is smitten with Whatsername and wants to celebrate , but St. Jimmy has other plans for them ( " Last of the American Girls / She 's a Rebel " ) . Johnny and Whatsername go to a club , take drugs together , and have passionate sex . By this time , Will and Heather 's baby girl has been born , and Will is increasingly oblivious as Heather tenderly commits herself to her baby 's future ( " Last Night on Earth " ) .
Heather has had enough of Will 's pot @-@ and @-@ alcohol @-@ fueled apathy . Despite Will 's protestations , she takes the baby and walks out ( " Too Much , Too Soon " ) . Around the same time , lying in a bed in an army hospital ( " Before the Lobotomy " ) , Tunny falls victim to the hopelessness he has seen during wartime and hallucinates . He and his nurse engage in a balletic aerial dance ( " Extraordinary Girl " ) . He quickly falls in love with her . His hallucination disappears , and he 's left with his fellow soldiers in agony ( " Before the Lobotomy ( Reprise ) " ) .
Back in the city , Johnny reveals the depth of his love for Whatsername as she sleeps ( " When It 's Time " ) . The temptation of drugs , however , is too great ; Jimmy forces Johnny to become increasingly erratic , and he eventually threatens Whatsername ( and then himself ) with a knife ( " Know Your Enemy " ) . Whatsername attempts to talk about Johnny 's behavior , while the Extraordinary Girl dresses Tunny 's wounds and Will sits on the couch , once again alone ( " 21 Guns " ) . Johnny leaves a note for Whatsername , saying he has chosen Jimmy and drugs over her . Frightened and fed up , Whatsername tells Johnny that he is not the " Jesus of Suburbia " and reveals that St. Jimmy is nothing more than " a figment of [ his ] father 's rage and [ his ] mother 's love " ( " Letterbomb " ) . She leaves him .
Hurt by Whatsername 's departure , Johnny longs for better days ahead , Tunny longs for home , and Will longs for all the things he 's lost ( " Wake Me Up When September Ends " ) . St. Jimmy appears and makes one last attempt to get Johnny 's attention , but that part of Johnny has died , resulting in the metaphorical suicide of St. Jimmy ( " The Death of St. Jimmy " ) . Johnny cleans up and gets a desk job but soon realizes there is no place for him in the city ( " East 12th Street " ) . Will , all alone with his television , bemoans his outcast state ( " Nobody Likes You " ) . As he finally gets up off the couch , Heather appears with her new show @-@ off rockstar boyfriend ( " Rock and Roll Girlfriend " ) . Will heads to the 7 @-@ Eleven to get away from them and , surprisingly , finds Johnny there . Johnny had sold his guitar for a bus ticket home . Tunny returns from the war zone ( as an amputee ) with the Extraordinary Girl . As Tunny introduces his friends to the Extraordinary Girl , Johnny becomes furious with him for leaving the group , but quickly forgives him and the three friends embrace . Heather and her boyfriend arrive . In an uneasy truce , she gives the baby to Will . Other friends show up to greet the three men they haven 't seen in a year ( " We 're Coming Home Again " ) . One year later , Johnny laments that he lost the love of his life , but he accepts that he can live inside the struggle between rage and love that has defined his life . With this acceptance comes the possibility of hope ( " Whatsername " ) .
After the cast takes their bows , the curtain rises to reveal the entire company with guitars , with which they perform the song " Good Riddance ( Time of Your Life ) " . Each performance of this song was recorded and given to the audience as a free digital download .
= = Characters and cast members = =
The principal cast members of the major productions of American Idiot .
= = Background = =
In 2000 , Green Day released the album Warning . Village Voice music critic Robert Christgau compared Warning to the band 's previous album ( Nimrod ) , and noted that " [ Billie Joe Armstrong is ] abandoning the first person . He 's assuming fictional personas . And he 's creating for himself the voice of a thinking left @-@ liberal . " Christgau also detected " a faint whiff " of the work of the theatrical composer / lyricist team of Kurt Weill and Bertolt Brecht . The trend of writing in the third person came to fruition with Green Day 's next studio album , American Idiot in 2004 . The first new song Green Day wrote was the single " American Idiot " .
One day , bassist Mike Dirnt was in the studio recording a 30 @-@ second song by himself . Armstrong decided that he wanted to do the same , and drummer Tré Cool followed suit . Armstrong recalled , " It started getting more serious as we tried to outdo one another . We kept connecting these little half @-@ minute bits until we had something . " This musical suite became " Homecoming " , and the group subsequently wrote another suite , " Jesus of Suburbia " .
Green Day made the record an album @-@ long conceptual piece which was a response to the realities of the post @-@ 9 / 11 era . The band took inspiration from the concept records by The Who , sources in the musical theater repertoire like The Rocky Horror Show and West Side Story , and the concept album @-@ cum @-@ stage musical Jesus Christ , Superstar . Armstrong also said the band intended " that it would be staged or we 'd create a film or something ... we were thinking in terms that it kind of felt like scoring a movie . "
Director Michael Mayer heard the album and expressed an interest in adapting it for the stage . When he approached the band regarding a collaboration , they agreed to work with him . The band also gave Mayer a wide latitude for his adaptation after seeing his earlier work in Spring Awakening . Though additional songs were included from the Green Day catalog , Mayer added very little dialogue to the show . He felt instead that the music and lyrics were expressive enough on their own , and even removed some of the dialogue that was part of the Berkeley production before the show moved to Broadway .
= = Production history = =
= = = Berkeley ( 2009 ) = = =
The musical premiered at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre . Previews began on September 4 , 2009 and the official opening was on September 15 , 2009 . After becoming the top @-@ grossing show in the theatre 's history , the producers extended the limited run twice to November 15 , 2009 . The cast included John Gallagher Jr. as Johnny , Matt Caplan as Tunny , Michael Esper as Will , Tony Vincent as St. Jimmy , Rebecca Naomi Jones as Whatsername , Mary Faber as Heather , and Christina Sajous as the Extraordinary Girl .
= = = Broadway ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = =
The musical transferred to the St. James Theatre on Broadway , with previews beginning on March 24 , 2010 . It officially opened on April 20 , 2010 . The cast for the Berkeley Repertory production was retained for the Broadway production , with the exception of Caplan , who was replaced by Stark Sands . It was rumored that the show cost between $ 8 million and $ 10 million to produce . After six months of performances , the show was " still a ways off from possibly turning a profit " according to a The New York Times report . As a part of the promotion for the show , the cast performed at the Grammy Awards on January 31 , 2010 with Green Day .
Tom Kitt was the music supervisor and orchestrator for both the Berkeley and Broadway productions . The lead producers for the show were Ira Pittelman and Tom Hulce . Vivek Tiwary was another producer . The creative team for the show was largely the same as for the musical adaptation of Spring Awakening : director Michael Mayer , scenic designer Christine Jones and lighting designer Kevin Adams . Steven Hoggett was the choreographer , Andrea Lauer was the costume designer and Brian Ronan was the sound designer .
Green Day 's Billie Joe Armstrong played the role of St. Jimmy from September 28 to October 3 , 2010 . Ticket sales for the week Armstrong performed were up 77 % , average ticket prices increased 22 % , and gross sales increased 127 % from the previous week 's totals . The singer @-@ songwriter filled in for Tony Vincent who took time off for personal matters . Armstrong made another 50 appearances as St. Jimmy between January 1 and February 27 , 2011.Melissa Etheridge played the part of St. Jimmy on Broadway from February 1 – 6 , 2011 , and Davey Havok took the role from March 1 – 15 , 2011 .
Following Armstrong 's departure from the cast , the show experienced weak sales . The Broadway production closed on April 24 , 2011 after 27 previews and 421 performances . Armstrong returned to the role of St. Jimmy for the final three weeks . The show 's cast recording won the 2011 Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album .
= = = International Tour ( 2011 – 2014 ) = = =
American Idiot toured North America beginning on December 28 , 2011 , in Toronto , Canada . The original national tour cast included Van Hughes reprising his role as Johnny , Jake Epstein as Will , Scott J. Campbell as Tunny , Leslie McDonel as Heather , Gabrielle McClinton as Whatsername , Nicci Claspell as The Extraordinary Girl , and Broadway alumnus Joshua Kobak as St. Jimmy . A non @-@ Equity second U.S. tour launched in the late summer of 2012 .
A UK and Ireland tour visited Manchester , Southampton , Cardiff , Edinburgh , Glasgow , Dublin , Birmingham and London later in 2012 . The cast included Alex Nee as Johnny , Casey O 'Farrell as Will , Thomas Hettrick as Tunny , Kennedy Caughell as Heather , Alyssa DiPalma as Whatsername , Jenna Rubaii as The Extraordinary Girl , and Trent Saunders as St. Jimmy . It started on October 9 , 2012 in Southampton and ended on December 16 , 2012 at HMV Hammersmith Apollo in London . A second US tour began performances in Norfolk , Virginia on January 25 , 2013 with the UK touring cast . It ended Las Vegas , Nevada on June 16 , 2013 .
On August 7 , 2013 , American Idiot made its debut in Tokyo , Japan , and a few weeks later on September 5 , it made its South Korean debut in Seoul . Sean Michael Murray took over the role of Johnny , Mariah MacFarlane took over as Heather , and Daniel C. Jackson took over as St. Jimmy .
The third US national tour cast included Jared Nepute as Johnny , Casey O 'Farrell as Will , Dan Tracy as Tunny , Mariah MacFarlane as Heather , Olivia Puckett as Whatsername , Taylor Jones as Extraordinary Girl , and Daniel C. Jackson as St. Jimmy . On January 16 , 2014 , Carson Higgins , who had previously been a part of the non @-@ equity / UK tour , took over the role of St. Jimmy , after Daniel C. Jackson left the show . The tour ended on May 25 , 2014 .
= = = Malmö ( 2015 ) = = =
American Idiot 's Scandinavian premiere at the Malmö Opera from February to April 2015 was a new production of the musical . It was the first official production not to be directed by Michael Mayer . The songs were performed in English but the dialogue was spoken in Swedish .
= = = West End ( 2015 ) = = =
A production opened in 2015 at the Arts Theatre in the West End in 2015 . The cast includes Amelia Lily as Whatsername , Aaron Sidwell as Johnny , Alexis Gerred as Tunny , Steve Rushton as Will and Lucas Rush as St. Jimmy The show was produced by Sell a Door Theatre Company Directed and Choreographed by Racky Plews
It was announced in April 2016 that the production will return to the Arts Theatre for the Summer 2016 after a UK tour concluding in Belfast early July 2016 . For the tour , Newton Faulkner joined the cast as Johnny .
= = = Rio de Janeiro ( 2017 ) = = =
A production will open in Rio de Janeiro on January 2017 .
= = Musical numbers = =
The show features all of the songs from the album American Idiot , some B @-@ tracks and a few of the songs from Green Day 's 21st Century Breakdown . The show also features an onstage band .
" American Idiot " – Company
" Jesus of Suburbia "
" Jesus of Suburbia " – Johnny and Will
" City of the Damned " – Tunny , Johnny , Will , & Company
" I Don 't Care " – Johnny , Will , Tunny , & Company
" Dearly Beloved " – Heather & Men
" Tales of Another Broken Home " – Johnny , Will , Tunny , Heather , & Company
" Holiday " – Johnny , Tunny , Theo , & Company
" Boulevard of Broken Dreams " – Johnny , Whatsername , Tunny , & Men
" Favorite Son " – Favorite Son & Women
" Are We the Waiting " – Tunny , Favorite Son , & Company
" St. Jimmy " – Johnny , Miguel , Declan , Theo , St. Jimmy , & Company
" Give Me Novacaine " – Will , Tunny , & Company
" Last of the American Girls / She 's a Rebel " – Johnny , Whatsername , Gerard , Chase , St. Jimmy , & Company
" Last Night on Earth " – St. Jimmy , Whatsername , Heather , & Company
" Too Much Too Soon " – Theo , Alysha , Will , & Heather
" Before the Lobotomy " – Tunny , Joshua , Ben , & Chase
" Extraordinary Girl " – Extraordinary Girl , Tunny , & Company
" Before the Lobotomy ( Reprise ) " – Tunny , Joshua , Ben , & Chase
" When It 's Time " – Johnny
" Know Your Enemy " – St. Jimmy , Will , Johnny , & Company
" 21 Guns " – Whatsername , Extraordinary Girl , Heather , Tunny , Johnny , Will , & Company
" Letterbomb " – Whatsername & Women
" Wake Me Up When September Ends " – Johnny , Will , Tunny , & Company
" Homecoming "
" The Death of St. Jimmy " – St. Jimmy & Johnny
" East 12th St. " – Johnny , Theo , Gerard , & Company
" Nobody Likes You " – Will & Company
" Rock and Roll Girlfriend " – Miguel , Heather , Will , & Company
" We 're Coming Home Again " – Johnny , Tunny , Will , & Company
" Whatsername " – Johnny & Company
" Good Riddance ( Time of Your Life ) " – Company ( Curtain call )
Green Day re @-@ released the single " 21 Guns " with the musical cast on Spinner.com on December 3 , 2009 . This version features Billie Joe Armstrong , together with Christina Sajous , Rebecca Naomi Jones , Mary Faber and Stark Sands , with backup from the rest of American Idiot cast . Another version was released with John Gallagher , Jr . , Michael Esper , and Sands singing the parts that Armstrong had previously sung . Green Day and the cast of the musical also performed the song at the 2010 Grammy Awards on January 31 , 2010 .
The original cast recording of the musical was released on April 20 , 2010 . The cast album includes all the songs featured in the musical plus a brand new recording of " When It 's Time " by Green Day . The album won Best Musical Show Album at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards .
= = Critical reception = =
Reviews for the Berkeley Repertory Theatre production were mixed . Charles McNulty of Los Angeles Times called the show " kinetically entertaining in a way that intentionally reflects the shallow , media @-@ saturated culture the album rails against " . Karen D 'Souza of San Jose Mercury News called the production " a thrashing collage of songs fused together with hypnotic movement and eye @-@ popping visuals " and thought the show " as compelling as it is abstract [ and ] channels the grungy spirit of punk while also plucking at the heartstrings . " However , Jim Harrington of the Oakland Tribune compared the show unfavorably to the original album , writing : " [ what ] once was a fine Gouda , has been prepackaged as Velveeta " , and continued sarcastically , " In other words , it should do big business on Broadway . " Charles Isherwood of The New York Times commented that the show contained " characters who lack much in the way of emotional depth or specificity , and plotlines that are simple to the point of crudity " but also felt that " the show possesses a stimulating energy and a vision of wasted youth that holds us in its grip . "
Isherwood 's review for the Broadway production was enthusiastic . He called the show " a pulsating portrait of wasted youth that invokes all the standard genre conventions ... only to transcend them through the power of its music and the artistry of its execution , the show is as invigorating and ultimately as moving as anything I ’ ve seen on Broadway this season . Or maybe for a few seasons past . " Jed Gottlieb of the Boston Herald enjoyed the premise of the show but found that " the music and message suffer in a setting where the audience is politely , soberly seated " . Michael Kuchwara of the Associated Press found the show to be " visually striking [ and ] musically adventurous " , but noted that " the show has the barest wisp of a story and minimal character development " . Paul Kolnik in USA Today enjoyed the contradiction that Green Day 's " massively popular , starkly disenchanted album ... would be the feel @-@ good musical of the season " . Time magazine 's Richard Zoglin opined that the score " is as pure a specimen of contemporary punk rock as Broadway has yet encountered [ yet ] there 's enough variety .... Where the show fall short is as a fully developed narrative . " He concluded that " American Idiot , despite its earnest huffing and puffing , remains little more than an annotated rock concert .... Still , [ it ] deserves at least two cheers – for its irresistible musical energy and for opening fresh vistas for that odd couple , rock and Broadway . " Peter Travers from Rolling Stone wrote , " Though American Idiot carries echoes of such rock musicals as Tommy , Hair , Rent and Spring Awakening , it cuts its own path to the heart . You won ’ t know what hit you . American Idiot knows no limits — it 's a global knockout . "
Reviews of the West End production were generally positive . Rachel Ward of The Telegraph gave it four out of five stars , calling " 90 minutes of uninterrupted chaos " . Kate Stanbury from Official London Theatre summarized , " Chaotic , intense and pulsating with legendary Green Day hits , a trip to this Tony Award @-@ winning musical may just give you the time of your life . " Paul Taylor of The Independent also gave four out of five stars , praising director and choreographer Racky Plews for making " a sharp @-@ witted version that throbs with some of the energy of a rock gig ( if minus the feeling of unpredictability ) while being shrewdly calibrated to suit the intimacy of the 350 @-@ seater Arts Theatre . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
American Idiot won a total of 5 awards . At a meeting of the Tony Administration Committee on April 30 , 2010 , the score of American Idiot was deemed ineligible for a Tony Award for Best Original Score nomination because less than 50 % of it was written for the stage production .
= = = Broadway production = = =
= = Broadway attendances , performances , and gross receipts = =
The following is a month @-@ by @-@ month breakdown of sales , attendance , and performance data for the production at the 1 @,@ 709 @-@ capacity St. James Theatre .
= = Film adaptation = =
In 2011 , Tom Hanks and his production company Playtone optioned the musical to create a film version , and Universal Pictures began initial negotiations to distribute . Michael Mayer , who directed the Broadway production , was named as director , with Green Day and Hanks as producers . Dustin Lance Black was initially hired to adapt the screenplay from the musical for the film . Billie Joe Armstrong was asked to star as St. Jimmy , and the film was proposed for a 2013 release . Armstrong later posted on his Twitter account that he hadn 't " totally committed " to the role but was interested in it .
In 2013 , at a screening of Broadway Idiot , Mayer confirmed that the film adaptation was still happening , but production was unknown due to " Hollywood bullshit " . In March 2014 , playwright Rolin Jones told the Hartford Courant that he was writing a new screenplay for the film . Comparing it to the musical , Jones said , " The idea is to get it a little dirtier and a little nastier and translate it into visual terms . There 's not going to be a lot of dialogue and it probably should be a little shorter , too . After that , it just takes its ' movie time ' in getting done " . He expected to finish it by the end of the month .
= = Broadway Idiot = =
On January 23 , 2013 , it was announced that a documentary showing Armstrong 's journey from punk rock to Broadway was to be released . Called Broadway Idiot and showing a lot of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes of the musical production , the movie was directed by Doug Hamilton , veteran television journalist for CBS News ' 60 Minutes and PBS documentaries such as Nova , Frontline and American Masters . A trailer was released on January 30 , 2013 . The documentary premiered at the South by Southwest Film Festival on March 15 , 2013 . On October 11 , 2013 , it was released in some theaters and on video on demand by FilmBuff .
Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 63 % of critics gave the film a positive review based on 19 reviews , with an average score of 5 @.@ 8 / 10 . On Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 based on reviews from critics , the film has a score of 51 ( citing " mixed or average reviews " ) based on 14 reviews .
= Boy Meets Curl =
" Boy Meets Curl " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' twenty @-@ first season . It aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 14 , 2010 . In this episode , Homer and Marge Simpson form a mixed curling team with Agnes and Seymour Skinner , which is chosen to play in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver . Meanwhile , Lisa begins collecting pins shaped like Olympic mascots , but her obsession soon turns to desperation .
With the Winter Olympics being held in Canada , the writers wanted an Olympic @-@ themed episode that could air during the Games . The script was written by Rob LaZebnik , who considered having the plot revolve around Homer competing in four @-@ man bobsled . However , he decided a curling episode would allow for the plot to revolve around Homer and Marge . In order to try to make the depiction of curling in the episode accurate , the writers visited a curling club and tried the sport themselves . They also consulted with a number of curlers . The episode was directed by Chuck Sheetz , while sportscaster Bob Costas guest @-@ starred in the episode .
Airing during the Olympics , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 87 million viewers and had a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 6 . The episode received positive reviews from critics , and CTV Olympics reported that Olympic curlers largely enjoyed the episode .
= = Plot = =
Marge and Homer 's plans for a romantic date night fall through when Homer is forced to stay longer than expected at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant to fix a leak in one of the plant 's nuclear processing pipes . Looking for a romantic activity after walking out of a movie starring Ben Affleck , they find an ice rink and decide to do some skating . However , they are unable to rent skates because it is curling night . They decide to try it and discover their innate talent for the sport — particularly Marge , who has years of experience sweeping floors . Agnes and Seymour Skinner notice and invite Marge and Homer to join their mixed @-@ doubles team . It is announced that mixed @-@ doubles has been added to the Winter Olympics as a demonstration sport , and the Skinner @-@ Simpson team qualifies for the United States curling trials . Agnes cautions Marge not to let emotions get in the way of winning , relating how a fetal kick by an unborn Seymour foiled her chances at winning gold in pole vault at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki . At the trials , Marge 's talented sweeping earns the team a win and a trip to the Winter Olympics in Vancouver .
Meanwhile , at the trials , Lisa is given an Olympic mascot pin . Lisa puts it on her shirt and decides it " looks lonely " and buys another , but her interest in them quickly spirals out of control . The Simpsons arrive in Vancouver , where Agnes insists that Homer be cut from the team . Marge insists she can compensate for his weak throws , but she injures her right shoulder while sweeping to secure a win in the semifinals . She is told that she will never curl again and that the American team must forfeit the gold @-@ medal match to Sweden . Lisa 's pin collection grows , and when she runs out of money , she trades her pearl necklace to a vendor in exchange for a pin from the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix , France . Bart discovers Lisa busking on a street corner , having relinquished her dress in favour of wearing her pins at all times , and offers to help her kick her pin @-@ collecting addiction . Cutting the lower portion of Homer 's face from his driver 's license and making it into a pin , Bart creates " Fatov " , a phony mascot for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi , Russia . He trades the pin to the vendor in exchange for Lisa 's necklace .
As Marge prepares to leave Vancouver , she reveals to Homer that she is left @-@ handed , but has always used her right hand to avoid seeming unusual ( due to years of using her right hand , it renders her cross @-@ dominant ) . She has enough dexterity to change Maggie 's diaper and dress her one @-@ handed . They return to the rink just in time to stop Seymour from forfeiting the match and go on to defeat Sweden for the gold . Agnes softens her attitude of unyielding contempt toward her son after he breaks his broom and has to drop out , and Marge and Homer agree that they had a great date night .
= = Production = =
With the 2010 Winter Olympics occurring in Vancouver , the writers wanted an Olympics @-@ themed episode that could air during the Games . The script was written by Rob LaZebnik — his fourth writing credit — , who originally considered having the plot revolve around Homer competing in four @-@ man bobsled . However , he decided a curling episode would allow for the plot to revolve around Homer and Marge and explore the issues of spouses competing together . The writers used some artistic license , because although curling is an Olympic sport , mixed @-@ doubles , which is featured in the episode , is not an Olympic event . However , in the episode , it is explained that the event is being held as a demonstration sport . Curling had previously been shown in the season 13 episode " The Bart Wants What It Wants " , when the family visits Toronto . In order to try to make the depiction of curling in the episode accurate , the writers visited a curling club and tried the sport themselves . They also consulted with four @-@ time American mixed curling champions Brady and Cristin Clark , as well as Rick Patzke , the chief operating officer of the United States Curling Association , who felt that the writers took a " genuine interest " in the sport .
On the issue of whether competitive curlers would be offended by the episode , LaZebnik said " When you hear The Simpsons is going to do their take on your sport , you naturally get a little alarmed , But we ended up being respectful I would say , even , surprisingly respectful . Both Homer and Marge take it seriously . " Some curlers , including the Clarks and Patzke , felt that the exposure the sport received was beneficial . Cristin Clark said " Although Homer Simpson probably isn 't the ideal athlete I would want to see representing our sport , I just think it 's great exposure . " Canadian curler Randy Ferbey , a four @-@ time world champion , said " I 'm sure they 're going to somehow make a mockery of it like they do every other thing , but I think you need to take it with a grain of salt . It brings attention to our sport and I think it 's wonderful . The more curling on TV , whether it 's in an animated form or real form , the better . "
Sportscaster Bob Costas guest @-@ starred in the episode as a caricature of himself .
= = Cultural references = =
Homer 's speech before he and Marge begin curling is a parody of the St Crispin 's Day speech from Kenneth Branagh 's version of Henry V. Across the street from the Olympic curling trials are the " National Curly trials " , in reference to Curly Howard from The Three Stooges . The Medicine Woman who appeared in The Simpsons Movie appears in the streets of Vancouver , and Homer refers to her as his former therapist . The opening ceremonies in the episode are directed by Ivan Reitman , described by announcer Bob Costas as Canada 's " most famous director " . During the parade of athletes , nations are called to the tune of the theme song from Ghostbusters , which was directed by Reitman .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Boy Meets Curl " was viewed by 5 @.@ 87 million viewers and got a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 6 , with a 7 % share of the audience . The episode came in third in its timeslot , but was the second @-@ most viewed show on the Animation Domination lineup after Family Guy .
The episode received positive reviews . Robert Canning of IGN gave the episode an 8 @.@ 4 / 10 saying it was " Impressive " and " With or without the timeliness of the story and setting , ' Boy Meets Curl ' was a fast and funny episode certain to be a highlight of the season " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A , the best grade of the night , saying " Simpsons was one of their best episodes in a long time , and it continues a season that 's had some pretty good episodes overall . I wouldn 't put this on The Simpsons ' top tier , but I think it 's definitely on that next tier down , episodes that maybe don 't have the most original plots but do have solid jokes throughout . Even the Bart and Lisa B @-@ plot , involving Lisa getting a sudden addiction to Olympic pin collecting , starts out kind of bland and gets better and better as Lisa 's jones grows . " Jason Hughes of the TV Squad gave the episode a positive review as well saying " All in all , it was a weird time out of Springfield this week , with some highlight moments sprinkled throughout " . Steve Tilley of the Toronto Sun wrote " Sure , the episode was probably funnier for Canadians and curlers ( and maybe Harry Potter fans ) than anyone else , but it did prove Homer has got a bit of meteorological , psychic in him : ' Pack your winter coat , we 're going to Canada 's warmest city ! ' "
Bob Costas received praise for his appearance , particularly for his line " This is the sort of bittersweet melodrama Olympic coverage feeds on . I admit , we 're vampires who suck on shattered dreams . " Jason Hughes of TV Squad called the line " about as accurate a description [ of Olympic broadcasters ] as I 've ever seen . "
CTV Olympics reported that Olympic curlers largely enjoyed the episode . American men 's team coach Phill Drobnick said " The team watched it together and we gave it two thumbs up , they did a great job and it was reaching out to a new audience for our sport , so that 's always great for us too . " American team alternate Chris Plys said " They didn 't make a mockery of the sport , which is nice . Curling catches a lot of abuse . "
= Operation Postmaster =
Operation Postmaster was a British special operation conducted on the Spanish island of Fernando Po , now known as Bioko , off West Africa in the Gulf of Guinea , during the Second World War . The mission was carried out by the Small Scale Raiding Force ( SSRF ) and the Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) in January 1942 . Their objective was to board the Italian and German ships in the harbour and sail them to Lagos . The SSRF under the command of Major Gus March @-@ Phillipps left Britain in August 1941 and sailed the Brixham trawler , Maid Honor , to the Spanish colony .
The British authorities in the area refused to support the raid , which they considered a breach of Spanish neutrality . Permission for the operation to go ahead eventually came from the Foreign Office in London . On 14 January 1942 , while the ships ' officers were attending a party arranged by an SOE agent , the commandos entered the port aboard two tugs , overpowered the ships ' crews and sailed off with the ships , including the Italian merchant vessel Duchessa d 'Aosta . The raid boosted SOE 's reputation at a critical time and demonstrated its ability to plan and conduct secret operations no matter the political consequences .
= = Background = =
In 1941 the British Admiralty started receiving reports that German submarines were using the rivers in Vichy French parts of Africa as a base for refuelling . The unit selected to investigate the reports was the Small Scale Raiding Force ( SSRF ) also known as No. 62 Commando . The SSRF was formed in 1941 , and consisted of a small group of 55 commando @-@ trained personnel working with the Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) . While being under operational control of Combined Operations Headquarters , No. 62 Commando itself was under the command Major Gustavus Henry March @-@ Phillipps , usually called Gus March @-@ Phillipps .
Maid Honor , a 65 ton Brixham yacht trawler , left Poole harbour on 9 August 1941 , bound for West Africa . The five man crew were under the command of March @-@ Phillipps . The remainder of the SSRF under the command of Captain Geoffrey Appleyard had departed earlier aboard a troop transport ship . On 20 September 1941 after six weeks under sail Maid Honor arrived at Freetown , Sierra Leone . Freetown was the agreed rendezvous for both groups , Appleyard 's party having arrived at the end of August . After Maid Honor 's arrival in Freetown the search for the German submarine bases started . Sailing into the many rivers and deltas in the area , they failed to locate any submarines or evidence of a submarine base .
SOE maintained a presence in West Africa , where it could observe Vichy French , Spanish and Portuguese territories with the intention of identifying and hindering any activities that threatened Britain 's colonial possessions . While the commandos were searching for the German submarine bases SOE agents had become aware of three vessels in the port of Santa Isabel on the Spanish island of Fernando Po 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) off the coast of Africa near the borders of Nigeria and the Guinea .
The three ships were the Italian 8 @,@ 500 ton Merchant vessel Duchessa d 'Aosta , the second a large German tug Likomba , the third a diesel @-@ powered barge Bibundi . Duchessa d 'Aosta had a working radio which was considered a threat , with the potential to provide details of Allied naval movements . Her declared cargo was 3 million pounds of wool , 316 @,@ 610 pounds of hides and skins , 1 @.@ 3 million pounds of tanning materials , 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds of copra , 544 @,@ 660 pounds of crude asbestos fibre and over 1 @.@ 1 million ingots of electrolytic copper . The first page of the ship 's cargo manifest , was not presented to the port authorities and the ship 's Captain refused to provide them with any details , which led to speculation it was also carrying arms or ammunition . In his visits to the island , SOE agent Leonard Guise kept the ships under observation , and in August 1941 submitted a plan to seize Likomba and disable Duchessa d 'Aosta . Approval for the military operation in a neutral port was given by the Admiralty on 20 November 1941 .
To transport the raiders to the island , two tugs , Vulcan and Nuneaton , were provided by the Governor of Nigeria , Sir Bernard Bourdillon . The raiding force would consist of 32 men , four SOE agents , 11 commandos from the SSRF and 17 men recruited from the local population to crew the two tugs . The mission suffered a blow when the British General Officer Commanding ( GOC ) West Africa Command , General Sir George Giffard refused to support the mission and would not release the 17 men required , stating it would compromise some unnamed plans he had in mind and the act of piracy would have repercussions . Responding to the concerns of the GOC West Africa , the Admiralty suspended the operation . The Foreign Office was also not in favour of the operation , and neither was the British Embassy in Madrid , which was concerned about the possible reactions of the Spanish government . The final go ahead , eventually supported by the Foreign Office , was not given until 6 January 1942 , on the grounds that suspicion of British involvement in the raid was inevitable ; what counted was the avoidance of any tangible proof . As a safeguard the Admiralty also dispatched HMS Violet , a Flower class corvette , to intercept the vessels at sea , which would provide the cover story that they had been intercepted while trying to make their way home to Europe .
= = Mission = =
SOE agent Richard Lippett had obtained employment with the shipping company John Holt & Co ( Liverpool ) , which had business offices on the island . Having taken up the post he started to make preparations for the raid . He became aware that the crew of Duchessa d 'Aosta were in the habit of accepting invitations to parties ashore and had held their own party aboard ship on 6 January 1942 . Under the guise of a party @-@ goer Lippett managed to gain information about the readiness of the ship for sea , crew numbers , and the watch arrangements .
The raiders left Lagos in their two tugs on the morning of 11 January 1942 , and while en route they practised lowering Folbots and boarding ships at sea under the command of Captain Graham Hayes . They approached Santa Isabel harbour and at 23 : 15 and 23 : 30 hours on 14 January 1942 ; both tugs were in position 180 metres ( 590 ft ) outside of the harbour . Onshore , Lippett had arranged for the officers from Duchessa d 'Aosta to be invited to a dinner party . Twelve Italian officers and two German officers from Likomba also attended .
The boarding parties assembled on the decks of the two tugs as they entered the harbour . Vulcan , with March @-@ Phillipps and his second in command Appleyard on board , headed for Duchessa d 'Aosta . As they approached , a few men could be seen on the after deck of the merchant vessel , but they seemed to take no notice of the tug other than to shine a torch in its direction . At the same time , Folbots under the command of Hayes from Nuneaton , were being paddled towards Likomba and Burundi , which were moored together . Challenged by a watchman on Burundi , they persuaded him with their reply that it was the ship 's captain coming back on board . The men from the canoes boarded Burundi and the two man crew on watch jumped overboard . After planting explosive charges on the anchor chain , the commandos guided Nuneaton alongside Likomba to take her and the Burundi in tow .
As soon as they were ready , the charges were blown and Nuneaton started to tow Likomba out of the harbour . Aboard Duchessa d 'Aosta , 11 men had managed to get aboard from Vulcan ; while one group planted charges on the anchor chains , another searched below decks collecting prisoners . Blowing the anchor chains , Vulcan started to tow Duchessa d 'Aosta out of the harbour . The explosions had alerted the population of the town , who started to gather on the pier , but no attempts were made to stop the ships from leaving . Several anti @-@ aircraft emplacements opened fire at imaginary targets , believing the explosions to have been caused by an aerial attack , but the six @-@ inch guns protecting the harbour itself remained silent . From entering the harbour to leaving with the ships under tow , the operation had taken 30 minutes , without any losses to the raiding party .
Out at sea on 15 January 1942 , March @-@ Phillipps established a routine of watches and placed guards on the 29 prisoners they had taken . During the evening they started to have trouble with the tugs ' engines and the tow ropes to the captured vessels . The next day Vulcan reached the location for the rendezvous and was " captured " at sea by HMS Violet . Nuneaton , suffering from engine trouble , managed to contact the Nigerian collier Ilorin by semaphore , which in turn contacted Lagos , and a ship was dispatched to tow them into port .
= = Aftermath = =
The Special Operations Executive had now demonstrated their ability to undertake operations , no matter the political consequences . Hugh Dalton , the government minister in charge of SOE , informed British Prime Minister Winston Churchill of the outcome of the raid . He also stated his belief that ... " other neutral governments would be impressed that Britain would if needed disregard the legal formalities of war in their efforts to succeed . " The agent in charge of SOE Africa station submitted a report to the head of SOE Colin Gubbins reflecting on the success of Postmaster : " perhaps next time it will not be necessary for prolonged negotiations before undertaking a 30 minute operation . "
The Spanish government was furious about the raid , which was seen as a breach of the country 's neutrality . The foreign minister Serrano Suner described the operation as an :
intolerable attack on our sovereignty , no Spaniard can fail to be roused by this act of piracy committed in defiance of every right and within water under our jurisdiction . Do not be surprised , if we return the answer which the case demands — that of arms .
In Germany radio stations reported that a ... " British destroyer had entered the harbour and dropped depth charges to blow up the anchor cables and the ship 's crew were shot " and the 21 January 1942 edition of Völkischer Beobachter published an article with the headline " British Denials – Admiralty Lies on Act of Piracy " . British Naval Intelligence , under advice from Commander Ian Fleming , issued their own communique :
In view of the German allegations that Allied naval forces have executed a cutting @-@ out operation against Axis ships in the Spanish port of Santa Isabel , Fernando Po , the British Admiralty considers it necessary to state that no British or Allied ship was in the vicinity ... As a result ... of the German Broadcast , the British Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief dispatched reconnaissance patrols to cover the area . A report has now been received that a large unidentified vessel has been sighted , and British naval vessels are proceeding to the spot to make investigations . "
The details of the raid were being kept secret even from the British Chiefs of Staff , who were only informed on 18 January 1942 , that Duchessa d 'Aosta had been intercepted 230 miles ( 370 km ) offshore and was being taken to Lagos .
On Fernando Po itself , Richard Lippett , who had remained on the island , was taken in for questioning by the Spanish authorities on 17 January 1942 . He managed to persuade them he had had nothing to do with the departure of the ships , nor had he spent any money on the party for the ships ' officers . He was released from custody on 27 January 1942 , but was refused permission to leave the island . He finally left secretly by canoe , arriving in British territory on 1 March 1942 . In the aftermath of the operation , Maid Honor was left in Lagos and eventually sold to the Sierra Leone government as a converted trawler . Duchess d 'Aosta was sailed to Greenock and then managed by Canadian Pacific as the Empire Yukon for the Ministry of War Transport . Limkomba was managed by the Elder Dempster Lines , who renamed it Malakel in 1947 and then sold it to Liberia in 1948 .
After the raid March @-@ Phillipps was awarded the Distinguished Service Order , Hayes was awarded the Military Cross , and Appleyard a Bar to his Military Cross ; Lippett and Guise were each appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire . Another commando , and the only professional sailor on the raid , Private Anders Lassen , was the first man to board Duchessa d 'Aosta . For conspicuous efficiency in getting the ship under way , Lassen was given a commission in the field , and the immediate award of the Military Cross .
March @-@ Phillipps was killed during Operation Aquatint in September 1942 . On the same mission , Hayes evaded capture and crossed the Spanish border , only to be handed over to the Germans who kept him in solitary confinement for nine months before he was executed by firing squad on 13 July 1943 . Appleyard later joined the Special Air Service , and on the same day that Hayes was executed Appleyard was reported missing when his plane failed to return from a mission . Lassen would also join the Special Air Service ; he was awarded two bars to his MC and promoted to major before receiving a posthumous Victoria Cross in Italy in 1945 .
= Zesh Rehman =
Zeshan " Zesh " Rehman ( Urdu : ذيشان رحمان ; born 14 October 1983 ) is a British @-@ Pakistani professional footballer who plays for Pahang FA now called Pahang FC in the Malaysia Super League as a defender .
He was the first British Asian to start a Premier League match and is the first to have played in all four divisions of professional football in England . He also plays for the Pakistan national football team and was the first Pakistani international footballer to play professional football in England , Thailand , Hong Kong and Malaysia , as well as the first Pakistani international to play in the AFC Cup . He started his career at Fulham and made a total of 30 appearances , having loan spells at Brighton & Hove Albion and Norwich City . A transfer to Queens Park Rangers followed and he went on to make 50 appearances for the club . During his three years there he went on loan to Brighton & Hove Albion , Blackpool and Bradford City , moving permanently to the latter on a free transfer in June 2009 . Having previously represented England at under @-@ 18 , under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 20 levels , in 2005 he made his debut for Pakistan .
Outside of his playing career , Rehman is known for being an ambassador for Kick It Out and the Show Racism the Red Card campaign , and his efforts to help British Asian players .
= = Early life = =
Rehman was born on 14 October 1983 in Birmingham . His father is Khalid Rehman . As a child in Birmingham he played for his local Sunday league team , Kingshurst . He was brought up in the Aston area of the city and often played football on the streets in addition to representing his school , his district and his county in football .
= = Club career = =
= = = Fulham = = =
When he was just twelve years old he was spotted by a scout and moved with his family to London where he joined the Fulham Academy . He progressed through the junior , youth and reserve teams at Fulham , which led him to sign his first professional contract . Although a centre back by trade , Rehman was used as a holding midfielder as well as right back in his career at Fulham .
In the 2003 – 04 season , Rehman made his professional debut on 23 September 2003 in a 1 – 0 defeat away to Wigan Athletic in the second round of the Football League Cup , coming on as a substitute for Junichi Inamoto after 57 minutes . Six days later , he was sent on loan to Brighton & Hove Albion of the Second Division , initially for one month until November . He scored on his debut for the club on 30 September , concluding a 3 – 1 away win at Rushden & Diamonds . On 11 October , he opened a 3 – 0 win against Grimsby Town at the Withdean Stadium , finishing a corner by Leon Knight in Bob Booker 's first match in charge . Rehman 's loan was extended to three months ending in January 2004 . He made eleven league appearances , scoring two goals .
He made his Premier League debut for Fulham in a goalless draw at Anfield against Liverpool on 17 April 2004 , replacing Bobby Petta for the final minute of the match . In doing so , he garnered media attention from British Asian groups by being the first British Asian player to play in the top division of English football . In June , Rehman signed a new contract , to keep him until 2006 .
On 21 September 2005 in the League Cup second round , Rehman scored | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ivenom , with around a 5 % chance of an acute reaction , 1 – 2 % of anaphylaxis and 10 % chance of a delayed reaction due to serum sickness . Nevertheless , it is recommended that an injection of adrenaline be ready and available in case it is needed to treat a severe anaphylactic reaction , and also that the antivenom from the vial be administered diluted in a 100 ml bag of intravenous solution for infusion over 30 minutes . While it is rare that patients report symptoms of envenomation lasting weeks or months following a bite , there are case reports from the 1990s in which antivenom was reported to be effective in the relief of chronic symptoms when administered weeks or months after a bite , however , in the vast majority of cases , it is administered within 24 hours .
= = = Prognosis = = =
In almost all cases , symptoms resolve within a week . Fatalities are very unlikely ; no deaths have been reported since the introduction of antivenom in 1956 , but before this , redback spider bites had resulted in at least 14 deaths in Australia .
= = Bites to animals = =
Redback spider bites are difficult to diagnose in pets unless witnessed . Dogs appear to have some resistance . They are at serious risk only if bitten many times , and rarely need antivenom . Cats are likely to be more susceptible and require antivenom , which can reverse symptoms very quickly . Guinea pigs , horses and camels are very susceptible . As with humans , the symptoms are predominantly autonomic in nature alongside pain at the bite site . Dogs may also suffer vomiting and diarrhoea , muscle tremors or clonic contractions , and abdominal wall rigidity , while cats may salivate excessively , protrude their tongue or be overexcitable .
= = Historical treatment of bites = =
Most traditional or historical first @-@ aid treatments for redback spider bites are either useless or dangerous . These include making incisions and promoting bleeding , using ligatures , applying alkaline solutions , providing warmth , and sucking the venom out . In modern first aid , incising , sucking , applying bandages and tourniqueting are strongly discouraged . In 1893 , the Camperdown Chronicle reported that a doctor noticed that a severely ill benumbed victim got much better overnight following treatment using injections of strychnine and cocaine ; strychnine had been popular as a snake bite antidote , but it was not effective . As of 2011 , administration of magnesium sulphate was reported to have had some benefit though evidence of effectiveness is weak .
= = Cultural impact = =
Indigenous Australians in New South Wales mixed the venom with that of snakes and pine tree gum to form a broth used to coat spear tips . Slim Newton drew popular attention to redbacks with his song " The Redback on the Toilet Seat " , which won the Golden Guitar at the first Country Music Awards of Australia in 1973 . Newton recalled an occasion when a friend used his outside toilet where the light globe had blown and reported he was lucky there was not a redback spider on the toilet seat . The phrase inspired him to write the song . A sculpture of an impossibly large redback , one of Australia 's big things , was built in 1996 at Eight Mile Plains , Queensland . The Angels 1991 album Red Back Fever takes its name from the spider . Matilda Bay Brewing Company produces a wheat beer called Redback , with the distinctive red stripe as the logo . The redback appears in the name and emblem of the South Australia cricket team . The Airborne Redback , an Australian ultralight trike , was also named after the spider . Redback Boots is an Australian workboot manufacturing company , which uses the spider in its name and logo . In 2006 a redback spider stamp was designed as part of a " Dangerous Australians " stamp series , but was withheld from general circulation by Australia Post due to concerns that the realistic depiction would scare people opening their letter boxes .
= Richard Wright ( musician ) =
Richard William " Rick " Wright ( 28 July 1943 – 15 September 2008 ) was an English musician , composer , singer and songwriter . He was a founding member , keyboardist and vocalist of the progressive rock band Pink Floyd , performing on all of the group 's albums , except for The Final Cut , including The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , The Dark Side of the Moon , Wish You Were Here and The Division Bell , and playing on all of their tours .
Wright grew up in Hatch End , London and met future Pink Floyd bandmates Roger Waters and Nick Mason while studying at the Regent Street Polytechnic . The group found commercial success in 1967 with frontman Syd Barrett before Barrett 's instability led to him being replaced by David Gilmour , with Wright taking over songwriting duties with Waters . Initially a straightforward singer / songwriter , Wright later acted as an arranger to Waters and Gilmour 's compositions . He began to contribute less towards the end of the 1970s and left the band after touring The Wall in 1981 . He rejoined the band as a session player in 1987 for A Momentary Lapse of Reason , and became a full @-@ time member again for The Division Bell in 1994 . Sessions with Wright during this period were later released on the album The Endless River . Away from the Floyd , Wright recorded two solo albums , including a collaboration with Anthony Moore on Broken China , and briefly formed the duo Zee . After rejoining Waters , Mason and Gilmour as Pink Floyd for Live 8 in 2005 , he became part of Gilmour 's regular solo touring band , singing occasional lead on songs such as " Arnold Layne " , before his death in September 2008 .
Overshadowed by band mates Barrett , Waters and Gilmour and being the quietest and most reserved member of Pink Floyd , Wright 's contributions have been overlooked , but his death brought a reappraisal and recognition of his talents . His jazz and improvisation influences and keyboard performances were an important part of the Pink Floyd sound ; being a prominent player of the Farfisa and Hammond organs and the Kurzweil synthesizer . Wright sang regularly in the band , and occasionally took the lead vocal on Pink Floyd songs such as " Time " , " Remember a Day " and " Wearing the Inside Out " .
= = Early life = =
Wright , whose father was head biochemist at Unigate Dairies , grew up in Hatch End , north west London and was educated at the Haberdashers ' Aske 's School . He taught himself to play guitar , trumpet and piano at age 12 after he was recuperating from breaking a leg . His mother helped and encouraged him to play the piano . He took private lessons in musical theory and composition at the Eric Gilder School of Music and became influenced by the trad jazz revival , learning the trombone and saxophone as well as the piano . Uncertain about his future , he enrolled in 1962 at the Regent Street Polytechnic which was later incorporated into the University of Westminster . There he met fellow musicians Roger Waters and Nick Mason , and all three joined a band formed by classmate Clive Metcalf called Sigma 6 .
Wright 's position in the band was tenuous to begin with , as he did not choose a definitive instrument , playing piano if a pub had one , otherwise settling on the trombone or rhythm guitar . Wright moved in with Waters and Mason to a house in Stanhope Gardens , Highgate , and began serious rehearsals to become a professional group . Although Mason and Waters were competent students , Wright found architecture of little interest and after only a year of study moved to the London College of Music . He took a break from studies and travelled to Greece for a sabbatical . Their landlord , Mike Leonard , purchased a Farfisa organ , and briefly replaced Wright in the band . However , the organ ultimately became Wright 's main instrument . Through a friend , he arranged the fledgling group 's first recording session in a West Hampstead studio , just before Christmas 1964 . Guitarists Bob Klose and Syd Barrett joined the band , which became Pink Floyd .
= = Pink Floyd = =
Pink Floyd had stabilised around Barrett , Waters , Mason and Wright by mid @-@ 1965 , and after frequent gigging that year became regulars on the Underground live circuit in London . While Barrett was the dominant member , writing most material , singing most lead vocals and playing lead guitar , Wright played a supportive role , playing keyboards and singing , with occasional lead , and writing his own material . As the most qualified musician , Wright was responsible for tuning guitars , and would often tune Waters ' bass for him in concert . Later on , he had a Strobotuner to tune guitars silently during gigs . In the band 's early days , before acquiring a full @-@ time road crew , Wright was responsible for unloading the gear at the end of each gig .
While not credited for vocals on The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , he sang lead on Barrett @-@ penned songs like " Astronomy Domine " and " Matilda Mother " . Examples of his early compositions include " Remember a Day " , " See @-@ Saw " , " Paint Box " and " It Would Be So Nice " . Wright was close friends with Barrett , and at one point the pair shared a flat in Richmond . After Barrett left the group in 1968 due to mental health issues , Wright considered leaving and forming a group with Barrett , but realised it would not have been practical .
Following Barrett 's departure and replacement by David Gilmour , Wright took over writing duties with Waters but gradually became less involved as a singer and songwriter as the band 's career progressed . His organ playing remained an important part of the band 's live set , including " Interstellar Overdrive " , " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " and " Careful with That Axe , Eugene " and he contributed musical themes for film scores ( More , Zabriskie Point and Obscured by Clouds ) . He made significant contributions to Pink Floyd 's long , epic compositions such as " Atom Heart Mother " , " Echoes " ( on which he harmonised with Gilmour for the lead vocals ) and " Shine On You Crazy Diamond " . On 1973 's The Dark Side of the Moon he composed the music for " The Great Gig in the Sky " and " Us and Them " . He also contributed to other album tracks such as " Breathe " and " Time " , singing the lead vocals on the latter 's chorus .
Wright 's contributions to the band diminished in the late 1970s as Waters began to write more material , with Animals being the first album that he did not receive any songwriter credits . By the time the group was recording The Wall in 1979 , Waters had become frustrated that Wright was not contributing enough yet still claiming an equal share of production royalties . Wright refused to catch up on the recording backlog as his first marriage had deteriorated and he had not seen enough of his children , deciding family was more important . Waters considered suing Wright , but ultimately decided an easier thing to do would be for Wright to leave the band at the end of the project . As the band was in financial trouble at the time , Wright agreed to these terms . Several other musicians , including Waters , Gilmour , producer Bob Ezrin , composer Michael Kamen and session player Fred Mandel played keyboards on The Wall . Wright was retained as a salaried session musician during the live concerts to promote that album in 1980 – 81 , but ironically he became the only member of Pink Floyd to profit from the initial run of the costly Wall shows , since the net financial loss had to be borne by the three remaining " full @-@ time " members . Wright did not attend the 1982 premiere of the film version of Pink Floyd — The Wall . In 1983 , Pink Floyd released The Final Cut , the only album from the band on which Wright does not appear . His absence from the credits was the first time fans realised he had left the group , which was officially confirmed some years later .
After Waters ' departure in 1985 , Wright began to contribute to Pink Floyd again , beginning with sessions for the album A Momentary Lapse of Reason . However , he did not legally rejoin as an equal to Gilmour and Mason , and was a salaried musician for the resulting tour , as his contract said he could not rejoin as a full member . On the album credits , his name was listed after Mason and Gilmour and his photo did not appear on the cover .
By 1994 , he had rejoined the group full @-@ time as an equal partner with Gilmour and Mason . He co @-@ wrote five songs and sang lead vocals on one song ( " Wearing the Inside Out " ) for the next Pink Floyd album , The Division Bell . This was followed by the double live album and video release Pulse in 1995 . Wright , like Mason , performed on every Pink Floyd tour .
On 2 July 2005 , Wright , Gilmour and Mason were joined by Waters on stage for the first time since the Wall concerts for a short set at the Live 8 concert in London . This was the last time that all four ( post @-@ Barrett ) Pink Floyd members performed together . Wright underwent eye surgery for cataracts in November 2005 , preventing him from attending Pink Floyd 's induction into the UK Music Hall of Fame .
Wright 's last Floyd appearance , a posthumous one , was on 2014 's The Endless River . The album contained mostly instrumental music recorded during the Division Bell sessions in 1993 @-@ 1994 .
= = Other work = =
Wright rarely played live outside of Pink Floyd compared to the other members . Along with Gilmour , Wright played on Barrett 's second solo album , Barrett in 1970 and helped with production . He later recalled working on the album as a way of helping Barrett in any way possible . In 1974 , he guested at a concert by Sutherland Brothers & Quiver at Newcastle Polytechnic .
Wright recorded his first solo project , Wet Dream , in early 1978 in Super Bear Studios , France , which featured touring guitarist Snowy White and saxophonist Mel Collins . The album was released in September with minimal commercial success .
During 1984 , Wright formed a new musical duo with Dave Harris ( from the band Fashion ) called Zee . The pair had been introduced by a mutual friend , saxophonist Raphael Ravenscroft . They signed a record deal with EMI Records and released only one album , Identity , which was a commercial and critical flop . Wright later referred to Zee as " an experiment best forgotten " .
In 1996 , inspired by his successful input into The Division Bell , Wright released his second solo album , Broken China , which had been co @-@ written with lyricist Anthony Moore , who helped with production and engineering . The album covers the theme of depression and helped Wright come to terms with seeing friends affected by it . Musical contributions came from Pino Palladino on bass , Manu Katché on drums , Dominic Miller ( known from his guitar work with Sting ) and Tim Renwick , another Floyd associate , on electric guitar . Gilmour contributed a guitar part for " Breakthrough " but his performance didn 't make the final mix of the album . Wright considered taking the album on tour , but concluded it wouldn 't be financially viable . Sinéad O 'Connor sang lead vocal on two tracks , " Reaching for the Rail " and " Breakthrough " , with Wright covering the remainder .
In 1999 , touring Floyd keyboardist Jon Carin joined with Wright 's wife to bring Wright and Waters back together after some 18 years apart ; the two men met backstage after a tour date by Waters .
Wright played at several of Gilmour 's solo shows in 2002 , contributing keyboards and vocals , including his own composition " Breakthrough " . In 2006 , he became a regular member of Gilmour 's solo touring band along with former Floyd sidemen Jon Carin , Dick Parry and Guy Pratt . He contributed keyboards and background vocals to Gilmour 's solo album , On an Island , and performed live in Europe and North America that year . On stage with Gilmour he played keyboards , including a revival of the Farfisa for performing " Echoes " . Wright sang lead on " Arnold Layne " , which was released as a live single . He declined an offer to join Waters and Mason on the The Dark Side of the Moon Live tour to spend more time working on a solo project .
In 2006 , Wright joined Gilmour and Mason for the official screening of the P • U • L • S • E DVD . Inevitably , Live 8 surfaced as a subject in an interview . When asked about performing again , Wright replied he would be happy on stage anywhere . He explained that his plan was to " meander " along and play live whenever Gilmour required his services . The same year , he co @-@ wrote the Helen Boulding B @-@ side , " Hazel Eyes " , with Chris Difford .
Wright 's final vocal performance took place at " The Madcap 's Last Laugh " a tribute concert at The Barbican in London on 10 May 2007 . It was organised by Joe Boyd in the memory of Barrett who had died the previous July , and featured Waters solo before Wright performed as part of Pink Floyd , including a performance of " Arnold Layne " . His final live performance was as part of David Gilmour 's band at the premiere of Gilmour 's concert DVD Remember That Night on 6 September 2007 at the Odeon Leicester Square , London . After an edited version of the film had been shown , the band took to the stage to jam .
= = Personal life = =
Wright married his first wife , Juliette Gale , in 1964 . She had been a singer in one of the early bands that evolved into Pink Floyd . They had two children and divorced in 1982 . His second marriage to Franka lasted between 1984 and 1994 . Wright married his third wife Mildred " Millie " Hobbs in 1995 , with whom he had a son , Ben . They separated in 2007 . Wright 's daughter Gala is married to Floyd and Gilmour touring bassist Guy Pratt .
Wright had been fond of the Greek islands since a sabbatical visit in 1964 , before Pink Floyd were formed . He moved to Greece in 1984 after Zee , briefly retiring from music , and enjoyed sailing and yachting . In his later years , Wright lived in France and spent time on a yacht he owned in the Virgin Islands . He found sailing therapeutic , relieving him from the pressures of the music business . He was also a keen collector of Persian rugs .
= = Death = =
Wright died at home of lung cancer on 15 September 2008 , aged 65 . At the time of his death , he had been working on a new solo album , which was thought to comprise a series of instrumental pieces .
The surviving members of Pink Floyd paid Wright tribute . Waters said " it is hard to overstate the importance of his musical voice in the Pink Floyd of the ' 60s and ' 70s " and was happy that they had managed to reunite for Live 8 . Mason said Wright 's contributions to Floyd were under @-@ rated , and that his playing " was the sound that knitted it all together " , comparing his " quiet one " status in the band to George Harrison . Gilmour called him " my musical partner and my friend " , praised the ability of the two men 's voices to blend , such as on " Echoes " . Wright 's death brought Pink Floyd to a formal end , with Gilmour re @-@ iterating that it would be wrong to resume touring without him .
On the day of Wright 's death , Elton John , while playing a concert in Saskatoon , Saskatchewan , Canada dedicated the song " Believe " to him . On 23 September , Gilmour performed " Remember a Day " , a Wright composition from Pink Floyd 's second album , A Saucerful of Secrets , on a live broadcast of Later ... with Jools Holland on BBC Two as a tribute to Wright . In an interview later on in the show , Gilmour said that Wright had intended to perform with him that day , but that he had texted Gilmour a couple of weeks before his death to advise him that he would not be well enough to attend .
= = Musical style = =
Wright 's main influence was jazz , particularly Miles Davis and John Coltrane . He never considered himself a typical songwriter , preferring to create whole albums of music with a theme , later saying " if the words came out like the music , and we didn 't have anything else to do , then quite a few would be written " . A number of compositions credited to Wright came out of improvisation and randomly trying ideas , some of which were picked up enthusiastically by his band mates . Wright later said " I just play and don 't really think about what I 'm doing , I just let it happen " . Of all the Pink Floyd members , Wright was the most reserved , sitting down behind the keyboards and concentrating on the music .
In the 1970s , Wright listened to some contemporary progressive rock bands , and particularly liked early Peter Gabriel @-@ fronted Genesis . He later asked some of the musicians in Gabriel 's solo touring band to play on Broken China . Wright enjoyed playing the organ , and considered the style he used in Pink Floyd to be unique . He played solos in the early part of Floyd 's career , frequently using Egyptian scales , such as on " Matilda Mother " or " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " . His jazz background led to him being interested in free form music , with adherence to tempo being less important . Later , he was more interested in complementing each piece with organ , electric piano or synthesizer as a backing instrument , while still featuring occasional solos .
= = = Equipment = = =
In the early days of the band , Wright dabbled with brass before settling on Farfisa electric organs as his main instrument onstage . He originally owned a single @-@ manual Combo Compact model , which was used for early recordings of " Interstellar Overdrive " , and later upgraded to a dual @-@ manual Compact Duo . During the 1960s , Wright relied heavily on his Farfisa fed through a Binson Echorec platter echo , as heard on the Ummagumma live album . On later tours , the instrument was fed through a joystick control allowing the signal to be sent through up to six speakers in an auditorium , which was called the " Azimuth Coordinator " . Wright stopped using the Farfisa after The Dark Side of the Moon , but revisited it in later years , playing it on Gilmour 's On An Island tour . It was recorded for the sessions that eventually became The Endless River .
Wright played the piano and Hammond organ in the studio from the start of Pink Floyd 's recording career ; using the Hammond 's bass pedals for the closing section of " A Saucerful of Secrets " . He used a Mellotron in the studio for some tracks , including Ummagumma 's " Sysyphus " and on the " Atom Heart Mother " suite . For a brief period in 1969 , Wright played vibraphone on several of the band 's songs and in some live shows , and reintroduced the trombone on " Biding My Time " . He started using a Hammond organ regularly on stage alongside the Farfisa around 1970 and a grand piano became part of his usual live concert setup when " Echoes " was added to Pink Floyd 's regular set list . All three keyboards are used in the concert film Pink Floyd : Live at Pompeii .
In the 1970s , Wright began using synthesizers such as the VCS 3 , ARP String Ensemble and Minimoog , which were featured on " Shine on You Crazy Diamond " . Wright wrote the closing part of the track alone , and included a brief extract of the band 's early single " See Emily Play " on the Minimoog towards the end . He used a number of electric pianos during the 1970s , including a Wurlitzer fed through a wah @-@ wah pedal on " Money " and an unaccompanied Rhodes introduction for " Sheep " on Animals .
From the 1987 Momentary Lapse of Reason tour onwards , Wright and touring keyboardist Jon Carin favoured Kurzweil digital synthesizers , including the K2000 keyboard and K2000S rack module for reproducing piano and electric piano sounds . Wright retained the Hammond along with a Leslie speaker , playing it onstage and using it during the Division Bell sessions .
= = Discography = =
= = = With Pink Floyd = = =
See Pink Floyd discography
= = = With Syd Barrett = = =
Barrett – 1970
= = = Solo albums = = =
Wet Dream – 1978
Broken China – 1996
= = = With Zee = = =
Identity – 1984
= = = With David Gilmour = = =
David Gilmour in Concert ( DVD ) – 2002 ( guest appearance )
On an Island – 2006
Appears on two tracks : " On an Island " ( Hammond organ ) & " The Blue " ( backing vocals )
Remember That Night ( DVD / Blu @-@ ray ) – 2007
Live in Gdańsk ( CD / DVD ) – 2008
= Hemiptera =
The Hemiptera / hɛˈmɪptərə / or true bugs are an order of insects comprising around 50 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 species of groups such as the cicadas , aphids , planthoppers , leafhoppers , and shield bugs . They range in size from 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 in ) to around 15 cm ( 6 in ) , and share a common arrangement of sucking mouthparts . The name " true bugs " is sometimes limited to the suborder Heteroptera . Many insects commonly known as " bugs " belong to other orders ; for example , the lovebug is a fly , while the May bug and ladybug are beetles .
Most hemipterans feed on plants , using their sucking and piercing mouthparts to extract plant sap . Some are parasitic while others are predators that feed on other insects or small invertebrates . They live in a wide variety of habitats , generally terrestrial , though some species are adapted to life in or on the surface of fresh water . Hemipterans are hemimetabolous , with young nymphs that somewhat resemble adults . Many aphids are capable of parthenogenesis , producing young from unfertilised eggs ; this helps them to reproduce extremely rapidly in favourable conditions .
Humans have interacted with the Hemiptera for millennia . Some species are important agricultural pests , damaging crops by the direct action of sucking sap , but also harming them indirectly by being the vectors of serious viral diseases . Other species have been used for biological control of insect pests . Hemipterans have been cultivated for the extraction of dyestuffs cochineal ( also known as carmine ) and for shellac . The bed bug is a persistent parasite of humans . Cicadas have been used as food , and have appeared in literature from the Iliad in Ancient Greece .
= = Diversity = =
Hemiptera is the largest order of hemimetabolous insects ( not undergoing complete metamorphosis ) containing over 75 @,@ 000 named species ; orders with more species all have a pupal stage , Coleoptera ( 370 @,@ 000 described species ) , Lepidoptera ( 160 @,@ 000 ) , Diptera ( 100 @,@ 000 ) and Hymenoptera ( 100 @,@ 000 ) . The group is very diverse . The majority of species are terrestrial , including a number of important agricultural pests , but some are found in freshwater habitats . These include the water boatmen , pond skaters , and giant water bugs .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The present members of the order Hemiptera ( sometimes referred to as Rhynchota ) were historically placed into two orders , the so @-@ called Homoptera and Heteroptera / Hemiptera , based on differences in wing structure and the position of the rostrum . The order is now more often divided into four or more suborders , after the " Homoptera " were established as paraphyletic . Molecular phylogenetics analysis by Song et al . ( 2012 ) supports this cladogram :
The Peloridiidae ( Coleorrhyncha ) were not included in Song 's analysis . The suggestion that the Auchenorrhyncha are paraphyletic has been debated , and in 2012 , the phylogeny was described as " contentious " ; a multilocus molecular phylogenetic analysis suggested that the Auchenorrhyncha , like the Sternorrhyncha , Heteropterodea , Heteroptera , Fulgoroidea , Cicadomorpha , Membracoidea , Cercopoidea , and Cicadoidea , were all monophyletic .
The closest relatives of hemipterans are the thrips and lice , which collectively form the " hemipteroid assemblage " within the Exopterygota .
The fossil record of hemipterans goes back to the Carboniferous ( Moscovian ) . The oldest fossils are of the Archescytinidae from the Lower Permian and are thought to be basal to the Auchenorrhyncha . Fulguromorpha and Cicadomorpha appear in the Upper Permian , as do Sternorrhyncha of the Psylloidea and Aleurodoidea . Aphids and Coccoids appear in the Triassic . The Coleorrhyncha extend back to the Lower Jurassic . The Heteroptera first appeared in the Triassic .
= = Biology = =
= = = Mouthparts = = =
The defining feature of hemipterans is their " beak " in which the modified mandibles and maxillae form a " stylet " which is sheathed within a modified labium . The stylet is capable of piercing tissues and sucking liquids , while the labium supports it . The stylet contains a channel for the outward movement of saliva and another for the inward movement of liquid food . A salivary pump drives saliva into the prey ; a cibarial pump extracts liquid from the prey . Both pumps are powered by substantial dilator muscles in the head . The beak is usually folded under the body when not in use . The diet is typically plant sap , but some hemipterans such as assassin bugs are blood @-@ suckers , and a few are predators .
Both herbivorous and predatory hemipterans inject enzymes to begin digestion extraorally ( before the food is taken into the body ) . These enzymes include amylase to hydrolyse starch , polygalacturonase to weaken the tough cell walls of plants , and proteinases to break down proteins .
Although the Hemiptera vary widely in their overall form , their mouthparts form a distinctive " rostrum " . Other insect orders with mouthparts modified into anything like the rostrum and stylets of the Hemiptera include some Phthiraptera , but for other reasons they generally are easy to recognize as non @-@ hemipteran . Similarly , the mouthparts of Siphonaptera , some Diptera and Thysanoptera superficially resemble the rostrum of the Hemiptera , but on closer inspection the differences are considerable . Aside from the mouthparts , various other insects can be confused with Hemiptera , but they all have biting mandibles and maxillae instead of the rostrum . Examples include cockroaches and psocids , both of which have longer , many @-@ segmented antennae , and some beetles , but these have fully hardened forewings which do not overlap .
= = = Wing structure = = =
The forewings of Hemiptera are either entirely membranous , as in the Sternorrhyncha and Auchenorrhyncha , or partially hardened , as in most Heteroptera . The name " Hemiptera " is from the Greek ἡμι- ( hemi ; " half " ) and πτερόν ( pteron ; " wing " ) , referring to the forewings of many heteropterans which are hardened near the base , but membranous at the ends . Wings modified in this manner are termed hemelytra ( singular : hemelytron ) , by analogy with the completely hardened elytra of beetles , and occur only in the suborder Heteroptera . In all suborders , the hindwings – if present at all – are entirely membranous and usually shorter than the forewings . The forewings may be held " roofwise " over the body ( typical of Sternorrhyncha and Auchenorrhyncha ) , or held flat on the back , with the ends overlapping ( typical of Heteroptera ) . The antennae in Hemiptera typically consist of four or five segments , although they can still be quite long , and the tarsi of the legs have two or three segments .
= = = Sound production = = =
Many hemipterans can produce sound for communication . The " song " of male cicadas , the loudest of any insect , is produced by tymbal organs on the underside of the abdomen , and is used to attract mates . The tymbals are drumlike disks of cuticle , which are clicked in and out repeatedly , making a sound in the same way as popping the metal lid of a jam jar in and out .
Stridulatory sounds are produced among the aquatic Corixidae and Notonectidae ( backswimmers ) using tibial combs rubbed across rostral ridges .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Hemipterans are hemimetabolous , meaning that they do not undergo metamorphosis , the complete change of form between a larval phase and an adult phase . Instead , their young are called nymphs , and resemble the adults to a greater or less degree . The nymphs moult several times as they grow , and each instar resembles the adult more than the previous one . Wing buds grow in later stage nymphs ; the final transformation involves little more than the development of functional wings ( if they are present at all ) and functioning sexual organs , with no intervening pupal stage as in holometabolous insects .
= = = = Parthenogenesis and vivipary = = = =
Many aphids are parthenogenetic during part of the life cycle , such that females can produce unfertilized eggs , which are clones of their mother . All such young are female ( thelytoky ) , so 100 % of the population at these times can produce more offspring . Many species of aphid are also viviparous : the young are born live rather than laid as eggs . These adaptations enable aphids to reproduce extremely rapidly when conditions are suitable .
= = Locomotion = =
Hemipterans make use of a variety of modes of locomotion including swimming , skating on a water surface and jumping , as well as walking and flying like other insects .
= = = Swimming and skating = = =
Several families of Heteroptera are water bugs , adapted to an aquatic lifestyle , such as the water boatmen ( Corixidae ) , water scorpions ( Nepidae ) , and backswimmers ( Notonectidae ) . They are mostly predatory , and have legs adapted as paddles to help the animal move through the water . The pondskaters or water striders ( Gerridae ) are also associated with water , but use the surface tension of standing water to keep them above the surface ; they include the sea skaters in the genus Halobates , the only truly marine group of insects .
= = = Marangoni propulsion = = =
Marangoni effect propulsion exploits the change in surface tension when a soap @-@ like surfactant is released on to a water surface , in the same way that a toy soap boat propels itself . Water bugs in the genus Microvelia ( Veliidae ) can travel at up to 17 cm / s , twice as fast as they can walk , by this means .
= = = Flight = = =
Flight is well developed in the Hemiptera although mostly used for short distance movement and dispersal . Wing development is sometimes related to environmental conditions . In aphids , both winged and wingless forms occur with winged forms produced in greater numbers when food resources are depleted . Aphids and whiteflies can sometimes be transported very long distances by atmospheric updrafts and high altitude winds .
= = = Jumping = = =
Many Auchenorrhyncha including representatives of the cicadas , leafhoppers , treehoppers , planthoppers , and froghoppers are adapted for jumping ( saltation ) . Treehoppers , for example , jump by rapidly depressing their hind legs . Before jumping , the hind legs are raised and the femora are pressed tightly into curved indentations in the coxae . Treehoppers can attain a take @-@ off velocity of up to 2 @.@ 7 metres per second and an acceleration of up to 250 g . The instantaneous power output is much greater than that of normal muscle , implying that energy is stored and released to catapult the insect into the air . Cicadas , which are much larger , extend their hind legs for a jump in under a millisecond , again implying elastic storage of energy for sudden release .
= = = Sedentary lifestyles = = =
In contrast , most Sternorrhyncha females are sedentary or completely sessile , attached to their host plants by their thin feeding stylets which cannot be taken out of the plant quickly .
= = Ecological roles = =
= = = Feeding modes = = =
= = = = Herbivores = = = =
Most hemipterans are phytophagous , using their sucking and piercing mouthparts to feed on plant sap . These include cicadas , leafhoppers , treehoppers , planthoppers , froghoppers , aphids , whiteflies , scale insects , and some other groups . Some are monophages , being host specific and only found on one plant taxon , others are oligophages , feeding on a few plant groups , while others again are less discriminating polyphages and feed on many species of plant . The relationship between hemipterans and plants appears to be ancient , with piercing and sucking of plants evident in the Early Devonian period .
Hemipterans can dramatically cut the mass of affected plants , especially in major outbreaks . They sometimes also change the mix of plants by predation on seeds or feeding on roots of certain species . Some sap @-@ suckers move from one host to another at different times of year . Many aphids spend the winter as eggs on a woody host plant and the summer as parthogenetically reproducing females on a herbaceous plant .
Phloem sap , which has a higher concentration of sugars and nitrogen , is under positive pressure unlike the more dilute xylem sap . Most of the Sternorrhyncha and a number of Auchenorrhynchan groups feed on phloem . Phloem feeding is common in the Fulgoromorpha , most Cicadellidae and in the Heteroptera . The Typhlocybine Cicadellids specialize in feeding on non @-@ vascular mesophyll tissue of leaves , which is more nutritious than the leaf epidermis . Most Heteroptera also feed on mesophyll tissue where they are more likely to encounter defensive secondary plant metabolites which often leads to the evolution of host specificity . Obligate xylem feeding is a special habit that is found in the Auchenorrhyncha among Cicadoidea , Cercopoidea and in Cicadelline Cicadellids . Some phloem feeders may take to xylem sap facultatively , especially when facing dehydration . Xylem feeders tend to be polyphagous ; to overcome the negative pressure of xylem requires a special cibarial pump . Phloem feeding hemiptera typically have symbiotic micro @-@ organisms in their gut that help to convert amino acids . Phloem feeders produce honeydew from their anus . A variety of organisms that feed on honeydew form symbiotic associations with phloem @-@ feeders . Phloem sap is a sugary liquid low in amino acids , so insects have to process large quantities to meet their nutritional requirements . Xylem sap is even lower in amino acids and contains monosaccharides rather than sucrose , as well as organic acids and minerals . No digestion is required ( except for the hydrolysis of sucrose ) and 90 % of the nutrients in the xylem sap can be utilised . Some phloem sap feeders selectively mix phloem and xylem sap to control the osmotic potential of the liquid consumed . A striking adaptation to a very dilute diet is found in many hemipterans : a filter chamber , a part of the gut looped back on itself as a countercurrent exchanger , which permits nutrients to be separated from excess water . The residue , mostly water with sugars and amino acids , is quickly excreted as sticky " honey dew " , notably from aphids but also from other Auchenorrhycha and Sternorrhyncha .
Some Sternorrhyncha including Psyllids and some aphids are gall formers . These sap @-@ sucking hemipterans inject fluids containing plant hormones into the plant tissues inducing the production of tissue that covers to protects the insect and also act as sinks for nutrition that they feed on . The hackleberry gall psyllid for example , causes a woody gall on the leaf petioles of the hackleberry tree it infests , and the nymph of another psyllid produces a protective lerp out of hardened honeydew .
= = = = Predators = = = =
Most other hemipterans are predatory , feeding on other insects , or even small vertebrates . This is true of many aquatic species which are predatory , either as nymphs or adults . The predatory shield bug for example stabs caterpillars with its beak and sucks out the body fluids . The saliva of predatory heteropterans contains digestive enzymes such as proteinase and phospholipase , and in some species also amylase . The mouthparts of these insects are adapted for predation . There are toothed stylets on the mandibles able to cut into and abrade tissues of their prey . There are further stylets on the maxillae , adapted as tubular canals to inject saliva and to extract the pre @-@ digested and liquified contents of the prey .
Some species attack pest insects and are used in biological control . One of these is the spined soldier bug ( Podisus maculiventris ) that sucks body fluids from larvae of the Colorado beetle and the Mexican bean beetle .
= = = = Haematophagic " parasites " = = = =
A few hemipterans are haematophagic ( often described as " parasites " ) , feeding on the blood of larger animals . These include bedbugs and the triatomine kissing bugs of the assassin bug family Reduviidae , which can transmit the dangerous Chagas disease . The first known hemipteran to feed in this way on vertebrates was the extinct assassin bug Triatoma dominicana found fossilized in amber and dating back about twenty million years . Faecal pellets fossilised beside it show that it transmitted a disease @-@ causing Trypanosoma and the amber included hairs of the likely host , a bat .
= = = As symbionts = = =
Some species of ant protect and farm aphids ( Sternorrhyncha ) and other sap @-@ sucking hemipterans , gathering and eating the honeydew that these hemipterans secrete . The relationship is symbiotic , as both ant and aphid benefit . Ants such as the yellow anthill ant , Lasius flavus , breed aphids of at least four species , Geoica utricularia , Tetraneura ulmi , Forda marginata and Forda formicaria , taking eggs with them when they found a new colony ; in return , these aphids are obligately associated with the ant , breeding mainly or wholly asexually inside anthills . Ants may also protect the plant bugs from their natural enemies , removing the eggs of predatory beetles and preventing access by parasitic wasps .
Some leafhoppers ( Auchenorrhyncha ) are similarly " milked " by ants . In the Corcovado rain forest of Costa Rica , wasps compete with ants to protect and milk leafhoppers ; the leafhoppers preferentially gave more honeydew , more often , to the wasps , which were larger and may have offered better protection .
= = = As prey : defences against predators and parasites = = =
Hemiptera form prey to predators including vertebrates , such as birds , and other invertebrates such as ladybirds . In response , hemipterans have evolved antipredator adaptations . Ranatra may feign death ( thanatosis ) . Others such as Carpocoris purpureipennis secrete toxic fluids to ward off arthropod predators ; some Pentatomidae such as Dolycoris are able to direct these fluids at an attacker . Toxic cardenolide compounds are accumulated by the heteropteran Oncopeltus fasciatus when it consumes milkweeds , while the coreid stinkbug Amorbus rubiginosus acquires 2 @-@ hexenal from its food plant , Eucalyptus . Some long @-@ legged bugs mimic twigs , rocking to and fro to simulate the motion of a plant part in the wind . The nymph of the Masked hunter bug camouflages itself with sand grains , using its hind legs and tarsal fan to form a double layer of grains , coarser on the outside . The Amazon rain forest cicada Hemisciera maculipennis display bright red deimatic flash coloration on their hindwings when threatened ; the sudden contrast helps to startle predators , giving the cicadas time to escape . The coloured patch on the hindwing is concealed at rest by an olive green patch of the same size on the forewing , enabling the insect to switch rapidly from cryptic to deimatic behaviour .
Some hemipterans such as firebugs have bold aposematic warning coloration , often red and black , which appear to deter passerine birds . Many hemipterans including aphids , scale insects and especially the planthoppers secrete wax to protect themselves from threats such as fungi , parasitoidal insects and predators , as well as abiotic factors like desiccation . Hard waxy coverings are especially important in the sedentary Sternorrhyncha such as scale insects , which have no means of escape from predators ; other Sternorrhyncha evade detection and attack by creating and living inside plant galls . Nymphal Cicadoidea and Cercopoidea have glands attached to the Malpighian tubules in their proximal segment that produce mucopolysaccharides , which form the froth around spittlebugs , offering a measure of protection .
Parental care is found in many species of Hemiptera especially in members of the Membracidae and numerous Heteroptera . In many species of shield bug , females stand guard over their egg clusters to protect them from egg parasitoids and predators . In the aquatic Belostomatidae , females lay their eggs on the back of the male which guards the eggs . Protection provided by ants is common in the Auchenorrhyncha .
= = Interaction with humans = =
= = = As pests = = =
Although many species of Hemiptera are significant pests of crops and garden plants , including many species of aphid and scale insects , other species are harmless . The damage done is often not so much the deprivation of the plant of its sap , but the fact that they transmit serious viral diseases between plants . They often produce copious amounts of honeydew which encourages the growth of sooty mould . Significant pests include the cottony cushion scale , a pest of citrus fruit trees , the green peach aphid and other aphids which attack crops worldwide and transmit diseases , and jumping plant lice which are often host plant @-@ specific and transmit diseases .
= = = For pest control = = =
Members of the families Reduviidae , Phymatidae and Nabidae are obligate predators . Some predatory species are used in biological pest control ; these include various nabids , and even some members of families that are primarily phytophagous , such as the genus Geocoris in the family Lygaeidae . Other hemipterans are omnivores , alternating between a plant @-@ based and an animal @-@ based diet . For example , Dicyphus hesperus is used to control whitefly on tomatoes but also sucks sap , and if deprived of plant tissues will die even if in the presence of whiteflies .
= = = Insect products = = =
Other hemipterans have positive uses for humans , such as in the production of the dyestuff carmine ( cochineal ) . The FDA has created guidelines for how to declare when it has been added to a product . The scale insect Dactylopius coccus produces the brilliant red @-@ coloured carminic acid to deter predators . Up to 100 @,@ 000 scale insects need to be collected and processed to make a kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lbs ) of cochineal dye . A similar number of lac bugs are needed to make a kilogram of shellac , a brush @-@ on colourant and wood finish . Additional uses of this traditional product include the waxing of citrus fruits to extend their shelf @-@ life , and the coating of pills to moisture @-@ proof them , provide slow @-@ release or mask the taste of bitter ingredients .
= = = As human parasites and disease vectors = = =
Chagas disease is a modern @-@ day tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and transmitted by kissing bugs , so @-@ called because they suck human blood from around the lips while a person sleeps .
The bed bug , Cimex lectularius , is an external parasite of humans . It lives in bedding and is mainly active at night , feeding on human blood , generally without being noticed . Bed bugs mate by traumatic insemination ; the male pierces the female 's abdomen and injects his sperm into a secondary genital structure , the spermalege . The sperm travel in the female 's blood ( haemolymph ) to sperm storage structures ( seminal conceptacles ) ; they are released from there to fertilise her eggs inside her ovaries .
= = = As food = = =
Some larger hemipterans such as cicadas are used as food in Asian countries such as China , and they are much esteemed in Malawi and other African countries . Insects have a high protein content and good food conversion ratios , but most hemipterans are too small to be a useful component of the human diet . At least nine species of Hemiptera are eaten worldwide .
= = = In art and literature = = =
Cicadas have featured in literature since the time of Homer 's Iliad , and as motifs in decorative art from the Chinese Shang dynasty ( 1766 @-@ 1122 B.C. ) . They are described by Aristotle in his History of Animals and by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History ; their mechanism of sound production is mentioned by Hesiod in his poem Works and Days " when the Skolymus flowers , and the tuneful Tettix sitting on his tree in the weary summer season pours forth from under his wings his shrill song " .
= = = In mythology and folklore = = =
Among the bugs , cicadas in particular have been used as money , in folk medicine , to forecast the weather , to provide song ( in China ) , and in folklore and myths around the world .
= = = Threats = = =
Large @-@ scale cultivation of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis in the Amazon basin damages freshwater habitats and reduces the diversity of aquatic and semi @-@ aquatic Heteroptera . Climate change may be affecting the global migration of hemipterans including the potato leafhopper , Empoasca fabae . Warming is correlated with the severity of potato leafhopper infestation , so increased warming may worsen infestations in future .
= Tech Tower =
The Lettie Pate Whitehead Evans Administration Building , commonly known as Tech Tower , is a historic building and focal point of the central campus of the Georgia Institute of Technology ( Georgia Tech ) in Atlanta , Georgia , US .
Located at 225 North Avenue NW in Midtown Atlanta , it was erected in 1888 as the Academic Building , with classrooms to complement the hands @-@ on training in the adjacent shop building . It was the second edifice completed on the Georgia Tech campus and it is the oldest surviving one .
Tech Tower has achieved local , cultural , and historical significance . Monuments and plaques commemorating philanthropy towards Georgia Tech adorn the building and surrounding landscape . The red brick , Victorian @-@ style building is the architectural anchor of the Georgia Institute of Technology Historic District , a landmark of tradition and school spirit , and the present @-@ day administrative hub of the Institute . It has been the site of many ceremonies and important events , including a visit by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt and its dedication in honor of Lettie Pate Whitehead Evans , " Tech 's greatest benefactor . "
Lighted signs spelling TECH hang on each of the four sides of the seven @-@ story central tower , dominating the building 's facade and visible from many parts of the Georgia Tech campus and surrounding area . Georgia Tech students have several times stolen the letter ' T ' from one of these signs , a prank once tolerated but now strictly forbidden .
= = History = =
In 1887 , the state of Georgia acquired 9 acres ( 3 @.@ 6 ha ) of land from Atlanta pioneer Richard Peters that would form the original campus of what was then called the Georgia School of Technology , as well as the site of its first two structures . The state hired the well @-@ known architectural firm Bruce & Morgan to design an Academic Building , containing " ample accommodations in halls , offices , apparatus rooms , recitation and lecture rooms , free hand and mechanical drawing rooms , library and chapel , " as well as a Shop Building , in which " boiler and engine rooms , wood shop , machine shop , forge room and foundry " were located .
Both buildings boasted towers and edifices of similar design . The complementary names and purposes of these buildings reflected the School 's founding principles of valuing both theory and practice , while their similar appearance emphasized the equal standing of these principles . Construction work , contracted by Angus McGilvray with his low bid of US $ 43 @,@ 250 ( $ 1 @.@ 14 million in 2016 ) , began with the Academic Building in June 1887 ; the building was completed in September 1888 . The Shop Building , completed shortly afterward , was destroyed by fire in 1892 and rebuilt more modestly without a tower . Following this , the Academic Building , later known as Tech Tower , became the oldest building on the Georgia Tech campus , a distinction it continues to hold more than a century later .
On October 20 , 1905 , U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt visited the Georgia Tech campus . On the steps of Tech Tower , Roosevelt presented a speech about the importance of engineering education . He then shook hands with each of the 500 students present .
Georgia Tech 's Class of 1922 installed the famous TECH signs on all four sides of Tech Tower in 1918 , giving rise to the building 's present nickname . Their purpose , as defined by the donors during their first year at Georgia Tech , was to " light the spirit of Tech to the four points of the compass . " The signs were originally made of wood and painted white and gold – the Institute colors . In the 1930s , lightbulbs were affixed to the signs to illuminate them more effectively than the earlier ground @-@ based spotlights . In 1949 , the TECH signs were supplemented by neon lighting in metal frames .
In 1978 , Tech Tower and the surrounding 9 acres ( 3 @.@ 6 ha ) of the original campus were added to the National Register of Historic Places as the Georgia Institute of Technology Historic District . Near the entrance to Tech Tower , a historical marker maintained by the Georgia Historical Society commemorates this listing as well as the early history of the Georgia Tech campus .
On May 22 , 1998 , Tech Tower was officially renamed the Lettie Pate Whitehead Evans Administration Building in a ceremony presided over by Tech president G. Wayne Clough . Although neither she nor her husbands attended Georgia Tech as a student , Lettie Pate Whitehead Evans was a longtime benefactor of the Institute , contributing over $ 340 million through her philanthropic organization , the Lettie Pate Evans Foundation .
Tech Tower 's continuous use since its completion in 1888 has required occasional maintenance and refurbishment . It underwent extensive renovations in 1965 with a focus on remodeling the building 's interior layout . During this time , the library and chapel were replaced with modern office space and furnishings . In contrast , efforts directed towards the exterior of the building have aimed to preserve its historic appearance . A restoration project called the " Tech Tower Renovation " began in 1987 , spearheaded by alumnus Eugene M. " Gene " Clary 's gift of new copper shingles with which to replace Tech Tower 's aging roof tiles . Clary first suggested gold @-@ colored shingles , but John Patrick Crecine , Georgia Tech 's president at the time , insisted on copper shingles to match the building 's original construction materials . One of these shingles and a small marker inside the Tech Tower entrance lobby commemorate Clary and his donation . Additional restoration of Tech Tower 's exterior and the Georgia Institute of Technology Historic District , funded by the Class of 1950 and Class of 1975 , began in 2000 . As part of Phase I of the Georgia Tech Master Plan of 1997 , the area was made " more pedestrian @-@ friendly " with the removal of access roads and the addition of landscaping improvements , benches , and other facilities .
= = Structure and appearance = =
Tech Tower is built in the Victorian style with Romanesque Revival influences . The building 's original specifications , according to Georgia Tech 's first Annual Catalogue Announcement published in 1889 , are listed as 130 feet ( 40 m ) wide and 120 feet ( 37 m ) deep . It is constructed primarily of red brick and trimmed with granite . The gabled roof , originally terra cotta , was later replaced by copper shingles . The main complex of the building stands four stories high plus a basement . The tower portion stands seven stories high and is topped with four lighted TECH signs ( one on each side ) and a high pitched roof . The main entrance to the building is accessed by ascending a small staircase and entering a small porch which forms the base of Tech Tower . Most of the building 's windows are simple rectangular frames , with the exception of those on the third floor , which are arched . The entire complex sits on the crest of a tree @-@ dotted hill , giving it the appearance of being larger than it actually is .
= = = Surroundings = = =
As the oldest building on the Georgia Tech campus , Tech Tower has accumulated a number of peripheral monuments and sites of interest over the years . Two walkways encircle the building , including the Tower Walk , donated by the Class of 1950 in 2000 . Georgia Tech 's first class memorial , a marble drinking fountain , was donated in 1911 by the Class of 1903 and is situated east of Tech Tower 's main entrance . Also near the main entrance to Tech Tower is a marbled pair of benches donated by the Class of 1925 in memory of those who died in World War I. A few feet away stands a marbled bench memorial to Paul Howes Norcross , a 1902 Georgia Tech alumnus and former ASCE president who perished in the Norman boat disaster of May 8 , 1925 . The headstone of Sideways the dog is located near Tech Tower 's rear entrance , as is an informational placard detailing Tech Tower 's early history , donated by the Class of 1932 . A staircase donated by the ANAK Society in 1921 connects Tech Tower to the adjacent D. P. Savant Building via a continuous sidewalk . Finally , a steam @-@ driven air compressor , colloquially known as the " steam engine , " sits prominently at the top of the hill near Tech Tower as a reminder of the school 's industrial roots .
= = Modern use = =
As its official name suggests , Tech Tower is primarily used for administrative purposes . It houses the Office of the Registrar , the Office of Capital Planning and Space Management ( CPSM ) , the Internal Auditing Department , and offices for the Center for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning ( CETL ) . In addition , the deans of the College of Engineering and the College of Sciences have offices in Tech Tower .
Tech Tower is considered an iconic representation of Georgia Tech and of higher education in Atlanta . It is often featured in marketing materials and merchandise for the Institute and its silhouette is recognized throughout the Atlanta metropolitan area . The Tower , Georgia Tech 's undergraduate research journal , is named after Tech Tower . Kessler Campanile , a stylized bell tower built on the Georgia Tech campus as part of an Institute @-@ wide branding campaign in the mid @-@ 1990s , was designed to look like a modernized version of Tech Tower . The campanile is now featured in all Georgia Tech logos , though some have argued that Tech Tower itself would be a more appropriate symbol .
= = Stealing the ' T ' = =
Students have stolen the huge , symbolic letter ' T ' on the Tech Tower 's TECH signs a number of times . The ' T ' is then returned at the halftime of the homecoming football game , and the students ' achievement celebrated . Tradition dictates that the first ' T ' to be stolen should be the one facing east , as this can most easily be seen from the Downtown Connector . The groups of students responsible for ' T ' thefts generally assume dramatic pseudonyms , such as the " Mystic Marauders " or the " Sneaky Four . " Pervasive rumors of a detailed plan held in the Institute 's archives to execute " the perfect T theft , " crafted by an unnamed Georgia Tech fraternity , are apparently spurious .
= = = Notable thefts = = =
The ' T ' was first stolen in April 1969 by a secret group of Georgia Tech fraternity brothers calling themselves the " Magnificent Seven " . Inspired by a similar prank that had taken place in 1968 at Harvard University , the students planned the theft as a means of commemorating Institute President Edwin D. Harrison 's retirement . The ' T ' was returned several days later via helicopter at the behest of Atlanta mayor Ivan Allen .
On the evening of November 6 , 1997 , the ' T 's were nearly stolen from the north , south and west sides of Tech Tower by five students wielding hacksaws , tin snips , and rappelling equipment . The students were caught by Georgia Tech police acting on a tip provided by an anonymous informant . The stolen north ' T ' was recovered in the back of a blue Ford Explorer that was parked at the Copper Kettle on Howell Mill Road , also in response to an anonymous tip . Each student was required to pay $ 2 @,@ 446 @.@ 75 in damages ( $ 3 @,@ 607 in 2016 ) although criminal charges were not filed . The Georgia Tech Office of Facilities reinstalled the ' T ' on January 31 , 1998 , 87 days after its attempted theft .
One of the most theatrical thefts of the ' T ' occurred over the summer of 1999 . The ' T ' on the north face of Tech Tower was stolen by a group of " six or seven people " on the morning of June 3 , 1999 . The perpetrators wrote a letter detailing the theft to the editorial staff of The Technique , Georgia Tech 's student newspaper . The letter , an abridged version of which was subsequently printed in the summer issue of The Technique , described the process of stealing the ' T ' by lowering it via a rope and moving it to a secret location . The letter also included a photograph of the ' T ' " on vacation " in Berkeley Springs , West Virginia . Finally , the perpetrators indicated plans to return the ' T ' during the Georgia Tech Homecoming Parade , according to tradition , as long as no criminal charges would be brought against them . The letter was signed by fictitious Georgia Tech alumnus George P. Burdell . However , the Institute released a notice that those who stole the ' T ' would be harshly punished , and therefore the ' T ' remains to this day at an undisclosed location .
The replacement ' T ' on the north face of Tech Tower was stolen on May 28 , 2001 by three students , two of whom were found guilty of numerous conduct code violations by the Undergraduate Judiciary Cabinet and subsequently suspended . The students had successfully removed the ' T ' from its mount but were caught in the act by authorities when the removal triggered an alarm . In October 2005 , a replica of the ' T ' was stolen from the Student Services Building and returned two days later .
Around midday on March 18 , 2014 , it was discovered that the north @-@ facing ' T ' had been stolen from Tech Tower . In this case , the thief admitted guilt after detectives approached him at his residence that afternoon , and was suspended through the following summer , while also having to pay a restitution fee and tuition to retake his nearly completed Spring 2014 classes . To handle this financial burden , the restitution fee alone totaling $ 14 @,@ 823 @.@ 98 , a GoFundMe was created by a friend of the thief that was well known on campus , to assure its legitimacy , without revealing the thief 's identity ( the friend 's name has since been removed from the post because of negative pressure from the GT administration ) .
The tradition of stealing the ' T ' from Tech Tower has inspired copycat crimes involving other signage . During a Georgia Tech – NC State football game on November 4 , 2006 , the second ' T ' from a large nc state university banner mysteriously vanished from the upper deck of Carter @-@ Finley Stadium where it had been hanging . It was widely assumed across the Tech campus that the prank was pulled off by a group of Georgia Tech students in an homage to the longstanding Tech Tower tradition ; however , it is possible that the T in the banner came loose and fell to the stands below . Another copy cat incident occurred some time after the 2012 football game with Virginia Tech when vandals , believed to be Yellow Jacket fans , pried a T off of the sign in front of Virginia Tech 's Lane Stadium . The ' T ' was later dropped off at night to the Georgia Tech Police Department . The Georgia Tech president returned it to the Virginia Tech president in September 2012 along with an apology .
Similar copycat crimes have occurred on the Georgia Tech campus . In late 2001 , a group of Georgia Tech students calling itself the " Caldwell Liberation Army " stole 32 ' T 's from signs on 16 campus buildings over a period of two nights . The students , who were not caught , vandalized the signs to express their bitterness at being displaced from Caldwell Residence Hall while renovations were taking place . In February 2006 , it was noticed that small vinyl ' T ' stickers were being stolen from informational signs located around the Georgia Tech campus , creating confusion for visitors and new students . According to the Georgia Tech Student Government Association ( SGA ) , ' T ' thefts across campus cost the Institute over $ 100 @,@ 000 from 2010 – 11 . The SGA discouraged these thefts , which they emphasized did not constitute a true Georgia Tech tradition : " The tradition is stealing the ' T ' from Tech Tower – no other ' T 's were ever a part of this tradition . " The campaign drew national press coverage .
= = = Institute reaction = = =
The Georgia Tech administration 's position on stealing the ' T ' from Tech Tower has varied over the years . When the ' T ' was first stolen in 1969 , interim Institute President Vernon Crawford was so upset he considered canceling classes until it was returned . Afterwards , subsequent presidents opted to turn a blind eye to the practice , with one president , John Patrick Crecine , going so far as to endorse it .
Today , stealing the ' T ' is prohibited and is officially punishable with expulsion , although this has not happened in practice . After a Georgia Tech visitor was accidentally killed while climbing the Alexander Memorial Coliseum in 1999 , Institute President G. Wayne Clough banned stealing of the ' T ' and the climbing of any Institute building , due to the risk of fatal falls and the potential for damage to the building . Clough also expressed concern over the " incredibly expensive liability litigation " Georgia Tech could face in the event of an accident . To discourage climbing , security features such as pressure @-@ sensitive roof tiling , fiber optic cabling running throughout the letters , and an audible alarm have been added to the ' T ' to help prevent its theft .
In 2011 , the Georgia Tech Student Government Association ( SGA ) launched a " Keep the ' T ' in Tech " campaign to discourage thefts of ' T 's from signage around the campus . The week @-@ long campaign took place from September 26 – 30 and included an online petition to be published in The Technique , an open forum for discussing the issue , an amnesty day for returning stolen ' T 's , and " Live the True Tradition , " an evening event focused on the tradition of stealing the ' T ' from Tech Tower .
= Dryandra Woodland =
The Dryandra Woodland is a nature conservation area in Western Australia within the Shires of Cuballing , Williams and Wandering , about 164 kilometres ( 102 mi ) south @-@ east of Perth and 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) north @-@ west of the town of Narrogin . It is a complex of 17 distinct blocks managed by the Western Australian Department of Environment and Conservation and spread over approximately 50 kilometres ( 30 mi ) separated by areas of agricultural land . The area is considered to be one of the state 's major conservation areas , and although it is far from pristine due to its history of logging operations , a number of species of threatened fauna are rebuilding populations through the removal of introduced predators such as foxes and feral cats .
The combined area of the woodland is 28 @,@ 066 hectares ( 108 @.@ 36 mi2 ) , with individual blocks ranging in size from 87 hectares ( 0 @.@ 34 mi2 ) to 12 @,@ 283 hectares ( 47 @.@ 43 mi2 ) . Part of Dryandra Woodland is listed on the Register of the National Estate by the Australian Heritage Council .
In addition to the area 's use as a wildlife refuge , it has anthropological significance with the indigenous Noongar people having strong cultural links there .
= = Description = =
The Dryandra Woodland is found within the south @-@ western province of the Yilgarn craton , " an ancient plateau composed mainly of granite , with intrusions of dolerite and capped with laterite . Past weathering of the plateau in the Dryandra area has produced a gently undulating countryside " .
The woodland lies close to the boundary between the Mallee and Avon Wheatbelt biogeographic regions of the Southwest Botanical Province . It is situated on the western edge of the state 's wheatbelt region : the area is a rare remnant of the open eucalypt woodlands which covered much of the wheatbelt prior to land clearing which started from the 1890s . Dryandra 's flora is transitional between that of the moister jarrah forest ( generally to the south ) and the semi @-@ arid wheatbelt ( to the east ) . It is known particularly for its extensive stands of wandoo ( Eucalyptus wandoo ) , powderbark wandoo ( E. accedens ) and salmon white gum ( E. lane @-@ poolei ) , and provides a haven for native flora and fauna while much of the surrounding country is badly affected by salinity . Stands of jarrah ( E. marginata ) and marri ( Corymbia calophylla ) provide additional top cover , and the understorey contains rock sheoak ( Allocasuarina huegeliana ) and extensive areas of Banksia ser . Dryandra . Until early 2007 this latter shrub was classified as a separate genus Dyrandra after which the woodland is named . Species include golden dryandra ( Banksia nobilis ) and prickly dryandra ( B. armata ) . An arboretum on Tomingley Road holds a range of Australian native plants .
The 17 lots are surrounded by a largely cleared and agricultural landscape . In some cases , road reserves and other linking corridors of uncleared vegetation remain between the woodland islands . Some neighbouring landowners have revegetated areas of previously cleared private land to form additional corridors between these remnants . For certain animals , movement between blocks is necessary on a daily , seasonal or intermittent basis , to provide access to food , shelter , breeding sites and partners .
Threatened fauna receive extra protection within the ' Barna Mia ' animal sanctuary , which is open to visitors by appointment for nocturnal tours on alternate evenings . Native marsupial fauna include the woylie ( Bettongia penicillata ) , bilby ( Macrotis lagotis ) , mala ( Lagorchestes hirsutus ) , boodie ( Bettongia lesueur ) , and marl ( or western barred bandicoot : Perameles bougainville ) . The quenda ( or southern brown bandicoot : Isoodon obesulus ) is locally extinct but may be reintroduced .
The woodland 's position on the transition zone between the wheatbelt and the jarrah forest determines amphibian populations , with several species existing at the eastern or western limits of their range . Herpetofauna includes the western marsh frog ( or golden flecked burrowing frog , Heleioporus barycragus ) which is generally restricted to the western Darling Range . There are at least 98 species of bird in the woodland , including the almost flightless malleefowl ( Leipoa ocellata ) .
Climatically , Dryandra is described as semi @-@ arid , with a warm , dry , Mediterranean climate . It has seven to eight dry months each year with an annual average rainfall of about 500 millimetres ( 20 in ) . Seasonal changes in temperature , rainfall and wind direction are marked and more extreme than coastal areas of the south @-@ west . The wettest months are May through September when about 70 % of the annual rainfall occurs . Meaning daily maximum temperatures are 30 @.@ 9 ° C ( 87 @.@ 6 ° F ) in January and the mean daily minimum of 5 @.@ 6 ° C ( 42 @.@ 1 ° F ) is in August .
= = Role in fauna and flora protection = =
The following fauna are known to be living in the woodland and have a conservation status of ' threatened ' as recorded in the IUCN Red List :
Major populations of three nationally endangered species exist in the woodlands : the woylie , the red tailed phascogale , and over 50 percent of the total known population of numbat .
Over 800 native flora have been identified within the Dryandra Woodland , including 15 that have been declared priority species under the Department of Environment and Conservation 's Declared Rare and Priority Flora List . The conservation codes of P2 thru P4 are for flora that are considered rare but have some populations in areas where they are thought not be under immediate threat ; higher numbers denote a lower threat level .
= = Mallet = =
In the early 1900s a significant industry established within the forest and surrounding region harvesting bark from brown mallet trees ( Eucalyptus astringens ) , a species of eucalypt which grows on and near laterite soils in parts of the southern wheatbelt . Bark sent to Germany for analysis was found to contain more than 40 % of high quality , water @-@ soluble tannins suitable for the production of quality leather by the process of tanning .
By the mid @-@ 1920s , concerns were being raised about the ability of the area to maintain the supply of naturally grown mallet and by 1929 , stands of the naturally grown mallet had almost disappeared . So , between 1925 and 1962 mallet plantations were established under the management of the Forestry Department which , during the Depression , provided employment for sustenance workers who planted some 4 @,@ 000 hectares ( 9 @,@ 900 acres ) of mallet , starting near ' Lol Gray ' lookout . In 1933 , 50 forestry workers were employed in the plantations . Seven steam trains and a sawmill supported the industry within the woodland . Two dams - ' Lol Gray ' and the ' Old Mill Dam ' provided good quality water to run the trains , as well as domestic water supplies which were carted by train to nearby towns including Narrogin .
Mallet bark was exported in ground form and was handled by a number of Fremantle exporters , notably Henry Will & Co . , Rosenstamms and Joyce Bros. Production after 1959 declined rapidly , coinciding with a world glut , increased royalty and production costs , and increased competition from synthetic tannins . The industry had effectively collapsed by the early 1960s .
Replanted forests now extend over approximately 30 % , or 8 @,@ 300 hectares ( 32 mi2 ) , of Dryandra . Harvesting from plantation areas for timber production continues today under the Department of Environment and Conservation 's management plan , which includes a vision for the area over the next 100 years . Conservation studies have shown that the managed harvesting will have no detrimental impact on the fauna habitat .
In 1960 , Arthur Hunter , a local farmer , started manufacturing tool handles from naturally fallen and low @-@ grade felled wandoo and mallet . This cottage industry has now expanded to produce over 100 @,@ 000 tool handles each year . As well as tool handles , fencing materials and cutting of firewood for domestic use provide local employment .
= = Noongar use = =
Indigenous peoples occupied the southwest of the state for at least the past 40 @,@ 000 years . In more recent times , thirteen different tribes lived in the region . Collectively , the clans were known as Noongars and the people of the Dryandra area were from the Wiilman tribe .
The Noongar people have strong cultural links with Dryandra which was known as Wilgadjny . Within the complex , five important archaeological sites have been identified to date , including an ochre pit which was used for body decoration and rock art . One Noongar born in 1910 described the ochre pit as being " a very spirity place " and somewhere to be avoided at night . Other known sites include artefact scatters , stone arrangements and a scarred tree , however the woodland has not yet been fully surveyed for significant Aboriginal sites .
Following requests from local Indigenous people , the Department of Environment and Conservation is considering the feasibility of permitting some cultural activities including hunting and camping within the woodland in order to pass on skills to younger members of that community . If permitted , such activities would need to be managed on a sustainable basis to ensure that the conservation goals of the woodland are not compromised .
= = Recent history = =
Almost all of the land within the complex today was classified as a state forest in 1903 as an area for the protection of water catchments and growing wandoo and mallet forests .
In 1962 , a sub @-@ committee of the Western Australian branch of the Australian Academy of Science made recommendations which were reviewed in 1972 and 1974 by the Environmental Protection Authority of Western Australia . In summary , the recommendations were :
" The Committee emphasises the outstanding value of the Dryandra area as wildlife habitat . This is due largely to the protection and management which the area has hitherto received from the Forests Department . The Committee recommends :
that state forests 51 ( ' Lol Gray ' ) and 53 ( ' Montague ' ) remain dedicated to that purpose ;
that no further portions of Dryandra Forest be planted with pines or other exotic species ;
that if any of the mallet plantations are felled they be regenerated to natural bush ; and
that the area be managed by the Forests Department as though it were a fauna and flora reserve and that if at any time the area is relinquished by the Forests Department it be made a Class ' A ' reserve for the Conservation of Flora and Fauna , vested in the WA Wildlife Authority . "
The recommendations were endorsed by the state cabinet in 1976 . Since that time , Dryandra has been managed principally as a nature reserve but also for limited commercial operations related to plantation timber .
In 1995 , a management plan was prepared by CALM ( now known as the Department of Environment and Conservation ) for the Lands and Forest Commission who hold tenure over the state forests which form the woodland . The plan recommended ( amongst other things ) that the entire area be referred to officially as ' Dryandra Woodland ' rather than as various state forests in recognition of its structural difference with the taller and denser forests of the Darling Range . Previously , a smaller section had been referred to as ' Dryandra ' , with other sections known by their various forestry names .
The principal objectives of the plan were :
to achieve conservation , recreation and timber production goals , and in the next 70 to 100 years for the timber production role to be one of research and development ;
to " maintain and restore the natural environment by promoting the appreciation and study of indigenous flora and fauna , and to preserve any feature of archaeological , historic or scientific interest . "
= = Accommodation and tourism = =
Dryandra Woodland attracts approximately 30 @,@ 000 visitors per annum , including 5 @,@ 000 overnight visits at the Dryandra campsite and settlement within the complex . Accommodation is available at the Congelin Camping Ground located near Congelin Dam and at the Lions Dryandra Village which uses restored cottages from the 1920s Forests Department settlement . Adjacent to the cottages is the Currawong Complex which has several Nissen huts acquired from an air force base and now used to accommodate up to 60 people in groups . The Lions Village was established by several Perth based Lions service clubs in 1972 with the intention of providing a holiday camp for disadvantaged children .
Two separate self @-@ drive tours of 20 km ( 12 mi ) and 25 km ( 16 mi ) operate within Dryandra where visitors can follow a marked trail in their own vehicles . On arrival at one of the five or six stop points , an approximate five @-@ minute broadcast through the car 's radio ( tuned to FM frequency 100 MHz ) provides a narrative commentary explaining interesting aspects of the surrounding area . The commentaries are pre @-@ recorded on microchips and broadcast using concealed low power transmitters charged by solar panels . Some of the broadcasts are staged conversations between characters describing day @-@ to @-@ day events in an early forestry worker 's life in Dryandra . Others give a more technical explanation of a particular subject applicable to flora or fauna within a short distance of the car . For example , one stop discusses the naturally occurring poison pea plant ( genus : Gastrolobium spp ) in the woodlands and the extraction and effect of the 1080 poison ( sodium fluoroacetate ) which occurs in the plant . Native mammalian herbivores have evolved with a high level of genetic tolerance to the toxin which is deadly to introduced species including foxes . Baiting programs including the highly successful Western Shield project use 1080 poison to help control foxes without harming native fauna .
In addition , various 30 minute to five @-@ hour bushwalks can be made along signposted trails through the woodlands , ranging in length from one to 12 @.@ 5 kilometres .
= Effects of Hurricane Dean in the Lesser Antilles =
The effects of Hurricane Dean in the Lesser Antilles were spread over five island countries and included 3 fatalities . Hurricane Dean of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season formed in the Atlantic Ocean west of Cape Verde on August 14 , 2007 . The National Hurricane Center 's first Forecast Advisory on the system anticipated that the Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane would pass into the Caribbean through the Lesser Antilles . The storm moved persistently towards the small island chain , strengthening until it passed through the islands three days later on August 17 as a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . It went on to brush the island of Jamaica and reached Category 5 strength before making landfall on Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula .
While crossing the Lesser Antilles , Dean caused moderate damage in St. Lucia , Martinique , and Dominica , where it washed out roads , damaged houses , and killed 6 people . It also devastated the agriculture @-@ dependent economies of those three states , as well as that of Guadeloupe , destroying between 80 % and 100 % of the banana crops . Deaths were reported as far away as Trinidad .
= = Preparations = =
The National Hurricane Center consistently predicted that the storm would intensify and pass through the islands . As Hurricane Dean approached , the island nations began to prepare with a flurry of activity . On August 14 the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency ( CDERA ) placed its Regional Response Mechanism on standby and contacted the National Disaster Coordinators of all member states in the Lesser Antilles . On August 15 the U.S. Agency for International Development ( USAID ) dispatched teams to Barbados , Dominica , and St. Kitts in advance of the hurricane to provide damage assessment should the hurricane affect those islands . At 11 p.m. AST August 15 ( 0300 UTC August 16 ) the respective governments of St. Lucia , Martinique , Saba , St. Eustatius , and Guadeloupe and its dependencies issued Hurricane watches and the government of the Netherlands Antilles issued a tropical storm watch for the island of St. Maarten , as then @-@ Tropical Storm Dean was expected to intensify to hurricane strength and reach the Windward Islands within 36 hours . Authorities in Martinique canceled a memorial to the victims of West Caribbean Airways Flight 708 and began to set up shelters .
At 5 a.m. AST ( 0900 UTC ) August 16 the respective governments of St. Lucia and Dominica issued hurricane warnings in anticipation of Hurricane Dean 's imminent approach . In Dominica , a dozen and a half tourists were evacuated to concrete shelters . The government of Dominica also canceled leave for emergency service personnel and evacuated Princess Margret Hospital , fearing that its roof might be vulnerable to the storm 's winds . At the same time the Meteorological Service of Barbados issued a tropical storm warning for Barbados and a tropical storm watch for St. Vincent . Three hours later , at 8 a.m. AST ( 1200 UTC ) , the Meteorological Service of Antigua issued a tropical storm watch for Montserrat , Antigua , St. Kitts , Nevis and Barbuda . Shortly thereafter the Trinidad and Tobago Meteorological Service issued a tropical storm watch for Grenada and its dependencies .
The Eastern Caribbean Donor Group convened a meeting on August 16 under the Chair of the Resident Representative United Nations Development Programme Barbados in anticipation of the hurricane causing significant damage and member states requiring international assistance . At 11 a.m. AST ( 1500 UTC ) the Barbados Meteorological Service issued tropical storm warnings for St. Vincent and the Grenadines , and the Government of the Netherlands Antilles discontinued the hurricane watch on Saba and St. Eustatius , replacing it with a tropical storm warning . At 5 p.m. AST ( 2100 UTC ) August 16 , roughly 15 hours before Hurricane Dean arrived , the Government of France issued hurricane warnings for Martinique and Guadeloupe and its dependencies , and the NHC issued a tropical storm watch for the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico . At 8 p.m. AST ( 2100 UTC ) August 16 the Meteorological Service of Antigua issued a tropical storm warning for Anguilla . Martinique 's main airport and both of St. Lucia 's commercial airports closed that night when the last airplanes landed as the storm 's outer rainbands began to sweep over the island . At 11 p.m. AST August 16 ( 0300 UTC August 17 ) the NHC upgraded the tropical storm watch on U.S. Virgin Islands to a tropical storm warning . The next morning , August 17 , the center of Hurricane Dean passed between St. Lucia and Martinique . The Meteorological Service of Antigua issued a tropical storm warning for the British Virgin Islands that same morning , and the Eastern Caribbean Donor Group convened a second meeting to finalize the coordination of three Rapid Assessment Teams .
= = Impact = =
The storm entered the Caribbean through the Saint Lucia Channel between St. Lucia and Martinique on the morning of August 17 as a Category 2 storm with winds of 90 knots ( 100 mph , 165 km / h ) .
= = = St. Lucia = = =
Power outages began in some neighborhoods at 6 : 30 p.m. AST ( 2230 UTC ) August 16 , over 12 hours before the storm arrived , and quickly spread over the entire island . The night saw heavy rains , 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 58 inches ) at Hewanorra International Airport , and intense thunderstorms and by morning hurricane force winds peaked at 80 knots ( 90 mph , 145 km / h ) . The winds uprooted trees , downed electricity poles , disabled bridges , triggered landslides , and damaged several roofs . Hurricane Dean tore the corrugated metal roof off Victoria Hospital 's pediatric ward , but its patients had already been evacuated . St. Jude Hospital in Vieux Fort was also damaged when part of the roof blew off its medical ward and fell through the roof of the emergency room . A section of the cafeteria also lost its roof , but no one was injured in either incident .
The capital , Castries , was flooded by the storm surge and high seas deposited boulders and fishing boats on the streets . One person drowned in Sarrot after being swept away by a rain @-@ swollen river while trying to recover a cow . Flooding was also reported in the town of Dennery where a number of residents had to be evacuated . Nationwide , damage to housing and buildings totaled EC $ 800 @,@ 000 . In the worst hit areas of the north , closest to Hurricane Dean 's path , at least 15 roofs were blown off . Two small waterfront houses were completely destroyed in the town of Gros Islet . The heavy seas also sunk or damaged several boats and damaged coastal roads , in some places eroding the land itself . Coastal damage was estimated at $ 700 @,@ 000 .
Although the Ministry of Education reported that eleven schools had sustained a combined total of $ 300 @,@ 000 of damage , the Ministry of Communications , Works , Transport , and Public Utilities reported that most of the country 's other major infrastructure remained functional . They estimated that the cost to clean up all of the roads and drains was $ 900 @,@ 000 and the cost to repair the utilities and communications damage was another $ 505 @,@ 000 . Saint Lucia Air and Sea Ports Authority reported another $ 922 @,@ 000 of damage , but none of these sectors experienced prolonged disruptions to their functionality .
The island 's 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 km2 ) of banana farms in Mabouya Valley , Roseau Valley , and Marc Marc were severely damaged with many of the plantations waterlogged or outright destroyed . An average of 75 % of the crops were lost , with some fields in the Northern Farms losing up to 80 % and in the Roseau Valley losing up to 85 % . The cost to the agriculture industry was $ 13 @.@ 2 million , bringing Hurricane Dean 's total cost to $ 17 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 4 million in 2007 ) or 0 @.@ 5 % of the nation 's GDP .
= = = Martinique = = =
Martinique experienced 160 km / h winds with gusts to 215 km / h . The torrential rainfall , which reached 332 mm ( 13 @.@ 07 inches ) caused flooding throughout the island , with the town of Rivière @-@ Pilote flooding completely . The majority of Martinique 's population were left without electricity , water , telephone , or food . The storm destroyed Martinique 's entire banana crop , and 70 % of the island 's sugar cane plantations .
Three people were killed , many more were injured , and 600 Martiniquans were left homeless . The banana fields were completely destroyed . Officials estimated the damage on the island at about € 250 million ( US $ 337 million ) .
= = = Dominica = = =
In Dominica , a mother and her seven @-@ year @-@ old son died when one of a dozen landslide caused by the heavy rains fell onto their house . Landslides also blocked several roads in the mountainous country . In another incident two people were injured when a tree fell on their house .
Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit initially estimated that 100 to 125 homes were damaged , but in actuality Hurricane Dean damaged many more : 183 houses lost their roofs completely , 205 houses sustained partial damage to their roofs , 43 houses were completely destroyed , 115 houses suffered significant structural damage to components other than their roofs , and 225 non @-@ dwelling buildings were damaged . In total , 771 buildings suffered significant damage .
Princes Margret Hospital , the island 's only hospital , suffered damage to the roofs of the psychiatric and intensive care units . This led to heavy water damage , which also spread into the maternity ward and damaged the electrical system . All of the patients had been evacuated before the storm arrived . Because most equipment and supplies had also been removed , the hurricane 's cost to the health sector was limited to the EC $ 3 million of structural damage .
The storm surge caused EC $ 15 @.@ 5 million of damage to sea walls and another EC $ 15 million of damage to coastal bridges . Floods and landslides contributed EC $ 17 @.@ 6 million of damage to the island 's road network , while river floods destroyed EC $ 45 @.@ 5 million of river walls . Flooding also devastated the agriculture sector and 95 % of the crops were lost . Replanting a rehabilitation of the banana trees , 99 % of which were destroyed , was expected to take several years .
= = = Guadeloupe = = =
Overall damage from Dean is fairly minor in Guadeloupe . However the south of Basse @-@ Terre Island suffered moderate damage and sustained wind gust up were between 74 and 78 mph ( 119 and 126 km / h ) in areas such as Marie Galante and Les Saintes , in the Southern section of the island and destroyed 80 % and cost € 150 million ( US $ 220 million ) in Guadeloupe of the banana crop . The country 's main exports .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Although the winds and rain of the hurricane did not reach as far south as the islands of Trinidad and Tobago , sea swells on the east coast killed two people as they tried to secure a boat .
= = Aftermath = =
St. Lucia and Dominica activated their Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency ( CDERA ) response systems to help assess and correct the storm 's damages . CDERA acknowledged their requests and , based on preliminary damage assessments , initiated a Level Two response which allowed for the event to be managed at the country level with regional assistance limited to technical support and resources where required . Barbados , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , and Grenada also activated their CDERA response systems . Although they were not directly affected by the hurricane they used the opportunity to test the systems ' operating procedures . The other affected islands of the Lesser Antilles , Martinique and Guadeloupe , are not members of CDERA .
CDERA dispatched a technical support team of Bajans , Montserratians , and Grenadians to Dominica on August 22 to assist in developing a damage assessment . The Government of Venezuela sent 500 blankets , 500 sheets , 3 large tents , 120 units of tarpaulin , water , and medical supplies to Dominica . The Government of Canada pledged $ 2 million in immediate aid to the afflicted countries . The U.S. Government , through the U.S. Agency for International Development ( USAID ) , declared a disaster in Dominica and St. Lucia and provided $ 25 @,@ 000 and 75 rolls of plastic sheeting to Dominica for emergency shelter repairs and an additional 50 rolls of plastic sheeting to St. Lucia through its National Emergency Management Organization . CDERA petitioned the Caribbean Development Bank for a US $ 100 @,@ 000 relief grant to assist with relief efforts and damage repairs in St. Lucia and Dominica .
Although St. Lucia suffered significant damage to its residential structures and agricultural land , its airports and hotels were operational within days having needed only small @-@ scale repair work . Hospitals and other essential services kept running on standby power supplied by independent generators to assist in the cleanup and recovery efforts . Roads connecting the north and south of the island were quickly cleared . LUCELEC , the nation 's only electricity provider , worked around the clock to repair dozens of downed electrical poles and restored electricity by August 21 . The rest of the island 's infrastructure weathered the storm . Two shelters were opened for hurricane @-@ affected residence , and USAID / OFDA provided US $ 40 @,@ 432 of assistance to the island .
Dominican Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit declared August 19 , 2007 to be a national day of prayer and thanks @-@ giving . The destruction of 546 residences forced approximately 1 @,@ 000 people into 100 shelters . A USAID disaster specialist liaised with the Dominican Office of Disaster Management and arraigned for assistance to the order of US $ 60 @,@ 648 of relief supplies and $ 25 @,@ 000 of Emergency Shelter supplies .
In the days after to storm , some residents of Martinique , still without electricity , food , water , or telephones , took to looting stores and bakeries . Utility workers from Guadeloupe , French Guiana , and France arrived on August 19 to help restore electricity .
The Secretary of State for the French Overseas , Christian Estrosi , visited Martinique shortly after the hurricane to inspect the damage . He was joined by French Prime Minister , François Fillon on August 22 and the two surveyed the damaged to Guadeloupe and Martinique , the two hardest hit French colonies . A week after the storm hit 11 @,@ 000 people in Martinique were still without telephone and electricity and in the worst hit parts of southern Guadeloupe the water was still not drinkable . Banana crops in Guadeloupe , 80 % of which were destroyed by Dean , will not recover until March , 2008 .
= Slow Life =
Slow Life is an EP by the Welsh alternative rock band Super Furry Animals , released in 2004 . The EP was made available as a free download and also saw a limited CD release , bundled with remix album Phantom Phorce . Lead track " Slow Life " appeared on the 2003 album Phantom Power and was originally composed as a purely electronic song by keyboardist Cian Ciaran several years earlier . The band were keen to finish the track and Ciaran encouraged them to jam over his original version — this jam was then edited and made into the finished song . The track " Motherfokker " is a collaboration between the Super Furry Animals and rap group Goldie Lookin Chain .
The EP received mixed reviews although " Slow Life " itself was singled out for praise by many critics . A music video was made to accompany the track directed by Dylan Jones and Paps O 'Maoileoain . The Super Furries appeared in the 2004 film 9 Songs playing " Slow Life " live during a scene in which one of the characters attends a gig by the band at the Brixton Academy .
= = Recording and themes = =
" Slow Life " was written in two stages . According to bassist Guto Pryce the " electronic part " was composed by keyboard player Cian Ciaran " quite a few years " before its eventual release . The band had tried to fit this early , purely electronic , version on previous albums but had " never got ' round to it " . By the time the group came to record Phantom Power they were anxious to release the song , however Ciaran was reluctant to leave it in its original form and encouraged the rest of the band to jam over his original track . According to singer Gruff Rhys the instrumentation was recorded " pretty much live " after which lyrics were written and the band 's 10 @-@ minute jam session was " chopped ... up and made into a composed song " with the electronic section intact . Strings were later added by Sean O 'Hagan . Rhys has stated that renting their own studio in Cardiff has given the band the ability to work on tracks such as " Slow Life " over a period of years — the group visit the studio almost every day and play : " the best parts on any of our records , I think , come out of a couple of us being in our little room in Cardiff at three in the morning , just wigging out and being ecstatic in the music . "
According to guitarist Huw Bunford the track had the working title " Miami Vice " as it featured a drum roll similar to one used in the theme tune to the 80 's television show of the same name . The band decided not to keep this name as they were keen to avoid links with a particular place — Bunford gave the example of the song 's use on a travel documentary about Miami as something the group did not want to see . Some promotional copies of Phantom Power featured " Slow Life " as the first track although it eventually appeared as the last track on the officially released version of the album . Gruff Rhys has stated that the song had to go at either the beginning or the end of the record as it is the " most sonically impressive " track on the album . Rhys has described his lyrics as " regurgitating what we hear on the news , recycled , vomiting them all back " . The Guardian has interpreted the song as a " cutting critique of middle @-@ east colonialism " .
The track " Motherfokker " is a collaboration between the Super Furry Animals and Welsh rappers Goldie Lookin Chain with chorus vocals provided by Cian Ciaran . The two toured together in 2004 and Gruff Rhys has praised the group , stating that " their range of references are insane . They 're extremely bright . They 're crazy . " Rhys has explained that the song is about " an incredibly large aircraft from outer space . [ Goldie Lookin Chain ] are the aliens and it 's about the people of Earth coming together as one " . The two groups have performed the track together several times at Super Furry Animals ' concerts including the 2004 Reading Festival and a date at the Brixton Academy on 22 September 2005 .
= = Release and reception = =
The E.P. was released as a free download from the Placid Casual website on 12 April 2004 . Along with the three tracks that make up the E.P. the promotional music video for " Slow Life " was also available to download in QuickTime and Windows Media Video formats . Limited quantities of the E.P. were also issued on CD , bundled with initial copies of remix album Phantom Phorce on its release on 19 April 2004 . The CD version was housed in a floppy disk style picture sleeve .
Critical reaction was generally mixed with Cokemachineglow calling the EP " forgettable " , stating that , while " Slow Life " " slides perfectly off Phantom Power " , the other two tracks are weak : " Motherfokker " is a vulgar " Pez candy up the nose " with " shoddy guest rapping " from Goldie Lookin Chain and " Lost Control " is barely more than a remix of Phantom Power track " Out of Control " . PopMatters also dismissed " Motherfokker " and " Lost Control " as inessential b @-@ sides and , during their review of 2007 's Hey Venus ! , the NME suggested that " Motherfokker " is " best @-@ suppressed " .
" Slow Life " itself received generally positive reviews ; Pitchfork Media called it a " stunning closer " to Phantom Power , while PopMatters described the song as " the kind of schizophrenic fun we 've come to expect from the band but ... less showy and eager to please , as they control themselves enough to make the jarring , contradicting styles much easier to digest " . Stylus Magazine stated that the " great " track " achieves symbiosis between techno and guitar @-@ pop better than anything else they 've done before " . The BBC agreed calling " Slow Life " the band 's " most successful mindrattling techno attempt so far " . The song was placed at number 46 in the 2003 Festive Fifty on John Peel 's BBC Radio 1 show .
= = Use of " Slow Life " in 9 Songs = =
" Slow Life " is central to the 2004 Michael Winterbottom film 9 Songs , being one of the nine songs mentioned in the title . The movie charts the relationship of main characters Matt and Lisa from their initial meeting to the pair splitting up . Footage of the two attending a series of nine concerts at Brixton Academy , where they initially meet , is interspersed with scenes of the actors performing unsimulated sex . Matt and Lisa are already growing apart when Matt attends a Super Furry Animals concert at the Academy alone . Giving Lisa 's ticket away as she " didn 't want to go " the character comments : " 5000 people in a room and you can still feel alone " . The scene appears roughly forty minutes into the film and shows the band performing " Slow Life " live in its entirety as Matt looks on .
= = Music video = =
A promotional music video was made to accompany " Slow Life " directed by Dylan Jones and Paps O 'Maoileoain . The video features psychedelic , fluorescent images of the band 's faces in close up as they play and sing along with the track . Strobing and fractal images appear at several points throughout the video . As with the other tracks taken from Phantom Power , " Golden Retriever " and " Hello Sunshine " , the video for " Slow Life " does not appear on the Phantom Power DVD release but is included on the DVD version of greatest hits album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals unless otherwise stated .
" Slow Life " – 6 : 59
" Motherfokker " ( Super Furry Animals / Goldie Lookin Chain ) – 5 : 42
" Lost Control " – 4 : 41
= = Credits = =
= Music of Final Fantasy XIV =
The music for the MMORPG Final Fantasy XIV was composed by Nobuo Uematsu , a regular contributor to the music of the Final Fantasy series . Several other composers including Masayoshi Soken and Naoshi Mizuta contributed music for updates to the game . The music for the game 's reboot , Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn , was primarily composed by Soken , who was the sound director for both releases of the game . Music from both releases of the game has been released in several albums , though no album contains music from both XIV and A Realm Reborn . A pair of mini @-@ albums containing a handful of selected tracks from XIV , Final Fantasy XIV : Battle Tracks and Final Fantasy XIV : Field Tracks , were released by Square Enix in 2010 when XIV first launched . A soundtrack album titled Final Fantasy XIV - Eorzean Frontiers , containing most of the music that had been released by that point for XIV , was digitally released in 2012 . A final soundtrack album for the original release of the game , Before Meteor : Final Fantasy XIV Original Soundtrack , was released in 2013 just before the launch of A Realm Reborn , and contains all of the music that was composed for XIV throughout its lifetime . The latest soundtrack album , Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn Original Soundtrack , was released in 2014 , and contains all of the music for A Realm Reborn released up to that point .
The soundtracks for both releases of the game were well received by critics . Uematsu 's mix of orchestral and rock tracks for XIV were praised , though the delayed release of a full album drew criticism . Soken 's work on A Realm Reborn , including both his original tracks as well as themes carried over from XIV and previous Final Fantasy games , were heavily praised by reviewers for the game . Music from the initial release of the game has been played in the international Distant Worlds Final Fantasy concert series , and books of sheet music for piano arrangements of music from the game have been produced .
= = Creation and influence = =
The massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) Final Fantasy XIV was released in two versions : the original ( live between 2010 and 2012 ) , and its remake ( Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn , live since 2013 ) . The music for XIV was composed by Nobuo Uematsu , who was the lead composer for the first ten main Final Fantasy games and a contributor to the Final Fantasy XI and XII soundtracks . Over the two years that XIV was active , several updates were made to the game , which included additional music composed by Masayoshi Soken , Naoshi Mizuta , Tsuyoshi Sekito and Ryo Yamazaki . XIV was poorly received , and despite the updates , Square Enix decided to take the game offline for a time , and relaunch it with a new development team under a new name . Soken , the sound director for both releases , composed the soundtrack to A Realm Reborn .
Prior to agreeing to create XIV 's score , Uematsu had already planned to compose " Kimi ga Iru Kara " , the theme song for Final Fantasy XIII . Wanting him to fully focus on XIV , Square Enix asked XIII 's main composer Masashi Hamauzu to write the song instead . Thus , XIII was the first main @-@ series Final Fantasy game soundtrack to not include Uematsu 's work . Despite XIV being an MMO and thus a new genre for him , Uematsu treated it as any other video game project . Compared to his previous work within the series , Uematsu had considerable creative freedom while composing the soundtrack , because the rest of the production team did not fully envision beforehand how the soundtrack would sound or fit into the game . Uematsu created a mixture of orchestral and rock pieces for the game 's battle themes . There was a momentary crisis when he lost most of the data for his completed tracks and needed to hire a data recovery service . He worked as a freelance composer during the project for Square Enix , also composing the music for The Last Story , a game from Final Fantasy creator Hironobu Sakaguchi . The game 's theme song , " Answers " , was sung by Susan Calloway . She was chosen by Uematsu , who had worked with her during the first Distant Worlds concert and was impressed by her singing abilities .
For A Realm Reborn , Soken was the primary composer , in addition to reprising his XIV role as lead sound director . The primary goal given to the music team was to make the music true to the series . Naoki Yoshida , the game 's producer and director , told Soken to " give [ the team ] something straightforward that anyone could identify as Final Fantasy , with an easy @-@ to @-@ understand , expressive orchestral sound " . Soken focused primarily on creating the soundtrack rather than his sound director role . He often created new tracks due to requests from staff members . As the game was developed and released in a shorter timeframe than the original release , Soken and the sound team were given less than a year to create both the music and the various sound effects for the game world . According to Soken , it felt like " enough work for two full games in that time " . Unlike the freedom given Uematsu for XIV , most of the tracks for A Realm Reborn had specific guidelines , though Soken was allowed to " do what [ he liked ] " for Titan 's battle theme . Soken sang the vocal work for some tracks , such as the battle theme for Leviathan . Several themes and tracks from the original game were carried over both directly and as a part of new tracks in A Realm Reborn , including the original vocal theme . Soken also remixed pieces from earlier Final Fantasy games for use in special in @-@ game events .
= = Original release = =
= = = Mini @-@ albums = = =
The mini @-@ albums Final Fantasy XIV : Battle Tracks and Final Fantasy XIV : Field Tracks were the first releases of music from the game , and were published by Square Enix on September 29 , 2010 , a week after the game itself was released . They feature selected tracks from XIV . The music was composed by Uematsu and arranged by Tsutomu Narita . Kenichiro Fukui also helped arrange some of the pieces on the Field Tracks mini @-@ album . Battle Tracks has nine pieces , and includes the game 's opening theme , the boss theme " Nail of the Heavens " , and Final Fantasy XIV 's rendition of Uematsu 's " Victory Fanfare " . Field Tracks predominantly features the main themes for the game 's countries Ul 'dah , Gridania and Limsa Lominsa , along with other pieces of music heard during traveling , for a total of eight tracks . Each mini @-@ album was accompanied by special liner notes by Uematsu describing his experiences writing music for the series , with particular reference to the first game .
Patrick Gann of RPGFan termed the mini @-@ albums as a good return work from Uematsu despite some of the unexpected battle tracks , though he questioned whether the discs themselves would be worth purchasing once a full soundtrack album was released . Jayson Napolitano of Original Sound Version was generally positive , and cited the composition of the battle themes as " a cross between The Black Mages and Uematsu 's work on Lord of Vermilion " . The more orchestral field tracks were also praised . Chris Greening of Square Enix Music Online termed Field Tracks as " largely likeable " , and appreciated Uematsu 's use of rock music in Battle Tracks , though he disliked the strategy of releasing two incomplete mini @-@ albums rather than a full soundtrack album . Both mini @-@ albums sold well : Battle Tracks appeared at position # 73 on the Japanese Oricon album charts for a week , while Field Tracks appeared at position # 75 for that same week .
= = = Eorzean Frontiers = = =
Final Fantasy XIV - Eorzean Frontiers was the first full album of music from the game to be released . It was published by Square Enix on September 1 , 2012 as a digital album through iTunes . The tracks include most of the music that had been released for the game at that point , including pieces that were present at the game 's launch and some which were added later , including " Rise of the White Raven " , the theme for Nael Van Darnus , and the themes for the Grand Companies of Eorzea . All of the tracks from the album were additionally released on the same date in a set of smaller digital mini @-@ albums , also released through iTunes , titled Final Fantasy XIV Frontiers - Gridania , Ishgard , Limsa Lominsa , and Ul 'dah . The majority of the music was composed by Nobuo Uematsu , with additional pieces contributed by Masayoshi Soken , Naoshi Mizuta , Tsuyoshi Sekito , and Ryo Yamazaki . The 38 tracks of the album cover a duration of 3 : 14 : 24 .
Derek Heemsbergen of RPGFan reviewed the album as an " incredibly rich and diverse musical score " , and felt that regardless of the reception to the game itself , that the soundtrack was worthy of a Final Fantasy game . Jayson Napolitano of Destructoid , in his review of the album , found that while there were many interesting tracks in the album and that the total length of more than three hours made the album a " good deal " , that most of the tracks that he enjoyed the most were previously featured on the Final Fantasy XIV Battle Tracks and Field Tracks mini @-@ albums .
= = = Before Meteor = = =
On August 14 , 2013 , two weeks before the release of A Realm Reborn , Square Enix published Before Meteor : Final Fantasy XIV Original Soundtrack , a full soundtrack album with all of the music composed for the original release of the game , which had shut down a year prior . The 104 @-@ track album was released on a single Blu @-@ ray disc and included music lasting 6 : 05 : 51 , with both the original music by Uematsu as well as the additional tracks composed by Mizuta , Yamazaki , Sekito , Soken , and Ai Yamashita during the game 's run . The disc also included a remastered version of the " A New Beginning " trailer and a bonus download code for an in @-@ game Dalamud Minion . The Blu @-@ ray disc allowed purchasers to rip digital copies of the album on their Blu @-@ ray devices to play without the disc . Emily McMillan of Video Game Music Online generally praised the music , praising some of the newer tracks and Uematsu 's work on the more orchestral tracks . Her main criticisms were that some aspects seemed artificial and that the composers were playing safe with the themes and motifs used . Before Meteor appeared at position # 11 on the Japanese Oricon album charts for its release week and remained in the charts for three weeks .
= = A Realm Reborn = =
= = = Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn Original Soundtrack was released by Square Enix on March 21 , 2014 . It was released on a Blu @-@ ray disc and features 119 tracks lasting 6 : 48 : 00 , all composed by Masayoshi Soken . In addition to the tracks present in the initial launch of A Realm Reborn , the album also includes tracks used in the 2 @.@ 1 patch , A Realm Awoken . Initial copies of the soundtrack also came with a special " Wind @-@ up Bahamut " in @-@ game pet . Soken composed all of the music of the game , as well as sound effects , in only eight months . Emily McMillan of Video Game Music Online , in her review of the album , termed it a " truly fantastic score " , and said that it was superior to the music of the original version of the game . She felt that it was an excellent merging of the traditional Final Fantasy musical style with a modern orchestral score . Mike Salbato of RPGFan also praised the album saying that it was his favorite soundtrack album of 2014 , and that he " can 't recommend A Realm Reborn 's soundtrack highly enough " .
In addition to reviews of the album , within the context of the game the music has been well received . Kotaku 's Mike Fahey stated that the music was " wonderful , complex and satisfying " . He often paused to remove the ambient and interface noises so as to hear it better . GamesRadar 's Adam Harshberger called it " a standout even amongst Final Fantasy 's storied heritage " while Digital Spy 's Mark Langshaw called it " a sonic feast ... that pays appropriate homage to the long @-@ running RPG series " . The soundtrack won Video Game Music Online 's 2013 Annual Game Music Awards in the Eastern category . A Realm Reborn appeared at position # 10 on the Japanese Oricon album charts for its release week , and remained in the charts for eight weeks .
= = = From Astral to Umbral = = =
Final Fantasy XIV : From Astral to Umbral- Band & Piano Arrangement Album is a Blu @-@ ray album of rock and piano arrangements of music from A Realm Reborn . It features arrangements by Soken , GUNN , Keiko , and Nobuko Toda of pieces originally composed by Soken for the game , and was published by Square Enix on December 17 , 2014 . The first six tracks on the album are piano covers , performed by Keiko , of field and town themes from the game . The following six are rock covers by Soken 's band The Primals of the musical themes from the game of the primals , powerful elemental creatures . The Blu @-@ ray disc also features the original versions of the twelve tracks , videos of in @-@ game scenes where the original music plays , as well as one secret track that needs a password to unlock . Some of the original tracks had not yet been released on an official album when Astral to Umbral was produced .
Mike Salbato of RPGFan reviewed the album and described it as " a great , if perhaps disjointed experience " . He praised the high quality of the arrangements and performances , but questioned the grouping of the more gentle piano tracks alongside the heavy rock pieces .
= = = Before the Fall = = =
Final Fantasy XIV : Before the Fall Original Soundtrack is an album of music from four patches to Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn . These were patches 2 @.@ 2 through 2 @.@ 5 : Through the Maelstrom , Defenders of Eorzea , Dreams of Ice , and Before the Fall . The album was released by Square Enix on August 26 , 2015 on Blu @-@ ray , and includes all of the music that Soken composed for the updates , as well as several pieces for the updates written by Nobuo Uematsu , Naoshi Mizuta , and Ryo Yamazaki . Of the 61 tracks , 16 were previously released on other albums , primarily the Before Meteor album , and these tracks compose the majority of the non @-@ Soken tracks .
Christopher Huynh of Video Game Music Online held a mixed opinion of the album , which he criticized as " a rather mixed bag of tracks " . He said that while some of the tracks were excellent , there were several poor pieces as well , and was disappointed in the repeated material . He ascribed the uneven quality of the album to a lack of an overriding theme to the music , which left it as a collection of disparate material . He also criticized the sound quality , believing that the use of a real orchestra would have helped the orchestral pieces .
= = = Heavensward = = =
Heavensward : Final Fantasy XIV Original Soundtrack is an album of music for the Heavensward expansion pack to A Realm Reborn . The album was released by Square Enix on February 24 , 2016 on Blu @-@ ray , and includes all of the music that Soken composed for the expansion and the 3 @.@ 1 patch " As Goes Light , So Goes Darkness " . A few of the 58 tracks on the album were composed by Yukiko Takada or Nobuo Uematsu , and the majority by Soken . Unlike the prior Before the Fall album , all of the music was new to the album , though 16 of the tracks were previously released in September through November 2015 as Final Fantasy XIV : Heavensward -EP- Vol . 1 @.@ through 3 .
The album was well received by Emily McMillan of Video Game Music Online , who lauded the soundtrack 's " brilliant , varied , and extraordinarily fun to hear " themes . She praised the unique atmosphere of the new expansion 's music , as well as it 's integration into the overall game 's soundscape .
= = Legacy = =
Four tracks from Final Fantasy XIV ( " Navigator 's Glory " , " Twilight Over Thanalan " , " Primal Judgement " , and an orchestral rendition of " Answers " with vocals by Susan Calloway ) were included in the Distant Worlds : Music from Final Fantasy Returning Home concert on November 6 and 7 , 2010 in Tokyo , Japan , which was released as a CD @-@ DVD package in 2011 . Those four tracks along with " Beneath Bloodied Banners " were then added to the general setlist options for the international Distant Worlds : Music from Final Fantasy concert tour . Tracks from A Realm Reborn were included in the Nintendo 3DS rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy : Curtain Call . An 88 @-@ page book of sheet music for piano arrangements of songs from the soundtrack titled Final Fantasy XIV Piano Solo Sheet Music was published by Dream Music Factory in 2010 , containing the tracks featured in the mini @-@ albums . Dream Music Factory also published piano @-@ arranged sheet music for Before Meteor in 2013 titled Before Meteor : Final Fantasy XIV Piano Solo Sheet Music .
= University of Colorado Denver =
The University of Colorado Denver | Anschutz Medical Campus ( sic ) is a public research university in the U.S. state of Colorado . It is part of the University of Colorado system .
The university has two campuses — one in downtown Denver at the Auraria Campus , and the other at the Anschutz Medical Campus located in neighboring Aurora . The single university is the result of the 2004 consolidation of the University of Colorado Denver and the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center .
The University of Colorado Denver is located on Auraria Campus in Downtown Denver , Colorado while the CU Anschutz Medical Campus is located on the Anschutz Medical Campus in Aurora , Colorado , nearly 10 miles away . CU Anschutz shares the campus with the Children 's Hospital and University of Colorado Hospital . There are currently more than 18 @,@ 000 students at the school 's two physical campuses in downtown Denver and in Aurora . The school also offers classes via CU Online .
The University of Colorado Denver is the largest research institution in Colorado , attracting more than $ 375 million in research grants annually and granting more graduate degrees than any other institution in the state . CU Denver , along with University of Colorado Hospital and University Physicians , Inc . , employs more than 12 @,@ 200 Coloradans , making it one of the metro Denver area 's top employers . The university serves more than 500 @,@ 000 patients a year through its hospital and clinical services .
= = History = =
= = = University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus = = =
The University of Colorado created the Department of Medicine and Surgery in September 1883 in the Old Main building on the Boulder campus . The Department of Nursing opened in 1898 .
By 1892 , the last two years of classes were taught in Denver because the larger population afforded more practical experience . This practice triggered something of a turf battle with the University of Denver 's medical school and the subsequent legal battle went to the state Supreme Court . In 1897 , the court found that CU 's charter restricted them to Boulder . However , in 1910 , CU got an amendment to the state Constitution passed which allowed them to move back to Denver . In 1911 , the School of Medicine combined with the Denver and Gross Medical College to form a larger school with a more comprehensive program , paving the way for the school 's permanent move to Denver . In 1925 , the School of Medicine moved to the campus on Ninth Avenue and Colorado Boulevard in Denver . This would become the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center ( UCHSC ) .
In 1995 , the Fitzsimons Army Medical Center was officially put on the Base Realignment and Closure list , after which officials from the Health Sciences Center , University of Colorado Hospital and the City of Aurora presented a proposal to the Department of Defense in Washington , D.C. to repurpose the decommissioned base as an academic health center . In 1999 , the Army base was closed under the 1995 Base Realignment and Closure action . In 2004 , the first UCHSC labs moved from Denver to the research towers on the Fitzsimons campus . In 2006 , the Fitzsimons campus of UCHSC was renamed the Anschutz Medical Campus in recognition of philanthropic donations from Philip and Nancy Anschutz . By the end of 2008 , academic and research operations of all CU Denver health sciences schools and colleges relocated from the Ninth Avenue and Colorado Boulevard campus to the new Anschutz campus , joining the affiliated University of Colorado Hospital and Children 's Hospital . In 2011 , the Regents approved the name University of Colorado Denver | Anschutz Medical Campus .
= = = University of Colorado Denver = = =
The University of Colorado Denver began as the Extension Center of University of Colorado 's Department of Correspondence and Extension , which was established in 1912 . In 1938 , the Extension Center acquired permanent quarters in Denver in the C.A. Johnson Building at 509 17th Street , where a single , full @-@ time faculty member ran the school with the help of part @-@ time teachers . In 1947 , the Extension Center moved into the Fraternal Building at 1405 Glenarm Place . In 1956 , the University acquired the Denver Tramway Company Building at 14th and Arapahoe Streets ( now the Hotel Teatro and the Denver Center for the Performing Arts Tramway building ) . In 1964 , the Extension Center was renamed the University of Colorado – Denver Center . On January 11 , 1973 , lawmakers , upon proclamation of the governor , amended the state constitution to establish additional CU campuses , transforming the University of Colorado — Denver Center into the University of Colorado Denver ( CU Denver ) . Between 1973 and 1976 , the State of Colorado built the Auraria Higher Education Center ( AHEC ) on a 127 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 51 km2 ) downtown campus to be shared by the University of Colorado Denver , the Metropolitan State University of Denver and the Community College of Denver . In 1977 , the Denver campus expanded to the newly opened AHEC , and later to several buildings extending into downtown Denver .
= = = Merger and renaming = = =
In the summer of 2004 , the University of Colorado Denver and the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center merged to create the University of Colorado Denver and Health Sciences Center ( UCDHSC ) . As a result , the University of Colorado encompasses three institutions , down from four .
On October 29 , 2007 , the board of regents voted to rename UCDHSC as the University of Colorado Denver , consisting of the Anschutz Medical Campus and the Denver Campus .
In August 2011 , the regents approved a name change to the University of Colorado Denver | Anschutz Medical Campus ( including the vertical bar ) , while its legal name is University of Colorado Denver . The Anschutz Medical Campus is presently referred in official materials as CU Anschutz or CU Anschutz Medical Campus , making no reference to the University of Colorado Denver . The primary name of the Denver Campus ( previously Downtown Campus ) is University of Colorado Denver and it can be referred to as CU Denver but not UC Denver . The domain name for the whole institution is ucdenver.edu , while the previous domain name cudenver.edu was turned off in July 2010 .
= = Campuses = =
= = = Denver Campus = = =
CU Denver , part of the Auraria Campus , is located to the southwest of downtown Denver in the Auraria Neighborhood , on Speer Boulevard and Auraria Parkway . CU Denver shares the Auraria Campus with two additional institutes of higher education , making this campus one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind : Metropolitan State University of Denver and the Community College of Denver . Regional Transportation District 's ( RTD ) Light Rail has two stops on the Auraria Campus : Colfax at Auraria and Auraria West Campus .
CU Denver features both undergraduate and graduate courses , with more than 35 percent of the students graduate students . The campus is located in the heart of the central business district and is in close proximity to the Pepsi Center , Elitch Gardens , The Colorado Convention Center , The Denver Center for the Performing Arts , Larimer Square , and the 16th Street Mall . The reclaimed Tivoli brewery , which closed in 1969 , houses the student union .
= = = CU Anschutz Medical Campus = = =
The Health Sciences Campus previously had two sub @-@ campuses , the main campus at Ninth Avenue and Colorado Boulevard ( " Ninth and Colorado " ) in Denver , which has since been decommissioned , and a new campus in neighboring Aurora , where all activities of the former Health Sciences Center has since relocated . The latter campus , which is now called the Anschutz Medical Campus , is host to the Research Complex towers , The Barbara Davis Diabetes Center , the Nighthorse Campbell Native Health building , various centers of the University of Colorado Hospital , and the health sciences library . There are approximately 4000 students at the Anschutz Medical Campus with 1400 of these in the School of Medicine ( including medical and graduate students ) .
= = = = Architecture and Layout = = = =
The CU Anschutz Medical Campus is a 227 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 9 km2 ) campus for the University and two hospitals : University of Colorado Hospital. and Children 's Hospital Colorado . All of the facilities on the campus , with the exception of the former Fitzsimons Hospital ( referred to as 500 Main , or " Building 500 " ) , are new construction . A series of distinct quadrangular zones on the campus governs its architectural design : the research quadrangle , consisting of the three Research Complex towers , features a contemporary glass and metal design ; the education quadrangle is characterized by a brick aesthetic ; and the core quadrangle is located on the central axis of the campus , and anchored by Building 500 . The comprehensive 116 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 10 @,@ 800 m2 ) medical library is located along the center quadrangle of the campus .
The combined 578 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 3 km2 ) of the Anschutz Medical Campus and the Fitzsimons Life Science District is undergoing a $ 4 @.@ 3 billion renovation and transformation into the largest medical @-@ related redevelopment project in the United States . The 184 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 7 km2 ) Colorado Science + Technology Park in Aurora is being developed directly adjacent to the health sciences areas of campus , providing opportunities to collaborate with biotechnology companies and their resources . The remaining acres of the former military facility are dedicated to commercial , hospitality , retail , and residential development .
= = Institutional profile = =
University of Colorado Denver offers bachelor 's , master 's , doctoral , and first professional degrees . The university ( including University of Colorado Hospital and University Physicians , Inc . ) operates on a $ 1 @.@ 8 billion annual economy . The University of Colorado Hospital , which is the principal teaching hospital for the University of Colorado Denver , serves more than half a million patients every year . In the 2009 – 10 fiscal year , CU Denver 's two campuses received almost $ 385 million in combined research funding .
= = = Enrollment = = =
More than 18 @,@ 000 students are enrolled at CU Denver | Anschutz , plus an additional 11 @,@ 000 online students . Among CU Denver | Anschutz students , 57 % are undergraduates and 43 % are pursuing graduate studies . 76 % of the student population are full @-@ time students , 16 % are out @-@ of @-@ state residents , and international students make up 6 % of total enrollment . 14 @,@ 333 students are enrolled on the CU Denver Campus ( Fall 2015 ) . Of these , 70 % are undergraduates , and 30 % are graduate students . 41 % of undergraduate students and 55 % of new freshmen at CU Denver belong to an ethnic minority . The average entering ACT score for new freshmen at CU Denver is 22 @.@ 9 composite . The average entering SAT scores at CU Denver is 549 Math and 542 Verbal . The average high school GPA for new freshmen is 3 @.@ 37 . The most popular undergraduate majors at CU Denver are biology , psychology , pre @-@ engineering , music , and economics . International students on the campus arrive from 125 countries . There are 3 @,@ 901 students enrolled at University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus ( Fall 2014 ) . Of these , 446 are undergraduate students and 3 @,@ 435 are graduate students . 23 % of the student population at the CU Anschutz Medical Campus are an ethnic minority .
= = Academics and research = =
University of Colorado Denver | Anschutz Medical Campus is one of the largest universities in Colorado with more than 18 @,@ 000 students and awarding more than 4 @,@ 500 degrees in a year . It has the largest graduate business school and graduate school of education in Colorado , and its School of Medicine is the only allopathic ( M.D. granting ) medical school in the state . In 2013 , more than $ 400 million in sponsored research funding was awarded to University of Colorado Denver | Anschutz Medical Campus researchers . The vast majority of this research is dedicated to health sciences at the Anschutz Medical Campus . In 2011 , more than $ 179 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 was awarded by the National Institutes of Health to CU Denver researchers . The core laboratories in the research complex , at the Anschutz Medical Campus , include mass spectrometry , X @-@ ray crystallography , electron microscopy , a 900 mega @-@ hertz nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) spectrometer , DNA array and peptide protein chemistry . The university is considered by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education to have " very high research activity " with a basic classification of Research Universities ( RU / VH ) ( very high research activity ) .
= = = Libraries = = =
The University of Colorado Denver | Anschutz Medical Campus hosts two libraries , one on each of its two campuses . The Auraria library on the CU Denver campus downtown serves the three institutions that share the campus — CU Denver , Metropolitan State University of Denver and Community College of Denver . The library houses nearly 1 million print books , 130 @,@ 000 e @-@ books , 44 @,@ 000 e @-@ journals and 300 databases . The library on the Anschutz Medical Campus is the largest health sciences library in Colorado , with more than 32 @,@ 000 e @-@ journals . The health sciences library opened in late 2007 with two Information Commons , 30 group study rooms , and wireless internet connectivity throughout the library .
= = = Schools and colleges = = =
University of Colorado Denver | Anschutz Medical Campus offers more than 140 degree programs in 13 schools and colleges . The university offers degrees in a wide variety of academic fields such as engineering , business , culture , history , language , the natural sciences , the biomedical sciences and medicine . CU Denver hosts 8 schools and colleges : the College of Architecture and Planning , the College of Arts & Media , The Business School , the School of Education & Human Development , the College of Engineering and Applied Science , the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences , the School of Public Affairs and its Presidential Climate Action Project , and the Graduate School . The College of Liberal Arts and Sciences is CU Denver 's largest school on the Downtown Denver Campus , offering 23 baccalaureate degrees , 17 master 's degrees , and 4 PhD programs . CU Denver sponsors the only college of architecture and planning in Colorado . The School of Architecture and Planning is located on 14th street , offering graduate degrees in architecture , urban design , and landscape architecture . In the engineering areas , the downtown campus has worked with Lockheed Martin and Raytheon . On the Anschutz Medical Campus , the university houses the School of Dental Medicine , the School of Medicine , the College of Nursing , the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences , Colorado School of Public Health , and the Graduate School .
= = = = School of Medicine = = = =
The university 's School of Medicine offers a four @-@ year program leading to an MD degree , and houses various graduate programs leading to the PhD degree . The school also includes a Child Health Associate / Physician Assistant ( CHAPA ) degree and a doctor of Physical Therapy degree . Both are three @-@ year programs . The Medical Scientist Training Program ( MSTP ) awards both MD and PhD degrees . There are about 650 MD students at the school , plus 350 in the Physical Assistant and Physical Therapy programs and 400 in Graduate Medical Education .
= = = = School of Pharmacy = = = =
The University of Colorado 's School of Pharmacy ( SOP ) began in 1911 as a division of the School of Medicine in Boulder . It became an independent college in 1913 and a school in 1957 . It received its accreditation in 1938 – 1939 and awarded a B.S. in Pharmacy degree in 1995 – 1996 when it received a full accreditation status awarding the Doctor of Pharmacy ( PharmD ) degree by the ACPE . In 1986 , the School of Pharmacy was administratively transferred to the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center in Denver . The physical transfer from Boulder and final consolidation of faculty , staff and students was completed between August and November 1992 . In 2008 , the school moved to the Anschutz Medical Campus , and offers medical and graduate degrees in pharmacy , the pharmaceutical sciences , molecular toxicology , and pharmaceutical outcomes research . 30 % of its class is from out of state . In 2009 , the NIH awarded $ 7 @,@ 310 @,@ 389 and $ 19 @,@ 189 @,@ 543 in grants towards the SOP and Pharmacology department , respectively . In 2011 , the school will move into its new building , the Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences which will also be located on the Anschutz Medical Campus .
= = = = Graduate School = = = =
The Graduate School at CU Denver | Anschutz awards more graduate degrees than any other institution in Colorado . The school consists of nearly 60 graduate programs . The departments running these programs are housed in the schools and colleges on both campuses of the university . These offerings include both department | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
@-@ based and interdisciplinary programs in architecture and planning , arts and media , biomedical sciences , business , education and human development , engineering and applied sciences , humanities , applied mathematics , nursing , public affairs , public health , chemistry , and social sciences . Graduate programs at the Anschutz Medical Campus offer MS and PhD degrees focusing on basic , clinical and translational research in the biomedical sciences .
= = = = Business School = = = =
The University of Colorado Denver Business School is accredited by AACSB International . The school is accredited at both the undergraduate and graduate levels . The Business School is one of only a few schools in the US to have a separate accreditation for its Accounting program . Business is one of the school 's most popular majors since it is located in the heart of Downtown Denver . The Business School has worked with some of Colorado 's top businesses such as Molson Coors , Wells Fargo , First Bank , and Frontier Airlines , who provide feedback on the school 's Business curriculum .
= = = = School of Public Affairs = = = =
The School of Public Affairs at CU Denver is ranked 29th among schools of public affairs in the United States and is fully accredited by the Network of Schools of Public Policy , Affairs , and Administration ( NASPAA ) . The school offers a number of highly ranked programs , including environmental policy , nonprofit management and public management . The online Master of Criminal Justice program was recently ranked in the top 10 nationwide by U.S. News & World Report . Students can choose from a wide range of innovative Master of Public Affairs and Master of Criminal Justice concentrations . The school also offers a Ph.D. in Public Affairs and recently launched a highly successful Bachelor of Criminal Justice undergraduate degree . Through community events and the timely research of the Buechner Institute for Governance , the School of Public Affairs is committed to making a real impact in Colorado , the region and beyond .
= = = Rankings = = =
The Chronicle of Higher Education ranks the university as having the top 10 Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index in the United States in the fields of biomedical sciences , developmental biology , human and medical genetics , oncology and cancer biology , structural biology and toxicology . University of Colorado Denver | Anschutz Medical Campus features in a number of rankings in U.S. News & World Report 's America 's Best Graduate Schools . The university ranked 5th among American medical schools for primary care in 2010 , and 27th among medical schools for research . The graduate school ranked 68th in the biological sciences in 2010 . The School of Nursing ranked 15th in the nation in 2007 , while among Nurse Practitioner programs , the university is ranked 8th , 5th , and 3rd in the areas of Adult , Family , and Pediatric , respectively . The medical school is ranked 6th in the specialty of family medicine . The CU Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences is ranked 23rd in the nation , and the School of Public Affairs is ranked 32nd . The Princeton Review included CU Denver | Anschutz in its Best Western Colleges , Best in the West in 2008 . The university ranked 34th on the Forbes list of best public colleges . The Business School is the 5th Best Graduate School for Physician – Executives ( 2007 ) , according to Modern Healthcare . In 2010 , CU Denver | Anschutz ranked 7th in The Scientist 's Best Places to Work for Postdocs survey .
= = Student life = =
University of Colorado Denver has over 100 student organizations , honor societies , professional organizations and faith @-@ based groups , that offer social , service , and professional opportunities for their members within the university and community . First time freshmen and first time international students at the downtown campus are generally required to live on campus , in the Campus Village , a student housing complex at the Auraria Campus for students , faculty and staff from any of the three schools that share the campus . CU Denver provides a variety of sports and recreation activities to students , faculty and staff , including personal training , intramural basketball , volleyball , soccer , squash , and tennis , and sports equipment check out for on or off campus use .
The CU Denver student newspaper , the Advocate , comes out weekly during the school year . The Distinguished Lecture Series hosts an array of speakers , that have included David Horowitz and Malcolm @-@ Jamal Warner . The Tivoli Student Union serves as a student center for the Community College of Denver , Metropolitan State University of Denver and University of Colorado Denver .
= = Notable people = =
= = = Notable faculty = = =
Mark A. Heckler , founding dean of its College of Arts and Media
Nobel Laureate Tom Cech , of CU Boulder , is an affiliated faculty with CU Denver 's Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics .
Leo Franca from the Department of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences has developed stabilized finite elements , important in computational mechanics and engineering simulation .
Lawrence Hunter is the founder of the International Society for Computational Biology , the world 's oldest and largest professional organization for bioinformatics and computational biology .
Ted Puck , a biophysicist at the medical school , developed a classification system for the human chromosome , and has been referred to as " a pioneer in mammalian cell culture , somatic cell genetics , and the study of human genetic diseases . " He was also the first scientist to grow human tissue from a single cell .
Tom Starzl conducted the first liver transplant in the world at CU 's medical school , and is considered " the father of modern transplantation . "
Henry Swan revolutionized open heart surgery at the Department of Surgery , pioneering investigations and clinical application of hypothermia in cardiac surgery .
Nancy Zahniser , professor of pharmacology awarded for her contributions to the field of dopamine regulation in the brain
= = = Notable alumni = = =
Rick Alden , 1996 , Owner and CEO Skullcandy
Insook Bhushan , Olympic table tennis player
Michael Hancock , 1995 , Mayor , Denver
James Holmes , killer in the 2012 Aurora shooting ( incomplete Ph.D. program )
Frances McConnell @-@ Mills , 1918 , toxicologist
John Morse , 2001 , Majority Leader , Colorado State Senator
Isaac Slade , 2005 , Lead Singer , The Fray
Don Southerton , American writer
Gloria Tanner , 1976 , first African American woman Colorado state senator
Ed Tauer , 1991 , Mayor , Aurora , Colorado
Araceli Cortez , 2012 , Pseudoscientist , Olathe , Colorado
= No. 78 Squadron RAAF =
No. 78 Squadron was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) fighter squadron of World War II . It was formed in July 1943 as part of expansion of the RAAF 's fighter force , and was assigned to mobile striking forces for the duration of the war .
After completing training , No. 78 Squadron was deployed to the combat zone north of Australia in October 1943 . From November that year until September 1944 the squadron supported the advance of the Allied ground forces through western New Britain and the north coast of New Guinea by attacking Japanese positions , providing fighter protection for recently established beachheads , and escorting Australian and United States bombers . From late 1944 until mid @-@ 1945 it operated against Japanese positions and shipping in the eastern Netherlands East Indies . The squadron took part in the Borneo campaign during the final weeks of the war . No. 78 Squadron was reduced to a cadre after it returned to Australia in December 1945 , but received new aircraft in 1946 and undertook training exercises until being disbanded in April 1948 .
= = History = =
= = = Operations during 1943 = = =
During 1943 the RAAF received 399 P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighter aircraft . Their arrival allowed the service to expand its combat force by forming five new Kittyhawk @-@ equipped squadrons to join the three squadrons that had operated the type in the South West Pacific area since 1942 .
No. 78 Squadron was formed at Camden , New South Wales , on 20 July 1943 . It was the fourth of the new Kittyhawk squadrons to be established , following No. 84 Squadron in February , No. 86 Squadron in March and No. 82 Squadron in June ; the final unit , No. 80 Squadron , was formed in September . No. 78 Squadron began to receive its P @-@ 40N Kittyhawk fighters from 2 August 1943 , and conducted training with these aircraft until early October . The squadron began moving from Camden to Woodlark Island in the war zone off New Guinea on 12 October 1943 . However , its destination was changed to Kiriwina island , and the squadron became operational there as part of No. 73 Wing on 27 November . This wing was controlled by No. 10 ( Operational ) Group , a mobile formation established on 13 November to support the planned Allied advance along the north coast of New Guinea .
During late November and December 1944 , No. 78 Squadron participated in attacks against Japanese positions in New Britain alongside No. 76 and No. 77 Squadrons , which were also equipped with Kittyhawks . These operations were undertaken to support the landings conducted by American forces at Arawe on 15 December and Cape Gloucester on the 26th of the month . In addition to bombing and strafing Japanese positions , No. 78 Squadron also escorted RAAF and United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) bombers on several occasions .
= = = Operations during 1944 = = =
No. 78 Squadron moved to Nadzab on the mainland of New Guinea in January 1944 . This redeployment was completed on the 12th of the month , and the squadron began operations as part of No. 78 Wing the next day . Many of the ground attack and escort sorties undertaken by No. 78 Squadron during January supported the Australian Army forces engaged in the Finisterre Range campaign . The squadron was mainly used to escort Australian and USAAF bomber and transport aircraft in February and early March , but it also conducted a small number of ground attack sorties . These escort duties were unpopular among No. 78 Wing 's fighter pilots , who believed that the American officers in charge of the air effort in New Guinea were assigning Australian units to unimportant tasks . In reality , all Allied fighter units recently arrived in New Guinea were initially tasked with escort missions as part of a ' probationary ' period . In March 1944 , No. 78 Wing moved to Cape Gloucester in New Britain to replace the USAAF 's 8th Fighter Group , which was being transferred to Nadzab . No. 78 Squadron 's advance echelon departed Nadzab on 12 March , and the entire squadron became operational in New Britain late in the month . During the last week of March , No. 78 Squadron and the other units of No. 78 Wing struck Japanese positions in New Britain and nearby Garove island in co @-@ operation with United States Navy PT boats . On 27 March four No. 78 Squadron Kittyhawks attacked and sank two American patrol boats , killing seven sailors and wounding five more . The inquiry conducted after this incident found that the pilots had not been informed that friendly ships were in the area .
During April 1944 , No. 78 Wing received orders to move again , this time to support Operation Reckless , the American landing at Hollandia in western New Guinea . The main party of the squadron departed Cape Gloucester on 17 April bound for Tadji airstrip on the mainland of New Guinea , and its Kitthawks arrived there on the 24th of the month . No. 78 Squadron began flying patrols over the American beachhead at Hollandia the next day . The squadron continued to provide air defence for Hollandia and Tadji throughout early May . From 7 to 10 May a detachment of 16 Kittyhawks from No. 78 Squadron operated from the Hollandia beachhead ; owing to food shortages in the area the pilots arrived with rations for four days loaded in their aircraft . On 15 May the unit moved permanently to an airfield near Hollandia , from which it escorted USAAF bombers and formed part of the force protecting the US Army landings at Wakde on 17 May and Biak on the 27th . Overall , the squadron flew 601 sorties during May . Its operations over Biak included its only air @-@ to @-@ air combat of the war . On 3 June , 16 Kittyhawks from No. 78 Squadron intercepted a group of 12 Nakajima Ki @-@ 43 fighters and two Nakajima B5N bombers near Biak . The Australian airmen downed five Ki @-@ 43s and two B5Ns for the loss of one Kittyhawk and its pilot . This was the last major air battle fought by the RAAF during the Pacific War . On 10 June , eight No. 78 Squadron Kittyhawks were escorting a convoy when they sighted a Japanese Kawasaki Ki @-@ 61 fighter . Two of the Australian aircraft attacked the Ki @-@ 61 and shot it down near Japen Island . This was the final aerial victory achieved by the RAAF during the New Guinea campaign . No. 78 Squadron continued to fly defensive patrols over Hollandia until 20 July , when it was redeployed to Noemfoor island . This was the squadron 's sixth move in nine months , and the intensive effort needed to pack and unpack stores on each occasion caused widespread fatigue among airmen and ground crew .
From 21 July 1944 , No. 78 Squadron supported the US military 's offensive through western New Guinea . The squadron again operated with US Navy PT boats during strikes on Japanese positions in the Vogelkop Peninsula and shipping in Geelvink Bay during July ; these operations were undertaken to support the US Army landing at Sansapor on 30 July . Many of No. 78 Wing 's pilots completed their nine @-@ month operational tour during July and were replaced by inexperienced pilots . During the first three weeks of August the squadron flew patrols over the beachhead at Sansapor . The intensive operations over Sansapor were trying , with the official history stating that No. 78 Wing was " pushed almost to the limit of its operational capacity " ; two No. 78 Squadron aircraft were lost during this period . No. 78 Wing attacked Japanese airfields in the Vogelkop Peninsula throughout September , and No. 78 Squadron flew 363 sorties against these targets . The squadron also struck airfields on the Bomberai Peninsula as well as Japanese shipping in the easternmost islands of the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ) during the last months of 1944 . These operations were undertaken to support the American landings in the Philippines , which began in October , and often involved lengthy flights . No. 10 ( Operational ) Group was redesignated the First Tactical Air Force on 25 October ; at this time No. 78 Squadron remained part of No. 78 Wing alongside No. 75 and No. 80 Squadrons . No. 78 Squadron aircraft began staging through airfields on Morotai from early December , and moved to the island between 21 December and January 1945 . During November , Len Waters , the only known Aboriginal Australian fighter pilot of World War II , was posted to No. 78 Squadron . He remained with the unit until the end of the war and completed 95 combat sorties .
= = = Operations from 1945 to 1948 = = =
No. 78 Squadron continued to attack Japanese positions in the eastern NEI from Morotai in early 1945 . The squadron flew 267 sorties in January during which its aircraft fired 77 @,@ 000 rounds of machine @-@ gun ammunition and dropped 153 @,@ 630 pounds ( 69 @,@ 690 kg ) of bombs . Fewer sorties were flown during February and March , and on 10 April No. 78 Squadron ceased operations from Morotai to prepare to take part in the invasion of Tarakan , an island off the east coast of Borneo . While No. 81 Wing had originally been intended to land at Tarakan , due to delays in moving the unit from Australia No. 78 Wing was substituted shortly before the assault convoys departed Morotai . As a result , the wing had only ten days to pack its stores and prepare for its role in the landing . The main echelon of No. 78 Squadron disembarked at Tarakan on 6 May , but it took much longer than had been anticipated to repair the island 's airfield and the unit was unable to recommence flying operations until 18 July . During this period the squadron 's ground crew worked with Australian Army engineers to build roads , and some personnel spent time on the front line .
From 20 July 1945 until the end of the war , No. 78 Squadron operated over Borneo to support the invasion of Balikpapan . Its first strike from Tarakan was flown against Japanese positions in the Sandakan area , and on 24 July aircraft from No. 75 , No. 78 and No. 80 Squadrons attacked airfields near Banjarmasin . The squadron conducted its final combat operation on 9 August , and was still based at Tarakan at the time the Japanese Government 's intention to surrender was announced on the 15th of the month . No. 78 Squadron had suffered 12 fatalities during the war . Following the armistice the squadron undertook leaflet dropping and reconnaissance sorties until November , when the Kittyhawks were flown to Australia . The remainder of the unit 's personnel arrived at Sydney on 12 December 1945 on board the British aircraft carrier HMS Glory .
After returning to Australia , No. 78 Squadron moved to Deniliquin in New South Wales on 17 December and most of its personnel were sent on leave until 16 January . The squadron was rapidly reduced to a cadre , and comprised only 17 personnel in July 1946 . The unit was located at RAAF Station Schofields near Sydney from May to August 1946 , and then moved to RAAF Station Williamtown outside of Newcastle . On 4 August 1946 it received four P @-@ 51D Mustang fighters and a single CAC Wirraway trainer . No. 78 Squadron undertook training during 1947 , including exercises with Australian and British warships in March and July . During April 1947 two of the squadron 's Mustangs took part in a Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation cloud seeding experiment ; in this role the aircraft sprayed silver iodide onto clouds from tanks beneath their wings with the goal of generating rain . No. 78 Squadron was disbanded on 1 April 1948 .
= Dookudu =
Dookudu ( English : Aggression ) is a 2011 Indian Telugu @-@ language action comedy film directed by Srinu Vaitla , featuring Mahesh Babu and Samantha Ruth Prabhu in the lead roles . It was produced by Ram Achanta , Gopi Achanta and Anil Sunkara under the banner 14 Reels Entertainment . It was written by Srinu Vaitla along with Kona Venkat and Gopimohan . S. Thaman composed the music while K. V. Guhan handled the cinematography after Prasad Murella left the project in mid @-@ way . The film is partially inspired from the 2003 German tragicomedy film Good Bye , Lenin ! .
Production began on 28 June 2010 at Hyderabad . Shooting began on 22 October 2010 at Turkey and lasted till mid @-@ September 2011 . The film was predominantly shot in Hyderabad , with portions shot in Mumbai , Gujarat , Istanbul , Dubai and Switzerland . The film released on 23 September 2011 in 1600 screens worldwide .
Upon release , Dookudu received positive reviews and was commercially successful . The film was cited as " The biggest hit you 've never heard of " by The Los Angeles Times . The film collected a distributor share of ₹ 567 million in its lifetime and grossed more than ₹ 1 billion in its lifetime making it one of the highest grossers of 2011 in Telugu cinema . The film won seven Nandi Awards , six Filmfare Awards , eight SIIMA Awards and eight CineMAA Awards .
It was dubbed into Tamil as Athiradi Vettai , into Malayalam as Choodan and into Hindi as The Real Tiger . The film was remade into Bengali as Challenge 2 starring Dev and Pooja Bose in 2012 , and into Kannada as Power in 2014 starring Puneeth Rajkumar and Trisha .
= = Plot = =
During the political realm of N. T. Rama Rao , Shankar Narayana is an independent MLA of the constituency of Shankar Nagar , which is named after him , in Hyderabad , and is regarded as a champion for the poor . When a truck collides with the car his brother Satyam and he are in , Shankar goes into a coma . Except his family , everyone else presumes that he is killed in the accident . His son Ajay is a police officer in Mumbai who fights against the mafia and is on a mission to apprehend Mafia don Nayak who is involved in illegal drug trade , extortion and arms trafficking .
When he heads to Turkey in an undercover operation , he meets Prashanthi , the daughter of Ajay 's senior police officer and soon falls in love with her . She initially rejects his advances which makes him give up . However , he is successful in the undercover operation and arrests Nayak 's brother Bunty . After returning to India , he again meets Prashanthi and , to his surprise , she reciprocates his feelings . In an attempt to arrest Nayak , Bunty and the police commissioner is killed and Shankar 's loyal follower Sivayya reveals to Ajay that Nayak , along with Shankar 's rival , Mallesh Goud , and Shankar 's other followers Meka Narsingh Rao and Ambarpet Ganesh , were behind Shankar 's accident , which makes Ajay plot to kill all of them .
When Shankar comes out of the coma , the doctors who treated him advise his family that his life is at risk if he encounters or hears anything upsetting , disturbing or shocking . Ajay hides the events surrounding the accident and shifts his family to his previously abandoned mansion which is now being used for film making . Ajay creates a dummy political set @-@ up at this mansion . In the guise of a reality television program , Ajay tricks an aspiring but unsuccessful film actor Padmasri by making him believe that the television show is being sponsored by actor Akkineni Nagarjuna 's television channel , and that Nagarjuna wants to offer Padmasri very high remuneration for his realistic performance in the show . On the other hand , an aspiring actor Bokka Venkata Rao and Mallesh Goud are tricked by Ajay with a real estate business deal to exploit his criminal nexus .
Ajay keeps this drama under wraps from Shankar by making him believe that Ajay is also an MLA revered by people fulfilling his dad 's wishes . He marries Prashanthi after gaining her family 's consent much to Shankar 's delight . Meanwhile , Ajay manages to kill Ganesh and Mallesh without the knowledge of anybody while Shankar believes that they died due to ailments . Nayak reaches Hyderabad to kill Ajay and Ajay 's drama is exposed before everybody except Shankar . Meka Narsingh Rao is killed by Nayak while the latter 's henchmen is killed by Ajay and others in an encounter . Nayak is later killed in a Ramlila event . Shankar too comes to know about Ajay 's drama and is happy for the affection his son showed on him .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Ram Achanta , Gopi Achanta and Anil Sunkara under the banner 14 Reels Entertainment agreed to bankroll a film directed by Srinu Vaitla starring Mahesh Babu in the lead role after completing their debut venture Namo Venkatesa ( 2010 ) . Regarding the same , Vaitla said that it would be a romance action film and a majority would be shot in North India using a Super 35 . Mahesh 's brother Ramesh Babu was a co @-@ producer . Vaitla worked on the script for more than a year and shelved it temporarily for further modification as he felt it became monotonous and resembles his previous work . The film was officially launched on 28 June 2010 in Ramanaidu Studios at Hyderabad .
Kona Venkat wrote the dialogues and Gopimohan penned the screenplay . S. Thaman was selected as the music director marking his first collaboration with Vaitla as the latter 's regular music composer Devi Sri Prasad had shortage of dates to accommodate . The film was titled Dookudu in mid September 2010 despite initial reports stating that it may be titled Power . Prasad Murella was selected as the cinematographer who walked out after having an argument on the film 's sets with Vaitla because of differences . K. V. Guhan was selected to finish the remaining part . Regarding the same , Vaitla said " I had made family dramas with Prasad before but in Dookudu , the demand increased from my side and we couldn 't get in sync with each other . I liked the photography in Athadu done by Guhan . We gelled and he has done a fantastic job . "
= = = Casting = = =
Samantha Ruth Prabhu was selected as the female lead while Sonia Deepti was selected to play the role of her best friend . Srihari was selected for a crucial role but was replaced by Prakash Raj later . Mahesh Babu was reported to be seen as a police officer in the film . Sonu Sood was cast as the antagonist . Kajal Aggarwal was rumoured to be the second female lead while Daggubati Venkatesh was rumoured to provide a voice @-@ over . Gopimohan denied the latter 's inclusion as a rumour while the former 's inclusion remained unconfirmed .
Ravi Prakash was selected for a crucial supporting role . Brahmanandam and M. S. Narayana were selected for crucial supporting roles . Parvati Melton was selected for an item number . Meenakshi Dixit was selected for performing the title song . Regarding the limited role of Samantha , Vaitla clarified that a lot depended on the film 's subject and it was done mainly to develop the chemistry between the lead pair .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 22 October 2010 in Turkey where a few action sequences and a song on Mahesh and Samantha were shot . The schedule lasted till November 2010 and the team returned to India on 10 November 2010 . The second schedule was conducted in Dubai . After returning from Dubai , the next schedule began at Hyderabad on 27 November 2010 . In mid January 2011 , filming then moved to Ramanaidu Studios in Hyderabad . Scenes featuring Mahesh , Samantha and Sonia were shot at Levis showroom in Banjara Hills of Hyderabad and the schedule ended on 29 January 2011 .
Filming continued in Gujarat where a song on Mahesh and Samantha was shot at the Little Rann of Kutch . On its completion on 11 February 2011 , the next schedule was planned to be shot in Hyderabad from 15 February 2011 to 3 March 2011 . The film 's unit planned to leave to Chennai on 24 February 2011 for filming a song but the makers opted to shoot the same along with few scenes at Chiran Fort Club in Hyderabad from the next day . Few chase sequences were shot in Old city area of Hyderabad in mid March 2011 . Filming continued at Mumbai from 20 March 2011 after a few action sequences in Ramoji Film City . The film was shot at Padmalaya Studios in late April 2011 after which filming was planned at Switzerland where a song and few scenes were shot .
Some scenes were shot in a central jail set erected in Ramoji Film City with which the Hyderabad schedule was completed in mid May 2011 . Some comedy and action scenes were shot in the set which was earlier erected for Dhee ( 2007 ) , Old City and other areas apart from Ramoji Film City . A long schedule was shot in Switzerland later and Mahesh stayed back for taking rest on the schedule 's completion and returned on 30 May 2011 to participate in the shoot from the next day . Due to unforeseen circumstances , the film 's shoot was delayed multiple times and by late June 2011 , 40 days of shoot was pending .
Key scenes featuring Mahesh Babu , Brahmanandam , M. S. Narayana and others were shot in a private apartment in Somajiguda in mid July 2011 . Few scenes were shot in Jayabheri House in late July 2011 . The song " Adara Adara " was shot at Chiran Fort club in late August 2011 under the choreography of Dinesh . The film 's climax sequences were shot in early September 2011 at Tolichowki in Hyderabad . A special set was erected at Ramoji Film City for the shoot of the item number on Mahesh and Parvati Melton which began on 6 September 2011 . On its completion , the filming came to an end .
= = Themes and influences = =
Many critics have stated that the film 's story is inspired by the German tragicomedy Good Bye , Lenin ! ( 2003 ) . Regarding the same , Vaitla said " I saw Good Bye , Lenin ! when the scripting of Dookudu was 50 per cent complete . It was a coincidence . I had the idea of showing Mahesh in a new way as a young MLA . I also had the idea of the father . Then , Gopimohan came in , and we worked on the script for seven months . It 's a multi @-@ layered film and writing the screenplay for it was tough . " He added that the idea of how lies are told and you get people to believe them was already shown in his earlier film Ready ( 2008 ) .
He chose father @-@ son relationship in the film as he wanted to show the emotions between them . Apart from that , Vaitla was inspired by other small things from Good Bye , Lenin ! . One such inspired sequence is where the protagonist and his team create fake news broadcasts and newspapers for showing them to his father to make the drama believable which includes making N. T. Rama Rao the president of India in 2011 . And , the scene where the protagonist lies to his father about few things without knowing that the latter is aware of the drama is inspired from the climax of Good Bye , Lenin ! .
A reviewer from Sify felt that some of the scenes and characters are inspired by Mahesh 's previous films Athadu ( 2005 ) and Pokiri ( 2006 ) apart from the Hindi Patiala House ( 2011 ) . In one of the comedy scenes , M. S. Narayana is seen performing spoofs of Yamadonga ( 2007 ) , Magadheera ( 2009 ) , Simha ( 2010 ) and Enthiran ( 2010 ) . According to K. Moti Gokulsing and Wimal Dissanayake , authors of the book Routledge Handbook of Indian Cinemas , the parodies too received positive response .
= = Music = =
S. Thaman composed the soundtrack which consists of six songs . Viswa and Bhaskarabhatla penned lyrics of one song each while Ramajogayya Sastry penned lyrics for the remaining songs . In mid June 2011 , Thaman planned to record two songs in China and one more song in Czech Republic during the re @-@ recording as some special instruments were not available in India and were exclusively available there . Aditya Music acquired the audio rights . The soundtrack was unveiled by hosting a promotional event at Shilpakala Vedika on 18 August 2011 . The event was aired live on MAA TV and on the film 's official website from 7 : 30 PM . The album cover depicts a promotional still of Mahesh Babu from the film 's title song .
The soundtrack was successful in its collections . However , it received mixed response from critics . Suresh Kavirayani of The Times of India called the film 's music impressive . A reviewer from IANS felt that " Nee Dookudu " and " Guruvaram " were well shot and composed while the overall music could have been better . Sify wrote " Thaman`s music sounded average in the theatres , though a couple of numbers – `Guruvaram` and `Dethadi` – could enliven the mood of the spectators . The background score and the music during some romantic moments are dull . " IndiaGlitz termed it the first passable album of Thaman and called it a forgettable one .
= = Release = =
The distribution rights for Ceded , Nellore , Nizam , Guntur and Karnataka regions were sold for an amount of ₹ 220 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 3 million ) while the Uttarandhra region distribution rights were sold to Gayathri Films for an amount of ₹ 29 million ( US $ 430 @,@ 000 ) . FICUS Inc. acquired the overseas distribution rights . The film was announced to be released on 23 September 2011 by the producers in the end of August 2011 after the release of the soundtrack .
The first copy was submitted to Central Board of Film Certification on 19 September 2011 for censoring . The board awarded an U / A certificate on 21 September 2011 after a few cuts were done . To prevent illegal streaming , the makers approached the High Court for a John Doe order . The film released in 15 screens in Chennai . The film released in 71 screens in Hyderabad surpassing the record set by Magadheera which released in 68 screens .
The film released in 1600 screens worldwide and 89 theatres in North America . It was released in 21 countries including Canada , Trinidad , South Africa , Netherlands and Finland making it the first Telugu film to be released there . It became the first Telugu film to be released in 21 cities in North India . The film released in 79 theatres in the United States . It became the first Telugu film to be released in Botswana . The Telugu Association of Botswana screened it in Village Cinema at 10 : 30 AM on 9 October 2011 with each ticket costing 40 pula . Apart from them , the film released in countries like Singapore , Dubai , Malaysia and United Kingdom while the producers received calls from Nairobi for distribution rights .
= = = Promotion = = =
The first @-@ look poster featuring Mahesh Babu with a teaser was unveiled on 31 May 2011 on the eve of the birthday of Mahesh 's father , actor Krishna . The second teaser was unveiled on 9 August 2011 on the eve of Mahesh 's birthday , and it received positive response from viewers . Parvati Melton 's look in the item number was unveiled after the completion of the film 's shoot and those stills received positive response . In an interview to Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India , Anil Sunkara said " When the pre @-@ release hype was hitting a fever pitch , we ( producers ) toured all over the state , meeting fan associations and telling them that it was a family entertainer , and distributing merchandise like stickers , badges and ribbons " .
A thanksgiving tour began in Vijayawada where Vaitla , Anil and comedian Siva Reddy promoted the film at Hotel Mid City after which they went to Eluru . The film 's success meet was held at Hotel Novotel in Hyderabad on 11 October 2011 . Another event was planned at Vijayawada for celebrating the completion of the film 's 50 day run . The event was held at Velagapudi Ramakrishna Siddhartha Engineering College grounds on 12 November 2011 . Udaya Bhanu hosted the event .
= = = Legal issues = = =
The film was shot at Vikarabad Railway Station on 31 July 2011 after seeking necessary permission to shoot till 5 : 00 PM with police security . The shoot was called off because of rain and Mahesh left the premises at 4 : 30 PM . Shortly , seven Telangana Students JAC activists landed at the railway station raising slogans against Samaikhyandra supporters . On seeing them , the crew started preparing to vacate the spot . While they were leaving , the activists started pelting stones at them . Police later dispered the mob and production manager Rambabu and Ramesh filed a complaint against them .
The activists disrupted the screening of the film in six theatres in Ranga Reddy district and accused the unit members for registering false cases against them during the film 's shoot at railway station . They entered theatres at Vikarabad , Parigi , Tandoor , Chevella and Shamshabad and asked the managements not to screen the film but were dispersed by the police . Later Rambabu and Ramesh met them and assured them that the cases would be withdrawn immediately . Police protection was given to the theatres screening the film in Hyderabad while the screening was much delayed in many centres in Telangana . The shows began from 6 : 00 AM in all other regions , particularly in the Ceded area .
= = = Home media = = =
The television broadcast rights were purchased by MAA TV for ₹ 54 million . Illegally copied versions of the film 's DVDs were seized by the Vijayawada city police on 11 October 2011 . Volga Videos released the film 's DVD and VCD on 1 January 2012 . FICUS Inc . , released the overseas DVD on 16 March 2012 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Suresh Kavirayani of The Times of India rated it 4 out of 5 and wrote " Dookudu is a typical Srinu Vytla film with a generous sprinkling of comedy . His narrative manages to keep the audience engaged until the end of the movie . This movie comes as a blessing for not just Mahesh Babu , but also for Tollywood , which is badly in need of a hit , after the recent spate of box office debacles . Srinu Vytla and Mahesh Babu have come out with a winner in Dookudu " . Bollywood Life stated " Dookudu has all the elements of a potboiler – the unholy nexus between underworld and politicos , passionate romance , shrill revenge and the glory of father @-@ son relationship . The movie is almost certain to make a box office splash , but if fans are expecting the lofty fizz of Pokkiri , perhaps there is some disappointment in store " . Sify called the film " entertaining " and wrote " Despite the drawbacks , Dookudu holds the power to lure the crowds , with its commercial values . It is a bonanza to Mahesh Babu`s fans and it will not disappoint the family crowds either . " IANS rated it 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 and stated " Dookudu is a treat for Mahesh 's fans . But others can also enjoy this film for its comedy elements and Mahesh 's powerful presence . " Vanshika Devuni of Upperstall.com wrote " The best thing about the movie is that it comes across as a mass entertainer and makes no attempts to come across as a intellectual movie or a movie that tries to pretend it is ' hatke ' . "
In contrast , B. V. S. Prakash of Deccan Chronicle rated the film 3 out of 5 and wrote " Although , it is a tale of a honest cop who is on the trail of a dreaded don , director Sinu Vaitla relies on a band of comedians like Brahmanandam and M.S. Narayana to sustain audience interests , before his protagonist accomplishes his mission . Audiences have to leave behind their thinking caps at home to enjoy this comic @-@ caper since the screenplay has few gaping holes and is repetitive as well . " Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff gave it 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 and criticised the film 's screenplay and logic @-@ defying sequences , but praised Mahesh Babu 's performance , calling his role a " cakewalk " and recommending the film for his fans in particular . Ramchander of Oneindia Entertainment wrote " To sum up , Dookudu is just another average entertainer and not in the same league as Mahesh Babu " s earlier blockbusters like Athadu and Pokiri " .
= = = Box office = = =
Dookudu had the largest opening for a Telugu film , and collected a share of ₹ 101 @.@ 1 million and a gross of ₹ 125 @.@ 8 million on the first day of its release . The film grossed nearly ₹ 45 million on its first day at the Overseas Box office . The film crossed the $ 1 million mark in the United States and grossed ₹ 15 million in two days , in United Kingdom , Australia , Dubai and Canada . The film 's three @-@ day worldwide total became ₹ 212 @.@ 2 million and in three days , the film surpassed the records set by Magadheera and Simha in terms of first weekend collections . It collected a share of ₹ 350 @.@ 1 million and grossed ₹ 500 @.@ 7 million in its first week . The film collected ₹ 5 @.@ 1 million in its first week at Chennai Box office .
By the end of its second week , Dookudu grossed ₹ 700 million at the worldwide box office . The film grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 01 billion by the end of its 50 @-@ day run at the worldwide Box office . It grossed ₹ 800 million in India and ₹ 210 million in Overseas by the end of its 50 @-@ day run . The film completed 50 days in 312 centres and 100 days in 63 centres . The film earned a share of ₹ 567 million at the worldwide Box office in its lifetime .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = Legacy = =
Dookudu became one of the biggest hits in the history of Telugu cinema and was the biggest hit in Mahesh Babu 's career by the end of its lifetime run . The film ended the five @-@ year career slump of Mahesh Babu and marked his image makeover . The Times of India called it one of the top ten must watch Telugu films of 2011 . The Los Angeles Times wrote a special article about Mahesh and the film 's massive collections in United States and called the film " The biggest hit you 've never heard of " . After the film 's gross crossed ₹ 1 billion , Income Tax Department officials conducted a raid on the Jubilee Hills residence of Mahesh as he was rumoured to get a remuneration of more than ₹ 1 @.@ 2 million for his next projects .
The film 's success made Samantha Ruth Prabhu one of the most sought heroines in Telugu cinema . Parvati Melton received more offers for performing item numbers post the film 's release . Dasari Narayana Rao said the film arrived at the right time and had provided a good amount of relief to the Telugu film industry , which was under a huge loss at that point of time . Samantha auctioned the costumes used by Mahesh in the film for raising funds for the charity organisation " Pratyusha " . Vaitla 's next film with Mahesh namely Aagadu ( 2014 ) , which too was produced by 14 Reels Entertainment and had the same technical crew of this film , was a failure at the box office . The Hindu cited similarities with Dookudu as one of the reasons of the film 's failure .
= = Remakes = =
Dookudu was dubbed by 14 Reels Entertainment into Tamil as Athiradi Vettai in 2013 . The film was also dubbed into Hindi as The Real Tiger and into Malayalam as Choodan . The film was remade into Bengali as Challenge 2 ( 2012 ) by Raja Chanda starring Dev and Pooja Bose in the lead roles . The film was also remade into Kannada as Power ( 2014 ) by K. Madesh starring Puneeth Rajkumar and Trisha in the lead roles . It marked the latter 's debut in Kannada and was also the first Kannada film of 14 Reels Entertainment .
= Iwo Jima ( video game ) =
Iwo Jima is a turn @-@ based strategy video game developed and published by Personal Software Services for the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum in 1986 . It is the second instalment to the Strategic Wargames series . The game is set during the Battle of Iwo Jima in the Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II and revolves around the United States Marine Corps ' objective to secure the island of Iwo Jima from the Imperial Japanese Army .
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy and focuses on the player using their units to attack Japanese forces in order to capture the island . The player assumes control of the Marine Corps and must eliminate all Japanese forces by ground , air , or naval combat . The game received mixed reviews upon release . Critics praised the game 's value for money and easy difficulty for novice gamers ; however , many criticised the graphics and mechanics .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy focuses on the invasion and land battles of Iwo Jima . The player commands the United States Marine Corps against the Imperial Japanese Army , who are occupying the islands as part of the Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II . The game is menu @-@ based and only allows the player to use four command functions ; move , attack , land and pass . Depending on the difficulty set , the game lasts 32 to 36 turns and can only be won by eliminating all Japanese forces from the island before the final turn ends . During the game , the enemy may fortify their positions , launch air strikes against the United States Navy fleet or may perform suicide attacks if their unit is about to be wiped out . The player also has the ability to order air strikes against the enemy , if weather permits .
At the beginning of the game , the player has to allocate a number of American troops in order to establish a beachhead on one of the six beaches of the island . However , many of the beaches are scattered with land mines and may provide an initial disadvantage to the assault . Throughout the game , the player may call in air strikes and other assaults , however they are only available after the American forces are attacked or if the enemy retreats to an inaccessible location . At any time in the game , the player is also able to request troop reinforcements from the fleet . Furthermore , Japanese air forces may sink American battleships throughout the game , although the player will be given the opportunity to shoot them down . In addition , a Japanese submarine will sink American gunboats at random intervals , and cannot be destroyed in any way . There is no save function in the game .
= = Background = =
Personal Software Services was founded in Coventry , England , by Gary Mays and Richard Cockayne in 1981 . The company were known for creating games that revolved around historic war battles and conflicts , such as Theatre Europe , Bismark and Falklands ' 82 . The company had a partnership with French video game developer ERE Informatique , and published localised versions of their products to the United Kingdom . In 1986 , Cockayne took a decision to alter their products for release on 16 @-@ bit consoles , as he found that smaller 8 @-@ bit consoles such as the ZX Spectrum lacked the processing power for larger strategy games . The decision was falsely interpreted as " pulling out " from the Spectrum market by video game journalist Phillipa Irving . Following years of successful sales throughout the mid 1980s , Personal Software Services experienced financial difficulties , in what Cockayne admitted in a retrospective interview that " he took his eye off the ball " . The company was acquired by Mirrorsoft in February 1987 , and was later dispossessed by the company due to strains of debt .
= = Reception = =
The game received mixed reviews form critics upon release . Both Gwyn Hughes of Your Sinclair and a reviewer of ZX Computing praised the game 's value for money and heralded it as a " good introduction " to the wargaming genre , although Hughes believed that Iwo Jima was unlikely to provide established tacticians with a " major challenge " and the reviewer of ZX Computing was concerned that the game was " too easy " . Sean Masterson of Crash criticised the graphics , stating that it was " let down by poor unit markers and terrain features " . Gary Rook of Sinclair User asserted that the game was overall " competent " , however he summarised it as " failing to excite " . Rook also added that the game was well implemented and " inspiring " .
A reviewer of Computer and Video Games criticised the game for having an " awkward mechanism " due to the lack of a save feature and neglecting historic realism . However , he compared the historical accuracy of the Battle of Iwo Jima for being more accurate than Falklands ' 82 's interpretation of the Falklands War . Mark Reed of Computer Gamer stated that the game is " ideal " for novice players and also praised the simplicity of the controls , despite suggesting that experienced gamers of the genre would prefer " something more complex " . Masterson similarly criticised the game 's suitability for experienced gamers , suggesting that any appeal for a more experienced player is likely to be " very limited " .
= 1998 – 99 Manchester United F.C. season =
The 1998 – 99 season was the most successful season in the history of Manchester United Football Club . After finishing the previous season without winning any titles , United won a treble of trophies ( the Premier League , FA Cup and UEFA Champions League ) , the first side in English football to achieve such a feat . During the campaign United lost only five times , including a one @-@ off Charity Shield fixture , in the League Cup against eventual winners Tottenham Hotspur and their only home defeat , a league match against Middlesbrough in December 1998 . A run of 33 games unbeaten in all competitions began on 26 December at home to Nottingham Forest .
Veteran players Brian McClair and Gary Pallister , along with a host of younger and less experienced players such as goalkeeper Kevin Pilkington and striker Graeme Tomlinson , had left the club before the season began . The big news of the pre @-@ season was the arrival of Dutch defender Jaap Stam for a club record fee of £ 10 @.@ 75 million . Other additions included striker Dwight Yorke and Swedish winger Jesper Blomqvist . Goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel announced his intention to leave the club after eight years at Old Trafford , joining Sporting Clube de Portugal at the end of the season .
The team 's never @-@ say @-@ die attitude , instilled in previous seasons , was key to their success as the players often thrived in difficult situations . The highlight was United 's dramatic comeback in the Champions League final , when Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær each scored in injury time to overturn Bayern Munich 's first @-@ half lead . David Beckham was runner up to Rivaldo for 1999 's European Footballer of the Year and FIFA World Player of the Year awards .
Fans and writers regard the treble haul as manager Alex Ferguson 's finest hour , although he dismissed that assertion in later years . Tens of thousands of fans lined the streets of Manchester to welcome the team as the season drew to a close . In recognition of his achievements Ferguson was awarded a knighthood , and handed the Freedom of the City of Glasgow in November 1999 .
By the end of the season Manchester United had become the world ’ s richest football club , and the most valuable sporting brand worldwide . The club was also at the centre of a takeover bid by BSkyB , which was blocked by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission in March 1999 .
= = Friendlies = =
In their pre @-@ season travels United lost and drew their first two matches , before winning three . A testimonial for Teddy Scott at Pittodrie against Aberdeen was scheduled in January ; United lost 7 – 6 on penalties after a 1 – 1 draw in 90 minutes .
Colours : Green
= Manchester United win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = FA Charity Shield = =
The opening game of the season was the Charity Shield on 9 August 1998 at Wembley Stadium in front of 67 @,@ 342 people , which United lost 3 – 0 to the previous season 's double winners Arsenal . Roy Keane made his comeback after almost a year out injured , and Jaap Stam debuted in central defence .
= = FA Premier League = =
= = = August = = =
In the opening weekend of the season Manchester United faced Leicester City at Old Trafford , and went a goal down within seven minutes ; Muzzy Izzet ’ s cross was met by Emile Heskey to scuff the ball into the net before Tony Cottee – the scorer in the previous season ’ s corresponding fixture – added a second with fifteen minutes remaining . Teddy Sheringham ’ s intervention and a last gasp free kick by David Beckham helped the home side salvage a point , setting a precedent for things to come . The team 's first away game at West Ham followed , but despite the debut of striker Dwight Yorke , United were held to a goalless draw . Beckham , who had become a national hate figure after his dismissal in the World Cup , received a torrid reception by the home supporters , with every touch of the ball made by him jeered at . Bottles and stones were directed at the team coach prior to kick @-@ off . After the game Ferguson , his players , and the Manchester United staff refused to be interviewed by the press or television .
= = = September = = =
Manchester United recorded their first win of the season on 9 September , beating newly promoted Charlton Athletic 4 – 1 . Yorke and Ole Gunnar Solskjær each scored a brace to overturn the visitor 's early lead . The match was marred with demonstrations in and around Old Trafford against the proposed takeover of the club by BSkyB . Obscene chants were directed at chairman Martin Edwards , who had given his support to the merger . A 2 – 0 victory against Coventry City the following week put United in perfect stead for the clash at home to Barcelona , but a comprehensive defeat to champions Arsenal left the team in 10th position . This was Arsène Wenger 's third straight victory over Ferguson ( four in all competitions ) ; goals from Tony Adams , Nicolas Anelka and Freddie Ljungberg condemned Manchester United to their heaviest away defeat in more than two years . To compound the misery midfielder Nicky Butt , who had been sent off in the Champions League match earlier in the week , was handed a second red card in the space of four days after a lunge on French international Patrick Vieira . United ended the month with a win , beating rivals Liverpool 2 – 0 to move into fifth spot .
= = = October = = =
A trip to The Dell on 3 October was taken with caution given United 's return from Munich in the Champions League and winless record at the ground . The team lost to Southampton in each of their last three visits , including a 6 – 3 mauling in 1996 . Despite dominating possession and clear @-@ cut chances in the previous season ’ s fixture , United lost by a single goal leaving Ferguson to question when , not if he would eventually break the jinx . Andy Cole was paired with Yorke for only the second time this season , a tactic that paid off as both got on the score sheet . Substitute Jordi Cruyff added a third in the 75th minute to move United into second place in the table , four points behind leaders Aston Villa going into the international break . Raimond van der Gouw who deputised for injured goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel at Southampton featured again at home to Wimbledon , a match that Manchester United won 5 – 1 , the biggest win of the season at Old Trafford . Ryan Giggs , Beckham , Yorke and Cole ( twice ) all scored ; Ferguson in particular hailed the contribution of 19 @-@ year @-@ old defender Wes Brown . United earned a point away at Derby County on 24 October , and deservedly beat Everton 4 – 1 at Goodison Park on Halloween to cut the gap at the top to just a point .
= = = November = = =
Manchester United drew their first and only home blank of the season against Newcastle United , but made amends with a 3 – 2 victory over bottom team Blackburn Rovers . Defensive frailties , most notably from Schmeichel , were on show away to Sheffield Wednesday as the team missed the chance to go top of the table . A brace from winger Jens Niclas Alexandersson and a debut goal scored by Wim Jonk consigned Ferguson to his second defeat in the league and extended a barren run at Hillsborough ; United had won only a single game in their last eight visits . On 29 November , Manchester United hosted Leeds United and a valiant performance by the visitors looked to have gained them a draw , after going two goals down in the first half . A moment of brilliance from Butt however secured the three points for the Red Devils and kept up the pressure on the challengers .
= = = December = = =
Three straight draws followed in December , the first away to league leaders Aston Villa . United were fortunate to pick up a point given their opponents dominance in the second half , and were careless at Tottenham Hotspur , throwing away a 2 – 0 lead . Solskjær put United two goals ahead , but in the 39th minute Gary Neville received a red card for a second bookable offence , tugging on David Ginola 's shirt . Spurs captain Sol Campbell brought his team back into the match with 20 minutes remaining and on the cusp of stoppage time powered a header in the top left @-@ hand corner , sparking jubilant scenes at White Hart Lane . Chelsea grabbed a creditable draw at Old Trafford to stake their championship credentials four days later and United , who were without their manager Ferguson for the Middlesbrough game were beaten 3 – 2 ; their last defeat of the season . On Boxing Day the team collected three points against Nottingham Forest and merited a point at Stamford Bridge in the last match of 1998 to solidify their position in the top four .
= = = January = = =
A power cut at Old Trafford delayed proceedings against West Ham on 10 January , a match that ended 4 – 1 to Manchester United . The partnership of Yorke and Cole was starting to click , evident in the 6 – 2 win at Leicester City . Five goals were scored in the second half including a hat @-@ trick for the former , cutting Chelsea 's lead at the top to two points . On 31 January , Manchester United moved a point clear at the Premiership summit for the first time in the season . Yorke 's late header in the 89th minute made the 1 – 0 victory at Charlton Athletic their third consecutive league win ( fifth in the month ) . Ferguson praised the team 's resolve , adding , " It 's a good result for us , because there are games where you have to dig in and find a result . "
= = = February = = =
Manchester United beat Derby County 1 – 0 at home on 3 February to move four points ahead of Chelsea . Three days later the team set a new record at the City Ground , racking up the biggest away Premier League win ( 8 – 1 ) . Substitute Ole Gunnar Solskjaer scored four times in the space of ten minutes , adding to an already commanding scoreline . Ron Atkinson , the manager of Nottingham Forest , declared Manchester United to be the best team in the league by " a country mile " , and Ferguson was now handed a selection dilemma ahead of the clash against Arsenal on 17 February . The Gunners were without Dennis Bergkamp , Emmanuel Petit and Martin Keown , and conceded an early penalty when Ray Parlour brought down Johnsen . Yorke missed , chipping the ball wide of the right @-@ hand post , and was made to pay early in the second half as Nwankwo Kanu 's through ball found striker Anelka , who put his team into the lead . Given Arsenal ’ s defensive record , another clean sheet looked to be on the cards until a header by Cole in the 60th minute drew the game level . United from then on had several chances to win the game , but a point each left the title race finely balanced . Back to back wins starting with a 1 – 0 win at Coventry on 20 February , and a 2 – 1 win at home to Southampton a week later , maintained United 's grip on first position .
= = = March and April = = =
Cup duties were the main priority in March as United played only two league fixtures : away to Newcastle and at home to Everton . Two wins out of two , including two goals by Cole against his former club , Newcastle , helped the team to become the first to reach 60 points in the season .
Manchester United could only manage a 1 – 1 draw at Wimbledon on 3 April as Beckham ’ s well @-@ drilled shot cancelled out Jason Euell 's opener in the fifth minute . Despite several of the first @-@ team members being rested for the Juventus tie , United won 3 – 0 at Old Trafford against Sheffield Wednesday and battled well to earn a point against Leeds at Elland Road after the midweek tie at Juventus . But the result allowed Arsenal to move to the top of the Premiership for the first time this season , albeit having played one game more , after scoring six against Middlesbrough at the Riverside .
= = = May = = =
Another versatile performance by Beckham dragged United back to the summit , but Arsenal ’ s win at Derby the following Sunday restored the champion 's slender advantage . Against Liverpool at Anfield , Ferguson restored the Cole – Yorke partnership , and within 23 minutes the latter scored the opener from a Beckham cross . In the second half United were awarded a penalty for a challenge on Jesper Blomqvist by Jamie Carragher , which Irwin successfully converted . But Irwin was sent off in the 75th minute for a second bookable offence just after Jamie Redknapp scored through a penalty to give Liverpool hope . Paul Ince , scrambled the equaliser two minutes from time . The United manager did not hide his discomfort , adding he thought " the referee handed it to them . " On the same night , Arsenal convincingly beat rivals Tottenham to move three points clear , having still played a game more . Wenger was adamant that United were marginal favourites , but it was clear the title race would be decided on the final day , akin to 1995 .
With two games remaining , Yorke scored his 29th goal of the season at Middlesbrough to help his team return to the top of the table . Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink 's late winner against Arsenal two days later all but ended Wenger ’ s chances of retaining the league championship . United now needed only four points , one of them gained at Ewood Park , relegating Blackburn Rovers in the process . Manchester United eventually secured the championship on the final day , coming back from a goal down against Tottenham to win 2 – 1 . The achievement was all the more special for Ferguson , who lifted his fifth domestic championship in seven seasons .
Colours : Green
= Manchester United win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
Points allocation : Three points awarded for a win ; one for a drawn match ; none for a loss .
= = FA Cup = =
Despite receiving a home draw in each of their first four rounds ( Third to Sixth ) , United were paired against difficult opponents throughout the competition . On their route to the final they defeated five Premier League teams : Middlesbrough , Liverpool , Chelsea , Arsenal and Newcastle United . The only non @-@ Premier League team that United played in the competition was Fulham , who at the time played in the Second Division , the third tier of English football , but even they were not considered pushovers , having claimed shock wins over Southampton and Aston Villa in the previous rounds .
In the third round , United were drawn against Middlesbrough , who had recently beaten them in the league . Andy Townsend gave Middlesbrough the lead at half time , but goals from Cole , Irwin and Giggs gave United a 3 – 1 victory .
United faced Liverpool at home in the following round , where the visitors took the lead from a Michael Owen header inside three minutes . In spite of creating plenty of goalscoring chances , the team failed to equalise until the 86th minute , when Yorke scored off a Beckham free kick . In the second minute of stoppage time , Ole Gunnar Solskjær hit a shot that sent Liverpool goalkeeper David James the wrong way to give United the win .
Cole scored the winner against Fulham on Valentine 's Day to set up a quarter @-@ final clash at home to Chelsea . Although there were no goals , Paul Scholes and Roberto Di Matteo were both sent off and missed the replay , three days later at Stamford Bridge . Yorke kept up his ever @-@ improving goalscoring record , scoring two goals against the Blues on 10 March .
United played cup holders Arsenal in the semi @-@ final at Villa Park on 11 April . Neither team was able to score even after extra time had been played , therefore the match was decided in a replay four days later . Beckham opened the scoring for United with a long range effort , but Dennis Bergkamp drew Arsenal level with a shot that deflected off United 's centre back Jaap Stam . Arsenal then thought they had taken the lead when Nicolas Anelka put the ball in the back of United 's net , but the goal was ruled out for offside . United 's captain Roy Keane was red @-@ carded for two bookable offences and United played the last thirty minutes of normal time with ten men . In injury time at the end of the second half , Phil Neville fouled Ray Parlour in the penalty area . Peter Schmeichel parried away Bergkamp 's resultant spot kick and the game went into extra time .
Giggs scored partway through the second half of extra time . Picking up possession on the halfway line after a loose pass from Patrick Vieira , he dribbled past the entire Arsenal back line before shooting just under goalkeeper David Seaman 's bar . Giggs ran celebrating towards the United fans , and United held on to beat the Gunners 2 – 1 . The goal was the last ever scored in a FA Cup semi @-@ final replay , as they were abolished the following season .
United met Newcastle United in the FA Cup final at Wembley Stadium , the penultimate FA Cup final to be held there before it was closed for rebuilding . Less than 10 minutes into the match , Keane was injured and replaced by Sheringham . He and Scholes both finished with a goal apiece in the 2 – 0 win that sealed the double .
Colours : Green
= Manchester United win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = League Cup = =
As in the previous four seasons United rested many of their first @-@ team players in the League Cup , instead using the competition to provide first team experience to their younger players and reserves . In the third round of the competition United required extra @-@ time to defeat Bury , eventually winning 2 – 0 with goals from Erik Nevland and Ole Gunnar Solskjær . In the fourth round , two more goals from Solskjær gave United a 2 – 1 victory over Nottingham Forest , earning them a place in the quarter @-@ finals for the first time since they reached the final in 1994 . United were beaten in the quarter @-@ finals by eventual winners Tottenham Hotspur ; two goals from Chris Armstrong and one from David Ginola gave Spurs a 3 – 1 victory , with ex @-@ Spurs striker Teddy Sheringham scoring the consolation for United on his return to White Hart Lane .
Colours : Green
= Manchester United win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = UEFA Champions League = =
= = = Second qualifying round = = =
Manchester United began their UEFA Champions League campaign against Polish champions ŁKS Łódź in the qualifying round . Goals from Giggs and Cole in the home leg gave them a 2 – 0 win , and a goalless second leg ensured their qualification for the group stage . This gave Łódź the distinction of being the only side to keep a clean sheet against the eventual champions as well as being the only opponents failing to score against them .
Colours : Green
= Manchester United win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = = Group stage = = =
United were drawn in Group D , quickly labelled the competition 's " group of death " , along with Spanish club Barcelona , German champions Bayern Munich and Danish side Brøndby .
Both games against Barcelona ended in draws . Despite Giggs , Scholes and Beckham putting the team into a 3 — 2 lead at Old Trafford , the visitors were awarded a late penalty after Butt was sent off for handling the ball . Luis Enrique converted the ball into the net to leave both teams with a point on Matchday One . In the return game on 25 November at the Camp Nou , a fixture that Barça needed to win to avoid elimination , Dwight Yorke 's goals put United ahead 3 – 2 , but Barça star Rivaldo equalized and nearly scored again but his effort hit the crossbar .
United were denied victory by Bayern Munich twice , home and away . In Munich , the home side equalised with two minutes to go with United leading 2 – 1 , after Schmeichel uncharacteristically went for and missed Bixente Lizarazu 's throw @-@ in , allowing Giovane Élber to tap in from a few yards out and score his second of the match . The return leg ended in a stalemate ; Roy Keane scored just before half @-@ time via a low header before Hasan Salihamidžić equalised for the visitors .
United inflicted two heavy defeats on Brøndby , beating them 6 – 2 in Copenhagen and 5 – 0 at Old Trafford .
Results in the other groups meant that a second @-@ place finish was enough for United to progress into the quarter @-@ finals , joining group leaders Bayern Munich .
Colours : Green
= Manchester United win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
Points allocation : Three points awarded for a win ; one for a drawn match ; none for a loss .
= = = Knockout phase = = =
In the knockout stage United played two Italian sides in the quarter and semi @-@ finals , Internazionale and Juventus respectively ; United had never won on an Italian pitch .
In the quarter @-@ finals , Beckham faced Diego Simeone for the first time since the 1998 World Cup . In the first leg at Old Trafford , United beat Inter 2 – 0 with two almost identical goals from Yorke , both from crosses by Beckham ; Simeone 's second @-@ half goal was disallowed for pushing . In the San Siro , Scholes scored a late away goal to level the game at 1 – 1 as United advanced 3 – 1 on aggregate .
In the semi @-@ finals , Juve 's captain Antonio Conte met Edgar Davids ' pass to give Juventus an away goal . United equalised in injury @-@ time through Giggs , who converted a Beckham cross : a Teddy Sheringham goal a few minutes earlier had been disallowed . A draw meant that United either needed to win in Italy , or get a score @-@ draw of 2 – 2 or greater .
At the Stadio delle Alpi , Filippo Inzaghi scored twice in the first 11 minutes to give Juve a 3 – 1 aggregate lead . However , team captain Roy Keane , who was shown a yellow card preventing him from playing the final , headed in a Beckham cross . Dwight Yorke added a second to level the match just before the break . In the second half , Cole put United ahead for the first time in the match and the tie . Yorke was brought down by the Juve keeper in the area as he went round him , but the referee played the advantage and Cole tapped in from an acute angle . United held on for their first victory in Italy and booked their place in the Camp Nou for the final , against group opponents Bayern Munich .
Colours : Green
= Manchester United win ; Yellow =
draw ; Red = opponents win .
= = = Final = = =
United were without first @-@ choice central midfielders Keane and Scholes , as both were suspended after receiving a second yellow card in the competition . Ferguson reorganised the team , with Blomqvist and Butt replacing Keane and Scholes , Beckham moving from right @-@ wing to centre @-@ midfield and Giggs moving from the left to the right wing . United lined up in their normal 4 – 4 – 2 formation . This was the final match for Peter Schmeichel , who captained the team .
Mario Basler 's free kick after six minutes opened the scoring for Bayern Munich . Bayern then had the chance to extend their lead with Mehmet Scholl hitting the post and Carsten Jancker the crossbar , forcing Peter Schmeichel to make numerous saves . In reaction to going a goal down , Ferguson substituted in Solskjær and Sheringham . As the game went to injury time , referee Pierluigi Collina indicated that three minutes would be played . In almost the last attack of the game , United won a corner , which Beckham took and goalkeeper Schmeichel went up front for . The ball was partially cleared by the Bayern defence before being played back to Giggs , who sent a low volley into the path of Sheringham , whose scuffed shot squeezed low inside the post .
Almost immediately after the equaliser United won another corner , again taken by Beckham . He landed the ball on the head of Sheringham who nodded it to Solskjær who in turn toe @-@ poked it into the roof of the net . Oliver Kahn , the Bayern goalkeeper , was motionless on the line . United had completed the come @-@ back . Bayern barely had time to restart the game , which referee Collina brought to a close just a few seconds later .
During the celebrations United 's captain Peter Schmeichel and manager Alex Ferguson lifted the trophy together to the crowd . Despite their suspensions , both Keane and Scholes received winners ' medals on the rostrum . Keane claims that to date he has not looked at the medal , feeling that his absence had tainted the accomplishment to the extent that he " didn 't deserve the medal " . Substituted Bayern legend Lothar Matthäus removed his runner @-@ up medal as soon as he received it , and later remarked that United were " lucky " to win the final .
Manchester United became the first English team to win the European Cup ( first in its Champions League format ) , since Liverpool took the title in 1984 defeating Roma on penalties . The club also fittingly won on the date of Sir Matt Busby 's 90th birthday .
= = Legacy = =
Almost 24 hours after the dramatics in Barcelona , a crowd of 500 @,@ 000 people turned up on the streets of Manchester to greet the United players , who paraded through the city in an open @-@ top bus . As champions of Europe , Manchester United were invited to play in the Intercontinental Cup against Brazilian side Palmeiras in Tokyo . Roy Keane scored the winner , ensuring the team became the first and last British side to win the trophy , which was abolished in 2004 .
To help England with its World Cup host bid , United controversially withdrew from the 1999 – 2000 FA Cup , the first time the holders had done so in order to play in the inaugural Club World Championship . They did not progress past the group stages , and Ferguson has since admitted his regrets in how they handled the situation .
Along with the Busby Babes , the 1999 treble @-@ winning team is regarded by supporters as the benchmark of Manchester United teams . In 2007 The Daily Telegraph in association with World Soccer Magazine published a list of the twenty greatest football teams of all time : United were ranked in last position , behind Liverpool 's double winners of 1977 . Two years later , the Daily Mail compiled their list of the Greatest Teams Of All Time , ranking Ferguson 's achievements at number two , losing out to the 1970 Brazilian national team . The extra @-@ time winner scored by Ryan Giggs in the FA Cup semi @-@ final against Arsenal topped a poll for the best goal in the competition and Channel 4 viewers rated the team 's comeback in the Champions League final at number four on the list of 100 Greatest Sporting Moments .
= = Attempted takeover by BSkyB = =
In September 1998 Manchester United were the target of a proposed takeover by British Sky Broadcasting , a subsidiary of Rupert Murdoch 's News Corporation . Negotiations between both sides had begun during the summer , but had stalled after disagreements over the asking price . The satellite group ’ s original bid of £ 575 million – initially thought to be their final offer – was deemed too low by two members of United ’ s board ( chairman Martin Edwards and Professor Sir Roland Smith ) , who pressed for a higher figure . Two days of talks followed and in an attempt to close the deal , BSkyB made a final bid of £ 623 @.@ 4 million .
A year earlier , Murdoch 's Fox Entertainment Group purchased the Los Angeles Dodgers for $ 311m . Fox also held exclusive rights to Major League Baseball which meant from a strategic point of view , Murdoch ’ s acquisition looked more appealing . He was now able to control both programming content on his network and distribution rights to the Dodgers . For the very same reason BSkyB replicated Fox ’ s formula and went ahead with a takeover of a Premier League club . Manchester United thus was the unanimous choice of Murdoch and board members . The club was the most valuable in English football , making £ 30 @.@ 1 million from gate receipts and programmes in 1997 alone . At the same time , more than 200 supporters ’ groups were established worldwide and the club 's fanbase exceeded 100 million , despite only a million having been to Old Trafford to watch the first team play . As a means of capitalising on this growing market , MUTV , a television station operated by the club was launched in August 1998 . In co @-@ operation with Granada Media Group and BSkyB it was the world ’ s first channel dedicated to a football club , funded entirely through subscriptions . On the pitch United 's success was largely down to the nurturing talents of manager Ferguson , who assembled a team capable of dominating in the long haul .
= = = Formation of Shareholders United = = =
When BSkyB publicised their intentions to take over Manchester United , supporters reacted furiously to the news . The majority felt the club ’ s traditions , built on a loyal fan base and great teams including the Busby Babes and currently Fergie 's Fledglings would just be tarnished forever . United were no longer an independent entity , and major decisions affecting the club looked increasingly likely to be taken on the other side of the globe .
As a means of rallying supporters to get behind their cause , awareness campaigns against the takeover were launched . Red Issue issued pamphlets to fans and demonstrations in and around Old Trafford took place before the match against Charlton Athletic on 9 September . Football fans across the United Kingdom also lent support by lobbying their local MPs into passing a legislation , preventing further sport takeovers in the future .
Perhaps the significance of the protests was the formation of Shareholders United Against Murdoch , more commonly known as Manchester United Supporters ' Trust today , by journalist Michael Crick . Working alongside IMUSA ( Independent Manchester United Supporters Association ) , their joint aim was to seek a reference of the merger by the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission . Both groups therefore submitted papers to the Office of Fair Trading , stressing the importance of why the merger shouldn ’ t be carried out . IMUSA in particular argued that BSkyB ’ s main intention was not that of United ’ s but their already dominant position . Sky Television ’ s relevant market was premium subscription channels and by buying an established Premier League team when they already had rights to the division was purely for financial gain . Moreover , Manchester United ’ s market was on the pitch and an acquisition by a media organisation – particularly one run by Murdoch – may create detrimental damage to the sport in the long term .
Bowing down to public pressure , the trade secretary Peter Mandelson referred the deal to the Mergers Commission in October 1998 . The report , finalised in April 1999 , found that BSkyB acted selfishly and blocked the broadcaster 's bid .
= = Squad statistics = =
= = Transfers = =
Manchester United 's first departure of the 1998 – 99 season was Ben Thornley , who joined Huddersfield Town for £ 175 @,@ 000 on 3 July 1998 . A day later , Leon Mills signed for Wigan Athletic for an undisclosed fee , and Adam Sadler was released . Two of the club 's longest @-@ serving players , Brian McClair and Gary Pallister , also left . McClair had been at United since 1987 , and opted for a return to Motherwell in the Scottish Premier League ; he had played at Fir Park in the early 1980s . Pallister agreed to return to Middlesbrough in a £ 2 @.@ 5 million deal , nine years after he had left them for a £ 2 @.@ 3 million transfer to Old Trafford . On 4 November 1998 , Chris Casper signed for Reading for a fee of £ 300 @,@ 000 .
Addressing the loss of Pallister , Ferguson signed Jaap Stam from PSV Eindhoven , becoming the world 's most expensive defender in a £ 10 million deal . Swedish winger Jesper Blomqvist soon followed , completing a £ 4 @.@ 4 million transfer in July before Dwight Yorke was controversially drafted in from Aston Villa to become the club 's record signing . Dutch striker Patrick Kluivert , who impressed during the World Cup , was on the verge of finalising a £ 9 million move from Milan , only for talks to fall through . A £ 5 @.@ 5 million offer for Ole Gunnar Solskjær from Tottenham Hotspur was accepted , but Solskjær himself turned down the transfer after a meeting with Alex Ferguson .
On 24 March , Michael Ryan signed for Wrexham for an undisclosed fee . A day later , Paul Gibson signed for Notts County , and on the same day , Philip Mulryne signed for Norwich City . On 16 April , Terry Cooke signed for United 's cross @-@ town rivals , Manchester City . On 30 June , United released Gerard Gaff and Jason Hickson , the same day that Peter Schmeichel signed for Sporting CP , John Thorrington joined Bayer Leverkusen , and Lee Whiteley departed for Salford City .
United 's only winter arrival was Bojan Djordjic , who signed for an undisclosed fee on 17 February .
= = = In = = =
= = = Out = = =
= = = Loan out = = =
= Teddy Riner =
Teddy Pierre @-@ Marie Riner ( French : [ tɛ.di / te.di ʁi.nœʁ ] ; born 7 April 1989 ) is a French judoka . He has won eight World Championships gold medals , the first and only judoka ( male or female ) to do so , and an Olympic gold medal . He has also won five gold medals at the European Championships . He is a member of the Levallois Sporting Club in Levallois @-@ Perret , France .
= = Personal life = =
Riner was born on 7 April 1989 in Les Abymes near Pointe @-@ à @-@ Pitre , on the island of Guadeloupe , during a family holiday . He was raised in Paris , France . He was enrolled at a local sports club by his parents and played football , tennis and basketball , but says he preferred judo " because it is an individual sport and it 's me , only me . "
He is 2 @.@ 04 metres ( 6 ft 8 in ) tall and weighs 136 kilograms ( 300 lb ) . He is nicknamed " Teddy Bear " , or " Big Ted " .
= = Judo career = =
Riner is a member of the Levallois Sporting Club in Levallois @-@ Perret , France and is coached by Christian Chaumont and Benoit Campargue . He won the World and European junior titles in 2006 . In 2007 , he won a gold medal at the European Judo Championships in Belgrade , Serbia , on the day after his eighteenth birthday . At the 2007 World Judo Championships in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , he became the youngest ever senior world champion when he won the heavyweight ( + 100 kg ) event , defeating the 2000 Olympic gold medallist , Kosei Inoue of Japan , in the semi @-@ final .
At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China , Riner competed in the men 's heavyweight event . He received a bye into the second round of the competition before beating Anis Chedli of Tunisia and Kazakhstan 's Yeldos Ikhsangaliyev to advance to the semi @-@ finals . In the semis he was beaten by Uzbek judoka Abdullo Tangriev on the golden score , meaning Riner had to enter the repechage rounds . In the repechage he defeated Andreas Tölzer and João Schlittler to reach a bronze medal final against Lasha Gujejiani of Georgia ; Riner took the bronze medal by a score of one ippon , one yuko and one koka to nil . In December 2008 he won his second World Championship gold medal at the Open weight Championships held in Levallois @-@ Perret , France , by beating Alexander Mikhaylin of Russia in the final .
Riner won his third world title at the 2009 World Championships in Rotterdam , the Netherlands . He won bouts against Daniel McCormick , Vladimirs Osnachs , Ivan Iliev and Martin Padar in the pool stage before beating Marius Paškevičius in the semi @-@ finals and Oscar Bryson in the final to take the gold medal .
In 2010 , he won two medals , a gold and a silver , at the World Championships in Tokyo . After winning the + 100 competition Riner was defeated by Daiki Kamikawa of Japan in the final of open weight class by a 2 – 1 judge 's decision . After the bout , Riner refused to bow or to shake Kamikawa 's hand , claiming that he " was robbed " .
Riner won his second European gold medal at the 2011 Championships in Istanbul , Turkey . He defeated Nodor Metreveli , Emil Tahirov and Zohar Asaf to win Pool A of the + 100 kg competition before defeating Estonian Martin Padar in the semi @-@ finals and Barna Bor of Hungary in the final to win the title . At the 2011 World Judo Championships in Paris Riner won the gold medal in men 's + 100 kg division , beating Germany 's Tölzer in the final . The result meant that Riner became the first ever male Judoka to win five world titles . He won his sixth World Championship gold medal as part of the French side that won the team event .
Riner was selected to compete for France at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , England in the men 's heavyweight event . The event took place at ExCeL London on 3 August . Riner won the gold medal by defeating Russia 's Alexander Mikhaylin in the final .
Teddy Riner registered during his career only eight defeats in international championship elite : He lost to Brayson and Toelzer in 2006 , to Bianchessi and Rybak in 2007 and to Muneta and Vuijsters in 2008 . The last two defeats he had in the 3rd round of the competition ( heavyweight ) of the Olympics of 2008 in front of Abdullo Tangriev before obtaining the bronze medal , and on 13 September 2010 for the title " any categories " of the world of Tokyo in front of Daiki Kamikawa , his last defeat in date , followed by a series of 103 victories ( the last won in Grand Prix Jeju , on 28 November 2015 ) .
= = Awards = =
2008 Chevalier de l 'ordre national du Mérite
2011 RTL Champion of Champions – This annual sports award was inaugurated in 2008 and is awarded by RTL , a French commercial radio network . The previous winners were Alain Bernard ( 2008 ) , Sébastien Loeb ( 2009 ) and Christophe Lemaitre ( 2010 ) .
2012 L 'Équipe Champion of Champions ( France male category )
2013 Chevalier de la Légion d 'honneur
= William Windsor ( goat ) =
William " Billy " Windsor I is a cashmere goat who served as a lance corporal in the 1st Battalion , the Royal Welsh , an infantry battalion of the British Army . He served as a lance corporal from 2001 until 2009 , except for a three @-@ month period in 2006 when he was demoted to fusilier , after inappropriate behaviour during the Queen 's Official Birthday celebrations while deployed on active duty with the battalion on Cyprus . He retired to Whipsnade Zoo in May 2009 .
His young replacement is known as William Windsor II .
= = History = =
The tradition of having goats in the military originated in 1775 , when a wild goat walked onto the battlefield in Boston during the American Revolutionary War and led the Welsh regimental colours at the end of the Battle of Bunker Hill . Another Welsh military goat , Taffy IV , served in the First World War . Taffy , of 2nd Battalion , Welsh Regiment , is officially recorded as " The Regimental Goat " . He embarked for the war on 13 August 1914 and saw action in the Retreat from Mons , the First Battle of Ypres ( including the Battle of Gheluvelt ) and the Battles of Festubert and Givenchy , before dying on 20 January 1915 . He was posthumously awarded the 1914 Star , British War Medal and the Victory Medal .
The royal goat herd was originally obtained from Mohammad Shah Qajar , Shah of Persia from 1834 to 1848 , when he presented them to Queen Victoria as a gift in 1837 upon her accession to the throne .
The herd thrived on Llandudno 's Great Orme ; by 2001 they reached a population of 250 , and were in danger of running out of food . Following complaints about goats wandering into people 's gardens , the council rejected proposals for a cull , deciding to use a combination of rehoming and birth control . RSPCA marksmen tranquilised nannies and inserted contraceptive progesterone implants to control the numbers of the genetically unique breed . By 2007 , 85 goats had been relocated to areas including Kent , Yorkshire , the Brecon Beacons and Somerset , but further efforts were interrupted by an outbreak of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease .
= = William Windsor I = =
Billy , a Kashmir goat , is descended from the same royal bloodline as the original herd , but was not selected from the wild population ; he was born in Whipsnade Zoo . He was presented to the regiment by Queen Elizabeth II in 2001 . The tradition is not new : since 1844 , the British monarchy has presented an unbroken series of Kashmir goats to the Royal Welch Fusiliers from the Crown 's own royal herd .
Billy — Army number 25232301 — is " not a mascot , but a ranking member of the regiment " , according to the BBC . Since joining in 2001 , he has performed duties overseas , and has paraded before royalty . His primary duty was to march at the head of the battalion on all ceremonial duties . He was present for every parade in which the regiment participated . Billy 's full @-@ time handler was Lance Corporal Ryan Arthur , who carried the title of " Goat Major " .
= = = Temporary demotion = = =
On 16 June 2006 , a parade was held to celebrate Queen Elizabeth II 's 80th birthday , at the Episkopi base near Limassol , Cyprus on the Mediterranean island 's south coast . Invited dignitaries included the ambassadors of Spain , the Netherlands and Sweden and the Argentine commander of United Nations ' forces on Cyprus .
The deployment to Cyprus with the 1st Battalion was Billy 's first overseas posting , and despite being ordered to keep in line , he refused to obey . He failed to keep in step , and tried to headbutt a drummer . The goat major , Lance Corporal Dai Davies , 22 , from Neath , South Wales , was unable to keep him under control .
Billy was charged with " unacceptable behaviour " , " lack of decorum " and " disobeying a direct order " , and had to appear before his commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Huw James . Following a disciplinary hearing , he was demoted to fusilier . The change meant that other fusiliers in the regiment no longer had to stand to attention when Billy walked past , as they had to when he was a lance corporal .
A Canadian animal rights group protested to the British Army , stating that he was merely " acting the goat " , and should be reinstated . Three months later , on 20 September at the same parade ground , Billy regained his rank during the Alma Day parade which celebrates the Royal Welsh victory in the Crimean War . Captain Simon Clarke said , " Billy performed exceptionally well , he has had all summer to reflect on his behaviour at the Queen 's birthday and clearly earned the rank he deserves " .
Billy received his promotion from the colonel of the Royal Welsh Regiment , Brigadier Roderick Porter . As a result of regaining his rank , he also regained his membership of the corporals ' mess .
Billy is not the first goat in the army to have troubles . At one time a royal goat was " prostituted " by being offered for stud services by the regiment 's serving goat major to a Wrexham goat breeder . First charged with lèse majesté , the goat major was ultimately court @-@ martialled under the lesser charge of " disrespect to an officer " and reduced in rank . The goat major claimed he did it out of compassion for the goat , but this failed to impress the court . Another royal fusilier goat earned the nickname " the rebel " , after he butted a colonel while he was stooped over fixing his uniform 's trouser @-@ strap . The incident was described as a " disgraceful act of insubordination . "
= = = Retirement = = =
On 20 May 2009 , following 8 years of distinguished service , Billy retired due to his age . Soldiers from the battalion lined the route from his pen to the trailer as he left the camp for the last time , in ceremonial dress that included a silver headdress which was a gift from the queen in 1955 . Billy was taken to Whipsnade Zoo in Bedfordshire where keepers say he had an easy life at the Children 's Farm .
= = William Windsor II = =
In order to replace Billy , thirty members of 1st Battalion set off to Great Orme in Llandudno on 15 June 2009 at 03 : 00 , hoping to catch the feral goats in a docile state . A team led by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Nick Lock ( Commanding Officer ) included the goat major and several veterinarians . Army spokesman Gavin O ’ Connor said , " We are looking for a goat which is calm under pressure and a team player " . During the selection of a replacement goat , the battalion helped to start an alternative vaccine method of birth control among the herd , since hormone implants that were previously employed to control numbers are no longer available .
With some difficulty , a five @-@ month @-@ old was chosen , and assigned army number 25142301 — which represents regiment number 2514 , 23rd Regiment of Foot ( the original name of the Royal Welsh Fusiliers ) , and 01 denoting the 1st Battalion . The new goat will also be called William Windsor , beginning as a fusilier while being trained for military life . He will receive a ration of two cigarettes per day , which he eats , but will not be permitted Guinness until he is older .
= Streptococcus iniae =
Streptococcus iniae is a species of Gram @-@ positive , sphere @-@ shaped bacterium belonging to the genus Streptococcus . Since its isolation from an Amazon freshwater dolphin in the 1970s , S. iniae has emerged as a leading fish pathogen in aquaculture operations worldwide , resulting in over US $ 100M in annual losses . Since its discovery , S. iniae infections have been reported in at least 27 species of cultured or wild fish from around the world . Freshwater and saltwater fish including tilapia , red drum , hybrid striped bass , and rainbow trout are among those susceptible to infection by S. iniae . Infections in fish manifest as meningoencephalitis , skin lesions , and septicemia .
S. iniae has occasionally produced infection in humans , especially fish handlers of Asian descent . Human infections include sepsis , toxic shock syndrome , and inflammation of the skin , intervertebral discs , or inner layer of the heart . Identifying S. iniae in the laboratory can be difficult , since the conventional methods used to identify streptococci yield insufficient results . It cannot be grouped by the Lancefield antigen method typically used to categorize Streptococcus species . The two known serotypes can be distinguished biochemically by differences in enzyme activity . Several antibiotics have been used to treat S. iniae infections .
= = History = =
Streptococcus iniae was first isolated in 1972 , from subcutaneous abscesses in a captive specimen of Amazon river dolphin ( Inia geoffrensis ) suffering from an infection known as " golf ball disease " . The bacterium was found to be sensitive to beta @-@ lactam antibiotics , and the dolphin was treated successfully with penicillin and tylosin . The causative organism was recognized to be a new species of Streptococcus , and was given the name Streptococcus iniae in 1976 . Around this time , other streptococcal outbreaks occurred in Asia , and the US ; some strains associated with the Japanese outbreaks were later suggested to be S. iniae .
In the 1980s , a purported new species of Streptococcus , named S. shiloi , was identified as one of the causes of an epidemic of meningoencephalitis ( an inflammation of the brain and its surrounding membranes ) affecting farmed rainbow trout and tilapia in Israel since 1986 . Since S. shiloi was alpha @-@ hemolytic , had a G + C % content of 37 % and did not ferment sugar galactose , it was not classified as S. iniae , which is beta @-@ hemolytic , has a G + C % content of 32 % , and ferments galactose . In 1995 , S. shiloi was found in fact to be beta @-@ hemolytic , and after DNA @-@ DNA hybridization techniques with the ATCC type S. iniae and recalculation of the G + C % content , was reclassified by the same group as a junior synonym of S. iniae .
Phylogenetic analyses based on 16S ribosomal DNA suggest that S. iniae is closely related to other streptococcal pathogens of humans and animals . Specifically , it is clustered in the pyogenic group , along with other pathogenic streptococci such as S. pyogenes , S. agalactiae , S. uberis , S. canis , S. porcinus , S. phocae , and S. intestinalis . Of these related species , it is most closely related to S. porcinus . Genomic restriction fragment analysis of diverse host and geographical panels of S. iniae isolates has shown common profiles between virulent fish and human strains , though multiple pulsed field gel electrophoresis patterns have been identified among human isolates .
= = Identification = =
S. iniae may be easily misidentified ( or not identified at all ) by conventional automated microbiology systems . Molecular genetics methods , such as DNA sequencing and DNA @-@ DNA hybridization , can be useful for correct identification , although work by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has suggested they are unnecessary in most cases . Several groups have used 16S rDNA sequencing to identify S. iniae isolates , and while it can differentiate this species from other related species , such as S. porcinus and S. uberis , 16S sequencing cannot be used to differentiate between strains of S. iniae . Ribotyping is a similar method , by which 16S and 23S rRNA genes are digested with restriction endonucleases and Southern blotted using species @-@ specific oligonucleotide probes . This method is more sensitive than 16S rDNA sequencing , as in addition to species differentiation , it can be used to differentiate between strains . Ribotyping was used in 1997 to differentiate between Israeli and American strains , thus ruling out the possibility of an epidemiological link between outbreaks in the two countries .
S. iniae is beta @-@ hemolytic when incubated in anaerobic conditions , although it may be misidentified as alpha @-@ hemolytic because , in some strains , zones of beta @-@ hemolysis ( complete destruction of red blood cells in the blood agar culture medium ) are surrounded by large zones of alpha @-@ hemolysis ( incomplete destruction of red blood cells with a greenish discoloration due to breakdown of hemoglobin ) . The bacterium is catalase @-@ negative and LAP @-@ positive ( like all streptococci ) , PYR @-@ test and CAMP @-@ test @-@ positive , does not hydrolyze sodium hippurate , and does not grow in bile esculin agar . It does not express any of the known Lancefield antigens .
= = = Serotypes = = =
Two serotypes of S. iniae are established . The ATCC 29178 type strain first characterized in 1976 by Pier and Madin is representative of serotype I isolates . Serotype II was first identified as the type strain ( ATCC 29177 ) isolated from another dolphin case of " golf ball disease " . A biochemical assay measuring arginine dihydrolase activity has been used to distinguish between serotypes ( serotype I is positive ) , though proposed hyperencapsulation of serotype II may represent the most significant functional difference between the two types .
= = Role in disease = =
= = = In fish = = =
S. iniae is highly pathogenic in freshwater , marine , and euryhaline fish , and is highly lethal : outbreaks may be associated with 30 – 50 % mortality . It is , therefore , one of the foremost economically important pathogens in intensive aquaculture . In 1997 , the global economic impact of S. iniae infection to the aquaculture industry was estimated at US $ 100 million ( one @-@ tenth of which in the United States ) . As of 2007 , infection had been reported in 27 species of fish , including tilapia ( genus Oreochromis and Tilapia ) , rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) , coho salmon ( Oncorhynchus kisutch ) , Japanese amberjack ( Seriola quinqueradiata ) , red drum ( Sciaenops ocellatus ) , and barramundi ( Lates calcarifer , which can be an asymptomatic carrier ) . Common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ) , channel catfish ( Ictalurus punctatus ) , and goldfish ( Carassius auratus ) appear to be resistant . Fish raised in intensive aquaculture operations and subject to environmental stressors ( i.e. suboptimal temperature , poor water quality , crowding , handling , etc . ) are most prone to S. iniae infection . Wild fish populations located both near and far from aquaculture operations have also proven susceptible to S. iniae infection .
The site of S. iniae infection and its clinical presentation vary from species to species . In tilapia , S. iniae causes meningoencephalitis , with symptoms including lethargy , dorsal rigidity , and erratic swimming behavior ; death follows in a matter of days . In rainbow trout , it is typically associated with septicemia and central nervous system damage . Symptoms are consistent with septicemia , and include lethargy and loss of orientation ( as in tilapia ) , exophthalmia , corneal opacity , and external and internal bleeding .
= = = In humans = = =
S. iniae can cause opportunistic infections in weakened or immunocompromised humans . It is most commonly associated with bacteremic cellulitis , but has been known to cause endocarditis , meningitis , osteomyelitis , and septic arthritis . The first recognized cases of human infection occurred in Texas in 1991 and in Ottawa in 1994 , but the sources of infection were not determined . Human infection with S. iniae was also identified in Toronto between 15 and 20 December 1995 , when three Asian patients were admitted to a hospital with cellulitis of the hand after injuring themselves while handling raw fish . All three were found to have bacteremia , initially attributed to Streptococcus uberis , but later correctly identified as S. iniae . In February 1996 , a Chinese man was admitted to the same hospital with sepsis one week after preparing a fresh whole tilapia , and was also diagnosed with S. iniae bacteremia . A subsequent epidemiological investigation found other cases in the Toronto area , for a total of nine patients ; all were of Asian descent and all had handled raw fish ( mostly tilapia ) before developing infection . Other cases were later identified in the United States and elsewhere in Canada , and have since been reported in Asia ( Hong Kong , Taiwan , and Singapore ) . Asian descent is a common trend in the majority of invasive human cases , but it is unknown whether this is due to inherent differences in immunity or because of cultural differences in the fish preparation which lend themselves to a higher incidence of infection .
= = = Control and treatment = = =
Several measures can be taken to control infection in aquaculture once an S. iniae outbreak has been confirmed . Decreasing the quantity of feed given to fish has been shown to reduce mortality rates , as the uptake of bacteria in water is expedited by feeding . Decreasing the density of the fish stock increases survival by reducing injury to fish and lowering the general stress level in the population . Lowering the water temperature and keeping optimal oxygen levels has also been shown to reduce stress to fish and inhibit bacterial growth .
A 2005 study showed the potential for using probiotics for controlling S. iniae infection in trout . This study used the gastrointestinal contents of rainbow trout to scan for bacteria that inhibited growth of S. iniae and Lactococcus garvieae . They identified Aeromonas sobria as a potential candidate for control of S. iniae and L. garvieae infections in aquaculture . A. sobria , given live in the feed , protected the trout when challenged with S. iniae or L. garvieae .
Several antibiotics have been used successfully to treat S. iniae infection in fish . Enrofloxacin , a quinolone antibiotic , has been used to great effect in hybrid striped bass ( Morone chrysops × M. saxatilis ) , although evidence suggested the development of a resistant strain . Amoxicillin , erythromycin , furazolidone , and oxytetracycline have also been used ( the last with varying success , only in barramundi ) . Vaccination against S. iniae has been attempted with limited success as it only provides up to 6 months ' immunity .
Penicillin has been suggested as the drug of choice for the treatment of S. iniae infection in mammals , including humans . In the 1995 – 1996 cluster of human cases , all clinical isolates were susceptible to penicillin , several cephalosporins , clindamycin , erythromycin , and co @-@ trimoxazole ( MICs 0 @.@ 25 µg / ml ) ; all nine patients were treated with parenteral beta @-@ lactam antibiotics and recovered uneventfully . A study of isolates submitted to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention between 2000 and 2004 found all to be sensitive to beta @-@ lactams , macrolides , quinolones , and vancomycin .
= Drax power station =
Drax is a large coal @-@ fired power station in North Yorkshire , England , capable of co @-@ firing biomass and petcoke , and its name comes from the nearby village of Drax . It is situated on the River Ouse between Selby and Goole . Its generating capacity of 3 @,@ 960 megawatts is the highest of any power station in the United Kingdom ( and second @-@ highest in Western Europe , after 4 @,@ 400 MW Neurath Power Station in Germany ) , providing about 7 % of the United Kingdom 's electricity supply .
Opened in 1974 and extended in the mid @-@ 1980s , the station was initially operated by the Central Electricity Generating Board . Since privatisation in 1990 ownership has changed several times , and it is operated by Drax Group plc . Completed in 1986 , it is the newest coal @-@ fired power station in England , flue gas desulphurisation equipment was fitted between 1988 and 1995 ; high and low pressure turbines were replaced between 2007 and 2012 . Because of its large size , the station is the UK 's single largest emitter of carbon dioxide .
The station was c . 2010 co @-@ firing biomass ; in 2012 the company announced plans to convert up to three generating units to solely biomass , burning 7 @.@ 5 million tonnes imported from the United States and Canada .
= = History = =
After the Selby Coalfield was discovered in 1967 the Central Electricity Generating Board built three large power stations to use its coal . These were an expansion of the station at Ferrybridge , a new station at Eggborough , and the station at Drax was constructed on the site of Wood House .
= = = Construction = = =
The station was constructed in three similar phases , each of three generating units . The first phase began in 1973 . Costain constructed the foundations and cable tunnels ; Sir Robert McAlpine laid the roads and built the ancillary buildings ; Mowlem laid the deep foundations ; Alfred McAlpine built the administration and control buildings ; Balfour Beatty undertook general building works ; and James Scott installed cabling . Although the first phase was not completed until 1975 , the station 's first generating set began generating electricity in 1974 .
The second phase began in 1985 . Tarmac Construction undertook the civil engineering works ; Holst Civil Engineers built the chimney ; N.G. Bailey installed cabling ; Reyrolle , English Electric and South Wales Switchgear produced and installed the switchgear ; English Electric manufactured the generator cooling water pumps ; T.W. Broadbent maintained the temporary electrical supplies ; and Sulzer Brothers manufactured the boiler feed pumps . The second phase was completed in 1986 . In both stages the boilers were made by Babcock Power Ltd and the generators by C. A. Parsons and Company . Mitsui Babcock fitted flue @-@ gas desulphurisation ( FGD ) equipment between 1988 and 1995 .
= = = Post @-@ privatisation = = =
On privatisation of the Central Electricity Generating Board in 1990 , the station was transferred from the Central Electricity Generating Board to the privatised generating company National Power , which sold it to the AES Corporation in November 1999 for £ 1 @.@ 87 billion ( US $ 3 billion ) . AES relinquished ownership in August 2003 , after falling into £ 1 @.@ 3 billion of debt . Independent directors continued the operation to ensure security of supply . In December 2005 , after refinancing , ownership passed to the Drax Group .
Separate acquisition offers from International Power , private equity group Texas Pacific , and a private equity backed bid from Constellation Energy were rejected for undervaluing the company . The company 's valuation subsequently increased to 2005 as a result of rising electricity prices , and on 15 December 2005 Drax Group plc floated its shares on the London Stock Exchange , issuing £ 400 million worth of shares , on a valuation of £ 2 @.@ 3 billion .
In 2009 , Drax Group submitted a planning application for the 300 MW biomass Ouse Renewable Energy Plant next to the power station . Government approval was obtained in mid 2011 . In February 2012 the company ceased planning development of the plant , citing logistics costs , and uncertainty concerning government financial support for biomass .
= = = Future = = =
= = = = Carbon capture and storage = = = =
In 2006 Drax Power Limited , in response to a government consultation , stated they were sponsoring development studies into carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) , but noted that it was not then commercially viable , with costs comparable with nuclear or offshore wind power . On 17 June 2009 , Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change Ed Miliband announced plans to require all UK coal @-@ fired power stations should be fitted with CCS technology by the early 2020s or face closure .
In 2012 a CCS project at Drax was shortlisted for government funding . In 2013 the White Rose CCS project ( formerly the UK OXY CCS project ) was shortlisted for the UK government 's CCS scheme and in late 2013 was awarded a two @-@ year FEED contract ( Front End Engineering Design ) for the CCS project . As of June 2014 , Drax is engaged in a joint venture with Alstom and BOC to build a 626 MW oxygen @-@ fuelled combustion power plant adjacent to the existing Drax site . National Grid would simultaneously construct a pipeline to transport CO2 40 miles ( 64 km ) to the Yorkshire coast for sequestration .
In July 2014 the project was awarded € 300 million funding from the European Commission .
In September 2015 Drax announced it would not be making any further investments into the CCS scheme after completion of the feasibility study because negative changes to government support for renewable energy had made the project too financially risky , plus drops in the company 's share price due to the same uncertainty had reduced Drax 's ability to raise funds . Front End Engineering Design was expected to continue under Alstom and BOC with the project still being hosted at Drax . In late 2015 the UK Government withdrew its potential financial support for CCS projects - up to £ 1billion of funding , reversing support promised in the governing party 's 2015 election manifesto . As a result , Leigh Hackett , CEO of Capture Power stated that " [ I ] t is difficult to imagine its continuation in the absence of crucial government support " .
= = Design and specification = =
The main buildings are of steel frame and metal clad construction . The main features are a turbine hall , a boiler house , a chimney and 12 cooling towers . The boiler house is 76 m ( 249 ft ) high , and the turbine hall is 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) long . The reinforced concrete chimney stands 259 metres ( 850 ft ) high , with a diameter of 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 30 ft ) , and weighs 44 @,@ 000 tonnes . It consists of three flues , each serving two of the six boilers . When finished , the chimney was the largest industrial chimney in the world , and is still the tallest in the United Kingdom . The twelve 114 metres ( 374 ft ) high natural draft cooling towers stand in two groups of six to the north and south of the station . They are made of reinforced concrete , in the typical hyperboloid design , and each have a base diameter of 92 m ( 302 ft ) . Other facilities include a coal storage area , flue gas desulphurisation plant and gypsum handling facilities .
The station is the second largest coal @-@ fired power station in Europe , after Bełchatów Power Station in Poland . It produces around 24 terawatt @-@ hours ( TWh ) ( 86 @.@ 4 petajoules ) of electricity annually . Although it generates around 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 tonnes of ash and 22 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 tonnes of carbon dioxide each year , it is the most carbon @-@ efficient coal @-@ fired power plant in the United Kingdom .
= = = Ouse jetty = = =
The power station also has a jetty on the River Ouse , with a loading capacity of 200 tonnes- historically the jetty was built and used for the construction of the power station in the 1960s / 70s - such as the delivery of equipment . In 2015 a planning application was submitted for the improvement of the jetty 's load capacity to 500 tonnes by White Rose CCS developer Capture Power Limited ( Drax / Alstom / BOC joint venture ) , for the construction of the CCS project .
= = Fuel supply = =
The main transport route to the power station for fuel ( originally coal ) is train via a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) -long freight @-@ only section of the former Hull and Barnsley Railway , from the Pontefract Line at Hensall Junction . A balloon loop rail layout is used so that wagons of coal do not need to be shunted after being unloaded . Merry @-@ go @-@ round trains are used , so that wagons can be unloaded without the train stopping as it passes through an unloading house . On average , there are 35 deliveries a day , 6 days a week .
The power station also has a jetty ( see § Jetty ) - imports via the jetty ended c.1980 - in 2004 the jetty was trialled for the import of Tall Oil by barge .
= = = Coal supply = = =
The station has a maximum potential consumption of 36 @,@ 000 tonnes of coal a day . In 2011 , it consumed 9 @.@ 1 million tonnes of coal . This coal comes from a mixture of both domestic and international sources , with domestic coal coming from mines in Yorkshire , the Midlands and Scotland , and foreign supplies coming from Australia , Colombia , Poland , Russia and South Africa .
When the station opened , the majority of the coal burned was from local collieries in Yorkshire , including Kellingley Colliery , Prince of Wales , Ackton Hall , Sharlston Colliery , Fryston Colliery , Askern Colliery and Bentley Colliery . Following the miners ' strike in the mid @-@ 1980s , by 2006 , all but Kellingley have closed . ( Kellingley closed at the end of 2015 . ) UK Coal had a five @-@ year contract to supply coal , which ended at the end of 2009 , from Kellingley , Maltby and , until its closure in 2007 , Rossington . Coal was also brought from Harworth Colliery until it was mothballed , and was supplied by Daw Mill in Warwickshire .
The foreign coal is brought via various ports by rail . In c.2007 GB Railfreight won a contract to move coal brought from the Port of Tyne , celebrated by the company naming one of their locomotives Drax Power Station in 2007 . DB Schenker Rail ( UK ) haul coal from the nearby ports of Hull and Immingham , and from Hunterston Terminal on the west coast of Scotland . Freightliner Group move coal imported through Redcar .
In addition to burning coal , the station also co @-@ fires coal with biomass and petroleum coke ( ' petcoke ' ) .
= = = Biomass = = =
= = = = Co @-@ firing = = = =
The station tested co @-@ firing biomass in the summer of 2004 , and in doing so was the first power station in the UK to be fuelled by wood . The initial trial of 14 @,@ 100 tonnes of willow was locally sourced from nearby Eggborough . Since the trial , the station 's use of biomass has continued . It uses direct injection for firing the biomass , whereby it bypasses the pulverising mills and is either injected directly into the boiler or the fuel line , for greater throughput . In 2009 a target was set for 12 @.@ 5 % of the station 's energy to be sourced from biomass , and the shift to biomass was intended to contribute to the aim of cutting CO2 emissions by 15 % . The station burns a large range of biomass , mostly wood pellets , sunflower pellets , olive , peanut shell husk and rape meal . The majority comes from overseas . A 100 @,@ 000 tonne pa capacity straw pelletization facility was constructed at Capitol Park , Goole in 2008 , opened 2009 . Construction of specialised biomass handling facilities began in 2009 at the Port of Tyne and at Drax .
= = = = Proposed new build biomass plants = = = =
In the 2000s Drax Group applied for planning permission to build a new 300 MW power station , fuelled entirely by biomass , to the north of the station ; the Ouse Renewable Energy Plant was expected to burn 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 tonnes of biomass each year , saving 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 tonnes of CO2 emissions , and expected to create 850 construction jobs and 150 permanent jobs created once opened , through direct and contract employment . Plans were submitted to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in July 2009 for review ; if permission was granted , construction was scheduled begin in late 2010 and to take up to three and a half years . Two other 300 MW biomass plants were planned by Drax at the ports of Hull and Immingham .
In 2012 Drax group abandoned plans for the discrete biomass plant development , due to changes in government subsidies for biomass energy production favouring plant conversion over new build plant . It switched to a project to convert half of the units at its existing plant to biomass firing .
= = = = Full firing with biomass = = = =
In September 2012 Drax Group announced the conversion to full firing with biomass of three of its six units . The first unit was scheduled to be online by June 2013 , the second unit in 2014 , and the third by 2017 ; initially a biomass supply had been secured for the first unit . The cost was estimated at £ 700 million ( $ 1 @.@ 13 billion ) , including modifications to fuel mills and boilers and the construction of storage structures and conveyors for the wood pellet fuel . Each unit will consume about 2 @.@ 3 million tonnes of biomass yearly , requiring an estimated annual total of 7 @.@ 5 million tonnes in 2017 . This is equivalent to two @-@ thirds of Europe 's entire energy biomass consumption in 2010 , and requires 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 ha ( 4 @,@ 600 sq mi ; 12 @,@ 000 km2 ) of forest to supply on a continuous basis . North America was expected to be the source of the vast majority of the biomass , although some would be domestically sourced willow and elephant grass .
Drax Group 's decision was enabled by a new UK government policy , effective in April 2013 , to award 1 @.@ 0 tradable ROCs ( renewable obligation certificates ) per megawatt of power generation from coal power plants that are fully converted to burn biomass ; CEO Dorothy Thompson stated the company intended to become a predominately biomass @-@ fuelled energy producer . By April 2013 financing for the scheme include £ 190 million through sale of shares , £ 100 million from Prudential / M & G UK Companies Financing Fund , £ 50 million from the UK Green Investment Bank , and £ 75 million Friends Life ( underwritten by HM Treasury ) , as well as a £ 400 million credit facility .
As of 2013 there were plans to install 1 million tonne per year wood pellets pelletizing plants at Morehouse Parish , Louisiana , and Gloster , Mississippi , which would be shipped by road and rail to the port of Baton Rouge , Louisiana then shipped in 50 @,@ 000 @-@ tonne cargo ships to UK . In the financial report for 2013 , Drax announced that an additional 2 million tons pelletisation capacity was being considered , likely to be built in the US .
In 2013 the company signed an agreement with ABP to develop handling facilities at the Port of Hull , Immingham and Grimsby ; construction of automated facilities began in 2013 , creating capacities of 3 and 1 million tonnes per year at the ports of Immingham and Hull respectively , adding to the 1 @.@ 4 million tonne per year Port of Tyne biomass facility built in 2009 . In the same year a new design covered rail wagon with high volumetric capacity for transporting the low density biomass pellets was unveiled for use by Drax in the UK ; 200 wagons of the type were ordered . At Drax pellets would be stored in domes , and transferred by a pneumatic conveyor system before grinding to dust for use .
The Shepherd Building Group was contracted to construct the biomass handling and storage facilities at Drax , with RPS Group as the civil engineer . The design included automated rail to storage handling , screening and storage facilities consisting of four 50 by 63 m ( 164 by 207 ft ) high by wide storage domes with a capacity of 110 @,@ 000 m3 ( 3 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 cu ft ) . The concrete dome technology was supplied by E & D Company , PLLC ( trading as Engineering System Solutons , ES2 ) and Dome Technology LLC .
By July 2013 one firing unit had been converted , and was reported to be functioning correctly ; by 2013 the conversion of the second and third units was scheduled for 2014 and during or before 2016 respectively . The second unit was converted by May 2014 , initially co @-@ firing an 85 % biomass / coal mix due to limited biomass supply .
In April 2014 Drax was awarded a renewable contract for difference ( CFD ) subsidy for biomass based power generation on another converted coal firing unit , but a third unit , which had been previously marked as eligible for CFD funding was excluded ; Drax Group then legally challenged the decision , initially obtaining a ruling in its favour , which was overturned in the Court of Appeal . In July 2014 the High Court ruled in Drax 's favour .
Biomass conversion at Drax led to it requiring 82 % of UK biomass imports from the USA in 2014 ( 60 % overall of all US wood pellet export ) , a large factor in a 40 % yearly increase in biomass export from that country ; USA sourced imports represented 58 % of Drax 's biomass use in 2014 , with 22 % from Canada .
The Baton Rouge port facility was completed by April 2015 . In mid 2015 Drax reached an agreement with Peel Ports ) to construct a 3million ton per year biomass importation facility at the Port of Liverpool , estimated cost £ 100 million . The rail connected facility was to include 100 @,@ 000 tonnes storage , and be constructed by Graham Construction .
In September 2015 Drax Group and Infinis began a legal action against the UK government due to claimed insufficient notice being given about the withdrawal of a climate related tax exemption ( see Climate Change Levy ) - Drax claimed the change would reduce its earnings by £ 30 million . The claim was rejected by the High Court in February 2016 .
= = = Petcoke = = =
The station started to trial the co @-@ firing of petcoke in one of its boilers in June 2005 , ending in June 2007 , burning 15 % petcoke and 85 % coal . Petcoke was burned to make the electricity more competitive as the price of running the FGD equipment was making the electricity more expensive . The Environment Agency ( EA ) granted permission for the trial in June 2004 , despite the plans being opposed by Friends of the Earth and Selby Council . To meet their concerns , emissions were constantly monitored through the trial , and they were not allowed to burn petcoke without operating the FGD plant to remove the high sulphur content of the emissions . The trial proved that there were no significant negative effects on the environment , and so in late 2007 Drax Group applied to move from trial conditions to commercial burn . The EA granted permission in early 2008 after agreeing with Drax 's findings that the fuel had no significant negative effects on the environment . The station can now burn up to 300 @,@ 000 tonnes of the fuel a year , and stock up to 6 @,@ 000 tonnes on site .
= = Electricity generation = =
Coal is fed into one of 30 coal bunkers , each with a capacity of 1 @,@ 000 tonnes . Each bunker feeds two of the 60 pulverisers , each of which can crush 36 tonnes of coal an hour . The station has six Babcock Power boilers , each weighing 4 @,@ 000 tonnes . The powdered coal from ten pulverisers is blasted into each boiler through burners , which are ignited by propane . In 2003 the original burners were replaced by low nitrogen oxide burners . Each of the six boilers feed steam to a steam turbine set , consisting of one high pressure ( HP ) turbine , one intermediate pressure ( IP ) turbine and three low pressure ( LP ) turbines . The HP turbines generate at 140 megawatts ( MW ) . Exhaust steam from them is fed back to the boiler and reheated , then fed to the 250 MW IP turbines and finally passes through the 90 MW LP turbines . This gives each generating set a generating capacity of 660 MW : with six generating sets , the station has a total capacity of 3 @,@ 960 MW . Each of the generating units is equipped with the Advanced Plant Management System ( APMS ) , a system developed by RWE npower and Thales , and implemented by Capula .
The station also has six gas turbines providing backup for breakdowns , or shut downs in the National Grid . Their annual output is generally low , generating 75 MW and three of the units have been mothballed and are out of operation , but they could be refurbished . Emissions from these units are released through the station 's second , smaller chimney , to the south of the main stack .
Between 2007 and 2012 the high and low pressure turbines were replaced by Siemens in a £ 100 million programme .
= = = Cooling system = = =
Water is essential to a thermal power station , heated to create steam to turn the steam turbines . Water used in the boilers is taken from two licensed boreholes on site . Once this water has been through the turbines it is cooled by condensers using water taken from the nearby River Ouse . Water is pumped from the river by a pumphouse on the river , north of the station . Once it has been through the condenser , the water is cooled by one of the natural draft cooling towers , with two towers serving each generating set . Once cooled , the water is discharged back into the river .
= = Waste products = =
= = = Flue gas desulphurisation = = =
All six units are served by an independent wet limestone @-@ gypsum flue gas desulphurisation ( FGD ) plant , which was installed between 1988 and 1996 . This diverts gases from the boilers and passes them through a limestone slurry , which removes at least 90 % of the sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) . This is equivalent to removing over 250 @,@ 000 tonnes of SO2 each year . The process requires 10 @,@ 000 tonnes of limestone a week , sourced from Tunstead Quarry in Derbyshire . A byproduct of the process is gypsum , with 15 @,@ 000 tonnes produced each week . This goes to be used in the manufacture of plasterboard . The gypsum is sold exclusively to British Gypsum , and it is transported by rail to their plants at Kirkby Thore ( on the Settle @-@ Carlisle Line ) , East Leake ( on the former Great Central Main Line ) and occasionally to Robertsbridge ( on the Hastings Line ) . DB Schenker transport the gypsum .
= = = Ash use and disposal = = =
Pulverised fuel ash ( PFA ) and furnace bottom ash ( FBA ) are two byproducts from the burning of coal . Each year , the station produces about 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 tonnes of PFA and around 220 @,@ 000 tonnes of FBA : all FBA and 85 % of PFA is sold . Under the trade name Drax Ash Products , the ash is sold to the local building industry , where it is used in the manufacture of blocks , cement products , grouting and the laying of roads . The ash is also used in other parts of the country . Between 2005 and 2007 , PFA was used as an infill at four disused salt mines in Northwich in Cheshire . 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 tonnes was used in the project , which was to avoid a future risk of subsidence in the town . Ash was delivered by DB Schenker in ten trains a week , each carrying 1 @,@ 100 tonnes . Following a trial in January 2010 , PFA is also transported to Waterford in Ireland by boat . One ship a month will transport 1 @,@ 200 tonnes for the manufacture of construction materials . This will replace 480 lorry journeys annually and is deemed more environmentally friendly .
The unsold PFA is sent by conveyor belt to the Barlow ash mound , which is used for disposal and temporary stockpile . Three conveyors feed the mound , with a total capacity of 750 tonnes an hour . FGD gypsum is disposed of on the mound if it is not of a high enough grade to be sold . The mound has won a number of awards for its nature conservation work .
= = Environmental effects = =
The environmental effects of coal burning are well documented , the most significant of which is global warming caused by the release of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) into the Earth 's atmosphere . Coal is considered to be " easily the most carbon @-@ intensive and polluting form of energy generation available " . In 2007 the station produced 22 @,@ 160 @,@ 000 tonnes of CO2 , making it the largest single source of CO2 in the UK . Between 2000 and 2007 , there has been a net increase in carbon dioxide CO2 of over 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 tonnes . The station also has the highest estimated emissions of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) in the European Union .
In 2007 , in a move to try to lower CO2 emissions , Drax Group signed a £ 100 million contract with Siemens Power Generation to re @-@ blade the steam turbines over four years . This is the largest steam turbine modernisation ever undertaken in the UK , and will increase efficiency . Coupled with the co @-@ firing of biomass , this is part of a target to reduce CO2 emissions by 15 % by 2011 .
Drax 's annual report for 2013 reported that Drax 's annual emissions were at 20 @,@ 612 @,@ 000 tonnes of CO2 . This was a slight decrease from 2007 levels due to the burning of biomass . Drax still remains the UK 's largest single source of emissions .
Drax has opted in to the Large Combustion Plant Directive ( LCPD ) and thus is permitted to continue operating beyond 2015 . The use of flue gas desulfurisation ensures that the limits on sulphur dioxide emissions are not exceeded .
= = Protests , industrial action and incidents = =
= = = Climate Camp ( 2006 ) = = =
On 31 August 2006 , over 600 people attended a protest against the high carbon emissions . It was coordinated by the Camp for Climate Action group . At least 3 @,@ 000 police officers from 12 forces were reported to have been drafted in for the duration of the protest , to safeguard electricity supplies and prevent the protesters from shutting the station down . Thirty @-@ nine people were arrested after trying illegally to gain access to the plant .
= = = Train protest ( 2008 ) = = =
At 8 : 00 am on 13 June 2008 , more than 30 climate change campaigners halted an EWS coal train en route to the station by disguising themselves as rail workers by wearing high @-@ visibility clothing and waving red flags . Stopping the train on a bridge across the River Aire , they scaled the wagons with the aid of the bridge 's girders . They then mounted a banner reading " Leave it in the ground " on the side of the wagon and tied the train to the bridge , preventing it moving . They then shovelled more than 20 tonnes of coal on to the railway line . The protest lasted the whole day , until several protesters were removed from the train by police that night . The station 's management said that the protest had no effect on output . The action was coordinated by Camp for Climate Action .
= = = Worker strike ( 2009 ) = = =
On 18 June 2009 , fewer than 200 contractors walked out of or failed to show up in a wildcat strike , showing solidarity with workers at the Lindsey Oil Refinery in Lincolnshire where 51 workers had been laid off while another employer on the site was employing . A spokeswoman said the strike did not affect electricity output .
= = = Biomass fires ( 2011 , 2013 ) = = =
In October 2011 a fire started by spontaneous combustion in a stockpile at the Port of Tyne biomass facility . Another fire occurred at the same facility in a conveyor transfer tower in October 2013 .
= Katrina Kaif =
Katrina Kaif ( pronounced [ kəˈʈriːnaː ˈkɛːf ] , born Katrina Turquotte ; 16 July 1983 ) is a British film actress and model . Primarily known for her work in Hindi films , Kaif has also appeared in Telugu and Malayalam films . In addition to being one of Bollywood 's highest @-@ paid actresses , she is considered one of India 's most attractive celebrities by the media .
Born in British Hong Kong , Kaif and her family lived in several countries before she moved to India . She received her first modelling assignment as a teenager and later pursued a career as a fashion model . At a fashion show in London , filmmaker Kaizad Gustad spotted Kaif and decided to cast her in Boom ( 2003 ) , a critical and commercial failure . While filming in India , Kaif received modelling assignments and established a successful modelling career . However , filmmakers were hesitant to cast her due to her poor command of Hindi . After appearing in the Telugu film , Malliswari ( 2004 ) , Kaif earned commercial success in Bollywood with the romantic comedies Maine Pyaar Kyun Kiya ? ( 2005 ) and Namastey London ( 2007 ) . She followed with a series of box @-@ office hits , but was criticised for her acting , repetitive roles and inclination to male @-@ dominated films .
Kaif 's performance in the 2009 terrorism drama New York was better received , earning her a Filmfare Award for Best Actress nomination . After roles in Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani ( 2009 ) , Raajneeti ( 2010 ) and Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara ( 2011 ) , she received her second Filmfare nomination for her performance in Mere Brother Ki Dulhan ( 2011 ) . Kaif featured in the thrillers Ek Tha Tiger ( 2012 ) and Dhoom 3 ( 2013 ) , both of which rank among the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time . Despite receiving mixed reviews from critics for her acting prowess , she has established herself as a commercially successful actress of Hindi cinema .
In addition to acting , Kaif is involved with her mother 's charity and participates in stage shows . She is guarded about her personal life , which is a subject of media scrutiny . Her background has also been a topic of discussion , with some sources accusing her of fabricating her history .
= = Early life and background = =
Katrina Kaif was born in Hong Kong with her mother 's surname Turquotte ( also spelt Turcotte ) , on 16 July 1983 . According to the actress , her father ( Mohammed Kaif ) is a British businessman of Kashmiri Indian descent and her mother ( Suzanne , also spelt Susanna ) is an English lawyer and charity worker . She has seven siblings : three elder sisters ( Stephanie , Christine and Natasha ) , three younger sisters ( Melissa , Sonia , Isabel ) and an elder brother , Michael . Isabel Kaif is also a model and actress . Kaif 's parents divorced when she was a child , and her father moved to the United States . She said her father had no influence on Kaif or her siblings while they were growing up , and they were raised by their mother . On her father 's absence in her life | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, Kaif stated : " When I see friends who have wonderful fathers who are like pillars of support for their families , I say , if only I had that . But instead of complaining , I should be grateful for all the other things I have " . In a 2009 interview with The Indian Express , she said she was not in touch with her father .
Kaif says that her mother decided to " dedicate her life to social causes " , which led to the family 's relocation to a number of countries for varying lengths of time :
Our transitions in growing up were — from Hong Kong where I was born , to China , then to Japan , and from Japan by boat to France ... After France , Switzerland — and I 'm cutting out many East European countries where we were for only a few months each — then Poland in Kraków ... After that we went to Belgium , then to Hawaii , which was a short time , and then came to London .
Due to their frequent relocation , Kaif and her siblings were home @-@ schooled by a series of tutors . Although she is thought to have grown up in London , she lived there for only three years before moving to India . According to Kaif , she then changed her surname to her father 's because she thought it would be easier to pronounce .
Kaif 's paternal parentage has been questioned by some members of the film industry . In a 2011 interview with Mumbai Mirror , Boom producer Ayesha Shroff accused Kaif of fabricating her history : " We created an identity for her . She was this pretty young English girl , and we gave her the Kashmiri father and thought of calling her Katrina Kazi . We thought we 'd give her some kind of Indian ancestry , to connect with the audience ... But then we thought that Kazi sounded too ... religious ? ... Mohammad Kaif was at the top , and so we said , Katrina Kaif sounds really great " . Kaif called Shroff 's comments " hurtful " .
= = Career = =
= = = Modelling and film debut ( to 2003 ) = = =
At the age of fourteen , Kaif won a beauty contest in Hawaii , and received her first modelling assignment in a jewellery campaign . She subsequently modelled professionally in London , working for freelance agencies and appearing regularly at London Fashion Week . At a fashion show Kaif attracted the attention of London @-@ based filmmaker Kaizad Gustad . He selected her for a role in the English @-@ Hindi erotic heist film Boom as part of an ensemble cast that included Amitabh Bachchan , Gulshan Grover , Jackie Shroff , Madhu Sapre and Padma Lakshmi . While filming in India , Kaif received other offers and decided to stay in the country . In 2003 , she received notice as a model after walking the ramp for Rohit Bal at the India Fashion Week and appeared in the first Kingfisher Calendar . Kaif soon established a successful modelling career in India after endorsing brands such as Coca @-@ Cola , LG , Fevicol and Samsung .
Kaif 's career as a model led to anticipation surrounding her Bollywood debut . Boom ( 2003 ) had its first screening at the Cannes Film Festival , and was heavily promoted at the event . Boom was a commercial and critical failure . Kaif 's enactment of a supermodel ensnared in the Mumbai underworld was poorly received , with Ziya U. Salam of The Hindu attributing the weak performances of the film 's leading ladies to " the vacuity of their expressions " . Hindustan Times reported that after Boom 's release , Kaif was written off due to her poor Hindi and thick British accent . She later dismissed the film : " I don 't count Boom among important happenings in my life . When I signed this film , I didn 't know much about India and its film audience " . Although Kaif was offered a number of modelling assignments , filmmakers were hesitant to cast her because of her poor command of Hindi . In one instance , Mahesh Bhatt replaced her with Tara Sharma in Saaya ( 2003 ) as he found her an " inconsistent performer " . Subsequently , Kaif began working on her diction through Hindi classes .
= = = Early film work ( 2004 – 06 ) = = =
After the failure of her first Bollywood project , Kaif appeared in the Telugu film Malliswari ( 2004 ) . With Daggubati Venkatesh , she played the title role of a princess forced to flee from her murderous caretaker . Kaif received a reported ₹ 7 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 110 @,@ 000 ) for the film , the highest salary for a South Indian film actress at the time . Despite negative reviews for her acting , Malliswari was a profitable venture .
The following year , Kaif appeared briefly as Abhishek Bachchan 's girlfriend in Ram Gopal Varma 's political thriller Sarkar . She next featured alongside Salman Khan , Sushmita Sen and Sohail Khan in Maine Pyaar Kyun Kiya ? , a film she considered her " first real step into Bollywood " . Directed by David Dhawan , the film was a successful remake of the romantic comedy Cactus Flower . For her role as a suicidal model , Kaif received the Stardust Award for Breakthrough Performance – Female . According to Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com , " Katrina 's Disney princess @-@ like charm adds to her adorable screen presence " . Kaif followed with a small part in her second Telugu film , Allari Pidugu .
In 2006 , she appeared with Akshay Kumar for the first of many films in Raj Kanwar 's unsuccessful Humko Deewana Kar Gaye , a story of two like @-@ minded strangers who fall in love despite being engaged to others . Sify wrote that Kaif was " passably competent in a tailor @-@ made role , giving a mild emotional spin to a couple of scenes " but was overshadowed by her supporting actresses . Kaif also appeared with Mammootty in the Malayalam crime thriller Balram vs. Tharadas , in which Rishi Raj Singh of The Hindu called her performance " marvellous " .
= = = Commercial success ( 2007 – 08 ) = = =
Kaif 's career prospects changed in 2007 , when she appeared in four Bollywood hits . In an interview with The Indian Express , she called Vipul Amrutlal Shah 's romantic comedy Namastey London a milestone , saying that " for the first time , [ she ] had a dominating role " . Kaif used her life in London as a reference for her role as a spoilt British Indian girl intent on marrying her self @-@ centred British boyfriend , despite her parents ' disapproval . Although critics expressed mixed views on the film , Sukanya Verma wrote that Kaif " suits the role to the T " and " brings the zingy mix of her character alive with style and substance " . Kaif 's chemistry with co @-@ star Akshay Kumar was particularly well received , with Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India calling their casting " refreshing " .
She had a supporting role as a doctor in the sports drama Apne . The film was highly anticipated as it marked the first appearance of Dharmendra with his sons , Sunny Deol and Bobby Deol . After Apne she rejoined director David Dhawan and Salman Khan for the comedy Partner , a remake of Hitch which also starred Govinda and Lara Dutta . With a worldwide revenue of ₹ 1 @.@ 03 billion ( US $ 15 million ) , the film was a major financial success . Kaif 's final film of the year was Anees Bazmee 's comedy Welcome , alongside Akshay Kumar , Nana Patekar , Mallika Sherawat and Anil Kapoor . Although the film generated mostly negative reviews , it proved to be the second highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of 2007 . The similarity of Kaif 's roles was noted by Shoma Chaudhury of Tehelka , who called her " unabashed eye @-@ candy " , adding that she was " a pretty prop in Welcome " and " more of the same in Partner and Apne " .
In 2008 , the actress had three releases , the first of which was Abbas @-@ Mustan 's action thriller Race , a story about two stepbrothers @-@ turned @-@ rivals who are in contention for their father 's insurance money . Kaif played Saif Ali Khan 's secretary , who is his stepbrother 's ( Akshaye Khanna ) lover . Nikhat Kazmi was appreciative of the film , praising its " super cool look [ and ] testosterone @-@ high action sequences " but found Kaif " too pale " in her role . After Race , Kaif rejoined Akshay Kumar in Anees Bazmee 's action comedy Singh Is Kinng . The film earned ₹ 1 @.@ 25 billion ( US $ 19 million ) worldwide , making it Kaif 's sixth consecutive box @-@ office success . However , she received mixed reviews for her performance . Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN reviewed : " Katrina Kaif is an eyesore ... her acting so weak you want to urge her to watch everyone from Madhubala to Madhuri so she might pick up a few tricks " .
Kaif 's final film of the year — Subhash Ghai 's drama Yuvvraaj — was a major box @-@ office failure . In preparation for her role as a cellist she practised her playing with orchestra members . Her portrayal of a girl forbidden by her father from marrying her poor lover was well received by Sify 's Sonia Chopra : " Katrina is wonderful , plays the cello convincingly , and looks ethereal " . Despite the film 's mixed critical reception , its screenplay was added to the library of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for its artistic merit .
Before New York , Kaif 's voice was dubbed over by voice artists in most of her films due to her lack of fluency in Hindi and other Indian languages . Although she appeared in a series of successful films , critics noted that she had little to do in them as they were generally male @-@ dominated . Her performances were also largely criticised . About her series of glamorous roles , Kaif said that her " first few films were really a process of learning ... There was no target " .
= = = New York and other roles ( 2009 – 11 ) = = =
After a string of films in which she was cast to add glamour , Kaif appeared in Kabir Khan 's terrorism drama New York ( 2009 ) . Featuring John Abraham and Neil Nitin Mukesh in lead roles , the film tells the story of how three friends ' lives are changed when the former is wrongly detained after 9 / 11 . Kaif played Maya , a college student who later marries a terrorist . The actress said that she identified with Maya , since she experienced similar isolation because of her skin colour when she was growing up in London . Kaif also remarked that she was tired of " arm candy " roles and was looking for more substantial parts . New York did well at the box office and received favourable reviews . According to Subhash K. Jha , Kaif " comes into her own as an actress of substance ... From the carefree effervescent campus girl to the anguished wife , Katrina makes the journey look plausible all the way " . New York brought Kaif her first Filmfare Award nomination for Best Actress . She then appeared in a cameo for India 's first underwater thriller Blue .
Kaif starred with Ranbir Kapoor in Rajkumar Santoshi 's hit comedy , Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani ( 2009 ) , as an orphan forced to marry a rich man . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama wrote , " Katrina Kaif continues to surprise ... She scores in both emotional and light scenes " and called her chemistry with Kapoor " electrifying " . Her final film of the year was Priyadarshan 's comedy De Dana Dan .
In 2010 , Kaif appeared in Prakash Jha 's political thriller Raajneeti as part of an ensemble cast which included Ranbir Kapoor , Ajay Devgan , Arjun Rampal , Nana Patekar , Manoj Bajpai and Sarah Thompson . The film took inspiration from The Mahabharata and Mario Puzo 's 1969 novel The Godfather . Set in Bhopal , the film described a fiercely @-@ fought election campaign by two parties attempting to seize power with manipulation , corruption and treachery . Although there was media speculation before the film 's release that Kaif 's character was based on Sonia Gandhi , the actress denied this . In preparation for her role as Indu ( a politician loosely based on Draupadi ) , she watched Priyanka Gandhi 's election campaign videos to study the body language and interaction of politicians . The film received mainly positive reviews from critics . Rajeev Masand found Raajneeti " thrilling and gripping " , though Namrata Joshi was more critical and expressed her disappointment over the film 's depiction of women . Nikhat Kazmi considered Kaif 's performance to be " carefree and camera @-@ unconscious " and wrote that she " seems to slip into the high @-@ powered shoes easily " . The film was highly successful at the box office , receiving a total collection of ₹ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 21 million ) .
Kaif collaborated with Akshay Kumar for the sixth time in the slapstick comedy Tees Maar Khan ( 2010 ) . For her role as an aspiring actress , Kaif appeared in a popular item number titled " Sheila Ki Jawani " . The song was choreographed by the film 's director Farah Khan and for the belly dancing portion of the song , Kaif was trained by expert Veronica D 'Souza . " Sheila Ki Jawani " was often compared to another item number released the same year " Munni Badnaam Hui " from Dabangg . Despite the song 's popularity , Tees Maar Khan was panned by critics and underperformed at the box office . Kaif 's portrayal was not well received ; Renuka Rao of Daily News and Analysis said that her " drama queen act is performed ... poorly " , but noted that she " does full justice " to the item number .
The following year , Kaif was paired with Hrithik Roshan in Zoya Akhtar 's coming @-@ of @-@ age dramedy Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara . The film narrates the story of three friends on a bachelor trip , and how the workaholism of one was overcome with the help of Laila ( Kaif ) . The film was a critical and commercial success . Richard Kuipers of Variety commented that she is " delightful as the sweet @-@ natured girl who inspires everyone to look in the mirror and do something about it " . Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara was one of the most awarded films of the year and received numerous Best Film accolades .
Kaif then featured in Yash Raj Films ' romantic comedy Mere Brother Ki Dulhan ( 2011 ) with Imran Khan and Ali Zafar , She was cast as Dimple Dixit , a " talkative " , " unpredictable " girl , a role she described as challenging as the character 's personality contrasted with her own . While the film earned mixed reviews , Kaif was generally praised for her portrayal . The book Mother Maiden Mistress called Dimple one of the more interesting female characters of the year and Gaurav Malani of The Economic Times said the film was watchable because of " Katrina 's live @-@ wire energy wherein she never goes overboard and keeps bustling with vivacity through the runtime " . For this performance , Kaif received her second Filmfare nomination in the Best Actress category .
= = = Recent work ( 2012 – present ) = = =
In 2012 , Kaif appeared in " Chikni Chameli " , an item number in Agneepath that incorporated dance steps from the Lavani genre ( a Maharashtrian folk dance ) . The song was filmed over a ten @-@ day period and , according to the actress , " It was hard work . It was very fast and it was not a style I was used to , but I took it as a challenge " . Kaif appeared next in Kabir Khan 's espionage thriller Ek Tha Tiger as a Pakistani ISI agent who falls in love with an Indian RAW agent . Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express wrote about her performance : " Katrina is an able , animated foil to Salman , her long legs making her leaps and kicks credible " . The film received predominantly positive reviews , with Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis calling it " smart and stylish " . With worldwide earnings of ₹ 3 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 46 million ) , Ek Tha Tiger was the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of the year .
That year Kaif also appeared with Shah Rukh Khan and Anushka Sharma in Yash Chopra 's swan song , the romance Jab Tak Hai Jaan . About working with Chopra , she remarked that he " undoubtedly is the king of romance and I have always admired the way he presents his heroines . It was always a dream to work with him and the reality is even better " . She played Meera , a woman who promises God to end her affair with her comatose lover if he survives . Although the film received mostly positive reviews , Kaif 's performance had a mixed reception . CNN @-@ IBN wrote : " Meera 's role was a difficult one and Katrina falls short in emotional scenes . It seems Katrina still doesn 't feel very easy in front of the camera and has difficulty with complex expressions " . Commercially , the film proved a box @-@ office hit with revenues of ₹ 2 @.@ 11 billion ( US $ 31 million ) worldwide .
In 2013 , she appeared briefly with Aamir Khan in Vijay Krishna Acharya 's action thriller Dhoom 3 . To prepare for her role as a circus performer , she undertook a year @-@ long regimen of Pilates , functional training and aerial straps . The film received ambivalent reviews and Kaif was criticised for taking on an insubstantial part . Earning ₹ 5 @.@ 42 billion ( US $ 81 million ) in box @-@ office receipts , Dhoom 3 went on to become the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of all time until it was surpassed by PK in 2014 .
Kaif 's next appearance was in Siddharth Anand 's Bang Bang ! ( 2014 ) , a remake of the 2010 action comedy Knight and Day . She played a bank receptionist who unwittingly gets caught up with a secret agent ( Hrithik Roshan ) . Raja Sen of Rediff.com was disappointed with her performance , describing it as " insufferable " . Although the film was commercially successful , financial analysts observed that it failed to meet box @-@ office expectations . In 2015 , Kaif 's sole appearance was with Saif Ali Khan in Kabir Khan 's post 26 / 11 counter @-@ terrorism drama Phantom .
As of April 2016 , Kaif appeared in Abhishek Kapoor 's adaptation of Charles Dickens ' Great Expectations , entitled Fitoor in which she played a role based on Estella Havisham alongwith Aditya Roy Kapur and Tabu . She is filming for Anurag Basu 's comedy @-@ mystery film Jagga Jasoos with Ranbir Kapoor and wrapped up Nitya Mehra 's love story Baar Baar Dekho with Sidharth Malhotra .
= = Personal life and off @-@ screen work = =
Kaif 's personal life has been the subject of extensive media attention . She is reluctant to discuss her romantic life : " I have always believed that there is life before marriage and after marriage . Before marriage ... you are termed a single woman and I choose to conduct that part of my life with absolute dignity and discretion " . Although rumours of a relationship with Salman Khan first emerged in 2003 , it was not until after their 2010 break @-@ up that Kaif spoke of the affair , calling it her first serious relationship . They have remained friends , and the actress credits Khan with giving her confidence and guidance :
He ’ s had a huge role in my career . There ’ s no doubt about that . I value his opinion . But as a person , Salman has had the biggest impact on my life . I became friends with him when I was young . And his persona is very strong . If I were to look back and see his impact on my life , it ’ s been tremendous .
Although Kaif does not own a house in India , she has bought property in London . As a British citizen , she works in India on a visa . Kaif has a close relationship with her family , and the lack of a father figure in her life has given her a sense of responsibility towards them . While Kaif 's mother is Christian and her father is Muslim , Kaif was brought up to practise all faiths and says she is a " firm believer in God " and wears a Tawiz for her protection . The Times of India reported in 2009 that she visits Sufi shrine Dargah Sharif before her films are released .
Kaif is involved with Relief Projects India , a charitable trust run by her mother which rescues abandoned baby girls and works to prevent female infanticide . Kaif 's winnings from the game shows 10 Ka Dum and Kaun Banega Crorepati were donated to her mother 's Mercy Home orphanage . In 2009 and 2010 , Kaif also walked the ramp for charity as part of Salman Khan 's " Being Human " show . To raise funds for a new school in Madurai she recorded Rhyme Skool , an album of nursery rhymes composed by A. R. Rahman . In 2011 , Kaif visited sepoys in Jammu as part of NDTV 's reality program Jai Jawan . The following year she visited the Cancer Patients Aid Association to gift cancer survivors and increase public awareness of breast and cervical cancer .
Kaif has also performed onstage , participating in Shah Rukh Khan 's " Temptations Reloaded " world concert tour in 2008 . Also featuring Kareena Kapoor and Arjun Rampal , the tour began in Amsterdam in June and ended four months later in Dubai 's Festival City Arena before an audience of 15 @,@ 000 . Kaif rejoined Shah Rukh Khan for his 2013 " Temptations Reloaded " concert in Muscat , performing to an audience of over 18 @,@ 000 .
She performed with Akon at the closing ceremony of the 2009 Indian Premier League at the Wanderers Stadium in Johannesburg , and joined Shah Rukh Khan , Deepika Padukone and Pitbull in Kolkata for the opening ceremony of the 2013 IPL season . Kaif has also performed at awards ceremonies . In 2006 Kaif performed at the Global Indian Film Awards and danced to songs from Race at the 2008 IIFA Awards in Bangkok . She also performed at the 55th Filmfare Awards in 2010 and the 2013 Zee Cine Awards , both in Mumbai .
= = In the media = =
According to an India Today article , despite her dissimilarity to a conventional Bollywood heroine , Kaif " turned every adversity into opportunity and climbed the slippery pole of stardom " . Although she is one of the most commercially successful actresses in contemporary Bollywood , she has received mixed reviews for her acting prowess . Writing for Firstpost , Anuya Jakatdar wrote that Kaif needed to " take on role [ s ] that actually challenge her " instead of " coasting on her co @-@ star ’ s box office appeal " and criticised her inclination towards glamorous roles . Kaif 's dancing ability is better appreciated , with Meena Iyer of The Times of India calling her " one of Bollywood 's best dancers " . Kaif 's Bollywood success has sparked an influx of foreign talent hoping to establish themselves in the industry .
Kaif is cited in the media as one of India 's most beautiful celebrities , and has ranked highly in polls choosing the most attractive Indian celebrities . Kaif was named the " World 's Sexiest Woman " by FHM India five times from 2008 to 2013 , and appeared on Verve 's list of most powerful women in 2009 and 2010 . The UK magazine Eastern Eye called her the " Sexiest Asian Woman " from 2008 to 2010 , and again in 2013 . Kaif was named The Times of India 's " Most Desirable Woman " in 2010 , and was later ranked second from 2011 to 2013 . The Indian edition of People described her as " India 's Most Beautiful Woman " in 2011 and three years later she topped Maxim India 's " Hot 100 " poll .
Kaif is a celebrity spokesperson for a number of brands including Slice , Nakshatra , Lux , Panasonic , Lakmé and L 'Oréal . The Economic Times ranked Kaif India 's second most prominent endorser in 2012 . Hindustan Times reported in 2014 that she received ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) to ₹ 60 million ( US $ 890 @,@ 000 ) for each endorsement , making her one of India 's highest @-@ paid celebrity endorsers . In 2013 , Kaif was ranked ninth on Forbes ' list of India 's best @-@ known entertainers with an estimated annual income of ₹ 637 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 9 @.@ 5 million ) . In 2010 and 2011 , Mattel released two sets of Barbie dolls inspired by Kaif . In 2015 , a wax figure of Kaif was installed at Madame Tussauds in London .
= State Route 1002 ( Lehigh County , Pennsylvania ) =
State Route 1002 ( SR 1002 ) , locally known as Tilghman Street and Union Boulevard , is a major 13 @.@ 8 mi ( 22 @.@ 2 km ) long east – west road in the Allentown @-@ Bethlehem @-@ Easton metropolitan area of the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . The majority of the roadway is the former alignment of U.S. Route 22 , maintained by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation as a Quadrant Route , and is not signed except on small white segment markers .
Tilghman Street begins at Pennsylvania Route 100 in Fogelsville , though SR 1002 continues west on Main Street ( also old US 22 ) to the intersection of Church Street ( SR 3014 ) . It becomes Union Boulevard just east of the bridge over the Lehigh River in Allentown ; SR 1002 ends at the interchange with Pennsylvania Route 378 in Bethlehem . Union Boulevard continues over Monocacy Creek , which forms the border between Lehigh and Northampton Counties , and ends in downtown Bethlehem .
The highway attracts more than the average traffic for roads in the Lehigh Valley . An average of 21 @,@ 018 vehicles use it in South Whitehall Township and 21 @,@ 706 in Allentown each day .
= = History = =
When the state began taking over state highways through the Sproul Road Bill , signed May 31 , 1911 , this system did not include the direct Allentown @-@ Harrisburg route that Interstate 78 and the parallel Tilghman Street now form part of . The main route to Harrisburg , which would soon become the William Penn Highway , left Allentown further south , on Hamilton Boulevard ( now Pennsylvania Route 222 and U.S. Route 222 ) ; the portion near Allentown was Legislative Route 157 ( LR 157 ) . Another route west from Allentown ( LR 163 , later U.S. Route 309 ) ran northwest from Allentown via Walbert Avenue to Schnecksville . Travelers could continue via New Tripoli to Lenhartsville , and then along a route approximating the present I @-@ 78 to Harrisburg . From Allentown east to downtown Bethlehem , LR 159 used Hanover Avenue and Broad Street . No state highways existed within the city limits of Allentown .
The William Penn Highway was organized as an alternative to the Lincoln Highway being parallel to the Pennsylvania Railroad west of Harrisburg . The route 's New York Extension , adopted in 1916 , passed through Allentown . The state assigned the Pennsylvania Route 3 designation to this road in 1924 , and in 1926 it became part of U.S. Route 22 . The road west from Allentown , now College Heights Boulevard , Broadway , Tilghman Street , and Main Street , was designated LR 443 in 1925 , and soon the entire shortcut between Allentown and Harrisburg was designated Pennsylvania Route 43 . The New York Times was recommending use of this cutoff by early 1931 and the American Association of State Highway Officials officially moved US 22 to PA 43 on June 8 , 1931 . The Pennsylvania Department of Highways moved the William Penn Highway name to match . Tilghman Street and Union Boulevard ( then Union Street ) were once local streets in Allentown and Bethlehem , with no bridge over the Lehigh River connecting them ; Allentown built that bridge in 1929 .
Prior to 1931 , there were no state highways in Allentown or a number of other major cities in the state . However , the state did define paths through these cities for the public ; in Allentown , US 22 used Hamilton Street , and PA 43 entered on Liberty Street and turned south on 17th Street to reach Hamilton Street . The Pennsylvania General Assembly passed , on June 22 , 1931 , a law defining state highways through these cities and changing routes in other cities . LR 443 was defined to use College Heights Boulevard and Tilghman Street to 15th Street , where LR 157 continued along Tilghman Street and Union Boulevard to the Allentown @-@ Bethlehem line . LR 159 was redefined to begin at the same point , continuing on Union Boulevard to Main Street in downtown Bethlehem ( and beyond to Easton ) . The newest part of Tilghman Street includes the bridge over Little Cedar Creek in Trexler Park west of Cedar Crest Boulevard , which dates to 1936 , and bypasses the older route via Broadway and College Heights Boulevard . Tilghman Street and Union Boulevard became a major long @-@ distance traffic route , and as of 1999 had eight diners as a reminder of this past importance .
In addition to US 22 , Tilghman Street also carried U.S. Route 309 and Pennsylvania Route 29 between 19th Street and Seventh Street . They were moved from Hamilton Street with US 22 in 1931 , and to a freeway bypass of Allentown in the late 1950s . The Lehigh Valley Thruway , a freeway taking US 22 around Allentown and Bethlehem to the north , was opened on September 21 , 1954 . With the opening of these two highways , and the western extension of the Thruway in the late 1950s , no signed Traffic Routes remained on Tilghman Street and Union Boulevard , yet the road was still state maintained . It still carried LR 443 , LR 157 , and LR 159 through the cities , since the Thruway was assigned a new number — LR 772 — but west of the crossing at Kuhnsville , LR 443 was moved to the freeway , and the old route became LR Old 443 , later LR 443 Parallel .
The road west of Church Street in Fogelsville , which was also a state highway ( LR 39084 ) , was removed from the state highway system in the late 1970s . A gap in LR 159 through downtown Bethlehem was created in 1971 , at the same time as Washington Avenue and Stefko Boulevard were added to the system as a bypass , with Union Boulevard east of Pennsylvania Route 378 becoming a city street . Thus in 1987 , when the new Location Referencing System was adopted , only the portion of Tilghman Street and Union Boulevard between Church Street and PA 378 was assigned a new number : State Route 1002 .
In late October 2012 , the Tilghman Street Bridge over the Lehigh River was repaved in order to accommodate construction vehicles for the long @-@ awaited beginning of the American Parkway Bridge project .
= = Route description = =
= = = Tilghman Street = = =
SR 1002 begins at an intersection with Church and Main Streets ( State Route 3014 ) in Fogelsville . It then proceeds east for three @-@ tenths of a mile ( 0 @.@ 5 km ) as Main Street to an intersection with Pennsylvania Route 100 . Upon crossing SR 100 , SR 1002 becomes Tilghman Street . As Tilghman Street approaches the limited @-@ access U.S. Route 22 , the road splits into two carriageways in preparation for an interchange with US 22 , northeast of where US 22 separates from Interstate 78 . Past the interchange with US 22 , Tilghman Street returns to an undivided roadway and enters the village of Cetronia .
At an intersection with Werley Road , SR 1002 connects to Interstate 476 ( the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike ) via a ramp leading to the toll plaza for the nearby I @-@ 476 / US 22 interchange . SR 1002 continues to the southeast , passing over the turnpike . After turning to the northeast , Tilghman Street has a cloverleaf interchange with Pennsylvania Route 309 . SR 1002 enters Allentown one quarter mile west of this interchange just before its intersection with 40th Street . Tilghman Street then re @-@ enters South Whitehall for about one block as it crosses Cedar Crest Boulevard , a local north – south arterial , before entering into the city 's incorporated limits for a second time .
In Allentown , Tilghman Street ( SR 1002 ) crosses more than 30 major streets in the city . In the more populated part of the city , SR 1002 intersects the 6th and 7th street one @-@ way couplet forming Pennsylvania Route 145 . East of 4th Street , the road uses the Tilghman Street Bridge to cross Jordan Creek and American Parkway . After intersecting Front Street , SR 1002 crosses the Lehigh River on the Tilghman Street Viaduct and becomes Union Boulevard . Tilghman Street is still found in east @-@ side Allentown , but it is not connected to SR 1002 in west @-@ side , center city , and upper east @-@ side Allentown .
= = = Union Boulevard = = =
East of the Tilghman Street Viaduct , SR 1002 traverses numerous streets in the eastern section of Allentown . After the intersection with Fenwick Street , SR 1002 has a solid west – east routing . East of the Irving Street intersection , SR 1002 intersects Airport Road , the main road to Lehigh Valley International Airport . Briefly east of Airport Road , Union Boulevard traverses the other streets of east Allentown . SR 1002 enters the city of Bethlehem from the west as West Union Boulevard .
Approximately 1 @,@ 500 feet east of the Allentown @-@ Bethlehem boundary , Eaton Avenue is concurrent with SR 1002 for one @-@ tenth of a mile . The route turns to the south near the junction with Pennsylvania Avenue before taking an increasingly eastern alignment . Third Avenue provides access to and from PA 378 south . SR 1002 terminates at an interchange with Pennsylvania Route 378 . The highway only has access to PA 378 north . The designation continues as W. Union Boulevard upon entering the eastern sections of Bethlehem in Northampton County .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lehigh County .
= Meteorological history of Hurricane Georges =
The meteorological history of Hurricane Georges spanned seventeen days from September 15 to October 1 , 1998 . Hurricane Georges began as a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa during mid @-@ September 1998 . Tracking westward , the wave spawned an area of low pressure two days later , which quickly strengthened into a tropical depression . On September 16 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Georges , and to Hurricane Georges the next day . Over the next few days , an eye developed and deep Atmospheric convection persisted around it . Strong outflow and warm sea surface temperatures allowed the storm to intensify as it tracked towards the west @-@ northwest . The storm reached its peak intensity on September 20 with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) , just below Category 5 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and a barometric pressure of 937 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 68 inHg ) .
Over the following five days , the hurricane tracked through the Greater Antilles , making five landfalls , four as a Category 3 hurricane and one as a Category 1 . Shortly after entering the Caribbean , the Georges weakened slightly ; however , shortly before crossing Puerto Rico , the storm re @-@ attained major hurricane status . After weakening slightly once more , the storm rapidly organized near the Dominican Republic . A well @-@ defined eye formed and outflow re @-@ established , allowing the storm to reach an intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) just prior to landfall . During its passage of Hispaniola the circulation was severely disrupted , but Georges maintained hurricane @-@ intensity . On September 23 , the storm made landfall in southeastern Cuba as a minimal hurricane .
By September 25 , Georges entered the Gulf of Mexico and intensified into a Category 2 hurricane . The storm re @-@ organized over the gulf , with the eye fully reforming and deep convection persisting around the center of circulation . By September 27 , Georges reached an intensity of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . Several hours prior to landfall the next day , the hurricane weakened slightly and tracked inland near Biloxi , Mississippi with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Upon landfall , the hurricane 's forward motion slowed , executing a brief clockwise loop before maintaining an eastward drift . Gradually weakening , the hurricane was only a tropical depression by the afternoon of September 29 . Two days later , Georges fully dissipated near the Atlantic coast of Florida .
= = Formation and intensification = =
Late on September 13 , 1998 , a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa . The following day the system featured a large area of organized deep convection and the dvorak technique was initiated . By September 15 , ships within the vicinity of the wave reported that a surface circulation had developed and by 1200 UTC , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) estimated that a tropical depression , the seventh of the season , while situated about 345 miles ( 555 kilometres ) south @-@ southwest of the Cape Verde Islands . The depression tracked roughly due west in response to a mid @-@ level ridge , building westward , to the north of the cyclone . Throughout the day , banding features developed around the system and deep convection consolidated around the center of circulation . Roughly 24 hours after being declared a depression , the NHC upgraded the system to a tropical storm and gave it the name Georges .
For the following ten days , Georges maintained a general west @-@ northwest track for ten days due to a persistent mid to upper @-@ level tropospheric ridge . Gradual intensification took place as the system developed strong outflow and warm sea surface temperatures aided in fueling further development . Easterly wind shear caused disruption of the storms ' outflow ; however , the center , previously surrounded by two deep areas of convection , was situated underneath one area of thunderstorm activity . By the late morning hours of September 17 , an eyewall developed within the circulation , indicating that Georges was nearing hurricane @-@ status .
= = Peak intensity and Lesser Antilles = =
Later on September 17 , a banding @-@ eye feature appeared on satellite imagery , leading the NHC to upgrade Georges into a hurricane at 1800 UTC that day . The next day , an anticyclone began to develop over the hurricane , enhancing the storms ' outflow . Several hours later , Georges attained Category 2 status as sustained winds around the eye increased to 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . Ahead of the storm , the NHC reported that there were no factors inhibiting further intensification and anticipated Georges to strengthen into a Category 4 hurricane before reaching the Lesser Antilles . A concentric eyewall began to develop late on September 18 , briefly stalling the strengthening of the storm . This resulted from an eyewall replacement cycle that led to the formation of a larger eye .
On September 19 and 20 , Georges underwent a period of rapid intensification , in which winds increased by 45 mph ( 85 km / h ) in a 24 @-@ hour span . At the end of this phase , Georges attained its peak intensity with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 937 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 68 inHg ) , just below Category 5 status . At the time of peak intensity , a Hurricane Hunter mission into the storm recorded flight @-@ level winds up to 168 mph ( 270 km / h ) while dropsondes measured surface winds up to 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . One of the readings from a dropsonde , that was disregarded , recorded winds of 191 mph ( 307 km / h ) in the lower @-@ levels of the eyewall . This reading was disregarded by the hurricane hunters as it seemed too high and not representative of the actual intensity of Georges . The Hurricane Hunters also noted a large increase in the radius of tropical storm @-@ force winds , prompting the issuance of tropical storm warnings in the Lesser Antilles . Around the time of peak intensity , the eye of Georges was roughly 35 mi ( 55 km ) in diameter .
Shortly after attaining peak intensity on September 20 , Georges began to weaken , as upper @-@ level vertical wind shear caused the eye to become cloud @-@ filled and was no longer visible on satellite imagery . Convection associated with the storm also became less symmetric in nature . In spite of these factors , Georges remained a major hurricane through September 21 . Continued weakening took place as the shear restricted a portion of the hurricane 's outflow . At 0430 UTC on September 21 , Georges made its initial landfall on Antigua with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Several hours later , the storm passed directly over St. Kitts . Shortly after passing over the island , the storm weakened to Category 2 status and winds decreased to 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) .
= = Caribbean islands = =
As the storm approached Puerto Rico late on September 21 , the wind shear began to relent , allowing Georges to re @-@ organize ; however , its outflow was unable to fully redevelop due to its proximity to land . Around 2200 UTC , the storm reattained Category 3 intensity and made landfall in Puerto Rico with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) before weakening again . Hours later , the storm entered the Mona Passage and began to once again reorganize . As Georges approached the Dominican Republic , it unexpectedly developed a well @-@ defined eye and began to intensify , attaining winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) ; satellite imagery suggested that Georges re @-@ attained Category 4 intensity . It made landfall on the Dominican Republic at 1230 UTC on September 22 as a Category 3 hurricane .
Hispaniola 's mountainous terrain was a large factor in the expected weakening of the storm ; however , by six hours after landfall , the storm 's eye maintained its structure , outflow remained strong , and banding features were still organized . By September 23 , however , the center became ill @-@ defined and Hurricane Hunters were unable to fly into the storm until it moved back over water . The hurricane 's core was severely disrupted by the 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) mountains of Hispaniola . Although Georges was exceptionally disorganized , it retained minimal hurricane intensity throughout its passage of the island .
Later on September 23 , the storm entered the Windward Passage , maintaining a broad circulation with well @-@ defined banding and an eye @-@ like feature . Little change occurred during the day ; the storm made its fifth landfall near Guantanamo Bay , Cuba with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The storm began to take a more northwesterly track in response to a mid- to upper @-@ level high pressure area to the northeast and a mid- to upper @-@ level low over the Yucatán Peninsula . Throughout its passage across Cuba , Georges maintained a well @-@ defined outflow pattern despite having an ill @-@ defined center . By September 24 , the storm moved over water north of Cuba , and the eyewall quickly began to redevelop .
= = Gulf of Mexico and dissipation = =
As the hurricane neared the Florida Keys on September 25 , its eye reformed and became more pronounced on satellite imagery . The reorganization led to an increase in intensity , and at about 1530 UTC , Georges made landfall near Key West with winds of 105 mph ( 160 km / h ) . The hurricane 's forward motion shifted to west @-@ northwest , and forecast models indicated that Georges would re @-@ attain Category 3 status before making landfall along the northern Gulf Coast . The slow motion of the storm led to an erratic track , mainly caused by westward wobbles of the eye . Vertical wind shear was estimated at up to 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , restricting outflow within the hurricane and confining the most intense convection to the eastern side of the circulation .
Between September 26 and 27 , the storm continued to slow while turning northwestward . Its wind field became asymmetric during the afternoon of September 26 , with hurricane @-@ force winds present only in the eastern side . Later in the day , winds around the center increased to 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) , just short of major hurricane status . The possibility of rapid intensification at the time was low .
The central barometric pressure continued to decrease through September 28 , bottoming out at 961 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 39 inHg ) . By that time , the storm had become visible on New Orleans , Louisiana , radar imagery , which depicted an incomplete eyewall . The storm continued to slow as it neared its final landfall , and winds around the eyewall slightly decreased . Around 1130 UTC , Georges made landfall near Biloxi , Mississippi with winds of 105 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Several hours after moving ashore , Georges weakened to Category 1 status and became quasi @-@ stationary . The storm 's slow movement led to extreme amounts of rainfall throughout the southeastern United States , peaking at 38 @.@ 46 in ( 977 mm ) in Munson , Florida .
By September 29 , Georges had weakened to a tropical storm and completed a small clockwise loop over southern Mississippi . Subsequently , the storm began tracking west @-@ northwestward at a faster pace . Around 1200 UTC , Georges weakened to a tropical depression , and the NHC issued their final advisory on the system . At this time , the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center ( HPC ) initiated public advisories . The depression maintained a well @-@ defined circulation as it tracked close to the Gulf of Mexico ; however , the center of circulation remained inland . Large quantities of tropical moisture fed the storm , allowing it to produce torrential rainfall . By September 30 , the low @-@ level circulation began to detach from the upper @-@ level circulation . The HPC issued their final advisory on the depression early on October 1 as it neared the Atlantic Ocean , and it fully dissipated several hours later .
= Cyclone Jokwe =
Cyclone Jokwe of March 2008 was the first tropical cyclone to make landfall in Mozambique since Cyclone Favio struck in the previous year . The tenth named storm of the 2007 – 08 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , Jokwe was first classified as a tropical depression on March 2 over the open Southwest Indian Ocean . It tracked west @-@ southwest , crossing northern Madagascar as a tropical storm on March 5 before intensifying into a tropical cyclone on March 6 . Jokwe rapidly intensified to reach peak winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) , before weakening slightly and striking Nampula Province in northeastern Mozambique . It quickly weakened while paralleling the coastline , though the storm restrengthened as it turned southward in the Mozambique Channel . Late in its duration , it remained nearly stationary for several days , and steadily weakened due to wind shear before dissipating on March 16 .
The storm caused minor damage in northern Madagascar . In Mozambique , the cyclone affected 200 @,@ 000 people , and left at least sixteen fatalities . Cyclone Jokwe destroyed over 9 @,@ 000 houses and damaged over 3 @,@ 000 more , with the heaviest damage in Angoche and the Island of Mozambique in Nampula Province . The storm also caused widespread power outages and crop damages . The name Jokwe was submitted to the World Meteorological Organization by Botswana .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the beginning of the month , an area of convection persisted in association with a broad low @-@ level circulation about 565 km ( 350 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia . The disturbance tracked west @-@ southwestward , and on March 2 the Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) declared it as a weak depression . Initially in an area of moderate wind shear , the system at first failed to maintain deep convection . Early on March 4 , convection increased and organized around the center of circulation , and the MFR classified it as Tropical Depression Twelve , about 270 km ( 170 mi ) southwest of the Agaléga Islands . Initially the MFR forecast that the depression would intensify further before striking Madagascar .
The cyclone tracked generally westward along the northern periphery of a ridge . The circulation became better defined , though convection was displaced to the west of the center due to persistent wind shear . Intensification was favored , though , due to warm water temperatures and good outflow . Early on March 5 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 22S . Shortly thereafter , the MFR upgraded the depression to Moderate Tropical Storm Jokwe about 675 km ( 420 mi ) southwest of the Agalega Islands , or about 230 km ( 140 mi ) northeast of the northern tip of Madagascar . At first , the storm was smaller than usual , with gale force winds extending 37 km ( 23 mi ) from the center . Jokwe turned to the west @-@ southwest in response to the development of a trough of low pressure in the Mozambique Channel , and late on March 5 the storm crossed over northern Madagascar . The low @-@ level circulation became disorganized due to land interaction , though its mid and upper @-@ level circulation remained well @-@ organized . Subsequently , the storm encountered more favorable conditions , and an eye developed ; Jokwe underwent rapid deepening and intensified to tropical cyclone status , or the equivalence of a minimal hurricane , midday on March 6 off the northwest coast of Madagascar .
Shortly after attaining tropical cyclone status , Jokwe began weakening as its eye disappeared , and it weakened to tropical storm status . The weakening trend was short @-@ lived , and after turning westward the storm re @-@ developed a 13 km ( 8 mi ) eye . Jokwe again underwent rapid intensification as it approached the coast of Mozambique , becoming an intense " midget cyclone " with winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) late on March 7 ; the MFR explained its rapid intensity changes due to its small size . Excellent upper @-@ level outflow and warm waters contributed to the intensification . At 0000 UTC on March 8 , Jokwe attained peak winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) about 75 km ( 45 mi ) east of the Island of Mozambique in Nampula Province ; at the same time , its gusts reached about 275 km / h ( 170 mph ) . It weakened slightly while paralleling the coastline just offshore , and at 1015 UTC Jokwe made landfall between the Island of Mozambique and Angoche .
Cyclone Jokwe remained over land for about 18 hours before emerging into the Mozambique Channel , weakening quickly to tropical storm status . Upon reaching open waters , convection increased over the center , and late on March 9 Jokwe re @-@ intensified to a tropical cyclone as an eye reappeared on satellite imagery . The cyclone turned to the south @-@ southeast , around the periphery of a ridge to its east . An upper @-@ level low to its south produced good outflow which , in combination with warm waters , allowed Jokwe to re @-@ intensify . Late on March 10 , the storm passed about 35 km ( 21 mi ) east of Europa Island , and shortly thereafter the MFR upgraded Jokwe to intense tropical cyclone status with winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Subsequently , an increase in wind shear caused a steady weakening trend , and by March 12 Jokwe weakened to tropical storm status as its center became partially exposed from the deep convection ; at the same time , the storm turned to the southwest .
Later on March 12 , thunderstorms reformed over the center , as its movement became nearly stationary due to a ridge to its south and northwest . Early on March 13 , it began a steady movement to the northwest , and its organization increased with an eye re @-@ appearing ; after briefly re @-@ attaining tropical cyclone status , Jokwe again weakened to tropical storm status due to persistent wind shear . Convection continued to diminish , and on March 14 Jokwe weakened to tropical depression status as the center became almost fully exposed . Early on March 15 , the MFR issued its last advisory on the system . The remnants accelerated southeastward and dissipated on March 16 to the southwest of Madagascar .
= = Impact = =
Crossing northern Madagascar as a tropical storm , Jokwe damaged or destroyed 44 buildings in Nosy Be , leaving 400 homeless . Satellite @-@ based rainfall estimates reached over 200 mm ( 8 inches ) in northwestern Madagascar .
On March 7 , the National Emergency Operational Centre of Mozambique warned for coastal residents in Nampula and Zambezia provinces to be on alert . A day later , the agency issued a Red Alert for northern Nampula Province , advising potentially affected residents to seek shelter . Subsequently , the alert was extended southwestward along the coastline . Strong winds and heavy rains from the storm left the island of Mozambique without power , as well as water . There winds knocked down several poorly constructed houses , and also destroyed the roofs of two schools . Satellite @-@ based rainfall estimates reached over 300 mm ( 12 inches ) in northwestern Madagascar . Across Nampula Province , heavy agricultural damage was reported ; a total of 508 animals on farms were killed , and about 2 million cashew trees were destroyed . Widespread power outages were reported , with 75 % of power transmission lines damaged or destroyed . The cyclone destroyed at least 200 boats and the roofs of at least 80 schools . The storm destroyed a bridge across the Mogincual River , which left the town of Namige isolated . Across Nampula Province , Jokwe destroyed 9 @,@ 316 houses and damaged 3 @,@ 220 more , most of which in Angoche . In Pebane District in neighboring Zambezia Province , the cyclone destroyed nine houses . Rainfall was reported throughout the province , though damage was not as heavy due to lack of strong winds . Throughout Mozambique , the cyclone affected 200 @,@ 000 people , with a total of 55 @,@ 000 people left homeless . Ten people were killed in Nampula Province , and six more were killed in coastal districts of Zambezia Province .
On March 10 , a station on Europa Island in the Mozambique Channel reported a pressure of 985 @.@ 5 mbar .
= = Aftermath = =
Shortly after the cyclone moved ashore along Mozambique , officials distributed tents and food to the affected citizens . The government activated the National Civil Protection Unit to clear fallen trees from roadways , as well as assist in rebuilding damaged or destroyed homes . A few days after the storm , the Mozambique Red Cross began delivering mosquito nets , blankets , plastic buckets , and sleeping mats . The government of Nampula estimated it would require $ 8 million ( USD ) to repair storm damage in the province .
Two weeks after the storm , the World Food Programme announced it would provide food for 60 @,@ 000 people in the impacted areas of Mozambique . On March 27 , the government of Portugal donated $ 700 @,@ 000 ( USD ) to the Mozambique National Disasters Management Institute ; over half of the total was aid for flood victims affected by Jokwe and flooding earlier in the year .
= Sprang =
Sprang is an ancient method of constructing fabric that has a natural elasticity . Its appearance is similar to netting , but unlike netting sprang is constructed entirely from warp threads . Archaeological evidence indicates that sprang predates knitting ; the two needlework forms bear a visible resemblance and serve similar functions but require different production techniques .
Although examples of sprang have been unearthed from as early as the bronze age , sprang was almost entirely undocumented in written records until the late nineteenth century when archaeological finds generated interest in Europe . Museum examples of sprang had been misidentified as knitting or lace until discoveries of ancient examples prompted reexamination of newer pieces . Subsequently , sprang has been identified in a variety of cultures and traditions across several continents . Its practice as a folk art waned during the twentieth century and sprang traditions have disappeared in most locales . Knitting has largely supplanted sprang .
= = Technique = =
In principle , sprang may be regarded as a practical application of the fiber manipulation techniques used in the children 's game known as cat 's cradle . Sprang is made by preparing a set of warp threads either on a rectangular frame or between a pair of beams . The craftsperson then generates a fabric by interlinking the warp threads . Unlike most textile production techniques that add new rows at the end of completed rows , sprang works upon the center of a group of fibers and the material grows inward from both ends with symmetrical top and bottom halves . The craftsperson must maintain control of the center area or the structure unravels : most sprang worked upon has too many fibers to keep in hand , so rods or sticks maintain the appropriate fiber positions . The fiber manipulation itself is done by the craftsperson 's fingers . Decorative patterns may be generated by regular variations in the fiber crossings . As crossings accumulate the craftsperson beats the material flat with a stick . Work continues with the material growing from both edges toward the middle until the center band becomes too tight to continue work . The completed fabric is either separated into two identical items or permanently secured at the middle to stabilize the contrary twists . In traditions where two halves of sprang are not severed by cutting , this center seam is a telltale sign of sprang manufacture .
= = History and uses = =
The English word sprang is of Swedish origin . It may have spread southward toward the Mediterranean during the iron age or possibly the late bronze age . The earliest surviving example of sprang is a hair net , c . 1400 B.C. , that was recovered from a bog in Denmark . Most archaeological finds of sprang fabric come from the later classical era and early Dark Ages : locations include Norway ( third to fifth centuries A.D. ) , Switzerland , Egypt ( possibly twenty @-@ second dynasty , also early Coptic ) , and various Roman sites . Use of sprang has also been conjectured from archaeological recoveries of ancient looms and from depictions in period artwork .
Sprang is also an indigenous needlework technique among the peoples of South America , with the earliest known examples dating from before 900 A.D. among the Paracas culture and Nazca culture in present @-@ day Peru . Sprang has also been noted in the Middle East , Central Asia , the Indian Subcontinent , and North America . Indigenous North American sprang includes woolen scarves by the Ho @-@ Chunk of Wisconsin , and Hopi wedding sashes . The natural elasticity of sprang makes it suitable for stockings , hair nets , sleeves , bags , scarves , and other purposes where pliant material is required . Most sprang needlework is utilitarian and hence was overlooked by scholars until late in its history , according to needlework historian Catherine Amoroso Leslie .
In fact , it was not until the nineteenth century and the discovery of sprang at archaeological sites that it was recognized as a separate and distinct form of needlework . Many museum objects that were wrongly classified as knitting or lace have now been correctly identified as sprang .
Following nearly simultaneous archaeological finds in Denmark and Egypt during the 1870s , an example of Coptic sprang brought to Austria in 1882 inspired the management of a factory near Vienna to manufacture sprang hammocks . The Paris World 's Fair of 1889 included an exhibit that duplicated ancient sprang , which led to renewed interest in the technique . Traditionally , cultures that practiced sprang had not produced written records of its manufacture or use . Shortly after the Paris exhibition , living traditions of sprang began to be documented . During the 1890s Ukrainian villagers were identified as practicing sprang in the manufacture of women 's caps . Soon afterward , local sprang production for various garments was also documented in parts of Eastern Europe and in Denmark . Local European traditions generally endured until the mid @-@ twentieth century . Sprang is , however , largely a historical technique that has been supplanted for most purposes by the later invention of knitting , whose earliest known example dates from the third century A.D.
During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries a military fashion of decorative sprang sashes in silk known as faja in Spain gained international popularity among generals as a distinguishing ornament of rank . The fashion spread to northern Europe and to North America . George Washington wore a sash made of red silk sprang around the year 1779 .
= = Contemporary sprang = =
In a study of folk textiles of Anatolia , Greece , Linda Welters identifies the zonari as a long fringed belt constructed of sprang . The zonari is a rounded material of indeterminate length around 2 or 3 meters long and is wrapped multiple times when worn . From interviews conducted during the 1980s , Welters found that the technique was practiced by elderly women and regarded as a specialized skill which they worked on pairs of beams . Their vocabulary had no special term to correspond with sprang , so they referred to it with descriptive phrases such as knitting with sticks , plaiting , and weaving without passing through . The zonari are made from sheep 's wool hand spun with a drop spindle and dyed red , blue , or black depending on local custom . Zonari belts are a custom in much of Argolida and Corinthia where they are traditional dowry items worn by women from marriage onward and associated with fertility and donned on ritual occasions . Welters observes that these were mostly owned and worn by older women .
The sprang technique also survives as a traditional method for making hammocks in Guatemala , Mexico , and Colombia , and also in Colombia for making a shopping bag known as mechita . The work in these locations is generally performed on a backstrap loom . Handmade Mesoamerican sprang hammocks continue to be produced for export to a variety of international markets . Additionally , sprang remains in use for making silk trouser drawstrings for male and female attire in Punjab in India & Pakistan . There village women still use the technique to create colourful check / stipped / zigzag designs that have been handed down the generations . They finish the ends of the work using a weaving technique to make a hard 2inch 'harar ' with bunched twisted threads & knot . These sprang drawstrings are also used for the ' ghugrai ' [ full long skirts worn traditionally by Punjabi women : -it has been fashionable at times to have the drawstring ends on show , hanging with the ' harar ' having colourful pom @-@ poms or jewellery added on . The sprang technique is also used to make the black ' doria ' traditionally plaited into women 's hair- they also have a colourful ' harar 'ending fixed at the end.These can be found on sale in Punjab even now . Hairnets , baby cradles , hanging baskets for fruit were also made . In attempts to retain traditional Punjabi culture , there are cultural craft centres in and around Jullunder where sprang technique is one of several old textile arts being passed on to young craftspeople . Contemporary art textiles sometimes employ sprang in wall hangings .
= I Dream of Jesus =
" I Dream of Jesus " is the second episode of the seventh season of Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on October 5 , 2008 . In the episode , Peter finds Jesus Christ ( voiced by Alec Sulkin ) working at a record shop , and convinces Jesus to make his second coming .
Directed by Mike Kim and written by Brian Scully , the title of the episode refers to the television series I Dream of Jeannie . The episode makes a prominent use of the song " Surfin ' Bird " by The Trashmen . The episode guest starred Chris Cox , Ike Barinholtz , Amanda MacDonald , Niecy Nash , Sulkin and Paris and Perez Hilton . The episode received divided reviews from critics , with the more negative reviews going to the portrayal of Jesus , while the positive reviews went to the " Surfing Bird " plot . According to Nielsen Media Research , " I Dream of Jesus " was Fox 's most @-@ watched program the evening it first aired , with 8 @.@ 4 million views . Seth MacFarlane was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance and an Annie Award for his role as Peter Griffin in this episode . This was one of three episodes ( along with " Road to Germany " and " Family Gay " ) submitted the year Family Guy was nominated for the " Outstanding Comedy Series " .
= = Plot = =
The family goes to Nifty Fifties Diner , a 1950s @-@ themed restaurant , and they see waiters dressed up as celebrities from the 1950s , including James Dean , Marilyn Monroe and Elvis Presley . Peter obtains a record of his favorite song , The Trashmen 's " Surfin ' Bird " from the restaurant ( which was about to be thrown away because it was released in 1963 ) . Peter repeats the song over and over on the way home in bed and even when waking up Lois , annoying his family . However the final straw of the family 's hatred of Surfin ' Bird is when Peter spends over $ 6 @,@ 000 of the family fortune to buy himself a two @-@ minute clip on TV saying that " I dream of an America where everybody knows that the bird is the word " and singing the song again .
Stewie and Brian steal the record while Peter is asleep one night and destroy it . In a fit of rage , Peter accuses the others , saying they had a motive as he changed his will and left everything to the record . Oblivious to the fact that Lois , Chris and Meg have evidence to prove they did not take it he accuses them of conspiring to destroy his record , and suspects his kids for possible motives . He then furiously goes to the town 's only record shop the next morning to buy another copy , but it turns out the stores had already been visited by " a dog " and " a baby " ( Brian and Stewie ) who bought all the copies . Peter is frustrated , but gets distracted as he recognizes the record sales clerk to be Jesus Christ .
Jesus reveals he goes to Earth every 100 years or so to check on the world , and since his father had become highly irritable after giving up smoking , he needed some time away . He and Peter become friends , and Peter invites him to dinner , along with Brian . Brian asks Jesus for proof he is Jesus Christ , so Jesus proves he is , by turning everyone 's dinner into sundaes and , on Peter 's request , makes Lois ' breasts enlarge to massive proportions . Peter convinces him to make his second coming public . Jesus walks on water to retrieve a dollar bill that blew out of Peter 's hand . Consequently , he becomes famous and makes celebrity appearances on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and the MTV Movie Awards . He begins to neglect his friendship with Peter , due to him now being popular . The next day , Peter watches the news , where Tom Tucker reports that Jesus was found in Mary @-@ Kate Olsen 's apartment that morning face down and unconscious . Tom reports that police have revived and arrested the disoriented Jesus , who quoted " Jews are responsible for all the world 's wars " . Jesus is arrested for his illegal prank and is sent to jail . Peter is asked by Jesus to bail him out . Now in disrepute , Jesus decides that maybe he was not mature enough to return to the world yet and bids farewell to the family . Before he leaves this world , Jesus gives Peter a present , another record of " Surfin ' Bird " , and it ends with Stewie and Brian groaning in genuine rage when Peter begins annoying his family with the song again .
Surfin ' Bird then plays as the credits roll .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by one of this season 's co @-@ executive producers Brian Scully , on his first writing job for the show . It was directed by Mike Kim , who had been with the show since its fifth season when he directed the episode " Stewie Loves Lois " . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors for the episode . The episode 's music was composed by Walter Murphy . Actors Chris Cox , Ike Barinholtz , Amanda MacDonald , Niecy Nash , Paris Hilton and Perez Hilton guest starred . Recurring voice actors for the show , including Patrick Warburton , Adam West , Johnny Brennan , writer Alec Sulkin , writer John Viener , writer Kirker Butler , co @-@ executive producer Steve Callaghan , co @-@ executive producer Mark Hentemann and executive producer Danny Smith also made minor appearances .
" I Dream of Jesus " , along with the first eight episodes of the seventh season were released on DVD by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on June 16 , 2009 , one month after it had completed broadcast on television . The " Volume 7 " DVD release features bonus material including deleted scenes , animatics , and commentaries for every episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's name is a play of the title of the NBC sitcom , I Dream of Jeannie . The scene in which Stewie and Brian destroy the record is nearly identical to a scene in the movie Office Space in which the characters destroy a printer , including use of the same song . Peter makes Jesus admit that he is the messiah by threatening to urinate over albums of Christian artist Amy Grant . Peter attempts to top Jesus ' story about his crucifixion during a dinner conversation with a story about how he and his friends " got wrecked on Southern Comfort " before going to see The Chronicles of Riddick . George W. Bush explains to the American people that going to war was correct because he answers to Jesus Christ , then Peter and Jesus interrupt him to disagree with him like in Woody Allen 's Annie Hall . Jesus is invited to the Tonight Show , hosted by Jay Leno .
Jesus assists the MTV Movie Awards , which is being hosted by Dane Cook , to present an award alongside The Pussycat Dolls . Jesus is found in Mary @-@ Kate Olsen 's apartment . While at the MTV Movie Awards , Jesus says " I used to hang around with only one whore " . When Jesus is arrested , he rants saying that " Jews are responsible for all the world 's wars " , a reference to a similar outburst during Mel Gibson 's DUI arrest . Lindsay Lohan is lampooned in the episode . In the record store Peter meets Jesus , some of the posters featured on the wall include the cover artwork for Pink Floyd 's The Dark Side of the Moon , Nirvana 's In Utero and R.E.M. ' s Automatic for the People .
= = Reception = =
According to Nielsen ratings , " I Dream of Jesus " was the most @-@ watched program on Fox the night it originally aired . It was watched by 8 @.@ 4 million viewers , and earned a 4 @.@ 3 / 10 ratings share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Richard Keller of TV Squad praised the " Surfing Bird " and Office Space parody segments . Ahsan Haque of IGN rated the episode a 7 / 10 , claiming the episode had entertaining moments , but was not one of the show 's strongest efforts . Haque wrote , " Jesus on Family Guy should have been a big deal and featured far more laughs than it did . " Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club praised the " Surfin Bird " plot , but stated that the Jesus story was abrupt , adding , " There was a lot of ground Family Guy didn 't tread that they wanted to " . L. Brent Bozell III of the Parents Television Council , a common critic of the show , took offense at this episode 's portrayal of Jesus . Bozell said " this lying , slacker Jesus is even dumber than Peter , the greatest idiot on animated television today . "
Seth MacFarlane was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for his role as Peter Griffin in this episode , MacFarlane was also nominated for an Annie Award for Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production or Short Form for his work in I Dream of Jesus but lost to Ahmed Best for his role as Jar Jar Binks in Robot Chicken : Star Wars Episode II . According to Seth MacFarlane , " I Dream of Jesus " was one of three episodes ( along with " Road to Germany " and " Family Gay " ) submitted for consideration for " Outstanding Comedy Series " in the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards in 2009 . He explained , " We picked three of our edgier shows as a choice . We figured if we are going to be damned , let 's be damned for what we really are . " The series was ultimately nominated for the award , the first time an animated series was nominated for the same category since the ABC sitcom The Flintstones in 1961 .
= William de Braose , 3rd Lord of Bramber =
William de Braose , 3rd Lord of Bramber ( fl . 1135 – 1179 ) was a 12th @-@ century Marcher lord who secured a foundation for the dominant position later held by the Braose family in the Welsh Marches . In addition to the family 's English holdings in Sussex and Devon , William had inherited Radnor and Builth , in Wales , from his father Philip . By his marriage he increased the Braose Welsh holdings to include Brecon and Abergavenny .
William remained loyal to King Stephen during the 12th @-@ century period of civil war . He became a trusted royal servant during the subsequent reign of Henry II , accompanying the king on campaigns in France and Ireland . He served as sheriff of Herefordshire from 1173 until 1175 . The family 's power reached its peak under his son William during the reigns of King Richard I and King John .
= = Lands and family = =
William was the eldest son of Philip de Braose , lord of Bramber . His mother was Aenor , daughter of Juhel of Totnes . He was the third in the line of the Anglo @-@ Norman Braose family founded by his grandfather , the first William de Braose . After his father died in the 1130s William inherited lordships , land and castles in Sussex , with his caput at Bramber . He also held Totnes in Devon and Radnor and Builth in the Welsh Marches . He confirmed the grants of his father and grandfather to the abbey of St Florent in Anjou and made further grants to the abbey 's dependent priory at Sele in Sussex . In about 1155 , he also inherited through his mother 's family one half of the honour of Barnstaple in Devon , paying a fee of 1000 marks for the privilege . William became an internationally recognised figure . When Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury was asked by Pope Adrian IV to inquire into the background of a certain Walter , canon of St Ruf , his reply , dated to 1154 / 9 read :
The facts which you demand need but little enquiry ; for they shine so brightly in themselves that they cannot be hid ; so great is the brilliance of his noble birth and the glory of all his kin . For Walter , as we know for a fact , was the son of a distinguished knight and born of a noble mother in lawful wedlock , and he is closely related by blood to the noble William de Braose .
William had married Bertha , daughter of Miles of Gloucester and Sibyl de Neufmarché , by 1150 . When each of Bertha 's four brothers died leaving no issue , William 's marriage became unexpectedly valuable . He gained control of the lordships of Brecon and Abergavenny after 1166 when the last brother died . These additional land holdings greatly expanded the territorial power and income of the Braose family . They now held a vast block of territory in the Welsh Marches as well as their extensive interests in Sussex and Devon . William 's daughters were able to make good marriages , notably Sibyl to William de Ferrers , Earl of Derby . Maud was married to John de Brompton of Shropshire . William 's son and heir , another William de Braose , became a major player in national politics under King John .
= = Royal service = =
Empress Maud , the only legitimate living child of Henry I , landed in England in 1139 in an attempt to press her claim to the monarchy . She was soon besieged by King Stephen 's forces at Arundel castle . Stephen allowed Maud a safe conduct to Bristol and provided her with an escort , which included William de Braose , suggesting that he was an adherent of King Stephen . William was present as a witness when three charters were issued by Stephen at Lewes dated to the years 1148 – 53 , therefore it appears that he remained loyal to the king until the Treaty of Wallingford ended the hostilities .
William was in Sussex in 1153 , but he followed Duke Henry , soon to become King Henry II , to Normandy in 1154 . William was frequently with the new king . He was one of the military leaders who supported Henry at Rhuddlan in 1157 . He witnessed one of the king 's charters at Romsey in 1158 , and he is recorded at the king 's court in Wiltshire in 1164 when the Constitutions of Clarendon were enacted . He accompanied the king on expedition to France , witnessing at Leons in 1161 and Chinon in 1162 . William is also documented on the Irish campaign at Dublin in 1171 and Wexford 1172 . William 's younger brother , Philip , also accompanied the king to Ireland , and remained with the garrison at Wexford . In 1177 Philip was granted the kingdom of Limerick by Henry but failed to take possession after the citizens set fire to the town .
When Henry was facing war with his sons in 1173 , William was appointed as sheriff of Herefordshire at Easter . He maintained the King 's interests in Herefordshire until 1175 .
= = Later life and death = =
King Henry withdrew his favour from the family after William 's son organised the murder of Seisyll ap Dyfnwal and other Welsh princes at Abergavenny in 1176 . There is little subsequent record of William in public life , and it is likely that he retired to his estates in Sussex . William died after 1179 and was succeeded by his son , William de Braose , 4th Lord of Bramber , who gained the favour of both King Richard I and King John and became a dominant force in the Welsh Marches during their reigns .
= Ontario Highway 148 =
King 's Highway 148 , commonly referred to as Highway 148 , is a provincially maintained highway in Ontario , Canada . The highway acts as an extension of Route 148 in Quebec , once connecting it with Highway 17 , the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , near Pembroke . It was shortened to its present terminus in 1997 , and now connects downtown Pembroke to the provincial border . Highway 148 follows a route that was once part of Highway 17 and Highway 62 until the Pembroke Bypass opened in 1982 .
The 7 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) route of Highway 148 takes it along the Ontario shoreline of the Ottawa River from the outskirts of Pembroke to the opposite shore as L 'Isle @-@ aux @-@ Allumettes , where it crosses the river into Quebec . The section of the highway within Pembroke is locally maintained under a Connecting Link agreement .
= = Route description = =
Highway 148 connects Pembroke to the Quebec border at L 'Isle @-@ aux @-@ Allumettes , a distance of 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) . It originally connected to Highway 17 west of Pembroke , and was 15 @.@ 1 km ( 9 @.@ 4 mi ) long . However , its length was truncated on April 1 , 1997 when the province downloaded responsibility for the portion from Highway 17 to Boundary Street . At that time , the connecting link status of Highway 148 through Pembroke itself was revised , and the current signed terminus of the highway is now Mackay Street , which was formerly Highway 41 . Approximately 11 @,@ 400 vehicles drive along Highway 148 on an average day , with just under half that many crossing from or into Quebec .
Provincial control of Highway 148 begins at the Pembroke boundary , approximately 60 m ( 200 ft ) northwest of Angus Campbell Drive . From there , the route travels southeast through the urban @-@ rural fringe of the city , passing east of two large shopping complexes . After passing west of the community of Pleasant View , the route enters a rural area and curves south alongside farmland .
At a four @-@ way stop with channelized right turn lanes , drivers must turn to remain on the highway . To the south is Renfrew County Road 40 , which continues to Highway 17 at the southern end of the Pembroke Bypass . Highway 148 continues east , crossing the Ottawa Valley Railway and the entrance to Hazley Bay before entering the community of Cotnam Island . The highway curves northeast and crosses the Ottawa River , entering Quebec midspan .
= = History = =
Highway 148 follows the route of what was the northernmost section of Highway 62 , prior to the opening of the Pembroke Bypass . Highway 17 was also signed concurrently with Highway 62 between Round Lake Road and Renfrew County Road 40 , as it followed the Ottawa River in the Pembroke area at that time . On September 10 , 1982 , the Pembroke Bypass was ceremoniously opened to traffic , diverting Highway 17 to the west . In the process , Highway 62 was truncated at the new bypass ; the removed section was redesignated Highway 148 , giving it the same number as the route in Quebec that it served to connect with the Trans @-@ Canada Highway . Highway 148 was 14 @.@ 4 km ( 8 @.@ 9 mi ) long . However , its length was truncated on April 1 , 1997 when the province downloaded responsibility for the portions between Highway 17 and Highway 41 to the Town of Pembroke and County of Renfrew . The Pembroke Connecting Link agreement shares the responsibility for Highway 41 northeast of Highway 17 and for Highway 148 from Highway 41 to Cedar Lane between the province and the town .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 148 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Renfrew County .
= The Boat Race 1887 =
The 44th Boat Race took place on 26 March 1887 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Umpired by Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd , Cambridge won the race by two and a half lengths after one of the Oxford crew snapping his oar in half . The winning time for the race was 20 minutes 52 seconds , and Cambridge 's victory took the overall record to 23 – 20 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide.Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race by two @-@ thirds of a length , while Oxford held the overall lead , with 23 victories to Cambridge 's 19 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
The coaches for Cambridge were Donaldson , Charles William Moore ( who represented Cambridge in the 1881 , 1882 , 1883 and 1884 races ) and Herbert Edward Rhodes ( who rowed in the 1873 , 1874 , 1875 and 1876 races ) . Oxford 's coaches were Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss ( who rowed for the Dark Blues four times between the 1875 and the 1878 races ) , R. S. Kindersley ( who rowed three times for Oxford between 1880 and 1882 ) and A. R. Paterson ( four @-@ time Blue for Oxford between 1881 and 1884 ) .
The umpire for the race was Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd ( who had rowed for Cambridge four times between 1856 and 1859 ) .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 3 @.@ 5 lb ( 77 @.@ 6 kg ) , 4 @.@ 25 pounds ( 1 @.@ 9 kg ) more than their opponents . Oxford initially had just two Blues available to them in the Oxford University Boat Club president F. O. Wethered and Hector McLean , yet the latter 's brother Douglas was persuaded to return for his fifth Boat Race appearance , three weeks before the race following his return from India . Five of Cambridge 's crew had Boat Race experience , including the only non @-@ British participant , Australian Steve Fairbairn in his fourth race .
= = Race = =
The weather for the race was good , as was the tide , but a strong breeze made for some rough water . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Making the better start of the two crews , Cambridge were a length ahead by Walden 's Wharf and had extended that by another half @-@ length by the time they passed the Crab Tree pub . Oxford came back into contention and by the time the crews shot Hammersmith Bridge there was " little or no daylight between the boats . " The other side of the bridge the crews hit rough water and as Cambridge had the advantage of shelter on their side of the river , they pulled away quickly to be three lengths clear by Chiswick . As the bend of the river began to favour the Dark Blues , they drew up once again and were almost level by Barnes Bridge when their number seven Douglas McLean broke his oar in two , effectively ending his participation in the race . Cambridge pulled away again and won by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 52 seconds . It was their second consecutive victory and their fastest time since the 1876 race . The win took the overall record to 23 – 20 in Oxford 's favour .
= Battle of Labuan =
The Battle of Labuan was an engagement fought between Allied and Japanese forces on the island of Labuan off Borneo during June 1945 . It formed part of the Australian invasion of North Borneo , and was initiated by the Allied forces as part of a plan to capture the Brunei Bay area and develop it into a base to support future offensives .
Following several weeks of air attacks and a short naval bombardment , soldiers of the Australian 24th Brigade were landed on Labuan from American and Australian ships on 10 June . The Australians quickly captured the island 's harbour and main airfield . The greatly outnumbered Japanese garrison was mainly concentrated in a fortified position in the interior of Labuan , and offered little resistance to the landing . The initial Australian attempts to penetrate the Japanese position in the days after the invasion were not successful , and the area was subjected to a heavy bombardment . A Japanese raiding force also attempted to attack Allied positions on 21 June , but was defeated . Later that day , Australian forces assaulted the Japanese position . In the following days , Australian patrols killed or captured the remaining Japanese troops on the island . A total of 389 Japanese personnel were killed on Labuan and 11 were captured . Australian casualties included 34 killed .
After securing the island , the Allied forces developed Labuan into a significant base . The 24th Brigade left from the island to capture the eastern shore of Brunei Bay in late June , and the island 's airfield was repaired and expanded to host Royal Australian Air Force units . While occupying Labuan , the Allies had to reconstruct the island 's infrastructure and provide assistance to thousands of civilians who had been rendered homeless by the pre @-@ invasion bombardment . Following the war , a major Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery was established on Labuan .
= = Background = =
Labuan is a small island in the mouth of Brunei Bay with an area of 35 square miles ( 91 km2 ) . Before the Pacific War , it formed part of the British @-@ administered Straits Settlements and had a population of 8 @,@ 960 . The island had a town , Victoria , on its south coast which fronted onto Victoria Harbour , with a population of 8 @,@ 500 and limited port facilities . Aside from a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) beach just to the east of Victoria , the coast was ringed by coral .
On 3 January 1942 , Japanese forces captured Labuan unopposed during the Battle of Borneo . The Japanese developed two airfields ( Labuan and Timbalai ) on the island , which were built by labourers who had been conscripted from the Lawas and Terusan regions of mainland Borneo . The island population was also subjected to harsh occupation policies . After Japanese forces suppressed a revolt at the town of Jesselton in late 1943 , which was led by Chinese @-@ ethnic civilians , 131 of the rebels were held on Labuan . Only nine rebels survived to be liberated by Australian forces in 1944 . Until mid @-@ 1944 , few Japanese combat units were stationed in Borneo .
In March 1945 the Australian Army 's I Corps , whose main combat elements were the veteran 7th and 9th Divisions , was assigned responsibility for liberating Borneo . Planning for the offensive was undertaken over the following weeks . While invading the Brunei Bay area did not form part of the initial iteration of the plans , it was added in early April after a proposed landing on Java was cancelled . The main purpose of attacking Brunei Bay was to secure it as a base for the British Pacific Fleet ( BPF ) , and gain control of oil fields and rubber plantations in the area . Labuan was to be developed as an air base and form part of a string of strategic positions which would allow the Allies to control the seas off the Japanese @-@ occupied coast between Singapore and Shanghai .
While the liberation of the Brunei area had been authorised by the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff , it was not supported by the British Chiefs of Staff Committee . The British leadership did not want the BPF to be diverted from the main theatre of operations off Japan and preferred to establish a base for the fleet in the Philippines . In response to a suggestion from the Joint Chiefs of Staff that Brunei Bay could support future operations in south @-@ east Asia , the Chiefs of Staff Committee judged that it would take too long to establish facilities there , especially as Singapore might have been recaptured by the time they were complete .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Allied planning = = =
The plans for the invasion of Borneo evolved considerably during April . Initially , the offensive was to commence on 23 April with the landing of a brigade from the 6th Division on the island of Tarakan , off the east coast of Borneo . The 9th Division would then assault Balikpapan followed by Banjarmasin in south @-@ east Borneo . These positions would be used to support the invasion of Java by the remainder of I Corps . After the attack on Java was cancelled , it was decided to employ two brigades of the 7th Division at Brunei Bay , and I Corps conducted further preparations on this basis . However , on 17 April General Douglas MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( to which I Corps reported ) swapped the roles of the 7th and 9th Divisions . Accordingly , the final plan for the attack against Borneo specified that one of the 9th Division 's brigades would land on Tarakan island on 29 April ( later postponed to 1 May ) , with the remainder of the division to invade the Brunei Bay area on 23 May . The 7th Division was scheduled to assault Balikpapan on 1 July . The Borneo campaign was designated the " Oboe " phase of the Allied offensive through the southern Philippines towards the Netherlands East Indies , and the landings at Tarakan , Brunei Bay and Balikpapan were designated Operations Oboe One , Six and Two respectively .
The 9th Division began to move from Australia to the island of Morotai in the Netherlands East Indies , where the Borneo campaign would be staged , in March 1945 . The division had seen extensive combat in North Africa and New Guinea , and its officers and enlisted men were well trained for amphibious operations and jungle warfare . However , the 9th Division had been out of action since early 1944 , leading to poor morale among its combat units . A large number of support , logistics and Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) units were assigned to the division for the operations at Brunei Bay , taking its strength to over 29 @,@ 000 personnel ( including 1 @,@ 097 in United States and British units ) .
Final preparations for the landings in the Brunei Bay area took place in May 1945 . After shortages of shipping delayed I Corps ' movement from Australia to Morotai , General Headquarters agreed on 8 May to reschedule the operation from 23 May to 10 June . The 9th Division 's staff completed their plans for operations in the Brunei Bay area on 16 May . The 24th Brigade Group was assigned responsibility for capturing Labuan , and the 20th Brigade Group was tasked with securing Brunei and Muara Island . Both brigades were to land simultaneously on the morning of 10 June . The invasion of the Brunei Bay region was to be preceded by attacks on Japanese bases and transport infrastructure across western and northern Borneo by United States and Australian air units , as well as three days of minesweeping operations in the bay itself .
The 24th Brigade Group was commanded by Brigadier Selwyn Porter . His main combat units for operations on Labuan were the 2 / 28th and 2 / 43rd Battalions , the 2 / 11th Commando Squadron and the 2 / 12th Field Regiment . In addition , a squadron from the 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment ( equipped with Matilda II tanks ) , a company of the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion and a range of engineer , signals and logistics units formed part of the brigade group . A party of 13 officers from the British Borneo Civil Affairs Unit ( BBCAU ) was also attached to the 24th Brigade and were tasked with restoring the colonial government on the island and distributing supplies to its civilian population . The 24th Brigade 's third infantry battalion , the 2 / 32nd Battalion , was assigned to the 9th Division 's reserve force . Porter and the 2 / 28th Battalion 's commander , Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Norman , had a difficult relationship which generated ill @-@ feeling between the two men and their respective headquarters . Porter considered relieving Norman of command before the landing on Labuan in the belief that he was exhausted and not capable of effectively leading his battalion , but decided against doing so after Norman made an emotional appeal to remain in his position .
The plans for the capture of Labuan specified that the 24th Brigade Group 's two infantry battalions were to land simultaneously on the beach near Victoria ( designated Brown Beach ) at 9 : 15 am , with the 2 / 28th Battalion coming ashore on the western side of the beach and the 2 / 43rd to the east . The 2 / 11th Commando Squadron was to be initially held in reserve on board the invasion fleet . The brigade group 's objectives were to secure a beachhead , capture the main airfield ( located north of Victoria and designated " No. 1 Strip " by the Australians ) , destroy the Japanese garrison , and prepare for further operations on the eastern shore of Brunei Bay . Priority was given to rapidly opening the port and airfield so that they could be used to support other operations .
Porter expected that fighting for the main objectives would begin soon after the landing , and decided to begin landing his artillery and heavy mortars with the assault waves of infantrymen , just before the tanks came ashore . The 2 / 28th Battalion was initially assigned responsibility for securing Victoria and Flagstaff Hill to its north , while the 2 / 43rd Battalion was tasked with capturing the airfield . Once these areas were in Australian hands , the 2 / 28th Battalion would secure the western part of the island while the 2 / 11th Commando Squadron captured the western shore of Victoria Harbour . Due to the Australian Army 's manpower shortages , all elements of the 9th Division were under orders to minimise their casualties during the Borneo Campaign and unit commanders would rely heavily upon the available air and artillery support during operations . The Australians estimated that the Japanese garrison on Labuan comprised 650 personnel , made up of 400 airfield troops , 100 naval troops and 150 other lines @-@ of @-@ communications personnel .
= = = Japanese preparations = = =
As the Allies advanced towards Borneo , additional units were dispatched from Japan during the second half of 1944 and the 37th Army was established in September to coordinate the island 's defence . In December 1944 , Japanese staff officers deduced that it was likely that Australian troops would be landed at strategic points on the east and west coasts of Borneo in about March the next year ( by which time they also expected United States forces to have liberated the Philippines ) . Accordingly , several Japanese units stationed in north @-@ east Borneo were ordered to march to the western side of Borneo . This movement proceeded slowly , owing to the distances involved and disruptions caused by Allied air attacks .
By June 1945 around 550 Japanese military personnel were stationed on Labuan . The main unit on the island was the 371st Independent Infantry Battalion ( almost in its entirety , save for one company located elsewhere ) with a strength of around 350 . This battalion formed part of the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade , which had arrived at Tawao in north @-@ east Borneo from Japan in July 1944 with six infantry battalions . During early 1945 the brigade headquarters , 371st Independent Infantry Battalion and three other battalions marched across the island to assume responsibility for defending the Brunei Bay area . Many of the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade 's soldiers fell sick during the march , and all four combat battalions were considerably below their authorised strength by the time they arrived at Brunei Bay . In June 1945 the 371st Independent Infantry Battalion was commanded by Captain Shichiro Okuyama . A detachment of about 50 men from the 111th Airfield Battalion was also on Labuan , along with around 150 men assigned to other small units . In line with Japanese doctrine , the Labuan garrison did not make preparations to contest the Allied landing force as it came ashore . Instead , it constructed defensive positions inland from the island 's beaches . Documents captured by Australian soldiers during the fighting on Labuan indicated that Okuyama had instructions to attempt to withdraw his force from the island if the battle went against him .
= = Battle = =
= = = Pre @-@ invasion operations = = =
Australian and United States air units began their pre @-@ invasion attacks on north Borneo in late May . The first attack on the Brunei Bay area took place on 3 May , and included a raid targeting the town of Victoria on Labuan . A large number of further attacks were conducted to suppress Japanese airfields and other facilities throughout north @-@ western and north @-@ eastern Borneo . The plans for the invasion of Brunei Bay had specified that the landings would be supported by aircraft based at Tarakan , but delays in rebuilding the airfield there rendered this impossible and reduced the scale of the pre @-@ invasion bombardment .
United States Navy minesweepers commenced operations in Brunei Bay on 7 June , and a flotilla of four cruisers and seven destroyers ( including an Australian light cruiser and destroyer ) served as a covering force . The minesweeping operation was successful , though USS Salute struck a mine on 8 June and sank with the loss of four lives . Underwater demolition teams investigated all of the landing beaches on 9 June searching for obstacles which could impede the landing craft . The teams assigned to clear obstacles off Labuan were endangered by an unauthorised attack on the island conducted by a force of American B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers . Following the landings on 10 June , American Thirteenth Air Force aircraft flying from a base on Palawan Island in the Philippines provided close air support for the forces on Labuan until RAAF units based on the island were ready to take over .
The Australian Services Reconnaissance Department ( SRD ) also collected intelligence on Labuan and other parts of the Brunei Bay area during May . On the first of the month several RAAF PBY Catalina aircraft carrying SRD personnel overflew Labuan . These aircraft later landed near two native prahu and questioned their crews ; two sailors were flown back to an Allied base for further questioning . On 15 May two Malays working for the SRD were landed in Brunei Bay by a Catalina , and sailed to Labuan on board a prahu . These agents recruited a local civilian from Labuan , and the party was extracted by a Catalina near the mainland village of Kampong Mengalong on 19 May . The intelligence gained from these operations provided the Australians with a good understanding of Labuan 's geography and infrastructure . In addition , civilians who had been recruited by the SRD 's SEMUT 2 team ( which had been parachuted into Borneo during April ) provided intelligence on the size and movements of Labuan 's garrison force .
During the last days of May the 9th Division embarked at Morotai onto the ships which would transport it to Brunei Bay , and undertook rehearsals for the landing . Due to a shortage of shipping , the available vessels were heavily loaded and many soldiers were forced to endure cramped and hot conditions during the ten days before the landing . Australian official historian Gavin Long later wrote that for many troops these conditions " were as uncomfortable as any of the experiences that followed " during the campaign . The 24th Brigade Group was carried by a variety of landing ships : the two large Australian LSIs HMAS Manoora and Westralia , as well the attack cargo ship USS Titania , LSD USS Carter Hall , ten LSTs , five LCIs and seven LSMs from the United States Navy . A total of 38 small LCVPs and 26 LCMs were also assigned to land the brigade once it arrived off Labuan . Due to the coral reefs surrounding the island , the assault waves landed in LVTs of the US Army 's 727th Amphibious Tractor Battalion . The convoy carrying the 9th Division left Morotai on 4 June and arrived in Brunei Bay before dawn on 10 June . The main body of the convoy anchored off Labuan , and the remainder proceeded to the Brunei area . A Japanese aircraft dropped a bomb near two of the transport ships off Labuan at 6 : 51 am , but caused no damage .
= = = Landing = = =
The landing of the assault troops at Labuan went well . The Allied fleet began bombarding the landing area from 8 : 15 am , and seven Australian B @-@ 24 Liberators dropped anti @-@ personnel bombs in the area behind the intended beachhead . No Japanese forces opposed the two battalions ' assault forces as they came ashore in LVTs , and the landing of later waves of infantry and tanks went smoothly . The 2 / 43rd Battalion rapidly advanced north and captured No. 1 Strip in the evening of 10 June . Some Japanese soldiers attempted to defend the airfield area , and the 2 / 43rd Battalion claimed to have killed 23 Japanese for the loss of four Australians wounded .
A company from the 2 / 28th Battalion captured Victoria shortly after coming ashore , and the battalion first met opposition at Flagstaff Hill at 10 : 45 am . One of the battalion 's companies subsequently captured the hill , while its other companies continued to advance . The 2 / 28th Battalion encountered increasing opposition as the day progressed , particularly to the west of its area of responsibility . During the afternoon of 10 June the battalion engaged Japanese troops in the area west of Flagstaff Hill ( at the junction of Callaghan and MacArthur Roads ) , with the infantrymen being supported by tanks and mortars ; the Australians counted 18 Japanese dead by the end of the day , and suffered several fatalities and men wounded in this fighting . After civilians reported that no Japanese were stationed on the Hamilton peninsula which formed the western side of Victoria Harbour , a troop from the 2 / 11th Commando Squadron was landed in the area during 10 June and secured it without opposition .
During the afternoon of 10 June a group of senior officers , including General Douglas MacArthur , his air commander General George Kenney , and Australians Lieutenant General Morshead and Air Vice Marshal William Bostock ( head of RAAF Command ) , made an inspection tour of the Labuan beachhead . MacArthur insisted on seeing Australian soldiers in action , and the party visited a group of front line infantrymen before departing . The process of unloading supplies from the invasion fleet during 10 June proceeded quickly , and the ships began to depart for Morotai during the afternoon of 11 June .
The 24th Brigade 's goal for 11 June was to secure the airfield area . The 2 / 43rd Battalion patrolled to the north and west of the airfield during the day , meeting only light opposition . In contrast , the 2 / 28th Battalion ( which was tasked with advancing into Labuan 's interior ) encountered entrenched Japanese forces , and it became clear that it was facing the main body of the island 's garrison . Norman manoeuvred his companies to push the Japanese back , but the rate of advance was slow . The airfield engineers of No. 62 Wing RAAF were also landed during 11 June to begin work on returning No. 1 Strip to service ; reconstruction of the airfield began the next day .
On the basis of the fighting on 11 June , Porter judged that the Japanese were withdrawing into a stronghold position located to the north of Victoria and about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to the west of the airfield . On 12 June he directed the two battalions to patrol around the stronghold area . The 2 / 43rd Battalion patrolled the interior of Labuan to the west of No. 1 Strip , but located only a single Japanese position . This position was attacked and destroyed that day by the 2 / 43rd Battalion 's C Company supported by three tanks . The 2 / 28th Battalion sent patrols towards the stronghold area , with a company supported by a tank troop meeting heavy resistance as it pushed westwards along a track towards MacArthur Road . The 2 / 11th Commando Squadron also advanced north , and linked up with elements of the 2 / 43rd Battalion near the centre of Labuan during the late afternoon . The 371st Independent Infantry Battalion 's main radio was destroyed during an air attack on 12 June , cutting the unit off from the 37th Army 's headquarters . As a result of the patrolling , by the end of 12 June the location of the Japanese position was fairly well known to the Australian force . The 24th Brigade 's casualties to this point in the battle were 18 killed and 42 wounded , and the Australians believed that at least 110 Japanese had been killed . The 2 / 32nd Battalion was also landed on Labuan during 12 June , but remained in divisional reserve .
On 13 and 14 June the 24th Brigade Group continued operations aimed at forcing the Japanese garrison into the stronghold — dubbed " the Pocket " by the Australians . The 2 / 43rd Battalion secured the emergency airstrip at Timbalai on Labuan 's west coast on 13 June , and elements of the 2 / 28th Battalion continued to push west into the Pocket along MacArthur Road . A company from the 2 / 28th Battalion made another attack into the Pocket the next day after the 2 / 12th Field Regiment had fired 250 rounds into the area , but was forced to withdraw after being unable to overcome heavy resistance . By the conclusion of 14 June the Australians judged that , aside from the Pocket , the island was now secure . Porter assessed that an attack on this position would need to be made in strength using well @-@ coordinated forces .
Following the landing the BBCAU detachment and 24th Brigade were faced with a significant humanitarian challenge . The Allied air and naval attacks had destroyed almost all of the buildings on Labuan , rendering large numbers of civilians homeless . Within days of the invasion , about 3 @,@ 000 civilians were housed in a compound within the beachhead . The BBCAU party were unable to assist so many civilians , and the 24th Brigade needed to assign soldiers to support them and transport supplies .
= = = Destruction of the Japanese garrison = = =
The Japanese stronghold position was about 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) long from north to south , and 600 yards ( 550 m ) wide . The terrain within this area comprised a series of small jungle @-@ covered ridges , and the position was bordered on the western and southern sides by swamps . The main terrain features within the Pocket were three areas of high ground named Lushington Ridge , Norman Ridge and Lyon Ridge by the Australians . There were only two feasible routes into the area . The first was a track which led south into the position along Lyon Ridge and Norman Ridge ; this was passable by tanks but heavily mined . The other route was a track which ran into the eastern side of the Pocket from MacArthur Road along Lushington Ridge and joined the other track at Norman Ridge . It is likely that around 250 Japanese personnel were initially stationed within the Pocket .
In order to minimise the casualties to his brigade , Porter decided to isolate the Pocket with two infantry companies while a heavy artillery barrage was fired into the area over several days . An attempt to capture the Pocket would only be made once it was judged that the Japanese were no longer capable of resisting effectively . As part of this plan , the 2 / 12th Field Regiment eventually fired 140 tons of shells into the Pocket between 15 and 20 June .
The 2 / 28th Battalion probed into the Pocket on 16 June . The previous day a 2 / 11th Commando Squadron patrol had reported that the track along Lyon Ridge would be passable by tanks if a bomb crater was filled , and on the morning of the 16th A Company from the 2 / 28th Battalion accompanied by a troop of three tanks and a bulldozer began to move south along it . After the bulldozer filled the crater , the force continued along Lyon Ridge but became pinned down by heavy fire from Japanese troops on Eastman Spur to the south @-@ east of the ridge . One of the Australian tanks was damaged . A subsequent attempt by a section from the 2 / 11th Commando Squadron to advance towards Eastman Spur to the east of A Company was also beaten back , with two Australians killed and another wounded . A Company resumed its advance during the afternoon , supported by a new troop of tanks . The three tanks moved ahead of the infantry , and killed eight or ten Japanese personnel , but one was damaged by a bomb and another became bogged . By the end of the day , A Company had suffered five men killed and 23 wounded . Overall , 150 patients were admitted by the 24th Brigade 's attached medical units during 16 June , which stretched their capacity .
Due to the losses his brigade suffered on 16 June , Porter decided to continue the bombardment before undertaking further attacks . On 18 and 19 June the bombardment of the Pocket was intensified when the heavy cruiser HMAS Shropshire fired into the area . Infantrymen supported by tanks conducted another probe into the Pocket on 19 June , and killed 1 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
91 . The redevelopment of the Main Stand was partially financed by a Football Trust grant of £ 2 million and a debenture issue that raised £ 8 @.@ 5 million . Ordinary fans bought debentures for between £ 1 @,@ 000 and £ 1 @,@ 650 each , which guaranteed the right to buy season tickets for at least 30 years , along with some other minor benefits .
Four columns were built through the existing Main Stand to support the Club Deck , which resulted in approximately 1 @,@ 000 seats having a restricted view . After opening the Club Deck , Ibrox had a capacity of 44 @,@ 500 . When a new playing surface was installed in 1992 , Rangers were able to add a further 1 @,@ 300 seats to the front of three stands by lowering the pitch slightly . The only standing area of the ground , the enclosure of the Main Stand , was seated in 1994 to comply with the Taylor Report and UEFA regulations . The multi @-@ coloured seats were replaced in 1995 with uniform blue seats . A further 1 @,@ 200 seats was added in this process by reconfiguring passageways , giving a total capacity of 47 @,@ 998 .
The two spaces between the Govan , Copland and Broomloan Stands were filled in with seats and Jumbotron screens . The ground was officially renamed Ibrox Stadium after renovations were completed in 1997 , when Ibrox had a capacity of just over 50 @,@ 000 . Three rows of seating were added to the front of the Govan Stand upper tier in 2006 , linked to a new ' Bar 72 ' area , increasing the capacity to its present figure of 50 @,@ 947 . The Main Stand was renamed the Bill Struth Main Stand in September 2006 , to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his death . The Jumbotron screens were replaced in 2011 .
Rangers became insolvent in February 2012 and was unable to reach a company voluntary arrangement with its creditors , principally HM Revenue and Customs . Ibrox Stadium , along with the business and other assets of Rangers , was sold in June 2012 to a new company run by Charles Green . The new company obtained the SFA membership of the old Rangers FC company and gained entry to the Scottish Football League Third Division .
On 16 July 2014 the club paid a lasting tribute to Sandy Jardine by renaming the Govan Stand in his honour .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The Ibrox pitch is surrounded by four covered all @-@ seater stands , officially known as the Bill Struth Main ( south ) , Broomloan Road ( west ) , Sandy Jardine ( north ) and Copland Road ( east ) Stands . Each stand has two tiers , with the exception of the Bill Struth Main Stand , which has had three tiers since the Club Deck was added in 1991 . The two corner areas , known as the West and East areas of the Sandy Jardine Stand , have one tier of seating below a JumboTron screen .
The Bill Struth Main Stand , formerly known as the Main Stand , faces onto Edmiston Drive ( A8 road ) . The red @-@ brick facade , designed by Archibald Leitch , is a Category B listed building . Simon Inglis , writing in 1996 , described it as an " imposing red @-@ brick facade , with its mock neo @-@ classical arched , square and pedimented windows , exudes prestige and power . " On each end wall the club crest is depicted in a blue and gold mosaic . Stairtowers leading to the Club Deck ( third tier ) stand at each end of the Main Stand . These towers are also framed in red @-@ brick , but deliberately contrast with the main body of the stand . The two stairtowers also support a 146 @-@ metre ( 479 ft ) long and 540 @-@ tonne ( 530 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 600 @-@ short @-@ ton ) truss , which claimed to be the longest and heaviest clear span girder in the world .
Through the main doors of the Main Stand is a wood @-@ panelled hallway . A staircase leads to the boardroom and trophy room . Inglis compared Ibrox to Highbury , in that it combined corporate power with a sense of tradition and solidity . It was originally constructed as a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stand above a standing enclosure . It was redeveloped in the early 1990s with the addition of the Club Deck and seating in the enclosure . It is now a three @-@ tier all @-@ seated structure , accommodating approximately 21 @,@ 000 spectators . The front wall of the middle tier is one of the last surviving examples of the Leitch style of criss @-@ cross detailing . The middle tier is split into front and rear sections , while the enclosure is split into east and west sections , either side of the retractable tunnel cover .
Opposite the Bill Struth Main Stand is the Sandy Jardine Stand formerly known as the Govan Stand . It is a two @-@ tier stand , similar in style to the two end stands , which was completed in 1981 . To the rear of the Govan Stand is the Argyle House extension , completed in 1990 , which provides executive boxes , hospitality areas and office space . The Bar 72 area was added to the rear section of the Govan Stand in 2006 . The Copland Road Stand , at the east end of the stadium , was completed in 1979 and now accommodates just over 8 @,@ 000 fans . It is traditionally the ' Rangers end ' of the ground and the team normally chooses to attack that end in the second half of matches . The western Broomloan Road Stand , which was completed in 1980 , is identical to the opposite end . Although constructed as separate structures , the three stands have been linked since the mid @-@ 1990s , when two additional areas of seating were added to the corner areas . All of the stands are designed using the ' goalpost ' structure , in which a large portal frame supports perpendicular beams on which roof cladding is secured . A Rangers Megastore is located in the corner between the Copland Road and Govan Stands .
Away fans are normally accommodated in the corner of the ground between the Broomloan and Govan Stands . For bigger games , such as the Old Firm derbies , the whole of the Broomloan Stand can be used by the away support . Ibrox is seen as being an intimidating ground for visiting supporters . Rangers banned Celtic fans in 1994 from attending games at Ibrox , citing the damage caused to the Broomloan Stand by the visitors in previous derbies . The ban was lifted after one game , as the Scottish Football League passed a resolution preventing clubs from taking that action . Before the corners were filled in , away fans were accommodated in the lower tier of the Broomloan Stand . Rangers had to take action in 1996 to prevent their fans in the upper deck from throwing items at visitors .
= = Future developments = =
Since the redevelopments to Celtic Park and Hampden Park were completed in the late 1990s , Ibrox has had the smallest capacity of the three major stadiums in Glasgow . Rangers have since explored options to increase capacity . After opening the Bar 72 area in 2006 , chief executive Martin Bain said that the scheme could be replicated in the Copland Stand . A report in the Daily Record in April 2007 claimed that Rangers were planning to increase capacity to 57 @,@ 000 , principally by removing the JumboTron screens and lowering the pitch to accommodate more seating . These plans were said to be dependent for finance upon improved performance by the team . In January 2008 , Rangers announced that they were investigating three options to further develop Ibrox . One of the proposals would have resulted in a capacity of 70 @,@ 000 , by replacing three of the stands with a bowl @-@ type structure . These plans were shelved by October 2008 , however , due to the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis .
Alongside changes to the stadium itself , Rangers have also sought to develop land around Ibrox . In partnership with the Las Vegas Sands corporation , the club received outline planning permission from Glasgow City Council for the development of land adjoining Ibrox as the home of a super casino . The casino was planned to be accompanied by a Rangers @-@ themed leisure complex . Britain 's Casino Advisory Panel reviewed bids from eight short @-@ listed cities , including Glasgow , and in 2007 awarded the first licence to Manchester . There is no immediate prospect of the Ibrox proposal being resurrected , as Gordon Brown dropped the plans for super casinos soon after becoming Prime Minister . Rangers were given approval by Glasgow City Council in October 2008 to purchase land around Ibrox and redevelop the area with hotel and retail outlets . This scheme stalled , however , as regulations constrained what could be built in the area .
= = Other uses = =
= = = Football = = =
Ibrox has been a home venue for the Scotland national football team 18 times , the third most of any ground . The first Ibrox Park ( 1887 – 99 ) hosted three internationals , giving an overall Ibrox total of 21 . The ground most recently hosted a Scotland game in October 2014 , when Hampden Park was unavailable due to its temporary conversion to hold athletics in the 2014 Commonwealth Games . Ibrox hosted several internationals during the 1990s , particularly when Hampden was being redeveloped . Hampden was redeveloped in two phases . Ibrox hosted four Scotland games in the first phase , starting with a 1994 World Cup qualifier against Portugal in October 1992 . It was not a happy interlude for Scotland fans , however , as the team failed to qualify for the World Cup for the first time since 1970 . Although the attendances at Ibrox were higher than at Hampden , some fans resented the fact that they were helping the finances of Rangers . Fans also complained that the ticket prices were too high . During the second period of redevelopment , however , Scotland won an important 1998 World Cup qualifier against Sweden at Ibrox .
During these periods of redevelopment to Hampden , Ibrox also hosted the 1997 Scottish Cup Final and the 1994 and 1997 Scottish League Cup Finals . Ibrox was on the approved UEFA list to host major European finals in the 1990s , but it lost out in a bid to host the 1996 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup Final because a convention threatened a shortage of hotel rooms in Glasgow . Ibrox continues to hold the top UEFA rating , but the Scottish Football Association put forward the redeveloped Hampden for European finals in the 2000s .
= = = Non @-@ football = = =
King George V visited Ibrox Park in 1917 , to thank Rangers for its efforts in the First World War . His son , King George VI , opened the 1938 Empire Exhibition with a speech at Ibrox . This was used as source material by Colin Firth for his performance in The King 's Speech movie . Ibrox has been used for concerts , including performances by Simple Minds ( 1986 x2 ) , Frank Sinatra ( 1990 ) , Rod Stewart ( 1995 ) , Elton John and Billy Joel ( 1998 ) .
In June 1980 , Ibrox hosted a world championship boxing match between Jim Watt and Howard Davis . Ibrox hosted the rugby sevens event at the 2014 Commonwealth Games , won by South Africa . There was a total attendance of 171 @,@ 000 for the four sessions of play , which set a new record for a rugby sevens tournament .
The stadium has also hosted the 1983 Centenary Celebrations of The Boys ' Brigade .
= = Transport = =
The main railway stations in Glasgow , Central and Queen Street , are both approximately two miles from Ibrox . The Ibrox and Cessnock stations on the Glasgow Subway both serve Ibrox . It is also served by First Glasgow buses on Paisley Road West . Ibrox sits near to the M8 motorway , with junction 23 being the closest exit , but the roads around Ibrox become congested on matchdays .
= Eliurus petteri =
Eliurus petteri is a rodent in the genus Eliurus found in lowland eastern Madagascar . First described in 1994 , it is most closely related to the smaller Eliurus grandidieri . Virtually nothing is known of its natural history , except that it occurs in rainforest and is nocturnal and solitary . It is threatened by destruction and fragmentation of its habitat and is listed as " Vulnerable " on the IUCN Red List .
With a head and body length of 130 to 136 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 4 in ) , Eliurus petteri is a moderately large species of Eliurus . Its upperparts are gray @-@ brown to gray and contrast sharply with the white underparts . The tail tuft , a characteristic feature of Eliurus , is weakly developed . The skull is delicate and the incisive foramina ( openings in the front part of the palate ) are short and narrow . The incisors are weak .
= = Taxonomy = =
Eliurus petteri was first described in 1994 by American zoologist Michael Carleton as part of a revision of the genus Eliurus . Carleton had only three specimens of the new species , which had been collected in 1929 , 1956 , and 1963 in close proximity in an area of eastern Madagascar . The specific name honors French biologist François Petter , who has contributed to the scientific study of the nesomyines . In 1998 , Carleton and Steven Goodman described a related species , Eliurus grandidieri , from the Northern Highlands of Madagascar . Surprisingly , DNA sequence data suggest that this species is more closely related to Voalavo gymnocaudus than to other species of Eliurus ; however , E. petteri has not been studied genetically . Carleton and Goodman reported additional occurrences of E. petteri ( though within the same general area ) in 2007 , and formally recognized the " Eliurus petteri group " ( including E. grandidieri and E. petteri ) as one of five species groups within the genus .
The common names " Petter 's Tuft @-@ tailed Rat " and " Petter 's Tufted @-@ tailed Rat " have been used for this species . It is now one of twelve species recognized within Eliurus , the most diverse and widespread genus of the native Malagasy rodents ( subfamily Nesomyinae ) .
= = Description = =
Eliurus petteri is a fairly large , long @-@ tailed species of Eliurus that resembles a smaller version of Eliurus webbi . It is larger than the closely related E. grandidieri . The fur is soft and fine . The upperparts appear gray @-@ brown to gray in overall color ; individual hairs are light gray for most of their length , then pale buff , and dark brown to black at the tip . Dark guard hairs — longer hairs projecting above the main fur — are present , but relatively short . The underparts are entirely white , a feature unique for the genus ; even E. grandidieri has dark gray underparts . The transition between the coloration of the upper- and underparts is sharp . The mystacial vibrissae ( whiskers on the upper lip ) are 50 to 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) long and extend beyond the ears when pressed against the head . In some specimens , the eyes are surrounded by a dark ring . The pinnae ( external ears ) are dark and appear naked , but are covered by fine brown fur on the outer and by white hairs on the inner surface . The forefeet are entirely white above , but a narrow dark streak is present on the hindfeet . The skin of the tail is dark , sometimes with some white spots on the lower side . Although the tail appears mostly naked , it is covered with inconspicuous hairs . The tail tuft — characteristic of the genus Eliurus — is weakly developed and consists of light brown to grayish brown hairs along the 25 to 30 % of the tail closest to the tip .
The skull looks delicate . The interorbital region ( between the eyes ) is narrow and hourglass @-@ shaped , and the braincase is smooth ; both lack conspicuously developed ridges and shelves . The zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) are poorly developed . The incisive foramina ( openings in the front part of the palate ) are short and narrow . The bony palate ends at the level of the back of the third upper molars . The alisphenoid strut ( a piece of bone at the back of the skull separating two foramina , or openings ) is absent . The strut is present in most Eliurus , but absent in some specimens of E. grandidieri . The subsquamosal fenestrae ( openings in the squamosal bone ) are fairly large . The auditory bullae are small . The incisors are weak and the enamel on the upper incisors is yellow to light orange . The root of the lower incisor does not project into a distinct capsular process at the back of the mandible ( lower jaw ) , a feature shared only with E. grandidieri among species of Eliurus .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Eliurus petteri is known only from a limited area in the foothills of eastern Madagascar ( Toamasina Province ) , where it occurs from 450 to 1 @,@ 145 m ( 1 @,@ 476 to 3 @,@ 757 ft ) above sea level . It occurs in close proximity with E. minor , E. tanala , and E. webbi , and is probably sympatric with them . Information on the natural history of E. petteri is extremely limited . It occurs in lowland rainforest and is probably arboreal or scansorial ( climbing in vegetation ) . It is nocturnal and solitary and may eat fruits , seeds , and insects . The weak incisors suggest to Carleton that it eats more " indurate " fruits and insects than other Eliurus .
= = Conservation status = =
Destruction and fragmentation of its habitat are major threats to Eliurus petteri , which is not known to occur in any protected area . Furthermore , it may be vulnerable to plague transmitted by introduced rodents . Accordingly , it is classified as " Vulnerable " on the IUCN Red List .
= 1985 – 86 Calgary Flames season =
The 1985 – 86 Calgary Flames season was the sixth season in Calgary and 14th for the Flames franchise in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . It was a banner season for the Flames , who overcame a franchise record eleven game losing streak to finish 2nd in the Smythe Division and captured the franchise 's first Clarence S. Campbell Bowl as Campbell Conference champions . In doing so , they became the first Calgary team to reach the Stanley Cup Finals since the Calgary Tigers in 1923 – 24 . The Flames season ended at the hands of the Montreal Canadiens , who defeated Calgary in five games in the final .
The season began with the departure of franchise leading scorer Kent Nilsson who was sent to the Minnesota North Stars in a trade . Rookie goaltender Mike Vernon emerged as the team 's top goaltender and Joe Mullen was acquired in a major trade midway through the season . Gary Suter captured the Calder Memorial Trophy as the league 's top rookie while also being named to the NHL All @-@ Rookie Team . Additionally , Suter was the team 's lone representative at the 1986 All @-@ Star Game . Håkan Loob captured the Molson Cup .
The Flames upset the heavily favoured Edmonton Oilers in the Smythe Division final to end the Oilers ' hopes of winning a third consecutive championship . The series winning goal was scored into his own net by Oilers rookie Steve Smith . As Smith collapsed to the ice , Flames players celebrated the difference maker in what would finish as a 3 – 2 Calgary win . Smith 's error remains one of the most legendary blunders in hockey history .
= = Regular season = =
The Flames began the year with a similar roster as finished the 1984 – 85 season , with one major exception . Kent Nilsson , the franchise 's all @-@ time leading scorer , was dealt to the Minnesota North Stars for two draft picks . Nilsson was viewed as a player with immense talent who ended each season as a perennial disappointment in the playoffs . Though he scored 99 points the season before , the Flames received few offers before agreeing to send him to Minnesota . As the deal provided no immediate help for the team , co @-@ captain Doug Risebrough anticipated that 1985 – 86 would be a transitional year for the Flames and the loss of Nilsson might force the team to play a more defensive style when compared to the team that finished second in league scoring the year previous .
The season opened in Calgary with a game against the Winnipeg Jets , the team that eliminated the Flames in the first round of the previous spring 's playoffs . It ended with an 8 – 3 victory for the Flames , but not before a bench @-@ clearing brawl resulted in the ejection of five players . Calgary was one of the top teams in the league in the early going , standing third overall on December 10 with a 15 – 8 – 3 record .
Four nights later , they were defeated by the Vancouver Canucks , 4 – 3 , and continued losing for nearly a month . After the Hartford Whalers handily defeated the Flames 9 – 1 on January 7 , 1986 , to send Calgary to its 11th consecutive defeat , a franchise record , coach Bob Johnson promised changes . Among them was the recall of goaltender Mike Vernon from the Moncton Golden Flames , who was given the start ahead of Rejean Lemelin in their next game , against Vancouver . He held the Flames in the game long enough for Jim Peplinski to score in the first minute of overtime for a 5 – 4 victory that ended the eighth @-@ longest losing streak in NHL history .
During the losing streak , on December 29 , the Flames hosted Soviet team Dynamo Moscow in an exhibition game as part of the 1986 Super Series . Vernon was given the start for the game to let Lemelin rest and led Calgary to a 4 – 3 victory over Dynamo . It was the Flames ' second victory in three years against a Soviet league club , and came despite what the team considered biased officiating by the Russian referee working the game .
The team enjoyed greater success in the second half of the season , finishing the final 40 games with a record of 22 – 12 – 5 . Vernon established himself as the starting goaltender by mid February and finished the regular season with only three losses in 15 decisions . The Flames ended the season in second place in the Smythe Division , sixth overall in the NHL , with 89 points . Seeking to upgrade the team 's offence as the playoffs approached , General Manager Cliff Fletcher completed a six @-@ player trade with the St. Louis Blues that brought Joe Mullen , a player who had scored at least 40 goals each of his previous two seasons , to Calgary . A second deal in March had the Flames acquire four @-@ time Stanley Cup champion John Tonelli from the New York Islanders and initiated a war of words with Edmonton Oilers general manager and coach Glen Sather , who accused Islanders general manager Bill Torrey of trying to help Fletcher eliminate the Oilers in the upcoming playoffs .
Note : GP
= Games played , W =
Wins , L
= Losses , T =
Ties , Pts
= Points , GF =
Goals for , GA = Goals against
Note : Teams that qualified for the playoffs are highlighted in bold .
= = Schedule and results = =
= = Playoffs = =
The Flames began the 1986 Stanley Cup playoffs with a Smythe semi @-@ final match @-@ up against the Winnipeg Jets , the team that eliminated them in the first round the previous season . Calgary won the best @-@ of @-@ five series in three consecutive games , eliminating the Jets on a Lanny McDonald overtime goal in the third game . The victory set up a best @-@ of @-@ seven Smythe Division final against the two @-@ time defending champion Edmonton Oilers who swept the Vancouver Canucks in the opening round . The Flames opened the series in Edmonton with a 4 – 1 victory , the first loss the Oilers had suffered on home ice in 18 playoff games .
The two teams traded victories through the first six games , leading to a deciding seventh game in Edmonton . The Flames stepped out to an early 2 – 0 lead before the Oilers tied it . Disaster then struck Edmonton at the 5 : 14 mark of the third period . Oilers ' rookie defenceman Steve Smith , attempting to play the puck from behind his own goal line , accidentally shot the puck off Oilers goaltender Grant Fuhr 's skate and into his own net . As Smith collapsed to the ice in shock , the Flames celebrated the goal that was ultimately credited to Perry Berezan . He was the last Flame to touch the puck , though he was no longer on the ice when it went in . The Oilers were unable to come back , losing the game , 3 – 2 , series , 4 – 3 , and ending their hopes of winning a third consecutive Stanley Cup . Smith 's blunder remains one of the most legendary errors in NHL history .
The Campbell Conference Final against the St. Louis Blues was also a back and forth affair in which the Flames take a 3 – 2 series lead into the sixth game in St. Louis . Calgary led the sixth game 5 – 2 with 12 minutes to play before three quick goals by the Blues sent the game into overtime . Doug Wickenheiser scored to win the game for the Blues . The comeback came to be known as the Monday Night Miracle in St. Louis . The Flames rebounded in game seven , winning 2 – 1 to claim the first Clarence S. Campbell Bowl in franchise history as Campbell Conference champions . The victory also sent the Flames to their first Stanley Cup final . It was the first time a team representing the city played in the final since the Calgary Tigers lost to the Montreal Canadiens in the 1924 Stanley Cup Finals .
Their opponent in 1986 was also the Canadiens in what constituted the first all @-@ Canadian final since 1967 . Calgary opened the series with a 5 – 2 victory at home in the battle of rookie goaltenders : Vernon against Patrick Roy . Montreal evened the series with a 3 – 2 overtime victory in game two in which Brian Skrudland set an NHL record for the fastest overtime goal in playoff history when he scored nine seconds into the extra frame . Already missing three key players in Carey Wilson , Colin Patterson and Nick Fotiu due to injury , the Flames lost their top scorer in Joe Mullen to a neck injury during a game two loss . The Canadiens also won the third game as the series shifted to Montreal , and 1 – 0 Calgary loss in game four pushed the Flames to the brink of elimination . Montreal broke out to a 4 – 1 lead in the fifth game , at Calgary , before the Flames made a comeback attempt . They scored with less than four minutes remaining , and then moved within one goal when Mullen – who returned for game five wearing a neck brace – scored with 46 seconds remaining . A desperate push for the tying goal fell short when Roy made several key saves as time expired . Montreal celebrated the 23rd Stanley Cup championship in their franchise history as the fans loudly chanted " thank you Flames , thank you Flames " in appreciation of their team 's efforts .
= = Battle of Alberta = =
The Battle of Alberta dominated the Flames ' focus late in the season as they continued to struggle against their provincial rival . The two @-@ time defending champion Oilers were nearly unbeatable against Calgary , losing just five of 31 matchups over three years . Calgary 's frustration against Edmonton was highlighted by a mid @-@ season game where , after a large brawl that resulted in the ejection of five players from the game , Calgary 's Doug Risebrough ended up in the penalty box with Marty McSorley 's Oilers jersey . Risebrough shredded the jersey with his skates before tossing it back onto the ice . Oilers ' coach Glen Sather , enraged by the act , called Risebrough " childish " and threatened to send him a $ 1000 bill to replace the sweater .
Realizing Calgary 's path to the Stanley Cup would go through Edmonton , coach Bob Johnson devised a seven @-@ point plan for beating the Oilers that focused on limiting Wayne Gretzky , Paul Coffey and Jari Kurri 's creativity , limiting access to the left side of the ice where the Oilers ' top stars liked to skate , leaving their physical players on the ice by not engaging them and utilizing Neil Sheehy and Colin Patterson in roles designed to frustrate the Oiler players . Johnson first utilized the strategy in a late season game that ended in a 4 – 4 tie . The Flames then defeated the Oilers 9 – 3 in their final regular season meeting , a game that ended with another brawl and accusations by both teams that the other was sending their goons out after talented players .
The rivalry extended into the stands in the second game of the Smythe Division final in Edmonton . During the game , trainer Bearcat Murray went into the stands to rescue his son Al , also a trainer for the Flames , and tore ligaments in his leg in the process . Al had gone into the stands in an attempt to retrieve Gary Suter 's stick , which had been knocked into the crowd and was being hidden by Oiler fans . Fearing for his son 's safety , Bearcat jumped into the fray himself , suffering the injury . While being wheeled into an ambulance , Murray blew kisses for the cameras . The incident caught the attention of a group of fans in Boston , who formed the " Bearcat Murray Fan Club " , and began showing up at the Boston Garden wearing skull caps and oversized moustaches mimicking Murray 's looks when the Flames played there . The Flames lost players on the ice during the physical series as well , as Carey Wilson required surgery to remove his spleen after he was " skewered " by Steve Smith , according to Johnson . Suter had his season ended after suffering torn ligaments in his knee following a low hit by Mark Messier .
When the seventh game ended in victory , Flames fans in both Calgary and at Northlands Coliseum in Edmonton spilled onto the streets in celebration . The " C of Red " was born in that playoff series as fans responded to a promotion to wear the colour with such enthusiasm that many stores across the city sold out of red clothing . The effect was most pronounced during games , where nearly every fan in the Saddledome was in red . The C of Red inspired the Winnipeg Jets to create their White Out the following year .
= = Player statistics = =
= = = Skaters = = =
Note : GP
= Games played ; G =
Goals ; A
= Assists ; Pts =
Points ; PIM = Penalty minutes
A Mullen scored 44 goals and 90 points combined between St. Louis and Calgary , both totals led the Flames over a full season.B Eaves came out of retirement May 4 , 1986 , to replace Carey Wilson , who was injured in the Stanley Cup playoffs . † Denotes player spent time with another team before joining Calgary . Stats reflect time with the Flames only . ‡ Traded mid @-@ season .
= = = Goaltenders = = =
Note : GP
= Games played ; TOI =
Time on ice ( minutes ) ; W
= Wins ; L =
Losses ; OT
= Overtime / shootout losses ; GA =
Goals against ; SO
= Shutouts ; GAA =
Goals against average
= = Awards and honours = =
Listed at five feet , nine inches tall by NHL Central Scouting , defenceman Gary Suter was considered too small for the NHL and went unselected at both the 1982 and 1983 NHL Entry Drafts . Suter moved on to the University of Wisconsin where Flames scouts noted that he had grown two inches and was a leading player for his team . Calgary selected him with their 9th round selection in 1984 . He joined the Flames in 1985 – 86 and quickly established himself as the team 's top defenceman in the eyes of his coaches and teammates . Suter finished the season with 18 goals and 68 points and was awarded the Calder Trophy as the NHL 's top rookie in addition to being named to the All @-@ Rookie Team . Additionally , Suter was the Flames ' lone representative at the 1986 All @-@ Star Game . Suter 's 68 points was the second highest total by a rookie defenceman in league history , behind Larry Murphy 's 76 .
= = Transactions = =
The draft @-@ day trade that sent franchise scoring leader Kent Nilsson to Minnesota , along with a third round selection , for second round draft picks in 1985 and 1987 was immediately controversial in Calgary as players and fans were divided on the merit of dealing Nilsson . While some players felt the trade was inevitable , others expressed their disappointment at the move , including co @-@ captain Lanny McDonald , who wondered how the team would replace Nilsson 's offensive production . Former teammate Willi Plett supported the trade , noting Nilsson 's inconsistency : " Maybe I shouldn 't be saying this , but trading a player like him , it never hurts you . "
The Flames completed a second significant trade in February , acquiring scoring forward Joe Mullen along with defencemen Terry Johnson and Rik Wilson from the St. Louis Blues in exchange for Ed Beers , Charlie Bourgeois and Gino Cavallini . The Flames had targeted Mullen , who had scored 40 + goals each of his previous two seasons and had 28 for the Blues at the time of the deal , believing he could be a game breaker for them heading into the playoffs .
= = = Trades = = =
= = = Free agents = = =
= = Draft picks = =
The 1985 NHL Entry Draft was held in Toronto , Ontario on June 15 . The Flames used their first round pick , 17th overall , on American defenceman Chris Biotti . The team was surprised that he had fallen to them , believing Biotti to be the best defenceman available and expressing confidence he would be a star in the NHL . Their predictions ultimately proved unfounded . After spending two seasons at Harvard University , Biotti played three seasons for their minor league team in Salt Lake and another two in Europe before retiring . He never appeared in a National Hockey League game .
With the second round pick acquired from Minnesota in the Nilsson trade , Calgary selected East Coast Athletic Conference rookie of the year Joe Nieuwendyk from Cornell University . Labeled " Joe who ? " by media and fans unsure of his potential , Nieuwendyk ultimately had the longest NHL career of any Flames ' selection in this draft . He appeared in 1 @,@ 257 games , scoring 1 @,@ 126 points and won the Stanley Cup with Calgary in 1989 , the Dallas Stars in 1999 and the New Jersey Devils in 2003 , in addition to a gold medal at the 2002 Winter Olympics . He was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2011 .
= Give Peace a Chance ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =
" Give Peace a Chance " is the seventh episode of the sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the show 's 109th episode overall . Written by Peter Nowalk and directed by Chandra Wilson , the episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on October 29 , 2009 . Grey 's Anatomy centers on a group of young doctors in training . In this episode , Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) performs an operation on a hospital technician 's " inoperable " tumor , despite the objections of the chief of surgery , Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) .
The episode was designed to revolve around Dempsey 's character . Katherine Heigl ( Dr. Izzie Stevens ) was absent from the episode , as she was filming the 2010 blockbuster Life as We Know It . Mark Saul , Jesse Williams , and Nora Zehetner returned as guest stars , while Faran Tahir made his only appearance . " Give Peace a Chance " won Wilson an NAACP Image Award , and was generally well received among critics , with Tahir 's character particularly praised . The initial airing was viewed by 13 @.@ 74 million people , garnered a 5 @.@ 2 / 13 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and achieved the fourth highest viewership on the night .
= = Plot = =
" Give Peace a Chance " opens with Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital 's chief of surgery , Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) implementing a new computerized surgical scheduling system , which is disliked by many of the hospital 's staff . Thereafter , Isaac ( Faran Tahir ) , a hospital lab technician , brings Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) a scan of his tumor , which has been declared inoperable by several other physicians due to its complexity . Isaac asks Shepherd to remove it . Shepherd agrees , but Webber refuses permission for the procedure because of the high risk involved . Shepherd ignores the chief 's directions and schedules the surgery . The interns and residents all want the chance to assist due to the rarity of such a tumor , so Shepherd hosts a competition in which the winner gets to join him in the operating room . After seeing Dr. Steve Mostow ( Mark Saul ) make a mistake , Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) is confident that she will win the competition , but loses to Dr. Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) . Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) is not invited to compete because Shepherd wants her to be his caregiver in what would be a long surgery . Knowing that she will not be able to use the bathroom for the entire procedure , Lexie decides to wear a diaper into the operating room ; her courage and dedication impresses Yang .
Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) is scheduled for an interleukin 2 ( IL @-@ 2 ) treatment but is absent from the hospital . Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) calls her , but she does not answer or come , so Karev cries to fellow resident Dr. Reed Adamson ( Nora Zehetner ) . Shepherd spends ten hours in the operating room contemplating what to do about the tumor , with the motivational support of fellow surgeons Dr. Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) , and Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) . Webber orders Shepherd to end the surgery because he is wasting hospital resources . Shortly thereafter , Isaac awakens to Shepherd explaining that the surgery would not have been possible without paralyzing him . Isaac convinces Shepherd to operate again in secret the next day , and the latter maps out a diagram of the surgery on his bedroom wall while discussing it with his wife Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , who is home on bed rest after donating part of her liver to her father in the episode " Tainted Obligation " . Backed by his fellow attendings , Shepherd obtains Webber 's permission to cut the chord but tells Avery and Lexie that they were not cutting the chord and playing by ear instead . He removes all but a tiny section of the tumor . Webber discovers that Shepherd is operating and is about to put an end to it , but Dr. Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) tells him to go away . Shepherd has to cut a nerve to remove the rest of the tumor , but does not know which will result in paralysis . He decides with a game of " Eeny , meeny , miny , moe " , ultimately cutting the correct nerve and eliminating the entirety of the tumor . Despite the successful surgery , Webber is enraged and verbally fires Shepherd . Shepherd dismisses this in a light tone and goes home to drink champagne with his wife .
= = Production = =
Running for 43 minutes , the episode was written by Peter Nowalk and directed by Wilson ; the latter portrays Bailey . Jenny Barak edited the music and Donald Lee Harris served as the production designer . Heigl was absent from the episode , as she was filming the romantic comedy Life as We Know It ( 2010 ) . The song featured in the episode was Bat for Lashes ' " Moon and Moon " , featured on their second album Two Suns . Saul , Zehetner , and Williams returned to the episode as Mostow , Adamson , and Avery , respectively , while Tahir made his first and only appearance as Isaac . The scenes in the operating room were filmed at the Prospect Studios in Los Feliz , Los Angeles ; Nowalk said the scenes were difficult to shoot , due to the technicality involved . Pompeo 's appearances in the episode were scarce , as she was eight and a half months pregnant during shooting .
According to Nowalk , the idea to have Lexie wear a diaper to get through the operation was inspired by an episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show . He added : " It wasn 't that big of a leap for us to go diaper . Our doctors are hardcore by nature . " Nowalk said that this episode was primarily focused around Shepherd , which he considered an " experiment " . He commented that the idea of Isaac 's storyline came from Dr. Robert Bray , a neurosurgeon in Los Angeles . Nowalk intended the nature of the episode to be " different " , attributing it to the fact that Heigl 's character was absent . He also praised Wilson for directing the episode , commenting that " she acts , she sings , and now she directs " . The majority of the episode involved Shepherd staring at his patient 's tumor , contemplating what to do . Nowalk offered his insight on this :
" It 's quieter than a typical episode . More single @-@ minded . Derek is our sole focus . And really , what an amazing character to spend an entire episode with . Watch Patrick Dempsey on your screen and you can 't help but be struck by how much he says without saying anything . The guy can pretty much give you an entire soliloquy with just one look . That 's a rare talent , and we really wanted to use that to our advantage in an episode about stillness and peace . "
= = Reception = =
" Give Peace a Chance " was originally broadcast on October 29 , 2009 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode underperformed the previous installment , " I Saw What I Saw " , in terms of viewership . It was viewed by a total of 13 @.@ 74 million people , down 1 @.@ 66 percent from the previous episode , which garnered 15 @.@ 04 million viewers . In terms of viewership , " Give Peace a Chance " ranked fourth for the night , behind game two of the 2009 World Series , and CBS 's CSI and The Mentalist . The installment did not rank high for viewership , but its 5 @.@ 2 / 13 Nielsen rating ranked second in its 9 : 00 Eastern time @-@ slot and the entire night for both the rating and share percentages of the 18 – 49 demographic , losing to the 2009 World Series but beating CSI , The Mentalist , and Private Practice . Although its rating was in the top rankings for the night , it was a decrease from the previous episode , which garnered a 5 @.@ 6 / 14 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic .
Critics were largely positive in their reviews of the episode . The Huffington Post 's Michael Pascua called " Give Peace a Chance " a " hit and miss " episode , criticizing the slang dialogue by saying it " sounded like it came from an MTV drama " , but praising the installment 's " character driven development " . Pascua was positive on the development of Tahir 's character , writing : " I hope he comes back in a later episode just to remind these people about patience and hope . " TV Fanatic 's Steve Marsi gave a positive review of the episode , saying it " won [ him ] over " , and also praising Tahir 's character . Marsi applauded the development of Dempsey 's character , calling him " the best [ doctor ] " , and noted that Wilson 's directing may " net her an Emmy nomination " .
Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Jennifer Armstrong had mixed feedback on the episode , writing : " The all @-@ medical , all @-@ the @-@ time episodes need to stop . " However , she found it " fantastic " when Shepherd drew on the wall , and enjoyed Tahir 's character , calling him " lovely " . Armstrong also said that " Give Peace a Chance " was in " ER territory " , adding : " I do not watch Grey 's Anatomy to get my ER fix . " Adam Bryant of TV Guide enjoyed this episode compared to the previous one , but disliked the possible romantic development between Karev and Adamson . In his review , he concluded that the installment " proves that Meredith Grey doesn 't have to do all the heavy lifting on this show " .
People 's Carrie Bell enjoyed the episode , praising the balance of cast members . She called Isaac " beloved " , and found that the teamwork in the episode proved " there 's no ' I ' in team " . Former Star @-@ Ledger editor Alan Sepinwall gave a positive review of the entry , applauding the shift in themes and Shepherd 's character development . Writing for BuddyTV , Glenn Diaz found the episode comical , calling the scene in which Robbins stands up to Webber " hilarious " , and naming Yang the installment 's " comic relief " . Referring to Shepherd and Webber 's constant arguments , an AfterEllen senior editor said : " Seriously , these two need to drop their pants and get it over with . " Peter Nowalk 's writing of the episode was nominated for a Humanitas Prize in the 60 Minute Category . The episode also earned Wilson an NAACP Image Award under the Outstanding Directing in a Dramatic Series category .
= Cross @-@ country skiing ( sport ) =
The sport of cross @-@ country skiing encompasses a variety of formats for cross @-@ country skiing races over courses of varying lengths according to rules sanctioned by the International Ski Federation and by various national organizations , such as the U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association ( USSA ) and Cross Country Ski Canada . International competitions include the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships , the FIS Cross @-@ Country World Cup , and at the Winter Olympic Games . Such races occur over homologated , groomed courses designed to support classic ( in @-@ track ) and freestyle events , where the skiers may employ skate skiing . It also encompasses cross @-@ country ski marathon events , sanctioned by the Worldloppet Ski Federation , and cross @-@ country ski orienteering events , sanctioned by the International Orienteering Federation . Related forms of competition are biathlon , where competitors race on cross @-@ country skis and stop to shoot at targets with rifles , and paralympic cross @-@ country skiing that allows athletes with disabilities to compete at cross @-@ country skiing with adaptive equipment .
Norwegian army units were skiing for sport ( and prizes ) in the 18th century . Starting in the latter part of the 20th century , technique evolved from the striding in @-@ track classic technique to include skate @-@ skiing , which occurs on courses that have been groomed with wide lanes for those using the technique . At the same time , equipment evolved from skis and poles that were made of wood and other natural materials to comprising such man @-@ made materials as fiberglass , carbon fiber , and polyethylene plastics .
Athletes train to achieve endurance , strength , speed , skill and flexibility at different levels of intensity . Offseason training often occurs on dry land , sometimes on roller skis . The organization of cross @-@ country ski competitions aims to make those events accessible both to spectators and television audiences . As with other sports that require endurance , strength and speed , some athletes have chosen to use banned performance @-@ enhancing drugs .
= = History = =
In 1767 Danish @-@ Norwegian general , Carl Schack Rantzau , codified four classes of military skiing contests and established prizes for each :
Shooting at prescribed targets at 40 @-@ 50 paces while skiing downhill at " top speed " ( precursor to biathlon ) .
" Hurling " themselves while racing downhill among trees " without falling or breaking skis " ( precursor to slalom ) .
Downhill racing on large slopes without " riding or resting on their stick " or falling ( precursor to downhill racing ) .
" Long racing " with full military kit and a gun on the shoulder over ca . 2 @.@ 5 km of " flat ground " within 15 minutes ( precursor to modern cross @-@ country skiing ) .
An early record of a public ski competition was for an 1843 event in Tromsø . The announcement called the event a " wagering race on skis " . A distinct alpine technique emerged around 1900 from how skiing was practiced up until then when Mathias Zdarsky advocated the " Lilienfelder Ski Method " as an alternative to the Norwegian technique . In Norwegian , langrenn refers to " competitive skiing where the goal is to complete a specific distance in pre @-@ set tracks in the shortest possible time " . Alpine skiing competitions ( known as hill races ) existed in Norway during the 18th and 19th centuries , but were discontinued when the main ski festival in Oslo focused on long races ( competitive cross @-@ country skiing ) and ski jumping ( now known as the Nordic disciplines ) . The alpine disciplines reemerged in Central Europe around 1920 . Ski touring competitions ( Norwegian : turrenn ) are long @-@ distance cross @-@ country competitions open to the public , competition is usually within age categories .
In the 1800s racers used a single , wooden pole , which was longer and stronger than modern poles , and could be used for braking downhill , as well . In Norway , racing with two poles ( " Finland style " ) met with resistance , starting in the 1880s , when some race rules forbade them ; objections included issues of aesthetics — how they made skiers " [ waddle ] like geese " . As the use of pairs of pole became the norm , materials favored lightness and strength , starting with bamboo , which gave way to fiberglass , used at the 1968 Winter Olympics , aluminum , used at the 1972 Winter Olympics , and ultimately carbon fiber , introduced in 1975 .
= = = Skate skiing = = =
Skate skiing was introduced to competition in the 20th Century . At the first German ski championship , held at the Feldberg in the Black Forest in 1900 , the Norwegian Bjarne Nilssen won the 23 km cross @-@ country race and was observed using a skating motion while skiing — a technique unknown to the spectators . Johan Grøttumsbråten used the skating technique at the 1931 World Championship in Oberhof , one of the earliest recorded use of skating in competitive cross @-@ country skiing . This technique was later used in ski orienteering in the 1960s on roads and other firm surfaces . Finnish skier Pauli Siitonen developed a variant of the style for marathon or other endurance events in the 1970s by leaving one ski in the track while skating outwards to the side with the other ski ( one @-@ sided skating ) ; this became known as the " marathon skate " . Bill Koch ( USA ) further developed the marathon skate technique in the late 1970s . Skate @-@ skiing became widespread during the 1980s after Koch 's success with it in the 1982 Cross @-@ country Skiing Championships drew more attention to the technique . Norwegian skier , Ove Aunli , started using the technique in 1984 , when he found it to be much faster than classic style . Skating is most effective on wide , smooth , groomed trails , using fiberglass skis that glide well ; it also benefits a stronger athlete — which , according to Olav Bø , are the reasons that the technique made a breakthrough in the early 1980s . Athletes widely adopted skating to both sides by the time of the 1985 world championship and it was formally adopted by the FIS in 1986 — despite initial opposition from Norway , the Soviet Union and Finland — while preserving events using only classic technique .
= = Events = =
= = = Winter Olympic Games = = =
The Winter Olympic Games are a major international sporting event that occurs once every four years . The first Winter Olympics , the 1924 Winter Olympics , was held in Chamonix , France and included Nordic skiing ( which includes cross @-@ country skiing ) among the five principal disciplines . Cross @-@ country events have evolved in the Winter Olympics since 1924 , as seen in the following timeline :
1924 Winter Olympics : Cross @-@ country skiing debuts .
1952 Winter Olympics . : Women 's Nordic skiing debuts
1956 Winter Olympics : men 's 30 km and the women 's 3x5km added .
1964 Winter Olympics : Women 's 5 km added .
1976 Winter Paralympics : Paralympic cross @-@ country skiing added .
1980 Winter Olympics : Women 's 20 km added .
2002 Winter Olympics : Appearance of sprint and mass start events in Salt Lake City .
= = = FIS events = = =
The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships have been held in various numbers and types of events since 1925 for men and since 1954 for women . From 1924 to 1939 , the World Championships were held annually , including years with Winter Olympic Games . After World War II , the World Championships were held every four years from 1950 to 1982 . Since 1985 , the World Championships have been held in odd @-@ numbered years .
FIS events include :
The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships
FIS Cross @-@ Country World Cup : each year medalists are announced who have the highest total scores at the end of the World Cup season .
The FIS Nordic Combined World Cup
The Tour de Ski : held annually since 2006 , modeled on the Tour de France , held in the Czech Republic , Germany , Italy , and Switzerland .
= = = Ski marathon = = =
A ski marathon is a long @-@ distance , usually point @-@ to @-@ point race , of more than 40 kilometers ; some are held concurrent with shorter races and participation is usually open to the public . In Norwegian , such a race is called turrenn ( " ski touring race " ) . Major events have more than 10 @,@ 000 participants where mass starts often have a modified starting order by groupings of participants — who have been judged to be of similar ability , beginning with the elite skiers group and ending with a group of the least experienced skiers . Skiers can use either classic or skate @-@ skiing techniques , depending on the rules of the race . Awards are usually based on overall placement , placement by sex of athlete , and by age category . There are two major series in this category , the Ski Classics and the Worldloppet .
= = = = Ski Classics series = = = =
Ski Classics is a commercially sponsored international long @-@ distance cross @-@ country skiing cup competition , held in Europe . It originated in January 2011 . As of the winter of 2015 @-@ 6 , the tour consisted of eight long @-@ distance events , preceded by a prologue of 15 km and La Sgambeda of 24 km :
= = = = Worldloppet series = = = =
The Worldloppet Ski Federation recognizes twenty ski marathons including those in the Ski Classics series ( except La Diagonala and Årefjällslopet ) . They recognize those athletes who complete Worldloppet races in 10 different countries , at least one of which has to be on another continent , to qualify as a " Worldloppet Master " . The organization , sanctioned by FIS , seeks to attract elite racers to its events with the FIS Worldloppet Cup and aims thereby to " increase media and spectator interest in long distance racing " . Notable races , other than the Ski Classics series include :
= = = Ski orienteering = = =
Ski orienteering is an orienteering discipline recognized by the International Orienteering Federation . The World Ski Orienteering Championships is organized every odd year and includes sprint , middle and long distance competitions , and a Relay for both men and women . The World Cup is organized every even year . Junior World Ski Orienteering Championships and World Masters Ski Orienteering Championships are organized annually .
= = = Biathlon = = =
Biathlon combines cross @-@ country skiing and rifle shooting . Depending on the shooting performance , extra distance or time is added to the contestant 's total running distance / time . For each shooting round , the biathlete must hit five targets ; the skier receives a penalty for each missed target , which varies according to the competition rules ; in any given competition one of the following penalties would apply :
Skiing around a 150 @-@ metre ( 490 ft ) penalty loop , which , depending on conditions , takes 20 – 30 seconds for elite athletes to complete .
Adding one minute to the skier 's total time .
Use of an extra cartridge ( placed at the shooting range ) to hit the target ; only three such extras are available for each round , and a penalty loop must be made for each target left standing .
= = = Paralympic = = =
Paralympic cross @-@ country skiing is an adaptation of cross @-@ country skiing for athletes with disabilities . Paralympic cross @-@ country skiing is one of two Nordic skiing disciplines in the Winter Paralympic Games ; the other is biathlon . Competition is governed by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) . Paralympic cross @-@ country skiing includes standing events , sitting events ( for wheelchair users ) , and events for visually impaired athletes under the rules of the International Paralympic Committee . These are divided into several categories for people who are missing limbs , have amputations , are blind , or have any other physical disability , to continue their sport . The classifications are for :
Standing skiers with arm impairments , leg impairments or with both arm and leg impairments .
Sit @-@ Skiers , all with leg impairments , but with varying degrees of torso control .
Skiers with visual impairment including blindness , low visual acuity , and limited field of vision .
= = Technique and equipment = =
Cross @-@ country ski competitors employ one of two techniques , according to the event : classic and skating ( in freestyle races , where all techniques are allowed ) . Skiathlon combines the two techniques in one race .
Skis are lighter , narrower and designed to be faster than those used in recreational cross @-@ country skiing and made of composite materials . For classic events , typical ski lengths are between 195 to 210 centimetres , while ski lengths for skating are 170 to 200 cm . Skis for skating are also more rigid than skis for classical . Skis are waxed for speed and , in the case of classic skis , traction when striding forward . Racing ski boots are also lighter than recreational ones and are attached at the toe only to bindings that are specialized for classic or skate skiing .
Racing ski poles are usually made from carbon fiber and feature smaller , lighter baskets than recreational poles . Poles designed for skating are longer than those designed for classic skiing .
= = = Classic = = =
In classic cross @-@ country skiing the skis remain parallel , as the skier strides straight ahead . The undersides of the skis have a grip section in the middle treated with a special ski wax that provides friction when the foot is still , yet glides when the foot is in motion , while the rest of the ski bottom has a glide wax . Classic events occur on courses with tracks set by a grooming machine at precise intervals and with carefully planned curvature . Both poles may be used simultaneously ( " double @-@ poling " ) or with alternating foot and arm extended ( as with running or walking ) with the pole pushing on the side opposite of the extended , sliding ski . In classic skiing the alternating technique is used for the " diagonal stride " — the predominant classic sub @-@ technique . In diagonal @-@ stride legs move like in ordinary walking , but with longer and more powerful steps . Diagonal is useful on level ground and on gentle uphill slopes . Uphill steps are shorter and more frequent . With double @-@ poling both poles are used simultaneously for thrust , which may be augmented with striding . Double @-@ poling is useful on level ground and on gentle downhill slopes . On steep uphills fishbone technique can be used .
= = = Skating = = =
While skate skiing , the skier provides propulsion on a firm snow surface by pushing alternating skis away from one another at an angle , in a manner similar to ice skating . Skis are waxed with a glide wax over their entire length , making them faster than classic skis . Freestyle events take place on smooth , wide specially groomed courses . With the skating technique double @-@ poling is usually employed with alternating skating strides or with every skate stride . The following table puts these poling sequences into order according to the speed achieved as a progression of " gears " . In the lowest gear ( rarely used in racing ) , one is poling on the side of the sliding ski , similar to diagonal stride . In the highest gear , the athlete skates without poles . There are equivalent terms in other languages ; for example in Norwegian , skating is likened to paddling or dancing , depending on the tempo .
The primary turns used for racing , are the parallel turn , which is used while descending and can provide braking , and the step turn , which is used for maintaining speed during descents or out of track on flats . The wedge turn ( or " snowplow turn " ) , is sometimes used for braking and turning .
= = Skier training and development = =
Countries with cross @-@ country ski teams usually have a strategy for developing promising athletes and programs to encourage participation in the sport , starting at a young age . One example is Cross @-@ Country Ski Canada 's " Long @-@ Term Athlete Development " program . The program encompasses youth development , training , introduction to competition and improvement of promising athletes with an emphasis on " stamina ( endurance ) , strength , speed , skill and suppleness ( flexibility ) " . It covers age groups from toddlers to mature adults , who are able to enjoy and participate in the sport . Similarly , the USSA has an outline of " Cross Country Athlete Competencies " that has four phases beginning at 12 years old and under and addressing the 21 and older phase at the top . The program encompasses six " domains : "
Technical skills specific to cross @-@ country ski racing .
Physiological and motor skills addressing physical fitness , strength , power , and endurance .
Psychological and sociological skills , emphasizing sound relationships and the mental skills required for competition .
Training and competition performance , addressing goal @-@ directed training to achieve favorable competition results .
Equipment selection , use , and maintenance of the athlete 's skis , boots , bindings , wax , clothing , and poles necessary to success .
Education that eventually allows the athlete to become his or her own coach .
Ski training for the athlete depends on whether the desired specialty emphasizes endurance ( marathon ) or intensity ( mid @-@ distance events ) . The " intensity " theory of ski training uses stress to break down muscles and recovery and recovery to build them up stronger than before . In this theory , there are five levels of intensity for training :
Aerobic : Low @-@ intensity , aerobic training ( at 60 @-@ 70 % of an athlete 's maximum intensity ) should consume most of the training hours for endurance athletes .
Strength : Strength training improves flexibility and joint motion to minimize injury and to improve overall strength , not addressed by sport @-@ specific training .
Lactate Threshold : This level builds an efficient base speed by training the body to convert blood lactate into energy , rather than creating a sensation of tired muscles .
VO2 max : This level uses interval training to build the athlete 's VO2 max — volume of oxygen that the lungs pass into the musculature via the cardiovascular system .
Speed : This level of training addresses the athlete 's ability to sprint and is neuromuscular , essentially training the muscles to move quickly .
Athletes train for each level on a seasonal schedule designed for the targeted events : marathon or mid @-@ distance . Additional aspects of training address aerobic ( low @-@ intensity ) exercise — especially for endurance — and strength to improve joint flexibility and to minimize the risk of injury . Cross @-@ country ski training occurs throughout the year , including on dry land where athletes engage in roller skiing and ski striding to maintain ski @-@ specific muscle fitness .
= = Race management = =
In its " Organizing committee handbook , " the FIS covers aspects of race management , including the layout of the competition venue , organization of the events ( including scheduling , officiating , and awards ) , and addressing ancillary factors , such as the role of the media . National handbooks , such as the " USSA Cross @-@ Country Technical Handbook " and the " Cross Country Canada officials manual , " provide further guidance , sometimes specific to their venues .
An important aspect of race preparation is grooming the course to provide a surface for skate @-@ skiing and setting tracks for classic events . This takes into account snow physics , methods for packing snow and surface shaping , and the equipment used for these functions . Also key is the layout of grooming and track setting in the stadium with various formats for starts , finishes and intermediate functions for relays and pursuits .
= = Design of racing venues = =
In its " Cross @-@ country homologation manual , " the FIS recognizes that fans of the sport wish to follow it on television . With this in mind , the manual addresses how to design the race course and the stadium in a manner that not only enhances the experience of spectators , but of viewers , as well — not just to show the athletes in action , but to show the ways in which fans enjoy the action . The manual includes considerations of :
Course design criteria
Requirements for different race formats
Course layouts
Courses for skiers with disabilities
Stadium layout
Waxing rooms with ski test areas
Warm up course
A course is expected to test the skier 's technical and physical abilities , to be laid out in a manner that takes advantage of the natural terrain , and to provide smooth transitions among uphills , downhills and " undulating " terrain — distributed approximately evenly among the three . The manual advocates that courses present a variety of uphills , varying in lengths and gradients between 6 % and 12 % , which are arrayed efficiently within the venue . It cites two types of stadium , the horseshoe ( preferred for television ) and the " ski in , ski out " layout . It emphasizes the importance of accommodating television coverage at the start , finish , and exchange zones for equipment or relays . In addition , television coverage requires a variety of facilities to support the activities of the press .
= = Doping = =
As with other sports , some competitors in cross @-@ country skiing have chosen to enhance their performance through doping . Anti @-@ doping tests at the 2001 World Nordic skiing championships in Lahti , Finland revealed that Jari Isometsä , Janne Immonen and two other skiers from Finland 's gold @-@ medal relay team , Mika Myllylä and Harri Kirvesniemi , and two female skiers tested positive for hydroxyethyl starch ( HES ) , a blood plasma expander usually used to cover up the use of erythropoietin ( EPO ) . EPO boosts the oxygen @-@ carrying capability of hemoglobin . In addition , the team head coach left needles and drip bags at a public location near the Helsinki airport . At the Sochi Winter Olympic Games , Austrian cross @-@ country skier Johannes Duerr was ejected from competition after testing positive for the blood booster EPO . In 2007 , The International Olympic Committee banned biathletes , Wolfgang Perner and Wolfgang Rottmann , and the cross @-@ country skiers , Martin Tauber , Jürgen Pinter , Johannes Eder , Roland Diethart and Christian Hoffmann , from all future Olympic competition .
Skiers , who have tested positive for EPO or other performance @-@ enhancing drugs , include ( date of sanction ) :
= Homotopy groups of spheres =
In the mathematical field of algebraic topology , the homotopy groups of spheres describe how spheres of various dimensions can wrap around each other . They are examples of topological invariants , which reflect , in algebraic terms , the structure of spheres viewed as topological spaces , forgetting about their precise geometry . Unlike homology groups , which are also topological invariants , the homotopy groups are surprisingly complex and difficult to compute .
The n @-@ dimensional unit sphere — called the n @-@ sphere for brevity , and denoted as Sn — generalizes the familiar circle ( S1 ) and the ordinary sphere ( S2 ) . The n @-@ sphere may be defined geometrically as the set of points in a Euclidean space of dimension n + 1 located at a unit distance from the origin . The i @-@ th homotopy group πi ( Sn ) summarizes the different ways in which the i @-@ dimensional sphere Si can be mapped continuously into the n @-@ dimensional sphere Sn . This summary does not distinguish between two mappings if one can be continuously deformed to the other ; thus , only equivalence classes of mappings are summarized . An " addition " operation defined on these equivalence classes makes the set of equivalence classes into an abelian group .
The problem of determining πi ( Sn ) falls into three regimes , depending on whether i is less than , equal to , or greater than n . For 0 < i < n , any mapping from Si to Sn is homotopic ( i.e. , continuously deformable ) to a constant mapping , i.e. , a mapping that maps all of Si to a single point of Sn . When i = n , every map from Sn to itself has a degree that measures how many times the sphere is wrapped around itself . This degree identifies πn ( Sn ) with the group of integers under addition . For example , every point on a circle can be mapped continuously onto a point of another circle ; as the first point is moved around the first circle , the second point may cycle several times around the second circle , depending on the particular mapping . However , the most interesting and surprising results occur when i > n . The first such surprise was the discovery of a mapping called the Hopf fibration , which wraps the 3 @-@ sphere S3 around the usual sphere S2 in a non @-@ trivial fashion , and so is not equivalent to a one @-@ point mapping .
The question of computing the homotopy group πn + k ( Sn ) for positive k turned out to be a central question in algebraic topology that has contributed to development of many of its fundamental techniques and has served as a stimulating focus of research . One of the main discoveries is that the homotopy groups πn + k ( Sn ) are independent of n for n ≥ k + 2 . These are called the stable homotopy groups of spheres and have been computed for values of k up to 64 . The stable homotopy groups form the coefficient ring of an extraordinary cohomology theory , called stable cohomotopy theory . The unstable homotopy groups ( for n < k + 2 ) are more erratic ; nevertheless , they have been tabulated for k < 20 . Most modern computations use spectral sequences , a technique first applied to homotopy groups of spheres by Jean @-@ Pierre Serre . Several important patterns have been established , yet much remains unknown and unexplained .
= = Background = =
The study of homotopy groups of spheres builds on a great deal of background material , here briefly reviewed . Algebraic topology provides the larger context , itself built on topology and abstract algebra , with homotopy groups as a basic example .
= = = n @-@ sphere = = =
An ordinary sphere in three @-@ dimensional space — the surface , not the solid ball — is just one example of what a sphere means in topology . Geometry defines a sphere rigidly , as a shape . Here are some alternatives .
Implicit surface : x02 + x12 + x22
= 1
This is the set of points in 3 @-@ dimensional Euclidean space found exactly one unit away from the origin . It is called the 2 @-@ sphere , S2 , for reasons given below . The same idea applies for any dimension n ; the equation x02 + x12 + ⋯ + xn2 =
1 produces the n @-@ sphere as a geometric object in ( n + 1 ) -dimensional space . For example , the 1 @-@ sphere S1 is a circle .
Disk with collapsed rim : written in topology as D2 / S1
This construction moves from geometry to pure topology . The disk D2 is the region contained by a circle , described by the inequality x02 + x12 ≤ 1 , and its rim ( or " boundary " ) is the circle S1 , described by the equality x02 + x12
= 1 . If a balloon is punctured and spread flat it produces a disk ; this construction repairs the puncture , like pulling a drawstring . The slash , pronounced " modulo " , means to take the topological space on the left ( the disk ) and in it join together as one all the points on the right ( the circle ) . The region is 2 @-@ dimensional , which is why topology calls the resulting topological space a 2 @-@ sphere . Generalized , Dn / Sn − 1 produces Sn . For example , D1 is a line segment , and the construction joins its ends to make a circle . An equivalent description is that the boundary of an n @-@ dimensional disk is glued to a point , producing a CW complex .
Suspension of equator : written in topology as ΣS1
This construction , though simple , is of great theoretical importance . Take the circle S1 to be the equator , and sweep each point on it to one point above ( the North Pole ) , producing the northern hemisphere , and to one point below ( the South Pole ) , producing the southern hemisphere . For each positive integer n , the n @-@ sphere x02 + x12 + ⋯ + xn2 =
1 has as equator the ( n − 1 ) -sphere x02 + x12 + ⋯ + xn − 12 = 1 , and the suspension ΣSn − 1 produces Sn .
Some theory requires selecting a fixed point on the sphere , calling the pair ( sphere , point ) a pointed sphere . For some spaces the choice matters , but for a sphere all points are equivalent so the choice is a matter of convenience . The point ( 1 , 0 , 0 , … , 0 ) , which is on the equator of all the spheres , works well for geometric spheres ; the ( collapsed ) rim of the disk is another obvious choice .
= = = Homotopy group = = =
The distinguishing feature of a topological space is its continuity structure , formalized in terms of open sets or neighborhoods . A continuous map is a function between spaces that preserves continuity . A homotopy is a continuous path between continuous maps ; two maps connected by a homotopy are said to be homotopic . The idea common to all these concepts is to discard variations that do not affect outcomes of interest . An important practical example is the residue theorem of complex analysis , where " closed curves " are continuous maps from the circle into the complex plane , and where two closed curves produce the same integral result if they are homotopic in the topological space consisting of the plane minus the points of singularity .
The first homotopy group , or fundamental group , π1 ( X ) of a ( path connected ) topological space X thus begins with continuous maps from a pointed circle ( S1 , s ) to the pointed space ( X , x ) , where maps from one pair to another map s into x . These maps ( or equivalently , closed curves ) are grouped together into equivalence classes based on homotopy ( keeping the " base point " x fixed ) , so that two maps are in the same class if they are homotopic . Just as one point is distinguished , so one class is distinguished : all maps ( or curves ) homotopic to the constant map S1 ↦ x are called null homotopic . The classes become an abstract algebraic group with the introduction of addition , defined via an " equator pinch " . This pinch maps the equator of a pointed sphere ( here a circle ) to the distinguished point , producing a " bouquet of spheres " — two pointed spheres joined at their distinguished point . The two maps to be added map the upper and lower spheres separately , agreeing on the distinguished point , and composition with the pinch gives the sum map .
More generally , the i @-@ th homotopy group , πi ( X ) begins with the pointed i @-@ sphere ( Si , s ) , and otherwise follows the same procedure . The null homotopic class acts as the identity of the group addition , and for X equal to Sn ( for positive n ) — the homotopy groups of spheres — the groups are abelian and finitely generated . If for some i all maps are null homotopic , then the group πi consists of one element , and is called the trivial group .
A continuous map between two topological spaces induces a group homomorphism between the associated homotopy groups . In particular , if the map is a continuous bijection ( a homeomorphism ) , so that the two spaces have the same topology , then their i @-@ th homotopy groups are isomorphic for all i . However , the real plane has exactly the same homotopy groups as a solitary point ( as does a Euclidean space of any dimension ) , and the real plane with a point removed has the same groups as a circle , so groups alone are not enough to distinguish spaces . Although the loss of discrimination power is unfortunate , it can also make certain computations easier .
= = Low @-@ dimensional examples = =
The low @-@ dimensional examples of homotopy groups of spheres provide a sense of the subject , because these special cases can be visualized in ordinary 3 @-@ dimensional space ( Hatcher 2002 ) . However , such visualizations are not mathematical proofs , and do not capture the possible complexity of maps between spheres .
= = = π1 ( S1 ) =
Z = = =
The simplest case concerns the ways that a circle ( 1 @-@ sphere ) can be wrapped around another circle . This can be visualized by wrapping a rubber band around one 's finger : it can be wrapped once , twice , three times and so on . The wrapping can be in either of two directions , and wrappings in opposite directions will cancel out after a deformation . The homotopy group π1 ( S1 ) is therefore an infinite cyclic group , and is isomorphic to the group Z of integers under addition : a homotopy class is identified with an integer by counting the number of times a mapping in the homotopy class wraps around the circle . This integer can also be thought of as the winding number of a loop around the origin in the plane .
The identification ( a group isomorphism ) of the homotopy group with the integers is often written as an equality : thus π1 ( S1 ) = Z.
= = = π2 ( S2 ) =
Z = = =
Mappings from a 2 @-@ sphere to a 2 @-@ sphere can be visualized as wrapping a plastic bag around a ball and then sealing it . The sealed bag is topologically equivalent to a 2 @-@ sphere , as is the surface of the ball . The bag can be wrapped more than once by twisting it and wrapping it back over the ball . ( There is no requirement for the continuous map to be injective and so the bag is allowed to pass through itself . ) The twist can be in one of two directions and opposite twists can cancel out by deformation . The total number of twists after cancellation is an integer , called the degree of the mapping . As in the case mappings from the circle to the circle , this degree identifies the homotopy group with the group of integers , Z.
These two results generalize : for all n > 0 , πn ( Sn ) = Z ( see below ) .
= = = π1 ( S2 ) =
0 = = =
Any continuous mapping from a circle to an ordinary sphere can be continuously deformed to a one @-@ point mapping , and so its homotopy class is trivial . One way to visualize this is to imagine a rubber @-@ band wrapped around a frictionless ball : the band can always be slid off the ball . The homotopy group is therefore a trivial group , with only one element , the identity element , and so it can be identified with the subgroup of Z consisting only of the number zero . This group is often denoted by 0 .
This result generalises to higher dimensions . All mappings from a lower @-@ dimensional sphere into a sphere of higher dimension are similarly trivial : if i < n , then πi ( Sn ) = 0 .
= = = π2 ( S1 ) =
0 = = =
All the interesting cases of homotopy groups of spheres involve mappings from a higher @-@ dimensional sphere onto one of lower dimension . Unfortunately , the only example which can easily be visualized is not interesting : there are no nontrivial mappings from the ordinary sphere to the circle . Hence , π2 ( S1 ) = 0 . This is because S1 has the real line as its universal cover which is contractible ( it has the homotopy type of a point ) . In addition , because S2 is simply connected , by the lifting criterion , any map from S2 to S1 can be lifted to a map into the real line and the nullhomotopy descends to the downstairs space .
= = = π3 ( S2 ) =
Z = = =
The first nontrivial example with i > n concerns mappings from the 3 @-@ sphere to the ordinary 2 @-@ sphere , and was discovered by Heinz Hopf , who constructed a nontrivial map from S3 to S2 , now known as the Hopf fibration ( Hopf 1931 ) . This map generates the homotopy group π3 ( S2 ) = Z.
= = History = =
In the late 19th century Camille Jordan introduced the notion of homotopy and used the notion of a homotopy group , without using the language of group theory ( O 'Connor & Robertson 2001 ) . A more rigorous approach was adopted by Henri Poincaré in his 1895 set of papers Analysis situs where the related concepts of homology and the fundamental group were also introduced ( O 'Connor & Robertson 1996 ) .
Higher homotopy groups were first defined by Eduard Čech in 1932 ( Čech 1932 , p . 203 ) . ( His first paper was withdrawn on the advice of Pavel Sergeyevich Alexandrov and Heinz Hopf , on the grounds that the groups were commutative so could not be the right generalizations of the fundamental group . ) Witold Hurewicz is also credited with the introduction of homotopy groups in his 1935 paper and also for the Hurewicz theorem which can be used to calculate some of the groups ( May 1999a ) . An important method for calculating the various groups is the concept of stable algebraic topology , which finds properties that are independent of the dimensions . Typically these only hold for larger dimensions . The first such result was Hans Freudenthal 's suspension theorem , published in 1937 . Stable algebraic topology flourished between 1945 and 1966 with many important results ( May 1999a ) . In 1953 George W. Whitehead showed that there is a metastable range for the homotopy groups of spheres . Jean @-@ Pierre Serre used spectral sequences to show that most of these groups are finite , the exceptions being πn ( Sn ) and π4n − 1 ( S2n ) . Others who worked in this area included José Ádem , Hiroshi Toda , Frank Adams and J. Peter May . The stable homotopy groups πn + k ( Sn ) are known for k up to 64 , and , as of 2007 , unknown for larger k ( Hatcher 2002 , Stable homotopy groups , pp. 385 – 393 ) .
= = General theory = =
As noted already , when i is less than n , πi ( Sn )
= 0 , the trivial group ( Hatcher 2002 ) . The reason is that a continuous mapping from an i @-@ sphere to an n @-@ sphere with i < n can always be deformed so that it is not surjective . Consequently , its image is contained in Sn with a point removed ; this is a contractible space , and any mapping to such a space can be deformed into a one @-@ point mapping .
The case i =
n has also been noted already , and is an easy consequence of the Hurewicz theorem : this theorem links homotopy groups with homology groups , which are generally easier to calculate ; in particular , it shows that for a simply @-@ connected space X , the first nonzero homotopy group πk ( X ) , with k > 0 , is isomorphic to the first nonzero homology group Hk ( X ) . For the n @-@ sphere , this immediately implies that for n > 0 , πn ( Sn )
= Hn ( Sn ) =
Z.
The homology groups Hi ( Sn ) , with i > n , are all trivial . It therefore came as a great surprise historically that the corresponding homotopy groups are not trivial in general . This is the case that is of real importance : the higher homotopy groups πi ( Sn ) , for i > n , are surprisingly complex and difficult to compute , and the effort to compute them has generated a significant amount of new mathematics .
= = = Table = = =
The following table gives an idea of the complexity of the higher homotopy groups even for spheres of dimension 8 or less . In this table , the entries are either the trivial group 0 , the infinite cyclic group Z , finite cyclic groups of order n ( written as Zn ) , or direct products of such groups ( written , for example , as Z24 × Z3 or Z22
= Z2 × Z2 ) . Extended tables of homotopy groups of spheres are given at the end of the article .
The first two rows of this table are straightforward . The homotopy groups πi ( S0 ) of the 0 @-@ dimensional sphere are trivial for i > 0 , because any base point preserving map from an i @-@ sphere to a 0 @-@ sphere is a one @-@ point mapping . Similarly , the homotopy groups πi ( S1 ) of the 1 @-@ sphere are trivial for i > 1 , because the universal covering space , R , which has the same higher homotopy groups , is contractible .
Beyond these two rows , the higher homotopy groups ( i > n ) appear to be chaotic , but in fact there are many patterns , some obvious and some very subtle .
The groups below the jagged black line are constant along the diagonals ( as indicated by the red , green and blue coloring ) .
Most of the groups are finite . The only unstable groups which are not are either on the main diagonal or immediately above the jagged line ( highlighted in yellow ) .
The third and fourth rows of the table are the same starting in the third column ( i.e. , πi ( S2 ) =
πi ( S3 ) for i ≥ 3 ) . This isomorphism is induced by the Hopf fibration S3 → S2 .
These patterns follow from many different theoretical results .
= = = Stable and unstable groups = = =
The fact that the groups below the jagged line in the table above are constant along the diagonals is explained by the suspension theorem of Hans Freudenthal , which implies that the suspension homomorphism from πn + k ( Sn ) to πn + k + 1 ( Sn + 1 ) is an isomorphism for n > k + 1 . The groups πn + k ( Sn ) with n > k + 1 are called the stable homotopy groups of spheres , and are denoted πkS : they are finite abelian groups for k ≠ 0 , and have been computed in numerous cases , although the general pattern is still elusive . ( Hatcher 2002 , Stable homotopy groups , pp. 385 – 393 ) . For n ≤ k + 1 , the groups are called the unstable homotopy groups of spheres .
= = = Hopf fibrations = = =
The classical Hopf fibration is a fiber bundle :
<formula>
The general theory of fiber bundles F → E → B shows that there is a long exact sequence of homotopy groups
<formula>
For this specific bundle , each group homomorphism πi ( S1 ) → πi ( S3 ) , induced by the inclusion S1 → S3 , maps all of πi ( S1 ) to zero , since the lower @-@ dimensional sphere S1 can be deformed to a point inside the higher @-@ dimensional one S3 . This corresponds to the vanishing of π1 ( S3 ) . Thus the long exact sequence breaks into short exact sequences ,
<formula>
Since Sn + 1 is a suspension of Sn , these sequences are split by the suspension homomorphism πi − 1 ( S1 ) → πi ( S2 ) , giving isomorphisms
<formula>
Since πi − 1 ( S1 ) vanishes for i at least 3 , the first row shows that πi ( S2 ) and πi ( S3 ) are isomorphic whenever i is at least 3 , as observed above .
The Hopf fibration may be constructed as follows : pairs of complex numbers ( z0 , z1 ) with | z0 | 2 + | z1 | 2
= 1 form a 3 @-@ sphere , and their ratios z0 / z1 cover the complex plane plus infinity , a 2 @-@ sphere . The Hopf map S3 → S2 sends any such pair to its ratio .
Similarly , there are generalized Hopf fibrations
<formula>
<formula>
constructed using pairs of quaternions or octonions instead of complex numbers ( Hatcher 2002 ) . Here , too , π3 ( S7 ) and π7 ( S15 ) are zero . Thus the long exact sequences again break into families of split short exact sequences , implying two families of relations .
<formula>
<formula>
The three fibrations have base space Sn with n =
2m , for m
= 1 , 2 , 3 . A fibration does exist for S1 ( m =
0 ) , but not for S16 ( m = 4 ) and beyond . Although generalizations of the relations to S16 are often true , they sometimes fail ; for example ,
<formula>
Thus there can be no fibration
<formula>
the first non @-@ trivial case of the Hopf invariant one problem , because such a fibration would imply that the failed relation is true .
= = = Framed cobordism = = =
Homotopy groups of spheres are closely related to cobordism classes of manifolds . In 1938 Lev Pontryagin established an isomorphism between the homotopy group πn + k ( Sn ) and the group Ωkframed ( Sn + k ) of cobordism classes of differentiable k @-@ submanifolds of Sn + k which are `framed ' , i.e. have a trivialized normal bundle . Every map ƒ : Sn + k → Sn is homotopic to a differentiable map with <formula> a framed k @-@ dimensional submanifold . For example , πn ( Sn ) = Z is the cobordism group of framed 0 @-@ dimensional submanifolds of Sn , computed by the algebraic sum of their points , corresponding to the degree of maps <formula> . The projection of the Hopf fibration <formula> represents a generator of π3 ( S2 ) = Ω1framed ( S3 ) = Z which corresponds to the framed 1 @-@ dimensional submanifold of S3 defined by the standard embedding <formula> with a nonstandard trivialization of the normal 2 @-@ plane bundle . Until the advent of more sophisticated algebraic methods in the early 1950s ( Serre ) the Pontrjagin isomorphism was the main tool for computing the homotopy groups of spheres . In 1954 the Pontrjagin isomorphism was generalized by René Thom to an isomorphism expressing other groups of cobordism classes ( e.g. of all manifolds ) as homotopy groups of spaces and spectra . In more recent work the argument is usually reversed , with cobordism groups computed in terms of homotopy groups ( Scorpan 2005 ) .
= = = Finiteness and torsion = = =
In 1951 , Jean @-@ Pierre Serre showed that homotopy groups of spheres are all finite except for those of the form πn ( Sn ) or π4n − 1 ( S2n ) ( for positive n ) , when the group is the product of the infinite cyclic group with a finite abelian group ( Serre 1951 ) . In particular the homotopy groups are determined by their p @-@ components for all primes p . The 2 @-@ components are hardest to calculate , and in several ways behave differently from the p @-@ components for odd primes .
In the same paper , Serre found the first place that p @-@ torsion occurs in the homotopy groups of n dimensional spheres , by showing that πn + k ( Sn ) has no p @-@ torsion if k < 2p − 3 , and has a unique subgroup of order p if n ≥ 3 and k
= 2p − 3 . The case of 2 @-@ dimensional spheres is slightly different : the first p @-@ torsion occurs for k =
2p − 3 + 1 . In the case of odd torsion there are more precise results ; in this case there is a big difference between odd and even dimensional spheres . If p is an odd prime and n = 2i + 1 , then elements of the p @-@ component of πn + k ( Sn ) have order at most pi ( Cohen , Moore & Neisendorfer 1979 ) . This is in some sense the best possible result , as these groups are known to have elements of this order for some values of k ( Ravenel 2003 , p . 4 ) . Furthermore , the stable range can be extended in this case : if n is odd then the double suspension from πk ( Sn ) to πk + 2 ( Sn + 2 ) is an isomorphism of p @-@ components if k < p ( n + 1 ) − 3 , and an epimorphism if equality holds ( Serre 1952 ) . The p @-@ torsion of the intermediate group πk + 1 ( Sn + 1 ) can be strictly larger .
The results above about odd torsion only hold for odd @-@ dimensional spheres : for even @-@ dimensional spheres , the James fibration gives the torsion at odd primes p in terms of that of odd @-@ dimensional spheres ,
<formula>
( where ( p ) means take the p @-@ component ) ( Ravenel 2003 , p . 25 ) . This exact sequence is similar to the ones coming from the Hopf fibration ; the difference is that it works for all even @-@ dimensional spheres , albeit at the expense of ignoring 2 @-@ torsion . Combining the results for odd and even dimensional spheres shows that much of the odd torsion of unstable homotopy groups is determined by the odd torsion of the stable homotopy groups .
For stable homotopy groups there are more precise results about p @-@ torsion . For example , if k < 2p ( p − 1 ) − 2 for a prime p then the p @-@ primary component of the stable homotopy group πkS vanishes unless k + 1 is divisible by 2 ( p − 1 ) , in which case it is cyclic of order p ( Fuks 2001 ) .
= = = The J @-@ homomorphism = = =
An important subgroup of πn + k ( Sn ) , for k ≥ 2 , is the image of the J @-@ homomorphism J : πk ( SO ( n ) ) → πn + k ( Sn ) , where SO ( n ) denotes the special orthogonal group ( Adams 1966 ) . In the stable range n ≥ k + 2 , the homotopy groups πk ( SO ( n ) ) only depend on k modulo 8 . This period 8 pattern is known as Bott periodicity , and it is reflected in the stable homotopy groups of spheres via the image of the J @-@ homomorphism which is :
a cyclic group of order 2 if k is congruent to 0 or 1 modulo 8 ;
trivial if k is congruent to 2 , 4 , 5 , or 6 modulo 8 ; and
a cyclic group of order equal to the denominator of B2n / 4n , where B2n is a Bernoulli number , if k ≡ 3 ( mod 4 ) .
This last case accounts for the elements of unusually large finite order in πn + k ( Sn ) for such values of k . For example , the stable groups πn + 11 ( Sn ) have a cyclic subgroup of order 504 , the denominator of B6 / 12
= 1 ⁄ 504 .
The stable homotopy groups of spheres are the direct sum of the image of the J @-@ homomorphism , and the kernel of the Adams e @-@ invariant , a homomorphism from these groups to Q / Z. Roughly speaking , the image of the J @-@ homomorphism is the subgroup of " well understood " or " easy " elements of the stable homotopy groups . These well understood elements account for most elements of the stable homotopy groups of spheres in small dimensions . The quotient of πnS by the image of the J @-@ homomorphism is considered to be the " hard " part of the stable homotopy groups of spheres ( Adams 1966 ) . ( Adams also introduced certain order 2 elements μn of πnS for n =
1 or 2 mod 8 , and these are also considered to be " well understood " . ) Tables of homotopy groups of spheres sometimes omit the " easy " part Im ( J ) to save space .
= = = Ring structure = = =
The direct sum
<formula>
of the stable homotopy groups of spheres is a supercommutative graded ring , where multiplication is given by composition of representing maps , and any element of non @-@ zero degree is nilpotent ( Nishida 1973 ) ; the nilpotence theorem on complex cobordism implies Nishida 's theorem .
Example : If η is the generator of π1S ( of order 2 ) , then η2 is nonzero and generates π2S , and η3 is nonzero and 12 times a generator of π3S , while η4 is zero because the group π4S is trivial .
If f and g and h are elements of π ∗ S with f ⋅ g
= 0 and g ⋅ h =
0 , there is a Toda bracket 〈 f , g , h 〉 of these elements ( Toda 1962 ) . The Toda bracket is not quite an element of a stable homotopy group , because it is only defined up to addition of products of certain other elements . Hiroshi Toda used the composition product and Toda brackets to label many of the elements of homotopy groups . There are also higher Toda brackets of several elements , defined when suitable lower Toda brackets vanish . This parallels the theory of Massey products in cohomology . Every element of the stable homotopy groups of spheres can be expressed using composition products and higher Toda brackets in terms of certain well known elements , called Hopf elements ( Cohen 1968 ) .
= = Computational methods = =
If X is any finite simplicial complex with finite fundamental group , in particular if X is a sphere of dimension at least 2 , then its homotopy groups are all finitely generated abelian groups . To compute these groups , they are often factored into their p @-@ components for each prime p , and calculating each of these p @-@ groups separately . The first few homotopy groups of spheres can be computed using ad hoc variations of the ideas above ; beyond this point , most methods for computing homotopy groups of spheres are based on spectral sequences ( Ravenel 2003 ) . This is usually done by constructing suitable fibrations and taking the associated long exact sequences of homotopy groups ; spectral sequences are a systematic way of organizing the complicated information that this process generates .
" The method of killing homotopy groups " , due to Cartan and Serre ( 1952a , 1952b ) involves repeatedly using the Hurewicz theorem to compute the first non @-@ trivial homotopy group and then killing ( eliminating ) it with a fibration involving an Eilenberg @-@ MacLane space . In principle this gives an effective algorithm for computing all homotopy groups of any finite simply connected simplicial complex , but in practice it is too cumbersome to use for computing anything other than the first few nontrivial homotopy groups as the simplicial complex becomes much more complicated every time one kills a homotopy group .
The Serre spectral sequence was used by Serre to prove some of the results mentioned previously . He used the fact that taking the loop space of a well behaved space shifts all the homotopy groups down by 1 , so the nth homotopy group of a space X is the first homotopy group of its ( n − 1 ) -fold repeated loop space , which is equal to the first homology group of the ( n − 1 ) -fold loop space by the Hurewicz theorem . This reduces the calculation of homotopy groups of X to the calculation of homology groups of its repeated loop spaces . The Serre spectral sequence relates the homology of a space to that of its loop space , so can sometimes be used to calculate the homology of loop spaces . The Serre spectral sequence tends to have many non @-@ zero differentials , which are hard to control , and too many ambiguities appear for higher homotopy groups . Consequently , it has been superseded by more powerful spectral sequences with fewer non @-@ zero differentials , which give more information .
The EHP spectral sequence can be used to compute many homotopy groups of spheres ; it is based on some fibrations used by Toda in his calculations of homotopy groups ( Mahowald 2001 , Toda 1962 ) .
The classical Adams spectral sequence has E2 term given by the Ext groups ExtA ( p ) ∗ , ∗ ( Zp , Zp ) over the mod p Steenrod algebra A ( p ) , and converges to something closely related to the p @-@ component of the stable homotopy groups . The initial terms of the Adams spectral sequence are themselves quite hard to compute : this is sometimes done using an auxiliary spectral sequence called the May spectral sequence ( Ravenel 2003 , pp. 67 – 74 ) .
The Adams – Novikov spectral sequence is a more powerful version of the Adams spectral sequence replacing ordinary cohomology mod p with a generalized cohomology theory , such as complex cobordism or , more usually , a piece of it called Brown – Peterson cohomology . The initial term is again quite hard to calculate ; to do this one can use the chromatic spectral sequence ( Ravenel 2003 , Chapter 5 ) .
A variation of this last approach uses a backwards version of the Adams – Novikov spectral sequence for Brown – Peterson cohomology : the limit is known , and the initial terms involve unknown stable homotopy groups of spheres that one is trying to find . Kochman ( 1990 ) used this approach to calculate the 2 @-@ components of the first 64 stable homotopy groups ; unfortunately there was a mistake in his calculations for the 54th stem and beyond , which was corrected by Kochman & Mahowald ( 1995 ) .
The computation of the homotopy groups of S2 has been reduced to a combinatorial group theory question . Berrick et al . ( 2006 ) identify these homotopy groups as certain quotients of the Brunnian braid groups of S2 . Under this correspondence , every nontrivial element in πn ( S2 ) for n > 2 may be represented by a Brunnian braid over S2 that is not Brunnian over the disk D2 . For example , the Hopf map S3 → S2 corresponds to the Borromean rings .
= = Applications = =
The winding number ( corresponding to an integer of π1 ( S1 )
= Z ) can be used to prove the fundamental theorem of algebra , which states that every non @-@ constant complex polynomial has a zero .
The fact that πn − 1 ( Sn − 1 ) =
Z implies the Brouwer fixed point theorem that every continuous map from the n @-@ dimensional ball to itself has a fixed point .
The stable homotopy groups of spheres are important in singularity theory , which studies the structure of singular points of smooth maps or algebraic varieties . Such singularities arise as critical points of smooth maps from Rm to Rn . The geometry near a critical point of such a map can be described by an element of πm − 1 ( Sn − 1 ) , by considering the way in which a small m − 1 sphere around the critical point maps into a topological n − 1 sphere around the critical value .
The fact that the third stable homotopy group of spheres is cyclic of order 24 , first proved by Vladimir Rokhlin , implies Rokhlin 's theorem that the signature of a compact smooth spin 4 @-@ manifold is divisible by 16 ( Scorpan 2005 ) .
Stable homotopy groups of spheres are used to describe the group Θn of h @-@ cobordism classes of oriented homotopy n @-@ spheres ( for n ≠ 4 , this is the group of smooth structures on n @-@ spheres , up to orientation @-@ preserving diffeomorphism ; the non @-@ trivial elements of this group are represented by exotic spheres ) . More precisely , there is an injective map
<formula>
where bPn + 1 is the cyclic subgroup represented by homotopy spheres that bound a parallelizable manifold , πnS is the nth stable homotopy group of spheres , and J is the image of the J @-@ homomorphism . This is an isomorphism unless n is of the form 2k − 2 , in which case the image has index 1 or 2 ( Kervaire & Milnor 1963 ) .
The groups Θn above , and therefore the stable homotopy groups of spheres , are used in the classification of possible smooth structures on a topological or piecewise linear manifold ( Scorpan 2005 ) .
The Kervaire invariant problem , about the existence of manifolds of Kervaire invariant 1 in dimensions 2k − 2 can be reduced to a question about stable homotopy groups of spheres . For example , knowledge of stable homotopy groups of degree up to 48 has been used to settle the Kervaire invariant problem in dimension 26 − 2 = 62 ( Barratt , Jones & Mahowald 1984 ) . ( This was the smallest value of k for which the question was open at the time . )
The Barratt – Priddy theorem says that the stable homotopy groups of the spheres can be expressed in terms of the plus construction applied to the classifying space of the symmetric group , leading to an identification of K @-@ theory of the field with one element with stable homotopy groups ( Deitmar 2006 ) .
= = Table of homotopy groups = =
Tables of homotopy groups of spheres are most conveniently organized by showing πn + k ( Sn ) .
The following table shows many of the groups πn + k ( Sn ) . ( These tables are based on the table of homotopy groups of spheres in Toda ( 1962 ) . ) The stable homotopy groups are highlighted in blue , the unstable ones in red . Each homotopy group is the product of the cyclic groups of the orders given in the table , using the following conventions :
The entry " ⋅ " denotes the trivial group .
Where the entry is an integer , m , the homotopy group is the cyclic group of that order ( generally written Zm ) .
Where the entry is ∞ , the homotopy group is the infinite cyclic group , Z.
Where entry is a product , the homotopy group is the cartesian product ( equivalently , direct sum ) of the cyclic groups of those orders . Powers indicate repeated products . ( Note that when a and b have no common factor , Za × Zb is isomorphic to Zab . )
Example : π19 ( S10 )
= π9 + 10 ( S10 ) =
Z × Z2 × Z2 × Z2 , which is denoted by ∞ ⋅ 23 in the table .
= = Table of stable homotopy groups = =
The stable homotopy groups πk are the product of cyclic groups of the infinite or prime power orders shown in the table . ( For largely historical reasons , stable homotopy groups are usually given as products of cyclic groups of prime power order , while tables of unstable homotopy groups often give them as products of the smallest number of cyclic groups . ) The main complexity is in the 2- , 3- , and 5 @-@ components : for p > 5 , the p @-@ components in the range of the table are accounted for by the J @-@ homomorphism and are cyclic of order p if 2 ( p − 1 ) divides k + 1 and 0 otherwise ( Fuks 2001 ) . ( The 2 @-@ components can be found in Kochman ( 1990 ) , though there were some errors for k ≥ 54 that were corrected by Kochman & Mahowald ( 1995 ) , and the 3- and 5 @-@ components in Ravenel ( 2003 ) . ) The mod 8 behavior of the table comes from Bott periodicity via the J @-@ homomorphism , whose image is underlined .
= = = General algebraic topology references = = =
Hatcher , Allen ( 2002 ) , Algebraic Topology , Cambridge University Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 79540 @-@ 1 , MR 1867354 .
May , J. Peter ( 1999b ) , A Concise Course in Algebraic Topology , Chicago lectures in mathematics ( revised ed . ) , University of Chicago Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 51183 @-@ 2 , MR 1702278 .
= = = Historical papers = = =
Čech , Eduard ( 1932 ) , " Höherdimensionale Homotopiegruppen " , Verhandlungen des Internationalen Mathematikerkongress , Zürich ( Orell Füssli ) .
Hopf , Heinz ( 1931 ) , " Über die Abbildungen der dreidimensionalen Sphäre auf die Kugelfläche " , Mathematische Annalen ( Berlin : Springer ) 104 ( 1 ) : 637 – 665 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01457962 .
May , J. Peter ( 1999a ) , " Stable Algebraic Topology 1945 – 1966 " , in I. M. James , History of Topology , Elsevier Science , pp. 665 – 723 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 444 @-@ 82375 @-@ 5 .
= Missing My Baby =
" Missing My Baby " is a song released by American singer Selena on her third studio album Entre a Mi Mundo ( 1992 ) . It was composed by A.B. Quintanilla — her brother and principal record producer , whose intention was to showcase Selena 's diverse musical abilities . Selena included it on the album to help her cross over into the English @-@ speaking market . Critics praised her emotive enunciation in the song . After Selena was murdered in 1995 , a posthumous music video made for VH1 was released to promote the triple box @-@ set Anthology ( 1998 ) .
" Missing My Baby " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B ballad influenced by urban and soul music . The lyrics describe the love felt by the narrator , who reminisces of rhapsodic events she has shared with her lover . In some parts of the song , the narrator experiences loneliness and anguish because of the absence of her boyfriend . Although never intended to be released as a single , the track peaked at number 22 on the US Rhythmic Top 40 chart in 1995 .
= = Background and development = =
" Missing My Baby " was written by Selena 's brother and the song 's principal record producer A.B. Quintanilla . It was created for Selena 's 1992 album Entre a Mi Mundo , to showcase her diverse musical abilities and to add to the album 's variety of musical styles , which include Mexican pop and traditional Mexican songs , whereas " Missing My Baby " is in the style of contemporary R & B.
After the release of Selena 's full @-@ length Spanish albums Selena ( 1989 ) and Ven Conmigo ( 1990 ) , which included Tejano and other Mexican pop styles , she decided that her next recording would feature an English @-@ language song . She believed that such a song would convince EMI Records ' chairman Charles Koppelman that she was ready to release a crossover album . EMI had wanted her to acquire a larger fan base before launching her crossover career . In spite of this , Selena included the song on Entre a Mi Mundo .
Quintanilla III wrote " Missing My Baby " in a week , and three weeks later , in late 1991 , it was recorded at Sun Valley , Los Angeles . EMI Latin wanted R & B duo Full Force to perform a remixed version of the recording . Quintanilla III and Selena met with the group at their Brooklyn recording studio , and Full Force agreed to add backing vocals , which they recorded in two days . EMI Latin , the record label Selena belongs to , chose Full Force 's version of " Missing My Baby " instead of Selena 's solo version of the song .
= = Composition = =
" Missing My Baby " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B ballad with influences of urban and soul music . It is in the key of B minor , at 144 beats per minute in common time . The recording incorporates melisma , with sung poetry during the downtempo part of the song . The melody is accompanied by backing vocals , and instrumentation is provided by an electric piano , drums , a keyboard , a synthesizer and strings . Contemporary music critics praised Selena 's emotive enunciation , which emphasized the song 's title and central theme . R & B duo Full Force were the backing vocalists for the original and remix versions of " Missing My Baby " .
J.R. Reynolds , formerly of Billboard , called " Missing My Baby " a " dreamy ballad " with an " R & B @-@ styled melody under Selena 's pop vocals " . Ramiro Burr of the Austin American @-@ Statesman described it as a soul ballad . Jerry Johnston of the Deseret News thought that Selena displayed a " Leslie Gore [ sic ] baby @-@ voice " in " Missing My Baby " and that she " displays a wonderful suppleness in her voice " . The Virginian @-@ Pilot said that the song was built on hooks that recall Diana Ross 's " Missing You " , which is a tribute to Marvin Gaye , and the Beach Boys ' " Good to My Baby " .
The song begins with a drum solo before the other instruments enter to form the musical foundation . Selena sings to her absent lover about how much she misses him , saying that he is " always on [ her ] mind " and that she feels lonely when he is not with her . Three times she sings , " I often think of the happy times we spent together / And I just can 't wait to tell you that I love you " . In the chorus , she sings of wanting to hold him tight and feel his heartbeat .
= = Critical reception and legacy = =
" Missing My Baby " received positive reviews from critics . Vibe magazine reported that Full Force was awarded gold and platinum discs for " Missing My Baby " and " Techno Cumbia " , and described " Missing My Baby " as giving a " hint of her aspirations " . After it was remixed by Quintanilla III and later produced for the 1995 album Dreaming of You , the Hi XD said that it was the best English @-@ language song on the album . Chris Riemenschneider and John T. Davis of the Austin American @-@ Statesman wrote that " Missing My Baby can sound as fluffy as the Big M 's " Crazy for You " . Cary Clack of the San Antonio Express @-@ News wrote that " Missing My Baby " was played on non @-@ Tejano radio stations and that he thought it might become a posthumous hit , while commenting that the recording " displays [ Selena 's ] wonderful vocal and emotional range " . However , Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News believed that " Missing My Baby " and other tracks were added to Entre a Mi Mundo " for good measure " .
" Missing My Baby " was one of the first Selena songs to be played on radio stations after she was murdered by Yolanda Saldívar , her friend and former manager of her Selena Etc. boutiques . A music video of the song , incorporating footage from Selena 's personal home videos , was released for VH1 in 1998 to promote the triple box @-@ set Anthology . Billboard reported that the video was the 47th most played music video for that channel in the week ending 5 April 1998 .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits from the album 's liner notes :
Selena – vocals
Full Force – backing vocalists
Ricky Vela – keyboards
Suzette Quintanilla – drums
A.B. Quintanilla – writer
= The Problem Solvers =
" The Problem Solvers " is the fifth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 63rd overall episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Ron Weiner and directed by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on November 12 , 2009 . Guest stars in the episode include Josh Fadem , Cheyenne Jackson , Padma Lakshmi , and Shawn Levy .
In the episode , the new cast member for the fictional sketch comedy show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) , Jack " Danny " Baker ( Jackson ) arrives on set and learns the intricacies of the show . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) offers Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) a chance to create a television pilot based on her " Dealbreakers " sketch but Liz decides to search for other offers . In addition , after offering some advice Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) decide to solve other problems of the cast and crew . Finally , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) grows annoyed as the cast members begin to ask less of him .
" The Problem Solvers " received generally positive reception from television critics , although some expressed disappointment in the tone . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 8 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
This episode opens with Liz Lemon , Jack Donaghy , and the rest of the TGS with Tracy Jordan staff welcoming Jack Baker , the new cast member , to the show . After realizing that Baker has the same first name as him , Jack quickly decides to rename him Danny . In the previous episode , Danny was hired by Jack from his work as a street performer who dressed up like a robot and had very limited recent experience with " real acting " .
Meanwhile , Jack offers Liz the chance to star in a new television pilot based on her " Dealbreakers " sketch . She is initially excited , but Tracy Jordan and Jenna Maroney convince her to test the market and search for other offers before agreeing to work with Jack . Liz signs with a talent agent ( Josh Fadem ) to explore other options , but later learns he is a low @-@ level agent . Jack cannot stand Liz 's dismissal of him , and as a result , he announces through the media that NBC is moving forward with the pilot 's production and calls in Padma Lakshmi as a potential new host in place of Liz . Liz threatens to sue Jack and NBC for the rights to " Dealbreakers " , but Jack informs her that NBC owns the rights to it . Liz takes a meeting with Sports Shouting producer , Scottie Shofar ( Shawn Levy ) , and Jack meets with Padma . During their respective meetings , however , the two realize that they should work with one another . They shake hands at the end of the episode , agreeing to create the pilot together .
After giving advice to Liz , Tracy and Jenna spend the episode calling themselves " The Problem Solvers " giving the TGS crew advice on their lives . From the moment he arrives , Danny treats NBC page Kenneth Parcell politely and does not ask him to run any errands for him , a break from how Tracy and Jenna treat him . Danny explains to the two that lower @-@ level people such as pages often rise up to positions where they would be the boss of actors such as themselves , and as a result , he is polite to avoid building bad relationships with potential future bosses . Danny even speculates that Kenneth could be running the network someday . Jenna initially dismisses the idea out @-@ of @-@ hand , but Tracy becomes concerned , and tells Kenneth that he doesn 't want him to perform any more menial tasks for him ; Jenna soon joins him . Meanwhile , Kenneth lets slip that he may have been alive forever . Kenneth becomes upset that he is losing his responsibilities and confronts Danny , driving him to yell at Kenneth . Danny , who is Canadian , has had a hard time pronouncing the word " about " , but after yelling at Kenneth , and saying " about " without his Canadian accent , thanks Kenneth for helping him .
= = Production = =
" The Problem Solvers " was written by Ron Weiner and directed by John Riggi , both co @-@ executive producers on 30 Rock . This episode was Weiner 's fifth writing credit , having penned " Secrets and Lies " , " Señor Macho Solo " , " Goodbye , My Friend " , and " Mamma Mia " , and was Riggi 's second directed episode , having helmed " Goodbye My Friend " in the show 's third season . " The Problem Solvers " originally aired in the United States on November 12 , 2009 , on NBC as the fifth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 63rd overall episode of the series .
" The Problem Solvers " was filmed on October 23 , October 28 , and October 29 , 2009 . Jack Donaghy hiring the robot street performer in the previous episode , " Audition Day " , was first introduced in the fourth season premiere episode " Season 4 " , in which Jack explains that the TGS staff have become too elitist and need to change to survive in tough economic times , and informs Liz Lemon — the head writer on TGS — to begin searching for a new cast member to help lessen this elitist image . In this episode , the robot street performer is introduced to the TGS crew as Danny Baker , and was played by actor Cheyenne Jackson , who made his 30 Rock debut with this episode . Series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey had seen Jackson in the Broadway musicals Xanadu and Damn Yankees , the latter that starred Jane Krakowski , who plays Jenna Maroney on the show . According to Jackson in a November 2009 interview , Fey set up a meeting to interest him in a role on the program . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , it was revealed that it was Krakowski who brought Jackson to the attention of the 30 Rock producers . In " Audition Day " , Jackson did not play the robot , instead actor Daniel Genalo played the character .
The actor Josh Fadem played an inexperienced agent that Liz signs with in the episode . In a November 2009 interview with Tulsa World , Fadem admitted to " [ flubbing ] a couple lines " during filming , but that no one on the set " made me feel bad . " Director Shawn Levy guest starred in the episode as Scottie Shofar , a producer for the show Sports Shouting , and who Liz has a meeting with in regards to her " Dealbreakers " talk show . Levy directed Fey in the 2010 comedy film Date Night . Padma Lakshmi , the host of the reality show Top Chef , played herself in this 30 Rock episode in which she is a potential new host for the " Dealbreakers " talk show .
= = Cultural references = =
During Danny 's rallying speech in a football movie flashback , he makes several references to Canadian culture such as Boxing day and the different rules used between Canadian and American football ( e.g. 3 downs instead of 4 , 12 men per side instead of 11 , though incorrectly uses meters while Canadian football uses yards ) . The episode twice refers to a fictional show Sports Shouting which features four panelists yelling at each other about sports . Some reviewers noted the similarity to the real show Around the Horn , an ESPN program which also features four panelists discussing sports in a competitive setting . J. A. Adande , a frequent panelist on Around the Horn , said through his Twitter page " Sports Shouting now tops ' Werewolf Bar Mitzvah ' as my favorite 30 Rock gag . "
When Jack tells Liz that Padma Lakshmi is coming in for the pilot she says " Then who 's going to host Top Chef ? You 're ruining my life ! " referring to a cooking reality television show Lakshmi hosts which Liz had previously shown a taste for in the season two episode " Cougars " . Tracy reveals that early in his career he signed a very badly structured contract which requires he publicize " Wade Boggs Carpet World " five times whenever he appears on camera , a reference to the baseball player Wade Boggs . Later , Jenna reveals that Scottie Shofar was her assistant in Trivial Pursuit : The Movie . The latter is a board game in which progress is determined by a player 's ability to answer general knowledge and popular culture questions . As Danny grew angry he described Kenneth as having a " weird Don Knotts face " and a " Hitler Youth haircut . "
This was the fourth time the show referenced Liz 's " Dealbreakers " story arc . This first began in the third season episode " Mamma Mia " , in which Liz had written a comedy sketch titled " Dealbreakers " , and in the sketch , Jenna doled out comedic catchphrases as relationship advice to other women such as " If he wears an Atlanta Falcons jersey to your sister 's wedding ? That 's a Dealbreaker , ladies ! " Liz tried gaining attention for writing the sketch , but Jenna took all the credit for it , thus making Liz jealous . Liz dispensed more " Dealbreaker " -style romantic advice in a talk show appearance in the episode " Kidney Now ! " and at the end of the episode Liz told Jack that she had signed a book deal based on the sketch . In the episode " Into the Crevasse " , Liz 's book is published , but receives backlash from men close to her , as they believe her advice damaged their relationships . In this 30 Rock episode , Jack offers Liz a chance to create a television pilot based on her " Dealbreakers " sketch and although Liz decides to search for other offers she ultimately decides to work on the pilot with Jack .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Problem Solvers " was watched by 5 @.@ 8 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , that is 2 @.@ 9 percent of all people in that group , and 7 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Audition Day " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 9 million American viewers .
" The Problem Solvers " received generally positive reviews . Robert Canning of IGN reviewed the episode , giving it a 7 @.@ 4 out of 10 rating and opining the episode had " a few audible chuckles and several silent smiles " , and that the tone of it " was just off . " He cited that the Liz and Jack characters on opposing sides " was not as much fun as seeing them working together " , and that Jenna and Tracy 's antics throughout the series have been " funny most of the time " , though " very little clicked in this episode . " Television columnist Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said that the Tracy and Jenna team " often seems too far out of the realm of reality ... to enjoy them . " Sepinwall was positive about Cheyenne Jackson 's debut , noting he " fit in well his first time out . " Sean Gandert of Paste magazine called the episode the " best so far in the season " but admitted he was " disappointed in it " for not coming " close to greatness and we all know [ 30 Rock 's ] done it before and can do it again . " Gandert , who has not been a fan of Liz 's " Dealbreakers " storyline , commented her plot here was " somewhat annoying , generally not that interesting " , and concluded " it 's hard to really care " that Liz get her talk show .
Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad noted that he liked how Jack and Liz interacted throughout the episode , and enjoyed their meeting at the Rockefeller Center at the end . The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin was complimentary towards " The Problem Solvers " , reporting it was better than the past four episodes , and writing it had " alternating currents of competition and collaboration , hostility and affection and love and hate " that , according to Rabin , define Jack and Liz 's relationship . Rabin was positive towards Padma Lakshmi 's guest appearance , and gave this episode a B grade rating . Entertainment Weekly contributor Margaret Lyons deemed this 30 Rock episode as the best work from Jack McBrayer 's Kenneth . " If there 's been a better episode for Kenneth in 30 Rock history , I 'd love to know : From the backwards @-@ talking to the bizarre fury , this was Jack McBrayer 's finest ( half ) hour . " Nick Catucci of New York magazine wrote that this was a " fine " episode " with Jenna and Tracy in classic dopey @-@ duo form and a couple of great fantasy bits ... But the Jack , Liz , and Jenna triangle felt like the funniest @-@ ever Three 's Company episode squeezed into a couple of minutes . " Meredith Blake , a contributor for the Los Angeles Times , said that she was looking forward to Lakshmi 's cameo , but after the airing , " her scene fell a little flat . " In regards to the episode , itself , Blake said it was " a solid if not mind @-@ blowing episode , even with the presence of [ Lakshmi ] . "
= The Land of Lost Content =
The Land of Lost Content : the Biography of Anthony Chenevix @-@ Trench is a biographical book about the life of British headmaster Anthony Chenevix @-@ Trench , written by Mark Peel . Chenevix @-@ Trench had been a widely acclaimed teacher at Shrewsbury School , and subsequently headmaster at Bradfield College , Eton College and Fettes College , but was later criticised for his approach to corporal punishment . Published by Pentland Press in 1996 , the book received mixed reviews , with questions over its neutrality and writing style , but plaudits for its insights into British culture and education .
= = Background = =
Chenevix @-@ Trench was known for his substantial tenures as headmaster of Bradfield College , Eton College and Fettes College ; he had also taught at Shrewsbury School . He died in 1979 . In 1994 , a book by Tim Card , a former Vice @-@ Provost of Eton , revealed for the first time that Chenevix @-@ Trench had not left his position as headmaster of Eton of his own accord . There followed some newspaper articles critical of Chenevix @-@ Trench 's use of corporal punishment , and numerous letters to the editor in response , most of which were positive about Chenevix @-@ Trench 's legacy . Peel , a teacher at Fettes College at the time , published The Land of Lost Content two years later .
= = Content = =
The book is divided into seven chapters , respectively covering Chenevix @-@ Trench 's ancestry and early childhood , his education at Shrewsbury School and Christ Church , Oxford , his military service in the Malayan Campaign during the Second World War , and his successive spells of teaching at Shrewsbury , Bradfield , Eton and Fettes . A five @-@ page postscript entitled merely " Tony Chenevix @-@ Trench " draws conclusions . There is also a five @-@ page introduction , and a three @-@ page foreword by Sir William Gladstone . The Land of Lost Content is the title of a poem from A.E. Housman 's 1896 cycle A Shropshire Lad , which Chenevix @-@ Trench translated into Latin while a prisoner of the Japanese during the Second World War .
In Peel 's view , Bradfield , Eton and Fettes all saw Chenevix @-@ Trench become headmaster at " critical points in their history " , and he was " a headmaster whose personality met many of their priorities , breathing fresh life into creaking limbs " . The book argues that , despite Chenevix @-@ Trench 's shortcomings being " too readily obvious " , " overshadowing the flaws stands his passionate concern for the individual , a vital quality for any leader to possess " .
The book ends with a quotation from Chenevix @-@ Trench about the importance of education :
What is a boy ? He is a person who is going to carry on what you have started , to sit where you are sitting and , when you are gone , attend to those things you think are so important . You can adopt all the policies you please , but how they will be carried on depends on him . Even if you make leagues and treaties , he will have to manage them . He will assume control of your cities and nations . He is going to move on and take over your prisons , churches , schools , universities and corporations .
All your work is going to be judged by him . Your reputation and the future are in his hands . All your work is for him , and the fate of nations and humanity is also in his hands .
So it might be well to pay him some attention now .
= = Reception = =
The book received a mixed reception from critics . Writing in the Daily Telegraph , Ludovic Kennedy said that the book describes Chenevix @-@ Trench 's career with considerable " affection " , while not shying away from revealing " many uncomfortable home truths " . Kennedy has a few " quibbles " with the book , particularly its over @-@ use of clichés , but concludes that Chenevix @-@ Trench , who he said " never bore a grudge " , would have approved despite the flaws . Kennedy also titles his review with the words of Chenevix @-@ Trench , who joked of his own tenure at Eton — " endearingly " , according to Kennedy — " In some ways I 'm too small a man in too big a job . "
Another positive voice was Lorn Macintyre , writing in the Herald , who said that the book gives " an honest insight into the public school system with all its imperfections " . He further comments that although Peel reveals some things that are " disturbing " , he also shows Chenevix @-@ Trench 's " dedication to high academic standards , to the all @-@ round development of a young person despite his use of the rod " .
Simon Heffer , writing in the Daily Mail , said that Peel " does not write with sufficient detachment " or rigorously enough , but that the book will be of great interest to those who want to know " what is really wrong with the British Establishment " — Heffer made it clear that he felt Chenevix @-@ Trench should never have been Headmaster of Eton in the first place , and that other people 's appointments in the " British Establishment " were equally flawed . Paul Foot wrote a personal recollection for the Diary section of the London Review of Books , reprinted in the Guardian , in which he described the book as " a wretched h | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
GSTAR @-@ 2 into geosynchronous orbit in 1986 . Its transmitter package permanently failed two months later , so Geostar began tests of RDSS by transmitting from other satellites . With his health failing , O 'Neill became less involved with the company at the same time it started to run into trouble . In February 1991 Geostar filed for bankruptcy and its licenses were sold to Motorola for the Iridium satellite constellation project . Although the system was eventually replaced by GPS , O 'Neill made significant advances in the field of position determination .
O 'Neill founded O 'Neill Communications in Princeton in 1986 . He introduced his Local Area Wireless Networking , or LAWN , system at the PC Expo in New York in 1989 . The LAWN system allowed two computers to exchange messages over a range of a couple hundred feet at a cost of about $ 500 per node . O 'Neill Communications went out of business in 1993 ; the LAWN technology was sold to Omnispread Communications . As of 2008 , Omnispread continued to sell a variant of O 'Neill 's LAWN system .
On November 18 , 1991 , O 'Neill filed a patent application for a vactrain system . He called the company he wanted to form VSE International , for velocity , silence , and efficiency . However , the concept itself he called Magnetic Flight . The vehicles , instead of running on a pair of tracks , would be elevated using electromagnetic force by a single track within a tube ( permanent magnets in the track , with variable magnets on the vehicle ) , and propelled by electromagnetic forces through tunnels . He estimated the trains could reach speeds of up to 2 @,@ 500 mph ( 4 @,@ 000 km / h ) — about five times faster than a jet airliner — if the air was evacuated from the tunnels . To obtain such speeds , the vehicle would accelerate for the first half of the trip , and then decelerate for the second half of the trip . The acceleration was planned to be a maximum of about one @-@ half of the force of gravity . O 'Neill planned to build a network of stations connected by these tunnels , but he died two years before his first patent on it was granted .
= = Death and legacy = =
O 'Neill was diagnosed with leukemia in 1985 . He died on April 27 , 1992 , from complications of the disease at the Sequoia Hospital in Redwood City , California . He was survived by his wife Tasha , his ex @-@ wife Sylvia , and his four children . A sample of his incinerated remains was buried in space . The vial containing his ashes was attached to a Pegasus XL rocket and launched into Earth orbit on April 21 , 1997 . It re @-@ entered the atmosphere in May 2002 .
O 'Neill directed his Space Studies Institute to continue their efforts " until people are living and working in space " . After his death , management of SSI was passed to his son Roger and colleague Freeman Dyson . SSI continued to hold conferences every other year to bring together scientists studying space colonization until 2001 .
Henry Kolm went on to start Magplane Technology in the 1990s to develop the magnetic transportation technology that O 'Neill had written about . In 2007 , Magplane demonstrated a working magnetic pipeline system to transport phosphate ore in Florida . The system ran at a speed of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , far slower than the high @-@ speed trains O 'Neill envisioned .
All three of the founders of the Space Frontier Foundation , an organization dedicated to opening the space frontier to human settlement , were supporters of O 'Neill 's ideas and had worked with him in various capacities at the Space Studies Institute . One of them , Rick Tumlinson , describes three men as models for space advocacy : Wernher von Braun , Gerard K. O 'Neill , and Carl Sagan . Von Braun pushed for " projects that ordinary people can be proud of but not participate in " . Sagan wanted to explore the universe from a distance . O 'Neill , with his grand scheme for settlement of the Solar System , emphasized moving ordinary people off the Earth " en masse " .
The National Space Society ( NSS ) gives the Gerard K. O 'Neill Memorial Award for Space Settlement Advocacy to individuals noted for their contributions in the area of space settlement . Their contributions can be scientific , legislative , and educational . The award is a trophy cast in the shape of a Bernal sphere . The NSS first bestowed the award in 2007 on lunar entrepreneur and former astronaut Harrison Schmitt . In 2008 , it was given to physicist John Marburger .
In fiction , the protagonist of Stephen Baxter 's Manifold : Time names his spaceship the Gerard K. O 'Neill .
As of November , 2013 , Gerard O 'Neill 's papers and work are now located in the archives at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum , Steven F. Udvar @-@ Hazy Center .
= = Publications = =
= = = Books = = =
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( 1977 ) . The High Frontier : Human Colonies in Space . New York : William Morrow & Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 9622379 @-@ 0 @-@ 6 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( ed . ) ; O 'Leary , Brian ( 1977 ) . Space @-@ Based Manufacturing from Nonterrestrial Materials . New York : American Institute of Aeronautics . ISBN 0 @-@ 915928 @-@ 21 @-@ 3 .
Cheng , David C. ; O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( 1979 ) . Elementary Particle Physics : An Introduction . Reading , Massachusetts : Addison @-@ Wesley . ISBN 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 05463 @-@ 9 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( 1981 ) . 2081 : A Hopeful View of the Human Future . New York : Simon and Schuster . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 44751 @-@ 3 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( 1983 ) . The Technology Edge : Opportunities for America in world competition . New York : Simon and Schuster . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 44766 @-@ 1 .
= = = Papers = = =
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( 1954 ) . " Time @-@ of @-@ Flight Measurements on the Inelastic Scattering of 14 @.@ 8 @-@ Mev Neutrons " . Physical Review 95 ( 5 ) : 1235 – 1245 . Bibcode : 1954PhRv ... 95.1235O. doi : 10 @.@ 1103 / PhysRev.95.1235.
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( April 1956 ) . " Storage @-@ Ring Synchrotron : Device for High @-@ Energy Physics Research " . Physical Review 102 ( 5 ) : 1418 . Bibcode : 1956PhRv .. 102.1418O. doi : 10 @.@ 1103 / PhysRev.102.1418.
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( August 1963 ) . " Storage Rings " . Science 141 ( 3582 ) : 679 – 686 . Bibcode : 1963Sci ... 141 .. 679O. doi : 10 @.@ 1126 / science.141.3582.679. PMID 17752920 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( May 1968 ) . " A High @-@ Resolution Orbiting Telescope : New techniques would lead to orbiting an optical telescope 25 times the diameter of Palomar 's " . Science 160 ( 3830 ) : 843 – 847 . Bibcode : 1968Sci ... 160 .. 843O. doi : 10 @.@ 1126 / science.160.3830.843. PMID 17774392 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( September 1974 ) . " The Colonization of Space " . Physics Today 27 ( 9 ) : 32 – 40 . Bibcode : 1974PhT .... 27i .. 32O. doi : 10 @.@ 1063 / 1 @.@ 3128863 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( Fall 1975 ) . " The High Frontier " . CoEvolution Quarterly ( 7 ) : 6 – 9 . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 08 @-@ 18 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( December 5 , 1975 ) . " Space Colonies and Energy Supply to the Earth " . Science 190 ( 4218 ) : 943 – 947 . Bibcode : 1975Sci ... 190 .. 943O. doi : 10 @.@ 1126 / science.190.4218.943.
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( October 1976 ) . " Engineering a Space Manufacturing Center " . Astronautics and Aeronautics 14 : 20 – 28 , 36 . Bibcode : 1976AsAer .. 14 ... 20P .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( March 1978 ) . " The Low ( Profile ) Road to Space Manufacturing " . Astronautics and Aeronautics 16 ( 3 ) : 18 – 32 . Bibcode : 1978AsAer .. 16 ... 18G .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ; Driggers , Gerald ; O 'Leary , Brian ( October 1980 ) . " New Routes to Manufacturing in Space " . Astronautics and Aeronautics 18 ( 10 ) : 46 – 51 . Bibcode : 1980AsAer .. 18 ... 46G .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ; Kolm , Henry H. ( November 1980 ) . " High acceleration mass drivers " . Acta Astronautica 7 ( 11 ) : 1229 – 1238 . Bibcode : 1980AcAau ... 7.1229O. doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / 0094 @-@ 5765 ( 80 ) 90002 @-@ 8 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( 1981 ) . " Where is everybody ? Some new answers " . Nature 294 ( 25 ) : 25 . Bibcode : 1981Natur.294 ... 25O. doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / 294025a0 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( March 1981 ) . " Satellite Air Traffic Control " . Astronautics and Aeronautics 19 ( 3 ) : 27 – 31 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( 1981 ) . " Recent developments in mass drivers " . Space manufacturing 4 : 97 – 104 . OCLC 8112602 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( July 1982 ) . " Satellites Instead " . AOPA Pilot 25 ( 1 ) : 51 – 54 , 59 – 63 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ( September 1983 ) . " Geostar " . AOPA Pilot 26 ( 9 ) : 53 – 57 .
O 'Neill , Gerard K. ; Maryniak , G. E. ( 1988 ) . " Radiation Shielding to Solar Power Satellites : Results of the January 1988 SSI / Princeton Lunar Systems Study " . Lunar Bases 2 : 185 . Bibcode : 1988LPICo.652 .. 185O .
= = Patents = =
O 'Neill was granted six patents in total ( two posthumously ) in the areas of global position determination and magnetic levitation .
US 4359733 Satellite @-@ based vehicle position determining system , granted November 16 , 1982
US 4744083 Satellite @-@ based position determining and message transfer system with monitoring of link quality , granted May 10 , 1988
US 4839656 Position determination and message transfer system employing satellites and stored terrain map , granted June 13 , 1989
US 4965586 Position determination and message transfer system employing satellites and stored terrain map , granted October 23 , 1990
US 5282424 High speed transport system , granted February 1 , 1994
US 5433155 High speed transport system , granted July 18 , 1995
= Working on a Dream Tour =
The Working on a Dream Tour was a concert tour by Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band , which began in April 2009 and ended in November 2009 . It followed the late January 2009 release of the album Working on a Dream . This was the first full E Street Band tour without founding member Danny Federici , who died during the previous tour in 2008 , and the final tour for founding member Clarence Clemons , who died in 2011 .
The tour was shorter than a typical Springsteen outing , but for the first time in his career , it placed an emphasis on performing at music festivals , especially in Europe . Even more unlike all his previous tours , the Working on a Dream Tour featured little of his new album . Instead , several trends from the latter stages of the previous year 's Magic Tour were carried forward : a focus on topical content , this time the late @-@ 2000s recession ; a repetition of some of the stage raps and antics ; and most visibly , continuation of a ' signs ' segment , in which audience members would hold up signs requesting rare Springsteen songs or decades @-@ past oldies and the band would stage ( sometimes impromptu ) performances of them . The final leg of the tour often featured another first as Springsteen played one of his classic 1970s or 1980s albums all the way through . Critical reaction to the tour 's shows was generally positive , although the absence of the new material was noted .
Max Weinberg was not available for parts of the tour due to his bandleader obligations to The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien , which was just commencing . His 18 @-@ year @-@ old son , Jay Weinberg , became his replacement for parts or all of a number of shows , to a mostly positive reception from the rest of the band , the audience , and critics . The tour also gave Springsteen a chance to bid farewell to two famous venues he had played many shows at – the Philadelphia Spectrum and New Jersey 's Giants Stadium .
The tour was a commercial success , grossing over $ 156 million , being seen by over 1 @.@ 7 million ticket holders , and finishing as the third @-@ highest grossing tour in the world for 2009 even though the tour faced some logistical issues . Ticket sales were botched by Ticketmaster , a situation further exacerbated by revelations of their holding seats back for their secondary market TicketsNow . Before long , legislatures and attorneys general of several states , as well as members of the U.S. Congress and federal regulatory agencies , were weighing in on the matter , with various lawsuits , settlements , and proposed laws as the result .
= = Itinerary = =
The tour was envisioned by the Springsteen camp as not being " a total marathon " , and was thus considerably shorter than usual for Springsteen , especially in North America , where only 26 stops were planned . It did include a date in Oklahoma , where Springsteen had not played in three decades and where officials at Tulsa 's BOK Center had been trying to lure Springsteen for years .
On February 23 , 2009 , it was confirmed that Springsteen would be headlining the Saturday night at Glastonbury festival in June of the same year . Springsteen also signed up for the Pinkpop Festival in the Netherlands and the Bonnaroo Music Festival in the U.S. ; playing such festivals was a departure from his normal routing , and challenged him with audiences that were not pre @-@ selected with his fans .
One continuing subplot with the tour 's scheduling was E Street drummer Max Weinberg 's availability vis à vis his job as The Max Weinberg 7 bandleader for Conan O 'Brien , given that during the first half of 2009 Late Night with Conan O 'Brien in New York was ending and The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien in Los Angeles was beginning . The mid @-@ January announcement that Late Night would continue until February 20 precluded any notion of starting the tour immediately following Springsteen 's appearance at Super Bowl XLIII , in addition to the band feeling that they had just gotten off the Magic Tour and " Wait , let ’ s stop a minute . " Meanwhile , the June 1 start date of The Tonight Show posed problems for Weinberg 's continued presence on the tour . O 'Brien told a Variety reporter at the time of the announcement that he hoped that Weinberg would follow him to Los Angeles and that he also hoped an arrangement could be worked out to let Weinberg go on the road with Springsteen as had been done for past tours . At NBC , the coexistence between the drummer 's two bosses was known as the Weinberg @-@ Springsteen Rule , and was not typically extended to other talent at the network . In a high @-@ profile Rolling Stone cover story interview , Springsteen was vague about the matter : " All I know is this – it 's all gonna work out , one way or another . If people wanna come out and see the E Street Band , they 'll be able to come out and see the E Street Band . " And whether Weinberg would stay with O 'Brien and move or not was a subject of conflicting news reports until O 'Brien confirmed on February 18 that Weinberg and the band were indeed coming with him . A few days later , E Streeter Steven Van Zandt said of Weinberg 's availability for the post @-@ June 1 , European leg : “ We ’ re still figuring that out . We ’ ll see . I think Max will be there for most of it . ... I know he was very much trying to figure it out . ” Weinberg had not missed an E Street Band show since joining the outfit in 1974 , and Van Zandt said that no amount of rehearsal by another drummer could replace Weinberg 's intuitive understanding of Springsteen 's performance gambits .
As had been the practice since the Reunion Tour in 1999 , Springsteen and the band began rehearsals at Asbury Park Convention Hall . Beginning on March 11 , some of the Springsteen faithful listened outside closed doors for what songs and arrangements the tour might bring . The presence of Max Weinberg 's 18 @-@ year @-@ old son Jay , a freshman at Stevens Institute of Technology and also a drummer , at rehearsals indicated that he might be the one to replace his father for European leg shows where Tonight Show duties came into play . On one occasion on the Magic Tour , Jay Weinberg had sat in on drums for " Born to Run " . This was confirmed by Springsteen on March 20 , who said that Jay Weinberg would be drumming at a small number of shows during the tour . Springsteen added , " Once again , I want to express my appreciation to Conan O 'Brien , and everyone on his team , for making it possible for Max to continue to do double duty for both us and for him . We promise to return him in one piece . " Van Zandt said , " I ’ ve been avoiding this question for weeks ! Thank God they finally announced it . We already did three days of rehearsals . Jay 's a fantastic drummer . It ’ s in the Weinberg DNA . "
By the time the American first leg was well underway , there was speculation of more American dates to come in the late summer and fall , but E Street guitarist Nils Lofgren said that Springsteen and wife Patti Scialfa would make a decision later on .
On May 21 , 2009 , while playing at the Izod Center , Springsteen announced he would be playing three dates at next @-@ door Giants Stadium in late September and early October , saying the band would " say goodbye to old Giants Stadium ... Before they bring the wrecking ball , the wrecking crew is coming back ! " The video screens on stage showed a huge banner being hung on the stadium , which was the forerunner of heavy advertising for the shows on local television . They sold out quickly , and two more dates were added , finishing on October 9 . These were scheduled to be the last concerts ever at the stadium . The final show sold out quickly but not the one before it . Subsequent U.S. tour dates in the late summer began to be announced as well , focusing on outdoor amphitheaters in the Northeast . In mid @-@ July , a further extension to the U.S. tour was announced , adding shows in indoor arenas through November .
The November 22 , 2009 performance in Buffalo , New York was slated as the tour 's last . After that the E Street Band was expected to take a one to two @-@ year hiatus , while Springsteen worked on another project .
The October 26 , 2009 show in Kansas City , Missouri was canceled an hour before its scheduled start time due to the death of Lenny Sullivan , Springsteen 's cousin and assistant road manager for ten years . It was not rescheduled .
= = Ticket sales = =
Even before any official tour announcement , tickets went on sale in Norway and Sweden . The heavy demand caused a crash in the Scandinavian ticketing system . A similar situation due to heavy demand occurred in Finland with the Lippupiste ticketing system .
On January 27 , 2009 , the day of the Working on a Dream release in the United States , the official announcement of the tour came .
On February 1 , 2009 , Springsteen & the E Street Band performed at halftime of Super Bowl XLIII . The following day , February 2 , 2009 , tickets for many of the U.S. shows went on sale . Despite the ongoing global financial crisis of 2008 – 2009 , demand was heavy in a number of areas , both due to Springsteen 's continued popularity and the high visibility from the Super Bowl appearance . Other areas failed to show the ticket fervor of past outings . The pair of shows in both New Jersey and Philadelphia sold out in about an hour . East Coast online sales through Ticketmaster , including the New Jersey ones , were especially troublesome , as many customers endured long waits or were in the middle of a purchasing transaction , only to be hit with screens saying the site was down " due to routine maintenance " . Ticketmaster acknowledged that the technical problem with the sales " wasn 't our finest hour . " Tickets for the New Jersey shows were in limited supply to begin with , as some 27 percent of them were held back from sale by the venue , the record company , Springsteen 's organization , and others . Indeed , for one of the shows Springsteen 's management held back all but 108 of the 1 @,@ 126 seats in the four sections nearest the stage .
Frustration became a public outcry when many of Ticketmaster online customers , upon being informed shows were sold out , were directed to TicketsNow , a Ticketmaster @-@ owned site , where tickets were sold on the secondary market at extremely inflated prices . Ticketmaster even pushed fans to TicketsNow even when there were still tickets available for a given show . Bill Pascrell , the member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Jersey 's 8th congressional district , asked the Federal Trade Commission and the U.S. Department of Justice to investigate the relationship between Ticketmaster and TicketsNow , saying , " I am concerned that the business affiliation between Ticketmaster and TicketsNow may represent a conflict of interest that is detrimental to the average fan . There is a significant potential for abuse when one company is able to monopolize the primary market for a product and also directly manipulate , and profit from , the secondary market . "
Springsteen issued a statement on his website where he chastised Ticketmaster and made it clear that he had no affiliation with them ( the venues had the affiliation ) . Springsteen 's organization , as well as record companies and promoters , held back substantial numbers of tickets from public sales and made their supply even tighter , especially for New Jersey shows . On the same day that New Jersey State Assemblymen Gary Schaer and Wayne DeAngelo called for an inquiry , New Jersey Attorney General Anne Milgram also said that her office and the New Jersey Division of Consumer Affairs would investigate the sale of Springsteen concert tickets amidst a number of complaints . As the matter gained national attention , it became what The Washington Post described as a " public relations nightmare " for Ticketmaster . On February 5 , Ticketmaster issued an " open letter of apology " to Springsteen and his fans , saying that it would no longer link to TicketsNow from Ticketmaster during high @-@ demand sales and promising it would refund customers who inadvertently bought secondary market tickets . Pascrell , whose office received over 1 @,@ 000 complaints on the matter , and Connecticut Attorney General Richard Blumenthal also used the sales tales to indicate concern with the possible merger of Ticketmaster with Live Nation . Springsteen also voiced his objection to the merger , and his comments also gained national attention .
On February 23 , 2009 , Ticketmaster agreed to an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement with the New Jersey Attorney General . Ticketmaster agreed to refund payments made to TicketsNow and reduce its visibility , and made some 2 @,@ 000 tickets to the New Jersey shows available to complaints via random lottery , with promises of additional reparations if Springsteen scheduled a third leg to return to the U.S. in the summer . The company was not fined , but did reimburse the Attorney General 's office $ 350 @,@ 000 for investigatory expenses . Over 1 @,@ 800 people qualified for the March 31 lottery , and those that got them eventually picked up their tickets at an amusingly named " Attorney General Will Call Line " before the shows . In March 2009 , Springsteen manager Jon Landau emphasized that Springsteen never directly releases tickets into the secondary market , in the wake of revelations about other artists doing so . In May 2009 – and on the same day that Springsteen would perform at the local Xcel Energy Center – Governor of Minnesota Tim Pawlenty signed into law " the Bruce Springsteen bill " , which forbade online ticket sellers from sending frustrated customers to resale sites that offer inflated @-@ price secondary market tickets .
Different but similar Ticketmaster drama occurred on March 20 when tickets went on sale for Springsteen 's two Asbury Park Convention Hall rehearsal shows a few days hence . Dozens of fans said that the Ticketmaster automated lines gave messages that no shows were on sale , while those using the human operator lines were able to make purchases . Ticketmaster denied that anything had gone wrong .
The secondary markets ticket saga re @-@ emerged in mid @-@ May during the first leg of the tour when TicketsNow announced they had oversold by some 300 persons the date at Washington , D.C. ' s Verizon Center . TicketsNow offered double refunds and inferiorly located tickets to other Springsteen shows , but Springsteen manager Landau was quite unhappy : " We would like our audience to know that this is a problem caused entirely by Ticketmaster and its wholly owned subsidiary TicketsNow . Neither Bruce nor his management have any control whatsoever over these two troubled entities but we deeply resent the abuse of our fans . "
When Springsteen 's autumn Giants Stadium shows were announced in late May 2009 , secondary market sellers began advertising steeply marked @-@ up tickets before they went on sale . This caused Attorney General Milgram to file suit against three such sellers for fraudulent behavior , especially given that some of the advertised seat locations did not even exist . On June 1 , Congressman Pascrell announced proposed federal legislation , titled the " BOSS ACT " ( Better Oversight of Secondary Sales and Accountability in Concert Ticketing ) , which would require primary ticket sellers to disclose how many tickets were being held back from sale , prohibit ticket brokers from buying tickets during the first 48 hours on sale , and prohibit primary ticket sellers , promoters , and artists from entering the secondary market .
In February 2010 , Ticketmaster reached a settlement with the Federal Trade Commission , which denounced the company 's " deceptive bait @-@ and @-@ switch tactics " regarding phantom tickets , and made reference to an example in which the same 38 tickets to a tour show in Washington were sold and resold 1 @,@ 600 times . Ticketmaster conceded no wrongdoing but agreed to stop the practice ; they also agreed to $ 1 million in refunds for overcharges for secondary market sales via TicketsNow .
= = The show = =
= = = Planning and rehearsals = = =
One idea under early consideration was to include a mini @-@ set at each stop , containing a full performance of one of Springsteen 's classic albums . Van Zandt predicted that they would play most of Working on a Dream during the initial stages of the tour , but what the rest of the show would be was uncertain . If the full album idea did go forward , he thought 1980 's double album The River combined with outtakes from those sessions would make a full show on its own . Nothing came of the full album notion right away ; it would have to wait until the tour 's U.S. third leg to materialize .
Per past practice , Springsteen performed a couple of public rehearsal shows at Asbury Park Convention Hall before beginning the tour proper . The eight @-@ minute " Outlaw Pete " from Working on a Dream opened and various other selections from the album were played , but the show generally included patterns and staples of the early Magic Tour and other previous outings . Jay Weinberg did some of the drumming , and the band was augmented by Curtis King and Cindy Mizelle ( both veterans of the Sessions Band Tour ) as additional backing vocalists .
= = = North American first leg = = =
Once the first leg of the tour proper began at San Jose , California on April 1 , the consistent show opener was " Badlands " – whose ending , or false ending , was framed with a recurrence of the Magic Tour 's question of " Is there anybody alive out there ? " – several things became apparent . Typical shows contained only three songs from Working on a Dream : " Outlaw Pete " ( initially accompanied by a fog machine ) , " Working on a Dream " , and " Kingdom of Days " . This was in stark departure from all previous Springsteen tours , when material from newly released albums was heavily featured . One other recently released Springsteen song , " The Wrestler " , was also included in about half the set lists , although it did not share the new album 's romantic pop style . Of the other Working on a Dream songs , a couple were never attempted in private rehearsal ; some others were rehearsed privately but not publicly ; " This Life " and " Surprise Surprise " did not survive past the first Asbury Park rehearsal show ; " Good Eye " did not survive past the first proper show ; and " My Lucky Day " was played in the first three shows before being dropped . The disappearance of " This Life " and " My Lucky Day " were especially notable , given the former had an elaborate , extended multi @-@ part Beach Boys @-@ style " Ba ba ba " outro section featuring King and Mizelle in its one rehearsal performance , and that the latter was the album 's second single . Nor was the prior album , Magic , given any due , with only " Radio Nowhere " included . Set lists relied mostly upon Springsteen material up through 1984 's Born in the U.S.A. , 2002 's The Rising , and a few scattered selections from other periods .
Commenting on the paucity of new material , The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution suggested that the whole production would more accurately be named the Havin ’ a Blast Tour . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette said that " The strange thing ... is that the ' Working on a Dream ' tour no longer seems to be about ' Working on a Dream ' " and suggested that the album was unpopular among many fans and as a result , " Springsteen , always the savvy showman , has chosen not to shove it down anyone 's throat . " Springsteen fans instantly discussed and analyzed setlists as shows happened on the Backstreets.com BTX website , associated with which Twitter and other sources were used to post , or in some cases crudely broadcast , shows as they happened . E Street bassist Garry Tallent and guitarist Nils Lofgren found themselves amused that fans had complained on the previous Magic Tour of too much new material being played , and were now complaining of too little . Guitarist Steve Van Zandt said that the Working on a Dream songs that were played were " big " songs , so that made up for their lack of number .
One theme that was apparent in the show was the ongoing late @-@ 2000s recession . The early part of shows contained a " recession pack " consisting of " Seeds " ( brought back from the 1980s ) , " Johnny 99 " ( elongated with incongruous train " woo @-@ whoo 's " ) , and either " Youngstown " or " The Ghost of Tom Joad " ( both featuring fiery guitar solos from Nils Lofgren ) . Encores began with a rendition of Stephen Foster 's 1850s classic " Hard Times Come Again No More " – which provided one of the few featured spots for King and Mizelle , who otherwise played a lot of tambourine – and later included both of Springsteen 's reunion @-@ era encore epics of American struggle , survival and hope , " Land of Hope and Dreams " and " American Land " . Van Zandt said that the emergence of the recession theme was in part why the concerts did not showcase the Working on a Dream album . One regular moment of optimism , however , was the playing of " Waitin ' on a Sunny Day " from The Rising , with Springsteen holding a microphone down to one or more young children in the front of the pit area to sing along to the chorus on .
One holdover from the latter stages of the Magic Tour was the " Build Me a House " stage rap , now located in " Working on a Dream " . Springsteen would say : " We 're not just here to rock the house tonight . We 're going to build a house .... We 're going to use the good news and we 're going to use the bad news . We 've got all the news we need - on this stage and in those seats . "
An even more visible holdover was the ' signs ' segment . This would begin when Springsteen collected request signs from the pit audience as an extended introduction to " Raise Your Hand " was played . Once that song completed , Springsteen selected two or three numbers to play from the requests . The first was often a garage rock classic such as " Wild Thing " , " 96 Tears " , or " Mony Mony " or a punk rock staple such as " I Wanna Be Sedated " or " London Calling " . This activity was billed as " Stump the Band " , and led to impromptu arrangements being worked out onstage . Springsteen would sometimes taunt the audience afterwards with declarations that the E Street Band could not be stumped , such as saying in Atlanta 's Philips Arena , " ... this is the greatest bar band in the land , and if they don 't think we know 96 fuckin ' Tears ! " The immediate introduction of the signs segment surprised even E Street guitarist Nils Lofgren , who thought Springsteen would hold it off until later in the tour . The precise degree of challenge in this segment was unclear , as lyrics were often loaded into the teleprompter that Springsteen uses and in some cases the songs had been soundchecked earlier . In any case , most of the challenges were to the band 's shared knowledge of British Invasion , Motown , Stax @-@ Volt , and other 1960s material . Springsteen subsequently said , " we started to take unusual requests and do songs that we 'd never played before , just depending on the common memory that the band would have from everyone 's individual playing experience as teenagers . We ended up with a system where we can jump on a lot pretty quick . " Other honored sign requests were usually for Springsteen songs not normally in the set list .
Show lengths were generally between 2 hours 30 minutes to 2 hours 45 minutes . Springsteen scheduled his two Philadelphia shows at the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ demolished Spectrum , commenting that " They don 't make arenas like this anymore " and stating that the smaller size and lack of luxury boxes made the old venue " ideal for rock shows . " The Spectrum had seen Springsteen 's first headlining arena show in 1976 during the Born to Run tours , and now he said they would " fulfill our solemn vow to rock the Spectrum one more time . " Accordingly , the band played local act The Dovells ' 1963 hit " You Can 't Sit Down " among other Philadelphia @-@ related selections . Springsteen voiced similar sentiments about the old @-@ but @-@ still @-@ going Nassau Coliseum , and selected The Soul Survivors ' 1967 hit " Expressway to Your Heart " as a tribute to the nearby Long Island Expressway .
Jay Weinberg appeared at a number of shows on the first , North American leg , drumming on anywhere from four songs to half the show . He had been a fan of heavy metal music for much of his life , and in playing with Springsteen he integrated a polyrhythmic approach influenced by metal bands such as Lamb of God , Mastodon , and Slipknot with the E Street drumming style derived from big bands and early rock and roll . He received a very positive reaction from both audiences and reviewers as a spark plug for the band , with his vigorous , long @-@ hair @-@ flying style inviting comparisons to Dave Grohl and his potential for replacing his father drawing allusions to Wally Pipp . Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot wrote , " All hail Jay Weinberg . ... With [ him drumming ] the band ’ s chemistry was slightly unsettled for the better . ... His fills during ' Radio Nowhere ' kicked the song , and the concert , into a higher gear , and galvanized a band that was starting to pace itself . " Jay Weinberg said " it 's a summer job that anybody would want , " while Max Weinberg said Jay 's segments allowed him a " total out @-@ of @-@ body experience . For the first time in – I 've been with Bruce for 35 years – I 've been able to go out in the audience and enjoy a Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band concert . " Jay Weinberg played his first full show on May 14 at the Times Union Center in Albany , New York , as Max Weinberg was in California to prepare test runs for The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien start . Springsteen said of the occasion , “ This is the first night in 35 years that somebody else sat at the drums . ” Overall , Modern Drummer magazine 's editor said that a college freshman playing on one of the year 's biggest rock tours was " certainly a unique story " . For the final Meadowlands Arena shows of the first leg , Jay Weinberg did the first but his father took a red @-@ eye flight back from Los Angeles to do the second .
= = = Western European second leg = = =
Once the show moved into its European second leg , more Working on a Dream songs began to sporadically appear , with " My Lucky Day " becoming a regular for a while and " Queen of the Supermarket " getting its first airing anywhere . For Scandinavian shows , as band members walked on stage , Lofgren opened with solo accordion performances of local summer @-@ themed specialties , " Idas Sommarvisa " in Sweden and " Du skal ikkje sova bort sumarnatta " in Norway . Jay Weinberg did the first seven shows , as his father was now beginning The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien .
Springsteen and the band returned to the U.S. to make their first @-@ ever appearance at the Bonnaroo Music Festival , as the headlining act on June 13 , 2009 . Playing before festival audiences who were not guaranteed to be fans of his music was largely new to Springsteen , but after a slow start the show captured over most of the Bonnaroo audience . The following night , Springsteen joined the recently reunited and headlining Phish for three songs , " Mustang Sally " , " Bobby Jean " , and " Glory Days " . Phish guitarist Trey Anastasio said later , " I got to play with Bruce . That 's my hero . " The Bonnaroo performance of " Outlaw Pete " was included on a Fuse TV show of festival highlights , and the performance of " Tenth Avenue Freeze @-@ Out " included a bit with Triumph , the Insult Comic Dog singing along that was included on a Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien segment . Springsteen subsequently reflected , " We played festivals for the very first time on this tour , and that was one of the greatest experiences of all of them . That was an eye @-@ opener . When we played Glastonbury [ ... ] you come out and there 's like 100 @,@ 000 kids in their 20s and under . It was fun playing on bills with other bands , and it 's something I 'd do again in the future . "
On June 25 , Max Weinberg departed The Tonight Show temporarily for four weeks to join the band for the resumption of its Western European leg , via a comedy bit that had his drum riser turn into a float that took him outside and studio and purportedly to the airport . During this stretch , Jay Weinberg did not appear during any of the shows until reappearing during the Spanish shows at the end of the leg . While Springsteen 's wife Scialfa was nowhere to be seen in Europe , their son Evan appeared and played guitar during encores of a number of shows , while Clarence Clemons ' nephew Jake also made playing appearances and Springsteen 's mother and aunt also took the stage .
He also was the headliner of the Festival des Vieilles Charrues in Brittany , France in July , his only tour stop in France . His son Evan participated in the concert , playing guitar .
Lofgren continued to open shows , playing national songs on accordion . Set lists further loosened , with many tour premieres showing up in request slots or elsewhere and shows sometimes running to 30 songs in length . After a while , the encore break was disposed with and the show ran continuously to the end without the band ever leaving the stage . Springsteen ran past local curfews at both Dublin shows and at Glastonbury . The Dublin violations resulted in a potential € 50 @,@ 000 fine , but Springsteen mocked the prospect by on @-@ staging a bit : “ We have to go , we have a curfew ! ” with Van Zandt replying , “ We don 't care about the curfew , this is the curfew breaking Boss and E Street Band ! " " American Skin ( 41 Shots ) " made unexpected appearances in Dublin and at several stops in Italy , while " My City of Ruins " was played at Stadio Olimpico in Rome in honor of the victims of the 2009 L 'Aquila earthquake . The Western European leg ended with five shows in Spain , at more out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way locations than in the past . The last of these shows , at the Auditorio Monte do Gozo in Santiago de Compostela , was marred by disorganized security and overbooking by the promoter , leaving some of the approximately 40 @,@ 000 ticket holders unable to get in . ( Dozens of complaints against the promoter were filed to police , city , and consumer authorities the following day . ) In any event , the band played " Rockin ' All Over the World " and concluded its encore with " Born in the U.S.A. " after 1 a.m. local time ( the Spanish shows did not begin until 10 p.m. ) . Max Weinberg immediately flew back to Los Angeles and resumed his role on The Tonight Show later that same day .
= = = U.S. third leg = = =
The American third leg began in mid @-@ August with shows at outdoor amphitheaters as well as indoor arenas . Shows were often scheduled for weekends , to allow Max Weinberg to play without missing any Tonight Show time ; Jay Weinberg played those shows held during the week . Then on September 25 , Max Weinberg took a two @-@ month absence from the television show , to join Springsteen for the final portion of the leg . Ticket sales were slower than normal on this leg , partly due to Ticketmaster 's new " paperless ticketing " system that may have come into effect due to the earlier problems with Springsteen sales . In arenas that did not sell well , management relocated the people who bought tickets behind the stage to other sections and put up the screen used for stadium and amphitheater shows behind the stage . In a hint to fans to buy up , Van Zandt said , “ You never know . This could be the last tour . We do every show like it ’ s our last show anyway . ” In any case , by September 2009 the tour had sold over two million tickets overall . Even some shows in Philadelphia , long a Springsteen bastion , were not sold out .
During the U.S. third leg , it was reported that Born to Run would be featured in its entirety during several shows , possibly in a scheme to boost ticket sales . The full @-@ album idea took fruition with the late September @-@ early October set of five shows at Giants Stadium , which would be the final concerts ever in that venue in Springsteen 's home state . Born to Run was played at two shows , Darkness on the Edge of Town at one show , and Born in the U.S.A. at two shows . Springsteen later said of the full album idea , " We had done so many shows and were going to come back around one more time , so we were like , ' OK , what can we do that we haven 't done ? Let 's try to play some of the albums . ' There were some people who were starting to do it , it sounded like a good idea , and my audience fundamentally experienced all my music in album form . People took Born to Run home and played it start to finish 100 times ; they didn 't slip on a cut in the middle . And we made albums – we took a long time , and we built them to last . ... Those records are packed with songs that have lasted 30 – 35 years . It simply was a way to revitalize the show and do something appealing and fun for the fans , but it ended up being a much bigger emotional experience than I thought it would be . "
The Giants Stadium shows were opened with a new Springsteen song written for the occasion , " Wrecking Ball " , written from the point of view of the stadium itself : “ I was raised out of steel here in the swamps of Jersey , some misty years ago ... ” The stand featured several other new touches as well , including Springsteen crowd surfing during " Hungry Heart " , evocative behind @-@ the @-@ stage upper @-@ level lighting during " The Rising " , and fireworks at the " E ! Street ! Band ! " conclusion of " American Land " . The final show , which drew nearly 60 @,@ 000 people , concluded with the second playing on the stand of " Jersey Girl " , dedicated to “ all the crew and staff that ’ s worked all these years at Giants Stadium . ”
The full album versions continued , as well as a localized rendition of " Wrecking Ball " , at Springsteen 's four shows to close out the Philadelphia Spectrum as well ; some 43 different songs were playing during the stand . Apart from the album playings , Springsteen kept setlists flexible during the third leg ; sign requests continued , as in Springsteen 's words they allowed " the fans to have input into the show in a way that just pumps the blood into everything and enlivens the evening . " Born to Run remained the standard full album choice for the rest of the tour , but the two shows at New York 's Madison Square Garden saw The Wild , the Innocent & the E Street Shuffle and The River , with the latter 's 20 @-@ song length dominating the setlist . Springsteen felt The River show succeeded , saying " I sequenced [ the album ] to feel like a live show , so you have four fast songs and a couple of ballads . It played real well when we went to play it . "
Springsteen 's show on November 13 , 2009 at The Palace of Auburn Hills outside Detroit , Michigan became well known for Springsteen 's multiple statements to the crowd about being in Ohio , the first as he came on , the second during the lyric to " Wrecking Ball " , and the third in the " Build me a house " rap during " Working on a Dream " . ( The band had played in Cleveland , Ohio , three nights earlier . ) By now getting some boos from the crowd , guitarist Van Zandt , who had hoped Springsteen would stop making the mistake on his own , finally went over to Springsteen and corrected him : " ‘ You don ’ t realize it , but you ’ re saying Ohio and we ’ re in Michigan . ’ He was like ‘ What ! ? ’ " Springsteen then told the crowd that he had committed " every front man 's nightmare , " and made a show of saying " Michigan " from then on . The Spinal Tap @-@ esque blunder attracted worldwide television and print publicity . ( The show subsequently featured a rare performance of Bob Seger 's " Ramblin ' Gamblin ' Man " , appealing to Seger 's fan base in Detroit . ) Springsteen made joking references to being in Ohio , or made exaggerated statements as to being in the correct state , in subsequent shows .
During the final stretch of the tour , the final encores of many shows presented a long , rousing , ebullient rendition of Jackie Wilson 's classic " ( Your Love Keeps Lifting Me ) Higher and Higher " . Showcasing featured vocals from Cindy Mizelle or Curtis King and trumpet solos from Curt Ramm , the song stretched to eight minutes with key changes , reprises , and walks through the pit area by Springsteen and the singers , and became recognized as one of the highpoints of the entire tour . Springsteen dispelled any notion of this being the final E Street Band show or the last for a long time ; in an interview near the end of the tour he said , " We 're playing to an audience now that will outlive us . But at the same time the band is very , very powerful right now . And part of the reason it 's powerful is that it 's carrying a lot of very strong cumulative history . You come and you see 35 years of a speeding train going down the track , and you 're gonna get to be on the front end of it . We look forward to many , many more years of touring and playing and enjoying it . "
The tour concluded with the November 22 , 2009 , show at HSBC Arena in Buffalo , New York . Fans came from far away and the show dominated the feel of the city that day . The full album played was Springsteen 's first , Greetings from Asbury Park , N.J. , which he wryly said " was the miracle . This was the record that took everything from way below zero to ... one . " The performance of it was dedicated to his first manager and producer , Mike Appel , who was present in the audience , and featured quite rare renditions of " Mary Queen of Arkansas " and ( the first ever with the E Street Band ) " The Angel " . Other rarities peppered the 34 @-@ song , nearly 3 ½ -hour night , including Chuck Willis 's " ( I Don 't Want to ) Hang Up My Rock and Roll Shoes " and , to mark Steven Van Zandt 's birthday , totally obscure outtake " Restless Nights " ( supposedly Van Zandt 's favorite Springsteen song ) and a now @-@ unusual second song from the current album , " Surprise Surprise " . Near the end he said , " So we 're gonna say goodbye , but just for a little while ... a very little while ... " The tour finished not with the emotional statement in song that some other Springsteen tours have in the 2000s , but instead with John Fogerty 's " Rockin ' All Over the World " .
= = Critical and commercial reception = =
Newspaper reviews of the show often commented on the high level of energy and stamina the nearly 60 @-@ year @-@ old Springsteen brought to the concerts . The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution and the Chicago Tribune favorably compared Springsteen to the rest of the band in this regard , saying " Some of the guys in the band look their age " and " they lack the physicality , the sustained urgency of their prime . "
The Philadelphia Inquirer and the San Jose Mercury News both commented on the fundamental problem that Springsteen seemed to be facing on the tour . The former said " Bruce Springsteen may well have miscalculated earlier this year when he released Working on a Dream , one of the most hopeful and downright happy sounding albums of his career just as a cratering economy was rendering the songs of struggle and strife that are his stock in trade more resonant than they have sounded in years . " The latter said , " As Don Rumsfeld might say , you don 't go on tour with the album you wish you had , you go on tour with the album you 've got . So Springsteen faces the tough task of hyping a new romantic pop record while simultaneously offering hope and support to a wounded nation – not an easy task . " Rolling Stone voiced a similar theory . Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot wrote that " If there was a disappointment , it was that Springsteen didn ’ t make a stronger case for his latest album , Working on a Dream . I ’ m not a fan of the album , but I always look forward to how the singer reinvents his studio work on the stage . In this case , however , he barely touched the new material ... " Views on one , the early @-@ in @-@ show , eight @-@ minute " Outlaw Pete " – one of the few new material centerpieces – varied considerably .
The San Jose Mercury News and the Connecticut Post both gave the show a mixed review , with the former saying it was " decidedly subpar " and latter saying " the concert itself wasn 't as captivating as past visits to the state . " The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution and The Philadelphia Inquirer were unreserved in their praise , with the former saying Springsteen " deliver [ ed ] a show that proves boomer @-@ oriented rock ' n ' roll can still tear it up " and the latter saying Springsteen adapted to circumstances " with an altered game plan that wisely plays to his strengths " . The Greensboro , North Carolina News & Record said that " Springsteen and the E Street Band were received like conquering heroes during an exhilarating three @-@ hour show that repeatedly drove the adoring , near @-@ sellout crowd into fist @-@ thrusting , sing @-@ along frenzies . " The Globe and Mail said of the tour 's sole Canadian show , " an evening with Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band still ranks as the epitome of the rock concert experience . " Rolling Stone said of the first leg 's concluding New Jersey shows , " Springsteen tours don ’ t usually hit highs like this until the end , but the band has essentially been on the road since September of 2007 . "
Of the European shows , critical reaction was generally quite favorable . The Irish Times said Springsteen showing no signs of age as he neared his 60th birthday , despite taking a spill during his stage antics in rainy Dublin , and remarked upon how " a set that features so many songs about the toughness of life ... can be delivered with such extraordinary verve that by the time you leave , you ’ re very glad to be alive . " The Independent echoed the sentiment in reviewing the Hyde Park show , writing that he showed " the vigour of a frontman a third of his age " and that " Springsteen 's intensity was staggering from first powerful vocal to final thrashed @-@ out chord . " The Bath Chronicle saluted Springsteen 's performance at Glastonbury , saying " As all the tickets were sold before Springsteen was even confirmed on the bill , he must have known he was facing something very rare for him – the musical equivalent of a sporting ' away match ' where not everyone was necessarily a worshipper at the altar of Bruce . " They concluded that Springsteen gave " a performance of passion , exuberance , exhilaration and musical majesty " while sticking with his standard tour set list and not resorting to playing many of his better @-@ known hits .
Of the final Giants Stadium stand , the New York Daily News said that " Wrecking Ball " was " a rousing declaration of defiance in the face of destruction , " and overall said that " Once again , this proved [ Springsteen ] to be one of the few performers charismatic enough , and anthemic enough , to use the stadium scale to his advantage . " Entertainment Weekly called " Wrecking Ball " " an inspiring start to another of the marathon three @-@ hour shows Springsteen still manages to put on night after night . " The New York Times said of the full performance of Born in the U.S.A. that " Springsteen sang with deeper nuance ... the songs have not faded . " Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that while during the first leg of the tour the band had " appeared to be running on fumes " , the Born to Run album performance was " easily the best Springsteen show with the E Streeters I 'd seen since the ' 80s . "
Looking back on the tour as a whole , and in combination with the preceding Magic Tour , Billboard magazine cover story stated that " Even for an artist who has largely built his career on epic shows , Springsteen and the E Streeters have managed to find yet another gear at this stage in their legendary career . " Springsteen himself said , " With the end of these shows , we 're coming to the end of a decade @-@ long project that really was a tremendous renewal of the power , the strength and the service that our band hopefully provides . " Springsteen also touted the quality of the shows : " I believe if you come and see us now you 're seeing the best E Street Band that 's ever played . " Specific shows from the tour were named as among the best concerts of 2009 by Spin magazine , The Philadelphia Inquirer , the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette , and the Chicago Tribune .
Springsteen himself remained quite interested in his and the band 's commercial fortunes . He said before the tour 's start that remaining popular had been one of his motivations for the Super Bowl appearance : " I 've said no for about 10 years or however long they 've been asking , but , I tell you , we played on the last tour and there were some empty seats here and there and , well , there shouldn 't be any empty seats at an E Street Band show . I hold pride that we remain one of the great wonders of the world ... so sometimes you got to remind people a little bit . "
Through September 2009 , the Working on a Dream Tour was in the top five in grosses of 2009 tours worldwide , alongside the U2 360 ° Tour , Coldplay 's Viva la Vida Tour , and AC / DC 's Black Ice Tour . For all of 2009 , the Working on a Dream Tour was the third @-@ highest grossing tour , trailing only U2 360 ° and Madonna 's Sticky & Sweet Tour . It grossed over $ 156 million , was seen by over 1 @.@ 7 million ticket holders , and sold out 42 of 72 non @-@ festival shows . Unlike the past Magic and Devils & Dust Tours , the Working on a Dream Tour failed to win any Billboard Touring Awards . The tour completed a busy ten years on the road for Springsteen , who ranked fourth among pop artists for the decade in terms of total touring grosses .
= = Broadcasts and recordings = =
Several of the tour 's festival appearances aired on television or radio during 2009 .
One song 's worth of the June 13 Bonnaroo Music Festival appearance , " Outlaw Pete " , made it into a U.S. packaged broadcast of festival highlights for television , " The Best of Bonnaroo 2009 " , that appeared on Fuse TV on June 20 . The performance of that song subsequently appeared on a Live From Bonnaroo 2009 DVD .
Portions of the June 27 Glastonbury Festival performance were aired live on BBC Two television and BBC 6 Music radio . A number of fans complained that the full set had not been shown by the BBC , which in turn said the set had been too long to broadcast in its entirety . Televised highlights were later shown on BBC Four and BBC HD .
In conjunction with the Fourth of July holiday in the U.S. , E Street Radio featured 45 minutes from the July 3 Frankfurt Commerzbank Arena show .
In the U.S. , the Hard Rock Calling Hyde Park appearance was included in an August 21 broadcast on the VH1 , VH1 Classic , and Palladia cable channels ; seven Springsteen and E Street Band performances , including " London Calling " to open the program , were included in amongst other artists ' performances .
Several shows were filmed , but at the tour 's conclusion no decisions had been made about whether to release them on DVD or other media . Then in June 2010 , London Calling : Live in Hyde Park was released : a 163 @-@ minute , near @-@ complete Blu @-@ ray / DVD accounting of the named show .
= = Shows = =
= = Cancelled shows = =
= = Personnel = =
The E Street Band
Bruce Springsteen – lead vocals , lead guitar , rhythm guitar , acoustic guitar , harmonica
Roy Bittan – piano , synthesizer , accordion
Clarence Clemons – tenor saxophone , baritone saxophone , percussion , pennywhistle , piccolo , harmonica , whistling , background vocals
Nils Lofgren – rhythm guitar , lead guitar , pedal steel guitar , acoustic guitar , accordion , background vocals
Patti Scialfa – background vocals , some duet vocals , acoustic guitar , occasional tambourine
Garry Tallent – bass guitar , rare background vocals , rare tuba
Steven Van Zandt – rhythm guitar , lead guitar , mandolin , acoustic guitar , background vocals , occasional featured lead vocal
Max Weinberg – drums , rare tambourine
Charles Giordano – organ , accordion , electronic glockenspiel , rare piano , occasional background vocals
Soozie Tyrell – violin , acoustic guitar , percussion , background vocals
Jay Weinberg – drums
Curtis King – background vocals and tambourine
Cindy Mizelle – background vocals and tambourine
Curt Ramm – trumpet
Scialfa missed some shows on the first leg due to injuries received from falling off her horse , then due to family responsibilities , and was absent from all the shows on the European leg . She continued to miss all but a handful of shows during the U.S. third leg , including only making it to two of the five final Giants Stadium performances . As on the Magic Tour , Tyrell assumed a more prominent role when Scialfa was absent . ( Despite consistently having highly visible profiles during shows , Giordano and Tyrell have not been considered full @-@ fledged E Street Band members in official Springsteen material . ) Clemons continued to have a diminished physical role on stage due to his multiple physical problems , and was scheduled for spine surgery once the tour concluded with a 12 @-@ month recovery period . ( As it happened , Clemons never played with the E Street Band again , suffering a fatal stroke in June 2011 . ) Jay Weinberg substituted for Max Weinberg on a number of dates , and the two alternated for portions of the show on a number of other dates . Ramm , a veteran of the Sessions Band Tour , played on several songs per show during much of the U.S. third leg .
= World Series of Poker Casino Employee Championship =
The Casino Employees Championship is one of only three closed tournaments awarding WSOP bracelet 's at the World Series of Poker gathering . While most of the events are open to the general public , participants in the Ladies Championship , Seniors Championship , and the Casino Employees Championship must meet certain eligibility requirements . While these events are closed , the winner of these events is " afforded the same distinction as all gold bracelet tournaments . " The WSOP bracelet is considered the most coveted non @-@ monetary prize a poker player can win .
= = History = =
The World Series of Poker ( WSOP ) , held annually in Las Vegas , is " the oldest , largest , most prestigious , and most media @-@ hyped gaming competition in the world " . In 2000 , the WSOP started to honor Casino Employees by offering a bracelet event that only they could enter . The first tournament was called the " Dealers World Poker Championship " because it was limited to poker dealers . The following year the field was open to all casino employees .
Since the tournament is restricted to casino employees , most of the big name poker pros and previous bracelet winners are not allowed to participate . Therefore , even though the Casino Employee Championship is a World Series of Poker bracelet event , it has typically received relatively little coverage . Despite this perception , the Casino Employee Championship event does involve numerous recognized names in the poker world . The 2009 tournament included two time bracelet winner Pat Poels , WSOP vice president Ty Stewart , Bellagio Tournament Director / Former WSOP Director Jack McClelland , and Woman Poker Hall of Famer Marsha Waggoner .
Prior to 2003 , the tournament format was a Limit Hold 'em tournament , but in 2004 , No @-@ Limit Hold 'em became the standard . The 2006 tournament , with 1 @,@ 232 entrants , was the largest field ever for the event . Since its inception , with the exception of 2008 , the Casino Employees event has started on the first day of the WSOP . Much of the drama encountered at the Casino Championship often involves informal rivaliries between dealers and proposition players . Proposition players are people hired to play poker , with their own money , at casinos to get games started or to ensure that they do not die out . Thus , while both the prop and dealer are casino employees , they sit on opposite sides of the table .
= = Highlights = =
In 2000 , Dave Alizadeth from Las Vegas outlasted a field of 109 participants to become the first " Dealers World Poker Championship " . While other Dealer Tournaments had a reputation for sloppy play , the first Dealer Championship was noted for the seriousness with which the players approached the game . In the end , however , the winner was not determined by the deal of the cards , but by a deal at the table . According to initial reports , the deal was only achieved because " a World Series bracelet was not available for negotiation , the players decided to take their money and go home . " Other sources , however , indicate that the event was always intended to be a bracelet event . Either way , the official WSOP standings , credits Alizadeth with winning a WSOP bracelet at this event . By contrast the final three contestants at the 2003 Championship were doing Kamikaze shots . " We were all having such a great time , " the winner David Lukaszewski said , " sitting around playing poker that I think we may have forgotten about the prize money and the bracelet . "
The 2002 Casino Employee Championship almost mirrored Treetop Straus 's amazing comeback in the 1982 WSOP Main event . At the 1982 Main Event , Treetop was down to one $ 500 chip and came back to win the tournament . At the Casino Employee Championship , Dave Crunkleton , who has made 11 final WSOP tables but never won a bracelet , was down to one $ 500 chip with only four players left in the tournament . Crunkleton went all in with pocket eights and then succeeded in rebuilding his stack to $ 26 @,@ 000 before being busted in third place . The 2002 winner , David Warga went on to become the first Casino Employee Champion to win a WSOP open event in 2010 .
Many of the top professional poker players got their start working in casinos . 1998 WSOP Main Event Champion and five time bracelet winner , Scotty Nguyen 's first job was as a dealer . Ted Forrest , another five time bracelet winner , credits his ability to read players because of his experience as a dealer . One @-@ time bracelet winner Erick Lindgren also boasts a pedigree of starting out as a dealer .
= = Key = =
= = WSOP Casino Employee Championship Events = =
= Campaign history of the Roman military =
From its origin as a city @-@ state on the peninsula of Italy in the 8th century BC , to its rise as an empire covering much of Southern Europe , Western Europe , Near East and North Africa to its fall in the 5th century AD , the political history of Ancient Rome was closely entwined with its military history . The core of the campaign history of the Roman military is an aggregate of different accounts of the Roman military 's land battles , from its initial defense against and subsequent conquest of the city 's hilltop neighbors on the Italian peninsula , to the ultimate struggle of the Western Roman Empire for its existence against invading Huns , Vandals and Germanic tribes . These accounts were written by various authors throughout and after the history of the Empire . Following the First Punic War , naval battles were less significant than land battles to the military history of Rome due to its encompassment of lands of the periphery and its unchallenged dominance of the Mediterranean Sea .
The Roman army battled first against its tribal neighbours and Etruscan towns within Italy , and later came to dominate the Mediterranean and at its height the provinces of Britannia and Asia Minor . As with most ancient civilizations , Rome 's military served the triple purpose of securing its borders , exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples , and maintaining internal order . From the outset , Rome 's military typified this pattern , and the majority of Rome 's campaigns were characterised by one of two types . The first is the territorial expansionist campaign , normally begun as a counter @-@ offensive , in which each victory brought subjugation of large areas of territory and allowed Rome to grow from a small town to a population of 55 million in the early empire when expansion was halted . The second is the civil war , which plagued Rome from its foundation to its eventual demise .
Roman armies were not invincible , despite their formidable reputation and host of victories , Romans " produced their share of incompetents " who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats . Nevertheless , it was generally the fate of even the greatest of Rome 's enemies , such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal , to win the battle but lose the war . The history of Rome 's campaigning is , if nothing else , a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses .
= = Kingdom ( 753 – 508 BC ) = =
Knowledge of Roman history stands apart from other civilizations in the ancient world . Its chronicles , military and otherwise , document the city 's very foundation to its eventual demise . Although some histories have been lost , such as Trajan 's account of the Dacian Wars , and others , such as Rome 's earliest histories , are at least semi @-@ apocryphal , the extant histories of Rome 's military history are extensive .
Rome 's earliest history , from the time of its founding as a small tribal village , to the downfall of its kings , is the least well preserved . Although the early Romans were literate to some degree , this void may be due to the lack of will to record their history at that time , or such histories as they did record were lost .
Although the Roman historian Livy ( 59 BC – 17 AD ) lists a series of seven kings of early Rome in his work Ab urbe condita , from its establishment through its earliest years , the first four kings ( Romulus , Numa , Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius ) may be apocryphal . A number of points of view have been proposed . Grant and others argue that prior to the establishment of the Etruscan kingdom of Rome under the traditional fifth king , Tarquinius Priscus , Rome would have been led by a religious leader of some sort . Very little is known of Rome 's military history from this era , and what history has come down to us is more of a legendary than of factual nature . Traditionally , Romulus , after founding the city , fortified the Palatine Hill , and shortly thereafter , Rome was " equal to any of the surrounding cities in her prowess in war " .
The first of the campaigns fought by the Romans in this legendary account are the wars with various Latin cities and the Sabines . According to Livy , the Latin village of Caenina responded to the event of the abduction of the Sabine women by invading Roman territory , but were routed and their village captured . The Latins of Antemnae and those of Crustumerium were defeated next in a similar fashion . The remaining main body of the Sabines attacked Rome and briefly captured the citadel , but were then convinced to conclude a treaty with the Romans under which the Sabines became Roman citizens .
There was a further war in the 8th century BC against Fidenae and Veii . In the 7th century BC there was a war with Alba Longa , a second war with Fidenae and Veii and a second Sabine War . Ancus Marcius led Rome to victory against the Latins and , according to the Fasti Triumphales , over the Veientes and Sabines also .
= = = Tarquinius Priscus ( Ruled 616 – 579 BC ) = = =
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus ' first war was waged against the Latins . Tarquinius took the Latin town of Apiolae by storm and took great booty from there back to Rome . According to the Fasti Triumphales , the war occurred prior to 588 BC .
His military ability was tested by an attack from the Sabines . Tarquinius doubled the numbers of equites to help the war effort , and defeat the Sabines . In the peace negotiations that followed , Tarquinius received the town of Collatia and appointed his nephew , Arruns Tarquinius , also known as Egerius , as commander of the garrison which he stationed in that city . Tarquinius returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph for his victories that , according to the Fasti Triumphales , occurred on 13 September 585 BC .
Subsequently the Latin cities of Corniculum , old Ficulea , Cameria , Crustumerium , Ameriola , Medullia and Nomentum were subdued and became Roman .
= = = Servius Tullius ( Ruled 578 – 535 BC ) = = =
Early in his reign , Servius Tullius warred against Veii and the Etruscans . He is said to have shown valour in the campaign , and to have routed a great army of the enemy . The war helped him to cement his position at Rome . According to the Fasti Triumphales , Servius celebrated three triumphs over the Etruscans , including on 25 November 571 BC and 25 May 567 BC ( the date of the third triumph is not legible on the Fasti ) .
= = = Tarquinius Superbus ( Ruled 535 – 509 BC ) = = =
Early in his reign Tarquinius Superbus , Rome 's seventh and final king , called a meeting of the Latin leaders at which he persuaded them to renew their treaty with Rome and become her allies rather than her enemies , and it was agreed that the troops of the Latins would attend at a grove sacred to the goddess Ferentina on an appointed day to form a united military force with the troops of Rome . This was done , and Tarquin formed combined units of Roman and Latin troops .
Tarquin next began a war against the Volsci . He took the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia , with the spoils of which he commenced the erection of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus which his father had vowed . He also celebrated a triumph for his victory .
He was next engaged in a war with Gabii , one of the Latin cities , which had rejected the Latin treaty with Rome . Unable to take the city by force of arms , Tarquin had his son , Sextus Tarquinius , infiltrate the city , gain the trust of its people and command of its army . In time he killed or exiled the city 's leaders , and handed control of the city over to his father .
Tarquin also agreed to a peace with the Aequi , and renewed the treaty of peace between Rome and the Etruscans . According to the Fasti Triumphales , Tarquin also won a victory over the Sabines .
Tarquinius later went to war with the Rutuli . According to Livy , the Rutuli were , at that time , a very wealthy nation . Tarquinius was desirous of obtaining the booty which would come with victory over the Rutuli . Tarquin unsuccessfully sought to take the Rutulian capital , Ardea , by storm , and subsequently began an extensive siege of the city . The war was interrupted by the revolution which overthrew the Roman monarchy . The Roman army , camped outside Ardea , welcomed Lucius Junius Brutus as their new leader , and expelled the king 's sons . It is unclear what was the outcome of the siege , or indeed the war .
= = Republic = =
= = = Early ( 509 – 274 BC ) = = =
= = = = Early Italian campaigns ( 509 – 396 BC ) = = = =
The first non @-@ apocryphal Roman wars were wars of both expansion and defence , aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region . Florus writes that at this time " their neighbours , on every side , were continually harassing them , as they had no land of their own ... and as they were situated , as it were , at the junction of the roads to Latium and Eturia , and , at whatever gate they went out , were sure to meet a foe . "
In the semi @-@ legendary period of the early republic , sources record Rome was twice attacked by Etruscan armies . About 509 BC war with Veii and Tarquinii was said to have been instigated by the recently overthrown king Tarquinius Superbus . Again in 508 BC Tarquin persuaded the king of Clusium , Lars Porsenna , to wage war on Rome , resulting in a siege of Rome and afterwards a peace treaty .
Initially , Rome 's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages on a tribal system similar to that of Rome , or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond . One by one , Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities that were either under Etruscan control or else Latin towns that had cast off their Etruscan rulers , as had Rome . Rome defeated the Lavinii and Tusculi in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC , were defeated by the Veientes in the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC , the Sabines in an unnamed battle in 449 BC , the Aequi in the Battle of Mons Algidus in 458 BC and the Battle of Corbione in 446 BC , the Volsci in the Battle of Corbione in 446 BC the Aurunci in the Battle of Aricia , the Capture of Fidenae in 435 BC and the Siege of Veii in 396 BC , and the Capture of Antium in 377 BC . After defeating the Veientes , the Romans had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan neighbours , as well as secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the tribespeople of the Apennine hills .
However , Rome still controlled only a very limited area and the affairs of Rome were minor even to those in Italy and Rome 's affairs were only just coming to the attention of the Greeks , the dominant cultural force at the time . At this point the bulk of Italy remained in the hands of Latin , Sabine , Samnite and other peoples in the central part of Italy , Greek colonies to the south , and the Celtic people , including the Gauls , to the north .
= = = = Celtic invasion of Italia ( 390 – 387 BC ) = = = =
By 390 BC , several Gallic tribes had begun invading Italy from the north as their culture expanded throughout Europe . Most of this was unknown to the Romans at this time , who still had purely local security concerns , but the Romans were alerted when a particularly warlike tribe , the Senones , invaded the Etruscan province of Siena from the north and attacked the town of Clusium , not far from Rome 's sphere of influence . The Clusians , overwhelmed by the size of the enemy in numbers and ferocity , called on Rome for help . Perhaps unintentionally the Romans found themselves not just in conflict with the Senones , but their primary target . The Romans met them in pitched battle at the Battle of the Allia around 390 – 387 BC . The Gauls , under their chieftain Brennus , defeated the Roman army of around 15 @,@ 000 troops and proceeded to pursue the fleeing Romans back to Rome itself and partially sacked the town before being either driven off or bought off .
Now that the Romans and Gauls had blooded one another , intermittent Roman @-@ Gallic wars were to continue between the two in Italy for more than two centuries , including the Battle of Lake Vadimo , the Battle of Faesulae in 225 BC , the Battle of Telamon in 224 BC , the Battle of Clastidium in 222 BC , the Battle of Cremona in 200 BC , the Battle of Mutina in 194 BC , the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC , and the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC . The Celtic problem would not be resolved for Rome until the final subjugation of all Gaul following the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC .
= = = = Expansion into Italia ( 343 – 282 BC ) = = = =
After swiftly recovering from the sack of Rome , the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy . Despite their successes , their mastery of the whole of Italy was by no means assured . The Samnites were a people just as martial and as rich as the Romans and had the objective of their own to secure more lands in the fertile Italian plains on which Rome itself lay . The First Samnite War of between 343 BC and 341 BC that followed widespread Samnite incursions into Rome 's territory was a relatively short affair : the Romans beat the Samnites in both the Battle of Mount Gaurus in 342 BC and the Battle of Suessula in 341 BC but were forced to withdraw from the war before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin War .
Rome was therefore forced to contend by around 340 BC against both Samnite incursions into their territory and , simultaneously , in a bitter war against their former allies . Rome bested the Latins in the Battle of Vesuvius and again in the Battle of Trifanum , after which the Latin cities were obliged to submit to Roman rule . Perhaps due to Rome 's lenient treatment of their defeated foe , the Latins submitted largely amicably to Roman rule for the next 200 years .
The Second Samnite War , from 327 BC to 304 BC , was a much longer and more serious affair for both the Romans and Samnites , running for over twenty years and incorporating twenty @-@ four battles that led to massive casualties on both sides . The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated throughout its course : the Samnites seized Neapolis in the Capture of Neapolis in 327 BC , which the Romans then re @-@ captured before losing at the Battle of the Caudine Forks and the Battle of Lautulae . The Romans then proved victorious at the Battle of Bovianum and the tide turned strongly against the Samnites from 314 BC onwards , leading them to sue for peace with progressively less generous terms . By 304 BC the Romans had effectively annexed the greater degree of the Samnite territory , founding several colonies . This pattern of meeting aggression in force and so inadvertently gaining territory in strategic counter @-@ attacks was to become a common feature of Roman military history .
Seven years after their defeat , with Roman dominance of the area looking assured , the Samnites rose again and defeated the Romans at the Battle of Camerinum in 298 BC , to open the Third Samnite War . With this success in hand they managed to bring together a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome , all of whom were probably keen to prevent any one faction dominating the entire region | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
virates , Caesarian ascension , and revolt ( 53 – 30 BC ) = = = =
By 59 BC an unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate was formed between Gaius Julius Caesar , Marcus Licinius Crassus , and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus to share power and influence . It was always an uncomfortable alliance given that Crassus and Pompey intensely disliked one another . In 53 BC , Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire . After initial successes , he marched his army deep into the desert ; but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory , surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of Carrhae in " the greatest Roman defeat since Hannibal " in which Crassus himself perished . The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and , consequently , Caesar and Pompey began to move apart . While Caesar was fighting against Vercingetorix in Gaul , Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar 's political enemies . In 51 BC , some Roman senators demanded that Caesar would not be permitted to stand for Consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state , and the same demands were made of Pompey by other factions . Relinquishing his army would leave Caesar defenceless before his enemies . Caesar chose Civil War over laying down his command and facing trial . The triumvirate was shattered and conflict was inevitable .
Pompey initially assured Rome and the senate that he could defeat Caesar in battle should he march on Rome . However , by the spring of 49 BC , when Caesar crossed the Rubicon river with his invading forces and swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome , Pompey ordered the abandonment of Rome . Caesar 's army was still under @-@ strength , with certain units remaining in Gaul , but on the other hand Pompey himself only had a small force at his command , and that with uncertain loyalty having served under Caesar . Tom Holland attributes Pompey 's willingness to abandon Rome to waves of panicking refugees as an attempt to stir ancestral fears of invasions from the north . Pompey 's forces retreated south towards Brundisium , and then fled to Greece . Caesar first directed his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Iberia but following campaigning by Caesar in the Siege of Massilia and Battle of Ilerda he decided to tackle Pompey in Greece . Pompey initially defeated Caesar at the Battle of Dyrrachium in 48 BC but failed to follow up on the victory . Pompey was decisively defeated in the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC despite outnumbering Caesar 's forces two to one . Pompey fled again , this time to Egypt , where he was murdered in an attempt to ingratiate the country with Caesar and avoid a war with Rome .
Pompey 's death did not see the end of the civil wars since initially Caesar 's enemies were manifold and Pompey 's supporters continued to fight on after his death . In 46 BC Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army when his former commander Titus Labienus , who had defected to the Pompeians several years earlier , defeated him at the Battle of Ruspina . However , after this low point Caesar came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus , after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Iberia . Caesar defeated the combined forces of Titus Labienus and Gnaeus Pompey the Younger at the Battle of Munda in Iberia . Labienus was killed in the battle and the Younger Pompey captured and executed .
Despite his military success , or probably because of it , fear spread of Caesar , now the primary figure of the Roman state , becoming an autocratic ruler and ending the Roman Republic . This fear drove a group of senators naming themselves The Liberators to assassinate him in 44 BC . Further civil war followed between those loyal to Caesar and those who supported the actions of the Liberators . Caesar 's supporter Mark Antony condemned Caesar 's assassins and war broke out between the two factions . Antony was denounced as a public enemy , and Octavian was entrusted with the command of the war against him . In the Battle of Forum Gallorum Antony , besieging Caesar 's assassin Decimus Brutus in Mutina , defeated the forces of the consul Pansa , who was killed , but Antony was then immediately defeated by the army of the other consul , Hirtius . At the Battle of Mutina Antony was again defeated in battle by Hirtius , who was killed . Although Antony failed to capture Mutina , Decimus Brutus was murdered shortly thereafter .
Octavian betrayed his party , and came to terms with Caesarians Antony and Lepidus and on 26 November 43 BC the Second Triumvirate was formed , this time in an official capacity . In 42 BC Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fought the indecisive Battle of Philippi with Caesar 's assassins Marcus Brutus and Cassius . Although Brutus defeated Octavian , Antony defeated Cassius , who committed suicide . Brutus also committed suicide shortly afterwards .
Civil war flared again when the Second Triumvirate of Octavian , Lepidus and Mark Antony failed just as the first had almost as soon as its opponents had been removed . The ambitious Octavian built a power base and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony . Together with Lucius Antonius , Mark Antony 's wife Fulvia raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony 's rights against Octavian but she was defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Perugia . Her death led to partial reconciliation between Octavian and Antony who went on to crush the army of Sextus Pompeius , the last focus of opposition to the second triumvirate , in the naval Battle of Naulochus .
As before , once opposition to the triumvirate was crushed , it started to tear at itself . The triumvirate expired on the last day of 33 BC and was not renewed in law and in 31 BC , war began again . At the Battle of Actium , Octavian decisively defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a naval battle near Greece , using fire to destroy the enemy fleet .
Octavian went on to become Emperor under the name Augustus and , in the absence of political assassins or usurpers , was able to greatly expand the borders of the Empire .
= = Empire = =
= = = Early to Middle ( 30 BC – 180 AD ) = = =
= = = = Imperial expansion ( 40 BC – 117 AD ) = = = =
Secure from interior enemies , Rome achieved great territorial gains in both the East and the West . In the West , following humiliating defeats at the hands of the Sugambri , Tencteri and Usipetes tribes in 16 BC , Roman armies pushed north and east out of Gaul to subdue much of Germania . The Pannonian revolt in 6 AD forced the Romans to cancel their plan to cement their conquest of Germania . Despite the loss of a large army almost to the man of Varus ' famous defeat at the hands of the Germanic leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD , Rome recovered and continued its expansion up to and beyond the borders of the known world . Roman armies under Germanicus pursued several more campaigns against the Germanic tribes of the Marcomanni , Hermunduri , Chatti , Cherusci , Bructeri , and Marsi . Overcoming several mutinies in the armies along the Rhine , Germanicus defeated the Germanic tribes of Arminius in a series of battles culminating in the Battle of the Weser River .
After Caesar 's preliminary low @-@ scale invasions of Britain , the Romans invaded in force in 43 AD , forcing their way inland through several battles against British tribes , including the Battle of the Medway , the Battle of the Thames , the Battle of Caer Caradoc and the Battle of Mona . Following a general uprising in which the Britons sacked Colchester , St Albans and London , the Romans suppressed the rebellion in the Battle of Watling Street and went on to push as far north as central Scotland in the Battle of Mons Graupius . Tribes in modern @-@ day Scotland and Northern England repeatedly rebelled against Roman rule and two military bases were established in Britannia to protect against rebellion and incursions from the north , from which Roman troops built and manned Hadrian 's Wall .
On the continent , the extension of the Empire 's borders beyond the Rhine hung in the balance for some time , with the emperor Caligula apparently poised to invade Germania in 39 AD , and Cnaeus Domitius Corbulo crossing the Rhine in 47 AD and marching into the territory of the Frisii and Chauci . Caligula 's successor , Claudius , ordered the suspension of further attacks across the Rhine , setting what was to become the permanent limit of the Empire 's expansion in this direction .
Further east , Trajan turned his attention to Dacia , an area north of Macedon and Greece and east of the Danube that had been on the Roman agenda since before the days of Caesar when they had beaten a Roman army at the Battle of Histria . In 85 AD , the Dacians had swarmed over the Danube and pillaged Moesia and initially defeated an army the Emperor Domitian sent against them , but the Romans were victorious in the Battle of Tapae in AD 88 and a truce was drawn up .
Emperor Trajan recommenced hostilities against Dacia and , following an uncertain number of battles , defeated the Dacian general Decebalus in the Second Battle of Tapae in 101 AD . With Trajan 's troops pressing towards the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa , Decebalus once more sought terms . Decebalus rebuilt his power over the following years and attacked Roman garrisons again in 105 AD . In response Trajan again marched into Dacia , besieging the Dacian capital in the Siege of Sarmizethusa , and razing it to the ground . With Dacia quelled , Trajan subsequently invaded the Parthian empire to the east , his conquests taking the Roman Empire to its greatest extent . Rome 's borders in the east were indirectly governed through a system of client states for some time , leading to less direct campaigning than in the west in this period .
The Kingdom of Armenia between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea became a focus of contention between Rome and the Parthian Empire , and control of the region was repeatedly gained and lost . The Parthians forced Armenia into submission from 37 AD but in 47 AD the Romans retook control of the kingdom and offered it client kingdom status . Under Nero , the Romans fought a campaign between 55 and 63 AD against the Parthian Empire , which had again invaded Armenia . After gaining Armenia once more in 60 AD and subsequently losing it again in 62 AD , the Romans sent Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo in 63 AD into the territories of Vologases I of Parthia . Corbulo succeeded in returning Armenia to Roman client status , where it remained for the next century .
= = = = Year of the Four Emperors ( 69 AD ) = = = =
In 69 AD , Marcus Salvius Otho , governor of Lusitania , had the Emperor Galba murdered and claimed the throne for himself . However , Vitellius , governor of the province of Germania Inferior , had also claimed the throne and marched on Rome with his troops . Following an inconclusive battle near Antipolis , Vitellius ' troops attacked the city of Placentia in the Assault of Placentia , but were repulsed by the Othonian garrison .
Otho left Rome on March 14 , and marched north towards Placentia to meet his challenger . In the Battle of Locus Castorum the Othonians had the better of the fighting , and Vitellius ' troops retreated to Cremona . The two armies met again on the Via Postunia , in the First Battle of Bedriacum , after which the Othonian troops fled back to their camp in Bedriacum , and the next day surrendered to the Vitellian forces . Otho decided to commit suicide rather than fight on .
Meanwhile , the forces stationed in the Middle East provinces of Judaea and Syria had acclaimed Vespasian as emperor and the Danubian armies of the provinces of Raetia and Moesia also acclaimed Vespasian as emperor . Vespasian 's and Vitellius ' armies met in the Second Battle of Bedriacum , after which the Vitellian troops were driven back into their camp outside Cremona , which was taken . Vespasian 's troops then attacked Cremona itself , which surrendered .
Under pretence of siding with Vespasian , Civilis of Batavia had taken up arms and induced the inhabitants of his native country to rebel . The rebelling Batavians were immediately joined by several neighbouring German tribes including the Frisii . These forces drove out the Roman garrisons near the Rhine and defeated a Roman army at the Battle of Castra Vetera , after which many Roman troops along the Rhine and in Gaul defected to the Batavian cause . However , disputes soon broke out amongst the different tribes , rendering co @-@ operation impossible ; Vespasian , having successfully ended the civil war , called upon Civilis to lay down his arms , and on his refusal his legions met him in force , defeating him in the Battle of Augusta Treverorum .
= = = = Jewish revolts ( 66 – 135 AD ) = = = =
The first Jewish @-@ Roman War , sometimes called The Great Revolt , was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews of Judaea Province against the Roman Empire . Judea was already a troubled region with bitter violence among several competing Jewish sects and a long history of rebellion The Jews ' anger turned on Rome following robberies from their temples and Roman insensitivity – Tacitus says disgust and repulsion – towards their religion . The Jews began to prepare for armed revolt . Early successes , including the repulse of the First Siege of Jerusalem and the Battle of Beth @-@ Horon , only attracted greater attention from Rome and Emperor Nero appointed general Vespasian to crush the rebellion . Vespasian led his forces in a methodical clearance of the areas in revolt . By the year 68 AD , Jewish resistance in the North had been crushed . A few towns and cities held out for a few years before falling to the Romans , leading to the Siege of Masada in 73 AD and the Second Siege of Jerusalem .
In 115 AD , revolt broke out again in the province , leading to the second Jewish @-@ Roman war known as the Kitos War , and again in 132 AD in what is known as Bar Kokhba 's revolt . Both were brutally crushed .
= = = = Struggle with Parthia ( 114 – 217 AD ) = = = =
By the 2nd century AD the territories of Persia were controlled by the Arsacid dynasty and known as the Parthian Empire . Due in large part to their employment of powerful heavy cavalry and mobile horse archers , Parthia was the most formidable enemy of the Roman Empire in the east . As early as 53 BC , the Roman general Crassus had invaded Parthia , but he was killed and his army was defeated at the Battle of Carrhae . In the years following Carrhae , the Romans were divided in civil war and hence unable to campaign against Parthia . Trajan also campaigned against the Parthians from 114 – 117 AD and briefly captured their capital Ctesiphon , putting the puppet ruler Parthamaspates on the throne . However , rebellions in Babylonia and the Jewish revolts in Judea made it difficult to maintain the captured province and the territories were abandoned .
A revitalised Parthian Empire renewed its assault in 161 AD , defeating two Roman armies and invading Armenia and Syria . Emperor Lucius Verus and general Gaius Avidius Cassius were sent in 162 AD to counter the resurgent Parthia . In this war , the Parthian city of Seleucia on the Tigris was destroyed and the palace at the capital Ctesiphon was burned to the ground by Avidius Cassius in 164 AD . The Parthians made peace but were forced to cede western Mesopotamia to the Romans .
In 197 AD , Emperor Septimius Severus waged a brief and successful war against the Parthian Empire in retaliation for the support given to a rival for the imperial throne Pescennius Niger . The Parthian capital Ctesiphon was sacked by the Roman army , and the northern half of Mesopotamia was restored to Rome .
Emperor Caracalla , the son of Severus , marched on Parthia in 217 AD from Edessa to begin a war against them , but he was assassinated while on the march . In 224 AD , the Parthian Empire was crushed not by the Romans but by the rebellious Persian vassal king Ardashir I , who revolted , leading to the establishment of Sassanid Empire of Persia , which replaced Parthia as Rome 's major rival in the East .
Throughout the Parthian wars , tribal groups along the Rhine and Danube took advantage of Rome 's preoccupation with the eastern frontier ( and the plague that the Romans suffered from after bringing it back from the east ) and launched a series of incursions into Roman territories , including the Marcomannic Wars .
= = = Late ( 180 – 476 AD ) = = =
= = = = Migration period ( 163 – 378 AD ) = = = =
After Varus ' defeat in Germania in the 1st century , Rome had adopted a largely defensive strategy along the border with Germania , constructing a line of defences known as limes along the Rhine . Although the exact historicity is unclear , since the Romans often assigned one name to several distinct tribal groups , or conversely applied several names to a single group at different times , some mix of Germanic peoples , Celts , and tribes of mixed Celto @-@ Germanic ethnicity were settled in the lands of Germania from the 1st century onwards . The Cherusci , Bructeri , Tencteri , Usipi , Marsi , and Chatti of Varus ' time had by the 3rd century either evolved into or been displaced by a confederacy or alliance of Germanic tribes collectively known as the Alamanni , first mentioned by Cassius Dio describing the campaign of Caracalla in 213 AD .
In around 166 AD , several Germanic tribes pushed across the Danube , striking as far as Italy itself in the Siege of Aquileia in 166 AD , and the heartland of Greece in the Sack of Eleusis .
Although the essential problem of large tribal groups on the frontier remained much the same as the situation Rome faced in earlier centuries , the 3rd century saw a marked increase in the overall threat , although there is disagreement over whether external pressure increased , or Rome 's ability to meet it declined . The Carpi and Sarmatians whom Rome had held at bay were replaced by the Goths and likewise the Quadi and Marcomanni that Rome had defeated were replaced by the greater confederation of the Alamanni .
The assembled warbands of the Alamanni frequently crossed the limes , attacking Germania Superior such that they were almost continually engaged in conflicts with the Roman Empire , whilst Goths attacked across the Danube in battles such as the Battle of Beroa and Battle of Philippopolis in 250 AD and the Battle of Abrittus in 251 AD , and both Goths and Heruli ravaged the Aegean and , later , Greece , Thrace and Macedonia . However , their first major assault deep into Roman territory came in 268 AD . In that year the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion by another new Germanic tribal confederacy , the Goths , from the east . The pressure of tribal groups pushing into the Empire was the end result of a chain of migrations with its roots far to the east : Huns from the Russian steppe attacked the Goths , who in turn attacked the Dacians , Alans and Sarmatians at or within Rome 's borders . The Goths first appeared in history as a distinct people in this invasion of 268 AD when they swarmed over the Balkan peninsula and overran the Roman provinces of Pannonia and Illyricum and even threatened Italia itself .
The Alamanni seized the opportunity to launch a major invasion of Gaul and northern Italy . However , the Visigoths were defeated in battle that summer near the modern Italian @-@ Slovenian border and then routed in the Battle of Naissus that September by Gallienus , Claudius and Aurelian , who then turned and defeated the Alemanni at the Battle of Lake Benacus . Claudius ' successor Aurelian defeated the Goths twice more in the Battle of Fanum Fortunae and the Battle of Ticinum . The Goths remained a major threat to the Empire but directed their attacks away from Italy itself for several years after their defeat . By 284 AD , Gothic troops were serving on behalf of the Roman military as federated troops .
The Alamanni on the other hand resumed their drive towards Italy almost immediately . They defeated Aurelian at the Battle of Placentia in 271 AD but were beaten back for a short time after they lost the battles of Fano and Pavia later that year . They were beaten again in 298 AD at the battles of Lingones and Vindonissa but fifty years later they were resurgent again , making incursions in 356 AD at the Battle of Reims , in 357 AD at the Battle of Strasbourg , in 367 AD at the Battle of Solicinium and in 378 AD at Battle of Argentovaria . In the same year the Goths inflicted a crushing defeat on the Eastern Empire at the Battle of Adrianople , in which the Eastern Emperor Valens was massacred along with tens of thousands of Roman troops .
At the same time , Franks raided through the North Sea and the English Channel , Vandals pressed across the Rhine , Iuthungi against the Danube , Iazyges , Carpi and Taifali harassed Dacia , and Gepids joined the Goths and Heruli in attacks round the Black Sea . At around the same time , lesser @-@ known tribes such as the Bavares , Baquates and Quinquegentanei raided Africa .
At the start of the 5th century , the pressure on Rome 's western borders was growing intense . However , it was not only the western borders that were under threat : Rome was also under threat both internally and on its eastern borders .
= = = = Usurpers ( 193 – 394 AD ) = = = =
An army that was often willing to support its general over its emperor , meant that if commanders could establish sole control of their army , they could usurp the imperial throne from that position . The so @-@ called Crisis of the Third Century describes the turmoil of murder , usurpation and in @-@ fighting that followed the murder of the Emperor Alexander Severus in 235 AD . However , Cassius Dio marks the wider imperial decline as beginning in 180 AD with the ascension of Commodus to the throne , a judgement with which Gibbon concurred , and Matyszak states that " the rot ... had become established long before " even that .
Although the crisis of the 3rd century was not the absolute beginning of Rome 's decline , it nevertheless did impose a severe strain on the empire as Romans waged war on one another as they had not done since the last days of the Republic . Within the space of a single century , twenty @-@ seven military officers declared themselves emperors and reigned over parts of the empire for months or days , all but two meeting with a violent end . The time was characterized by a Roman army that was as likely to be attacking itself as it was an outside invader , reaching a low point around 258 AD . Ironically , while it was these usurpations that led to the breakup of the Empire during the crisis , it was the strength of several frontier generals that helped reunify the empire through force of arms .
The situation was complex , often with three or more usurpers in existence at once . Septimius Severus and Pescennius Niger , both rebel generals declared to be emperors by the troops they commanded , clashed for the first time in 193 AD at the Battle of Cyzicus , in which Niger was defeated . However , it took two further defeats at the Battle of Nicaea later that year and the Battle of Issus the following year , for Niger to be destroyed . Almost as soon as Niger 's userpation had been ended , Severus was forced to deal with another rival for the throne in the person of Clodius Albinus , who had originally been allied to Severus . Albinus was proclaimed emperor by his troops in Britain and , crossing over to Gaul , defeated Severus ' general Virius Lupus in battle , before being in turn defeated and killed in the Battle of Lugdunum by Severus himself .
After this turmoil , Severus faced no more internal threats for the rest of his reign , and the reign of his successor Caracalla passed uninterrupted for a while until he was murdered by Macrinus , who proclaimed himself emperor . Despite Macrinus having his position ratified by the Roman senate , the troops of Varius Avitus declared him to be emperor instead , and the two met in battle at the Battle of Antioch in 218 AD , in which Macrinus was defeated . However , Avitus himself , after taking the imperial name Elagabalus , was murdered shortly afterwards and Alexander Severus was proclaimed emperor by both the Praetorian Guard and the senate who , after a short reign , was murdered in turn . His murderers were working on behalf of the army who were unhappy with their lot under his rule and who raised in his place Maximinus Thrax . However , just as he had been raised by the army , Maximinus was also brought down by them and despite winning the Battle of Carthage against the senate 's newly proclaimed Gordian II , he too was murdered when it appeared to his forces as though he would not be able to best the next senatorial candidate for the throne , Gordian III .
Gordian III 's fate is not certain , although he may have been murdered by his own successor , Philip the Arab , who ruled for only a few years before the army again raised a general , Decius , by their proclamation to emperor , who then defeated Philip in the Battle of Verona . Several succeeding generals avoided battling usurpers for the throne by being murdered by their own troops before battle could commence . The lone exception to this rule was Gallienus , emperor from 260 to 268 AD , who confronted a remarkable array of usurpers , most of whom he defeated in pitched battle . The army was mostly spared further infighting until around 273 AD , when Aurelian defeated the Gallic usurper Tetricus in the Battle of Chalons . The next decade saw an incredible number of usurpers , sometimes three at the same time , all vying for the imperial throne . Most of the battles are not recorded , due primarily to the turmoil of the time , until Diocletian , a usurper himself , defeated Carinus at the Battle of the Margus and become emperor .
Some small measure of stability again returned at this point , with the empire split into a Tetrarchy of two greater and two lesser emperors , a system that staved off civil wars for a short time until 312 AD . In that year , relations between the tetrarchy collapsed for good and Constantine I , Licinius , Maxentius and Maximinus jostled for control of the empire . In the Battle of Turin Constantine defeated Maxentius , and in the Battle of Tzirallum , Licinius defeated Maximinus . From 314 AD onwards , Constantine defeated Licinius in the Battle of Cibalae , then the Battle of Mardia , and then again at the Battle of Adrianople , the Battle of the Hellespont and the Battle of Chrysopolis .
Constantine then turned upon Maxentius , beating him in the Battle of Verona and the Battle of Milvian Bridge in the same year . Constantine 's son Constantius II inherited his father 's rule and later defeated the usurper Magnentius in first the Battle of Mursa Major and then the Battle of Mons Seleucus .
Successive emperors Valens and Theodosius I also defeated usurpers in , respectively , the Battle of Thyatira , and the battles of the Save and the Frigidus .
= = = = Struggle with the Sassanid Empire ( 230 – 363 AD ) = = = =
After overthrowing the Parthian confederacy , the Sassanid Empire that arose from its remains pursued a more aggressive expansionist policy than their predecessors and continued to make war against Rome . In 230 AD , the first Sassanid emperor attacked Roman territory first in Armenia and then in Mesopotamia but Roman losses were largely restored by Severus within a few years . In 243 AD , Emperor Gordian III 's army retook the Roman cities of Hatra , Nisibis and Carrhae from the Sassanids after defeating the Sassanids at the Battle of Resaena but what happened next is unclear : Persian sources claim that Gordian was defeated and killed in the Battle of Misikhe but Roman sources mention this battle only as an insignificant setback and suggest that Gordian died elsewhere .
Certainly , the Sassanids had not been cowed by the previous battles with Rome and in 253 AD the Sassanids under Shapur I penetrated deeply into Roman territory several times , defeating a Roman force at the Battle of Barbalissos and conquering and plundering Antiochia in 252 AD following the Siege of Antiochia . The Romans recovered Antioch by 253 AD , and Emperor Valerian gathered an army and marched eastward to the Sassanid borders . In 260 AD at the Battle of Edessa the Sassanids defeated the Roman army and captured the Roman Emperor Valerian .
By the late 3rd century , Roman fortunes on the eastern frontier improved dramatically . During a period of civil upheaval in Persia , emperor Carus led a successful campaign into Persia essentially uncontested , sacking Ctesiphon in 283 AD . During the reign of the Tetrarchy , emperors Diocletian and Galerius brought a decisive conclusion to the war , sacking Ctesiphon in 299 AD and expanding the Roman eastern frontier dramatically with the Treaty of Nisibis . The treaty brought lasting peace between Rome and the Sassanids for almost four decades until the end of Constantine the Great 's reign . In 337 AD , Shapur II broke the peace and began a 26 @-@ year conflict , attempting with little success to conquer Roman fortresses in the region . After early Sassanid successes including the Battle of Amida in 359 AD and the Siege of Pirisabora in 363 AD , Emperor Julian met Shapur in 363 AD in the Battle of Ctesiphon outside the walls of the Persian capital . The Romans were victorious but were unable to take the city , and were forced to retreat due to their vulnerable position in the middle of hostile territory . Julian was killed in the Battle of Samarra during the retreat , possibly by one of his own men .
There were several future wars , although all brief and small @-@ scale , since both the Romans and the Sassanids were forced to deal with threats from other directions during the 5th century . A war against Bahram V in 420 AD over the persecution of the Christians in Persia led to a brief war that was soon concluded by treaty and in 441 AD a war with Yazdegerd II was again swiftly concluded by treaty after both parties battled threats elsewhere .
= = = = Collapse of the Western Empire ( 402 – 476 AD ) = = = =
Many theories have been advanced in way of explanation for decline of the Roman Empire , and many dates given for its fall , from the onset of its decline in the 3rd century to the fall of Constantinople in 1453 . Militarily , however , the Empire finally fell after first being overrun by various non @-@ Roman peoples and then having its heart in Italy seized by Germanic troops in a revolt . The historicity and exact dates are uncertain , and some historians do not consider that the Empire fell at this point .
The Empire became gradually less Romanised and increasingly Germanic in nature : although the Empire buckled under Visigothic assault , the overthrow of the last Emperor Romulus Augustus was carried out by federated Germanic troops from within the Roman army rather than by foreign troops . In this sense had Odoacer not renounced the title of Emperor and named himself " King of Italy " instead , the Empire might have continued in name . Its identity , however , was no longer Roman – it was increasingly populated and governed by Germanic peoples long before 476 AD . The Roman people were by the 5th century " bereft of their military ethos " and the Roman army itself a mere supplement to federated troops of Goths , Huns , Franks and others fighting on their behalf .
Rome 's last gasp began when the Visigoths revolted around 395 AD . Led by Alaric I , they attempted to seize Constantinople , but were rebuffed and instead plundered much of Thrace in northern Greece . In 402 AD they besieged Mediolanum , the capital of Roman Emperor Honorius , defended by Roman Gothic troops . The arrival of the Roman Stilicho and his army forced Alaric to lift his siege and move his army towards Hasta ( modern Asti ) in western Italy , where Stilicho attacked it at the Battle of Pollentia , capturing Alaric 's camp . Stilicho offered to return the prisoners in exchange for the Visigoths returning to Illyricum but upon arriving at Verona , Alaric halted his retreat . Stilicho again attacked at the Battle of Verona and again defeated Alaric , forcing him to withdraw from Italy .
In 405 AD , the Ostrogoths invaded Italy itself , but were defeated . However , in 406 AD an unprecedented number of tribes took advantage of the freezing of the Rhine to cross en masse : Vandals , Suevi , Alans and Burgundians swept across the river and met little resistance in the Sack of Moguntiacum and the Sack of Treviri , completely overrunning Gaul . Despite this grave danger , or perhaps because of it , the Roman army continued to be wracked by usurpation , in one of which Stilicho , Rome 's foremost defender of the period , was put to death .
It is in this climate that , despite his earlier setback , Alaric returned again in 410 AD and managed to sack Rome . The Roman capital had by this time moved to the Italian city of Ravenna , but some historians view 410 AD as an alternative date for the true fall of the Roman Empire . Without possession of Rome or many of its former provinces , and increasingly Germanic in nature , the Roman Empire after 410 AD had little in common with the earlier Empire . By 410 AD , Britain had been mostly denuded of Roman troops , and by 425 AD was no longer part of the Empire , and much of western Europe was beset " by all kinds of calamities and disasters " , coming under barbarian kingdoms ruled by Vandals , Suebians , Visigoths and Burgundians .
The remainder of Rome 's territory , if not its nature , was defended for several decades following 410 AD largely by Flavius Aëtius , who managed to play off each of Rome 's barbarian invaders against one another . In 436 AD he led a Hunnic army against the Visigoths at the Battle of Arles , and again in 436 AD at the Battle of Narbonne . In 451 AD he led a combined army , including his former enemy the Visigoths , against the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains , beating them so soundly that although they later sacked Concordia , Altinum , Mediolanum , Ticinum , and Patavium , they never again directly threatened Rome . Despite being the only clear champion of the Empire at this point Aëtius was slain by the Emperor Valentinian III 's own hand , leading Sidonius Apollinaris to observe , " I am ignorant , sir , of your motives or provocations ; I only know that you have acted like a man who has cut off his right hand with his left " .
Carthage , the second largest city in the empire , was lost along with much of North Africa in 439 AD to the Vandals , and the fate of Rome seemed sealed . By 476 AD , what remained of the Empire was completely in the hands of federated Germanic troops and when they revolted , led by Odoacer and deposed the Emperor Romulus Augustus there was nobody to stop them . Odoacer happened to hold the part of the Empire around Italy and Rome but other parts of the Empire were ruled by Visigoths , Ostrogoths , Franks , Alans and others . The Empire in the West had fallen , and its remnant in Italy was no longer Roman in nature . The Eastern Roman Empire and the Goths continued to fight over Rome and the surrounding area for many years , though by this point Rome 's importance was primarily symbolic .
= = = Secondary and tertiary sources = = =
= Battle of Alton =
The Battle of Alton ( also Storm of Alton ) , of the First English Civil War , took place on 13 December 1643 in the town of Alton , Hampshire , England . There , Parliamentary forces serving under Sir William Waller led a successful surprise attack on a winter garrison of Royalist infantry and cavalry serving under the Earl of Crawford . In the context of the First English Civil War , the Battle of Alton was the first decisive defeat of Sir Ralph Hopton , leader of Royalist forces in the south , and the event had a significant psychological effect on him as commander . More important to Hopton was the loss of men , however , as he was already short @-@ handed in much @-@ needed infantry . The successful Parliamentarians were able , after their victory , to attack and successfully besiege Arundel , a larger and more formidable Royalist outpost in the south of England .
At dawn on the 13th , as Waller 's army approached Alton , Crawford fled with the cavalry to Winchester , leaving Colonel Richardus Boles to defend Alton with only the infantry . Outnumbered and overpowered , Boles 's men were soon forced to seek refuge in the Church of St Lawrence , where they made a desperate last stand . Boles was killed , along with most of his remaining men . The Parliamentarians won a clear victory , losing only a few men and taking many prisoners .
Boles 's fight is also notable for its demonstrated drama and heroism . Stories boast of Boles , who is said to have killed a number of his enemies before falling himself . The battle of Alton is known as one of the " most savage encounters " of the English Civil War . Indeed , musket holes from this fierce fight can still be seen in the south door to the church and inside , where so many cornered men were killed and captured . The Battle of Alton was notably the first battle in the English Civil War to use leather guns , employed effectively by Waller before and during the battle proper .
= = Background = =
On 13 September 1643 , English Parliament ordered Major General William Waller to muster forces for the " protection " of Hampshire County . In November , he was given control of forces stationed in Farnham , a major Parliamentary staging ground , in order to take control of Kent , Surrey , Sussex and Hampshire . These forces were supplemented by the Red Regiment ( from Westminster ) and the Green and Yellow regiments ( from London ) . Also at Waller 's disposal were a personal regiment of foot soldiers and surviving cavalry from the Battle of Roundway Down .
Waller marched from Farnam for Odiham and Alton , intending to occupy these towns while gradually approaching his objective , Basing . While not of great strategic importance , Basing 's proximity to the main road between London , Salisbury , and Winchester made it worthy of attention . Marching toward Alton , Waller halted at Bentley Green on 3 November , where he determined his capabilities . He marched further that day , but later retreated to Farnham . On 2 November , Waller attacked one hundred men of Bennett 's at Alton . From 7 – 9 November , Waller laid siege to Basing House , but withdrew to Basingstoke in failure , with his soldiers near mutiny from poor weather conditions . He tried again on the night of 11 November , but retreated to Farnham to await Hopton 's army .
Hopton arrived on 27 November , given by King Charles 1 @,@ 580 horse , but only around 2 @,@ 000 conscripted infantry and 500 troops recently returned from fighting in Munster , Ireland . Hopton had been ordered in late September to make secure Dorset , Wiltshire and Hampshire , and to push as far as possible toward London . Toward this end , Hopton spread his men across Hampshire County , quartering them for the winter at Winchester , Alresford , Petersfield and Alton . He did so to alleviate the burden on any one town , and because winter was approaching quickly . However , this left his army vulnerable . Hopton placed Crawford in charge of Alton , and on 1 December Crawford began to fortify the small town as quickly as he could . Crawford had at his disposal one cavalry regiment and one infantry regiment , though his exact number of men is unknown ; it was likely around 1 @,@ 000 .
= = Prelude = =
During the week prior to the Battle of Alton , Waller scouted the town and planned his attack . He confided his intent to only a few of his senior men , maintaining secrecy . Waller did make another raid on the evening of 9 December , where a small party of his forces struck at Crawford 's lodging but fell back after the minor attack . During the morning hours of 12 December , Crawford sent a missive to Farnham , requesting of Waller that he be sent a " runlet of sack " , promising an ox in exchange . When the wine was sent , Crawford refused to send the ox , challenging Waller to fetch it himself .
Reverend G.N. Godwin 's Civil War in Hampshire ( 1882 )
During this exchange , Waller , eager to repair his reputation after Roundway Down , promptly decided to attack Alton , the nearest Royalist outpost to Farnham and only ten miles away . According to the Mercurius Aulicus , a contemporary publication , Crawford was watching only the main road from Farnham at this time .
= = Battle = =
Waller mustered his men in Farnham Park near 10 : 30 p.m. , on 12 December . At around midnight , 5 @,@ 000 of Waller 's men marched west from Farnham toward Basing House . The Parliamentarians marched about two miles in this direction ( in order to confuse Royalist scouts ) , until around 1 : 00 a.m. , before abruptly turning south toward Alton . The march was quick and quiet , owing to a long frost which had hardened the roads and Waller 's judicious use of wooded areas . Also helpful in Waller 's advance was his use of leather guns , here employed for the first time in the English Civil War . Unlike heavier artillery , a leather gun could be led by a single horse , transported efficiently over difficult terrain , and still be an effective tool for bombardment .
Waller 's forces reached the western side of Alton at around 9 : 00 a.m. , capturing six of Crawford 's sentries posted in the north . One Royalist sentry , however , managed to raise the alarm just before dawn , leading Crawford and his horse to quit Alton and head for Winchester at a gallop , as Waller approached the town . It is reported that they had promised the remaining infantry men that they would return soon with reinforcements . Initially , Crawford and his cavalry attempted to flee from the eastern border of Alton , but were routed back into town and to the south ( heading directly for Winchester ) by Parliamentary horse . The fleeing Royalists were chased for a half @-@ mile by Waller 's heavy cavalry ( these under Sir Arthur Haslerig and nicknamed the " Lobsters " ) , losing a few men and some number of horses . Haslerig , forfeiting pursuit , guarded the entrances to the town .
Meanwhile , Boles 's men concentrated to the north @-@ west corner of town , before the Church of St Lawrence . A regiment of Waller 's infantry , five companies of Haslerig 's , and five companies of Kentish Men attacked Alton from the north and north @-@ west . The Royalist infantry , however , took effective cover inside buildings , out of which they fired quickly ; they particularly favoured a large brick house near the church . This house , however , was soon abandoned as Waller 's artillery , positioned at the foot of the hill to the west , fired upon it , forcing these defenders to retreat to the church . The Parliamentary regiments from London and four companies from Farnham Castle descended the hill : Waller 's Red Regiment attacked a lunette and breastwork which the Royalists had built and which they were using as an effective fortification . The Green Regiment flanked the Royalists which were behind these fortifications forcing them out , while marching through town under the cover of smoke from a thatch house which they had set on fire . Soon after , the rest of Waller 's men entered the town en masse , flying their colours and pushing Boles 's men back to the Church of St Lawrence . From the church and nearby fortifications ( including a large earthwork on its north side ) , the Royalists held their ground for two hours . The Royalists fired from the windows of the church , and employed a scaffolding inside the church proper to fire from greater heights .
Eventually , the Parliamentarians forced the Royalists to abandon the south @-@ east part of the wall around the church . However , since the retreating men had left their muskets sticking up , the Parliamentarians were temporarily unaware that the Royalists had left . After some time it was concluded that the defenders had gone , and the Parliamentary army promptly attacked the churchyard , driving the last of Boles 's men into the church itself . Waller 's forces threw hand grenades into the windows while working to enter the church themselves . Inside the building , Boles declared he would , " run his sword through him which first called for quarter . " There had been no time for the Royalists to barricade the church doors , and the Parliamentarians soon managed to gain entry . Inside , the Royalists shot from behind a jury @-@ rigged breastwork of dead horses . Some of Boles 's men were killed ; other surrendered . Boles did not give up , and he killed as many as seven men before being killed himself . With Boles killed , all but a few of the Royalists requested quarter .
Inscribed in Boles 's honour was this epitaph :
Alton will tell you of that famous Fight
Which ys man made , and bade this world good @-@ night .
His Vertious Life fear 'd not Mortality ,
His body must , his Vertues cannot die ,
Because his Bloud was there so nobly spent ,
This is his Tombe ; that Church his Monument .
Ricardus Boles , Wiltoniensis in Art . Mag .
Composuit Posuitque Dolens . An . Domi 1679 .
= = Aftermath = =
During and after the battle , Waller captured at least 500 men , around 100 of these re @-@ enlisting with him . Additionally , more than 100 Royalist soldiers were killed . Together , the men lost represented nearly half of Hopton 's infantry forces in the south . Waller , on the other hand , lost around ten men and gained much reputation for his success . Waller put his prisoners to work dragging the horse carcasses from the church , dismantling the scaffoldings inside , and burying their fallen comrades near the northern wall of the building . All of the captured men were then marched to Farnham tied together in pairs .
Waller ordered his men to demolish the town 's fortifications , and had survivors that did not re @-@ enlist paraded through the streets of London to mark his victory . Crawford 's hat , cloak and gifted wine were all left behind in Alton . From then on , it was said that Crawford , in fleeing , " left his sack at Alton " . King Charles , upon hearing of Boles 's death , called for a mourning scarf , lamenting at the loss of what he considered to be one of " the best Commanders in this Kingdome " . In the following weeks , letters were sent from Crawford and Hopton to Waller :
Sir , your servant , Crawford
Winton , 16 December . Ralf Hopton .
Hopton was severely depressed by his defeat at Alton , more than seemed appropriate given its military import . On the Parliamentarian side , the morale boost enjoyed by Waller was significant , and on 15 December , the House of Commons of England ordered Sir Arthur Haslerig and Sir Gilbert Gerard to draft a letter to Waller commending him for his success . The Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Alton allowed Waller to advance south @-@ east , and upon Arundel where he began a successful siege on the Royalists garrisoned there . Hopton was unable to break the siege with his few remaining foot soldiers , and the 1 @,@ 000 horse he received from Oxford were unhelpful . After the Siege of Arundel , both armies were forced to retire for the winter due to the harsh weather .
= Trams in Rouen =
There have been two separate generations of trams in Rouen . The first generation tramway was a tram network built in Rouen , Normandy , northern France , that started service in 1877 , and finally closed in 1953 . There were no trams at all in Rouen between 1953 and 1994 , when the modern Rouen tramway opened .
Horse @-@ drawn carriages and omnibuses had started at the end of the 18th century and progressively improved , but were no longer enough to provide urban services in an age of industrial and demographic growth . Local officials therefore adopted the tramway as a new mode of transport . At first they were horse @-@ drawn , and later steam @-@ powered ; the tramway was electrified in 1896 .
The network spread quickly through various city @-@ centre districts on the right bank of the Seine , to reach the suburbs of the northern plateau , the hills of Bonsecours in the east , skirting around the textile valley of the River Cailly in the west , crossing the river and serving , in the south , the suburbs and industrial districts of the left bank .
At its largest it covered 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) of route , the longest network in France during the Belle Époque , and contributed to the success of events in the town 's history , such as the Colonial Exhibition of 1896 and the Norman Millennium Festival of 1911 .
Although the 1920s saw a slight growth in traffic , the network 's expansion slowed to a halt . Private motoring had arrived to put an end to its monopoly . The rising power of buses and trolleybuses , the Great Depression in France , and above all the Second World War that ravaged Rouen and Normandy , condemned the tramway to death . The last trams stopped running in 1953 , after seventy @-@ six years of service . However , in 1994 , a new Rouen tramway came to the Norman capital .
= = The first tramways = =
= = = Horse and steam = = =
Rouen was integrated into the French Kingdom after Philip II of France annexed Normandy in 1204 , and it continued as one of the largest cities in the kingdom under the Ancien Régime . It prospered during the 19th century , with the traditional trades of textiles and Rouen manufactory ( faïence ) alongside the newer chemical and papermaking industries . The navigable Seine , emptying at Rouen , had been Parisians ' route to the sea ever since the Middle Ages . Napoleon Bonaparte said " Rouen , Le Havre forment une même ville dont la Seine est la grand @-@ rue " ( " Rouen and Le Havre form a single town of which the Seine is the High Street " ) . Rouen and Orléans were the first large cities to be connected by rail to Paris , on 3 May 1843 . After the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 1871 , the economy of the First Industrial Revolution under the Second Empire , and the ever @-@ growing population , obliged the Rouen city authorities to rethink the travel facilities both within the city centre and between it and the expanding suburbs .
Urban services — always horse @-@ drawn , either carriages or omnibuses on the most profitable routes — were not enough to satisfy the needs of a town that already numbered , with its suburbs , more than 170 @,@ 000 people . From 1873 to 1875 the city fathers commissioned a study into building railways connecting the most populous areas of Rouen . A decree was signed on 5 May 1876 , committing to a publicly owned standard gauge ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ( 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) ) network , and to horse @-@ drawn carriages . Nine lines stretching 27 @,@ 500 m ( 90 @,@ 200 ft ) , or 1 @,@ 370 chains were decreed :
The town was authorised to tender construction and operation to one or more contractors . It quickly chose the only serious candidate , Gustav Palmer Harding , a British citizen . He was the continental representative of Merryweather & Sons , builders of steam tram engines . This decision knitted the close railway links between the city and Great Britain that remained for nearly half a century . Naturally , Mr Harding wanted to promote his company 's machines , so he long made his views known to the municipal authorities . Finally convinced , they authorised him to use steam power from Maromme ( Line 1 ) , entering service on 29 December 1877 . Merryweather & Sons , whose depot was on the Avenue du Mont @-@ Riboudet , provided the tram units . Small and light — 4 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 4 @.@ 6 long tons ; 5 @.@ 2 short tons ) — these reversible locomotives had two coupled axles , fully covered by a wooden body . They looked the same as a normal carriage so as not to frighten the horses . These steam carriages had enclosed lower decks ; the upper decks were roofed but had open sides .
The first steam trams of Léon Francq 's design soon appeared on the Maromme line and coexisted with the horse @-@ drawn tramways that served the city centre .
= = = Success and doubts = = =
The successful first line was soon extended to the Place Saint @-@ Hilaire , opening on 1 June 1878 . Harding then founded the Compagnie des Tramways de Rouen ( " Rouen Tramways Company " ) ( CTR ) and started building new sections from the Town Hall to Mont @-@ Riboudet ( Line 8 ; opened 3 September 1878 ) . He also started steam traction from Darnétal ( Line 2 ; started 23 June 1879 ) . On the other hand , the lines that went through narrow local streets remained horse @-@ drawn when first opened : Line 4 ( opened 3 October 1878 ) , Line 5 , ( opening 12 December 1878 ) , Line 6 ( opened 6 February 1879 ) , and Line 3 ( opened 27 September 1879 ) . Line 9 was not constructed because of technical difficulties .
For more than six years , twenty @-@ three locomotives coexisted with horse @-@ drawn trams on the Rouen network . The speed and regularity of steam trams pleased passengers ( the speed limit was 16 km / h ( 9 @.@ 9 mph ) between Mont @-@ Riboudet and Maromme ) , but they were also expensive . The frequent stops let the boilers cool down , so coal consumption was high . Moreover , steam power angered both residents — who accused them of being dirty and rough @-@ riding — and coachmen — whose animals were scared by the driver 's horn and the " infernal " noise of the trains . Operation thus was totally horse @-@ drawn from 1884 . The CTR thus found itself in charge of a " cavalry " of around 350 horses , stabled at Trianon and Maromme , the depot at Mont @-@ Riboudet having been disposed of .
= = = Electrification = = =
In 1895 the mediocrity of horse @-@ drawn service and the prospect of the great Colonial Exposition ( due to open in Rouen on 1 April 1896 ) made the town officials think of extension and electrification of the network . Councillors were sent on study trips both in France and abroad . One councillor even spent a year in the United States . At last , after much debate , the town accepted the CTR 's proposals . Electrification was contracted to the company of Thomson Houston , who built the " first network " , ten lines of standard gauge , either over new or re @-@ laid tracks :
= = Longest electric tramway in France = =
= = = Second network = = =
Infrastructure works and construction of the power station on the Rue Lemire were swiftly completed . The first electric locomotive entered service on 2 January 1896 , the electrified network going live fifteen days ahead of schedule ; the last horse @-@ drawn tram saw service on 19 July on the Sotteville line . After teething troubles , the new mode of transport had considerable success : in 1896 it transported over fifteen million passengers . The tram sheds , holding 50 vehicles , were expanded to accommodate 25 more during the first year of service . These were classic tramcars with two axles , powered by two 25 hp ( 19 kW ) motors ( one on each axle ) , and had room for 40 passengers . With its popular success , the network could be completed : the Line 10 extension to Saint @-@ Étienne @-@ du @-@ Rouvray was opened on 16 April 1899 , an 11th line was constructed from Maromme to Notre @-@ Dame @-@ de @-@ Bondeville ( opened 17 December 1899 ) , and a 12th from the Church of Saint @-@ Sever to the Saint @-@ Maur sea wall ( 6 February 1908 ) . The Rouen tramways had 37 km ( 23 mi ) of lines , the largest electric network in France . Trams were up to three cars long and ran at 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) at 20 @-@ minute intervals .
The dynamism of public transport in Rouen was an inspiration to Baron Empain who , through the intermediary of his colleague Cauderay , proposed the creation of a second complementary network . He met numerous difficulties to which the CTR was no stranger , but on 17 July 1899 , a new company to be called Traction Électrique E. Cauderay ( a sister company of the better @-@ known Companie Générale de Traction — CGT — ) was granted the concession over five routes :
The first services started on Line 1 on 18 January 1900 , the other services starting on 10 May that year , but , facing competition from the CTR , the tramway from Petit @-@ Quevilly was curtailed , its terminus becoming Rue Léon @-@ Malétra .
= = = Towards monopoly = = =
The second network was far less efficient than the first ; In 1901 the trams transported only 1 @.@ 46 million passengers over 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) of route , being 91 @,@ 000 per route kilometre ( 56 @,@ 500 per route mile ) . ( In 1908 , over 20 million people used public transport in Rouen , 19 million with the CTR , 1 @.@ 6 million with the CGT . ) In 1908 the CGT disposed of the second network to the Compagnie centrale de chemins de fer et de tramways because of administrative problems , a serious accident at Monumental on 6 November 1908 and a considerable deficit . This became an opportunity for the rival CRT , who in 1910 took over the CGT 's running rights and so were finally rid of competition .
The CTR was now master of all of the public transport in Rouen and its suburbs ( having also absorbed the tramway and funicular railway of Bonsecours on 25 September 1909 ) . It reorganised its service to be more integrated . It also expanded the service with later @-@ running trams , and extended Line 12 first to Champ de Courses ( opened 1 January 1910 ) then to Bois @-@ Guillaume ( opened 4 June 1911 ) and Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Aignan ( opened 15 March 1913 ) . This last section , running over the local authority 's rails , connected Grand @-@ Quevilly ( Rue de l ’ Église ) and , on a branch , the district of Petit @-@ Quevilly ( opened 1 August 1915 ) . The network had grown to its largest , with 70 km ( 43 mi ) of routes ( including the tramway of Bonsecours ) .
= = = World War I = = =
World War I did not affect tram service in Rouen as much as it did elsewhere . After a short period of disruption during the great August 1914 mobilisation , the CTR maintained normal service during the four years of war . It overcame its reduced staffing levels with overtime , abolition of leave , and redeployment of depot personnel ; nearly all conductors were promoted to motormen , to their great satisfaction . At the end of 1916 , women ( aged 24 or over in 1916 , reduced to 23 or over in 1918 ) joined men on the trams , but , sexism at that time being the norm , the " wattwomen " ( female motormen ) were only allowed on the " easy " lines of Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Aignan , Bois @-@ Guillaume and Monumental , and were not allowed on steep gradients .
To satisfy military requirements , the network extended the Champ de Courses track to the Château du Madrillet , headquarters of an important BEF base . It also built a connection to transport the injured arriving by train at the Gare Saint @-@ Sever to the main hospitals of Rouen . These installations , constructed in record time , disappeared when the war ended .
= = Operational difficulties and closure = =
= = = Recovery and competition = = =
During World War I the track and rolling stock received little maintenance , and by the end of the war they were in a piteous state , while expenses had increased dramatically . The problem became a crisis after the serious fire at the Trianon depot on 30 November 1921 , which destroyed 70 of the 155 trams of the CTR . Successive fare rises provided a stopgap , but with the new convention of 29 December 1923 the company announced a reorganisation of the network . A competitor had also arrived : the bus . Trams had always attracted criticism over their limited capacity , slowness and discomfort , and their encumbrance to motor cars in the city centre . Another accident on the Monumental line on 5 October 1925 hastened the inevitable : the trams lost their first route .
= = = Fightback through innovation = = =
Against these setbacks , the CTR still had a record year in 1928 , with over 30 million journeys . But from 1929 , the buses took to the narrow streets in the city centre , as well as routes with low tram traffic such as Chartreux , Maromme and the circular . The tramways continued as going concerns , and started large programmes of renovation and modernisation in the dozen or so years before World War II . Between 1928 and 1932 , 75 first @-@ generation trams were rebuilt to allow one man operation .
The Rouen workshops presently devised two prototypes , of classical design , but with double folding doors at the front and safety devices ( compressed air on one of the prototypes , electrical on the other ) which became the basis for a series of 25 vehicles named " Nogentaises " . 25 new trailing cars completed the new rolling stock . In 1931 , a " revolutionary " pedal @-@ controlled locomotive was built equipped with disc brakes , but lack of funds meant no more came of it .
The 1930s also saw the arrival of the trolleybus , having the twin advantages of electrical traction and pneumatic tyres ; these newcomers supplanted the old trams on the Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Aignan line from Sotteville and Saint @-@ Étienne @-@ du @-@ Rouvray . In 1938 , the tram sheds were enlarged for the arrival of the " Parisiennes " , ten reversible trams bought from Paris .
= = = World War II and after = = =
World War II hit Rouen hard , including its transport network . In 1939 , before the war started , mobilisation and requisition had reduced the service frequency ; the German advance , in 1940 , blew up the city 's bridges ; on 9 June 1940 the Rouen Transporter Bridge was destroyed , which split the tram network in two until 1946 . With the German occupation , the lines were progressively reopened . But service was reduced . Difficulties became such during this period that the directors of the CTR had to improvise mobile workshops . The heavy bombing raids of Spring 1944 , in particular the destruction of the central part of the Rue Lemire , stopped the trams running .
Nazi occupation ended on 30 August 1944 and Liberation slowly healed the town 's wounds . It had been a catastrophe for the network : of the 76 trams in circulation in 1939 , 24 had been destroyed and 25 damaged ; track and overhead lines had been mutilated ; the Trianon depot had been bombed several times Still , service was slowly restored , thanks to the staff 's hard work and above all passengers ' help in shunting trailing cars . In 1945 , 38 locomotives and 14 trailing cars were operational , but , despite restoration of service across the Seine on 20 April 1946 , the war had struck a fatal blow . Rouen was full of out @-@ of @-@ date equipment and so trams were progressively replaced by buses and trolleybuses .
In March 1950 the municipality decided definitely to close the tramway , but its actual closure came somewhat later . It was not until Saturday , 28 February 1953 that the last tram ran on the Champ de Courses line , 76 years after the network 's first service . But the Rouennaise did not forget the tram 's services rendered , organising a first @-@ class funeral : Just before the last scheduled run , a parade of honour made up of three trams ran from the Hôtel de ville to the Trianon depot , cheered by the crowds .
= = Bonsecours funicular railway and tramway = =
Bonsecours is a commune on a plateau to the southwest of Rouen . Until 1890 only an infrequent bus service linked it to Rouen . However , it attracted many hikers , with its splendid panoramas over the meandering Seine , and pilgrims visiting the shrine to the Virgin Mary .
= = = Early projects = = =
A first railway project for the mountain , later known by the name tramways de granit , was presented in 1876 by Cordier ; it was one of the far @-@ flung ideas that the railway companies often had in the 19th century . Because classical rail has poor adherence , Cordier designed a raceway made of two granite rails embedded in concrete with a continuous guide rail between them . The 2 @,@ 200 m ( 110 @-@ chain ) line , with a terminus at the Quai de la Bourse , would be served by steam carriages with a capacity of only 30 places , but capable of running on public streets as well as its special track . Because of its technical complexity the line would have been hugely expensive , the 1 : 1 gradient to Bonsecours requiring no fewer than 30 viaducts spanning overall 250 m ( 270 yd ) . The project was soon abandoned .
= = = Construction = = =
In 1892 Bonsecours was finally connected to the " world below " when two Swiss engineers , Ludwig and Schopfer , built a funicular railway with water @-@ filled counterweights . On 8 June 1892 it was formally declared open to the public and first ran eleven days later on 19 June . This mountain railway , 400 m ( 20 chains ) long and rising 132 m ( 433 ft ) , ran from the banks of the River Seine to the esplanade of the basilica . Each car could hold 90 people ( 50 seated ) , and its water tank could be filled in five minutes . There were twelve journeys each way daily , more on busier days . But the ferry service from its terminus at Epaulet to Rouen was irregular , and by the end of the century it had a dangerous rival : the tramway .
At first , in 1899 , the tramway was designed to be steam powered , but by 1895 this had changed to electromotive power . The line was built by the Compagnie du Tramway de Bonsecours ( CTB ) , and first ran on 21 May 1899 . It was 5 @,@ 600 m ( 280 chains ) between the two termini ( the Pont Corneille and the crossroads of the RN 14 and the Belbeuf roads ) , with timetabling of up to 7 trams . The trams had greater power than their Rouen counterparts , with 38 hp ( 28 kW ) motors . They could climb steep gradients ( up to 9 : 100 ) and could accommodate 48 passengers , with 42 more in a trailing car .
= = = New ownership and closure = = =
Seventy @-@ two daily journeys each way brought the tramway success , and it transported nearly 700 @,@ 000 passengers in 1901 , compared to 140 @,@ 000 for the funicular , which was clearly in a dire state financially ( 210 @,@ 000 passengers in 1898 ) . The figures were so catastrophic that on 25 November 1905 the CTB sacked the management of the mountain railway , and liquidated the defunct Chemin Funiculaire d ’ intérêt local de Rouen @-@ Eauplet au plateau de Bonsecours . Operations continued , and the CTR took over both tracks on 25 December 1909 . Although the tramway was always well used ( 900 @,@ 000 tickets sold in 1913 ) , the clientele of the funicular continued to fall ( 30 @,@ 000 tickets collected the same year ) , and some daily receipts were less than 1 franc . Lacking passengers , the funicular closed on 25 May 1915 , and the tramway became the monopoly service for Bonsecours . This date should not be confused with that for the Rouen service , which continued until February 1953 .
= = Trianon tramway = =
= = = Left bank = = =
At the start of the 20th century the suburbs of the left bank were the quickest growing areas of Rouen , in particular the communes of Sotteville ( a large railway town ) and Grand @-@ Quevilly , but these towns did not have good enough public transport . Although the CTR had constructed some lines , they did not well serve residents wishing for rapid transit between the suburbs and the city centre . Line 4 of the CTR , with its central terminus at Place Beauvoisine , ran only as far as the Trianon roundabout at the edge of the Jardin des Plantes . A southern extension was planned to the Bruyères roundabout , a meeting @-@ point of several roads to the new districts , and to the racecourse where major horse racing events took place each Thursday . But it was always delayed .
In 1903 a Sotteville man , M. Hulin , the owner and proprietor of the Château des Bruyères , grew tired of these delays and asked for the concession for a 600 mm ( 1 ft 11 5 ⁄ 8 in ) narrow gauge horse @-@ drawn tramway , which would connect the Trianon roundabout to the racecourse via the Elbeuf road , being 2 @,@ 000 m ( 99 chains ) long . Two years passed in discussing the project 's profitability ( profit for both Hulin and M. Dagan , the engineer from the Corps of Bridges and Roads ) and for tendering the construction of the line to a contractor other than the CTR . This time for reflection led to abandoning horse @-@ drawn trams in favour of mechanical traction , and moving the terminus from the racecourse entrance to the vast cemetery that the authorities intended to build , close to a shooting range . The CTR did not oppose the line , which would not compete with their own , so it was made a Public Local Railway on 10 March 1905 .
= = = Small train in town = = =
The line was put into service on 1 April 1906 , well before the official opening date of 28 April . This short 2 @,@ 200 m ( 110 @-@ chain ) route , opened solely for passenger traffic , traced a rectangle between the Trianon roundabout and the racecourse , the 600 mm ( 1 ft 11 5 ⁄ 8 in ) narrow gauge rails being established beside the Rue d ’ Elbeuf between the trees lining the road and the fences separating adjacent land ( much of which was owned by Hulin ) . Service was provided by two 24 hp ( 18 kW ) diesel @-@ electric locomotives , built by the Turgan workshops , each with room for 16 people , and the fuel depot was sited near to the racecourse . The service was particularly frequent : thirty journeys each way per day . The entire line took 10 minutes to traverse at a maximum speed of 25 km / h ( 16 mph ) .
The first months ' service did not meet Hulin 's expectations ; passenger numbers were much lower than expected , the coefficient of use was catastrophic : 0 @.@ 39 . In 1906 a law was passed instituting a weekly day of rest , so it was decided , from 12 January 1907 , to extend the line 800 m ( 40 chains ) to the Madrillet roundabout at the edge of the Rouvray Forest , which was popular for Sunday walks . This 3 @,@ 000 m ( 150 @-@ chain ) double @-@ track extension was inaugurated on 27 August 1907 . The same year , diesel @-@ electric locomotives ( whose " terrible noise " frightened the horses , to the chagrin of their owners ) were replaced by electromotive traction . Two Orenstein & Koppel 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0T steam locomotives headed two open carriages each taking 16 passengers . Their chimneys were fitted with spark arresters to prevent forest fires around Rouvray .
= = = Brief life = = =
The line was never profitable : the coefficient of use fell to 0 @.@ 32 in 1907 and passenger numbers fell to 34 @,@ 000 from the 60 @,@ 000 previously . Except on Thursdays , horse racing day , and Sundays where the tramway took amorous walkers to the forest paths , the trams went with few passengers , often with none . What is more , the high number of return journeys reduced the possibility of making connections in Rouen : passengers on the small line may have had to wait a long time at the Trianon roundabout for a connection to the city centre . The situation so preoccupied the Compagnie du Tramway de Rouen @-@ Trianon that in January 1908 it replaced Hulin , always the driving force , and asked the Conseil Général to authorise a reduction in service frequency . But it also proposed to use four @-@ car trams instead of two @-@ car trams on busy days . Although the departmental authorities accepted the extra cars , they would only allow the reduction of service with much red tape , as can be seen from this extract from the report of Soulier , the Conseiller général of Rouen :
It is well understood that , at the moment it is only a minimum , the Society is always free to put in place the number of trains necessary to transport passengers who present themselves , that if it will satisfy this requirement , its proper interest is guaranteed , and , in giving greater public satisfaction , its infrastructure will be wisely used , instead of it travelling empty for part of the day to the detriment of its business . Being given the lower frequency of service on weekdays and Saturdays , except Thursdays ( racing ) , we can perfectly accept the reduction to ten trips to those going from the racecourse to the forest , but , concerning the part of the journey from Trianon to the racecourse , it is imperative that the Chief Engineer ( Lechelas ) keeps the minimum to 30 , otherwise there will be a kind of abandonment of the line , because for this small distance , it will not be possible to get reasonable traffic with more frequent departures .
The service modifications lowered operating expenses , but the coefficient of use went down dramatically : 0 @.@ 33 for the first ten months of 1908 . The decision to axe the line was made on 1 November 1908 . Two strategic errors had been made : wanting a service independent of the CTR 's network , and putting its terminus out of town . The railway was officially disbanded by a decree of 14 September 1911 , the rails were lifted , the public highway restored ; no trace of the tramway remains .
= = Modern tramway = =
In 1953 one of the largest electric tramways in France disappeared . But in the 1980s Rouen — and other large cities such as Nantes and Grenoble — decided that increasing traffic jams and the desire to diversify public transport needed a new mode of public transport . Discussions started in 1982 under the guidance of SIVOM ( Syndicat intercommunal à vocations multiples , " Intercommune syndicate of several trades " ) , grouping together the communes of Greater Rouen ( representing nearly 400 @,@ 000 inhabitants ) .
In 1986 , CETE ( Centre d ’ étude technique et de l ’ équipement , " Technical and construction study centre " ) put forward a report supporting construction of a modern tramway . A pre @-@ project was launched in September 1987 and led to the Declaration of Public Utility on 22 April 1991 . Construction work was undertaken by GEC @-@ Alsthom and on 17 December 1994 the first line of the modern Rouen tramway was inaugurated .
= Listen to the Rain on the Roof =
" Listen to the Rain on the Roof " is the third season premiere episode of the American comedy @-@ drama series Desperate Housewives , and the 48th episode overall . The episode premiered on ABC ( American Broadcasting Company ) on September 24 , 2006 . It was written by series creator Marc Cherry and series writer Jeff Greenstein , and was directed by Larry Shaw .
The episode takes place six months after the events in the second season . In the episode , Bree ( Marcia Cross ) becomes engaged to Orson Hodge ( Kyle MacLachlan ) , who is accused of murdering his missing wife by his former neighbor , Carolyn Bigsby ( Laurie Metcalf ) . Meanwhile , Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) deals with the ramifications of her impending divorce and Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) copes with her husband 's illegitimate daughter and the girl 's mother . Also , Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) meets a new man , Ian Hainsworth ( Dougray Scott ) , while waiting for Mike ( James Denton ) to awaken from his coma .
According to Nielsen ratings , the episode drew just over 24 million viewers , indicating a 4 million viewer decrease from the previous season premiere a year earlier . The episode received mostly positive reviews . Critics complimented the six @-@ month time jump and generally agreed that the episode showed improvement over the quality of the second season .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Desperate Housewives focuses on the lives of several residents living on Wisteria Lane in the town of Fairview . In previous episodes , Bree Van de Kamp ( Marcia Cross ) begins dating Orson Hodge ( Kyle MacLachlan ) , a local dentist . Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) plans to propose to Susan Mayer ( Teri Hatcher ) ; however , Orson intentionally runs over Mike with his car and then flees the scene . Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) and Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) elect their maid , Xiao @-@ Mei ( Gwendoline Yeo ) , as their surrogate . Afterwards , Gabrielle discovers that Carlos and Xiao @-@ Mei are having an affair . Lynette Scavo ( Felicity Huffman ) learns that her husband , Tom ( Doug Savant ) , fathered a child out of wedlock prior to their meeting . The girl , 11 @-@ year @-@ old Kayla ( Rachel Fox ) , and her mother , Nora ( Kiersten Warren ) , move from Atlantic City to Fairview .
= = = Episode = = =
" Listen to the Rain on the Roof " takes place six months after the aforementioned events . Orson and Bree become engaged and , although they initially planned to wait until they were married to have sex , they are unable to overcome temptation . Bree visits the doctor immediately after , fearing that she may have suffered a stroke ; her doctor informs her that Bree had just experienced her first orgasm . Later at the couple 's engagement party , Orson 's former neighbor , Carolyn Bigsby ( Laurie Metcalf ) , arrives uninvited and accuses Orson of having killed his missing wife , Alma ( Valerie Mahaffey ) . Despite a sense of doubt , Bree believes Orson when he denies Carolyn 's claims . Later , the rain washes away mud at a construction site and uncovers a buried body .
Mike has been comatose since the hit @-@ and @-@ run . Dr. Lee Craig ( Terry Bozeman ) warns Susan that Mike will most likely not awaken from his coma , but she remains optimistic . She meets Ian Hainsworth ( Dougray Scott ) , a British man whose wife , Jane ( Cecily Gambrell ) , has been in a coma for several years . Ian asks Susan on a date , which forces her to face the unlikeliness of Mike recovering .
Gabrielle and Carlos are in the middle of a prolonged divorce . Carlos has moved into an apartment across town and Gabrielle is forced to care for Xiao @-@ Mei , who is over eight months pregnant and on bed rest . During an argument , Gabrielle threatens to send Xiao @-@ Mei back to China after she has the baby . Later , Gabrielle discovers that Xiao @-@ Mei has run away and enlists Carlos ' help to find her . The two bicker before acknowledging the challenges they will face while trying to raise a child as a divorced couple . Edie Britt ( Nicollette Sheridan ) finds Xiao @-@ Mei in a house that she has been trying to sell and notifies the Solises .
Lynette is frustrated with Nora inviting herself to family events . To ensure that Nora does not show up to Parker 's ( Zane Huett ) birthday party , Tom and Lynette tell her that they are having Kayla over for a quiet afternoon . Nora becomes suspicious and arrives at the party unannounced . She is furious over their deception and threatens to take Kayla home , but Tom tries to calm her by inviting Nora to stay . Lynette accuses Tom of putting Nora and Kayla ahead of the rest of the family , which encourages Tom to ask Nora to leave and pick up Kayla later . Eventually , Nora obliges .
= = Production = =
" Listen to the Rain on the Roof " was written by series creator Marc Cherry and series writer Jeff Greenstein and directed by Larry Shaw . Cherry 's decision to advance the storylines by six months for the third season premiere came as a response to the series ' problematic second season . Cherry stated that he regretted most of the second season , as scheduling problems made it difficult to plan the season 's storylines . " One of the problems I had with Season 2 was that I had to keep going with the previous year 's stuff , " he explained . " I learned you have to go back to square one to build up the tension again . " The cast also expressed disappointment in the second season ; James Denton considered leaving the show and Marcia Cross confessed : " I 've been at Marc 's door plenty of times [ with script complaints ] going , ' You 've got to be kidding . ' " Cherry stated that the six @-@ month time jump would help the storylines develop quicker , as the second season 's storylines lagged . He added : " And I 'm going to work much harder to criss @-@ cross all the women 's stories so that their lives bump up against each other . "
To help refresh the show , several new writers were hired , including Greenstein , Joe Keenan , who also served as an executive producer , and Bob Daily , who was also a producer . Daily commented , " When we came on in season three , the mandate was to bring the show back to its roots . That meant having plotlines spring from relatable experiences , no | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Daily News writer David Bianculli compared the premiere to the show 's second season , noting that the episode showed " an assurance and a knowing playfulness that was missing most of last year . " He complimented Cherry and Greenstein 's script and approved the storylines for each character . Bianculli opined that the episode returned the quality of the show 's first season and concluded : " Pass the word : If you 've given up on ' Desperate Housewives , ' it 's time to return to the neighborhood . " Entertainment Weekly 's Lindsay Soll identified Eva Longoria as the episode 's strongest performer , declaring that she " definitely looks like the one to watch this season . " Soll was glad to see that the Susan character was " a little more toned down and less accident @-@ prone than usual , " and called the scenes with Susan and Mike touching . Additionally , she opined that Laurie Metcalf " did a brilliant job of playing the classic TV nosy neighbor , " but expressed her confusion over the Orson storyline .
Dave Anderson of TV Guide called the episode first @-@ rate , while praising the comedic Bree storyline and declaring the set @-@ up for the Orson mystery storyline ingenious . He commended Marcia Cross ' performance but opined that Longoria provided the best comedic relief . He also complimented Teri Hatcher 's acting , commenting that she " was awesome in the poignant scene where she asks the comatose Mike permission to go on the ( almost ) date with Ian . " Anderson identified the Scavo storyline as " the weakest link " in the episode and hoped that the Nora and Kayla characters would not remain on the show for too long . TV Guide writer Matt Roush shared similar sentiments regarding the Scavo storyline , stating that while the premiere overall was good , " Lynette is trapped in a story line so desperately unamusing , one that makes her and everyone around her act so idiotic , that you have to pray that we 'll soon see the last of the obnoxious Nora , mother of Tom 's surprise daughter . " He described the storyline as " painfully unpleasant and unfunny . " However , Roush praised the performances of Metcalf and Valerie Mahaffey , while concluding that Desperate Housewives " shows encouraging signs of getting its act together . " In a separate review , Roush unfavorably compared the Orson character to Bree 's former love interest , George Williams ( Roger Bart ) , while also admitting to being " a bit weary " of the Gabrielle storyline .
USA Today 's Robert Bianco acknowledged that the episode managed to avoid repeating many of the second season 's mistakes noting that the four main characters spend more time together and the annual mystery " is hot @-@ wired into the housewives themselves . " Bianco remarked that Cross successfully maintained her position as the series ' most prominent lead and was pleased with Susan 's storyline , calling it " a conflict that gives Teri Hatcher a genuinely funny , rather than forced , sight gag . " He approved of the writers ' decision to distance the characters from their second season storylines , but opined : " The harder mistake to overcome is the damage the show did to its main characters — allowing them to behave in ways that made them seem weak , selfish , stupid and , at times , despicable . " Bianco concluded : " It will take more than one good episode to win us back after all that . But it 's certainly a good place to start . " Jen Creer of TV Squad was mixed in her review . She criticized the lack of originality in the storylines , writing that the episode was similar to Sex and the City . Nevertheless , Creer complimented the main actresses , concluding , " I 'll be tuning in next week – for all of its camp and unoriginality , the show does continue to have that certain something , those little twists of genius that make it worth watching . " Andy Dehnart of MSNBC was slightly more positive in his review , acknowledging that while " most of the housewives are stuck in their second @-@ season ruts , " the show 's overall quality has improved , citing the Orson storyline as a welcomed change from the slow @-@ moving Applewhite mystery arc . Overall , Dehnart approved of the episode and felt that the show " may be on track to finally pleasuring its audience in new , albeit familiar ways . "
= = Title Reference = =
Listen to the Rain on the Roof is a lyric from the song Rain on the Roof from the Stephen Sondheim musical Follies .
= Kakashi Hatake =
Kakashi Hatake ( はたけ カカシ , Hatake Kakashi ) is a fictional character in the Naruto manga and anime series created by Masashi Kishimoto . Kishimoto originally planned to introduce Kakashi in the manga to the series ' title character , Naruto Uzumaki , early on , but pushed back this meeting so that Naruto 's teammates could be better developed .
In the story , Kakashi is the and teacher of Team 7 , consisting of the series ' primary characters , Sasuke Uchiha , Sakura Haruno , and Naruto Uzumaki . He is initially portrayed as a detached and apathetic figure , but as the series progresses , his loyalty to his friends and students becomes increasingly apparent . Kakashi 's past has been extensively explored in the series , resulting in a gaiden being devoted to his past experiences . Kakashi has appeared in several pieces of Naruto media , including six of the nine featured films in the series , all of the original video animations , and all of the video games .
Numerous anime and manga publications have praised and criticized Kakashi 's character . Although he has been noted to be an echo of similar detached shōnen manga characters , the duality of Kakashi 's apathetic and serious sides have been praised . Kakashi 's popularity has been noted by reviewers ; T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews commented that the series could simply be renamed " Kakashi " . Kakashi has been highly popular with the Naruto reader base , placing high in several popularity polls . Merchandise based on Kakashi has also been released , including key chains and plush dolls .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Naruto = = =
Kakashi Hatake is introduced as the leader in charge of Team 7 , a new ninja team including Naruto Uzumaki , Sasuke Uchiha and Sakura Haruno . He first appears as a weak @-@ looking character as he tends to lose track of time when he is there , and is frequently late to his appointments as a result . However , when testing his students , Kakashi reveals himself as a strong opponent to the point he fights while reading Make Out ( イチャイチャ , Icha Icha ) series of erotic novels . Kakashi is revealed to be very famous in the Naruto world , earning him the moniker " Kakashi of the Sharingan " ( 写輪眼のカカシ , Sharingan no Kakashi ) for possessing the Sharingan , gaining it from a member of the Uchiha clan he was friends with . It grants him the ability to mimic the movements and jutsu of others . Although most of Kakashi 's abilities were acquired with his Sharingan , he also invented the Chidori and its Lightning Blade variation , a collection of lightning chakra in one 's hand that uses the Sharingan 's visual ability to lock onto a target . When first forming Team 7 , Kakashi does not turn them into his students until instilling in them the concept of teamwork even if they have to break the rules he gave them . Kakashi continues to further this philosophy for the duration of Part I upon Sasuke Uchiha but is unable to get through to him before the latter 's defection from Konoha . Kakashi also reluctantly participates in various kinds of challenges by his childhood friend Might Guy who considers Kakashi his rival .
Kakashi 's background is explored in Kakashi Gaiden , a six chapter series that divides the gap between Part I and II of the manga . Following his father 's suicide , Sakumo Hatake aka the White Fang , Kakashi adopted the philosophy that the success of a mission must always come first rather than comrades in contrast to his father . Kakashi is assigned by his teacher , Minato Namikaze , to lead a mission that would turn the current war in Konoha 's favor . When his teammate , Rin Nohara , is captured by enemy ninja , his other teammate , Obito Uchiha , convinces him to rescue her despite the mission 's ending . After finding Rin , an enemy @-@ induced cave @-@ in crushed Obito 's right half . With his dying wish and the possibility of enemy reinforcements , Obito has Rin implant his newly acquired Sharingan into Kakashi 's damaged eye socket as a parting gift . His new eye in place , Kakashi flees with Rin as the cave collapsed , eventually completing their mission . Shortly after this event , Kakashi has to rescue Rin again who is kidnapped by Kirigakure ; however , he learns that the Kiri , under the influence of Madara Uchiha , has made Rin as the host of the Three Tails , Isobu . Rin requests Kakashi to kill her so she may not be used by the Hidden Mist ninja as part of a Trojan Horse scheme against Konoha , but Kakashi is reluctant . She eventually forces herself on the way of Kakashi 's Lightning Blade that he originally directed at the pursuing Hidden Mist ninja , killing her . An anime exclusive flashback arc in Naruto Shippuden covered Kakashi coping with what he endured during the war as he becomes an ANBU operative during Minato 's time as Hokage and influences Yamato into becoming a member of the ANBU as well . Once relieved of duty in the ANBU , Kakashi becomes a Genin instructor prior to the events of Part I.
Two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years later in Part II , Kakashi reforms Team 7 . During the gap in time , Kakashi hones the Mangekyo Sharingan that he gained from result of Rin 's death to master the Kamui ability that allows him to send any targeted object to another dimension . Because his students are now capable of taking care of themselves , Kakashi takes a more active role in the battles that go on during the series , particularly those with the criminal organization Akatsuki . When the Akatsuki leader , Pain , invades Konoha , Kakashi engages him in battle but he dies as a result of forcing all his energy . However , after his confrontation with Naruto , Pain decides to use all of his remaining power to revive all those killed in the battle at Konoha , including Kakashi . Following a brief encounter with Tobi , the Akatsuki 's true leader , Kakashi becomes one of the generals to participate in the war against Tobi 's army . As Naruto and Killer Bee continue to battle against Tobi and his forces , Kakashi and Guy arrive to join the fight against Tobi . During the encounter , Kakashi learns that Tobi is Obito , who in fact had survived his apparent death and had committed horrible deeds since Rin 's death to destroy the world order that allowed their friend 's demise to occur with Kakashi being left greatly stunned and also horrified at Obito 's actions . Despite the guilt for what Obito has become , Kakashi is encouraged by Naruto to continue fighting and the battle ends with Kakashi managing to impale Obito . When Naruto is nearly killed by Madara , Kakashi and a redeemed Obito joined forces to protect Naruto by spiriting him off into the latter 's dimension to be healed . After losing his Sharingan , Naruto using his new @-@ found abilities to restore his original eye , Kakashi finds himself temporarily infused by the chakra @-@ based spirit of Obito as he gains his friend 's full Sharingan abilities and a Susanoo to help his team defeat Kaguya . Following the conclusion of the war , Kakashi is named by Tsunade as her successor , the Sixth Hokage , with his first act being to pardon Sasuke for his crimes . He holds this title for many years before finally passing it to Naruto , as revealed in the epilogue .
= = = Appearances in other media = = =
Kakashi has made appearances outside of the Naruto anime and manga . He is in ten of the feature films in the series : in the first movie he battles Nadare Rouga and later defeats him , in the third Kakashi battles the hired ninja Ishidate , whom he fights to a standstill , and he later acts as a distraction for his team by battling the minister Shabadaba 's soldiers , in the fourth Kakashi fights against a large group of stone soldiers , in the fifth , Kakashi is sent alongside Shikamaru Nara , Sai , and Shino Aburame to investigate the base of the Sky Country , in the sixth , when the threat of war loom over Konoha from the other ninja villages , Kakashi is sent on a suicide mission to defeat a rogue ninja named Hiruko who wants his Sharingan , however , Naruto and Sakura ultimately prevent their teacher from throwing his life away. in the seventh movie , in which a younger Kakashi is a member of a team composed of himself , Minato , Shibi Aburame and Chōza Akimichi to stop Anrokuzan with the help of a time displaced Naruto . In the eighth , he serves as part of the plan to lock Naruto in prison before subsequently helping to break him out , and in the ninth , an alternate version of him with an identical appearance to Guy is shown , to Sakura 's dismay . Canonically , in the tenth , he appears as the Sixth Hokage , helping the village while Naruto is away , and in the eleventh he makes a cameo appearance waking up a drowsy Naruto ( who is now the Seventh Hokage ) shadow clone by tapping him on the head with a book .
Kakashi is also present in all four of the original video animations produced for the series , helping Naruto and Konohamaru Sarutobi to find a four leaf clover in the first original video animation , joining his team in escorting a ninja named Shibuki to his village in the second , participating in a tournament in the third , and working with Team 7 in the fourth one . A light novel titled Kakashi Hiden : Lightning in the Icy Sky , written by Akira Higashiyama and illustrated by Kishimoto , focuses on the early days of Kakashi 's appointment as the Sixth Hokage , in which he has to stop a terror plan conducted by a pair of Kirigakure ninja , who plan to take control of a newly unveiled airborne ship to stage a jailbreak of a notorious criminal , in the process learning about the pair 's tragic reason for doing so .
Kakashi is a playable character in all Naruto video games , including the Clash of Ninja series and the Ultimate Ninja series . In some games , he is able to use his Sharingan in combat , often as a different character with the ability activated , and in other games , he is available in his ANBU attire . An upcoming light novel titled Kakashi Hiden will focus on the character .
= = Creation and conception = =
Masashi Kishimoto originally intended for Kakashi to debut in the second chapter of the Naruto manga , appearing prior to the other members of Team 7 . This Kakashi was designed as a laid back but very skilled ninja that ended his sentences with the polite " de gozaru " in the Japanese versions of the series . After speaking with his editor , Kishimoto pushed this debut back , allowing him to better develop Kakashi and the rest of Team 7 . Despite this , Kakashi retains many of his original personality traits , being easygoing , unfazed by the actions of others , and eyes appearing to be half @-@ asleep . Kishimoto feels that this makes Kakashi a compelling leader and helps to keep the diverse members of Team 7 unified . Because he acts as a link between the other main characters of the series , Kakashi is rarely featured prominently in promotional artwork , instead appearing in the background while his students are the focus of the scene . In an interview in Shōnen Jump 's , Kishimoto said that if he were to make an extra story from the manga with a different character , such character would be Kakashi . In early 2014 , Kishimoto commented he wanted to reveal Kakashi 's face but was not sure whether it would be in the manga or an upcoming movie .
When deciding upon Kakashi 's name , Kishimoto considered a number of possibilities : Kuwa ( クワ , " hoe " ) , Kama ( カマ , " scythe " ) , Botan ( ボタン , " peony " ) , Enoki ( エノキ , a nettle tree ) , and Kakashi ( カカシ , " scarecrow " ) . He eventually decided upon Kakashi , and remains glad that he did to this day . In keeping with the meaning of his name , scarecrows are occasionally used to represent Kakashi ; Naruto , for example , uses a scarecrow that is dressed like Kakashi to help him train for a combat test between the two . Likewise , scarecrows are at times added to the background of scenes in which Kakashi appears , as is the case with the cover of the Naruto manga volume three .
= = Reception = =
Kakashi has ranked within the top five characters in every official Weekly Shōnen Jump popularity poll , acquiring the first position as the most popular character several times . In the most recent poll , he ranked third , with Naruto Uzumaki and Sasuke Uchiha acquiring the top two positions . There has not been another official poll since the poll as of 2006 . In the Anime Awards 2006 from About.com , Kakashi won in the category " Best Supporting Male Character " . He was also a nominee during the first " Nickelodeon Magazine Comics Awards " in the category " Best Hair in Comics " , losing to Calvin from Calvin and Hobbes . In an Oricon poll of " manga master " , Kakashi was third with 8 @.@ 4 % of the votes . In an interview , Dave Wittenberg , who does the voice acting for Kakashi in the English dub , comments that he feels he is similar to the character since he tends to have one eye open at a time and he becomes angry if he is interrupted while reading . He also added that what he likes most about Kakashi is his relation with his students , noting him to be " a very nice person " . Merchandise based on Kakashi 's character has also been released , including plush dolls , key chains , and a limited edition figurine .
Several publications for manga , anime , video games , and other related media have provided praise and criticism on Kakashi 's character . IGN noted the duality of Kakashi 's serious persona in combat and his laid back , apathetic countenance when dealing with his students , but accepted that he is one of the most popular characters in the series . They also commented that Kakashi is one of the more popular characters they have seen cosplayed at anime conventions . Active Anime celebrated Kakashi 's abilities , noting that he fell into the overall theme of characters hiding detailed personalities and secrets . T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews derided Kakashi as a stereotypical " Man of Mystery " seen in other shōnen manga , but praised him as being " much more interesting " than the three main characters , and felt that for all intents and purposes , the show could be renamed simply " Kakashi " . Mania Entertainment 's Dani Moure likes how Kakashi fits into Team 7 due to the fact he is a " hilarious character in that sometimes he doesn 't seem all that bothered about things and yet is so masterful of his craft . " Chris Beveridge from the site stated that Kakashi is his favorite character from the series because of his personality and praised his fight against Pain , and that after its ending , the character gets " a very humanizing moment " , making the episode from the battle stand out . Manga author Yoshihiro Togashi found Kakashi 's first battle against his students as one of the first series ' moments that impressed him due to how the difference in strength between such characters was shown by just making Kakashi read a book during the fight . IGN ranked him as the 15th greatest anime character of all time , saying that " He 's a complex character , with an iconic character design and a laid back attitude that just exudes cool . "
= Licence to Kill =
Licence to Kill , released in 1989 , is the sixteenth entry in the James Bond film series by Eon Productions , and the first one not to use the title of an Ian Fleming story . It is the fifth and final consecutive Bond film to be directed by John Glen . It also marks Timothy Dalton 's second and final performance in the role of James Bond . The story has elements of two Ian Fleming short stories and a novel , interwoven with aspects from Japanese Rōnin tales . The film sees Bond being suspended from MI6 as he pursues drugs lord Franz Sanchez , who has ordered an attack against his CIA friend Felix Leiter and a rape and murder on Felix 's wife during their honeymoon . Originally titled Licence Revoked in line with the plot , the name was changed during post @-@ production because too many people did not know what revoked meant .
Budgetary reasons caused Licence to Kill to be the first Bond film shot completely outside the United Kingdom , with locations in both Florida and Mexico . The film earned over $ 156 million worldwide , and enjoyed a generally positive critical reception , with ample praise for the stunts , but attracted some criticism of Dalton 's dark and violent interpretation of Bond and the fact that the film was significantly darker and more violent than its predecessors .
After the release of Licence to Kill , legal wrangling over control of the series and the James Bond character resulted in a six @-@ year @-@ long delay in production of the next Bond film which resulted in Dalton deciding not to return . It is also the final Bond film for actors Robert Brown ( as M ) and Caroline Bliss ( as Moneypenny ) , screenwriter Richard Maibaum , title designer Maurice Binder , editor John Grover , cinematographer Alec Mills , director and former Bond film editor John Glen , and producer Albert R. Broccoli , although he would later act as a consulting producer for GoldenEye before his death .
= = Plot = =
DEA agents collect MI6 agent James Bond and Felix Leiter , on their way to Leiter 's wedding in Key West , to have them assist in capturing drugs lord Franz Sanchez . Bond and Leiter capture Sanchez by attaching a hook and cord to Sanchez 's plane and pulling it out of the air with a Coast Guard helicopter . Afterwards , Bond and Leiter parachute down to the church in time for the ceremony .
Sanchez bribes DEA agent Ed Killifer and escapes . Meanwhile , Sanchez 's henchman Dario and his crew ambush Leiter and his wife Della and take Leiter to an aquarium owned by one of Sanchez 's accomplices , Milton Krest . Sanchez has Leiter lowered into a tank holding a great white . When Bond learns Sanchez has escaped , he returns to Leiter 's house to find Leiter has been maimed and that Della has been murdered — and by implication raped . Bond , with Leiter 's friend Sharkey , start their own investigation . They discover a marine research centre run by Krest , where Sanchez has hidden cocaine and a submarine for smuggling .
After Bond kills Killifer , M meets Bond in Key West 's Hemingway House and orders him to an assignment in Istanbul , Turkey . Bond resigns after turning down the assignment , but M suspends Bond instead and revokes his licence to kill . Bond becomes a rogue agent , although he later receives unauthorised assistance from Q.
Bond boards Krest 's ship the Wavekrest and foils Sanchez 's latest drug shipment , stealing five million dollars in the process . He discovers that Sharkey had been killed by Sanchez 's henchmen . Bond rescues Pam Bouvier , an ex @-@ CIA agent and pilot , from Dario at a Bimini bar , and journeys with her to the Republic of Isthmus . He finds his way into Sanchez 's employment by posing as an assassin for hire . Two Hong Kong Narcotics Bureau officers foil Bond 's attempt to assassinate Sanchez and take him to an abandoned warehouse . They are joined by Fallon , an MI6 agent who was sent by M to apprehend Bond . Sanchez 's men rescue him and kill the officers , believing them to be the assassins . Later , with the aid of Bouvier , Q , and Sanchez 's girlfriend Lupe Lamora , Bond frames Krest by planting the $ 5 million in the Wavekrest . Sanchez kills Krest and admits Bond into his inner circle .
Sanchez takes Bond to his base , which is disguised as headquarters of a religious cult . Bond learns that Sanchez 's scientists can dissolve cocaine in petrol and then sell it disguised as fuel to Asian drug dealers . The televangelist Professor Joe Butcher serves as middleman , working under Sanchez 's business manager Truman @-@ Lodge . During Sanchez 's presentation to potential Asian customers , Dario discovers Bond and betrays him to Sanchez . Bond starts a fire in the laboratory , but is captured again and placed on the conveyor belt that drops the brick @-@ cocaine into a giant shredder . Bouvier arrives and shoots Dario , allowing Bond to pull Dario into the shredder , killing him .
Sanchez flees as fire consumes his base , taking with him four tankers full of the cocaine and petrol mixture . Bond pursues them by plane , with Bouvier at the controls . Bond destroys three of the tankers and kills several of Sanchez 's men . Sanchez attacks Bond with a machete aboard the final remaining tanker , which crashes down a hill side . A petrol @-@ soaked Sanchez attempts to kill Bond with his machete . Bond then reveals his cigarette lighter – the Leiters ' gift for being the best man at their wedding – and sets Sanchez on fire . Sanchez stumbles into the wrecked tanker , blowing it up and killing himself . Bouvier arrives and rescues Bond .
Later , a party is held at Sanchez 's former residence . Bond receives a call from Leiter telling him that M is offering him his job back . He then rejects Lupe 's advances and romances Bouvier instead .
= = Cast = =
Timothy Dalton as James Bond , an MI6 agent who resigns to take his revenge on drug lord Franz Sanchez
Carey Lowell as Pam Bouvier , an ex @-@ Army pilot and CIA informant
Robert Davi as Franz Sanchez , the most powerful drug lord in Latin America , mentioned as having been wanted by the DEA for years .
Talisa Soto as Lupe Lamora , Sanchez 's girlfriend who has romantic feelings for Bond
Anthony Zerbe as Milton Krest , Sanchez 's henchman who operates Wavekrest Marine Research , and whom Bond sets up to turn Sanchez against him
Frank McRae as Sharkey , a friend of Felix Leiter who owns a boat charter business
Everett McGill as Ed Killifer , a corrupt DEA official who frees Sanchez from custody
Wayne Newton as Professor Joe Butcher , Sanchez 's middleman and TV evangelist for Olimpatec Meditation Institute
Benicio del Toro as Dario , Sanchez 's personal henchman
Anthony Starke as Truman @-@ Lodge , Sanchez 's financial advisor
Pedro Armendáriz , Jr. as President Hector Lopez , the president of Isthmus
Desmond Llewelyn as Q , Bond 's ally who supplies Bond with various gadgets and helps him on the field
David Hedison as Felix Leiter , a former CIA agent now with DEA and a close friend of James Bond
Priscilla Barnes as Della Churchill , Felix Leiter 's bride
Robert Brown as M , the head of MI6 and Bond 's superior who revokes Bond 's double @-@ 0 licence
Caroline Bliss as Miss Moneypenny , M 's personal secretary
Don Stroud as Colonel Heller , Sanchez 's head of security
Grand L. Bush as Hawkins , a DEA Agent who opposes Bond 's vendetta
Cary @-@ Hiroyuki Tagawa as Kwang , a Hong Kong Police Narcotics agent sent to infiltrate Sanchez 's heart of operations
Christopher Neame as Fallon , an MI6 agent sent by M to arrest Bond , dead or alive
Diana Lee Hsu as Loti , a female Hong Kong Narcotics agent working with Kwang
= = Production = =
Shortly after The Living Daylights was released , producer Albert R. Broccoli and writers Michael G. Wilson and Richard Maibaum started discussing its successor . The film would retain a realistic style , as well as showing the " darker edge " of the Bond character . For the primary location , the producers wanted a place where the series had not yet visited . While China was visited after an invitation by its government , the idea fell through partly because the 1987 film The Last Emperor had removed some of the novelty from filming in China . By this stage the writers had already talked about a chase sequence along the Great Wall , as well as a fight scene amongst the Terracotta Army . Wilson also wrote two plot outlines about a drug lord in the Golden Triangle before the plans fell through . The writers eventually decided on a setting in a tropical country while Broccoli negotiated to film in Mexico , at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City . In 1985 , the Films Act was passed , removing the Eady Levy , resulting in foreign artists being taxed more heavily . The associated rising costs to Eon Productions meant no part of Licence to Kill was filmed in the UK , the first Bond film not to do so . Pinewood Studios , used in every previous Bond film , housed only the post @-@ production and sound re @-@ recording .
= = = Writing and themes = = =
The initial outline of what would become Licence to Kill was drawn up by Wilson and Maibaum . Before the pair could develop the script , the Writers Guild of America ( WGA ) went on strike and Maibaum was unable to continue writing , leaving Wilson to work on the script on his own . Although both the main plot and title of Licence to Kill owe nothing to any of the Fleming novels , there are elements from the books that are used in the storyline , including a number of aspects of the short story " The Hildebrand Rarity " , such as the character Milton Krest . The novel Live and Let Die provided the material surrounding Felix Leiter 's mauling by a shark , whilst the film version of the book provided the close similarity between the main villain , Kananga , and Licence to Kill 's main villain Sanchez . The screenplay was not ready by the time casting had begun , with Carey Lowell being auditioned with lines from A View to a Kill .
The script — initially called Licence Revoked — was written with Dalton 's characterisation of Bond in mind , and the obsession with which Bond pursues Sanchez on behalf of Leiter and his dead wife is seen as being because " of his own brutally cut @-@ short marriage . " Dalton 's darker portrayal of Bond led to the violence being increased and more graphic . Wilson compared the script to Akira Kurosawa 's Yojimbo , where a samurai " without any attacking of the villain or its cohorts , only sowing the seeds of distrust , he manages to have the villain bring himself down " . Wilson freely admitted that the idea of the destruction @-@ from @-@ within aspect of the plot came more from the cinema versions of the Japanese Rōnin tales by Kurosawa or Sergio Leone than from Fleming 's use of that plot device from The Man with the Golden Gun . For the location Wilson created the Republic of Isthmus , a banana republic based on Panama , with the pock @-@ marked Sanchez bearing similarities to General Manuel Noriega . The parallels between the two figures were based on Noriega 's political use of drug trafficking and money laundering to provide revenues for Panama . Robert Davi suggested the line " loyalty is more important than money " , which he felt was fitting to the character of Franz Sanchez , whose actions were noticed by Davi to be concerned with betrayal and retaliation .
The United Artists press kits referred to the film 's background as being " Torn straight from the headlines of today 's newspapers " and the backdrop of Panama was connected to " the Medellín Cartel in Colombia and corruption of government officials in Mexico thrown in for good measure . " This use of the cocaine @-@ smuggling backdrop put Licence to Kill alongside other cinema blockbusters , such as the 1987 films Lethal Weapon , Beverly Hills Cop II and RoboCop , and Bond was seen to be " poaching on their turf " with the drug @-@ related revenge story .
= = = Casting = = =
After Carey Lowell was chosen to play Pam Bouvier , she watched many of the films in the series for inspiration . Lowell had described becoming a Bond girl as " huge shoes to fill " , as she did not see herself as a " glamour girl " , even coming to audition in jeans and a leather jacket . While Lowell wore a wig for the scenes set in the United States , a scene where Bouvier is given money and told by Bond to go and buy some new clothes ( and , going off and doing so , also has her hair cut ) was added so that Lowell 's own short hair style could be used .
Robert Davi was cast following a suggestion by Broccoli 's daughter Tina , and screenwriter Richard Maibaum , who had seen Davi in the television film Terrorist on Trial : The United States vs. Salim Ajami . To portray Sanchez , Davi researched on the Colombian drug cartels and how to do a Colombian accent , and since he was method acting , he would stay in character off @-@ set . After Davi read Casino Royale for preparation , he decided to turn Sanchez into a " mirror image " of James Bond , based on Ian Fleming 's descriptions of Le Chiffre . The actor also learned scuba diving for the scene where Sanchez is rescued from the sunken armoured car .
Davi later helped out on the casting of Sanchez 's mistress Lupe Lamora , by playing Bond in the audition , with Talisa Soto being picked from twelve candidates because Davi expressed he " would kill for her " . David Hedison returned to play Felix Leiter , sixteen years after being the agent in Live and Let Die . Hedison did not expect to return to the role , saying " I was sure that [ Live and Let Die ] would be my first – and last " and Glen was reluctant to cast the 61 @-@ year @-@ old actor , since the role even had a scene parachuting . Hedison was the only actor to play Leiter twice , until Jeffrey Wright appeared in both Casino Royale and Quantum of Solace .
Up @-@ and @-@ coming actor Benicio del Toro was chosen to play Sanchez 's henchman , Dario for being " laid back while menacing in a quirky sort of way " , according to Glen . Wayne Newton got the role of Professor Joe Butcher after sending a letter to the producers expressing interest in a cameo because he always wanted to be in a Bond film . The President of Isthmus was played by Pedro Armendáriz , Jr . , the son of Pedro Armendáriz , who played Ali Kerim Bey in From Russia with Love .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography ran from 18 July to 18 November 1988 . Shooting began in Mexico , which mostly doubled for the fictional Republic of Isthmus : locations in Mexico City included the Biblioteca del Banco de Mexico for the exterior of El Presidente Hotel and the Casino Español for the interior of Casino de Isthmus whilst the Teatro de la Ciudad was used for its exterior . Villa Arabesque in Acapulco was used for Sanchez 's lavish villa , and the La Rumorosa Mountain Pass in Tecate was used as the filming site for the tanker chase during the climax of the film . Sanchez 's Olympiatec Meditation Institute was shot at the Otomi Ceremonial Center in Temoaya . Other underwater sequences were shot at the Isla Mujeres near Cancún .
In August 1988 , production moved to the Florida Keys , notably Key West . Seven Mile Bridge towards Pigeon Key was used for the sequence in which the armoured truck transporting Sanchez , following his arrest , is driven off the edge . Other locations there included Ernest Hemingway House , Key West International Airport , Mallory Square , St. Mary 's Star of the Sea Church for Leiter 's wedding and Stephano 's House 707 South Street for his house and patio . The US Coast Guard Pier was used to film Isthmus City harbour . As production moved back to Mexico , Broccoli became ill , leading to Michael G. Wilson becoming co @-@ producer , a position he subsequently retained .
The scene where Sanchez 's plane is hijacked was filmed on location in Florida , with stuntman Jake Lombard jumping from a helicopter to a plane and Dalton himself being filmed atop the aircraft . The plane towed by the helicopter was a life @-@ sized model created by special effects supervisor John Richardson . After filming wide shots of David Hedison and Dalton parachuting , closer shots were made near the church location . During one of the takes , a malfunction of the harness equipment caused Hedison to fall on the pavement . The injury made him limp for the remainder of filming . The aquatic battle between Bond and the henchmen required two separate units , a surface one led by Arthur Wooster which used Dalton himself , and an underwater one which involved experienced divers . The barefoot waterskiing was done by world champion Dave Reinhart , with some close @-@ ups using Dalton on a special rig . Milton Krest 's death used a prostethic head which was created by John Richardson 's team based on a mould of Anthony Zerbe 's face . The result was so gruesome that it was shortened and toned down to avoid censorship problems .
For the climactic tanker chase , the producers used an entire section of a highway near Mexicali , which had been closed for safety reasons . Sixteen eighteen @-@ wheeler tankers were used , some with modifications made by manufacturer Kenworth at the request of driving stunts arranger Rémy Julienne . Most were given improvements to their engines to run faster , while one model had an extra steering wheel on the back of the cabin so a hidden stuntman could drive while Carey Lowell was in the front and another received extra suspension on its back so it could lift its front wheels . Although a rig was constructed to help a rig tilt onto its side , it was not necessary as Julienne was able to pull off the stunt without the aid of camera trickery .
= = = Music = = =
Initially Vic Flick , who had played lead guitar on Monty Norman 's original 007 theme , and Eric Clapton were asked to write and perform the theme song to Licence to Kill and they produced a theme to match Dalton 's gritty performance , but the producers turned it down and instead Gladys Knight 's song and performance was chosen . The song ( one of the longest to ever be used in a Bond film ) was based on the " horn line " from Goldfinger , seen as an homage to the film of the same name , which required royalty payments to the original writers . The song gave Knight her first British top @-@ ten hit since 1977 . The end credits feature the Top 10 R & B hit " If You Asked Me To " , sung by Patti LaBelle .
John Barry was not available at the time due to throat surgery , so the soundtrack 's score was composed and conducted by Michael Kamen , who was known for scoring many action films at the time , such as Lethal Weapon and Die Hard . Glen said he picked Kamen , feeling he could give " the closest thing to John Barry . "
= = Release and reception = =
Film ratings organisations had objections to the excessive and realistic violence , with both the Motion Picture Association of America and the British Board of Film Classification requesting content adaptations , with the BBFC in particular demanding the cut of 36 seconds of film . The 2006 Ultimate Edition DVD of Licence to Kill marked the first release of the film without cuts .
Licence to Kill premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on 13 June 1989 , raising £ 200 @,@ 000 ( £ 448 @,@ 735 in 2016 pounds ) for The Prince 's Trust on the night . The film grossed a total of £ 7 @.@ 5 million ( £ 17 million in 2016 pounds ) in the United Kingdom , making it the seventh most successful film of the year , despite the 15 certificate which cut down audience numbers . Worldwide numbers were also positive , with $ 156 million , making it the twelfth biggest box @-@ office draw of the year . The US cinema returns were $ 34 @.@ 6 million , making Licence to Kill the least financially successful James Bond film in the US , when accounting for inflation . A factor suggested for the poor takings were fierce competition at the cinema , with Licence to Kill released alongside Lethal Weapon 2 ; Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade ( starring former Bond , Sean Connery ) and Batman .
There were also issues with the promotion of the film : promotional material in the form of teaser posters created by Bob Peak , based on the Licence Revoked title and commissioned by Albert Broccoli , had been produced , but MGM decided against using them after American test screenings showed ' Licence Revoked ' to be a common American phrase for the withdrawal of a driving licence . The delayed , corrected advertising by Steven Chorney , in the traditional style , limited the film 's pre @-@ release screenings . MGM also discarded a campaign created by advertising executive Don Smolen – who had worked in the publicity campaign for eight Bond films before – emphasising the rougher content of the movie .
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
Derek Malcolm in The Guardian was broadly approving of Licence to Kill , liking the " harder edge of the earlier Bonds " that the film emulated , but wishing that " it was written and directed with a bit more flair . " Malcolm praised the way the film attempted " to tell a story rather than use one for the decorative purposes of endless spectacular tropes . " Writing in The Guardian 's sister paper , The Observer , Philip French noted that " despite the playful sparkle in his eyes , Timothy Dalton 's Bond is ... serious here . " Overall French called Licence to Kill " an entertaining , untaxing film " . Ian Christie in the Daily Express excoriated the film , saying that the plot was " absurd but fundamentally dull " , a further problem being that as " there isn 't a coherent storyline to link [ the stunts ] , they eventually become tiresome . "
Hilary Mantel in The Spectator dismissed the film . " It is a very noisy film . There is a weary and repetitive note to the frenzy . The sex is low key and off @-@ screen but there is a smirking perverse undertow which makes the film more disagreeable than a slasher movie . "
David Robinson , writing in The Times observed that Licence to Kill " will probably neither disappoint nor surprise the great , faithful audience " , but bemoaned the fact that " over the years the plots have become less ambitious " . Robinson thought that Dalton 's Bond " has more class " than the previous Bonds and was " a warmer personality " . Iain Johnstone of The Sunday Times pointed out that " any vestiges of the gentleman spy ... by Ian Fleming " have now gone , and in its place is a Bond that is " remarkably close both in deed and action to the eponymous hero of the Batman film " that was released at the same time as Licence to Kill .
Adam Mars @-@ Jones of The Independent gave the film a mixed review , pointing out that it took out some of the more dated ideas from the Fleming novels , such as imperialism ; he wrote that the writers were " trying in effect to reproduce the recipe while leaving out ingredients that would now seem distasteful " . Overall Mars @-@ Jones thought that " James Bond is more like a low @-@ tar cigarette than anything else – less stimulating than the throat @-@ curdling gaspers of yesteryear , but still naggingly implicated in unhealthiness , a feeble bad habit without the kick of a vice . "
For the Canadian newspaper The Globe and Mail , Rick Groen wrote that in Licence to Kill " they 've excised Bond from the Bond flicks ; they 've turned James into Jimmy , strong and silent and ( roll over , Britannia ) downright American " , resulting in a Bond film that is " essentially Bond @-@ less " . Summing up , Groen thought " Actually , that dialogue ... ain 't bad . The silence looks good on Timothy Dalton " .
Gary Arnold of The Washington Times wrote that a number of factors " fail to prevent the finished product from jamming and misfiring with disillusioning frequency " . Arnold opined that " demanding that he [ Dalton ] play Bond 's wrathfulness in a transparently seething and hotheaded manner " means that Dalton " seems to waste away on this second outing as Bond . " Overall Arnold sees that there is a " failure to recognize that Bond productions are simply too extravagant to permit an uncompromised return to first principles . " The critic for The New York Times , Caryn James , thought Dalton was " the first James Bond with angst , a moody spy for the fin de siecle " , and that Licence to Kill " retains its familiar , effective mix of despicably powerful villains , suspiciously tantalizing women and ever @-@ wilder special effects " , but was impressed that " Dalton 's glowering presence adds a darker tone " . James concluded that " for all its clever updatings , stylish action and witty escapism , Licence to Kill ... is still a little too much by the book . "
Roger Ebert for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film 3 ½ stars out of 4 , saying " the stunts all look convincing , and the effect of the closing sequence is exhilarating ... Licence to Kill is one of the best of the recent Bonds . " Jack Kroll , writing in Newsweek described Licence to Kill as " a pure , rousingly entertaining action movie " . Kroll was mixed in his appraisal of Dalton , calling him " a fine actor who hasn 't yet stamped Bond with his own personality " , observing " Director John Glen is the Busby Berkeley of action flicks , and his chorus line is the legendary team of Bond stunt @-@ persons who are at their death @-@ defying best here " . For Time magazine , Richard Corliss bemoaned that although the truck stunts were good , it was " a pity nobody – not writers Michael G. Wilson , and Richard Maibaum nor director John Glen – thought to give the humans anything very clever to do . " Corliss found Dalton " misused " in the film , adding that " for every plausible reason , he looks as bored in his second Bond film as Sean Connery did in his sixth . "
= = = Reflective reviews = = =
Opinion on Licence to Kill has not changed with the passing of time and the reviews are still mixed : though film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes lists the film with a positive 77 % " fresh " rating from 52 reviews . Tom Hibbert of Empire gives the film only two of a possible five stars , observing that " Dalton ... is really quite hopeless " . Hibbert concluded that " he may look the part , but Timothy Dalton fails the boots , the scuba gear , or the automobiles left him by Moore and Connery . " In 2006 , IGN ranked Licence to Kill fifteenth out of the then 21 Bond films , claiming it is " too grim and had strayed too far from the Bond formula . " That same year , Benjamin Svetkey and Joshua Rich of Entertainment Weekly ranked the film as second worst in the series , questioning Wayne Newton 's cameo , and considering that " not even Benicio Del Toro in an early role as a henchman is enough to pep up the action . " The magazine also listed Pam Bouvier seventh on their list of worst Bond girls , saying Carey Lowell " fumbled this attempt at giving 007 a modern , independent counterpart by turning her into a nagging pest . "
Norman Wilner of MSN considered Licence to Kill the second worst Bond film , above only A View to a Kill , but defended Dalton , saying he " got a raw deal . The actor who could have been the definitive 007 ... had the bad luck to inherit the role just as the series was at its weakest , struggling to cope with its general creative decline and the end of the Cold War " . In October 2008 Time Out re @-@ issued a review of Licence to Kill and also thought that Dalton was unfortunate , saying " one has to feel for Dalton , who was never given a fair shake by either of the films in which he appeared " . On a more positive note , Chuck O 'Leary of Fantastica Daily remarked that it was a rare entry in the Bond series where the danger seems real .
Some critics , such as James Berardinelli , saw a fundamental weakness in the film : the " overemphasis on story may be a mistake , because there are times when Licence to Kill 's narrative bogs down . " Berardinelli gave the film three out of a possible four stars , adding " Licence to Kill may be taut and gripping , but it 's not traditional Bond , and that , as much as any other reason , may explain the public 's rejection of this reasonably well @-@ constructed picture . " Raymond Benson , the author of nine Bond novels , said of the film : " It boggles my mind that Licence to Kill is so controversial . There 's really more of a true Ian Fleming story in that script than in most of the post @-@ 60s Bond movies . " John Glen has said Licence to Kill " is among my best Bond films , if not the best " .
= = Appearances in other media = =
The Licence to Kill screenplay was written into a novel by the then @-@ novelist of the Bond series John Gardner . It was the first of those novels since Moonraker in 1979 .
Licence to Kill was also adapted as a forty @-@ four page , colour graphic novel , by writer and artist Mike Grell ( also author of original @-@ story Bond comic books ) , published by Eclipse Comics and ACME Press in hardcover and trade editions in 1989 . The adaptation closely follows the film story , although the ending is briefer , and James Bond is not drawn to resemble Timothy Dalton after Dalton refused to allow his likeness to be licensed . Domark also published a video game adaptation , 007 : Licence to Kill , to various personal computers .
= = Awards and nominations = =
1990 Edgar Allan Poe Award - Best Motion Picture - nomination for Michael G. Wilson and Richard Maibaum
1989 MPSE Golden Reel - Outstanding Sound Mixing - nomination for Graham Hartstone
= Mediterranean cuisine =
Mediterranean cuisine is the food from the lands around the Mediterranean Sea and its preparation . This geographical area broadly follows the distribution of the olive tree , which provides one of the most distinctive features of the region 's cooking , olive oil . Although this region spans a wide variety of cultures with distinct cuisines , the historical connections of the region , as well as the impact of the Mediterranean Sea on the region 's climate and economy , mean that there are common elements in these cuisines , which include Italian , Levantine , Maghrebi , Ottoman , Provençal ( French ) , and Spanish cuisines .
The region 's food came to be seen as a more or less unified cuisine following the cookery writer Elizabeth David 's book , A Book of Mediterranean Food ( 1950 ) . Other writers , such as the Tunisian historian Mohamed Yassine Essid , have agreed with David , defining the three core elements of the cuisine as the olive , wheat , and the grape , yielding oil , bread and pasta , and wine , respectively .
The cooking of the area is not to be confused with the Mediterranean diet , made popular because of the apparent health benefits of a diet rich in olive oil , wheat and other grains , fruits , vegetables , and a certain amount of seafood , but low in meat and dairy products . Mediterranean cuisine encompasses the ways that these and other ingredients , including meat , are dealt with in the kitchen , whether they are healthgiving or not .
= = Geography = =
= = = By city and country = = =
The cookery writer Elizabeth David 's introduction to A Book of Mediterranean Food ( 1950 ) defines her scope as " the cooking of the Mediterranean shores " . She sketches out the geographical limits as
from Gibraltar to the Bosphorus , down the Rhone Valley , through the great seaports of Marseilles , Barcelona , and Genoa , across to Tunis and Alexandria , embracing all the Mediterranean islands , Corsica , Sicily , Sardinia , Crete , the Cyclades , Cyprus ( where the Byzantine influence begins to be felt ) , to the mainland of Greece and the much disputed territories of Syria , the Lebanon , Constantinople , and Smyrna .
= = = By a key culinary plant = = =
David defines the region as coextensive with the range of the olive tree : " those blessed lands of sun and sea and olive trees " . The olive 's natural distribution is limited by frost and by availability of water . It is therefore constrained to a more or less narrow zone around the Mediterranean Sea , except in the Maghreb and in Spain , where it is distributed more widely , and on the islands of the Mediterranean , where it is widespread . It does not grow in most of France , most of the north of Italy ( except Liguria ) , or the inland regions of the Balkans .
The Tunisian historian Mohamed Yassine Essid similarly defines the region by the olive 's presence , along with bread , wheat , and the grape as the " basic products of Mediterranean folk cuisine " :
Mediterranean cuisine is defined by the presence of fundamental elements which are said to play a more important role than others , reflecting a community of beliefs and practices which transcend religions , languages and even societies . The olive tree , the emblematic tree on more than one account , traces the bounds of a frontier of landscapes and lives on either side of which the Mediterranean begins or ends . Above Montelimar , nicknamed " Gates of Provence " , is the limit of the olive .
= = Key ingredients = =
Essid , as already mentioned , identifies the " trinity " of basic ingredients of traditional Mediterranean cuisine as the olive , wheat , and the grape , yielding oil , bread , and wine respectively . The archaeologist Colin Renfrew calls this the " Mediterranean triad " .
= = = Olive = = =
The olive appears to come from the region of Persia and Mesopotamia , at least 6 @,@ 000 years ago . It spread from there to nearby areas , and has been cultivated since the early Bronze Age ( up to 3 @,@ 150 BC ) in southern Turkey , the Levant , and Crete . The ten countries with the largest harvests ( in 2011 ) are all near the Mediterranean ( Portugal being the tenth largest ) : together , they produce 95 % of the world 's olives .
The olive yields bitter fruits , made edible by curing and fermentation , and olive oil . Some 90 % of the fruit production ( 1996 ) goes into olive oil . The Mediterranean region accounts for the world 's highest consumption of olive oil : in 2014 , the highest @-@ consuming country , Greece , used 17 kg per head ; Italy , 12 kg , Spain 3 kg ; the United States for comparison used only 1 kg per head .
= = = Wheat = = =
Wheat was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent , in and near the Levant some 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Its ancestors include wild emmer wheat ; this was hybridised , harvested and sown to create domestic strains with larger grains , in ears that shatter less readily than wild forms . It had been spread across the Mediterranean region as far as Spain by 5 @,@ 000 BC .
Wheat is a staple food in the Mediterranean region . Wheat bread was already critically important in the empire of Ancient Rome , which included the entire region ; at that time , around 2 @,@ 000 years ago , North Africa was the " breadbasket " of the empire . Other staple wheat @-@ based Mediterranean foods include pasta and semolina ( wheat middlings ) products such as couscous and burgul . In turn , these are made into dishes such as the Greek dessert galaktoboureko ( milk börek ) , consisting of filo pastry parcels around a custard made with semolina . A widespread wheat dish from Turkey and the Levant to Iran and India is halva , a dessert of sweetened semolina with butter , milk , and pine kernels .
= = = Grape = = =
The grape was domesticated between 7 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 000 BC between the Black Sea and Persia ; archaeological evidence shows that wine was being made there by 6 @,@ 000 BC , reaching Greece and Crete in the fifth millennium BC and Spain by the last millennium BC . Winemaking started in Italy in the ninth century BC , and in France around 600 BC .
Grapes are grown for making wine , for drying as raisins , or for eating as table grapes . Wine grapes are often rich in tannins , while raisins and table grape varieties are chosen for their flavour . Grape production remains important in the Mediterranean area , with a large part of the world 's harvest . Italy produced 8 million tonnes ( mt ) in 2013 ; Spain 7 @.@ 5 mt ; France 5 @.@ 5 mt ; Turkey 4 @.@ 0 mt ; Egypt 1 @.@ 4 mt ; Greece 0 @.@ 9 mt ; Algeria 0 @.@ 6 mt . Wine production is similarly large , with France 4 @.@ 3 mt ; Italy 4 @.@ 1 mt ; Spain 3 @.@ 2 mt , but with much lower figures from the Muslim countries .
= = History = =
= = = Concept = = =
The concept of a Mediterranean cuisine is very recent , probably dating from the publication of David 's A Book of Mediterranean Food ( 1950 ) . David herself did not use the term , speaking instead of Mediterranean " food " , " cookery " , or " cooking " . The usefulness of the concept is disputed . Carol Helstosky , author of the book Food Culture in the Mediterranean ( 2009 ) , is among the authors who use " Mediterranean cuisine " interchangeably with " Mediterranean food " . In the preface to her book she writes
Mediterranean food is incredibly popular : pasta , pizza , gyros , kebab , and falafel can be found just about everywhere . Food experts and cookbook authors adore Mediterranean cuisine ...
Essid acknowledges that " geographical differences and the vicissitudes of history " have affected the food of different Mediterranean lands , but nonetheless asserts that :
Rules for the preparation and consumption of food are common to the lands that border the Mediterranean . They offer both stability , continuity and reproduction of a specific pattern of eating which resists conquest , invasion , colonisation , social change , industrialisation and urbanisation . Consequently , wherever you go , in southern Europe or the lands bordering the southern Mediterranean , you will find a cuisine and gastronomic ritual which is always familiar .
On the other hand , Sami Zubaida argues in his book Culinary Cultures of the Middle East ( 1994 ) that :
The idea of the " standard Mediterranean " ... is a modern construction of food writers and publicists in Europe and North America earnestly preaching what is now thought to be a healthy diet to their audiences by invoking a stereotype of the healthy other on the shores of the Mediterranean . Their colleagues in Mediterranean countries are only too willing to perpetuate this myth . The fact of the matter is that the Mediterranean contains varied cultures .
The cookery author Clifford A. Wright wrote in 1999 : " There really is no such thing as ' Mediterranean cuisine ' . At the same time , we seem to know what we mean when we use the expression .... " Wright argued that David 's book itself was largely about specifically French Mediterranean food , pointing out that " only 4 percent of her recipes come from North Africa or the Levant " .
Since David 's time , a variety of books on Mediterranean cuisine have been written , including Helstosky 's 2009 book , already mentioned ; books by other cookery writers include S. Rowe 's Purple Citrus and Sweet Perfume : Cuisine of the Eastern Mediterranean ( 2011 ) ; Mari @-@ Pierre Moine 's Mediterranean Cookbook ( 2014 ) ; and J. R. Stevens ' Mediterranean Cuisine ( 2015 ) . There are many more cookbooks covering specific cuisines in the Mediterranean area , such as B. Santich 's The Original Mediterranean Cuisine : Medieval Recipes for Today ( 1995 ) , on Catalan and Italian recipes ; H. F. Ullman 's on the cooking of Tunisia ( 2006 ) , Spain and Italy , each one subtitled " Mediterranean Cuisine " .
= = = Origins = = =
The ingredients of Mediterranean cuisine are to an extent different from those of the cuisine of Northern Europe , with olive oil instead of butter , wine instead of beer . The list of available ingredients has changed over the centuries . One major change was the introduction of many foods by the Arabs to Portugal , Spain and Sicily in the Middle Ages . Those foods included aubergines , spinach , sugar cane , rice , apricots and citrus fruits , creating the distinctive culinary tradition of Al @-@ Andalus .
Another major change was the arrival of foods from the Americas in Early Modern times ( around the sixteenth century ) , notably the incorporation of the potato into Northern European cuisine , and the eager adoption of the tomato into Mediterranean cuisine . The tomato , so central now to that cuisine , was first described in print by Pietro Andrea Mattioli in 1544 . Similarly , many of the species of Phaseolus beans now used around the Mediterranean , including P. vulgaris ( the French or haricot bean ) , were brought back from the Americas by Spanish and Portuguese explorers .
= = Cooking = =
David 's introduction to her 1950 book characterises the cooking of the Mediterranean countries as " conditioned naturally by variations in climate and soil and the relative industry or indolence of the inhabitants . "
David identifies " the ever recurring elements " in the food of this extensive region as olive oil , saffron , garlic , " pungent " local wines , as well as the " aromatic perfume " of herbs , especially rosemary , wild marjoram , and basil , and the bright colours of fresh foods in the markets , " pimentos , aubergines , tomatoes , olives , melons , figs " and " shiny fish , silver , vermilion , or tiger @-@ striped " . She includes cheeses of " sheep 's or goat 's milk " , " figs from Smyrna on long strings " and " sheets of apricot paste which is dissolved in water to make a cooling drink . "
With common ingredients including the olive , wheat , and grape ; a shared climate ; and a long period for cultural exchange , it might be expected that a single , pan @-@ Mediterranean cuisine would have developed . Certain items , such as olive oil , bread , wine , roast lamb or mutton ( for example , Maghreb méchoui , Greek kleftiko and souvlaki , Turkish shish kebab ) , bottarga , and stews of meat with vegetables and tomato ( such as Spanish andrajos , French estouffade à la Provençale , Italian ciambotta , Turkish buğu kebabı ) , are indeed found all around the Mediterranean . Despite this , however , the lands bordering the Mediterranean sea have distinct regional cuisines , from the Maghreb , Levant and Ottoman to the Italian , French , and Spanish . Each of those , in turn , has national and provincial variations .
= = = Maghrebi = = =
Maghrebi cuisine includes the cuisines of Algeria , Libya , Morocco , and Tunisia . One of the most characteristic dishes of the region is couscous , a steamed , small @-@ grained wheat semolina , served with a stew . The dish is ancient , mentioned by the Medieval traveller Ibn Battuta , and found for example also in Italian cuisine , at Genoa , Livorno and Trapani .
One stew that may be served with couscous is the Moroccan tagine , a hearty , somewhat dry dish of meat and vegetables , cooked slowly in a pot ( called a tagine ) with a tall conical lid . Dishes from the Maghreb region of North Africa are often coloured and flavoured with the hot spice mixtures harissa and ras el hanout ( containing such spices as cumin , coriander , saffron , cinnamon , cloves , chillies , and paprika ) . Other characteristic flavourings of the region are preserved lemons and dried apricots and raisins .
= = = Levantine = = =
Levantine cuisine is the cooking of the Levant ( including the Middle Eastern Mediterranean coast , east of Egypt ) . Among the most distinctive foods of this cuisine are traditional small meze dishes such as tabbouleh , hummus , and baba ghanoush . Tabbouleh is a dish of bulgur cracked wheat with tomatoes , parsley , mint and onion , dressed with olive oil and lemon juice . Baba ghanoush , sometimes called " poor man 's caviar " , is a puree of aubergine with olive oil , often mixed with chopped onion , tomato , cumin , garlic , lemon juice , and parsley . The dish is popular across the whole of the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa .
Ful medames , originally from Egypt and still a national dish there , consists of fava beans with oil and cumin ; it is popular throughout the Levant . The dish may be ancient : dried beans of Neolithic age have been found near Nazareth .
= = = Ottoman = = =
Ottoman cuisine has given rise to the cuisines of modern Turkey , parts of the Balkans , Cyprus , and Greece . A distinctive element is the family of small flaky pastries called börek . These are popular and widespread across the Eastern Mediterranean region , and date as far back as ancient Roman times . Börek are made of thin sheets of filo pastry , filled with mixtures such as meat , caramelised onion and sweet peppers .
Another widespread and popular dish is moussaka , a baked dish of aubergine or potato with various other ingredients : often minced meat and tomatoes , sometimes a layer of egg custard or béchamel sauce on top . In its Greek variant , well @-@ known outside the region , it includes layers of aubergine and minced meat with custard or béchamel sauce on top , but that version is a relatively recent innovation , introduced by the chef Nikolaos Tselementes in the 1920s .
= = = Greek = = =
Much of Greek cuisine is part of the larger tradition of Ottoman cuisine , the names of the dishes revealing Arabic , Persian or Turkish roots : moussaka , tzatziki , yuvarlakia , keftethes , boureki , and so on . Many dishes ' names probably entered the Greek vocabulary during Ottoman times , or earlier in contact with the Persians and the Arabs . However , some dishes may be pre @-@ Ottoman , only taking Turkish names later ; Ash and Dalby , for example , speculate that grape @-@ leaf dolmathes were made by the early Byzantine period . Greek cookery makes wide use of vegetables , olive oil , grains , fish , wine and meat ( white and red , including lamb , poultry , rabbit and pork ) . Other important ingredients include olives , cheese , eggplant ( aubergine ) , zucchini ( courgette ) , lemon juice , vegetables , herbs , bread and yoghurt . Some dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece : lentil soup , fasolada , retsina ( white or rosé wine flavored with pine resin ) and pasteli ( candy bar with sesame seeds baked with honey ) ; some to the Hellenistic and Roman periods : loukaniko ( dried pork sausage ) ; and Byzantium : feta cheese , avgotaraho ( botargo , cured fish roe ) and paximadi ( traditional hard bread baked from corn , barley and rye ) .
= = = Italian = = =
Mediterranean Italian cuisine includes much of Italy outside the north and the mountainous inland regions . It is a diverse cuisine , but among its best @-@ known and most characteristic foods are risotto , pizza in Neapolitan and Sicilian styles , and pasta dishes such as spaghetti .
Risotto is a dish made using Italian short @-@ grain rice , which is both highly absorbent and resistant to turning into a pudding when cooked with stock and flavoured with onions and garlic , cooked in butter . Anna Gosetti della Salda 's book of Italian regional cookery lists 37 risotto recipes , 18 of them from the Veneto . Variations among Veneto risottos include additions of fish and white wine ; chicken ; eel ; mushrooms and grated Parmesan cheese ; quails ; small pieces of beef ; courgettes ( zucchini ) ; clams ; Ragù ; beans ; mussels ; prawns ; cuttlefish ; and asparagus .
Pizza , or as David notes " pissaladina or pissaladière " in Provence ( the cuisines of Mediterranean France and Italy having something in common ) , is a piece of bread dough rolled out thin , with a topping which varies from place to place , but is generally much simpler than those in the English @-@ speaking world . In Naples this is tomato , anchovies and buffalo mozzarella . In San Remo it is onions cooked in olive oil , with salted sardines . The Provençal variety uses onions , black olives , and anchovies .
Spaghetti dishes also vary . It may be eaten as David says " simply with olive oil and garlic " , without cheese , or with a sauce of " very red and ripe peeled tomatoes " , cooked briefly and flavoured with garlic and either basil or parsley . One Sicilian variant includes pieces of bacon , onions fried in fat , garlic , stoned olives , and anchovies , served with olive oil and grated Parmesan cheese .
= = = French = = =
Mediterranean French cuisine includes the cooking styles of Provence , Occitania , and the island of Corsica . Distinctive dishes that make use of local ingredients include bouillabaisse and salade niçoise .
Bouillabaisse is a substantial dish from the French port of Marseille , capital of Provence . It is a stew for at least eight people , because it should contain many kinds of fish such as crayfish , gurnard , weever , John Dory , monkfish , conger eel , whiting , sea bass , and crab . These are cooked with Mediterranean vegetables and herbs , namely onions , garlic , tomatoes , thyme , fennel , parsley , bay , and orange peel .
Salade niçoise is a colourful salad of tomatoes , tuna , hard @-@ boiled eggs , Niçoise olives , and anchovies , dressed with a vinaigrette .
= = = Spanish = = =
Spain 's varied cuisine includes the cooking of Andalusia , Catalonia , Valencia , and the Balearic islands . Paella is a characteristic Spanish dish , originally from Valencia and now popular across a much wider area , made in many versions . It may contain a mixture of chicken , pork , and shellfish , fried in oil in a large shallow pan , with vegetable flavourings , and long @-@ grain rice cooked to absorb the water and coloured with saffron . Other local ingredients may include artichoke hearts , peas , sweet peppers , sausages and so on .
= = Mediterranean diet and cuisine = =
The Mediterranean diet , popularised in the 1970s , is sometimes conflated with Mediterranean cuisine . Thus , the American Diabetes Association writes about " Mediterranean @-@ Style Eating " , mentioning " the traditional Mediterranean lifestyle ... of ... eating healthfully together among family and friends " , and asserting that " Mediterranean cuisine is plant @-@ based " , citing the ingredients " whole grains , fruits , vegetables , herbs and spices , beans , nuts , seeds , and olive oil " , and stating that most foods " in a Mediterranean diet come from plants " .
The 1984 travel guide Guida all 'Italia gastronomica states that " around 1975 , under the impulse of one of those new nutritional directives by which good cooking is too often influenced , the Americans discovered the so @-@ called Mediterranean diet . The name even pleased Italian government officials , who made one modification : changing from diet — a word which has always seemed punitive and therefore unpleasant — to Mediterranean cuisine . "
" Mediterranean diet " as popularly understood may have little to do with either Mediterranean cuisine or indeed the traditional Mediterranean diet based on the trinity of wheat , olive , and grape . Thus , Judy Lance 's book Low Carb Eating : How a Wheat Free Menu , or Mediterranean Diet Can Help with Weight Loss advocates a diet called Mediterranean , but lacking the wheat staple entirely .
= = A changing cuisine = =
Since David wrote about Mediterranean food in 1950 , and indeed since dietary researchers showed in the 1950s that people around the Mediterranean had less coronary heart disease than the peoples of northern Europe , the traditional Mediterranean ways of life and of eating have changed . Increased wealth and busy lives have led people to eat more meat and less vegetables : their diet is becoming more northern European , with more convenience foods and with less of a preventative effect on cardiovascular disease .
= Thebe ( moon ) =
Thebe ( / ˈθiːbiː / THEE @-@ bee ; Greek : Θήβη ) also known as Jupiter XIV , is the fourth of Jupiter 's moons by distance from the planet . It was discovered by Stephen P. Synnott in images from the Voyager 1 space probe taken on March 5 , 1979 , while making its flyby of Jupiter . In 1983 it was officially named after the mythological nymph Thebe .
The second largest of the inner satellites of Jupiter , Thebe orbits within the outer edge of the Thebe gossamer ring that is formed from dust ejected from its surface . It is irregularly shaped and reddish in colour , and is thought like Amalthea to consist of porous water ice with unknown amounts of other materials . Its surface features include large craters and high mountains — some of them are comparable to the size of the moon itself .
Thebe was photographed in 1979 by the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft , and later , in more detail , by the Galileo orbiter in the 1990s .
= = Discovery and observations = =
Thebe was discovered by Stephen P. Synnott in images from the Voyager 1 space probe taken on March 5 , 1979 , and was initially given the provisional designation S / 1979 J 2 . In 1983 it was officially named after the mythological nymph Thebe who was a lover of Zeus — the Greek equivalent of Jupiter .
After its discovery by Voyager 1 , Thebe was photographed by the Voyager 2 space probe in 1979 . However , before the Galileo spacecraft arrived at Jupiter , knowledge about it was extremely limited . Galileo imaged almost all of the surface of Thebe and helped clarify its composition .
= = Orbit = =
Thebe is the outermost of the inner Jovian moons , and orbits Jupiter at a distance of about 222 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @.@ 11 Jupiter radii ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0 @.@ 018 , and an inclination of 1 @.@ 08 ° relative to the equator of Jupiter . These values are unusually high for an inner satellite and can be explained by the past influence of the innermost Galilean satellite , Io ; in the past , several mean @-@ motion resonances with Io would have passed through Thebe 's orbit as Io gradually receded from Jupiter , and these excited Thebe 's orbit .
The orbit of Thebe lies near the outer edge of the Thebe gossamer ring , which is composed of the dust ejected from the satellite . After ejection the dust drifts in the direction of the planet under the action of Poynting – Robertson drag forming a ring inward of the moon .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Thebe is irregularly shaped , with the closest ellipsoidal approximation being 116 × 98 × 84 km . Its surface area is probably between 31 @,@ 000 and 59 @,@ 000 ( ~ 45 @,@ 000 ) km2 . Its bulk density and mass are not known , but assuming that its mean density is like that of Amalthea ( around 0 @.@ 86 g / cm3 ) , its mass can be estimated at roughly 4 @.@ 3 × 1017 kg .
Similarly to all inner satellites of Jupiter , Thebe rotates synchronously with its orbital motion , thus keeping one face always looking toward the planet . Its orientation is such that the long axis always points to Jupiter . At the surface points closest to and furthest from Jupiter , the surface is thought to be near the edge of the Roche lobe , where Thebe 's gravity is only slightly larger than the centrifugal force . As a result , the escape velocity in these two points is very small , thus allowing dust to escape easily after meteorite impacts , and ejecting it into the Thebe gossamer ring .
Zethus Crater is the largest ( diameter about 40 km ) crater on and the only named surface feature of Jupiter 's moon Thebe . There are several bright spots at the rim of this crater . It is located on the far side of Thebe , facing away from Jupiter . It was discovered by the Galileo spacecraft . It is named for Zethus , the husband of the nymph Thebe in Greek mythology .
The surface of Thebe is dark and appears to be reddish in color . There is a substantial asymmetry between leading and trailing hemispheres : the leading hemisphere is 1 @.@ 3 times brighter than the trailing one . The asymmetry is probably caused by the higher velocity and frequency of impacts on the leading hemisphere , which excavate a bright material ( probably ice ) from the interior of the moon . The surface of Thebe is heavily cratered and it appears that there are at least three or four impact craters that are very large , each being roughly comparable in size to Thebe itself .
= James Meredith ( footballer ) =
James Gregory Meredith ( born 4 April 1988 ) is an Australian professional footballer who plays as a defender for League One club Bradford City .
Meredith started his career with the Derby County youth system in 2004 , signing a professional contract in 2006 . He was loaned out to Cambridge United and Chesterfield before moving to Ireland with Sligo Rovers . He returned to England with Shrewsbury Town , but after making only three appearances for them , he joined AFC Telford United on loan for most of the 2008 – 09 season . He played for them in the semi @-@ finals of both the Conference League Cup and the FA Trophy , as well as the 2009 Conference North play @-@ off Final . Meredith joined York City in 2009 and at the end of his first season played for them in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium . Two years later he won in the 2012 FA Trophy Final and 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final with York at Wembley , the latter seeing the club promoted to League Two . He signed for Bradford City in 2012 , winning promotion to League One in his first season with victory in the 2013 League Two play @-@ off Final .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Albury , New South Wales , Meredith was spotted playing football in Melbourne at the age of 16 by a Derby County scout . He was offered a trial by the club and he joined their youth system on a two @-@ year contract in 2004 . He progressed through the youth team and he signed a two @-@ year professional contract with Derby on 19 July 2006 . He joined Conference National team Cambridge United on a one @-@ month loan on 19 October 2006 and he made his debut in a 3 – 0 defeat to Oxford United . He finished the loan with two appearances . He had a trial with Conference National team York City in January 2007 , playing in a reserve team game against Rotherham United . He joined League One team Chesterfield on a one @-@ month loan on 19 February 2007 , making one appearance as a left midfielder in a 2 – 0 defeat to Tranmere Rovers on 2 March . Following the expiry of the loan , Chesterfield opted against extending it . Meredith joined League of Ireland Premier Division side Sligo Rovers on a contract until the end of the 2007 season on 31 July 2007 . He made his debut in a 2 – 0 defeat at Galway United on 24 August and he finished his time at the club with four appearances .
= = = Shrewsbury Town = = =
Meredith signed for League Two team Shrewsbury Town on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year contract on 14 January 2008 after training with the club , which included a clause that after making five appearances the contract could be renegotiated . He made his debut on 23 February 2008 in the 2 – 1 home defeat to Hereford United , finishing the 2007 – 08 season with three appearances , with his final game coming against Rochdale on the last day of the season . He was told that he did not figure in new manager Paul Simpson 's immediate plans in July 2008 , being left behind as the club travelled to Spain on a pre @-@ season training camp .
Meredith joined Conference North team AFC Telford United on a one @-@ month loan on 16 October 2008 , saying " I don 't see it as a step down but as a step up , because I 've become stagnant at Shrewsbury " . Meredith signed a further one @-@ month extension with Telford in November and he scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 victory over Gateshead . The loan was again extended for a further month in December , keeping him at the club until early January 2009 . Telford were looking to extend his loan for the remainder of the 2008 – 09 season , but a contractual hitch held this up . He eventually extended the loan on 8 January . Meredith played for Telford in both legs of the semi @-@ final defeat to York City in the FA Trophy . He was handed a red card against Barrow in the semi @-@ final of the Conference League Cup in March , which meant he would miss the Final because of a two @-@ match suspension . He was substituted after breaking his nose in a 3 – 0 victory over Burscough in April . He played for Telford in the 2009 Conference North play @-@ off Final on 8 May , which was lost 1 – 0 to Gateshead , meaning the team missed out on promotion to the Conference Premier . He finished the season with 46 appearances and one goal for Telford .
= = = York City = = =
He was offered a new contract by Telford after the end of the season , but he opted to join Conference Premier team York City on 22 May 2009 . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 defeat to Oxford United on 8 August 2009 . Meredith was sent off after receiving two yellow cards in a 1 – 1 draw against Oxford on 17 October 2009 , which resulted in him being handed a one @-@ match suspension for York 's game against Luton Town . He signed a new contract with York on 29 March 2010 to keep him at the club until the summer of 2011 . He played in both legs of York 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final victory over Luton , which finished 2 – 0 on aggregate . He started in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium on 16 May 2010 , which York lost 3 – 1 to Oxford . He finished the 2009 – 10 season with 56 appearances for York .
Meredith had an operation on his knee during the summer of 2010 . He made his first appearance of the 2010 – 11 season in the opening game , after starting a 2 – 1 defeat to Kidderminster Harriers on 14 August 2010 . His first goal for York came in a 4 – 1 victory over league leaders AFC Wimbledon on 1 February 2011 after beating the offside trap to beat goalkeeper Seb Brown . He finished the season with 51 appearances and one goal . After rejecting two new contract offers with York he eventually signed a new one @-@ year contract with the club in May 2011 .
Meredith won the 2012 FA Trophy Final with York at Wembley on 12 May 2012 , in which the side beat Newport County 2 – 0 . Eight days later he played in the 2 – 1 victory over Luton in the 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley , seeing the club return to the Football League after an eight @-@ year absence with promotion to League Two . His 2011 – 12 season finished with 55 appearances and two goals for York , and was named in the 2011 – 12 Conference Premier Team of the Year alongside York teammate Matty Blair .
= = = Bradford City = = =
Meredith signed for League Two Bradford City on a two @-@ year contract on 29 June 2012 . His debut came after starting in Bradford 's opening game of the 2012 – 13 season , a 1 – 0 victory away at League One Notts County in the League Cup first round . Meredith scored his first goal for Bradford in a 3 – 1 home win against Cheltenham Town on 20 October 2012 . He achieved promotion into League One in his first season with Bradford , playing in their 3 – 0 victory over Northampton Town in the 2013 League Two play @-@ off Final at Wembley on 18 May 2013 . He finished the season with 44 appearances and one goal .
= = International career = =
In March 2015 , Meredith expressed his desire to play for the Australia national team . Australia coach Ange Postecoglou said at the time that he was open to selecting a number of new players to the national side , including Meredith . Meredith was first called up by Australia for a 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Jordan on 8 October 2015 , for which he was an unused substitute as Australia lost 2 – 0 . Meredith debuted for Australia on 12 November 2015 , after being selected in the starting line @-@ up for the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Kyrgyzstan , which the team won 3 – 0 at home . He only learned he would be starting on the morning of the match , and his family flew to Canberra from Melbourne to watch him .
= = Style of play = =
Meredith primarily plays as a left @-@ back , although he has been described as being " versatile " and is able to play at centre @-@ back or in midfield . After signing for York in 2009 , manager Martin Foyle described him as being " a very attack @-@ minded , left @-@ footed full @-@ back with pace who can play the ball out from the back . "
= = Personal life = =
Meredith 's father was a squash player who ranked as highly as third in the world while playing in England . He previously dated glamour model Maria Fowler after meeting her through social networking website Myspace , although the two broke up in 2007 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 20 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 17 November 2015 .
= = Honours = =
York City
Conference Premier play @-@ offs : 2011 – 12
FA Trophy : 2011 – 12
Bradford City
League Two play @-@ offs : 2012 – 13
Individual
Conference Premier Team of the Year : 2011 – 12
= New York State Route 36 =
New York State Route 36 ( NY 36 ) is a north – south state highway in the western part of New York in the United States . The highway extends for 95 miles ( 153 km ) from the Pennsylvania state line at Troupsburg , Steuben County northward to Ogden , Monroe County , where it ends at an intersection with NY 31 . Along the way , NY 36 passes through the villages of Dansville , Mount Morris , Caledonia , and Churchville and the city of Hornell . The section of the route between Dansville and Mount Morris closely parallels Interstate 390 ( I @-@ 390 ) ; however , from Dansville south and Mount Morris north , NY 36 serves as a regionally important highway , connecting to I @-@ 86 , U.S. Route 20A ( US 20A ) , US 20 , and I @-@ 490 as it heads north . At its south end , NY 36 connects to Pennsylvania Route 249 ( PA 249 ) .
The origins of NY 36 date back to 1908 when most of modern NY 36 between Jasper and Mumford was assigned a legislative route designation by the New York State Legislature . NY 36 was assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s to an alignment extending from Hornell north to Avon , utilizing its modern alignment south of Mount Morris and what is now NY 63 and NY 39 from Mount Morris to Avon . It was truncated in 1927 to end in Geneseo , but was subsequently realigned and extended as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to continue north from Mount Morris to Ogden . NY 36 was extended again , this time southwestward to Andover , in the early 1940s , but was realigned just a decade later to continue southeast from Hornell to the Pennsylvania state line .
= = Route description = =
= = = Steuben County = = =
NY 36 begins at the Pennsylvania state line in Troupsburg , where it continues south into Pennsylvania as PA 249 . Heading north from the state line in Steuben County , the route follows Troups Creek northward through rural Troupsburg on its way to the equally isolated town of Jasper , where it meets NY 417 at a junction 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) west of the small hamlet of Jasper . NY 36 joins NY 417 here , following the east – west route to the western fringe of the community . At a T @-@ intersection just outside the hamlet , the two routes split , with NY 417 turning to the right ( eastward ) toward Corning and NY 36 making a left @-@ hand turn to continue northward toward the town of Canisteo . Across the town line , NY 36 turns toward the northwest and serves the hamlet of South Canisteo , which marks the southern end of both Colonel Hills Creek and a valley formed by the waterway .
The route continues generally northerly through the creek valley to the outskirts of the village of Canisteo , where the creek valley gives way to a larger one surrounding the nearby Canisteo River . At this point , NY 36 curves sharply to the northwest , passing over Colonel Hills and Bennetts Creeks prior to entering the village as Main Street . In the center of Canisteo , it intersects the northern terminus of NY 248 . Past NY 248 , the route leaves the village and continues northwest along the lightly populated banks of the Canisteo River to the city of Hornell , which NY 36 traverses by way of a divided highway built c . 1979 to bypass Hornell along its western edge . NY 36 heads north through the residential southern half of the city to Hornell 's commercial central district , the site of a junction with Main Street and NY 21 .
For the next 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) , NY 21 overlaps with NY 36 , following it through Hornell 's residential northern half , across the Canisteo River , and past pockets of development in the surrounding town of Hornellsville to a junction roughly 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) south of NY 36 's interchange with Interstate 86 ( I @-@ 86 ) and NY 17 . NY 21 breaks from NY 36 and proceeds to the northeast along an unnamed road ; NY 36 , however , continues along the bypass to I @-@ 86 and NY 17 , where the two roads meet at I @-@ 86 and NY 17 exit 34 via a full cloverleaf interchange . Past the interchange , the divided highway narrows into a two @-@ lane , undivided highway that continues through lightly populated areas of the town to the village of Arkport .
In Arkport , NY 36 intersects the eastern terminus of NY 961F , a reference route erroneously signed as a touring route , at West Avenue . Formerly , this intersection hosted the southern terminus of NY 70 , which originally followed what is now NY 961F northwest to Canaseraga . North of Arkport , the Canisteo River makes a turn to the west while NY 36 continues to the northeast , running along the eastern edge of both a marshy area and an extension of the Canisteo River valley . In the town of Dansville , NY 36 intersects the current eastern terminus of NY 70 at an intersection located 5 miles ( 8 km ) north of Arkport and due east of Canaseraga . From here northward , the highway takes on a more northeasterly routing as it crosses the northwest corner of the county , where it runs along the west side of Stony Brook State Park and briefly enters the park before emerging from the area just south of the Livingston County line .
= = = Livingston County = = =
Across the county line , NY 36 enters the town of North Dansville and the village of Dansville located within . At the southern village line , NY 36 meets the southbound entrance and exit ramps for I @-@ 390 at exit 4 and gains the name Clara Barton Street . Due to the angle at which I @-@ 390 crosses NY 36 here , the northbound entrance and exit ramps are located another 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to the north . The route follows Clara Barton Street north into the village center , where it gradually curves northeastward ahead of a junction with Main Street ( NY 63 ) in Dansville 's business district . NY 36 turns northwest here , following NY 63 along Main Street for two blocks before returning west on Ossian Street . The highway turns again just six blocks later to follow Dock and Franklin streets northwest toward Dansville Municipal Airport . Ossian Street , meanwhile , continues west as NY 436 , which passes under I @-@ 390 a short distance to the west .
Between NY 436 and I @-@ 390 exit 6 near Groveland , NY 36 closely parallels I @-@ 390 , remaining within 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) or less of it for the entire distance . Just outside Dansville in the shadow of Dansville Municipal Airport , NY 36 connects to I @-@ 390 a second time by way of McWhorter Road and exit 5 . Outside of Dansville , the highway heads northwestward across gradually less developed areas as it traverses the west side of a wide , flat valley known locally as the flats . After 8 miles ( 13 km ) , it intersects the western terminus of NY 258 ( named Flats Road ) at an intersection situated 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of the hamlet of Groveland on the West Sparta – Groveland town line . Not far to the northwest is I @-@ 390 exit 6 , the third and final meeting between I @-@ 390 and NY 36 .
NY 36 continues on , passing through the hamlet of Sonyea and serving the Groveland Correctional Facility on its way into the town of Mount Morris and the village of the same name , where it becomes Main Street in the latter . It continues through the mostly residential community to the business district in the heart of the village , which NY 408 enters from the southwest on Chapel Street and leaves to the northeast on State Street . In between Chapel and State streets , NY 36 and NY 408 overlap for one block along Main Street . Immediately north of Mount Morris , NY 36 passes through the northern tip of Letchworth State Park and crosses the Genesee River , which separates the towns of Mount Morris and Leicester . As the route heads north into Leicester , it begins to leave the flats in favor of a more northwesterly alignment that leads it into the village of Leicester .
Now named Mount Morris Road , NY 36 enters the east side of the small village , intersecting with U.S. Route 20A ( US 20A ) and NY 39 at Main Street . NY 36 turns west onto Main Street , joining US 20A and NY 39 for one block in order to reach York Road , which carries the route out of the village and across sparsely populated areas to the York hamlet of Greigsville , centered on the highway 's second junction with NY 63 . After another 6 miles ( 10 km ) of open , rural surroundings — save for the hamlet of York at the midpoint of the segment — NY 36 has a junction with US 20 in the hamlet of Fraser . The route continues on , eventually reaching the sprawling village of Caledonia , where the route joins with NY 5 for three blocks along Main Street . At the village 's center , NY 36 turns north onto North Street , which carries the highway through the northern fringe of the village and into Monroe County .
= = = Monroe County = = =
Across the county line from Caledonia is the Wheatland hamlet of Mumford , where NY 36 crosses over the Rochester and Southern Railroad — which the highway has loosely paralleled since Dansville — and Oatka Creek prior to meeting the southern terminus of NY 383 . While the railroad , the creek , and NY 383 all head east to Scottsville , NY 36 continues to the north on Riga – Mumford Road , passing through isolated areas of the towns of Wheatland and Riga . Along this stretch , it passes over the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) a short distance south of the Wheatland – Riga town line . The route continues into the hamlet of Riga , where it intersects and briefly overlaps with NY 33A westward along Chili – Riga Center Road . At Churchville – Riga Road , NY 36 leaves NY 33A to resume its northward trek toward the village of Churchville .
About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the village center , NY 36 meets I @-@ 490 at exit 3 . North of this point , NY 36 becomes South Main Street as it enters the southern portion of Churchville . The highway proceeds into the village 's central business district , centered on the junction of Main and Buffalo streets , the latter designated as NY 33 . NY 36 turns east at Buffalo Street , joining with NY 33 for nine blocks on Buffalo Street as both routes cross over Black Creek and approach the eastern fringe of Churchville . Here , NY 36 turns north once more to follow Washington Street into the town of Ogden . The route continues through the mostly rural town toward the hamlet of Adams Basin , located west of Spencerport and east of Brockport . About 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) south of Adams Basin , it intersects the western terminus of NY 531 ( Spencerport Expressway ) and meets NY 31 at junctions 100 yards ( 91 m ) apart . NY 36 ends at the latter intersection ; however , Washington Street continues north as County Route 212 to serve Adams Basin and the nearby Erie Canal .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 15 , an unsigned legislative route that initially extended from Hornell in the south to Caledonia in the north via Dansville and Mount Morris . Also assigned at this time was Route 16 , which went from Cuba to Rochester via Le Roy and Caledonia . Much of Route 15 followed modern NY 36 ; however , from Dansville to Mount Morris , it used what is now NY 63 and NY 408 instead . Route 16 , meanwhile , followed current NY 36 from Caledonia to Mumford . From Jasper to Hornell , modern NY 36 was part of the cross @-@ state Route 4 . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 16 was truncated to end in Le Roy . Its former routing north of Caledonia became part of Route 15 .
NY 36 was assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s to an alignment extending from Hornell in the south to Avon in the north . The route utilized the routing of legislative Route 15 from Hornell to Dansville and from Mount Morris to Shakers Crossing , the modern junction of NY 63 and NY 408 northeast of Mount Morris . Between Dansville and Mount Morris , NY 36 followed its current alignment . Past Shakers Crossing , NY 36 continued northward through Geneseo to Avon on modern NY 63 and NY 39 . The Geneseo – Avon segment of NY 36 became part of US 20 when that route was assigned in 1927 . South of Hornell , what is now NY 36 from Hornell to Jasper became part of NY 17 when that route was assigned to most of legislative Route 4 in 1924 . The remaining sections of contemporary NY 36 — from Jasper to the Pennsylvania state line and north of Mount Morris — were state @-@ maintained but unnumbered .
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the segment of modern NY 36 from Hornell south to the Pennsylvania state line became the southernmost portion of NY 21 . At the same time , NY 36 was realigned north of Mount Morris to follow the path of former legislative Route 15 north through Caledonia to Mumford . Past Mumford , NY 36 continued north on its modern alignment to a new terminus at NY 3 ( now NY 31 ) south of Adams Basin . In the early 1940s , NY 36 was extended south through Hornell and Almond to Andover , replacing part of NY 17F . The routings of NY 36 and NY 21 south of Hornell were swapped in the early 1950s , placing both routes on their current alignments south of the city .
= = NY 36A = =
NY 36A was an alternate route of NY 36 between Dansville and Mount Morris . The route began at NY 36 in Dansville and passed through Groveland on its way to the vicinity of Mount Morris , where it ended at a junction with NY 63 northeast of the village . NY 36A was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and supplanted by a realigned NY 63 in the early 1940s .
= = Major intersections = =
= M @-@ 156 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 156 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The highway is entirely within Lenawee County and begins in Morenci at the Ohio state line with State Route 108 ( SR 108 ) and runs north to M @-@ 34 at Clayton . The highway runs through farm land along Lime Creek outside of the two communities , providing access to the Lake Hudson State Recreation Area . The trunkline dates back to the early 1930s , and has been unchanged since a realignment in 1980 .
= = Route description = =
SR 108 crosses into Michigan on the southern edge of Morenci where it becomes M @-@ 156 . From there the road continues northward on East Street through residential neighborhoods for about two @-@ thirds mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) to Main Street near downtown where it turns west . The trunkline follows Main Street for three few blocks before turning north on North Street . The highway exits town near the Oak Grove Cemetery . M @-@ 156 follows Lime Creek Highway , which runs parallel to the stream of the same name , through farm land . Near the intersection with Morenci Highway , M @-@ 156 crosses a line of the Norfolk Southern Railway in the community of Seneca . North of the rail crossing , M @-@ 156 follows Morenci Highway northward and passes to the east of Lake Hudson and the Lake Hudson State Recreation Area before terminating at a junction with M @-@ 34 in Clayton .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 156 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 4235 vehicles used the highway daily along Main Street in Morenci and 1 @,@ 412 vehicles did so each day near the state line , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . No section of M @-@ 156 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 156 was designated along its current routing in late 1931 or early 1932 . It was fully paved by the middle of 1936 . The highway was unchanged until a series of curves were changed north of Morenci . After the construction was finished , the former segments of highway were abandoned as a public roadway on April 3 , 1980 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Lenawee County .
= Hartebeest =
The hartebeest ( pronounced / \ ˈhär @-@ tə @-@ ˌbēst \ / ) , also known as kongoni , is an African antelope , first described by the German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas in 1766 . Eight subspecies have been described , including two sometimes considered to be independent species . A large antelope , the hartebeest stands just over 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) at the shoulder , and has a typical head @-@ and @-@ body length of 200 to 250 cm ( 79 to 98 in ) . The weight ranges from 100 to 200 kg ( 220 to 440 lb ) . It has a particularly elongated forehead and oddly shaped horns , short neck , and pointed ears . Its legs , which often have black markings , are unusually long . The coat is generally short and shiny . Coat colour varies by the subspecies , from the sandy brown of the western hartebeest to the chocolate brown of the Swayne 's hartebeest . Both sexes of all subspecies have horns , with those of females being more slender . Horns can reach lengths of 45 – 70 cm ( 18 – 28 in ) . Apart from its long face , the large chest and the sharply sloping back differentiate the hartebeest from other antelopes .
Gregarious animals , hartebeest form herds of 20 to 300 individuals . They are very alert and non @-@ aggressive . They are primarily grazers , with their diets consisting mainly of grasses . Mating in hartebeest takes place throughout the year with one or two peaks , and depends upon the subspecies and local factors . Both males and females reach sexual maturity at one to two years of age . Gestation is eight to nine months long , after which a single calf is born . Births usually peak in the dry season . The lifespan is 11 to 20 years in the wild and up to 19 years in captivity .
Inhabiting dry savannas and wooded grasslands , hartebeest often move to more arid places after rainfall . They have been reported from altitudes on Mount Kenya up to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The hartebeest was formerly widespread in Africa , but populations have undergone drastic decline due to habitat destruction , hunting , human settlement , and competition with livestock for food . Each of the eight subspecies of the hartebeest has a different conservation status . The Bubal hartebeest was declared extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) in 1994 . While the populations of the red hartebeest are on the rise , those of the Tora hartebeest , already Critically Endangered , are falling . The hartebeest is extinct in Algeria , Egypt , Lesotho , Libya , Morocco , Somalia , and Tunisia ; but has been introduced into Swaziland and Zimbabwe . It is a popular game animal due to its highly regarded meat .
= = Etymology = =
The vernacular name " hartebeest " ( pronounced / \ ˈhär @-@ tə @-@ ˌbēst \ / ) could have originated from the obsolete Afrikaans word hertebeest , literally deer beast . The name was given by the Boers , based on the resemblance of the antelope to deer . The first use of the word " hartebeest " in South African literature was in Dutch colonial administrator Jan van Riebeeck 's journal Daghregister in 1660 . He wrote : " Meester Pieter ein hart @-@ beest geschooten hadde ( Master Pieter [ van Meerhoff ] had shot one hartebeest ) " . Another name for the hartebeest is kongoni , a Swahili word . Kongoni is often used to refer in particular to one of its subspecies — Coke 's hartebeest .
= = Taxonomy = =
The scientific name of the hartebeest is Alcelaphus buselaphus . First described by German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas in 1766 , it is classified in the genus Alcelaphus and placed in the family Bovidae . In 1979 , palaeontologist Elisabeth Vrba supported Sigmoceros as a separate genus for Lichtenstein 's hartebeest , a kind of hartebeest , as she assumed it was related to Connochaetes ( wildebeest ) . She had analysed the skull characters of living and extinct species of antelope to make a cladogram , and argued that a wide skull linked Lichtenstein 's hartebeest with Connochaetes . However , this finding was not replicated by Alan W. Gentry of the Natural History Museum , who classified it as an independent species of Alcelaphus . Zoologists such as Jonathan Kingdon and Theodor Haltenorth considered it to be a subspecies of A. buselaphus . Vrba dissolved the new genus in 1997 after reconsideration . An MtDNA analysis could find no evidence to support a separate genus for Lichtenstein 's hartebeest . It also showed the tribe Alcelaphini to be monophyletic , and discovered close affinity between the Alcelaphus and the sassabies ( genus Damaliscus ) — both genetically and morphologically .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Eight subspecies are identified , of which two – A. b. caama and A. b. lichtensteinii – have been considered to be independent species . However , a 1999 genetic study by P. Arctander of the University of Copenhagen and colleagues , which sampled the control region of the mitochondrial DNA , found that these two formed a clade within A. buselaphus , and that recognising these as species would render A. buselaphus paraphyletic ( an unnatural grouping ) . The same study found A. b. major to be the most divergent , having branched off before the lineage split to give a combined caama / lichtensteinii lineage and another that gave rise to the remaining extant subspecies . Conversely a 2001 phylogenetic study , based on D – loop and cytochrome b analysis by Øystein Flagstad ( of the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research , Trondheim ) and colleagues , found that the southern lineage of A. b. caama and A. lichtensteinii diverged earliest . Analysis of skull structure supports partition into three major divisions : A. b. buselaphus division ( nominate , also including A. b. major division ) , A. b. tora division ( also including A. b. cokii and A. b. swaynei ) and A. b. lelwel division . Another analysis of cytochrome b and D @-@ loop sequence data shows a notable affinity between the A. b. lelwel and A. b. tora divisions .
The eight subspecies , including the two controversial ones , are :
† A. b. buselaphus ( Pallas , 1766 ) : Known as the Bubal hartebeest or northern hartebeest . Formerly occurred across northern Africa , from Morocco to Egypt . It was exterminated by the 1920s . It was declared extinct in 1994 by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) .
A. b. caama ( Saint @-@ Hilaire , 1803 ) : Known as the red hartebeest or Cape hartebeest . Formerly occurred in southern Angola ; northern and eastern savannahs of Namibia ; central , southern and southwestern Botswana ; Northern Cape , Eastern Cape , Western Cape , Free State , Northwest and Gauteng provinces and western KwaZulu @-@ Natal of South Africa . Presently has been eliminated from all these areas except Northern Cape , central and southwestern Botswana and Namibia . Major re @-@ introductions have taken place in these countries . The population of this hartebeest is on the rise .
A. b. cokii ( Günther , 1884 ) : Known as Coke 's hartebeest or kongoni . Native to and confined within Kenya and northern Tanzania .
A. b. lelwel ( Heuglin , 1877 ) : Known as the Lelwel hartebeest . Formerly found in northern and northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo ; southeastern and southwestern Sudan ; and the northwestern extreme of Tanzania . Drastic population decrease since the 1980s has confined most individuals to protected areas inside and outside its range .
A. b. lichtensteinii ( Peters , 1849 ) : Known as Lichtenstein 's hartebeest . Inhabits the miombo woodlands of eastern and southern Africa . It is native to Angola , the Democratic Republic of Congo , Malawi , Mozambique , South Africa , Tanzania , Zambia and Zimbabwe .
A. b. major ( Blyth , 1869 ) : Known as the western hartebeest . Formerly occurred widely in Mali , Niger , Senegal , Gambia , Guinea @-@ Bissau , Guinea , Ivory Coast , Ghana , Nigeria , southwestern Chad , Cameroon , western Central African Republic and Benin . Nowadays it occurs in much lower numbers mainly in protected areas of these countries . It is probably extinct in Gambia .
A. b. swaynei ( Sclater , 1892 ) : Known as Swayne 's hartebeest . Restricted to the southern Rift Valley in Ethiopia . It formerly occurred throughout the Rift Valley , and its range extended eastward into northwestern Somalia . It has disappeared from Somalia by 1930 . Its populations are very low and on the decline .
A. b. tora ( Gray , 1873 ) : Known as the Tora hartebeest . Formerly occurred in northwestern Ethiopia and western and southwestern Eritrea . Its present status is unclear , though locals have reported small numbers from these areas .
= = = Genetics and hybrids = = =
In 2000 , a study scrutinised two major populations of the Swayne 's hartebeest , from the Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary and the Nechisar National Park , for mitochondrial ( D @-@ loop ) and nuclear ( microsatellite ) variability in an attempt to estimate the levels of genetic variation between the populations and within the subspecies . The results showed a remarkable differentiation between the two populations ; that from the Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary showed more genetic diversity than the one from the Nechisar National Park . Another revelation was that the translocation of the individuals from the Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary in 1974 had not made a significant contribution to the gene pool of the Nechisar National Park . Additionally , the Swayne hartebeest populations were compared with a large red hartebeest population , and both subspecies were found to have a high degree of genetic variation . The study advocated in situ conservation of the Swayne 's hartebeest and a renewed attempt at its translocation in order to conserve genetic diversity and increase its population size in both the protected areas .
The diploid number of chromosomes in the hartebeest is 40 . Hybrids are usually reported from areas where ranges of two subspecies overlap . Hybrids between the Lelwel and Tora hartebeest have been reported in eastern Sudan and western Ethiopia , in a stretch southward from the Blue Nile to about 9 ° N latitude . A study proved a male hybrid of the red hartebeest and the blesbok ( Damaliscus pygargus ) to be sterile . Sterility of the hybrid was attributed to difficulties in segregation during meiosis , indicated by azoospermia and a low number of germ cells in its seminiferous tubules .
There are three common cross @-@ breeds between the subspecies :
Alcelaphus lelwel x cokii : Known as the Kenya Highland hartebeest or the Laikipia hartebeest . It is a cross between the Lelwel and Coke 's hartebeest . This hybrid is lighter in colour and larger than Coke 's hartebeest . It is a light buff with reddish @-@ tawny upper parts , and the head is longer than in Coke 's hartebeest . Both sexes have horns , which are heavier as well as longer than those of the parents . It was formerly distributed throughout the western Kenyan highlands , between Lake Victoria and Mount Kenya , but is now believed to be restricted to the Lambwe Valley ( south @-@ west Kenya ) and Laikipia and nearby regions of west @-@ central Kenya .
Alcelaphus lelwel x swaynei : Also known as the Neumann 's hartebeest , named after traveller and hunter Arthur Henry Neumann . This is considered to be a cross between the Lelwel hartebeest and Swayne 's hartebeest . The face is longer than that of the Swayne 's hartebeest . The colour of the coat is a golden brown , paler towards the underparts . The chin has a hint of black and the tail ends in a black tuft . Both sexes have longer horns than the Swayne 's hartebeest . The horns grow in a wide " V " shape , unlike the wide bracket shape of Swayne 's hartebeest and the narrow " V " of Lelwel hartebeest , curving backward and slightly inward . It occurs in Ethiopia , in a small area to the east of Omo River and north of Lake Turkana , stretching north @-@ east of Lake Chew Bahir to near Lake Chamo .
The Jackson 's hartebeest does not have a clear taxonomic status . It is regarded as a hybrid between the Lelwel and Coke 's hartebeest . The African Antelope Database ( 1998 ) treats it as synonymous to the Lelwel hartebeest . From Lake Baringo to Mount Kenya , the Jackson 's hartebeest significantly resembles the Lelwel hartebeest , whereas from Lake Victoria to the southern part of the Rift Valley it tends to be more like the Coke 's hartebeest .
= = Evolution = =
The genus Alcelaphus emerged about 4 @.@ 4 million years ago in a clade whose other members were Damalops , Numidocapra , Rabaticeras , Megalotragus , Oreonagor , and Connochaetes . An analysis using phylogeographic patterns within hartebeest populations suggested a possible origin of Alcelaphus in eastern Africa . Alcelaphus quickly radiated across the African savannas , replacing several previous forms ( such as a relative of the hirola ) . Flagstad and colleagues showed an early split in the hartebeest populations into two distinct lineages around 0 @.@ 5 million years ago – one to the north and the other to the south of the equator . The northern lineage further diverged into eastern and western lineages , nearly 0 @.@ 4 million years ago , most probably as a result of the expanding central African rainforest belt and subsequent contraction of savannah habitats during a period of global warming . The eastern lineage gave rise to the Coke 's , Swayne 's , Tora and Lelwel hartebeest ; and from the western lineage evolved the Bubal and western hartebeest . The southern lineage gave rise to Lichtenstein 's and red hartebeest . These two taxa are phylogenetically close , having diverged only 0 @.@ 2 million years ago . The study concluded that these major events throughout the hartebeest 's evolution are strongly related to climatic factors , and that there had been successive bursts of radiation from a more permanent population — a refugium — in eastern Africa ; this could be vital to understanding the evolutionary history of not only the hartebeest but also other mammals of the African savanna .
The earliest fossil record dates back to nearly 0 @.@ 7 million years ago . Fossils of the red hartebeest have been found in Elandsfontein , Cornelia ( Free State ) and Florisbad in South Africa , as well as in Kabwe in Zambia . In Israel , hartebeest remains have been found in northern Negev , Shephelah , Sharon Plain and Tel Lachish . This population of the hartebeest was originally limited to the open country of the southernmost regions of the southern Levant . It was probably hunted in Egypt , which affected the numbers in the Levant , and disconnected it from its main population in Africa .
= = Description = =
A large antelope with a particularly elongated forehead and oddly shaped horns , the hartebeest stands just over 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) at the shoulder , and has a typical head @-@ and @-@ body length of 200 to 250 cm ( 79 to 98 in ) . The weight ranges from 100 to 200 kg ( 220 to 440 lb ) . The tail , 40 to 60 cm ( 16 to 24 in ) long , ends in a black tuft . The other distinctive features of the hartebeest are its long legs ( often with black markings ) , short neck , and pointed ears . A study correlated the size of hartebeest species to habitat productivity and rainfall . The western hartebeest is the largest subspecies , and has a characteristic white line between the eyes . The red hartebeest is also large , with a black forehead and a contrasting light band between the eyes . The large Lelwel hartebeest has dark stripes on the front of its legs . Coke 's hartebeest is moderately large , with a shorter forehead and longer tail in comparison to the other subspecies . Lichtenstein 's hartebeest is smaller , with dark stripes on the front of the legs , as in the Lelwel hartebeest . The Swayne 's hartebeest is smaller than the Tora hartebeest , but both have a shorter forehead and similar appearance .
Generally short and shiny , the coat varies in colour according to subspecies . The western hartebeest is a pale sandy @-@ brown , but the front of the legs are darker . The red hartebeest is a reddish @-@ brown , with a dark face . Black markings can be observed on the chin , the back of the neck , shoulders , hips and legs ; these are in sharp contrast with the broad white patches that mark its flanks and lower rump . The Lelwel hartebeest is a reddish tan . Coke 's hartebeest is reddish to tawny in the upper parts , but has relatively lighter legs and rump . Lichtenstein 's hartebeest is reddish brown , though the flanks are a lighter tan and the rump whitish . The Tora hartebeest is a dark reddish brown in the upper part of the body , the face , the forelegs and the rump , but the hindlegs and the underbelly are a yellowish white . The Swayne 's hartebeest is a rich chocolate brown with fine spots of white that are actually the white tips of its hairs . Its face is black save for the chocolate band below the eyes . The shoulders and upper part of the legs are black . Fine textured , the body hair of the hartebeest is about 25 mm ( 1 in ) long . The hartebeest has preorbital glands ( glands near the eyes ) with a central duct , that secrete a dark sticky fluid in Coke 's and Lichtenstein 's hartebeest , and a colourless fluid in the Lelwel hartebeest .
Both sexes of all subspecies have horns , with those of females being more slender . Horns can reach lengths of 45 – 70 cm ( 18 – 28 in ) ; the maximum horn length is 74 @.@ 9 cm ( 29 @.@ 5 in ) , recorded from a Namibian red hartebeest . The horns of the western hartebeest are thick and appear U @-@ shaped from the front and Z @-@ shaped from the sides , growing backward at first and then forward , ending with a sharp backward turn . The horns of the red and the Lelwel hartebeest are similar to those of the western hartebeest , but appear V @-@ shaped when viewed from the front . The Lichtenstein 's hartebeest has thick parallel ringed horns , with a flat base . Its horns are shorter than those of other subspecies , curving upward then sharply forward , followed by an inward turn at an angle of about 45 ° and a final backward turn . The horns of Swayne 's hartebeest are thin and shaped like parentheses , curving upward and then backward . The horns of the Tora hartebeest are particularly thin and spread out sideways , diverging more than in any other subspecies .
Apart from its long face , the large chest and the sharply sloping back differentiate the hartebeest from other antelopes . The hartebeest shares several physical traits with the sassabies ( genus Damaliscus ) , such as an elongated and narrow face , the shape of the horns , the pelage texture and colour , and the terminal tuft of the tail . The wildebeest have more specialised skull and horn features than the hartebeest . The hartebeest exhibits sexual dimorphism , but only slightly , as both sexes bear horns and have similar body masses . The degree of sexual dimorphism varies by subspecies . Males are 8 % heavier than females in Swayne 's and Lichtenstein 's hartebeest , and 23 % heavier in the red hartebeest . In one study , the highest dimorphism was found in skull weight . Another study concluded that the length of the breeding season is a good predictor of dimorphism in pedicle ( the bony structures from which the horns grow ) height and skull weight , and the best predictor of the horn circumference .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Active mainly during daytime , the hartebeest grazes in the early morning and late afternoon , and rests in shade around noon . Gregarious , the species forms herds of up to 300 individuals . Larger numbers gather in places with abundant grass . In 1963 , a congregation of 10 @,@ 000 animals was recorded on the plains near Sekoma Pan in Botswana . However , moving herds are not so cohesive , and tend to disperse frequently . The members of a herd can be divided into four groups : territorial adult males , non @-@ territorial adult males , young males , and the females with their young . The females form groups of five to 12 animals , with four generations of young in the group . Females fight for dominance over the herd . Sparring between males and females is common . At three or four years of age , the males can attempt to take over a territory and its female members . A resident male defends his territory and will fight if provoked . The male marks the border of his territory through defecation .
Hartebeest are remarkably alert and cautious animals with highly developed brains . Generally calm in nature , hartebeest can be ferocious when provoked . While feeding , one individual stays on the lookout for danger , often standing on a termite mound to see farther . At times of danger , the whole herd flees in a single file after an individual suddenly starts off . Adult hartebeest are preyed upon by lions , leopards , hyenas and wild dogs ; cheetahs and jackals target juveniles . Crocodiles may also prey on hartebeest .
The thin long legs of the hartebeest provide for a quick escape in an open habitat ; if attacked , the formidable horns are used to ward off the predator . The elevated position of the eyes enables the hartebeest to inspect its surroundings continuously even as it is grazing . The muzzle is designed so as to derive maximum nutrition from even a frugal diet . The horns are also used during fights among males for dominance in the breeding season ; the clash of the horns is loud enough that it can be heard from hundreds of metres away . The beginning of a fight is marked with a series of head movements and stances , as well as depositing droppings on dung piles . The opponents drop onto their knees and , after giving a hammer @-@ like blow , begin wrestling , their horns interlocking . One attempts to fling the head of the other to one side to stab the neck and shoulders with his horns . Fights are rarely serious , but can be fatal if they are .
Like the sassabies , hartebeest produce quiet quacking and grunting sounds . Juveniles tend to be more vocal than adults , and produce a quacking call when alarmed or pursued . The hartebeest uses defecation as an olfactory and visual display . Herds are generally sedentary , and tend to migrate only under adverse conditions such as natural calamities . The hartebeest is the least migratory in the tribe Alcelaphini ( which also includes wildebeest and sassabies ) , and also consumes the least amount of water and has the lowest metabolic rate among the members of the tribe .
= = = Parasites and diseases = = =
Several parasites have been isolated from the hartebeest . These parasites regularly alternate between hartebeest and gazelles or wildebeest . Hartebeest can be infected with theileriosis due to Rhipicephalus evertsi and Theileria species . South of the Sahara , common parasites include Loewioestrus variolosus , Gedoelstia cristata and G. hassleri . The latter two species can cause serious diseases such as encephalitis . However , parasites are not always harmful – 252 larvae were found in the head of one Zambian individual without any pathogenicity . Nematodes , cestodes , paramphistomes ; and the roundworm Setaria labiatopapillosa have also been isolated from the hartebeest . In 1931 , a red hartebeest in Gobabis ( southwestern Africa ) was infected with long , thin worms . These were named Longistrongylus meyeri after their collector , T. Meyer .
= = = Diet = = =
Hartebeest are primarily grazers , and their diets consist mostly of grasses . A study in the Nazinga Game Ranch in Burkina Faso found that the hartebeest 's skull structure eased the acquisition and chewing of highly fibrous foods . The hartebeest has much lower food intake than the other members of Alcelaphini . The long thin muzzle of the h | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
artebeest assists in feeding on leaf blades of short grasses and nibbling off leaf sheaths from grass stems . In addition to this , it can derive nutritious food even from tall senile grasses . These adaptations of the hartebeest enable the animal to feed well even in the dry season , which is usually a difficult period for grazers . For instance , in comparison with the roan antelope , the hartebeest is better at procuring and chewing the scarce regrowth of perennial grasses at times when forage is least available . These unique abilities could have allowed the hartebeest to prevail over other animals millions of years ago , leading to its successful radiation in Africa .
Grasses generally comprise at least 80 percent of the hartebeest 's diet , but they account for over 95 percent of their food in the wet season , October to May . Jasminum kerstingii is part of the hartebeest 's diet at the start of the rainy season . Between seasons , they mainly feed on the culms of grasses . A study found that the hartebeest is able to digest a higher proportion of food than the topi and the wildebeest . In areas with scarce water , it can survive on melons , roots , and tubers .
In a study of grass selectivity among the wildebeest , zebra , and the Coke 's hartebeest , the hartebeest showed the highest selectivity . All animals preferred Themeda triandra over Pennisetum mezianum and Digitaria macroblephara . More grass species were eaten in the dry season than in the wet season .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Mating in hartebeest takes place throughout the year , with one or two peaks that can be influenced by the availability of food . Both males and females reach sexual maturity at one to two years of age . Reproduction varies by the subspecies and local factors . Mating takes place in the territories defended by a single male , mostly in open areas . The males may fight fiercely for dominance , following which the dominant male smells the female 's genitalia , and follows her if she is in oestrus . Sometimes a female in oestrus holds out her tail slightly to signal her receptivity , and the male tries to block the female 's way . She may eventually stand still and allow the male to mount her . Copulation is brief and is often repeated , sometimes twice or more in a minute . Any intruder at this time is chased away . In large herds , females often mate with several males .
Gestation is eight to nine months long , after which a single calf weighing about 9 kg ( 20 lb ) is born . Births usually peak in the dry season , and take place in thickets – unlike the wildebeest , which give birth in groups on the plains . Though calves can move about on their own shortly after birth , they usually lie in the open in close proximity of their mothers . The calf is weaned at four months , but young males stay with their mothers for two and a half years , longer than in other Alcelaphini . Often the mortality rate of male juveniles is high , as they have to face the aggression of territorial adult males and are also deprived of good forage by them . The lifespan is 11 to 20 years in the wild and up to 19 years in captivity .
= = Habitat = =
Hartebeest inhabit dry savannas , open plains and wooded grasslands , often moving into more arid places after rainfall . They are more tolerant of wooded areas than other Alcelaphini , and are often found on the edge of woodlands . They have been reported from altitudes on Mount Kenya up to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The red hartebeest is known to move across large areas , and females roam home ranges of over 1 @,@ 000 km2 ( 390 sq mi ) , with male territories 200 km2 ( 77 sq mi ) in size . Females in the Nairobi National Park ( Kenya ) have individual home ranges stretching over 3 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 km2 ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 1 sq mi ) , which are not particularly associated with any one female group . Average female home ranges are large enough to include 20 to 30 male territories .
= = Status and conservation = =
Each hartebeest subspecies is listed under a different conservation status by the IUCN . The species as a whole is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN . The hartebeest is extinct in Algeria , Egypt , Lesotho , Libya , Morocco , Somalia , and Tunisia .
The Bubal hartebeest has been declared extinct since 1994 . German explorer Heinrich Barth , in his works of 1857 , cites firearms and European intrusion among the reasons for the decrease in its numbers . It was extinct in Tunisia by the late 19th century . The last individual was shot in Missour ( Algeria ) in 1925 .
Coke 's hartebeest is listed as Least Concern . This species has been greatly affected by habitat destruction , and about 42 @,@ 000 Coke 's hartebeest occur today in Mara , Serengeti National Park , and Tarangire National Park in Tanzania and Tsavo East National Park in Kenya . The population is decreasing , and 70 % of the population lives in protected areas .
The Lelwel hartebeest is listed as Endangered , and numbers have declined greatly since the 1980s , when its population was over 285 @,@ 000 . It was formerly distributed mainly in the Central African Republic , Ethiopia , northern and northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and southern Sudan . Fewer than 70 @,@ 000 individuals are left . Most of the population nowadays is found in Chad in the Salamat region and the Zakouma National Park ( Chad ) , the National Park population benefiting from improved protection and seeing an increase in population since the 1980s ; Manovo @-@ Gounda St. Floris National Park and Bamingui @-@ Bangoran National Park and Biosphere Reserve in the Central African Republic , where the populations have been falling ; Rumanyika Orugundu Game Reserve and Ibanda Game Reserve in Tanzania ; and Murchison Falls National Park in Uganda .
Lichtenstein 's hartebeest is listed as Least Concern , and occurs in protected areas such as the Selous Game Reserve and in the wild in southern and western Tanzania and Zambia .
The red hartebeest is listed as Least Concern . It is the most widespread , with increasing numbers after its reintroduction into protected and private areas . However , it has been extinct in Lesotho since the twentieth century . Its population is estimated to be over 130 @,@ 000 ( as of 2008 ) , mostly in southern Africa . In Namibia , the largest population occurs in the Etosha National Park . A reintroduced population is flourishing in the Malolotja Nature Reserve ( Swaziland ) , outside its range . However , numbers have seen a sharp fall in southwestern Botswana .
The Tora hartebeest is listed as Critically Endangered ; the IUCN has ascertained that fewer than 250 mature individuals survive as of 2008 . They are possibly extinct in Sudan due to excessive hunting and agricultural expansion , but may still exist in smaller numbers in Eritrea and Ethiopia . There have been unconfirmed reports of sightings by locals of the Tora hartebeest southeast of the Dinder National Park , from where it had disappeared before 1960 .
Swayne 's hartebeest is listed as Endangered , and is close to being Critically Endangered . The total population in 2008 was less than 600 , of which the mature specimens numbered within 250 . It is confined to four major protected areas : the Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary , Nechisar National Park , Awash National Park and Mazie National Park . The hartebeest in Senkele have to compete with the livestock of the Oromo people . A study in the Nechisar National Park during 2009 and 2010 found a considerable increase in the livestock of the Oromos ( 49 @.@ 9 % and 56 @.@ 5 % increase during 2006 and 2010 , respectively ) , illegal resource exploitation , and habitat loss as major threats to the Swayne 's hartebeest populations there .
The western hartebeest is listed as Near Threatened . It has been eliminated from most of its range , including the southwestern savannas and Boucle du Baoulé National Park in Mali ; southwestern Niger ; southern Senegal ; Gambia ; Ivory Coast ; Burkina Faso . Small populations survive in Bafing National Park and the area bounded by Bamako , Bougouni and Sikasso in Mali ; Tamou Reserve in Niger ; Niokolo @-@ Koba National Park in Senegal ; Comoé National Park in Ivory Coast ; Diefoula forest and Nazinga Game Ranch in Burkina Faso ; Pendjari National Park in Benin ; and Bouba Njida , Bénoué , and Faro National Parks in Cameroon .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Hartebeest are popular game and trophy animals as they are prominently visible and hence easy to hunt . Pictorial as well as epigraphic evidence from Egypt suggests that in the Upper Palaeolithic age , Egyptians hunted hartebeest and domesticated them . The hartebeest was a prominent source of meat , but its economic significance was lower than that of gazelles and other desert species . However , from the beginning of the Neolithic age , hunting became less common and consequently the remains of the hartebeest from this period in Egypt , where it is now extinct , are rare .
In a study on the effect of place and sex on carcass characteristics , the average carcass weight of the male red hartebeest was 79 @.@ 3 kg ( 175 lb ) and that of females was 56 kg ( 123 lb ) . The meat of the animals from Qua @-@ Qua region had the highest lipid content — 1 @.@ 3 g ( 0 @.@ 046 oz ) per 100 g ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) of meat . Negligible differences were found in the concentrations of individual fatty acids , amino acids , and minerals . The study considered hartebeest meat to be healthy , as the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids was 0 @.@ 78 , slightly more than the recommended 0 @.@ 7 .
= Oh Father =
" Oh Father " is a song by American singer Madonna from her fourth studio album Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . It was released as the fourth single from the album on October 24 , 1989 by Sire Records . The song was not released as a single in most European territories until December 24 , 1995 , when it appeared on the 1995 ballads compilation Something to Remember . Written and produced by Madonna and Patrick Leonard , the nexus of " Oh Father " was the presence of male authoritative figures in Madonna 's life , most prominently her father , Tony Ciccone . Madonna 's relationship with her father had soured , after her mother 's death in 1963 and his remarriage two years later . While developing the Like a Prayer album , Madonna was in an emotional state of mind due to her personal problems , which also reflected in the songwriting for " Oh Father " .
Musically , " Oh Father " is a pop song and a ballad . It was recorded at a studio in the Garment District of New York City . Leonard put together different types of chord progression and created the basic outline of a melody , which Madonna shaped and then wrote lyrics to fit the melody . She used a contrast of timbre while singing the song , which also featured instrumentation from strings , piano , violin and drum machine . " Oh Father " received positive reviews from critics and authors , but commercially was less successful than Madonna 's previous singles . In most of the countries where it was released , the song failed to attain top @-@ ten positions , except in Finland and Italy , where it peaked at number six . It ended Madonna 's string of 16 consecutive top five singles in the United States .
The music video of the song was Madonna 's attempt to embrace and accept her mother 's death . Directed by David Fincher and shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , it shows a little girl playing in the snow , as her mother dies . A grown @-@ up Madonna follows the child and sings the song , as the child runs away from her abusive father . Described by reviewers as " autobiographical " , the video was listed by Rolling Stone as one of " The 100 Top Music Videos " . Scholars noted how Madonna 's persona was split into the child and adult in the video , and one writer described a scene involving the dead mother shown in her wake , with her lips sewn shut , as one of the most disturbing scenes in the history of mainstream music videos — the scene was inspired by Madonna 's memory of her mother from her funeral . " Oh Father " was performed only on the Blond Ambition World Tour in 1990 , where Madonna portrayed a woman trying to find her religion and her battle for it .
= = Background = =
When Madonna was five years old , in 1963 , her mother , Madonna Ciccone , died of breast cancer at the age of 30 . Months before this , Madonna noticed changes in her mother 's behavior and personality from the attentive homemaker she was , but did not understand the reasons . Mrs. Ciccone , at a loss to explain her dire medical condition , would often begin to cry when questioned by Madonna , at which point Madonna would respond by wrapping her arms around her mother tenderly . " I remember feeling stronger than she was " , Madonna recalled , " I was so little and yet I felt like she was the child . " Madonna later acknowledged that she had not grasped the concept of her mother dying . " There was so much left unsaid , so many untangled and unresolved emotions , of remorse , guilt , loss , anger , confusion . ... I saw my mother , looking very beautiful and lying as if she were asleep in an open casket . Then I noticed that my mother 's mouth looked funny . It took me some time to realize that it had been sewn up . In that awful moment , I began to understand what I had lost forever . The final image of my mother , at once peaceful yet grotesque , haunts me today also . "
Madonna eventually learned to take care of herself and her siblings , and she turned to her paternal grandmother in the hope of finding some solace and some form of her mother in her . The Ciccone siblings resented housekeepers and invariably rebelled against anyone brought into their home ostensibly to take the place of their beloved mother . In an interview with Vanity Fair , Madonna commented that she saw herself in her youth as a " lonely girl who was searching for something . I wasn 't rebellious in a certain way . I cared about being good at something . I didn 't shave my underarms and I didn 't wear make @-@ up like normal girls do . But I studied and I got good grades .... I wanted to be somebody . " Terrified that her father , Tony Ciccone , could be taken from her as well , Madonna was often unable to sleep unless she was near him . Two years after her mother 's death , her father married the family 's housekeeper , Joan Gustafson . At this point , Madonna began to express unresolved feelings of anger towards her father that lasted for decades , and developed a rebellious attitude . She explained in the May 1989 issue of Interview magazine :
That rebellious attitude really came , I think , when my father remarried . Because for the three years before he married , I clung to him . It was like , OK , now you 're mine , and you 're not going anywhere . Like all young girls , I was in love with my father and I didn 't want to lose him . I lost my mother , but then I was the mother , my father was mine . Then he got taken away from me when he married my stepmother . It was then that I said , OK I don ’ t need anybody . No one 's going to break my heart again . I 'm not going to need anybody . I can stand on my own and be my own person and not belong to anyone .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
When Madonna started work on her fourth studio album , Like a Prayer , she was already in an emotional state of mind , following her divorce with then @-@ husband , Sean Penn , her thirtieth birthday , and unfavorable reviews for her acting endeavors . She had certain personal matters on her mind that she thought could be the musical direction of the album . While writing the songs for Like a Prayer , Madonna also acted in a Broadway production called Speed @-@ the @-@ Plow . In the play , she portrayed Karen , a secretary to a movie producer who bedded her on a bet with his friends . Karen later gets revenge , but is depicted as just as seedy and conniving as the men who had partaken in this bet and exploited her . Madonna was frustrated with the role and the negative reception , which she vented into her lyrics . The result was a set of three songs — " Till Death Do Us Part " , " Promise to Try " and " Oh Father " — where she sought to purge herself from her personal paranoia and demons . Written with producer Patrick Leonard , in " Oh Father " the singer wanted to revisit the pain and confusion that had characterized her relationship with her father . Generally accepted by critics and academics as a love letter to Tony Ciccone or as an indictment , Madonna never divulged her inspiration behind " Oh Father " , except saying that the song was about her father and a tribute to Simon & Garfunkel , her favorite band at that time . She added , " [ The song ] is what the listener thinks it is , all open to interpretation . I just wrote the song , it 's up to others to interpret them to mean what they want them to mean . "
Although the singer has never mentioned physical abuse in her family , she had mentioned that her father was a disciplinarian and her stepmother was hard on her . Author Lucy O 'Brien wrote in her book Madonna : Like an Icon that the song stemmed more from the emotional neglect that Madonna faced , with her father locked up in grief after Mrs. Ciccone died . When he married again , his new wife was wrapped up with her own children , so the older kids were often left to their own devices . O 'Brien believed that for this reason , Madonna 's girlhood would have been without much joy , and that " Oh Father " was a potent example of the singer using her imagination to escape from her troubled childhood , while blaming it on her father . Tony later said , " Maybe I 'm not the greatest father in the world , but life wasn 't easy for us , and Nonni [ Madonna 's nickname ] knows all of this . "
= = Recording and composition = =
When Madonna went to record " Oh Father " , her troubled role in Speed @-@ the @-@ Plow was on her mind , with the result being that she vented her emotions in the recording of the song . Bill Meyers , who did the string arrangement for most of the songs on Like a Prayer , including " Oh Father " , recalled that Madonna worked on the song with Leonard in " this really dingy , awful little studio in the Garment District in New York . It was grotesquely dirty and cramped , and that 's what came out of it . "
According to him , Madonna was moved while singing the song , since the theme suggested incest and the controversial topic of closet beatings . However , her insecurities about her childhood showed up in anxieties during her vocal performance . Meyers said that if Madonna bended a note or sang flat in a certain spot , she would go on doing that consistently as she did not like to vary her voice or change the tone . Madonna recalled that Leonard thought of the melody for the song . After the mixing was over , Meyers complimented Madonna by saying that it was her " strongest " vocal performance . In a 2014 interview with Billboard celebrating the 25th anniversary of Like a Prayer , Leonard explained the recording process of the song :
" My favorite thing that we ever recorded , ever — or wrote — is ' Oh Father ' ... because we knew when we did it , that there was something about this that was in a way kind of the most * real * thing . [ For ] that song , the ' record ' button was only pressed three times . That 's it . So it 's real . It 's something that I really wanted to do and she was kind enough to say ' let 's try this , ' and it was not easy . "
For the song , which is a baroque pop ballad , Madonna uses a contrast of timbre , her higher smoother voice with her lower one . The song begins with the sound of violins for about 20 seconds . After this , a drum machine , string arrangement and piano ushers on top of the violins , as Madonna sings the chorus line " You can 't hurt me now , I got away from you , I never thought I would . " The violins and the drum beats drop after the chorus , but come back again during the next bridge . As Madonna sings the verse " Oh father I have sinned " , the violins change their pitch to a higher one . After the second chorus , there is an instrumental break where she sings about the realization that her father did not want to hurt her but she still ran away . The song ends with the guitar and violins fading out with Madonna 's voice . In an interview with Paul Zollo , Madonna commented that the " Father " can refer to Tony , God or all the " authorities in her life " .
= = Critical reception = =
Critical response for " Oh Father " was generally positive . J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , commented that with the track , Madonna exposed herself by transforming her personal experience into art , making it clear to anyone how she felt about her relationship with Tony . Rooksby believed that the " psychobabble " phrases of feeling good about oneself in the song , would have made it extremely popular in the early Eighties . He added that " Oh Father " was the most compassionate and generous moment in Madonna 's musical career and the track might have inspired the exploration of childhood in the music of contemporary artists like Kate Bush and Tori Amos , in particular Bush 's song " The Fog " from her 1989 studio album , The Sensual World , and Amos ' " Winter " from the 1992 effort , Little Earthquakes . Author Leslie C. Dunn wrote in her book Embodied Voices , that the autobiographical nature of the song brought forth a new side of Madonna . Sharing the same view , Freya Jarman @-@ Ivens , one of the authors of Madonna 's Drowned Worlds , declared " Oh Father " as a powerful statement regarding father @-@ daughter relationships . Allen Metz , author of The Madonna Companion , described the song as a " stark ballad with a serious string arrangement " . O 'Brien felt that the strings were dramatic and pretentious . She described Madonna 's singing as consisting of " Courtney Love @-@ style rasp " and adding that Madonna " attacks the song with personal passion " .
Lennox Samuels from The Dallas Morning News felt that the " great sense of being hurt that is present in ' Oh Father ' is far more relatable than any other Madonna song . " Kevin Phinney from the Austin American @-@ Statesman called it the strongest and the most shocking song on Like a Prayer . Stephen Holden from The New York Times wrote that the orchestration of the song was " grandiloquent " , while describing Madonna 's delivery of the lines as an " angry triumph " . Stewart Mason from Allmusic shared Holden 's opinion , and described " Oh Father " as " [ Madonna 's ] finest ballad performance ever " . He added that the " upward modulation of the chorus , accompanied by some overdubbed self @-@ harmonies that feature a very controlled and effective use of Madonna 's highest register , is sheer brilliance , giving the song a steely resolve that removes any taint of self @-@ pity from the verses . " Music journalist J. D. Considine , while reviewing Like a Prayer for Rolling Stone , believed that despite the song 's " lush " string arrangement , some of the lyrics contain a disquieting degree of pain . Hadley Freeman from The Guardian commented that the confessional nature of the lyrics of " Oh Father " was what appealed to her the most in the song . Negative reception for the song was given by Mark Browning , author of David Fincher : Films That Scar , who called it one of Madonna 's weakest efforts , due to the verses sounding more like musical theater than a pop song .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Oh Father " was released on October 24 , 1989 , and debuted at number 55 on the Billboard Hot 100 , during the week of November 11 , 1989 . The song became Madonna 's first single since " Holiday " in 1984 not to enter the top ten in the United States , peaking at number 20 on the week of December 30 , 1989 . This ended her streak of 16 consecutive top five singles and 17 consecutive top ten singles . It was present on the Hot 100 for a total of 13 weeks . In Canada , " Oh Father " debuted at number 84 on the RPM Singles Chart on November 11 , 1989 . After nine weeks , the song reached a peak of number 14 on the chart , and was present for a total of 15 weeks . The single was Madonna 's lowest charting single in Australia at the time , where it peaked at number 59 , breaking a run of 20 consecutive top 40 singles .
" Oh Father " was not released as a single in most European territories until December 24 , 1995 , when it appeared on Madonna 's 1995 compilation album Something to Remember . The 1995 single was released with different track listing and artwork which included a photography still from the 1989 music video . The song debuted and peaked at number 16 on the UK Singles Chart on January 6 , 1996 . It became the third single of her career to miss the top @-@ ten position in the United Kingdom , after " Lucky Star " ( 1984 ) and " Take a Bow " ( 1994 ) . According to The Official Charts Company , " Oh Father " has sold 58 @,@ 730 copies in the UK as of August 2008 . The song also appeared on the Irish Singles Chart for one week at number 25 on January 4 , 1996 . The song was more commercially successful in Finland and Italy , where it reached number six on both national charts . On the European Hot 100 Singles , the song debuted at number 73 on January 13 , 1996 . The next week , it reached its peak position at number 62 and became her lowest @-@ charting single on the chart up to that point .
= = Music video = =
The music video was filmed during the last week of October 1989 at Culver Studios in Culver City , California , and was directed by David Fincher , who worked with Madonna in her video for " Express Yourself " . Described by Carol Clerk , author of Madonnastyle , as " harrowingly autobiographical " , the video was shot entirely in black @-@ and @-@ white and recreates the death scene of a young woman , exploring the tempestuous relationship that ensues between the husband and the daughter she has left behind . It begins with a young girl playing in the backyard as snow falls on the ground . The scene shifts to that of a bedside , where a young woman who has died , lies . Her husband covers her with a white sheet as a priest prays . Madonna , wearing a long , black coat , sings the song underneath a snow @-@ covered , dead tree , as the young girl plays with her dead mother 's jewelry . The husband comes and shouts at the girl , tearing away the woman 's pearl necklace which drop at the little girl 's feet . The adult Madonna is shown lying beside another man singing the song as the little girl visits her mother 's grave . The man gets up and slaps Madonna in the face , as the little girl cries in front of the grave . She is taken away from the graveyard by her father , as interspersed scenes show the girl being kissed by her mother , her trying to reach the knob of a door , and Madonna powdering the bruise mark on her face . As the singer walks through a forest , the father is shown resorting to drinking in grief . A funeral scene follows , showing the girl walking up to her mother 's wake . When she sees her mother 's lips sealed with thread , she runs away from the wake . Madonna walks through a house , where shadows show the girl being scolded and shouted at by the father . Ultimately she walks to the graveyard and stands beside an old man , implying that she herself is the little girl portrayed . The video ends with the little girl dancing in front of her mother 's grave as snow falls around her .
Madonna later said that the end of the video was " my attempt to embrace and accept my mother 's death " . According to feminist writer E. Ann Kaplan , the video is said to have taken stylistic inspiration from the 1941 Orson Welles film , Citizen Kane . She described the video as a " typical adolescent story in Western cultural terms " . It foregrounds Madonna 's repressive Catholic upbringing and her conflicted relationship not only to her literal father in the video , but also a symbolic one — the Holy Father , the Law and the Patriarchy . Bruce David Forbes , author of Religion and Popular Culture in America , felt that the video drew on Madonna 's childhood experiences and dramatized her efforts to renegotiate these relationships , in her daily interactions with her lover and father , and in relation to Catholicism , which the singer referred to in the line " Oh father I have sinned " . Dunn noticed that like the Pepsi commercial shot for her earlier single " Like a Prayer " , Madonna 's persona is split into a child and adult , who repeatedly fuse and separate . Dunn commented that as the narrative developed , the child is shown singing , but the adult Madonna 's voice is heard , and when the adult Madonna appears in a hallway , her shadow is that of a child . Madonna responded to these observations by saying : " I think the biggest reason I was able to express myself and not be intimidated was not having a mother . " Dunn then moved onto the scene during the funeral , when the child trembled from seeing her mother 's lips sewn shut . Described by her as one of the most troubling shots in mainstream music videos , the scene was inspired by Madonna 's memory of her mother lying in her wake . The singer recalled in a 1991 interview with Vanity Fair , that she remembered that her mother 's lips looked funny in the funeral . When she got closer , she saw that Madonna Sr 's lips had been sewn together . This image of her mother had haunted Madonna for many years , and led her to comment that she never could resolve her Electra complex . The singer further explained :
I had to deal with the loss of my mother and then had to deal with the guilt of her being gone and then I had to deal with the loss of my father when he married my stepmother . So I was just one angry abandoned girl . I 'm still angry . The part of me that goes around saying " Fuck you ! Fuck you ! " is the part that 's covering up the part that 's saying " I 'm hurt ! " I guess all of this came through in the video .
In the 1991 MTV special hosted by Kurt Loder titled Breakfast with Madonna , Loder described the video as " amazing " , then asked Madonna if her father had seen it . Madonna responded , " To tell you the truth , I don 't know if he 's seen it . I 'm sort of afraid to ask . " After MTV world @-@ premiered the video on November 11 , 1989 , they wanted to pull it off broadcast until the scene with the lips shut was removed . Madonna disagreed and told them that she would cancel future deals with the channel , prompting MTV to air the video again . The music video has been honored by Rolling Stone as one of " The 100 Top Music Videos " , placed at number 66 . In 1991 , the video received a nomination at the 33rd Grammy Awards , in the category of Best Short Form Music Video . Madonna 's vision of reconciliation in the music videos of both " Oh Father " and her 1986 single " Papa Don 't Preach " was later included in the third level of Madonna Studies , a controversial development of a field in media studies during the 1990s . The music video for " Oh Father " is commercially available on Madonna 's The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) DVD / VHS compilation .
= = Live performance and covers = =
Madonna performed " Oh Father " on her 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour with " Live to Tell " , during the second segment of the show . As the performance of " Like a Prayer " ended , Madonna , who was dressed in a clergyman 's robe with a crucifix around her neck , and a veil around her head , knelt on a church nave , while incense fumes wafted around her . She started singing " Live to Tell " from a confession bench , with Roman columns and a platform full of votive candles in the background . In the middle of the song , she started singing " Oh Father " while a dancer in a black frock played the role of a priest . The dancer , Carlton Wilborn , recalled that this performance required a lot of rehearsal time , since the dance portrayed Madonna as a woman trying to find her religion . He explained : " One side knew she needed it , another side was resistant , and our dance represented that battle inside . " At the end of the performance , Wilborn pushed down Madonna 's head before pulling her back up again , thus portraying his role as the priest , trying to wake up Madonna to the importance of religion . Two different performances were taped and released on video , the Blond Ambition – Japan Tour 90 , taped in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
British alternative band My Vitriol released a rock version of the song on their 2001 album , Finelines . A cover version by Giant Drag done in folk rock style was included on the 2007 Madonna tribute compilation Through the Wilderness . Sia covered the song on her 2010 album , We Are Born . K. Ross Hoffman from Allmusic praised this version , saying that Sia 's voice sounded throaty and it " recalled any number of tortured ' 90s alt @-@ rock songstresses " . Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone said that Sia 's cover " finds the sweetness in [ the original song ] , brightening it into an airy , blippy closer . "
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Like a Prayer album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Adolf Hitler 's 50th birthday =
The 50th birthday of Adolf Hitler on 20 April 1939 was celebrated as a national holiday throughout Nazi Germany and other parts of the world . Gifts and telegrams of congratulations were received from all over Germany and allied countries , although the Western Allies ignored the event diplomatically . The birthday celebration saw , amongst other events , the largest military parade in the history of the Third Reich , with army , air force , navy and SS units , numbering almost 50 @,@ 000 in total , marching through the streets of Berlin in Hitler 's honor .
= = Celebrations = =
On 18 April 1939 , the government of Nazi Germany declared that their Führer Adolf Hitler 's birthday ( 20 April ) to be a national holiday . Festivities took place in all municipalities throughout the country , as well as in the Free City of Danzig . The British historian Ian Kershaw comments that the events organised in Berlin by the Nazi minister of propaganda Joseph Goebbels were " an astonishing extravaganza of the Führer cult . The lavish outpourings of adulation and sycophancy surpassed those of any previous Führer Birthdays . "
Festivities began in the afternoon on the day before his birthday , when Hitler rode in the lead car of a motorcade of fifty white limousines along architect Albert Speer 's newly completed East @-@ West Axis , the planned central boulevard for Welthauptstadt Germania , which was to be the new capital after the planned victory in World War II . Hitler , anticipating that Speer would give a speech , was amused when he evaded this by briefly announcing that the work should speak for itself . The next event was a torchlit procession of appointments from all over Germany , which Hitler reviewed from a balcony in the Reich Chancellery . Then , at midnight , Hitler 's courtiers congratulated him and presented him with gifts , including , " Statues , bronze casts , Meissen porcelain , oil @-@ paintings , tapestries , rare coins , antique weapons , and a mass of other presents , many of them kitsch . Hitler admired some , made fun of others , and ignored most . "
Speer presented Hitler with a scale model of the gigantic triumphal arch planned for the rebuilding of Berlin , and Hitler 's pilot , Hans Baur , gave him a model of the " Führer Machine " , a four @-@ engined Focke @-@ Wulf 200 which was to go into service later that year as Hitler 's official airplane .
= = Military parade = =
A key part of the birthday celebrations was the large demonstration of Nazi Germany 's military capabilities . The display was intended in part as a warning to the Western powers . The parade , which lasted about five hours , included 12 companies of the Luftwaffe , 12 companies of the army , and 12 companies of the navy , as well as units of the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) . In total , 40 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 German troops took part . 162 warplanes flew over Berlin . The grandstand comprised 20 @,@ 000 official guests , and the parade was watched by several hundred thousand spectators . Features of the parade were large long range air defence artillery guns , emphasis on motorized artillery and development of air defense units . Joseph Goebbels , the event 's organizer , declared in a broadcast address to the German people :
The Reich stands in the shadow of the German sword . Trade and industry , and cultural and national life flourish under the guarantee of the military forces . The name of Herr Hitler is our political programme . Imagination and realism are harmoniously combined in the Führer .
Military leaders throughout the country gave addresses to their troops to celebrate the occasion . Some , such as Major General ( later Generalfeldmarschall ) Erich von Manstein , were especially effusive in their praise for their supreme commander . Official guests representing 23 countries took part in the celebrations . Papal envoy Cesare Orsenigo , the President of the Slovak Republic Jozef Tiso , the heads of the branches of Nazi Germany 's armed forces , and mayors of German cities offered birthday congratulations at the chancellery . Hitler and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini exchanged telegrams assuring each other that the friendship between Germany and the Kingdom of Italy ( both ruled by fascist regimes at the time ) could not be disturbed by their enemies . The ambassadors of the United Kingdom , France and the United States were not present at the parade , having been withdrawn after Hitler 's march into Czechoslovakia in 1938 . The U.S. was represented at the troop review by chargé d 'affaires Raymond H. Geist . U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt did not congratulate Hitler on his birthday , in accordance with his practice of not sending birthday greetings to anyone but ruling monarchs . King George VI of the United Kingdom dispatched a message of congratulation to Hitler ; but due to the strained relations between the two countries , his advisors had considered whether the King should ignore the birthday altogether . There was no Polish representation at the parade .
= = Commemoration = =
A luxury edition of Hitler 's political manifesto and autobiography Mein Kampf published in 1939 in honor of his 50th birthday was known as the Jubiläumsausgabe ( " Anniversary Issue " ) . It came in both dark blue and sharp red boards with a gold sword on the cover . The German author and photographer Heinrich Hoffmann wrote a book about Hitler 's 50th birthday , entitled Ein Volk ehrt seinen Führer ( " A Nation Honors its Leader " ) . Composer Hans Rehberg wrote a hymn for the occasion . A film of the birthday celebration , Hitlers 50 . Geburtstag ( " Hitler 's 50th Birthday " ) , is regarded as an important example of Nazi propaganda ; it was subsequently shown to packed audiences at Youth Film Hours , which were held on Sundays .
= = Birthday gifts = =
The Free City of Danzig made Hitler an honorary citizen of the city as a birthday gift . Hitler received the citizenship papers from the hands of Albert Forster , the city 's Nazi leader . Political and military tension between Germany and Poland was heightened at the time , and Time Magazine reported the possibility of Danzig being returned to Germany . Martin Bormann , Hitler 's private secretary , had the Eagle 's Nest constructed as the Nazi Party 's birthday gift . Hitler , however , did not like the location , as he had a fear of heights . Because of his indigestion , Hitler did not drink alcohol , so a Munich brewery created a special batch of low alcohol beer for his birthday . The brew became a regular order .
On the occasion of his birthday , families with small incomes received a birthday gift of 15 German Reichsmarks , plus 5 Reichsmarks for every dependent , an expenditure totalling 13 million Reichsmarks .
= = = Printed = = =
Hoffmann , Hilmar ( 1997 ) . The Triumph of Propaganda : Film and National Socialism , 1933 – 1945 . Berghahn Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57181 @-@ 122 @-@ 6 .
Kershaw , Ian ( 2000 ) . Hitler : 1936 – 1945 : Nemesis . Norton Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 32252 @-@ 1 .
Speer , Albert ( 1970 ) . Inside the Third Reich . Orion Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84212 @-@ 735 @-@ 3 .
Stein , Marcel ( 2007 ) . Field Marshal Von Manstein : The Janushead – A Portrait . Helion & Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 906033 @-@ 02 @-@ 6 .
Sterling , Christopher ( 2008 ) . Military Communications : From Ancient Times to the 21st Century . ABC @-@ CLIO . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 85109 @-@ 732 @-@ 6 .
= = = Online = = =
" 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 Watch Parade As Nazis Celebrate " . Pittsburgh Press . 20 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Adolf Hitler " . Life . 25 September 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Foreign News : Birthday Present ? " . Time . 24 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" George VI Sends Hitler Congratulatory Message " . Pittsburgh Press . 20 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Hitler 's Commemorative Timepiece : Rare Limited Edition Watch Created For Dictator 's 47th Birthday Is Discovered By Polish Customs Officials " . Daily Mail . 7 March 2011 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Hitler , Duce Repledge Aid " . The Prescott Evening Courier . 21 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Hitler Holds Great Display of Militarism " . San Jose Evening News . 20 April 1941 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Hitler Proudly Parades Big Guns At Celebration " . The Miami Daily News . 20 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" How Hitler 's 50th Birthday Party Sparked World War II " . Daily Mail . 17 April 2009 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Luxury Edition of Mein Kampf Honors Hitler " . Evening Independent . 21 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Nazi Play Revived " . The Jerusalem Post . 18 November 2003 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Roosevelt Will Not Congratulate Hitler " . The Norwalk Hour . 20 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Wo Hitler Schwindlig Wurde [ Where Hitler Was Dizzy ] " ( in German ) . Der Tagesspiegel . 21 October 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
" Worship of Hitler " . The Age . 21 April 1939 . Retrieved 12 March 2015 .
= Sheffield Rules =
The Sheffield Rules were a code of football devised and played in the English city of Sheffield between 1857 and 1877 . They were devised by Nathaniel Creswick and William Prest for use by the newly founded Sheffield Football Club . The rules were subsequently adopted as the official rules of Sheffield Football Association upon its creation in 1867 . They spread beyond the city boundaries to other clubs and associations in the north and midlands of England making them one of the most popular forms of football during the 1860s and 70s .
Six years after the creation of the Sheffield Rules the Football Association rules were created . These were influenced by the Sheffield game but ongoing disputes meant that the Sheffield rules continued to be used . During this time many of the elements of the rules were incorporated into the association game . Regular games were played between Sheffield and London using both sets of rules . This led to an agreement on a single set of laws administered by the Football Association in 1877 .
The rules had a major influence on how the modern game of football developed . Among other things they introduced into the laws of the game the concepts of corners , throw @-@ ins , and free kicks for fouls . The abolition of the fair catch also led to their teams to be the first to head the ball . Games played under the rules are also credited with the development of heading and the origins of the goalkeeper and forward positions . The first inter @-@ club football match and competitive tournament were both played using Sheffield Rules .
= = Background = =
The oldest recorded football match in Sheffield occurred in 1794 when a game of mob football was played between Sheffield and Norton ( at the time a Derbyshire village ) that took place at Bents Green . The game lasted three days , which was not unusual for matches at the time . It was noted that although there were some injuries no @-@ one was killed during the match . The Clarkehouse Road Fencing Club had been playing football since 1852 . The city was home to a number of sports clubs and the popularity of cricket had led to the chairman of Sheffield Cricket Club to suggest the construction of Bramall Lane .
By the 1850s there were several versions of football played in public schools and clubs throughout England . Each school played by their own code despite an attempt by Cambridge University to unify them in 1848 . Their rules were generally inaccessible outside of the schools . There the football tended to be unorganised and fairly lawless games known as mob football . Although there are matches between small , equal numbered teams it remained a minority sport until the 1860s .
During the winter months in 1855 the players of Sheffield Cricket Club organised informal football matches in order to retain fitness until the start of the new season . Two of the players were Nathaniel Creswick ( 1826 – 1917 ) and William Prest ( 1832 – 1885 ) , both of whom were born in Yorkshire . Creswick came from a Sheffield family of silver plate manufacturers that dated back several centuries . After being educated at the city 's Collegiate School he became a solicitor . Prest 's family had moved from York while he was a child . His father bought a wine merchants that William subsequently took over . Both men were keen sportsmen . Creswick enjoyed a number of sports including cricket and running . Prest played cricket for the All England XI and also captained Yorkshire on several occasions . The inaugural meeting of Sheffield F.C. took place on 24 October 1857 at Parkfield House in the suburb of Highfield . The original headquarters would become a greenhouse on East Bank Road . The adjacent field was used as their first playing ground .
= = Rules of 1858 = =
The first written set of laws were produced at the club 's first annual general meeting on 21 October 1858 . The original draft was amended at the same meeting to produce the following set of rules for the 1858 – 59 season .
The kick off from the middle must be a place kick .
Kick out must not be more than 25 yards [ 23 m ] out of goal .
A fair catch is a catch from any player provided the ball has not touched the ground or has not been thrown from touch and is entitled to a free @-@ kick .
Charging is fair in case of a place kick ( with the exception of a kick off as soon as a player offers to kick ) but he may always draw back unless he has actually touched the ball with his foot .
Pushing with the hands is allowed but no hacking or tripping up is fair under any circumstances whatever .
No player may be held or pulled over .
It is not lawful to take the ball off the ground ( except in touch ) for any purpose whatever .
The ball may be pushed or hit with the hand , but holding the ball except in the case of a free kick is altogether disallowed .
A goal must be kicked but not from touch nor by a free kick from a catch .
A ball in touch is dead , consequently the side that touches it down must bring it to the edge of the touch and throw it straight out from touch .
Each player must provide himself with a red and dark blue flannel cap , one colour to be worn by each side .
= = Overview = =
= = = Conception = = =
The rules had been in use since the establishment of the club . Although a selection of rules from public schools were seen there , the 1858 rules show little evidence of their influence . Many of the original members were from the local Collegiate School , which favoured the kicking style of the game , rather than handling the ball . The kicking game was also prevalent in the local villages of Penistone and Thurlstone . The rules were the first to penalise foul play with a free kick , introduce the throw @-@ in and eliminate the offside rule . They also had the unique feature of preventing a goal being scored directly from a free kick or throw @-@ in .
Significant changes were also noted in the minutes book . The original draft prevented all handling of the ball except in the case of a fair catch . It also prevented all hacking and tripping . Despite the relaxation of these rules the first rules clearly leaned towards the kicking version of the game and away from handling of the ball . The season would start on 1 November and run until Easter Saturday . The numbers on each side were not fixed . The club rules also dictated that any disputes on the field would be resolved by any committee members present — the first reference to a position now occupied by the referee .
= = = Early years = = =
Initially the code was only played among Sheffield F.C. members . Games initially teamed players with surnames in the first half of the alphabet against players with surnames in the latter half of the alphabet . They , however , discovered that the most talented players all had surnames in the first half . Various other permutations were tried with professionals versus merchants and manufacturers becoming one of the favourites . In December 1858 they played their first outside opposition , a team from the local 58th Army Regiment . In 1859 the club produced the first printed rule book . Despite this the rules were not entirely fixed with changes experimented with throughout the season .
Two major events took place in 1860 . On 31 January a meeting was held where it was resolved that Law 8 should be expunged and replaced with Holding the ball ( except in the case of a free kick ) or knocking or pushing it on is altogether disallowed . On the pitch the world ’ s first inter @-@ club match between Sheffield and the newly formed Hallam F.C. took place on 26 December 1860 . The match took place at Hallam 's ground , Sandygate Road . It was reported that " The Sheffielders turned in their usual Scarlet and White " which suggests that club colours were already in use . Despite playing with inferior numbers Sheffield F.C. beat Hallam 2 – 0 .
In 1861 rouges were introduced into the code . The idea was borrowed from Eton and involved a 4 yards ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) goal ( as opposed to 8 yards ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) used previously ) . There were also rouge flags placed an additional 4 yards ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) each side of the goal . If the ball was kicked between the rouge flags and subsequently touched down the team scored a rouge . If the score was tied at the end of the game then rouges could be used to decide the winner . A version of the arrangement remains in Australian Rules Football .
When the club published its second rule book in 1862 the number of laws had grown to 17 . The game of the time could still be a violent one . A match on 29 December between Sheffield and Hallam became known as the Battle of Bramall Lane . An incident occurred when Nathaniel Creswick was being held by Shaw and Waterfall . Accounts differ over subsequent events . The original report stated that Creswick was accidentally punched by Waterfall . This was contested in a letter from the Hallam players that claimed that it was in retaliation for a blow thrown by Nathaniel Creswick . Whatever the cause the result was a general riot , which also involved a number of spectators , after which Waterfall was sent to guard the goal as punishment .
= = = Sheffield and London = = =
The Football Association ( FA ) was formed at a meeting in the Freemason 's Tavern in Great Queen Street , London on 26 October 1863 . Sheffield F.C. sent four representatives who acted as observers . The club joined the new organisation a month later in a letter sent by William Chesterman . In it he also enclosed a copy of the Sheffield Rules and expressed the club 's opposition to hacking and running with the ball , describing them as " directly opposed to football " . This letter was read out at an FA meeting on 1 December 1863 . The rules allowing hacking and running with the ball were reversed at the same meeting . The new code became known as Association Football .
The offside rule was introduced to Sheffield Rules in 1863 . Their version only required one member of the opposition between a player and the opposing goal to remain on side . Despite this the rule was only used sporadically in actual play . The FA version , which required a player to remain behind the ball at all times , was introduced during the 1865 – 66 season but was disliked due to the lack of goal scoring opportunities it caused . The one man offside was finally used a regular basis from 1867 until the adoption of FA rules in 1877 .
The FA had remained largely dormant after the creation of its rules but in 1866 Sheffield F.C. suggested a match between it and a FA club . This was misunderstood and they ended up playing a combined FA team on 31 March 1866 under FA rules . The game was the first ever to limit the match to 90 minutes and Sheffield F.C. adopted it as its preferred length of match . The rule would make it to the FA rule book in 1877 . A second match was suggested by the London FA in a letter sent in November or the same year but never took place , the reason being disputes of which rules should be used . The FA introduced an 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) cross bar used by Sheffield in the same year only for Sheffield to then decide to raise it to 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . The fair catch was also dropped by Sheffield . This completed the transition to a purely kicking game .
By 1867 the Sheffield Rules was the dominant code in England . The FA had still not achieved the national dominance it enjoys today . Its membership had shrunk to just 10 clubs and at a meeting of the FA it was reported that only three clubs ( No Names Club , Barnes and Crystal Palace ) were playing by the FA code . At the same meeting the secretary of Sheffield Club suggested three rule changes at an FA meeting : the adoption of rouges , the one man offside and introduction of a free kick for handling the ball . None of the motions were successful . Later in the same year , they abolished handling and touchdowns . It was stated that this was to bring them closer to non @-@ handling games .
= = = Birth of competition = = =
In 1867 the world 's first football tournament , the Youdan Cup , was played under the rules . The tournament involved 12 local sides and was played during February and March . The tournament committee decided on the use of an off @-@ field referee to award free kicks for infringements . The final took place on 5 March and was only the second football match to take place at Bramall Lane . A crowd of 3 @,@ 000 , a world record attendance , watched Hallam F.C. claim the cup by scoring two rouges in the last five minutes to win two rouges to one . The Sheffield Football Association was founded following the tournament . The 12 teams involved in the tournament were joined by Sheffield F.C. to become the founding members . The association adopted the Sheffield Rules without any changes . They were the first of several regional Football Associations that sprung up over the following decade .
A second tournament , the Cromwell Cup was played a year later . This time it was only open to teams under two years old . Out of the four teams that competed The Wednesday emerged victorious . The final was a goalless draw after 90 minutes so the teams played on until a goal was scored . This was the first instance where a match involved extra time . This would be the last tournament to be played in Sheffield for nine years until the formation of the Sheffield Football Association Challenge Cup in 1876 .
Rouges were abandoned in 1868 to be replaced by the goal and corner kicks . Sheffield FA limited handling to within 3 yards ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) of the goal in 1871 . The FA , however , introduced a designated goalkeeper who was allowed to handle the ball anywhere on the pitch . In an effort to prevent the Sheffield game looking boring in comparison the Sheffield FA expanded the limit to the halfway line .
In 1870 , 16 teams of the Sheffield FA were admitted to the FA but were allowed to continue to play by Sheffield Rules against FA clubs . A year later the Sheffield FA itself became affiliated with the Football Association and matches between the two associations began .
Between 1871 and 1876 a total of 16 matches were played between the Sheffield and London associations . As well as playing under both Sheffield and London rules , additional matches were played at Bramall Lane using a mixture of both sets . Aspects of the Sheffield game were also incorporated into the FA rules . The matches being played between Sheffield and London led to the two sets of rules becoming ever more similar . The corner kick was proposed by the Sheffield Association and adopted by the FA on 17 February 1872 . They also followed Sheffield 's lead in restricting handling of the ball by the goalkeeper to his own half . The Sheffield game reverted to using an 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) crossbar in line with the FA .
= = = Demise = = =
The FA Cup was inaugurated in 1871 , but Sheffield clubs declined to enter the competition as it was being played under FA rules . The first team to enter was Sheffield F.C. in the 1873 – 74 season . This was after an attempt to enter a Sheffield FA team was refused by the organisers . They reached the quarter @-@ finals before being knocked out by Clapham Rovers . The Sheffield FA instituted their own Challenge Cup in 1876 . The cup was open to all the members of the SFA that now included many clubs outside the local area . The first final attracted a crowd of 8 @,@ 000 , twice as much as the FA Cup final in the same season . It was a record crowd for a cup match that would be held until the FA Cup of 1883 . The match was between Heeley and Wednesday and resulted in a 2 – 0 win for the latter .
By 1877 it was clear that the situation had become impractical . After letters were published in The Field deriding the state of affairs it was decided to unite the kicking game under one set of laws . By this time the FA Cup had helped the FA gain a dominant position within the game . The FA accepted the Sheffield rule allowing throw @-@ ins to be thrown in any direction , as opposed to right angles only as prevails in rugby lineouts . In return the FA 's use of a three @-@ man offside was adopted .
By the 1880s the influence of the Sheffield FA started to wane . Internal troubles began to surface with disputes between the SFA and a new rival association , Hallamshire F.A. The former , led by Charles Clegg , also fought a losing battle against the onset of professionalism . By the middle of the decade several local clubs , including Sheffield and Hallam F.C. , were in financial trouble .
The four national associations of the UK met in 1882 with a view to creating a common set of laws . They created of the International Football Association Board ( IFAB ) , which first met in 1886 . The IFAB 's role was further affirmed when Fédération Internationale de Football Association adopted their laws upon its formation in 1904 . They have remained in sole charge of the rules ever since .
= = Innovations = =
Sheffield teams created the first goals with solid crossbars . Heading , throw @-@ ins , corner kicks and awarding free kicks for fouls were also conceived in Sheffield games . One of the most enduring rules of the Sheffield game prevented a goal from being scored directly from a free kick or throw in / kick in . This was present in every version of the Sheffield Rules and was later adopted within the FA rules . It was later refined by the International Football Association Board into the modern @-@ day indirect free kick .
The aerial game was also developed within the Sheffield game . While causing much amusement when the side visited London in 1866 , the header would become an important feature of the national game . This was linked to the abolition of the fair catch in the same year that prevented all use of the hands by outfield players .
The 1862 rules also introduced a half @-@ time at which the teams would swap ends . Initially this was only if the game was scoreless as the teams would also swap ends if a goal was scored . The rule was changed to a swap at half @-@ time only in 1876 .
Early games did not use any on @-@ field officials but disputes between the players would be referred to a committee member . Umpires were introduced by the end of 1862 . Two umpires were used ; one from each club . The off @-@ field referee was introduced for the Youdan Cup in 1867 and entered the rulebook by 1871 . The umpires would then appeal to the referee on behalf of their team . The concept was later introduced to the FA game and persisted until 1891 when the referee moved onto the pitch and the umpires became linesmen . The umpire 's flag was first suggested by Charles Clegg at a Sheffield FA meeting in 1874 .
The innovative streak within Sheffield remained after the demise of their own rules . On 15 October 1878 a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 watched the first floodlit match at Bramall Lane . The exhibition match was set up to test the use of the lights and was played between specially selected teams captained by the brothers William and Charles Clegg . William Clegg 's team won 2 – 0 . The experiment was repeated a month later at the Oval .
The concept of a penalty goal for fouls within 2 yards ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of the goal was suggested at a Sheffield FA meeting in 1879 . The penalty would eventually make it into the rules by 1892 . Sheffield players developed the ' screw shot ' in the late 1870s . This gave players the ability to bend the shot into the net , a technique now common in the game .
The Sheffield rules instigated the throw in of the ball at right angles by the opposite side to the one that played it into touch
= = Influence = =
Many of the rules in the Sheffield game were adopted by and are still featured in today ’ s association game . Twelve changes were made to the FA code between 1863 and 1870 , of which eight were taken from Sheffield Rules . During this period the Sheffield FA had significant influence over the FA and encouraged it to continue when it was close to collapse in 1867 . The corner kick was adopted by the FA in 1872 and they restricted handling of the ball to the goalkeeper 's own half in 1873 . In the final negotiations between Sheffield and London the latter agreed to allow throw @-@ ins in any direction in exchange .
During the 1860s Sheffield and London were the dominant football cultures in England . However , while London was fragmented by the different codes used , by 1862 the rules of Sheffield F.C. had become the dominant code in Sheffield . Nottingham Forest adopted the Sheffield code in 1867 and the Birmingham and Derbyshire FAs became affiliated with Sheffield , adopting its code , in 1876 . Most clubs in the north and midlands were playing by the Sheffield Rules while FA Rules dominated south of Birmingham .
There is circumstantial evidence that the rules also influenced Australian rules football conceived a couple of years later . The two codes shared the unique feature of lacking the offside rule . There are also similarities in the laws for kicking off , kick outs , throw @-@ ins and the fair catch . Henry Creswick ( possibly a relative of Nathaniel Creswick ) was born in Sheffield but emigrated to Australia with his brother in 1840 ( the town of Creswick is named after them ) . He moved to Melbourne in 1854 and became involved in the local cricket scene . He played first class cricket for Victoria during the 57 – 58 season alongside three of the founders of Melbourne Football Club including Tom Wills , the man credited with creating the original rules .
Despite the loss of their own rules Sheffield remained the centre of the footballing world until the onset of professionalism . The association matches versus London were considered only equalled in importance to the England v Scotland international and FA Cup Final . Sheffield born Charles Clegg became chairman of the Football Association in 1890 leading it until his death in 1937 . In the process he became the longest serving FA chairman and earned the nickname The Napoleon of Football .
= = Formations , positioning and passing = =
Early games involved varying numbers of players . Games could also be played with uneven numbers on each side either because some failed to show or one side offered a handicap . The first match between Sheffield and Hallam involved 16 players versus 20 . Games predominantly involved larger numbers than used in the modern games . In October 1863 , Sheffield declared that it would only play 11 a side matches . Despite this it continued to do so on occasions . By 1867 the vast majority of matches in Sheffield involved teams of between 11 and 14 .
One of the first positions to develop within the code was referred to as the kick through . The position was unique to the Sheffield game and developed because of the lack of an offside rule . The job of the man playing in the kick through position was to remain near to the opposition 's goal and wait for a through ball , a tactic today called cherry picking or goal hanging . By 1871 this position had become modern @-@ day forwards . Cover goals developed in opposition of kick throughs . Despite their name their job was to man mark the kick through .
According to CW Alcock , Sheffield provided the first evidence of the modern passing style In October 1863 , Sheffield declared that it would only play 11 a side matches. known as the Combination Game . As early as January 1865 Sheffield FC was associated with scoring a goal through " scientific movements " against Nottingham A contemporary match report of November 1865 notes " We cannot help recording the really scientific play with which the Sheffield men backed each other up " Combination play by Sheffield players is also suggest in 1868 : " a remarkably neat and quick piece of play on the part of K Smith , Denton and J Knowles resulted in a goal for Sheffield , the final kick being given by J. Knowles " Contemporary proof of passing occurs from at least January 1872 . In January 1872 the following account is given against Derby : " W. Orton , by a specimen of careful play , running the ball up in close proximity to the goal , from which it was returned to J. Marsh , who by a fine straight shot kicked it through " This play taking place " in close proximity to the goal " suggests a short pass and the " return " of the ball to Marsh suggests that this was the second of two passes . This account also goes onto describe other interesting early tactics : " This goal was supplemented by one of T. Butler 's most successful expositions of the art of corkscrew play and deceptive tactics which had the effect of exciting the risibility of the spectators " Similarly the following contemporary account of passing comes from January 1872 : " the only goal scored in the match was obtained by Sheffield , owing to a good run up the field by Steel , who passed it judiciously to Matthews , and the latter , by a good straight kick , landed it through the goal out of reach of the custodian " . This match ( against Notts ) also provided contemporary evidence of " good dribbling and kicking " particularly by W.E. Clegg . The condition of the ground , however , " militated against a really scientific exhibition " , suggesting that at other times their play was even more " scientific " . Their play in March 1872 was described as " speed , pluck and science of no mean order "
Before the introduction of the crossbar , teams could play without a goalkeeper . The first reference to a goalkeeper appears in the report of the Battle of Bramall Lane in 1862 . The position , however , was used as an alternative to sending off a player . Although a recognised position goalkeeper sometimes was also referred to in the rules as the player nearest their own goal ( allowing him the luxury of handling the ball ) . Unlike its FA counterpart Sheffield Rules never restricted handling to one designated player . Despite this by the 1870s teams usually featured a single player in the position .
The match between the Sheffield FA and the FA that took place in December 1871 is notable for evidence of the development of several new positions . As well as the first mention of forwards , sides ( now called wingers ) were also mentioned . The rest of the team made up the midfield . The Half backs ( referred to as centre backs in the modern game ) were mentioned a year later . By the mid @-@ 1870s it was common to use one goalkeeper assisted by two cover goals and two half backs . The attack was made up of five midfielders and one forward . This produced the 2 – 2 – 5 – 1 formation .
= = Key figures = =
Nathaniel Creswick and William Prest are considered both founders of Sheffield F.C. and creators of the code they adhered to . They continued to have a strong presence at the club , both being members of the committee . It was Creswick , however , who exerted more influence over the rules in his position of Honorary Secretary and Treasurer .
John Shaw was originally a member of Sheffield Club . However another member , Thomas Vickers , also founded their main rivals , Hallam F.C. He also became the vice @-@ president of the Sheffield FA upon its formation and president from 1869 to 1885 . In this role he organised many of its first inter @-@ association matches and was involved in the eventual merger of the Sheffield Rule into the national game .
John Charles Clegg ( better known as just Charles ) became a massive influence on the national as well as the local game . As a player he was involved in the first inter @-@ association match and became the first Sheffield @-@ based player to be capped ( gaining his only cap in the first international ) . He went on to become president of both the city 's professional sides ( playing a large part in the creation of Sheffield United ) and held the same position at Sheffield and Hallamshire FA having overseen the merger of the two rival local FAs . He then moved on to national prominence when he became chairman of the FA in 1890 and president in 1923 . He held both positions until his death in 1937 .
Although not directly involved with Sheffield football , Charles Alcock had a major role in relations between the local and London associations . He acted as a go between encouraging the FA to accept rules from the Sheffield Rules . When the FA declined an inter @-@ association match in Sheffield on the grounds that they could not play under Sheffield Rules it fell to Alcock to organise a team of London players to fulfil the fixture . The success of the match led to it becoming a regular event in the following years .
= Thin Man ( nuclear bomb ) =
" Thin Man " was the codename for a proposed plutonium gun @-@ type nuclear bomb using plutonium @-@ 239 which the United States was developing during the Manhattan Project . Its development was aborted when it was discovered that the spontaneous fission rate of their nuclear @-@ reactor @-@ bred plutonium was too high for use in a gun @-@ type design , due to the too high concentration of the isotope plutonium @-@ 240 .
= = Early decisions = =
In 1942 , prior to the Army taking over wartime atomic research , Robert Oppenheimer held conferences in Chicago in June and Berkeley , California , in July at which various engineers and physicists discussed nuclear bomb design issues . A gun @-@ type design was chosen , in which two sub @-@ critical masses would be brought together by firing a " bullet " into a " target " . The idea of an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon was suggested by Richard Tolman but attracted scant consideration .
Oppenheimer , reviewing his options in early 1943 , gave priority to the gun @-@ type weapon , but as a hedge against the threat of pre @-@ detonation , he created the E @-@ 5 Group at the Los Alamos Laboratory under Seth Neddermeyer to investigate implosion . Implosion @-@ type bombs were determined to be significantly more efficient in terms of explosive yield per unit mass of fissile material in the bomb , because compressed fissile materials react more rapidly and therefore more completely . It was decided that the plutonium gun would receive the bulk of the research effort , since it was the project with the least amount of uncertainty involved . It was assumed that the uranium gun @-@ type bomb could be more easily adapted from it .
The gun @-@ type and implosion @-@ type designs were codenamed " Thin Man " and " Fat Man " projects respectively . These code names were created by Robert Serber , a former student of Oppenheimer 's who worked on the Manhattan Project . He chose them based on their design shapes ; the " Thin Man " would be a very long device , and the name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel The Thin Man and series of movies by the same name . The " Fat Man " bomb would be round and fat and was named after Sydney Greenstreet 's character in The Maltese Falcon . " Little Boy " would come last and be named only to contrast to the " Thin Man " bomb .
= = Development = =
Oppenheimer assembled a team at the Los Alamos Laboratory to work on plutonium gun design that included senior engineer Edwin McMillan and senior physicists Charles Critchfield and Joseph Hirschfelder . Critchfield had been working with sabots , which Oppenheimer believed would be required by the Thin Man to achieve the high muzzle velocities that critical assembly would require . Hirschfelder had been working on internal ballistics . Oppenheimer led the design effort himself until June 1943 , when Navy Captain William Sterling Parsons arrived and took over the Ordnance and Engineering Division and direct management of the " Thin Man " project .
These four created and tested all the elements of the Thin Man design between April 1943 and August 1944 . Parsons , who had developed the proximity fuze for the Navy , ran the division , and handled liaison with other agencies . As the head of the E @-@ 6 Projectile , Target , and Source Group , Critchfield calculated critical masses , and instituted a system of live testing with scale models using 20 mm cannon and 3 @-@ inch guns . While full @-@ scale Thin Man tubes took months to produce , these were readily and easily obtained . It was not possible to conduct tests with plutonium , as it was not yet available . Indeed , the actual physical characteristics of the metal were little more than educated guesses at this time .
Hirschfelder headed the E @-@ 8 Interior Ballistics Group . His group performed mathematical calculations , but he also had to identify a suitable powder , igniter , and primer . His group conducted full @-@ scale tests with their selections . Fixing the physical size of the bomb proved important when it came to selecting a suitable aircraft to carry it . The E @-@ 8 group estimated the muzzle velocity of the gun at around 3 @,@ 000 feet per second ( 910 m / s ) , close to the maximum achievable in 1944 , and calculated that the pressure in the barrel would be up to 75 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 520 @,@ 000 kPa ) .
Although the weapon 's designers thought that simply bringing a critical mass together would be sufficient , Serber suggested that the design should also include an initiator . A polonium @-@ 210 @-@ beryllium initiator was chosen because polonium 210 has a 140 @-@ day half life , which allowed it to be stockpiled , and it could be obtained from naturally @-@ occurring ores from Port Hope , Ontario . Oppenheimer requested that it also be manufactured in the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge , Tennessee or , when they became available , the reactors at the Hanford Site .
= = Specifications = =
The " Thin Man " design was an early nuclear weapon design proposed before plutonium had been successfully bred in a nuclear reactor from the irradiation of uranium @-@ 238 . It was assumed that plutonium , like uranium @-@ 235 , could be assembled into a critical mass by a gun @-@ type method , which simply involved shooting one sub @-@ critical piece into another . To avoid pre @-@ detonation or " fizzle " , the plutonium " bullet " would need to be accelerated to a speed of at least 3 @,@ 000 feet per second ( 910 m / s ) — or else the fission reaction would begin before the assembly was complete , blowing the device apart prematurely .
Thin Man was 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) long , with a 38 @-@ inch ( 97 cm ) wide tail and nose assemblies , and a 23 @-@ inch ( 58 cm ) midsection . The length was necessary for the plutonium " bullet " to pick up adequate speed before reaching the " target " . Weight was around 8 @,@ 000 pounds ( 3 @,@ 600 kg ) for the final weapon model . There was only one aircraft in the Allied inventory that could carry a Thin Man unmodified : the British Avro Lancaster . However , the American Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress could be modified to carry it by removing part of the main wing spar and some oxygen tanks located between its two bomb bays .
= = Design issues = =
= = = Aerodynamics = = =
The great length of the " Thin Man " bomb led to aerodynamic instabilities . Subscale models of the bomb were dropped from a Grumman TBF Avenger at the US Navy test range at Dahlgren , Virginia starting in August , 1943 . The bombs would spin sideways after being dropped , and broke up when they hit the ground .
Twenty @-@ four drops were carried out in March 1944 before tests were discontinued so that improvements could be made to Thin Man . The bombs failed to release immediately , frustrating calibration tests . In what turned out to be the last test flight of the series on 16 March , a Thin Man was prematurely released while the B @-@ 29 was still en route to the test range and fell onto the bomb bay doors , severely damaging the test aircraft . The modified glider mechanisms used to suspend the bomb in the bomb bay had caused all four malfunctions , due to the great weight of the bombs . They were replaced with British Type G single @-@ point attachments and Type F releases as used on the Lancaster to carry the 12 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) Tallboy bomb .
= = = Predetonation = = =
The feasibility of a plutonium bomb had been questioned in 1942 . James Conant heard on 14 November from Wallace Akers , the director of the British Tube Alloys project , that James Chadwick had " concluded that plutonium might not be a practical fissionable material for weapons because of impurities . " Conant consulted Ernest Lawrence and Arthur Compton , who acknowledged that their scientists at Berkeley and Chicago respectively knew about the problem , but could offer no ready solution . Conant informed the director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , who in turn assembled a special committee consisting of Lawrence , Compton , Oppenheimer , and McMillan to examine the issue . The committee concluded that any problems could be overcome by requiring higher purity .
In April 1944 , experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P @-@ 5 Group at Los Alamos on the newly reactor @-@ produced plutonium from Oak Ridge and the Hanford site showed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium @-@ 240 . This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate than plutonium @-@ 239 . The cyclotron @-@ produced material on which the original measurements had been made had much lower traces of plutonium @-@ 240 . Its inclusion in reactor @-@ bred plutonium appeared unavoidable . This meant that the spontaneous fission rate of the reactor plutonium was so high that it would be highly likely that it would predetonate and blow itself apart during the initial formation of a critical mass . The distance required to accelerate the plutonium to speeds where predetonation would be less likely would need a gun barrel too long for any existing or planned bomber . The only way to use plutonium in a workable bomb was thus implosion — a far more difficult engineering task .
The impracticability of a gun @-@ type bomb using plutonium was agreed at a meeting in Los Alamos on July 17 , 1944 . All gun @-@ type work in the Manhattan Project was directed at the Little Boy enriched uranium gun design , and almost all of the research at the Los Alamos Laboratory was re @-@ oriented around the problems of implosion for the Fat Man bomb .
= Code of Vengeance =
Code of Vengeance is the umbrella title for a series of American television programs , produced by Universal Television , that aired on NBC in 1985 and 1986 . Charles Taylor stars as David Dalton , a Vietnam veteran who has become a drifter , travelling across the United States in a camper van with only his dog for company . Dalton gets involved in the personal lives of the people he meets and uses his fighting skills to help them win justice .
The Dalton character was created for All That Glitters , a planned spin @-@ off series from Knight Rider , and a backdoor pilot aired as a second @-@ season episode of that series in 1984 . The character , originally a suave government agent , was retooled as a lone drifter for a new pilot , which aired as the television movie Code of Vengeance , to surprise ratings success in June 1985 . A subsequent series , to be called Dalton , was ordered by NBC for midseason , then production was cancelled after just four episodes were completed . These aired in the summer of 1986 as a television movie titled Dalton : Code of Vengeance II and as a part of a fill @-@ in series called Dalton 's Code of Vengeance .
= = Origins = =
The David Dalton character was originally created by writer Robert Foster and executive producer Glen A. Larson for a proposed series titled All That Glitters . The show 's two @-@ hour backdoor pilot aired on April 8 , 1984 , as a special double @-@ length episode of Knight Rider titled " Mouth of the Snake " . The production featured Charles Taylor as David Dalton , an action @-@ oriented government agent , and Joanna Pettet as Joanna St. John , the widow of a murdered lawyer , fighting crime and accepting secret missions from Archibald Hendley ( played by George Murdock ) on behalf of the United States Department of Justice . In this pilot episode , Dalton and St. John work with Knight Rider stars Michael Knight ( David Hasselhoff ) and KITT ( voice of William Daniels ) to locate Eduardo O 'Brien ( Pedro Armendáriz , Jr . ) , a master criminal who has stolen a prototype rocket launcher .
This backdoor pilot was written by Robert Gilmer and Robert Foster , directed by Winrich Kolbe , and produced by Robert Gilmer , Gian Grimaldi , and Tom Greene . Cinematography was handled by H. John Penner with art direction by Russell Smith and music by Don Peake . Both Glen A. Larson and Robert Foster were credited as executive producers on the project .
Noting the limited roles of Michael and KITT in the episode , the authors of Knight Rider Legacy state that " [ m ] any fans consider this to be one of the worst episodes of Knight Rider ever produced during its four @-@ year run " and that it posted a season @-@ low in the Nielsen ratings . Feeling the format was too similar to Cover Up , a show Larson had created for CBS that began airing in September 1984 , NBC declined to pick up All That Glitters as a series .
= = Second pilot = =
NBC commissioned a second pilot starring Charles Taylor , Code of Vengeance , for the 1985 pilot season . The new pilot reimagined David Dalton as a flashback @-@ prone Vietnam veteran who drifts across the country , encountering people in trouble , and helping them to find justice with his unique fighting skills . The physical agility , acrobatic skill , and martial arts expertise that Dalton displayed in " Mouth of the Snake " was toned down to a simpler , more violent fighting style . The reviewer for the Associated Press described Dalton as " a modern version of Shane " that 's also " like Highway to Heaven " but with Dalton using " his fists rather than good deeds " to solve problems . Dalton travels from place to place in a camper van with only his German Shepherd named " Wichita " for company .
In this second pilot , Dalton is a " mysterious stranger " who arrives in a small town in Arizona where he meets Nadine Flowers , a young mother ( played by Erin Gray ) , her son A.J. ( Chad Allen ) , and her mother Ione ( Lenka Peterson ) . Nadine hires Dalton to complete an addition to her house left undone after her brother disappeared while hunting . When the brother turns up dead under suspicious circumstances , Dalton investigates then sets out to avenge the brother 's murder . This act of justice entangles him in a conflict between warring rival drug smugglers and gun runners along the border between Arizona and Mexico . Other prominent cast members included Charles Haid as " Jim Blanton " , Keenan Wynn as " Willis " , Randall " Tex " Cobb as " Willard Singleton " , and Joe Dorsey as " Chief Milford Carsworth " . In a nod to the show 's origins , Keenan Wynn 's character is shown watching a Knight Rider episode , with KITT 's voice clearly audible , as armed thugs surround his home . The teleplay was written by Robert Foster with Duke Callaghan and Thomas Del Ruth splitting cinematography duties under director Rick Rosenthal . Robert Foster served as executive producer and the pilot was produced by Universal Television .
NBC also declined to pick up this pilot as a series and shelved the film to be burned off during the summer of 1985 . The pilot was eventually aired on June 30 , 1985 , as the NBC Sunday Night Movie , opposite a new two @-@ hour special episode of Call to Glory starring Craig T. Nelson .
= = Series = =
= = = Ordered for mid @-@ season = = =
Promoted as being " in the tradition of Rambo " and airing just weeks after Rambo : First Blood Part II was released to theaters , the Code of Vengeance telemovie was a surprise ratings success . Code of Vengeance tied an episode of the popular sitcom Family Ties as the second @-@ highest rated show of the week . Swayed by these numbers , NBC ordered six one @-@ hour episodes as a midseason replacement series . The October 1985 announcement noted that the new series was to be titled Dalton .
The series , described by its lead actor as having " two stars — the landscape and Dalton " , began filming in several locations across the United States . While the plan was to film two episodes in each location , the production was troubled by weather as flash flooding delayed filming in Houston and a hurricane hit while filming in New Orleans .
= = = Shut down = = =
Originally slated for a January 1986 debut , Dalton struggled with script and production issues that delayed its debut indefinitely . Unhappy with what they had seen so far , NBC ordered a suspension of production in December 1985 after just four episodes had been filmed . Scheduled to resume filming in Los Angeles in January 1986 after a holiday break , the network instead ended production on Dalton entirely and in early February ordered Universal Television to re @-@ edit these four completed episodes into two feature @-@ length movies . These " movie of the week " presentations were to be called Code of Vengeance II and Code of Vengeance III .
= = = Movie of the week = = =
The first of these two @-@ hour presentations , now titled Dalton : Code of Vengeance II , aired as the NBC Sunday Night Movie on Sunday , May 11 , 1986 . Combining episodes written by Luther Murdock and Aiken Woodruff , Dalton : Code of Vengeance II found Dalton travelling first to Houston , Texas , to help friend Jeanne Bennett ( played by Karen Landry ) locate her husband — his former commanding officer , Major Monty Bennett ( Donnelly Rhodes ) . When he discovers that Major Bennett is now aiding the New Patriots , a conservative paramilitary group of Vietnam veterans bent on overthrowing the United States government , he sets off for the Florida Everglades to stop them . The New Patriots ' plan is to commit acts of domestic terrorism while framing an Arab group for the atrocities in the belief that this will allow them to seize control of the government they feel betrayed them in Vietnam . Ultimately , Dalton confronts his former commander in the swamp and , after a long and unexplained flashback sequence of combat in Vietnam , Dalton stops both his commander and the group 's plans .
This Universal Television movie was produced by Herman Miller , edited by Lawrence J. Vallario , scored by Don Peake , and Jack Priestley was the cinematographer . Gary A. Lee handled art direction and , with creator Robert Foster no longer involved , Lou Shaw was the only credited executive producer . Direction of the combined feature edit of these two episodes , filmed on location in Houston , Texas , and Jacksonville , Florida , is credited pseudonymously to Alan Smithee . Other prominent roles in the movie included Ed Bruce as " Sheriff Johnson " , Alex Harvey as " Sheriff Willoughby " , Mitch Pileggi as " Verbeck " , Shannon Stein as " Tip Bennett " , Belinda J. Montgomery as " Libby Holland " , and William Sanderson as " Bobby Fuller " .
Critical reaction to this iteration of the Dalton saga was sharp . Drew Fetherston , reviewing the movie for Newsday , called it " claptrap " and that " action [ ... ] is all that this NBC stinker has to offer " . Faye Zuckerman of the Gainesville Sun called Dalton : Code of Vengeance II a " plodder " , complaining that " this film insults its predecessor " . Chicago Sun @-@ Times reviewer Daniel Ruth gave Dalton : Code of Vengeance II a half @-@ star review calling it " revisionist " , " distasteful " , and " terrible television " . Deriding the film as " poorly written , badly acted , sloppily directed and choppily edited " , he called it " another slap in the face of the men and women who went to Southeast Asia to do a dirty job and came home to even dirtier exploitation " . Ruth concluded , " The viewer 's best " Code of Vengeance " would be to reject these films . "
Dalton : Code of Vengeance II also failed to deliver the high ratings of its predecessor . Against stiff competition from the final installment of ABC 's top @-@ rated North and South , Book II miniseries , the movie failed to crack the top 20 in that week 's Nielsen ratings . Faced with critical and commercial failure , NBC scrapped plans to air Code of Vengeance III and the fate of the unseen episodes became uncertain .
= = = Replacement series = = =
In the summer of 1986 , NBC was doing quite well in the ratings with its Thursday night lineup but was still experimenting on other nights . One such experiment was the anthology series The New Alfred Hitchcock Presents featuring new stories introduced by colorized vintage footage of Alfred Hitchcock . After just one season on the network , the show was cancelled abruptly after the July 20 , 1986 , airing of two repeat episodes placed 55th for the week in the Nielsen ratings against 5th @-@ rated Murder , She Wrote on CBS . Needing an inexpensive replacement on short notice as a fill @-@ in until the 1986 @-@ 87 television season started in September , NBC began airing one @-@ hour episodes of Dalton , re @-@ titled Dalton 's Code of Vengeance , in a four @-@ episode limited run beginning on July 27 , 1986 .
The first one @-@ hour episode of Dalton 's Code of Vengeance to air was " Rustler 's Moon " , one of the two previously @-@ unaired hours . Dalton is on his way to Houston when he meets a " feisty rancher " named Rhonda Jo ( played by Susan Walden ) and is forced to deal out his unique brand of justice against cattle rustlers trying to steal her prize bull and do her harm . Other prominent roles included Larry Drake as " Jack Ferguson " , Paul Carr as " Elliot " , Chris Douridas as " Willy " , and a special appearance by country music star Mickey Gilley as himself . As with the previous presentation , this episode 's direction was credited to Alan Smithee .
With little notice or promotion , advance critical reaction was scant . One reviewer noted that star Charles Taylor " has the bod for " an adventure hero while another opined that he thought " Knight Rider or The A @-@ Team or Jonathan of Highway to Heaven took care of these baddies on their series " . The debut episode placed 51st for the week , just behind a rerun of Airwolf , with 7 @.@ 3 ratings points in the Nielsen ratings . The following week , the timeslot was filled by the special Motown Returns to the Apollo hosted by Bill Cosby .
The original two @-@ hour Code of Vengeance television movie was split into two one @-@ hour segments and repeated in two parts as episodes of Dalton 's Code of Vengeance . Part one aired on August 10 , 1986 , and part two aired on August 17 , 1986 . The first part placed 48th for the week , rated just behind a rerun of The A @-@ Team . The second part also placed 48th for the week with 8 @.@ 1 ratings points and was seen in an estimated 7 million homes , just one @-@ fifth of the 35 million that tuned in for this film 's 1985 debut .
The final airing of Dalton 's Code of Vengeance was the final previously @-@ unaired hour , an episode titled " The Last Hold Out " , which aired on August 24 , 1986 . Dalton arrives in New Orleans and finds himself the only hope for produce wholesaler Ray Bechet ( played by Wandy Ward ) and his wife Rose Bechet ( Maureen Kedes ) being pressured to sell their property by powerful real estate developer Johnson Lee ( Jeff Jensen ) . Prominent guest roles included Barry Settels as " Fante " . This final episode placed 43rd for the week with 10 @.@ 0 ratings points and a 19 ratings share . This rating was good enough to tie pre @-@ season National Football League games on both CBS and ABC but not enough to make NBC consider reviving the Dalton character yet again .
= = Video release = =
The double @-@ length second @-@ season Knight Rider episode " Mouth of the Snake " , the All That Glitters backdoor pilot , was released on DVD in April 2005 by Universal Home Video as part of the Knight Rider : Season Two set . This episode had been previously released on VHS by Columbia House Home Video . As of March 2010 , no plans have been announced to release Code of Vengeance in any format on DVD or Blu @-@ ray .
= = In other media = =
The novel Knight Rider : The 24 @-@ Carat Assassin , published in September 1984 by Target Books and credited to Glen A. Larson & Roger Hill , was an adaptation of the " Mouth of the Snake " episode . The back cover of the book names the adapted episode as " All That Glitters " , the working title for the episode and the name of the proposed series that would have featured the David Dalton character . As in the episode , Dalton and St. John are the principal characters with Michael Knight and KITT making only token appearances . Of the five official English language Knight Rider tie @-@ in novels , The 24 @-@ Carat Assassin was one of two released in the United Kingdom that was never released in the United States . The novel was translated into German by Carla Blesgen and published by Bertelsmann in Germany in 1988 as Ein Hochkarätiger Killer .
= Betty Shabazz =
Betty Shabazz ( May 28 , 1934 – June 23 , 1997 ) , born Betty Dean Sanders and also known as Betty X , was an American educator and civil rights advocate . She was the wife of Malcolm X.
Shabazz grew up in Detroit , Michigan , where her foster parents largely sheltered her from racism . She attended the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama , where she had her first encounters with racism . Unhappy with the situation in Alabama , she moved to New York City , where she became a nurse . It was in New York that she met Malcolm X and , in 1956 , joined the Nation of Islam . The couple married in 1958 .
Along with her husband , Shabazz left the Nation of Islam in 1964 . She witnessed his assassination the following year . Left with the responsibility of raising six daughters as a single mother , Shabazz pursued a higher education , and went to work at Medgar Evers College in Brooklyn , New York .
Following the arrest of her daughter Qubilah for allegedly conspiring to murder Louis Farrakhan , Shabazz took in her young grandson Malcolm . He set a fire in her apartment that caused severe burns to Shabazz . Shabazz died three weeks later as a result of her injuries .
= = Early years = =
Betty Dean Sanders was born on May 28 , 1934 , to Ollie Mae Sanders and Shelman Sandlin . Sandlin was 21 years old and Ollie Mae Sanders was a teenager ; the couple was unmarried . Throughout her life , Betty Sanders maintained that she had been born in Detroit , Michigan , but early records — such as her high @-@ school and college transcripts — show Pinehurst , Georgia , as her place of birth . Authorities in Georgia and Michigan have not been able to locate her birth certificate .
By most accounts , Ollie Mae Sanders abused Betty Sanders , whom she was raising in Detroit . When Betty was about 11 years old , she was taken in by Lorenzo and Helen Malloy , a prominent businessman and his wife . Helen Malloy was a founding member of the Housewives League of Detroit , a group of African @-@ American women who organized campaigns to support black @-@ owned businesses and boycott stores that refused to hire black employees . She was also a member of the National Council of Negro Women and the NAACP . The Malloys were both active members of their local Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church .
Despite their lessons on black self @-@ reliance , the Malloys never spoke with Sanders about racism . Looking back in 1995 , Shabazz wrote : " Race relations were not discussed and it was hoped that by denying the existence of race problems , the problems would go away . Anyone who openly discussed race relations was quickly viewed as a ' troublemaker . ' " Still , two race riots during her childhood — in 1942 when the Sojourner Truth housing project was desegregated , and one the following year on Belle Isle — made up what Shabazz later called the " psychological background for my formative years " .
= = Young adult years = =
After she graduated from high school , Sanders left her foster parents ' home in Detroit to study at the Tuskegee Institute ( now Tuskegee University ) , a historically black college in Alabama that was Lorenzo Malloy 's alma mater . She intended to earn a degree in education and become a teacher . When she left Detroit to go to Alabama , her foster mother stood at the train station crying . Shabazz later recalled that Malloy was trying to mumble something , but the words would not come out . By the time she arrived in Alabama , she felt she knew what her stepmother was saying . " The minute I got off that train , I knew what she was trying to say . She was trying to tell me in ten words or less about racism . "
Nothing had prepared Sanders for Southern racism . So long as she stayed on campus , she could avoid interacting with white people , but weekend trips into Montgomery , the nearest city , would try her patience . Black students had to wait until every white person in a store had been helped before the staff would serve them — if they received any service at all . When she complained to the Malloys , they refused to discuss the issue ; in a 1989 interview , Shabazz summarized their attitude as " if you 're just quiet it will go away . "
Sanders ' studies suffered as a result of her growing frustration . She decided to change her field of study from education to nursing . The dean of nursing , Lillian Harvey , encouraged Sanders to consider studying in a Tuskegee @-@ affiliated program at the Brooklyn State College School of Nursing in New York City . Against her foster parents ' wishes , Sanders left Alabama for New York in 1953 .
In New York , Sanders encountered a different form of racism . At Montefiore Hospital , where she performed her clinical training , black nurses were given worse assignments than white nurses . White patients sometimes were abusive toward black nurses . While the racial climate in New York was better than the situation in Alabama , Sanders frequently wondered whether she had merely exchanged Jim Crow racism for a more genteel prejudice .
= = = Nation of Islam = = =
During her second year of nursing school , Sanders was invited by an older nurse 's aide to a Friday @-@ night dinner party at the Nation of Islam temple in Harlem . " The food was delicious , " Shabazz recalled in 1992 , " I 'd never tasted food like that . " After dinner , the woman asked Sanders to come to the Muslims ' lecture . Sanders agreed . After the speech , the nurse 's aide invited Sanders to join the Nation of Islam ; Sanders politely declined . When the woman asked her why she chose not to join the Nation of Islam after visiting , Sanders replied that she did not know she had been brought there to join . " Besides , my mother would kill me , and additionally I don ’ t even understand the philosophy . " The Malloys were Methodists , and when she was 13 , Sanders had decided she would remain a Methodist for the rest of her life .
The nurse 's aide told Sanders about her minister , who was not at the temple that night : " Just wait until you hear my minister talk . He 's very disciplined , he 's good @-@ looking , and all the sisters want him . " Sanders enjoyed the food so much , she agreed to come back and meet the woman 's minister . At the second dinner , the nurse 's aide told her the minister was present and Sanders thought to herself , " Big deal . " In 1992 she recalled how her demeanor changed when she caught a glimpse of Malcolm X :
Then , I looked over and saw this man on the extreme right aisle sort of galloping to the podium . He was tall , he was thin , and the way he was galloping it looked as though he was going someplace much more important than the podium . ... He got to the podium — and I sat up straight . I was impressed with him .
Sanders met Malcolm X again at a dinner party . The two had a long conversation about Sanders 's life : her childhood in Detroit , the racial hostility she had encountered in Alabama , and her studies in New York . He spoke to her about the condition of African Americans and the causes of racism . Sanders began to see things from a different perspective . " I really had a lot of pent @-@ up anxiety about my experience in the South , " Shabazz recalled in a 1990 interview , " and Malcolm reassured me that it was understandable how I felt . "
Soon Sanders was attending all of Malcolm X 's lectures at Temple Number Seven in Harlem . He always sought her out afterwards , and he would ask her a lot of questions . Sanders was impressed with Malcolm X 's leadership and work ethic . She felt he was selfless when it came to helping others , but he had no one to lean on when he needed help . She thought maybe she could be that person . He also began to pressure her to join the Nation of Islam . In mid 1956 , Sanders converted . Like many members of the Nation of Islam , she changed her surname to " X " , which represented the family name of her African ancestors that she could never know .
= = Marriage and family = =
Betty X and Malcolm X did not have a conventional courtship . One @-@ on @-@ one dates were contrary to the teachings of the Nation of Islam . Instead , the couple shared their " dates " with dozens , or even hundreds of other members . Malcolm X frequently took groups to visit New York 's museums and libraries , and he always invited Betty X.
Although they had never discussed the subject , Betty X suspected that Malcolm X was interested in marriage . One day he called and asked her to marry him , and they were married on January 14 , 1958 , in Lansing , Michigan . By coincidence , Betty X became a licensed nurse on the same day .
At first , their relationship followed the Nation of Islam 's strictures concerning marriage ; Malcolm X set the rules and Betty X obediently followed them . In 1969 , Shabazz wrote that " his indoctrination was so thorough , even to me , that it has become a pattern for our [ family 's ] lives . " Over time , the family dynamic changed , as Malcolm X made small concessions to Betty X 's demands for more independence . In 1969 , Shabazz recalled :
We would have little family talks . They began at first with Malcolm telling me what he expected of a wife . But the first time I told him what I expected of him as a husband it came as a shock . After dinner one night he said , " Boy , Betty , something you said hit me like a ton of bricks . Here I 've been going along having our little workshops with me doing all the talking and you doing all the listening . " He concluded our marriage should be a mutual exchange .
The couple had six daughters . Their names were Attallah , born in 1958 and named after Attila the Hun ; Qubilah , born in 1960 and named after Kublai Khan ; Ilyasah , born in 1962 and named after Elijah Muhammad ; Gamilah Lumumba , born in 1964 and named after Patrice Lumumba ; and twins , Malikah and Malaak , born in 1965 after their father 's assassination and named for him .
= = = Leaving the Nation of Islam = = =
On March 8 , 1964 , Malcolm X announced that he was leaving the Nation of Islam . He and Betty X , now known as Betty Shabazz , became Sunni Muslims .
= = = Assassination of Malcolm X = = =
On February 21 , 1965 , in Manhattan 's Audubon Ballroom , Malcolm X began to speak to a meeting of the Organization of Afro @-@ American Unity when a disturbance broke out in the crowd of 400 . As Malcolm X and his bodyguards moved to quiet the disturbance , a man rushed forward and shot Malcolm in the chest with a sawed @-@ off shotgun . Two other men charged the stage and fired handguns , hitting him 16 times .
Shabazz was in the audience near the stage with her daughters . When she heard the gunfire , she grabbed the children and pushed them to the floor beneath the bench , where she shielded them with her body . When the shooting stopped , Shabazz ran toward her husband and tried to perform CPR . Police officers and Malcolm X 's associates carried him to a stretcher , and brought him to Columbia Presbyterian Hospital , where he was pronounced dead .
Angry onlookers caught and beat one of the assassins , who was arrested on the scene . Eyewitnesses identified two more suspects . All three men , who were members of the Nation of Islam , were convicted and sentenced to life in prison .
= = After Malcolm 's assassination = =
= = = Immediately afterward = = =
Shabazz had difficulty sleeping for weeks after Malcolm X 's assassination . She suffered from nightmares in which she relived the death of her husband . She also worried about how she would support herself and her family . The publication of The Autobiography of Malcolm X helped , because Shabazz received half of the royalties . ( Alex Haley , who assisted Malcolm X in writing the book , got the other half . After the publication of his best @-@ seller Roots , Haley signed over his portion of the royalties to Shabazz . )
Actor and activist Ruby Dee and Juanita Poitier ( wife of Sidney Poitier ) established the Committee of Concerned Mothers , to raise funds to buy a house , and pay educational expenses for the Shabazz family . The Committee held a series of benefit concerts at which they raised $ 17 @,@ 000 . They bought a large two @-@ family home in Mount Vernon , New York , from Congressmember Bella Abzug .
Looking back , Shabazz said she initially made an " unrealistic decision " to isolate herself because of the injustice of her husband 's assassination . She realized , however , that giving up because of her husband ’ s death would not help the world . " It is impossible to create an environment for children to grow in and develop in isolation . It is imperative that one mix in society on some level and at some time . "
= = = Pilgrimage to Mecca = = =
In late March 1965 , Shabazz made the pilgrimage to Mecca ( Hajj ) , as her husband had the year before . Recalling the experience in 1992 , Shabazz wrote :
I really don 't know where I 'd be today if I had not gone to Mecca to make Hajj shortly after Malcolm was assassinated . ... That is what helped put me back on track . ... Going to Mecca , making Hajj , was very good for me because it made me think of all the people in the world who loved me and were for me , who prayed that I would get my life back together . I stopped focusing on the people who were trying to tear me and my family apart .
Shabazz returned from Mecca with a new name that a fellow pilgrim had bestowed upon her , Bahiyah ( meaning " beautiful and radiant " ) .
= = = Raising her family = = =
Raising six children by herself exhausted Shabazz . Providing for them was difficult as well . Shabazz 's share of the royalties from The Autobiography of Malcolm X was equivalent to an annual salary . In 1966 , she sold the movie rights to the Autobiography to film @-@ maker Marvin Worth . She began to authorize the publication of Malcolm X 's speeches , which provided another source of income .
When her daughters were enrolled in day care , Shabazz became an active member of the day care center 's parents organization . In time , she became the parents ' representative on the school board . Several years later , she became president of the Westchester Day Care Council .
Shabazz began to accept speaking engagements at colleges and universities . She often spoke about the black nationalist philosophy of Malcolm X , but she also spoke about her role as a wife and mother . Shabazz felt that some of the images of her husband projected by the media were misrepresentations . " They attempted to promote him as a violent person , a hater of whites , " she explained . " He was a sensitive man , a very understanding person and yes , he disliked the behavior of some whites .... He had a reality @-@ based agenda . "
As her daughters grew older , Shabazz sent them to private schools and summer camps . They joined Jack and Jill , a social club for the children of well @-@ off African Americans .
= = = Advanced education = = =
In late 1969 , Shabazz enrolled at Jersey City State College ( now New Jersey City University ) to complete the degree in education she left behind when she became a nurse . She completed her undergraduate studies in one year , and decided to earn a master 's degree in health administration . In 1972 , Shabazz enrolled at the University of Massachusetts Amherst to pursue an Ed.D. in higher education administration and curriculum development . For the next three years , she drove from Mount Vernon to Amherst , Massachusetts , every Monday morning , and returned home Wednesday night . In July 1975 , she defended her dissertation and earned her doctorate .
Shabazz joined Delta Sigma Theta in April 1974 .
= = = Medgar Evers College = = =
In January 1976 , Shabazz became associate professor of health sciences with a concentration in nursing at New York 's Medgar Evers College . The student body at Medgar Evers was 90 percent black and predominantly working @-@ class , with an average age of 26 . Black women made up most of the faculty , and 75 percent of the students were female , two @-@ thirds of them mothers . These were all qualities that made Medgar Evers College attractive to Shabazz .
By 1980 , Shabazz was overseeing the health sciences department , and the college president decided she could be more effective in a purely administrative position than she was in the classroom . She was promoted to Director of Institutional Advancement . In her new position , she became a booster and fund @-@ raiser for the college . A year later , she was given tenure . In 1984 , Shabazz was given a new title , Director of Institutional Advancement and Public Affairs ; she held that position at the college until her death .
= = = Volunteerism = = =
During the 1970s and 1980s , Shabazz continued her volunteer activities . In 1975 , President Ford invited her to serve on the American Revolution Bicentennial Council . Shabazz served on an advisory committee on family planning for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . In 1984 , she hosted the New York convention of the National Council of Negro Women . Shabazz became active in the NAACP and the National Urban League . When Nelson and Winnie Mandela visited Harlem during 1990 , Shabazz was asked to introduce Winnie Mandela .
Shabazz befriended Myrlie Evers @-@ Williams , the widow of Medgar Evers , and Coretta Scott King , the widow of Martin Luther King , Jr . They had the common experience of losing their activist husbands at a young age and raising their children as single mothers . The press came to refer to the three , who made numerous joint public appearances , as the " Movement widows " . Evers @-@ Williams and King were frequent guests at Medgar Evers College , and Shabazz occasionally visited the King Center in Atlanta . Writing about Shabazz , Evers @-@ Williams described her as a " free spirit , in the best sense of the word . When she laughed , she had this beauty ; when she smiled , it lit up the whole room . "
= = Louis Farrakhan = =
For many years , Shabazz harbored resentment toward the Nation of Islam — and Louis Farrakhan in particular — for what she felt was their role in the assassination of her husband . Farrakhan seemed to boast of the assassination in a 1993 speech :
Was Malcolm your traitor or ours ? And if we dealt with him like a nation deals with a traitor , what the hell business is it of yours ? A nation has to be able to deal with traitors and cutthroats and turncoats .
In a 1994 interview , Gabe Pressman asked Shabazz whether Farrakhan " had anything to do " with Malcolm X 's death . She replied : " Of course , yes . Nobody kept it a secret . It was a badge of honor . Everybody talked about it , yes . " Farrakhan denied the allegations , stating " I never had anything to do with Malcolm 's death " , although he said he had " created an atmosphere that allowed Malcolm to be assassinated . "
In January 1995 , Qubilah Shabazz was charged with trying to hire an assassin to kill Farrakhan in retaliation for the murder of her father . Farrakhan surprised the Shabazz family when he defended Qubilah , saying he did not think she was guilty and that he hoped she would not be convicted . That May , Betty Shabazz and Farrakhan shook hands on the stage of the Apollo Theater during a public event intended to raise money for Qubilah 's legal defense . Some heralded the evening as a reconciliation between the two , but others thought Shabazz was doing whatever she had to in order to protect her daughter . Regardless , nearly $ 250 @,@ 000 was raised that evening . In the aftermath , Shabazz maintained a cool relationship with Farrakhan , although she agreed to speak at his Million Man March that October .
Qubilah accepted a plea agreement with respect to the charges , in which she maintained her innocence but accepted responsibility for her actions . Under the terms of the agreement , she was required to undergo psychological counseling and treatment for drug and alcohol abuse for a two @-@ year period in order to avoid a prison sentence . For the duration of her treatment , Qubilah 's ten @-@ year @-@ old son , Malcolm , was sent to live with Shabazz at her apartment in Yonkers , New York .
= = Death = =
On June 1 , 1997 , young grandson Malcolm set a fire in Shabazz 's apartment . Shabazz suffered burns over 80 percent of her body , and remained in intensive care for three weeks , at Jacobi Medical Center in the Bronx , New York . She underwent five skin @-@ replacement operations as doctors struggled to replace damaged skin and save her life . Shabazz died of her injuries on June 23 , 1997 . Malcolm Shabazz was sentenced to 18 months in juvenile detention for manslaughter and arson .
More than 2 @,@ 000 mourners attended a memorial service for Shabazz , at New York 's Riverside Church . Many prominent leaders were present , including Coretta Scott King and Myrlie Evers @-@ Williams , poet Maya Angelou , actor @-@ activists Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee , New York Governor George Pataki , and four New York City mayors — Abraham Beame , Ed Koch , David Dinkins , and Rudy Giuliani . U.S. Secretary of Labor Alexis Herman delivered a tribute from President Bill Clinton . In a statement released after Shabazz 's death , civil rights leader Jesse Jackson said , " She never stopped giving and she never became cynical . She leaves today the legacy of one who epitomized hope and healing . "
Shabazz 's funeral service was held at the Islamic Cultural Center in New York City . Her public viewing was at the Unity Funeral Home in Harlem , the same place where Malcolm X 's viewing had taken place 32 years earlier . Shabazz was buried next to her husband , El @-@ Hajj Malik El @-@ Shabazz ( Malcolm X ) , at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale , New York .
= = = Memorials = = =
In late 1997 , the Community Healthcare Network renamed one of its Brooklyn , New York , clinics the Dr. Betty Shabazz Health Center , in honor of Shabazz . The Betty Shabazz International Charter School was founded in Chicago , Illinois , in 1998 and named in her honor . In 2005 , Columbia University announced the opening of the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center . The memorial is located in the Audubon Ballroom , where Malcolm X was assassinated . In March 2012 , New York City co @-@ named Broadway at the corner of West 165th Street , the corner in front of the Audubon Ballroom , Betty Shabazz Way .
= = Portrayals in film = =
Shabazz was the subject of the 2013 television movie Betty and Coretta , in which she was played by Mary J. Blige . She was portrayed by Angela Bassett in the 1992 film Malcolm X. Bassett also played the part of Shabazz in the 1995 film Panther . Yolanda King , the daughter of Martin Luther King , Jr . , and Coretta Scott King , played Shabazz in the 1981 television movie Death of a Prophet , and Shabazz was portrayed by Victoria Dillard in the 2001 film Ali .
= Paul E. Patton =
Paul Edward Patton ( born May 26 , 1937 ) is an American politician . He was the 59th Governor of Kentucky , serving from 1995 to 2003 . Because of a 1992 amendment to the Kentucky Constitution , he was the first governor eligible to succeed himself in office since James Garrard in 1800 . Since 2013 , he has been the chancellor of the University of Pikeville in Pikeville , Kentucky after serving as its president from 2010 to 2013 . He also served as chairman of the Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Education from 2009 to 2011 .
After graduating from the University of Kentucky in 1959 , Patton became wealthy operating coal mines for 20 years . He sold most of his coal interests in the late 1970s and entered politics , serving briefly in the cabinet of Governor John Y. Brown , Jr. and chairing the state Democratic Party . In 1981 , he was elected judge / executive of Pike County . He made an unsuccessful bid for lieutenant governor in 1987 , but was elected in 1991 , serving concurrently as lieutenant governor and secretary of economic development under Governor Brereton Jones .
Four years later , Patton was elected Governor over Republican Larry Forgy . The major achievement of his first term was overhauling higher education , including making the state 's community colleges and technical schools independent of the University of Kentucky and organizing them into the Kentucky Community and Technical College System . Shortly after Patton turned back a weak challenge to his re @-@ election in 1999 , two Democratic state senators defected to the Republican Party , giving Republicans a majority in that legislative house for the first time ever . The economic prosperity that fueled Patton 's first term success faded into a recession in the early 2000s . Faced with a hostile legislature and a dire economic forecast , Patton was unable to enact much significant legislation in his second term , and his situation was exacerbated in 2002 when news of an extramarital affair and allegations of a sex @-@ for @-@ favors scandal broke . After initially denying the affair , Patton later admitted to it , but continued to deny using his office to benefit his mistress . Later in his term , Patton was attacked for pardoning four of his political advisers who were indicted for violating Kentucky 's campaign finance laws and for allegedly abusing his patronage powers . These successive scandals derailed any further political aspirations .
= = Early life = =
Patton was born in Fallsburg , Kentucky on May 26 , 1937 , in a retrofitted silo with no indoor plumbing , electricity , or telephone . He was the only son of the three children born to Ward and Irene | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Oscar , who moves in with Lucille in an attempt to rekindle a past love affair . Uncle Oscar slowly reveals himself as Buster 's presumptive biological father . Eventually , George Sr. takes revenge on the adulterous Oscar and Lucille by kidnapping Oscar , knocking him unconscious , exchanging appearances with him , and sending him to prison in his place .
Lindsay and Tobias continue their disastrous open relationship . Lindsay tries — but fails — to secure a lover , while Tobias paints himself blue each night in a futile attempt to join the Blue Man Group . When Lindsay kicks him out of the house , Tobias disguises himself as a singing British nanny named " Mrs. Featherbottom " ( an idea he gets from the film Mrs. Doubtfire ) so he can watch over his daughter Maeby . The family sees right through this incompetent disguise , but they humor Tobias since — in the guise of Mrs. Featherbottom — he does their chores .
George Michael begins dating a deeply religious girl , Ann Veal , who encourages him to smash pop music CDs and to run for student body president against perennial favorite Steve Holt . Michael dislikes her and tries to disrupt the kids ' relationship , most notably by breaking up Ann and George Michael 's pre @-@ engagement . Meanwhile , Maeby cons her way into an after school job as a film studio executive . When Maeby 's studio remakes " Les Cousins Dangereux " , George Michael abandons Ann to pursue his crush on Maeby . George Michael and Maeby kiss while the living room of the model home collapses .
= = = Season three ( 2005 – 06 ) = = =
Michael again searches for his runaway father , George Sr. Gob receives an invitation to a father / son reunion outing , and believes it to be George Sr. trying to contact him . In reality , the invitation was meant to reunite Gob with Steve Holt , son of Eve Holt , a girl Gob slept with in high school . Meanwhile , George Michael and Maeby deal with their previous kiss by avoiding each other .
In an attempt to remain in disguise , George Sr. joins the Blue Man Group . Michael discovers this and arranges to have his father placed under house arrest . George Sr. claims that he was set up by an underground British group . Michael goes to Wee Britain , a fictional British @-@ themed city district , to investigate , and in the process meets a new love interest , Rita Leeds ( Charlize Theron ) . Michael and the audience are led to believe that Rita is a mole for the underground British group , working for a man named " Mr. F " . However , love @-@ struck Michael proposes to her , and the couple run off to wed . Finally , it is revealed that Rita is actually an " MRF " , or " mentally retarded female " . Despite Rita 's " condition " , the family pushes him to go forward with the marriage because Rita is wealthy and they want her money . Michael is not persuaded and gently ends the relationship just as he and Rita are about to walk down the aisle . Meanwhile , Tobias and Lindsay seek legal help from Bob Loblaw ( Scott Baio ) concerning their troubled marriage .
With the family 's retainer used up because of Lindsay 's and Tobias 's advances , Bob Loblaw chooses to no longer represent the Bluth family . Attorney Jan Eagleman offers to represent the family , on the condition that they participate in a mock trial in a new reality courtroom show called " Mock Trial with J. Reinhold " . Musical accompaniment for the show 's theme song and perceived jokes from testifying witnesses is provided by " William Hung And His Hung Jury " . Michael uses an illegal threat from prosecutor Wayne Jarvis to have the mock case " dismissed " . Gob and Franklin briefly appear in another courtroom show presided over by Bud Cort . Meanwhile , Maeby and George Michael perform a mock wedding for Alzheimer 's patients that is accidentally conducted by a real priest ; the two become legally married .
The family members are afraid to testify at the mock trial and at the real deposition ; Buster fakes a coma , Lindsay and Lucille fake entering rehab , and Gob flees the country to perform in a USO Tour in Iraq . The deceptions are all uncovered by the prosecution , and in Iraq Gob is arrested for inadvertently inciting an anti @-@ US riot . Buster and Michael travel to Iraq to rescue Gob , and while there , uncover evidence that the mini @-@ palaces George Sr. built in Iraq were actually ordered and paid for by the CIA for wiretapping purposes . After this discovery , the US government drops all of the charges against George Sr. In the general confusion , everyone except George Michael forgets Maeby 's sixteenth birthday .
To celebrate their victory in Iraq , the Bluths throw a shareholders ' party on the RMS Queen Mary . During preparation for the party , it is revealed that Lindsay was adopted , meaning that George Michael and Maeby are not blood relatives . At the party , the Bluth 's other adopted child , Annyong , reappears . He reveals that he is there to avenge the Bluth family 's theft of his grandfather 's frozen banana idea and the cause of his subsequent deportation , an event orchestrated many years earlier by Lucille Bluth . Annyong has turned over evidence implicating Lucille in the Bluth Company 's accounting scandals . Before the police arrive , Michael and George Michael flee on Gob 's yacht , the C @-@ Word , and depart to Cabo with half a million dollars in cashier 's checks , finally leaving the family to fend for themselves . However , it is revealed in the epilogue that George Sr. is also on the yacht , having lured his brother Oscar into taking his place once again . Also in the epilogue , Maeby tries to sell the television rights to the story of the Bluth family to Ron Howard , who tells her that he sees it as a movie rather than a series .
= = = Season four ( 2013 ) = = =
Filming for a revived fourth season began on August 7 , 2012 , seven years after the series had been canceled by Fox . The season consists of 15 new episodes , all debuting at the same time on Netflix on May 26 , 2013 in the United States , Canada , the United Kingdom , Ireland , Latin America , and the Nordic countries . Several actors who had recurring roles in the original series returned to reprise their roles , including Carl Weathers as himself , Henry Winkler as Barry Zuckerkorn , Ben Stiller as Tony Wonder , Mae Whitman as Ann Veal , Scott Baio as Bob Loblaw , Judy Greer as Kitty Sanchez , and Liza Minnelli as Lucille Austero ; while new characters are played by Debra Mooney , John Slattery , Tommy Tune , Terry Crews , Isla Fisher and John Krasinski . Kristen Wiig and Seth Rogen appear as Lucille and George Sr. , respectively , in flashbacks .
Each episode of the season occurs over approximately the same stretch of time , but focuses on a different character . Information on events depicted in a given episode is often partial and filled in a later episode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Television ratings = = =
The show , while critically acclaimed , did not gain a sizable audience . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the show 's first season was the 120th most popular show among households and the 88th among viewers aged 18 to 49 , averaging 6 @.@ 2 million viewers .
U.S. ratings in the second season averaged about six million viewers , while the third season averaged about four million viewers . Fox announced that it would halt the production of the second season at eighteen episodes — four episodes short of the planned season .
For the third season , Fox positioned the show on Mondays at 8 : 00 p.m. ET . Ratings dropped further than previous seasons . On November 9 , 2005 , Fox announced that the show would not be airing in November sweeps , and that they had cut the episode order for the third season from 22 to 13 . Fox ended up showing the last four episodes in a two @-@ hour timeslot — directly opposite the opening ceremonies of the 2006 Winter Olympics . The series finale episode received 3 @.@ 43 million viewers .
= = = Critical response = = =
Throughout its original run , Arrested Development received overwhelming critical acclaim . It is widely regarded as one of the defining comedies of the 2000s and has been praised by many critics as one of the greatest comedies of all time . In 2007 , the show was listed as one of Time magazine 's " 100 Best TV Shows of All @-@ TIME " .
Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly praised the series , saying " Is it beating a dead horse to once again state that this underappreciated gem is the best sitcom on TV ? Too bad . Arrested Development is the best sitcom on TV ! "
David Bianculli from the New York Daily News stated " If you 're not watching this series on Fox , the least you can do is buy it on DVD . You 'll love it , and it 's such a dense show ( in the best sense of the word ) that it rewards repeated viewing . Like Scrubs and the British version of The Office , it is the sort of show that truly deserves to be seen uninterrupted , several episodes at a time , for maximum enjoyment . The laughs @-@ per @-@ minute quotient here is insanely high , making it great value as a home library purchase . "
Alison Powell of The Guardian said " As Hollywood agents worry about the demise of the town 's lowing cash cow , the multi @-@ camera , staged sitcom , here to save the day is Arrested Development , a farce of such blazing wit and originality , that it must surely usher in a new era in comedy . "
Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly named Arrested Development the best television show of 2005 and said in her review that " As oddball as Arrested is , it 's also humane . A flawless cast — from Will Arnett 's breathy , bombastic Gob to Jessica Walter 's boozy Lucille — grounds it , aided by Ron Howard 's affable narration . Of course , the center of sensibility is good son Michael ( Jason Bateman ) and his even better son , George Michael ( Michael Cera ) . Bateman and Cera give the best reacts around — the former all weary exasperation , the latter adorably bunny @-@ stunned . Together , they 're the sweetest , awkwardest straight men on the smartest , most shockingly funny series on TV ... which is likely canceled , despite six Emmy wins . It 's a perversion not even the Bluths deserve . " In 2012 , Entertainment Weekly listed the show at No. 2 in the " 25 Best Cult TV Shows from the Past 25 Years " , praising its " fast , delirious , interlocking jokes that don 't pander to the masses ; winky gags ( e.g. fake preview scenes for the following week 's episode ) ; and a cast of absurd characters " .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2004 , the first season received seven Emmy Award nominations with five wins . It won for Outstanding Comedy Series , Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series , Outstanding Casting for a Comedy Series , Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series and Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , for the pilot episode written by Mitchell Hurwitz and directed by brothers Anthony and Joe Russo . Jeffrey Tambor was nominated that year for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series .
In 2005 , the second season received eleven Emmy nominations in seven categories with one win . Notable nominations included Outstanding Comedy Series , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series ( Jason Bateman ) , Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series ( Jeffrey Tambor ) , Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series ( Jessica Walter ) as well as three nominations for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , in which it won for " Righteous Brothers " , written by Mitchell Hurwitz and Jim Vallely .
In 2006 , the third season received four Emmy nominations , for Outstanding Comedy Series , Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series ( Will Arnett ) , Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series and Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for the series finale " Development Arrested " .
In 2013 , the fourth season received three Emmy nominations , for Outstanding Actor in a Comedy Series ( Jason Bateman ) , Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Original Dramatic Score ) and Outstanding Single @-@ camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series .
Other awards include :
The 2004 TV Land Award for " Future Classic " , the first recognition the series received . The award presentation is included on the season one DVD release .
The 2004 Television Critics Association Awards for Outstanding Comedy and Outstanding New Program , and the 2005 award for Outstanding Achievement in Comedy .
The 2005 Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy for Jason Bateman .
The 2004 Writers Guild of America Award for Episodic Comedy , for the episode " Pier Pressure " , written by Mitchell Hurwitz and Jim Vallely .
The 2004 Satellite Award for Best Television Series – Comedy or Musical , along with Jeffrey Tambor and Jessica Walter for Best Performance by an Actor and Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series – Comedy or Musical . In 2005 , Jason Bateman and Portia de Rossi won for Best Actor and Actress in a Series – Comedy or Musical . Jason Bateman also won the same award the following ceremony .
The 2005 Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series ( Comedy or Drama ) – Supporting Young Actress for Alia Shawkat .
= San Sebastian Church ( Manila ) =
The Basílica Menor de San Sebastián , better known as San Sebastian Church , is a Roman Catholic minor basilica in Manila , Philippines and the seat of the Parish of San Sebastian .
Completed in 1891 , San Sebastian Church is noted for its architectural features. an example of the revival of Gothic architecture in the Philippines , it is the only all @-@ steel temple in the Philippines , and is the only prefabricated steel church in the world . In 2006 , San Sebastian Church was included in the Tentative List for possible designation as a World Heritage Site . It was designated as a National Historical Landmark by the Philippine government in 1973 .
San Sebastian Church is under the care of The Order of the Augustinian Recollects , who also operate a college adjacent to the basilica . It is located at Plaza del Carmen , at the eastern end of Recto Avenue , in Quiapo , Manila .
= = History = =
In 1621 , Bernardino Castillo , a generous patron and a devotee of the 3rd @-@ century Roman martyr Saint Sebastian , donated the land upon which the church stands . The original structure , made of wood , burned in 1651 during a Chinese uprising . Succeeding structures , which were built of brick , were destroyed by fire and earthquakes in 1859 , 1863 , and 1880 .
In the 1880s , Esteban Martínez , the parish priest of the ruined church , approached the Spanish architect Genaro Palacios , with a plan to build a fire and earthquake @-@ resistant structure made entirely of steel . Palacios completed a design that fused Earthquake Baroque with the Neo @-@ Gothic style . His final design was said to have been inspired by the famed Gothic Burgos Cathedral in Burgos , Spain .
= = = Construction = = =
The prefabricated steel sections that would compose the church were manufactured in Binche , Belgium . According to the historian Ambeth Ocampo , the knockdown steel parts were ordered from the Societe anonyme des Enterprises de Travaux Publiques in Brussels . In all , 52 tonnes ( 51 long tons ; 57 short tons ) of prefabricated steel sections were transported in eight separate shipments from Belgium to the Philippines , the first shipment arriving in 1888 . Belgian engineers supervised the assembly of the church , the first column of which was erected on September 11 , 1890 . The walls were filled with mixed sand , gravel , and cement . The stained glass windows were imported from the Heinrich Oidtmann Company , a German stained glass firm , while local artisans assisted in applying the finishing touches .
The church was raised to the status of a minor basilica by Pope Leo XIII on June 24 , 1890 . Upon its completion the following year , on August 16 , 1891 , the Basílica Menor de San Sebastián was consecrated by Bernardino Nozaleda y Villa OP , the 25th Archbishop of Manila .
According to Jesús Pastor Paloma , an Agustinian Recollect priest , the structure was also supposed to have a prefabricated retablo ( reredos ) altar , which was lost at sea when the ship carrying it from Belgium capsized in a storm ; a wooden altar was made locally in its stead . Paloma also noted that the bottom part of the church was designed to resemble a ship 's hull , so that it would sway during an earthquake .
= = = Gustave Eiffel = = =
It has long been reputed that Gustave Eiffel , the French engineer behind the Eiffel Tower and the steel structure within the Statue of Liberty , was involved in the design and construction of San Sebastián , but this was never confirmed .
= = Features = =
San Sebastian Church has two openwork towers and steel vaulting . From its floor , the basilica 's nave rises 12 meters ( 39 ft ) to the dome , and 32 meters ( 105 ft ) to the tip of the twin spires .
The faux finished interior of the church incorporates groined vaults in the Gothic architecture style permitting very ample illumination from lateral windows . The steel columns , walls and ceiling were painted by Lorenzo Rocha , Isabelo Tampingco and Félix Martínez to give the appearance of marble and jasper . Trompe l 'oeil paintings of saints and martyrs by Rocha were used to decorate the interiors of the church . True to the Gothic revival spirit of the church are its confessionals , pulpit , altars and five retablos designed by Lorenzo Guerrero and Rocha . The sculptor Eusebio Garcia carved the statues of holy men and women . Six holy water fonts were constructed for the church , each crafted from marble obtained from Romblon .
Above the main altar is an image of Our Lady of Mount Carmel , given to the church by Carmelite sisters from Mexico City in 1617 . The image withstood all the earthquakes and fires which had destroyed previous incarnations of San Sebastian Church , but its ivory head was stolen in 1975 .
= = Cultural and historical declarations = =
San Sebastian Church was a declared National Historical Landmark by President Ferdinand Marcos through Presidential Decree No. 260 in 1973 . State funding was accorded to the church through the National Historical Institute which undertook restoration in 1982 . The Recollect community has likewise expended funds for the church 's maintenance and restoration .
On May 16 , 2006 , San Sebastian Church was included in the Tentative List for possible designation as a World Heritage Site , on account of its architectural and historical heritage .
The church was declared a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines on August 15 , 2011 and unveiling of the marker on January 20 , 2012 .
= = Preservation = =
In recent years , San Sebastian Church has encountered threats to its structural integrity . The steel structure has been beset by rust and corrosion due to sea breezes from nearby Manila Bay . In 1998 , it was placed on the biennial watchlist of the 100 Most Endangered Sites by the World Monuments Fund , though it was not retained in the subsequent watchlists .
= Waterfalls in Ricketts Glen State Park =
There are 24 named waterfalls in Ricketts Glen State Park in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania along Kitchen Creek as it flows in three steep , narrow valleys , or glens . They range in height from 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) to the 94 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) Ganoga Falls . Ricketts Glen State Park is named for R. Bruce Ricketts , a colonel in the American Civil War who owned over 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 ha ) in the area in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , but spared the old @-@ growth forests in the glens from clearcutting . The park , which opened in 1944 , is administered by the Bureau of State Parks of the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) . Nearly all of the waterfalls are visible from the Falls Trail , which Ricketts had built from 1889 to 1893 and which the state park rebuilt in the 1940s and late 1990s . The Falls Trail has been called " the most magnificent hike in the state " and one of " the top hikes in the East " .
The waterfalls are on the section of Kitchen Creek that flows down the Allegheny Front , a steep escarpment between the Allegheny Plateau to the north and the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians to the south . The glens are made of sedimentary rocks from the Huntley Mountain and Catskill Formations that formed up to 370 million years ago in the Devonian and Carboniferous periods . The waterfalls are the result of increased flow in Kitchen Creek from glaciers enlarging its drainage basin during the last Ice Age .
Ricketts named 21 of the waterfalls , mostly for Native American tribes and places , and his family and friends . There are ten named falls in Ganoga Glen , eight named falls in Glen Leigh , and between four and six named waterfalls in Ricketts Glen . The DCNR names 22 falls , the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS ) names 23 falls , and Scott E. Brown 's 2004 book Pennsylvania waterfalls : a guide for hikers and photographers names 24 . The falls are described in order going upstream along the creek for each of the three glens .
= = Geology = =
The waterfalls in Ricketts Glen State Park are on the Allegheny Front , which is the boundary between the Allegheny Plateau to the north and the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians to the south . The headwaters of Kitchen Creek are on the dissected plateau , from which the stream drops approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) in 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) as it flows down the steep escarpment of the Allegheny Front . Much of this drop occurs in Glen Leigh and Ganoga Glen , two narrow valleys carved by branches of Kitchen Creek , which come together at Waters Meet . The branch in Glen Leigh has eight named waterfalls and lies north of the confluence , while the branch in Ganoga Glen has ten named waterfalls and lies to the northwest . Ricketts Glen lies south of and downstream from Waters Meet ; here the terrain becomes less steep , and there are fewer named waterfalls . The DCNR names only four in Ricketts Glen , all on Kitchen Creek ; the USGS GNIS names these and one more on the creek , and Brown 's book on Pennsylvania waterfalls adds a sixth named falls on a tributary .
The rocks exposed in the park were formed between 370 and 340 million years ago , when the land was part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now North America . The high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded , causing a build @-@ up of sediment made up primarily of clay , sand and gravel . Tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found in the park and in the Kitchen Creek drainage basin : sandstone , shale , siltstone , and conglomerates .
About 300 to 250 million years ago , the Allegheny Plateau , Allegheny Front , and Appalachian Mountains all formed in the Alleghanian orogeny . This happened long after the sedimentary rocks in the park were deposited , when the part of Gondwana that became Africa collided with what became North America , forming Pangaea . In the years since , up to 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) of rock has been eroded away by streams and weather . At least three major glaciations in the past million years have been the final factor in shaping the land that makes up the park today .
The effects of glaciation have made Kitchen Creek " unique compared to all other nearby streams that flow down the Allegheny Front " , as it is the only one with an " almost continuous series of waterfalls " . Prior to the last ice age , Kitchen Creek and Phillips Creek to the east had drainage basins of similar area and slope , and both watersheds were confined to the Allegheny Front . This changed when receding glaciers formed temporary dams on two of Kitchen Creek 's neighboring streams on the Allegheny Plateau , South Branch Bowman Creek to the northeast and Big Run , a tributary of Fishing Creek to the northwest . The headwaters of South Branch Bowman Creek were very close to those for the Glen Leigh branch of Kitchen Creek , and the headwaters for Big Run were very close to those for the Ganoga Glen branch .
As the glaciers retreated to the northeast about 20 @,@ 000 years ago , glacial lakes formed . Drainage from the melting glacier and lakes cut a sluiceway , or channel , that diverted the headwaters of South Branch Bowman Creek into the Glen Leigh branch of Kitchen Creek . The retreating glaciers also left deposits of debris 20 to 30 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 1 m ) thick , which formed a dam blocking water from draining into Big Run . Instead water from Ganoga Lake and the area that later became Lake Jean was diverted into the Ganoga Glen branch of Kitchen Creek . These diversions added about 7 square miles ( 18 km ² ) to the Kitchen Creek drainage basin , increasing it by just over 50 percent to 20 @.@ 1 square miles ( 52 km ² ) .
The result was increased water flow in Kitchen Creek , which has been cutting the falls in the glens since . The gradient or slope of Kitchen Creek was fairly stable for its flow when it had a much smaller drainage basin , as Phillips Creek still does . The increased basin size means that Kitchen Creek in the glens is too steep for its present amount of water flow . As Kitchen Creek continues to cut into the rock and erode it up the Allegheny Front , the creek 's slope will decrease and become less steep . In the future , the creek 's flow and slope are predicted to become similar to those of other nearby creeks with similar size drainage basins . This process could take so long that a new glacial period might occur before the transformation is complete .
= = = Formations and falls = = =
The park 's waterfalls expose two distinct rock formations from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods . The higher and more recent of these is the Huntley Mountain Formation , from the late Devonian and early Mississippian . This is made of layers of olive green to gray sandstone and gray to red shale . The lower and older layer is the Catskill Formation , which is composed of red shale and siltstone up to 370 million years old . The harder Huntley Mountain Formation caps the Allegheny Front and has kept it from eroding as much as the softer Catskill Formation to the south . The portions of the Allegheny Front within the park are named North Mountain and Red Rock Mountain , with the latter name coming from an exposed band of Huntley Formation red shale and sandstone visible along Pennsylvania Route 487 .
Geologists classify the falls at Ricketts Glen State Park into two types . Wedding @-@ cake falls descend in a series of small steps , forming waterfalls that are said to resemble a wedding cake . Within the park , this type of falls usually flows over thin layers of Huntley Mountain Formation sandstone . In bridal @-@ veil falls , the second type , water falls over a ledge and drops vertically into a plunge pool in the stream bed below . Within the park , this type of falls flows over Catskill Formation rocks or the red shale and sandstone of the Huntley Formation . In the park , the harder caprock which forms the ledge from which the bridal @-@ veil falls drops is grey sandstone . The softer red shale below is eroded away by water , sand and gravel to form the plunge pool .
While the official Ricketts Glen State Park web page also classifies waterfalls as either the bridal @-@ veil or wedding @-@ cake type , Brown 's Pennsylvania waterfalls : a guide for hikers and photographers uses four types for classification : falls , cascade , slide , and chute . The first , falls , is the same as the DCNR 's bridal @-@ veil type , with water that falls freely from a ledge . Brown divides the wedding @-@ cake class into three types : cascade , where water falls down a " vertical to nearly vertical " surface that has terraces ; slide , where water falls down a " near vertical to less than vertical " wide surface that is smoother than a cascade ; and chute , where the water is confined by rock as it falls down " a narrow slide or cataractlike feature " .
= = History = =
Ricketts Glen State Park is in the Susquehanna River drainage basin , the earliest recorded inhabitants of which were the Iroquoian @-@ speaking Susquehannocks . Their numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois , and by 1675 they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes . After this , the lands of the Susquehanna valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois , who encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle there , including the Shawnee and Lenape ( or Delaware ) .
On November 5 , 1768 , the British acquired land , known in Pennsylvania as the New Purchase , from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix ; this included what is now Ricketts Glen State Park . After the American Revolutionary War , Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania . Luzerne County was formed in 1786 from part of Northumberland County , and Fairmount Township , where the waterfalls are , was settled in 1792 and incorporated in 1834 . About 1890 a Native American pot , decorated in the style of " the peoples of the Susquehanna region " , was found under a rock ledge on Kitchen Creek by Murray Reynolds , for whom a waterfall is named .
The Ricketts family began acquiring land in and around what became the park in 1851 , when Elijah Ricketts and his brother Clemuel bought about 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) on North Mountain around what is now known as Ganoga Lake . By 1852 they had built a stone house on the lake shore , which they ran " as a lodge and tavern " . Elijah 's son Robert Bruce Ricketts , for whom the park is named , joined the Union Army as a private at the outbreak of the American Civil War and rose through the ranks to become a colonel . After the war , R. B. Ricketts returned to Pennsylvania and began purchasing the land around the lake from his father in 1869 ; eventually he controlled or owned more than 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 ha ) , including the glens and waterfalls .
Ricketts and the other settlers living in the area were not aware of the glens and their waterfalls until about 1865 , when they were discovered by two of the Ricketts ' guests who went fishing and wandered down Kitchen Creek . In 1872 Ricketts built a three @-@ story wooden addition to the stone house ; this opened as the North Mountain House hotel in 1873 , and was run by Ricketts ' brother Frank until 1898 .
Ricketts named 21 of the waterfalls ; most have Native American names , and others are named for relatives and friends . In 1879 Ricketts started the North Mountain Fishing Club , and he renamed Long Pond as Ganoga Lake in 1881 , based on a suggestion by Pennsylvania senator Charles R. Buckalew . Ricketts also used the name Ganoga for the tallest waterfall and the glen it flows through . In 1889 Ricketts hired Matt Hirlinger and five other men to build the trails along Kitchen Creek . It took them four years to complete the trails and stone steps through the glens . The wooden addition to the stone house was torn down in 1897 , and the hotel and fishing club closed in 1903 ; the stone house remained the Ricketts ' summer home .
Ricketts was a lumberman who made his fortune clearcutting nearly all his land , but the glens were " saved from the lumberman 's axe through the foresight of the Ricketts family " . Ricketts died in 1918 ; between 1920 and 1924 the Pennsylvania Game Commission bought 48 @,@ 000 acres ( 19 @,@ 000 ha ) from his heirs , via the Central Pennsylvania Lumber Company . This became most of Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 13 , west of the park in Sullivan County . These sales left the Ricketts heirs with over 12 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 900 ha ) surrounding Ganoga Lake , Lake Jean and the glens . The area was approved as a national park site in the 1930s , and the National Park Service planned a Civilian Conservation Corps camp at " Ricketts Glynn " ( sic ) . Budget problems and World War II brought an end to national plans for development .
In 1942 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania bought 1 @,@ 261 acres ( 510 ha ) , including the glens and their waterfalls , from the heirs for $ 82 @,@ 000 . Ricketts Glen State Park opened in 1944 . The state bought a total of 16 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 500 ha ) more from the heirs in 1945 and 1950 for $ 68 @,@ 000 ; the park today has about 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) from the Ricketts family and about 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) acquired from others . A 1947 newspaper article estimated that the new park would have 50 @,@ 000 visitors that year , and detailed the work the state had done since acquiring the land . The Falls Trail through the glens was rebuilt , all the stone steps were replaced , and signs were added . Out of concern for greater safety , footbridges with handrails replaced those made from hewn logs , overhanging rock ledges were removed in places , and the trail was rerouted near some falls . The Evergreen Trail past Adams Falls was built at this time .
In 1969 the Glens Natural Area was named a National Natural Landmark , and it became a Pennsylvania State Park Natural Area in 1993 , which guarantees it " will be protected and maintained in a natural state " . In 1996 heavy rains washed out two bridges on the Falls Trail ; because of the difficulty of transporting materials on the trail , an Army National Guard helicopter dropped 36 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) poles into the glens to rebuild the bridges in early 1997 . In the winter of 1997 ice climbing was allowed in the Ganoga Glen section of the park for the first time . That same year local fire companies trained to rescue people injured in the park when icy conditions make reaching and transporting them treacherous . In 1998 a four @-@ year project to " repair and improve the Falls Trail " began , with three park employees carrying materials in on foot to stabilize the trail , fix steps , reduce erosion , and repair some bridges . In 2001 , John Young in Hike Pennsylvania : An Atlas of Pennsylvania 's Greatest Hiking Adventures wrote of the Falls Trail : " This is not only the most magnificent hike in the state , but it ranks up there with the top hikes in the East . " The readers of Backpacker magazine chose the Falls Trail as the best hike in Pennsylvania in 2009 , and as one of the best hikes in the Northeast in 2010 .
= = Overview = =
Kitchen Creek flows through the park 's three glens , which the descriptions of the waterfalls are organized by : Ricketts Glen , Glen Leigh , and Ganoga Glen . The falls are listed in order going upstream along Kitchen Creek , starting with the southernmost and ending at the northernmost in each glen . This is also the order in which a hiker would encounter the falls while traveling north along the creek on the Falls Trail .
The Falls Trail is a 7 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 4 km ) loop hike . Starting at PA 118 , it is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) north along the creek through Ricketts Glen to Waters Meet , where the trail divides . Following the Glen Leigh branch , it is 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) north through the glen to the Highland Trail , then 1 @.@ 0 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west along the Highland Trail to Ganoga Glen . Turning southeast , it is 1 @.@ 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) through Ganoga Glen back to Waters Meet , then the 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) through Ricketts Glen is retraced , but heading south back to PA 118 .
The description of each waterfall starts with the name . While the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) Bureau of State Parks names 22 waterfalls in Ricketts Glen State Park ( all but Kitchen Creek and Shingle Cabin ) , the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS ) names 23 ( all but Shingle Cabin ) , and Scott E. Brown 's 2004 book Pennsylvania waterfalls : a guide for hikers and photographers names 24 . There are also several unnamed waterfalls in the park , with the total number of falls given as 33 or 34 . For each waterfall the height is given next , followed by the elevation above sea level , and the latitude and longitude . Each waterfall in the table is classified according to the four types used in Brown 's book ( falls , cascade , slide , and chute ) , with some classified as combinations of types . For each waterfall there are notes , which can give more information on the waterfall , the etymology of the name , and the location on the Falls Trail , followed by a photograph .
= = Ricketts Glen = =
Ricketts Glen is the name given to the Kitchen Creek valley south and downstream of Waters Meet . It is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) between Pennsylvania Route 118 and Waters Meet on the Falls Trail , making this the longest glen . The three northernmost waterfalls are all within 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of Waters Meet , and are only a short hike from the bottom of Ganoga Glen or Glen Leigh . The southern part of this glen has large areas of old @-@ growth forest , chiefly hemlocks . Ricketts Glen is entirely in the Catskill Formation and all of the falls on this section of Kitchen Creek have plunge pools .
Ricketts Glen is the only glen where sources differ on the number of named waterfalls . Only Brown 's book names Shingle Cabin Falls , which is the sole named falls in the park on a tributary of Kitchen Creek . The names of the waterfalls at the southern end of Ricketts Glen , under and just south of PA 118 , are the most disputed . The USGS GNIS names Kitchen Creek Falls ( with coordinates very near the PA 118 bridge ) and Adams Falls ( with coordinates further south of PA 118 ) . Brown 's book also names both as separate falls and gives the height of Kitchen Creek Falls as 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . A 1947 newspaper article on the new state park notes the unnamed falls under the highway bridge and refers to " Adam 's Falls a short distance away " . The official park map only names Adams Falls , shows it a short distance south of the bridge , and notes it is 36 feet ( 11 m ) tall . However , the DCNR Pennsylvania Trail of Geology guide to the park says Kitchen Creek Falls is just another name for Adams Falls , and notes that " At the bridge on Pa . Route 118 , Kitchen Creek plunges over three picturesque cascades ( 18 , 25 and 10 feet high ) " ( 5 @.@ 5 , 7 @.@ 6 , and 3 @.@ 0 m high ) .
= = Glen Leigh = =
Marcia Bonta in Outbound Journeys in Pennsylvania : A Guide to Natural Places for Individual and Group Outings calls this " the loveliest part of the entire trail — rugged , steep Glen Leigh " . Bonta goes on to note that Glen Leigh " resembles a remote wilderness , hemmed in on one side by rock and on the other by surging water , and it has some of the most spectacular waterfalls in the park " .
Glen Leigh was named for Lake Leigh , which R. B. Ricketts named for his second daughter Frances Leigh ( 1881 – 1970 ) . She married William S. McLean , Jr . , a judge , in 1921 . Leigh was also the middle name of R.B. Ricketts ' mother , Margaret Leigh Lockart Ricketts ( 1810 – 1891 ) . In 1907 , R. B. Ricketts built a dam upstream of the waterfalls on the Glen Leigh branch of Kitchen Creek , hoping to use the resulting Lake Leigh for hydroelectric power generation . The dam was " poorly constructed " and could not be used to generate power ; it was condemned by the state and the lake drained in 1956 . Almost all of Glen Leigh is in the Huntley Mountain Formation , but a small region at the southern end , including Waters Meet , is in the Catskill Formation .
Glen Leigh has eight named waterfalls in 0 @.@ 64 miles ( 1 @.@ 03 km ) . It is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) from PA 118 in the south to Waters Meet and the southern end of Glen Leigh . The glen is also accessible from the north ; it is 1 @.@ 04 miles ( 1 @.@ 67 km ) from the Lake Leigh trailhead parking lot by Lake Jean to Onondaga , the northernmost waterfall . The Highland Trail is the 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) path between the northern ends of Glen Leigh and Ganoga Glen . It meets the Falls Trail just north of Onondaga Falls and has a short connector to F. L. Ricketts , the next waterfall south . The Falls Trail by both of these northernmost waterfalls had to be rebuilt in the early 2000s .
= = Ganoga Glen = =
By 1875 Ricketts had named the tallest waterfall on Kitchen Creek Ganoga Falls , and in 1881 , he renamed Long Pond as Ganoga Lake . Pennsylvania senator Charles R. Buckalew suggested the name Ganoga , an Iroquoian word which he said meant " water on the mountain " in the Seneca language . Donehoo 's A History of the Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania identifies it as a Cayuga language word meaning " place of floating oil " and the name of a Cayuga village in New York . Whatever the meaning , Ganoga Lake is the source of the branch of Kitchen Creek that flows through Ganoga Glen , which has the tallest waterfall .
A dam was built upstream of the waterfalls on the Ganoga Glen branch of Kitchen Creek in 1842 . Ricketts strengthened the dam circa 1905 as part of a hydroelectric power generation scheme , and renamed the body of water Lake Rose ( Rose is a Ricketts family name ) . However , both the Lake Rose and Lake Leigh dams were " poorly constructed " and could not be used to generate power ; both dams were condemned by the state and Lake Rose was drained in 1969 . Ganoga Glen is not as steep as Glen Leigh ; both glens are almost entirely in the Huntley Mountain Formation , with a small region at the southern end , including Waters Meet , in the Catskill Formation . Ganoga Glen has ten named waterfalls in 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) . It is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) from PA 118 in the south to Waters Meet and the southern end of Ganoga Glen . From the north , it is 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) from the Lake Rose trailhead parking lot by Lake Jean to Mohawk , the northernmost waterfall . There is also the 2 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) Ganoga View Trail , which leads from Pennsylvania Route 487 in the west to Ganoga Falls . The Highland Trail , which meets the Falls Trail a short distance north of Mohawk Falls , is the 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) connector between the northern ends of Ganoga Glen and Glen Leigh .
Jeff Mitchell writes in Hiking the Endless Mountains : Exploring the Wilderness of Northeast Pennsylvania that Ganoga Glen has his " favorite place " in the park : " Here the trail wraps around ledges and underneath overhanging rocks , right next to the waterfalls . The roar of the falls reverberates against their rocky confines . The state park trail map says that Seneca , Delaware , and Mohican Falls are here , but it is hard to discern which falls are which because they explode from everywhere and are continuous . "
= = Note = =
= 2003 Football League Cup Final =
The 2003 Football League Cup Final was a football match played between Liverpool and Manchester United on 2 March 2003 at the Millennium Stadium , Cardiff . It was the final match of the 2002 – 03 Football League Cup , the 43rd season of the Football League Cup , a football competition for the 92 teams in the Premier League and The Football League . Liverpool were appearing in their ninth final ; they had previously won six and lost two , while Manchester United were appearing in the final for the fifth time . They had previously won once and lost three times .
As both teams were in the Premier League , they entered the competition in the third round . Liverpool 's matches were generally close affairs , with only two victories secured by two goals or more . They beat Southampton 3 – 1 in the third round , while their match in the next round against Ipswich Town went to a penalty @-@ shootout , which they won 5 – 4 . Manchester United 's matches were also close affairs , their biggest margin of victory of was by two goals . A 2 – 0 win over Burnley in the fourth round was followed by a 1 – 0 victory over Chelsea in the fifth round .
Watched by a crowd of 74 @,@ 500 , the first half was goalless until Liverpool took the lead in the 39th minute when midfielder Steven Gerrard scored . The score remained the same until the 86th minute when striker Michael Owen scored to make the score 2 – 0 to Liverpool . No further goals were scored and Liverpool won to secure their seventh League Cup victory .
Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek was awarded the Alan Hardaker Trophy as man of the match . Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier praised Dudek 's performance and claimed that he had a premonition that Dudek would perform well in the match . Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson also praised Dudek 's performance , stating , " Their goalkeeper has won them the game . "
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
As Liverpool were competing in the Premier League , they entered the competition in the third round and were drawn against fellow Premier League side Southampton . Despite resting a number of first @-@ team players , Liverpool won 3 – 1 courtesy of goals from Patrik Berger , El @-@ Hadji Diouf and Milan Baroš at their home ground Anfield . Their opposition in the fourth round were Ipswich Town . They took the lead in the 14th minute , in the match held at Anfield , when Tommy Miller scored . Diouf equalised in the 54th minute , but the score remained the same through full @-@ time and extra @-@ time to take the match to a penalty shootout . Liverpool won 5 – 4 to progress to the fifth round .
Fellow Premier League side Aston Villa were the opposition in the match at their home ground , Villa Park . They took the lead in the 20th minute when striker Darius Vassell scored a penalty . Midfielder Danny Murphy levelled the score seven minutes later . Liverpool took the lead in the second half when Baros scored and extended it when Steven Gerrard scored in the 67th minute . Two goals for Villa courtesy of midfielder Thomas Hitzlsperger and an own goal by defender Stéphane Henchoz levelled the score at 3 – 3 late in the match . However , a Murphy goal in the 90th minute of the match meant Liverpool won 4 – 3 to progress to the semi @-@ finals .
Their opposition were Sheffield United of the First Division in the semi @-@ final , which was held over two @-@ legs . The first leg at United 's home ground Bramall Lane saw Liverpool take the lead in the 36th minute when striker Neil Mellor scored . However , two goals in the second half from United midfielder Michael Tonge meant they won the match 2 – 1 . The second leg was held at Liverpool 's home ground , Anfield . Liverpool took the lead in the ninth minute when Diouf scored . This levelled the tie at 2 – 2 and as no further goals were scored upon reaching full @-@ time , the match went into extra @-@ time . Liverpool extended their lead in the 107th minute when striker Michael Owen scored . No further goals were scored in the remaining minutes of extra @-@ time and Liverpool progressed to the final courtesy of a 3 – 2 aggregate victory .
= = = Manchester United = = =
First Division side Leicester City were the opposition as United entered the competition in the third round , due to being in the Premier League . The match , held at United 's home ground Old Trafford , was goalless until the 80th minute when midfielder David Beckham scored from a penalty . They extended their lead in the 90th minute when Kieran Richardson scored to win the match 2 – 0 .
United were drawn against First Division side Burnley in the fourth round . The match held at Burnley 's home ground , Turf Moor , saw United take the lead in the 35th minute when striker Diego Forlán scored . They extended their lead in the 65th minute when striker Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored to secure a 2 – 0 victory for United . Fellow Premier League side Chelsea were the opposition in the quarter @-@ final . A goal in the 80th minute by striker Forlán was enough to secure a 1 – 0 victory and progression to the semi @-@ final .
United were drawn against fellow Premier League side Blackburn Rovers in the semi @-@ final . The first leg at Old Trafford was goalless in the first half , but United took the lead in the 58th minute when midfielder Paul Scholes scored . However , three minutes later Blackburn equalised when David Thompson scored . The match finished at 1 – 1 . The second leg held at Blackburn 's home ground , Ewood Park , saw them take the lead when striker Andy Cole scored early in the match . However , United responded and two goals from Scholes in the remainder of the first half gave United the lead . They scored a third in the second half when striker Ruud van Nistelrooy converted a penalty . United won the match 3 – 1 and progressed to the final after winning the tie 4 – 2 .
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
Liverpool were appearing in their ninth final they had won six ( 1981 , 1982 , 1983 , 1984 , 1995 , 2001 ) and lost two ( 1978 , 1987 ) . This was Manchester United 's fifth appearance in the final . They had won once in 1992 and lost three times in 1983 , 1991 and 1994 . The teams had met once before in the 1983 final , a match which Liverpool won 2 – 1 . The last match between the two sides before the final was on 1 December 2002 , which United won 2 – 1 courtesy of goals from striker Diego Forlán . Both sides last match before the final was in European competition . Liverpool beat French team Auxerre 2 – 0 in the second leg of their 2002 – 03 UEFA Cup fourth round tie , while United beat Italian team Juventus 3 – 0 in the second group stage of the 2002 – 03 UEFA Champions League .
Liverpool midfielder Vladimír Šmicer was looking forward to playing a part in the final : " Everyone wants to play in the final , I 'm no different . I was just happy to be on the pitch against Auxerre because I didn 't know even the day before whether I 'd be fit enough after my injury problem . I 'm still not 100 % fit , I just wanted to train well this week and be fit for the final . " Šmicer was hopeful that victory in the final would rescue Liverpool 's season : " I hope that this re @-@ ignites our season . Our season is not good , we know , but there is still plenty to play for . We have not said this is a bad season , let 's forget about it and concentrate on the next one , we have been criticised and we are intent on responding on the pitch . " Liverpool midfielder Danny Murphy was eager to win the match : " Winning in Cardiff would be a massive result for us , we have to be honest , we haven 't been as good as Manchester United over the last 10 years . And winning would bring European football next year , which isn 't guaranteed at the moment . "
Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson revealed that captain Roy Keane would return to his midfield role after playing in central defence in their win over Juventus . " It took Roy about 15 minutes to settle into Tuesday 's game but once he started to make sure he could see his opponent , he grasped the role very quickly , in the end , he could have played with a bowler hat and white gloves on it was so easy for him . He is a marvellous player and choosing him in defence is certainly an option but Mikaël Silvestre and John O 'Shea should be fit and I have a back four in my mind . " The final was United 's first since the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final and Ferguson was determined to win : That is too long for us , and we are delighted . We have always looked at the League Cup as an extra to blood young players , but the format now has encouraged teams to have a go . We 've played Liverpool once in Cardiff – in the Charity Shield – and lost so I hope this time it will be a different result . "
Both sides had injury concerns heading into the final . Liverpool defender Stéphane Henchoz was a doubt after he suffered a thigh injury in Liverpool 's win over Auxerre . However , Liverpool midfielder Šmicer had recovered from an ankle problem and would be available for selection . United had a number of injury concerns . Wes Brown , Scholes and Ryan Giggs were all doubts for the final , after they had picked up knocks in the week before the final . They would also be without striker Diego Forlán , who had injured his ankle against Juventus , however , defender Mikaël Silvestre was declared fit to start .
= = = First half = = =
Liverpool kicked @-@ off the match and they had first chance of the match in the 4th minute , but the free @-@ kick by midfielder Murphy was caught by United goalkeeper Fabien Barthez . Defender Henchoz was shown a yellow card in the 12th minute and United midfielder Giggs had the first shot of the match , which was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek . Twice in the next few minutes Liverpool had chances from moves down the right @-@ hand side of the pitch . However , on both occasions the pass into the penalty area was intercepted . United had a chance to score in the 20th minute . Keane passed to Scholes , who found Giggs on the left @-@ hand side of the pitch . His cross into the penalty area found striker Ruud van Nistelrooy , but his shot went wide of the Liverpool goal .
Liverpool began to get a foothold in the match after 30 minutes , their best chance came in the 36th minute when a shot by Murphy went over the crossbar . Three minutes later their approach paid off as they scored . A long @-@ range shot from Steven Gerrard deflected off United midfielder David Beckham and into the United goal to give Liverpool a 1 – 0 lead . Three minutes after the goal , United had a chance to equalise . A shot by midfielder Juan Sebastian Verón was saved by Dudek , but the ball rebounded to Scholes , his subsequent shot was blocked by Henchoz . After a free @-@ kick by Beckham just before half @-@ time was saved by Dudek , Liverpool counter @-@ attacked through midfielder El Hadji Diouf down the right @-@ hand side of the pitchHowever , his subsequent cross into the penalty area was intercepted by Keane .
= = = Second half = = =
Almost immediately after the restart , Liverpool had the first attack . Striker Michael Owen went past United defender Brown , but he was unable to shoot when the ball got stuck in between his feet . A minute later , Liverpool had an appeal for a penalty after striker Emile Heskey went down in the United penalty area , but referee Paul Durkin did not award a penalty . They had another chance in the 52nd minute after an exchange of passes between Murphy and Heskey , but Murphy 's shot went over the bar . United began to exert more pressure on Liverpool after this . A minute later a shot by Keane was blocked by Liverpool defender Sami Hyypiä . The ball went out for a United , which resulted in a throw @-@ in , that was headed into the arms of Dudek . Five minutes van Nistelrooy had a chance to score as he turned and shot at the Liverpool goal , but it was saved by Dudek . Heskey was replaced by striker Milan Baroš following an injury .
United had another chance in the 66th minute when Verón crossed from the right @-@ hand side of the pitch to Scholes , but his shot was saved by Dudek . A Liverpool attack in the 72nd minute ended after Baros put the ball out for a goal @-@ kick . From the subsequent kick , Barthez found Giggs , who ran through the middle of the pitch , but his pass to Beckham was intercepted by Liverpool . United subsequently replaced Brown with striker Ole Gunnar Solskjær . United had an appeal for a penalty in the 77th minute when Scholes went down near Liverpool midfielder Dietmar Hamann , but Durkin turned down the appeal . Minutes later van Nistelrooy had another chance to score , but his shot from inside the Liverpool penalty area was saved by Dudek . Five minutes later Liverpool scored through Owen . A pass by Silvestre was intercepted by Liverpool , Hamann passed to Owen , who beat Barthez to give Liverpool a 2 – 0 lead . Four minutes later Liverpool had a chance to extend their lead . However Šmicer , who had replaced Baros , missed the target . No further goals were scored and Liverpool won 2 – 0 to win the League Cup for the seventh time .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Following the match Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier claimed he had a premonition that goalkeeper Dudek would be the hero of the final : " I told Jerzy three days ago ' I can feel you will be the hero . You were too unlucky when we played them , today he was man of the match . But football can be like that . Sometimes you can be at the bottom and then be a hero again . I just had a feeling . I 'm a great believer that when you have the right attitude everything else follows . He had a good run after the World Cup but then he made some mistakes and we had to support him . The squad get on very well . There was no finger @-@ pointing after that game . He has saved us before in games and we had to keep faith in him . " Houllier also praised Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson : " I wished him the best in the Champions League because he represents the best in English football , he congratulated every Liverpool player after the final whistle and that shows that he is not just a great manager but a great man . "
United manager Ferguson also praised Dudek 's performance in the match : " Their goalkeeper has won them the game , sometimes you just have to put your hands up on these occasions . Dudek has won them the cup . He deserved to be man of the match . We didn 't get a break . Dudek 's performance encouraged them to stay near their penalty box . In tough games like that the first goal is very important . It 's a test for us . We can either accept defeat or we can fight back . " Captain Keane was disappointed with the defeat : " The players , managers , staff are all upset but I suppose nowhere near as bad as the fans , if you don 't win a match in football you feel as though you have let the fans down . " His focus turned to United 's participation in the UEFA Champions League , as they looked to end the season with a trophy : " It would have been nice to get a piece of silverware in the cabinet , especially with the opposition being Liverpool , we 've just got to lick our wounds . We 've got a game against Leeds on Wednesday and we 'll get on with training for Wednesday . The players know we 'll have to get together , get ready and try to keep the pressure on Arsenal . But we are eight points behind them , which puts them in a very strong position and again we are pinning our hopes on the European Cup , which is a dangerous game to play as we saw last season . "
= The Number Devil =
The Number Devil : A Mathematical Adventure ( German : Der Zahlenteufel . Ein Kopfkissenbuch für alle , die Angst vor der Mathematik haben ) is a book for children and young adults that explores mathematics . It was originally written in 1997 in German by Hans Magnus Enzensberger and illustrated by Rotraut Susanne Berner . The book follows a young boy named Robert , who is taught mathematics by a sly " number devil " called Teplotaxl over the course of twelve dreams .
The book was met with mostly positive reviews from critics , approving its description of math while praising its simplicity . Its colorful use of fictional mathematical terms and its creative descriptions of concepts have made it a suggested book for both children and adults troubled with math . The Number Devil was a bestseller in Europe , and has been translated into English by Michael Henry Heim .
= = Plot = =
Robert is a young boy who suffers from mathematical anxiety due to his boredom in school . His mother is Mrs. Wilson . He also experiences recurring dreams — including falling down an endless slide or being eaten by a giant fish — but is interrupted from this sleep habit one night by a small devilesque creature who introduces himself as the Number Devil . Although there are many Number Devils ( from Number Heaven ) , Robert only knows him as the Number Devil before learning of his actual name , Teplotaxl , later in the story .
Over the course of twelve dreams , the Number Devil teaches Robert mathematical principles . On the first night , the Number Devil appears to Robert in an oversized world and introduces the number one . The next night , the Number Devil emerges in a forest of trees shaped like " ones " and explains the necessity of the number zero , negative numbers , and introduces hopping , a fictional term to describe exponentiation . On the third night , the Number Devil brings Robert to a cave and reveals how prima @-@ donna numbers ( prime numbers ) can only be divided by themselves and one without a remainder . Later , on the fourth night , the Number Devil teaches Robert about rutabagas , another fictional term to depict square roots , at a beach .
For a time after the fourth night , Robert cannot find the Number Devil in his dreams ; later , however , on the fifth night , Robert finds himself at a desert where the Number Devil teaches him about triangular numbers through the use of coconuts . On the sixth night , the Number Devil teaches Robert about the natural occurrence of Fibonacci numbers , which the Number Devil shortens to Bonacci numbers , by counting brown and white rabbits as they reproduce multiple times . By this dream , Robert 's mother has noticed a visible change in Robert 's mathematical interest , and Robert begins going to sleep earlier to encounter the Number Devil . The seventh night brings Robert to a bare , white room , where the Number Devil presents Pascal 's triangle and the patterns that the triangular array displays . On the eighth night , Robert is brought to his classroom at school . The Number Devil arranges Robert 's classmates in multiple ways , teaches him about permutations , and what the Number Devil calls vroom numbers ( factorials ) .
On the ninth night , Robert dreams he is in bed , suffering from the flu , when the Number Devil appears next to him . The Number Devil teaches Robert about natural numbers , which the Number Devil calls garden @-@ variety numbers , the unusual characteristics of infinite , and infinite series . Robert finds himself at the North Pole , where the Number Devil introduces irrational numbers ( unreasonable numbers ) , as well as aspects of Euclidean geometry , such as vertices ( dots ) and edges ( lines ) . By the eleventh night , Robert has shown considerable increased interest in mathematics , but questions its validity , to which the Number Devil introduces the concept of mathematical proofs , ending with the Number Devil showing Robert a complicated proof of basic arithmetic . On the twelfth night , Robert and the Number Devil receive an invitation ( which names the Number Devil as Teplotaxl ) to Number Heaven , as Robert 's time with the Number Devil has finished . At Number Heaven , Robert learns of imaginary numbers , which Teplotaxl describes as imaginative numbers , as well as the Klein bottle . Walking through Number Heaven , Teplotaxl introduces Robert to various famous mathematicians , such as Fibonacci , whom Teplotaxl calls Bonacci , and George Cantor , or Professor Singer . The book ends with Robert in class using his newfound mathematical knowledge .
= = History = =
Enzensberger fostered a passion for mathematics and numbers , although he was not a mathematician by trade . In 1998 , he delivered a speech at the International Congress of Mathematicians criticizing the isolation of mathematics from popular culture . The Number Devil was ultimately written on suggestion from Enzensberger 's eleven @-@ year @-@ old daughter Theresia . Because he was displeased with the way mathematics was taught to students at school , the German author decided to pen a book that teaches mathematics in an innovative way . German illustrator Rotraut Susanne Berner provided many full @-@ page illustrations , as well as smaller drawings , for the book . The Number Devil was first published in German in 1997 . The Number Devil has been noted for its unorthodox abandonment of standard notation ; instead , Enzensberger created a variety of fictional terms to help describe mathematical concepts . For instance , exponentiation takes the term hopping , and the fictional term unreasonable numbers was coined for irrational numbers . The UCLA Professor of Slavic Languages Michael Henry Heim translated the book from German to English . The translation was particularly difficult in that it required special attention to the numerical aspect of the book . He was also challenged by the necessity to use simple English words appropriate for the target audience of The Number Devil — that is , children aged eleven to fourteen . The mathematics book was then published in English in 1998 .
The book was a hit across Europe , becoming a best seller in at least Spain , Germany , the Netherlands , and Italy . The Number Devil also had considerable success in Japan . After the success of The Number Devil , Enzensberger wrote a follow @-@ up , called Where Were You , Robert ? , a children 's book focusing on history rather than math . The German author has since stated he will not write any more young adult 's books , but instead direct his effort towards poetry . Viva Media later published an educational computer game , similarly titled The Number Devil : A Mathematical Adventure , based on the book . An audiobook was also released for The Number Devil .
= = Reception = =
The Number Devil received mostly positive reviews from critics . Mathematics professor John Allen Paulos of Temple University wrote an article for The New York Review of Books , praising The Number Devil as a " charming numerical fairy tale for children . " Likewise , mathematics writer Martin Gardner of the Los Angeles Times applauded Enzensberger 's introduction of mathematics " in such an entertaining way . " In a book review for The Baltimore Sun , Michael Pakenham approved of the book 's simplicity , writing , " it 's not incomprehensible . Not for a minute . "
Not all reviews were positive , however . The American Mathematical Society 's Deborah Loewenberg Ball and Hyman Bass reviewed the book from a mathematical perspective . Although they praised its " attractive and imaginative fantasy , " the two mathematicians found several issues . Ball and Bass were concerned with the The Number Devil 's negative characterization of math teachers , its apparent presentation of mathematics as magical rather than factual , and a number of other contentions . Ted Dewan , writing for the Times Educational Supplement , believed it to be " far more compelling than a standard text , " but found it less adventurous than he hoped for . He also criticized its use in mathematics education , stating " I suspect this is the sort of book that well @-@ meaning adults will mistakenly thrust upon children because it will be good for them . "
= Vojislav Lukačević =
Vojislav Lukačević ( Serbian Cyrillic : Војислав Лукачевић ; 1908 – 14 August 1945 ) was a Serbian Chetnik commander in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia during World War II . At the outbreak of war , he held the rank of captain of the reserves in the Royal Yugoslav Army .
When the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Lukačević became a leader of Chetniks in the Sandžak region and joined the movement of Draža Mihailović . While the Chetniks were an anti @-@ Axis movement in their long @-@ range goals and did engage in marginal resistance activities for limited periods , they also pursued almost throughout the war a tactical or selective collaboration with the occupation authorities against the Yugoslav Partisans . They engaged in cooperation with the Axis powers to one degree or another by establishing modi vivendi or operating as auxiliary forces under Axis control . Lukačević himself collaborated extensively with the Italians and the Germans in actions against the Yugoslav Partisans until mid @-@ 1944 .
In January and February 1943 , while under the overall command of Major Pavle Đurišić , Captain Lukačević and his Chetniks participated in several massacres of the Muslim population of Bosnia , Herzegovina and the Sandžak . Immediately after this , Lukačević and his Chetniks participated in one of the largest Axis anti @-@ Partisan operations of the war , Case White , where they fought alongside Italian , German and Croatian ( NDH ) troops . The following November , Lukačević concluded a formal collaboration agreement with the Germans and participated in a further anti @-@ Partisan offensive , Operation Kugelblitz .
In February 1944 , Lukačević travelled to London to represent Mihailović at the wedding of King Peter of Yugoslavia . After returning to Yugoslavia in mid @-@ 1944 , and in anticipation of an Allied landing on the Yugoslav coast , he decided to break with Mihailović and fight the Germans , but this was short @-@ lived , as he was captured by the Partisans a few months later . After the war , he was tried for collaboration and war crimes and sentenced to death . He was executed in August 1945 .
= = Early life = =
Lukačević was born in 1908 in Belgrade , Kingdom of Serbia to a wealthy banking family . At one point , he was employed by the French civil engineering company Société de Construction des Batignolles . He attained the rank of captain in the reserves of the Royal Yugoslav Army before World War II .
= = Invasion and occupation = =
After the outbreak of World War II , the government of Regent Prince Paul of Yugoslavia declared its neutrality . Despite this , and with the aim of securing his southern flank for the pending attack on the Soviet Union , Adolf Hitler began placing heavy pressure on the Kingdom of Yugoslavia to sign the Tripartite Pact and join the Axis . After some delay , the Yugoslav government conditionally signed the Pact on 25 March 1941 . Two days later a bloodless coup d 'état deposed Prince Paul and declared 17 @-@ year @-@ old Prince Peter II of Yugoslavia of age . Following the subsequent German @-@ led invasion of Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav capitulation 11 days later , Lukačević went into hiding in the forests . He soon returned to Belgrade , where he became aware of the activities of Draža Mihailović . He then left the capital with some other officers and soldiers to form a Chetnik detachment in the Novi Pazar area of the Sandžak region . On 16 November 1941 Muslim forces from Novi Pazar and Albanian forces from Kosovo attacked Raška and quickly advanced toward the town . They were commanded by Aćif Hadžiahmetović . The situation for the defenders became very difficult , so Lukačević personally engaged himself in the defence of the town . On 17 November they stopped the advance of Hadžiahmetović 's forces and forced them to retreat . On 21 November Lukačević took part in the attack of Chetnik forces on Novi Pazar . In the summer of 1942 , Lukačević and his Chetniks fought the Partisans in Herzegovina .
= = Massacres of Muslims = =
In December 1942 , Chetniks from Montenegro and Sandžak met at a conference in the village of Šahovići near Bijelo Polje . The conference was dominated by Montenegrin Serb Chetnik commander Major Pavle Đurišić and its resolutions expressed extremism and intolerance , as well as an agenda which focused on restoring the pre @-@ war status quo in Yugoslavia implemented in its initial stages by a Chetnik dictatorship . It also laid claim to parts of the territory of Yugoslavia 's neighbors . At this conference , Mihailović was represented by his chief of staff , Major Zaharije Ostojić , who had previously been encouraged by Mihailović to wage a campaign of terror against the Muslim population living along the borders of Montenegro and the Sandžak .
The conference decided to destroy the Muslim villages in the Čajniče district of Bosnia . On 3 January 1943 , Ostojić issued orders to " cleanse " the Čajniče district of Ustaše @-@ Muslim organisations . According to the historian Radoje Pajović , Ostojić produced a detailed plan which avoided specifying what would be done with the Muslim population of the district . Instead , these instructions were to be given orally to the responsible commanders . Delays in the movement of Chetnik forces into Bosnia to participate in the anti @-@ Partisan Case White offensive alongside the Italians enabled Chetnik Supreme Command to expand the planned " cleansing " operation to include the Pljevlja district in the Sandžak and the Foča district of Bosnia . A combined Chetnik force of 6 @,@ 000 was assembled , divided into four detachments , each with its own commander . Lukačević commanded a force of 1 @,@ 600 , consisting of Chetniks from Višegrad , Priboj , Nova Varoš , Prijepolje , Pljevlja and Bijelo Polje . His force formed one of the four detachments , and Mihailović ordered that all four detachments be placed under the overall command of Đurišić .
In early February 1943 , during their advance northwest into Herzegovina in preparation for their involvement in Case White , the combined Chetnik force massacred large numbers of the Muslim population in the targeted areas . In a report to Mihailović dated 13 February 1943 , Đurišić reported that the Chetnik forces under his command had killed about 1 @,@ 200 Muslim combatants and about 8 @,@ 000 old people , women , and children , and destroyed all property except for livestock , grain and hay , which they had seized . Đurišić reported that :
The operations were executed exactly according to orders . [ ... ] All the commanders and units carried out their tasks satisfactorily . [ ... ] All Muslim villages in the three above mentioned districts are entirely burnt , so that not one of the houses remained undamaged . All property has been destroyed except cattle , corn and hay . In certain places the collection of fodder and food has been ordered so that we can set up warehouses for reserved food for the units which have remained on the terrain in order to purge it and to search the wooded areas as well as establish and strengthen the organization on the liberated territory . During operations complete annihilation of the Muslim population was undertaken , regardless of sex and age .
The orders for the " cleansing " operation stated that the Chetniks should kill all Muslim fighters , communists and Ustaše , but that they should not kill women and children . According to Pajović , these instructions were included to ensure there was no written evidence regarding the killing of non @-@ combatants . On 8 February , one Chetnik commander made a notation on their copy of written orders issued by Đurišić that the detachments had received additional orders to kill all Muslims they encountered . On 10 February , Jovan Jelovac , the commander of the Pljevlja Brigade , who was subordinated to Lukačević , told one of his battalion commanders that he was to kill everyone , in accordance with the orders of their highest commanders . According to the historian Professor Jozo Tomasevich , despite Chetnik claims that this and previous " cleansing actions " were countermeasures against Muslim aggressive activities , all circumstances point to it being Đurišić 's partial achievement of Mihailović 's previous directive to clear the Sandžak of Muslims .
= = Case White = =
Lukačević and his Chetniks were drawn into closer collaboration with the Axis during the second phase of Case White , which took place in the Neretva and Rama river valleys in late February 1943 and was one of the largest anti @-@ Partisan offensives of the war . Despite the fact that the Chetniks were an anti @-@ Axis movement in their long @-@ range goals and did engage in marginal resistance activities for limited periods , their involvement in Case White is one of the most significant examples of their tactical or selective collaboration with the Axis occupation forces . In this instance , the participating Chetniks received Italian logistic support and included those operating as legalized auxiliary forces under Italian control . During this offensive , between 12 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 Chetniks fought alongside Italian forces , and Lukačević and his Chetniks also fought alongside German and Croatian troops against the Partisans .
In February 1943 , during the second phase of Case White , Lukačević and his Chetniks jointly held the town of Konjic on the Neretva river alongside Italian troops . After being reinforced by German and NDH troops and some additional Chetniks , the combined force held the town against concerted attacks by the Partisans over a seven @-@ day period . The first attack was launched by two battalions of the 1st Proletarian Division on 19 February and was followed by repeated attacks by the 3rd Assault Division between 22 and 26 February . Unable to capture the town and its critical bridge across the Neretva , the Partisans eventually crossed the river downstream at Jablanica . Ostojić was aware of Lukačević 's collaboration with the Germans and NDH troops at Konjic but , at his trial , Mihailović denied that he himself was aware of it , claiming that Ostojić controlled the communications links and kept the information from him . During the fighting at Konjic , the Germans also supplied Lukačević 's troops with ammunition . Both Ostojić and Lukačević were highly critical of what they described as Mihailović 's bold but reckless tactics during Case White , indicating that Mihailović was largely responsible for the Chetnik failure to hold the Partisans at the Neretva .
In September 1943 , immediately following the Italian capitulation , the Italian Venezia Division , which was garrisoned at Berane , surrendered to the British Special Operations Executive Colonel S.W. " Bill " Bailey and Major Lukačević , but Lukačević and his troops were unable to control the surrendered Italians . Partisan formations arrived in Berane shortly afterward and were able to convince the Italians to join them .
= = Collaboration with the Germans = =
In September 1943 , United States Lieutenant Colonel Albert B. Seitz and Lieutenant George Musulin parachuted into the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia , along with British Brigadier Charles Armstrong . In November , Seitz and another American liaison officer , Captain Walter R. Mansfield , conducted a tour of inspection of Chetnik areas , including that of Lukačević . During their tour they witnessed fighting between Chetniks and Partisans . Due to their relative freedom of movement , the Americans assumed that the Chetniks controlled the territory they moved through . However , despite the praise that Seitz expressed for Lukačević , the Chetnik leader was collaborating with the Germans at the same time that he was hosting the visiting Americans .
In mid @-@ November 1943 , Major Lukačević was the chief of the Chetnik detachments based near Stari Ras , near Novi Pazar in the Sandžak . On 13 November , his representative concluded a formal collaboration agreement ( German : Waffenruhe @-@ Verträge ) with the representative of the German Military Commander in southeast Europe , General der Infanterie ( Lieutenant General ) Hans Felber . The agreement was signed on 19 November , and covered a large portion of the Sandžak and the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia , bounded by Bajina Bašta , the Drina river , the Tara river , Bijelo Polje , Rožaje , Kosovska Mitrovica , the Ibar river , Kraljevo , Čačak and Užice . Under the agreement , a special German liaison officer was assigned to Lukačević to advise on tactics , ensure cooperation , and facilitate arms and ammunition supply . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill read the decrypted text of the agreement between Lukačević and Felber , which had a significant influence on the changing attitude of the British towards Mihailović .
In early December 1943 , Lukačević 's Chetniks participated in Operation Kugelblitz , the first of a series of German operations alongside the 1st Mountain Division , 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen , and parts of the 187th Reserve Division , the 369th ( Croatian ) Infantry Division and the 24th Bulgarian Division . The Partisans avoided decisive engagement and the operation concluded on 18 December . Also during December , the Higher SS and Police Leader in the Sandžak , SS @-@ Standartenführer Karl von Krempler , posted notices authorising local Serbs to join Lukačević 's Chetniks . On 22 December , shortly after the conclusion of Operation Kugelblitz , Oberst ( Colonel ) Josef Remold issued an order of the day commending Lukačević for his enthusiasm in fighting the Partisans in the Sandžak , and allowed him to keep some of the arms he had captured .
= = Break with Mihailović = =
In mid @-@ February 1944 , Lukačević , Baćović and another officer accompanied Bailey to the coast south of Dubrovnik and were evacuated from Cavtat by a Royal Navy gunboat . Their passage through German @-@ occupied territory was probably facilitated by Lukačević 's accommodation with the Germans . At one point , Lukačević was invited to have a meal with the German garrison commander of a nearby town , but declined the offer . Lukačević and the others then travelled via Cairo to London , where Lukačević represented Mihailović at King Peter 's wedding on 20 March 1944 . After the British government decided to withdraw support from Mihailović , Lukačević and his Chetnik companions were not allowed to return to Yugoslavia until the British mission to Mihailović headed by Armstrong had been safely evacuated from occupied territory . Lukačević and the others were detained by the British in Bari and thoroughly searched by local authorities , who suspected them of a robbery that had occurred in the Yugoslav consulate in Cairo a short time before . Most of the money , jewelry and uncensored letters that they were carrying were impounded . The men were flown out of Bari on 30 May , and landed on an improvised airfield at Pranjani northwest of Čačak shortly after . Because their landing at Pranjani coincided with Armstrong 's departure , Lukačević and Baćović demanded that Armstrong be held as a hostage until their impounded belongings could be returned from Bari . The Chetniks at the airfield refused to keep Armstrong any further , and he was allowed to depart without incident .
In mid @-@ 1944 , after Mihailović was removed from his post as Minister of the Army , Navy and Air Force as a result of the dismissal of the Purić government by King Peter , Lukačević attempted to independently contact the Allies in Italy in the hope of " reaching an understanding on a common fight against the enemy " . When these attempts failed , Lukačević announced in August 1944 that he and other Chetnik commanders in eastern Bosnia , eastern Herzegovina and Sandžak were no longer obeying orders from Mihailović , and were forming an independent resistance movement to fight the occupiers and those collaborating with them . In early September , he issued a proclamation to the people explaining his reasons for attacking the Germans . On 19 October , Lukačević proposed that the Chetniks change their policy to greet the Red Army as liberators and ask to be taken under the command of a Russian general . He also tried to arrange a non @-@ aggression pact with the Partisans . Subsequently , he deployed his 4 @,@ 500 Chetniks into southern Herzegovina and for several days from 22 September they attacked the 369th ( Croatian ) Infantry Division and the Trebinje – Dubrovnik railway line , capturing some villages and taking hundreds of prisoners . Mihailović formally relieved Lukačević of his command and asked other Chetnik commanders to act against him . However , the Partisans , concerned Lukačević was trying to link up with a feared British landing on the Adriatic coast , attacked his forces on 25 September , first capturing his stronghold at Bileća and then comprehensively defeating him . With several hundred remaining Chetniks , Lukačević withdrew as far as Foča before returning to the Bileća area in the hope of linking up with small detachments of British troops that had been landed to support Partisan operations . Instead he was captured by the Partisans .
= = Trial and execution = =
Lukačević , along with other defendants , was tried by a military court in Belgrade between 28 July and 9 August 1945 . He was accused of conducting the massacre at Foča , participating in the extermination of the Muslim population , collaboration with the occupying forces and the Serbian puppet government of General Milan Nedić and the commission of crimes against the Partisans . He was found guilty of various offences and executed by firing squad on 14 August 1945 .
= Carlos Menem =
Carlos Saúl Menem ( born July 2 , 1930 ) is an Argentine politician who was President of Argentina from 1989 to 1999 . He has been a Senator for La Rioja Province since 2005 .
Born in Anillaco , he became a Peronist during a visit to Buenos Aires . He led the party in his home province of La Rioja , and was elected governor in 1973 . He was deposed and detained during the 1976 Argentine coup d 'état , and was elected governor again in 1983 . He defeated the Buenos Aires governor Antonio Cafiero in the primary elections for the 1989 presidential elections , which he won . Hyperinflation forced outgoing president Raúl Alfonsín to resign early , shortening the presidential transition .
Menem supported the Washington Consensus , and tackled inflation with the Convertibility plan in 1991 . The plan was complemented by a series of privatizations , and was a success . Argentina re @-@ established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom , suspended since the 1982 Falklands War , and developed special relations with the United States . The country suffered two terrorist attacks . The Peronist victory in the 1993 midterm elections allowed him to force Alfonsín to sign the Pact of Olivos for the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution . This amendment allowed Menem to run for re @-@ election in 1995 , which he won . A new economic crisis began , and the opposing parties formed a political coalition that won the 1997 midterm elections and the 1999 presidential election .
Menem ran for the presidency again in 2003 , but unsure of winning against Néstor Kirchner , he resigned . He was elected senator for La Rioja in 2005 .
= = Early life and education = =
Carlos Saúl Menem was born in 1930 in Anillaco , a small town in the mountainous north of La Rioja Province , Argentina . His parents , Saúl Menem and Mohibe Akil , were Syrian nationals from Yabroud who had emigrated to Argentina . He attended elementary and high school in La Rioja , and joined a basketball team during his university studies . He visited Buenos Aires in 1951 with the team , and met the president Juan Perón and his wife Eva Perón . This influenced Menem to become a Peronist . He studied law at the National University of Córdoba , graduating in 1955 .
After President Juan Perón 's overthrow in 1955 , Menem was briefly incarcerated . He later joined the successor to the Peronist Party , the Justicialist Party ( Partido Justicialista ) ( PJ ) . He was elected president of its La Rioja Province chapter in 1973 . In that capacity , he was included in the flight to Spain that brought Perón back to Argentina after his long exile . According to the Peronist politician Juan Manuel Abal Medina , Menem played no special part in the event .
= = Governor of la Rioja = =
= = = 1st term ( 1973 – 1976 ) and detainment = = =
Menem was elected governor in 1973 , when the proscription over Peronism was lifted . He was deposed during the 1976 Argentine coup d 'état that deposed the president Isabel Martínez de Perón . He was accused of corruption , and having links with the guerrillas of the Dirty War . He was detained on March 25 , kept for a week at a local regiment , and then moved to a temporary prison at the ship " 33 Orientales " in Buenos Aires . He was detained alongside former ministers Antonio Cafiero , Jorge Taiana , Miguel Unamuno , José Deheza , and Pedro Arrighi , the unionists Jorge Triaca , Diego Ibáñez , and Lorenzo Miguel , the diplomat Jorge Vázquez , the journalist Osvaldo Papaleo , and the former president Raúl Lastiri . He shared a cell with Pedro Eladio Vázquez , Juan Perón 's personal physician . During this time he helped the chaplain Lorenzo Lavalle , despite being a Muslim . In July he was sent to Magdalena , to a permanent prison . His wife Zulema visited him every week , but rejected his conversion to Christianity . His mother died during the time he was a prisoner , and dictator Jorge Rafael Videla denied his request to attend her funeral . He was released on July 29 , 1978 , on the condition that he live in a city outside his home province without leaving it . He settled in Mar del Plata .
Menem met Admiral Eduardo Massera , who intended to run for president , and had public meetings with personalities such as Carlos Monzón , Susana Giménez , and Alberto Olmedo . As a result , he was forced to reside in another city , Tandil . He had to report daily to Chief of Police Hugo Zamora . This forced residence was lifted in February 1980 . He returned to Buenos Aires , and then to La Rioja . He resumed his political activities , despite the prohibition , and was detained again . His new forced residence was in Las Lomitas , in Formosa Province . He was one of the last politicians to be released from prison by the National Reorganization Process .
= = = 2nd and 3rd terms ( 1983 – 1989 ) = = =
Military rule ended in 1983 , and the radical Raúl Alfonsín was elected president . Menem run for governor again , and was elected by a clear margin . The province benefited from tax regulations established by the military , which allowed increased industrial growth . His party got control of the provincial legislature , and he was re @-@ elected in 1987 with 63 % of the vote . The PJ was divided in two factions , the conservatives that still supported the political doctrines of Juan and Isabel Perón , and those who proposed a renovation of the party . The internal disputes ceased in 1987 . Menem , with his prominent victory in his district , was one of the leading figures of the party , and disputed its leadership .
= = Presidential elections = =
Antonio Cafiero , who had been elected governor of Buenos Aires Province , led the renewal of the PJ , and was considered their most likely candidate for the presidency . Menem , on the other hand , was seen as a populist leader . Using a big tent approach , he got support from several unrelated political figures . As a result , he defeated Cafiero in the primary elections . He sought alliances with Bunge and Born , union leaders , former members of Montoneros , and the AAA , people from the church , " Carapintadas " , etc . He promised a " revolution of production " and huge wage increases ; but it was not clear exactly which policies he was proposing . The rival candidate , Eduardo Angeloz , tried to point out the mistakes made by Menem and Alfonsín . Jacques de Mahieu , a French ideologue of the Peronist movement ( and former Vichy collaborator ) , was photographed campaigning for Menem .
The elections were held on May 14 , 1989 . Menem won by a wide margin , and became the new president . He was scheduled to take office on December 10 , but inflation levels took a turn for the worse , growing into hyperinflation , causing public riots . The outgoing president Alfonsín resigned and transferred power to Menem five months early , on July 8 . Menem 's accession marked the first time since Hipólito Yrigoyen took office in 1916 that an incumbent government was peacefully succeeded by a president from an opposition party .
= = Presidency = =
= = = Economic policy = = =
When Menem began his presidency , there was massive hyperinflation and a recession . Most economists of the time thought that the ideal solution was the Washington Consensus : reduce expenditures below the amount of money earned by the state , and open international commerce to free trade . Alfonsín had proposed similar plans in the past , alongside some privatization ; but those projects were resisted by the PJ . The plan was resisted by factions benefiting from the protectionist policies , but the magnitude of the crisis convinced most politicians to change their minds . Menem , fearing that the crisis might force him to resign as well , embraced the Washington Consensus and rejected the traditional policies of Peronism . He invited the conservative politicians Álvaro Alsogaray and María Julia Alsogaray into his cabinet , as well as businessmen from Bunge and Born .
Congress sanctioned the economic emergency law and the state reform law . The first allowed the president to reduce or remove subsidies , and the latter to privatize state enterprises – the first being telephones and airlines . These privatizations were beneficial to foreign creditors , who replaced their bonds with company shares . Despite increased tax revenue , and the money from privatizations , the economy was still unstable . The Bunge and Born businessmen left the government in late 1989 , amid a second round of hyperinflation . The first measure of the new minister of economy , Érman González , was a mandatory conversion of time deposits into government bonds : the Bonex plan . It generated more recession , but hyperinflation was reduced .
His fourth minister of economy , Domingo Cavallo , was appointed in 1991 . He deepened the neoliberal reforms . The Convertibility plan was sanctioned by the Congress , setting a one @-@ to @-@ one fixed exchange rate between the United States dollar and the new Argentine peso , which replaced the Austral . The law also limited public expenditures , but this was frequently ignored . There was increased free trade to reduce inflation , and high taxes on sales and earnings to reduce the deficit caused by it . Initially , the plan was a success : the capital flights ended , interest and inflation rates were lowered , and economic activity increased . The money from privatizations allowed Argentina to repurchase many of the Brady Bonds issued during the crisis . The privatizations of electricity , water , and gas were more successful than previous ones . YPF , the national oil refinery , was privatized as well , but the state kept a good portion of the shares . The project to privatize the pension funds was resisted in Congress , and was approved as a mixed system that allowed both public and private options for workers . The national state also signed a fiscal pact with the provinces , so that they reduced their local deficits as well . Buenos Aires Province was helped with a fund that gave the governor a million pesos daily .
Although the Convertibility plan had positive consequences in the short term , it caused problems that surfaced later . Large numbers of employees of privatized state enterprises were fired , and unemployment grew to over 10 % . Big compensation payments prevented an immediate public reaction . The free trade , and the expensive costs in dollars , forced private companies to reduce the number of workers as well , or risk bankruptcy . Unions were unable to resist the changes . People with low incomes , such as retirees and state workers , suffered under tax increases while their wages remained frozen . The provinces of Santiago del Estero , Jujuy and San Juan had their first violent riots . To compensate for these problems , the government started a number of social welfare programs , and restored protectionist policies over some sectors of the economy . It was difficult for Argentine companies to export , and easy imports damaged most national producers . The national budget soon slid into deficit .
Cavallo began a second wave of privatizations with the Correo Argentino and the nuclear power plants . He also limited the amount of money released to the provinces . He still had the full support of Menem , despite growing opposition within the PJ . The Mexican Tequila Crisis impacted the national economy , causing a deficit , recession , and a growth in unemployment . The government further reduced public expenditures , the wages of state workers , and raised taxes . The deficit and recession were reduced , but unemployment stayed high . External debt increased . The crisis also proved that the economic system was vulnerable to capital flight . The growing discontent over unemployment and the scandals caused by the privatization of the Correo led to Cavallo 's removal as minister , and his replacement by Roque Fernández . Fernández maintained Cavallo 's fiscal austerity . He increased the price of fuels , sold the state shares of YPF to Repsol , fired state employees , and increased the value @-@ added tax to 21 % . He also undertook more privatization . A new labor law was met with resistance , both by Peronists , opposition parties , and unions , and could not be approved by Congress . The 1997 Asian financial crisis and the 1998 Russian financial crisis also affected the country with consequences that lasted longer than the Tequilla Crisis and started a depression .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
Menem began his presidency assuming a non @-@ confrontational approach , and appointing people from the conservative opposition , and business people to his cabinet . To prevent successful legal cases against the projected privatizations , the Supreme Court 's numbers were increased from five to nine judges ; the new judges ruled in support of Menem and usually had the majority . Other institutions that restrained or limited executive power were controlled as well . When Congress resisted some of his proposals , he used the Necessity and Urgency Decree as an alternative to send bills to it . He even considered it feasible to dissolve Congress and rule by decree , but this step was never implemented . In addition , he developed a bon vivant lifestyle , taking advantage of his authority . For instance , he made a journey from Buenos Aires to Pinamar driving a Ferrari Testarossa in less than two hours , violating speed limits . He divorced his wife Zulema Yoma and expanded the Quinta de Olivos presidential residence with a golf course , a small zoo , servants , barber , and even a buffoon .
The swiftgate scandal broke out in 1990 , as American investors were damaged by a case of corruption , and asked for assistance from the United States ' Ambassador Terence Todman . Most of the ministers resigned as a result of it . Cavallo was reassigned as minister of economy , and his successful economic plan turned him into a prominent figure in Menem 's cabinet . Cavallo brought a number of independent economists to the cabinet , and Menem supported him by replacing Peronist politicians . Both teams complemented each other . Both Menem and Cavallo tried to be recognized as the designer of the convertibility plan .
Antonio Cafiero , a rival of Menem in the PJ , was unable to amend the constitution of the Buenos Aires province to run for a re @-@ election . Duhalde stepped down from the vice presidency and became the new governor in the 1991 elections , turning the province into a powerful bastion . Menem also selected famous people with no political background to run for office in those elections including the singer Palito Ortega and racing driver Carlos Reutemann . The elections were a big success for the PJ . After these elections , all of the PJ was aligned with Menem 's leadership , with the exception of a small number of legislators known as the " Group of Eight " . The opposition from the UCR was minimal , as the party was still discredited by the 1989 crisis . With such political influence , Menem began his proposal to amend the constitution to allow a re @-@ election . The party did not have the required super majority in the Congress to call for it . The PJ was divided , as other politicians intended to replace Menem in 1995 , or negotiate their support . The UCR was divided as well , as Alfonsín opposed the proposal , but governors Angeloz and Massaccesi were open for negotiations . The victory in the 1993 elections strengthened his proposal , which was approved by the Senate . Menem called for a non @-@ binding referendum on the proposal , to increase pressure on the radical deputies . He also sent a bill to the Congress to modify the majority requirements . Alfonsín met with Menem and agreed to support the proposal in exchange for amendments that would place limits on presidential power . This negotiation is known as the Pact of Olivos . The capital city of Buenos Aires would be allowed to elect its own chief of government . Presidential elections would use a system of ballotage , and the president could only be re @-@ elected once . The electoral college was abolished , replaced by direct elections . The provinces would be allowed to elect a third senator ; two for the majority party and one for the first minority . The Council of Magistrates of the Nation would have the power to propose new judges , and the Necessity and Urgency Decrees would have a reduced scope .
Despite of the internal opposition of Fernando de la Rúa , Alfonsín got his party to approve the pact . He reasoned that Menem would be supported by the eventual referendum , that many legislators would turn to his side , and he would eventually be able to amend the constitution reinforcing presidential power rather than limiting it . Still , as both sides feared a betrayal , all the contents of the pact were included as a single proposal , not allowing the Constituent Assembly to discuss each one separately . The Broad Front , a new political party composed of former Peronists , led by Carlos Álvarez , grew in the elections for the Constituent Assembly . Both the PJ and the UCR respected the pact , which was completely approved . Duhalde made a similar amendment to the constitution of the Buenos Aires province , in order to be re @-@ elected in 1995 . Menem won the elections with more than 50 % of the vote , followed by José Octavio Bordón , and Carlos Álvarez . The UCR finished third in the elections for the first time .
Growing unemployment increased popular resistance against Menem after his re @-@ election . There were several riots and demonstrations in the provinces , unions opposed the economic policies , and the opposing parties organized the first cacerolazos . Estanislao Esteban Karlic replaced Antonio Quarracino as the head of the Argentine Episcopal Conference , which led to a growing opposition to Menem from the Church . The teachers ' unions established a " white tent " at the Congressional plaza as a form of protest . The first piqueteros operated in Cutral Có , and this protest method was soon imitated in the rest of the country . His authority in the PJ was also held in doubt , as he was unable to run for another re @-@ election and the party sought a candidate for the 1999 elections . This led to a fierce rivalry with Duhalde , the most likely candidate . Menem attempted to undermine his chances , and proposed a new amendment to the constitution allowing him to run for an unlimited number of re @-@ elections . He also started a judicial case , claiming that his inability to run for a third term was a proscription . Several scandals erupted , such as the scandal over Argentine arms sales to Ecuador and Croatia , the Río Tercero explosion that may have destroyed evidence , the murder of the journalist José Luis Cabezas , and the suicide of Alfredo Yabrán , who may have ordered it . The PJ lost the 1997 midterm elections against the UCR and the FREPASO united in a political coalition , the Alliance for Work , Justice and Education ( Alianza ) . The Supreme Court confirmed that Menem was unable to run for a third re @-@ election . Duhalde became the candidate for the presidential elections , and lost to the candidate for the Alianza ticket , Fernando de la Rúa .
= = = Armed forces = = =
Argentina was still divided by the aftermath of the Dirty War . Menem proposed an agenda of national reconciliation . First , he arranged the repatriation of the body of Juan Manuel de Rosas , a controversial 19th century governor , and proposed to reconcile his legacy with those of Bartolomé Mitre and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento , who also fought in the Argentine Civil Wars . Menem intended to use the reconciliation of these historical Argentine figures as a metaphor for the reconciliation of the Dirty War . However , although the repatriation and acceptance of Rosas was a success , the acceptance of the military regime was not .
The military leaders of the National Reorganization Process , convicted in the 1985 Trial of the Juntas , received presidential pardons , despite popular opposition to them . This was an old request of the Carapintadas in previous years . However , Menem did not apply their proposed changes to the military . The colonel , Mohamed Alí Seineldín , who was also pardoned , started a new mutiny , killing two military men . Unlike the mutinies that took place during the presidency of Alfonsín , the military fully obeyed Menem 's orders for a forceful repression . Seineldín was utterly defeated , and sentenced to life imprisonment . This was the last military mutiny in Argentina .
The president effected drastic cuts to the military budget , and privatized military | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
eronasal organ ( VNO ) , a subsystem of the nose known to detect pheromones via specific sensory receptors , of mice and rats . Together , this demonstrated that Mup proteins can act as pheromones themselves , independent of their ligands .
Consistent with a role in male @-@ male aggression , adult male mice secrete significantly more Mups into their urine than females , juveniles or castrated male mice . The precise mechanism driving this difference between the sexes is complex , but at least three hormones — testosterone , growth hormone and thyroxine — are known to positively influence the production of Mups in mice . Wild house mouse urine contains variable combinations of four to seven distinct Mup proteins per mouse . Some inbred laboratory mouse strains , such as BALB / c and C57BL / 6 , also have different proteins expressed in their urine . However , unlike wild mice , different individuals from the same strain express the same protein pattern , an artifact of many generations of inbreeding . One unusual Mup is less variable than the others : it is consistently produced by a high proportion of wild male mice and is almost never found in female urine . When this Mup was made in bacteria and used in behavioural testing , it was found to attract female mice . Other Mups were tested but they did not have the same attractive qualities , suggesting the male @-@ specific Mup acts as a sex pheromone . Scientists named this Mup darcin as a humorous reference to Fitzwilliam Darcy , the romantic hero from Pride and Prejudice . Taken together , the complex patterns of Mups produced has the potential to provide a range information about the donor animal , such as gender , fertility , social dominance , age , genetic diversity or kinship . Wild mice ( unlike laboratory mice that are genetically identical and which therefore also have identical patterns of Mups in the urine ) have individual patterns of Mup expression in their urine that act as a " barcode " to uniquely identify the owner of a scent mark .
In the house mouse , the major MUP gene cluster provides a highly polymorphic scent signal of genetic identity . Wild mice breeding freely in semi @-@ natural enclosures showed inbreeding avoidance . This avoidance resulted from a strong deficit in successful matings between mice sharing both MUP haplotypes ( complete match ) . In another study , using white @-@ footed mice , it was found that when mice derived from wild populations were inbred there was reduced survival when such mice were reintroduced into a natural habitat . These findings suggest that inbreeding reduces fitness , and that scent signal recognition has evolved in mice as a means of avoiding inbreeding depression .
= = = Kairomones = = =
In addition to serving as social cues between members of the same species , Mups can act as kairomones — chemical signals that transmit information between species . Mice are instinctively afraid of the smell of their natural predators , including cats and rats . This occurs even in laboratory mice that have been isolated from predators for hundreds of generations . When the chemical cues responsible for the fear response were purified from cat saliva and rat urine , two homologous protein signals were identified : Fel d 4 ( Felis domesticus allergen 4 ) , the product of the cat Mup gene , and Rat n 1 ( Rattus norvegicus allergen 1 ) , the product of the rat Mup13 gene . Mice are fearful of these Mups even when they are made in bacteria , but mutant animals that are unable to detect the Mups showed no fear of rats , demonstrating their importance in initiating fearful behaviour . It is not known exactly how Mups from different species initiate disparate behaviours , but mouse Mups and predator Mups have been shown to activate unique patterns of sensory neurons in the nose of recipient mice . This implies the mouse perceives them differently , via distinct neural circuits . The pheromone receptors responsible for Mup detection are also unknown , though they are thought be members of the V2R receptor class .
= = = Allergens = = =
Along with other members of the lipocalin protein family , major urinary proteins can be potent allergens to humans . The reason for this is not known , however molecular mimicry between Mups and structurally similar human lipocalins has been proposed as a possible explanation . The protein product of the mouse Mup17 gene , known as Mus m 1 , Ag1 or MA1 , accounts for much of the allergenic properties of mouse urine . The protein is extremely stable in the environment ; studies have found 95 % of inner city homes , and 82 % of all types of homes in the United States have detectable levels in at least one room . Similarly , Rat n 1 is a known human allergen . A US study found its presence in 33 % of inner city homes , and 21 % of occupants were sensitized to the allergen . Exposure and sensitization to rodent Mup proteins is considered a risk factor for childhood asthma , and is a leading cause of laboratory animal allergy ( LAA ) — an occupational disease of laboratory animal technicians and scientists . One study found that two @-@ thirds of laboratory workers who had developed asthmatic reactions to animals had antibodies to Rat n 1 .
Mup genes from other mammals also encode allergenic proteins , for example Fel d 4 is primarily produced in the submandibular salivary gland and is deposited onto dander as the cat grooms itself . A study found that 63 % of cat allergic people have antibodies against the protein . Most had higher titres of antibodies against Fel d 4 than against Fel d 1 , another prominent cat allergen . Likewise , Equ c1 ( Equus caballus allergen 1 ) is the protein product of a horse Mup gene that is found in the liver , sublingual and submaxillary salivary glands . It is responsible for about 80 % of the antibody response in patients who are chronically exposed to horse allergens .
= = = Metabolism = = =
While the detection of Mups excreted by other animals has been well studied , the functional role in the producing animal is less clear . However , in 2009 , Mups were shown to be associated with the regulation of energy expenditure in mice . Scientists found that genetically induced obese , diabetic mice produce thirty times less Mup RNA than their lean siblings . When they delivered Mup protein directly into the bloodstream of these mice , they observed an increase in energy expenditure , physical activity and body temperature and a corresponding decrease in glucose intolerance and insulin resistance . They propose that Mups ' beneficial effects on energy metabolism occurs by enhancing mitochondrial function in skeletal muscle . Another study found Mups were reduced in diet @-@ induced obese mice . In this case , the presence of Mups in the bloodstream of mice restricted glucose production by directly inhibiting the expression of genes in the liver .
= Li Jiawei =
Li Jiawei ( Chinese : 李佳薇 ; pinyin : Lǐ Jiāwēi ; born 9 August 1981 ) is a Chinese @-@ born Singaporean table tennis player who is ranked among the top ten athletes in her sport . Spotted by Singapore talent scouts in Beijing in 1995 , she moved to Singapore and commenced her international career in competitive table tennis in 1996 . She became a Singapore citizen at the age of 18 years under the Foreign Sports Talent Scheme .
As a singles player , Li was ranked sixth in the world as of August 2008 . Her highest ranking was in December 2005 , when she was third . Li is also a key player for women 's team and doubles , and mixed doubles events . She finished in fourth place in singles at both the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens and the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . On 15 August , the Singapore women 's team composed of Li and her teammates Feng Tianwei and Wang Yuegu defeated South Korea 3 – 2 in the semifinals . However , in the finals on 17 August , the team lost to China and earned a silver medal , marking the first time that Singapore had won an Olympic medal since the nation 's independence in 1965 . The medal came 48 years after Tan Howe Liang won the country 's first medal , a silver in weightlifting at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome . Li ended 2008 on a high , winning gold in the women 's team event with Feng and Wang at the ITTF Pro Tour ERKE German Open in Berlin in November , and in the doubles with Sun Beibei at the ITTF Volkswagen Pro Tour Grand Finals in Macau in December 2008 .
Li won the women 's team bronze medal with Feng and Wang at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . She announced her retirement from competitive sports on 27 December 2012 .
= = Early years = =
Li Jiawei , the only daughter of a government official and a housewife , was born on 9 August 1981 in Beijing , People 's Republic of China . In 1990 , Li was a student at the Beijing Shichahai Sports School . She then entered the Beijing provincial team in 1994 . Her skill in table tennis was recognized by Singaporean talent scouts and she was invited to train in Singapore under the Foreign Sports Talent Scheme in 1996 , returning to China once a year to visit her parents . She began representing Singapore internationally in competitive table tennis the following year . At 18 , she became a Singapore citizen .
= = Professional career = =
Ranked 18th in the world in 2000 , Li achieved gold medals in the women 's team , women 's doubles and mixed doubles events at the XVII Commonwealth Games held between 25 July and 4 August 2002 in Manchester , and was ranked eighth in November 2002 . The following year , in December 2003 , Li was a member of the Singapore team which swept the top awards at the 23rd Southeast Asian Games in the women 's team , women 's singles , women 's doubles and mixed doubles .
On 3 July 2004 , Li took gold in the women 's singles at the International Table Tennis Federation ( ITTF ) Pro Tour US Open in Chicago . Subsequently , at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , she defeated the second @-@ seeded China player Wang Nan but eventually finished in fourth place . In 2005 , she was second in the ITTF Pro Tour Grand Finals , and gained silver medals for the women 's singles and mixed doubles at the 23rd Southeast Asian ( SEA ) Games held between 28 November and 4 December 2005 in Manila . She was also the key player in the gold @-@ winning women 's team and women 's doubles events . In December 2005 , she was ranked third in the world as a singles player . She won an individual Singapore Youth Award in 2005 and was Her World magazine 's Young Woman Achiever of 2005 .
At the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne , Li won gold for the women 's team and women 's doubles , and the silver medal for the women 's singles and mixed doubles events . Subsequently , she won the women 's singles at the ITTF Pro Tour Russia Open . She also achieved third place in the ITTF Pro Tour Grand Finals and the Women 's World Cup , which are two of the most prestigious and difficult competitions in the table tennis arena . At the 15th Asian Games held from 29 November to 7 December 2006 in Doha , Qatar , she achieved three medals : a silver for the women 's team event and two bronzes for the women 's singles and mixed doubles . The next year , she won gold in the singles at the ITTF Pro Tour Chinese Taipei Open in Taipei , and helped Singapore to the top spots in the women 's team and mixed doubles events at the 2007 SEA Games in Nakhon Ratchasima ( Korat ) , Thailand .
As at August 2008 , Li was ranked sixth in the world . She won the accolade of Sportswoman of the Year from the Singapore National Olympic Council five times in a row between 2002 and 2006 , and received a Meritorious Award in 2007 .
At the club competition level , Li plays in the Chinese Table Tennis Super League . In 2008 , she represented Peking University club , and in 2010 , she played for Beijing Holdings which consists of world champion Ding Ning as well .
= = = 2008 Summer Olympics = = =
Li represented Singapore for the third time in the Olympic Games at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . She was the flag @-@ bearer for Team Singapore at the opening ceremony of the Games on 8 August , having requested the honour . She explained : " There has been so much debate over the foreign talent scheme . This is my way of showing everyone that everything I 've ever achieved is because of Singapore . "
At the Beijing Olympics , table tennis team events are played in a best @-@ of @-@ five @-@ matches format . Teams play two single matches followed by a doubles match . If there is no winner after these matches , the teams play a fourth singles match , and if necessary a rubber match to determine the winning team . On 13 August , the Singapore women 's table tennis team coached by Liu Guodong , comprising Li as the team captain and her teammates Feng Tianwei and Wang Yuegu , beat teams from the United States and Nigeria with comfortable 3 – 0 wins . On 14 August , the Singapore team also defeated the Netherlands 3 – 0 to reach the semifinals , but not before a gruelling five @-@ game doubles match against the Dutch players Li Jie and Elena Timina which Li Jiawei and Wang Yuegu eventually won 3 – 2 . The next day , 15 August , the Singapore team defeated the South Korean team of Dang Ye @-@ Seo , Kim Kyung @-@ Ah and Park Mi @-@ Young 3 – 2 in the semifinals , which went to five matches . Li lost her singles match to Korea 's Kim , but beat Kim and Park in the doubles with her partner Wang . Singapore 's Feng won both her singles matches against Dang and Park .
On 17 August , Li and her teammates gained Singapore a silver medal in women 's table tennis after losing to China in three matches . Li won the first game of her singles match , but was then defeated by her former Beijing Sports School teammate Zhang Yining . In the doubles match , China 's Zhang and Guo Yue bested Singapore 's Li and Wang Yuegu . This marked the first time that Singapore had won an Olympic medal since the nation 's independence in 1965 . The medal came 48 years after Tan Howe Liang won the country 's first medal , a silver in weightlifting in the lightweight category at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome . Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong requested that the live English @-@ language broadcast of his National Day Rally speech , which coincided with the table tennis finals , be postponed by a day . He also provided the audience with updates on the score , and made a conference call to Tan Eng Liang , Team Singapore 's chef de mission , to congratulate the team .
Li and her teammates received byes into the third round of the singles tournament . Asked if she stood a chance of winning any more medals , she said : " I will try my best in every match . I definitely hope to win one more medal for Singapore . " She beat Croatia 's Tamara Boroš in the third round , Hong Kong 's Lin Ling in the fourth round , and the USA 's Wang Chen in the quarter @-@ finals . However , on 22 August she was defeated in the semifinals 4 – 1 by Zhang Yining of China , ranked number one in the world , and lost the bronze medal 4 – 2 to China 's Guo Yue . Thus placed fourth in the singles tournament , she equalled her performance in the 2004 Athens Olympics but again failed in her quest for an individual Olympic medal . After the bronze medal match , a tearful Li told reporters this would be her final Olympics . At a victory celebration in Singapore on 25 August , Vivian Balakrishnan , the Minister for Community Development , Youth and Sports , announced that Li , Feng and Wang would be presented with the Pingat Jasa Gemilang ( Meritorious Service Medal ) . This is only the third time the medal will be awarded to athletes , the two previous recipients being weightlifter Tan Howe Liang ( 1962 ) and swimmer Joscelin Yeo ( 2006 ) .
Li has expressed interest in pursuing a communications degree at Peking University . In October 2008 the Singapore Table Tennis Association said the Association and the Singapore Sports Council were prepared to offer her a scholarship to do so . Nevertheless , Li said that she wished to continue her career and to compete in the 2012 Summer Olympics .
In May 2009 , the national table tennis women 's team , composed of Li and her teammates Feng , Wang and Sun Beibei , were awarded the Team of the Year ( Event ) prize at the Singapore Sports Awards .
= = = Events between 2008 and 2012 = = =
On 22 November 2008 , despite crashing out of the singles event earlier , Li and her teammates Feng and Wang won the top title and US $ 8 @,@ 000 at the ITTF Pro Tour ERKE German Open in Berlin . Li ended the year as top seed with Sun Beibei , achieving gold in the women 's doubles at the ITTF Volkswagen Pro Tour Grand Finals in Macau on 14 December 2008 , the first time that Singapore had won this event . They beat South Koreans Kim Kyung Ah and Park Mi @-@ Young 11 – 5 , 6 – 11 , 11 – 9 , 11 – 8 , 11 – 4 . Li was named Today newspaper 's Singapore Athlete of the Year 2008 .
Li returned to the international stage in February 2010 after taking a year off from competitive table tennis to give birth to a child . Her first major competition – the World Team Table Tennis Championships in Moscow – saw her and her teammates beating China in the finals to clinch gold . Li also had a series of good performances after her return . She guided the women 's team to gold at the 2010 Commonwealth Games in New Delhi and went on to win the women 's doubles title with Sun Beibei . She ended 2010 with a bang by winning the silver medal in the women 's team event of the 16th Asian Games .
= = = 2012 Summer Olympics = = =
Li represented Singapore at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . She participated in the women 's team competition with Feng Tianwei and Wang Yuegu . They were beaten 0 – 3 by Japan in the semifinals , but took the bronze medal on 7 August 2012 by edging South Korea out 3 – 0 . Feng defeated Kim Kyung Ah 11 – 9 , 11 – 8 , 4 – 11 , 13 – 11 ; and Li also successfully fended off Seok Ha Jung 11 – 5 , 11 – 8 , 6 – 11 , 11 – 8 . Li and Wang then succeeded in the doubles game against Seok and Dang Ye Seo 11 – 9 , 11 – 6 , 6 – 11 , 11 – 5 . This marked the first time Singapore had won more than one medal at an Olympic Games . Li , who was said to have been instrumental to the team 's win , called the achievement " the perfect birthday present " and commented : " It 's been a really significant and meaningful Olympics for me . ... I managed to be very focused today and I would say this is one of my best performances . " Asked whether she would compete at the 2016 Summer Olympics , she said that she had not given serious thought to retirement but would need to take a break to allow her long @-@ standing knee injury to recover . " [ W ] e 'll have to see how the situation is closer to the date . "
= = Retirement = =
Li announced her retirement from competitive sports on 27 December 2012 . Although she planned to relocate to Beijing with her husband and son , she said she hoped to continue her involvement with table tennis in Singapore . The Singapore Table Tennis Association was said to be helping Li find employment in a Singapore company with operations based in China .
= = Medals = =
= = Personal life = =
Li first met Singaporean badminton player and fellow Olympian Ronald Susilo in 2002 at a sports meet . They began dating after participating together in the Athens Olympics , and the " golden sports couple " , as they were dubbed by the media , announced their engagement in September 2004 . About two years later there were rumours that they were breaking up , but these were denied by them at the time . On 15 January 2008 , when queried by a journalist , Susilo confirmed that he and Li had broken up amicably the previous week . Following a report in The Sunday Times that Susilo was contemplating legal action against her to recover money he claimed to have spent in buying their condominium apartment and car , Li disagreed that Susilo had a share in the apartment and implied he was trying to affect her mood and thus her chances of winning a medal at the Beijing Olympics . Susilo declined to discuss the matter with the press , saying it was a private matter between Li and himself ; he wished her all the best for the Olympics . In October 2008 it was announced that Li and Susilo had settled their property dispute amicably . The terms of the settlement were confidential .
On 26 September 2008 , Li registered a marriage in Beijing with Li Chao , a businessman based in that city ; they were introduced by a mutual friend in March 2008 . Sources quoted by The Straits Times said Li had long wanted her children to bear her surname . A lavish wedding banquet was held at the Beijing Hotel on 25 April 2009 . In November 2008 Li said she wished to have two to three children before turning 35 , though this would not affect her table tennis career . On 13 October 2009 , she and her husband had their first child , a boy weighing 3 @.@ 575 kilograms ( 7 @.@ 88 lb ) . Her husband confirmed that they were " hoping for at least three kids , the more the merrier " , and it was reported that Li would try for more children following the 2012 Summer Olympics . Li started training again in February 2010 and competed in the Commonwealth Games and Asian Games .
= P.T. ( video game ) =
P.T. ( short for " playable teaser " ) , is a first @-@ person psychological survival horror video game directed by Hideo Kojima in collaboration with Guillermo Del Toro , developed by Kojima Productions under the fake pseudonym " 7780s Studio " , and published by Konami .
Released for the PlayStation 4 on 12 August 2014 as a free download on the PlayStation Network , P.T. served primarily as an interactive teaser for the game Silent Hills , a cancelled installment in the Silent Hill series . After the cancellation , Konami removed P.T. from the PlayStation Store and eliminated re @-@ installing the game , a decision that later spawned criticism and fan efforts to allow P.T. to be re @-@ downloaded .
P.T. received critical acclaim for its direction , visuals , story complexity , and supernatural tension , but was both criticized and acclaimed for the puzzles and solutions .
= = Gameplay = =
Unlike the third @-@ person perspective in Silent Hill games , P.T. uses a first @-@ person perspective , which centers on an unknown protagonist , whom the player controls , who awakens in a haunted suburban house and experiences supernatural occurrences . Available areas to explore in the home consist of an L @-@ shaped corridor with two rooms adjacent to it : a bathroom , and a staircase which leads to the room in which the player starts a loop , or a continuous reincarnation of the corridor . The only actions the player can use are walking and zooming . To progress , the player must investigate frightening events and solve cryptic puzzles . Each time a loop is successfully completed , changes appear in the corridor . Additionally , the player encounters a hostile ghost named Lisa . If she catches the protagonist , the player experiences a startling jump scare and is sent back to the beginning of the current loop .
After the player solves the final puzzle , a cryptic and unrevealed puzzle that allows the player to escape , a trailer reveals that P.T. is a " playable teaser " for a new game in the Silent Hill series , called Silent Hills , directed by Hideo Kojima and Guillermo del Toro , with the protagonist portrayed by Norman Reedus .
= = Plot = =
P.T. centers on an unnamed protagonist who awakens in a concrete @-@ lined room , and opens a door to a haunted corridor , in which he can only walk through a hallway which continuously loops and redecorates itself . The first time he passes , a radio reports on a familicide , which was committed by the father , and later mentions two other cases exactly like it , while the radio issues other messages in various languages , including a Swedish message referencing the 1938 radio drama The War of the Worlds .
The protagonist soon encounters a hostile and unstable female apparition , presumably named Lisa , and upon entering the bathroom and being locked , he obtains a flashlight and finds a creature resembling an underdeveloped fetus in the sink . He soon gets out , but finds out that the apparition is watching him . If the protagonist is attacked by the ghost , he reawakens in the first room of the game , beginning the loop again , but it 's possible to avoid her completely . In the room , a bloody moving paper bag speaks to him , speaking of a disturbing experience , and revealing the same words the player sees when they start the game - " Watch out . The gap in the door ... it 's a separate reality . The only me is me . Are you sure the only you is you ? "
The next few loops feature a refrigerator hanging from the ceiling , leaking blood , whilst the sound of a crying baby can be heard . This happens several times , each time being more severe than the last . As it transitions , the lamps turn completely red , the player 's vision blurs , and the character moves abnormally quickly , with a set of disturbing illusions . Eventually , the protagonist hears the sounds of a murder being committed in the bathroom through the bathroom peephole . Upon the bathroom door opening by itself , the protagonist enters and the fetus @-@ like creature addresses the protagonist , revealing that ten months earlier , he lost his job and turned to alcoholism , with his wife landing a part @-@ time cashier job from the manager who was sexually attracted to her . The corridor then corrects itself and the protagonist eventually gets locked in . As he tries to escape , the same " Paper Bag " voice utters " 204863 " repeatedly and the player 's perspective distorts , before the game displays a false crash message .
Upon restarting , the protagonist awakens in the beginning room . The player continues the loop with only the flashlight as a light source . The player then discovers the torn pieces of a photograph , scattered throughout the hall and reassembles it in its frame . After the picture is completed and a set of tasks are done , a telephone rings and the radio 's voice says " You 've been chosen . " The protagonist sees the door unlock and leaves the building .
In the subsequent cutscene , the radio 's voice remarks about having lived a life of regularity until his father killed him and his family without any creativity ; he then voices his intention to return with his " new toys " . The protagonist steps out into the streets of a deserted city and is revealed to be Norman Reedus . The credits then reveal the nature of the Playable Teaser .
= = Development = =
Kojima Productions used their game engine , the Fox Engine , to develop P.T .. Hideo Kojima 's intention when creating P.T. was to scare people in a unique way , as well as to deliver an interactive teaser experience instead of releasing trailers and screenshots of Silent Hills .
= = = Game design = = =
P.T. was designed to take players at least a week to complete , and Kojima intended the puzzles to be very enigmatic and difficult . Despite this , a few gamers reportedly finished the game within hours after the release , surprising him . Kojima also intended for P.T. to be a mystery in order to make it a more frightening experience . There is little , if not cryptic , information given in the game on events that take place , and there are few clues as to how to solve the puzzles . He chose the corridor as the setting as opposed to " a ruin " because he wanted the teaser to emotionally affect the player regardless of " cultural background " . Kojima elaborated that P.T. and Silent Hills have no canonical and direct relation , and that Silent Hills would have been enhanced by elements that were never in P.T. He based his concept of P.T. on horror films and other media that he found frightening . When creating the game , Kojima refrained from using graphic violence to build up suspense , as he felt that too many horror games rely on the trope . He wanted to elicit a more " genuine , thoughtful and permeating " type of fear .
= = Release = =
P.T. was originally announced at Gamescom 2014 as a demo for an eponymous mystery horror video game . It was released on 12 August 2014 , on the PlayStation Network . Instead of formally announcing a new Silent Hill game , director Hideo Kojima decided to release P.T. as a game demo from a nonexistent gaming studio called 7780s Studio . In September 2014 , Sony announced during its pre @-@ Tokyo Game Show press conference that P.T. had been downloaded over a million times .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Erik Kain of Forbes enjoyed the game for its anxiety @-@ inducing horror , and wrote that it succeeded as marketing for the upcoming Silent Hills . David Houghton of GamesRadar praised it for its immersive , well @-@ executed horror and for how the game 's difficulty created online discourse : " By spreading out into the real world , by forcing solutions by way of hearsay , internet whispers , and desperate , rumoured logic , it has become its own urban myth . " Eurogamer 's Jeffrey Matulef wrote that , through its emphasis on " sound effects , visual design , choreography , and difficult to decipher enemy placements " over traditional progress , the game became immersive and terrifying . However , the puzzles in P.T. received criticism . Klepek panned the puzzles , describing them as an " exercise in frustration " . Matthew Reynolds of Digital Spy wrote that the final puzzle was a " source of frustration " which lacked a clear solution . In contrast , Matulaf stated that , while the puzzles ranged in cleverness and difficulty , they added to the horror of the game by being emotionally " uncomfortable " .
P.T. was also placed on some " best @-@ of " lists in 2014 . GameSpot awarded it the " Game of the Month " for August 2014 . IGN 's Marty Sliva chose P.T. as an honorable mention on his list of the best video game trailers of the year , describing it as " one of the most interesting , gorgeous , and terrifying " games he played that year . Another reviewer for IGN , Lucy O 'Brien , described the game as " the most genuinely frightening interactive experience in recent years " , making it her choice for game of the year . Giant Bomb gave the Best Horror Game of the year award to P.T. , saying that " P.T. reminded us what happens when unlimited resources are thrown at a horror experience . " P.T. won " Scariest Game " at Bloody Disgusting 's FEAR Awards . Polygon ranked it as the tenth best game of the year , and Slant Magazine 's staff ranked it as the eighth best video game of the year . Patrick Klepek of Kotaku originally listed the game as number one on a list of the ten best easily available horror games in February 13 , describing it as " the new king of horror . " The game was replaced by Amnesia : The Dark Descent as number one when Silent Hills was cancelled and P.T. removed .
= = Themes and analysis = =
Reviewers have identified several themes in P.T. According to Eurogamer 's Jeffrey Matulef , the game 's main theme is " cyclical mental anguish " , supported by the obtuse and confusing nature of the puzzles . Danielle Riendau of Polygon wrote that P.T. uses two primary themes from the Silent Hill series , " a sense of family trauma and domestic violence and the duality of the ' real world ' and the nightmare world . " She suggested that P.T. and Eraserhead shared thematic content , writing that both included a crying , deformed infant and that the film 's protagonist journeyed from reality into a terrifying world .
P.T. ' s ceaselessly looping hallway has been a source of critical discussion . Rob Crossley of GameSpot wrote that it induced " mild claustrophobia " and " a familiarity with your surroundings " . He remarked that while the length of the first part of the corridor worked to create tension , the design of the second part intentionally prevented the player from being able to keep everything in view , causing the player to feel vulnerable . David Houghton of GamesRadar described the looping corridor as " the conduit for everything that it builds " , along with saying that " it fills that structure with an unbroken feedback loop of ' horror ' ... every time you leave is a monumental relief , and every simultaneous instance of returning is a moment of primal foreboding at how things might , and almost certainly will , escalate , compounded by the knowledge of the seemingly countless iterations before . " Houghton felt that the game understood how to evoke horror by working " within the realm of psychology " . Polygon quoted a game player who said that " P.T. ' s greatest asset is its looping hallway " , elaborating that it not only invokes fear , but also " curiosity , or a desire to know what will happen next " . Matulef said that the claustrophobic and repetitive environment displayed in the game can hypnotize the player into a sense of vulnerability .
The majority of what is said and depicted in the game is open to interpretation , leading fans to develop and discuss theories about the nature of the events that occur in the game . Let 's Players Voidburger and Bob opined that the open @-@ ended nature of the game is one of its greatest aspects . They also said that there may be something in the game that has not been discovered yet . They noted the colored lights as something they still had not figured out , and they felt that the game hinted that the radio may be the main culprit behind the father 's killing . The game also contained a Swedish line in the radio describing a radio drama from 1938 being true , which gamers suggested may be a nod to Orson Welles 's radio adaptation of The War of the Worlds . This possible reference to alien invasions was noted as a continuation of a Silent Hill tradition of having secret endings that included aliens . Another theory commonly discussed is deciphering the identity of the player character . The fetus talking to the player character about his remembering moments " ten months back " seems to imply that he is the father who killed Lisa and the kids , although Voidburger and Bob believe that the player character may be the protagonist that was to be in Silent Hills , as shown in the trailer following the ending of P.T.
= = Media description = =
Journalists have expressed confusion about whether the game should be described as a teaser , video game , or demo . Despite ongoing debate , the game won awards for best trailer while also winning game of the month and best horror game of the year awards . While naming P.T. as an honorable mention for best trailer , Marty Sliva from IGN felt that P.T. was more of an " interactive experimental film / puzzle game " . " Demo " has been one of the more common descriptions , though GameSpot was reluctant to categorize it as such . Despite it being commonly called a demo of Silent Hills , there is no evidence that it was going to be a part of Silent Hills aside from the reveal of the trailer and title after the end of the game . Hideo Kojima himself explained that it was not a demo of Silent Hills and described it as a " teaser " in a tweet .
Christopher Grant from Polygon likened P.T. to Pixar 's animated shorts shown before its full @-@ length animated feature films .
= = Legacy = =
Following news of the cancellation of Silent Hills , it was announced that P.T. would be removed from the PlayStation Network on 29 April 2015 . Originally , it was reported that the demo could be re @-@ downloaded , but in May 2015 it was no longer re @-@ downloadable from the PlayStation Store . Cancellation of the game led to criticism of Konami . Patrick Klepek from Kotaku stated " It 's fine that Konami doesn 't want to make Silent Hills " but that the deletion of P.T. was wrong since the demo had become part of gaming culture . Nick Robinson of Polygon described Konami 's removal as the " most irresponsible , cowardly decision possible " , but that the subsequent unavailability had also made the demo " one of the coolest , most fascinating games in the history of our medium " . After the cancellation , PlayStation 4 consoles with P.T. installed were listed on eBay for over $ 1000 ; eBay later pulled the auctions down . The incident has been compared to the mass selling of iPhones containing Flappy Bird after that game 's removal from the iOS App Store . Guillermo del Toro , the intended future director of Silent Hills , commented on P.T. ' s popularity , speculating that there were people who still have a passion for the Silent Hill series .
P.T. has also been alluded to in other video games . The antagonist , Lisa , made a cameo in another video game directed by Kojima , Metal Gear Solid V : The Phantom Pain ( 2015 ) . Additionally , the now @-@ cancelled first @-@ person survival @-@ horror video game Allison Road was heavily inspired by P.T. Allison Road was to take place in a haunted townhouse in the United Kingdom and feature a male protagonist who attempts to unravel the mystery behind his missing family over five nights . In the demo , some wall graffiti directly alludes to P.T. by repeating a statement made in the game . The Park , a spin @-@ off game from The Secret World , has a sequence inspired by P.T. , and the horror game Layers of Fear was heavily inspired by P.T. as well .
On February 2016 , the YouTube channel known collectively as " Oddest of the Odd " , released a short film titled " Silent Hills P.T. in real life " . The film draws heavily from its source material , as an unseen protagonist explores a two @-@ story hallway loop in the first person camera perspective . The short film was featured by IGN describing it as " incredible " while GameRant 's Alexander Pan described the video as being " complete with the demo 's much @-@ touted disturbing content and eerie atmosphere . "
= Katyusha rocket launcher =
Katyusha multiple rocket launchers ( Russian : Катю ́ ша ; IPA : [ kɐˈtʲuʂə ] ) are a type of rocket artillery first built and fielded by the Soviet Union in World War II . Multiple rocket launchers such as these deliver explosives to a target area more quickly than conventional artillery , but with lower accuracy and requiring a longer time to reload . They are fragile compared to artillery guns , but are inexpensive , easy to produce , and usable on any chassis . Katyushas of World War II , the first self @-@ propelled artillery mass @-@ produced by the Soviet Union , were usually mounted on ordinary trucks . This mobility gave the Katyusha ( and other self @-@ propelled artillery ) another advantage : being able to deliver a large blow all at once , and then move before being located and attacked with counter @-@ battery fire .
Katyusha weapons of World War II included the BM @-@ 13 launcher , light BM @-@ 8 , and heavy BM @-@ 31 . Today , the nickname is also applied to newer truck @-@ mounted Soviet ( and not only Soviet ) multiple rocket launchers — notably the common BM @-@ 21 — and derivatives .
= = Nickname = =
Initially , concerns for secrecy kept their military designation from being known by the soldiers who operated them . They were called by code names such as Kostikov guns ( after the head of the RNII , the Reaction @-@ Engine Scientific Research Institute ) , and finally classed as Guards Mortars . The name BM @-@ 13 was only allowed into secret documents in 1942 , and remained classified until after the war .
Because they were marked with the letter K ( for Voronezh Komintern Factory ) , Red Army troops adopted a nickname from Mikhail Isakovsky 's popular wartime song , " Katyusha " , about a girl longing for her absent beloved , who has gone away on military service . Katyusha is the Russian equivalent of Katie , an endearing diminutive form of the name Katherine : Yekaterina → Katya → Katyusha .
German troops coined the nickname Stalin 's organ ( German : Stalinorgel ) , after Soviet leader Joseph Stalin , prompted by the visual resemblance of the launch array to a church organ and the sound of the weapon 's rocket motors . Weapons of this type are known by the same name in Denmark ( Danish : Stalinorgel ) , Finland ( Finnish : Stalinin urut ) , France ( French : orgue de Staline ) , Norway ( Norwegian : Stalinorgel ) , the Netherlands and Belgium ( Dutch : Stalinorgel ) , Hungary ( Hungarian : Sztálinorgona ) , and in Sweden ( Swedish : Stalinorgel ) .
The heavy BM @-@ 31 launcher was also referred to as Andryusha ( Андрюша , an affectionate diminutive of " Andrew " ) .
= = World War II = =
Katyusha rocket launchers invented in Voronezh , were mounted on many platforms during World War II , including on trucks , artillery tractors , tanks , and armoured trains , as well as on naval and riverine vessels as assault support weapons , Soviet engineers also mounted single Katyusha rockets on lengths of railway track to serve in urban combat .
The design was relatively simple , consisting of racks of parallel rails on which rockets were mounted , with a folding frame to raise the rails to launch position . Each truck had 14 to 48 launchers . The M @-@ 13 rocket of the BM @-@ 13 system was 80 cm ( 2 ft 7 in ) long , 13 @.@ 2 cm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter and weighed 42 kg ( 93 lb ) .
The weapon is less accurate than conventional artillery guns , but is extremely effective in saturation bombardment , and was particularly feared by German soldiers . A battery of four BM @-@ 13 launchers could fire a salvo in 7 – 10 seconds that delivered 4 @.@ 35 tons of high explosives over a 400 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 sq ft ) impact zone , making its power roughly equivalent to that of 72 guns . With an efficient crew , the launchers could redeploy to a new location immediately after firing , denying the enemy the opportunity for counterbattery fire . Katyusha batteries were often massed in very large numbers to create a shock effect on enemy forces . The weapon 's disadvantage was the long time it took to reload a launcher , in contrast to conventional guns which could sustain a continuous low rate of fire .
The distinctive howling sound of the rocket launching terrified the German troops and could be used for psychological warfare .
= = = Development = = =
In June 1938 , the Soviet Jet Propulsion Research Institute ( RNII ) in Leningrad was authorized by the Main Artillery Directorate ( GAU ) to develop a multiple rocket launcher for the RS @-@ 132 aircraft rocket ( RS for Reaktivnyy Snaryad , ' rocket @-@ powered shell ' ) . I. Gvay led a design team in Chelyabinsk , Russia , which built several prototype launchers firing the modified 132 mm M @-@ 132 rockets over the sides of ZiS @-@ 5 trucks . These proved unstable , and V.N. Galkovskiy proposed mounting the launch rails longitudinally . In August 1939 , the result was the BM @-@ 13 ( BM stands for Боевая Mашина ( translit . Boyevaya Mashina ) , ' combat vehicle ' for M @-@ 13 rockets ) .
The first large @-@ scale testing of the rocket launchers took place at the end of 1938 , when 233 rounds of various types were used . A salvo of rockets could completely straddle a target at a range of 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) . But the artillery branch was not fond of the Katyusha , because it took up to 50 minutes to load and fire 24 rounds , while a conventional howitzer could fire 95 to 150 rounds in the same time . Testing with various rockets was conducted through 1940 , and the BM @-@ 13 @-@ 16 with launch rails for sixteen rockets was authorized for production . Only forty launchers were built before Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 .
After their success in the first month of the war , mass production was ordered and the development of other models proceeded . The Katyusha was inexpensive and could be manufactured in light industrial installations which did not have the heavy equipment to build conventional artillery gun barrels . By the end of 1942 , 3 @,@ 237 Katyusha launchers of all types had been built , and by the end of the war total production reached about 10 @,@ 000 .
The truck @-@ mounted Katyushas were installed on ZiS @-@ 6 6 × 4 trucks , as well as the two @-@ axle ZiS @-@ 5 and ZiS @-@ 5V . In 1941 , a small number of BM @-@ 13 launchers were mounted on STZ @-@ 5 artillery tractors . A few were also tried on KV tank chassis as the KV @-@ 1K , but this was a needless waste of heavy armour . Starting in 1942 , they were also mounted on various British , Canadian and U.S. Lend @-@ Lease trucks , in which case they were sometimes referred to as BM @-@ 13S . The cross @-@ country performance of the Studebaker US6 2 ½ ton truck was so good that it became the GAU 's standard mounting in 1943 , designated BM @-@ 13N ( normalizovanniy , ' standardized ' ) , and more than 1 @,@ 800 of this model were manufactured by the end of World War II . After World War II , BM @-@ 13s were based on Soviet @-@ built ZiL @-@ 151 trucks .
The 82 mm BM @-@ 8 was approved in August 1941 , and deployed as the BM @-@ 8 @-@ 36 on truck beds and BM @-@ 8 @-@ 24 on T @-@ 40 and T @-@ 60 light tank chassis . Later these were also installed on GAZ @-@ 67 jeeps as the BM @-@ 8 @-@ 8 , and on the larger Studebaker trucks as the BM @-@ 8 @-@ 48 . In 1942 , the team of scientists Leonid Shvarts , Moisei Komissarchik and engineer Yakov Shor received the Stalin prize for the development of the BM @-@ 8 @-@ 48 .
Based on the M @-@ 13 , the M @-@ 30 rocket was developed in 1942 . Its bulbous warhead required it to be fired from a grounded frame , called the M @-@ 30 ( single frame , four round ; later double frame , 8 round ) , instead of a launch rail mounted on a truck . In 1944 it became the basis for the BM @-@ 31 @-@ 12 truck @-@ mounted launcher .
A battery of BM @-@ 13 @-@ 16 launchers included four firing vehicles , two reload trucks and two technical support trucks , with each firing vehicle having a crew of six . Reloading was executed in 3 – 4 minutes , although the standard procedure was to switch to a new position some 10 km away due to the ease with which the battery could be identified by the enemy . Three batteries were combined into a division ( company ) , and three divisions into a separate mine @-@ firing regiment of rocket artillery .
= = = Variants = = =
Soviet World War II missile systems were named according standard templates which are the following :
BM @-@ x @-@ y ( names used for ground vehicles )
M @-@ x @-@ y ( names used for towed trailers and sledges )
y @-@ M @-@ x ( names used for navy )
where :
x is a model of a missile .
y is a number of launch rails / tubes .
In particular , BM @-@ 8 @-@ 16 is a vehicle which fires M @-@ 8 missiles and has 16 rails . BM @-@ 31 @-@ 12 is a vehicle which fires M @-@ 31 missiles and has 12 launch tubes . Short names such as BM @-@ 8 or BM @-@ 13 were used too . Number of launch rails / tubes is absent here . Such names describe launchers only no matter a vehicle they are mounted on . In particular BM @-@ 8 @-@ 24 had a number of variants : vehicle mounted ( ZiS @-@ 5 truck ) , tank mounted ( T @-@ 40 ) and tractor mounted ( STZ @-@ 3 ) . All of them had the same name : BM @-@ 8 @-@ 24 . Other launchers had a number of variants mounted on different vehicles too . Typical set of vehicles for soviet missile systems is the following :
ZIS @-@ 5 ( truck ) ,
ZIS @-@ 6 ( truck ) ,
GAZ @-@ AA ( truck ) ,
STZ @-@ 3 ( tractor ) ,
T @-@ 40 ( tank ) ,
Studebaker US6 ( truck ) ,
Armored train car ,
River boat ,
Towed sledge ,
Towed trailer ,
Backpack ( portable variant , so called " mountain Katyusha " ) ,
ZiS @-@ 151 ( truck , used after the war ) ;
Note : There was also an experimental KV @-@ 1K – Katyusha mounted on KV @-@ 1 tank which was not taken in service .
A list of some implementations of the Katyusha follows :
= = = Rocket variants = = =
Rockets used in the above implementations were :
The M @-@ 8 and M @-@ 13 rocket could also be fitted with smoke warheads , although this was not common .
= = = Combat history = = =
The multiple rocket launchers were top secret in the beginning of World War II . A special unit of the NKVD troops was raised to operate them . On July 14 , 1941 , an experimental artillery battery of seven launchers was first used in battle at Rudnya in Smolensk Province of Russia , under the command of Captain Ivan Flyorov , destroying a concentration of German troops with tanks , armored vehicles and trucks at the marketplace , causing massive German Army casualties and its retreat from the town in panic . Following the success , the Red Army organized new Guards mortar batteries for the support of infantry divisions . A battery 's complement was standardized at four launchers . They remained under NKVD control until German Nebelwerfer rocket launchers became common later in the war .
On August 8 , 1941 , Stalin ordered the formation of eight special Guards mortar regiments under the direct control of the General Headquarters Reserve ( Stavka @-@ VGK ) . Each regiment comprised three battalions of three batteries , totalling 36 BM @-@ 13 or BM @-@ 8 launchers . Independent Guards mortar battalions were also formed , comprising 12 launchers in three batteries of four . By the end of 1941 , there were eight regiments , 35 independent battalions , and two independent batteries in service , fielding a total of 554 launchers .
In June 1942 heavy Guards mortar battalions were formed around the new M @-@ 30 static rocket launch frames , consisting of 96 launchers in three batteries . In July , a battalion of BM @-@ 13s was added to the establishment of a tank corps . In 1944 , the BM @-@ 31 was used in motorized heavy Guards mortar battalions of 48 launchers . In 1943 , Guards mortar brigades , and later divisions , were formed equipped with static launchers .
By the end of 1942 , 57 regiments were in service — together with the smaller independent battalions , this was the equivalent of 216 batteries : 21 % BM @-@ 8 light launchers , 56 % BM @-@ 13 , and 23 % M @-@ 30 heavy launchers . By the end of the war , the equivalent of 518 batteries were in service .
= = Post @-@ war development = =
The success and economy of multiple rocket launchers ( MRL ) have led them to continue to be developed . During the Cold War , the Soviet Union fielded several models of Katyusha @-@ like MRL , notably the BM @-@ 21 launchers somewhat inspired by the earlier weapon , and the larger BM @-@ 27 . Advances in artillery munitions have been applied to some Katyusha @-@ type multiple launch rocket systems , including bomblet submunitions , remotely deployed land mines , and chemical warheads .
With the breakup of the Soviet Union , Russia inherited most of its military arsenal including its large complement of MRLs . In recent history , they have been used by Russian forces during the First and Second Chechen Wars and by Armenian and Azerbaijani forces during the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . Georgian government forces are reported to have used BM @-@ 21 or similar rocket artillery in fighting in the 2008 South Ossetia war .
Katyusha @-@ like launchers were exported to Afghanistan , Angola , Czechoslovakia , Egypt , East Germany , Hungary , Iran , Iraq , Mongolia , North Korea , Poland , Syria , and Vietnam . They were also built in Czechoslovakia , the People 's Republic of China , North Korea , and Iran .
Proper Katyushas ( BM @-@ 13s ) also saw action in the Korean War , used by the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army against the South and United Nations forces . Soviet BM @-@ 13s were known to have been imported to China before the Sino @-@ Soviet split and were operational in the People 's Liberation Army .
Israel captured BM @-@ 24 MRLs during the Six @-@ Day War ( 1967 ) , used them in two battalions during the Yom Kippur War ( 1973 ) and the 1982 Lebanon War , and later developed the MAR @-@ 240 launcher for the same rockets , based on a Sherman tank chassis .
During the 2006 Lebanon War , Hezbollah fired between 3 @,@ 970 and 4 @,@ 228 rockets , from light truck @-@ mounts and single @-@ rail man @-@ portable launchers . About 95 % of these were 122 mm ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) Syrian @-@ manufactured M @-@ 21OF type artillery rockets which carried warheads up to 30 kg ( 66 lb ) and had a range of 20 km , perhaps up to 30 km ( 19 mi ) . Hamas has launched 122 @-@ mm Grad @-@ type Katyusha rockets from the Gaza Strip against several cities in Israel , although they are not reported to have truck @-@ mounted launchers . Although Katyusha originally referred to the mobile launcher , today the rockets are often referred to as Katyushas .
Some allege that the CIA bought Katyushas from the Egyptian military and supplied them to the Mujahideen ( via Pakistan 's ISI ) during the Soviet Afghan war .
Katyusha @-@ like MRLs were also allegedly used by the Rwandan Patriotic Front during its 1990 invasion of Rwanda , through the 1994 genocide . They were effective in battle , but translated into much anti @-@ Tutsi sentiment in the local media .
It was reported that BM @-@ 21 launchers were used against American forces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq . They have also been used in the Afghanistan and Iraq insurgencies . In Iraq , according to Associated Press and Agence France @-@ Presse reports , Katyusha @-@ like rockets were fired at the Green Zone late March 2008 .
Katyusha rockets were reportedly used by both Gaddafi Loyalists and anti @-@ Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War .
Also , several countries have continued to build and operate Katyusha @-@ like systems well into the 21st century , as for example the Teruel MRL of the Spanish Army .
In February 2013 , the Defense Ministry of Yemen reported seizing an Iranian ship , and that the ship 's cargo included ( among its other weapons ) Katyusha rockets .
In August 2013 the Irish republican dissident group Óglaigh na hÉireann was blamed for planting a Katyusha @-@ style rocket in undergrowth next to a field near Cullyhanna in South Armagh in an area used by soldiers on training exercises . The weapon was to be triggered using a mobile phone .
The Russian army has mounted some multiple rocket launchers on turretless T @-@ 72 tanks and called the weapon a TOS @-@ 1 . These were developed in the 1980s , but have been modernized and are in very limited service .
= Typhoon Nora ( 1973 ) =
Typhoon Nora was the third @-@ most intense tropical cyclone on record . Originating from an area of low pressure over the western Pacific , Nora was first identified as a tropical depression on October 2 , 1973 . Tracking generally westward , the system gradually intensified , attaining typhoon status the following evening . After turning northwestward , the typhoon underwent a period of rapid intensification , during which its central pressure decreased by 77 mb ( hPa ; 2 @.@ 27 inHg ) in 24 hours . At the end of this phase , Nora peaked with winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) and a pressure of 877 mb ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 91 inHg ) , making it the most @-@ intense tropical cyclone on record ( alongside Typhoon Ida in 1958 ) at the time ; however , this pressure has since been surpassed by two other typhoons and one hurricane . The typhoon subsequently weakened and turned northwestward as it approached the Philippines . After brushing Luzon on October 7 , the system passed south of Taiwan and ultimately made landfall in China on October 10 . Once onshore , Nora quickly weakened and dissipated the following day .
The Philippines and Taiwan sustained the most extensive losses from Typhoon Nora , with 36 people losing their lives collectively . In the former , more than 1 million residents were left homeless as high winds and flooding wrecked homes . Damage in the country reached $ 2 million ( 1973 USD ) . In Taiwan , more than 1 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and 8 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . The typhoon was also responsible for several maritime incidents that killed at least four people .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 30 , a weak surface low developed within the monsoon trough about 195 km ( 120 mi ) south of Yap . Drifting northwestward , the system gradually organized into a tropical depression by October 2 . Later that day , aircraft reconnaissance revealed the system to have intensified into a tropical storm , at which time it was assigned the name Nora . The system 's movement soon became slow and erratic , with Nora executing a counter @-@ clockwise loop on October 3 . After completing the loop , it attained typhoon status and acquired a temporary northward trajectory . Due to the cyclone 's proximity to the Philippines , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Luming . Late on October 4 , Nora began to undergo a period of rapid intensification . Several aircraft reconnaissance missions were flown by the U.S. Air Force 54th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron into the storm between October 5 and 6 , documenting the typhoon 's dramatic strengthening .
By the evening of October 5 , Nora had attained winds in excess of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , ranking it as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . A recon mission into the storm at this time revealed concentric eyewalls , measured at 14 km ( 9 mi ) and 32 km ( 20 mi ) . Initially , the aircraft was unable to penetrate into the core of the eye due to severe turbulence ; however , they were successful after a second attempt . Once inside the eye , they discovered an almost cloud @-@ free center with " an amphitheater or bowl @-@ like appearance . " Stratocumulus clouds were suppressed to an unusually low altitude of 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) . The core of Nora was exceptionally warm , with temperatures reaching a near @-@ record 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) at the 700 mb level . At 0020 UTC on October 6 , a dropsonde released by the reconnaissance team recorded a surface pressure of 877 mb ( hPa ; 25 @.@ 91 inHg ) just inside the eyewall of the typhoon . At this time , maximum winds were estimated to have peaked at 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) . This intensity ranked Nora as the most @-@ intense tropical cyclone on record in the world , alongside Typhoon Ida in 1958 . However , in post @-@ storm analysis , it was noted that since the dropsonde did not record a pressure at the storm 's center , Nora was likely slightly stronger than indicated . Since then , Nora 's intensity has been surpassed by three other storms : Typhoon June in 1975 , Typhoon Tip in 1979 , and Hurricane Patricia in 2015 .
Despite the storm 's extreme intensity , it quickly began to weaken as it approached the Philippines on October 6 . Within ten hours , the pressure rose to 894 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 40 inHg ) and later dropped below Category 5 status . That morning , Nora turned more northwesterly in response to a weakening in a subtropical ridge and an approaching shortwave trough over China . Steady weakening continued over the following days , with the storm brushing the northeastern tip of Luzon , Philippines , with winds of 175 – 185 km / h ( 110 – 115 mph ) on October 7 . Nora 's intensity leveled out around 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) on October 8 as it tracked between the Philippines and Taiwan . After passing within 95 km ( 60 mi ) of Taiwan , Nora turned more northerly before making landfall near Xiamen , Fujian as a minimal typhoon early on October 10 . Once onshore , the storm rapidly degenerated into an area of low pressure before dissipating the following day .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Prior to the typhoon 's arrival in the Philippines , all domestic flights in and out of Manila were cancelled ; however , international travel was unaffected . The United States Air Force also moved its planes from Clark Air Base to other bases in Asia . Additionally , all schools in Manila were closed . Brushing the coast of Luzon in the Philippines as a Category 3 @-@ equivalent typhoon , Nora caused considerable damage in the region . Gale @-@ force winds were measured across much of western Luzon , with a peak reading of 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) at Manila port . These winds caused scattered power and communication losses throughout the Peninsula . The city of Baguio ( population 100 @,@ 000 ) lost power for approximately six hours . Crop losses were extensive , with the storm striking close to harvest time . Heavy rains from the storm , peaking at 338 mm ( 13 @.@ 3 in ) in Baguio , triggered significant flooding and caused a breach in the Arnedo Dike in Apalit , Pampanga . Eight towns along a 45 km ( 30 mi ) stretch downstream were flooded ; however , roads remained passable . Flooding in Manila also prompted the evacuation of 400 residents . In Caloocan , a child died after being electrocuted by downed wires . Across the Philippines , 24 people were killed and over 1 million were left homeless . Damage to crops and property reached $ 2 million ( 1973 USD ) . Nora was the first of three typhoons to impact the Philippines in the span of a week , with Patsy and Ruth striking the country on October 12 and 15 respectively .
While passing south of Taiwan , rough seas spawned by the typhoon were responsible for several maritime incidents over the Taiwan Strait and South China Sea . The Philippine Freighter Asian Mariner , though all 38 crewmen were rescued . The Greek freighter Baltic Klif capsized about 150 km ( 90 mi ) southwest of the Penghu Islands , with three crewmen confirmed dead and several others missing and presumed dead . Additionally , the Taiwanese fishing vessel Jai Tai NR3 became stranded amid 9 @.@ 1 m ( 30 ft ) seas , with its bow split open . One of the crew perished ; however , the frigate USS Worden was able to rescue seven fishermen despite the dangerous seas . As the storm neared landfall in China , two ships became stranded over the South China Sea and sent out distress signals .
Passing within 95 km ( 60 mi ) of Taiwan , the storm brought gale @-@ force winds and torrential rain to the island . A peak gust of 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) was measured in Tungchi , Penghu Islands . The most significant impacts came from the rains , which amounted to 523 mm ( 20 @.@ 6 in ) in Sinkong over a 20 ‑ hour span . Widespread flooding and many landslides destroyed at least 1 @,@ 000 homes , and washed out bridges , roads , and railroads . Twelve people lost their lives and twenty @-@ eight others were reported missing . Additionally , 8 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . In Hong Kong , the typhoon produced gusty winds , peaking at 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , though no rainfall was recorded . Although Nora struck China as a typhoon , there were no reports of damage received .
= Falcon 's Fury =
Falcon 's Fury is a free @-@ standing Sky Jump drop tower attraction at the Busch Gardens Tampa amusement park in Tampa , Florida , United States . Manufactured by Intaride ( a subsidiary of Intamin ) , the ride reaches a maximum height of 335 feet ( 102 m ) making it North America 's tallest free @-@ standing drop tower . Riders experience about five seconds of free fall , reaching a speed of 60 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) . The ride 's name was chosen to invoke a falcon 's ability to dive steeply at high speed to capture prey .
The project was originally planned to begin in 2012 with the ride opening in 2013 , but it was delayed by one year . Construction began in 2013 with a scheduled opening date of May 1 , 2014 ; however , the opening was delayed due to mechanical and technical issues . Following a preview opening to park employees in early August and a soft opening on August 16 , 2014 , Falcon 's Fury officially opened to the public on September 2 , 2014 . Public response to the ride has been positive , praising the height of the tower and the drop experience .
= = History = =
Planning for Falcon 's Fury began around the time the park completed its Cheetah Hunt ride in 2011 . Ground tests in the Timbuktu area ( now known as Pantopia ) revealed " interesting soil conditions " , with steel beams and concrete required to reinforce the site .
Rumors that Busch Gardens Tampa might replace its Sandstorm ride with a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) drop tower surfaced in the fall of 2011 when its sister park , Busch Gardens Williamsburg , opened Mäch Tower that August . Construction surveying was observed in January 2012 . Two months later plans were filed with the city to build a drop tower , possibly for the 2013 season . Speculation about the new attraction 's name began when SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment , owners of Busch Gardens Tampa , filed trademark applications for " Desert Dive " and " Falcon 's Fury " on May 2 and July 11 , 2012 , respectively , and bought the DesertDive.com domain name . When permits for the new ride differed from those for Mäch Tower in November 2012 , rumors began that the seats would tilt forward . Due to the height of the attraction , approval from the Federal Aviation Administration was required . According to the FAA and the city of Tampa , the tower was supposed to be built in December 2012 and open to the public in 2013 . For unknown reasons the project was delayed , with its construction pushed back to the second half of 2013 .
On May 31 , 2013 , it was announced that Sandstorm would close on June 2 to make room for a new attraction . About two weeks later , on June 11 , Busch Gardens Tampa announced plans for Falcon 's Fury and construction began that month . During the fourth quarter of 2013 , the park drove steel piles for the ride 's foundation nightly for about a month .
On September 20 , the tower for Falcon 's Fury was shipped from Spain in nine sections , arriving at the park near the end of October ; the ride 's smaller parts had been delivered earlier from several European countries . Installation of one of the nine tower pieces was planned for every other night , with the last piece in place by New Year 's Eve . Construction was done by the Adena Corporation , and on November 18 the first piece was installed . The ride 's second piece was installed on December 2 , and two more were installed by December 6 . The fifth section was placed by December 21 , and the sixth was erected by New Year 's Day . The seventh tower piece was installed by January 3 , 2014 , and the eighth by January 5 , reaching a height of about 300 feet ( 91 m ) , and Falcon 's Fury 's gondola was seen at the park on January 12 . The ride 's counterweight was installed on January 22 , and the tower was capped during the weekend of February 1 . Work on the ride 's electrical components then began . Assembly of the gondola was completed by the end of March . Testing was originally scheduled to begin in February , but due to construction delays the first drop tests were not made until April 15 . Tower painting began in June , with its sunset motif estimated to take 60 hours over a three @-@ week period .
At the end of February , Busch Gardens Tampa announced that Falcon 's Fury would open on May 1 , and on April 3 the park began a sweepstakes contest for its " Falcon 's Fury First @-@ to @-@ Ride Party " . A second , similar contest began on April 11 , with fifty winners from each contest being among the first riders . A week later , the park announced that the ride 's opening would be delayed , and several media events scheduled for April and May ( including the First @-@ to @-@ Ride party ) were cancelled . It was later disclosed that the delay was due to manufacturing and technical issues with the cables which pull the gondola up the tower . During the week of August 10 , Falcon 's Fury opened for park employees . On August 16 the ride soft @-@ opened to the public , and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks later Falcon 's Fury officially opened .
= = Ride experience = =
Falcon 's Fury has two shaded queue lines : a standby line which can hold guests for about 45 minutes , and a Quick Queue for guests with passes that allow them to bypass the standby line . Although the Quick Queue system will not initially be used for the ride , it may be added later . Riders must be between 54 inches ( 137 cm ) and 77 inches ( 196 cm ) .
When the riders are seated a catch car connects to the gondola and raises it to the top of the tower , which takes about one minute . Although the tower is 335 feet ( 102 m ) high , the gondola stops 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) lower . When it reaches the maximum height the seats tilt forward , with a computer @-@ randomized wait time from one to five seconds . When the wait time ends , the gondola is released from the catch car into a five @-@ second free fall reaching a maximum speed of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . As the gondola passes through the pre @-@ braking section , the seats rotate back into a vertical position . After the pre @-@ brake the gondola enters the main magnetic @-@ brake run , where riders experience approximately 3 @.@ 5 g ( 34 m / s2 ) of deceleration as the gondola slows . When it comes to a full stop at the base of the tower , the riders disembark . One cycle of the ride lasts about one and a half minutes . Busch Gardens Tampa placed an Easter egg in the form of a painted Falcon 's Fury logo on top of one of its buildings , which can be seen only from a certain side of the gondola .
= = Characteristics = =
The tower and gondola were manufactured by Intaride , a subsidiary of Intamin . The ride covers an area of about 3 @,@ 600 square feet ( 330 m2 ) .
= = = Tower = = =
The Falcon 's Fury tower is 335 feet ( 102 m ) tall , the tallest free @-@ standing drop tower in North America , and can bend 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) in any direction from the top to withstand hurricane @-@ force winds . The tower is composed of nine sections , including the machine house . Each piece of the tower weighs up to 105 tonnes ( 103 long tons ; 116 short tons ) , and the entire structure weighs about 519 tonnes ( 511 long tons ; 572 short tons ) . The 77 tonnes ( 76 long tons ; 85 short tons ) machine house at the top contains four DC motors used to lift the gondola . Inside the tower is a 68 tonnes ( 67 long tons ; 75 short tons ) counterweight , composed of hundreds of lead weights , to help raise the gondola . The tower 's foundation is made up of 105 steel piles , varying in depth from 75 feet ( 23 m ) to 205 feet ( 62 m ) . A 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) eddy current brake system on the tower slows the gondola after its free fall . The structure is painted yellow , aqua and two shades of red .
= = = Gondola = = =
The ride 's single gondola has 32 seats , grouped octagonally around the tower . Each of the eight sides seats four riders , and each seat has an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraint and seat belt . Falcon 's Fury can theoretically accommodate 800 riders per hour . Carbon @-@ fiber wings buttress each end of a group of seats , protecting outside riders ' arms and legs during the drop . The gondola reaches a height of 310 feet ( 94 m ) , 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) below the top of the tower . When it reaches its maximum height the seats tilt 90 degrees forward , with the riders facing the ground ( the first use of this feature on a drop tower ) .
= = Records = =
When Falcon 's Fury opened it became North America 's tallest free @-@ standing drop tower . Although taller drop towers exist on the continent — such as Lex Luthor : Drop of Doom at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Zumanjaro : Drop of Doom at Six Flags Great Adventure , which reach drop heights of 400 feet ( 120 m ) and 415 feet ( 126 m ) respectively — those attractions were added to existing structures . Despite its height , the ride 's maximum speed of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) does not set a speed record . Other drop towers — such as Drop Tower at Kings Dominion , which reaches 72 miles per hour ( 116 km / h ) — are faster . However , Falcon 's Fury is the world 's first drop tower whose seats tilt 90 degrees . Although tilting seats were first used by Intamin in 2001 on Acrophobia at Six Flags Over Georgia , their tilt angle is smaller .
= = Reception = =
The initial reception after the ride 's announcement was positive . According to Lance Hart , a theme park enthusiast from Screamscape , " Instead of selling your picture ... they should sell baby wipes and clean underwear at the exit " and the ride could be the most frightening drop tower in the world . Robb Alvey of Theme Park Review called the ride the world 's best drop tower , later ranking it one of the top 14 new attractions for 2014 ; Dave Parfitt and Arthur Levine of USA Today ranked Falcon 's Fury in their top ten . Brady MacDonald of the Los Angeles Times originally ranked Falcon 's Fury his seventh @-@ most @-@ anticipated ride for 2014 ; on an updated list , he ranked it 17th .
For safety reasons , construction on Falcon 's Fury was done primarily at night . Residents near the park complained about noise from the pile driver during the laying of the foundation , and complaints about the ride 's operating noise continued into August 2014 .
According to the park and Twitter posts selected by news media , public response during the soft opening was positive ; Total Orlando gave the ride five stars for teenagers and four stars for adults . On Coaster101.com " Ashley " said that although the restraints were tight , they were comfortable and not as tight as those on other rides , adding : " The drop on Falcon 's Fury is different from any ride I have ever ridden . The best way I can describe it is that instead of leaving your stomach at the top of the tower , you take it with you to the bottom . " According to Florida Trip Guides , the ride was a good addition to the park 's attraction lineup : " Falcon 's Fury is not for the faint of heart . I have ridden dozens of drop towers but this one is different . Something about facing straight down and falling really makes you nervous . " Robert Niles of Theme Park Insider said that Falcon 's Fury and other recent attractions were nearing the extreme of human tolerance ; as a result , " You 're getting to the point where instead of making an attraction more popular by having it achieve some type of record , you 're actually limiting the audience for that . " Randi Nissenbaum of Bay News 9 called the view from the top of the tower incredible , and although she was nervous at first she wanted to ride again . Sue Carlton of the Tampa Bay Times said , " it was terrifying and thrilling and I held on as hard as I could and yelled and closed my eyes and afterward stepped off rubber @-@ kneed and exhilarated . "
For the 2014 season , Busch Gardens Tampa expected attendance to increase by three to eight percent . However ( as predicted in June 2014 by IBISWorld Research ) , combined attendance for the second quarter of the year increased by about 0 @.@ 3 percent for SeaWorld Orlando , SeaWorld San Diego , SeaWorld San Antonio , Busch Gardens Williamsburg and Busch Gardens Tampa . Compared to the same period in 2013 , combined attendance for the first half of the year dropped by just over four percent . Busch Gardens Tampa blamed the lack of its anticipated attendance increase partially on the Falcon 's Fury delays .
= Battle of Logorište =
The Battle of Logorište was fought east of Duga Resa and south of Karlovac , Croatia , from 4 – 6 November 1991 during the Croatian War of Independence , between the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) . The ZNG placed the JNA @-@ held Logorište barracks under a blockade as part of the countrywide Battle of the Barracks , which aimed to pin down JNA units isolated in their bases and force them to surrender weapons and ammunition to the ZNG . However , the JNA garrison broke out from the besieged barracks with part of its stored equipment before the ZNG claimed the vacant base . The breakout was supported by JNA units and SAO Krajina units deployed to lift the blockade of the barracks and other JNA garrisons in Karlovac . A battle ensued as the ZNG attempted to contain advancing JNA units , ending with a ceasefire signed in The Hague .
Although both sides claimed victory , neither achieved all their objectives ; the JNA garrison evacuated the Logorište barracks , but Croatian defences elsewhere held . Particularly heavy fighting was reported in the Karlovac suburb of Turanj , identified as the primary axis of the JNA effort . While the JNA removed some weapons and equipment stored in the Logorište barracks , the remaining supplies were removed by the ZNG over a one @-@ week period after the battle .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions between Croats and Croatian Serbs worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated the Croatian Territorial Defence Force 's ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , tensions escalated into an open revolt by the Croatian Serbs centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , parts of Lika , Kordun , Banovina and Slavonia .
After two unsuccessful attempts by Serbia ( supported by Montenegro and the Serbian provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo ) to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces in January 1991 — and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March — the JNA , supported by Serbia and its allies , asked the federal presidency for wartime powers and the declaration of a state of emergency . The request was denied on 15 March , and the JNA came under the control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević . Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than preserve Yugoslavia , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal presidency . The threat caused the JNA to gradually abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of Serbian expansion . By the end of March the conflict escalated with its first fatalities , during the Plitvice Lakes incident . The JNA stepped in , supporting the insurgents and preventing the Croatian police from intervening . In early April , leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to integrate the area under their control with Serbia ; this was seen by the Croatian government as an intention to secede from Croatia .
At the beginning of 1991 Croatia had no regular army , and in an effort to bolster its defence the country doubled its police force to about 20 @,@ 000 . The force 's most effective component was its 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police , deployed in 12 battalions with a military structure . There were also a 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong regionally @-@ organized reserve police , grouped into 16 battalions and 10 companies . The reserve police carried only small arms , and a portion of the force was unarmed . Although the Croatian government responded in May by forming the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) , its development was hampered by a United Nations arms embargo introduced in September . On 12 September the ZNG was ordered to blockade all JNA facilities it could reach , beginning the Battle of the Barracks .
= = Prelude = =
In late September and early October 1991 , the blockade of JNA barracks in and around Karlovac and Croatian defences in the city were maintained by about 900 police and ZNG troops . The troops were assigned to the 110th Infantry Brigade and the under @-@ strength 3rd Battalion of the 2nd Guards Brigade . The 110th Infantry Brigade , at one @-@ third of its planned strength due to poor organisation and a shortage of weapons , was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Rudolf Brlečić .
The JNA 's Stjepan Milašinčić @-@ Seljo barracks in Logorište , south of Karlovac , was one of the largest weapons @-@ storage facilities in Croatia . The barracks contained weapons and equipment for the 8th Proletarian Motorised Brigade , the 471st Mixed Antitank Artillery Brigade , elements of the logistics battalion of the 580th Mixed Artillery Brigade , an armoured battalion of the 236th Proletarian Motorised Brigade and 200 tonnes of fuel and stockpiled food assigned to the 944th Logistics Base . During the summer of 1990 , a mechanised battalion of the 4th Armoured Brigade was moved from Jastrebarsko to the Logorište barracks . When the battalion was deployed to Lika in late March 1991 , about 40 men remained at the barracks ( whose fortifications were improved ) . The barracks commander was Lieutenant Colonel Boro Ercegovac , who was also commanding officer of the 8th Proletarian Motorised Brigade .
The 1st Battalion of the ZNG 's 110th Infantry Brigade blockaded the barracks on 19 September to contain the JNA and prevent the removal of weapons . The blockade was poorly organised , allowing a pair of tanks to leave the barracks and raid a nearby settlement two days later ; however , according to Croatian sources one tank was destroyed during the raid . To relieve blockaded garrisons in the Karlovac area the JNA redeployed the 169th Motorised Brigade from Loznica and three detachments of the TO from Vojnić , assigning them to Operational Group 1 ( OG @-@ 1 ) . OG @-@ 1 attacked Croatian defences on 4 October , reaching the east bank of the Korana River on 8 October . The 169th Motorised Brigade collapsed due to inadequate manpower , and was replaced by the 9th Motorised Brigade ( brought in from Serbia ) on 15 October .
= = = Order of battle = = =
According to the JNA an additional 450 troops were deployed to the barracks ( despite the blockade ) from 22 October to 4 November , primarily tank crews assigned to the 9th Motorised Brigade and two companies of SAO Krajina TO from Vojnić . The reinforcements crossed the Korana River , adjacent to the barracks , and their movements led to several skirmishes . By 4 November , the barracks housed a 685 @-@ strong garrison . During the second half of October , the 129th and 137th Infantry Brigades were established in Karlovac and nearby Duga Resa to bolster Croatian defences . The two new brigades were assigned areas of responsibility ( AORs ) on 29 November by the Karlovac Operational Zone commanding officer , Colonel Izidor Češnjaj ; the 110th and 137th Brigade AORs were just south of the Logorište barracks . The 137th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Major Nedjeljko Katušin . The 110th Infantry Brigade deployed three companies of its 1st Battalion north and west of the Logorište barracks , while three companies of its 3rd Battalion were deployed south of the barracks . Further south , three companies of the 3rd Battalion of the 137th Infantry Brigade faced the Korana . The 1 / 110th Brigade was supported by two companies of police ( including an antitank and sniper group of special police reserve troops commanded by Želimir Feitl ) in Sv . Doroteja , north of the barracks . The 3 / 137th Brigade was supported by an additional company of police . The 3rd Battalion of the 2nd Guards Brigade was ordered to redeploy to Banovina ; most of its troops were on leave or had left the area , and only a squad remained in the rear of the 137th Infantry Brigade .
= = Timeline = =
The JNA 5th Military District command instructed OG @-@ 1 to relieve blockaded JNA garrisons in the Karlovac and Zagreb areas . During the first stage of the advance , OG @-@ 1 intended to reach the Kupa River via Turanj ( breaking through the ZNG positions ) while the second stage relieved JNA garrisons blockaded in Karlovac . On 2 November OG @-@ 1 began artillery bombardment in the Karlovac area , forcing the 2nd Battalion of the 110th Infantry Brigade to abandon its positions in Turanj the following day . The abandoned defences were occupied by elements of the brigade 's 1st Battalion .
On 3 November , the ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) . OG @-@ 1 supplemented its orders with instructions to capture the village of Barilović and its surroundings ( south of the Logorište barracks ) to facilitate the evacuation of the barracks . Anticipating the JNA advance , the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia instructed the Karlovac Operational Zone and the 110th Infantry Brigade to capture the Logorište and Jamadol barracks and secure ammunition for HV ( whose stock was dwindling ) . Brlečić ordered the police force , commanded by Feitl , to capture the barracks that night ; Feitl refused , and the order was rescinded by Češnjaj . The JNA artillery bombarded Karlovac during the night of 3 – 4 November .
= = = 4 November = = =
The breakout from the Logorište barracks began on 4 November at 7 : 30 a.m. , after an hour @-@ long artillery bombardment and airstrikes on battalion and company command posts . The JNA simultaneously attacked HV defences at Turanj ( further north ) , threatening Karlovac . The breakout was commanded by the OG @-@ 1 chief of staff , Colonel Mirko Raković .
While most of the JNA garrison in the Logorište barracks remained in place , a group of 10 to 16 tanks deployed south ( without significant resistance ) toward the villages of Belajske Poljice and Belaj . The armoured force went through Belaj before it was stopped at Gornji Velemerić and about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 miles ) north of the village of Carevo Selo by elements of the 2nd Guards Brigade and the 137th Infantry Brigade . The JNA force retreated to Belaj after losing two tanks , mounting another attack on the road to Barilović . The four tanks dispatched to Barilović were also stopped by 137th Brigade troops before reaching their objective . By evening the 137th Infantry Brigade was reinforced by two companies redeployed from Generalski Stol and Erdelj , elements of the 3rd Battalion of the 2nd Guards Brigade , one tank , three armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and an antitank missile system to contain the JNA advance . During the night of 4 – 5 November , the civilian population was evacuated .
A secondary force of four JNA tanks , supported by infantry , was deployed from the Logorište barracks to secure high ground north and east of the barracks and protect the flank of the armoured force in Belaj . According to the HV , advancing troops were met by the 2nd Company of the 3rd Battalion of the 110th Brigade ( supported by a T @-@ 55 tank ) in Mala Vinica after the JNA force secured its immediate objectives . The JNA lost three tanks and a truck in the clash . According to them one tank was destroyed and another damaged , forcing the remaining two to retreat to the barracks . The secondary force was limited to within 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 feet ) from Belajske Poljice after the HV secured Vinica Hill , which was attacked by a Yugoslav Air Force Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21 at 2 : 00 p.m.
The Karlovac Operational Zone did not assist the 137th Infantry Brigade , instead directing subordinated units to lift JNA sieges of Slunj and Saborsko and securing the Karlovac – Slunj road . This prompted Katušin to request help from Zagreb Operational Zone commander Colonel Stjepan Mateša . Mateša , a native of Duga Resa , ordered the 7th Brigade of the Croatian TO to deploy a battalion to Karlovac . Although the General Staff approved the order ( instructing the 8th Brigade of the Croatian TO to add one of its battalions ) , no 8th Brigade troops were sent .
= = = 5 November = = =
The JNA , warned about reinforcements to the 137th Infantry Brigade , abandoned its plan to advance to Barilović . It reoriented its efforts to reach the Korana Bridge in the village of Malići , down the road from Gornji Velemerić and Carevo Selo ( where its tanks were stopped the day before ) . The battle resumed in the morning when JNA tanks ( supported by the Yugoslav Air Force , artillery and multiple rocket launchers ) broke through positions held by the 2nd Guards Brigade at 1 : 00 p.m. , reaching Carevo Selo before they were stopped again by the HV . Shortly afterwards , the 2nd Battalion of the 7th Brigade arrived from Zagreb to Duga Resa and were attached to the 137th Infantry Brigade . One company of the battalion was deployed to Vinica Hill , and a second was deployed west of Carevo Selo ( where it relieved troops from the 2nd Guards Brigade ) .
The 110th Infantry Brigade assigned secondary importance to the fighting around the Logorište barracks , since it was struggling to hold its positions at Turanj ( where the HV estimated a two @-@ battalion @-@ strong attack was in progress , with artillery and air support ) . At 5 : 00 a.m. the Vinica Hill positions were reinforced by the Sports Company ( composed of Zagreb University Faculty of Kinesiology students ) and a platoon of 82 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) mortars attached to the 3rd Battalion of the 110th Infantry Brigade . The battalion was tasked with blocking the Logorište – Belajske Poljice road leading south from the Logorište barracks and capturing Belajske Poljice by noon .
Since there were only 40 trained drivers in the Logorište barracks , Boro Ercegovac ordered soldiers who had never operated military vehicles to drive in a column starting from the barracks under fire at 3 : 30 p.m. As the column advanced south towards Malići , elements of the 110th Infantry Brigade retreated from the village of Zastinja ( on the right bank of the Korana River ) . The evacuating JNA column sustained casualties , although it was supported by the 9th Motorised Brigade and two detachments of the SAO Krajina TO from Vojnić . The SAO Krajina TO were later accused of killing civilians in the area .
= = = 6 November = = =
During the night of 5 – 6 November , fighting died down after a ceasefire was brokered in The Hague . The lull was used by the 137th Infantry Brigade to extract its encircled troops and civilians near the Korana River , east of Malići . The JNA column began moving south again at dawn ; it reached Malići at about 9 : 00 a.m. , crossed the Korana River ( over the village bridge and a pontoon bridge ) by 11 : 00 and proceeded to Vojnić . Shortly afterwards , the Logorište barracks and its surroundings were secured by the HV .
= = Aftermath = =
Both sides claimed victory after the battle , with the JNA hailing the evacuation of the garrison as its greatest success . However , they achieved only part of their objectives ; the JNA failed to secure the area surrounding the barracks or remove all the weapons and equipment in it , and the planned coordinated advance against Turanj also failed . Croatian forces failed in their primary objective : containing the garrison . Nonetheless , the JNA threat from the Logorište barracks was removed ( freeing up forces assigned to the blockade of the barracks ) and a large number of weapons were captured .
The 137th Infantry Brigade had 17 fatalities in the battle , and the 2nd Guards Brigade had one . The 110th Infantry Brigade had 14 killed and 26 wounded , but the brigade sustained most of its casualties at Turanj rather than Logorište . The JNA had 14 dead and 33 wounded troops . In addition , 14 civilians were killed and 14 captured and held by the JNA and the SAO Krajina TO . One prisoner died in captivity , and the remainder were later exchanged . Seven of the exchanged prisoners had been severely injured , and died shortly after the exchange . The Central Intelligence Agency estimated that the JNA lost most of its tanks which had been housed in the Logorište barracks .
The JNA evacuated 21 T @-@ 55 tanks , nine T @-@ 34s , an armoured recovery vehicle , an armoured vehicle @-@ launched bridge , ten APCs ( including an armoured command vehicle ) and 50 vehicles carrying military equipment . Elements of the 110th Infantry Brigade entered the Logorište barracks on the morning of 6 November , removing some of the military hardware in the barracks before pulling out at 1 : 00 p.m. after being informed that the JNA was planning an artillery attack . Captured equipment continued to be removed from the barracks until 13 November .
= = = Command @-@ system failure = = =
The destruction of property caused outrage in Duga Resa , largely directed at Nedjeljko Katušin ( who fled for his life to Karlovac and then to Zagreb Operational Zone headquarters on the morning of 6 November ) . The 110th Infantry Brigade blamed the 137th Brigade for all mistakes , including the breakout from the barracks ( which occurred in the brigade 's AOR ) . Izidor Češnjaj also blamed Katušin . However , Katušin was supported by the General Staff and was soon appointed commanding officer of the 140th Infantry Brigade based in Jastrebarsko . In fact , Croatian command and control systems failed ( especially the Karlovac Operational Zone command , in the immediate vicinity of the battlefield ) . Communications were poor , and the zone command issued no instructions to the troops fighting near Logorište . The 110th Infantry Brigade was focused on the fighting at Turanj , paying little attention to Logorište , and the 137th Infantry Brigade made poor use of reinforcements deployed from Zagreb . The JNA command was more effective , probably because of the proximity of its command post on Šanac Hill , 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 feet ) away ( permitting direct observation of part of the battlefield ) .
= = = War crimes trial = = =
Croatian authorities charged two former members of the SAO Krajina TO with shooting two HV soldiers who had tried to surrender to the JNA on 4 November . One of the two was arrested in October 2010 , and was convicted and sentenced to nine years in prison in November 2013 .
= Interstate 75 in Michigan =
Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from Miami , Florida , to Sault Ste . Marie in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . I @-@ 75 enters Michigan from Ohio in the south , north of Toledo and runs generally northward through Detroit , Pontiac and Bay City , crosses the Mackinac Bridge , and ends at the Canadian border in Sault Ste . Marie . The freeway runs for approximately 396 miles ( 637 km ) on both of Michigan 's peninsulas . The landscapes traversed by I @-@ 75 include Southern Michigan farmland , northern forests , suburban bedroom communities , and the urban core of Detroit . The freeway also uses three of the state 's monumental bridges to cross major bodies of water . There are four auxiliary Interstates in the state related to I @-@ 75 , as well as nine current or former business routes , with either Business Loop I @-@ 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 ) or Business Spur I @-@ 75 ( BS I @-@ 75 ) designations .
The freeway bears several names in addition to the I @-@ 75 designation . The southern segment was called the Detroit – Toledo Expressway during planning in the 1950s and 1960s . Through Detroit , I @-@ 75 is the Fisher Freeway or the Walter P. Chrysler Freeway , named for pioneers in the auto industry . Sections on either side of the Mackinac Bridge are the G. Mennen Williams Freeway or the Prentiss M. Brown Freeway , named for politicians who helped get the bridge built . Officially , the entire length is the American Legion Memorial Highway , after the organization of the same name . Various sections carry components of the four Great Lakes Circle Tours in the state .
Several Indian trails spanned the state along the general path of the modern freeway . After statehood , several of these were converted into plank roads that later became some of the first state highways . In the 1920s , five of these were added to the United States Numbered Highway System : US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) , US 10 , US 24 , US 25 , and US 27 . In the 1950s , a Michigan Turnpike was proposed as a tolled , controlled @-@ access highway in the Lower Peninsula . After passage of the Federal Highway Act of 1956 , this turnpike proposal was shelved as a free Interstate Highway was planned . Construction started in 1957 , signs went up in 1959 , and I @-@ 75 was completed in 1973 . Since completion , the freeway has been upgraded with the construction of the Zilwaukee Bridge near Saginaw and improved connections to the Ambassador Bridge in Detroit .
= = Route description = =
Known as " Michigan 's Main Street " , I @-@ 75 is listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) for its entire length . The NHS is a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The freeway is the busiest in the state : between M @-@ 8 ( Davison Highway ) and McNichols Road in Detroit approximately 194 @,@ 300 vehicles used the freeway on average each day in 2010 ; in contrast the lowest traffic level was 3 @,@ 208 vehicles between the M @-@ 48 and M @-@ 80 interchanges in Chippewa County . I @-@ 75 carries segments of all four Great Lakes Circle Tours in the state . It is also the only highway located on both Michigan 's Upper and Lower peninsulas ( UP and LP , respectively ) . Between the Ohio state line and Kawkawlin , I @-@ 75 contains between a minimum of six and a maximum of ten lanes total ; other sections vary between four and six lanes in total .
= = = Lake Erie shore and the Downriver communities = = =
Crossing the state line north of Toledo , Ohio , I @-@ 75 enters Michigan in Monroe County carrying the Lake Erie Circle Tour ( LECT ) near the North Maumee Bay of Lake Erie . The freeway runs parallel to the shoreline of the Great Lake and past the community of Luna Pier . Further north , I @-@ 75 passes to the southeast of Monroe and crosses the River Raisin between the city and the river mouth . North of the river , the freeway turns further inland running through farmland . Near Newport , I @-@ 275 splits off to the northwest and I @-@ 75 continues its northeasterly trek through Monroe County . When it crosses the Huron River , the trunkline enters Wayne County between South Rockwood and Rockwood .
On the north side of the county line , I @-@ 75 begins to run inland of , and parallel to , the Detroit River , entering the Downriver area . The freeway turns northerly after the interchange with M @-@ 85 ( Fort Street ) near Gibraltar , and the LECT departs I @-@ 75 to follow M @-@ 85 north of the interchange . The landscape transitions to suburban residential areas instead of farmland through this area . The freeway turns back northeasterly in Taylor and intersects the southern end of M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Highway ) in Lincoln Park . I @-@ 75 crosses the Ecorse River and passes through an industrial area of Metro Detroit . Further north , the freeway spans the River Rouge in the southern part of Detroit .
I @-@ 75 parallels to M @-@ 85 ( Fort Street ) and follows the Detroit River as far east as the Ambassador Bridge . Near the bridge 's approaches , the freeway turns 90 ° away from the river and intersects the eastern end of I @-@ 96 before turning again to follow the river further inland . From there , I @-@ 75 meets M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) and crosses under M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) . East of Woodward , the freeway travels past both Comerica Park and Ford Field , homes of the Detroit Tigers and Detroit Lions professional sports teams , respectively .
= = = Detroit to the Tri @-@ Cities = = =
Immediately east of Ford Field , I @-@ 75 turns northwesterly to follow the Chrysler Freeway away from the downtown Detroit area . The transition from the Fisher Freeway involves a set of one @-@ lane ramps through the interchange with the connections to Interstate 375 and M @-@ 3 ( Gratiot Avenue ) . Heading north @-@ northwesterly , I @-@ 75 passes to the east of the campus of Wayne State University and through an interchange with I @-@ 94 ( Edsel Ford Freeway ) . The Chrysler Freeway passes to the west of Hamtramck and to the east of Highland Park , enclaves within Detroit . I @-@ 75 meets M @-@ 8 ( Davison Freeway ) and continues through residential areas of Detroit 's northern side . North of M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) , the freeway crosses out of Detroit and into Oakland County . The Chrysler Freeway jogs through the suburb of Hazel Park , site of the " worst freeway for accidents in Metro Detroit " at a curve near 9 Mile Road .
Further north , I @-@ 75 intersects I @-@ 696 near 10 Mile Road . The freeway continues northward for about six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) into Troy , where it turns westward . The route for I @-@ 75 zig @-@ zags through Troy and Auburn Hills as the freeway alternates from north – south to east – west to bypass Pontiac . Near the M @-@ 59 interchange , I @-@ 75 passes the headquarters for Chrysler . Further north , by the M @-@ 24 interchange , it runs near The Palace of Auburn Hills , home of the Detroit Pistons . The freeway traverses through additional suburban residential areas as it runs northwesterly away from Pontiac . These subdivisions end north of Clarkston , which is the location of the northern terminus for US 24 . Continuing through Holly and Newark , the freeway transitions back to a rural , wooded setting .
As I @-@ 75 approaches Grand Blanc , the landscape changes back to suburbs . I @-@ 475 ( UAW Freeway ) splits off to the north to bypass the east side of Flint , and I @-@ 75 merges with US 23 . The combined I @-@ 75 / US 23 turns northerly to round the west side of the city . I @-@ 75 / US 23 meets I @-@ 69 near the Bishop International Airport southwest of downtown Flint . The freeway continues northward along the western residential neighborhoods , encountering the northern end of I @-@ 475 near Mount Morris . I @-@ 75 passes to the west of Clio and the east of Birch Run , the latter home to a large outlet mall . From there , the trunkline travels through farmland in southern Saginaw County .
= = = Central Michigan = = =
I @-@ 75 / US 23 enters the southern reaches of the suburban Tri @-@ Cities at Bridgeport and proceeds northward through the area . The freeway passes to the east of downtown Saginaw . I @-@ 675 splits off to run westward into downtown , and I @-@ 75 curves around to the northwest to cross the Saginaw River on the Zilwaukee Bridge in the suburb of Zilwaukee . North of the river , I @-@ 675 reconnects to I @-@ 75 , which continues northward into Bay County . The freeway passes to the west of Bay City , encountering the eastern end of the US 10 freeway . From there , I @-@ 75 / US 23 curves northwesterly to bypass Kawkawlin before continuing north to the Standish area through farmlands inland from the Saginaw Bay . West of Standish , US 23 splits to follow the Lake Huron shoreline , and I @-@ 75 turns northwesterly to run inland .
West of Sterling , the landscape changes again ; in this area the freeway enters forest lands . I @-@ 75 continues northwestward through Arenac County and crosses into western Ogemaw County . M @-@ 30 passes under the freeway without an interchange as I @-@ 75 rounds the west side of West Branch . On the northwest side of that city , M @-@ 55 merges onto I @-@ 75 , and the two highways turn to run concurrently westward into Roscommon County . East of Prudenville , M @-@ 55 splits from the freeway . I @-@ 75 turns northward to curve around the east of Houghton and Higgins lakes . Turning back to the northwest , the trunkline bypasses Roscommon to the south and transfers into southern Crawford County . About five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of the county line , I @-@ 75 meets the northern end of US 127 , the former US 27 .
= = = Northern Michigan = = =
After the US 127 interchange , I @-@ 75 turns northward , and passes to the east of Grayling . There are a pair of interchanges on either end of town for BL I @-@ 75 , and the southern one is a partial interchange ; only northbound I @-@ 75 traffic may access the business loop and traffic entering the freeway may only access southbound I @-@ 75 . There is no interchange further north for M @-@ 72 ; access to that highway is provided through the business loop . On the north side of Grayling , there is a full interchange for BL I @-@ 75 / M @-@ 93 that provides the southbound I @-@ 75 connection to M @-@ 72 as well as access from both directions to the Hartwick Pines State Park .
Crossing into southern Ot | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
sego County , I @-@ 75 continues northward through Northern Michigan forests . It passes to the east of the community of Waters and Otsego Lake . North of exit 279 , I @-@ 75 proceeds by the Gaylord Regional Airport and crosses the 45th Parallel , the halfway mark between the Equator and the North Pole by latitude . The freeway then traverses the west side of Gaylord and continues through forests in the northern sections of the county . North of Vanderbilt , I @-@ 75 enters southern Cheboygan County , assuming the G. Mennen Williams Freeway name .
I @-@ 75 continues northward through Cheboygan County , passing the community of Indian River and spanning the river of the same name . North of town , the freeway traverses the area between Burt and Mullett lakes before intersecting the southern end of M @-@ 27 ; that highway provides access to Topinabee and Cheboygan . I @-@ 75 continues northward through tree farms and other agricultural properties in rural Cheboygan County . Cheboygan is accessible by way of interchanges for C @-@ 64 and C @-@ 66 , a pair of county @-@ designated highways in this area . North of C @-@ 66 , I @-@ 75 turns northwesterly . The freeway meets the northern end of US 31 and picks up the Lake Michigan Circle Tour ( LMCT ) designation before entering Emmet County on the south side of Mackinaw City . I @-@ 75 then parallels the county line on the west side of the village , meeting the northern end of US 23 . After that interchange , the Lake Huron Circle Tour ( LHCT ) merges in from the south . There is one more interchange along the freeway before I @-@ 75 ascends the approaches to the Mackinac Bridge .
= = = Mackinac Bridge = = =
The Mackinac Bridge carries I @-@ 75 across the Straits of Mackinac that separate Michigan 's Upper and Lower peninsulas ; the straits also form the connection between Lakes Michigan and Huron . The structure , unlike the rest of the state highways in Michigan like I @-@ 75 , is under the maintenance and control of the Mackinac Bridge Authority ( MBA ) . The authority collects a toll from traffic that crosses the bridge , which as of January 1 , 2012 , is $ 4 for passenger cars and $ 5 per axle for commercial vehicles and motorhomes . In addition to cash , the MBA offers a pre @-@ paid debit card option for the payment of tolls . The authority also provides a driver assistance program that will drive vehicles across the bridge at no additional charge ; motorists who use the service have a fear of bridges . Because the bridge normally only allows motor vehicles , bicyclists and snowmobiles shuttled across are subject to fees . The authority maintains a small police department to patrol the bridge and escort vehicles across , and a pair of radio station transmitters that broadcast bridge conditions and travel information on AM 530 and AM 1610 .
= = = Upper Peninsula = = =
North of the Mackinac Bridge , I @-@ 75 passes to the west of downtown St. Ignace , traveling between the Father Marquette National Memorial and the Straits State Park . There is an interchange north of the toll plaza that marks the eastern end of US 2 in the state . The LMCT departs I @-@ 75 to follow US 2 while the LHCT follows BL I @-@ 75 through town . The freeway curves around the Mackinac County Airport and meets the northern end of the business loop near Castle Rock ; the LHCT returns to I @-@ 75 at that interchange as well . Continuing northward , M @-@ 123 ( Tahquamenon Trail ) intersects from the west as the freeway parallels H @-@ 63 ( Mackinac Trail ) , the former route of US 2 . I @-@ 75 crosses the Carp River and follows the shores of St. Martin Bay before meeting M @-@ 134 . At that interchange , the LHCT departs again to run eastward . Through this area , the freeway continues northeasterly , traversing the Eastern Unit of the Hiawatha National Forest .
I @-@ 75 crosses the Pine River before entering Chippewa County . The freeway takes a more northerly track as it travels under M @-@ 48 without an interchange . Further north , M @-@ 48 curves around to connect I @-@ 75 with Rudyard , and the freeway turns back to continue northeastward . About five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) northeast of Rudyard , I @-@ 75 passes next to Chippewa County International Airport , the former Kincheloe Air Force Base in Kinross and Kincheloe . North of there in Dafter , the freeway intersects M @-@ 28 ( 9 Mile Road ) . Beyond that interchange , I @-@ 75 picks up the Lake Superior Circle Tour ( LSCT ) designation , which it carries the rest of the way north . On the south side of Sault Ste . Marie , the freeway meets BS I @-@ 75 and picks up the LHCT designation one more time . I @-@ 75 rounds the west side of the city , passes the Sault Ste . Marie Municipal Airport and the campus of Lake Superior State University before meeting the customs and toll plazas for the International Bridge . From there , I @-@ 75 crosses the two @-@ lane bridge and terminates at the Canadian border . As of 1 April 2012 , the toll rates on the bridge are $ 3 for passenger vehicles , $ 2 @.@ 10 for commuters , and $ 4 per axle for commercial vehicles ; currently the same toll rate is assessed in US dollars and Canadian dollars . Motorists have the option to pay with cash or an IQ Card , an electronic toll collection debit card that uses radio @-@ frequency identification technology .
= = History = =
= = = Indian trails to state highways = = =
Before Michigan became a state , the first land transportation corridors were the Indian trails . The French @-@ Indian Trail ran through southeastern Michigan between Toledo , Monroe and Detroit . The Saginaw Trail ran north from Detroit to the Saginaw area where it connected with the original Mackinaw Trail that ran roughly parallel to , and west of , the modern I @-@ 75 . Another path , the Cheboygan Trail , ran parallel to the modern freeway to the east between the West Branch area and Cheboygan . In the UP , an extension of the Mackinac Trail connected St. Ignace and Sault Ste . Marie . In the 19th century , the Michigan Legislature chartered private companies to build and operate plank roads or turnpikes in the state , many of which replaced the original Indian trails . These roads were originally made of oak planks , but later legislation permitted gravel as well . By the first decade of the 20th century , only 23 of the 202 chartered turnpikes were still in operation ; many companies that received a charter never built their specified roadways . The remaining plank roads were turned over to the state or purchased by railway companies in the early part of the century .
The State Trunkline Highway System was formed on May 13 , 1913 , and several sections of the system were designated along the course of the then @-@ future I @-@ 75 . Division 1 connected the Ohio state line northeasterly to Detroit , and Division 2 connected Detroit with Mackinaw City . A branch of Division 7 ran north from St. Ignace to Sault Ste . Marie . The system was signposted in 1919 , and those highways were marked on maps for the first time . The first M @-@ 10 was designated along the highways from Ohio through Detroit to Standish . M @-@ 76 connected Standish with Grayling , where the first M @-@ 14 ran northward to Cheboygan . From there , M @-@ 10 connected to Mackinaw City . In the UP , M @-@ 12 connected St. Ignace with Sault Ste . Marie along a route to the east of the old Mackinac Trail . When the United States Numbered Highway System was formed on November 11 , 1926 , most of these highways were redesignated as part of the national system . From the state line northward , M @-@ 10 was included as a part of US 24 and US 25 . At Detroit , M @-@ 10 was used as a part of US 10 . North of Grayling , M @-@ 14 was redesignated as a part of US 27 . M @-@ 12 was used for US 2 .
The Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) rerouted US 2 in 1933 between Rogers Park and Sault Ste . Marie . The new routing followed Mackinac Trail instead of turning east to Cedarville and north to Sault Ste . Marie ; the former routing was given the M ‑ 121 designation .
= = = Turnpikes and freeways = = =
By 1945 , a divided highway designated Alternate US 24 ( US 24A ) was opened from the state line north to Erie . After World War II , the MSHD planned to convert several highways in the state to freeways . In planning maps from 1947 , the modern I @-@ 75 corridor was included in the system that later became the Interstate Highway System . It was also included in the General Location of National System of Interstate Highways Including All Additional Routes at Urban Areas Designated in September 1955 , or Yellow Book after the cover color , that was released in 1955 as the federal government readied plans for the freeway system .
The Michigan Turnpike Authority ( MTA ) , an agency which was created in 1951 , proposed the construction of a toll freeway to run north – south in the state . The original termini for the turnpike were Bridgeport and Rockwood . The state highway commissioner at the time , Charles Ziegler , distrusted a separate agency dealing with statewide road building at the time , and he worked to stall progress on any proposed turnpikes . Ziegler , who had a seat on the MTA board , publicly sparred with authority chairman George Higgins , even announcing that the MSHD would build a parallel freeway that would " reduce tolls on the turnpike 40 to 50 percent " according to consultants . Trucking interests in the state also opposed the projects , preferring a moderate gas tax increase over any tolls . Detroit denied the MTA permission to route a turnpike through the city over issues related to the River Rouge , Rouge Park and access across the right @-@ of @-@ way . After a lawsuit by City of Dearborn , the legislation creating the authority was upheld by the Michigan Supreme Court in 1955 , and the authority was allowed to sell bonds for its Bridgeport – Rockwood and Detroit – Chicago toll roads .
The original planning maps plotted the first turnpike to the west of Detroit , running near US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) . This route was later proposed for I @-@ 75 itself ; I @-@ 275 would have been the freeway to loop into downtown Detroit . The proposed length was increased by December 1955 ; the extended Michigan Turnpike would have run from a connection across the Ohio state line to Toledo north through Detroit and Saginaw and eventually to the southern end of the Mackinac Bridge . By the following April , any extensions were cancelled leaving the turnpike to its original termini ; the east – west companion road was also cancelled at that time . The MTA proposed a state constitutional amendment in January 1956 that would allow the Michigan Legislature to issue state @-@ guaranteed bonds for part of the MTA 's construction expenses . According to The Wall Street Journal , the authority " struggled for survival " in the face of opposition from the MSHD just two months later ; the department 's actions impaired the authority 's appropriations from the state legislature and its ability to sell the necessary bonds to pay for construction . When the federal government approved the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 , Ziegler and the MSHD announced plans for a full freeway to run north through the Lower Peninsula and continue across to the Upper Peninsula . This announcement undermined the efforts to build the Michigan Turnpike . By August 1956 , the MTA voted to reduce its operations to a skeleton staff , but moved forward in May 1957 on a bond sale to finance construction of the roadway . Financiers stated such a sale was only feasible if the turnpike was to be safe from competition . The Michigan Townships Association called for the abolition of the MTA in 1958 . The legislature killed a bill to do so in June 1959 , but it later voted to repeal the act that created the authority in 1962 .
= = = Interstate Highway era = = =
The first sections of freeway for I @-@ 75 were opened in 1957 , beginning with the southern section near the Ohio state line opened in October 1957 . The Mackinac Bridge was opened to traffic on November 1 , 1957 ; a new section of freeway and an interchange connected US 2 to the bridge . The MSHD formally proposed the I @-@ 75 number in 1958 . On June 30 of that year , the first stretch of the " Fenton – Clio Expressway " opened . Construction on the Chrysler Freeway in Detroit started on January 30 , 1959 . The I @-@ 75 signs were first installed along the Detroit – Toledo Expressway in October 1959 , replacing US 24A signage in the Monroe area , after the state waited for final approval of the numbering system to be used in the state .
In November 1960 , sections of freeway opened from Indian River north to the southern Mackinac Bridge approaches in Mackinaw City and from St. Ignace to Evergreen Shores , and by December , the section of freeway running between Evergreen Shores and M ‑ 123 was scheduled to open . The next year the original Zilwaukee Bridge , a bascule bridge across the Saginaw River was opened along with a section of freeway north to Kawkawlin . That September , the section between Gaylord and Vanderbilt was completed , and in October 1961 , the first segment of I @-@ 75 near Grayling opened , connecting M @-@ 18 with the city . By the end of the year , the freeway was completed between Kinross and Dafter in the UP , and the former segment of US 27 between Grayling and Gaylord was turned back to local control . After this individual segment of freeway was completed , it left a gap between Gaylord and Indian River that was designated " TO I @-@ 75 " on maps for the former segment of US 27 , and US 27 was truncated to about five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of Grayling . The 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) section of I @-@ 75 was opened between Gaylord and Waters in July 1962 . Another temporary " TO I @-@ 75 " designation was applied along US 10 and US 27 from Bay City to Grayling . In 1961 , the MSHD had proposed that the section of I @-@ 75 south of Detroit to Toledo be built as an electronic highway under a bid through General Motors ; the testing for such a roadway was ultimately done at Ohio State University instead .
On October 25 , 1962 , the section of freeway from M @-@ 24 near Pontiac to the Flint area opened . The same year , the freeway gap was filled in between Gaylord and Indian River . The International Bridge and its approaches opened in Sault Ste . Marie on October 31 , 1962 . The following year , a set of segments opened in the Detroit area . The freeway was extended south from Pontiac to 11 Mile Road with a connection along M @-@ 150 to M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) . Another section opened to connect with US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) in the Woodhaven area ; a TO I @-@ 75 designation was added to connect along US 24 and M @-@ 102 to M @-@ 150 . On the other end of the state , the gaps in the freeway across the UP were completed in 1963 as well , and the section of freeway in Northern Michigan was named the most scenic new highway in the US in 1963 by Parade magazine . The first part of the Chrysler Freeway opened to traffic on June 26 , 1964 , the southern mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of which was designated I @-@ 375 .
The segment of I @-@ 75 through the Downriver suburbs of Detroit between the US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) connector and M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Highway ) was completed on December 28 , 1966 . The same year , I @-@ 75 was scheduled to open southward from 11 Mile Road to M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) . In 1967 , two segments of freeway opened . One was from Kawkawlin to Standish in October , and the other through Detroit extended I @-@ 75 along the Fisher Freeway in December . The first section of M @-@ 76 freeway from Standish northwesterly to Alger was scheduled to open in July 1968 . A one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) section of the Chrysler Freeway through Detroit opened on December 19 , 1968 , and the remainder was scheduled to open on January 10 , 1969 .
In 1970 , I @-@ 75 through Detroit was completed , and two additional sections of M @-@ 76 were converted to freeway . The northern section ran from the US 27 @-@ to @-@ I @-@ 75 transition south of Grayling to the Crawford – Roscommon county line , and the second was an extension from Alger to the West Branch area . The first ice @-@ detection system in the state was installed on the River Rouge bridges in the Detroit area in an attempt to maximize driver safety . The next year , the last section of the Chrysler Freeway in Hazel Park was finished when an interchange for the then @-@ unbuilt I @-@ 696 was completed . Another segment of the M @-@ 76 freeway was completed at the same time , bypassing Roscommon . The final section between Alger and Roscommon was opened on November 1 , 1973 , in a dedication by Governor William G. Milliken .
Since the freeway was completed , a few changes have been made to I @-@ 75 in Michigan . MDOT truncated US 2 to end in St. Ignace by removing it from the I ‑ 75 freeway in 1983 . In 1986 , US 10 was truncated to Bay City , removing its concurrency with I @-@ 75 from there to Clarkston . Two years later , the original bascule Zilwaukee Bridge across the Saginaw River was replaced by a much higher structure slightly north of the former bridge .
= = = Gateway Project = = =
Beginning on February 25 , 2008 , I @-@ 75 closed completely to traffic in both directions from Rosa Parks Boulevard ( exit 49 ) to Clark Street ( exit 47 ) in Detroit . This facilitated the complete rebuilding of the road as part of the Ambassador Gateway Project to better connect I @-@ 75 and I @-@ 96 to the Ambassador Bridge . Through traffic on I @-@ 75 was rerouted along I @-@ 94 to I @-@ 275 and local detours were posted . The freeway reopened to traffic in June 2009 , five months ahead of schedule . The overall project to realign and connect the bridge to the freeways was mired in lawsuits between MDOT and the private company that owns the bridge . The company 's owner was jailed for contempt of court during court proceedings in early 2012 . MDOT was later ordered to assume responsibility for construction , and the department completed the project on September 21 , 2012 .
= = Freeway names = =
I @-@ 75 has five named segments in Michigan . The southernmost section from the state line north to the Detroit area is the Detroit – Toledo Expressway . The segment through southern and central Detroit is known as the Fisher Freeway . It was dedicated on September 17 , 1970 , to the Fisher Brothers , who founded Fisher Body , later a part of General Motors . After the curve in downtown Detroit , I @-@ 75 follows the Walter P. Chrysler Freeway northward . That segment is named for Walter P. Chrysler , founder of Chrysler . The name was chosen by the Detroit Common Council on November 6 , 1957 , and codified in state law in 1990 ; the state definition for the name places the northern end of the designation at the Oakland – Genesee county line .
Officially , the entire length of I @-@ 75 in Michigan is the American Legion Memorial Highway . As a practical matter , this name is not used on the southernmost segments of the Interstate . The American Legion was honored with the designation in 1969 in a state law that required private interests to finance the signage . Public Act 174 of 1984 redesignated I @-@ 75 in honor of the group and placed responsibility for signage in MDOT 's hands . Another name that was applied to all of I @-@ 75 was the Michigan Bicentennial Freedom Way . Designated by Senate Concurrent Resolution 216 of 1975 , the name only applied to the freeway in 1976 . The designation was formally repealed in 2001 .
Two other segments near the Straits of Mackinac were named in 1976 for figures instrumental in the construction of the Mackinac Bridge . From the Cheboygan – Otsego county line north to the bridge , I @-@ 75 was named for G. Mennen Williams , the former governor once called " Michigan 's Politician of the Century " in the press . The section in Mackinac County from the northern end of the Mackinac Bridge was named for Prentiss M. Brown , the former Congressman and Senator who served on the MBA board until his death in 1971 .
= = Monumental bridges = =
Along its route in the state , I @-@ 75 utilizes three of Michigan 's monumental bridges . The first of them is the Zilwaukee Bridge near Saginaw . The original bridge across the Saginaw River at Zilwaukee was built in 1960 as a bascule bridge to allow shipping traffic to use the river . Opening the drawbridge would back traffic up on I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 for upwards of four hours on holiday weekends . Approved in 1974 , construction on the replacement bridge started in October 1979 . A major construction accident in August 1982 delayed completion of the new Zilwaukee Bridge ; a bridge pier partially collapsed when contractors overloaded a section under construction . The affected 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) deck segment tilted to rest three feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) higher on one end and five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) lower on the other . The structure was originally supposed to cost $ 76 @.@ 8 million with a 1983 completion date ; in the end it cost $ 131 @.@ 3 million ( equivalent to $ 472 million in 2015 ) when the southbound span finally opened on September 19 , 1988 . The structure is the largest concrete segmental bridge in the United States .
The second is the Mackinac Bridge that connects Michigan 's two peninsulas at the Straits of Mackinac . A structure was first proposed in 1888 by one of the directors of the Grand Hotel on Mackinac Island . Car ferry service was started in 1923 to cross the straits , and a bridge authority was first created in 1934 to investigate the possibility of building a permanent connection across the straits . This early authority started with a 1921 proposal for a series of bridges that would have connected Cheboygan to St. Ignace by way of Bois Blanc , Round , and Mackinac islands . The federal Public Works Administration rejected loan and grant requests for that project . A second , direct crossing was then proposed based on designs used for the Tacoma Narrows Bridge . The collapse of that bridge and World War II delayed any further work on a structure beyond tests of the lake bottom and the construction of the 4 @,@ 200 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) causeway on the St. Ignace side ; the first bridge authority was abolished in 1947 . The current agency was created on June 6 , 1950 .
The MBA was authorized in 1952 to sell bonds to finance construction , which were sold on December 17 , 1953 , to finance the $ 99 @.@ 8 million ( equivalent to $ 2 @.@ 28 billion in 2015 ) cost of the bridge . The structure was designed by David B. Steinman and built by Merritt @-@ Chapman & Scott for the substructure and the American Bridge Company division of U.S. Steel Corporation for the superstructure . Construction started in 1954 and the Mackinac Bridge opened to traffic on November 1 , 1957 . Final work on the bridge was completed in September 1958 . Overall , the structure has a 3 @,@ 800 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) central suspension span flanked by two 1 @,@ 800 @-@ foot ( 550 m ) side spans . With the two backstay spans , the Mackinac Bridge is 8 @,@ 614 feet ( 2 @,@ 626 m ) long between cable anchorages , the longest in the world at the time it opened . The total length of the structure is 26 @,@ 444 feet ( 8 @,@ 060 m ) with two 555 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 169 m ) towers and 155 feet ( 47 m ) of clearance for passing ships under the main span . In 2000 , the bridge was named " Michigan 's No. 1 Civil Engineering Project of the 20th Century " by the Michigan Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers ( ASCE ) , and the structure was named a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 2010 by the national ASCE .
The northernmost of the three monumental bridges along I @-@ 75 is the International Bridge , linking the twin cities of Sault Ste . Marie in Michigan and Ontario . The governments on each side of the international border formed a bridge authority to build a highway bridge in 1935 . Construction started on the structure September 16 , 1960 . The International Bridge is nearly three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long , encompassing spans over the American and Canadian navigation channels for the Soo Locks and the St. Mary 's River . The American approach is 2 @,@ 471 feet ( 753 m ) , and the Canadian approach is 2 @,@ 942 feet ( 897 m ) . The center span over the river is 9 @,@ 280 feet ( 2 @,@ 830 m ) , flanked by 1 @,@ 260 @-@ foot ( 380 m ) and 830 @-@ foot ( 250 m ) spans over the American and Canadian shipping channels , respectively . The bridge was designed by the same firm that handled the Mackinac Bridge for a cost of $ 20 million ( equivalent to $ 344 million in 2015 ) . It opened to traffic on October 31 , 1962 .
= = Exit list = =
= = Related trunklines = =
There are four auxiliary Interstate Highways for I @-@ 75 in Michigan . I @-@ 275 begins as a loop from northern Monroe County and continues to connect with I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 696 . The freeway serves the population of western Wayne County and Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport . The highway was originally intended to connect with I @-@ 75 north of Pontiac . I @-@ 375 was the shortest signed Interstate in the nation ; It serves the immediate downtown Detroit area . I @-@ 475 is known as the UAW Freeway and the David Dunbar Buick Freeway . This freeway serves Flint 's downtown areas as I @-@ 75 goes to the west side of the city . The fourth auxiliary Interstate is I @-@ 675 , a loop into the city of Saginaw that served as an alternate to I @-@ 75 when the drawbridge over the Saginaw River was still operating .
In addition to the auxiliary Interstates , there are eight current business routes related to the freeway in the state . These business loops and spurs provide signed connections into the downtowns of Pontiac , Bay City , West Branch , Roscommon , Grayling , Gaylord , St. Ignace , and Sault Ste . Marie . A ninth highway was previously designated in Saginaw as well .
= Gordon Bell ( American football ) =
Gordon Granville Bell ( born December 25 , 1953 ) is a former American football running back , kickoff returner and punt returner who played for the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1973 – 1975 , and professionally for the New York Giants ( 1976 @-@ 1977 ) and St. Louis Cardinals ( 1978 ) of the National Football League ( NFL ) .
Bell was a two @-@ time All @-@ Ohio running back in high school and led Ohio 's Troy High School to undefeated seasons in 1970 and 1971 . As a 16 @-@ year @-@ old junior , he rushed for 324 yards in a single game ; for the year he had 1 @,@ 593 yards rushing and scored 146 points . As a senior in 1971 , he lost the Ohio AAA high school back of the year award to Archie Griffin .
Bell played tailback for Michigan teams that had a combined record of 28 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 from 1973 – 1975 . As a junior in 1974 , Bell was a part @-@ time player who started only three of Michigan 's eleven games , but he still managed to become only the third player in school history to rush for 1 @,@ 000 yards in a season . In 1975 , he set several single @-@ season school records , including most all @-@ purpose yards ( 1 @,@ 714 yards ) , most 100 @-@ yard rushing games ( eight ) , and most rushing attempts ( 273 ) . At the time of his graduation from Michigan , Bell also ranked second in school history in career rushing yards and third in all @-@ purpose yards . Though Bell 's records have been surpassed in more recent years , he remains one of the all @-@ time rushing leaders in Michigan history . Despite his accomplishments , Bell played in the shadow of Big Ten Conference rival , Archie Griffin , who won back @-@ to @-@ back Heisman Trophies . In some respects , Bell exceeded even Griffin 's accomplishments , as Bell won the 1975 Big Ten rushing championship .
Bell played three years of professional football , but never made it into the starting lineup for an NFL team . In three NFL seasons , he had 1 @,@ 444 all @-@ purpose yards . His best NFL season was 1976 , when he had 784 all @-@ purpose yards .
= = Youth = =
A native of Troy , Ohio , Bell had attended Ohio State Buckeyes games with his father from the age of six . In high school , he was one of the top football prospects in Ohio . As a junior at Troy High School in 1970 , Bell gained over 1 @,@ 593 yards , scored 146 points , led Troy High to its first unbeaten season ( 10 @-@ 0 ) since 1957 , and was named to the Associated Press 1970 All @-@ Ohio Class AAA high school first team . In the 1970 season opener , 16 @-@ year @-@ old Bell rushed for 324 yards and scored four touchdowns in a 54 – 6 win over Piqua High School . Afterward , Bell said , " All I can say is that my line was tremendous . " Piqua 's coach said , " Our kids were on Bell from the start , but they just couldn 't bring him down . " In October 1970 , Bell put on " one of the greatest one @-@ man shows ever seen at Beavercreek , " scoring three touchdowns and rushing for 233 yards in 30 carries . The Beavercreek coach said afterward that the game 's turning point came the moment Bell walked onto the field .
As a senior in 1971 , Bell led Troy High to a 10 – 0 record . In the season opener , Bell broke off tackle and rushed 70 yards for a touchdown the first time he got the ball . He scored touchdowns in three of his first four carries , though one was nullified by a penalty . Bell rushed for 190 yards and three touchdowns in the season opener . The opposing coach said , " It was the same old story . We knew we had to stop Bell and yet we still couldn 't do it . That boy is a great football player . " Bell again won first @-@ team All @-@ Ohio honors , but he lost the Associated Press 1971 Ohio AAA high school back of the year award . The award instead went to a high school senior from Columbus , Archie Griffin . Bell and Griffin would continue their rivalry in college .
In 1971 , Bell also won the Piqua YMCA high school weight @-@ lifting contest in the 165 @-@ pound class .
= = University of Michigan = =
= = = Overview = = =
Bell was recruited to the University of Michigan by assistant coach Gary Moeller . He was a relatively small player , standing 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) tall , and weighing 178 pounds ( 81 kg ; 12 @.@ 7 st ) . He was sometimes referred to as Michigan 's " mighty mite tailback . " In addition to his speed , what set him apart from other backs was his ability to cut and find the smallest of holes . Bo Schembechler called Bell " the greatest cutback runner I 've ever coached . " In 1975 , the Associated Press noted : " Bell is noted for his ability to cut on a dime , spurt through miniscule [ sic ] holes and hurdle tacklers . He 's got fine speed and he 's durable . Bell seems to get -- pardon the expression -- his bell rung on many tackles , only to bounce up as if nothing happened . " Noted Michigan radio broadcaster Bob Ufer often referred to Bell as " little Gordie Bell . " Ufer once humorously said , referring to Bell 's ability to shift directions quickly , that Bell " could run fifteen minutes in a phone booth and never touch the sides . "
In his career at Michigan , Bell gained 2 @,@ 902 rushing yards in 535 carries , and scored 28 rushing touchdowns . In addition to running from scrimmage , Bell ran back 12 kickoffs for an average of 26 @.@ 4 yards .
= = = 1973 season = = =
As a sophomore in 1973 , Bell saw his first action against Iowa . He was given five carries and gained 50 yards ( including a 24 @-@ yard gain ) for a ten @-@ yard per carry average . Bell did not start any games in 1973 , but his playing time increased later in the season , including 19 carries against Minnesota for 73 yards and 15 carries against Indiana for 89 yards . For the season , Bell rushed for 464 yards in 88 carries . The 1973 team finished with a record of 10 – 0 – 1 , with the only imperfection coming at the end of the season with a 10 – 10 tie with Ohio State . Despite tying for the Big Ten Conference championship , Big Ten athletic directors decided to send Ohio State to the Rose Bowl , and conference rules did not permit Michigan to play in another bowl game . Michigan ended up ranked number 6 in the final Associated Press poll .
= = = 1974 season = = =
For the 1974 season , Bell rushed for 1048 yards which was , at that time , the third highest single @-@ season total in school history . He joined Ron Johnson and Billy Taylor as the only players in Michigan history to rush for 1 @,@ 000 yards in a season . Bell accomplished the feat despite being a part @-@ time player , sharing the starting tailback job with sophomore Rob Lytle . In the 1974 campaign , Lytle started eight games to Bell 's three , although Bell outrushed Lytle 1048 yards to 802 . Bell had lost about 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ; 0 @.@ 71 st ) in the summer before the 1974 season , dropping to 175 pounds ( 79 kg ; 12 @.@ 5 st ) . He said , " I did it on my own to help me run , to make me quicker . "
Asked in 1974 about his alternating Lytle and Bell at the tailback position , Bo Schembechler said : " They 're both good . They have equal ability and they both deserve to play . " , Bell said at the time that he did not mind sharing playing time with Lytle because " we 're both pretty fair backs . It 's only fair that we share it . " In an October 1974 win over Minnesota ( by a score of 49 – 0 ) , Bell and Lytle combined for 292 rushing yards — 158 for Lytle and 134 for Bell .
In Michigan 's 51 – 0 victory over Purdue in November 1974 , Bell rushed for 166 yards in 22 carries for a 7 @.@ 2 yards per carry average . He also set up a field goal and another touchdown with runs of 32 and 39 yards . Bell was named the UPI 's Midwest offensive player of the week for the effort . When a reporter asked Bell for a comment , he said , " Coach doesn 't want us to say anything this week . We 've got to get ready for Ohio State . "
After Bell and Lytle combined for 1 @,@ 850 rushing yards in 1974 , Schembechler said : " Bell and Lytle are the greatest combination in the country . Bell is the best cut runner I 've ever had . Lytle is a great power runner . The tailback position is healthy to say the least . "
= = = 1975 season = = =
In both 1975 , Bell again shared the Michigan backfield duties with Rob Lytle . Bell was a senior in 1975 on a Michigan team that went 8 – 2 – 2 and finished the season ranked # 8 in the final Associated Press poll . Bell rushed for 1 @,@ 390 yards , added 314 yards on kickoff returns , and was voted the team 's Most Valuable Player .
Michigan started the 1975 season ranked # 3 in the country , and moved into the # 2 spot with a 23 – 6 win over Wisconsin in the season opener . Despite being hampered by a muscle pull , Bell still rushed for 210 yards in 28 carries against Wisconsin . After the game , Bell noted that he " couldn 't cut as well as ( he ) would have liked , " but he played through the injury realizing that , as a senior , " the coaches expect us to show the way . " On being named the UPI 's Midwest Back of the Week , Bell noted , " It 's really an honor to be recognized like that , but you have to have a lot of help out there . I thought Rick Leach was just super in the game . He sure didn 't look like a freshman . And our offensive line did the job despite having so many sophomores in there . " Bell 's 210 @-@ yard performance against Wisconsin stood as the school record in a season opener for 28 years until Chris Perry rushed for 232 yards in the 2003 season opener against Central Michigan .
After the opener against Wisconsin , Bell and the Wolverines tied games against Stanford ( 19 – 19 ) and Baylor ( 14 – 14 ) . Despite being favored by 18 points over Baylor , the Wolverines nearly lost and fell out of the top 10 in national ranking for the first time since September 1972 . After the Baylor game , Schembechler said the team lacked leadership . Bell may have been the one player to whom Bo 's criticism did not apply , as he had a career @-@ long 64 @-@ yard kickoff return against Baylor , scored both of Michigan 's touchdowns , and rushed for 89 yards in 26 carries . Bell 's second touchdown against Baylor came with 6 : 50 remaining in the fourth quarter and saved the Wolverines from a defeat .
The Wolverines rebounded into the top 10 with a 31 – 7 victory over Missouri in the fourth game of the season and strung together seven straight wins before facing Ohio State . Bell rushed for 119 yards against Missouri and had 150 all @-@ purpose yards . In a 16 – 6 win over Michigan State in week five , Bell scored Michigan 's only touchdown on a 19 @-@ yard run in the fourth quarter . The Wolverines beat Northwestern Wildcats , 69 – 0 , in week six . For the first time in Michigan history , the Wolverines had three backs who each rushed for at least 100 yards . As the starting back , Bell rushed for 100 yards and scored two touchdowns in the first quarter alone . With the game turning into a blowout , Schembechler pulled Bell after the first quarter , and Rob Lytle gained another 105 yards , before being replaced by Harlan Huckleby who gained 157 yards . Michigan tied the modern Big Ten record of 573 rushing yards in the game .
In a 28 – 21 win against Minnesota , Bell rushed for 174 yards on 31 carries for his fifth consecutive 100 @-@ yard game . He also scored two touchdowns , including a 23 @-@ yard run midway through the fourth quarter . The UPI noted : " Bell 's clinching run came with 8 : 04 gone in the final quarter and saved Michigan from the embarrassment of a tie . " Bell 's performance in the Minnesota game gave him 2 @,@ 488 career rushing yards , second in school history to Billy Taylor 's record of 3 @,@ 072 yards . In a close 21 – 15 win over Illinois , Bell scored two first @-@ quarter touchdowns and carried the ball a career @-@ high 35 times . Going into the Ohio State game , Bell was in a three @-@ person contest for the Big Ten Conference rushing championship . Bell led with an average of 134 @.@ 1 yards per conference game to 125 @.@ 1 for Billy Marek of Wisconsin , and 123 @.@ 7 for Archie Griffin .
Michigan ended the season with a 21 – 14 loss to Ohio State . Despite the loss , Bell won the battle of the backs , rushing for 124 yards on 21 carries and throwing for a touchdown pass , while Griffin was limited to 46 yards on 19 carries . Bell had 166 all @-@ purpose yards against the Buckeyes , his last regular season game for Michigan . In his only bowl game appearance , Bell played in a 14 – 6 loss to the Oklahoma Sooners in Orange Bowl after the 1975 season . He gained 53 yards rushing and 90 all @-@ purpose yards .
= = = Comparisons to Archie Griffin = = =
Bell was Michigan 's starting running back in the same years in which Archie Griffin won consecutive Heisman Trophies for Ohio State . In head @-@ to @-@ head meetings in 1974 and 1975 , Bell played as well or better than Griffin . In 1974 , each carried the ball 25 times , and Bell ended up with 108 yards compared with 111 yards for Griffin although Ohio State won the game 12 – 10 . In 1975 , Bell outgained Griffin 124 yards to 46 yards . Bell averaged 132 @.@ 9 yards per game in 1975 to lead Griffin and the Big Ten Conference in conference game rushing . Even so , Griffin won the Heisman Trophy , and Bell finished eighth in the 1975 Heisman Trophy voting .
During the 1975 season , Bell was asked how he felt about all the publicity being received by Griffin . He replied : " All of the publicity in the world doesn 't help you win . I don 't feel slighted because Archie is in our conference . I feel I 'm just as good as he is . " Bell later recalled : " Those two games against Ohio State were my biggest , and I consider the second game a personal victory . I outrushed Archie , but he had a great public relations guy in Woody Hayes . . . . He wasn 't the best player in the conference so how can he be the best player in the country ? "
Lee Larkins , who played for Purdue and was one of the top defensive backs in the Big Ten , said in 1976 that Bell was the best running back he ever played against . As a senior , Larkins played against Gordon Bell , Archie Griffin , and Ricky Bell of USC . Larkins said : " Gordon Bell was the best of the three . He was a super tough runner and a tough guy to make a solid tackle on . Gordon has a lot more speed and more moves than Archie does , and I thought he was a better all around player . "
= = = Relationship with Bo Schembechler = = =
During Bell 's years at Michigan , he played for the Wolverines ' legendary coach , Bo Schembechler . Near the end of Bell 's freshman year , Bell told Schembechler he was taking an incomplete in a course . Schembechler talked to Bell 's father , Trenton Bell , about the incomplete . Schembechler recalled , " Trenton told me ( Gordon ) ' d be back to finish that course . And he was . " Schembechler added , " Gordie listens to Trenton . What he says gets done . "
Schembechler described Gordon Bell as " a very , very durable guy . " Bo noted : " He isn 't exactly frail . He 's put together well . He 's a confident guy . Exciting and good as he is , he 's also one of the nicest guys you 'll ever meet . "
As Archie Griffin garnered the lion 's share of the media attention in 1975 , Schembechler spoke out for Bell : " I think Bell 's as good as any back there is anywhere . I haven 't seen any who looks better . . . . He is certainly the most underpublicized great back in the country . "
= = = Records and honors = = =
Bell finished the 1975 season as the Big Ten 's leading rusher , was selected to the Associated Press All @-@ Big Ten team , was chosen as Michigan 's Most Valuable Player , and finished eighth in the Heisman Trophy voting . In a year with an abundance of strong running backs , Bell and Earl Campbell were relegated to the AP 's third @-@ team All @-@ American , as Archie Griffin and Ricky Bell took first @-@ team honors , and Tony Dorsett and Jimmy DuBose took second @-@ team honors .
Bell 's career at Michigan was among the best in school history to that point . His school records included :
Bell set the single @-@ season all @-@ purpose yards record in 1975 with 1 @,@ 714 yards . Bell 's record stood until 1987 when it was broken by Jamie Morris . Bell 's total ranked eighth on Michigan 's all @-@ time list at the end of 2006 .
Bell 's 273 carries in 1975 broke Ron Johnson 's record of 255 carries set in 1968 . Bell 's total remained the school record until 1987 when Jamie Morris carried the ball 282 times . Bell 's 1975 performance now ranks eighth on the all @-@ time Michigan list .
In 1975 , Bell set the Michigan record with eight 100 @-@ yard rushing games . That record stood for 12 years until Jamie Morris compiled ten in 1987 .
Bell 's 1 @,@ 390 yards rushing in 1975 was the second best single @-@ season total in school history , just one yard short of the record set by Ron Johnson in 1967 . Bell 's 1975 total now ranks 11th best in school history .
At the end of the 1975 season , Bell had rushed for a career total of 2 @,@ 902 yards , second best in school history behind Billy Taylor 's record of 3 @,@ 072 yards . Bell 's career total still ranks ninth best in school history .
Bell 's 210 @-@ yard rushing game in the season opener against Wisconsin was the fourth best in school history at the time , behind Ron Johnson 's 347 @-@ yard game against the Badgers in 1968 . Bell is one of twelve backs in Michigan history to rush for 200 yards in a game .
Bell 's 13 rushing touchdowns in 1975 was the second best in school history , behind Ron Johnson 's 19 touchdowns in 1968 . His total is now tied for 11th best in school history .
Bell 's 28 career rushing touchdowns ranked third in school history , behind Billy Taylor and Tom Harmon .
Bell finished his career at Michigan ranked second behind Bob Nussbaumer in career yards per carry and now ranks ninth .
Bell 's 35 carries against Illinois in 1975 was the second most in school history at the time , behind Ron Johnson 's 42 @-@ carry performance in 1967 . He is now tied for twelfth in school history .
Bell 's 535 career carries was second to Billy Taylor at the time of Bell 's graduation . It now ranks tenth .
Bell ranked third in career all @-@ purpose yards ( behind Ron Johnson and Billy Taylor ) .
= = Professional career = =
= = = New York Giants = = =
Bell was drafted by the New York Giants in the fourth round of the 1976 NFL Draft . Bell did not get much playing time early in the 1976 season with the Giants . In late November , columnist David Bushnell wrote an article , " Are Giants missing the boat on Gordon Bell ? , " questioning the team 's lack of utilization of Bell . Bushnell noted that Bell had " spent most of the season standing on the sideline waiting to be inserted into the lineup for a few plays . " The Giants ' starting running back in 1976 was Doug Kotar , though Bushnell opined that Bell was the superior back : " Bell is quick , with speed to break any play for a long gain , and he can catch the ball . . . . If the Giants are trying to break Bell in gradually , they might just miss the boat totally , breaking Bell instead . " Bell noted at the time that the lack of playing time held him back : " It takes me about a quarter or so to get going , break a sweat and get the legs loosened up . I really don 't like being shuffled in and out so much , but as a rookie I can 't do much about it . " Bell also added , " Sure it 's been hard for me to be a spot player , especially because my body isn 't ideal for that type job . I think it 's better for me to play a lot , but then again I 'm not the coach . "
The 1976 Giants , who started 0 – 7 under Bill Arnsparger before going 3 – 4 under John McVay , had a diversified offense in which Bell was second on the team with 25 receptions for 198 yards . When Kotar was injured , Bell got his first start of the 1976 season on November 27 , 1976 . Bell rushed for two touchdowns in a 28 @-@ 16 victory over the Seattle Seahawks . He posted the best day of his professional career , with touchdown runs of two and 21 yards , gaining 56 yards on the ground and 41 more on pass receptions . After the game , Bell said , " I needed a game like that . " The backfield was led by Doug Kotar and Larry Csonka with Bell being the third leading rusher .
Having seen little playing time as a rookie in 1976 , Bell played even less in 1977 , as the Giants worked Bob Hammond and Willie Spencer into the rushing rotation . Bell rushed for 63 yards in 16 carries for the entire 1977 season . His main contribution to the 1977 Giants was as a kickoff returner , as he returned 12 kickoffs for 235 yards , second best on the Giants after Hammond .
= = = St. Louis Cardinals = = =
During 1978 , he was briefly on the Green Bay Packers roster during training camp , and he signed with the St. Louis Cardinals in November . In 1978 , Bell had more kickoff returns ( eight ) than rushes ( seven ) with St. Louis .
= = Later years = =
After retiring from football , Bell ran a barbecue restaurant in Dayton , Ohio . He later sold radio advertising in Detroit , Michigan and Chicago , Illinois .
= = Career statistics = =
= Ontario Highway 406 =
King 's Highway 406 ( pronounced " four @-@ oh @-@ six " ) , commonly referred to as Highway 406 , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The primary north @-@ south route though the central portion of the Niagara Peninsula , Highway 406 connects Welland , Thorold and downtown St. Catharines to the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) .
Construction of Highway 406 began in 1963 . The first section opened between St. Davids Road and Geneva Street on December 7 , 1965 , followed by a southward extension to Beaverdams Road in late 1969 . The route was later extended south as a super two to Merritt Road where it became Highway 58 . In 1977 , construction began to connect the freeway with the QEW ; this was completed in late 1984 . Construction on the route resumed in 1987 , connecting the route with East Main Street in Welland , completed during the mid @-@ 1990s .
In 2009 construction resumed on the highway to expand the remaining two lane sections to a four lane divided freeway , with the existing route becoming the southbound lanes of the new freeway . The southern terminus in Welland was converted to a roundabout while the remaining at @-@ grade intersections were rebuilt as interchanges .
= = Route description = =
From 1987 until 2015 , Highway 406 was unique as the only 400 @-@ series highway with two lane sections and with an at @-@ grade rail crossing . The highway is heavily travelled within St. Catharines , but volumes drop considerably south of the city . The speed limit on Highway 406 varies from 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) to 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . It is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police .
The 406 designation begins at East Main Street in Welland at a roundabout immediately west of East Main Street Tunnel beneath the Welland Canal . From here the now @-@ four @-@ lane divided road veers northeast and travels parallel to the canal . Two golf courses separate the canal . As the highway passes to the west of them , it jogs to the west and crosses a Trillium Railway spur ( formerly at @-@ grade , now over the railroad ) , and meets Daimler Parkway and Woodlawn Road at a newly constructed interchange . Soon after , it crosses the Welland River and then the former channel of the canal , which was replaced by the current Welland By @-@ Pass in the 1970s .
The highway curves to the northwest as it passes through thick forest , and meets another newly built interchange with Merritt Road ( formerly Highway 58 ) , which as of 2009 was being rebuilt as a grade @-@ separated interchange . After this , it returns to its northward orientation and passes the final at @-@ grade intersection ( now an overpass ) , Niagara Regional Road 63 ( Port Robinson Road ) .
North of Port Robinson Road , Highway 406 widens to four lanes and a median opens in the centre , making it a controlled access freeway . The forests break and the freeway continues straight north for 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) through a mostly agricultural area . Along the straightaway are interchanges with former Highway 20 and Niagara Regional Road 67 ( Beaverdams Road ) . The freeway crosses over Lake Gibson , infamous for its connection with the crimes of Paul Bernardo , and curves to the northeast . It passes beneath Niagara Regional Road 71 ( St. Davids Road ) and Highway 58 at a complicated interchange as it descends the Niagara Escarpment , a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve , and enters St. Catharines .
Within St. Catharines , Highway 406 twists frequently , entering the Twelve Mile Creek valley south of a complicated interchange with Westchester Avenue and Geneva Street and curving west . Within the valley , the freeway features a lower design speed and reduced speed limit of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . It passes beneath the high @-@ level St. Paul Street bridge , crosses the creek and intersects Fourth Avenue . Exiting the creek valley , the freeway parallels Fourth Avenue for a 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) , gradually curves to the north and ends 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the north , merging with the QEW .
= = History = =
Planning for Highway 406 began in early 1959 , when Minister of Highways Fred M. Cass presented the Ontario Roads and Streets report to the Ontario Legislative Assembly on March 16 , outlining highways needs for the province over 20 years . One of the planned routes was a freeway to link Highway 3 in Port Colborne with the QEW , travelling alongside the Welland Canal . By 1961 , route studies and planning were well underway . The future route was designated as Highway 406 despite construction not beginning until 1963 ; the first section , between Geneva Street and St. Davids Road , opened December 7 , 1965 . This was followed several years later by an extension south to Beaverdams Road , which opened November 21 , 1969 . During the early 1970s , the highway was extended south as a Super 2 to north of the Welland River , where it curved west along Merritt Road and became Highway 58 . This extension , which included the Beaverdams Road interchange and a signalized intersection , was opened on June 30 , 1971 .
In 1977 , construction began on the section of Highway 406 between Geneva Street and the QEW . This work included the construction of several large bridges over the widened ravine , a curving structure over Twelve Mile Creek , and the first single @-@ point urban interchange ( SPUI ) in Ontario ( the only other SPUI is located on Airport Parkway in Ottawa ) . The original design plans for Highway 406 called for this section to follow the creek valley the full distance to the QEW , interchanging with it east of Martindale Road . Instead , the alignment was moved west of the city . Realignments to several streets in St. Catharines were completed in advance of construction on overpasses , ramps and the bridges over Twelve Mile Creek ; this work was finished in late 1983 . Grading contracts were awarded in mid @-@ 1983 for the entire extension . Paving took place during the summer of 1984 , and the route was opened to traffic in October 1984 .
Further work to extend the future southbound lanes Highway 406 to East Main Street in Welland began during the fall of 1987 , including an eastward extension of Woodlawn Road . Construction of the bridges that carry the extension over the Welland River and old canal began in mid @-@ 1988 , and was completed during the fall of 1989 . Work then began to grade and pave the Woodlawn Road Extension to Highway 406 and Highway 406 between there and East Main Street . The extension was completed by the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = = Expansion = = =
Highway 406 was the last 400 @-@ series highway that featured at @-@ grade intersections and two lane sections . The original intention was to twin this two @-@ lane section shortly after it was constructed in the 1970s . Plans were deferred multiple times , until the project resumed in the early 2000s . The first phase of this twinning opened to traffic in 2007 , extending the four @-@ lane highway 5 @.@ 6 km ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) from its previous convergence south of Beaverdams Road to a point north of Port Robinson Road .
On May 15 2009 , Minister of Transportation Jim Bradley announced that the section from Port Robinson road to East Main Street in Welland would be converted to a full freeway ; this work includes a roundabout at East Main Street to replace the current southern terminus . Work on the Merritt Road overpass began in September 2009 , and was scheduled for completion in mid @-@ 2011 . On August 19 , 2011 , full construction began with a groundbreaking ceremony . The roundabout with East Main Street opened to traffic on September 5 , 2013 , featuring no central island . Despite requests from local politicians , there are no plans to extend Highway 406 to Port Colborne at this time .
= = Exit list = =
Highway 406 's northern terminus is tied at the QEW , whereas the southern terminus has been relocated in various proposals . As a result , exits were unconventionally numbered from north to south . The entirety of Highway 406 is located within the Regional Municipality of Niagara .
= Hurricane Elena =
Hurricane Elena was an unpredictable and damaging tropical cyclone that affected eastern and central portions of the United States Gulf Coast in late August and early September 1985 . Threatening popular tourist destinations during Labor Day weekend , Elena repeatedly deviated from its forecast path , triggering evacuations of unprecedented extent . The hurricane wrought havoc to property and the environment between southwestern Florida and eastern Louisiana , though lesser effects were felt well beyond those areas . Elena developed on August 28 near Cuba , and after traveling lengthwise across the island with little impact , it entered the Gulf of Mexico and continued to strengthen . Initially projected to strike the central Gulf Coast , the hurricane unexpectedly veered toward the east on August 30 , then stalled just 50 mi ( 80 km ) west of Cedar Key , Florida . Despite predictions that Elena would continue eastward across Florida , the cyclone remained nearly stationary for about 48 hours , causing damage all along the eastern gulf with high winds and waves , before slowly moving northwest and ultimately making landfall near Biloxi , Mississippi , on September 2 as a Category 3 major hurricane . The storm quickly weakened upon moving ashore and dissipated on September 4 .
The hurricane 's unpredictable shifts in direction created what was considered the largest peacetime evacuation in the nation 's history . Evacuations occurred in sequence to follow the storm 's forecast positions , and many residents and tourists along portions of the Gulf Coast were forced to leave twice in a matter of days . Preparations were generally timely and efficient , though accommodations and resources at storm shelters were stretched thin , and many refugees tried to return home against officials ' orders . About 1 @.@ 25 million people fled the storm in Florida alone , contributing to a region @-@ wide total of nearly 2 million evacuees . Tropical cyclone warnings and watches were continuously issued and adjusted , and forecasters stressed the storm 's destructive potential for days .
Elena 's slow movement off western Florida resulted in severe beach erosion and damage to coastal buildings , roads , and seawalls , especially to those of old or inadequate construction . Destruction was greatest near the shore and on islands such as Cedar Key and Dog Island , though tornadoes spawned by the hurricane swept through communities and mobile home parks well inland . The hurricane devastated the Apalachicola Bay shellfish industry , killing large quantities of oysters , destroying their reefs , and leaving thousands of workers unemployed . Farther west , Dauphin Island in Alabama endured wind gusts as high as 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) and a significant storm surge . The island sustained some of the most significant damage inflicted by Elena , including several hundred damaged or demolished homes . The rest of the state 's coast also sustained considerable damage , and the inland pecan and soybean crops were severely diminished in Alabama and Mississippi .
Over 13 @,@ 000 homes were damaged in Mississippi , and 200 were destroyed . Cities close to the Alabama border — including Pascagoula — experienced widespread damage to residences , schools , and businesses , and the community of Gautier was effectively isolated from the outside world . Several apparent but unconfirmed tornadoes appear to have exacerbated the damage in the Gulfport area . Wind damage extended into portions of eastern Louisiana . Overall , nine people died as a result of the hurricane : two in Texas due to drownings in rip currents , three in Florida , two in Louisiana , one in Arkansas , and one in a maritime accident in the Gulf of Mexico . Damage totaled about $ 1 @.@ 3 billion , and power outages from the storm affected 550 @,@ 000 people . In Elena 's wake , President Ronald Reagan declared parts of Alabama , Mississippi , and Florida federal disaster areas , making storm victims eligible for financial aid and temporary housing . The name Elena was later retired from the cyclical list of Atlantic hurricane names because of the storm 's effects .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Elena trace to an easterly tropical wave that was first identified off the western coast of Africa on August 23 , 1985 . The system sped westward across the Atlantic at up to 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) . Its rapid motion , combined with the presence of an unusually hostile Saharan Air Layer , prevented tropical cyclogenesis for several days . Driven by a strong subtropical ridge to its north , the wave quickly approached North America as it began to show signs of organization . At 00 : 00 UTC on August 28 , the disturbance developed into a tropical depression while over the Windward Passage . The newly designated depression began to track west @-@ northwestward over Cuba , which is known to disrupt tropical cyclone development . Despite that , its central barometric pressure continued to deepen , and reconnaissance aircraft found winds exceeding 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) near the center . In response , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Elena over northern Cuba later on August 28 .
After passing north of Havana , Cuba , Elena emerged into the Gulf of Mexico . At 12 : 00 UTC on August 29 , Elena intensified into a Category 1 hurricane . Analysis of steering currents through the morning of August 30 suggested that Elena would continue on its northwestward track , striking the area between New Orleans , Louisiana , and Biloxi , Mississippi within 30 hours . Unexpectedly , a mid @-@ to @-@ upper @-@ level trough of low pressure diving in from the northwest created a weakness in the easterly currents , allowing Elena to recurve and slow drastically in forward speed . Roughly 24 hours after attaining hurricane intensity , the storm abruptly turned east in response to the trough . Having defied initial forecasts , Hurricane Elena drifted on its new course toward the coast of northwest Florida . Forecasters now called for the trough to direct the hurricane across the Florida Peninsula and into the western Atlantic . However , the relatively weak trough moved rapidly , and instead of fully engaging Elena , its axis passed over the storm 's center . Further , post @-@ storm analysis of water vapor imagery suggested that the hurricane split the trough into two distinct segments .
Extrapolation from the storm 's eastward progress yielded a projected landfall location near Levy County . However , after the passage of the upper @-@ level system early on August 31 , steering currents slackened , and Elena became nearly stationary in the extreme northeastern Gulf of Mexico . At its closest , the center of the storm was around 50 mi ( 80 km ) from Cedar Key , Florida , with maximum sustained winds estimated at 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) . Elena 's intensity remained consistent , and the cyclone was able to continue strengthening as soon as movement resumed . Early on September 1 , Elena reached Category 3 major hurricane status . An area of high pressure soon began to build over the eastern United States , causing Elena to slowly retrograde westward . For much of September 1 , the center of the hurricane was within range of the WSR @-@ 57 radar station in Apalachicola , Florida , enabling extensive study of small features within the eye and surrounding eyewall . During that period of observation , the previously unobstructed eye became cloud @-@ filled .
The hurricane accelerated on a trajectory toward the central U.S. Gulf Coast , sliding south of the Florida Panhandle . During the afternoon of September 1 , the hurricane attained its peak intensity , with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) as confirmed by reconnaissance aircraft . On the morning of September 2 , Elena approached coastal Mississippi from the east @-@ southeast , still at major hurricane status . It came ashore close to Biloxi , which was coincidentally within the hurricane 's first forecast destination range before its extended detour . Once inland , the hurricane immediately deteriorated , weakening to a tropical storm just hours after landfall , and its center rapidly filled . The system curved northwestward over Mississippi and Louisiana , and despite weakening , it continued to ignite thunderstorm activity which spawned heavy rains . Elena persisted for several days before degenerating into a remnant area of low pressure on September 4 . Its associated cloud structure became distorted on September 5 , and dissipated over Kentucky that same night .
= = Preparations = =
The unpredictable nature of the hurricane , in conjunction with its arrival at popular tourist destinations on the Labor Day holiday weekend , severely complicated preparations along the Gulf Coast . Evacuations and the hoisting of weather advisories inadvertently occurred in stages to keep up with Elena 's shifts in direction ; hurricane warnings were in effect at one point or another for every coastal location between Morgan City , Louisiana , and Sarasota , Florida . Much of the northern Gulf Coast was under a hurricane warning on two separate occasions for two different trajectories of the storm . Evacuations of residents and vacationers also overlapped in many cases . Collectively , this led to the " largest number of people ever evacuated " , according to Robert Case . Some evacuees moved inland to meet relatives , but many stayed relatively local , filling hotels and designated shelters such as schools and churches . Despite the unusually fluid scenario , officials were well aware of the storm 's destructive power days before its actual landfall . National Hurricane Center hurricane expert Bob Sheets cautioned on August 30 that Elena " will be over a $ 1 billion storm " .
During Elena 's initial approach , the first series of hurricane warnings were issued between Grand Isle , Louisiana , and Apalachicola , Florida . The storm 's projected path quickly nudged westward , prompting the warnings to be extended to Morgan City , Louisiana , and truncated to Pensacola , Florida on their eastern reach . Heeding the advisories , nearly one million residents and vacationers fled the storm 's path . Personnel on offshore oil rigs in the northern Gulf of Mexico began leaving as early as August 29 . The governors of Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , and Florida declared states of emergency by August 30 . Huge crowds formed at stores as individuals searched for emergency supplies , and simultaneously , lines grew at gas stations . Due to the impending danger , many businesses closed and fortified their buildings . Across the Gulf Coast , classes at schools were cancelled , and residents in the New Orleans area were particularly wary of what was being called the first serious hurricane threat in 20 years ( Hurricane Betsy caused catastrophic flooding in and around New Orleans in 1965 ) . In Mississippi , the mass exodus created bumper @-@ to @-@ bumper traffic on crucial highways , such as the west – east U.S. Route 90 . In Florida , then @-@ Governor Bob Graham activated 250 National Guard troops on August 30 to facilitate efficient evacuations , stating that 1 @,@ 600 more were on standby . By that time , it became evident that Elena would head farther east than initially expected , stirring more concern for the eastern Gulf Coast . Accordingly , hurricane warnings were dropped for coastal Louisiana west of Grand Isle and replaced eastward to Apalachicola , Florida .
By the evening of August 30 , after Elena 's sharp turn to the east , hurricane warnings along most of the northern Gulf Coast were discontinued . In accordance , evacuees between Louisiana and the four westernmost counties of the Florida Panhandle returned home as shelters closed . With the storm 's new course , the area of highest threat translated east to the remainder of the Panhandle and the western Florida Peninsula . As such , Governor Graham recommended evacuations south to the Tampa area late on August 30 . A mandatory evacuation was then issued overnight for ten more coastal counties , encompassing 573 @,@ 000 affected individuals . On August 31 , Governor Graham advised residents in vulnerable areas of 15 inland counties to find safer ground . In response to the heightening danger , most of the National Guard troops previously on standby were sent to block access to certain areas , and an additional 3 @,@ 000 were placed on standby .
In the greater St. Petersburg , Pinellas County , area alone , 320 @,@ 000 people evacuated ahead of the storm in what was a national record for the largest evacuation of a single county in history . The large number of refugees from the storm put a strain on facilities , highways , and contingencies . Although the number of people required to leave far exceeded the capacity of Pinellas County shelters , only 120 @,@ 000 of the 300 @,@ 000 or more refugees made use of the shelters . Still , official shelter usage was considered to be higher than average , possibly due to shortened lead times limiting the ability of individuals to make arrangements with friends and relatives , or increased awareness of available resources . Post @-@ storm phone surveys indicated that evacuation order compliance rates were as high as 90 % in Pinellas County , and the entire evacuation there took just 9 hours , rather than the expected 15 . With over 200 @,@ 000 individuals recorded to be in more than 120 shelters along the coast of west @-@ central Florida , evacuees became restless as a result of the duration of the storm . Supplies such as food ran short , and many people ignored orders and tried to return home prematurely . The threat of Hurricane Elena also triggered an unprecedented mass transfer of medical and nursing home patients . Tampa General Hospital , at 84 % of patient capacity , was evacuated ; four more hospitals and around 19 nursing homes in Pinellas County were also cleared . Overall , nearly 2 @,@ 000 nursing home patients were transported to safety . Although successful , the process encountered issues such as time constraints and staffing shortages .
Late on September 1 , when the storm began to retrograde , hurricane warnings were reinstated westward along the coast to Grand Isle , Louisiana , as advisories along the west coast of the Florida Peninsula were allowed to expire . By the time officials lifted evacuation orders , the number of evacuees staying in shelters already decreased significantly due to the rampant eagerness and anxiety . Roughly 250 @,@ 000 people in the Florida Panhandle , 175 @,@ 000 in Alabama , 70 @,@ 000 in Mississippi , and 50 @,@ 000 in Louisiana — a total of 545 @,@ 000 — were ordered to leave . Several hundred thousand of the people affected by the new string of evacuation orders had also been forced to leave just days earlier , and in extreme cases had one day or less reprieve . Governor Graham 's office reported that during the entire storm event , 1 @.@ 25 million people from Florida evacuated at some point , and state police in Louisiana estimated that figure in their state to be around 400 @,@ 000 . In total , nearly 2 million people fled the storm over its entire course .
= = Impact = =
According to the Hurricane Research Division of the Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory , Hurricane Elena produced Category 3 winds ( 111 mph ( 179 km / h ) or greater ) in Florida , Alabama , and Mississippi . The American Red Cross reported that in addition to the hundreds of single @-@ family homes demolished by the hurricane , over 17 @,@ 000 sustained some degree of damage ; thousands of mobile homes , apartments , and condominiums were also damaged or destroyed . A forecaster at the National Hurricane Center determined the worst of the hurricane 's effects were focused around Dauphin Island , Alabama , and Pascagoula , Mississippi , though noteworthy damage occurred across large areas of Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , and Florida , with impacts documented as far west as South Padre Island , Texas , and as far north as Kentucky . Nine deaths were attributed to the hurricane in four states and on the waters of the Gulf of Mexico , and 134 people along Elena 's path were hospitalized , many of them due to storm @-@ related stress . Power outages plagued the entire region , affecting about 550 @,@ 000 customers . The National Climatic Data Center compiled a total monetary damage figure of $ 1 @.@ 3 billion .
In addition to its effects over land , Elena also had an impact on offshore interests . When a cargo ship close to the hurricane 's center rolled in high seas on August 29 , two unsecured storage containers collided , crushing a man to death . An oil platform operated by Exxon and anchored off the coast of Pensacola , Florida , was ripped from its moorings and reported missing on September 2 . The oil rig drifted 14 mi ( 23 km ) away before it was spotted by a Coast Guard aircraft . Exxon previously evacuated the platform after rough seas snapped the first two of its eight anchoring cables . Damage was reported on four other offshore platforms , and a 6 in ( 150 mm ) oil pipeline broke during the hurricane at an estimated cost of $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( the same pipeline broke two more times during the 1985 hurricane season ) .
A large aspect of the hurricane 's devastation was the havoc it wrought on the eastern Gulf of Mexico oyster industry , particularly in the Apalachicola Bay area and off the coast of Alabama . Elena subjected the Apalachicola Bay reefs to high winds , strong tidal action , and moderate to heavy rainfall , churning up huge quantities of silt and mud which suffocated up to 90 % of live oysters and virtually destroyed the most important harvesting sites . Commercial harvesting was suspended until May 1986 , at which time some of the prominent reefs of the eastern Apalachicola Bay system were deemed able to sustain oyster @-@ catching . Low astronomical tides amplified the effects of severe turbulence in the water . Thousands of individuals relying on the Apalachicola Bay oyster industry soon found themselves struggling to make a living ; losses in production at two major reefs were expected to surpass $ 30 million . All of Alabama 's major reefs were affected by the hurricane , and its most productive was nearly destroyed . The problem was later confounded in November by Hurricane Kate , which , according to the National Hurricane Center , " [ dealt ] the final blow " to certain oyster beds .
= = = Florida = = =
The storm began affecting Florida late on August 28 and early on August 29 . In Key West , on the east side of Elena 's strengthening center , wind gusts exceeded 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , accompanied by 1 @.@ 8 in ( 46 mm ) of rain and higher @-@ than @-@ normal tides . Several boats washed ashore at Smathers Beach . Similarly adverse conditions occurred throughout rest of the Keys and across the southern Florida Peninsula ; 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) wind gusts and modest rainfall stretched as far east as the Miami area . Easterly winds produced significant wave heights of 5 @.@ 2 ft ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) at West Palm Beach and 10 @.@ 5 ft ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) at Jacksonville , along the Atlantic coast of Florida , by August 31 .
Outer rainbands of the large hurricane produced squally weather over parts of northern Florida as early as the morning of August 30 . By then , the low @-@ lying coastline near Apalachicola already began to flood . Elena would continue to impact the state for several days as it meandered offshore , resulting in moderate to heavy rainfall . Upwards of 10 in ( 250 mm ) accumulated in many locations , peaking at 15 @.@ 67 in ( 398 mm ) near Cross City and reaching 11 @.@ 31 in ( 287 mm ) at Apalachicola . Farther south in the Tampa area , the precipitation was less significant , exceeding 5 in ( 130 mm ) at Clearwater . Parts of the state 's northeastern coast — farther away from the hurricane 's center — also saw formidable rainfall , with a local maximum of 10 @.@ 57 in ( 268 mm ) at Jacksonville . Still , those totals represented a relatively dry storm , considering its long duration . Despite initial hopes that the hurricane would help alleviate drought conditions across interior portions of southern Florida , precipitation there was generally inconsequential .
Storm @-@ heightened tides extended along the Florida coast as far south as Sarasota and generally ran a modest 3 to 6 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 83 m ) above normal , though their duration and extent proved noteworthy . The highest recorded storm surge associated with the hurricane was 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) at Apalachicola . The combination of raised water levels and strong waves resulted in severe erosion along many beaches . Many homes near the water were destroyed by the surge , and shoreline structures such as docks , causeways , bridges , low @-@ lying roads , and seawalls sustained substantial damage . Several large fishing piers were either partially or totally destroyed ; notably , the city pier at Cedar Key and the popular 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) Big Indian Rocks Fishing Pier were both demolished by the hurricane . Debris from the Big Indian Rocks Fishing Pier drifted northward toward Clearwater Pass and accumulated along private beaches at Belleair Shore .
The storm 's strongest winds remained largely over open waters , although severe gusts still brushed coastal cities and barrier islands . The strongest winds were observed in two areas of the coast : from Cedar Key to Clearwater , and from Apalachicola to Pensacola . Official gust reports included 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) at Cedar Key and nearly 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) at Clearwater ; later , on September 2 , a gust of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) was observed at Pensacola along the Florida Panhandle , with sustained winds exceeding 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Winds in Franklin County approached 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) by unofficial estimates . The storm 's effects were not limited to the shore , however , as fallen trees in the inland Tallahassee area damaged around 50 vehicles .
Though Hurricane Elena never crossed Florida 's coast , its drawn @-@ out interaction with land agitated large swaths of the state 's western shore . Winds along and around the Pinellas County coast generally blew from the south or southwest for several days , creating persistent onshore flow that built up heavy seas . Near Clearwater , waves reached 8 @.@ 2 ft ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) in height , marked by a period of 13 seconds on August 31 . One study determined that the storm removed an average of 10 cubic yards of coastal material per linear foot of shoreline in Escambia County , Gulf , Franklin , and Pinellas counties , with values peaking at 15 @.@ 6 cubic yards per foot . Along the predominantly marshy coasts of Pasco , Hernando , and Citrus counties , erosion and structural damage were much more limited , partly due to the local southerly or southeasterly wind direction .
In some cases , the hurricane left quasi @-@ permanent alterations on beaches and small islands . For example , North Bunces Key — an island of southern Pinellas County — lost most of its vegetation to the storm , and overwashing shifted the southern part of the island up to 330 ft ( 100 m ) from its original settlement . More extensive changes were seen on and near Caladesi Island , which formed in 1921 after a hurricane split a larger barrier island into two by a new channel . The inlet became dominant over Dunedin Pass to the south , which grew narrower very gradually until Elena rearranged the dynamics of the beach , allowing Dunedin Pass to fill completely with sand within a couple years of the hurricane 's passage . As a result , Clearwater Beach became connected to Caladesi Island . Elena also created a new inlet known as Willy 's Cut , which existed until 1991 . Interest in artificially reopening Dunedin Pass prompted an official study in 1994 on the engineering and financial merits of such a project . Due to the high cost of dredging and the likelihood of nearly continuous maintenance , no action was taken .
The hurricane tore two barges from their moorings in Tampa Bay and blew them into Gandy Bridge , leaving the bridge with unspecified damage . Throughout the area , rising waters inundated streets , washed boats ashore , and destroyed numerous homes along the coast . At low @-@ lying Cedar Key to the north , storm surge exceeded 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . There , and at Alligator Point to the northwest , the surge values represented return periods of 25 to 30 years ; elsewhere , they were equivalent to about 10 @-@ year events . Floodwaters in Cedar Key rose to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in depth , with 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) waves atop the standing water . The extent of structural damage was largely dependent on construction type , as newer , elevated buildings fared much better than older structures nearer sea level . Waterfront restaurants were especially susceptible ; winds blew out several large sliding @-@ glass doors at one establishment , allowing both the winds and the tide to enter its interior . Elena severed the sole bridge to Cedar Key , temporarily isolating the city and stranding several residents . The Florida Department of Transportation hurriedly worked to make the bridge passable long enough to rescue the stranded individuals . The hurricane compromised several other roads , destroying a 75 ft ( 23 m ) section of State Road 24 . Monetary losses in Cedar Key alone were estimated at $ 2 million , and all major aspects of local infrastructure were severely affected , initially preventing residents from returning home to the island . At least 34 homes and businesses on the island were damaged or destroyed .
Pinellas County suffered some of the worst damage from Hurricane Elena in Florida . At the height of the storm , over 500 @,@ 000 of its residents were without electricity . Forty @-@ four single @-@ family homes were destroyed , 31 more were damaged , and several condominiums , townhouses , and commercial buildings were damaged or destroyed . The hurricane also wrecked or irreparably compromised nearly 2 @.@ 7 mi ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) of coastal bulkheads and inflicted minor damage on 2 @.@ 15 mi ( 3 @.@ 46 km ) more . Most of the affected seawalls were degrading or poorly reinforced . Seawalls with higher standards of construction generally remained intact , though even in those cases , overwash from the Gulf of Mexico topped the barriers and deposited large volumes of sand . The hurricane cost roughly $ 100 million in Pinellas County .
Elena 's track parallel to the Florida Panhandle subjected the coastline between Apalachicola and Pensacola Beach to particularly severe conditions that resulted in " significant " property damage there . In Apalachicola proper , winds tore large roofs off buildings , and data from Florida 's Department of Natural Resources indicate that 20 residences and one community building in Franklin County were damaged or destroyed . Structural failure was prevalent along the county 's waterfront and on islands such as Dog Island ; however , it was mainly limited to poorly constructed buildings . Several miles of roadways in the county sustained significant damage , and about 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 800 m ) of bulkhead was destroyed . Low seawalls allowed crucial points of the causeway to St. George Island to erode , causing it to fail . In Escambia County , the hurricane left $ 2 million in damages . Throughout much of the remainder of the Florida Panhandle , structural damage was limited , though 100 @,@ 000 people in the Pensacola area lost power . The configuration of the southern tip of Cape San Blas in Gulf County was changed by the storm . The hurricane wiped out eagle nests , generated freshwater fish kills , and impacted other species of wildlife at the St. Vincent and St. Marks National Wildlife Refuges . St. George Island and Honeymoon Island State Parks were heavily impacted , with appreciable but lesser damage in numerous other protected areas . U.S. Route 98 , which closely follows the coast in this region , required extensive repairs after being undermined in nearly two dozen locations .
When tropical cyclones move over land , they often produce the wind shear and atmospheric instability required for the development of weak , embedded supercell thunderstorms , which can produce tornadoes . These tornadoes are usually weak and short @-@ lived , but still capable of producing significant damage . While centered over the Gulf of Mexico , the eastern side of Hurricane Elena 's circulation spawned several such tornadoes over central Florida . A tornado struck just east of Leesburg on September 1 , destroying 64 single @-@ family houses and mobile homes , and damaging another 118 ; seven people were treated for non @-@ life @-@ threatening injuries . Later that same day , another tornado touched down over downtown Leesburg , with much less damage . In nearby Marion County , tornadic activity destroyed six mobile homes , compromised another 50 residences , and inflicted as much as $ 500 @,@ 000 in total losses , though only minor injuries were reported . At Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 in Cape Canaveral , a weak tornado struck two vehicles near the location where Space Shuttle Atlantis was being prepared for its first flight . A tornado in New Port Richey tore parts of the roof off at least one building and brought down trees , and tornadic activity was also identified in Sumter County .
The hurricane took one life in the state and indirectly contributed to two additional deaths . In Daytona Beach , a tree struck a parked vehicle , killing a person inside . The exact cause of the tree 's uprooting was unknown , although it may have been hit by lightning or a short @-@ lived tornado . Elsewhere , two individuals died of heart attacks : one while installing storm shutters on his home , and another at a designated shelter .
= = = Alabama = = =
The center of Elena passed 30 mi ( 50 km ) south of mainland Alabama as it accelerated toward the Gulf Coast , impacting the state 's two @-@ county coast and offshore islands . Wind gusts at Dauphin Island , situated much closer to the hurricane 's eye , were estimated to have reached 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) ; these velocities represented some of the highest experienced on land from the storm , and were strong enough to snap hundreds of large pine trees . Dauphin Island received an 8 @.@ 4 ft ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) storm surge that resulted in substantial flooding and areas of total overwash . Rainfall amounted to just 3 in ( 76 mm ) on the island .
With its location close to the storm 's center , Dauphin Island saw the greatest damage in Alabama . Access to the island was shut down during and immediately after the hurricane , slowing the progression of damage assessments . Additionally , the storm cut power and phone services . Post @-@ storm surveys revealed discernible patterns in structural damage on the island ; these included a nearly complete lack of destruction on the heavily wooded eastern end , and damage concentrated closer to the western side and along areas exposed to strong easterly winds . First @-@ hand accounts relayed that in the most severe cases , entire elevated homes were torn from their pilings and swept into the Gulf of Mexico . The number of homes demolished in that manner was informally placed at 50 , though such total building collapses were typically confined to poorly secured buildings . In total , the hurricane destroyed 190 residences on Dauphin Island , accounting for nearly 25 % of all homes , and a further 235 sustained substantial damage . An unofficial and early estimate of losses on the island was $ 30 million .
Windspeeds were markedly lower over mainland Alabama ; Mobile recorded winds of over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , with gusts as high as 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) . The storm 's angle of approach created strong offshore winds along the mainland , which depressed water levels and limited the extent of positive surge once winds shifted to onshore . Winds from the hurricane took a toll on crops , ruining 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ( 3 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 kg ) of pecans and reducing soybean production by 10 % . Farms were still in the process of recovering from Hurricane Frederic in 1979 when Elena struck .
Wave action took a toll on the foundations of waterfront structures along the coasts of Baldwin and Mobile counties , where Elena inflicted about $ 715 @,@ 000 worth of damage to roadways . Most damage was concentrated near the shore , where extensive erosion took place , and on islands and minor peninsulas . Farther inland , Elena 's impact was generally limited to downed trees and power lines . The storm destroyed the city boardwalk at Gulf Shores , with the cost of rebuilding expected to approach $ 300 @,@ 000 . Alabama Power reported extensive power outages affecting up to 100 @,@ 000 customers . According to the Insurance Information Institute , storm @-@ related damages in Alabama totaled about $ 100 million . An estimated 300 homes in the state were destroyed by Hurricane Elena , and another 1 @,@ 345 sustained lighter damage .
= = = Mississippi = = =
Along the coast of Mississippi , where Elena made landfall , the most significant effects of the storm stemmed from its strong winds gusting to over 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . Recorded gusts included 121 mph ( 195 km / h ) at Gulfport , 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) at Pascagoula , and 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) at Biloxi . Several other weather stations clocked sustained winds at over 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Consistent with the storm 's dry nature , rainfall in the state was mainly light and confined to southern and western areas . Gulfport picked up more than 4 @.@ 5 in ( 110 mm ) , while just over 3 in ( 75 mm ) of rain fell at Natchez . Some streets in Gulfport and Biloxi flooded at the height of the storm . The highest tides ran 6 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal along the coast , reaching 7 @.@ 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above average at Pascagoula and Ocean Springs . As with Alabama , negative surge values were recorded at the storm 's onset . The tide gauge at Gulfport recorded a water level of 5 @.@ 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below average early on September 2 , before quickly swelling to 5 @.@ 43 ft ( 1 @.@ 66 m ) above normal . Air pressure reportedly fell so rapidly at Pascagoula ahead of the hurricane 's approaching center that car windows began to shatter . The barometer there bottomed out at 953 mb , the lowest recorded pressure on land in association with the cyclone .
The worst of the damage occurred along a 40 mi ( 64 km ) stretch of coastline , particularly in the Pascagoula area and surrounding towns . Elena 's winds damaged most of the schools in Jackson County , and more specifically , every school in Pascagoula was structurally impaired to some degree . Damages to schools in Ocean Springs totaled $ 3 million ; in the same city , the overall conditions following the hurricane were described as worse than those in the prior hurricanes Frederic or Camille . Elena destroyed 20 houses and two supermarkets in Ocean Springs , and several buildings on each city block sustained severe roof damage due to fallen trees . Two shopping centers were destroyed in nearby Gautier , possibly by short @-@ lived tornadoes . A fire captain in Gautier remarked immediately after the storm that he had not yet seen an unharmed building in the city . The community became essentially isolated from the outside world , and quickly began to run short of food , clean water , and gasoline supplies . Initial reports from Pascagoula also indicated that most , or all , of that city 's buildings were damaged . Nearly every business in the city was damaged to the extent that none were able to operate by the time the storm cleared . A post @-@ storm assessment by the Mississippi Emergency Management Agency revealed over 900 businesses in Jackson County sustained damage , contributing to a total of nearly 1 @,@ 500 in the state 's three coastal counties .
Harrison and Hancock counties were generally not impacted quite as severely as areas closer to the Alabama border , but the entire area still suffered extensively . In sections of Gulfport , large fires were sparked by downed power lines and fed by broken natural gas pipes . Debris on roadways prevented firefighters from reaching the fires , thereby allowing them to spread . Similar destruction was seen to the east at Biloxi , where the hurricane 's winds tore the roofs off many buildings . Beachfront communities were in a state of disarray , with large trees uprooted , debris littering the ground , and accumulations of sand on parts of roads like U.S. 90 . Damage to schools in Harrison County — particularly in Gulfport and Biloxi — was extensive . Most homes in the area survived the storm , which was locally estimated to have been a once @-@ in @-@ 50 @-@ year event , with relatively little damage . Several buildings along the coast in the Biloxi area sustained severe damage , but many of the older houses near the Gulf of Mexico there fared remarkably well . Winds brought down large highway signs , in some cases causing damage to nearby buildings . Along the coast , Elena caused beach erosion , damaged coastal structures and recreational beach facilities , and dislocated navigational buoys and markers in various ports , several of which were closed pending Coast Guard inspection . Winds over inland Pearl River County damaged 350 permanent and mobile homes , and as in Alabama , the hurricane took a large toll on pecan and soybean crops and farms .
There were numerous reports in southern Mississippi of embedded tornadoes that exacerbated the hurricane 's effects . Reports in Gulfport indicated that three schools actively being used as hurricane shelters were struck and damaged by tornadoes . At one location , almost 400 people being housed in a school had to rush to safety before part of the structure 's roof collapsed . Another apparent tornado sideswiped a senior citizens ' center , endangering nearly 200 people in a structure that sustained damage to windows , doors , and part of its roof ; about 20 people required rescue by paramedics . Only minor injuries occurred in association with the possible tornadoes . Teams of experts tasked with reviewing the validity of tornado reports were scarcely able to uncover sufficient evidence that much of the damage in southern Mississippi had been done by tornadoes . As a result , few of the events were confirmed to have been tornadoes , and it was considered likely that most of the damage in the region was the result of squall @-@ like winds that are part of an intense hurricane 's nature , or potentially localized microbursts . This conclusion was not definitive , however ; indeed , a city official in Biloxi remarked that in situations as extreme as Elena 's onslaught , " when you can 't even see your hand in front of you , it 's very hard to tell if it 's a tornado or the hurricane " . Any unconfirmed tornadoes would have possessed winds equal to or weaker than the hurricane 's synoptic winds .
The storm left 80 @,@ 000 customers under the jurisdiction of the Mississippi Power Company without power ; most of Jackson County 's 126 @,@ 000 residents were affected by the outage . Operations at Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula were halted due to the power outage and widespread damage to the shipyard 's buildings and cranes ; at least two other shipyards in the state were compromised by the hurricane . Additionally , the storm forced the temporary closure of the Chevron USA refinery at Pascagoula . Facilities at Horn Island in the Gulf Islands National Seashore , Buccaneer State Park , and the Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge required repairs following the storm ; at the latter , damages included the cost of healing a Florida sandhill crane 's injured leg . Thirty seafood plants were impaired , and another was destroyed . The Red Cross estimated that 200 single @-@ family houses in the state were destroyed , and some 13 @,@ 200 were damaged , 1 @,@ 200 of them heavily . Additionally | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
contrasted with that of Dressen , who was much more outspoken . Sportswriters had difficulty writing about Alston at first because he did not say much . He also seemed more conservative in his decisions on the field , which drew criticism from his players even though he had managed many of them in the minor leagues . Don Zimmer said that he had learned more from Dressen and that Dressen knew more about baseball than Alston . Jackie Robinson did not like Alston at first either , according to Robinson 's wife .
Alston commented on his approach , saying , " I never criticized a player for a mistake on the spot . Whenever I got steamed up about something , I always wanted to sleep on it and face the situation with a clear head . " Sportswriter Jim Murray said that Alston was " the only guy in the game who could look Billy Graham right in the face without blushing and who would order corn on the cob in a Paris restaurant . " The 1954 Dodgers finished second in the NL as both Gil Hodges and Duke Snider hit at least 40 home runs and registered 130 runs batted in .
The 1955 Dodgers got off to a strong start . Even so , an Associated Press article noted that Alston was reticent in response to questions and that he did not seem like a manager who had won ten consecutive games . The 1955 Brooklyn team won the pennant and its only World Series championship . They clinched the NL pennant earlier in the year than any team had in NL history . In the World Series , Alston started Johnny Podres , who had a mediocre 9 @-@ 10 regular season record , in the third and seventh games ; Podres won both games . The pitcher had struggled with arm problems for much of the season .
Sandy Koufax emerged as a pitcher for the Dodgers during that championship season . Alston was criticized by Jackie Robinson and others over his sparse use of Koufax in his early career . During Koufax 's second MLB start , he pitched a shutout , giving up two hits and striking out 14 batters . However , that success did not prompt a lot of opportunities for Koufax . The pitcher appeared in only 12 games that season , mostly in relief .
The 1956 team repeated as NL champions ; the team was bolstered by the play of Duke Snider , who hit a league @-@ leading 43 home runs and also led the league in walks . They fell to third place ( 84 @-@ 70 ) in 1957 .
= = = = Early years in Los Angeles = = = =
The team finished in seventh place ( 71 @-@ 83 ) in 1958 , the club 's first season after moving from Brooklyn to Los Angeles . Criticism of Alston had begun to mount during that season , but he led the Dodgers to a world championship in 1959 . Six players on the 1959 team finished with double @-@ digit totals in home runs , while 22 @-@ year @-@ old Don Drysdale led the team 's pitchers with 17 wins . Several Los Angeles players , including Wally Moon , characterized Alston as indecisive in the late 1950s and 1960s . However , Moon later came to describe Alston as a good manager who had gotten " good mileage " out of his players .
Managing the NL All @-@ Star Team in 1960 , Alston attracted some controversy when he left Milwaukee Braves pitchers Warren Spahn and Lew Burdette off the All @-@ Star roster . An Associated Press report said the omission may have been a snub directed at Dressen , who was by then managing in Milwaukee . The 1960 Dodgers finished in fourth place . The following year , the team finished in second place after veteran Duke Snider missed two months with a broken arm . The Dodgers lost the lead in the 1962 NL pennant race and rumors surfaced that Alston and coach Leo Durocher might be fired , but the team retained both men for 1963 .
The Dodgers won the 1963 World Series . This series represented the first time that the New York Yankees had lost a World Series in four games . Alston 's pitchers excelled , as Koufax struck out 23 batters over two games and Drysdale threw a shutout in Game 3 . Over the four games , Alston employed only three starting pitchers and one relief pitcher in the series . In 1964 , the team finished 80 @-@ 82 in its first losing season in several years . Alston used the team 's 1964 performance to motivate them moving forward . In spring training before the 1965 season , he said that he would not let his team forget the difficulties they had in the previous season .
The Dodgers returned to the 1965 World Series . Alston could not start his number one pitcher , Koufax , in the opening game of that series because Koufax was observing Yom Kippur . Instead , Alston turned to Drysdale , who struggled , lasting 2 2 ⁄ 3 innings and surrendering seven runs . When Alston came to the mound to remove him , Drysdale said to his manager , " I bet right now you wish I was Jewish , too . " The team recovered from losing that first game and they won the World Series in seven games . Koufax appeared in three games during the series , registering two shutouts .
Alston 's Dodgers teams of the 1960s benefited from the strong pitching by Drysdale and Koufax . In 1966 , both players held out of spring training and demanded three @-@ year contracts each worth $ 500 @,@ 000 , which was more money than anyone was making in baseball at the time . The players were eventually signed for lesser amounts . Drysdale struggled that year , but Koufax won 27 games . The Dodgers went to the 1966 World Series but were defeated in four games . Koufax retired after the season on the advice of doctors who examined his sore arm . Drysdale retired three years later . Both men had pitched their entire major league careers for Alston .
= = = = Final years as manager = = = =
Alston guided his teams to at least 85 wins per season between 1969 and 1976 . They finished in second place in their division six times during that span . The team came very close to a pennant in 1971 ; after falling 11 games out of first place , the team performed well late in the season and finished one game behind the San Francisco Giants . Beginning in 1973 , Alston 's team featured an infield of Steve Garvey , Davey Lopes , Bill Russell and Ron Cey . The group played together for eight years , remaining together long after the end of Alston 's tenure .
In 1974 , the Dodgers won the NL pennant and went to the World Series to face the Oakland Athletics . Alston used closer Mike Marshall in a record @-@ setting 106 games that season and Marshall won the Cy Young Award . Alston received some media attention when he considered using Marshall as a starter . Marshall ended up appearing in all five games of the series and gave up one run in nine innings , but he did not start a game . The Dodgers lost the series four games to one . The 1975 and 1976 Dodgers won 88 and 92 games respectively , but they finished well out of first place in both seasons .
In September 1976 , Alston announced that he would retire at the end of the season . At a press conference , Alston said , " I 've been in baseball for 41 years and it 's been awfully good to me . This has been a pretty big day . I had three birdies playing golf for the first time in my life and now I 'm announcing that I 'm stepping down as manager . I told Peter this afternoon to give somebody else a chance to manage the club . " Alston retired with 2 @,@ 063 wins ( 2 @,@ 040 in the regular season and 23 in the postseason ) . Alston was named NL Manager of the Year six times . He also managed NL All @-@ Star squads a record nine times and won seven of those games . At a time when multi @-@ year contracts were on the rise , Alston 's managerial career consisted of 23 one @-@ year contracts . He earned seven NL pennants in that span .
Sportswriter Leonard Koppett described Alston 's role with the Dodgers , pointing out that O 'Malley was always seen as " the boss " while Alston stuck to the on @-@ field management of the team . Koppett said that Alston 's loyalty and subdued nature contributed to the stability that the team enjoyed . O 'Malley once commented that Alston was " non @-@ irritating . Do you realize how important it is to have a manager who doesn 't irritate you ? "
= = Later life and legacy = =
The Dodgers retired Alston 's number the year after he stepped down as manager ; he was only the fourth Dodger to receive that honor . He was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in 1983 . Alston suffered a heart attack that year and was hospitalized for a month . Alston 's grandson traveled to Cooperstown to represent the ill former manager at the Hall of Fame induction ceremony . Alston died in an Oxford hospital from complications from the recent heart attack on October 1 , 1984 . He was 72 . A funeral home spokesman said that Alston had remained ill since the heart attack . He is interred at Darrtown Cemetery in Darrtown , Ohio .
Upon Alston 's death , MLB commissioner Peter Ueberroth referred to him as one of baseball 's greatest managers . Former Dodgers great Duke Snider acknowledged occasional run @-@ ins with Alston , but he said that Alston excelled at utilizing the specific strengths of each team that he managed . Tommy Lasorda , who played and coached under Alston and ultimately succeeded him as manager , commented on how easy it was to play for Alston . Broadcaster Vin Scully said , " I always imagined him to be the type who could ride shotgun on a stage through Indian territory . He was all man and two yards tall . He was very quiet , very controlled . He never made excuses . He gave the players the credit and he took the blame . He was so solid , so American . "
Ohio State Route 177 was named the Walter " Smokey " Alston Memorial Highway in 1999 . He was inducted into the International League Hall of Fame in 2010 . In April 2013 , readers of the Los Angeles Times named Alston number 16 on a list of the 20 greatest Dodgers of all time . A memorial to Alston is located at Milford Township Community Park in Darrtown .
= Tafl games =
Tafl games are a family of ancient Germanic and Celtic strategy board games played on a checkered or latticed gameboard with two armies of uneven numbers , representing variants of an early Scandinavian board game called tafl or hnefatafl in contemporary literature .
Although the size of the board and the number of pieces varied , all games involved a distinctive 2 : 1 ratio of pieces , with the lesser side having a king @-@ piece that started in the centre . No complete , unambiguous description of the rules of a tafl game exists , but the king 's objective was to escape to ( variously ) the board 's periphery or corners , while the greater force 's objective was to capture him . The attacking force has the natural advantage at the start of each game , likely indicating an important cultural aspect by mimicking the success of Viking raids . Another cultural indication of the king is that importance of the Viking chiefs ' presence in battle . Although the kings of Europe later claimed divine rule and sat upon the throne rather than bodies in the battlefield , it was essential for a Viking chief to be considered an equal in war . The importance of war is also reflected in Hnefatafl because it is a war strategy game , which can indicate an important reason why the gaming boards have been found with males of all ages . In Balnakeil , a male skeleton between the ages of 8 and 13 was found with weapons and a Hnefatafl board game . Vikings tended to take boys onto the battlefield with them , which explains why young boys also played these war @-@ strategic board games .
There is also some controversy over whether some tafl games ( i.e. Hnefatafl and Tawlbwrdd ) may have employed dice . Tafl spread everywhere the Vikings traveled , including Iceland , Britain , Ireland , and Lapland . Versions of Tafl , comprising Hnefatafl , Alea Evangelii , Tawlbwrdd ( Wales ) , Brandubh , Ard Rí and Tablut , were played across much of Northern Europe from earlier than 400 B.C. until it was supplanted by chess in the 12th century .
The term tafl ( Old Norse : " table " , " board " ; pronounced [ tavl ] ) is the original name of the game . However , Hnefatafl became the preferred term for the game in Scandinavia by the end of the Viking Age , to distinguish it from other board games , such as Skáktafl ( chess ) , Kvatrutafl ( Tables ) and Halatafl ( Fox games ) , as these became known . The specific name Hnefatafl possibly arose as meaning " board game of the fist " , from hnefi ( " fist " ) + tafl , where " fist " referred to the central king @-@ piece . The precise etymology is disputed , but hnefi certainly referred to the king @-@ piece , and several sources refer to Hnefatafl as " King 's table " . In Anglo @-@ Saxon England , the term tæfl also referred to many board games . It is not known if the Anglo @-@ Saxons had a specific name for the game or if they generically referred to it as " tæfl " in the way that modern people might refer to " cards " .
Several games may be confused with tafl games , due to the inclusion of the word " tafl " in their names or other similarities . Halatafl is the Old Norse name for Fox and Geese , a game dating from at least the 14th century . It is still known and played in Europe . Kvatrutafl is the Old Norse name for Tables ( the medieval forerunner of Backgammon ) . Skáktafl is the Old Norse name for Chess . Fidchell or Fithcheall ( Modern Irish : Ficheall ) was played in Ireland . The Welsh equivalent was Gwyddbwyll and the Breton equivalent Gwezboell ; all terms mean " wood @-@ sense " . This popular medieval game was played with equal forces on each side and thus was not a tafl variant , but rather may have been the medieval descendant of the Roman game Latrunculi or Ludus latrunculorum .
= = Hnefatafl in Saga literature = =
Hnefatafl was mentioned in several of the medieval sagas , including Orkneyinga saga , Friðþjófs saga , Hervarar saga , and others . These three period treatments of Hnefatafl offer some important clues about the game , while numerous other incidental references to Hnefatafl or Tafl exist in saga literature . Sagas help indicate the widespread use of board games just by mentioning them — although rituals varied in the Viking period from region to region , there were some underlying basics to culture . The fact that the sagas mention board games indicates this use because the sagas are read and understood by a very large audience . In Orkeyinga saga , the notability of Hnefatafl is evident in the nine boasts of Jarl Rögnvald Kali Kolsson , who tops his list with skill at Tafl . In Friðþjófs saga , a conversation over a game of Hnefatafl reveals that the king 's men are red and the attackers white , and that the word hnefi does indeed refer to the kingpiece . The most revealing – and yet most ambiguous – clues to Hnefatafl lie in a series of riddles posed by a character identified as Odin in disguise ( see Gestumblindi ) in Hervarar saga . One riddle , as stated in Hauksbók , refers to " the weaponless maids who fight around their lord , the [ brown / red ] ever sheltering and the [ fair / white ] ever attacking him , " although there is controversy over whether the word weaponless refers to the maids or , as in other versions , to the king himself , which may support the argument that a " weaponless king " cannot take part in captures ( see # Balance of play ) . One may also note that the assignment of the colours of brown or red to the defenders and fair or white to the attackers is consistent with Friðþjófs saga . Another of Gestumblindi 's riddles asks , " What is that beast all girded with iron , which kills the flocks ? He has eight horns but no head , and runs as he pleases . " Here , it is the answer that is controversial , as the response has been variously translated as : " It is the húnn in hnefatafl . He has the name of a bear and runs when he is thrown ; " or , " It is the húnn in hnefatafl . He has the name of a bear and escapes when he is attacked . " The first problem is in translating the word húnn , which may refer to a die ( as suggested by the former translation ) , the " eight horns " referring to the eight corners of a six @-@ sided die and " the flocks " that he kills referring to the stakes the players lose . Alternatively , húnn may refer to the king , his " eight horns " referring to the eight defenders , which is more consistent with the latter translation , " He has the name of a bear and escapes when he is attacked . " Ultimately , the literary references prove inconclusive on the use of dice in Hnefatafl .
= = Tafl variants = =
= = = Brandub = = =
Brandub ( Irish : bran dubh ) was the Irish form of tafl . We know from two poems that it was played with five men against eight , and that one of the five was a " Branán " , or chief . A number of 7 × 7 boards have been found , the most famous being the elaborate wooden board found at Ballinderry in 1932 , featuring holes for pegged pieces , possibly to allow for portability of the game . The name brandub means " black raven " .
= = = Ard Rí = = =
Ard Rí ( Gaelic : High King ) was a Scottish tafl variant played on a 9 × 9 board with a king and eight defenders against sixteen attackers . This is the least documented of the known tafl variants .
= = = Tablut = = =
This variant from Sápmi , is the best documented version . Carl Linnaeus recorded the rules and a drawing of the board in his journal during his 1732 expedition to Lapland . His description , in Latin , was incomplete , as he did not speak the Sami language of his hosts and described the game only from observing the players . The game was played on a 9 × 9 mat of embroidered reindeer hide . In his diary , Lachesis Lapponica , Linnaeus referred to the light ( defending ) pieces as " Swedes " and the dark ( attacking ) pieces as " Muscovites " . What may have been the same game was still being played in the late 19th century , as described in P.A. Lindholm 's Hos Lappbönder ( 1884 ) .
= = = Tawlbwrdd = = =
This variant was played in Wales . It is described as being played with 8 pieces on the king 's side and 16 on the attacker 's side . Robert ap Ifan documented it with a drawing in a manuscript dated 1587 . His version was played on an 11 × 11 board with 12 pieces on the king 's side and 24 on the opponent 's side . His passage states :
The above tawlbwrdd should be played with a king in the centre and twelve men in the places next to him , and twenty @-@ four men seek to capture him . These are placed , six in the centre of each side of the board and in the six central positions . And two move the men in the game , and if one [ piece ] belonging to the king comes between the attackers , he is dead and is thrown out of the game , and the same if one of the attackers comes between two of the king ’ s men in the same manner . And if the king himself comes between two of the attackers , and if you say ‘ Watch your king ’ before he moves to that space , and he is unable to escape , you capture him . If the other says ‘ I am your liegeman ’ and goes between two , there is no harm . If the king can go along the [ illegible ] line , that side wins the game .
= = = Hnefatafl = = =
Hnefatafl was a popular game in medieval Scandinavia and was mentioned in several of the Norse Sagas . Some of these saga references have contributed to controversy over the possible use of dice in playing hnefatafl . The rules of the game were never explicitly recorded , and only playing pieces and fragmentary boards are extant , so it is not known for sure how the game was played . If dice were in fact used , nothing has been recorded about how they were employed . Archaeological and literary sources indicate Hnefatafl may have been played on a 13 × 13 or an 11 × 11 board . It became a popular game in Northern Europe during the Viking era ( end of the 8th century to 1000 C.E ) , a turbulent time full of conflicts . When chess became a popular game during the Middle Ages , the rules of Hnefatafl were forgotten over time . Hnefatafl was particularly popular in Nordic countries and followed the Viking civilization to other parts of Europe , primarily to the British Isles and the Viking country of " Gardarike . " The game developed differently at different locations . Archaeologists have found editions in places such as Ireland and Ukraine . Hnefatafl literally translates to " fist table , " from the Old Icelandic ( equivalently in modern Icelandic ) hnef , ' fist ' , and tafl , ' table ' . The study of medieval manuscripts and examination of pieces and boards has allowed researchers to figure out how the game was probably played . It was last recorded to have been played in Wales during 1587 and Lapland in 1723 .
= = = Alea evangelii = = =
Alea evangelii , which means " game of the gospels " , was described , with a drawing , in the 12th @-@ century Corpus Christi College , Oxford manuscript 122 , from Anglo @-@ Saxon England . It was played on the intersections of a board of 18 × 18 cells . The manuscript describes the layout of the board as a religious allegory , but it is clear that this was a game based on Hnefatafl .
= = Reconstruction = =
No complete , unambiguous description of the rules of a tafl game exists . The best description we have from history is that given by Linnaeus of the game Tablut in the 1732 diary of his travels , Lachesis Lapponica . The following rules are based on the 1811 translation of Lachesis Lapponica into English by James Edward Smith .
The game is played on a 9 × 9 board . Initial setup is as shown in the diagram .
The king starts on the central square or castle , called the konakis , which no other piece may ever occupy .
The eight defenders , called Swedes , start on the eight squares adjoining the konakis , in the form of a cross .
The sixteen attackers , called Muscovites , start in groups of four at the centre of each edge of the board . ( In Linnaeus ' notes , these squares were embroidered to signify them as the domain of the Muscovites . )
All remaining squares ( neutral zone ) may be occupied by any piece during the game .
Any piece may move any number of vacant spaces in any straight line [ ← ↑ → ↓ ] , but not diagonally . ( Compare to the rook in Chess . )
No piece may ever pass over another piece in its path .
If the king should ever have an unimpeded path ( through the neutral zone ) to the edge of the board , unless he is immediately blocked by a Muscovite , he may escape and the game is over . ( This rule suggests that the king may not escape through the domain of the Muscovites . )
If the king should ever have a path of escape , he must call out " raichi " ; if two paths of escape , then his escape is imminent and he must call out " tuichu " . ( Compare these to " check " and " checkmate " in Chess . )
Any piece , save for the king , may be captured and removed from the board if it becomes surrounded on two opposite sides by enemies . ( This is known as custodial capture . )
If the king is surrounded on all four sides by enemies , he is taken prisoner . If he is surrounded on three sides , he may escape by the fourth .
If the king is on a square adjoining the konakis and is surrounded on three sides by his enemies and the fourth by the konakis , he is captured . ( This rule suggests that once the king has left the konakis , he can never return . )
If the king is captured , the Swedes are conquered and the Muscovites victorious .
Several problems of gameplay are left woefully ambiguous or completely untouched in Linnaeus ' notes , and some translations are problematic . There are also several other variations played by modern reconstructionists .
= = Balance of play = =
There is some controversy concerning the widely reported imbalance of the game , as the rules strongly favor the king , although there are several rule modifications that can produce more balanced play , such as a weaponless king ( the king cannot participate in captures ) , escape to the corners ( rather than to the edges ) , or hostile attacker camps ( the king and defenders may be captured against a vacant attacker camp square ) . Schmittberger ( 1992 ) even reveals some workarounds to produce more balanced play without modifying the rules of gameplay .
One such solution is by bidding : Players take turns bidding on how many moves it will take them to win the game . The lowest bidder gets the king . Thus , one player may open with a bid of 15 turns , the other player may counter with a bid of 14 turns , and the first player , more confident in his ability to escape in 13 rounds than in his ability to contain for 14 , may bid 13 and take the king 's side . If that player does not escape within 13 turns , the other player wins . Another workaround is to play a two @-@ round match , in which players switch sides after the first round . If the king escapes both rounds , the winner is the player whose king escaped in the fewest turns .
The description of Tawlbrydd by Robert ap Ifan ( preceding Linnaeus ' account by 145 years ) states that the king could be captured by two men . Peterson suggests that Linnaeus ' special capture of the king is incorrect , and states that statistics from modern games played with four @-@ man capture of the king show that white wins more often than black . However , it has not yet been demonstrated that balanced play results from rules allowing for a two @-@ man capture of the king . Interestingly , some sources indicate that Scandinavian museum reconstructions of Hnefatafl typically stipulate that the king may be captured by only two attackers unless he is still in his hall , in which case he must be surrounded on all four sides .
= = Legacy = =
Around 1960 , Milton Bradley published Swords and Shields , which was essentially Tablut as recorded by Linnaeus , but with the Swedes transformed into shields ( with a king shield ) and the Muscovites transformed into swords . Tafl seems also to have been the basis for two other modern board games that each bear significant resemblance to the historical games , but with some important differences . Both games feature similar symmetry but diverge from the classic 2 : 1 attacker / defender ratio , and both have important differences in their tactics . Breakthru was developed in the 1960s as part of the 3M bookshelf game series . It features tafl @-@ like symmetry , but with twelve defenders plus one " flagship " ( cf. king ) pitted against twenty attackers upon a tiered board , so that the objective of the defenders is to escort the flagship from the centre to the outer zone of the board . Apart from the distinction of the inner zone and outer zone , there are no distinctive spaces on the Breakthru board . Breakthru also features a distinctive double move , whereas no evidence points to such a move in any of the historical games . Thud , a modern game inspired by a series of fantasy novels by Terry Pratchett ( which in turn were inspired by the historical tafl games ) , also features the general symmetry of tafl games , although it is played on an octagonal board with only eight defenders pitted against thirty @-@ two attackers . Thud also features a " Thudstone " ( cf. konakis ) , but no kingpiece . There are also important differences in the moves and attacks in Thud .
In 2008 , Hnefatafl was revived by Peter Kelly in the island of Fetlar in Shetland , where the annual World Quickplay Hnefatafl Championships are now held each summer under the auspices of the Fetlar Hnefatafl Panel . The 2008 Champion was Wendy Sutherland from Yorkshire , while the 2009 and 2010 Championships were won by Tim Millar from Somerset . The term " quickplay " refers to the time limit of ten seconds per move , marked by the sounding of a gong . Hnefatafl can be played online on sites similar to Chess.com. Aage Nielsen created his site in 1998 , and currently hosts the World Tafl Federation Hnefatafl Championship Tournament . A modern Hnefatafl game site was launched in 2014 , by Jacob Teal and John Carlyle .
= Ved Vejen =
Ved Vejen ( meaning By the Wayside or At the Roadside ) is a short novel written by the Danish author Herman Bang in 1886 . It was originally published in Copenhagen by Det Schubotheske Forlag as part of a collection of four stories entitled Stille Eksistenser ( Quiet Existences ) , centering on women who are subdued or living in isolation . It was first published independently in 1898 . An impressionist novel , it relates the story of Katinka , a sensitive but ambitious young woman married to a boisterous and somewhat vulgar station master , Bai .
At the time of release in Denmark in 1886 , critics from the daily newspapers were generally enthusiastic about Ved Vejen . It is now considered an important contribution to Danish literature , listed in the Danish Culture Canon . In 1988 it was made into a feature film Katinka , directed by Max von Sydow .
= = Background = =
Herman Bang 's novel was inspired by an incident in 1883 when he was passing through Skørping Station in the north of Jutland . He noticed a young woman at the window who , her pale face couched in her hands , stared after his departing train . In the introduction to Stille Eksistenser he explains : " For the rest of the journey , I could see the woman 's face between the flowers . Her look was not quite one of longing — longing would have perhaps fluttered to death by breaking its wings in such tight confines — just a quite resignation , a waning sorrow . And when the train had slid by , she would be peering out with the same look over Egnens Lyng — over the dreary plain . "
Bang started writing the novel in 1885 in Vienna , after remembering Skørping Station : " It was in one of those windows behind the flowers that I saw her face , a face which I had not been able to erase from my memory for two years and which , as if a painter , I felt like drawing in soft , melancholic , almost blurry lines and using it as a kind of cover illustration for this book . "
= = Plot = =
The novel centres on the character of Katinka Bai , a quiet , sensitive young woman married to a boisterous and somewhat vulgar station master , Bai . The marriage is barren , and she remains isolated . Almost subconsciously , she passionately longs after something undefinable . Even after the arrival of Huus , a neighbour with whom she begins to establish a promising relationship , she is unable to fulfill her passion , although for the first time in her life she falls in love . In the small provincial community where they live , neither she nor Huus dares to break the conventions they know , sad as it all may be . When they realize they cannot take their attachment any further , they decide to separate and Huus leaves the country . At the end of the novel , as at the beginning , Katinka stands by the wayside , observing life glide by .
= = Themes = =
In Ved Vejen , Bang has masterfully developed his impressionistic style . While recognizing that impressionism was first and foremost a trend in painting , he explained in a letter sent to Peter Nansen from Prague that he was trying to achieve the same style in literature : " Impressionistic is indeed the word . I am frantically striving to make every single impression clear and precise and distinctive , and so I never think about the whole " Jean @-@ Claude Polet adds that while he owes much to Zola , Daudet and Maupassant , he channels naturalism into a quite unexpected direction , that of impressionism . His characters are revealed through their responses or a slight turn of phrase along the lines of the Norwegian Jonas Lie or the Russian Turgenev . He does not explain , he merely presents a picture , providing the reader with impressions , allowing him to read between the lines , interpreting what lies behind the words . On meeting Claude Monet , he was told , " You are the first impressionist writer . " A recognized example of his mastery of impressionism is the novel 's opening scene where all the characters meet at the station .
Longtime Scandinavian Studies scholar Niels Ingwersen states that the novel " engagingly , ironically , sadly captures the quite trivial life of a rural , provincial community " and illustrates an unconsummated love relationship between two ordinary people . He highlights the " amazingly suggestive impressionism " of the novel which permits the reader to become more intimate with the characters , especially the scene at the vicar 's party which provides a vivid image of the personalities of the people attending it , with their individual voices coming together to form a complete picture . Although Katinka Bai , a timid individual , is not a heroine in comparison with today 's depiction of a strong independent woman , the reader is naturally drawn to empathize with her situation and with her as a character .
= = Critical response = =
The novel , like Bang 's other works such as Stuk ( 1887 ) , Tine ( 1889 ) , and Ludvigsbakke ( 1896 ) , is still widely read in Denmark , confirming the author as one of Denmark 's leading novelists . At the time of release in Denmark in 1886 , the daily newspapers were generally enthusiastic about Ved Vejen . Writing in Politiken , Edvard Brandes , after referring to the novel 's " outrageous style " , welcomed it as a " quite excellent novel " which was " so specially Danish " . He concluded by calling for it to be widely read as " the best new literature we have seen this autumn " . In Social @-@ Demokraten , C.E. Jensen found that Bang " depicts the infinitely simple existence and everything it covers with the finest and most sensitive art ... His style gives the reader an impression of reality 's monotony , allowing him to imagine the emotions hidden behind it . " Vilhelm Møller of Nutiden i Billeder og Text praised Ved Vejen as the best of the four stories in Stille Eksistenser , " containing all Bang 's qualities in good measure and very few of the weaknesses which have disrupted his earlier work . It can certainly be favourably compared with all the novels of the past year . " Only Berlingske Tidende 's ( unnamed ) critic was dismissive , commenting : " The story Ved Vejen is weak in content and often unreadable in form ... We recommend the author to be less nervous , less jumpy and less impressionistic . "
In selecting Ved Vejen for the Danish Culture Canon , the selection committee operating under the Danish Ministry of Culture explained that the attraction of the novel is that it portrays with considerable empathy how a meek young woman becomes increasingly aware of desires she hardly knew she possessed . With bittersweet irony , the author allows Katinka to develop her infatuation by listening to the heartaches of others . With its almost cinematic sequences , the novel conveys a balance between its subdued humour and a strong sympathy for what goes on in people 's minds , especially in a secluded environment removed from mainstream society . It is not just Bang 's portrayal of a bygone provincial world that seems so typically Danish but his mastery in making the hidden pain of loneliness so meaningful to today 's readership . In 1988 it was made into a feature film Katinka , directed by Max von Sydow , starring Tammi Øst as Katinka .
= = Literature = =
Ved Vejen has been translated into English as Katinka .
Bang , Herman ( 1990 ) [ 1886 ] . Katinka . Translated by Tiina Nunnally . Fjord Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 940242 @-@ 47 @-@ 0 .
= Final Fantasy XIII =
Final Fantasy XIII ( ファイナルファンタジーXIII , Fainaru Fantajī Sātīn ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , and later for Microsoft Windows . Released in Japan in December 2009 and worldwide in March 2010 , it is the thirteenth major installment in the Final Fantasy series . The game includes fast @-@ paced combat , a new system for the series for determining which abilities are developed for the characters called " Crystarium " , and a customizable " Paradigm " system to control which abilities are used by the characters . Final Fantasy XIII includes elements from the previous games in the series , such as summoned monsters , chocobos , and airships .
The game takes place in the fictional floating world of Cocoon , whose government , the Sanctum , is ordering a purge of civilians who have supposedly come into contact with Pulse , the much @-@ feared world below . The former soldier Lightning begins her fight against the government in order to save her sister who has been branded as an unwilling servant to a god @-@ like being from Pulse , making her an enemy of Cocoon . Lightning is soon joined by a band of allies , and together the group also become marked by the same Pulse creature . They rally against the Sanctum while trying to discover their assigned task and whether they can avoid being turned into monsters or crystals at the completion .
Development began in 2004 and the game was first announced at Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) 2006 . Final Fantasy XIII is the flagship title of the Fabula Nova Crystallis collection of Final Fantasy games and is the first game to use Square Enix 's Crystal Tools engine . Final Fantasy XIII received mostly positive reviews from video game publications , which praised the game 's graphics , presentation , and battle system . The game 's story received a mixed response from reviewers , and its linearity compared to previous games in the series was mostly criticized . Selling 1 @.@ 7 million copies in Japan in 2009 , Final Fantasy XIII became the fastest @-@ selling title in the history of the series . As of January 2013 , the game has sold over 6 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide . The Windows PC version has sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies worldwide according to SteamSpy putting it at over 7 @.@ 1 million copies sold worldwide . A sequel , titled Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , was released in December 2011 in Japan and in February 2012 in North America and PAL regions . A second sequel , titled Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , which concludes Lightning 's story and the Final Fantasy XIII saga ; was released in November 2013 in Japan and in February 2014 in North America and PAL regions .
= = Gameplay = =
The player directly controls the on @-@ screen character through a third @-@ person perspective to interact with people , objects , and enemies throughout the game . The player can also turn the camera around the characters , which allows for a 360 ° view of the surroundings . The world of Final Fantasy XIII is rendered to scale relative to the characters in it ; instead of a caricature of the character roaming around miniature terrain , as found in the earlier Final Fantasy games , every area is represented proportionally . The player navigates the world by foot or by chocobo . Players may save their game to a hard disk drive using save stations , where the player can also purchase items from retail networks or upgrade their weapons . An in @-@ game datalog provides a bestiary and incidental information about the world of Final Fantasy XIII . The Final Fantasy XIII Ultimate Hits International version of the game , released in Japan , also contains an " Easy " mode option .
= = = Battle system = = =
As in Final Fantasy XII , enemies are integrated into the open field and can be approached or avoided by the player . When the player 's character touches an enemy , the screen transitions from the regular map to a separate battle screen similar to those used in previous Final Fantasy titles . A maximum of three characters may be used in battles , which use a variant on the series ' traditional Active Time Battle ( ATB ) system first featured in Final Fantasy IV . Under this system , the player selects an action from the menus , such as Attack , Magic , and Item . Unlike previous games in the series , the player only controls the lead character while the remaining two characters are controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) . Each action requires a specific number of slots on the ATB bar , which continually refills to a set maximum number of slots . The ATB bar gradually increases in size throughout the game from two slots to six . The player may select less than the maximum number of possible actions or may stop the filling of the ATB bar and perform as many actions as can be done with the current ATB amount . The player may select an autobattle command , which fills the ATB slots with actions chosen automatically . Actions cannot be performed outside of battle , and the characters ' health is fully restored after each battle .
Each enemy has a meter , called a chain counter , consisting of a percentage starting at 100 which increases when the enemy is struck by attacks or spells . Attacks by different roles have different effects ; some raise the chain by a larger amount while others give the player longer before the chain counter resets . The amount of damage performed by an attack is multiplied by the chain percentage before it is applied to the enemy . When the chain counter reaches a preset amount , different for each enemy , the enemy is placed into Stagger State . In this mode , the enemy has lowered defense and may be launched into the air . The Paradigm system allows the player to program six different roles which the characters can then assume to perform certain formations in battle in response to the specific conditions . The roles consist of Commando , a warrior @-@ type role ; Ravager , a black mage @-@ type role which uses damage @-@ dealing magic ; Medic , a White Mage @-@ type role which can heal and remove negative status ailments ; Saboteur , which use magic to weaken enemies by inflicting negative statuses ; Synergist , which uses magic to strengthen allies by giving positive statuses ; and Sentinel , which has protective and defensive abilities similar to a paladin . Each of the characters can initially take on only three roles , but the player has access to all of them later in the game ( although the other three roles are limited in their abilities for those players which choose them ) . The player can select which roles the controlled character and the AI characters are using both outside and during battle , which is the only way that the player can control the AI characters during battle . The player can only choose from specific sets of paradigms that the player has set up beforehand outside of battle .
Each character can summon a specific Eidolon into battle . These summoned creatures include series staples Odin , Shiva , Alexander , and Bahamut , and newcomers Hecatoncheir and Brynhildr . When summoned , the Eidolon stays in combat while the characters accompanying the summoner leave the party . While an Eidolon is summoned , the player can trigger a feature called Gestalt Mode , in which the Eidolon transforms into a different form and performs different attacks while the summoning character rides them .
= = = Crystarium = = =
The Crystarium is a leveling system consisting of six crystals and resembles the Sphere Grid from Final Fantasy X. Each crystal in the Crystarium represents one of the six Paradigms , and is divided into ten levels . Each level contains various nodes that supply bonuses to health , strength , or magic , or provide new abilities and accessory slots . These nodes are connected by a semi @-@ linear path . The player may advance down the path by acquiring Crystarium Points , which are awarded after defeating enemies . The full Crystarium is not available to the player at the beginning of the game ; at specific points in the game 's plot , the player gains access to new crystals or levels .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Final Fantasy XIII is set on the world of Gran Pulse ( often simply called Pulse ) . Central to the story is Cocoon , a massive artificial sphere that floats above Pulse 's surface and is ruled by the Sanctum , a theocratic government . The two worlds are controlled by fal 'Cie / fælˈsiː / , beings with godlike power . The Cocoon fal 'Cie are responsible for keeping Cocoon floating , as well as providing light and water to the people that live inside . Each fal 'Cie handles a specific task . The fal 'Cie have the capability of marking the humans that live in Pulse and Cocoon as their servants . These servants , called l 'Cie / ləˈsiː / , are branded with a symbol representing either Pulse or Cocoon and are given a " Focus " — a task to complete . If the l 'Cie complete their task in time , they are transformed to crystal and according to legend gain eternal life ; otherwise they become mindless monsters called Cie 'th / siθ / . The l 'Cie are not explicitly told their Focus , but are instead given visions that they must interpret .
Several hundred years before the events of the game , a battle known as the War of Transgression took place between Pulse and Cocoon . During the battle , l 'Cie from Pulse attacked and ripped a large hole in Cocoon . Eventually , the l 'Cie completed their focus and were turned to crystal . The hole was patched with material lifted from Pulse , and Cocoon 's citizens have since lived in fear of another invasion ; this fear is used by the Sanctum to remain in power . The Sanctum oversees two military branches : the Guardian Corps , responsible for keeping order on Cocoon , and the Public Security and Intelligence COMmand ( PSICOM ) , the special forces in charge of dealing with any threat related to Pulse . The fal 'Cie have given the humans advanced technology , including flying airships and mechanical creatures , and a form of magic also exists . This magic is normally only accessible to l 'Cie , fal 'Cie , and various monsters in Cocoon and Pulse , though distilled chemical forms can be used by normal humans through the use of Manadrives .
= = = Characters = = =
The six main playable characters of Final Fantasy XIII are Lightning , the main protagonist of the game , a former soldier and older sister to Serah ; Snow Villiers , Serah 's fiancé and leader of NORA , a paramilitary group ; Oerba Dia Vanille , the game 's narrator and an exile who is later revealed to be a l 'Cie from Pulse ; Sazh Katzroy , a civilian pilot and father to a young boy , Dajh ; Hope Estheim , a young boy who is struggling within the relationships he shares with his parents ; and Oerba Yun Fang , a l 'Cie from Pulse who is working with the Sanctum 's Cavalry branch . Other characters include Galenth Dysley , the ruler of the Sanctum and main antagonist ; Cid Raines , a Sanctum Brigadier General in the Cavalry who does not trust the government ; and Serah Farron , Lightning 's younger sister and Snow 's fiancée .
= = = Plot = = =
Final Fantasy XIII begins in Cocoon as the citizens of the town of Bodhum are being evicted , or Purged , from Cocoon after coming in contact with something from Pulse . Over the course of the game , the player is shown flashbacks of the events of the previous 13 days , which began when a fal 'Cie from Pulse was discovered near Bodhum . Lightning 's sister Serah had found the fal 'Cie from Pulse and been changed into a l 'Cie by it . Lightning and Sazh derail a Purge train bound for Pulse in an attempt to save Serah . In the subsequent battle , Snow leads his resistance group , NORA , to rescue the Purge exiles . Several of them are killed , including Hope 's mother . As Snow heads to the fal 'Cie Anima to save Serah , he is joined by two of the exiles : Hope and Vanille . The two groups meet at the fal 'Cie , and find Serah just as she turns to crystal . Anima then brands them all as l 'Cie and they are cast out into a different part of Cocoon . During this transformation , the newly crested l 'Cie all have the same vision : a monster called Ragnarok . The group , arguing over the ambiguous nature of the dreamed Focus , find Serah in her crystallized form ; Snow remains with her as the others leave .
Snow meets Cid and Fang after being captured and detained aboard the airship Lindblum . Meanwhile , the others escape from PSICOM , but are separated during an air strike ; Hope and Lightning travel to Palumpolum , while Sazh and Vanille travel to Nautilus . In Lightning 's scenario , she unintentionally supports Hope 's goal of killing Snow as revenge for his mother 's death . In Vanille 's scenario , Sazh discusses how his son Dajh was turned into a l 'Cie by a Cocoon fal 'Cie and was taken by PSICOM to discover his Focus . At Palumpolum , Lightning tries to persuade Hope not to go through with his revenge and meets Snow and Fang . Fang reveals that she and Vanille were l 'Cie from Pulse who were turned into crystals ; they were turned back into humans 13 days prior to the start of the game , sparking the Purge . Hope attempts to murder Snow , but after Snow saves him from an airstrike , he decides not to go through with it . The party then escapes the city with Cid 's aid . At Nautilus , Vanille reveals herself to Sazh as a l 'Cie from Pulse , and indirectly the reason that Dajh was turned into a l 'Cie . PSICOM then captures Sazh and Vanille and detains them on board the airship Palamecia .
The other members of the party stage a rescue mission and reunite with Vanille and Sazh before they confront Galenth Dysley , the Sanctum 's Primarch . Dysley reveals himself as the Cocoon fal 'Cie ruler Barthandelus . He tells them that their Focus is to transform into the beast Ragnarok and slay the sleeping fal 'Cie Orphan , who keeps Cocoon afloat above Pulse . Slaying the fal 'Cie Orphan will result in the destruction of Cocoon . The party escapes and learns from Cid that the fal 'Cie believe that Cocoon 's destruction will summon the Maker , the creator of the worlds . The fal 'Cie cannot harm Orphan themselves . Vanille and Fang reveal to the party that they were involved in the War of Transgression centuries prior , and that their Focus then had been the same : to transform into Ragnarok and attempt to destroy Orphan . The party flies away to Pulse and travels to Oerba , Vanille and Fang 's hometown , where they hope to learn how to remove their l 'Cie marks . The town is deserted , and they find no living people on the surface . The group is unsuccessful in removing their marks , and Dysley confronts them again . He tells them that he is forcing Cid , now the head of the Sanctum , to create chaos in Cocoon to force the Cavalry to attack Cid and Orphan in a coup d 'état .
The party infiltrates Cocoon with the goal of preventing its destruction . They head towards Orphan only to find that the Cavalry have been turned into Cie 'th . The party encounters Dysley and overpowers him , but Orphan awakens and merges with Dysley , then compels Fang to finish her Focus as Ragnarok while the others are seemingly transformed into Cie 'th . The group reappears in human form , preventing Fang from transforming . The party engage and defeat Orphan and escape Cocoon , which is now falling towards Pulse . As the rest of the party turns to crystal for completing their Focus , Vanille and Fang remain on Cocoon and transform into Ragnarok together . They prevent a collision between Cocoon and Pulse by turning themselves into a crystal pillar between the two worlds . The rest of the party awaken from their crystallization on Pulse and find their l 'Cie brands gone . The game ends with Lightning , Hope , Snow and Sazh reuniting with Serah and Dajh .
= = Development = =
Development of Final Fantasy XIII began in February 2004 , shortly after the release of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission in Japan . Back then , the project was internally referred to by the codename " Colors World " . Over the first year , director Motomu Toriyama and scenario conceptor Kazushige Nojima conceived ideas for the plot . Nojima thought up the crystal mythology that became the basis for the Fabula Nova Crystallis series , including concepts such as the fal 'Cie and l 'Cie . Toriyama then created a story premised on this mythology . He wanted to portray " characters at the mercy of a predetermined , unjust fate " who " belong together but collide heavily " . In order to achieve this , each of the story 's thirteen chapters was made to focus on different protagonists . Chapters seven and eight were to mark a turning point in the interpersonal relationships of the party .
In March 2006 , when the structural part of the narrative started to come together , lead scenario writer Daisuke Watanabe joined the team . Toriyama gave him a rough outline of the first eight chapters , which included several cornerstone scenes that needed to be kept , like when party members were separated or reunited . He told Watanabe what he wanted to express with the scenario and asked him to flesh out the story and to strengthen how the points in his outline connected . For example , Toriyama 's rudimentary instructions in the document would say " Snow and Hope reconcile " . Watanabe had to decide about how the scenes with this reconciliation would play out , then write the scenario that way . To emphasize what the story tried to express , Watanabe adjusted the personalities Toriyama had given to each character . For example , he felt that the party should not have a " reliable and calm leader type " at the beginning of the story , in order to more accurately show the confusion and unease after the protagonists transform into l 'Cie . Toriyama has said that one of the storytelling challenges was the despair of the characters and the many points at which they are seemingly cornered . He mentioned the scene where Sazh tries to commit suicide as one such example : Although Toriyama felt it was " almost a little too dark " , he wanted to include something like it in the game . In contrast , he said that lighthearted elements such as Sazh 's Chocobo chick helped maintain a good balance .
At the beginning of the development , the game was intended to be released on the PlayStation 2 . In May 2005 , however , after the positive reception of the tech demo of Final Fantasy VII , the team decided to move the game to the PlayStation 3 and developed it with the new Crystal Tools engine , a seventh generation multiplatform game engine created by Square Enix for its next generation games . Square Enix believed that developing a new engine would speed up development time later in the project , though it would initially cause a delay in the game 's development . However , the delay was longer than originally anticipated as the engine had to accommodate the requirements of several other games in addition to XIII . Another factor in the platform move was the delayed release of Final Fantasy XII , which came out a very short time before the release of the PlayStation 3 . A PC port was considered during development , but was decided against due to how Square Enix saw the video game market situation at the time as well as additional complexities that Square Enix did not have experience with related to the PC platform , such as security issues . Final Fantasy XIII was first shown at the 2006 E3 convention . The trailer shown was an artistic concept that did not represent the final concept for the game , since at the time there was no playable form of the game . Announced alongside the game was Final Fantasy Versus XIII , later retitled as Final Fantasy XV , and the PlayStation Portable game Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 , originally titled Final Fantasy Agito XIII , the three of which form the Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy series . Square Enix explained that although all three games are thematically linked , they are not directly related in terms of story .
The developers for Final Fantasy XIII were divided into multiple areas , with each developer or team focusing only on a specific task such as developing a specific in @-@ game area or modeling characters . Each physical area of the game was developed separately ; after an initial design was approved , teams were assigned to a specific location and filled in details without reusing assets from other areas . Several of the game 's developers had worked on previous installments of the series . Director Motomu Toriyama had worked on Final Fantasy X and X @-@ 2 ; producer Yoshinori Kitase had worked on V through VIII and as the producer for X and X @-@ 2 ; main @-@ character designer Tetsuya Nomura had performed the same role for VII , VIII , X , and X @-@ 2 , and battle @-@ system director Toshiro Tsuchida reprised that role from Final Fantasy X. As XIII was the first Final Fantasy game for the PlayStation 3 , the development team 's internal goal was for the game to have the same " gameplay and craftmanship " impact that Final Fantasy VII and X had as the first games of the series on their respective consoles . They aimed to sell five million copies of the game . Toriyama wanted the game to be " the ultimate single player RPG " .
Tsuchida 's concept for the battle system was to maintain the strategic nature of command @-@ based battles . The system stemmed from a desire to create battles similar to those found in the film Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children . Magic points ( MP ) , which had been a part of the battle system in previous Final Fantasy titles , were removed in the game 's battle system as Tsuchida and the other designers felt that it gave players an incentive to not use their most powerful magic attacks due to the MP cost , in turn making battles less interesting . The Paradigm system was designed early in the battle system 's development , with the intent of making battles rely on quickly changing strategies and feel fast @-@ moving . Originally there were only five roles , but the Saboteur was later added as the designers felt that its abilities were missing from the game and did not fit with the other roles . Together with the maximum of three characters in a combat situation , the groupings of enemies were designed to force the player to switch Paradigms to keep them engaged in the battles .
Toriyama wanted Lightning to be a new type of female character with an athlete 's body and a less feminine nature than some of the previous female characters of the series . His guideline to Nomura was to make her " strong and beautiful " , and she was intended to be reminiscent of Final Fantasy VII 's Cloud Strife . Fang was initially meant to be a male character , but the gender was changed to coincide with the updated character designs during the latter part of development . The graphics capabilities of the PS3 and Xbox 360 compared to previous consoles allowed Nomura to use more complex elements in the character designs than before , such as Lightning 's cape and detailed facial features . This in turn meant that the art team had to do much more work for each character or area than in previous games . Nomura did not take an involved role in the creation of the non @-@ playable characters .
Unlike previous games in the series which were more inspired by Asian locations and culture , Final Fantasy XIII was intended by the art team to be reminiscent of the United States . Pulse was based on landscape photographs the team took from across the country , and Cocoon was intended to be a " melting pot " of different ethnicities . The setting was also given a science fiction aesthetic to make it stand out more in comparison with other entries in the series . Art director Isamu Kamikokuryo revealed that many additional scenarios such as Lightning 's home , which were functioning in an unreleased build during development , were left out of the final version due to concerns about the game 's length and volume . Kamikokuryo said the content they cut was , in itself , enough to make another game . According to Toriyama , the cuts were made in " various stages of [ the game 's ] development " , and that some of the content was removed just before the game 's completion . The game , unlike previous titles in the series , includes no explorable town areas ; Toriyama said in an interview that the team was unable to make them as graphically appealing as the rest of the game and chose to eliminate them . Toriyama intended to have a piece of downloadable content available for the game that would include a new area , weapons and quests , but was forced to cut it as well due to quality concerns so late in the project and difficulties with the different systems for extra content on the two gaming consoles .
A playable demo of Final Fantasy XIII was included in the Japanese version of Final Fantasy VII Advent Children Complete , released on April 16 , 2009 . Toriyama stated that the release of the demo , which was not in the original development schedule , helped the team recognize a shared vision for what the game should look and feel like , a problem which had been plaguing the development team up until then . It helped the team prioritize the work that still needed to be done , which increased the development speed for the remainder of the project . The game was intended to appeal to both Western and Japanese audiences , and focus groups from both regions were used . The English localization began while development was still in progress to lessen the delay between the Japanese and worldwide releases . The game was initially going to be released solely for the PlayStation 3 , but an Xbox 360 version was announced late in the game 's development cycle . The Xbox version , due to technical limitations , runs at a lower resolution ( 720p maximum ) than the PlayStation version and is spread across 3 discs .
= = = Music = = =
Masashi Hamauzu composed the game 's soundtrack . His previous work on the series was as a co @-@ composer for Final Fantasy X and as the main composer for Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII . The game was the first main @-@ series Final Fantasy game to not include any compositions by original series composer Nobuo Uematsu . Although Uematsu was originally announced to compose the main theme of the game , this role was taken over by Hamauzu after Uematsu signed on to compose the soundtrack to Final Fantasy XIV . The score features some pieces orchestrated by Yoshihisa Hirano , Toshiyuki Oomori , and Kunihito Shiina , with the Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra . The song " My Hands " , from British singer Leona Lewis ' second album Echo , was chosen to replace Final Fantasy XIII 's original theme song , " Kimi ga Iru Kara " by Sayuri Sugawara , for the game 's international release . Square Enix President Yoichi Wada later said that it would have been better if the American branch of the company had produced a theme song from scratch , but a lack of staff led to the decision of licensing an existing song .
Music from the game has been released in several albums . Square Enix released the main soundtrack album , Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack , on four Compact Discs in 2010 . The album sold 16 @,@ 000 copies the day of its release . Square Enix released selections from the soundtrack on two gramophone record albums in 2010 : W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII and W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII Gentle Reveries . An album of arranged pieces from the soundtrack , Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack -PLUS- , was also released by Square Enix in 2010 , as was an album of piano arrangements . For Life Music published a single of the theme song for the Japanese version of the game , " Kimi ga Iru Kara " ( 君がいるから , " Because You 're Here " ) , in 2009 .
= = Versions and merchandise = =
The game was released in Japan on December 17 , 2009 , and in North America , Europe and Australia on March 9 , 2010 . Alongside the release of the game in Japan , Japanese alcoholic beverage distributor Suntory released the " Final Fantasy XIII Elixir " to promote the game . On the same day , a Final Fantasy XIII PlayStation Home personal space was made available for free in Japan until January 13 , 2010 , along with a costume and personal space furnishings ; they were released to the Asian , European , and North American versions of PlayStation Home on March 11 , 2010 . On December 18 , 2012 the game was re @-@ released as part of the Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Ultimate Box Japanese package . It was re @-@ released again on November 21 , 2013 as part of the Lightning Ultimate box , a Japan exclusive edition which includes Final Fantasy XIII and its two sequels .
The game was released bundled with consoles in different regions . The game was bundled in Japan with a limited @-@ edition white PlayStation 3 with a pink color print of Lightning on the surface of the console , and with an Xbox 360 with the silver strip on the hard drive emblazoned with the Final Fantasy XIII logo in the western release . A limited quantity of themed Xbox faceplates created by Nomura were made available through a select few retailers in Europe , North America , and Australia . PAL territories received a limited collector 's edition of the game for both Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , with the Final Fantasy XIII Original Sound Selection " best of " soundtrack CD , three Eidolon art prints , a Brand of the l 'Cie decal and The World of Final Fantasy XIII , a hardback book featuring character artwork , CG @-@ rendered artwork , and environments from across the game production . Square Enix published three Ultimania books : the Final Fantasy XIII Scenario Ultimania and the Final Fantasy XIII Battle Ultimania on January 28 , 2010 , and the Final Fantasy XIII Ultimania Ω on September 30 , 2010 . The Battle Ultimania provides a description and analysis of the new battle system and its components , and developer interviews . The Scenario Ultimania describes the main scenarios in the game , profiles on the characters and areas in Cocoon and Gran Pulse , developer interviews , and details on each location . The last guide , the Ultimania Ω , includes voice actor and additional staff interviews , the complete story of Final Fantasy XIII including additional character profiles , a collection of artworks and illustrations , and additional dissections of the story and background .
While the game was released on both PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in western regions , the game was a PlayStation 3 exclusive in Asian territories . This was changed in late 2010 when Square Enix announced that the Xbox 360 version would in fact release in Japan , despite many statements to the opposite . It was later released digitally for PC via Square Enix 's online store and Steam , along with its two sequels . Final Fantasy XIII was the first game in the series to receive an official release in Chinese . This was the first edition of a Final Fantasy game in which Japanese voice @-@ overs could be enabled . An international version of the game for the Xbox 360 called Final Fantasy XIII Ultimate Hits International was released in Asia on December 16 , 2010 . The game includes an " Easy " mode option , and features the English voices . It comes with a bonus booklet titled Final Fantasy XIII Corridor of Memory that contains content that was previously left out of the original version of the game and a short story epilogue titled Final Fantasy XIII Episode I.
Final Fantasy XIII has been released on iOS devices including Apple TV , Android devices including Google Chromecast and the Amazon Appstore in Japan . It has also been released on PlayStation Now .
= = Reception = =
Final Fantasy XIII sold over one million units on its first day of sale in Japan , and had sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies for the PlayStation 3 in Japan by the end of 2009 , and 1 @.@ 9 million by the end of 2010 . Square Enix had anticipated high initial sales for the game and shipped close to two million units for its launch . The game sold more than one million copies in North America in its release month . In March 2010 , Square Enix stated that Final Fantasy XIII was the fastest @-@ selling title in the franchise 's history . By April of the same year , American game sales for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 reached an estimated 800 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 units respectively . As of January 2013 , the game had shipped 6 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide . According to Media Create , female gamers accounted for nearly a third of the game 's Japanese fanbase . As of July 2012 , a combined total of 9 @.@ 7 million units has been sold on consoles for both Final Fantasy XIII and its sequel Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . The Steam version has sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies as of January 2016 .
Final Fantasy XIII received generally positive reviews . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 84 @.@ 15 % based on 62 reviews and 83 / 100 based on 83 reviews , the Xbox 360 version 81 @.@ 68 % based on 39 reviews and 82 / 100 based on 54 reviews and the Microsoft Windows version 49 @.@ 00 % based on 2 reviews and 65 / 100 based on 5 reviews . It was rated 39 out of 40 by the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu . Dengeki praised the game for the battle system , stating that the battles are by far the most exciting in the series , and concluded Final Fantasy XIII deserved a score of 120 , as 100 would not be enough . The game was voted as the second best game of 2009 in Dengeki Online 's reader poll , and in January 2010 , it was voted the best game ever in Famitsu 's reader poll . The game received a Best RPG of the year award nomination at the Spike Video Game Awards , but lost to Mass Effect 2 , Ali Hillis also voices Liara T 'Soni . It won the " Future Division " award at the Japan Game Awards 2009 and later won a Game Designers Award at the Japan Game Awards 2010 .
Universal praise was given to the technical milestones achieved by the game 's graphics and presentation . Edge felt that Cocoon in particular was an " inspired setting [ ... ] blessed with a vibrancy and vivid colour that often leaves you open @-@ mouthed " . GameSpot called the art design " magnificent " . Further praise was given to the pre @-@ rendered animation sequences and the almost seamless transition of visual quality between these and the realtime gameplay . Many also appreciated the game 's soundtrack , with Masashi Hamauzu providing " a score with catchy hooks and blood @-@ pumping battle melodies " , according to Wired .
The battle system of Final Fantasy XIII received widespread praise . The increased pace of battles was appreciated , with several reviews describing it as " thrilling " ; Edge 's description of the battle system summarized it as " among the genre 's finest " . 1UP.com said that " Despite the fact that two @-@ thirds of your party is AI @-@ controlled , FFXIII 's battles may be the most involving the series has ever seen . " The story got a mixed reception , with Wired remarking that the plot was " a little more human and less esoteric than in previous games " . 1UP.com felt that the story was " hardly world @-@ class writing " , but that the writers clearly knew the medium well and had attempted to avoid clichés . Reviewers felt that the characters worked well together , and that the interactions among them as the game progressed made up for shortcomings in the story .
= = = Linearity = = =
While critics generally praised Square Enix 's attempt to revitalize the Final Fantasy series formula , many reacted negatively to the linear nature of the game , especially in the first ten chapters on Cocoon , an issue which many felt was compounded by the large reduction of towns , free @-@ roaming capabilities , and interaction with non @-@ player characters . GamePro described the gameplay as " a long hallway toward an orange target symbol on your mini @-@ map that triggers a cutscene , a boss fight , or both , " and 1UP.com criticized the linear aspect as the game 's " biggest shortcoming " , and felt the first section was " superficial . " Edge and others awarded the game especially lower scores as a result of these aspects , with Edge in particular lowering the score they awarded the game to a five out of ten primarily due to the game 's linear nature .
In contrast , reviewers from GamesRadar and Computer and Video Games appreciated the linear nature ; the former stated that " the streamlined , focused structure eliminates potential tedium without dumbing anything down " , while the latter felt it was " a clever move " , and kept the player from being " [ bogged ] down with mundane number crunching , [ and ] finicky and repetitive leveling @-@ up . " Many negatively noted the gradual unfurling of the player 's abilities over this first part of the game , from battle gameplay to selecting the party leader . Combined with the game 's linear nature , some reviews went as far as to describe these chapters as " boring " until the world of Gran Pulse was revealed . Edge noted that while it did not do enough to make up for the opening chapters , at Gran Pulse the game " hits a sweet spot " as the narrative offers " hunting side @-@ quests and the simple joy of exploring to see what visual marvel is around the next corner . "
= = = Response to criticism = = =
After release , director Motomu Toriyama felt that the lower @-@ than @-@ expected review scores for a main Final Fantasy series game came from reviewers who approached the game from a Western point of view . These reviewers were used to games in which the player was given an open world to explore , he said , noting that this expectation contrasted with the vision the team set out to create . He noted that it " becomes very difficult to tell a compelling story when you 're given that much freedom " . Yoshinori Kitase stated that they " didn 't really intend to work within the RPG template , " but " wanted to create a new game , even a new genre . " He stated that " in a lot of senses FFXIII is more like an FPS than an RPG . "
Toriyama and Kitase later said , in July 2011 , that the biggest complaints about the game were that it was too linear and that there was not enough interaction between the player and the world , which they described as a lack of towns and minigames compared to the previous Final Fantasy games . They also named the amount of time it took to access all of the gameplay elements as a common criticism , saying that people interpreted it as a " lengthy tutorial " .
Yoichi Wada , then @-@ president of Square Enix , made his thoughts about the reception of the game known to Gamasutra . He said " some value it highly and some are not very happy with it " . He added , " Should Final Fantasy become a new type of game or should Final Fantasy not become a new type of game ? The customers have different opinions . It 's very difficult to determine which way it should go . "
= = Sequels = =
At the Square Enix First Production Department Conference held on January 18 , 2011 , Square Enix announced that they were developing a direct sequel to Final Fantasy XIII , entitled Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , which they intended to build on the game 's story and characters while taking on board the criticism and other feedback about the original . It was released on December 15 , 2011 in Japan , January 31 , 2012 in North America and February 3 , 2012 in Europe , for both the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 . Motomu Toriyama and Yoshinori Kitase returned to their respective roles as director and producer . The game begins three years after the events of Final Fantasy XIII , and features Serah and newcomer Noel as the main protagonists . XIII @-@ 2 is the fourth sequel game in the Final Fantasy series , after Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings and Final Fantasy IV : The After Years . Most of the team returned again to create a second sequel entitled Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , meant to wrap up the story of Lightning and the Final Fantasy XIII universe . The game was released in November 2013 in Japan and in February 2014 in North America and Europe . Toriyama stated in the Ultimania Omega companion book prior to XIII @-@ 2 's announcement that he hoped to write a story " where Lightning ends up happy " , though at the time Square Enix had no plans to make a sequel .
= When Harry Met Sally ... =
When Harry Met Sally … is a 1989 American romantic comedy film written by Nora Ephron and directed by Rob Reiner . It stars Billy Crystal as Harry and Meg Ryan as Sally . The story follows the title characters from the time they meet just before sharing a cross @-@ country drive , through twelve years or so of chance encounters in New York City . The film raises the question " Can men and women ever just be friends ? " and advances many ideas about relationships that became household concepts , such as those of the " high @-@ maintenance " girlfriend and the " transitional person " .
The origins of the film were derived from Reiner 's return to single life after a divorce . An interview Ephron conducted with Reiner provided the basis for Harry . Sally was based on Ephron and some of her friends . Crystal came on board and made his own contributions to the screenplay , making Harry funnier . Ephron supplied the structure of the film with much of the dialogue based on the real @-@ life friendship between Reiner and Crystal . The soundtrack consists of standards performed by Harry Connick Jr . , with a big band and orchestra arranged by Marc Shaiman . Connick won his first Grammy Award for Best Jazz Male Vocal Performance .
Columbia Pictures released the film using the " platform " technique , which involved opening it in a few select cities , letting positive word of mouth generate interest , and then gradually expanding distribution over subsequent weeks . When Harry Met Sally ... grossed a total of US $ 92 @.@ 8 million in North America . Ephron received a British Academy Film Award , an Oscar nomination , and a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for her screenplay . The film is ranked 23rd on AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs list of the top comedy films in American cinema and number 60 on Bravo 's " 100 Funniest Movies " . In early 2004 , the film was adapted for the stage in a production starring Luke Perry and Alyson Hannigan .
= = Plot = =
In 1977 , Harry Burns ( Billy Crystal ) and Sally Albright ( Meg Ryan ) graduate from the University of Chicago and share the drive to New York City , where Sally is beginning journalism school and Harry is starting a career . Harry is dating a friend of Sally 's , Amanda ( Michelle Nicastro ) . During the drive , they discuss their differing ideas about relationships between men and women . Harry says that " Men and women can 't be friends because the sex part always gets in the way . " Sally disagrees , claiming that men and women can be strictly friends without sex . During a stop in a diner , Sally is angered when Harry tells her she is attractive ; she accuses him of making a pass at her . In New York , they part on unfriendly terms .
Five years later , Harry and Sally find themselves on the same flight . Sally has just started dating a man named Joe ( Steven Ford ) – who is a neighbor of Harry 's – and Harry is engaged to a woman named Helen , which surprises Sally . Harry suggests they become friends , forcing him to qualify his previous " rule " about the impossibility of male @-@ female friendships . Despite Harry 's suggestions of exceptions to that rule , they separate , concluding that they will not be friends .
Harry and Sally run into each other again in a bookstore five years later . They have coffee and talk about their previous relationships ; Sally and Joe broke up because she wanted a family and he did not want to marry , and Harry 's relationship ended when Helen fell in love with another man . They take a walk and decide to be friends . They have late @-@ night phone conversations , go to dinner , and spend time together . Their dating experiences with others continue to inform their differing approaches to relationships and sex .
During a New Year 's Eve party , Harry and Sally find themselves attracted to each other . Though they remain friends , they set each other up with their respective best friends , Marie ( Carrie Fisher ) and Jess ( Bruno Kirby ) . When the four go to a restaurant , Marie and Jess hit it off ; they later become engaged . One night , over the phone , Sally tearfully tells Harry that her ex is getting married . He rushes to her apartment to comfort her , and they unexpectedly have sex , resulting in an awkward moment the next morning as Harry leaves in a state of distress . This creates tension in their relationship . Their friendship cools for three weeks until the two have a heated argument during Jess and Marie 's wedding dinner . Following this fight , Harry repeatedly attempts to mend his friendship with Sally , but she feels that they cannot be friends after what happened .
At a New Year 's Eve party that year , Sally feels alone without Harry by her side . Harry spends New Year 's alone , walking around the city . As Sally decides to leave the party early , Harry appears and declares his love for her . At first she argues that the only reason he is there is because he is lonely , but he disagrees and lists the many things he realized he loves about her . They make up and kiss , and marry three months later .
= = Cast = =
Billy Crystal as Harry Burns
Meg Ryan as Sally Albright
Carrie Fisher as Marie Fisher
Bruno Kirby as Jess Fisher
Steven Ford as Joe
Lisa Jane Persky as Alice
Michelle Nicastro as Amanda Reese
Kevin Rooney as Ira Stone
Harley Kozak as Helen Hillson
Franc Luz as Julian
Tracy Reiner as Emily
Estelle Reiner as Older Woman Customer
= = Production = =
In 1984 , director Rob Reiner , producer Andy Scheinman and writer Nora Ephron met over lunch at the Russian Tea Room in New York City to develop a project . Reiner pitched an idea for a film that Ephron rejected . The second meeting transformed into a long discussion about Reiner and Scheinman 's lives as single men . Reiner remembers , " I was in the middle of my single life . I 'd been divorced for a while . I 'd been out a number of times , all these disastrous , confusing relationships one after another " . The next time they all met , Reiner said that he had always wanted to do a film about two people who become friends and do not have sex because they know it will ruin their relationship but have sex anyway . Ephron liked the idea , and Reiner acquired a deal at a studio .
She then proceeded to interview Reiner and Scheinman about their lives in order to have material on which to draw . These interviews also provided the basis for Harry . Reiner was constantly depressed , pessimistic yet very funny . Ephron also got bits of dialogue from these interviews . Sally was based on Ephron and some of her friends . She worked on several drafts over the years while Reiner made Stand By Me and The Princess Bride . Billy Crystal came on board when the project was called Boy Meets Girl and made his own contributions to the screenplay , making Harry funnier . The comedian " experienced vicariously " Reiner 's ( his best friend at the time ) return to single life after divorcing comedian / filmmaker Penny Marshall and in the process was unconsciously doing research for the role of Harry .
During the screenwriting process when Ephron would not feel like writing , she would interview people who worked for the production company . Some of the interviews appeared in the film as the interludes between certain scenes featuring couples talking about how they met , although the material was rewritten and reshot with actors . Ephron supplied the structure of the film with much of the dialogue based on the real @-@ life friendship between Reiner and Crystal . For example , in the scene where Sally and Harry appear on a split screen , talking on the telephone while watching their respective television sets , channel surfing , was something that Crystal and Reiner did every night .
Originally , Ephron wanted to call the film How They Met and went through several different titles . Reiner even started a contest with the crew during principal photography - whoever came up with the title won a case of champagne . In order to get into the lonely mindset of Harry when he was divorced and single , Crystal stayed by himself in a separate room from the cast and crew while they were shooting in Manhattan . The script initially ended with Harry and Sally remaining friends and not pursuing a romantic relationship because she felt that was " the true ending " , as did Reiner . Eventually , Ephron and Reiner realized that it would be a more appropriate ending for them to marry , though they admit that this is generally not a realistic outcome .
When posed the film 's central question , can men and women just be friends , Ryan replied , " Yes , men and women can just be friends . I have a lot of platonic ( male ) friends , and sex doesn 't get in the way . " Crystal said , " I 'm a little more optimistic than Harry . But I think it is difficult . Men basically act like stray dogs in front of a supermarket . I do have platonic ( women ) friends , but not best , best , best friends . "
Rob Reiner initially envisioned actress Susan Dey for the role of Sally Albright . When she declined , he later considered Elizabeth Perkins . He also considered casting Elizabeth McGovern . Molly Ringwald was almost cast , but Meg Ryan convinced Reiner to give her the role . Reiner 's mother Estelle and daughter Tracy both played roles in the film .
= = = Deli scene = = =
In a scene featuring the two title characters having lunch at Katz 's Delicatessen in Manhattan , the couple are arguing about a man 's ability to recognize when a woman is faking an orgasm . Sally claims that men cannot tell the difference , and to prove her point , she vividly ( fully clothed ) fakes one as other diners watch . The scene ends with Sally casually returning to her meal as a nearby patron ( played by Reiner 's mother ) places her order : " I 'll have what she 's having . " When Estelle Reiner died at age 94 in 2008 , The New York Times referred to her as the woman " who delivered one of the most memorably funny lines in movie history " . This scene was shot again and again , and Ryan demonstrated her fake orgasms for hours . Katz 's Deli still hangs a sign above the table that says , " Where Harry met Sally ... hope you have what she had ! "
This classic scene was born when the film started to focus too much on Harry . Crystal remembers saying , " ' We need something for Sally to talk about , ' and Nora said , ' Well , faking orgasm is a great one , ' and right away we said , ' Well , the subject is good , ' and then Meg came on board and we talked with her about the nature of the idea and she said , ' Well , why don 't I just fake one , just do one ? ' " Ryan suggested that the scene take place in a restaurant , and it was Crystal who came up with the scene 's classic punchline – " I 'll have what she 's having . " In 2005 , the quote was listed 33rd on the AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes list of memorable movie lines . Reiner recalls that at a test screening , all of the women in the audience were laughing while all of the men were silent .
In late 2013 , Improv Everywhere , the New York City initiative behind the annual No Pants Day in the subways and various flash @-@ mob stunts , convened and filmed a re @-@ enactment . While a look @-@ alike couple performed the scene , 30 others joined as if it was contagious . Surprised staff and customers responded in appreciation . The film and follow @-@ up interviews are public . In October of the same year , Katz Delicatessen invited Baron Von Fancy to display his ten @-@ foot high mural quoting the famous line in its pop @-@ up gallery next door , The Space .
= = Soundtrack = =
The When Harry Met Sally ... soundtrack album features American singer and pianist Harry Connick Jr . Bobby Colomby , the drummer for Blood , Sweat & Tears , was a friend of Reiner 's and recommended Harry Connick Jr . , giving the director a tape of the musician 's music . Reiner was struck by Connick 's voice and how he sounded like a young Frank Sinatra . The movie 's soundtrack album was released by Columbia Records in July 1989 . The soundtrack consists of standards performed by Harry Connick Jr. with a big band and orchestra arranged by Marc Shaiman . Connick won his first Grammy for Best Jazz Male Vocal Performance .
Arrangements and orchestrations on " It Had to Be You " , " Where or When " , " I Could Write a Book " , and " But Not for Me " are by Connick and Shaiman . Other songs were performed as piano / vocal solos , or with Connick 's trio featuring Benjamin Jonah Wolfe on bass and Jeff " Tain " Watts on drums . Also appearing on the album are tenor saxophonist Frank Wess and guitarist Joy Berliner . The soundtrack went to # 1 on the Billboard Traditional Jazz Chart and was within the top 50 on the Billboard 200 . Connick also toured North America in support of this album . It went on to reach double @-@ platinum status .
The music in the film is performed by various artists , such as Louis Armstrong and Ella Fitzgerald , Frank Sinatra , Ray Charles , Bing Crosby , and Harry Connick Jr .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Columbia Pictures released the film using the " platform " technique which involved opening it in a few select cities letting positive word of mouth generate interest and then gradually expanding distribution over subsequent weeks . On its opening weekend , it grossed $ 1 million in 41 theaters . Billy Crystal was worried that the film would flop at the box office because it was up against several summer blockbuster films , like Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade and Batman . The film went into wide release on July 21 , 1989 , and grossed $ 8 @.@ 8 million on its opening weekend in 775 theaters . This was later expanded to 1 @,@ 174 theaters and the film grossed a total of $ 92 @.@ 8 million in North America , well above its $ 16 million budget .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Reviews for When Harry Met Sally ... were positive . It has a rating of 89 % on Rotten Tomatoes , summarized in the view that : " Rob Reiner 's touching , funny film set a new standard for romantic comedies , and he was ably abetted by the sharp interplay between Billy Crystal and Meg Ryan " . On Metacritic , the film has a score of 76 out of 100 , based on 17 critics .
The film led Roger Ebert to call Reiner " one of Hollywood 's very best directors of comedy " , and said that it was " most conventional , in terms of structure and the way it fulfills our expectations . But what makes it special , apart from the Ephron screenplay , is the chemistry between Crystal and Ryan . " In a review for The New York Times , Caryn James called When Harry Met Sally ... an " often funny but amazingly hollow film " that " romanticized lives of intelligent , successful , neurotic New Yorkers " ; James characterized it as " the sitcom version of a Woody Allen film , full of amusing lines and scenes , all infused with an uncomfortable sense of déjà vu " .
Rita Kempley 's review in The Washington Post praised Meg Ryan as the " summer 's Melanie Griffith – a honey @-@ haired blonde who finally finds a showcase for her sheer exuberance . Neither naif nor vamp , she 's a woman from a pen of a woman , not some Cinderella of a Working Girl . " Mike Clark , of USA Today , gave the film three out of four stars , writing , " Crystal is funny enough to keep Ryan from all @-@ out stealing the film . She , though , is smashing in an eye @-@ opening performance , another tribute to Reiner 's flair with actors . " David Ansen provided one of the rare negative reviews of the film for Newsweek . He criticized the casting of Crystal , " Not surprisingly he handles the comedy superbly , but he 's too cool and self @-@ protective an actor to work as a romantic leading man " , and felt that as a film , " of wonderful parts , it doesn 't quite add up " .
= = = Awards = = =
Nora Ephron received an Oscar nomination and a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for her screenplay . She won a British Academy Film Award for Best Original Screenplay and was nominated for Best Film . Rob Reiner was nominated for an Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures ( DGA ) award . The film was also nominated for five Golden Globes , including Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy , Reiner for Best Director – Motion Picture , Billy Crystal for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy , Meg Ryan for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy , and Nora Ephron for Best Screenplay .
= = = Legacy = = =
Over the years , When Harry Met Sally ... has become " the quintessential contemporary feel @-@ good relationship movie that somehow still rings true " . Ephron still received letters from people obsessed with the film and still had " people who say to me all the time , ' I was having a Harry @-@ and @-@ Sally relationship with him or her ' . " The film is 23rd on AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs list of the top comedy films in American cinema and number 60 on Bravo 's " 100 Funniest Movies . " Entertainment Weekly named it as one of the Top 10 romantic movies of all time . The magazine also ranked it 12th on their Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years list . The periodical also ranked it 7th on their 25 Best Romantic Movies of the Past 25 Years list and # 3 on their Top 25 Modern Romances list . The film has inspired countless romantic comedies , including A Lot Like Love , Hum Tum and Definitely , Maybe . In addition , the film helped popularize many ideas about love that have become household concepts now , such as the " high @-@ maintenance " girlfriend and the " transitional person " .
In June 2008 , AFI revealed its " Ten top Ten " — the best ten films in ten " classic " American film genres — after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community . When Harry Met Sally was acknowledged as the sixth best film in the romantic comedy genre . It is also ranked # 15 on Rotten Tomatoes ' 25 Best Romantic Comedies .
In early 2004 , the film was adapted for the stage in a Theatre Royal Haymarket production starring Luke Perry and Alyson Hannigan . Molly Ringwald and Michael Landes later replaced Hannigan and Perry for the second cast .
= = = = American Film Institute recognition = = = =
2000 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs - # 23
2002 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions - # 25
2004 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
" It Had to Be You " - # 60
2005 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
Customer : " I 'll have what she 's having . " - # 33
Harry Burns : " But I would be proud ... " Sally Albright : " But I would be proud ... " " Harry Burns : " ... to partake ... " Sally Albright : " ... to partake ... " Harry Burns : " ... of your pecan pie . " Sally Albright : " ... of your pecan pie . " - Nominated
2007 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) – Nominated
2008 : AFI 's 10 Top 10 :
# 6 Romantic Comedy Film
= = Home release = =
When Harry Met Sally ... was first released on VHS in late 1989 , a few months after its theatrical release . It was later re @-@ released on VHS in 1994 as part of a Billy Crystal collection , and in 1997 under the Contemporary Classics edition ; the latter release included trailers that were not included in the original VHS release . It was released on DVD for the first time on January 9 , 2001 , and included an audio commentary by Reiner , a 35 @-@ minute " Making Of " documentary featuring interviews with Reiner , Ephron , Crystal , and Ryan , seven deleted scenes , and a music video for " It Had To Be You " by Harry Connick Jr . A Collector 's Edition DVD was released on January 15 , 2008 , including a new audio commentary with Reiner , Ephron , and Crystal , eight deleted scenes , all new featurettes ( It All Started Like This , Stories Of Love , When Rob Met Billy , Billy On Harry , I Love New York , What Harry Meeting Sally Meant , So Can Men And Women Really Be Friends ? ) , and the original theatrical trailer . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray on July 5 , 2011 containing all of the special features found on the 2008 DVD release .
= SMS Dresden ( 1917 ) =
SMS Dresden was the second and final ship of the Cöln class of light cruisers to be completed and commissioned in the Kaiserliche Marine . The ship was laid down in 1916 and launched on 25 April 1917 ; she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 28 March 1918 . She and her sister Cöln were the only two of her class to be completed ; eight of her sisters were scrapped before they could be completed . The ships were an incremental improvement over the preceding Königsberg @-@ class cruisers .
Dresden was commissioned into service with the High Seas Fleet eight months before the end of World War I ; as a result , her service career was limited and she did not see action . She participated in a fleet operation to Norway to attack British convoys to Scandinavia , but they failed to locate any convoys and returned to port . Dresden was to have participated in a climactic sortie in the final days of the war , but a revolt in the fleet forced Admirals Reinhard Scheer and Franz von Hipper to cancel the operation . The ship was interned in Scapa Flow after the end of the war and scuttled with the fleet there on 21 June 1919 , under orders from the fleet commander Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter .
= = Construction = =
Dresden was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Ariadne " and was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in 1916 . She was launched on 25 April 1917 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 28 March 1918 . The ship was 155 @.@ 5 meters ( 510 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 2 m ( 47 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 01 m ( 19 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . She displaced 7 @,@ 486 t ( 7 @,@ 368 long tons ; 8 @,@ 252 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of steam turbines powered by eight coal @-@ fired and six oil @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers . These provided a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 kn ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) and a range of approximately 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
The ship was armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were arranged in a super firing pair aft . These guns fired a 45 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 20 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 040 rounds of ammunition , for 130 shells per gun . Dresden also carried three 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels , though one was removed in 1918 . She was also equipped with a pair of 60 cm ( 24 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes in deck @-@ mounted swivel launchers amidships . She also carried 200 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Dresden joined the reconnaissance screen for the High Seas Fleet . She was the last light cruiser built by the Kaiserliche Marine . The ship was assigned to the II Scouting Group , alongside the cruisers Königsberg , Pillau , Graudenz , Nürnberg , and Karlsruhe . The ships were in service in time for the major fleet operation to Norway in 23 – 24 April 1918 . The I Scouting Group and II Scouting Group , along with the Second Torpedo @-@ Boat Flotilla , were to attack a heavily guarded British convoy to Norway , with the rest of the High Seas Fleet steaming in support . The Germans failed to locate the convoy , which had in fact sailed the day before the fleet left port . As a result , Admiral Reinhard Scheer broke off the operation and returned to port .
In October 1918 , Dresden and the rest of the II Scouting Group were to lead a final attack on the British navy . Dresden , Cöln , Pillau , and Königsberg were to attack merchant shipping in the Thames estuary while the rest of the Group were to bombard targets in Flanders , to draw out the British Grand Fleet . Großadmiral Reinhard Scheer , the commander in chief of the fleet , intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to secure a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation .
During the sailors ' revolt , Dresden was ordered to steam to Eckernförde to serve as a relay to Kiel . Communications had been disrupted by major unrest there . The battleship Markgraf laid in Dresden 's path , and her unruly crew refused to move out of Dresden 's way ; Markgraf aimed one of her 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) gun turrets at Dresden , but then her crew backed down and let Dresden leave the port . The ship then went to Swinemünde , where her crew partially scuttled her following reports that mutinous ships were en route to attack the cruisers stationed there . After these proved false , Dresden was re @-@ floated and returned to seaworthy condition . This involved removing the ammunition for all of the guns and allowing them to air @-@ dry . Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet 's ships , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Dresden was among the ships interned , but owing to her poor condition following the naval mutiny , she was not able to steam with the rest of the fleet in November . She arrived on 6 December , leaking badly .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Dresden began to sink at 13 : 50 . Her wreck lies to this day on her port side at the bottom of Scapa Flow to the south east of the island of Cava , in a depth of 25 to 45 meters ( 82 to 148 ft ) . Her upper decks have been badly damaged ; her weather deck has fallen off , exposing her internal structure . Her guns are buried in mud .
= New Jersey Route 284 =
Route 284 is a 7 @.@ 03 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 31 km ) state highway in New Jersey , United States , running from Route 23 in Sussex north to the New York state line in Wantage Township . New York State Route 284 continues north to U.S. Route 6 at Slate Hill , New York . The route is a connector to Unionville , and intersects with an old alignment of its original designation , Route 84 . Route 284 was first a part of Route 8 in the 1920s , becoming Route 8N in 1927 and Route 84 in 1942 before being assigned Route 284 in 1966 .
= = Route description = =
Route 284 begins at a signaled intersection in Sussex with NJ 23 . The route proceeds northward , intersecting with Sussex County Route 643 at less than a half @-@ mile into the highway . Route 284 leaves the borough of Sussex and enters Wantage Township , intersecting with Layton Road , Janice Drive , and Possum River Road . Route 284 passes to the south of a lake , crosses over a branch of the Wallkill River and intersects with County Route 642 ( Bassets Bridge Road ) . Just after the intersection with Route 642 , the rural highway crosses over Quarryville Brook . At 5 @.@ 41 miles ( 8 @.@ 71 km ) , Route 284 intersects with an old routing of its original designation , NJ 84 . The original alignment merges in with NJ 284 less than a mile later . After crossing the Wallkill River branch again and the Appalachian Trail , Route 284 leaves New Jersey for New York and becomes NY 284 .
= = History = =
Route 8 , one of the routes assigned before the 1927 renumbering , ran largely along the present Route 23 corridor , but at Sussex it turned north rather than continuing northwest through High Point State Park . The section from Sussex north to the state line was taken over by the state in 1919 . In the 1927 renumbering , the majority of Route 8 became Route 23 . The part north of Sussex was proposed to become part of Route 31 , but that was instead moved to the present Route 94 corridor in the final version of the bill . As Route 8 north of Sussex was not assigned a number , the State Highway Commission appended a suffix of N ( to distinguish it from new Route 8 ) , forming Route 8N . The connecting route in New York had been numbered New York State Route 8 to match New Jersey , but in the 1930 renumbering it became New York State Route 84 , in order to free up the number 8 for a longer route . New Jersey renumbered its Route 8N to New Jersey Route 84 in March 1942 to match , in part to provide a single number for military caravans during World War II .
The final renumbering was made in 1966 , when Interstate 84 opened in New York . As the new I @-@ 84 was close to the older Route 84 , Route 84 was renumbered in both New York and New Jersey to Route 284 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= Piotr Skarga =
Piotr Skarga ( less often , Piotr Powęski ; 2 February 1536 – 27 September 1612 ) was a Polish Jesuit , preacher , hagiographer , polemicist , and leading figure of the Counter @-@ Reformation in the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . Due to his oratorical gifts , he has been called " the Polish Bossuet " .
Skarga is remembered by Poles as a vigorous early advocate of reforms to the Polish @-@ Lithuanian polity , and as a critic of the Commonwealth 's governing classes , as well as of its religious tolerance policies . He advocated strengthening the monarch 's power at the expense of parliament ( the Sejm ) and of the nobility ( the szlachta ) .
He was a professor at the Kraków Academy and in 1579 he became the first rector of the Wilno Academy . Later , he served in the Jesuit College at Kraków . He was also a prolific writer , and his Lives of the Saints ( Żywoty świętych , 1579 ) was for several centuries one of the most popular books in the Polish language . His other important work was the Sejm Sermons ( Kazania Sejmowe , 1597 ) , a political treatise , which became popular in the second half of the 19th century , when he was seen as the " patriotic seer " who predicted the partitions of Poland .
= = Life = =
Skarga was born on 2 February 1536 , north of Grójec , in the small folwark ( manor ) of Powęszczyzna ( also known as Skargowzczyzna or Skargowo ) . His family are often described as lesser landless szlachta ( gentry , or nobility ) , but it seems likely most of his ancestors had been peasants , later townsfolk who had only recently become minor nobility . He was reared at the family estate , and lost his parents when he was young ; his mother died when he was eight years old , and his father , Michał Skarga , four years later . Thereafter he was supported by his brothers , one of whom , Stanisław Skarga , was a priest . Piotr started his education at a parochial school in Grójec before moving to Kraków , where in 1552 he enrolled at the Kraków Academy , precursor to Jagiellonian University . His teachers included the priests Marcin Glicjusz and | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
been programmed to model the inert gas loading of the diver 's tissues in real time during a dive . A display allows the diver to see critical data during the dive , including the maximum and current depth , duration of the dive , and decompression data including the remaining no decompression limit calculated in real time for the diver throughout the dive . The dive computer keeps track of residual gas loading for each tissue used in the algorithm . Dive computers also provide a measure of safety for divers who accidentally dive a different profile to that originally planned . Most dive computers will provide the necessary decompression information for acceptably safe ascent in the event that the no @-@ decompression limits are exceeded . The use of computers to manage recreational dive decompression is becoming the standard and their use is also common in occupational scientific diving . Their value in surface supplied commercial diving is more restricted , but they can usefully serve as a dive profile recorder .
= = = Controlling depth and ascent rate = = =
A critical aspect of successful decompression is that the depth and ascent rate of the diver must be monitored and sufficiently accurately controlled . Practical in @-@ water decompression requires a reasonable tolerance for variation in depth and rate of ascent , but unless the decompression is being monitored in real time by a decompression computer , any deviations from the nominal profile will affect the risk . Several items of equipment are used to assist in facilitating accurate adherence to the planned profile , by allowing the diver to more easily control depth and ascent rate , or to transfer this control to specialist personnel at the surface .
A shot line is a rope between a float at the surface , and a sufficiently heavy weight holding the rope approximately vertical . The shot line float should be sufficiently buoyant to support the weight of all divers that are likely to be using it at the same time . Recreational divers are free to choose lesser buoyancy ay their own risk . The shot weight should be sufficient to prevent a diver from lifting it from the bottom by over @-@ inflation of the buoyancy compensator or dry suit , but not sufficient to sink the float if the slack on the line is all taken up . Various configurations of shot line are used to control the amount of slack . The diver ascends along the shotline , and may use it purely as a visual reference , or can hold on to it to positively control depth , or can climb up it hand over hand . A Jonline may be used to fasten a diver to a shotline during a decompression stop .
A decompression trapeze is a device used in recreational diving and technical diving to make decompression stops more comfortable and more secure and provide the divers ' surface cover with a visual reference for the divers ' position . It consists of a horizontal bar or bars suspended at the depth of intended decompression stops by buoys . The bars are of sufficient weight and the buoys of sufficient buoyancy that the trapeze will not easily change depth in turbulent water or if the divers experience buoyancy control problems .
A surface marker buoy ( SMB ) with a reel and line is often used by a dive leader to allow the boat to monitor progress of the dive group . This can provide the operator with a positive control of depth , by remaining slightly negative and using the buoyancy of the float to support this slight over @-@ weighting . This allows the line to be kept under slight tension which reduces the risk of entanglement . The reel or spool used to store and roll up the line usually has slightly negative buoyancy , so that if released it will hang down and not float away .
A delayed or deployable surface marker buoy ( DSMB ) is a soft inflatable tube which is attached to a reel or spool line at one end , and is inflated by the diver under water and released to float to the surface , deploying the line as it ascends . This provides information to the surface that the diver is about to ascend , and where he is . This equipment is commonly used by recreational and technical divers , and requires a certain level of skill to operate safely . They are mostly used to signal the boat that the diver has started ascent or to indicate a problem in technical diving .
A diving stage , sometimes known as the basket , or diver launch and recovery system ( LARS ) , is a platform on which one or two divers stand which is hoisted into the water , lowered to the workplace or the bottom , and then hoisted up again to return the diver to the surface and lift him out of the water . This equipment is almost exclusively used by surface supplied professional divers , as it requires fairly complex lifting equipment . A diving stage allows the surface team to conveniently manage a diver 's decompression as it can be hoisted at a controlled rate and stopped at the correct depth for decompression stops , and allows the divers to rest during the ascent . It also allows the divers to be relatively safely and conveniently lifted out of the water and returned to the deck or quayside .
A wet bell , or open bell , is similar to a diving stage in concept , but has an air space , open to the water at the bottom in which the divers , or at least their heads , can shelter during ascent and descent .
= = = Providing gases to accelerate decompression = = =
Reducing the partial pressure of the inert gas component of the breathing mixture will accelerate decompression as the concentration gradient will be greater for a given depth . This is usually achieved by increasing the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas , as substituting a different inert gas may have counter @-@ diffusion complications due to differing rates of diffusion , which can lead to a net gain in total dissolved gas tension in a tissue . This can lead to bubble formation and growth , with decompression sickness as a consequence . Partial pressure of oxygen is usually limited to 1 @.@ 6 bar during in water decompression for scuba divers , but can be up to 1 @.@ 9 bar in @-@ water and 2 @.@ 2 bar in the chamber when using the US Navy tables for surface decompression .
Stage cylinders are cylinders which are stored by scuba divers along the return route containing decompression and emergency gas . This is only practicable where the return route is known and marked by a guideline . Similar cylinders are carried by the divers when the route back is not secure . They are commonly mounted as sling cylinders , clipped to D @-@ rings at the sides of the diver 's harness . The divers must avoid breathing oxygen enriched " deco gas " at excessive depths because of the high risk of oxygen toxicity . To prevent this happening , cylinders containing oxygen @-@ rich gases must always be positively identifiable . One way of doing this is by marking them with their maximum operating depth as clearly as possible .
Surface supplied divers may be supplied with a gas mixture suitable for accelerated decompression by connecting a supply to the surface gas panel and providing it through the umbilical to the divers . This allows accelerated decompression , usually on oxygen , which can be used to a maximum depth of 30 ft ( 9 m ) . Surface supplied heliox bounce divers will be provided with mixtures suitable for their current depth , and the mixture may be changed several times during descent and ascent from great depths .
Closed circuit rebreathers are usually controlled to provide a fairly constant partial pressure of oxygen during the dive ( set point ) , and may be reset to a richer mix for decompression . The effect is to keep the partial pressure of inert gases as low as safely practicable throughout the dive . This minimizes the absorption of inert gas in the first place , and accelerates the elimination of the inert gases during ascent .
= = = Surface decompression = = =
Specialised equipment is available to decompress a diver out of the water . This is almost exclusively used with surface supplied diving equipment :
Deck decompression chambers are used for surface decompression , described in a previous section . Most deck decompression chambers are fitted with built in breathing systems ( BIBS ) , which supply an alternative breathing gas to the occupants ( usually oxygen ) , and discharge the exhaled gas outside the chamber , so the chamber gas is not excessively enriched by oxygen , which would cause an unacceptable fire hazard , and require frequent flushing with chamber gas ( usually air ) .
A dry bell may be used for bounce dives to great depths , and then used as the decompression chamber during the ascent and later on board the support vessel . In this case it is not always necessary to transfer into a deck chamber , as the bell is quite capable of performing this function , though it would be relatively cramped , as a bell is usually as small as conveniently possible to minimize weight for deployment .
A Saturation System or Saturation spread typically comprises a living chamber , transfer chamber and submersible decompression chamber , which is commonly referred to in commercial diving as the diving bell and in military diving as the personnel transfer capsule , PTC ( Personnel Transfer Capsule ) or SDC ( Submersible Decompression Chamber ) . The diving bell is the elevator or lift that transfers divers from the system to the work site and back . At the completion of work or a mission , the saturation diving team is decompressed gradually back to atmospheric pressure by the slow venting of system pressure , at rates of about of 15 metres ( 49 ft ) to 30 metres ( 98 ft ) per day , ( schedules vary ) . Thus the process involves only one ascent , thereby mitigating the time @-@ consuming and comparatively risky process of multiple decompressions normally associated with multiple non @-@ saturation ( " bounce diving " ) operations .
A hyperbaric lifeboat or hyperbaric rescue unit may be provided for emergency evacuation of saturation divers from a saturation system . This would be used if the platform is at immediate risk due to fire or sinking , and allows the divers under saturation to get clear of the immediate danger . The crew would normally start decompression as soon as possible after launching .
= = Teaching of decompression practice = =
Basic decompression theory and use of decompression tables is part of the theory component of training for commercial divers , and dive planning based on decompression tables , and the practice and field management of decompression is a significant part of the work of the diving supervisor .
Recreational divers are trained in the theory and practice of decompression to the extent that the certifying agency specifies in the training standard for each certification . This may vary from a rudimentary overview sufficient to allow the diver to avoid decompression obligation for entry level divers , to competence in the use of several decompression algorithms by way of personal dive computers , decompression software , and tables for advanced technical divers . The detailed understanding of decompression theory is not generally required of either commercial or recreational divers .
The practice of decompression techniques is another matter altogether . Recreational divers are expected not to do decompression dives by most certification organizations , though CMAS and BSAC allow for short decompression dives in some levels of recreational divers . Technical , commercial , military and scientific divers may all be expected to do decompression dives in the normal course of their sport or occupation , and are specifically trained in appropriate procedures and equipment relevant to their level of certification . A significant part of practical and theoretical training for these divers is on the practice of safe and effective decompression procedures and the selection and use of the appropriate equipment .
= Banksia integrifolia =
Banksia integrifolia , commonly known as coast banksia , is a species of tree that grows along the east coast of Australia . One of the most widely distributed Banksia species , it occurs between Victoria and Central Queensland in a broad range of habitats , from coastal dunes to mountains . It is highly variable in form , but is most often encountered as a tree up to 25 metres ( 82 ft ) in height . Its leaves have dark green upper surfaces and white undersides , a contrast that can be striking on windy days .
It is one of the four original Banksia species collected by Sir Joseph Banks in 1770 , and one of four species published in 1782 as part of Carolus Linnaeus the Younger 's original description of the genus . It has had a complicated taxonomic history , with numerous species and varieties ascribed to it , only to be rejected or promoted to separate species . The taxonomy is now largely settled , with three subspecies recognised : B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia , B. integrifolia subsp. compar and B. integrifolia subsp. monticola .
A hardy and versatile garden plant , B. integrifolia is widely planted in Australian gardens . It is a popular choice for parks and streetscapes , and has been used for bush revegetation and stabilisation of dunes . Its hardiness has prompted research into its suitability for use as a rootstock in the cut flower trade , but has also caused concerns about its potential to become a weed outside its natural habitat .
= = Names = =
Now widely known as coast banksia or coastal banksia , B. integrifolia was previously known by a range of common names . The Checklist of Australian Trees lists four other common names : honeysuckle , white banksia , white bottlebrush and white honeysuckle ; and some older sources refer to it as honeysuckle oak .
It was known to Indigenous Australians before its discovery and naming by Europeans ; for example , the Gunai people of Gippsland called it birrna . Because of its wide range it would have a name in a number of other indigenous languages , but these are now lost . In 2001 , a search of historical archives for recorded indigenous names of Victorian flora and fauna failed to find a single name for the species .
= = Description = =
B. integrifolia is a highly variable species . It is most often encountered as a tree up to 25 metres ( 80 ft ) in height , but in sheltered locations it can reach 35 metres ( 110 ft ) . In more exposed areas it may grow as a small , gnarled tree , reaching to no more than about 5 metres ( 15 ft ) , and in highly exposed positions , such as on exposed coastal headlands , it may even be reduced to a small shrub .
It usually has a single stout trunk , which is often twisted and gnarled , with the rough grey bark characteristic of Banksia . The leaves are dark green with a white underside , and occur in whorls of three to five . Adult leaves have entire margins ; George specifies their dimensions as 4 to 20 centimetres ( 2 – 8 in ) long and 6 to 35 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) wide , but The Banksia Atlas warns that " Atlas contributors found great variability in these measurements with specimens often falling outside the varietal limits specified by George ( 1981 ) or being intermediate between two varieties . " Juvenile leaves have dentate margins with a few short teeth , and are generally larger than adult leaves .
Flowers occur in Banksia 's characteristic " flower spike " , an inflorescence made up of several hundred flowers densely packed in a spiral around a woody axis . This is roughly cylindrical , 10 to 12 centimetres ( 4 – 5 in ) high and five centimetres ( 2 in ) wide . Flowers are usually pale yellow to yellow , but may be greenish or pinkish in bud . Each individual flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four united tepals , and one long wiry style . Characteristic of the taxonomic section in which it is placed , the styles are straight rather than hooked . The style ends are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts , but break free at anthesis . This process starts with the flowers at the bottom of the inflorescence , sweeping up the spike at an unusually high rate of between 96 and 390 flowers per 24 hours .
The flower spikes are not as prominent as in some other Banksia species , as they arise from two- to three @-@ year @-@ old nodes nested within the foliage . After flowering , old flower parts wither and fall away over a period of several months , revealing the " cone " , a woody axis embedded with many small follicles . The follicles are initially greenish and downy , but gradually fade to dark grey . Each follicle contains one or sometimes two seeds , separated by a thin wooden separator . The seed itself is black , 6 to 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) long with a feathery black ' wing ' 10 to 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) long .
= = Taxonomy = =
B. integrifolia was first collected at Botany Bay on 29 April 1770 , by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander , naturalists on the Endeavour during Lieutenant ( later Captain ) James Cook 's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean . However , the species was not published until April 1782 , when Carolus Linnaeus the Younger described the first four Banksia species in his Supplementum Plantarum . Linnaeus distinguished the species by their leaf shapes , and named them accordingly . Thus the species with entire leaf margins was given the specific name integrifolia , from the Latin integer , meaning " entire " , and folium , meaning " leaf " . The full name for the species is therefore Banksia integrifolia L.f.
Then followed around 200 years of confusion over the taxonomic limits of the species , caused by the species ' great variability , similarities with closely related species , and early attempts to classify the species based on dried specimen material alone . A stable Banksia taxonomy did not begin to emerge until 1981 with the publication of Alex George 's landmark monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) . Over the next 18 years , George 's arrangement was gradually refined in the light of new research and the discovery of new material , and there were several changes to B. integrifolia 's infraspecific taxa . These changes culminated in George 's 1999 arrangement , which had broad acceptance until 2005 , when Austin Mast , Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published a phylogeny that did not accord with George 's arrangement . A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time , but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. integrifolia is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae ; indeed , it is the type species for the subgenus .
= = = Placement within Banksia = = =
The current taxonomic arrangement of the Banksia genus is based on George 's 1999 monograph for the Flora of Australia book series . In this arrangement , B. integrifolia is placed in Banksia subg . Banksia , because its inflorescences take the form of Banksia 's characteristic flower spikes ; Banksia sect . Banksia because of its straight styles ; and Banksia ser . Salicinae because its inflorescences are cylindrical . Kevin Thiele additionally placed it in a subseries Integrifoliae , but this was not supported by George .
B. integrifolia 's placement within Banksia may be summarised as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Isostylis
Subgenus Banksia
Section Oncostylis
Section Coccinea
Section Banksia
Series Grandes
Series Banksia
Series Crocinae
Series Prostratae
Series Cyrtostylis
Series Tetragonae
Series Bauerinae
Series Quercinae
Series Salicinae
B. dentata – B. aquilonia – B. integrifolia – B. plagiocarpa – B. oblongifolia – B. robur – B. conferta – B. paludosa – B. marginata – B. canei – B. saxicola
= = = Subspecies = = =
Although some of the great variability of B. integrifolia can be attributed to environmental factors , much is genetic : George writes that it " gives the impression that it is actively speciating to fill the many ecological niches through its range " . Three subspecies are currently recognised : B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia , B. integrifolia subsp. compar , and B. integrifolia subsp. monticola .
Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia
The nominate subspecies occurs near the coast over most of the species ' range except the far north . It varies little except in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland , where some populations appear to be intermediate with B. integrifolia subsp. compar .
Banksia integrifolia subsp. compar
This subspecies grows in coastal Queensland as far north as Proserpine . For most of its range it is the only subspecies , but near its southern limit it co @-@ occurs with B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia . The two subspecies are distinguishable by their leaves , which are larger and glossy with wavy margins on B. integrifolia subsp. compar .
Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola
Commonly known as white mountain banksia , it is the only subspecies with a montane distribution ; it occurs in the Blue Mountains of northern New South Wales . It is similar in form to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia , but differs in having longer , narrower leaves , and follicles that are more deeply embedded in the old flower spike .
= = = Hybrids = = =
Presumed natural hybrids have been reported between B. integrifolia and other members of Banksia ser . Salicinae , although no hybrid names have been formally published to date . Presumed hybrids are identified by their intermediate features ; for example those with B. paludosa ( swamp banksia ) , known from Jervis Bay and Green Cape on the coast of southern New South Wales , have a smaller habit , longer , thinner flower spikes , and persistent old flowers on old " cones " , which are otherwise bare on pure B. integrifolia .
Presumed hybrids with B. marginata ( silver banksia ) occur on Wilsons Promontory in Victoria ; these are found in localities where both species co @-@ occur , and have features intermediate between the two . Another purported hybrid with B. marginata , thought to be from Cape Paterson on Victoria 's south coast , was first described by Alf Salkin and is commercially available in small quantities . It forms an attractive hardy low @-@ growing plant to 1 metre .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
B. integrifolia is widely distributed , in both geographical and ecological terms . According to Alex George , " it spans a wider geographical and climatic range than any other species . " Thiele and Ladiges make a similar claim : that its distribution " is a broader latitudinal , altitudinal and ecological amplitude than any other species , with the possible exception of B. spinulosa . "
It occurs along almost the entire eastern coast of Australia , from Geelong , Victoria to Proserpine , Queensland . There was an isolated population on Long Island , Tasmania in 1999 , and an 1876 record allegedly from King Island , although there has been speculation that that specimen was actually collected in the Furneaux Group . The species no longer occurs at any of these Tasmania locations , and has been declared extinct in Tasmania under that state 's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 . The range of latitude is thus about 20 to 38 ° S.
For most of its distribution , B. integrifolia occurs only within about 50 kilometres ( 30 mi ) of the coast , where it typically occurs on poor quality sandy soils derived from sandstone . It grows near coastal cliffs and headlands , alongside river estuaries , and even on stabilised sand dunes . The temperature range for this area is around 0 – 30 ° C ( 30 – 85 ° F ) , with almost no frosts . The species can occur in pure stands , but is usually associated with other species such as Melaleuca quinquenervia ( broad @-@ leaved paperbark ) .
Between Sydney and Brisbane , B. integrifolia is found up to 200 kilometres ( 125 mi ) inland , with B. integrifolia subsp. monticola occurring in the Blue Mountains at altitudes up to 1500 metres ( 5000 ft ) . There it grows on better quality volcanic or rocky soils derived from granites and basalts , and would experience up to 100 frosts per year . In this montane habitat , it occurs in association with Eucalyptus species such as E. viminalis ( manna gum ) and E. pauciflora ( snow gum ) , and also rainforest species such as Nothofagus moorei ( Antarctic beech ) and Orites excelsa ( prickly ash ) .
No other species of tree occurs closer to the coast at Cape Byron , making B. integrifolia the most easterly tree on the Australian mainland .
= = Ecology = =
Like most other Proteaceae , B. integrifolia has proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These enhance solubilisation of nutrients , thus allowing nutrient uptake in low @-@ nutrient soils such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia . Studies on B. integrifolia suggest that its proteoid root mat achieves this by chemically modifying its soil environment .
B. integrifolia flowers have an unusually short life span for Banksia species , producing nectar for only about four to twelve days after anthesis . Most nectar is produced during the night and early in the morning , with only small amounts produced during the day . Flowers are produced all through the year , but there is a strong peak in autumn . Little else flowers within its range at this time , so it is a seasonally important source of food for nectariferous animals . Surveys have observed a range of animals feeding on the species , including a wide range of insects ; many species of bird including Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ( New Holland honeyeater ) , Anthochaera carunculata ( red wattlebird ) , Anthochaera chrysoptera ( little wattlebird ) , Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris ( eastern spinebill ) and Trichoglossus haematodus ( rainbow lorikeet ) ; and mammals such as Petaurus norfolcensis ( squirrel glider ) , Petaurus breviceps ( sugar glider ) , Acrobates pygmaeus ( feathertail glider ) and Pteropus poliocephalus ( grey @-@ headed flying fox ) . In some areas such as at Bungawalbin National Park in northern New South Wales , B. integrifolia is the only source of nectar and pollen in the autumn ( March – April ) and late winter ( July ) . The importance of non @-@ flying mammals to pollination of B. integrifolia was demonstrated in 1989 , with a study in Wilsons Promontory National Park showing a reduction of fruit set when measures were taken to exclude them .
Unlike most Banksia species , B. integrifolia does not require bushfire to trigger the release of its seed . Rather , seed is released spontaneously on reaching maturity in late summer . The species ' non @-@ reliance on fire for seed dispersal suggests that the exclusion of fire would not affect plant populations , but a number of studies have found the opposite to be true : in areas where fire has been excluded for many years , populations have declined substantially . An investigation into the defoliation and premature death of trees on the Yanakie Isthmus in south Victoria reached the tentative conclusion that the absence of fire had created unhealthy surface soil conditions . On the Mornington Peninsula , surveys of an area that had not been burnt since the 1890s found that B. integrifolia densities fell by 77 % between 1977 and 2000 . A subsequent study found the decline to have been caused by extremely high seedling mortality rates , due to grazing by herbivores and intense competition for soil moisture during summer . Despite acknowledging that " the role of fire in these systems remains unclear " , it concluded that " developing fire and / or grazing management regimes will be necessary to conserve the structural integrity of these coastal ecosystems . "
These concerns aside , B. integrifolia does not appear to be under threat . It has excellent resistance to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback , which poses a major threat to many other Banksia species ; and its wide distribution protects against the threat of habitat loss due to land clearing . As a result , it does not appear on the list of threatened Australian plants under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 .
= = Cultivation = =
Hardy and versatile , B. integrifolia will grow in clay , sand , acid and even alkaline soils , and it shows good resistance to wind and salt , making it suitable for seaside planting . It is therefore highly regarded as a low @-@ maintenance garden tree , although its large size makes it unsuitable for smaller gardens . Its hardiness may however forewarn weed potential , as some evidence of weediness has been seen in Western Australia and New Zealand . When growing near bushland within its native habitat , it is recommended to obtain local provenance seed or plants if available .
The most common form available in commercial nurseries is unimproved Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia . It prefers a sunny aspect without exposure to frosts , and tolerates fairly heavy pruning . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 5 to 6 weeks to germinate . Flowering begins at around four to six years from seed . The other subspecies are less well known in cultivation , but are obtainable . Cultivation is presumably similar to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia , except that B. integrifolia subsp. monticola may be assumed frost @-@ tolerant . Dwarf forms of B. integrifolia are sometimes sold , and a registered prostrate cultivar , Banksia ' Roller Coaster ' , is available . The latter is a vigorous ground @-@ hugging plant that can spread to 4 or 5 metres across yet remains only 50 centimetres high .
Because of its high resistance to P. cinnamomi dieback , the feasibility of using B. integrifolia as a rootstock for susceptible Banksia species in the cut flower trade is under investigation . Presently , the success rate for grafting is only 30 – 40 % , and even with successful grafts there is a tendency for the union to fail under stress . More research is needed before the technique will be ready for commercial use .
= = Other uses = =
The wood of B. integrifolia is pink to red , with inconspicuous rings and conspicuous rays . It is spongy and porous , with a density of around 530 kilograms per cubic metre ( 33 lb / ft3 ) . It is considered highly decorative , but it warps badly on drying , has poor load @-@ bearing qualities , and is susceptible to termite attack ; it is therefore unsuitable for most construction purposes . It is sometimes used for cabinet panelling and in ornamental turnery , and natural bends were once sought after for making boat knees . It is a useful firewood .
B. integrifolia produces a dark amber @-@ coloured honey of middling quality and therefore low commercial value . Despite this , the species is highly valued by beekeepers because it produces large amounts of pollen and nectar during autumn and winter , thus helping support hives at a time when little else is flowering .
Historically , indigenous Australians obtained nectar from B. integrifolia by stroking the flower spikes then licking their hands , or by steeping flower spikes in a coolamon overnight . They also used the flower spikes as hairbrushes . Early settlers used the nectar as a syrup for sore throats and colds ; and bushmen would impregnate barren " cones " with fat to make a slow @-@ burning candle .
More recently , B. integrifolia has been used in the art of bonsai . Its rangy habit and long internodes are challenging to overcome , but the leaves do reduce with pruning , and unlike the gnarlier B. serrata ( saw banksia ) its trunk can become textured with age .
It is used as a floral emblem by two local government areas of Queensland : the City of Redcliffe and the City of Logan . In 2000 it was featured on an Australian postage stamp .
= Dhoom 2 =
Dhoom 2 ( [ ˈd ̪ ʱuːm ] , English : Blast 2 , also abbreviated and known as D : 2 , D2 and Dhoom 2 : Back In Action ) is a 2006 Indian action film directed by Sanjay Gadhvi and produced by Aditya Chopra and Yash Chopra at an estimated budget of ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) under the Yash Raj Films banner . It is the second in the Dhoom series . Abhishek Bachchan and Uday Chopra star as buddy cops Jai Dixit and Ali , respectively . The duo attempt to capture Mr. A ( Hrithik Roshan ) , a professional thief whose passion is to steal rare and valuable collectibles using high @-@ technology gadgets . The film features Bipasha Basu and Aishwarya Rai in lead female roles . Dhoom 2 was shot primarily in India , Durban , and Rio de Janeiro , becoming the first major Hindi film to be shot in Brazil . The distributor , Yash Raj Films , promoted the film by forging associations with Pepe Jeans and Coca @-@ Cola . It premiered on 24 November 2006 in India , where it received the widest release in Indian cinema history with over 1800 prints . It was dubbed simultaneously in Tamil as well as in Telugu . Singer Vijay Prakash dubbed for ACP Jai Dixit in Tamil .
Dhoom 2 was generally well received by critics and audiences ; it was accepted well by children and adults . It became the highest @-@ grossing Indian film of 2006 , and was the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of all time as well at the time of its release . It is the seventh highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film in overseas markets . After grossing over ₹ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 22 million ) , Dhoom 2 was elevated to a " blockbuster " rating on Box Office India . It received an 80 % approval rating among critics on Rotten Tomatoes . Critics praised Dhoom 2 for its exotic locales and elaborate action sequences . However , there was an appeal by the Mumbai city police commissioner to censor the fast @-@ paced rash driving scenes due to fears that it would inspire Indian youths to ride their motorcycles rashly , resulting in an increase in the number of road accidents . A sequel titled Dhoom 3 was released on 20 December 2013 , which also went on to become the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of all time .
= = Plot = =
The world 's oldest desert in Namibia ; A solitary railway line & A royal family on a royal journey . Mr.A ( Hrithik Roshan ) sky @-@ dives and lands on a train that is carrying the Queen . He steals her crown by disguising himself as the Queen , beats her guards easily and escapes . Newly promoted officer Ali ( Uday Chopra ) and Jai Dixit ( Abhishek Bachchan ) are introduced to Shonali Bose ( Bipasha Basu ) , a special officer assigned to investigate Mr. A 's case , who also happens to be a former classmate of Jai . After the initial investigation , Dixit analyses the underlying trend in Mr. A 's heists . As per his analysis , a theft in one of two famous Mumbai city museums will follow .
However , Dixit realizes that the artifact in the museum he is guarding happens to be imperfect . He immediately flees to the other museum when a disguised Mr. A steals a rare diamond and escapes . In a televised challenge to the police , Mr. A announces that he will steal an ancient warrior sword . In response , Dixit , Bose and Khan enforce a strict vigil at the location housing the sword . At night , Mr. A meets his impersonator in the room that holds the sword . The police are alerted , but they manage to steal the sword and escape . The impersonator turns out to be Sunehri ( Aishwarya Rai ) , a woman who idolises Mr. A , and after this they form an alliance .
In Rio de Janeiro , Mr. A and Sunehri plan their next heist . As Dixit 's analysis has named Rio the location of Mr. A 's next heist , Jai and Ali travel to the city . There they meet Monali ( Bipasha Basu ) , Shonali 's twin sister and Ali immediately falls for her . Meanwhile , the relationship between Mr. A and Sunehri evolves into romance and he unveils his real identity , Aryan , to her . However , he discovers that Sunehri was actually a spy working for Jai after seeing them together at a theatre and then a parade . Aryan forces Sunehri to play a game of Russian roulette . Sunehri cries and refuses to shoot Aryan because she loves him , but Aryan forces her . However , after six attempted shots from the gun , neither is injured because Aryan had not inserted a bullet into the gun . Sunehri admits she betrayed Aryan and that she loves him . In their final heist , Aryan and Sunehri successfully steal some early Lydian coins while disguised as performing dwarfs . Sunehri indicates that she does not wish to remain allied with Jai , forcing Jai and Ali to go after them . After the chase , all of them end up on the top of a waterfall , where Sunehri is caught by Ali . Sunehri , despite conveying her feelings for Aryan , shoots him . Aryan falls from the waterfall , after which Jai allows Sunehri to go free .
After six months , it is revealed that Aryan had survived , and now has opened a restaurant in the Fiji islands with Sunehri . Jai meets Aryan and Sunehri at the restaurant and states that despite their crimes , he does not wish to imprison the couple . Aryan shows him where all the stolen artifacts can be found . Jai is aware of the couple 's feelings towards each other , but warns them against returning to their life of crime . Jai later informs Ali that they should be heading back to India for their next case .
= = Cast = =
Hrithik Roshan as Aryan / Mr. " A " , a master thief living in disguise . He steals museum pieces such as the first man @-@ made coins , a queen 's crown , ancient sword and more . He only steals at selected museums to mark " A " , the first letter of his name , on the map of the world .
Abhishek Bachchan as ACP Jai Dixit , an Assistant Commissioner trying to find Mr. A. Jai is accompanied by inspector Ali and married to Sweety Dixit .
Aishwarya Rai as Sunehri , another thief who was blackmailed by Jai Dixit to find out more about Mr. A , because she was a petty thief in Mumbai and was forced to help him or face jail time .
Uday Chopra as Ali Akbar Fateh Khan , an assistant to Jai Dixit and an inspector .
Bipasha Basu as Shonali Bose and Monali Bose , twins with different personalities . Shonali is a tough assistant commissioner , and an old friend of Jai , while Monali is a joyful girl living in Rio de Janeiro .
Rimi Sen in a guest appearance as Sweety Dixit , Jai 's wife . She is pregnant and is suspicious of Jai 's friendship with Shonali .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The Dhoom series began with the release of Dhoom in 2004 . The film became a commercial box office hit and received generally positive reviews from audiences , but not so much from critics . As a result , producer Yash Chopra announced plans for a sequel , titled Dhoom 2 : Back in Action . John Abraham , portrayer of Kabir Sharma , the villain of the predecessor , was eliminated from the sequel because Chopra did not want Dhoom 2 to repeat the stories featured in its predecessor . Instead , Hrithik Roshan and Aishwarya Rai were introduced into the franchise as the sequel 's main villains . Aishwarya Rai 's character was summarised as Catwoman , a female fictional comic book femme fatale or anti @-@ hero . Rai stated , " All I can tell you is it would be nothing like anything you 've seen me do before . " Producer Aditya Chopra told Rai to lose weight after she gained it for her role in 2004 's Bride & Prejudice . Yash Chopra stated , " But yes , the role does require Aishwarya to convey oodles of sensuality . She has asked for a couple of months to get into shape . We ( at Yash Raj Films ) are very clear about every character in every script and what 's required of the actors . Before Dhoom , Esha Deol was specifically briefed about the look and the attitude she needed to cultivate . She readily agreed , and look at what Dhoom did to her career ! " Roshan also lost twelve pounds of weight at Aditya Chopra 's request . With the exception of Abraham and Esha Deol , all of the other main actors in Dhoom were hired again for Dhoom 2 .
= = = Filming = = =
Dhoom 2 was filmed in Mumbai ( India ) , Namibia , Durban ( South Africa ) , and Rio de Janeiro , ( Brazil ) , making it the first Bollywood movie to be shot in Brazil . In total , production lasted eighteen months and cost of ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) . To ensure the sequel would be different from the original , which became famous for its brash motorcycle stunts , director Sanjay Gadhvi included very few motorcycles in Dhoom 2 . Nonetheless , Roshan 's role required him to perform several dangerous stunts involving activities such as roller @-@ blading , sand boarding and snow boarding .
Dhoom 2 made extensive use of visual effects , which were filmed at Yash Raj Studios . While shooting at Yash Raj Studios , the film suffered from a flood that destroyed the studio sets and delayed production . Fight and action sequences were storyboarded before being shown to Gadhvi and Allan Amin , who would make changes . The scenes were then sketched , given " proper shot list [ s ] " , and shared with Tata Elxsi , who oversaw the pre @-@ visualization of the sequences . Several scenes were filmed with the use of green screen and computer @-@ generated imagery . For example , the stunts Roshan 's performed on a train in the Namib Desert used green screen ; after Roshan recorded the stunts on a set , Gadhvi traveled to the desert to film the background . Other stunts were performed by stuntmen whose faces were later digitally exchanged with the actors ' .
The bullet effects and Hrithik 's gadgets and mechanical arm were also computer generated . The scene involving Abhishek Bachchan coming out of a lake using a jet ski was created using a green screen . The stunt came out at 90 degrees , but Sanjay Gandhvi wanted a 60 degrees jump . So , it was shot with a Super 35 , and hence the angle could be changed . Gandhvi discussed the use of technology in an interview :
We 've done animation and pre @-@ visualization for all the action sequences in Dhoom 2 and that is very important in terms of planning , cost effectiveness and also it 's a new way of preparing for shoot and the film specially which is as set on such a large canvas such as Dhoom 2 . In Dhoom 1 we had all the action sequences broken down and written . In this movie we had very big action sequences so we had all the scenes storyboarded and they would be checked , double checked and triple checked by myself , Alan Amin and Adi and we would then rectify if needed and that would be our level of planning .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack of Dhoom 2 was recorded at YRF Studios . The music was composed by Pritam with background score by Salim @-@ Sulaiman . The lyrics were penned by Sameer except " Dhoom Again " by Asif Ali Beg and " Crazy Kiya Re — Remix " was remixed by Bunty Rajput . Although most of the song 's lyrics are primarily written in Hindi with some English , " Dhoom Again " is almost entirely in English . The soundtrack pulled average reviews from critics but higher praise from the public . It became the best selling Bollywood soundtrack of the year .
All music composed by Pritam .
= = Release = =
Dhoom 2 was released on 24 November 2006 in India , where it received the widest release in Indian cinema history at the time with over 1800 prints , including 250 digital copies . Some locations raised ticket prices for the film .
It was promoted with several tie @-@ ins . Coca @-@ Cola promoted the film as " Coke Uthale , Dhoom Machale " . India 's video game producing company FXLabs developed a game based on the film . Pepe Jeans sold Dhoom 2 @-@ related garments , including shirts , jeans , bandannas , caps , and metal accessories . Chetan Shah , the country head of Pepe Jeans London , stated : " Pepe Jeans is tremendously excited to be associated with the most awaited movie of the year Dhoom : 2 . The incredible starcast of Hrithik Roshan , Aishwarya Rai , Abhishek Bachchan , Bipasha Basu and Uday Chopra and the exciting and explosive content of the movie encapsulates everything that the Pepe Jeans brand stands for- young , cool , trendy , hip , fashionable and innovative .
= = = Box office = = =
In India , Dhoom 2 broke several box @-@ office records , mainly those for opening day and opening weekend grosses , including a first week of ₹ 66 million ( US $ 980 @,@ 000 ) in Mumbai and ₹ 179 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 7 million ) for all of India . In Mumbai , distributors received a profit of ₹ 94 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 4 million ) on the first week 's business . Box Office India awarded it a " blockbuster " rating after the film netted ₹ 803 million ( US $ 12 million ) in India and grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 22 million ) worldwide on a budget of ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) . It is currently the 13th highest @-@ grossing film in India ( unadjusted for inflation ) .
Dhoom 2 grossed US $ 979 @,@ 000 in North America in 63 theatres over its three @-@ day opening weekend ( $ 1 @.@ 3 million over four days ) , becoming the third largest opening weekend for a Bollywood film in North America . Overall , it was the seventeenth ranked film at the American box office . Box Office Mojo reports it earned a total of $ 2 @,@ 643 @,@ 586 inside the United States and a total of $ 29 @,@ 752 @,@ 841 in other countries , including India . In Dubai , it achieved the highest first day opening for a Bollywood film .
Dhoom 2 ranked sixth among opening weekends for international films at the United Kingdom box office with a gross ( average per screen ) of £ 8 @,@ 151 . At the Australian box office , it had the twelfth highest opening and collected approximately A $ 176 @,@ 462 . It grossed approximately NZ $ 51 @,@ 453 on five screens in New Zealand . Dhoom 2 is estimated to have grossed US $ 8 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 total in the overseas markets .
= = = Reception = = =
= = = = India = = = =
In India , the film received mostly positive reviews from critics . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , reporting " On the whole , Dhoom 2 is a winner all the way . For Yash Raj , who 've not only produced but also distributed the film , Dhoom 2 should emerge as one of the biggest hits of their career . " Rajesh Karkera of Rediff gave it three and a half stars out of five , calling it " A complete roller @-@ coaster ride which left me completely enthralled and exhausted . Sure , there are faults when you stop to think rationally . But that does not stop you from being dazzled by the film . " Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN gave it a three star rating , saying that Dhoom 2 is without doubt better than its predecessor , and that Hrithik Roshan is the heart and soul of the film . Vijay Venkataramanan of Planet Bollywood gave it seven out of ten stars ; while complaining about flaws in the plot and Aishwarya Rai ’ s performance , he still called it a good adrenaline @-@ pumping entertainer .
= = = = International = = = =
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported 83 % of six critics were positive and gave it a " fresh " certificate . Variety commented , " Loaded with enough attitude , Bollywood starpower and buff bodies to stop a speeding train , Dhoom 2 has been doing humongous biz since its November 24 worldwide opening , and provides adequate proof that Yash Raj Films is good for more than just family @-@ oriented comedy @-@ dramas . "
Rachel Saltz of The New York Times reviewed , " The pleasure principle is palpable in the giddy , slick Dhoom 2 , a satisfying example of the new , thoroughly modern Bollywood . It may represent the newfangled Bollywood , but old @-@ fashioned star power is what animates and elevates it above its occasional narrative flaws and longueurs . " Film Journal International 's Ethan Alter said , " Dhoom 2 has all of the benefits of a big @-@ budget Bollywood production : big @-@ name stars , exotic locales , well @-@ produced musical numbers and elaborate ( by Bollywood standards , anyway ) action sequences . It makes no lasting contributions to world cinema , but if two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours of disposable entertainment are all you 're after , you could do far worse . " L.A. Weekly 's David Chute stated the film was , " A movie meal as satisfying as this one can make you feel that nothing else matters . " Jaspreet Pandohar of the BBC gave it a two @-@ star rating , writing " By roping in acclaimed action director Alan Amin to take care of the thrills and spills , you 'd expect Gadhvi to have spent time crafting out a sophisticated storyline instead of simply sending his cast on a cat @-@ and @-@ mouse chase around the globe . It 's only Roshan 's charismatic performance as the criminal mastermind , and the sizzling chemistry he shares with Rai 's sassy cohort , that rescues this adventure from becoming an elongated tourism commercial . " Manish Gajjar , Bollywood Correspondent for BBC Shropshire said , " With its high @-@ powered action sequences matching Hollywood standards , Dhoom 2 is a winner all the way at the box office ! "
= = = Controversies = = =
The city of Mumbai 's police commissioner called for censoring of the fast @-@ paced rash driving scenes in the film due to fears that it would inspire Indian youths to ride their motorcycles rashly , resulting in an increase in the number of road accidents . Unlike the original , the robberies depicted in Dhoom 2 were not inspired by any real @-@ life crimes . Dhoom 2 , however , inspired the robbery of a man by his nephew , who wore clothing similar to Hrithik 's in the film while committing the crime .
= = Accolades = =
Dhoom 2 was nominated for several awards that year , but only picked up a few of the major ones . At the Filmfare Awards , Hrithik Roshan won the Best Actor , out of five total nominations for the film . At the International Indian Film Academy Awards ( IIFA ) , the film won for Best Makeup and the Best Costume Design . At the Stardust Awards , Aishwarya Rai won Star of the Year – Female and director Sanjay Gadhvi won the Hottest Young Film Maker title .
At the 2007 MTV India Style Awards , however , Dhoom 2 swept nearly all of the movie awards , winning the following :
Most Stylish Film : Dhoom 2
Most Stylish Actor – Male : Hrithik Roshan
Most Stylish Actor – Female : Aishwarya Rai
Most Stylish New Look : Hrithik Roshan
Most Stylish Body : Hrithik Roshan
Most Stylish Couple : Hrithik Roshan & Aishwarya Rai
Most Stylish Song in A Film : Shiamak Davar ( choreographer )
Most Stylish Bollywood Designer : Anaita Shroff Adajania
= = Home media = =
Dhoom 2 was released in DVD format on February 2007 . It was distributed by Yash Raj Films in all regions as a two @-@ disc set and for region 1 as a single @-@ disc set . It was released on Blu @-@ ray in December 2009 .
The film is also noteworthy because its soundtrack is the first in Indian cinema to be released in DVD @-@ Audio in addition to other audio formats . The tracks have been mixed in London in 5 @.@ 1 Surround Sound and audiophiles can choose the format from the audio menu . Four bonus tracks from other films are included , and the lyrics of all 10 tracks can be viewed on @-@ screen while the music is playing , enabling karaoke sing @-@ along .
= Battle of Ap Bac =
The Battle of Ấp Bắc was a major battle fought on January 2 , 1963 , during the Vietnam War . It was fought in Định Tường Province ( now part of Tiền Giang Province ) , South Vietnam . On December 28 , 1962 , US intelligence detected the presence of a radio transmitter along with a sizable force of National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam ( NLF / Viet Cong ) soldiers , reported to number around 120 , in the hamlet of Ap Tan Thoi in Dinh Tuong Province , home of the Army of the Republic of South Vietnam ( ARVN ) 7th Infantry Division . To destroy the NLF force , the South Vietnamese and their US advisers planned to attack Ap Tan Thoi from three directions by using two provincial Civil Guard battalions and elements of the 11th Infantry Regiment , ARVN 7th Infantry Division . The infantry units would be supported by artillery , M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers and helicopters .
On the morning of January 2 , 1963 , the South Vietnamese Civil Guards spearheaded the attack by marching toward Ap Tan Thoi from the south . However , when they reached the hamlet of Ap Bac , which is situated southeast of Ap Tan Thoi , they were immediately pinned down by elements of the Viet Cong 261st Battalion . Shortly afterwards , three companies of the 11th Infantry Regiment were committed into battle in northern Ap Tan Thoi , but they too could not overcome the NLF soldiers who had entrenched themselves in the area . Just before midday , further reinforcements were flown in from Tan Hiep . The fifteen US helicopters ferrying the troops were riddled by Viet Cong gunfire and five helicopters were lost as a result .
The ARVN 4th Mechanized Rifle Squadron was then deployed to rescue the South Vietnamese soldiers and US aircrews who were trapped in the southwestern end of Ap Bac , but its commander was highly reluctant about moving heavy M @-@ 113 carriers across the local terrain . Ultimately , their presence made little difference as the NLF stood their ground and killed more than a dozen South Vietnamese M @-@ 113 crew members in the process . Late in the afternoon , the ARVN 8th Airborne Battalion was dropped onto the battlefield and in a scene that characterized much of the day 's fighting ; the paratroopers were pinned down and could not break the NLF 's line of defense . Under the cover of darkness the Viet Cong withdrew from the battlefield , having won their first major victory .
= = Background = =
Small @-@ scale military actions , which would eventually escalate into the Vietnam War , started in the late 1950s , when South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem instituted an anti @-@ Communist campaign aimed at rooting out " left behind " Viet Minh forces . At that time , North Vietnam was hoping for an election , promised under the Geneva Accords of 1954 , that would unite North and South Vietnam . It was also worried about inciting the United States into directly supporting South Vietnam , and had recommended a policy of avoiding battle at all costs . However , Diem 's campaign was too successful to allow them to do nothing , and small @-@ scale actions broke out across the country . North Vietnam remained worried about U.S. involvement and refused any sort of military support , forcing the remaining Viet Minh to retreat into inaccessible areas in the hills and river estuaries . A stalemate of sorts followed , as South Vietnamese forces took so long to reach these areas that the guerilla fighters were able to retreat with little difficulty .
Large @-@ scale American support began during the Kennedy Administration in the early 1960s , with the arrival of large numbers of the U.S. Special Forces to help out in the field . The arrival of helicopters changed the nature of the battle considerably ; it enabled South Vietnamese soldiers to quickly fly to almost any point in the country , leaving little time for a retreat . Throughout 1962 , the combined forces were increasingly effective in routing the Viet Cong . These tactics , combined with the use of armored personnel carriers , took a heavy toll on various fledgling Viet Cong units . The lightly armed Viet Cong had no weaponry capable of stopping the armored carriers and inevitably were forced to flee , taking heavy casualties .
The most successful South Vietnamese force had been the 7th Infantry Division , then under the command of Colonel Huỳnh Văn Cao . His U.S. adviser was Lieutenant Colonel John Paul Vann , who directed much of the unit 's activity in concert with his planner , Captain Richard Ziegler . They had scored the biggest successes of the military campaigns of 1962 , killing along with the paramilitary and Civil Guard and Self Defense Corps , more than 2 @,@ 000 Viet Cong fighters and leaving thousands of others cut off from supplies .
However , South Vietnamese officers were often reluctant to absorb heavy casualties . On several occasions , Cao 's forces were in an excellent position to trap and wipe out whole battalions of Viet Cong , but he would fail to close the trap on one pretext or another and allow the enemy to escape . This behavior initially mystified Vann , who was attempting to build Cao into an aggressive commander . Unknown to Vann , Diem would reprimand or demote any officer who lost too many men , no matter how successful the operation . Diem was more interested in using the military to protect his regime than to take on the Viet Cong . His solution was to fill the ARVN with Catholic political cronies and friends like Cao , Lê Quang Tung , and Tôn Thất Đính , who had little military ability , but were very likely to help stop a coup attempt . After a skirmish on a highway that resulted in a small number of South Vietnamese casualties along with several trucks destroyed , Cao was called to Saigon and reprimanded by Diem . Upon his return , Vann and his group of advisers were forced to end the joint planning sessions that had been so successful earlier , and action essentially wound down in their region . Cao used the excellent military intelligence network they had developed to find areas devoid of the Viet Cong , and planned operations only in those areas . In many other cases , operations were executed on paper only , in order to report an increasing tempo of operations that did not actually exist .
In 1962 , Diem decided to split the command of the area in the south around Saigon into two , the former III Corps area being reduced in size to cover the area northeast of Saigon , and the newly created IV Corps taking over the west and southwest . Cao was promoted to general and assumed command of the new IV Corps Tactical Zone , which included the area of operations of his 7th Infantry Division . Command of the 7th was given to Cao 's chief of staff , Colonel Bùi Đình Đạm . Dam expressed concerns about his own abilities when the promotion was first presented to him by Diem . Nevertheless , he took Cao 's former position and welcomed Vann 's advisers back into the planning effort . Despite the change in leadership , the same problems continued to manifest themselves in the 7th Infantry Division .
= = Prelude = =
In November 1962 , the National Liberation Front 's Military Region 2 ordered the Viet Cong 261st Battalion and the 514th Battalion , the home battalion of Dinh Tuong Province , to destroy the strategic hamlets in their region and at the same time to attack South Vietnamese sweeping operations . Between December 28 and 30 , 1962 , an American aircraft equipped with eavesdropping equipment located a Viet Cong radio transmitter . It intercepted radio signals in the hamlet of Ap Tan Thoi in Dinh Tuong Province where the ARVN 7th Infantry Division was headquartered . The radio intercept and other information obtained by Jim Drummond , Vann 's intelligence officer , indicated that the Viet Cong were using Ap Tan Thoi as a headquarters location . Furthermore , South Vietnamese and American intelligence personnel believed the Viet Cong had deployed a reinforced company of about 120 men to protect the transmitter . Certain that the Viet Cong unit was no larger than the reported number , the ARVN 7th Infantry Division was instructed to attack Ap Tan Thoi .
An operational plan suited for an attack on a small enemy formation was drafted by Ziegler , who was an adviser to Dam and the command staff of the 7th Infantry Division . Ziegler 's plan , codenamed Operation Duc Thang I , called for the South Vietnamese to assault Ap Tan Thoi from three different directions ; three rifle companies from the 11th Infantry Regiment , 7th Infantry Division , to move from the north ; the Dinh Tuong Civil Guards Regiment to march northward from the south in separate columns ; and a company of 13 M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers with an infantry company on board from the southwest . The M @-@ 113 carriers and the infantry company could act as both a mobile reserve and a reaction force , so it was positioned where it could be shifted to the contact area if the Viet Cong began to retreat . In addition , Dam would also deploy two rifle companies at Tan Hiep airfield , which could be brought onto the battlefield by helicopters from the U.S. Army 93rd Transportation Company .
On previous occasions , U.S. intelligence had tracked down the location of Viet Cong radio transmitters , but those were often relocated before the South Vietnamese launched their attacks , so Ziegler privately questioned if the Viet Cong had as many as 120 soldiers in Ap Tan Thoi . However , in 1963 , the National Liberation Front had changed their policy , from avoiding the South Vietnamese army to standing and fighting . The 1st Company , 261st Battalion and the 1st Company , 514th Battalion , had a total strength of 320 regular soldiers and were positioned in Ap Bac and Ap Tan Thoi respectively , which were separated by a distance of about 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) . The combined companies were supported by approximately 30 local force soldiers from Chau Thanh District who served as scouts , ammunition bearers , litter carriers , and emergency replacements . Together , elements of the Viet Cong 261st and 514th Battalions in Ap Tan Thoi and Ap Bac formed a ' composite battalion ' , which was placed under the command of Colonel Hai Hoang .
Previously , leadership of the 261st Battalion alternated between Hoang , a South Vietnamese revolutionary who had returned from North Vietnam after 1954 , and Tu Khue , who was a native of North Vietnam . Khue was unpopular among the battalion 's soldiers because he was known to be very strict and demanding . However , he was very careful about details . In contrast , Hoang was far more relaxed and commanded a high degree of confidence from the soldiers of the 261st Battalion . Thus , due to his strong leadership skills and popularity , Hoang was selected to take command of Viet Cong forces for operations in Ap Bac . Most of the soldiers under Hoang 's command were equipped with captured U.S.-made weaponry , such as the M1 carbine , BAR light machine guns , .30 caliber machine guns , and a single 60mm mortar .
In the days before the battle , Hoang anticipated a major attack from the South Vietnamese government , as Viet Cong intelligence agents in Dinh Tuong had reported the arrival of 71 truckloads of ammunition and other supplies from Saigon , about 65 kilometers ( 40 mi ) to the northeast . In addition , with information provided by Pham Xuan An , a well @-@ connected journalist and undercover Viet Cong agent in Saigon , Hoang 's soldiers conducted last @-@ minute anti @-@ helicopter and anti @-@ M @-@ 113 training by studying U.S.-made weaponry and South Vietnamese plans and manuals . The Viet Cong also took full advantage of the local terrain by taking up positions in Ap Tan Thoi in the north , along a tree @-@ lined creek in the southeast , and Ap Bac in the south . Their positions were well @-@ concealed by trees and shrubs , which made them difficult to see from the air and provided good protection from heavy weaponry . To the south and west of Ap Bac , the Viet Cong dug a series of foxholes in front of an irrigation dike , which afforded them an unobstructed field of fire in the surrounding rice fields . The foxholes were deep enough for one man to stand up , or big enough to accommodate a two @-@ man machine @-@ gun crew . Behind the foxhole line , the irrigation dike enabled Viet Cong units to communicate with each other . In short , the Viet Cong enjoyed a great advantage over any attacking force .
= = Battle = =
= = = The fight begins = = =
At 4 : 00 on the morning of January 2 , Viet Cong scouts around the hamlets of Ap Bac and Ap Tan Thoi reported hearing the sounds of truck and boat engines , so Hoang issued an alert order which prompted his troops to pick up their weapons and hurry to their foxholes . Most of the women , children , and old men in both hamlets fled and hid in the nearby swamps as soon as the order was issued .
Thirty CH @-@ 21 Shawnee helicopters were needed to airlift the entire 1st Battalion , ARVN 11th Infantry Regiment , but only ten were available . As a result , Dam could only send one company at a time onto the battlefield . At around 7 : 00 am , the first wave of CH @-@ 21 helicopters offloaded the first group of South Vietnamese soldiers . These troops had to hold their positions until the rest of the battalions had arrived . Because of the delay in the arrival of the regular South Vietnamese army units , two Civil Guard battalions of Task Forces A and B — under the command of Dinh Tuong provincial chief Major Lam Quang Tho — were left to march against enemy positions by themselves .
As planned , the first Civil Guard battalion of Task Force A started north towards Ap Bac . Hoang knew the Civil Guard battalions were approaching , so he instructed his company commander in Ap Bac to be ready , as they would fire the first shots of the battle . Viet Cong radio operators , using captured U.S.-made communication equipment , followed the movements of the Civil Guards by monitoring the frequencies the government troops were using . When the leading Civil Guard battalion came within 30 meters ( 98 ft ) of the southern end of Ap Bac , the Viet Cong opened fire from their foxholes and immediately killed the leading company 's commander and wounded the task force commander . Task Force A 's momentum was stopped when the soldiers of the leading Civil Guard battalion sought shelter in a dike , where they tried unsuccessfully to outflank the Viet Cong . During that time , artillery support was ineffective , as Civil Guard forward observers would not stand up to observe the fall of artillery rounds . Consequently , one artillery round after another simply fell behind Viet Cong positions , instead of on their foxhole line . To make matters worse , Tho failed to send his second Civil Guard battalion of Task Force B to rescue the first .
North of Ap Tan Thoi , three companies of the ARVN 11th Infantry Regiment fared no better . They marched south in three separate axes towards their objective . Again , well @-@ concealed Viet Cong soldiers of the 514th Battalion allowed their opponents to come within 20 meters ( 66 ft ) before opening fire . Immediately , the South Vietnamese infantrymen were forced to hug the ground . During the next five hours , they managed to launch three major assaults , but failed to break the Viet Cong 's line of defense . By 9 : 30 am , the last of Dam 's reserve companies had been airlifted into Tan Hiep , about two hours late because American aircrews were prevented from landing their CH @-@ 21 helicopters , known as " Flying Bananas " for their shape , in the heavy fog that covered Tan Hiep airfield most of the morning . With the ground attacks in the north and south bogged down , Dam decided to stretch out the defending Viet Cong units by attacking the east and the west .
Dam asked Vann , who was circling the battlefield aboard an L @-@ 19 reconnaissance aircraft , to reconnoiter possible landing zones on the east and west sides of Ap Bac , where additional reinforcements could be inserted to launch their attacks . In response , Vann asked his pilot to make low passes over the trees which covered Ap Bac . Although he could not see any Viet Cong positions , Vann knew there was a well @-@ fortified position at the southern end of the hamlet , due to the impact of the Viet Cong 's firepower on the Civil Guards since the very beginning of the battle . As Vann 's L @-@ 19 aircraft flew over the western tree line , the Viet Cong watched from their foxholes , but held their fire because they knew the aircraft was trying to draw fire in order to mark their positions . Although Vann was suspicious , he decided it was a better landing zone because the area was tranquil despite the heavy fighting elsewhere .
Vann then ordered his pilot to make contact with the other L @-@ 19 that was leading the ten CH @-@ 21s with the first South Vietnamese reserve company from Tan Hiep . Vann relayed a message to the command pilot of the ten CH @-@ 21 helicopters , which were being escorted by a group of five recently deployed UH @-@ 1 Huey gunships , armed with 7.62mm machine guns and 2 @.@ 75 inch rockets , and instructed him to land the reserve companies about 300 meters ( 980 ft ) from the western and southern tree lines that covered Ap Bac in order to minimize the effectiveness of the Viet Cong 's .30 caliber machine guns . However , in the early phases of the Vietnam conflict , command relationships between U.S. military units were not well @-@ established , and American aircrews had developed a tendency to disregard the instructions of advisors , especially Vann , who was regarded as domineering . Instead of following Vann 's instructions , the command pilot decided to lead his helicopters over southern Ap Tan Thoi and along the creek to Ap Bac . The American pilots landed their helicopters within 200 meters ( 660 ft ) west of Ap Bac , where they were hit multiple times by Viet Cong machine gun and small arms fire .
The five UH @-@ 1 gunships immediately strafed Viet Cong positions with 2 @.@ 75 inch rockets , but failed to suppress the enemy fire . After South Vietnamese soldiers had disembarked from the helicopters , one CH @-@ 21 was too severely damaged to get off the ground . A second CH @-@ 21 was sent to rescue the crew , but it too was immobilized as soon as it touched the ground . One of the Hueys returned to pick up the crews of the two downed CH @-@ 21 " Flying Bananas " . As it prepared to land , the main rotor was struck by enemy gunfire . The aircraft flipped over to the right and crashed . Almost simultaneously , a third CH @-@ 21 sustained heavy damage and was forced to land on the rice fields a short distance from the first two helicopters . By 10 : 30 am , all the South Vietnamese soldiers who had landed on the field were under heavy fire from inside Ap Bac and refused to move . Sergeant Arnold Bowers , who had ridden in the first crashed helicopter , raced back and forth to rescue injured American airmen .
= = = Arrival of the armored personnel carriers = = =
After Bowers had attended to the injured men , he borrowed a field radio from the South Vietnamese to coordinate artillery and air strikes . Later , two AD @-@ 6 Skyraiders arrived over Ap Bac and attacked the thatched houses with conventional bombs and napalm . The South Vietnamese soldiers , who were pinned down on the ground , believed their ordeal was over , so they stood up to see if the Viet Cong were retreating from their positions . The Viet Cong fired on the exposed soldiers and killed several . Vann then radioed Captain James B. Scanlon — senior adviser to the ARVN 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment — and told him that four U.S. helicopters had either been destroyed or immobilized about 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) southeast of the regiment 's position . Scanlon was told to get his South Vietnamese counterpart , Captain Ly Tong Ba — commander of the 4th Mechanized Rifle Squadron , 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment — to rescue the trapped South Vietnamese company and the helicopters .
Ba asserted that he would not take orders from Americans . He also argued that sending the 13 M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers through the Cong Ba Ky Canal would enable the Viet Cong to retreat because it might take too much time . An argument broke out between Vann and Ba . Finally , Vann radioed Ziegler at the command post at Tan Hiep and told him to ask the commander of the ARVN 7th Infantry Division to order Ba to move toward Ap Bac immediately . Shortly afterwards , Ziegler returned with Dam 's permission , and Ba was ordered to move his M @-@ 113 carriers in the direction of the white smoke that were rising from the burning hamlet . The American advisers were quietly confident that Ba 's M @-@ 113s could turn the tide of battle ; on previous occasions , Viet Cong fighters often fled from the battlefield as soon as M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers turned up . However , in contrast to previous engagements , Viet Cong commander Hoang had ordered the soldiers of the 261st and 514th Battalions to throw everything they had at the South Vietnamese , as retreat through the muddy rice fields would result in certain death .
The South Vietnamese M @-@ 113s had no problem crossing the generally shallow streams and rivers typical of the Mekong Delta , but the heavy 10 @-@ ton M @-@ 113s became bogged down in the deeper Cong Ba Ky Canal , forcing the crews and the infantry company on board to cut down brush and trees and fill the canal until it was shallow enough for the M @-@ 113s to cross . The rescue operation was further delayed when Ba tried to obtain proper authorization to advance , because he was under orders not to take commands directly from the American advisers . Vann , who was flying above the armored formation , demanded that Ba advance immediately . Ba replied that he would not take instructions from Americans . When Vann threatened to have Ba shot , he reluctantly continued to advance , although very slowly , toward the entrenched Viet Cong .
Meanwhile , a fourth CH @-@ 21 returned to Ap Bac to attempt to rescue the downed helicopter crews , and it too was heavily damaged by ground fire and forced to land on the muddy rice field . The Viet Cong had set a new record : the battle was the first time they had either destroyed or downed five helicopters within a few hours . At 1 : 30 pm , Ba 's M @-@ 113 formation finally closed in on the downed helicopters on the western side of Ap Bac . The M @-@ 113s approached the landing zone in single file instead of in formation , and they were immediately fired upon by Viet Cong inside the hamlet who were able to concentrate their fire on one target at a time . The South Vietnamese M @-@ 113 gun crews were exposed from the waist up , so they were easy targets for snipers ; by the end of the day , fourteen South Vietnamese M @-@ 113 crewmen had been killed due to their exposure . The two leading M @-@ 113s were able to pull up beside the downed helicopters , but one driver was killed while driving with his head outside of the hatch , and Ba was knocked unconscious inside his carrier .
Scanlon , with the help of Bowers , ran forward to aid the wounded men and carry them back to the M @-@ 113 formation . At that point , South Vietnamese M @-@ 113 crews backed off while firing their .50 caliber machine guns aimlessly into the sky . When Ba recovered , his company launched a frontal assault on the Viet Cong 's foxhole line . Just when the M @-@ 113 crews closed in on their objective , a Viet Cong squad leader and his men jumped out of their foxholes and tossed grenades at the lead formation of the attack force . Cohesion and morale among the crews of the armored formation quickly deteriorated as South Vietnamese sergeants , who served as both commanders and machine gunners of the carriers , were killed and were replaced by less experienced , poorly trained men .
In a last @-@ ditch effort to overrun the Viet Cong 's stronghold , an M @-@ 113 equipped with a flamethrower was sent forward to within 100 meters ( 330 ft ) of the Viet Cong position to fire the western tree line . The flamethrower had a range of up to 200 meters ( 660 ft ) , but when the operator fired the device , the flame died after only 30 meters ( 98 ft ) . It was later discovered that the crew had mixed the incorrect amount of jelling agent with the gasoline . The final attack mounted by the M @-@ 113 company failed . At around 2 : 30 pm , defeated and with their morale broken , the 4th Mechanized Rifle Squadron disengaged from the fight and withdrew .
By that stage , Vann was frustrated by the Civil Guard soldiers of Task Force B , because they appeared to be in no hurry to reach Ap Bac , as they searched one house at a time while marching up from the south @-@ western flank of the battlefield . In his final effort to defeat the Viet Cong , Vann flew into Tan Hiep and asked Cao to deploy an airborne battalion on the eastern side of Ap Bac , the most logical retreat route for the Viet Cong . Vann hoped to trap the Viet Cong inside the hamlets by blocking their retreat routes on all sides , and annihilate them using an elite battalion of South Vietnamese paratroopers . To Vann 's disappointment , Cao strongly opposed the idea and decided to drop one of his airborne battalions behind the M @-@ 113 formation on the western side instead . Vann accused Cao of wanting to let the Viet Cong escape in order to avoid further South Vietnamese casualties . However , Cao argued that a surrounded and well @-@ entrenched enemy would fight more fiercely than a retreating one , so he wanted the Viet Cong units inside the hamlets of Ap Bac and Ap Tan Thoi to expose themselves by retreating through the eastern side of the battlefield , where he could destroy them with artillery and airpower . Cao had also lost confidence in Vann , because Cao felt Vann had placed the lives of many South Vietnamese soldiers at risk to save the lives of a handful of Americans . Major @-@ General Tran Thien Khiem , Chief of the ARVN Joint General Staff , was present during the argument . He did not object to Cao 's plan because it was consistent with President Diem 's objective to save Vietnamese lives through the Rural Revolutionary Development and Chieu Hoi Programs , which encouraged Viet Cong fighters to join the South Vietnamese military .
= = = Insertion of the airborne battalion = = =
Believing it was useless to continue arguing with Cao , Vann climbed back into his L @-@ 19 reconnaissance aircraft and left Tan Hiep . Throughout the afternoon , he continued to press Cao to quickly deploy the South Vietnamese paratroopers . He was fearful that the battle would turn out to be the largest defeat of South Vietnamese forces up to that point of the war . Cao promised to deploy the second Civil Guard battalion which had just arrived on the south @-@ western flank of Ap Bac , and to drop the ARVN 8th Airborne Battalion at around 4 : 00 pm behind Ba 's armored personnel carriers . Late in the afternoon , a flight of C @-@ 123 Providers , with about 300 South Vietnamese paratroopers aboard , closed in on their objective and quickly drew machine gun fire from the hamlet . The C @-@ 123 pilots changed course to avoid the ground fire , but either the South Vietnamese jumpmaster or the American flight leader did not compensate for the change . As a result , the paratroopers landed right in front of the entrenched Viet Cong positions , instead of behind the 4th Mechanized Rifle Squadron and the Civil Guards .
The Viet Cong were able to pick off one South Vietnamese paratrooper after another , some as they descended and others when their parachutes became stuck in the trees . Those paratroopers that reached the ground and survived tried to move forward , but the Viet Cong soldiers in defilade position fired on the paratroopers exposed in the open rice paddies . Undeterred , the ARVN 8th Airborne Battalion launched small @-@ unit attacks , but on each occasion they were repelled , and sporadic fighting continued until sundown . By the end of the day , the airborne battalion had lost 19 soldiers killed in action and another 33 wounded . American advisers Captain Fletcher Ware and Sergeant Russell Kopti , who had parachuted in with the South Vietnamese , were also wounded . As night fell , Hoang knew that South Vietnamese forces were closing in from three directions . The eastern flank remained open , and he ordered both elements of the 261st and 514th Battalions , exhausted and low on ammunition , to assemble at the southern end of Ap Tan Thoi . They evacuated through the rice fields , taking their dead and wounded comrades .
Vann wanted to use a C @-@ 47 flare plane to illuminate the rice fields on the eastern flank of Ap Bac and Ap Tan Thoi . He wanted to hit the Viet Cong with 500 rounds of artillery and destroy them as they retreated . Cao would not approve the use of flares because it could expose the airborne battalion 's night defensive positions , and instead ordered 100 rounds of artillery to be fired at a rate of four shells per hour . At 10 : 00 pm , Viet Cong commander Hoang led his two companies out of Ap Tan Thoi and headed for their base camp in the Plain of Reeds , while the local force units left by a different route for their hideouts in the local area . The 1st Company , 261st Battalion , led the column , followed by litter carriers carrying the dead and wounded . The 1st Company , 514th Battalion , covered the tail of the formation , with one of their platoons acting as a rear guard . The wounded Viet Cong soldiers were transferred onto sampans at the canal on the eastern side of Ap Tan Thoi , while the rest of the formation marched on . At 7 : 00 am on January 3 , Hoang 's men successfully reached their destination without being detected .
= = Aftermath = =
On January 3 , a team of Western journalists toured the deserted Ap Bac hamlet with the American advisors . When reporter Neil Sheehan asked Brigadier General Robert York what had happened , the general replied : " What the hell 's it look like happened , boy ? They got away , that 's what happened " ! Shortly afterward , more than 18 hours too late , the South Vietnamese hit Ap Bac with an artillery barrage . The artillery rounds killed another five South Vietnamese soldiers and wounded 14 others . Vann , who had made key decisions during the early phases of the battle , blamed the South Vietnamese for the debacle . " It was a miserable damn performance , just like it always is . These people won 't listen . They make the same mistake over and over again in the same way " . According to Moyar ( 2008 ) , in blaming the South Vietnamese , Vann wanted to conceal the Americans ' flawed intelligence and poor leadership . He hoped to pressure the South Vietnamese to accept future changes he favored .
General Paul D. Harkins , commander of the Military Assistance Command , Vietnam ( MACV ) , had a far more optimistic assessment of the battle . He considered the operation to be a major success : after the Viet Cong abandoned their positions , the South Vietnamese units captured the hamlets of Ap Bac and Ap Tan Thoi . Harkins ' evaluation of the battle 's success were based on U.S. military doctrine from World War II , in which two armies fought a conventional combined arms battle with the goal to control territory . However , the Viet Cong were far more interested in exposing the weaknesses of Diem 's regime and its military . Thus , Moyar ( 2008 ) argues that Harkins ' optimistic and misdirected doctrine detracted from the long @-@ term performance of the South Vietnamese military and the American advisers attached to them . He refused to acknowledge the flawed system under which the South Vietnamese commanders and their American counterparts operated . Because of his attitude , neither the South Vietnamese or the Americans learned important lessons from the battle .
The South Vietnamese units that participated in the battle took heavy losses in their failed attempt to destroy the Viet Cong forces . South Vietnamese casualties included 83 killed in action and at least 100 wounded . The American participants , who included advisors and aircrews , counted three dead and eight wounded . Of the fifteen American helicopters sent to support the operation , only one escaped undamaged , and five were either downed or destroyed .
For the Viet Cong , the Battle of Ap Bac marked the first time they decided to stand and fight a large South Vietnamese formation , although outnumbered by more than five to one . Against overwhelming odds , the Viet Cong achieved their first major victory . They successfully stopped the well @-@ equipped South Vietnamese army , supported by a combination of artillery and armored units as well as American airpower . The Viet Cong casualties were just 18 soldiers killed and 39 wounded , despite the fact that the fighters were hit by more than 600 rounds of artillery , napalm and other ordnance released by 13 warplanes and five UH @-@ 1 gunships .
Ap Bac had many as yet undefined consequences for the South Vietnamese government and the American involvement in Vietnam . The battle was a significant milestone for the Viet Cong as a fighting force . For individual Viet Cong soldiers , the battle proved that they could defeat the superior South Vietnamese forces , equipped with modern military hardware and significant support and funding from the United States . Militarily , the morale and confidence of Viet Cong commanders and soldiers , who had experienced serious setbacks during the previous year , were significantly boosted . Politically , the Viet Cong 261st and 514th Battalions were able to exercise greater influence in their areas of operations because of the prestige of defeating the soldiers of Diem 's unpopular regime .
Despite the initial success of the Strategic Hamlet Program and the intensified military operations of 1962 , the events at Ap Bac placed additional pressure on Diem 's government because it showed it could not cope with the resurgence of the Viet Cong , particularly in the regions surrounding the Mekong River .
= Battle of Green Spring =
The Battle of Green Spring took place near Green Spring Plantation in James City County , Virginia during the American Revolutionary War . On July 6 , 1781 United States Brigadier General " Mad " Anthony Wayne , leading the advance forces of the Marquis de Lafayette , was ambushed near the plantation by the British army of Earl Charles Cornwallis in the last major land battle of the Virginia campaign prior to the Siege of Yorktown .
Following a month of marching and countermarching in central Virginia by Cornwallis and Lafayette , Cornwallis in late June moved to Williamsburg , where he received orders to move to Portsmouth and send some of his army to New York City . Lafayette followed Cornwallis fairly closely , emboldened by the arrival of reinforcements to consider making attacks on the British force . On July 4 , Cornwallis departed Williamsburg for Jamestown , planning to cross the James River en route to Portsmouth . Lafayette believed he could stage an attack on Cornwallis 's rear guard during the crossing .
Cornwallis anticipated Lafayette 's idea , and laid an elaborate trap . General Wayne 's forces were very nearly caught in the trap , and only a bold bayonet charge against the numerically overwhelming British enabled his forces to retreat . Cornwallis did not follow the victory with pursuit , instead following his plan to cross the river . The action reinforced the perception among contemporaries that justified the moniker " Mad " to describe Wayne , although opinion on the merits of his actions was divided . The battlefield has been partially preserved , and reenactments are sometimes staged .
= = Background = =
In May 1781 , Earl Charles Cornwallis arrived in Petersburg , Virginia after a lengthy campaign through North and South Carolina . In addition to his 1 @,@ 400 troops , he assumed command of another 3 @,@ 600 troops that had been under the command of the turncoat Benedict Arnold , and was soon thereafter further reinforced by about 2 @,@ 000 more troops sent from New York . These forces were opposed by a much smaller Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette , then located at Richmond . Following orders originally given to Arnold 's predecessor in command , William Phillips ( who died a week before Cornwallis 's arrival ) , Cornwallis worked to eliminate Virginia 's ability to support the revolutionary cause , giving chase to Lafayette 's army , which numbered barely 3 @,@ 000 and included a large number of inexperienced militia .
Lafayette successfully avoided engaging Cornwallis , who used his numerical advantage to detach forces for raids against economic , military , and political targets in central Virginia . After about one month of this activity , Cornwallis turned back to the east , marching for Williamsburg . Lafayette , whose force grew to number about 4 @,@ 000 with the arrival of Continental Army reinforcements under General Anthony Wayne and additional experienced militiamen under William Campbell , followed Cornwallis . Buoyed by the increase in his troop strength , Lafayette also became more aggressive in his tactics , sending out detachments of his force to counteract those that Cornwallis sent on forage and raiding expeditions . One such foray led to a clash at Spencer 's Ordinary , a crossroads not far from Williamsburg , in late June .
When Cornwallis arrived at Williamsburg , he received orders from General Sir Henry Clinton to go to Portsmouth and prepare a detachment of troops to return to New York City . Pursuant to these orders , Cornwallis began moving south on the Virginia Peninsula on July 4 , planning to cross the wide James River at the Jamestown ferry . Lafayette followed , with advance units and most of his Continentals reaching Norrell 's Mill , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the ferry on July 5 .
Lafayette saw an opportunity to attack the British force as it made the difficult crossing of the James . Cornwallis also recognized the possibility , and decided to lay a trap , hoping to capture a portion of Lafayette 's army . He only sent his baggage train and John Graves Simcoe 's Queen 's Rangers across the river , and concealed his main force near the crossing . Cornwallis also sent men to " desert " to the Americans with information that most of the British force had crossed , leaving only a rear guard on the north side of the river .
= = Prelude = =
The position where Cornwallis hid his army was well @-@ chosen . To the left , impassable swampy terrain sloped down toward the river . To the right , there was more marshy ground and a few ponds . The access from the rest of the mainland toward the ferry was via a 400 @-@ yard ( 370 m ) causeway from the Green Spring Plantation that was surrounded by marshlands that an advancing army would have to negotiate . The earl arranged his army in two lines , with the 76th and 80th regiments along with part of the 43rd and Banastre Tarleton 's British Legion on the left , and the Brigade of Guards , and Hessian auxiliaries on the right . Both wings also included light infantry companies . Cornwallis left a small company of German jägers and a few men from the Legion to give the appearance of a rear guard picket , and gave them specific orders to resist the American advance as much as possible .
Brigadier General " Mad " Anthony Wayne led Lafayette 's advance company , about 500 men , out early on July 6 from Norrell 's Tavern . When Wayne reached Green Spring , he surveyed the terrain and noted the presence of the British guards . When Lafayette came up with his main force , the two men decided to go ahead with the attack , but Lafayette ordered more troops forward from Norrell 's Tavern around 1 pm . Some minor skirmishing took place while they awaited these troops . Wayne 's 500 soldiers included 200 Virginia riflemen under Majors John Willis and Richard Call backed by additional light infantry led by John Francis Mercer , William Galvan , and McPherson . Colonel Walter Stewart 's Pennsylvania Continental battalion formed the reserve . Lafayette sent forward two Pennsylvania Continental battalions under Colonels Richard Butler and Richard Humpton , and Major John P. Wyllys ' light infantry battalion . Beginning to suspect something was amiss , Lafayette held back the light infantry battalions of Colonels Francis Barber and Joseph Vose . The three @-@ battalion reinforcement increased the size of the force Wayne ordered into the swamps around 3 : 00 pm to between eight and nine hundred men . Wayne 's force now consisted of two companies of riflemen , one of dragoons , and most of the Pennsylvania Line , and included three pieces of field artillery . As they moved out , Lafayette rode out toward a spit of land on the riverbank from which he might observe the action .
= = Battle = =
Wayne 's advance force and the British pickets then began an extended skirmish lasting nearly two hours . The British forces slowly retreated , suffering significant casualties under the persistent American advance . Wayne 's riflemen performed particularly well , picking off several of the British commanding officers . However , the tables turned around 5 pm when the Americans reached an " abandoned " gun that Cornwallis had left in the road . Their seizure of the gun was the signal for the British counterattack , which began with a barrage of canister and grape shot , and was followed by an infantry charge .
Lafayette , from his vantage point on the river , had spotted the main British force and realized that Wayne was entering a trap . However , he was not able to reach Wayne in time to recall him . He immediately began moving additional troops forward in an attempt to prevent the trap from closing on Wayne . In the meantime , the British charge had thrown the Americans into some confusion , and Wayne was concerned that a retreat would turn into a disorderly rout . Wayne reformed his line , ordered his artillery to fire a blast of grape shot , and then had the line charge the numerically overwhelming British with bayonets fixed .
Wayne 's audacious charge worked ; it successfully halted the British advance long enough for Lafayette 's covering force to approach . Lafayette rode forward to assist in managing the American retreat , which began to crumble after Cornwallis personally led a countercharge . During the retreat , two of the American guns had to be abandoned because their horses were shot , and Lafayette was also unhorsed . As the sun was beginning to set , Cornwallis chose not to pursue the Americans , who retreated to Green Spring .
= = Aftermath = =
British reports of casualties in the battle listed 5 officers and 70 enlisted men killed or wounded . American casualties were reported to number about 140 , including 28 killed . Cornwallis , satisfied with the victory , did not to pursue the retreating Americans , and instead crossed the James as planned and moved on to Portsmouth . There his arrangements to embark troops were countermanded by new orders from Clinton that instead ordered him to use his force to establish a fortified naval station . This Cornwallis chose to do at Yorktown , where he was compelled to surrender after a brief siege in October 1781 .
Lafayette , in his dispatches and reports throughout the later stages of the Virginia campaign , painted Cornwallis 's movements to Williamsburg and Portsmouth as a retreat . These reports bolstered Lafayette 's reputation , and the battle , although a tactical setback , did not harm that reputation . General Wayne wrote of his decision to charge the full British force that it was " one of those prudent , tho ' daring manoeuvers which seldom fail of producing the desired effect ; the result in this Instance fully Justified it . " Lafayette publicly lauded Wayne 's performance , but recorded privately that Wayne made tactical mistakes and the battle read well " in a gazette " . Militia general Peter Muhlenberg blamed the loss on " the impetuosity of our brother Brigadier . " Wayne biographer Paul Nelson opines that Americans of the day could " hardly decide after the battle whether to admire Wayne for his brave and impetuous character or to condemn him as a foolhardy adventurer . "
= = Legacy = =
Portions of the Green Spring Plantation were purchased in 1966 by the National Park Service , and are now part of the Colonial National Historical Park . These holdings were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 , and are , as of June 2010 , open only by special arrangement .
= The Distrest Poet =
The Distrest Poet is an oil painting produced sometime around 1736 by the British artist William Hogarth . Reproduced as an etching and engraving , it was published in 1741 from a third state plate produced in 1740 . The scene was probably inspired by Alexander Pope 's satirical poem The Dunciad . It depicts a scene in a small , dingy attic room where a poet sits at his desk in the dormer and , scratching his head , stares at the papers on the desk before him , evidently looking for inspiration to complete the poem he is writing . Near him sits his wife darning clothes , surprised by the entrance of a milkmaid , who impatiently demands payment of debts .
= = Background = =
The engraving of The Distrest Poet in its third state was issued on 15 December 1741 as a companion piece to The Enraged Musician , a comic scene of a violinist driven to distraction by the noise from the street outside his practice room . The initial plate for The Distrest Poet was produced soon after Hogarth had completed the oil painting , but the third state plate was not completed until late in 1740 at which time Hogarth advertised his intention to issue a three @-@ image set : The Provok 'd Musician , The Distrest Poet , and a third image on the subject of " Painting " . The Provok 'd Musician ( renamed The Enraged Musician ) was produced in 1741 but the third image was never completed .
= = Picture = =
The scene is set in a small and messy garret , sparsely furnished by a few pieces of crude furniture . The room is poorly kept , with cracking plaster , a broken window and uneven floor , and a bare cupboard . In this way , Hogarth underlines the desperate circumstances of the occupants and the poverty of the family .
Starved of inspiration and suffering writer 's block , the poet sits on the end of his bed in his night gown , quill in hand , scratching his head . A copy of Edward Bysshe 's The Art of English Poetry , a guide to composition published in 1702 , lies open on the table . A copy of Popes 's satirical Grub Street Journal lies on the floor near his feet .
A few feet to his right sits his wife , darning the clothes on her lap and those sprawled on the floor , while a crying infant , who is upset and hungry , goes unattended in the only bed . Next to the poet 's wife , by the open door , an angry milkmaid presents her substantial bill , demanding payment for milk , underlining the poet 's refusal to provide for his family by getting himself a proper job . The cupboard stands open and empty , save for a mouse ; near the door , a dog steals the last of the family 's food from a plate .
Other , less obvious , elements of the painting reveal more about the poet 's personality and ideas . The poem he is attempting to write is entitled " Upon Riches " , which suggests that the poet lives in a fantasy world , while his wife and child go hungry . Ned Ward 's first published poem in 1691 was The Poet 's Ramble After Riches , which satirised his own struggles as an impoverished aspiring poet , and Hogarth may have had this in mind when he produced the picture . Earlier impressions showed the poem as " Poverty , A Poem " , which hinted at a connection to Theobald who had written " The Cave of Poverty , A Poem , Written in Imitation of Shakespeare " in 1714 . The poet 's dreams of riches are further suggested by the map that hangs over his head , entitled " A View of the Gold Mines of Peru " , replacing the image of Pope that appears in the earlier states of the print . The poet 's self @-@ interest is hinted by the presence of his pipe and tobacco on the window sill , the mug of beer sitting on the chair in the back of the room , the lace cuffs drying by the fire , his ill @-@ fitting wig , and gentleman 's sword lying at his feet ; it may be that despite his family 's circumstances , he refuses to forgo his own personal pleasures and effects . Alternatively , his fantasy of earning a fortune from his art may require that he keeps his gentlemanly accoutrements around him , as they will be required when his fantasies are realized .
= = = Alexander Pope = = =
The scene shown in The Distrest Poet was probably inspired by Alexander Pope 's satirical poem The Dunciad , most likely by the prefatory matter of the second version , the Dunciad Variorum which had been published in 1735 , and in which Pope confirmed his authorship of the original . The painting and early states of the print included a quotation from Pope 's work :
Studious he sate , with all his books around ,
Sinking from thought to thought , a vast profound :
Plunged for his sense , but found no bottom there ;
Then wrote and flounder 'd on , in mere despair .
The bill stuck to the wall above the poet 's head originally featured a reference to Pope in which he was punningly mocked as " His Holiness Pope Alexander " , depicted as an ape wearing a papal tiara with an ass as his Prime Minister . The initial states of the print kept the quotation but replaced the genuine bill with a representation ( which appears to have been entirely invented by Hogarth rather than copied from a real bill ) of Pope clashing with Edmund Curll over the unauthorised publication of the poet 's correspondence . Although Hogarth and Pope had never met , this literary inspiration led to speculation as to the identity of Hogarth 's poet as one of the targets of Pope 's satire . Ned Ward , the author of The London Spy was a strong contender , as was Lewis Theobald , to whom the lines quoted from Pope in Hogarth 's original print referred .
How far Hogarth sympathised with Pope is questionable . The original bill mocked him , but it featured in an image that , at the least , poked fun at the poor poet who was the subject . Hogarth may have been suggesting either that poet was showing contempt for Pope or that he placed Pope 's image above his head as a model to which to aspire . In the second image , which shows Pope and Curll locked in battle , it is not clear who has the upper hand , and by the time the print was issued the direct reference to Pope had been removed completely . Ronald Paulson , the preeminent modern authority on Hogarth , suggests that Hogarth would have viewed Pope , through his Roman Catholicism , as having been implicitly tied to the continental influences that Hogarth despised , and would have seen Pope 's refusal to accept the patronage of the great men of the time , while still cultivating them as friends and still reaping the rewards they had to offer , as hypocritical . Pope was part of the circle that included William Kent and Richard Boyle , 3rd Earl of Burlington who had displaced Hogarth 's father @-@ in @-@ law James Thornhill from commissions , and Hogarth also had ties to Lewis Theobald , a possible target of the satire , through illustrations he had produced for Theobald 's Perseus and Andromeda , and through his subscription to Theobald 's edition of the works of Shakespeare . Paulson suggests that the real " villain " of The Distrest Poet may be Pope , unseen but representing the successful " Great Poet " whom the deluded aspiring artist hopes to emulate , rather than the distressed poet himself . Hogarth had featured Pope picking John Gay 's pocket in the foreground of Emblematical Print on the South Sea Scheme , an early print he had produced on the theme of the South Sea Bubble ( both Pope and Gay had invested money in the scheme ) . At the same time , within the satire of the painting , the poet who is distressed is going to be one of Pope 's dunces .
The lines by Pope , though referring to Theobald , the hero of The Dunciad , are a characterisation of a Grub Street hack , a stereotype popular in the 1730s denoting a man of limited writing ability who lived in poverty but nevertheless determinedly pursued a career in literature ; , Therefore , the particular scribbler depicted in the painting would be one of this fraternity of " witlings " who banded together to protest Pope 's poem . In this context it would make sense , therefore , for the poet to have the scabrous anti @-@ Pope print , or an emblem of Pope 's fight with the hack writers ' patron , above him . Just as Moll Hackabout has a picture of Macheath on her wall in A Harlot 's Progress , this aspiring and witless poet would have a picture of his hero , Edmund Curll , and an anti @-@ Pope print . The emblem , in other words , identifies the poet 's " side " in the battle between dunces and men of wit .
Hogarth was well acquainted with the struggles of the Grub Street hack though , through the travails of his own father , Richard , who had been unable to make a living as writer and had eventually ended up at the Fleet Prison as a bankrupt . Hogarth may have been more than sympathetic to the dunce struggling with his rhymes . Jenny Uglow in her biography of Hogarth , posits that the gradual alteration of the prints above the poet 's head could suggest a slow softening of attitudes towards Pope and his attack on the class of writer to which Hogarth 's father had belonged , and perhaps evidence of Hogarth making his own compromises in his endeavours to become successful .
= Real Irish Republican Army =
The Real Irish Republican Army or Real IRA , also referred to as the New IRA ( since the 2012 merger ) , is an Irish republican paramilitary organisation which aims to bring about a united Ireland . It formed in 1997 following a split in the Provisional IRA by dissident members , who rejected the Provisionals ' ceasefire that year . Like the Provisional IRA before it , the RIRA sees itself as the only rightful successor to the original Irish Republican Army and styles itself as " the Irish Republican Army " in English or Óglaigh na hÉireann in Irish . It is an illegal organisation in the Republic of Ireland and designated as a terrorist organisation in the United Kingdom and the United States .
Since its formation , RIRA has waged a campaign in Northern Ireland against the Police Service of Northern Ireland ( PSNI ) — formerly the Royal Ulster Constabulary ( RUC ) — and the British Army . The RIRA is the largest and most active of the " dissident republican " paramilitary groups operating against the British security forces . It has targeted security forces in gun attacks and bombings , and with grenades , mortars and rockets . The organisation has also been responsible for a number of bombings in Northern Ireland and England with the goal of causing economic harm and / or disruption . The most notable of these was the 15 August 1998 Omagh bombing , which killed 29 people . After that bombing the RIRA went on ceasefire , but began operations again in 2000 . In March 2009 it claimed responsibility for an attack on Massereene Barracks that killed two British soldiers , the first to be killed in Northern Ireland since 1997 .
The Real IRA has also been involved in vigilantism , mainly against alleged drug dealers and organized crime gangs . In Dublin in particular it has been accused of extortion and engaging in feuds with these gangs . In July 2012 it was reported that Republican Action Against Drugs ( RAAD ) and other small republican militant groups were merging with the Real IRA . As before , the group continues to refer to itself as " the Irish Republican Army " , but the new group has been referred as the " New IRA " in the press .
= = Origins = =
In July 1997 the Provisional IRA called a ceasefire . On 10 October 1997 a Provisional IRA General Army Convention was held in Falcarragh , County Donegal . At the convention , Provisional IRA Quartermaster General Michael McKevitt — also a member of the 12 @-@ person Provisional IRA Executive — denounced the leadership and called for an end to the group 's ceasefire and to its participation in the Northern Ireland peace process . He was backed by his partner and fellow Executive member Bernadette Sands McKevitt . The two dissidents were outmanoeuvred by the leadership and were left isolated . The convention backed the pro @-@ ceasefire line , and on 26 October McKevitt and Sands McKevitt resigned from the Executive along with other members .
In November 1997 McKevitt and other dissidents held a meeting in a farmhouse in Oldcastle , County Meath , and a new organisation , styling itself Óglaigh na hÉireann , was formed . The organisation attracted disaffected Provisional IRA members from Derry and the republican stronghold of South Armagh , and from other areas including Dublin and Belfast cities and Counties Limerick , Tipperary , Louth , Tyrone , Monaghan and Kerry .
The name " Real IRA " entered common usage when members set up a roadblock in Jonesborough , County Armagh and told motorists " We 're from the IRA . The real IRA " .
= = Objectives = =
The RIRA 's objective is a united Ireland by forcing the end of British sovereignty over Northern Ireland through the use of physical force . The organisation rejects the Mitchell Principles and the Good Friday Agreement , comparing the latter to the 1921 Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty which resulted in the partition of Ireland . The organisation aims to uphold an uncompromising form of Irish republicanism and opposes any political settlement that falls short of Irish unity and independence .
Bernadette Sands McKevitt , sister of hunger striker Bobby Sands and a founder of the RIRA 's political wing , the 32 County Sovereignty Movement , said in an interview that her brother " did not die for cross @-@ border bodies with executive powers . He did not die for nationalists to be equal British citizens within the Northern Ireland state " . The RIRA adopted a tactic of bombing town centres to damage the economic infrastructure of Northern Ireland . The organisation also attacks members of the security forces using land mines , home @-@ made mortars and car bombs , and has also targeted England using incendiary devices and car bombs to " spread terror and disruption " .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Early campaign = = =
The organisation 's first action was an attempted bombing in Banbridge , County Down on 7 January 1998 . The intention was to explode a 300 lb ( 140 kg ) car bomb , but this was thwarted when the bomb was defused by security forces . The RIRA continued its campaign in late February with bombings in Moira , County Down and Portadown , County Armagh . On 9 May the organisation announced its existence , in a coded telephone call to Belfast media claiming responsibility for a mortar attack on a police station in Belleek , County Fermanagh .
The RIRA also carried out attacks in Newtownhamilton and Newry , and a second attack in Banbridge on 1 August injured 35 people and caused £ 3 @.@ 5 million of damage when a 500 lb ( 230 kg ) car bomb exploded . Despite these attacks the organisation lacked a significant base and was heavily infiltrated by informers . This led to a series of high @-@ profile arrests and seizures by the Garda Síochána in the first half of 1998 ; these involved the death of RIRA member Rónán Mac Lochlainn who was shot dead trying to escape from police , following an attempted robbery of a security van in County Wicklow .
= = = Omagh bombing = = =
On 15 August 1998 the RIRA left a car containing 500 lb of home @-@ made explosives in the centre of Omagh , County Tyrone . The bombers could not find a parking space near the intended target of the courthouse , and the car was left 400 metres away . As a result , three inaccurate telephone warnings were issued , and the Royal Ulster Constabulary ( RUC ) believed the bomb was actually located outside the courthouse . They attempted to establish a security cordon to keep civilians clear of the area , which inadvertently pushed people closer to the actual location of the bomb . Shortly after , the bomb exploded killing 29 people and injuring 220 others , in what became the single deadliest strike of the Troubles .
The bombing caused a major outcry throughout the world , and the Irish and British governments introduced new legislation in an attempt to destroy the organisation . The RIRA also came under pressure from the Provisional IRA , when Provisional IRA members visited the homes of 60 people connected with the RIRA and ordered them to disband and stop interfering with Provisional IRA arms dumps . With the organisation under intense pressure , which included McKevitt and Sands @-@ McKevitt being forced from their home after the media named McKevitt in connection with the bombing , the RIRA called a ceasefire on 8 September .
= = = Ceasefire = = =
Following the declaration of the ceasefire the RIRA began to regroup , and by the end of October had elected a new leadership and were planning their future direction . In late December Irish government representative Martin Mansergh held a meeting with McKevitt in Dundalk , in an attempt to convince McKevitt to disband the RIRA . McKevitt refused , stating that members would be left defenceless to attacks by the Provisional IRA . In 1999 the RIRA began preparations for a renewed campaign , and in May three members travelled to Split in Croatia to purchase arms , which were smuggled back to Ireland . On 20 October , ten people were arrested when Gardaí raided a RIRA training camp near Stamullen , County Meath .
Officers found a firing range inside a disused wine cellar being used as an underground bunker , and seized weapons including an assault rifle , a submachine gun , a semi @-@ automatic pistol and an RPG @-@ 18 rocket launcher . An earlier version of the rocket launcher , the RPG @-@ 7 , had been in the possession of the Provisional IRA from as early as 1972 , but this was the first time the RPG @-@ 18 had been found in the possession of a paramilitary organisation in Ireland . Among those convicted were Alan Ryan , who was on bail for possession of a loaded revolver at his home in Dublin .
= = = Return to activity = = =
On 20 January 2000 the RIRA issued a call @-@ to @-@ arms in a statement to the Irish News . The statement condemned the Northern Ireland Executive , and stated : " Once again , Óglaigh na hÉireann declares the right of the Irish people to the ownership of Ireland . We call on all volunteers loyal to the Irish Republic to unite to uphold the Republic and establish a permanent national parliament representative of all the people . " The RIRA launched its new campaign on 25 February with an attempted bombing of Shackleton Army Barracks in Ballykelly . The bombers were disturbed as they were assembling the device , which would have caused mass murder if detonated , according to soldiers .
On 29 February a rocket launcher similar to one seized in the 1999 raid was found near an army base in Dungannon , County Tyrone , and on 15 March three men were arrested following the discovery of 500 lb of home @-@ made explosives when the RUC searched two cars in Hillsborough , County Down . On 6 April a bomb attack took place at Ebrington Barracks in Derry . RIRA members lowered a device consisting of 5 lb of homemade explosives over the perimeter fence using ropes , and the bomb subsequently exploded damaging the fence and an unmanned guardhouse .
= = = = Bombings in England = = = =
After the Omagh bombing , the RIRA leadership were unwilling to launch a full @-@ scale campaign in Northern Ireland due to the possibility of civilians being killed . Instead they decided to launch a series of attacks in England , in particular London , which they hoped would attract disenchanted Provisional IRA members to join the RIRA . On 1 June 2000 a bomb damaged Hammersmith Bridge ; a symbolic target for Irish republican paramilitary groups . The bridge had been targeted by the Irish Republican Army on 29 March 1939 as part of its Sabotage Campaign , and by the Provisional IRA on 24 April 1996 .
On 19 July , security forces carried out a controlled explosion on a bomb left at Ealing Broadway station and public transport was disrupted when the Metropolitan Police closed Victoria and Paddington train stations and halted services on the London Underground . On 21 September a rocket @-@ propelled grenade was fired at the MI6 headquarters using an RPG @-@ 22 rocket launcher , which generated headlines around the world . On 21 February 2001 a bomb disguised as a torch ( flashlight ) left outside a Territorial Army base in Shepherd 's Bush seriously injured a 14 @-@ year @-@ old cadet , who was blinded and had his hand blown off . A second attack in Shepherd 's Bush , the 4 March BBC bombing , injured a civilian outside the BBC Television Centre . The explosion was captured by a BBC cameraman , and the footage was broadcast on TV stations worldwide , and gained mass publicity for the group . On 14 April a bomb exploded at a postal sorting office in Hendon , causing minor damage but no injuries . Three weeks later on 6 May a second bomb exploded at the same building , causing slight injuries to a passer @-@ by . The 3 August Ealing bombing injured seven people , and on 3 November a car bomb containing 6 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
0 lb of home @-@ made explosives was planted in the centre of Birmingham . The bomb did not fully detonate and no one was injured .
= = = = Renewed campaign in Northern Ireland = = = =
The successful attack on Hammersmith Bridge encouraged the RIRA leadership to launch further attacks in Northern Ireland . On 19 June 2000 a bomb was found in the grounds of Hillsborough Castle , home of Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Peter Mandelson . On 30 June a bomb exploded on the Dublin @-@ to @-@ Belfast railway line near the village of Meigh in County Armagh . The explosion damaged the tracks , and caused disruption to train services . On 9 July a car bomb damaged buildings in Stewartstown , County Tyrone including an RUC station , and on 10 August an attack in Derry was thwarted by the RUC after a van containing a 500 lb bomb failed to stop at a police checkpoint . Following a car chase the bombers escaped across the Irish border , and the Irish Army carried out a controlled explosion on the bomb after the van was found abandoned in County Donegal . On 13 September two 80 lb bombs were planted at the Magilligan army camp in County Londonderry , one of which was planted in a wooden hut and partially exploded when a soldier opened the door to the hut . The second bomb was found during a follow @-@ up search and made safe by bomb disposal experts . On 11 November the RUC and British Army prevented a mortar attack after stopping a van near Derrylin , County Fermanagh , and the RUC prevented a further attack on 13 January 2001 when an 1100 lb bomb was found in Armagh — the largest bomb found in several years according to the RUC .
On 23 January the RIRA attacked Ebrington Army Barracks in Derry for a second time , firing a mortar over a perimeter fence . A mortar similar to the one used in the attack was found by Gardaí near Newtowncunningham on 13 February , and British army bomb disposal experts made safe another mortar found between Dungannon and Carrickmore on 12 April . On 1 August a 40 lb bomb was discovered in a car at the long @-@ stay car park of Belfast International Airport following a telephone warning , and was made safe with two controlled explosions by bomb disposal experts . In December a six @-@ day security operation ended when a 70 lb bomb found under railway tracks at Killeen Bridge near Newry was defused . The operation began following a number of telephone warnings , and the road and railway line connecting Newry to Dundalk were closed due to security alerts . A pipe bomb was discovered at a police officer 's home in Annalong , County Down on 3 January 2002 , and two teenage boys were injured in County Armagh on 2 March when a bomb hidden in a traffic cone exploded . On 29 March 2002 the RIRA targeted a former member of the Royal Irish Regiment from Sion Mills , County Tyrone , with a bomb attached to his car that failed to explode . On 1 August 2002 a civilian worker was killed by an explosion at a Territorial Army base in Derry . The man , a 51 @-@ year @-@ old former member of the Ulster Defence Regiment , was the thirtieth person killed by the RIRA .
= = = Arrests = = =
Despite the RIRA 's renewed activity , the organisation was weakened by the arrest of key members and continued infiltration by informers . McKevitt was arrested on 29 March 2001 and charged with membership of an illegal organisation and directing terrorism , and remanded into custody . In July 2001 , following the arrests of McKevitt and other RIRA members , British and Irish government sources hinted that the organisation was now in disarray . Other key figures were jailed , including the RIRA 's Director of Operations , Liam Campbell , who was convicted of membership of an illegal organisation , and Colm Murphy who was convicted of conspiring to cause the Omagh bombing , although this conviction was overturned on appeal .
On 10 April 2002 Ruairi Convey , from Donaghmede , Dublin , was jailed for three years for membership of the RIRA . During a search of his home a list of names and home addresses of members of the Gardaí 's Emergency Response Unit was found . Five RIRA members were also convicted in connection with the 2001 bombing campaign in England , and received sentences varying from 16 years to 22 years imprisonment . In October 2002 , McKevitt and other RIRA members imprisoned in Portlaoise Prison issued a statement calling for the organisation to stand down . After a two @-@ month trial , McKevitt was sentenced to twenty years imprisonment in August 2003 after being convicted of directing terrorism .
= = = 2002 – 2007 = = =
After McKevitt 's imprisonment , the RIRA regrouped . The RIRA claimed responsibility for a series of firebomb attacks against premises in Belfast in November 2004 , and an attack on a Police Service of Northern Ireland ( PSNI ) patrol in Ballymena during March 2006 was attributed to the RIRA by the Independent Monitoring Commission ( IMC ) . On 9 August 2006 , fire bomb attacks by the RIRA hit businesses in Newry , County Down . Buildings belonging to JJB Sports and Carpetright were destroyed , and ones belonging to MFI and TK Maxx were badly damaged . On 27 October 2006 , a large amount of explosives was found in Kilbranish , Mount Leinster , County Carlow by police , who believe the RIRA were trying to derail the peace process with a bomb attack . The IMC believe the RIRA were also responsible for a failed mortar attack on Craigavon PSNI Station on 4 December 2006 . The IMC 's October 2006 report stated that the RIRA remains " active and dangerous " and that it seeks to " sustain its position as a terrorist organisation " . The RIRA has stated it has no intention of calling a ceasefire unless a declaration of intent to withdraw from Northern Ireland is made by the British Government .
In a lengthy interview with An Phoblacht newspaper in 2003 , the leadership of the Provisional IRA said that the RIRA had " no coherent strategy " .
The Real IRA were suspected of complicity in the murder in December 2006 of drug @-@ dealer Martin ' Marlo ' Hyland . Hyland was shot dead at his Dublin home , along with a plumber , Anthony Campbell , who was carrying out work at the house . The organisation was embroiled in a feud with Hyland 's gang at the time .
= = = 2007 – 2013 = = =
On 8 November 2007 two RIRA members shot an off @-@ duty PSNI officer as he sat in his car on Bishop Street in Derry , causing injuries to his face and arm . On 12 November another PSNI member was shot by RIRA members in Dungannon , County Tyrone . On 7 February 2008 , the RIRA stated that , after experiencing a three @-@ year period of reorganisation , it intends to " go back to war " by launching a new offensive against " legitimate targets " . It also , despite having apologised for the Omagh bombing , denied any large scale involvement with the attack and said that their part had only gone as far as their codeword being used . On 12 May 2008 the RIRA seriously injured a member of the PSNI when a booby trap bomb exploded underneath his car near Spamount , County Tyrone . On 25 September 2008 the RIRA shot a man in the neck in St Johnston , near the Derry border . The same man was targeted in a pipe bomb attack on his home on 25 October , the RIRA did not claim responsibility for the attack , but security forces believe they were responsible for it .
On 7 March 2009 the RIRA claimed responsibility for the 2009 Massereene Barracks shooting . This shooting occurred outside the Massereene Barracks as four soldiers were receiving a pizza delivery . Two soldiers were killed , and the other two soldiers and two deliverymen were injured . On 3 April 2009 the RIRA in Derry claimed responsibility for carrying out a punishment shooting of a man who was awaiting sentencing for raping a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl . The RIRA were also blamed for orchestrating rioting in the Ardoyne area of Belfast on 13 July 2009 as an Apprentice Boys parade was passing . Several PSNI officers were injured in the rioting and at least one shot was fired at police . In early November , the Independent Monitoring Commission released a report stating that the threat from the RIRA and other dissident republicans was at its most serious level since the 1998 Good Friday Agreement .
When drug dealer Sean Winters was shot dead in Portmarnock , north Dublin in September 2010 , the Real IRA " emerged as the chief suspects " . They were also suspected of shooting dead drugs gang leader Michael Kelly in Coolock in September 2011 .
On 5 October 2010 , a car bomb exploded outside a branch of the Ulster Bank on Culmore Road in Derry . Two police officers were slightly injured in the blast , which also damaged a hotel and other businesses . Several telephone warnings were received an hour prior to the blast allowing police to cordon off the area . The RIRA later claimed responsibility in a telephone call to the Derry Journal .
A large Real IRA explosives dump and arms cache were discovered in Dunleer , County Louth by Gardaí in October 2010 , following a weekend of searches and arrests in the east of the country . In addition , two Real IRA men were charged in Dublin 's non @-@ jury Special Criminal Court of membership of an illegal organisation . The Real IRA claimed responsibility for kidnapping and shooting dead of one of their members , Kieran Doherty , for alleged drug dealing . Further significant seizures of Real IRA arms and explosives were made by the Gardaí during 2012 and 2013 , leading to the arrest of over a dozen persons . In 2011 Michael Campbell , brother of Liam , was found guilty in Vilnius , Lithuania , of trying to purchase arms and explosives and was sentenced to twelve years in jail . In October 2013 Campbell was freed on appeal , only to have the Supreme Court of Lithuania order a retrial in June 2014 . Campbell has maintained his innocence , accusing British intelligence of attempting to frame him . In June 2013 Gardaí arrested eight people after a Real IRA meeting and uncovered a massive haul of the plastic explosive Semtex in two raids in Dublin . In October 2013 the Real IRA claimed responsibility for " executing " an alleged leading cocaine dealer in north Belfast .
= = = 2012 – present : Since the merger ( " New IRA " ) = = =
On 26 July 2012 , it was reported that Republican Action Against Drugs ( RAAD ) and other small republican militant groups were merging with the Real IRA . As before , the group would continue to refer to itself as " the Irish Republican Army " . It issued the following statement :
The leadership of the Irish Republican Army remains committed to the full realisation of the ideals and principles enshrined in the Proclamation of 1916 .
In recent years the establishment of a free and independent Ireland has suffered setbacks due to the failure among the leadership of Irish nationalism and fractures within republicanism . The root cause of conflict in our country is the subversion of the nation 's inalienable right to self @-@ determination and this has yet to be addressed . Instead the Irish people have been sold a phoney peace , rubber @-@ stamped by a token legislature in Stormont .
Non @-@ conformist republicans are being subjected to harassment , arrest and violence by the forces of the British crown ; others have been interned on the direction of an English overlord . It is Britain , not the IRA , which has chosen provocation and conflict .
The IRA 's mandate for armed struggle derives from Britain 's denial of the fundamental right of the Irish people to national self @-@ determination and sovereignty -- so long as Britain persists in its denial of national and democratic rights in Ireland the IRA will have to continue to assert those rights .
The necessity of armed struggle in pursuit of Irish freedom can be avoided through the removal of the British military presence in our country , the dismantling of their armed militias and the declaration of an internationally observed timescale that details the dismantling of British political interference in our country .
After the merger , the media began to refer to the group as the " New IRA " . As well as RAAD , the alliance includes an east Tyrone group thought to be responsible for killing PSNI officer Ronan Kerr in 2011 , and a Belfast group who badly wounded PSNI officer Peadar Heffron in 2010 . The Continuity IRA , and the group often referred to as ONH , remain independent . The PSNI reckoned that the new group has a membership of " between 250 and 300 military activists , backed up by associates " . In November 2012 it claimed responsibility for shooting dead a Prison Officer near Lurgan , the first prison officer to be killed since 1993 .
On 3 September 2012 prominent Real IRA member Alan Ryan was shot dead in Dublin . Gardaí believed that he had been involved in a feud with major crime gangs from whom he was trying to extort money . Following Ryan 's death an internal feud developed in the Real IRA . Ryan 's replacement as leader and another associate were shot and wounded in November 2012 , allegedly on the orders of the Northern leadership . In March 2013 , another prominent former Real IRA member , Peter Butterly from Dunleer , was shot dead ; three Dublin men , allegedly from the Alan Ryan faction , were charged with his murder and Real IRA membership .
In February 2014 the group sent seven letter bombs to British Army recruitment offices in south @-@ east England ; the first time republicans had struck in Britain since 2001 . The following month , a PSNI landrover was hit by an explosively formed projectile in Belfast . A civilian car was also hit by debris , but there were no injuries . The Real IRA claimed responsibility . In November 2014 , a PSNI armoured jeep was hit by another ' horizontal mortar ' in Derry , and in Belfast a PSNI landrover was attacked with a homemade rocket @-@ propelled grenade ( RPG ) launcher .
In April – May 2015 , there were two Real IRA bomb attacks in Derry . One exploded at the Probation Board offices , and two partially exploded at the perimeter fence of a British Army Reserve base . Later in May , four men , one an alleged associate of Real IRA leader Michael McKevitt , were reportedly arrested during an explosives seizure by police in Northern Ireland . In August , a firebomb exploded in a post van parked inside Palace Barracks , Holywood , a British military base which is home to MI5 in Northern Ireland . The firebomb destroyed the van and set nearby vehicles and garages on fire . On Halloween morning , three men were arrested and charged with IRA membership in addition to firearm offences . In November , a PSNI vehicle in Belfast was riddled with automatic gunfire , fired from an AK @-@ 47 . On Christmas Day in North Belfast , police came under fire again but were not injured . The attacker was charged with attempted murder . Days later , on 27 November 2015 , police in West Belfast came under heavy fire yet again . No officers were wounded because of the armour @-@ plating and bullet @-@ proof glass . The Real IRA or another dissident Republican group was suspected to be behind the attack .
On March 4 , 2016 , a prison officer ( Adrian Ismay ) had a heart attack and died in a hospital . He had received serious wounds following a booby @-@ trap bomb detonating under his van on Hillsborough Drive , East Belfast 11 days earlier . The wounds he received from the bombing were directly responsible for the heart attack that killed him . The ' New ' IRA claimed responsibility and said it was a response to the alleged mistreatment of republican prisoners at Maghaberry Prison . It added that the officer was targeted because he trained prison officers at Maghaberry .
In April 2016 , Gardaí arrested two significant members of the New IRA and seized € 10 @,@ 000 . In April , 2016 , explosives linked to the New IRA were found in Dublin and several people were questioned by police . The New IRA declared that all criminals were legitimate targets after Alan Ryan 's brother , Vincent Ryan , was shot dead . In April 2016 , the New IRA were blamed for badly injuring a man in a punishment shooting in Derry , shortly after a man had been killed by a dissident Republican attack in Ardoyne . In May 2016 three men were shot in paramilitary style attacks in republican areas of Belfast during a 24 @-@ hour period , leaving two injured and one dead . On 25 April a New IRA member , Michael Barr was shot dead in west Dublin . Gardaí suspected Barr was shot dead because it was believed by the Kinahan cartel he provided a “ safe house ” to one of the gunmen in the Regency Hotel attack . Fifteen people were arrested in Northern Ireland following a paramilitary funeral for him .
The terrorist threat level in Great Britain was upgraded to " substantial " on 11 May 2016 , with the New IRA 's continuing threats being part of the reason by Home Secretary Theresa May and MI5 .
On 16 May 2016 a ' terrorist hide ' was found by civilians in Capanagh Forest near Larne , Antrim , possibly belonging to the New IRA . It was a very substantial cache .
In June 2016 it was revealed that a five @-@ man New IRA hit team were in Dublin 's north inner city looking to murder two leading gangsters after one of their associates was shot dead in a gangland feud . Sources said the murder squad from the North spent several days and nights looking for their targets in the streets .
= = Structure and status = =
The RIRA has a command structure similar to the Provisional IRA , with a seven @-@ member Army Council consisting of a chief of staff , quartermaster general , director of training , director of operations , director of finance , director of publicity , and adjutant general . The rank @-@ and @-@ file members operate in active service units of covert cells to prevent the organisation from being compromised by informers . As of June 2005 , the organisation is believed to have a maximum of about 150 members , according to a statement by the Irish Minister for Justice , Equality and Law Reform , Michael McDowell .
The RIRA also has a political wing , the 32 County Sovereignty Movement ( formerly the 32 County Sovereignty Committee ) , led by Francis Mackey . The RIRA is distinct from the Continuity IRA , another Provisional IRA splinter group founded in 1986 , although the two groups have been known to co @-@ operate at a local level . The Provisional IRA has been hostile to the RIRA and issued threats to RIRA members , and in October 2000 was alleged to be responsible for the fatal shooting of Belfast RIRA member Joe O 'Connor according to O 'Connor 's family and 32 County Sovereignty Movement member Marian Price .
Organisations called " Irish Republican Army " are illegal in both UK law and Irish law ; both proscriptions have been held to apply to the RIRA as to other groups of the name . Membership in the organisation is punishable by a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment under UK law . In 2001 the United States government designated the RIRA as a " Foreign Terrorist Organization " ( FTO ) . This makes it illegal for Americans to provide material support to the RIRA , requires American financial institutions to freeze the group 's assets , and denies suspected RIRA members visas into the United States .
= = Funding = =
In 2014 , Forbes magazine estimated the group 's annual turnover at $ 50 million . According to the police in Northern Ireland , the main sources of the Real IRA 's funding are illegal fuel operations and various smuggling activities .
= = Weaponry = =
The RIRA initially took small amounts of materiel from Provisional IRA arms dumps under the control of McKevitt and other former Provisional IRA members , including the plastic explosive Semtex , Uzi submachine guns , AK @-@ 47 and AK @-@ 74 assault rifles , handguns , shotguns , detonators , and timing devices . The defection of senior Provisional IRA members also gave the RIRA the ability to manufacture home @-@ made explosives and improvised mortars , including the Mark 15 mortar capable of firing a 200 lb shell .
In 1999 the organisation supplemented its equipment by importing arms from Croatia , including military explosive TM500 , CZ Model 25 submachine guns , modified AK @-@ 47 assault rifles with a folding stock , and RPG @-@ 18 and RPG @-@ 22 rocket launchers . But a July 2000 attempt to smuggle a second consignment of arms was foiled by Croatian police , who seized seven RPG @-@ 18s , AK @-@ 47 assault rifles , detonators , ammunition , and twenty packs of TM500 .
In 2001 RIRA members travelled to Slovakia to procure arms , and were caught in a sting operation by the British security agency MI5 . The men attempted to purchase five tonnes of plastic explosives , 2 @,@ 000 detonators , 500 handguns , 200 rocket @-@ propelled @-@ grenades , and also wire @-@ guided missiles and sniper rifles . Three men from County Louth were arrested and extradited to the UK and subsequently imprisoned for 30 years each after pleading guilty to conspiring to cause explosions and other charges .
In June 2006 , the PSNI made a number of arrests following an MI5 sting operation targeting a dissident republican gun smuggling plot . The RIRA had attempted to procure arms from France including Semtex and C @-@ 4 plastic explosives , SA @-@ 7 surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , AK @-@ 47s , rocket launchers , heavy machine guns , sniper rifles , pistols with silencers , anti @-@ tank weapons and detonators . On 30 June 2010 , two of those arrested were found guilty following a trial by judge in Belfast . On 1 October 2010 one man was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment for attempting to import weapons and explosives , while the other was sentenced to 4 years imprisonment for making a Portuguese property available for the purpose of terrorism .
= Tropic Thunder =
Tropic Thunder is a 2008 American action comedy film co @-@ written , produced , directed by , and starring Ben Stiller . The film also stars Robert Downey , Jr. and Jack Black . The main plot revolves around a group of prima donna actors who are making a fictional Vietnam War film . When their frustrated director decides to drop them in the middle of a jungle , they are forced to rely on their acting skills in order to survive the real action and danger . Written by Stiller , Justin Theroux and Etan Cohen , the film was produced by Red Hour Films and distributed by Paramount Pictures through DreamWorks Pictures .
Stiller 's idea for the film originated while playing a minor role in Empire of the Sun , and he later enlisted Theroux and Cohen to help complete the script . After the film was green @-@ lit in 2006 , filming took place in 2007 on the Hawaiian island of Kaua 'i over thirteen weeks and was later deemed the largest film production in the island 's history . The film had an extensive marketing promotion , including faux websites for the three main characters and their fictional films , airing a fictional television special , and selling the energy drink advertised in the film , " Booty Sweat " .
The film received generally positive reviews , with critics praising the film 's characters , story , faux trailers , and the performances of Stiller , Downey , and Tom Cruise , though the depiction of the mentally handicapped proved controversial . The film 's soundtrack and score debuted on August 5 , 2008 , before the film 's theatrical release . In its North American opening weekend , the film earned US $ 26 million and retained the number one position for the first three weekends of release . Downey received Academy Award , BAFTA Award , and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for his performance , with both him and Cruise receiving nominations for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture . The film grossed more than $ 188 million worldwide before its release on home video on November 18 , 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Hook @-@ handed Vietnam veteran Staff Sergeant John " Four Leaf " Tayback 's ( Nick Nolte ) memoir , Tropic Thunder , is being made into a film . With the exception of newcomer supporting actor Kevin Sandusky ( Jay Baruchel ) , the cast — fading action hero Tugg Speedman ( Ben Stiller ) , five @-@ time Academy Award @-@ winning Australian method actor Kirk Lazarus ( Robert Downey , Jr . ) , rapper Alpa Chino ( Brandon T. Jackson ) , and drug @-@ addicted comedian Jeff Portnoy ( Jack Black ) — behave unreasonably . Rookie director Damien Cockburn ( Steve Coogan ) cannot control them during filming of a large battle scene , and production is reported to be one month behind schedule a mere week into production . Studio executive Les Grossman ( Tom Cruise ) orders Cockburn to resume filming as planned , or risk its cancellation .
Acting on Four Leaf 's advice , Damien drops the actors into the middle of the jungle , with hidden cameras and rigged special effects explosions to film " guerrilla @-@ style " . The actors have guns that fire blanks , along with a map and scene listing that will lead to a helicopter waiting at the end of the route . Unknown to the actors and production , the group have been dropped in the middle of the Golden Triangle , the home of the heroin @-@ producing Flaming Dragon gang . Just as the group are about to set off , Damien inadvertently steps on an old land mine and is blown up , stunning the actors . Tugg , believing Damien faked his death to encourage the cast to give better performances , persuades the others that Damien is alive and that they are still shooting the film . Lazarus is unconvinced but joins them in their trek through the jungle .
When Four Leaf and pyrotechnics operator Cody Underwood ( Danny McBride ) try to locate the dead director , they are captured by Flaming Dragon , at which point Four Leaf reveals that he fabricated his memoir , was never in the Army , and has hands . As the actors continue through the jungle , Kirk and Kevin discover that Tugg is leading them in the wrong direction . The four actors , tired of walking and hoping to be rescued , leave Tugg , who goes off by himself and is captured by Flaming Dragon . Taken to their heroin factory , Tugg believes it is a POW camp from the script . The gang discovers he is the star of their favorite film , the box office bomb Simple Jack , and forces him to reenact it several times a day . Meanwhile in Los Angeles , Tugg 's agent Rick ' Pecker ' Peck ( Matthew McConaughey ) is trying to negotiate with Les an unfulfilled term in Tugg 's contract that entitles him to a TiVo . Flaming Dragon calls the two and demands a ransom for Tugg , but Les instead berates the gang . Despite the threats , Les expresses no interest in rescuing Tugg and tries to convince Rick about the benefits of allowing Tugg to die and collecting the insurance . Les also offers Rick a Gulfstream V jet and money in return for his cooperation .
Kirk , Alpa , Jeff , and Kevin discover Flaming Dragon 's heroin factory . After witnessing Tugg being tortured , they plan a rescue attempt based on the film 's script . Kirk impersonates a farmer towing a captured Jeff on the back of a water buffalo , distracting the armed guards so Alpa and Kevin can locate the captives . After the gang 's leader ( Brandon Soo Hoo ) notices inconsistencies in Kirk 's story , the actors , knowing their cover has been blown , begin firing , temporarily subduing the gang . Their control of the gang falls apart when Jeff grabs the leader and heads for the drugs , and the gang regains their guns and begin firing .
The four actors locate Four Leaf , Cody , and Tugg and cross a bridge rigged to explode to get to Underwood 's helicopter . Tugg asks to remain behind with the gang which he considers his family , but quickly returns when Flaming Dragon fires in pursuit . Four Leaf detonates the bridge allowing Tugg to reach safety , but as the helicopter takes off , the gang fires a rocket @-@ propelled grenade at the helicopter . Rick unexpectedly stumbles out of the jungle carrying a TiVo box and throws it in the path of the grenade , saving them . The crew return to Hollywood , where footage from the hidden cameras is compiled into a feature film , Tropic Blunder , which becomes a major critical and commercial success . The film wins Tugg his first Academy Award , which Kirk presents to him at the ceremony .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Rick is on a plane back to Hollywood with his estranged son .
= = Cast = =
Ben Stiller as Tugg Speedman : Once the highest @-@ paid , highest @-@ grossing action film star ever due to his Scorcher franchise , his career has stalled , and he now has a reputation for appearing in nothing but box office bombs . After a failed attempt at portraying a serious role in Simple Jack , in which he plays a mentally @-@ challenged farm boy , he takes the role of Four Leaf Tayback in an attempt to save his career . The first faux trailer at the film 's start is a preview for Scorcher VI : Global Meltdown , the latest in his series .
Jack Black as Jeff Portnoy : A drug @-@ addicted comedian @-@ actor well known for portraying multiple parts in films that rely on toilet humor , particularly jokes about flatulence . In the film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film , he plays a raspy @-@ voiced soldier named Fats . He fears he is only considered an actor because of his comical delivery and nothing else . Portnoy 's faux trailer for The Fatties : Fart 2 , about a family ( with each member played by Portnoy ) which enjoys passing gas , spoofs Eddie Murphy 's portrayal of multiple characters in films such as Nutty Professor II : The Klumps .
Robert Downey , Jr. as Kirk Lazarus : An immensely talented Australian method actor , Lazarus had a controversial " pigmentation alteration " surgery to darken his skin for his portrayal of the black character Staff Sergeant Lincoln Osiris . Lazarus refuses to break character until he has recorded the DVD commentary for a part and only speaks in his character 's African American Vernacular English . Lazarus 's faux trailer , Satan 's Alley , is about two gay monks in a 12th @-@ century Irish monastery , parodying art house films like Brokeback Mountain and Downey 's own scenes with Tobey Maguire ( who in a cameo portrays the other monk ) in Wonder Boys .
Steve Coogan as Damien Cockburn : The inexperienced British film director who is unable to control the actors in the film .
Jay Baruchel as Kevin Sandusky : A respectful novice actor , he is the only cast member to have read the script and book and attended the assigned boot camp prior to the film . Sandusky plays a young soldier named Brooklyn in the film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film . Brooklyn and Sandusky each occupy the position of straight man in character in the film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film and its cast , being the only actor without an internal conflict or deep @-@ seated insecurity . He often serves as a mediator when tensions between the cast get high .
Danny McBride as Cody Underwood : The film 's explosives expert and helicopter pilot . He is a pyromaniac .
Brandon T. Jackson as Alpa Chino : A closeted homosexual rapper who is attempting to cross over into acting , portraying a soldier named Motown , while promoting his " Bust @-@ A @-@ Nut " candy bar and energy drink , " Booty Sweat " . He feels his image as a rapper would not allow him to be open as gay . His name is a play on Al Pacino . Before the faux trailers , a faux commercial for " Booty Sweat " and " Bust @-@ A @-@ Nut " appears , accompanied by the song " I Love Tha Pussy " and the slogan " Pop An Ass Open ! " .
Bill Hader as Rob Slolom : Grossman 's assistant and right @-@ hand man .
Nick Nolte as Sergeant John " Four Leaf " Tayback : The author of Tropic Thunder , a fake memoir of his war experiences on which the film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film is based . He suggests the idea of dropping the actors in the middle of the jungle to get them looking and feeling like soldiers lost in a foreign land .
Matthew McConaughey as Rick " Pecker " Peck : Speedman 's extremely devoted agent and best friend .
Brandon Soo Hoo as Tran : The 12 @-@ year @-@ old young leader of the Flaming Dragon gang . The character was compared to Karen National Union guerrilla leaders Johnny and Luther Htoo .
Reggie Lee as Byong : The second @-@ in @-@ command of the Flaming Dragon gang .
Tom Cruise as Les Grossman : The profane , ill @-@ tempered studio executive producing Tropic Thunder .
Various actors and celebrities portray themselves , including Tobey Maguire , Tyra Banks , Maria Menounos , Martin Lawrence , The Mooney Suzuki , Jason Bateman , Lance Bass , Jennifer Love Hewitt , Alicia Silverstone , and Jon Voight . Christine Taylor ( Stiller 's wife ) , Mini Anden , Anthony Ruivivar , Rachel Avery , and Yvette Nicole Brown have roles as minor characters in the film . Co @-@ writer Justin Theroux appears in two brief roles as a UH @-@ 1 Huey gunner and the disc jockey from Zoolander ( shown in a deleted scene ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Script = = =
Stiller developed the premise for Tropic Thunder while shooting Empire of the Sun , in which he played a small part . Stiller wanted to make a film based on the actors he knew who , after taking part in boot camps to prepare for war film roles , became " self @-@ important " and " self @-@ involved " and appeared to believe they had been part of a real military unit .
Co @-@ writer Theroux revealed that the initial script concept was to have actors go to a mock boot camp and return with posttraumatic stress disorder . The final script was developed to satirize Vietnam War films such as Apocalypse Now , Rambo , Missing in Action , Platoon , Full Metal Jacket , Hamburger Hill , and The Deer Hunter . Theroux pointed out that since viewers had an increased awareness of the inner workings of Hollywood due to celebrity websites and Hollywood news sources , the script was easier to write . Dialogue for unscripted portions of the storyboard was developed on set by the actors or was improvised .
= = = Casting = = =
Etan Cohen created the role of Kirk Lazarus as a way of lampooning the great lengths that some method actors go to depict a role . Downey was approached by Stiller about the part while on vacation in Hawaii . Downey said on CBS ' The Early Show that his first reaction was , " This is the stupidest idea I 've ever heard ! " and that Stiller responded , " Yeah , I know — isn 't it great ? " In another interview , Downey said that he accepted the part but , having no idea where or even how to start building the character of Lazarus , eventually settled on a jive @-@ esque speech pattern and a ragged bass voice ; he then auditioned Lazarus ' voice over the phone to Stiller , who approved the characterization immediately . Downey revealed that he modeled the character on actors Russell Crowe , Colin Farrell , and Daniel Day @-@ Lewis . The initial script was written for Downey 's character to be Irish , but was altered after Downey stated he could improvise better as an Australian ( he had previously played a similar outlandish Australian character in the film Natural Born Killers ) . Downey 's practice of remaining in character between takes and even off the film set was also written into the script for his character to perform . Downey required between one and a half to two hours of make @-@ up application . According to Downey , " One makeup artist would start on one side of my face and a second makeup artist would start on the other side , and then they 'd meet in the middle . "
Downey acknowledged the potential controversy over his role : " At the end of the day , it 's always about how well you commit to the character . If I didn 't feel it was morally sound , or that it would be easily misinterpreted that I 'm just C. Thomas Howell [ in Soul Man ] , I would 've stayed home . " Jackson stated : " When I first read the script , I was like : What ? Blackface ? But when I saw him [ act ] he , like , became a black man ... It was just good acting . It was weird on the set because he would keep going with the character . He 's a method actor . " Stiller commented on Downey 's portrayal of a white actor playing a black man : " When people see the movie — in the context of the film , he 's playing a method actor who 's gone to great lengths to play a black guy . The movie is skewering actors and how they take themselves so seriously . " Stiller previewed the film before the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People , and several black journalists reacted positively to the character .
Cruise was initially set to cameo as Stiller 's character 's agent , Rick Peck . Instead , Cruise suggested adding a studio head character , and the idea was incorporated into the script . Stiller and Cruise worked together to create the new character , Les Grossman , as a middle @-@ aged businessman . The role required that Cruise don a fatsuit , large prosthetic hands , and a bald cap . It was Cruise 's idea to give the character large hands and dance to " Low " . Stiller intended to keep Cruise 's role a secret until the film 's release . In addition , Paramount Pictures refused to release promotional pictures of Cruise 's character to the media . In November 2007 , images of Cruise wearing a bald headpiece and a fatsuit appeared on Inside Edition , as well as on the Internet . Cruise 's attorneys threatened a lawsuit if photos showing Cruise in costume were published . They approached various sites that were hosting the image and quickly had it removed . A representative for Cruise stated : " Mr. Cruise 's appearance was supposed to be a surprise for his fans worldwide . Paparazzi have ruined what should have been a fun discovery for moviegoers . " The photography agency INF , who debuted the image , responded with a statement : " While these pictures were taken without breaking any criminal or civil laws , we 've decided to pull them from circulation effective immediately . "
Serving as a last @-@ minute replacement , Tobey Maguire was only available to be on set for two hours to film his scenes in Satan 's Alley . Downey said he was amazed Maguire would agree to do the film and felt like they were creating a " karmic pay @-@ off " for their scenes together in the 2000 film Wonder Boys , where Downey 's character has a one @-@ night stand with Maguire 's character . After Cruise vacated the role of Rick Peck , Owen Wilson was cast to play the part . Following his suicide attempt in August 2007 , Wilson dropped out of the film and was replaced by Matthew McConaughey .
= = = Filming = = =
Although Southern California and Mexico were considered for the main unit filming , the Hawaiian island of Kaua 'i ( where Stiller has a home ) was selected for the majority of the shooting . Kaua 'i was chosen over Mexico because a tax credit for in @-@ state spending was negotiated with the Kaua 'i Film Commission . John Toll , the cinematographer , stated the island was also selected for its similarity to Vietnam , based on its dense foliage , variety of terrains , and weather . Kaua 'i was first scouted as a possible location to film Tropic Thunder in 2004 . Stiller spent more than 25 hours over 6 weeks exploring the island , using all @-@ terrain vehicles , boats , and helicopters . After the film was greenlit by DreamWorks in 2006 , pre @-@ production lasted for six months , most of this time spent on scouting additional locations for filming . Filming for the Los Angeles and interior scenes occurred on sets at Universal Studios in Hollywood .
Tropic Thunder was the first major studio production on Kaua 'i in five years . After filming was completed , it was deemed the largest production filmed on the island to date , and contributed more than $ 60 million to the local economy . Tim Ryan , the executive editor of Hawaii Film & Video Magazine , commented on the filming on the island : " I think Tropic Thunder will give Kaua 'i much needed and long idled publicity in the production arena ... It should put Kaua 'i back on the production consideration radar . " Preliminary production crews were on the island starting in December 2006 and principal photography began in July 2007 , with filming lasting thirteen weeks over seven separate locations on the island . Much of the filming took place on private land as well as conservation status designated areas . Casting calls on the island sought 500 residents to portray the villagers in the film . Two units shot simultaneously on the island from the ground , and an aerial unit shot from helicopters . Many of the sets and the bridge used for one of the final scenes were built in three months . The island 's erratic weather hampered filming with rain and lighting issues . The crew also faced complications in moving the equipment and cast due to the difficult terrain .
The film advising company Warriors Inc. was enlisted to ensure the war scenes , including the attire worn by the actors , looked authentic . Former members of the U.S. military taught the actors how to handle , fire , and reload their weapons , as well as perform various tactical movements . The opening war scene was filmed over three weeks and required fifty stuntmen . Animatics were used to map out the necessary camera angles for filming .
= = = Effects = = =
Six companies working on different scenes and elements created 500 shots of visual effects in the film . These were at times altered weekly due to the reactions of test audiences in screenings . CIS Visual Effects Group assisted with the Scorcher VI faux trailer and twenty additional shots for the home media release . To expand on the comedy in the film , some of the explosions and crashes were embellished to look more destructive . The visual effects supervisor Michael Fink reflected on the exaggerated explosions : " We worked really hard to make the CG crashing helicopter in the hot landing sequence look real . Ben was adamant about that , but at the same time he wanted the explosion to be huge . When you see it hit the ground , it was like it was filled with gasoline ! It was the same thing with Ben 's sergeant character , who almost intercepts a hand grenade ... Now , I was in the Army for three years and no hand grenade would make an explosion like that ... But it was a big dramatic moment and it looks really cool ... and feels kind of real . "
Filming the large napalm explosion in the opening scene of the film required a 450 @-@ foot ( 137 @-@ meter ) row of explosive pots containing 1 @,@ 100 gallons ( 4 @,@ 165 liters ) of gasoline and diesel fuel . All the palm trees used in the explosion were moved to the specific location after the crew determined the impact of the lighting and necessary camera angles . Due to the size and cost of the 1 @.@ 25 @-@ second explosion , it was only performed once and was captured by twelve cameras . For the safety of the crew and cast , the detonators were added one hour before the explosion and nobody was allowed to be within 400 feet ( 120 m ) during detonation . The explosion was made up of twelve individual explosions and resulted in a mushroom cloud that reached 350 feet ( 110 m ) in the air . For the scene in the film , Danny McBride 's character , Cody Underwood , was the only actor shown in the shot of the explosion . All the other characters were added digitally . The explosion of the bridge in one of the final scenes used nine cameras to capture the shot , and the crew was required to be 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) away for their safety .
= = Promotion = =
A trailer for the film was released in April 2008 . The Calgary Herald gave it a rating of 3 / 5 , commenting : " This could either be good or very , very bad . " Gary Susman of Entertainment Weekly questioned whether the film would " ... turn into precisely the kind of bloated action monstrosity that it 's making fun of . " The trailer received the " Best Comedy Trailer " award at the 9th annual Golden Trailer Awards . DreamWorks also released a red band trailer , the first of its kind used by the studio to promote one of its films .
Stiller , Downey , and Black appeared on the seventh season finale of American Idol in a sketch as The Pips performing with Gladys Knight ( via archival footage ) . The three actors also later performed a sketch at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards which featured the actors attempting to create a successful viral video to promote the film with awkward results . In September 2008 , Stiller and Downey attended the San Sebastián International Film Festival to promote the film . A screening was shown , but it was not chosen to compete against the other films at the festival .
Between April 2008 and the film 's commercial release in August 2008 , the film had over 250 promotional screenings . On August 3 , 2008 , Stiller , Downey , and Black visited Camp Pendleton , a U.S. Marine Corps base in California , to present a screening to over a thousand military members and their families . The screening was on behalf of the United Service Organizations and included the actors heading to the screening by helicopter and Humvees . On August 8 , 2008 , a special 30 @-@ minute fictional E ! True Hollywood Story aired about the making of Tropic Thunder . In video games , a themed scavenger hunt was incorporated into Tom Clancy 's Rainbow Six : Vegas 2 , and Stiller allowed his likeness to be used in the online Facebook application game based on the film .
As a tie @-@ in for the film 's release , Paramount announced it would market the energy drink known in the film as " Booty Sweat " . Michael Corcoran , Paramount 's president of consumer products , commented on the release : " We 're very excited , because it has the potential to live for quite a while , well beyond the film . " The drink was sold in college bookstores , on Amazon.com , and at other retailers .
= = = Faux websites and mockumentary = = =
Several faux websites were created for the main characters and some of their prior film roles . A website for Simple Jack , a faux film exhibited within the film , was removed by DreamWorks on August 4 , due to protests from disability advocates . In addition , other promotional websites were created for " Make Pretty Skin Clinic " , the fictitious company that performed the surgery of the film 's character Kirk Lazarus , along with one for the energy drink " Booty Sweat " .
In mid @-@ July 2008 , a faux trailer for the mockumentary Rain of Madness was released . The mockumentary was a parody of Hearts of Darkness : A Filmmaker 's Apocalypse . It follows co @-@ writer Justin Theroux as a fictitious documentarian named Jan Jürgen documenting the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes aspects of the film within the film . Marketing for the faux documentary included a movie poster and an official website prior to Tropic Thunder 's release . The mockumentary was released on the iTunes Store after the film 's release and was also included on the home video release . Amy Powell , an advertising executive with Paramount , reflected on the timing of the release of Madness : " We always thought that people would be talking about Tropic Thunder at the water cooler , and that 's why we decided to release Rain of Madness two weeks into Tropic 's run — to keep this positive buzz going . "
= = Release = =
= = = Theatrical release = = =
Tropic Thunder premiered on August 11 , 2008 , at the Mann Village Theatre in Westwood , California , two days before its wide release . Members of several disability groups picketed before the premiere , protesting at the portrayal of mental retardation shown in the film . The groups revealed that it was the first time that they had ever protested together at an event . As a result of the protest , the normally unobstructed views of the red carpet leading to the premiere were blocked off by 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @-@ m ) -high fences and there was an increase in the number of security personnel present . No protests were held at the United Kingdom 's September premiere .
The North American release was scheduled for July 11 , 2008 , but was delayed until August 15 , before being brought forward to August 13 . As a result of the move from July , 20th Century Fox moved its family comedy Meet Dave in the open slot . The August 13 release date was also the opening weekends for the animated family film Star Wars : The Clone Wars and the horror film Mirrors . Studios consider the third week of August to be a weaker performing period than earlier in the summer because of students returning to school . Previous R @-@ rated comedies such as The 40 @-@ Year @-@ Old Virgin and Superbad were released in mid @-@ August and performed well at the box office . Reacting to Tropic Thunder 's release date , Rob Moore , vice chairman of Paramount Pictures , stated : " For a young person at the end of summer , you want to have some fun and forget about going back to school . What better than a crazy comedy ? "
= = = Reception = = =
Tropic Thunder received positive reviews from critics . The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 83 % , based on 221 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 1 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " With biting satire , plenty of subversive humor , and an unforgettable turn by Robert Downey , Jr . , Tropic Thunder is a triumphant late summer comedy . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score from reviews by mainstream critics , gave a film score of 71 out of 100 , based on 39 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
After attending an industry screening in April 2008 Michael Cieply from The New York Times stated that the film was " ... shaping up as one of [ DreamWorks ] ' s best prospects for the summer . " Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film a positive review , writing " There are some wildly funny scenes , a few leaden ones and others that are scattershot , with humorous satire undercut by over @-@ the @-@ top grisliness . Still , when it 's funny , it 's really funny . " A review in Variety by Todd McCarthy was critical : " Apart from startling , out @-@ there comic turns by Robert Downey Jr. and Tom Cruise , however , the antics here are pretty thin , redundant and one @-@ note . " Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail gave the film a negative review , calling it " ... an assault in the guise of a comedy — watching it is like getting mugged by a clown . " J.R. Jones of Chicago Reader stated " The rest of the movie never lives up to the hilarity of the opening , partly because the large @-@ scale production smothers the gags but mostly because those gags are so easy to smother . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave 3 @.@ 5 / 4 and wrote , " The movie is , may I say , considerably better than Stiller ’ s previous film , Zoolander ( 2001 ) . It ’ s the kind of summer comedy that rolls in , makes a lot of people laugh and rolls on to video . "
The faux trailers before the film also received mixed reviews . David Ansen of Newsweek approved of the trailers , writing " Tropic Thunder is the funniest movie of the summer — so funny , in fact , that you start laughing before the film itself has begun . " Christy Lemire , writing for the Associated Press , called the trailers " ... the best part of the trip . " Robert Wilonsky of The Village Voice was critical , saying that the trailers ' comedy " ... resides in the land of the obvious , easy chuckle . "
Downey was repeatedly singled out for praise by numerous critics , claiming that he " stole the show " , was " ... off @-@ the @-@ charts hilarious ... " , and would bring viewers " ... the fondest memories of [ his ] work . " Scott Feinberg , of the Los Angeles Times , criticized the concept of Downey 's portrayal of an African @-@ American , writing " ... I just can 't imagine any circumstance under which a blackface performance would be acceptable , any more than than [ sic ] I can imagine any circumstance under which the use of the N @-@ word would be acceptable . " Sara Vilkomerson said Cruise did " ... an astonishingly funny and surprising supporting performance . " Logan Hill of New York argued against Cruise 's cameo saying that it " ... just makes him look a little lost and almost pathetic — shucking and jiving , trying to appeal to the younger moviegoers who are abandoning him . "
Several critics commented on the controversy over lines in the film talking about the mentally disabled . Duane Dudek of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel wrote that the film " ... is just sophomoric enough to offend . And while it is also funny , it is without the empathy or compassion to cause us to wonder why we are laughing . " Christian Toto of The Washington Times argued against the opposition , " Tropic Thunder is drawing fire from special interest groups for ... its frequent use of the word ' retard ' , but discerning audiences will know where the humor is targeted . And they 'll be laughing too hard to take offense . " Kurt Loder of MTV contrasted the opposition to the lines with Downey character portrayal of an African American , " The scene in which the derisive Alpa Chino [ Brandon T. Jackson ] nails Lazarus ' recitation of black @-@ uplift homilies as nothing more than the lyrics to the Jeffersons theme is funny ; but the one in which Lazarus quietly explains to Speedman that his Simple Jack character failed because he made the mistake of going ' full retard ' — rather than softening his character with cuteness in the manner of Forrest Gump — is so on @-@ the @-@ nose accurate , it takes your breath away . "
= = = Critics ' lists = = =
In January 2009 , Entertainment Weekly included Tropic Thunder in its list " 25 Great Comedies From the Past 25 Years " for its " spot @-@ on skewering of Hollywood . " The film also appeared on several critics ' top ten lists of the best films of 2008 . Stephen King placed it at the fourth position , calling the film " the funniest , most daring comedy of the year . " The Oregonian 's Marc Mohan , placed it sixth , and several critics placed it seventh : Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News , Premiere magazine , Mike Russell of The Oregonian , as well as Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle . David Ansen of Newsweek placed it eighth and Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly included the film in the tenth position .
= = = Box office = = =
Stacey Snider , the chief executive of DreamWorks , suggested that the film would earn around $ 30 million in its opening weekend and go on to be as successful as Borat : Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan , which earned $ 129 million in the U.S. and Canada and $ 260 million worldwide . The Dark Knight had been the number one film at the box office for the four weeks prior to the release of Tropic Thunder . Bob Thompson , a writer for the National Post , speculated that Tropic Thunder 's opening weekend would outperform The Dark Knight for the weekend . In a list compiled prior to the summer 's film releases , Entertainment Weekly predicted that the film would be the tenth highest grossing film of the summer at the American box office with $ 142 @.@ 6 million .
Tropic Thunder opened in 3 @,@ 319 theaters and , for its first five days of American and Canadian release , earned $ 36 @,@ 845 @,@ 588 . The film placed first in the weekend 's box office with $ 25 @,@ 812 @,@ 796 , surpassing Star Wars : The Clone Wars and Mirrors , which debuted the same weekend . Reacting to the film 's opening receipts , DreamWorks spokesman Chip Sullivan stated " We 're thrilled , quite frankly . It played out exactly how we hoped . " In foreign markets for the film 's opening weekend , it was released in 418 Russian and 19 United Arab Emirates locations earning $ 2 @.@ 2 million and $ 319 @,@ 000 , respectively .
The film maintained its number one position at the American and Canadian box office for the following two weekends , making it the second film in 2008 ( after The Dark Knight ) to hold the number @-@ one position for more than two consecutive weekends . The film 's widest release was in 3 @,@ 473 theaters , placing it in the top 25 widest releases in the U.S. for 2008 . For 2008 , the film was the fifth @-@ highest @-@ grossing domestic R @-@ rated film . The film 's U.S. and Canada gross of over $ 110 million made Tropic Thunder Stiller 's most successful film as a director . The film has had gross receipts of $ 110 @,@ 515 @,@ 313 in the U.S. and Canada and $ 77 @,@ 557 @,@ 336 in international markets for a total of $ 188 @,@ 072 @,@ 649 worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
In October 2008 , Paramount chose to put end @-@ of @-@ year award push funds behind Tropic Thunder , and began advertising for Downey to receive a nomination by the Academy Awards for Best Supporting Actor . In a November 2008 issue by Entertainment Weekly , Downey 's film role was considered one of the three contenders for Best Supporting Actor . As a way of extending the film @-@ within @-@ a @-@ film " universe " into real life , there have also been at least two online " For Your Consideration " ads touting Downey 's character , Kirk Lazarus , for Best Supporting Actor ; one of these contains " scenes " from Satan 's Alley that were not in the trailer as released in theaters . At least one of the ads was produced by Paramount Pictures and intended for early For Your Consideration awareness for Downey 's role . On January 22 , 2009 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences nominated Downey for Best Supporting Actor . At the 81st Academy Awards , Downey lost to Heath Ledger for his role as The Joker in The Dark Knight .
With the onset of the annual Hollywood film award season at the end of 2008 , Tropic Thunder began receiving nominations and awards starting with a win for " Hollywood Comedy of the Year Award " at the 12th annual Hollywood Film Festival on October 27 , 2008 . The film was nominated for Best Motion Picture , Comedy or Musical , for the Satellite Awards . In addition , Downey was nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role . The Broadcast Film Critics Association nominated Downey for Best Supporting Actor and awarded Tropic Thunder Best Comedy Movie at the BFCA 's Critics ' Choice Awards . Both Downey and Cruise received nominations from the Hollywood Foreign Press Association for Golden Globes for Best Supporting Actor . The Boston Society of Film Critics recognized the cast with its Best Ensemble award . Downey was also nominated by both the Screen Actors Guild and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts for Best Supporting Actor awards .
= = = Home media = = =
Tropic Thunder was released in the United States on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on November 18 , 2008 , three months after its release and a week after the end of its theatrical run in the U.S. and Canada . The film was released on home video on January 26 , 2009 in the United Kingdom . Special features include an unrated director 's cut of the film , audio commentaries ( including one featuring Stiller , Downey , and Black , with Downey providing his commentary as Lincoln Osiris , a nod to a joke in the film that Lazarus never breaks character until he completes the DVD commentary ) , several featurettes , deleted scenes , an alternate ending , and the Rain of Madness mockumentary .
For the film 's first week of release , Tropic Thunder placed on several video charts . It reached second place on the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert sales chart and Nielsen 's Blu @-@ ray Disc chart , earning $ 19 @,@ 064 @,@ 959 ( not including Blu @-@ ray sales ) . In rentals , it placed first on the Home Media Magazine 's video rental chart . The DVD sales in 2008 totaled $ 42 @,@ 271 @,@ 059 , placing it in 28th for DVD sales for the year . By September 2009 , 2 @,@ 963 @,@ 000 DVD units have been sold , gathering revenue of $ 49 @,@ 870 @,@ 248 .
= = Controversy = =
Tropic Thunder was criticized by the disability advocacy community . The website for Simple Jack was withdrawn on August 4 amid several groups ' concerns over its portrayal of mental retardation . A spokesman for DreamWorks said , " We heard their concerns , and we understand that taken out of context , the site appeared to be insensitive to people with disabilities . " A coalition of more than 20 disability advocacy groups , including the Special Olympics and the Arc of the United States , objected to the film 's repeated and excessive use of the word " retard " . DreamWorks offered to screen the film for the groups on August 8 to determine if it still offended them . The screening was postponed to the same day of the premiere on August 11 . After representatives for the groups attended the private screening and were offended by its content , the groups picketed outside the film 's premiere . Timothy Shriver , the chairman of the Special Olympics , stated , " This population struggles too much with the basics to have to struggle against Hollywood . We 're sending a message that this hate speech is no longer acceptable . "
Disability advocates and others who previewed the film reported that the offensive treatment of individuals with mental disabilities was woven throughout the film 's plot . Disability advocates urged people not to see the film , claiming it is demeaning to individuals with mental disabilities and would encourage bullying . Stiller defended the film , stating " We screened the movie so many times and this didn 't come up until very late ... in the context of the film I think it 's really clear , they were making fun of the actors and actors who try to use serious subjects to win awards . " Co @-@ writer Etan Cohen echoed Stiller 's rationale : " Some people have taken this as making fun of handicapped people , but we 're really trying to make fun of the actors who use this material as fodder for acclaim . " He went on to state that the film lampoons actors who portray mentally retarded / autistic characters such as Dustin Hoffman in Rain Man , Tom Hanks in Forrest Gump , and Sean Penn in I Am Sam . A DreamWorks spokesman did not directly respond to the criticism , claiming that Tropic Thunder " ... is an R @-@ rated comedy that satirizes Hollywood and its excesses , makes its point by featuring inappropriate and over @-@ the @-@ top characters in ridiculous situations . " The film 's advertising was altered , but none of the scenes in the film were edited as a result of the opposition . In response to the controversy , the director 's cut of the DVD ( but not the Blu @-@ ray ) includes a public service announcement in the special features that discourages use of the word " retard " .
= = Music = =
Tropic Thunder 's score and soundtrack were released on August 5 , 2008 , the week before the film 's theatrical release . The score was composed by Theodore Shapiro and performed by the Hollywood Studio Symphony . William Ruhlmann of allmusic gave the score a positive review , stating it is " ... an affectionate and knowing satire of the history of Hollywood action movie music , penned by an insider . " Thomas Simpson of SoundtrackNet called it " ... a mixture of fun , seriousness , rock n ' roll and great scoring . "
Five songs , " Cum On Feel the Noize " by Quiet Riot , " Sympathy for the Devil " by The Rolling Stones , " For What It 's Worth " by Buffalo Springfield , " Low " by Flo Rida and T @-@ Pain , and " Get Back " by Ludacris , were not present on the soundtrack , yet did appear in the film . The soundtrack features songs from The Temptations , MC Hammer , Creedence Clearwater Revival , Edwin Starr , and other artists . The single " Name of the Game " by The Crystal Method featuring Ryu has an exclusive remix on the soundtrack . The soundtrack debuted 20th on Billboard 's Top Soundtracks list and peaked at 39th on its Top Independent Albums list . James Christopher Monger of allmusic compared the music to other film 's soundtracks such as Platoon , Full Metal Jacket , and Forrest Gump and called it " ... a fun but slight listen that plays out like an old late- ' 70s K @-@ Tel compilation with a few bonus cuts from the future . "
= = Spin @-@ off = =
Cruise reprised his character Les Grossman for the 2010 MTV Movie Awards . On June 9 , 2010 , it was announced that a spin @-@ off film would be developed centering on Grossman . A script has been written by Michael Bacall ( Scott Pilgrim vs. the World , Project X ) . In March 2012 , Bacall gave an update on the long @-@ rumored Les Grossman spin @-@ off movie , revealing that the film will attempt to uncover where Grossman 's well @-@ documented anger issues originated .
= Italian ironclad Conte Verde =
Conte Verde was the third of three Principe di Carignano @-@ class ironclads built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) , though she differed in several respects from her sisters . Unlike the other two members of her class , she did not receive complete iron armor , instead relying on partial plating at her bow and stern . She was laid down in February 1863 , she was launched in July 1867 , and she was completed in December 1871 . Conte Verde was a broadside ironclad armed with a battery of four 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns and eighteen 164 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Her career was limited , owing to the emergence of more modern ironclads and a severe reduction in the Italian naval budget following their defeat at the Battle of Lissa in 1866 . She was discarded in 1880 and sold to ship breakers to help pay for new ironclads then under construction .
= = Design = =
Conte Verde was 73 @.@ 7 meters ( 242 ft ) long between perpendiculars ; she had a beam of 15 @.@ 3 m ( 50 ft ) and an average draft of 6 @.@ 5 m ( 21 ft ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 514 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 459 long tons ; 3 @,@ 874 short tons ) normally and up to 3 @,@ 866 t ( 3 @,@ 805 long tons ; 4 @,@ 262 short tons ) at full load . She had a crew of 572 . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 10 @.@ 2 knots ( 18 @.@ 9 km / h ; 11 @.@ 7 mph ) from 1 @,@ 968 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 468 kW ) , making her the fastest member of her class . She could steam for about 1 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . To supplement her steam engine , the ship was barque @-@ rigged .
Conte Verde was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of four 72 @-@ pounder 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns and eighteen 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The ship was equipped with a spur @-@ shaped ram at the bow . Unlike her two sisters , Conte Verde did not have complete iron armor on her sides . She instead had wrought iron armor that covered only parts of her bow and stern . The rest of the ship received traditional timber armor .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Conte Verde was laid down at the San Rocco shipyard in Livorno on 2 February 1863 . She was launched on 29 July 1867 , and was completed in December 1871 . The ship did not have a long or particularly active career ; rapidly surpassed first by central battery and then turret ships , the first generation of ironclads with traditional broadside quickly became obsolete . In addition , the Italian government lost confidence in the fleet after its defeat in 1866 at the Battle of Lissa and drastically reduced the naval budget . The cuts were so severe that the fleet had great difficulty in mobilizing its ironclad squadron to attack the port of Civitavecchia in September 1870 , as part of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , the ships were laid up and the sailors conscripted to man them were sent home .
As a result , Conte Verde was not used in any significant way in her nine years in service . The ship was stricken from the naval register in 1880 , but was not actually broken up for scrap until 1898 . The Navy discarded both of her sisters , along with the ironclad Re di Portogallo between 1875 and 1880 to remove the cost of maintaining them from the naval budget , as part of an effort to reduce the financial impact of the new Caio Duilio and Italia @-@ classes then under construction .
= Brioni Agreement =
The Brioni Agreement or Brioni Declaration ( Croatian : Brijunska deklaracija , Serbian : Brionska deklaracija , Slovene : Brijonska deklaracija ) is a document signed by representatives of Slovenia , Croatia and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia under the political sponsorship of the European Community ( EC ) on the Brijuni Islands on 7 July 1991 . The agreement sought to create an environment in which further negotiations on the future of Yugoslavia could take place . However , ultimately it isolated the federal prime minister Ante Marković in his efforts to preserve Yugoslavia , and effectively stopped any form of federal influence over Slovenia . This meant the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) would focus on combat in Croatia , creating a precedent of redrawing international borders and staking the EC 's interest in resolving the Yugoslav crisis .
The agreement put an end to hostilities between the JNA and Slovene forces in the Ten @-@ Day War . Slovenia and Croatia agreed to suspend activities stemming from their 25 June declarations of independence for a period of three months . The document also resolved border control and customs inspection issues regarding Slovenia 's borders , resolved air @-@ traffic control responsibility and mandated an exchange of prisoners of war . The Brioni Agreement also formed the basis for an observer mission to monitor implementation of the agreement in Slovenia . Eleven days after the agreement was made , the federal government pulled the JNA out of Slovenia . Conversely , the agreement made no mitigating impact on fighting in Croatia .
= = Background = =
On 23 June 1991 , as Slovenia and Croatia prepared to declare their independence during the breakup of Yugoslavia , the European Community ( EC ) foreign ministers decided the EC member states would not extend diplomatic recognition to the two states . The EC viewed the declarations as unilateral moves and offered assistance in negotiations regarding the future of the SFR Yugoslavia instead . At the same time , the EC decided to suspend direct talks with Slovenia and Croatia . The move was welcomed by the Yugoslav federal government . Slovenia and Croatia declared independence on 25 June , and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) units began to deploy from its bases in Slovenia the next day . On 27 June , armed conflict broke out as the JNA and the Territorial Defence Force of Slovenia ( TDS ) began fighting over control of Slovenia 's border posts , in what became the Ten @-@ Day War .
A three @-@ strong EC delegation made three visits to the region in late June and early July to negotiate a political agreement which would facilitate further negotiations . The delegation consisted of the foreign ministers of Luxembourg , as the incumbent holder of the EC presidency , and Italy and the Netherlands , as the previous and future holders of that office . The delegation members were Jacques Poos ( Luxembourg ) , Gianni de Michelis ( Italy ) , and Hans van den Broek ( Netherlands ) . Prior to the delegation 's arrival in Belgrade , Poos told reporters that the EC would take charge of the crisis . There , the delegation was met by Serbian president Slobodan Milošević who dismissed the prospect of Croatia leaving the Yugoslav federation because its population contained 600 @,@ 000 Serbs .
On 29 June , Croatia and Slovenia agreed to suspend their declarations of independence to allow time for a negotiated settlement . The EC delegation appeared to make progress when Serbia responded to the move by ceasing their opposition to the appointment of a Croatian member of the federal presidency , Stjepan Mesić , as the body 's chairman on 30 June . The appearance of a success was reinforced when the JNA ordered its troops posted in Slovenia to return to their barracks . On 1 July , de Michelis was replaced by João de Deus Pinheiro , the Portuguese foreign minister , to maintain the formula of current , former and future EC presidencies comprising the EC delegation as the Netherlands took over the presidency from Luxembourg , while Portugal was scheduled to assume the presidency after the Dutch .
= = Conference at Brijuni = =
A further result of the EC delegation 's mission were talks attended by representatives of the EC , Croatia , Slovenia , Serbia and the Yugoslav government . The talks were held at Brijuni Islands on 7 July . Besides the EC delegation , headed by van den Broek , five out of eight members of the federal presidency attended the talks — Mesić , Bogić Bogićević , Janez Drnovšek , Branko Kostić and Vasil Tupurkovski . The Yugoslav federal prime minister Ante Marković was also present , as were the Yugoslav federal foreign minister Budimir Lončar , interior minister Petar Gračanin and the deputy defence minister Vice Admiral Stane Brovet . Croatia was represented by President Franjo Tuđman while President Milan Kučan attended on behalf of Slovenia . Serbia was represented by Borisav Jović , a former Serbian member of the federal presidency who had resigned from the position on 15 June , instead of Milošević who refused to attend . Starting at 8 am , the EC delegation held separate talks with Kučan and his assistants , then with Tuđman and his assistants , and finally with Jović . In the afternoon , a plenary meeting was held with the federal , Slovene and Croatian delegations in attendance , while Jović reportedly left dissatisfied with the talks .
The agreement was prepared at the EC council of ministers in The Hague on 5 July . It consisted of a Joint Declaration , and two annexes detailing the creation of an environment suitable to further political negotiations and guidelines for an observer mission to Yugoslavia . The agreement , which became known as the Brioni Declaration or the Brioni Agreement , required the JNA and the TDS to return to their bases , and stipulated that Slovene officials were to control Slovenia 's borders alone and that both Slovenia and Croatia were to suspend all activities stemming from their declarations of independence for three months . The observer mission set out by the Brioni Agreement materialised as the European Community Monitor Mission ( ECMM ) tasked with monitoring the disengagement of the JNA and the TDS in Slovenia , and ultimately the withdrawal of the JNA from Slovenia .
= = Aftermath = =
Even though little was agreed upon and the agreement was later interpreted differently by its signatories , the Brioni Agreement established the EC 's interest in the region and the first EC Ministerial Conference on Yugoslavia was held in The Hague on 10 July . The ECMM helped calm several standoffs around military barracks in Slovenia and facilitated negotiations between Slovene authorities and the JNA regarding the withdrawal of the JNA from Slovenia . In Croatia , armed combat continued and the JNA shelled the city of Osijek the same evening the agreement was signed . The federal presidency ordered the complete withdrawal of the JNA from Slovenia on 18 July in response to Slovene actions in breach of the Brioni Agreement . The ECMM 's scope of work was expanded to include Croatia on 1 September . By mid @-@ September , the war had escalated as the Croatian National Guard and police blockaded the JNA barracks and the JNA embarked on a campaign against Croatian forces .
The Brioni Agreement isolated Marković who tried to preserve the federation , but was ignored by van den Broek who appeared not to comprehend issues presented before him , and the EC delegation tacitly encouraged the dissolution of Yugoslavia . The agreement diminished the authority of part of the JNA 's leadership who fought for the preservation of the Yugoslav federation . The agreement was also unfavourable for Croatia because it was left to defend against the JNA and Serb forces . By effectively removing Slovenia from influence of the federal authorities , especially the JNA , the agreement fulfilled one of the Serbian nationalists ' goals , allowing the redrawing of international borders . Sabrina Ramet noted that Kučan and Milošević reached an agreement in January 1991 in which Milošević gave his assurances that Slovenia 's independence bid would not be opposed by Serbia . In return , Kučan expressed his understanding for Milošević 's interest to create a Greater Serbia .
At the time , the EC viewed the agreement as a method of defusing the crisis and failed to attribute the lull which coincided with the Brioni Agreement to a shift in Serbian strategy instead . The EC delegation 's failure to respond to Jović 's departure before the plenary meeting and the EC foreign ministers ' declaration of 10 July indicating the EC would withdraw from mediation if the Brioni Agreement was not implemented only encouraged Serbia which , unlike Slovenia , Croatia , or the Yugoslav federation , had nothing to lose if the EC pulled out . In the end , the EC took credit for a rapid resolution of the armed conflict in Slovenia without realising that its diplomatic efforts had little to do with the situation on the ground .
= Pigeye shark =
The pigeye shark or Java shark ( Carcharhinus amboinensis ) is an uncommon species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , found in the warm coastal waters of the eastern Atlantic and western Indo @-@ Pacific . It prefers shallow , murky environments with soft bottoms , and tends to roam within a fairly localised area . With its bulky grey body , small eyes , and short , blunt snout , the pigeye shark looks almost identical to ( and is often confused with ) the better @-@ known bull shark ( C. leucas ) . The two species differ in vertebral count , the relative sizes of the dorsal fins , and other subtle traits . This shark typically reaches lengths of 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 6 @.@ 2 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) .
The pigeye shark is an apex predator that mostly hunts low in the water column . It has a varied diet , consisting mainly of bony and cartilaginous fishes and also including crustaceans , molluscs , sea snakes , and cetaceans . This species gives birth to live young , with the developing embryos sustained to term via a placental connection to their mother . Litters of three to thirteen pups are born after a gestation period of nine or twelve months . Young sharks spend their first few years of life in sheltered inshore habitats such as bays , where their movements follow tidal and seasonal patterns . The pigeye shark 's size and dentition make it potentially dangerous , though it has not been known to attack humans . The shark is infrequently caught in shark nets protecting beaches and by fisheries , which use it for meat and fins . The IUCN presently lacks adequate data to assess the conservation status of this species .
= = Taxonomy = =
German biologists Johannes Müller and Jakob Henle described the pigeye shark and named it Carcharias ( Prionodon ) amboinensis in their 1839 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen . Later authors reassigned it to the genus Carcharhinus . The type specimen is a stuffed female 74 cm ( 29 in ) long , originally caught off Ambon Island in Indonesia , from which the specific epithet is derived . Several junior synonyms are known for this species , among them Triaenodon obtusus , which was based on a near @-@ birth pigeye shark foetus .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
Since the pigeye shark so strongly resembles the bull shark , morphology @-@ based phylogenetic studies have considered the two species to be closely related . Neither this nor any other arrangement is strongly supported by molecular phylogenetic research , which to date has been inconclusive regarding this shark 's evolutionary relationship to other Carcharhinus species .
Genetic analysis of pigeye sharks across northern Australia suggest that the evolutionary history of this species was affected by coastline changes during the Pleistocene epoch ( 2 @.@ 6 million to 12 @,@ 000 years ago ) . The patterns of diversity found in its mitochondrial DNA are consistent with the repeated splitting and merging of its populations as geographical barriers were alternately formed and inundated . The most recent of these barriers was a land bridge across the Torres Strait that reopened only some 6 @,@ 000 years ago ; as a result , significant genetic separation exists between the sharks found off Western Australia and the Northern Territory and those found off Queensland .
= = Description = =
The pigeye shark is a very robust @-@ bodied species with a short , broad , and rounded snout . The small and circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes . The anterior rims of the nostrils bear medium @-@ sized flaps of skin . The mouth forms a wide arch and has barely noticeable furrows at the corners . There are 11 – 13 ( usually 12 ) upper and 10 – 12 ( usually 11 ) lower tooth rows on each side ; in addition , there are single rows of tiny teeth at the upper and lower symphyses ( jaw midpoints ) . The teeth are broad and triangular with serrated edges ; those in the lower jaw are slightly narrower , more upright , and more finely serrated than those in the upper . The five pairs of gill slits are of moderate length .
The first dorsal fin is large and triangular , with a pointed apex and a concave trailing margin ; it originates roughly over the posterior insertions of the pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is less than a third as high as the first , and originates ahead of the anal fin . There is no midline ridge between the dorsal fins . The long pectoral fins are broad and slightly falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) , becoming narrow and pointed at the tips . The anal fin has a sharply notched trailing margin . The caudal peduncle has a deep notch on its upper surface at the caudal fin origin . The caudal fin is asymmetrical , with a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a longer upper lobe with a notch in the trailing margin near its tip .
The skin is covered by rather large dermal denticles , which become more tightly packed and overlapping with age ; each denticle bears three to five horizontal ridges and five posterior teeth . This species is grey above and white below , with a faint pale band on the flanks . The second dorsal fin and lower caudal fin lobe darken at the tips , particularly in juveniles . An albino individual was caught off Queensland in | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
while it began to curve toward the west @-@ northwest , further strengthening occurred , as it intensified into a Category 2 hurricane . The hurricane made landfall in Nicaragua on October 10 as a Category 3 hurricane . The system quickly weakened to a tropical storm as it traveled west @-@ northwestward on October 11 , later passing over the Gulf of Honduras . It later struck Belize on October 13 as a strong Category 1 hurricane on October 13 , tracking north @-@ northwestward .
The system weakened into a tropical storm by October 14 but restrengthened into a Category 1 hurricane by October 16 . As the hurricane began to turn northeastward , it continued to intensify , attaining Category 3 status by October 17 . The hurricane continued to approach Havana during the day , and the hurricane 's center passed east of Havana during the evening . The following morning , the hurricane was located over southern Florida moving northeastward , and passed east of the coast of South Carolina . The hurricane began to weaken as it was forced to curve south @-@ southwestward , striking Florida again as the result of a high @-@ pressure area . The system eventually weakened to a tropical depression over Florida , and traced southwestward into the Gulf of Mexico . On October 23 , the remnants of the hurricane struck Central America and dissipated on October 23 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Central America = = =
The town of Bluefields suffered moderate damage during the hurricane , including downed trees and damage to roofs . In western Nicaragua , widespread flooding damaged roads and disrupted the construction of a port in Corinto . In Matagalpa , many plantations were severely damaged , in addition to the destruction of bridges and roads in the city . Several landslides occurred , leading to the destruction of many hills . In addition , local crops suffered much damage , including much of the local banana and rubber crops . A large wave measuring 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) caused by the storm was described off Nicaragua , and caused brief disappearances of the Seal Cays . Along the Mosquito Coast , the town of Prinzapolka was nearly wiped out by the hurricane . Damage to fruit plantations in Costa Rica totaled $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
= = = Cuba = = =
Havana sustained major damage from the hurricane , with 50 houses destroyed , and cable operators in Miami , Santiago , and Jamaica were unable to reach telegraph services in the city . The wall of a legation of the United States was blown down . Vedado 's sea baths were severely damaged . Havana 's streetcar service was temporarily disrupted by the storm . Trees were blown down in the parks of Havana . Twenty people were killed in the city , while in Batabanó , nine people were killed , with many others missing . In Matanzas , the location of the United States ' 28th Infantry , tents were destroyed and there was widespread damage . However , nobody was killed or injured in the city . In San Luis , tobacco crops were ruined , and 150 tobacco barns in the Alquízar municipality were destroyed . The sugar crop in Pinar del Río Province survived well during the hurricane . In the La Guria section of Cuba , the banana crops were completely destroyed . Rivers topped their banks throughout the country .
= = = Florida = = =
In Miami , over 100 houses were destroyed , and the Episcopal and Methodist churches were completely destroyed . The jail in Miami was nearly completely dismantled , and the prisoners were evacuated . In Fort Pierce , the Peninsula and Occidental railcar sheds collapsed , with the roofs blown away . A two @-@ story brick saloon was destroyed during the hurricane . The Miami telegraph office reported street flooding in the city , and that the telegraph office was flooded . Damage in Miami amounted to $ 160 @,@ 000 . In Key West , houses and trees were knocked down . In St. Augustine , the tide was described as the " highest in ten years , " where streets were flooded throughout the city . At least 70 passengers on the steamers St. Lucia and Peerless drowned during the storm near Elliott Key . The steamers Campbell and the Sara were destroyed near the Isle of Pines , and the Elmora sank . Telegraph lines were also down south of Jupiter .
The effects of the hurricane were most severe on the Florida East Coast Railway , where at least 135 people died , 104 of them on Houseboat No. 4 , one of the railway 's boats . Many of the workers were swept to sea on barges and flatboats ; however , the steamer Jenny rescued 42 workers , who were dropped off at Key West , while another 24 were sent to Savannah , Georgia . The railway 's losses totaled about $ 200 @,@ 000 . Construction was disrupted for a whole year by the storm , as equipment was reassembled and repaired . Many farmers on the Florida Keys suffered large losses ; orange groves and fields of pineapples were devastated by the storm . Six lives were lost on plantations in the Keys . At the government wharf , the Fessenden was damaged during the hurricane .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the hurricane , all workers of the Florida East Coast Railway were provided with wooden barracks on land , and several additional safety measures were enforced . The hurricane eventually led to the end of the commercial production of pineapples in the Florida Keys . In 1947 , Project Cirrus attempted to use the method of cloud seeding in a hurricane . Approximately 180 pounds ( 82 kg ) of crushed dry ice were seeded into the 1947 hurricane . The system was successfully seeded ; however , soon after the seeding , the hurricane changed course and traced toward Charleston , South Carolina . Following the seeding , the project was cancelled and numerous lawsuits were filed as the result of the sudden change of the path in the storm . However , the similar path of this hurricane prevented the success of the lawsuits .
= Ellen van Dijk =
Eleonora Maria " Ellen " van Dijk ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˌeːleːoːˈnoːraː maːˈriaː ˈɛllən vɑn dɛik ] ; born 11 February 1987 ) is a Dutch professional road racing cyclist riding for Boels Dolmans Cycling Team . Besides road cycling she was also a track cyclist until 2012 . Van Dijk is known as a time trial specialist and is four times world champion . She won her first world title on the track in the scratch race in 2008 . She became Road World Champion in 2012 and 2013 in the team time trial and in 2013 also in the individual time trial . In 2015 she won the time trial at the first European Games and the silver medal in the team time trial at the world championships .
Van Dijk started as a speed skater and as part of her skating training she undertook cycling as part of cross @-@ training in summer . She excelled at both , competing nationally at junior level . After becoming a national cycling champion for the fifth time in 2007 , she quit speed skating and became a full @-@ time cyclist . Along with her world title successes , Van Dijk has also twice been European track champion , twice European time trial champion and has won six World Cup races . In 2012 she competed in three disciplines at the 2012 Olympic Games in London , where she helped Marianne Vos win the gold medal in the road race , finished eighth in the time trial and sixth in the team pursuit .
= = Personal life = =
Ellen van Dijk grew up in Harmelen , Utrecht together with her two older brothers , her father Nico and her mother Anneke . Besides speed skating and cycling , she also played volleyball and performed gymnastics when she was a child . Van Dijk left Harmelen for her study to Amsterdam in 2006 , where she still lives . During the first years in Amsterdam she shared her apartment with Mariëlle Kerste , her best friend and also a Dutch cyclist . Kerste moved out a few years later and Van Dijk has since shared an apartment with the Dutch cyclist Hannah Walter . In December 2014 Van Dijk moved to Woerden .
Van Dijk graduated from Minkema College , Woerden , in 2005 and earned a bachelor ’ s degree in Human Movement Sciences at the VU University in Amsterdam in 2011 . After the Olympics she started her master 's degree , but didn 't have time to complete it .
= = Sport career = =
= = = Speed skating = = =
Van Dijk started her career as a speed skater . As a very young child , she had performed in natural ice skating tours and , at the age of eight , she became a member of a local speed skating club . During the winter months , Van Dijk trained almost every day at the local speed skating rink in Utrecht . She did this from when she was aged twelve until she was twenty years old . Van Dijk competed five times in the junior Dutch Allround Championships ; she finished in tenth place on two occasions in the all @-@ around competition and in fourth place in the 3000m in 2005 . She also rode the track record at the 5000 metres .
= = = Early cycling years = = =
When she was ten years old , Van Dijk started , together with her two brothers and Mariëlle Kerste , cross @-@ training on a bike during the summer and she began competing in regional races . Because Van Dijk performed well , she started competing in national races at the age of 15 in 2002 . In the same year , in her first national championship , she finished in fourth place . The following year , she won the Dutch national road championship in the novice category . In 2004 , Van Dijk won two more national titles , this time as a junior , in the road race and in the road individual time trial . In the latter , she beat Marianne Vos , though Vos would avenge her defeat in Road World Championships in Verona , Italy . Vos won the junior road race world title , with Van Dijk finishing third . In 2005 , Van Dijk again won the Dutch national junior title in the individual time trial but finished second in the road race , again behind Vos . In 2007 , when Van Dijk was considered for selection in regional speed skating , she had to choose between speed skating and cycling – ultimately , she chose cycling .
= = = Professional career = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Van Dijk achieved two stage victories in the Tour Féminin en Limousin and in the Giro della Toscana . In the middle of the season , Van Dijk suffered a clavicle fracture and as a result was hampered in the national championships . She finished 10th at the U @-@ 23 European Championships in Valkenburg and at the World University Cycling Championship , Van Dijk won the individual time trial and finished second in the road race . At the end of the season , Van Dijk was a reserve at the road world championships but she did not race . At the Dutch National Track Championships she won bronze in the individual pursuit .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Van Dijk won the first stage in the Tour of Chongming Island and finished second in the general classification . At the national time trial championships she became for the first time Dutch champion in the elite category . In the time trial at the European Championships ( under @-@ 23 ) she finished fifth . Due to her good results in the time trials she was chosen to represent the Netherlands in the time trial at the Road World Championships in Stuttgart where she finished 17th . Due to her good results she became sportswomen of the year of Woerden . Because Van Dijk had more spare time in the winter after quitting speed skating , she was invited to join the Dutch national track cycling team . At the national track championships she became Dutch champion in the individual pursuit , ahead of Marianne Vos and Kirsten Wild , and finished fourth in the scratch race and points race .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Due to her good results at the national track cycling championships , Van Dijk was chosen to ride the individual pursuit in the remaining two ( out of four ) 2007 – 2008 track cycling World Cups , where she could , via the UCI World Ranking system , potentially earn qualification for the 2008 Olympic Games . She finished in Los Angeles and Copenhagen in fifth and fourth places respectively . After finishing fifth in the individual pursuit at the World Track Championships in Manchester , Van Dijk missed out on qualification for the Olympic games ; she finished 12th in the UCI World Rankings and only the first eleven riders qualified . The day after she took revenge by winning her first major senior title , the scratch race at the 2008 World Cycling Championships . With eight laps to go she attacked and rode solo to the finish line . Later that year , she also became European Track Championships in the scratch as well as in the points race . She rode to the silver medal in the omnium and the individual pursuit events . Despite not winning a medal at the Dutch time trial championships she won the time trial at the European Championships ( under @-@ 23 ) . She was not selected to ride the time trial at the Summer Olympics , because the course would be too heavy for her .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
On the track , Van Dijk followed other competitors by riding with a heavier gear . The change seemed to bear fruit when , in February at the Track Cycling World Cup in Copenhagen , she won her first two World Cup victories in the individual pursuit and points race and won a silver medal in the team pursuit . A month later at the Track Cycling World Championships in Pruszków , Poland , she failed to live up to her billing as world champion and her performances were not as good as those than in Copenhagen in February and in Manchester the year before . Indeed , Van Dijk did not reach the podium in any event . In spite of her disappointing performance in Pruszków , Van Dijk was approached by , and soon agreed to join , the professional road cycling team Team Columbia – High Road Women . Although the name of the team has changed on a number of occasions since , Van Dijk rode for this team until 2013 . The road season did not start well as Van Dijk suffered a concussion in a crash during the Ronde van Gelderland in April and she was unable to ride for nearly six weeks . Almost immediately after having recovered from her injury , she defended successfully her European time trial title at the European Road Championships in July . After riding the time trial at the Road World Championships , Van Dijk took some rest in preparation for the Track Cycling World Cups . She skipped the National track championships , which were held two weeks after the World Championships .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Van Dijk did not reach the finals at the Track Cycling World Championships in Melbourne , finishing fifth in both the individual pursuit and the team pursuit events . She also participated in the points race as a late replacement and finished eighth . Van Dijk won the time trial on the road in the Holland Ladies Tour en route to finishing third in the final general classification standings . She won the Sparkassen Giro and finished second in the Open de Suède Vårgårda World Cup race in Sweden . At the Dutch Track Championships , Van Dijk won five medals including gold in the individual pursuit .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Van Dijk cycled in the team pursuit to a national team time trial record at the Track Cycling World Cup in Manchester . A month later however she rode with the team three seconds slower at the Track Cycling World Championships and finished in 5th place ; the same position in which Van Dijk finished in the individual pursuit .
Van Dijk started the road cycling season by winning all three classifications ( yellow jersey , points and young rider ) in the Ladies Tour of Qatar , including winning the second stage . Van Dijk dedicated her stage and overall win to teammate Carla Swart , who died whilst training after being hit by a truck a few weeks earlier . The price money she earned in Qatar was sent to her family . After riding stage races in the Netherlands , China and Spain she finished second at the Dutch time trial championships in Veendam and qualified for the World Championships later the year . A month later , in Sweden , she rode two World Cup races , winning the Open de Suède Vårgårda TTT and finishing second in the Open de Suède Vårgårda . As preparation for the World Championships she won the time trial at the Holland Ladies Tour . At the World Championships in Copenhagen she finished 6th in the time trial and was the best Dutch rider . Returning to the track , Van Dijk won the Track Cycling World Cup in Astana in a new national record , which was her fourth World Cup victory . At the end of the year she successfully defended her Dutch individual pursuit title at the Dutch National Track Championships and also became national champion in the madison .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
After a knee injury due to an accident with a scooter and a few weeks of required rest and adjusted training , Van Dijk won a stage in the Energiewacht Tour ; because she did not earn enough bonus seconds during the tour she finished second in the general classification . Van Dijk also won the individual time trial and the road race in the Omloop van Borsele . A few days later she started in the Gracia @-@ Orlova , where she won the prologue and a stage and helped her team @-@ mate Evelyn Stevens to win the general classification . Back in the Netherlands , in Emmen , she became the Dutch time trial champion in the elite category for the second time in her career .
Van Dijk was selected to represent her country at the Olympic Games in London , and she competed in the road race and the individual time trial on the road and in the team pursuit on the track . In the road race , Van Dijk was a domestique for Marianne Vos , who won the gold medal . Van Dijk attacked five times but finished outside the time limit . Because the victory of Marianne Vos was seen as a team performance , Van Dijk , Loes Gunnewijk and Annemiek van Vleuten were all subsequently honoured in both the Holland Heineken House and the Ridderzaal . In the time trial , Van Dijk finished eighth . She said afterwards that she was afraid to start too fast and subsequently lost a lot of time in the first part of the race . In the team pursuit , Van Dijk finished sixth together with Kirsten Wild , Amy Pieters and Vera Koedooder . In the qualification heats , the team had held the Olympic record for a short period and they rode a new Dutch national record in round one . According to Van Dijk , sixth place was the highest attainable place the team could have hoped to achieve .
As preparation for the Road World Championships , Van Dijk and her Team Specialized – lululemon won the team time trials at the World Cup ( Vargarda ) and in the Holland Ladies Tour . In between these victories , Van Dijk won the first and final stages of the Lotto @-@ Decca Tour and as a result also topped the general classification , finishing ahead of Kirsten Wild in second place . At the World Road Championships in Valkenburg Van Dijk became world champion in the team time trial with Team Specialized – lululemon . Three days later , Van Dijk finished fifth in the individual time trial on a hilly course that she afterwards described as being " not made for me " . During the road race , she was a casualty in a crash involving 50 riders and did not finish the race . During the winter period she chose not to ride on the track to keep her focus completely on the 2013 road cycling season .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
Van Dijk started the season with a third place in the general classification of the Ladies Tour of Qatar . During the season openers Van Dijk rode very well highlighted by her victory in the Le Samyn des Dames . In the first three UCI World Cup races Van Dijk finished two times second ( Ronde van Drenthe , Tour of Flanders ) and rode to a third place in the Trofeo Alfredo Binda in Italy . Her second stage race of the season , the Energiewacht Tour included the first individual time trial of the season which she won with a big difference . After also finishing two times second she won the general classification . About the time trial she said later that she had been tested on her time trial position during her stay in Italy . After a day of testing and adjusting the position of the sadle and the steer she found a better position which she was able to maintain for almost half an hour . She also said that she rode at a higher power than in the time trials at the 2012 Summer Olympics and the 2012 World Championships . Van Dijk also improved riding uphill and finished sixt in the fourth World Cup race , the hilly La Flèche Wallonne . Her time trial continued to go well and she won the time trials at the EPZ Omloop van Borsele and two time trial stages in the Gracia @-@ Orlová . She also won a mountain stage , the queen stage , in the Gracia @-@ Orlová and so the general classification . In June she successfully defended her National Time Trial title in Winsum . A few days later she rode in medal position during the National Road Race Championships but had to abandon the race due to a broken derailleur in the second last lap . At the Giro d 'Italia Femminile , the most prestigious stage race in women 's cycling , she won stage 8 , an individual time trial . With Specialized – lululemon she won World Cup team time trial at the Open de Suède Vårgårda TTT . After the last two World Cup races , the Open de Suède Vårgårda where she finished fourth and the GP de Plouay which she did not ride to prepare for the last stage races , she finished third in the overall World Cup standings . She rode strong during the stage races and won the general classification of the Lotto @-@ Belisol Belgium Tour as well as of the Holland Ladies Tour , including the team time trial stages .
As a preparation for the World Championships in Tuscany Van Dijk went during the season a few times to Italy to practise the time trial course . She trained at five in the morning to avoid traffic and made video recordings of the course to get to know the turns . In the week before the World Championships she won the French time trial Chrono Champenois – Trophée Européen . All the preparations paid off and the World Championships were very successful for Van Dijk . With her team she won for the second consecutive year the world title in the team time trial . Because Van Dijk had won almost all the time trials this year she was also the main favourite for the individual time trial . Despite the pressure she won the time trial with a convincing victory and became the second Dutch women to win this title . At the end of the championships , Van Dijk finished 16th on a non @-@ preferable hilly road race course .
Due to her successful season she ended third in the 2013 Women 's Road World Ranking . At the end of the year Van Dijk won the title Amsterdam Sportswoman of the year . She was nominated previous years but never won the title . She was also nominated to become Dutch cyclist of the year but lost from Marianne Vos .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
In October 2013 Van Dijk announced that she signed a three @-@ year contract with Boels Dolmans Cycling Team . She is a teammate of among others Lizzie Armitstead , Katarzyna Pawłowska and Christine Majerus . The time trial at the 2016 Summer Olympics will be her big goal . She will keep her focus on time trials , world cup races and flat short stage races . Due to her focus on road cycling , she will not compete on the track . Van Dijk was not able to start in the Ladies Tour of Qatar because she did not recover in time from an illness after riding mountainbikerace Egmond @-@ pier @-@ Egmond . She got back her shape during the fist races and just missed the podium in the GP Le Samyn . At the first World Cup race of the season , the Ronde van Drenthe , Van Dijk helped team mate Lizzie Armitstead to victory by closing a massive gap in the final of the race .
Van Dijk won the Tour of Flanders after a solo of 25 kilometres in April . After her time trial victory at the World Championships in 2013 , it is her major victory of her career according to herself . At the end of April , Ellen van Dijk won for the third consecutive the time trial at the Omloop van Borsele . The day afterwards Van Dijk finished third in the road race which ended with a bunch sprint . As part of the same time trial competition , Van Dijk did not win the time trial at the GP Leende a month later . She finished second behind former team mate Lisa Brennauer . Van Dijk responded that here average power during the time trial was not great but also not very bad and that Brennauer is a world class time trialist . Two days later she finished again second in the prologue of the Elsy Jacobs stage race , two seconds behind Marianne Vos .
At the Boels Rental Hills Classic Van Dijk was part of front group that consisted of six riders which fell apart into a group of three riders . With an uphill finish , Van Dijk lost the sprint from Johansson ( Orica @-@ AIS ) and finished second ahead of Amy Pieters ( Rabo Liv ) . Van Dijk won the mountain classification of the race . In June , Van Dijk started as the main favourite at the Dutch National Time Trial Championships , but did not win her fourth time trial title . She finished second , with a margin of only 0 @.@ 02 seconds , behind Annemiek van Vleuten ( Rabo Liv ) . Van Dijk was disappointed and responded that she was not that good as in 2013 without having a real explanation for it .
Van Dijk participated at La Course by Le Tour de France , the inaugural edition of a women 's race on the final day and on the same circuit of the Tour de France with worldwide broadcasting . Van Dijk attacked multiple times and was the only women who was able to get clear for a few laps with a maximal advantage of over half a minute . At the Open de Suède Vårgårda TTT , where she finished third with her team , she got some confidence back about her time trial performances . In begin September Van Dijk won the time trial of the Boels Rental Ladies Tour , with a 12 seconds gap over her main rival Lisa Brennauer . Her first international time trial victory of the season . With the other stages ending in a bunch sprint and sprinters winning the bonification seconds , Van Dijk finished third in the general classification . A final test for het time trial capabilities before the World Championships was at the Chrono Champenois ITT . Halfway the 33 @.@ 40 kilometres ( 20 @.@ 8 miles ) time trial she had a 39 seconds advantage over Hanna Solovey , but she finished second 8 seconds behind her because she lost about a minute after riding the wrong direction .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
Van Dijk started the season as usual with the Ladies Tour of Qatar . She won the second stage and took the lead in the general classification . The day afterwards team mate Lizzie Armitstead took over the leading jersey . Van Dijk ended the tour in third place in the overall classification . During the first European race of the season , the Omloop het Nieuwsblad , van Dijk escaped from a front group of 15 riders on the Molenberg with 30 km to go . Anna van der Breggen was the only one who was able to follow her . The duo extended their advantage over the cobbled sections that followed , holding off the chase group to the line , where Van Dijk lost the two @-@ up sprint . A few days later Van Dijk rode again strong in the Le Samyn des Dames . In the final kilometers she closed a one @-@ minute gap with the front group . After closing the gap she was the leadout for Chantal Blaak who sprinted to victory . Due to a back injury , Van Dijk could not start in Omloop van het Hageland . In the first World Cup of the season , the Ronde van Drenthe , the team was eager to win . In the final Van Dijk was the lead @-@ out for Armitstead . However , Armitstead lost Van Dijk in the last kilometer . Van Dijk continued sprinting and rode to the third place . She was happy with her result , but found it a shame that the team did not win . During the second World Cup race , the Trofeo Alfredo Bina Van Dijk couldn 't ride uphill with the fastest riders and finished eighth , with team mate Armitstead taking the win . For the Tour of Flanders , Van Dijk heard a day before the race she was not as a leader of the team , although Van Dijk won this World Cup race previous year . Because Van Dijk prepared very well for this race she was disappointed , and didn 't ride a good race finishing 24th . Van Dijk rode several races in the Netherlands , Belgium and Spain in April , May and the begin of the June . The most notable results from these race being a second place in the team time trial in the Energiewacht Tour and a second place in Gooik @-@ Geraardsbergen @-@ Gooik , being outsprinted by Gracie Elvin . Van Dijk was selected to represent the Netherlands at the first 2015 European Games in the time trial and the road race in Baku , Azerbaijan in June . The time trial was her big goal and she was the favorite to win it . With a good race over the straight circuit she was 36 seconds faster than the Ukrainian Hanna Solovey and won the first gold medal for the Netherlands . In the road race she was part of front group of four riders , together with countrywomen Anna van der Breggen . During the last lap it appeared that Van der Breggen rode for her Polish trade @-@ team mate Katarzyna Niewiadoma and not for the Netherlands . Van Dijk was the brunt of these tactics and finished fourth . Four days later , back in the Netherlands , she was not able to win the national time trial championships , finishing almost half a minute behind Van der Breggen .
During the La Course by Le Tour de France the rain poured down and made the course and cobbles slippery . Van Dijk was involved by one of the many crashes . She broke het collarbone and had to abandon the race . At home she had installed a high @-@ altitiude tent , and with a speedy recovery she went with Iris Slappendel to Switzerland to train at high altitude . Six weeks after her crash she could race again and started in the 2015 Boels Rental Ladies Tour on 1 September . She rode in the stage race stronger every day and finished second in the time trial , two seconds behind of Lisa Brennauer . She moved to the third place in the general classification and was able to keep this position .
At the 2015 UCI Road World Championships in Richmond , United States , she won the silver medal with her team in the team time trial . In the time trial she finished disappointingly seventh . A reason for her performance was that her rear wheal was not well attached in the frame . Her wheel ran into the frame , damaging her tire and puncturing her inner tube . For the road race she rode for Anna van der Breggen who won the silver medal and finished in tenth place herself .
= = = = 2016 = = = =
Van Dijk started the road race season also this year with the Ladies Tour of Qatar . It was very windy and Van Dijk lost some time in the second stage because she rode in the second echelon . In the third stage she was part of the front group . In the last few kilometres she was able to ride away and won the stage , in the same city as she won the year before . She moved up to the third place in the general classification and maintained this position , with team mate Romy Kasper finishing in second place overall . At the Omloop het Nieuwsblad at the end of February , Van Dijk attacked at the last climb . She was caught and finished the race in arrears due to a bike change . Due to a crash during the race she went to the hospital afterwards and it appears she had one broken and some bruised ribs .
= = Achievements = =
= = = Results at championships and Games = = =
OTL
= over time limit , DNF =
did not finish , U23 = under 23
= = = Other major achievements = = =
= = Dutch national records , team pursuit = =
The women 's 3000 m team pursuit track cycling discipine was introduced at the 2007 – 08 track cycling season . The Dutch team consisting of Ellen van Dijk , Marlijn Binnendijk and Yvonne Hijgenaar rode the team pursuit for the first time at Round 4 at the 2007 – 08 UCI Track Cycling World Cup in Copenhagen in a time of 3 : 36 @.@ 901 ( 49 @.@ 792 km / h ) . They broke the record later that day . After have ridden the team pursuit for the first time , the record has been broken nine times . Van Dijk is the only woman who always has been part of the squad when a record was broken . The current record was settled during the 2012 Summer Olympics by Van Dijk , Kirsten Wild and Vera Koedooder in a time of 3 : 20 @.@ 013 ( 53 @.@ 996 km / h ) on 4 August 2012 . After the 2011 – 12 track cycling season the UCI changed the discipline into a 4000 m team pursuit with 4 riders .
= = Personal records = =
= Hugo Award =
The Hugo Awards are a set of awards given annually for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year . The awards are named after Hugo Gernsback , the founder of the pioneering science fiction magazine Amazing Stories , and were officially named the Science Fiction Achievement Awards until 1992 . Organized and overseen by the World Science Fiction Society , the awards are given each year at the annual World Science Fiction Convention as the central focus of the event . They were first given in 1953 , at the 11th World Science Fiction Convention , and have been awarded every year since 1955 . Over the years that the award has been given , the categories presented have changed ; currently Hugo Awards are given in more than a dozen categories , and include both written and dramatic works of various types .
One of the most prestigious science fiction awards , the Hugo Awards have been termed as " among the highest honors bestowed in science fiction and fantasy writing " . Works that have won have been published in special collections , and the official logo of the Hugo Awards is often placed on the winning books ' cover as a promotional tool . The 2015 awards were presented at the 73rd Worldcon , Sasquan , in Spokane , United States , on August 22 , 2015 . The 2016 Hugos will be presented at the 74th Worldcon , MidAmeriCon II , in Kansas City , United States , on August 21 , 2016 .
For lists of winners and nominees for each category , see the list of award categories below .
= = Award = =
The World Science Fiction Society ( WSFS ) gives out the Hugo Awards each year for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year . The award is named after Hugo Gernsback , who founded the pioneering science fiction magazine Amazing Stories and who is considered one of the " fathers " of the science fiction genre . Works are eligible for an award if they were published in English in the prior calendar year . There are no written rules as to which works qualify as science fiction or fantasy , and the decision of eligibility in that regard is left up to the voters , rather than to the organizing committee . Hugo Award nominees and winners are chosen by supporting or attending members of the annual World Science Fiction Convention , or Worldcon , and the presentation evening constitutes its central event . The selection process is defined in the WSFS constitution as instant @-@ runoff voting with five nominees per category , except in the case of a tie . The awards are split over more than a dozen categories , and include both written and dramatic works .
For each category of Hugo , the voter may rank " No Award " as one of their choices . Voters are instructed that they should do so if they feel that none of the nominees are worthy of the award , or if they feel the category should be abolished entirely . A vote for " No Award " other than as one 's first choice signifies that the voter believes the nominee ( s ) ranked higher than " No Award " are worthy of a Hugo in that category , while those ranked lower are not .
The five works on the ballot for each category are the most @-@ nominated by members that year , with no limit on the number of stories that can be nominated . From 1953 to 1958 the awards did not include any recognition of runner @-@ up novels , but since 1959 all of the candidates have been recorded . Initial nominations are made by members in January through March , while voting on the ballot of five nominations is performed roughly in April through July , subject to change depending on when that year 's Worldcon is held . Worldcons are generally held near the start of September , and take place in a different city around the world each year .
The idea of giving out awards at Worldcons was proposed by Harold Lynch for the 1953 convention . The idea was based on the Academy Awards , with the name " Hugo " being given by Robert A. Madle . The award itself was created by Jack McKnight and Ben Jason in 1953 , based on the design of hood ornaments of 1950s cars . It consisted of a finned rocket ship on a wooden base . Each subsequent award , with the exception of the 1958 award , has been similar to the original design . The rocket trophy was formally redesigned in 1984 , and since then only the base of the trophy has changed each year . There is no monetary or other remuneration associated with the Hugo , other than the trophy .
= = = Retro Hugos = = =
Retrospective Hugo Awards , or Retro Hugos , were added in the mid @-@ 1990s . These awards are given by Worldcons held 50 , 75 , or 100 years after a Worldcon where no Hugos had been awarded , which were the conventions in 1939 – 41 , 1946 – 52 , and 1954 , and are given for works that would have been eligible in that year , by the same process as the regular Hugos . Retro Hugos have only been given five times : in 1996 , 2001 , and 2004 for 50 years prior , and 2014 and 2016 for 75 years prior . The six Worldcons eligible in 1997 – 2000 , 2002 , and 2015 chose not to award them . The next opportunity will be in 2022 for 1947 .
= = History = =
= = = 1950s = = =
The first Hugo Awards were presented at the 11th Worldcon in Philadelphia in 1953 , which awarded Hugos in seven categories . The awards presented that year were initially conceived as a one @-@ off event , though the organizers hoped that subsequent conventions would also present them . At the time , Worldcons were completely run by their respective committees as independent events and had no oversight between years . Thus there was no mandate for any future conventions to repeat the awards , and no set rules for how to do so .
The 1954 Worldcon chose not to , but the awards were reinstated at the 1955 Worldcon , and thereafter became traditional . The award was called the Annual Science Fiction Achievement Award , with " Hugo Award " being an unofficial , but better known name . The nickname was accepted as an official alternative name in 1958 , and since the 1992 awards the nickname has been adopted as the official name of the award .
In 1959 , though there were still no formal guidelines governing the awards , several rules were instated which thereafter became traditional . These included having a ballot for nominating works earlier in the year and separate from the voting ballot ; defining eligibility to include works published in the prior calendar year , rather than the previous rule of the " preceding year " ; and allowing voters to select " no award " as an option , which then won that year in two categories : Dramatic Presentation and Best New Author . The eligibility change additionally sparked a separate rule , prohibiting the nomination of works which had been nominated for the 1958 awards , as the two time periods overlapped .
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1961 , after the formation of the WSFS to oversee each Worldcon committee , formal rules were set down in the WSFS constitution mandating the presenting of the awards as one of the responsibilities of each Worldcon organizing committee . The rules restricted voting to members of the convention that the awards would be given at , while still allowing anyone to nominate works ; nominations were restricted to members of the convention or the previous year 's convention in 1963 . The guidelines also specified the categories that would be awarded , which could only be changed by the World Science Fiction Society board . These categories were for Best Novel , Short Fiction ( short stories , broadly defined ) , Dramatic Presentation , Professional Magazine , Professional Artist , and Best Fanzine ( fan magazine ) . 1963 was also the second year in which " no award " won a category , again for Dramatic Presentation .
In 1964 the guidelines were changed to allow individual conventions to create additional categories , which was codified as up to two categories for that year . These additional awards were officially designated as Hugo Awards , but were not required to be repeated by future conventions . This was later adjusted to only allow one additional category ; while these extra Hugo Awards have been given out in several categories , only a few were ever awarded for more than one year .
In 1967 categories for Novelette , Fan Writer , and Fan Artist were added , and a category for Best Novella was added the following year ; these new categories had the effect of providing a definition for what word count qualified a work for what category , which was previously left up to voters . Novelettes had also been awarded prior to the codification of the rules . The fan awards were initially conceived as separate from the Hugo Awards , with the award for Best Fanzine losing its status , but were instead absorbed into the regular Hugo Awards by the convention committee .
= = = 1970s = = =
While traditionally five works had been selected for nomination in each category out of the proposed nominees , in 1971 this was set down as a formal rule , barring ties . In 1973 , the WSFS removed the category for Best Professional Magazine , and a Best Professional Editor award was instated as its replacement , in order to recognize " the increasing importance of original anthologies " .
After that year the guidelines were changed again to remove the mandated awards and instead allow up to ten categories which would be chosen by each convention , though they were expected to be similar to those presented in the year before . Despite this change no new awards were added or previous awards removed before the guidelines were changed back to listing specific categories in 1977 . 1971 and 1977 both saw " no award " win the Dramatic Presentation category for the third and fourth time ; " no award " did not win any categories afterwards until 2015 .
= = = 1980s and 90s = = =
In 1980 the category for Best Non @-@ Fiction Book ( later renamed Best Related Work ) was added , followed by a category for Best Semiprozine ( semi @-@ professional magazine ) in 1984 . In 1983 , members of the Church of Scientology were encouraged by people such as Charles Platt to nominate as a bloc Battlefield Earth , written by the organization 's founder L. Ron Hubbard , for the Best Novel award ; it did not make the final ballot . Another campaign followed in 1987 to nominate Hubbard 's Black Genesis ; it made the final ballot but finished behind " no award " . 1989 saw a work — The Guardsman by Todd Hamilton and P. J. Beese — withdrawn by its authors from the final ballot after a fan bought numerous memberships under false names , all sent in on the same day , in order to get the work onto the ballot .
In 1990 the Best Original Art Work award was given as an extra Hugo Award , and was listed again in 1991 , though not actually awarded , and established afterward as an official Hugo Award . It was then removed from this status in 1996 , and has not been awarded since . The Retro Hugos were created in the mid @-@ 1990s , and were first awarded in 1996 .
= = = Since 2000 = = =
In 2003 , the Dramatic Presentation award was split into two categories , Long Form and Short Form . This was repeated with the Best Professional Editor category in 2007 . 2009 saw the addition of the Best Graphic Story category , while the most recent change to the Hugo Awards was in 2012 , when an award for Best Fancast was added .
In 2015 , two groups of science fiction writers , the " Sad Puppies " led by Brad R. Torgersen and Larry Correia , and the " Rabid Puppies " led by Vox Day , each put forward a similar slate of suggested nominations which came to dominate the ballot . The Sad Puppies campaign had run for two years prior on a smaller scale , with limited success . The leaders of the campaigns characterized them as a reaction to " niche , academic , overtly [ leftist ] " nominees and winners in opposition to " an affirmative action award " that preferred female and non @-@ white authors and characters . In response , five nominees declined their nomination before and , for the first time , two after the ballot was published . Multiple @-@ Hugo @-@ winner Connie Willis declined to present the awards . The slates were characterized by some journalists as a " right wing " , " orchestrated backlash " by a " group of white guys " and were linked with the Gamergate controversy . Multiple Hugo winner Samuel R. Delany characterized the campaigns as a response to " socio @-@ economic " changes such as minority authors gaining prominence and thus " economic heft " . In all but the Best Dramatic Presentation , Long Form category , " no award " placed above all nominees that were on either slate , and it won all five categories that only contained slate nominees .
= = Categories = =
The only discontinued awards which were instated in the WSFS constitution as permanent categories were the Best Professional Magazine and Best Original Art Work Hugo Awards . Worldcon committees may also give out special awards during the Hugo ceremony , which are not voted on . Unlike the additional Hugo categories which Worldcons may present , these awards are not officially Hugo Awards and do not use the same trophy , though they once did . An additional award , the John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer , is presented at the Hugo Award ceremony and voted by the same process , but is not formally a Hugo Award .
= = Recognition = =
The Hugo Award is highly regarded by observers . The Los Angeles Times has termed it " among the highest honors bestowed in science fiction and fantasy writing " , a claim echoed by Wired , who said that it was " the premier award in the science fiction genre " . Justine Larbalestier , in The Battle of the Sexes in Science Fiction ( 2002 ) , referred to the awards as " the best known and most prestigious of the science fiction awards " , and Jo Walton , writing for Tor.com , said it was " undoubtedly science fiction ’ s premier award " . The Guardian similarly acknowledged it as " a fine showcase for speculative fiction " as well as " one of the most venerable , democratic and international " science fiction awards " in existence " . James Gunn , in The New Encyclopedia of Science Fiction ( 1988 ) , echoed The Guardian 's statement of the award 's democratic nature , saying that " because of its broad electorate " the Hugos were the awards most representative of " reader popularity " . Camille Bacon @-@ Smith , in Science Fiction Culture ( 2000 ) , said that at the time fewer than 1000 people voted on the final ballot ; she held , however , that this is a representative sample of the readership at large , given the number of winning novels that remain in print for decades or become notable outside of the science fiction genre , such as The Demolished Man or The Left Hand of Darkness . The 2014 awards saw over 1900 nomination submissions and over 3500 voters on the final slate , while the 1964 awards received 274 votes . The 2015 awards saw 2122 nominating ballots and 5950 votes .
Brian Aldiss , in his book Trillion Year Spree : The History of Science Fiction , claimed that the Hugo Award was a barometer of reader popularity , rather than artistic merit ; he contrasted it with the panel @-@ selected Nebula Award , which provided " more literary judgment " , though he did note that the winners of the two awards often overlapped . Along with the Hugo Award , the Nebula Award is also considered one of the premier awards in science fiction , with Laura Miller of Salon.com terming it " science fiction 's most prestigious award " .
The official logo of the Hugo Awards is often placed on the winning books ' cover as a promotional tool . Gahan Wilson , in First World Fantasy Awards ( 1977 ) , claimed that noting that a book had won the Hugo Award on the cover " demonstrably " increased sales for that novel , though Orson Scott Card said in his 1990 book How to Write Science Fiction & Fantasy that the award had a larger effect on foreign sales than in the United States . Spider Robinson , in 1992 , claimed that publishers were very interested in authors that won a Hugo Award , more so than for other awards such as the Nebula Award . Literary agent Richard Curtis said in his 1996 Mastering the Business of Writing that having the term Hugo Award on the cover , even as a nominee , was a " powerful inducement " to science fiction fans to buy a novel , while Jo Walton claimed in 2011 that the Hugo is the only science fiction award " that actually affects sales of a book " .
There have been several anthologies collecting Hugo @-@ winning short fiction . The series The Hugo Winners , edited by Isaac Asimov , was started in 1962 as a collection of short story winners up to the previous year , and concluded with the 1982 Hugos in Volume 5 . The New Hugo Winners , edited originally by Asimov , later by Connie Willis and finally by Gregory Benford , has four volumes collecting stories from the 1983 to the 1994 Hugos . The most recent anthology is The Hugo Award Showcase ( 2010 ) , edited by Mary Robinette Kowal , which contains most of the short stories , novelettes , and novellas that were nominated for the 2009 award .
= SpongeBob SquarePants ( season 4 ) =
The fourth season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants , created by former marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg , aired on Nickelodeon from May 6 , 2005 to July 24 , 2007 , and contained 20 episodes , beginning with the episodes " Fear of a Krabby Patty " and " Shell of a Man " . The series chronicles the exploits and adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom . The season was executive produced by series creator Hillenburg , while writer Paul Tibbitt acted as the showrunner . The show underwent a hiatus on television as Hillenburg halted the production in 2002 to work on the film adaptation of the series , The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie . Once the film was finalized and the previous season had completed broadcast on television , Hillenburg wanted to end the show , but the success of the series led to more episodes , so Tibbitt took over Hillenburg 's position as showrunner and began working on a fourth season for broadcast in 2005 .
The show itself received several recognition , including the three Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon from 2005 to 2007 . The episodes " Fear of a Krabby Patty " and " Shell of a Man " were nominated at the 57th Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) . It also received a nomination for its episodes " Bummer Vacation " and " Wigstruck " at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards for the same category .
Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released . The SpongeBob SquarePants : Season 4 , Volume 1 and 2 DVDs were released in Region 1 on September 12 , 2006 and January 9 , 2007 , respectively , while the complete set was released in Region 2 on November 3 , 2008 and Region 4 on November 7 , 2008 . On November 13 , 2012 , The Complete Fourth Season DVD was released in Region 1 .
= = Production = =
The season aired on Nickelodeon , which is owned by Viacom , and was produced by United Plankton Pictures and Nickelodeon . The season 's executive producer was series creator Stephen Hillenburg . In 2002 , Hillenburg and the show 's staff members decided to stop making episodes to work on the 2004 film The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , after completing the third season . As a result , the show went into a two @-@ year " self @-@ imposed " production hiatus . During the break on television , Nickelodeon expanded the programming for the third season to cover the delay , however , according to network executive Eric Coleman , " there certainly was a delay and a built @-@ up demand . " Nickelodeon announced nine " as @-@ yet @-@ unaired " episodes would be shown during the break .
Once the production on the film was completed , Hillenburg wanted to end the series " so the show wouldn 't jump the shark " , but Nickelodeon wanted to do more episodes . Hillenburg said " Well , there was concern when we did the movie [ in 2004 ] that the show had peaked . There were concerns among executives at Nickelodeon . " Hillenburg resigned as the series ' showrunner , and appointed Paul Tibbitt , who previously served as the show 's supervising producer , writer , director , and storyboard artist , to overtake the role . Hillenburg considered Tibbitt one of his favorite members of the show 's crew , and " totally trusted him " . Tibbitt still helmed the showrunner position , until October 2015 when Vincent Waller & Marc Ceccarelli took his position , and also functions as an executive producer . Hillenburg no longer writes or runs the show on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis , but reviews each episode and delivers suggestions . He said , " I figure when I 'm pretty old I can still paint . I don 't know about running shows . "
In 2004 , Tom Kenny , Bill Fagerbakke , and the rest of the crew confirmed they have completed four new episodes for broadcast on Nickelodeon in early 2005 , and planned to finish about 20 total for the then @-@ fourth season . In particular , Kenny said , " Kids were happy watching them for the 3,000th time . It was the parents who 've been busting my chops for new episodes . " He remarked that it would be " the same show , the same sponge " . On May 6 , 2005 , the season premiered with the episodes " Fear of a Krabby Patty " and " Shell of a Man " . " Fear of a Krabby Patty " was the first episode to be broadcast after the show 's intermission . It was written by C.H. Greenblatt and Paul Tibbitt , while Alan Smart served as animation director .
Animation was handled overseas in South Korea at Rough Draft Studios . Animation directors credited with episodes in the fourth season included Larry Leichliter , Andrew Overtoom , Smart , and Tom Yasumi . Starting with the episode " Fear of a Krabby Patty , " this is the first season to use the 3 @-@ D computer cel shading rather than digital ink and paint or traditional cel animation . The show would continue to be animated like this until the end of the eighth season . Episodes were written by a team of writers , which consisted of Casey Alexander , Steven Banks , Mike Bell , Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash , Zeus Cervas , Greenblatt , Tom King , Tim Hill , Kyle McCulloch , Dani Michaeli , Chris Mitchell , Mike Mitchell , Aaron Springer , Tibbitt , Vincent Waller , and Erik Wiese . The season was storyboarded by Alexander , Bell , Brookshier , Cash , Cervas , Greenblatt , King , Chris Mitchell , Springer , Tuck Tucker , Brad Vandergrift , Waller , and Wiese .
= = Cast = =
The fourth season had a cast of six main actors . Tom Kenny provided the voice of the title character SpongeBob SquarePants and his pet snail Gary . SpongeBob 's best friend , a starfish named Patrick Star , was voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , while Rodger Bumpass played the voice of Squidward Tentacles , an arrogant and ill @-@ tempered octopus . Other members of the cast were Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks , a squirrel from Texas ; Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs , a miserly crab obsessed with money and SpongeBob 's boss at the Krusty Krab ; and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton , a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs ' business rival . The season had a number of secondary characters including Jill Talley as Plankton 's computer wife , Karen ; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff , SpongeBob 's driving instructor ; Lori Alan as Pearl , Mr. Krabs ' daughter ; and Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as the Flying Dutchman .
In addition to the regular cast members , episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions , including actors , musicians , and artists . For instance , in the episode " Have You Seen This Snail ? " , American comedian and actress Amy Poehler guest starred as the voice of Grandma , a sweet old woman who adopted Gary after he ran away . Musician Stew also appeared as a voice , performing the song " Gary , Come Home " . Show writer C.H. Greenblatt made an appearance in the episode " Selling Out " as Carl . Ernest Borgnine and Tim Conway returned in the episode " Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy : VI The Motion Picture " , reprising their roles as Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy , respectively . In " Mrs. Puff , You 're Fired " , English actor Robin Sachs voiced Sergeant Sam Roderick , a driving instructor who took over Mrs. Puff in teaching SpongeBob . Christopher Ryan , Nigel Planer and Rik Mayall appeared in the episode " Chimps Ahoy " as Sandy 's bosses — Professor Percy , Dr. Marmalade and Lord Reginald , respectively . In the entry " Karate Island " , Happy Days and The Karate Kid actor Pat Morita guest starred as Master Udon , a scammer who kidnaps SpongeBob to make him buy real estate . Morita died in November 2005 , and the May 2006 episode was dedicated to Morita 's memory .
= = Reception = =
The season was well received by media critics and fans . Paul Mavis of DVD Talk gave both of the season 's volumes 4 1 / 2 stars . The episodes " Fear of a Krabby Patty " and " Shell of a Man " were nominated at the 57th Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) , but lost to South Park 's " Best Friends Forever " . The show was also nominated at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards for the same category for the episodes " Bummer Vacation " and " Wigstruck " . At the 33rd Annie Awards , C.H. Greenblatt , Paul Tibbitt , Mike Bell and Tim Hill were also nominated for Best Writing in an Animated Television Production for the episode " Fear of a Krabby Patty " . " Fear of a Krabby Patty " won for a Special Award at the 2005 Annecy International Animated Film Festival . At the 2006 Golden Reel Awards , the episode " Have You Seen This Snail ? " was nominated for Best Sound Editing in Television : Animated . The show itself received several recognition , including the three Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon from 2005 to 2007 . It also received a nomination at the 21st TCA Awards for Outstanding Achievement in Children 's Programming , but lost to Degrassi : The Next Generation , and at the 23rd TCA Awards for the same category . However , the series did not win .
= = Episodes = =
Key
The following episodes listed in the chart are arranged according to their production order , rather than by their original air dates .
= = DVD release = =
The first ten episodes of the fourth season were released on DVD by Paramount Home Entertainment in the United States and Canada on September 12 , 2006 . The " Volume 1 " DVD release features bonus material including animatics and featurettes . The remaining ten episodes of the season were also released under the title " Volume 2 " in the United States and Canada on January 9 , 2007 . The DVD release also features bonus material including music videos , shorts and featurettes . In Region 2 and 4 , the DVD release for the season was a complete set . On November 13 , 2012 , The Complete Fourth Season DVD was released in Region 1 , five years after the season had completed broadcast on television .
= HMS Dainty ( H53 ) =
HMS Dainty was a D @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship was initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before she was transferred to the China Station in early 1935 . She was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea during late 1935 during the Abyssinia Crisis , before returning to her assigned station where she remained until mid @-@ 1939 . Dainty was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet just before World War II began in September 1939 . She briefly was assigned to West Africa for convoy escort duties in 1940 before returning to the Mediterranean . The ship participated in the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 and was assigned to convoy escort and patrol duties until she was sunk by German bombers off Tobruk on 24 February 1941 .
= = Description = =
Dainty displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Dainty carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Dainty had a single 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ) gun and two quadruple Mark I mounts for the QF 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Career = =
Dainty was ordered on 2 February 1931 under the 1930 Naval Estimates and was laid down at the yards of the Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company , Govan , Scotstoun on 20 April 1931 . She was launched on 3 May 1932 and completed on 22 December 1932 , at a total cost of £ 229 @,@ 378 , excluding equipment supplied by the Admiralty , such as weapons , ammunition and wireless equipment .
The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in October – November 1933 . Dainty was refitted at Portsmouth between 3 September and 23 October 1934 for service on the China Station with the 8th ( later the 21st ) Destroyer Flotilla and arrived there on 3 January 1935 . She was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in the Red Sea from 30 September 1935 to June 1936 during the Abyssinian Crisis . The ship was refitted afterwards in Hong Kong between 21 September and 15 October and conducted anti @-@ piracy patrols after her refit was complete . On 21 January 1937 , the merchant ship SS Hsin Pekin grounded on the Nemesis Rock off Ningbo and Dainty posted a guard aboard her until she was refloated . The ship made a number of port visits in Sarawak , Singapore and the Philippines in January – March 1938 . As war loomed , she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet , arriving at Alexandria with her sister Duncan on 30 September 1939 , after the outbreak of World War II .
Dainty was assigned to search for contraband being shipped across the Mediterranean throughout October and November , before undergoing a refit at Malta from 8 – 30 December . On its completion she was transferred to the 2nd Destroyer Division , based in Freetown , Sierra Leone to search for German commerce raiders operating in the South Atlantic . The ship was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet in April and was given another refit at Malta from 21 April to 2 June 1940 . On its completion , Dainty was assigned to the 10th Destroyer Flotilla .
On 12 June , she rescued over 400 survivors from the light cruiser Calypso , which had been sunk off Crete . Eight days later , the ship , and three other destroyers , escorted the French battleship Lorraine and three British cruisers as they bombarded Bardia during the night of 20 / 21 June . On 27 June , Dainty , her sister Defender and the destroyer Ilex attacked the Italian submarine Console Generale Liuzzi and damaged her badly . The crew then scuttled Liuzzi . Two days later , Dainty and Ilex attacked the submarines Uebi Scebeli and Salpa , sinking Uebi Scebeli , although Salpa was able to escape . The British ships were able to salvage important encryption material , including the latest codebook . They may also have been responsible for the sinking of the Italian submarine Argonauta on 29 June as she returned from Tobruk .
Dainty participated in the Battle of Calabria on 9 July as an escort for the heavy ships of Force C and unsuccessfully engaged Italian destroyers and suffered no damage . Together with her sisters Defender and Diamond , the Australian destroyer Stuart , and the light cruisers Capetown and Liverpool , she escorted Convoy AN.2 from Egypt to various ports in the Aegean Sea in late July . On 29 August Dainty , Diamond and the destroyers Jervis , Juno escorted the Royal Fleet Auxiliary tanker Plumleaf and two merchant ships , SS Cornwall and SS Volo , from Egypt to Malta with relief supplies . Dainty and Ilex escorted the Australian light cruiser Sydney as she bombarded the Italian airfield on Scarpanto on 4 September .
Together with three Australian destroyers and two British anti @-@ aircraft cruisers , the ship escorted a convoy from Egypt to Suda Bay , Crete and then to Malta in early November . In December she was assigned to intercept enemy supply convoys along the North African coast and captured two schooners off Bardia on 31 December . In early January 1941 , Dainty escorted the capital ships of Force A during Operation Excess . She towed the disabled tanker Desmoulea to Suda Bay after the latter had been torpedoed by the Italian torpedo boat Lupo off Crete on 31 January .
= = = Sinking = = =
Shortly afterwards , Dainty returned to patrol the North African coast . In the late afternoon of 24 February she left Tobruk on a patrol , accompanied by the destroyer Hasty . The ships were attacked by 13 Junkers Ju 88 bombers of III . / Lehrgeschwader 1 and Dainty was hit by a 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bomb which passed through the captain 's cabin and detonated in the fuel tanks . This started a big fire , which caused her after magazine to explode and the ship to sink . 16 of Dainty 's crew were killed in the attack and 18 were wounded .
= Panggilan Darah =
Panggilan Darah ( Indonesian for Call of Blood ) is a 1941 film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) written and directed by Sutan Usman Karim and produced by Tjho Seng Han for Oriental Film . The black @-@ and @-@ white film starred Dhalia and Soerip as orphaned sisters trying to make a living in the colonial capital of Batavia ( now Jakarta ) before moving to Kudus to work at a clove cigarette factory .
Shot on location at an orphanage and two factories in central Java , Panggilan Darah was a modest commercial success in the Indies and Singapore . Its soundtrack , which featured nine kroncong songs , received popular acclaim , and the film 's acting received critical praise . Despite this success , Oriental was unable to recoup its expenses , and merged into Multi Film soon afterwards . Panggilan Darah , which was screened as late as 1952 , may now be lost .
= = Plot = =
Orphaned sisters Dhalia and Soerip ( themselves ) leave their village in an attempt to make a living in the colonial capital of Batavia ( now Jakarta ) . After a long period of misery , they are accepted as housemaids at the home of Hajji Iskak ( Mochtar Widjaja ) . Although initially elated , they find that Iskak 's wife ( Wolly Sutinah ) is a cruel mistress who often beats them . Meanwhile , Iskak 's would @-@ be son @-@ in @-@ law is constantly flirting with Dhalia , much to his fiancée 's dismay .
The sisters decide to run away from Iskak 's home . They make their way to Kudus and find work at the Nitisemito clove cigarette factory with the help of their friend ( S. Poniman ) . Not long after their escape , Iskak receives a guest who reveals that the two were his nieces . This revelation spurs Iskak to take out advertisements in newspapers , looking for the young women and asking them to return to Batavia .
Iskak 's search has little success until the sisters receive news that he is looking for them , and they quickly return to Batavia . There , the sisters are greeted with open arms . Iskak 's wife regrets her earlier treatment of the girls and repents , treating them splendidly and supporting Dhalia 's plans to open an orphanage .
= = Production = =
Panggilan Darah was the directorial debut of Sutan Usman Karim , commonly known as Suska , a journalist and former member of the touring theatrical group Bolero under Andjar Asmara . With Panggilan Darah , which he also wrote , Suska became one of several reporters who entered the film industry in the 1940s . He directed the film for the Batavia @-@ based film company Oriental , run by the ethnic Chinese producer Tjho Seng Han . The production house had previously released three films , all directed by Njoo Cheong Seng , but after Njoo departed for Fred Young 's Majestic , Oriental had required a new director .
The film was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white by the Indo cameraman J. J. W. Steffens , with editing handled by Soemardjan . Scenes were shot at an orphanage for Muslims owned by S. Z. Gunawan ( who played herself in the film ) , as well as at the Nitisemito cigarette factory in Kudus and at a batik factory in Pekalongan owned by Tan Jauw Lin . Writing in 2009 , the Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran suggested that the film may have been partly sponsored by Nitisemito — one of the largest cigarette factories in the Indies in the 1940s — based on the factory 's prominence in the plot .
Dhalia , Soerip , and S. Poniman , already known for their singing prowess , starred in Panggilan Darah , which featured nine kroncong songs . Additional roles were taken by Wolly Sutinah and Mochtar Widjaja . The film marked Sutinah 's debut for the company ; the other cast members had previous screen credits with Oriental .
= = Release and reception = =
Panggilan Darah debuted at the Orion Theatre in Batavia on 30 June 1941 . It was reported as a modest success , making most of its money from lower class audiences . It was screened in Surabaya , East Java , by August , and by September it had been shown in Singapore , then part of British Malaya . A novelisation by Roestam Sutan Palindih was published by the Yogyakarta @-@ based Kolff @-@ Buning Publishers that year .
Reviews of Panggilan Darah were mixed to positive . The journalist Soerono , writing in the entertainment magazine Pertjatoeran Doenia dan Film , was pleased with the film 's depiction of the Islamic mandate to take care of orphans . An anonymous review in the Surabaya @-@ based daily Soerabaijasch Handelsblad found the film " something special " and praised Soerip 's spontaneity in her role . Biran wrote that lower @-@ class audiences enjoyed the film 's music , while the intelligentsia scoffed at the idea that a factory supervisor would bring a guitar to work . He found the plot illogical , asking why the sisters would not have worked in their own home village and how the destitute sisters could have made the journey from Batavia to Kudus , over 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) away .
= = Legacy = =
Unable to recoup its expenses , Oriental later merged into the Dutch @-@ owned Multi Film and ceased producing works of fiction . Suska left the company and joined The Teng Chun 's Java Industrial Film , for which he directed Ratna Moetoe Manikam . Most of the cast remained active in cinema for the remainder of their lives . Both Dhalia and Soerip remained in the film industry for the next fifty years ; they acted in their last feature films , Pendekar Jagad Kelana ( Warrior of Jagad Kelana ) and Sejak Cinta Diciptakan ( Since Love was Created ) respectively , in 1990 . Poniman and Sutinah would remain active in the industry until 1975 and 1986 . Only Widjaja is not recorded as performing in any more films .
Panggilan Darah was screened as late as August 1952 , but may now be lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , J. B. Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Sega v. Accolade =
Sega Enterprises Ltd. v. Accolade , Inc . , 977 F.2d 1510 ( 9th Cir . 1992 ) , is a case in which the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit applied American intellectual property law to the reverse engineering of computer software . Stemming from the publishing of several Sega Genesis games by video game publisher Accolade , which had disassembled Genesis software in order to publish games without being licensed by Sega , the case involved several overlapping issues , including the scope of copyright , permissible uses for trademarks , and the scope of the fair use doctrine for computer code .
The case was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California , which ruled in favor of Sega and issued an injunction against Accolade preventing them from publishing any more games for the Genesis and requiring them to recall all the existing Genesis games they had for sale . Accolade appealed the decision to the Ninth Circuit on the grounds that their reverse engineering of the Genesis was protected under fair use . The Ninth Circuit reversed the district court 's order and ruled that Accolade 's use of reverse engineering to publish Genesis titles was protected under fair use , and that its alleged violation of Sega trademarks was the fault of Sega . The case is frequently cited in matters involving reverse engineering and fair use under copyright law .
= = Background = =
In March 1984 , Sega Enterprises Ltd. was purchased by its former CEO , David Rosen , along with a group of backers . Hayao Nakayama , one of these backers , was named the new CEO of Sega . Following the crash of the arcade industry , Nakayama decided to focus development efforts on the home console market . During this time , Sega became concerned about software and hardware piracy in Southeast Asia , and particularly in Taiwan . Taiwan was not a signatory of the Berne Convention on copyright , limiting Sega 's legal options in that region . However , Taiwan did allow prosecution for trademark infringement . Though Sega had created security systems in their consoles to keep their software from being pirated and to keep unlicensed publishers out , much like its competitor Nintendo , counterfeiters had discovered ways to prevent the Sega trademark from appearing on their games , bypassing the trademark altogether .
After the release of the Sega Genesis in 1989 , video game publisher Accolade began exploring options to release some of their PC game titles onto the console . At the time , however , Sega had a licensing deal in place for third @-@ party developers that increased the costs to the developer . According to Accolade co @-@ founder Alan Miller , " One pays them between $ 10 and $ 15 per cartridge on top of the real hardware manufacturing costs , so it about doubles the cost of goods to the independent publisher . " In addition to this , Sega required that it would be the exclusive publisher of Accolade 's games if Accolade were to be licensed , preventing Accolade from releasing its games to other systems . To get around licensing , Accolade chose to seek an alternative way to bring their games to the Genesis by purchasing a console in order to decompile the executable code of three Genesis games and use it to program their new cartridges in a way that would allow them to disable the security lockouts that prevented playing of unlicensed games . This was done successfully to bring Ishido : The Way of Stones to the Genesis in 1990 . In doing so , Accolade had also copied Sega 's copyrighted game code multiple times in order to reverse engineer the software of Sega 's licensed Genesis games .
As a result of the piracy and unlicensed development issues , Sega incorporated a technical protection mechanism into a new edition of the Genesis released in 1990 , referred to as the Genesis III . This new variation of the Genesis included code known as the Trademark Security System ( TMSS ) , which , when a game cartridge was inserted into the console , would check for the presence of the string " SEGA " at a particular point in the memory contained in the cartridge . If and only if the string was present , the console would run the game , and would briefly display the message : " PRODUCED BY OR UNDER LICENSE FROM SEGA ENTERPRISES LTD . " This system had a twofold effect : it added extra protection against unlicensed developers and software piracy , and it forced the Sega trademark to display when the game was powered up , making a lawsuit for trademark infringement possible if unlicensed software were to be developed . Accolade learned of this development at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in January 1991 , at which Sega showed the new Genesis III and demonstrated it screening and rejecting an Ishido game cartridge . With more games planned for the following year , Accolade successfully identified the TMSS file . They later added this file to the games HardBall ! , Star Control , Mike Ditka Power Football , and Turrican .
= = Lawsuit = =
On October 31 , 1991 , Sega filed suit against Accolade in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California , on charges of trademark infringement and unfair competition in violation of the Lanham Act . Copyright infringement , a violation of the Copyright Act of 1976 , was added a month later to the list of charges . In response , Accolade filed a counterclaim for falsifying the source of its games by displaying the Sega trademark when the game was powered up . The case was heard by Judge Barbara A. Caulfield .
Sega argued that Accolade had infringed upon its copyrights because Accolade 's games contained Sega 's material . Accolade insisted that their use of Sega 's material constituted fair use . However , Judge Caulfield did not accept this explanation since Accolade was a game manufacturer , their works were for financial gain , and because their works competed directly with Sega 's licensed games , likely resulting in a sales decrease for Sega 's games . Accolade 's case was further hurt by a presentation by a Sega engineer named Takeshi Nagashima , who showed two Sega game cartridges that were able to run on the Genesis III without the trademark @-@ displaying TMSS , and offered them to Accolade 's defense team but would not reveal how that was possible . Ultimately , this would result in Accolade 's defeat on April 3 , 1992 , when Judge Caulfield ruled in favor of Sega and issued an injunction prohibiting future sales by Accolade of Genesis @-@ compatible games incorporating the Sega message or using the results of the reverse engineering . Almost a week later , Accolade was also required by the court to recall all of their Genesis @-@ compatible games .
= = Appeal = =
The decision in the district court ruling had been very costly to Accolade . According to Accolade co @-@ founder Alan Miller , " Just to fight the injunction , we had to pay at least half a million dollars in legal fees . " On April 14 , 1992 , Accolade filed for a stay on the injunction pending appeal in the district court , but when the court did not rule by April 21 , Accolade appealed the verdict to the Ninth Circuit of the U.S. Court of Appeals . A stay was granted on the mandate to recall all of Accolade 's Genesis games , but the injunction preventing further reverse engineering and development of Genesis software was maintained until August 28 , when the Ninth Circuit ordered it dissolved pending the appeal review .
In support of the appeal , the Computer & Communications Industry Association submitted an amicus curiae brief claiming that the district court had made errors in concluding that Accolade had infringed upon Sega 's copyright by reverse engineering its software , extending copyright protection to method of operation , and failing to consider whether Accolade 's games were substantially similar to Sega 's copyrighted material . Amicus briefs were also submitted by the American Committee for Interoperable Systems , the Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association , and copyright law professor Dennis S. Karjala from Arizona State University .
In reviewing the case , the court considered several factors in its own analysis , examining trademark and copyright issues separately . As in the district court trial , Nagashima showed the court a game cartridge that ran on the Genesis that did not display the trademark logo . However , the court was not moved by this , deciding that Nagashima 's cartridges showed what one could do with knowledge of the TMSS , which Accolade did not possess . According to the court , because knowledge of how to avoid displaying the trademark on the Genesis III was not information that was public to the industry , Sega 's attempt to prove that the display of their trademark was not required for games to be played on the console was insufficient . Writing for the opinion of the court , Judge Stephen Reinhardt stated , " Sega knowingly risked two significant consequences : the false labeling of some competitors ' products and the discouraging of other competitors from manufacturing Genesis @-@ compatible games . Under the Lanham Act , the former conduct , at least , is clearly unlawful . " The court then went on to cite Anti @-@ Monopoly v. General Mills Fun Group , which states in reference to the Lanham Act , " The trademark is misused if it serves to limit competition in the manufacture and sales of a product . That is the special province of the limited monopolies provided pursuant to the patent laws . " The judges in the case had decided that Sega had violated this provision of the act by utilizing its trademark to limit competition for software for its console .
To determine the status of Accolade 's claim of fair use of Sega 's copyrighted game code , the court reviewed four criteria of fair use : the nature of the copyrighted work , the amount of the copyrighted work used , the purpose of use , and the effects of use on the market for the work . Of note to the judges in reviewing Sega 's copyright claim was the difference in size between the TMSS file and the sizes of Accolade 's games . As noted by Judge Reinhardt in writing the opinion of the court , the TMSS file " contains approximately twenty to twenty @-@ five bytes of data . Each of Accolade 's games contains a total of 500 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 bytes . According to Accolade employees , the header file is the only portion of Sega 's code that Accolade copied into its own game programs . " This made the games overwhelmingly original content , and according to Judge Reinhardt , to the benefit of the public to be able to compete with Sega 's licensed games , especially if the games were dissimilar as contended in the appeal . The court did not accept the argument that Accolade 's games competed directly with Sega 's , noting that there was no proof that any of Accolade 's published games had diminished the market for any of Sega 's games . Despite claims from Sega 's attorneys that the company had invested much time and effort into developing the Genesis , and that Accolade was capitalizing on this time and energy , the court rejected these claims under the notion that the console was largely functional , and its functional principles were not protected under the Copyright Act of 1976 . On the matter of reverse engineering as a process , the court concluded that " where disassembly is the only way to gain access to the ideas and functional elements embodied in a copyrighted computer program and where there is a legitimate reason for seeking such access , disassembly is a fair use of the copyrighted work , as a matter of law . "
On August 28 , 1992 , the Ninth Circuit overturned the district court 's verdict and ruled that Accolade 's decompilation of the Sega software constituted fair use . The court 's written opinion followed on October 20 and noted that the use of the software was non @-@ exploitative , despite being commercial , and that the trademark infringement , being required by the TMSS for a Genesis game to run on the system , was inadvertently triggered by a fair use act and the fault of Sega for causing false labeling . As a result of the verdict being overturned , the costs of the appeal were assessed to Sega . The injunction remained in force , however , because Sega petitioned the appeals court to rehear the case .
= = Settlement = =
On January 8 , 1993 , with Sega 's petition for a rehearing still pending , the court took the unusual step of amending its October 20 , 1992 opinion and lifted the injunction preventing Accolade from developing or selling Genesis software . This was followed by a formal denial of Sega 's petition for a rehearing on January 26 . As Accolade 's counterclaim for false labeling under the Lanham Act was declined by the Ninth Circuit , this essentially left " each party as free to act as it was before the issuance of preliminary injunctive relief " while the district court considered the counterclaim . Sega and Accolade ultimately settled on April 30 , 1993 . As a part of this settlement , Accolade became an official licensee of Sega , and later developed and released Barkley Shut Up and Jam ! while under license . The terms of the licensing , including whether or not any special arrangements or discounts were made to Accolade , were not released to the public . The financial terms of the settlement were also not disclosed , although both companies agreed to pay their own legal costs .
In an official statement , Sega of America chairman David Rosen expressed satisfaction with the settlement . According to Rosen , " This settlement is a satisfactory ending to what was a very complex set of issues . Not only are we pleased to settle this case amicably , we 've also turned a corner in our association with Accolade and now look forward to a healthy and mutually beneficial relationship in the future . " Accolade 's Alan Miller expressed more excitement with the settlement and the opportunities it presented for the company , saying in his statement , " We are very pleased with the settlement , and we 're excited about the new markets it opens to Accolade . Accolade currently experiences strong demand for its Sega Genesis products in North America and Europe . We will now be able to publish our products on the Sega Genesis and Game Gear systems throughout the world . " Despite the settlement , however , Accolade had lost somewhere between $ 15 million and $ 25 million during the injunction period , according to Miller .
= = Impact = =
Sega v. Accolade has been an influential case in matters involving reverse engineering of software and copyright infringement , and has been cited in numerous cases since 1993 . The case has redefined how reverse engineering with unlicensed products is seen in legal issues involving copyright . Legally , the decision concurred that the nature of Accolade 's work in reverse engineering the Sega Genesis was to access ideas that were deemed unprotected by copyright law , and could only be accessed by decompiling . By the verdict , the console 's functional principles were established not to be protected by copyright , and that when no other means were available , reverse engineering the copyrighted software to access information about the console 's functional principles is protected by the fair use doctrine . One such example of the precedent set by this case is Sony Computer Entertainment , Inc. v. Connectix Corporation , which cited Sega v. Accolade in deciding that reverse engineering the Sony PlayStation BIOS was protected by fair use and was non @-@ exploitative .
Among the influences of the verdict include Sega v. Accolade 's effect on the criteria for fair use and the responsibilities of trademark holders in legal examinations . Although Accolade had copied entire Genesis games in order to identify the TMSS , the court gave little weight to the criterion on the amount of the copyrighted work being copied , in light of the fact that Accolade had done so in order to create their own compatible software . Likewise , the nature of the work was also given less weight , essentially establishing a two @-@ factor approach to evaluating fair use in the purpose of use and impact on the market . It was also the first time that the Lanham Act was interpreted to mean that confusion resulting from the placement of one 's trademark on another work by means of a security program is the fault of the original registrant of the trademark .
Sega v. Accolade also served to help establish that the functional principles of computer software cannot be protected by copyright law . Rather , the only legal protection to such principles can be through holding a patent or by trade secret . This aspect of the verdict has received criticism as well , citing that though the functional principles are not protectable under copyright law , the TMSS code is protectable , and that by allowing reverse engineering as fair use despite this security , the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals has encouraged the copying of legally protected programs for the exploration of unprotected functionality .
= I Shall Not Be Moved ( poetry ) =
I Shall Not Be Moved is author and poet Maya Angelou 's fifth collection of poetry , published by Random House in 1990 . Angelou had written four autobiographies and published four other volumes of poetry up to that point . Angelou considered herself a poet and a playwright and her poetry has also been successful , but she is best known for her seven autobiographies , especially her first , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings . She began , early in her writing career , of alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Most critics agree that Angelou 's poems are more interesting when she recites them .
The poems in I Shall Not Be Moved focus on themes of hard work , universal experiences of humans , the struggle of African Americans , and love and relationships . Like most of her poetry , the collection has received little serious critical attention , although most reviews have been positive .
= = Background = =
I Shall Not Be Moved is Maya Angelou 's fifth volume of poetry . She studied and began writing poetry at a young age . After her rape at the age of eight , as recounted in her first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) , she dealt with her trauma by memorizing and reciting great works of literature , including poetry , which helped bring her out of her self @-@ imposed muteness .
Although Angelou considered herself a playwright and poet when her editor Robert Loomis challenged her to write Caged Bird , she has been best known for her autobiographies , and many critics consider her autobiographies more important than her poetry . Critic William Sylvester agrees , and states that although her books have been best @-@ sellers , her poetry has " received little serious critical attention " . Bloom also believes that Angelou 's poems are more interesting when she recites them . Bloom calls her performances " characteristically dynamic " , and says that Angelou " moves exuberantly , vigorously to reinforce the rhythms of the lines , the tone of the words . Her singing and dancing and electrifying stage presence transcend the predictable words and phrases " .
Early in her writing career she began alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . By the time I Shall Not Be Moved was published in 1990 , she had published five autobiographies , eventually going on to publish seven . Her publisher , Random House , placed the poems in I Shall Not Be Moved in her first collection of poetry , The Complete Collected Poems of Maya Angelou ( 1994 ) , perhaps to capitalize on her popularity following her reading of her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at President Bill Clinton 's inauguration in 1993 . Also in the 1994 collection were her four previous collections , Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) , Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well ( 1975 ) , And Still I Rise ( 1978 ) , and Shaker , Why Don 't You Sing ? ( 1983 ) . Angelou 's publisher placed four poems in a smaller volume entitled Phenomenal Woman in 1995 .
= = Themes = =
Critic Lyman B. Hagen states that much of Angelou 's poetry and most of her writings , especially " Worker 's Song " , the first poem in I Shall Not Be Moved , praises the laborer . He says , " In Angelou 's writings , rarely is there anyone who does not work . Everyone of her characters — singers , dancers , railway workers , etc . — works hard " . Critic Hazel Rochman , who calls the poem an " exquisitely simple worksong " , states that Angelou connects physical action with wit and longing . She compares it to the performances of singer Paul Robeson and to Langston Hughes ' poem " Florida Road Workers " . Michele Howe calls I Shall Not Be Moved " a collection that testifies to the undaunted spirit of oppressed people everywhere " , and states that it " relates a history of hard work , pain , joy , and the affection and heartbreak often associated with love " . She also mentions " Worker 's Song " in her article in the New Jersey newspaper The Star @-@ Ledger , stating that it describes the struggles of the workers that " keep the whole world running " .
Howe says that although Angelou writes about the Black experience , she draws from the experiences of all ethnic backgrounds . Howe considers the poem " Our Grandmothers " , which relates the struggle of a woman attempting to overcome her enslavement and oppression , one of the most poignant poems in the volume and its focal point . The poem uses the title phrase ; according to Howe , Angelou 's use of the personal pronoun signifies the universal experience of mothers and grandmothers and their struggles to overcome obstacles . Howe also discusses the poem " Coleridge Jackson " , which she considers another significant poem in I Shall Not Be Moved . The poem describes a man who " wouldn 't take tea for the fever " — someone incapable of creatively dealing with his suffering at the hands of his employer . Angelou informed Howe that she believed that " Coleridge Jackson " was one of the most powerful poems she had ever recited in public .
In the poem " Love Letter " , Angelou describes the power of love to empower people to be themselves in their relationships , and to be equal with their partners . Angelou 's poem " Human Family " focuses on the similarities of all people , especially the line " We are more alike , my friends , than we are unalike " . According to Howe , this line sums the themes found throughout the volume .
= = Reviews = =
Rochman , when she compares " Worker 's Song " to Hughes ' " Florida Road Workers " , states that like Hughes , Angelou 's poem combines rhythm and sense . She considers the poem the best in the volume , calling many of the other poems in I Shall Not Be Moved " too polemical " . Rochman says that the sensuous details in Angelou 's best poems enlivens her abstractions , and finds no false sentiments in them . She also states , " The dying fall of many lines combined with the strong beat reinforces the feeling of struggle and uncertainty " .
= = Poems = =
The volume 's title , according to Angelou , comes from her desire to encourage young people to " have a moral stance " and never give up , despite the tendency for people in power to ignore , deny , or neglect their duty to use their positions and abilities to change the world . It is dedicated to her mother Vivian Baxter and Mildred Garris Tuttle .
= Newfoundland expedition ( 1702 ) =
The Newfoundland expedition was a naval raiding expedition led by English Captain John Leake between August and October 1702 that targeted French colonial settlements on the North Atlantic island of Newfoundland and its satellite Saint Pierre . The expedition occurred in the early days of Queen Anne 's War , as the North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession is sometimes known .
Leake 's fleet descended on French settlements on the southern shore of Newfoundland , destroying fishing stages and other infrastructure . They captured fishing and trade ships , and destroyed most of the settlement at Saint Pierre . In a final flurry of activity before returning to England , Leake captured several ships from the French merchant convoy as it headed for Europe . More than 50 ships were taken in total , and six seasonal settlements were destroyed . The strongly fortified French base at Plaisance was not attacked .
= = Background = =
Hostilities in the War of the Spanish Succession had begun in 1701 , but England did not get involved until 1702 , planning a major naval expedition against targets in Spain . On 9 June 1702 ( Old Style ) Newfoundland also became a target when George Churchill , chief advisor to the Lord High Admiral , Prince George , informed Captain John Leake , " I have proposed to the Prince , your going to command a squadron to Newfoundland ; you will be a Chief of Squadron " . Leake 's commission , issued on 24 June , came with instructions to investigate the military strength of the French in Newfoundland , and to " annoy them there in their fishing harbours and at sea " . He was also to convoy merchant ships in both directions , report on the conditions of the English settlements and fisheries , and act as governor of the territory while he was there . To accomplish this he was given command of HMS Exeter and a small fleet of ships . On 22 July 1702 , he departed from Plymouth with a fleet of nine ships , including six ships of the line . His ships included ( in addition to Exeter ) the fourth rates HMS Assistance , HMS Montagu , HMS Lichfield , HMS Medway , and HMS Reserve .
Newfoundland had been the site of much conflict during King William 's War ( 1689 – 1697 ) . The most ambitious expedition had been conducted by French and Indian forces led by Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville in 1696 . His raiding expedition was highly destructive : it completely destroyed almost all of the English settlements on the island . Many of these were rebuilt shortly afterwards , and the chief English port at St. John 's was strongly fortified .
Permanent French settlements on Newfoundland were relatively few . Most of their settlements , such as those in Trepassey Bay and St. Mary 's , were only used in the summertime by fishermen who returned to Europe at the end of the season . The principal town of Plaisance was permanently settled , and its fortifications housed a small garrison . In 1702 it was temporarily under the command of Philippe Pastour de Costebelle , a captain of the colonial troupes de la marine , who was awaiting the arrival of the next governor , Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase ( who did not arrive until 1703 ) . The permanent French population of Newfoundland was fairly small — only 180 French settlers left Newfoundland when the colony was abandoned in 1713 .
The French also had a small settlement on the island of Saint Pierre , just south of Newfoundland in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence . Its governor , Sébastien Le Gouès , Sieur de Sourdeval , had only arrived in July 1702 , and erected a crude wooden fort armed with a few guns .
= = Raids = =
= = = Newfoundland = = =
Leake 's fleet arrived in late August at Bay Bulls . From the inhabitants they learned that two French fishing ships were loading at Trepassey Bay , and that two French warships were at anchor near the French capital at Plaisance . He also learned that the French routinely posted spies to observe activities at Bay Bulls , and were likely to report the fleet 's presence to Plaisance — a three @-@ day overland trek .
Leake consequently moved with speed , heading south and west toward the French settlements . On 28 August the fleet made its first captures , taking a French ship recently arrived from the French West Indian isle of Martinique , did battle with those at Trepassey Bay , and two more that Lichfield chased down . The next day Leake captured another French ship in St. Mary 's Bay , and was rejoined by Montagu , which had taken three prizes the day before . Ordering Montagu , Lichfield , and Charles Galley to make for Colinet , Leake took the rest of the fleet to St. Mary 's , where he chased a ship aground , and then sent out boats to refloat her . Landing parties were sent ashore , where they destroyed fishing stages , houses , shipbuilding equipment and unfinished ships , and many small boats .
After destroying the facilities at Colinet , the fleet regrouped on the 30th . Leake ordered a few of his ships to escort the captured prizes to St. John 's , and then to cruise off Cape Race for 14 days looking for prizes . Leake detached Montagu and Lichfield to destroy St. Lawrence while he sailed for Saint Pierre .
= = = Saint Pierre = = =
Leake 's account places his first arrival off Saint Pierre on 1 September . Bad weather prevented him from entering the harbour until the next day . He was therefore only able to capture two of the eight ships that had been in the harbour , because the rest got away through a shallow channel . On the 3rd he again approached the harbour , but did not report landing , and left then Saint Pierre to head for St. John 's .
Leake 's fleet reassembled at St. John 's on 7 September . He then detached about half the fleet , led by the Medway and Charles Galley , to return to Saint Pierre to destroy it , while he took the other half north toward Bonavista . There he hoped to acquire experienced pilots with knowledge of other French harbours . Failing in this endeavour ( none of the pilots he found had the needed experience , and also expressed concerns over the advancing winter conditions ) , he returned to St. John 's . He was met there on 2 October by the other half of the fleet , which had completed the destruction of Saint Pierre .
Saint Pierre 's Governor Sourdeval reported in a letter dated 11 October ( presumably New Style , thus 30 September Old Style ) that the English had twice landed men , on 7 and 8 October . He reported the second landing to consist of 400 men , who besieged him in his small fort . He surrendered after they exchanged gunfire for several hours , after which the English destroyed most of the facilities . They then deposited 52 French prisoners captured earlier in the expedition , and left .
= = = Cruising for the French convoy = = =
Leake then divided the fleet to begin the return to Europe . Montagu and Looe were assigned to convoy merchants and prizes destined for Portugal , while Reserve , Charles Galley , and Firebrand were set to escort those destined for England . Leake took the rest of the fleet and cruised off Cape Race for several weeks , hoping to intercept the French convoy that would have to pass nearby before winter set it . Weather conditions were often quite stormy , but Leake managed to take eight prizes before he finally sailed for England in mid @-@ October .
= = Aftermath = =
Leake reported taking 51 ships . Sixteen were sent to England , six to Portugal , and five were sold at St. John 's . He left two ships at St. John 's as part of its defence force . The remaining ships , including their cargoes and trade goods that had not been loaded before they were taken , were destroyed . Six French settlements were destroyed : Trepassey , St. Mary 's , Colinet , Great and Little St. Lawrence , and Saint Pierre . Upon his return to England , Leake was received with favour by Queen Anne . He was promoted to rear admiral for his actions , and went on to have a distinguished career for the rest of the war , serving in European waters .
Newfoundland continued to be contested throughout the war , with each side waging economic war against the other 's settlements , destroying fishing stages and other infrastructure . The main English settlement at St. John 's was besieged in 1705 and captured in 1709 by French forces from Plaisance . Sovereignty of the entire island passed to Great Britain with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht , although the French were granted some rights to dry fish on shore . Saint Pierre also came under British control , but it and neighboring Miquelon were eventually given to France after the War of the Austrian Succession .
= Manchester ( The West Wing ) =
" Manchester " is the two @-@ part third season premiere of the American political drama television series The West Wing . The episodes deal with President Bartlet 's decision to run for re @-@ election , and the activities of the weeks leading up to his official announcement . Both parts were written by Aaron Sorkin and directed by Thomas Schlamme , and the episodes contain the first appearances by Ron Silver , Evan Handler and Connie Britton . These episodes also mark the first episode where Stockard Channing is added to opening credits , marking that she became a regular character this season . The second episode was an Emmy nominee for Outstanding Art Direction For A Single @-@ Camera Series . It also earned a Golden Reel Award nomination for Best Sound Editing in a Television Series .
= = Plot = =
The episode picks up at the press conference immediately where last season 's cliff @-@ hanger ( Two Cathedrals ) left off , and what was then only implicit is here made clear : President Bartlet is running for a second term . When asked if he plans to seek re @-@ election | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
dates . The airline received some compensation , in cash and in kind , from Boeing for the delays . Afreximbank are financing the acquisition of the 20 aircraft the airline has on order . The handover of the first Boeing 787 took place on 4 April 2014 . On 4 June 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 06 @-@ 04 ) , Nairobi – Paris became the first route that was served using the Boeing 787 . In August 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 08 ) , Dreamliners were also deployed on the Nairobi – Johannesburg route .
As of April 2015 , the carrier was set to sell some aircraft , including four Boeing 777s , following a decrease in passenger traffic .
= = = Current fleet = = =
As of May 2016 , the carrier 's fleet consists of the following aircraft :
= = = Retired fleet = = =
The company has previously operated the following equipment :
= = = Livery = = =
In 2005 , Kenya Airways changed its livery . The four stripes running all through the length of the fuselage were replaced by the company slogan Pride of Africa , whereas the KA tail logo was replaced by a styled K encircled with a Q to evoke the airline 's IATA airline code .
= = Services = =
= = = Frequent flyer programmes = = =
Former Kenya Airways ' frequent flyer programme Msafiri was merged with KLM 's Flying Dutchman in 1997 , which was in turn merged with that of Air France and rebranded as Flying Blue in 2005 , following the fusion of both companies . Gold Elite and Platinum Elite members of the Flying Blue programme are offered the JV Lounge . This service is provided to Kenya Airways passengers , and to passengers flying with its partner airlines as well . Simba Lounge is a service provided to Kenya Airways Business passengers only . Both lounges are located at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport .
= = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = =
Different in @-@ flight entertainment is available depending upon the aircraft and the class travelled . The airline 's in @-@ flight magazine is called Msafiri , and is distributed among the passengers in all aircraft , irrespective of the class .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
As of October 2014 , Kenya Airways has had two fatal accidents and two hull loss accidents .
10 July 1988 : A Fokker F27 @-@ 200 , registration 5Y @-@ BBS , approached the runway too fast and made a belly landing at Kisumu Airport inbound from Nairobi as Flight 650 , skidding down the runway for some 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) .
11 July 1989 : A Boeing 707 @-@ 320B , registration 5Y @-@ BBK , overran the runway at Bole International Airport following a brake failure . The aircraft had departed from the same airport , and the non @-@ retraction of the landing gear prompted the crew to return .
30 January 2000 : Flight 431 was a scheduled Abidjan – Lagos – Nairobi service , operated with an Airbus A310 @-@ 304 , registration 5Y @-@ BEN , that plunged into the Atlantic Ocean and broke up , about a minute after it took off from Abidjan 's Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny International Airport . There were 179 people aboard , of whom ten were crewmembers ; most of the occupants were Nigerians . 169 people perished in the accident . This was the carrier 's first fatal accident .
5 May 2007 : Flight 507 , operated with a Boeing 737 @-@ 800 , tail number 5Y @-@ KYA , crashed into a mangrove swamp immediately after takeoff for Nairobi , about 5 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 42 mi ) southeast of Douala International Airport . The flight originated in Abidjan , with a stopover in Douala to pick up passengers . There were 114 people on board , 105 passengers from 23 countries — the majority of them Cameroonians — plus 9 crew members ; all of them perished in the accident .
= Black Rock Harbor Light =
Black Rock Harbor Light , also known as Fayerweather Island Light , is a lighthouse in Bridgeport , Connecticut , United States which stands on the south end of Fayerweather Island and marks the entrance to Black Rock Harbor . The first lighthouse at the site , built by Abisha Woodward under contract with the United States government , was a wooden tower that was lit and made operational by 1808 . A storm destroyed the tower in 1821 and the current , stone lighthouse was erected in its place in 1823 . The Black Rock Harbor Light was an active navigational aid until 1933 when it was replaced by two automatic lights offshore . The beacon was subsequently given to the City of Bridgeport in 1934 . Two significant efforts during the 1980s and 1990s served to restore the aging tower and the light was relit as a non @-@ navigational aid in 2000 . Black Rock Lighthouse is listed as a contributing property for Bridgeport 's Seaside Park historic district .
= = Construction = =
In 1807 , the United States government bought the 9 @.@ 5 acres ( 3 @.@ 8 ha ) of land upon which the lighthouse stands from Daniel Fayerweather for $ 200 . The government appropriated $ 5000 for the light station in February 1807 and contracted Abisha Woodward to construct the light . The first Black Rock Harbor Light was a 40 foot ( 12 @.@ 1 meter ) octagonal wooden tower built in 1808 . Abisha Woodward , who previously constructed the 1801 New London Harbor Light and the 1802 Falkner Island Light , constructed a wooden tower that was lit and made operational by October 1808 . The lightkeeper 's home was a small one and a half story home built on the opposite side of a marsh , several hundred feet away from the tower . Another brick structure was built to house the oil . The total cost of the wooden lighthouse , and likely the accompanying keeper 's house and oil house , was listed at $ 4604 @.@ 69 .
On September 3 , 1821 , the wooden tower was destroyed in the Norfolk and Long Island hurricane and was replaced with a 40 foot ( 12 @.@ 1 meter ) octagonal stone tower at a cost of $ 2300 @.@ 53 . Completed in 1823 , the new tower was made of coursed sandstone ashlar and rubble mortar and was claimed by its builder to " withstand the storm of ages . " This boisterous claim was countered by Edmund Blunt , an American Coast Pilot , who stated , " a more contemptible Lighthouse does not disgrace Long Island Sound , most shamefully erected and badly kept . " In 1835 , $ 2052 @.@ 63 was used to preserve the buildings on Fayerweather Island , including the lighthouse . Three years later , in 1838 , on the report of a Captain Gregory , another $ 1529 @.@ 60 was used to build a seawall to protect the buildings . Another $ 15 @,@ 000 would be used from 1847 through 1849 to complete the seawall . The original keeper 's quarters , then referred to as a " dilapidated old edifice " , was replaced in 1879 .
= = Service = =
The lighthouse originally had a whale oil spider lamp from the Stratford Point Light , but it was upgraded to a system with eight lamps in 1830 . In 1838 , it was reported by Lieutenant George Bache that the reflectors were out of alignment and the light was barely visible in hazy conditions . In 1854 , a fifth @-@ order Fresnel lens was installed . The Black Rock Harbor Light was deactivated in 1932 following the construction of two offshore automatic lights .
= = Restoration = =
The lighthouse was given to the city of Bridgeport , Connecticut in 1934 and became a part of Seaside Park . In the following years , vandals " gutted the interior " of the lighthouse . In 1977 , the keeper 's quarters building was destroyed in a fire . The first restoration effort came in 1983 when the Friends of Seaside Park restored the tower . Fayerweather Island was cleaned of debris , landscaped and established as a nature preserve . They installed steel " windows " and also secured the entry with a steel panel , but vandals again forced their way into the lighthouse .
A second effort was mounted by David Grant Grimshaw and Patricia Roche in 1993 . A sum of $ 25 @,@ 000 cash and in @-@ kind services was raised with fundraising and annual Preservation Balls ; it was later matched by the City of Bridgeport 's Board of Park Commissioners with another grant of $ 25 @,@ 000 . During the night of the 1996 Preservation Ball the lighthouse was mysteriously lit , but Grimshaw did not arrange the illumination . D 'Entremont writes that " maybe the spirit of Kate Moore had grown tired of waiting for the restoration . " The 1998 restoration was conducted under the direction of David Barbour , a local architect . The restoration included masonry repairs , reglazing the lantern room , rust removal from the railings , new doors and windows with vandal @-@ proof steel panes . The lighthouse was repainted with graffiti @-@ resistant paint in the original paint and mortar colors . The light , relit in 2000 , does not serve as an active navigational aid . The light is powered by solar panels on the top of the lighthouse ; it was donated by United Illuminating and Bridgeport Energy . In 2004 , vandals smashed the solar panels and new panels with protective cages were installed in 2007 .
= = Access = =
The lighthouse is listed as a contributing property for Bridgeport 's Seaside Park historic district , which was listed on July 1 , 1982 . The grounds are accessible by parking at Seaside Park and crossing a breakwater , but the lighthouse is not open to the public .
= = List of keepers = =
= I Vampiri =
I Vampiri ( lit . The Vampires ) is a 1957 Italian horror film . The film was directed by Riccardo Freda and completed by the film 's cinematographer , Mario Bava . It stars Gianna Maria Canale , Carlo D 'Angelo and Dario Michaelis . The film is about a series of murders on young women who are found with all their blood drained . The newspapers describes the killer as the Vampire and young journalist Pierre Lantin researches the crimes . Lantin investigates the mysterious Du Grand family who lives in a castle occupied by Gisele Du Grand who is in love with Lantin . She lives with her aunt who hides her face in a veil as well as the scientist Julian Du Grand who is trying to find the secret to eternal youth .
The film was developed during a growth in the Italian film industry which allowed for the market to expand beyond a local Italian audience , and would allow Italian film makers to explore new genres of filmmaking . Freda made a deal with producers at the Italian film studio Titanus to create a low budget horror film by writing a story in one day and filming it in two weeks . The producers agreed and Freda began filming . On the final day of shooting , Freda left the set which led to the cinematographer Mario Bava to direct the rest of the film , which changed various plot points and added the inclusion of stock footage .
On the film 's release in 1957 , it became Italy 's first horror film of the sound era . It was not successful in Italy , which Freda interpreted as an audience not interested in horror films made by Italians . The film was released theatrically as The Devil 's Commandment and Lust of the Vampire in the United States and United Kingdom respectively . English critics predominantly discuss the film in terms of its cinematography and place in film history . Despite being the first of the Italian horror films , it was not until the British film Dracula ( 1958 ) and the international hit Black Sunday were released that a greater amount of horror films began being produced in Italy .
= = Plot = =
In 1957 Paris , a series of mysterious killings are committed against young women of the same blood type who are found dead and drained of their blood . These killings are reported in the press as being performed by a murderer coined The Vampire . The journalist Pierre Lantin ( Dario Michaelis ) begins to investigate , and becomes more involved when his fiancee , the dancer Nora Duval is kidnapped . As Inspector Chantal ( Carlo D 'Angelo ) examines the crime scene , Lantin arrives predicting that the crime was committed by The Vampire . Lantin investigates the school that the latest murder happened at to search for clues and finds that the woman was being followed by a tall man before the murder . Elsewhere , a man named Joseph ( Paul Muller ) begs for " his fix " in a dark room is told to go after a woman named Lorette ( Wandisa Guida ) and that he " know what to do " at Rue Saint Etienne . Joseph arrives at the location and is spotted by Lantin but manages to get away from him . Joseph arrives at the clinic of Professor Julian Du Grand ( Antoine Balpêtré ) and demands money to leave town or he will report what 's happening to the police . He is strangled by Du Grand 's assistant when a shadowed woman named Marguerite arrives and states that if the police track them down , it will be the end of Du Grands career . A newspaper headline later reveals that Professor Julian Du Grand has died unexpectedly .
After a funeral procession for Julian , a group of men arrive and reveal that the body buried was that of Joseph . Joseph 's corpse is taken to a castle where he is experimented on by Julian who is attempting discover the secret for eternal life . Later , Lorette meets a blind man in the street who asks her to drop off a letter . On dropping the letter off , she is kidnapped and finds herself locked in a bedroom with the skeletons of the The Vampire 's previous victims . As the police try and track down Lorette 's kidnappers , Lantin is reassigned from following the Vampire story and is set to cover a ball at the castle of Du Grand . At the castle , he meets Gisele ( Gianna Maria Canale ) who expresses admiration for Lantin as he reminds her of his father . Lantin leaves the party and is pursued by the photographer Donald . Lantin states he does not want to lead on Gisele with her emotions which leads to Donald re @-@ entering the castle to profess his love for Gisele . Gisele turns him down as her face begins to grow old before his eyes as she reveals that each person killed restores her youth for a short time . Knowing her secret , she reaches for a pistol and murders Donald . Gisele then calls upon Professor Julian to make her eternally young . Julian states that under her fragile emotional state it may not work , but begins an experimental transfer Lorette 's youth and beauty to Giselle .
Gisele meets Pierre the next day when she is picking up a painting where he spots odd behavior in her such as writing with the wrong hand , which leads him to return to her castle to investigate further . Gisele begins growing ill from her previous experiment and calls upon Professor Julian to aid her . As he leaves , Joseph awakens in Julian 's lab . Pierre triggers an alarm which has him race out the castle where he meets the disoriented Joseph . Pierre takes Joseph to the police station where he reveals he was the kidnapper of the young women but the people in the castle are the real murderers . The police arrive looking for Marguerite but only find Gisele who denies any knowledge of Joseph . Pierre and the police explore the castle without finding clues . On leaving , Gisele begins transforming back into Marguerite before their eyes prompting for an emergency search of the castle . A gun battle ensues between Professor Du Grands assistant and the police leaving the assistant and Professor Du Grand shot . This leads the police to open his grave where they find Lorette . Lorette is sent home and Inspector Chantal reveals that Giselle confessed to the crimes and died shortly after .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and development = = =
Around the time I Vampiri was in development , Italian film productions had grown exponentially . Italian film productions rose from 25 films in 1945 , to 204 in 1954 . This growth allowed film makers in Italy to approach new genres and new styles not attempted before . In 1956 , the chief executive officer of Titanus , Goffredo Lombardo , stated that Italian film productions should be aimed a European market opposed to just an Italian one . During the production of the film Beatrice Cenci ( 1956 ) , director Riccardo Freda and his friend , cinematographer Mario Bava discussed the idea of developing a horror film . Horror films had been previously banned in Italy during the 1930s and 1940s , while a new taste for the macabre was developing . Italian film historian Goffredo Fofi stated in 1963 that " ghosts , monsters and the taste for the horrible appears when a society that became wealthy and evolves by industrializing , and are accompanied by a state of well @-@ being which began to exist and expand in Italy only since a few years "
Freda 's ambition to make a horror film derived from his desire to make films in the fantastique style , feeling that only the Americans and German expressionists were able to make such films in the past . Freda approached film producer Luigi Carpentieri with the idea of the film despite not having a treatment ready . Promising them that he would have something for them by the next day , he returned with a tape of his treatment that was complete with sound effects . Carpentieri phoned Goffredo Lombardo to convince him further . Freda followed up his tape with the promise that his script could pass the censors and could be filmed in 12 days . This convinced the producer who allowed Freda to create what became I Vampiri .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
The screenplay of I Vampiri is credited to Piero Regnoli and the fictional writer and scenarist Rijk Sijöstrom . The story of the film features contributions from Freda , who has only mentioned Regnoli during the writing process . Both Freda and Regnoli have uncredited roles in the film as the autopsy doctor and Mr.Bourgeois respectively . Freda had the film set in the 1950s opposed the 18th or 19th Century to lower the cost of re @-@ creating a period set as well as making the film 's plot feel like it could actually happen . The film 's story borrows from uncredited stories . This includes the crimes committed by Gianna Maria Canale 's character Giselle Du Grand , which are based upon the legend of Elizabeth Bathory who bathed in the blood of virgins to stay young . Another influence that Freda acknowledged was Edgar Allan Poe 's short story " The Fall of the House of Usher " , with its suggested parallel between decaying , dissipated interiors and the Canale 's vampire @-@ like character .
Gianna Maria Canale took the female lead in the film despite not initially wanting the role . The film was the last of her many films she made with Freda . Freda and Canale had first worked together on Il cavaliere misterioso ( 1948 ) ; their relationship led to Freda leaving his wife to go with Canale to Brazil where they made two more films . On their return to Italy , Canale would have the female lead role in nearly all his films including The Iron Swordsman , Sins of Rome and Theodora , Slave Empress .
= = = Production = = =
Filming began in Rome in 1956 . The film was a low budget production as Lombardo did not care for horror films . Freda and his crew utilized mostly existing sets with only a single scene at the Aniene river filmed outside the studio . The film was shot in black and white by cinematographer Mario Bava , who felt that that style would better suit the special effects in the film and keep the budget down . Bava worked on the special effects on the film without credit . One of his effects involved Gianna Maria Canale aging make @-@ up that would only be revealed when certain coloured lights were revealed on her . This effect had been done previously in older films such as Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde ( 1931 ) and contemporary films including The Man Who Turned to Stone ( 1957 ) .
Freda 's deal with his producers failed when he left the set on the twelfth day of production . After an argument with the producers , Freda left the production allowing Mario Bava to step in to finish the film in the next two days . Reasons for Freda leaving production differ , and range from Freda having a misunderstanding with the producers , to Bava stating that Freda was taking too long to make the film . Bava 's ending was different than Freda 's initial ending which involved finding the heroine hanged . Among the changes Bava made to finish the film , included changing the supporting character of the journalist becoming the lead and removing a sub @-@ plot about a dismembered criminal who returns to life on being reassembled . Bava also extended other portions of the film with stock footage and montages of newspaper presses .
= = Release = =
I Vampiri was released in Italy on 5 April 1957 in San Remo . It grossed a total of 125 @.@ 3 million Italian lire on its initial theatrical run . The film was not a box office success in either Italy or France . It was released in the United States in 1960 in a heavily altered version under the title The Devil 's Commandment . This version of the film featured new scenes written by J. V. Rhems and filmed by Ronald Honthauer in New York . In the United Kingdom , the film was released under the title Lust of the Vampire . Mario Bava biographer Tim Lucas wrote in 1992 that a version of the film also titled Lust of the Vampire was assembled in the United States which incorporates scenes of nudity .
= = = Home media = = =
A photonovel version of I Vampiri was released in Italy . Photo novels were similar to comic strips in that they use a succession of panels and speech captions . The main difference is that they rely on photographs of films opposed to illustrations . I Vampiri 's photonovel was titled Quella che voleva amare ( English : The One Who Wanted to Be Loved ) which appeared in I Vostri Film in August 1958 .
I Vampiri was released uncut for the first time on DVD in the United States in 2001 by Image Entertainment . IGN gave a positive review of the DVD , referring to the image quality as " stunning " and that the film was the original cut , " not the butchered Devil 's Commandment version aired on late night television over the years . " It was also released on DVD as a bonus feature from Arrow Films on their Black Sunday blu @-@ ray on February 4 , 2013 .
= = Critical reception = =
In a contemporary review , The Monthly Film Bulletin described the film as a " bizarre and grisly Italian effort " that " drags in everything from drug addiction to perpetual youth , crypts to skeletons , but has only a few moments which can claim to be genuinely macabre . " The review praised the special effects involving a transition between a young to aged woman and back again , and concluded that " if only story , treatment and performance ... had been comparable , the film might have been really high in its class . " Variety described the film as an " attempt at a horror film which doesn 't quite come off with only a few moments in succeeding in being chilling . " The review concluded that the film was " strictly for devotees of the genre " In Italy , La Stampa noted the surprise that the film avoided being banned by Italian censors and that when the film takes on thriller motives , it achieves some effective moments .
In their retrospective review , AllMovie wrote " While I Vampiri is more important for its place in history than for it ultimate effectiveness as a film , it is nevertheless an entertaining horror flick . " Danny Shipka , who discussed this film in his book on European exploitation films , noted that the film " set the standard for visual style that would be the foundation for most Italian Gothic films of this nature . " He also described the film as " a little ponderous and talky " while praising Canale 's transformation scenes and the " masterful filming of cobwebs , creaking doors , and decay , along with great lighting " . IGN wrote that " anyone interested in the history of [ Italian horror cinema ] should see the film " and that the film was " showing its age and is incredibly tame compared with the gore shockers that Italy would eventually become famous for " . Martyn Conterio , in his book on Black Sunday stated that it would be " pushing it to declare I Vampiri as a neglected masterpiece , but it is a hugely underrated work and very cleverly sets out what a horror film with a modern edge and sensibility could achieve . " Louis Paul wrote a negative review of the film in his book Italian Horror Film Directors , opining that the film suffered some damaging influences from neorealistic cinema , which turned on very static scenes . He also opined that the film spends too much time with Dario Michaelis character , and the " mind @-@ numbingly dull and endless police procedural scenes "
= = Aftermath and influence = =
Freda felt that I Vampiri did not succeed financially in Italy due to the country 's audience reluctance to an Italian interpretation of the horror genre . For Freda 's next film , Caltiki – The Immortal Monster , he used an English pseudonym of Robert Hampton to give the impression that the film was not Italian . Freda attempted a gothic horror film again five years later with his film The Horrible Dr. Hichcock . Other crew members would go on to direct horror films following I Vampiri , such as screenwriter Piero Regnoli who directed The Playgirls and the Vampire ( 1960 ) and Bava who became the cinematographer on Freda 's Caltiki as well as directing Black Sunday ( 1960 ) .
I Vampiri was the first Italian horror film of the sound era , following the lone silent horror film Il mostro di Frankenstein ( 1920 ) Despite the film being the first Italian film of the sound era , it did not start a new wave of Italian horror productions . The British Film Institute stated that it required the international success of Mario Bava 's Black Sunday to initiate the start of horror films in Italy . Italian screenwriter Ernesto Gastaldi suggested that it was when Terence Fisher 's film Dracula ( 1958 ) was released in Italy that a " hailstorm of vampire movies flooded the screens " .
= Pitot @-@ static system =
A pitot @-@ static system is a system of pressure @-@ sensitive instruments that is most often used in aviation to determine an aircraft 's airspeed , Mach number , altitude , and altitude trend . A pitot @-@ static system generally consists of a pitot tube , a static port , and the pitot @-@ static instruments . This equipment is used to measure the forces acting on a vehicle as a function of the temperature , density , pressure and viscosity of the fluid in which it is operating . Other instruments that might be connected are air data computers , flight data recorders , altitude encoders , cabin pressurization controllers , and various airspeed switches . Errors in pitot @-@ static system readings can be extremely dangerous as the information obtained from the pitot static system , such as altitude , is potentially safety @-@ critical . Several commercial airline disasters have been traced to a failure of the pitot @-@ static system .
= = Pitot @-@ static pressure = =
The pitot @-@ static system of instruments uses the principle of air pressure gradient . It works by measuring pressures or pressure differences and using these values to assess the speed and altitude . These pressures can be measured either from the static port ( static pressure ) or the pitot tube ( pitot pressure ) . The static pressure is used in all measurements , while the pitot pressure is used only to determine airspeed .
= = = Pitot pressure = = =
The pitot pressure is obtained from the pitot tube . The pitot pressure is a measure of ram air pressure ( the air pressure created by vehicle motion or the air ramming into the tube ) , which , under ideal conditions , is equal to stagnation pressure , also called total pressure . The pitot tube is most often located on the wing or front section of an aircraft , facing forward , where its opening is exposed to the relative wind . By situating the pitot tube in such a location , the ram air pressure is more accurately measured since it will be less distorted by the aircraft 's structure . When airspeed increases , the ram air pressure is increased , which can be translated by the airspeed indicator .
= = = Static pressure = = =
The static pressure is obtained through a static port . The static port is most often a flush @-@ mounted hole on the fuselage of an aircraft , and is located where it can access the air flow in a relatively undisturbed area . Some aircraft may have a single static port , while others may have more than one . In situations where an aircraft has more than one static port , there is usually one located on each side of the fuselage . With this positioning , an average pressure can be taken , which allows for more accurate readings in specific flight situations . An alternative static port may be located inside the cabin of the aircraft as a backup for when the external static port ( s ) are blocked . A pitot @-@ static tube effectively integrates the static ports into the pitot probe . It incorporates a second coaxial tube ( or tubes ) with pressure sampling holes on the sides of the probe , outside the direct airflow , to measure the static pressure . When aircraft climbs , static pressure will decrease .
= = = Multiple pressure = = =
Some pitot @-@ static systems incorporate single probes that contain multiple pressure @-@ transmitting ports that allow for the sensing of air pressure , angle of attack , and angle of sideslip data . Depending on the design , such air data probes may be referred to as 5 @-@ hole or 7 @-@ hole air data probes . Differential pressure sensing techniques can be used to produce angle of attack and angle of sideslip indications .
= = Pitot @-@ static instrument = =
The pitot @-@ static system obtains pressures for interpretation by the pitot @-@ static instruments . While the explanations below explain traditional , mechanical instruments , many modern aircraft use an air data computer ( ADC ) to calculate airspeed , rate of climb , altitude and Mach number . In some aircraft , two ADCs receive total and static pressure from independent pitot tubes and static ports , and the aircraft 's flight data computer compares the information from both computers and checks one against the other . There are also " standby instruments " , which are back @-@ up pneumatic instruments employed in the case of problems with the primary instruments .
= = = Airspeed indicator = = =
The airspeed indicator is connected to both the pitot and static pressure sources . The difference between the pitot pressure and the static pressure is called dynamic pressure . The greater the dynamic pressure , the higher the airspeed reported . A traditional mechanical airspeed indicator contains a pressure diaphragm that is connected to the pitot tube . The case around the diaphragm is airtight and is vented to the static port . The higher the speed , the higher the ram pressure , the more pressure exerted on the diaphragm , and the larger the needle movement through the mechanical linkage .
= = = Altimeter = = =
The pressure altimeter , also known as the barometric altimeter , is used to determine changes in air pressure that occur as the aircraft 's altitude changes . Pressure altimeters must be calibrated prior to flight to register the pressure as an altitude above sea level . The instrument case of the altimeter is airtight and has a vent to the static port . Inside the instrument , there is a sealed aneroid barometer . As pressure in the case decreases , the internal barometer expands , which is mechanically translated into a determination of altitude . The reverse is true when descending from higher to lower altitudes .
Main errors produced in altimeter ! ! 1 ) Blockage error 2 ) Lag error 3 ) Instruments error 4 ) Position error 5 ) Temperature error 6 ) Barometric error 7 ) Transonic Jump
= = = Machmeter = = =
Aircraft designed to operate at transonic or supersonic speeds will incorporate a machmeter . The machmeter is used to show the ratio of true airspeed in relation to the speed of sound . Most supersonic aircraft are limited as to the maximum Mach number they can fly , which is known as the " Mach limit " . The Mach number is displayed on a machmeter as a decimal fraction .
= = = Vertical speed indicator = = =
The variometer , also known as the vertical speed indicator ( VSI ) or the vertical velocity indicator ( VVI ) , is the pitot @-@ static instrument used to determine whether or not an aircraft is flying in level flight . The vertical speed specifically shows the rate of climb or the rate of descent , which is measured in feet per minute or meters per second . The vertical speed is measured through a mechanical linkage to a diaphragm located within the instrument . The area surrounding the diaphragm is vented to the static port through a calibrated leak ( which also may be known as a " restricted diffuser " ) . When the aircraft begins to increase altitude , the diaphragm will begin to contract at a rate faster than that of the calibrated leak , causing the needle to show a positive vertical speed . The reverse of this situation is true when an aircraft is descending . The calibrated leak varies from model to model , but the average time for the diaphragm to equalize pressure is between 6 and 9 seconds .
= = Pitot @-@ static errors = =
There are several situations that can affect the accuracy of the pitot @-@ static instruments . Some of these involve failures of the pitot @-@ static system itself — which may be classified as " system malfunctions " — while others are the result of faulty instrument placement or other environmental factors — which may be classified as " inherent errors " .
= = = System malfunctions = = =
= = = = Blocked pitot tube = = = =
A blocked pitot tube is a pitot @-@ static problem that will only affect airspeed indicators . A blocked pitot tube will cause the airspeed indicator to register an increase in airspeed when the aircraft climbs , even though actual airspeed is constant . This is caused by the pressure in the pitot system remaining constant when the atmospheric pressure ( and static pressure ) are decreasing . In reverse , the airspeed indicator will show a decrease in airspeed when the aircraft descends . The pitot tube is susceptible to becoming clogged by ice , water , insects or some other obstruction . For this reason , aviation regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) recommend that the pitot tube be checked for obstructions prior to any flight . To prevent icing , many pitot tubes are equipped with a heating element . A heated pitot tube is required in all aircraft certificated for instrument flight except aircraft certificated as Experimental Amateur @-@ Built .
= = = = Blocked static port = = = =
A blocked static port is a more serious situation because it affects all pitot @-@ static instruments . One of the most common causes of a blocked static port is airframe icing . A blocked static port will cause the altimeter to freeze at a constant value , the altitude at which the static port became blocked . The vertical speed indicator will become frozen at zero and will not change at all , even if vertical speed increases or decreases . The airspeed indicator will reverse the error that occurs with a clogged pitot tube and cause the airspeed to be read less than it actually is as the aircraft climbs . When the aircraft is descending , the airspeed will be over @-@ reported . In most aircraft with unpressurized cabins , an alternative static source is available and can be selected from within the cockpit .
= = = Inherent errors = = =
Inherent errors may fall into several categories , each affecting different instruments . Density errors affect instruments metering airspeed and altitude . This type of error is caused by variations of pressure and temperature in the atmosphere . A compressibility error can arise because the impact pressure will cause the air to compress in the pitot tube . At standard sea level pressure altitude the calibration equation ( see calibrated airspeed ) correctly accounts for the compression so there is no compressibility error at sea level . At higher altitudes the compression is not correctly accounted for and will cause the instrument to read greater than equivalent airspeed . A correction may be obtained from a chart . Compressibility error becomes significant at altitudes above 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) and at airspeeds greater than 200 knots ( 370 km / h ) . Hysteresis is an error that is caused by mechanical properties of the aneroid capsules located within the instruments . These capsules , used to determine pressure differences , have physical properties that resist change by retaining a given shape , even though the external forces may have changed . Reversal errors are caused by a false static pressure reading . This false reading may be caused by abnormally large changes in an aircraft 's pitch . A large change in pitch will cause a momentary showing of movement in the opposite direction . Reversal errors primarily affect altimeters and vertical speed indicators .
= = = = Position errors = = = =
Another class of inherent errors is that of position error . A position error is produced by the aircraft 's static pressure being different from the air pressure remote from the aircraft . This error is caused by the air flowing past the static port at a speed different from the aircraft 's true airspeed . Position errors may provide positive or negative errors , depending on one of several factors . These factors include airspeed , angle of attack , aircraft weight , acceleration , aircraft configuration , and in the case of helicopters , rotor downwash . There are two categories of position errors , which are " fixed errors " and " variable errors " . Fixed errors are defined as errors which are specific to a particular model of aircraft . Variable errors are caused by external factors such as deformed panels obstructing the flow of air , or particular situations which may overstress the aircraft .
= = = = Lag errors = = = =
Lag errors are caused by the fact that any changes in the static or dynamic pressure outside the aircraft require a finite amount of time to make their way down the tubing and affect the gauges . This type of error depends on the length and diameter of the tubing as well as the volume inside the gauges . Lag error is only significant around the time when the airspeed or altitude are changing . It is not a concern for steady level flight .
= = Pitot @-@ static related disasters = =
1 December 1974 — Northwest Airlines Flight 6231 , a Boeing 727 , crashed northwest of John F. Kennedy International Airport during climb en route to Buffalo Niagara International Airport because of blockage of the pitot tubes by atmospheric icing .
6 February 1996 — Birgenair Flight 301 crashed into the sea shortly after takeoff due to incorrect readings from the airspeed indicator . The suspected cause is a blocked pitot tube ( this was never confirmed , as the airplane wreck was not recovered ) .
2 October 1996 — Aeroperú Flight 603 crashed because of blockage of the static ports . The static ports on the left side of the aircraft had been taped over while the aircraft was being waxed and cleaned . After the job was done , the tape was not removed .
February 23 , 2008 — B @-@ 2 bomber crash in Guam caused by moisture on sensors .
1 June 2009 — The French air safety authority BEA said that pitot tube icing was a contributing factor in the crash of Air France Flight 447 .
= The Boat Race 1878 =
The 35th Boat Race took place on 13 April 1878 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In total , ten former Blues took part in the contest . The race was umpired by former rower Joseph William Chitty and Oxford won by a margin of 10 lengths in a time of 22 minutes 15 seconds . The victory took the overall record to 18 – 16 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Neither crew went into the race as reigning champions – the previous year 's race had been declared a " dead heat " . However Oxford held the overall lead , with 17 victories to Cambridge 's 16 .
Cambridge 's coach was James Brooks Close ( who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1872 , 1873 and 1874 races ) . Oxford were coached by William Grenfell ( who had rowed for the Dark Blues the previous year and was rowing at number four in 1878 ) , A. J. Mulholland ( who rowed in 1877 ) and Edmund Warre ( who represented the Oxford in the 1857 and the 1858 races ) .
The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle and the finishing judge was E. H. Fairrie .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 3 @.@ 675 lb ( 77 @.@ 7 kg ) , 6 @.@ 875 pounds ( 3 @.@ 1 kg ) more than their opponents . Cambridge saw four former Blues return , including the cox George Latham Davies who was taking part in his fourth consecutive Boat Race . Oxford 's crew included six individuals with experience of the race , with boat club president Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss making his fourth appearance in the event . Drinkwater suggested that the Oxford crew was the " best ... up to that date " .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . The race commenced at 10.15am. Out @-@ rating Oxford by four strokes per minute , Cambridge took an early lead and were half a length ahead after the first minute . They held the lead round the bend which favoured them but as the river curved to favour Oxford , the Dark Blues quickly overtook , even with the slower stroke rate . They were at least half @-@ a @-@ length clear at the Crab Tree pub which they had extended to four lengths by Hammersmith Bridge . Oxford won by 40 seconds ( approximately 10 lengths ) in a time of 22 minutes and 15 seconds , their second victory in nine years , which took the overall record to 18 – 16 in their favour .
= Star Trek ( film ) =
Star Trek is a 2009 American science fiction adventure film directed by J. J. Abrams , written by Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman and distributed by Paramount Pictures . It is the 11th film of the Star Trek film franchise and is also a reboot that features the main characters of the original Star Trek television series , portrayed by a new cast and the first in the reboot series . The film follows James T. Kirk ( Chris Pine ) and Spock ( Zachary Quinto ) aboard the USS Enterprise as they combat Nero ( Eric Bana ) , a Romulan from their future who threatens the United Federation of Planets . The story takes place in an alternate reality because of time travel by both Nero and the original Spock ( Leonard Nimoy ) . The alternate timeline was created in an attempt to free the film and the franchise from established continuity constraints while simultaneously preserving original story elements .
Development for Star Trek originated in 1968 , when creator Gene Roddenberry announced plans to produce a prequel modeled after the television series . The concept resurfaced temporarily in the late 1980s , when it was postulated by Harve Bennett as a possible plotline for the movie that would become Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country , but was rejected in lieu of other projects by Roddenberry . Following the critical and commercial failure of Star Trek : Nemesis and the cancellation of the television series Star Trek : Enterprise , franchise executive producer Rick Berman and screenwriter Erik Jendresen wrote an unproduced film , titled Star Trek : The Beginning , which would take place after Enterprise . After the separation between Viacom and CBS Corporation , former Paramount president Gail Berman convinced CBS to produce a feature film . Orci and Kurtzman , both fans of the Star Trek series , were approached to write the film and Abrams was approached to direct it . Kurtzman and Orci used inspiration from novels and graduate school dissertations as well as the series itself .
Principal photography commenced on November 7 , 2007 and ended on March 27 , 2008 . The film was shot in various locations around California and Utah . Abrams wanted to avoid using bluescreen and greenscreen , opting to use sets and locations instead . Heavy secrecy surrounded the film 's production and was under the fake working title Corporate Headquarters . Industrial Light & Magic used digital ships for the film , as opposed to the previous films in the franchise . Production for the film concluded by the end of 2008 .
Star Trek was heavily promoted the months preceding its release ; pre @-@ release screenings for the film premiered in select cities around the world including Austin , Texas ; Sydney , Australia ; and Calgary , Alberta . It was released in the United States and Canada on May 8 , 2009 , to positive reviews . Critics praised the character development as well as the storyline in the film . Star Trek became a box office success , grossing over $ 385 @.@ 7 million worldwide . It was nominated for several awards , including four Academy Awards at the 82nd Academy Awards , ultimately winning in the category for Best Makeup , making it the first Star Trek film to win an Academy Award . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray for the film were released on November 17 , 2009 .
The film is followed by two sequels , Star Trek Into Darkness ( 2013 ) and Star Trek Beyond ( 2016 ) with a fourth being announced .
= = Plot = =
In the 23rd century , the Federation starship USS Kelvin is investigating a " lightning storm " in space . A Romulan ship , the Narada , emerges from the storm and attacks the Kelvin . Narada 's first officer , Ayel , demands that the Kelvin 's Captain Robau come aboard to negotiate a truce . Robau is questioned about the current stardate and an " Ambassador Spock " , whom he does not recognize . Narada 's commander , Nero , kills him , and resumes attacking the Kelvin . George Kirk , the Kelvin 's first officer , orders the ship 's personnel , including his pregnant wife Winona , to abandon ship while he pilots the Kelvin on a collision course with the Narada . Kirk sacrifices his life to ensure Winona 's survival as she gives birth to James T. Kirk .
Seventeen years later , on the planet Vulcan , a young Spock is accepted to join the Vulcan Science Academy . Realizing the Academy views his human mother Amanda as a " disadvantage " , he joins Starfleet instead . On Earth , Kirk becomes a reckless but intelligent young adult . Following a bar fight with Starfleet cadets accompanying Nyota Uhura , Kirk meets Captain Christopher Pike , who encourages him to enlist in Starfleet Academy , where Kirk meets and befriends doctor Leonard McCoy .
Three years later , Commander Spock accuses Kirk of cheating during the Kobayashi Maru simulation . Kirk argues that cheating was acceptable because the simulation was designed to be unbeatable . The disciplinary hearing is interrupted by a distress signal from Vulcan . With the primary fleet out of range , the cadets are mobilized . McCoy and Kirk board Pike 's ship , the Enterprise . Realizing that the " lightning storm " observed near Vulcan is similar to the one that occurred when he was born , Kirk breaks protocol to convince Pike that the distress signal is a trap .
Enterprise finds the fleet destroyed and the Narada drilling into Vulcan 's core . The Narada attacks the Enterprise and Pike surrenders , delegating command of the ship to Spock and promoting Kirk to first officer . Kirk , Hikaru Sulu and Chief Engineer Olson perform a space jump onto the drilling platform . Olson is killed but Kirk and Sulu disable the drill . Despite their efforts , Nero launches " red matter " into Vulcan 's core , forming an artificial black hole that destroys Vulcan . Spock rescues the high council and his father Sarek , but Amanda dies .
As the Narada moves toward Earth , Nero tortures Pike to gain access to Earth 's defense codes . Spock maroons Kirk on Delta Vega after Kirk attempts mutiny . Kirk encounters an older Spock , who explains that he and Nero are from 129 years in the future . In that future , Romulus was threatened by a supernova . Spock 's attempt to use " red matter " to create an artificial black hole and consume the supernova failed , and Nero 's family perished along with Romulus . The Narada and Spock 's vessel were caught in the black hole , sending them back in time . Nero stranded Spock on Delta Vega to watch Vulcan 's destruction .
Reaching a Starfleet outpost , Kirk and the elder Spock meet Montgomery Scott . With the elder Spock 's help , Kirk and Scott beam onto the Enterprise . Following the elder Spock 's advice , Kirk provokes younger Spock into attacking him , forcing Spock to recognize he is emotionally compromised and relinquish command to Kirk . After talking with Sarek , Spock decides to help Kirk . While the Enterprise hides itself within the gas clouds of Titan , Kirk and Spock beam aboard the Narada . Kirk fights with Nero and Ayel , killing the latter and rescuing Pike while Spock uses the elder Spock 's ship to destroy the drill . Spock leads the Narada away from Earth and sets his ship to collide with Nero 's ship . Enterprise beams Kirk , Pike and Spock aboard . The older Spock 's ship and the Narada collide , igniting the " red matter " . Kirk offers Nero help to escape , but Nero refuses , prompting Kirk to give the order to fire , dooming the Narada to be consumed in a black hole .
Kirk is promoted to Captain and given command of the Enterprise while Pike is promoted to Rear Admiral . Spock encounters his older self , who persuades his younger self to continue serving in Starfleet , encouraging him to do what feels right instead of what is logical . Spock remains in Starfleet , becoming first officer under Kirk 's command . The Enterprise goes to warp as the elder Spock speaks the " where no one has gone before " monologue .
= = Cast = =
Chris Pine as James T. Kirk
Pine described his first audition as " awful " , because he could not take himself seriously as a leader . Abrams did not see Pine 's first audition , and it was only after Pine 's agent met Abrams ' wife that the director decided to give him another audition opposite Quinto . Quinto was supportive of Pine 's casting because they knew each other as they worked out at the same gym . After getting the part , Pine sent William Shatner a letter and received a reply containing Shatner 's approval . Pine watched classic episodes and read encyclopedias about the Star Trek universe , but stopped as he felt weighed down by the feeling he had to copy Shatner . Pine felt he had to show Kirk 's " humor , arrogance and decisiveness , " but not Shatner 's speech pattern , which would have bordered on imitation . Pine said when watching the original series , he was also struck by how Shatner 's performance was characterized by humor . Instead , Pine chose to incorporate elements of Tom Cruise from Top Gun and Harrison Ford 's portrayals of Indiana Jones and Han Solo . Chris Pratt also auditioned for the role.Jimmy Bennett portrays a younger Kirk .
Zachary Quinto as Spock
The younger alternate timeline Spock . Quinto expressed interest in the role because of the duality of Spock 's half @-@ human , half @-@ Vulcan heritage , and how " he is constantly exploring that notion of how to evolve in a responsible way and how to evolve in a respectful way . I think those are all things that we as a society , and certainly the world , could implement . " He mentioned he heard about the new film and revealed his interest in the role in a December 2006 interview with the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette : the article was widely circulated and he attracted Abrams ' interest . For the audition , Quinto wore a blue shirt and flattened his hair down to feel more like Spock . He bound his fingers to practice the Vulcan salute , shaved his eyebrows and grew and dyed his hair for the role . He conveyed many of Spock 's attributes , such as his stillness and the way Nimoy would hold his hands behind his back . Quinto commented the physical transformation aided in portraying an alien , joking " I just felt like a nerd . I felt like I was 12 again . You look back at those pictures and you see the bowl cut . There 's no question I was born to play the Spock role . I was sporting that look for a good four or five years . The film officially establishes ( to Kirk 's surprise ) that Uhura and Spock are lovers and have been romantically linked for some time , a point which had never been previously explored on TV or in film . " Adrien Brody had discussed playing the role with the director before Quinto was cast.Jacob Kogan portrays a younger Spock .
Eric Bana as Captain Nero
The film 's time @-@ traveling Romulan villain . Bana shot his scenes toward the end of filming . He wasn 't " a huge Trekkie when [ he ] was a kid " , and he had not seen the films . Even though he was " crazy about the original series , " he would not have accepted the role unless he liked the script , which he deemed " awesome " once he read it . Bana knew Abrams because they coincidentally shared the same agent . Bana improvised the character 's speech patterns .
Leonard Nimoy as Spock Prime : Nimoy reprises the role of the older Spock from the original Star Trek timeline , credited as " Spock Prime " . He is a longtime friend of Abrams ' parents , but became better acquainted with Abrams during filming . Although Quinto watched some episodes of the show during breaks in filming , Nimoy was his main resource in playing Spock . Abrams and the writers met Nimoy at his house ; writer Roberto Orci recalled the actor gave a " ' Who are you guys and what are you up to ? ' vibe " before being told how important he was to them . He was silent , and Nimoy 's wife Susan Bay told the creative team he had remained in his chair after their conversation , emotionally overwhelmed by his decision after turning down many opportunities to revisit the role . Had Nimoy disliked the script , production would have been delayed for it to be rewritten . Nimoy later said , " This is the first and only time I ever had a filmmaker say , ' We cannot make this film without you and we won 't make it without you ' " . He was " genuinely excited " by the script 's scope and its detailing of the characters ' backstories , saying , " We have dealt with [ Spock being half @-@ human , half @-@ Vulcan ] , but never with quite the overview that this script has of the entire history of the character , the growth of the character , the beginnings of the character and the arrival of the character into the Enterprise crew . " Abrams said " it was surreal to direct him as Spock , because what the hell am I doing there ? This guy has been doing it for forty years . It 's like ' I think Spock would ... ' "
Zoe Saldana as Nyota Uhura
Abrams asked her to play the role because he had seen her previous work and liked it . Saldana had never seen the original series , though she had played a Trekkie in The Terminal ( 2004 ) , but agreed to play the role after Abrams complimented her . " For an actor , that 's all you need , that 's all you want . To get the acknowledgment and respect from your peers , " she said . She met with Nichelle Nichols , who explained to her how she had created Uhura 's background and had named the character . Saldana 's mother was a Star Trek fan and sent her voice mails during filming , giving advice on the part . Sydney Tamiia Poitier also auditioned for the part . The film officially establishes the character 's first name , which had never been previously uttered on TV or in film . It also establishes ( in an officially discreet manner ) that Uhura and Spock are , in fact , lovers and had been romantically linked for some time during the film .
Karl Urban as Dr. Leonard " Bones " McCoy
Like Pine , Urban said of taking on the role that " it is a case of not doing some sort of facsimile or carbon copy , but really taking the very essence of what DeForest Kelley has done and honoring that and bringing something new to the table " . Urban has been a fan of the show since he was seven years old and actively pursued the role after rediscovering the series on DVD with his son . Urban was cast at his first audition , which was two months after his initial meeting with Abrams . He said he was happy to play a role with lots of comedy , something he had not done since The Price of Milk , because he was tired of action @-@ oriented roles . When asked why McCoy is so cantankerous , Urban joked the character might be a " little bipolar actually ! " Orci and Kurtzman had collaborated with Urban on Xena : Warrior Princess , in which he played Cupid and Caesar .
Simon Pegg as Montgomery " Scotty " Scott
Abrams contacted Pegg by e @-@ mail , offering him the part . To achieve Scotty 's accent , Pegg was assisted by his wife Maureen , who is from Glasgow , although Pegg said that Scotty was from Linlithgow and that he therefore wanted his accent to sound more East Coast Scottish . As a result , the accent he used is a mixture of both , although it leans more towards the West sound . He was also aided by James Doohan 's son , Chris , and Tommy Gormley , the film 's Glaswegian first assistant director . Pegg described Scotty as a positive Scottish stereotype , noting " Scots are the first people to laugh at the fact that they drink and fight a bit " , and that Scotty comes from a long line of Scots with technical expertise , such as John Logie Baird and Alexander Graham Bell . Years before , Pegg 's character in Spaced joked that every odd @-@ numbered Star Trek film being " shit " was a fact of life . Pegg noted " Fate put me in the movie to show me I was talking out of my ass . "
John Cho as Hikaru Sulu
Abrams had at first been concerned about casting a Korean @-@ American as a Japanese character , but George Takei reassured him that Sulu had been meant to represent all of Asia on the Enterprise , so Abrams went ahead with Cho . Cho acknowledged that being an Asian @-@ American , " there are certain acting roles that you are never going to get , and one of them is playing a cowboy . [ Playing Sulu ] is a realization of that dream – going into space . " He cited the masculinity of the character as being important to him , and spent two weeks fight training . Although Cho suffered an injury to his wrist during filming , a representative reassured the public that the injury was " no big deal " . James Kyson Lee had originally been interested in playing the part of Sulu , but both he and Quinto , who had already been cast as Spock , were at the time members of the cast of the television series Heroes , and its producers told Lee they did not want to lose another cast member for three months .
Anton Yelchin as Pavel Chekov
As with the rest of the cast , Yelchin was allowed to choose what elements there were from their predecessor 's performances . Yelchin decided to carry on Walter Koenig 's speech patterns of replacing " v " s with " w " s , although he and Abrams felt this was a trait more common of Polish accents than Russian ones . He described Chekov as an odd character , being a Russian who was brought on to the show " in the middle of the Cold War . " He recalled a " scene where they 're talking to Apollo [ who says ] , ' I am Apollo . ' And Chekov is like , ' And I am the czar of all the Russias . ' [ ... ] They gave him these lines . I mean he really is the weirdest , weirdest character . "
Bruce Greenwood as Christopher Pike , the captain of the Enterprise .
Ben Cross as Sarek , Spock 's father .
Winona Ryder as Amanda Grayson , Spock 's mother .
Clifton Collins , Jr. as Ayel , Nero 's first officer .
Chris Hemsworth plays George Kirk , James Tiberius Kirk 's father , who dies aboard the USS Kelvin while battling Nero , Mark Wahlberg was also approached for the role . Faran Tahir plays Kelvin captain Richard Robau . Winona Kirk , Kirk 's mother , is played by Jennifer Morrison . Greg Ellis plays Chief Engineer Olson , the redshirt who is killed during the space jump .
Additional minor roles include Rachel Nichols as Gaila , an Orion Starfleet cadet ; Deep Roy as Scotty 's alien ( Royla ) assistant Keenser ; and Paul McGillion as a Starfleet barracks leader . Chris Doohan , the son of the original Scotty , James Doohan , makes a cameo appearance in the transporter room as Lt. Kyle . Some characters had their scenes substantially or entirely cut from the film , including Brad William Henke as Kirk 's stepfather ( the character 's lines in the film were spoken by Greg Grunberg ) . Spencer Daniels originally played Kirk 's older brother , George Samuel " Sam " Kirk , Jr . , but the majority of his scenes were cut and the opening car chase scene where Kirk can be heard calling out to him was overdubbed . Victor Garber plays a Klingon interrogator who tortures Nero during his time on Rura Penthe .
Tyler Perry appears as the head of Starfleet Academy , Admiral Richard Barnett . James Cawley , producer and star of the web series Star Trek : New Voyages , appears as a Starfleet officer , while Pasha Lychnikoff and Lucia Rijker play Romulans , Lychnikoff a Commander and Rijker a Communications Officer . W. Morgan Sheppard , who played a Klingon in Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country , as well as Data 's allegorical grandfather in the TNG episode " The Schizoid Man " , appears in this film as the head of the Vulcan Science Council . Wil Wheaton , known for portraying Wesley Crusher on Star Trek : The Next Generation , was brought in , through urging by Greg Grunberg , to voice several of the other Romulans in the film . Star Trek fan and Carnegie Mellon University professor Randy Pausch cameoed as a Kelvin crew member , and has a line of dialogue . Majel Barrett , the widow of Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry , reprised her role as the voice of the Enterprise 's computer , which she completed two weeks before her death on December 18 , 2008 .
Orci and Kurtzman wrote a scene for Shatner , in which old Spock gives his younger self a recorded message by Kirk from the previous timeline . " It was basically a Happy Birthday wish knowing that Spock was going to go off to Romulus , and Kirk would probably be dead by the time , " and it would have shifted into Shatner reciting " Where no man has gone before " . However , Shatner wanted to share Nimoy 's major role , and did not want a cameo , despite his character 's death in Star Trek Generations . He suggested the film canonize his novels where Kirk is resurrected , but Abrams decided if his character was accompanying Nimoy 's , it would have become a film about the resurrection of Kirk , and not about introducing the new versions of the characters . Nimoy disliked the character 's death in Generations , but also felt resurrecting Kirk would be detrimental to this film , and his friendship with Shatner caused them to avoid discussing the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
As early as the 1968 World Science Fiction Convention , Star Trek creator Roddenberry had said he was going to make a film prequel to the television series . But the prequel concept did not resurface until the late 1980s , when Ralph Winter and Harve Bennett submitted a proposal for a prequel during development of the fourth film . Roddenberry rejected Bennett 's prequel proposal in 1991 , after the completion of Star Trek V : The Final Frontier . Then David Loughery wrote a script entitled The Academy Years , but it was shelved in light of objections from Roddenberry and the fanbase . The film that was commissioned instead ended up being Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country . In February 2005 , after the financial failure of the tenth film , Star Trek : Nemesis ( 2002 ) , and the cancellation of the television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the franchise 's executive producer Rick Berman and screenwriter Erik Jendresen began developing a new film entitled Star Trek : The Beginning . It was to revolve around a new set of characters , led by Kirk 's ancestor Tiberius Chase , and be set during the Earth @-@ Romulan War — after the events of Enterprise but before the events of the original series .
In 2005 , Viacom , which owned Paramount Pictures , separated from CBS Corporation , which retained Paramount 's television properties , including ownership of the Star Trek brand . Gail Berman , then president of Paramount , convinced CBS ' chief executive , Leslie Moonves , to allow them eighteen months to develop a new Star Trek film before CBS would re @-@ earn the rights to develop a new television series ( in return , CBS would keep merchandising rights ) . Berman approached Mission : Impossible III writers Orci and Kurtzman for ideas on the new film , and after the film had completed shooting she asked their director , Abrams , to produce it . Abrams , Orci and Kurtzman , plus producers Damon Lindelof and Bryan Burk , felt the franchise had explored enough of what took place after the series , Orci and Lindelof consider themselves trekkies , and feel some of the Star Trek novels have canonical value , although Roddenberry never considered the novels to be canon . Kurtzman is a casual fan , while Burk was not . Abrams ' company , Bad Robot Productions produced the film with Paramount , marking the first time another company had financed a Star Trek film . Bill Todman , Jr . ' s Level 1 Entertainment also co @-@ produced the film , but , during 2008 , Spyglass Entertainment replaced them as financial partner .
In an interview , Abrams said that he had never seen Star Trek : Nemesis because he felt the franchise had " disconnected " from the original series . For him , he said , Star Trek was about Kirk and Spock , and the other series were like " separate space adventure [ s ] with the name Star Trek " . He also acknowledged that as a child he had actually preferred the Star Wars movies . He noted that his general knowledge of Star Trek made him well suited to introduce the franchise to newcomers , and that , being an optimistic person , he would make Star Trek an optimistic film , which would be a refreshing contrast to the likes of The Dark Knight . He added that he loved the focus on exploration in Star Trek and the idea of the Prime Directive , which forbids Starfleet to interfere in the development of primitive worlds , but that , because of the budgetary limitations of the original series , it had " never had the resources to actually show the adventure " . He noted he only became involved with the project as producer initially because he wanted to help Orci , Kurtzman and Lindelof .
On February 23 , 2007 , Abrams accepted Paramount 's offer to direct the film , after having initially been attached to it solely as a producer . He explained that he had decided to direct the film because , after reading the script , he realized that he " would be so agonizingly envious of whoever stepped in and directed the movie . " Orci and Kurtzman said that their aim had been to impress a casual fan like Abrams with their story . Abrams noted that , during filming , he had been nervous " with all these tattooed faces and pointy ears , bizarre weaponry and Romulan linguists , with dialogue about ' Neutral Zones ' and ' Starfleet ' [ but ] I knew this would work , because the script Alex and Bob wrote was so emotional and so relatable . I didn 't love Kirk and Spock when I began this journey – but I love them now . "
= = = Writing = = =
Orci said getting Nimoy in the film was important . " Having him sitting around a camp fire sharing his memories was never gonna cut it " though , and time travel was going to be included in the film from the beginning . Kurtzman added , saying the time travel creates jeopardy , unlike other prequels where viewers " know how they all died " . The writers acknowledged time travel had been overused in the other series , but it served a good purpose in creating a new set of adventures for the original characters before they could completely do away with it in other films . Abrams selected the Romulans as the villains because they had been featured less than the Klingons in the series , and thought it was " fun " to have them meet Kirk before they do in the series . Orci and Kurtzman noted it would feel backward to demonize the Klingons again after they had become heroes in later Star Trek series , and the Romulan presence continues Spock 's story from his last chronological appearance in " Unification " , an episode of Star Trek : The Next Generation set in 2368 . The episode of the original continuity in which Kirk becomes the first human to ever see a Romulan , " Balance of Terror " , served as one of the influences for the film . Orci said it was difficult giving a good explanation for the time travel without being gimmicky , like having Nero specifically seeking to assassinate Kirk .
Orci noted while the time travel story allowed them to alter some backstory elements such as Kirk 's first encounter with the Romulans , they could not use it as a crutch to change everything and they tried to approach the film as a prequel as much as possible . Kirk 's service on the Farragut , a major backstory point to the original episode " Obsession " , was left out because it was deemed irrelevant to the story of Kirk meeting Spock , although Orci felt nothing in his script precluded it from the new film 's backstory . There was a scene involving Kirk meeting Carol Marcus ( who is revealed as the mother of his son in Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan ) as a child , but it was dropped because the film needed more time to introduce the core characters . Figuring out ways to get the crew together required some contrivances , which Orci and Kurtzman wanted to explain from old Spock as a way of the timeline mending itself , highlighting the theme of destiny . The line was difficult to write and was ultimately cut out .
The filmmakers sought inspiration from novels such as Prime Directive , Spock 's World and Best Destiny to fill in gaps unexplained by canon ; Best Destiny particularly explores Kirk 's childhood and names his parents . One idea that was justified through information from the novels was having the Enterprise built on Earth , which was inspired by a piece of fan art of the Enterprise being built in a shipyard . Orci had sent the fan art to Abrams to show how realistic the film could be . Orci explained parts of the ship would have to be constructed on Earth because of the artificial gravity employed on the ship and its requirement for sustaining warp speed , and therefore the calibration of the ship 's machinery would be best done in the exact gravity well which is to be simulated . They felt free to have the ship built in Iowa because canon is ambiguous as to whether it was built in San Francisco , but this is a result of the time travel rather than something intended to overlap with the original timeline . Abrams noted the continuity of the original series itself was inconsistent at times .
Orci and Kurtzman said they wanted the general audience to like the film as much as the fans , by stripping away " Treknobabble " , making it action @-@ packed and giving it the simple title of Star Trek to indicate to newcomers they would not need to watch any of the other films . Abrams saw humor and sex appeal as two integral and popular elements of the show that needed to be maintained . Orci stated being realistic and being serious were not the same thing . Abrams , Burk , Lindelof , Orci and Kurtzman were fans of The Wrath of Khan , and also cited The Next Generation episode " Yesterday 's Enterprise " as an influence . Abrams ' wife Katie was regularly consulted on the script , as were Orci , Kurtzman and Lindelof 's wives , to make the female characters as strong as possible . Katie Abrams ' approval of the strong female characters was partly why Abrams signed on to direct .
Orci and Kurtzman read graduate school dissertations on the series for inspiration ; they noted comparisons of Kirk , Spock and McCoy to Shakespearian archetypes , and Kirk and Spock 's friendship echoing that of John Lennon and Paul McCartney . They also noted that , in the creation of this film , they were influenced by Star Wars , particularly in pacing . " I want to feel the space , I want to feel speed and I want to feel all the things that can become a little bit lost when Star Trek becomes very stately " said Orci . Star Wars permeated in the way they wrote the action sequences , while Burk noted Kirk and Spock 's initially cold relationship mirrors how " Han Solo wasn 't friends with anyone when they started on their journey . " Spock and Uhura were put in an actual relationship as a nod to early episodes highlighting her interest in him . Orci wanted to introduce strong Starfleet captains , concurring with an interviewer that most captains in other films were " patsies " included to make Kirk look greater by comparison .
The USS Kelvin , the ship Kirk 's father serves on , is named after J.J. Abrams ' grandfather , as well as the physicist and engineer Lord Kelvin ( William Thomson ) . The Kelvin 's captain , Richard Robau ( Faran Tahir ) , is named after Orci 's Cuban uncle : Orci theorized the fictional character was born in Cuba and grew up in the Middle East . Another reference to Abrams ' previous works is Slusho , which Uhura orders at the bar where she meets Kirk . Abrams created the fictitious drink for Alias and it reappeared in viral marketing for Cloverfield . Its owner , Tagruato , is also from Cloverfield and appears on a building in San Francisco . The red matter in the film is in the shape of a red ball , an Abrams motif dating back to the pilot of Alias .
= = = Design = = =
The film 's production designer was Scott Chambliss , a longtime collaborator with Abrams . Chambliss worked with a large group of concept illustrators , including James Clyne , Ryan Church , creature designer Neville Page , and Star Trek veteran John Eaves . Abrams stated the difficulty of depicting the future was that much of modern technology was inspired by the original show , and made it seem outdated . Thus the production design had to be consistent with the television series but also feel more advanced than the real world technology developed after it . " We all have the iPhone that does more than the communicator , " said Abrams . " I feel like there 's a certain thing that you can 't really hold onto , which is kind of the kitschy quality . That must go if it 's going to be something that you believe is real . " Prop master Russell Bobbitt collaborated with Nokia on recreating the original communicator , creating a $ 50 @,@ 000 prototype . Another prop recreated for the film was the tricorder . Bobbitt brought the original prop to the set , but the actors found it too large to carry when filming action scenes , so technical advisor Doug Brody redesigned it to be smaller . The phaser props were designed as spring @-@ triggered barrels that revolve and glow as the setting switches from " stun " to " kill " . An Aptera Typ @-@ 1 prototype car was used on location .
Production designer Scott Chambliss maintained the layout of the original bridge , but aesthetically altered it with brighter colors to reflect the optimism of Star Trek . The viewscreen was made into a window that could have images projected on it to make the space environment palpable . Abrams compared the redesign to the sleek modernist work of Pierre Cardin and the sets from 2001 : A Space Odyssey , which were from the 1960s . He joked the redesigned bridge made the Apple Store look " uncool " . At the director 's behest , more railings were added to the bridge to make it look safer , and the set was built on gimbals so its rocking motions when the ship accelerates and is attacked was more realistic . To emphasize the size of the ship , Abrams chose to give the engine room a highly industrial appearance : he explained to Pegg that he was inspired by RMS Titanic , a sleek ship in which there was an " incredible gut " .
Abrams selected Michael Kaplan to design the costumes because he had not seen any of the films , meaning he would approach the costumes with a new angle . For the Starfleet uniforms , Kaplan followed the show 's original color @-@ coding , with dark gray ( almost black ) undershirts and pants and colored overshirts showing each crew member 's position . Command officers wear gold shirts , science and medical officers wear blue , and operations ( technicians , engineers , and security personnel ) wear red . Kaplan wanted the shirts to be more sophisticated than the originals and selected to have the Starfleet symbol patterned on them . Kirk wears only the undershirt because he is a cadet . Kaplan modelled the uniforms on the Kelvin on science fiction films of the 1940s and 1950s , to contrast with the Enterprise @-@ era uniforms based on the ones created in the 1960s . For Abrams , " The costumes were a microcosm of the entire project , which was how to take something that 's kind of silly and make it feel real . But how do you make legitimate those near @-@ primary color costumes ? "
Lindelof compared the film 's Romulan faction to pirates with their bald , tattooed heads and disorganized costuming . Their ship , the Narada , is purely practical with visible mechanics as it is a " working ship " , unlike the Enterprise crew who give a respectable presentation on behalf of the Federation . Chambliss was heavily influenced by the architecture of Antoni Gaudí for the Narada , who created buildings that appeared to be inside out : by making the ship 's exposed wires appear like bones or ligaments , it would create a foreboding atmosphere . The ship 's interior was made of six pieces that could be rearranged to create a different room . The Romulan actors had three prosthetics applied to their ears and foreheads , while Bana had a fourth prosthetic for the bitemark on his ear that extends to the back of his character 's head . The film 's Romulans lacked the ' V ' -shaped ridges on the foreheads , which had been present in all of their depictions outside the original series . Neville Page wanted to honor that by having Nero 's crew ritually scar themselves too , forming keloids reminiscent of the ' V ' -ridges . It was abandoned as they did not pursue the idea enough . Kaplan wanted aged , worn and rugged clothes for the Romulans because of their mining backgrounds , and found some greasy looking fabrics at a flea market . Kaplan tracked down the makers of those clothes , who were discovered to be based in Bali , and commissioned them to create his designs .
Barney Burman supervised the makeup for the other aliens : his team had to rush the creation of many of the aliens , because originally the majority of them were to feature in one scene towards the end of filming . Abrams deemed the scene too similar to the cantina sequence in Star Wars and decided to dot the designs around the film . A tribble was placed in the background of Scotty 's introduction . Both digital and physical makeup was used for aliens .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for the film began on November 7 , 2007 and culminated on March 27 , 2008 ; however second unit filming occurred in Bakersfield , California in April 2008 , which stood in for Kirk 's childhood home in Iowa . Filming was also done at the City Hall of Long Beach , California ; the San Rafael Swell in Utah ; and the California State University , Northridge in Los Angeles ( which was used for establishing shots of students at Starfleet Academy ) . A parking lot outside Dodger Stadium was used for the ice planet of Delta Vega and the Romulan drilling rig on Vulcan . The filmmakers expressed an interest in Iceland for scenes on Delta Vega , but decided against it : Chambliss enjoyed the challenge of filming scenes with snow in southern California . Other Vulcan exteriors were shot at Vasquez Rocks , a location that was used in various episodes of the original series . A Budweiser plant in Van Nuys was used for the Enterprise 's engine room , while a Long Beach power plant was used for the Kelvin 's engine room .
Following the initiation of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike on November 5 , 2007 , Abrams , himself a WGA member , told Variety that while he would not render writing services for the film and intended to walk the picket line , he did not expect the strike to impact his directing of the production . In the final few weeks before the strike and start of production , Abrams and Lindelof polished the script for a final time . Abrams was frustrated that he was unable to alter lines during the strike , whereas normally they would have been able to improvise new ideas during rehearsal , although Lindelof acknowledged they could dub some lines in post @-@ production . Orci and Kurtzman were able to stay on set without strikebreaking because they were also executive producers on the film ; they could " make funny eyes and faces at the actors whenever they had a problem with the line and sort of nod when they had something better " . Abrams was able to alter a scene where Spock combats six Romulans from a fistfight to a gunfight , having decided there were too many physical brawls in the film .
The production team maintained heavily enforced security around the film . Karl Urban revealed , " [ There is a ] level of security and secrecy that we have all been forced to adopt . I mean , it 's really kind of paranoid crazy , but sort of justified . We ' | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
re not allowed to walk around in public in our costumes and we have to be herded around everywhere in these golf carts that are completely concealed and covered in black canvas . The security of it is immense . You feel your freedom is a big challenge . " Actors like Jennifer Morrison were only given the scripts of their scenes . The film 's shooting script was fiercely protected even with the main cast . Simon Pegg said , " I read [ the script ] with a security guard near me – it 's that secretive . " The film used the fake working title of Corporate Headquarters . Some of the few outside of the production allowed to visit the set included Rod Roddenberry , Ronald D. Moore , Jonathan Frakes , Walter Koenig , Nichelle Nichols , Ben Stiller , Tom Cruise and Steven Spielberg ( who had partially convinced Abrams to direct because he liked the script , and he even advised the action scenes during his visit ) .
When the shoot ended , Abrams gave the cast small boxes containing little telescopes , which allowed them to read the name of each constellation it was pointed at . " I think he just wanted each of us to look at the stars a little differently , " said John Cho . After the shoot , Abrams cut out some scenes of Kirk and Spock as children , including seeing the latter as a baby , as well as a subplot involving Nero being imprisoned by the Klingons and his escape : this explanation for his absence during Kirk 's life confused many to whom Abrams screened the film . Other scenes cut out explained that the teenage Kirk stole his stepfather 's antique car because he had forced him to clean it before an auction ; and that the Orion he seduced at the Academy worked in the operations division . Afterwards , she agrees to open the e @-@ mail containing his patch that allows him to pass the Kobayashi Maru test .
Abrams chose to shoot the film in the anamorphic format on 35 mm film after discussions about whether the film should be shot in high @-@ definition digital video . Cinematographer Dan Mindel and Abrams agreed the choice gave the film a big @-@ screen feel and the realistic , organic look they wanted for the film setting . Abrams and Mindel used lens flares throughout filming to create an optimistic atmosphere and a feeling that activity was taking place off @-@ camera , making the Star Trek universe feel more real . " There 's something about those flares , especially in a movie that potentially could be incredibly sterile and CG and overly controlled . There 's just something incredibly unpredictable and gorgeous about them . " Mindel would create more flares by shining a flashlight or pointing a mirror at the camera lens , or using two cameras simultaneously and therefore two lighting set @-@ ups . Editor Mary Jo Markey later said in interview that he had not told her ( or fellow editor Maryann Brandon ) this , and initially contacted the film developers asking why the film seemed overexposed .
= = = Effects = = =
Industrial Light & Magic and Digital Domain were among several companies that created over 1 @,@ 000 special effect shots . The visual effects supervisors were Roger Guyett , who collaborated with Abrams on Mission : Impossible III and also served as second unit director , and Russell Earl . Abrams avoided shooting only against bluescreen and greenscreen , because it " makes me insane " , using them instead to extend the scale of sets and locations . The Delta Vega sequence required the mixing of digital snow with real snow .
Star Trek was the first film ILM worked on using entirely digital ships . The Enterprise was intended by Abrams to be a merging of its design in the series and the refitted version from the original film . Abrams had fond memories of the revelation of the Enterprise 's refit in Star Trek : The Motion Picture , because it was the first time the ship felt tangible and real to him . The iridescent pattern on the ship from The Motion Picture was maintained to give the ship depth , while model maker Roger Goodson also applied the " Aztec " pattern from The Next Generation . Goodson recalled Abrams also wanted to bring a " hot rod " aesthetic to the ship . Effects supervisor Roger Guyett wanted the ship to have more moving parts , which stemmed from his childhood dissatisfaction with the ship 's design : The new Enterprise 's dish can expand and move , while the fins on its engines split slightly when they begin warping . The Enterprise was originally redesigned by Ryan Church using features of the original , at 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) long , but was doubled in size to 2 @,@ 357 feet ( 718 m ) long to make it seem " grander " , while the Romulan Narada is five miles long and several miles wide . The filmmakers had to simulate lens flares on the ships in keeping with the film 's cinematography .
Carolyn Porco of NASA was consulted on the planetary science and imagery . The animators realistically recreated what an explosion would look like in space : short blasts , which suck inward and leave debris from a ship floating . For shots of an imploding planet , the same explosion program was used to simulate it breaking up , while the animators could manually composite multiple layers of rocks and wind sucking into the planet . Unlike other Star Trek films and series , the transporter beam effects swirl rather than speckle . Abrams conceived the redesign to emphasize the notion of transporters as beams that can pick up and move people , rather than a signal composed of scrambled atoms .
Lola Visual Effects worked on 48 shots , including some animation to Bana and Nimoy . Bana required extensive damage to his teeth , which was significant enough to completely replace his mouth in some shots . Nimoy 's mouth was reanimated in his first scene with Kirk following a rerecording session . The filmmakers had filmed Nimoy when he rerecorded his lines so they could rotoscope his mouth into the film , even recreating the lighting conditions , but they realized they had to digitally recreate his lips because of the bouncing light created by the camp fire .
= = = Music = = =
Michael Giacchino , Abrams ' most frequent collaborator , composed the music for Star Trek . He kept the original theme by Alexander Courage for the end credits , which Abrams said symbolized the momentum of the crew coming together . Giacchino admitted personal pressure in scoring the film , as " I grew up listening to all of that great [ Trek ] music , and that 's part of what inspired me to do what I 'm doing [ ... ] You just go in scared . You just hope you do your best . It 's one of those things where the film will tell me what to do . " Scoring took place at the Sony Scoring Stage with a 107 @-@ piece orchestra and 40 @-@ person choir . An erhu , performed by Karen Han , was used for the Vulcan themes . A distorted recording was used for the Romulans . Varèse Sarabande , the record label responsible for releasing albums of Giacchino 's previous scores for Alias , Lost , Mission : Impossible III , and Speed Racer , released the soundtrack for the film on May 5 . The music for the theatrical trailers were composed by Two Steps from Hell .
= = = Sound effects = = =
The sound effects were designed by Star Wars veteran Ben Burtt . Whereas the phaser blast noises from the television series were derived from The War of the Worlds ( 1953 ) , Burtt made his phaser sounds more like his blasters from Star Wars , because Abrams ' depiction of phasers were closer to the blasters ' bullet @-@ like fire , rather than the steady beams of energy in previous Star Trek films . Burtt reproduced the classic photon torpedo and warp drive sounds : he tapped a long spring against a contact microphone , and combined that with cannon fire . Burtt used a 1960s oscillator to create a musical and emotional hum to the warping and transporting sounds .
= = Release = =
In February 2008 , Paramount announced they would move Star Trek from its December 25 , 2008 release date to May 8 , 2009 , as the studio felt more people would see the film during summer than winter . The film was practically finished by the end of 2008 . Paramount 's decision came about after visiting the set and watching dailies , as they realized the film could appeal to a much broader audience . Even though the filmmakers liked the Christmas release date , Damon Lindelof acknowledged it would allow more time to perfect the visual effects . The months @-@ long gap between the completion of the production and release meant Alan Dean Foster was allowed to watch the whole film before writing the novelization , although the novel would contain scenes absent from the final edit . Quinto narrated the audiobook .
A surprise public screening was held on April 6 , 2009 , at the Alamo Drafthouse theater in Austin , Texas , hosted by writers Robert Orci , Alex Kurtzman , and producer Damon Lindelof . The showing was publicized as a screening of Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan , followed by a ten @-@ minute preview of the new Star Trek film . A few minutes into Khan , the film appeared to melt and Nimoy appeared on stage with Orci , Kurtzman and Lindelof , asking the audience , " wouldn 't you rather see the new movie ? " Following the surprise screening in Texas , the first of many premieres across the world was held at the Sydney Opera House in Sydney on April 7 , 2009 . For almost two years , the town of Vulcan , Alberta had campaigned to have the film premiere there , but because it had no theater , Paramount arranged instead a lottery where 300 winning residents would be taken to a prerelease screening in Calgary .
= = = Marketing = = =
The first teaser trailer debuted in theaters with Cloverfield on January 18 , 2008 , which showed the Enterprise under construction . Abrams himself directed the first part of the trailer , where a welder removes his goggles . Professional welders were hired for the teaser . The voices of the 1960s played over the trailer were intended to link the film to the present day ; John F. Kennedy in particular was chosen because of similarities with the character of James T. Kirk and because he is seen to have " kicked off " the Space Race . Orci explained that : " If we do indeed have a Federation , I think Kennedy ’ s words will be inscribed in there someplace . " Star Trek 's later trailers would win four awards , including Best in Show , in the tenth annual Golden Trailer Awards .
Paramount faced two obstacles in promoting the film : the unfamiliarity of the " MySpace generation " with the franchise and the relatively weak international performance of the previous films . Six months before the film 's release , Abrams toured Europe and North America with 25 minutes of footage . Abrams noted the large @-@ scale campaign started unusually early , but this was because the release delay allowed him to show more completed scenes than normal . The director preferred promoting his projects quietly , but concurred Paramount needed to remove Star Trek 's stigma . Abrams would exaggerate his preference for other shows to Star Trek as a child to the press , with statements like " I 'm not a Star Trek fan " and " this movie is not made for Star Trek fans necessarily " . Orci compared Abrams ' approach to The Next Generation episode " A Matter of Honor " , where William Riker is stationed aboard a Klingon vessel . " On that ship when someone talks back to you , you would have to beat them down or you lose the respect of your crew , which is protocol , whereas on a Federation ship that would be a crime . So we have to give [ J. J. Abrams ] a little bit of leeway , when he is traveling the ' galaxy ' over there where they don 't know Trek , to say the things that need to be said in order to get people onto our side . "
Promotional partners on the film include Nokia , Verizon Wireless , Esurance , Kellogg 's , Burger King and Intel Corporation , as well as various companies specializing in home decorating , apparel , jewelry , gift items and " Tiberius " , " Pon Farr " and " Red Shirt " fragrances . Playmates Toys , who owned the Star Trek toy license until 2000 , also held the merchandise rights for the new film . The first wave was released in March and April 2009 . Playmates hope to continue their toy line into 2010 . The first wave consists of 3 @.@ 75 " , 6 " and 12 " action figures , an Enterprise replica , prop toys and play sets. to recreate the whole bridge , one would have to buy more 3 @.@ 75 " figures , which come with chairs and consoles to add to the main set consisting of Kirk 's chair , the floor , the main console and the viewscreen . Master Replicas , Mattel , Hasbro and Fundex Games will promote the film via playing cards , Monopoly , UNO , Scrabble , Magic 8 @-@ Ball , Hot Wheels , Tyco R / C , 20Q , Scene It ? and Barbie lines . Some of these are based on previous Star Trek iterations rather than the film . CBS also created a merchandising line based around Star Trek caricatures named " Quogs " .
= = = Home release = = =
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on November 17 , 2009 in North America , November 16 in the United Kingdom and October 26 in Australia and New Zealand . In Sweden and Germany , it was released on November 4 . First week sales stood at 5 @.@ 7 million DVDs along with 1 @.@ 1 million Blu @-@ ray Discs , giving Paramount Pictures their third chart topping release in five weeks following Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen and G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Official screenings in the United States started at 7 pm on May 7 , 2009 , grossing $ 4 million on its opening day . By the end of the weekend , Star Trek had opened with $ 79 @,@ 204 @,@ 300 , as well as $ 35 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 from other countries . Adjusted and unadjusted for inflation , it beat Star Trek : First Contact for the largest American opening for a Star Trek film . The film made US $ 8 @.@ 5 million from its IMAX screenings , breaking The Dark Knight 's $ 6 @.@ 3 million IMAX opening record . The film is the highest @-@ grossing in the United States and Canada from the entire Star Trek film franchise , eclipsing The Voyage Home and Star Trek : The Motion Picture . Its opening weekend numbers alone outgross the entire individual runs of The Undiscovered Country , The Final Frontier , Insurrection and Nemesis . Star Trek ended its United States theatrical run on October 1 , 2009 , with a box office total of $ 257 @,@ 730 @,@ 019 , which places it as the seventh highest @-@ grossing film for 2009 behind The Hangover . The film grossed $ 127 @,@ 764 @,@ 536 in international markets , for a total worldwide gross of $ 385 @,@ 494 @,@ 555 . While foreign grosses represent only 31 % of the total box office receipts , executives of Paramount were happy with the international sales , as Star Trek historically was a movie franchise that never has been a big draw overseas .
= = = Critical response = = =
Star Trek was acclaimed by film critics . On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , it received 95 % approval with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 ( the highest scored Star Trek film ) , based on 333 reviews , with the consensus : " Star Trek reignites a classic franchise with action , humor , a strong story , and brilliant visuals , and will please traditional Trekkies and new fans alike . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score , gave the film an 83 out of 100 based on 37 reviews from critics .
Ty Burr of the Boston Globe gave the film a perfect four star rating , describing it as " ridiculously satisfying " , and the " best prequel ever " . Burr praised the character development in the film , opining that " emotionally , Star Trek hits every one of its marks , functioning as a family reunion that extends across decades , entertainment mediums , even blurring the line between audience and show . " He continued : " Trading on affections sustained over 40 years of popular culture , Star Trek does what a franchise reboot rarely does . It reminds us why we loved these characters in the first place . " Owen Gleiberman from Entertainment Weekly gave the film an ' A- ' grade , commenting that director Abrams " crafts an origin story that avoids any hint of the origin doldrums . " Similar sentiments were expressed by Rolling Stone journalist Peter Travers , who gave the film a 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars . He felt that the acting from the cast was the highlight of the filming , asserting that the performance of Pine radiated star quality . Likewise , Travers called Quinto 's performance " sharp " and " intuitive " , and felt that Quinto " gave the film a soul " . Manohla Dargis of the New York Times wrote , " Star Trek [ ... ] isn ’ t just a pleasurable rethink of your geek uncle 's favorite science @-@ fiction series . It 's also a testament to television 's power as mythmaker , as a source for some of the fundamental stories we tell about ourselves , who we are and where we came from . Slate 's Dana Stevens felt that the film was " a gift to those of us who loved the original series , that brainy , wonky , idealistic body of work that aired to almost no commercial success between 1966 – 69 and has since become a science fiction archetype and object of cult adoration . " Time Out London 's Tom Huddleston praised the aesthetic qualities of the film , such as the design of the Enterprise , and praised the performances of the cast . He wrote , " The cast are equally strong : Quinto brings wry charm to an otherwise calculating character , while Pine powers through his performance in bullish , if not quite Shatner @-@ esque fashion . "
The chemistry between Pine and Quinto was well received by critics . Gleiberman felt that as the film progressed to the conclusion , Pine and Quinto emulated the same connection as Kirk and Spock . Tim Robey of The Telegraph echoed similar attitudes ; " The movie charts their relationship [ ... ] in a nicely oblique way . " Robey resumed : " It 's the main event , dramatically speaking , but there 's always something more thumpingly urgent to command their attention , whether it 's a Vulcan distress signal or the continuing rampages of those pesky Romulans . " Burr opined that Abrams had an accurate understanding of the relationship between Kirk and Spock , and wrote , " Pine makes a fine , brash boy Kirk , but Quinto 's Spock is something special – an eerily calm figure freighted with a heavier sadness than Roddenberry 's original . The two ground each other and point toward all the stories yet to come . " Similarly , The Guardian writer Peter Bradshaw expressed : " The story of Kirk and Spock is brought thrillingly back to life by a new first generation : Chris Pine and Zachary Quinto , who give inspired , utterly unselfconscious and lovable performances , with power , passion and some cracking comic timing . "
Some film critics were polarized with Star Trek . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the film a ' B + ' grade , and asserted that it was " a reconsideration of what constitutes Star Trek , one that deemphasizes heady concepts and plainly stated humanist virtues in favor of breathless action punctuated by bursts of emotion . It might not even be immediately recognizable to veteran fans . " In concurrence , Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times stated that " the Gene Roddenberry years , when stories might play with questions of science , ideals or philosophy , have been replaced by stories reduced to loud and colorful action . " Ebert ultimately gave it a 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars . Similarly , Marc Bain of Newsweek opined : " The latest film version of Star Trek [ ... ] is more brawn than brain , and it largely jettisons complicated ethical conundrums in favor of action sequences and special effects . Slate journalist Juliet Lapidos argued that the new film , with its " standard Hollywood torture scene " , failed to live up to the intellectual standard set by the 1992 Next Generation episode " Chain of Command " , whose treatment of the issue she found both more sophisticated and pertinent to the ongoing debate over the United States ' use of enhanced interrogation techniques .
= = = Accolades = = =
The film garnered numerous accolades after its release . In 2010 , it was nominated for four Academy Awards at the 82nd Academy Awards , for Best Sound Editing , Best Sound Mixing , Best Visual Effects , and Best Makeup . Star Trek won in the category for Best Makeup , making it the first Star Trek film to receive an Academy Award . The film was nominated for three Empire Awards , to which it won for Best Sci @-@ Fi / Fantasy . In October 2009 , Star Trek won the Hollywood Award for Best Movie , and attained six Scream Awards and the 2009 Scream Awards Ceremony . The film attained a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards .
Star Trek received several nominations . The film was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media , but was beaten out by Up , also composed by Michael Giacchino . At the 36th People 's Choice Awards , the film received four nominations : the film was a contender for Favorite Movie , Zoe Saldana was nominated for Favorite Breakout Movie Actress , and both Pine and Quinto were nominated for Favorite Breakout Movie Actor . On June 15 , 2009 , the film was nominated for five Teen Choice Awards . In addition , Star Trek was nominated for five Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards and was named one of the top @-@ ten films of 2009 by the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures .
= = Sequels = =
The film 's major cast members signed on for two sequels as part of their original deals . Abrams and Bryan Burk signed to produce and Abrams signed to direct the first sequel . The sequel , Star Trek Into Darkness , starring Benedict Cumberbatch as Khan Noonien Singh , was released on May 16 , 2013 .
The film was released on July 22 , 2016 , but Abrams will return only as producer ( due to him directing Star Wars : The Force Awakens ) and Kurtzman is no longer writing . On May 13 , 2014 , it was announced that Roberto Orci , the writer of the first and second film , would direct the third film , but in December 2014 , it was reported that Roberto Orci would no longer direct . Edgar Wright , Rupert Wyatt , Morten Tyldum , Justin Lin , Daniel Espinosa , and Duncan Jones were being looked at as a potential replacement , though Jones indicated that he would not be directing the film . A week later , it was announced that Lin will direct the film .
= Elephant & Castle tube station =
Elephant & Castle is a London Underground station in the London Borough of Southwark in central London . It is on the Bank branch of the Northern line between Kennington and Borough stations , and is the southern terminus of the Bakerloo line , the next station being Lambeth North . The station is in both Travelcard Zones 1 and 2 . The Northern line station was opened in 1890 by the City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) while the Bakerloo line station was opened sixteen years later by the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) . There is out @-@ of @-@ station interchange with the nearby Elephant & Castle National Rail station .
A girl born at the station in 1924 was the first baby to be born on the Underground network . The Bakerloo line building remains much as originally constructed and is a typical Leslie Green structure . The Northern line building was designed by Thomas Phillips Figgis , and was rebuilt several times until the current structure opened in 2003 . Transport for London ( TfL ) is currently planning a major upgrade to the station . A Bakerloo line extension south to Camberwell was planned and approved in 1931 but construction never started . Similar proposals have been revived on several occasions ; in 2014 TfL ran a consultation on an extension to Hayes and Beckenham Junction , which is still under consideration .
= = The station today = =
= = = Geography = = =
Elephant & Castle is located in the Elephant and Castle area of Newington in the London Borough of Southwark in Central London . The station is in both Travelcard Zones 1 and 2 and is on the Bank branch of the Northern line between Kennington and Borough stations , and is the southern terminus of the Bakerloo line , the next station being Lambeth North . The station has two surface buildings , separated by a large traffic intersection . The northern building provides the most direct access to the Bakerloo line , while the southern one is linked more directly to the Northern line .
= = = Station building = = =
Access to the more northerly ( Bakerloo ) part of the station is via the original building , while the exit is via a new extension next to Skipton House . Between the entrance and two shops is the entrance to South London House , an office block above the station . The BS & WR station building remains much as originally constructed and is a typical Leslie Green structure . The main alteration is a modern glass @-@ sided and glass @-@ topped flat @-@ roofed extension abutting the original western elevation , giving access to three of the six arches . These arches , in a classic deep @-@ red faience style , formed the original perimeter : two are infilled with street @-@ facing shops . As the station also functions as a drivers ' depot , London Underground uses the offices above the station for administration and drivers ' accommodation .
The C & SLR station was designed by Thomas Phillips Figgis in a similar style to Kennington station . It was partially rebuilt in the 1920s when the C & SLR tunnels were modernised , and was rebuilt during the construction of the Elephant & Castle shopping centre and roundabout in the 1960s . It was rebuilt at the start of the 21st century , reopening on 12 December 2003 . Neither building has escalators . To get from either ticket hall to the platforms it is necessary to use the lifts or spiral stairs . The southern building has lifts from street level down to the level of the southbound Northern line platform , the only step @-@ free platform at the station . From inside the station , the northern exit is labelled " London South Bank University " and emerges at the southern tip of the triangular campus . The southern exit is labelled " Shopping Centre " and also leads to the National Rail station where there is an out @-@ of @-@ station interchange , allowing Oyster card and contactless payment card users to interchange while paying a single fare for their journey .
= = = Heritage feature and refurbishment = = =
The multi @-@ coloured platform tiles on the Northern line were reconstructed in the 1920s in conjunction with an extension to Morden station . The tiles were carefully replicated in 2006 to replace the originals , which were in poor condition . The original C & SLR tiles dating from 1890 remain on the tunnel roofs of the Northern line platforms , albeit now covered over by the new cable @-@ management system . The station was refurbished in 2007 . The original maroon and cream tiling on the Bakerloo line platforms has been covered over . Because of the arrangement of the lighting , cabling and public address loudspeakers , it was not possible to arrange the new roundels at alternate ‘ low ’ and ‘ high ’ positions , all being at the lower level .
= = Services and connections = =
= = = Bakerloo line = = =
The station is currently the southern terminus of the Bakerloo line , running north via Lambeth North and Waterloo towards Queen 's Park , Stonebridge Park or Harrow & Wealdstone . Train frequencies vary throughout the day , but generally trains operate every 4 – 9 minutes between 05 : 37 and 00 : 06 northbound ( as of 2015 ) , a little less frequently than the Northern line .
= = = Northern line = = =
On this line , the station is on the Bank branch ; the next stations are Borough to the north and Kennington to the south . The typical off @-@ peak service ( as of January 2015 ) in trains per hour ( tph ) is 10tph northbound to each of High Barnet and Edgware and 20tph southbound to Morden .
= = = Connections = = =
London Bus routes 1 , 12 , 35 , 40 , 45 , 53 , 63 , 68 , 100 , 133 , 136 , 148 , 155 , 168 , 171 , 172 , 176 , 188 , 196 , 333 , 343 , 344 , 360 , 363 , 415 , 453 , 468 , C10 and P5 , and night routes N1 , N35 , N63 , N68 , N89 , N133 , N155 , N171 and N343 serve the station . In addition , bus routes 12 , 53 , 148 , 176 , 188 , 344 and 453 provide a 24 @-@ hour bus service .
= = History = =
= = = Northern line = = =
Between 1883 – 86 , a route was planned by the City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) , then known as the City of London & Southwark Subway ( CL & SS ) , from King William Street via Elephant & Castle to Stockwell and Clapham Common . The entire route was approved on 25 July 1890 and the station opened on 18 December 1890 as part of the first deep @-@ level tube between King William Street and Stockwell .
In November 1891 , the C & SLR recognised the deficiencies of the section between Borough station and King William Street . A new route was chosen with a different pair of tunnels , avoiding this section . Near Borough , the new tunnels would branch off to London Bridge to form an interchange with the mainline station and then north through the City of London to Angel . The plan was approved on 24 August 1893 following a delay . The Act also incorporated another bill of 1893 to grant more time to build the southern extension to Clapham . The new route and the first section of the northern extension from Borough to Moorgate opened on 25 February 1900 , and the King William Street diversion was closed . The southern extension to Clapham Common opened on 3 June 1900 . Work continued on the rest of the northern extension and it opened on 17 November 1901 .
In 1912 , the C & SLR submitted another bill to increase its capacity by enlarging its tunnels to the larger diameter used for the tunnels of the more recently built railways to allow larger , more modern rolling stock to be used . Together , the works proposed in these bills would enable the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway ( CCE & HR ) ' s trains to run over the C & SLR 's route and vice versa , effectively combining the two separate railways . Tunnel enlargement works only restarted after World War I when an extension of time was granted in February 1919 . The Moorgate to Clapham Common section reopened on 1 December 1924 , approximately eight months after the rest of the line .
= = = Bakerloo line = = =
In November 1891 , a private bill was presented to Parliament for the construction of the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) . The railway was planned to run entirely underground from Marylebone to Elephant & Castle via Baker Street and Waterloo and was approved in 1900 . Construction commenced in August 1898 under the direction of Sir Benjamin Baker , W.R. Galbraith and R.F. Church with building work by Perry & Company of Tredegar Works , Bow . Test trains began running in 1905 . The first section of the BS & WR was between Baker Street and Lambeth North . The BS & WR station opened on 5 August 1906 , almost five months after the rest of the line .
= = = Incidents = = =
On the morning of 27 November 1923 , a slight misjudgement at the end of the tunnel enlargement work left the tunnel unstable near Borough . A collapse on the same day , caused when a train hit temporary shoring near Elephant & Castle , filled the tunnel with wet gravel . Later a gas main exploded , causing a water main to break and leaving a water @-@ filled crater in the middle of the street . The line was briefly split in two , but was completely closed on 28 November 1923 .
A girl born at the station on 13 May 1924 was the first baby to be born on the Underground network . According to initial press reports , she had been named Thelma Ursula Beatrice Eleanor ( so that her initials would be T.U.B.E. ) but this later proved false : her actual name was Mary Ashfield Eleanor Hammond . Her second name Ashfield was from Lord Ashfield , chairman of the railway , who agreed to be the baby 's godfather , but said that , " it would not do to encourage this sort of thing as I am a busy man . "
= = Proposals for the future = =
= = = Station upgrade = = =
A major upgrade is being planned by Transport for London to bring improvements to the station ; these include a new Northern line ticket hall , three new escalators and additional lifts to provide step @-@ free access to the Northern line platforms . This will be done in conjunction with the major transformation in the Elephant & Castle area to create thousands of new homes and potential for new retail development to provide growth in the area .
= = = Bakerloo line extension to southeast London = = =
An extension to Camberwell from Elephant & Castle was planned and approved in 1931 . Elephant & Castle was also to be reconstructed with a third platform to provide the additional reversing capacity , along with a new ticket hall and escalators . Due to the need to prioritise the extension from Baker Street to Finchley Road , to relieve congestion on the Metropolitan line , as well as financial constraints and the outbreak of the Second World War , no work was carried out on the extension . In the 1950s there was a brief revival of the plan , in which it was proposed that Elephant & Castle would not be altered and the additional turn @-@ round capacity would be provided by making Camberwell a three @-@ platform terminus . The project was ultimately unaffordable owing to post @-@ war austerity , reduced demand , and the disproportionately high cost of the project with a three @-@ platform deep @-@ level terminus and the requirement for new trains and a depot .
During 2005 – 06 , a Bakerloo extension was proposed with three route options . The options were extensions to Hayes via Peckham Rye , Beckenham Junction via Camberwell , or Hayes via New Cross . In July 2011 , Network Rail recommended an extension of the Bakerloo line from Elephant & Castle to Lewisham , where it would take over the line to Hayes . In September 2014 , Transport for London ran a consultation on the Bakerloo extension to Hayes and Beckenham Junction with options via Lewisham and Camberwell or Old Kent Road , taking over Network Rail 's Hayes line . The cost of the extension is estimated at around £ 2 – 3 billion with construction expected to take place between the mid @-@ 2020s and early 2030s .
= Breaking Point ( Keri Hilson song ) =
" Breaking Point " is a song performed by American recording artist Keri Hilson from her second studio album , No Boys Allowed ( 2010 ) . Mosley Music Group and Interscope Records released it as the album 's lead single on September 7 , 2010 . The song was written by Timbaland , Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , Hilson and Timothy " Attitude " Clayton , and produced by Timbaland with assistance from Harmon . According to Hilson , " Breaking Point " was inspired by women 's experiences of tolerating too much from their partner and enduring their lies . The song is about a breaking point when a woman is tired of being neglected and exploited by her partner , whose many excuses are no longer accepted .
" Breaking Point " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B ballad that incorporates elements of pop and soul music . It features guitar , kick drum , organ , percussion and piano instrumentation . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who commended its empowering message and Timbaland 's production . In the United States , " Breaking Point " peaked at number 44 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and bubbled under the Billboard Hot 100 at number 17 . Bryan Barber directed the ballad 's accompanying music video , which is primarily set at a beauty salon with Hilson and her girlfriends .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
" Breaking Point " was written by Timbaland , Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , Keri Hilson and Timothy " Attitude " Clayton . In an interview with Ian Drew of DailyFill , Hilson explained that inspiration for writing the song came from women 's experiences , including " being lied to and tolerating too much " from their partner . She elaborated on its theme during a radio interview , stating : " The song is about that breaking point that every woman gets to when the excuses given by boys are no longer accepted . If you 're not man enough to step to the plate , then keep it moving . " The song shares its theme with " The Way You Love Me " as both songs are about " women coming to terms with what they need from a relationship " . The " powerful " meaning of the two songs was personal to Hilson and she hoped that it would have the same effect on listeners . In an interview for WTAM , Hilson elaborated on " Breaking Point " and its theme :
I 'm a loyal woman , and a lot of girls are . That causes us sometimes to take [ bullshit ] a little more than we should . I think women needed to hear – obviously I 'm speaking from personal experience and that of my close friends as well – but I think other women needed to hear that you can only take so much . Eventually you 're gonna reach your breaking point .
Timbaland produced " Breaking Point " with assistance from Harmon . Chris Godbey mixed the track and recorded Hilson 's vocals together with Bryan " The Beard " Jones , with assistance from Ghazi Hourani ; both these tasks were done at The Record Plant in Hollywood , California . Hilson arranged the recorded vocals and produced them with Veronika " V " Bozeman , who also performed background vocals . Chris Gerhinger mastered the song at Sterling Sound in New York City .
= = Composition = =
" Breaking Point " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B ballad that features elements of pop and soul music . Instrumentation is provided by a guitar , kick drums , an organ , percussion and a piano . It is also backed by doo @-@ wop beats , finger snaps and cooing backup vocals . Lyrically , the song speaks of a woman 's breaking point and Hilson " voices the frustration " of women who are being neglected and exploited by men . In the chorus , she sings : " Every woman has a breaking point , y 'all / Hey , I know you know , some women can be lied to , cheated on and beat on / Somebody know , hey , every woman has a breaking point , y 'all . " According to Sara D. Anderson of AOL Radio , Hilson vocally incorporates an " improvisational gospel style . MTV Buzzworthy writer Chris Ryan compared Hilson 's vocals with Mary J. Blige 's , particularly in Blige 's cover of " I 'm Going Down " ( 1995 ) . Halfway through " Breaking Point " , Hilson talks about " the need for each woman to reclaim her life " in a spoken @-@ word interlude , during which she mimics Blige , according to Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe . Hilson phrases : " Now ladies , we really should be mad at ourselves , cause see , some women just tolerate too damn much . Huh ! "
= = Release = =
" Breaking Point " premiered on August 18 , 2010 , on the urban radio station V @-@ 103 in Atlanta . It was selected as the album 's lead single to showcase Hilson sans featured acts . In an interview , Hilson elaborated on the decision : " Timbaland and Polow [ da Don ] knew that even though I 've been known for club records , guest features and collaborations , I am a true R & B lover ... [ We chose the song ] for many reasons ... We knew it wouldn 't grow as fast or even be as big a record as some of my past [ singles ] ... We wanted to showcase me by myself , feature @-@ less , and we wanted to reveal that I can sing , and really connect with my music and my message . We felt that was the best introduction to No Boys Allowed . " Mosley Music Group and Interscope Records released the single via digital distribution in the United States on September 7 , 2010 . It was later sent to urban adult contemporary radio on October 25 , 2010 , while the album 's second single , " Pretty Girl Rock " , was classified for contemporary hit radio the same week .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Breaking Point " received generally a positive response from music critics . Newsday 's Glenn Gamboa described it as a " gorgeous girl @-@ group @-@ influenced " song and commended Timbaland 's " remarkably non @-@ bleepy @-@ bloopy production " . Mariel Concepcion of Billboard observed that the song is a release for women who are " being mistreated and unappreciated " by their men , but are unable to " speak up for themselves " . She viewed the single as an " empowering wake @-@ up call [ that ] encourag [ es ] women to stop putting up with the abuse " . Concepcion likened the lyrics to Melanie Fiona 's " Give It to Me Right " ( 2009 ) and Beyoncé Knowles ' " Why Don 't You Love Me " ( 2010 ) . In his review of No Boys Allowed , Matthew Horton of BBC Music remarked that the slower songs " house some of the nicer touches " . Horton praised Timbaland 's production throughout the album , particularly on " Breaking Point " due to its " En Vogue @-@ y harmonies [ and ] oriental music box refrain " . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times regarded the song as " far better " than " Pretty Girl Rock " , and Los Angeles Times critic Margaret Wappler deemed it as " sticky and finessed " .
Lauren Carter of Boston Herald recommended " Breaking Point " as downloadable , and Neil Miller , Jr. of UR Chicago called it one of " the finest cuts of genuine R & B out there right now " . Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy called the song " beautiful " and wrote , " While the music has all the squiggly , burping and buzzing percussion sound effects of your typical [ Timbaland ] track , it also has a lovely Prince @-@ like melody . " The Guardian 's Caroline Sullivan regarded it as " deceptively sugary [ and ] trilling " and commented that it " does observe that some women ' tolerate too damn much ' , but it 's easily missed " . Karen Tye of The Advertiser was mixed and felt that Hilson " invokes " Knowles on " Breaking Point " , writing that she " needs to work on establishing her own distinct voice " . Negative reviews came from Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone , who named it as one of the album 's " failed attempts at pop crossover " , and IGN 's Chad Grischow , who viewed the ballad as " fed @-@ up " . Grischow criticized the production for " clumsily " attempting to mix Motown vocals with voice @-@ box guitars and organs .
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , " Breaking Point " debuted at number 87 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart in the issue dated September 25 , 2010 . The following week , it rose 15 positions to number 72 , and ultimately peaked at number 44 in the issue dated November 20 , 2010 . The song remained on the chart for a total of 18 weeks ; its last appearance was in the issue dated January 22 , 2011 . " Breaking Point " did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 , but reached number 17 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart in the issue dated November 27 , 2010 .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Breaking Point " was directed by Bryan Barber and shot on location in Atlanta , Georgia , in early @-@ September 2010 . Some scenes were shot on Auburn Avenue , a street in Atlanta . Director Barber noted the " Southern harmony " of the song , which he wanted to capture in the video . According to Hilson , her character in the clip realizes that she has reached her breaking point and attempts to get over what happened the night before by spending the day with her girlfriends . An unofficial version of the video originally leaked online on September 23 , 2010 , before the official edit premiered on October 4 on BET 's 106 & Park . It was later made available for download on the iTunes Store on October 6 , 2010 , in the United States .
The video begins with Hilson lounging in her bed . Upset by her partner , she walks over to the closet and rips down all of his clothes . The video then cuts to Hilson sitting in a chair at a beauty salon , where she gets a new haircut and dyes her hair from black to blonde . She later begins a choreographed routine with her girlfriends , who appear to also have been mistreated by their men . The women then march down Auburn Avenue before they head home to throw their men 's clothes off the balcony . The video received mixed to positive reviews . Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy was positive and called it a " beautifully shot portrait of a woman on the edge of a nervous breakdown " , and The Fader writer Julianne Escobedo Shepherd regarded it as an accurate representation of how women act when they are " wronged by dudes " . On the other hand , Robbie Daw of Idolator deemed it tiresome , calling it a " visual snoozefest " . He wrote , " [ Hilson ] goes to a salon , orders up Rihanna 's Rated R haircut and sasses men who are wrongin ' the ladies . Hey , girls — her love has a limit ! But so does our patience for this [ video ] . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital single
" Breaking Point " – 4 : 15
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at The Record Plant , Hollywood , California
Personnel
Credits are adapted from the No Boys Allowed booklet .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Fortezza of Rethymno =
The Fortezza ( Greek : Φορτέτζα , from Italian for " fortress " ) is the citadel of the city of Rethymno in Crete , Greece . It was built by the Venetians in the 16th century , and was captured by the Ottomans in 1646 . By the early 20th century , many houses were built within the citadel . These were demolished after World War II , leaving only a few historic buildings within the Fortezza . Today , the citadel is in good condition and is open to the public .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The Fortezza is built on a hill called Paleokastro ( meaning " Old Castle " ) , which was the site of ancient Rhithymna 's acropolis . Between the 10th and 13th centuries , the Byzantines established a fortified settlement to the east of the hill . It was called Castrum Rethemi , and it had square towers and two gates . The fortifications were repaired by Enrico Pescatore in the beginning of the 13th century . After Crete fell to the Republic of Venice , the settlement became known as the Castel Vecchio or Antico Castello , which both mean " old castle . "
Under Venetian rule , a small harbour was built in Rethymno , which became the third most important city on Crete after Heraklion and Chania . On 8 April 1540 , a line of fortifications began to be built around the city . The walls were designed by the architect Michele Sanmicheli , and were completed in around 1570 . These fortifications were not strong enough to withstand a large assault , and when Uluç Ali Reis attacked in 1571 , the Ottomans captured and sacked the city .
= = = Construction and later Venetian rule = = =
Following the fall of Cyprus to the Ottomans in 1571 , Crete became the largest remaining Venetian overseas possession . Since Rethymno had been sacked , it was decided that new fortifications needed to be built to protect the city and its harbour . The new fortress , which was built on the Paleokastro hill , was designed by the military engineer Sforza Pallavicini according to the Italian bastioned system .
Construction began on 13 September 1573 , and it was complete by 1580 . The fortress was built under the master builder Giannis Skordilis , and a total of 107 @,@ 142 Cretans and 40 @,@ 205 animals took part in its construction .
Although the original plan had been to demolish the old fortifications of Rethymno and move the inhabitants into the Fortezza , it was too small to house the entire city . The walls along the landward approach to the city were left intact , and the Fortezza became a citadel housing the Venetian administration of the city . It was only to be used by the inhabitants of the city in the case of an Ottoman invasion . Over the years , a number of modifications were made to the fortress . Nonetheless , it was never truly secure as it lacked a ditch and outworks , and the ramparts were rather low .
= = = Ottoman rule and recent history = = =
On 29 September 1646 , during the Fifth Ottoman – Venetian War , an Ottoman force besieged Rethymno , and the city 's population took refuge in the Fortezza . Conditions within the citadel deteriorated , due to disease and a lack of food and ammunition . The Venetians surrendered under favourable terms on 13 November .
The Ottomans did not make any major changes to the Fortezza , except the construction of a ravelin outside the main gate . They also built some houses for the garrison and the city 's administration , and they converted the cathedral into a mosque . The fort remained in use until the early 20th century .
By the early 20th century , many residential buildings were located in the Fortezza . Following the end of World War II , the city began to expand and many of the inhabitants moved elsewhere in the city . Rethymno 's landward fortifications and many houses within the Fortezza were demolished at this point , but the walls of the Fortezza were left intact . At one point , the local prison was housed within the Fortezza .
Large @-@ scale restoration work has been under way since the early 1990s . The Fortezza is managed by the Ministry of Culture and Sports , and it is open to the public . The Ottoman ravelin now houses the Archaeological Museum of Rethymno .
= = Layout = =
The Fortezza of Rethymno has an irregular plan , and its walls have a total length of 1 @,@ 307 m ( 4 @,@ 288 ft ) . The walls contain the following demi @-@ bastions :
St Nicolas Bastion – the demi @-@ bastion at the east end of the fortress . It contains a Venetian @-@ era building which was possibly originally a storehouse or laboratory .
St Paul Bastion – the demi @-@ bastion at the southeast end of the fortress . It is also known as Santa Maria Bastion .
St Elias Bastion – the demi @-@ bastion at the south end of the fortress . It contains the Erofyli open @-@ air theatre , which was opened in 1993 .
St Lucas Bastion – the demi @-@ bastion at the southwest end of the fortress .
The fort 's main gate is located on the east side , between St Nicolas and St Paul Bastions . It is protected by an Ottoman @-@ era ravelin , which now serves as the Archaeological Museum of Rethymno . Two smaller gates are located in the west and north sides of the fortress .
A number of buildings are located within the Fortezza , including :
the Mosque of Sultan Ibrahim , which was formerly the Cathedral of St Nicolas .
a building near the mosque , which was possibly the Bishop 's residence .
the House of the Rector , which was the residence of the governor of the province of Rethymno . Only its prisons have survived .
the Council Building , which housed part of the Venetian administration of Rethymno .
the churches of St Theodore and St Catherine , which were both built in the late 19th century .
The fortress also contains an armoury , two gunpowder magazines , storage rooms and several cisterns .
= Quién Dijo Ayer =
Quién Dijo Ayer ( English : Who Said Yesterday ) is a compilation album released by Guatemalan singer @-@ songwriter Ricardo Arjona on 21 August 2007 . Dan Warner and Lee Levin co @-@ produced the album with Arjona and Puerto Rican singer @-@ songwriter Tommy Torres . It was recorded in the United States , Mexico , Italy and Argentina , and is the last album Arjona released under the Sony Music Entertainment label before signing with Warner Music Group . It is Arjona 's first compilation to include new material in the form of re @-@ recorded versions of past hits in different musical genres from the original recordings , featuring guest artists such as Marc Anthony , Marta Sánchez and Mexican ska band Panteón Rococó , among others .
Critically and commercially successful , Quién Dijo Ayer topped the US Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart and reached number two on the Top Latin Albums chart . The album became a hit in Latin America , topping the Mexican albums chart and receiving gold and Platinum certifications in several countries including the United States . The album spawned two commercially successful singles , " Quién " , which reached number four on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , and " Quiero " , which reached number eight . Quién Dijo Ayer received in 2008 a nomination for the Latin Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Album and the Best Male Pop Vocal Album award at the Billboard Latin Music Awards .
= = Background = =
In a press conference , Arjona stated that " yesterday is the cumulus of this that put us here , which raised us and made us what we are , for good or bad . " He also said that Quién Dijo Ayer was more than a compilation , and that " it 's an album with all the features of the typical greatest hits disc . Several songs are the most popular , but others are the most important on other topics . We 've dressed them different . " Se Nos Muere El Amor " is now with piano and flauta , as an example . " He further stated that it was " an album that begun as an experiment , with a dose of informality , and suddenly , when I realized of what the producers were achieving with the songs I worked many years ago , the album finished as being very complicated . "
After spending the majority of his career signed to Sony , and later , Sony BMG , Arjona signed a long @-@ term recording deal with Warner Music Latina in September 2008 . Iñigo Zabala , chairman of Warner Music Latin America commented that " He 's an artist that fits perfectly with our company , " and that " We are a label that has a major catalog of songwriters and quality pop and rock from the likes of Maná , Alejandro Sanz , Laura Pausini , and now , Arjona . " This departure made Quien Dijo Ayer the last album the artist directly released on his former label , although Sony later released another album named Simplemente Lo Mejor .
= = Composition = =
For this compilation album , Arjona re @-@ recorded some of his older songs in a different style from the original versions , and remastered others . " Si El Norte Fuera El Sur " was transformed into a ska @-@ style song , which he performed with Panteón Rococó . Argentinian jazz musician Fernando Otero was featured on the new version of " Jesús , Verbo No Sustantivo " . " Historia De Taxi " was transformed into a salsa song , which Arjona performed with American singer Marc Anthony and pianist Sergio George ; George said , " It 's been interesting to work with two figures from different music worlds on the interest of making good music . " , and that " every time a reunion of this kind happens , it [ is ] a reason to celebrate . "
Arjona also re @-@ recorded " Realmente No Estoy Tan Solo " with singer Sandro ; it was last song recorded by Sandro , who died on 4 January 2010 . Arjona 's manager told Argentinian newspaper Clarín that " [ the singer ] had the idea of inviting Roberto [ Sandro ] for his album , he [ Sandro ] showed enthusiasm and manifested the same degree of appreciation to Arjona . It seemed to him that he [ Arjona ] was an artist who proclaims the same values he proclaimed . "
This album included three new songs . " Quién " was written by Arjona , who co @-@ produced it with Tommy Torres . It was released as the lead single from the album on 19 June 2007 . Arjona commented that " ' Quién ' is the world out of the window and the prison built by ourselves . It 's the freedom to choose the path or to prefer loneliness as an argument of nostalgia . ' Quién ' is a story with the hurry of the desperate , is the flashback of those who end up loving alone . " " Quiero " , also written by Arjona , was released as the second single in November 2007 . Website ADN Mundo called the song bohemian and hippie , and that it was " a love story that doesn 't speak about love , but instead about the recent events on the world we live [ in ] and finally comes to the search of an individual who challenges nostalgia finding entertainment on the impossible . " In 2009 , " Quiero " was awarded the Pop / Ballad Songs of the Year award by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers . The third new song on the album was " Espantapájaros " , which was written by Arjona and Miguel Luna .
= = Release and promotion = =
Quién Dijo Ayer was released in most markets as a two @-@ disc compilation album . The first disc contains sixteen songs , of which thirteen are new versions of Arjona 's past hits . On this disc appears the duets with Panteón Rococó on " Si El Norte Fuera El Sur " ; Marc Anthony on " Historia de Taxi " ; Marta Sanchez on " Tarde ( Sin Daños A Terceros ) " ; Eros Ramazzoti on " A Ti " and Sandro de América on " Realmente No Estoy Tan Solo " . This disc also contains the new songs " Quién " , " Quiero " and " Espantapájaros " . The second disc contains the same songs as the first disc but in their original versions , remastered . In Canada , Germany , Brazil and Mexico , a digital special edition was released that features only six songs on the second digital disc instead of 13 . The songs included on the second disc on this version were " Se Nos Muere El Amor " , " Dime Que No " , " Si El Norte Fuera El Sur " , " A Ti " , " Tu Reputación " and " Cuando " . This Brazilian version featured a different cover art . The album was also released as a single disc version with only the new versions and songs . Also , in Mexico , two physical single @-@ disc versions of the album were released . The first includes the first single from Quinto Piso , " Como Duele " as a bonus track . This version was also released in Spain . The second version does not include " Espantapájaros " or " Realmente No Estoy Tan Solo " ; it also includes " Como Duele " as a bonus track .
= = = Singles = = =
The first single released from the album was " Quién " , a Latin pop song written by Arjona and produced by Tommy Torres and Los Gringos . The song charted on the Billboard Latin Songs at number twenty @-@ one , and reached its peak the week ending 25 August 2007 . The song was more successful on the Latin Pop Songs chart , where it reached number four . The music video for " Quién " was filmed in Las Vegas , Nevada . The second single released was " Quiero " , which reached number twelve on the Billboard Latin Songs chart , and number eight on the Latin Pop Songs component chart . " Quiero " was very popular in Central American countries like Honduras , Nicaragua and Panamá . The music video for " Quiero " was filmed in the Dominican Republic and premiered in November 2007 .
= = Reception = =
Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic gave a positive review of the album , and commented that , " while only a couple of the new versions depart stylistically from the originals , the contemporary productions breathe new life into these songs , which should be well known by longtime fans . " Quién Dijo Ayer was Arjona 's second album after Galería Caribe to reach number one on the Latin Pop Albums chart ; it reached its peak in the week ending 8 September 2007 . On the Latin Albums chart , Quién Dijo Ayer debuted at number two . The album was commercially successful in Latin America , and was certified Gold in Venezuela , Uruguay , Colombia , Chile , and Peru ; and Platinum in Argentina , Mexico and the United States .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Digital Edition = = =
All songs written and composed by Ricardo Arjona .
= = = Standard Edition = = =
The standard physical release of the album contains 2 discs with the following tracklist .
= = = Special Edition = = =
The Special Edition does not include " La Novia Que Nunca Tuve " , which is at No.9 on the Digital Edition .
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = Release history = =
= Romances ( Luis Miguel album ) =
Romances is the twelfth studio album by Mexican singer Luis Miguel , released on 12 August 1997 , by Warner Music Latina . It is the third album of the Romance series , in which Miguel covers Latin songs from 1940 to 1978 . Aside from Miguel , the production also involved arranger Bebu Silvetti , and Armando Manzanero , who directed all of Miguel 's Romance albums . Romances consists of twelve cover versions and two new compositions by Manzanero and Silvetti . Recording took place in early 1997 at the Ocean Way recording studio in Los Angeles , California .
Romances has sold over 4 @.@ 5 million copies and received platinum certifications in several Latin American countries , the United States and Spain . Miguel promoted the album by touring the United States , Latin America and Spain . The album was generally well received by critics , who praised Miguel 's vocals as well as the song selection . The album earned Miguel several awards , including a Grammy Award in the United States . Six singles were released : " Por Debajo de la Mesa " , " El Reloj " , " Contigo ( Estar Contigo ) " , " De Quererte Así ( De T 'Avoir Aimee ) " , " Bésame Mucho " , and " Sabor a Mí " .
= = Background = =
In 1991 Miguel released Romance , a collection of classic Latin ballads , the oldest of which dates back to the 1940s . The album was produced by Armando Manzanero and arranged by Bebu Silvetti , and was credited for revitalizing the bolero genre . It also made history as the first Spanish @-@ language album to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in the United States . A follow @-@ up to Romance was released in 1994 under the title Segundo Romance ( Second Romance ) , which was produced by Miguel , Juan Carlos Calderón and Kiko Cibrian . Both albums received a platinum certification by the RIAA in the United States and also became successful in countries outside of Latin America and the United States , such as Finland and Saudi Arabia , selling over twelve million copies combined .
In December 1996 Miguel held a press conference in Buenos Aires , Argentina , where he announced his desire to record a third Romance album and mentioned the possibility of working with Manzanero and Juan Gabriel . He also expressed an interest in singing in Italian and Portuguese , although the album 's songs are originally all in Spanish . Two months later Manzanero confirmed that he was working with Miguel on another bolero @-@ inspired ballads album , under the tentative title Tercer Romance ( " Third Romance " ) . Miguel 's record label confirmed that fourteen tracks would be included on the album under the title Romances .
= = Recording and production = =
Miguel collaborated with Silvetti for the arrangement of Romances , while Manzanero was in charge of direction . Recording began on 18 March 1997 , at Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood and at The Hit Factory in New York City . During the recording of Romances , as in Romance , Silvetti employed his signature style of arrangements known as the " Silvetti Sound " , which Leila Cobo of Billboard describes as " anchored in sweeping melodies , lush string arrangements , acoustic instrumentation , and above all , unabashed romanticism " . Silvetti has stated that when he produces an album he does not simply copy his own arrangements , because he feels that would be " ridiculous " , and prefers to be creative within his own style . About the selection of songs for the album , Manzanero stated that " I give [ Miguel ] the songs , and he chooses what he wants to record . " Participants in the recording sessions included sixty @-@ one musicians from the Los Angeles Philharmonic .
Miguel covers twelve Latin ballads in Romances , including songs by José Antonio Méndez , Carlos Arturo Briz , Consuelo Velázquez Álvaro Carrillo , Roberto Cantoral , María Grever , Enrique Santos Discépolo , Agustín Lara , and Luiz Bonfá . The latter composer wrote the song " Manhã de Carnaval " ( " Morning of Carnival " ) in Portuguese , later translated into Spanish by Jesus Maria Arozamena Bersategui as " Canción de Orfeo " ( " Orpheus ' Song " ) . " De Quererte Así " ( " If I Love You Like This " ) is a French song ( " De T 'Avoir Aimée " ) , originally performed and written by Charles Aznavour , which was translated into Spanish by Alex Marcoriginates . Miguel had covered some of the aforementioned composers ' songs on his previous Romance albums . Miguel covers Manazero 's songs " Voy a Apagar la Luz / Contigo Aprendí " ( " I Am Going To Turn Off The Lights / With You I Learned " ) and " Amanecer " ( " To Be Awake " ) . The two original compositions were " Por Debajo de la Mesa " ( " Underneath the Table " ) by Manzanero and " Contigo ( Estar Contigo ) " ( " To Be With You " ) by Bebu Silvetti and Sylvia Riera Ibáñez .
= = Commercial reception = =
= = = Album = = =
The album was released on 12 August 1997 , in the United States and , by the week of 23 August 1997 , it debuted at number two on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart . A week later it became number one , which it has been for a total of eleven non @-@ consecutive weeks . Romances was even more successful in the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart , having been number one for 13 weeks . On the Billboard 200 chart it peaked at number fourteen , with sales of over 57 @,@ 000 units within the first week — a record at that time for a Spanish @-@ language album . It was also Miguel 's highest @-@ peaking album in the Billboard 200 until the release of Cómplices in 2008 , which peaked at number ten . It was the second best @-@ selling Latin album in the United States during 1997 , after Tango by Julio Iglesias . By October 1997 it had sold over a million copies in Mexico and was certified quadruple platinum in the country , as well as across Central America . A year after release it received a platinum certification in the United States by the RIAA . In Argentina it reached number one on the CAPIF albums chart and was the best @-@ selling album of 1997 in the country , with sales of approximately 781 @,@ 000 copies . In Spain the album reached number one on the PROMUSICAE chart and was certified octuple platinum , selling over 800 @,@ 000 copies . In South America the album was certified gold in Brazil , Platinum in Ecuador and Peru , double platinum in Colombia and Paraguay , sextuple platinum in Venezuela , octuple platinum in Chile , and diamond in Argentina . According to the Guinness World Records Romances was the best @-@ selling Spanish @-@ language album of 1997 . A DVD @-@ Audio for the album was released in 2001 . Over 4 @.@ 5 million copies of the album were sold , as of 1999 .
= = = Singles = = =
" Por Debajo de la Mesa " was released as the lead single from the album . The single was released for radio airplay on 15 July 1997 , and reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart two months later ; it would spend twenty @-@ six weeks on the chart . A music video was made for the song . The second single released , " El Reloj " ( " The Clock " ) , reached number two on the Hot Latin Songs chart , as did the third single , " Contigo ( Estar Contigo " ) . " De Quererte Así ( De T 'Avoir Aimee ) " peaked at number twenty @-@ three on the Hot Latin Songs chart , while " Sabor a Mí " ( " Taste From Me " ) peaked at number six after its release . " Bésame Mucho " ( " Kiss Me More " ) reached number one on the Mexican singles chart and was the among top ten best @-@ performing songs of 1998 in Venezuela according to Record Report .
= = Promotion = =
Miguel launched his Romances Tour , consisting of 84 concerts , in Las Vegas , Nevada , on 12 September 1997 . The performances featured Miguel performing dance @-@ pop and bolero arrangements for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours . Adam Sandler of Variety expressed a mixed reaction to the concert in the Universal Amphitheatre in Los Angeles . He noted that Miguel rarely acknowledged his audience or ventured out from center stage . Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times had a more positive reaction , which he described as a " marvelously designed and wonderfully executed blend of Latin music tradition " . Another Times contributor , Ernesto Lechner , wrote that Miguel 's bolero performance at the Arrowhead Pond arena in California " brought the house down " and stated that the experience at the concert was " pretty close " to Beatlemania . In New York City , Miguel performed five consecutive shows in the Radio City Music Hall . In Mexico City he performed seventeen consecutive concerts in the National Auditorium , where it was the highest @-@ grossing concert by a Latin artist that year . The tour also traveled to South America ; including Chile , and Argentina ; and continued until May 1998 , when Miguel performed throughout Spain . Miguel was the first Latin artist to be inducted to the Pollstar " Top 20 All @-@ Time Grossing Tours " for most tickets sold for consecutive concerts at one venue in 1997 .
= = Critical reception and awards = =
Romances was generally well received by critics , who praised Miguel 's tenor voice and the album 's selection of songs . Terry Jenkins of AllMusic praised the collaborative work of Silvetti and Manzanero and called Romances " a sensuous , enchanting album " . Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune called Miguel 's voice the album 's strong point and noted the " presence of electronic instruments and the darker , more somber mood " . On the other hand , she felt that Miguel was beginning " to slip " , citing the tracks " Jurame " and " Por Debajo de la Mesa " as examples . Los Angeles Times editor Ernesto Lecnher gave the album one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars and claimed that Romances " sinks under its own weight , delivering mostly bloated versions of timeless material " . Fellow Los Angeles Times contributor Ed Morales disagreed with his review and wrote that " Lechner needs to go into his music room , turn down the lights , snuggle up with his significant other and really listen to ' Romances . ' I give his review * and ' Romances ' * * * * " . Anne Valdespino of the Los Angeles Daily News praised the selection of songs and Miguel 's performance , calling the performer a " class act " .
At the 40th Grammy Awards , Miguel received the award for Best Latin Pop Performance . Miguel also received a Billboard Latin Music Award for " Male Pop Album of the Year " and a World Music Award for " Best Selling Latin Artist " . Miguel received a Premio Amigo and Premio Onda for " Best Latin Singer of the Year " in Spain , and the album was nominated for a Premio Amigo for " Best Latin Album " . Armando Manzanero received a Broadcast Music Incorporated award for his work on " Por Debajo de la Mesa " .
= = Legacy = =
Warner Music released a three @-@ disc compilation album titled Todos Los Romances ( " All The Romances " ) in 1998 , which contains all the tracks from Miguel 's Romance albums . The album peaked at number twelve in the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart and at number six in the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart . It was certified gold in Argentina . Romances was followed by one more bolero album , Mis Romances ( 2001 ) which was produced by Miguel .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from AllMusic and from the Romances liner notes :
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Deddington Castle =
Deddington Castle was a medieval fortification in the village of Deddington , Oxfordshire . It was built on a wealthy former Anglo @-@ Saxon estate by Bishop Odo of Bayeux following the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . Odo constructed a large castle with two earthwork baileys and a central motte , intending that the castle administer his property in the region and provide a substantial military base in the event of an Anglo @-@ Saxon revolt . Odo 's estates in England were seized following a failed rebellion against William II in 1088 , and Deddington Castle was taken back into royal control . The Anglo @-@ Norman lord William de Chesney acquired the castle in the 12th century and rebuilt it in stone , raising a stone curtain wall around a new inner bailey , complete with a defensive tower , gatehouse and domestic buildings .
After de Chesney 's death , his descendants fought for control of the castle in the royal courts , and it was temporarily seized several times by King John at the start of the 13th century . Deddington Castle was confirmed in the ownership of the de Dive family , who held it for the next century and a half . In 1281 , the castle was stormed by a group of men who broke down the doors , and in 1312 the royal favourite Piers Gaveston may have been captured at the castle by his enemies , shortly before his execution . From the 13th century onward , Deddington Castle fell into disrepair , and contemporaries soon described it as " demolished " and " weak " . It was bought by the Canons of Windsor in 1364 , who began to sell off its stonework . The remains of the castle were reportedly used by both Royalist and Parliamentary forces during the English Civil War in the 17th century .
In the 19th century Deddington Castle was adapted for use as a sporting facility by the local gentry . It was sold to Deddington 's parish council , who attempted to build tennis courts in the inner bailey in 1947 . Following the discovery of medieval remains and a subsequent archaeological investigation , these plans were abandoned and the western half of the castle became a local park . In the 21st century , English Heritage manage the inner bailey , the eastern half remaining in use for farming , and the site as a whole is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument .
= = History = =
= = = 11th century = = =
Deddington Castle was built by Bishop Odo of Bayeux in the village of Deddington , shortly after the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . Deddington was then one of the largest settlements in the county of Oxfordshire , and the site of the castle had been previously occupied by the Anglo @-@ Saxons , who may have used the location to administer one of their landed estates . Odo was the half @-@ brother of William the Conqueror , who granted the bishop vast lands in England after the invasion , spread across 22 different counties . Deddington was one of the richest of Odo 's new manors and was at the centre of his Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire estates . The castle was probably built to act as the caput , or administrative centre , of his lands in the region , and may have also been intended to quarter a large military force in the event of an Anglo @-@ Saxon revolt .
The castle was positioned on the east side of the main part of the settlement at the time , at the opposite end of the village to the church , on a spur overlooking a nearby stream . Odo erected earthworks to enclose two large baileys of around 3 @.@ 4 hectares ( 8 @.@ 4 acres ) each , with a large raised motte positioned in between . The western bailey was around 170 metres ( 560 ft ) by 240 metres ( 790 ft ) , protected by a bank of earth 5 metres ( 16 ft ) tall from the base of the 15 metres ( 49 ft ) wide ditch . The top of the earthworks formed a rampart 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) across . The western bailey had an entrance on the west side and in the north @-@ east corner . The eastern bailey stretched down the hill to the stream , and may have held two fishponds . Another fishpond called " the Fishers " , further along the stream to the south @-@ east of the castle , was also probably linked to the castle site . Around this time , an " L " -shaped stone hall was constructed near the motte , in the western bailey .
The castle 's layout was unusual for the region during this period , where the fortifications built by the Normans were typically smaller ringwork designs , and it highlighted both the strategic importance of the location and the power of its builder . In scale and design it was similar to the initial version of Rochester Castle , another major fortification built by Odo in England .
Odo unsuccessfully rebelled against William II in 1088 and in the aftermath was stripped of his lands . His manors across Oxfordshire were taken back into royal control and broken up to be granted to sub @-@ tenants , although it is unclear who was initially granted Deddington Castle ; it is possible that the powerful Anglo @-@ Norman baron Robert de Beaumont , the Earl of Leicester , controlled it in 1130 .
= = = 1100 – 1215 = = =
In the early 12th century , additional earthworks were thrown up to divide the western half of the castle into an outer bailey of around 3 hectares ( 7 @.@ 4 acres ) and an inner bailey on the east end , comprising around 0 @.@ 4 hectares ( 0 @.@ 99 acres ) . The earthworks pushed up against the older hall , and partially buried its western walls . It is uncertain exactly why the new earthworks were constructed , but it may have been to strengthen the fortification in response to either the threatened invasion of Duke Robert of Normandy in 1101 , or alternatively to the sinking of the White Ship and the subsequent dynastic crisis in 1120 .
By 1157 , the castle was owned by William de Chesney , an Anglo @-@ Norman lord who had supported King Stephen in the region during the civil war of the Anarchy , and then Henry II after the peace in 1154 . William rebuilt much of the castle , constructing a strong stone curtain wall around the inner bailey , 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) thick and made from mortared ironstone rubble . The wall was cut through the motte , the inner part of the mound being dug away to make room for the wall .
William also began to reconstruct the inside of the inner bailey , a programme of work that was continued by his descendants over the next few decades . The work included a chapel , a hall and solar , and various service buildings . An open @-@ backed square tower was built in stone along the wall on top of the motte ; this tower was later rebuilt , possibly because of pressure on it from the motte earthworks , and the top of the motte was relaid with flagstones to form pathways around the top . A stone gatehouse was built on the west side of the wall , leading from the outer bailey .
William died between 1172 and 1176 , and the castle was then granted the Crown to Ralph Murdac , William 's nephew and a favoured supporter of Henry II . Ralph was unpopular , however , with Henry 's successor , Richard I , and Ralph 's relatives Guy de Dive and Matilda de Chesney took the opportunity to sue him in the royal courts , each claiming a third of William 's estate . The lands around the castle were granted to Guy and , renamed the " Castle Manor " , remained in his family line until the mid @-@ 14th century . When King John took the throne , however , he seems to have seized Deddington . The manor was not returned to Guy until 1204 ; furthermore , Deddington Castle was excluded from this agreement and retained in royal control until the following year . On Guy 's death in 1214 , John again took the castle back into royal control , where it remained until the King 's own death the following year .
= = = 1215 – 18th century = = =
Both the village and the castle of Deddington fell into decline during the 13th century . Although the village had grown to become a borough , with new , planned streets spreading westwards away from the castle , it was eclipsed economically by the nearby , newer centre of Banbury . The castles in the Thames Valley region that lacked substantial defences were mostly abandoned during this period and Deddington Castle was no exception . By 1277 contemporaries described it as " an old demolished castle " . In 1281 , Robert of Aston and a group of men were able to break down the doors to the castle and enter it . The castle was considered to be " weak " in a report of 1310 and no further repairs were carried out on the property after this time .
In 1312 , the royal favourite Piers Gaveston , may have been captured at Deddington Castle . Gaveston was a close friend of Edward II but he had many enemies among the major barons , and had surrendered to them on the promise that he would be unharmed . He was taken south by Aymer de Valence , the Earl of Pembroke , who imprisoned Gaveston at Deddington on 9 June while he left to visit his wife . Gaveston is often stated to have been kept in Deddington Castle , although he may have alternatively been lodged in the rectory house in the village . Guy de Beauchamp , the Earl of Warwick , had a particular dislike of Gaveston and the next morning took the opportunity to seize him and take him back to Warwick Castle , where Gaveston was subsequently tried and killed by his enemies .
During the 14th century the interior of the castle continued to be inhabited , but in a manner that archaeologist Richard Ivens likens to " squatting " : the upper levels of the tower were abandoned and wood burnt along the inside of the walls in a crude fireplace . In 1364 , the Canons of Windsor bought the castle , park and former fishponds from Thomas de Dive ; the Canons rented the farmlands out , but retained the right to operate and profit from the castle 's manorial court . The tower was demolished around this time , possibly linked to the sale of stonework from the castle walls in 1377 to the Canons of Bicester . By the 16th century , the visiting antiquarian John Leland only noted that " there hath bene a castle at Dadintone " .
The village of Deddington was extensively involved in the English Civil War between 1641 and 1645 , owing to its location on the route between Banbury and Oxford . The late 19th @-@ century historian James Mackenzie recorded that the castle was used as a temporary fortress by both Royalist and Parliamentary forces during the conflict and that a Royalist garrison was besieged there by Parliamentary troops in 1644 . During the 17th and 18th centuries , the castle site was used for grazing animals and timber farming .
= = = 19th - 21st centuries = = =
In the 19th century , the castle site was used as club by the local gentry for recreation , including cricket and archery . A small lodge was built at the entrance to house a professional coach , and a " pavilion building " - a combination of a ballroom and a cafe - was built within the grounds . In 1886 , the ownership of the site passed from the Canons of Windsor to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners of the Church of England . The pavilion was demolished at the start of the 20th century . Stonework continued to be taken from the remains of the castle up until the 1940s , for use in local buildings .
The castle site was then sold by the Commissioners to Deddington 's parish council . The parish council intended to build tennis courts in the inner bailey of the castle in 1947 but , when work began , medieval pottery and roof tiles began to be unearthed by the builders . Construction work was halted and the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford sponsored an archaeological investigation by Edward Jope and Richard Threlfall that continued until 1953 . The plans for the tennis courts were dropped in light of the findings , and the site was instead used as a park . A further phase of archaeological investigation of the castle was carried out between 1977 and 1979 , sponsored by the Queen 's University Belfast and led by Richard Ivens .
In the 21st century , only the earthworks of the castle remain . The western bailey is managed by the parish council and the inner bailey by English Heritage , while the eastern bailey remains under cultivation . The site is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument .
= 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was an infantry support unit of the all @-@ volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force that was raised for service overseas during the Second World War . Formed in mid @-@ 1940 in Sydney , from personnel drawn from the states of Queensland and New South Wales , the battalion was allocated to the Australian 9th Division . After completing training in Australia , the battalion operated in the Middle East between early 1941 and early 1943 , seeing action against German and Italian forces at the First and Second Battles of El Alamein , and undertaking garrison duties in Syria as part of the Allied garrison that was established there after the Syria – Lebanon campaign .
In early 1943 , the 2 / 2nd was brought back to Australia to fight several campaigns against the Japanese . The first of these came in September 1943 when the battalion landed east of Lae in New Guinea and then took part in the advance to secure the town , which fell within a fortnight . This was followed by fighting on the Huon Peninsula , which saw the battalion undertake an amphibious landing at Scarlet Beach and then take part in actions around Finschhafen , Sattelberg and Sio until it was withdrawn back to Australia in early 1944 . In mid @-@ 1945 , the machine gunners from the 2 / 2nd supported landings on Tarakan , Labuan and Brunei Bay as part of Allied efforts to recapture Borneo . After the war , the battalion was disbanded in February 1946 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and training = = =
The 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was one of four machine gun battalions that were raised as part of the all @-@ volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) for service overseas during the Second World War . Motorised infantry units , equipped with wheeled motor vehicles , motor cycles and sometimes tracked carriers , the machine gun battalions were formed to provide a greater level of support by fire than that which was organically available within ordinary infantry battalions .
Developed by the British Army , the concept within the Australian Army had its genesis during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 , when the machine guns assigned to the infantry battalions – initially two and then , later , four – had been grouped together and co @-@ ordinated at brigade level to help compensate for the lack of artillery support . Over the course of the war , on the Western Front the concept had evolved through the establishment of machine gun companies in 1916 and machine gun battalions in 1918 . Similar formations had also been established amongst the Australian Light Horse units serving in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . During the inter @-@ war years , the machine gun battalions had been deemed unnecessary . When the Army was reorganised in 1921 , they were not re @-@ raised , but in 1937 , as the Army looked to expand as fears of war in Europe loomed , four such units were raised within the part @-@ time Militia , by converting light horse units and motorising them . When the Second World War broke out , the decision was made to raise several machine gun battalions within the 2nd AIF , allocated at a rate of one per division .
The 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was formed on 2 May 1940 , in Sydney , New South Wales . Upon formation , the battalion was assigned to the 7th Division , the 2nd AIF 's second division – there were also five infantry divisions as part of the Militia at this time – and its personnel were recruited from two Australian states : Queensland and New South Wales , with many having served previously in the Militia with various light horse regiments and infantry battalions . The battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel David Whitehead , who had previously commanded the 1st Light Horse ( Machine Gun ) Regiment ( Royal New South Wales Lancers ) . The nucleus of its trained personnel were also drawn from this regiment , as well as several Queensland @-@ based Militia units . The colours chosen for the battalion 's Unit Colour Patch ( UCP ) were gold and black , in a triangular shape with a border of grey ; this was later changed , though , following the unit 's involvement in the fighting at Tobruk , when it adopted a ' T ' -shaped UCP .
Because of the geographic dislocation of its recruits , basic training was undertaken separately with Queenslanders completing their induction at Redbank in the Greater Brisbane area and New South Welshmen undertaking theirs at Ingleburn and then Cowra in the New South Wales Central Tablelands , before the battalion finally concentrated at Pyrmont in New South Wales , in late 1940 . At this point , the unit 's establishment was completed , as the battalion structure was finalised . It was structured along the same lines as the other 2nd AIF machine gun battalions , which consisted of between 800 and 900 personnel organised into a headquarters element consisting of three platoons – signals , anti @-@ aircraft and administration – and four machine gun companies , each equipped with 12 Vickers machine guns , to make a total of 48 across the entire battalion . Within the machine gun companies there were three platoons ; normally these were numbered sequentially starting from 1 to 3 in Headquarters Company through to 13 to 15 in ' D ' Company ; however , the 2 / 2nd differed from other Australian machine gun battalions , designating its platoons alphanumerically : A1 , A2 , A3 through to D1 , D2 , and D3 . A Light Aid Detachment of electrical and mechanical engineers was also attached . After a period of further training , the battalion was ready to deploy overseas , and in February 1941 , the unit embarked for the Middle East , departing from Sydney aboard the transport Aquitania .
= = = Service in the Middle East = = =
After arriving in the Middle East , the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion conducted more training in Palestine until April 1941 when it was transported to Mersa Matruh , where the battalion began a year @-@ long period serving in the garrison role . Towards the end of this period – January 1942 – the battalion was reassigned to the 9th Division and moved to Syria where it undertook further garrison duty as part of the Allied occupation force that had been established after the Syria – Lebanon campaign to defend against a possible German attack across the Caucasus Mountains . This came to an end in late June 1942 when the 9th was rushed to El Alamein to help establish a hasty defence line .
Throughout July , the battalion 's companies were detached to support individual Australian brigades during the First Battle of El Alamein as the Allied forces – which had , since the beginning of the year , been steadily pushed back by the German and Italian forces – fought desperately to stop the German advance east towards Cairo . Supporting the infantry battalions fighting around Tel el Eisa in early July , several of the battalion 's crews played significant roles in turning back attacks on the Australian positions , and in concert with divisional artillery were reported to have inflicted heavy casualties upon the German and Italian soldiers . Later , in the middle of the month , they supported an attack by the 2 / 32nd Infantry Battalion , now commanded by the 2 / 2nd 's old commander , Whitehead , around Makh Khad Ridge to the right of the Qattara Track . By the end of the month the offensive had come to a halt and during the lull that followed the battalion provided defensive fire from depth positions . In October , it joined the second Allied counter @-@ attack that was launched during the Second Battle of El Alamein . During these battles , the battalion was heavily engaged , with a company supporting a composite force under Whitehead , and another operating in support of the 24th Brigade . Its casualties amounted to 21 killed , 128 wounded and 26 captured .
At the conclusion of the El Alamein fighting , the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was withdrawn to Gaza in early December , remaining there with the rest of the 9th Division until embarking on the Queen Mary for Australia in late January 1943 , as part of the final withdrawal of Australian ground units from the Middle East to the Pacific to fight the Japanese .
= = = Fighting in New Guinea and Borneo = = =
Upon their return , a period of leave followed after which the battalion was re @-@ constituted on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland in April 1943 . The battalion was subsequently retrained , re @-@ equipped and reorganised to prepare it for the rigours of jungle warfare and throughout this time several drafts of reinforcements were received . These were mainly drawn from the states of South Australia and Western Australia , which changed the demographics of the battalion 's personnel . Some personnel were also drawn from Europeans who had been living in New Guinea . Finally , the battalion received orders to deploy to the territory of Papua , and in August 1943 the 2 / 2nd arrived at Milne Bay , which had been developed into a large Allied base after the fighting there the previous year . After a month of garrison duties and work parties , the battalion was committed to the final actions of the Salamaua – Lae campaign . In early September 1943 , it took part in the landing at Lae , as the 9th and 7th Divisions rushed to secure the town . During the 9th 's landing east of the town , the battalion suffered 29 casualties in a single Japanese air attack , but overall the battalion 's involvement in the advance resulted in only limited casualties as its personnel were mainly used to unload stores and equipment , as well providing local defence .
Lae fell sooner than anticipated and the Allies moved quickly to consolidate , dispatching the 9th Division to secure the Huon Peninsula in late September . During the initial landing at Scarlet Beach , only one company from the 2 / 2nd was deployed – ' C ' Company – in support of the 20th Brigade . Initially , the company was responsible for defending the beachhead around Scarlet Beach , but as the Australians fanned out and advanced south where Japanese resistance intensified , the machine gunners began patrolling operations further afield to the north and west . Once Finschhafen had been secured in early October , the Australians increased the size of their force ashore , landing the 24th Brigade , and along with it , the rest of the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion . After this , the battalion formed the main part of the divisional reserve , carrying out labouring tasks and maintaining a mobile reserve to counter @-@ attack if necessary . In November , as the 26th Brigade attacked Sattelberg , the machine guns of ' B ' Company were used in an offensive role for the first time during the campaign . Following the fall of Sattelberg , elements of the battalion supported the advance to Wareo before supporting the subsequent advance to Sio as the Australians followed up the retreating Japanese . During December , ' A ' Company was detached in support of the Militia 4th Brigade , before the 20th Brigade resumed the lead , marching on to Sio in mid @-@ January 1944 . The battalion remained in New Guinea until late February , unloading ships , before embarking upon the transport Seasnipe on 25 February as the 9th Division were relieved by the 5th and withdrawn to Australia for rest and reorganisation . After a short voyage , the 2 / 2nd disembarked in Brisbane in early March 1944 . Total casualties sustained by the battalion in New Guinea were 12 dead and 53 wounded .
A long period of relative inactivity subsequently followed as a result of inter @-@ Allied service politics which saw the US Army assume primacy of operations in the Pacific , and indecision about the future role of Australian forces in the Pacific campaign . During this time , the battalion was based around Ravenshoe in Queensland , and was virtually rebuilt , having fallen to a strength of just over 250 personnel due to the effects of tropical diseases and losses suffered during the previous campaign . The battalion was transferred to the " tropical war establishment " during this period as part of an Army @-@ wide reorganisation intended to optimise units for jungle warfare . As a result of this change , the battalion was no longer considered a motorised unit with its guns largely being carried across the battlefield by soldiers moving on foot . It was mostly a notional change as the battalion had lost the majority of its vehicles when the machine gunners had embarked from the Middle East earlier the previous year when the 9th Division had returned most of its equipment to the British . A small number of vehicles had been allocated to the battalion for its previous campaign in New Guinea , amounting to just six jeeps and two five @-@ tonne 6 x 6 GMC tractors . This had proven insufficient to maintain supplies , though , and so with the re @-@ organisation this was increased so that each company headquarters had two jeeps , with another four equipped with trailers being provided to each machine gun company for resupply . This represented a total of 19 jeeps and trailers across the whole battalion .
After over a year , the battalion was committed to its final campaign of the war , transiting through Morotai Island as it joined the fighting on Borneo . ' D ' Company supported the 26th Brigade during its assault on Tarakan Island in May , while the rest of the battalion supported the landings on Labuan Island and around Brunei Bay during the Battle of North Borneo . It was a short , but sharp campaign . During this time , in addition to their normal close support role , the machine gunners were often used as infantry , conducting extensive patrolling in search of Japanese stragglers which resulted in a number of clashes , as well as conducting defensive tasks against infiltrators and raiding parties . In North Borneo , a number of members of the battalion were also used to assist with the operation of a narrow gauge railway which had been brought back into service to maintain the Australian supply line . In early August , the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagaskai brought the war to an end . The battalion 's casualties during the campaign in Borneo totaled five dead and six wounded , while casualties on Tarakan amounted to five soldiers killed or wounded .
= = = Disbandment = = =
In late August the 2 / 2nd was concentrated on the island of Labuan where it was tasked with setting up and running a reception camp for released Allied prisoners of war and internees prior to their repatriation , doing so until late December when the camp was finally closed . Meanwhile , following the conclusion of hostilities , the battalion 's personnel were slowly transferred to other units or repatriated back to Australia for demobilisation . In January 1946 , the 2 / 2nd 's remaining personnel returned to Australia and the following month , on 26 February , the unit was disbanded . Throughout the course of the war , a total of 1 @,@ 824 personnel served within the unit . One member , the author Eric Lambert , based some of the content in his works , including The Twenty Thousand Thieves , on the events he witnessed while serving with the battalion . The battalion lost 67 men killed or died on active service , while a further 193 were wounded and 28 were captured . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : two Distinguished Service Orders , one Military Cross , one Distinguished Conduct Medal , five Military Medals and 20 Mentions in Despatches .
After the war , the Australian Army moved away from the machine gun battalion construct and consequently no similar units have been raised since , with the role being subsumed into the support companies of individual infantry battalions . The concept was arguably misunderstood by Australian commanders throughout the war , and this may have influenced the decision to move away from the concept . When the units had been established , the intent had been that the machine gun battalions would provide highly mobile fire support ; however , this was largely only applicable in theatres where principles of open warfare could be applied . Once the focus of Australian Army combat operations shifted to the Pacific , the machine gun battalions were largely misused , being employed in a static defensive capacity against short and medium range targets , or for menial tasks , rather than as offensive fire support weapons that could have been employed to provide long range fire support . The medium machine guns were also largely utilised in the same manner as light machine guns , such as the Bren . Other reasons identified for the concept 's limited use include distrust of overhead fire by some commanders , a preference for organic fire support over attached sub @-@ units , over @-@ estimating the difficulty of transporting Vickers guns in the jungle , and a tendency to ignore targets that could not be seen . The difficulties of target acquisition in dense jungle also contributed .
= = Commanding officers = =
The 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was commanded by the following officers :
Lieutenant Colonel David Whitehead ( 1940 – 42 )
Lieutenant Colonel Edward Macarthur @-@ Onslow ( 1942 – 45 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Searle ( 1945 ) .
= = Battle honours = =
The 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion was awarded the following battle honours :
North Africa 1941 – 42 ; Defence of Alamein Line ; Ruweisat Ridge ; Sanyet el Miteirya ; El Alamein ; South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 ; Lae – Nadzab ; Finschhafen ; Sattelberg ; Borneo ; Brunei and Labuan .
= German submarine U @-@ 853 =
German submarine U @-@ 853 was a Type IXC / 40 U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . Her keel was laid down on 21 August 1942 by DeSchiMAG AG Weser of Bremen . She was commissioned on 25 June 1943 with Kapitänleutnant Helmut Sommer in command . U @-@ 853 saw action during the Battle of the Atlantic in World War II . She conducted three patrols , sinking two ships totalling 5 @,@ 783 tons .
On her final patrol , U @-@ 853 was sent to harass United States coastal shipping . She destroyed USS Eagle Boat 56 near Portland , Maine . Just days before Germany 's surrender , U @-@ 853 torpedoed and sank the collier Black Point during the Battle of Point Judith . American warships quickly found U @-@ 853 and sank her 7 nmi ( 13 km ; 8 @.@ 1 mi ) east of Block Island , Rhode Island , resulting in the loss of her entire crew .
U @-@ 853 is a popular deep sea diving site . She rests in 121 feet ( 37 m ) of water . Holes in the hull permit access to the interior of the submarine , though it is a war grave with most of the 55 crew bodies remaining inside .
= = Design = =
German Type IXC / 40 submarines were slightly larger than the original Type IXCs . U @-@ 853 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 144 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 126 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 257 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 237 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 76 m ( 251 ft 10 in ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 86 m ( 22 ft 6 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 60 m ( 31 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 67 m | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
found with an electron microscope " . They said that the graphics , music , and gameplay were good , and that the only thing that kept Neutopia from being superior to Zelda was the 24 @-@ character password system and that the text was in Japanese . There would eventually be a sequel to the game Neutopia II , in which Jazeta disappears and his son sets out to find him .
Neutopia received much coverage from various video gaming websites after its release on the Virtual Console , and each drew similar similarities to Zelda . Adam Romano from Defunct Games noted that Neutopia was released two years before The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past and said that Neutopia " kept pace with or were actually ahead of the Nintendo curve " . He said that gameplay and backgrounds remain varied and that " the fire rod weapon is especially fun to wield " , but he noted that the things that keep the game from being better than Zelda were repetitive and frustrating dungeon exploring , boring boss battles , long passwords ( for those who do not own a TurboGrafx @-@ CD ) , and several " head @-@ scratching moments " which include references to Judaism and Islam as well as quotes from Star Wars . Marcel van Duyn from Nintendo Life noted many similarities to Zelda , including the existence of 8 dungeons and medallions , the need to blow up walls or burn bushes to uncover secrets , the dungeon designs , and the need to push blocks to uncover staircases . However , he noted that what sets it apart from Zelda are the fire rod , the ability to warp with wings , and a lower difficulty level . He concluded that the game , while copying Zelda , might be better as it added additional features that set it apart . Destructoid 's Tony Ponce compared the game 's copying of Zelda to China Warrior 's copying of Kung @-@ Fu Master , and he pointed out what are also considered Zelda clones such as Crusader of Centy and Alundra for the Sega Genesis and PlayStation , respectively .
GameSpot 's Austin Shau reviewed Neutopia in November 2007 and said progression through the game was " quick and direct " but was also more linear , unlike with Zelda . He praised the game for its variety of environments , which he said " helps to combat monotony " , but he noted the lack of detail in the graphics itself . He also criticized the game 's sound , in which he said the background music was a series of " grating instrumentations " while also pointing out the low @-@ quality TurboGrafx @-@ 16 sound chip . IGN 's Lucas Thomas called Neutopia " one of the most shameless Legend of Zelda clones ever created " in nearly every aspect . He praised one of the differences in the presence of the fire rod , which he said " is unlike any weapon the 8 @-@ bit Link ever wielded " ; he also noted the clean , crisp graphics and a good quality soundtrack . However , he criticized another difference from Zelda , that Neutopia had poor collision detection , saying that it can lead to additional damage to Jazeta , which causes the power of the fire rod to decrease and lead to the annoying " beeping sound " just as in Zelda . In general , Thomas said that , despite its lack of originality , Neutopia is a good TurboGrafx @-@ 16 game which has deserved all the praise it has received .
= Partenope @-@ class cruiser =
The Partenope class was a group of eight torpedo cruisers built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s and 1890s . The class comprised Partenope , Minerva , Euridice , Urania , Iride , Aretusa , Caprera , and Calatafimi . Based on the earlier cruiser Tripoli , the Partenope class represented a temporary embrace of the Jeune École , which emphasized the use of cheap torpedo @-@ armed vessels as a means to defeat the much more expensive ironclad battleships of the day . To fulfill their intended role , the vessels were armed with five or six 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes .
The ships of the class primarily served in the main Italian fleet throughout their careers . Their time with the fleet was spent conducting training exercises , along with occasional travels to foreign countries . In late 1900s , Partenope and Minerva were converted into minelayers and Euridice and Calatafimi were sold for scrap . Several of the vessels saw action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , primarily conducting shore bombardments in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula . Three more vessels — Urania , Aretusa , and Caprera — were sold in the later stages of the war or shortly thereafter . Partenope laid minefields in the Adriatic Sea after Italy entered World War I in 1915 , and was later sunk by a German U @-@ boat in March 1918 . Minerva and Iride survived the war and were sold for scrap in 1921 and 1920 , respectively .
= = Design = =
The design for the Partenope class was prepared by Engineering Inspector Carlo Vigna , and was based on the earlier torpedo cruiser Tripoli , the first modern vessel of the type built by Italy . The development of torpedo cruisers in Italy in the mid @-@ 1880s represented a shift away from the emphasis on large capital ships that had been built for the previous decade and toward the ideas of the Jeune École , which emphasized small , fast , torpedo @-@ armed vessels that could damage or destroy the much larger battleships at a fraction of the cost . The Partenope class were followed by the Agordat class , the last class of torpedo cruisers built by Italy .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Partenope class were 70 meters ( 230 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 73 @.@ 1 m ( 239 ft 10 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 8 @.@ 22 m ( 27 ft 0 in ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 48 m ( 11 ft 5 in ) . They displaced from 821 to 931 metric tons ( 808 to 916 long tons ; 905 to 1 @,@ 026 short tons ) normally . Their hulls were steel @-@ built . The ships had a crew of between 96 – 121 . They were initially fitted with a fore and aft sailing rig with two masts , but the rigging was later removed . The ships were protected by an armored deck that was up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) thick ; their conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate .
Their propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller . Steam was supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers that were trunked into two widely spaced funnels . Specific figures for each ship 's engine performance have not survived , but the ships of the class had top speeds of 18 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 9 mph ) from 3 @,@ 884 to 4 @,@ 422 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 896 to 3 @,@ 297 kW ) . The ships had a cruising radius of about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Partenope and Minerva were reboilered in 1906 – 08 and 1909 – 10 , respectively , with new oil @-@ fired models . Partenope 's performance after the refit was 17 @.@ 05 knots ( 31 @.@ 58 km / h ; 19 @.@ 62 mph ) from 2 @,@ 481 ihp ( 1 @,@ 850 kW ) , while Minerva was faster , at 18 @.@ 28 knots ( 33 @.@ 85 km / h ; 21 @.@ 04 mph ) from 3 @,@ 524 ihp ( 2 @,@ 628 kW ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Partenope @-@ class cruisers , with the exception of Caprera , were armed with a main battery of one 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) 40 @-@ caliber ( cal . ) gun and six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 43 @-@ cal. guns mounted singly . They were also equipped with three 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 20 @-@ cal. guns in single mounts . Caprera instead had two 120 mm guns , four 57 mm guns , and two of the 37 mm weapons . The ships ' primary offensive weapon was their 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes ; Partenope and Caprera had five tubes , while the rest of the class had six .
During their refits in the late 1900s , Partenope and Minerva were converted into minelayers . Their armament was revised significantly , and now consisted of a pair of 3 in ( 76 mm ) guns , four 57 mm guns , and two 37 mm guns . Partenope was equipped to carry sixty naval mines , with a bank of thirty mines on a platform on each side of the ship ; the details of Minerva 's mine handling equipment and storage are unknown .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
For much of the ships ' careers , they were assigned to the main Italian fleet , where they were frequently occupied with conducting training exercises . These exercises frequently gamed attacks by the French fleet , such as the maneuvers conducted in 1893 , which simulated a French attack on Naples . In 1895 , Partenope joined a squadron that visited Great Britain , and later that year took part in an international naval demonstration off Crete in an attempt to defuse tensions between Greece and the Ottoman Empire . Euridice took part in a similar demonstration , again off Crete , in 1897 ; this was a reaction to the Greco @-@ Turkish War that had broken out that year . Between 1906 and 1908 , Partenope was converted into a minelayer , and Minerva underwent a similar conversion in 1909 – 1910 . Two ships , Calatafimi and Euridice , were discarded in early 1907 .
During the Italo @-@ Turkish War , Partenope operated off Libya , bombarding Ottoman troops and supporting Italian forces . Iride escorted a troopship convoy to North Africa and then conducted shore bombardments . Aretusa was stationed in the Red Sea at the outbreak of the war , and she briefly engaged the Ottoman cruiser ' . Aretusa , joined by Caprera in early 1912 , thereafter participated in bombardment and blockade operations against Ottoman ports in the area . Minerva was assigned to the 4th Division at the time , but did not see action during the war . Three more members of the class were sold for scrap after the end of the war , with Urania and Aretusa being stricken in 1912 and Caprera being discarded in early 1913 .
Partenope and Minerva laid a series of defensive minefields in the Adriatic Sea after Italy entered World War I in 1915 . They did not see action for much of the rest of the war , owing to the cautious strategies adopted by Italy and its enemy across the Adriatic , Austria @-@ Hungary . On 24 March 1918 , the German U @-@ boat UC @-@ 67 torpedoed and sank Partenope north of Bizerte , Tunisia . Iride and Minerva survived the war and were discarded in December 1920 and May 1921 , respectively .
= House of Plantagenet =
The House of Plantagenet ( / plænˈtædʒənət / ) was a royal house which originated from the lands of Anjou in France . The name Plantagenet is used by modern historians to identify four distinct royal houses – the Angevins who were also Counts of Anjou , the main body of the Plantagenets following the loss of Anjou , and the houses of Lancaster and York , the Plantagenets ' two cadet branches . The family held the English throne from 1154 , with the accession of Henry II , until 1485 , when Richard III died .
Under the Plantagenets , England was transformed , although this was only partly intentional . The Plantagenet kings were often forced to negotiate compromises such as Magna Carta . These constrained royal power in return for financial and military support . The king was no longer just the most powerful man in the nation , holding the prerogative of judgement , feudal tribute and warfare . He now had defined duties to the realm , underpinned by a sophisticated justice system . A distinct national identity was shaped by conflict with the French , Scots , Welsh and Irish , and the establishment of English as the primary language .
In the 15th century , the Plantagenets were defeated in the Hundred Years ' War and beset with social , political and economic problems . Popular revolts were commonplace , triggered by the denial of numerous freedoms . English nobles raised private armies , engaged in private feuds and openly defied Henry VI .
The rivalry between the House of Plantagenet 's two cadet branches of York and Lancaster brought about the Wars of the Roses , a decades @-@ long fight for the English succession , culminating in the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 , when the reign of the Plantagenets and the English Middle Ages both met their end with the death of King Richard III . Henry VII , a Lancastrian , became king of England ; two years later , he married Elizabeth of York , thus ending the Wars of the Roses , and giving rise to the Tudor dynasty . The Tudors worked to centralise English royal power , which allowed them to avoid some of the problems that had plagued the last Plantagenet rulers . The resulting stability allowed for the English Renaissance , and the advent of early modern Britain .
= = Terminology = =
= = = Plantagenet = = =
Richard of York , 3rd Duke of York , adopted Plantagenet as his family name in the 15th century . " Plantegenest " ( or " Plante Genest " ) had been a 12th @-@ century nickname for his ancestor Geoffrey , count of Anjou and duke of Normandy . One of many popular theories suggests the common broom , planta genista in medieval Latin , as the source of the nickname . It is uncertain why Richard chose this specific name , although during the Wars of the Roses it emphasised Richard 's status as Geoffrey 's patrilineal descendant . The retrospective usage of the name for all of Geoffrey 's male descendants was popular during the subsequent Tudor dynasty , perhaps encouraged by the further legitimacy it gave to Richard 's great @-@ grandson , Henry VIII . It was only in the late 17th century that it passed into common usage among historians .
= = = Angevins = = =
The three Angevin kings ( French for " from Anjou " ) were Henry II , Richard I and John ; " Angevin " can also refer to the period of history in which they reigned . Many historians identify the Angevins as a distinct English royal house . " Angevin " is also used in reference to any sovereign or government derived from Anjou . As a noun , it refers to any native of Anjou or an Angevin ruler , and specifically to : other counts and dukes of Anjou , including the ancestors of the three kings that formed the English royal house ; their cousins , who held the crown of Jerusalem ; and to unrelated members of the French royal family who were later granted the titles and formed different dynasties , such as the Capetian House of Anjou and the Valois House of Anjou . Consequently , there is disagreement between those who consider Henry III to be the first Plantagenet monarch and those who do not distinguish between Angevins and Plantagenets and therefore consider the first Plantagenet to be Henry II .
The term " Angevin Empire " was coined by Kate Norgate in 1887 . There was no known contemporary collective name for the territories to which circumlocutions such as " our kingdom and everything subject to our rule whatever it may be " or " the whole of the kingdom which had belonged to his father " may have referred . The " Empire " portion of " Angevin Empire " has been controversial . In 1986 a convention of historians concluded that there had not been an Angevin state , and therefore no " Angevin Empire " , but that the term " espace Plantagenet " , Plantagenet space in English , was acceptable . Nonetheless , historians have continued to use " Angevin Empire " .
= = Origin = =
The later counts of Anjou , including the Plantagenets , descended from Geoffrey II , Count of Gâtinais , and his wife Ermengarde of Anjou . In 1060 the couple inherited the title via cognatic kinship from an Angevin family that was descended from a noble named Ingelger , whose recorded history dates from 870 .
During the 10th and 11th centuries , power struggles occurred between rulers in northern and western France including those of Anjou , Normandy , Brittany , Poitou , Blois , Maine , and the kings of France . In the early 12th century Geoffrey of Anjou married Empress Matilda , King Henry I 's only surviving legitimate child and heir to the English throne . As a result of this marriage , Geoffrey 's son Henry II inherited the English throne as well as Norman and Angevin titles , thus marking the beginning of the Angevin and Plantagenet dynasties .
The marriage was the third attempt of Geoffrey 's father , Fulk V , Count of Anjou , to build a political alliance with Normandy . He first espoused his daughter , Alice , to William Adelin , Henry I 's heir . After William drowned in the wreck of the White Ship Fulk married another of his daughters , Sibylla , to William Clito , son of Henry I 's older brother , Robert Curthose . Henry I had the marriage annulled to avoid strengthening William 's rival claim to Normandy . Finally Fulk achieved his goal through the marriage of Geoffrey and Matilda . Fulk then passed his titles to Geoffrey and became king of Jerusalem .
= = Angevin kings = =
= = = Arrival in England = = =
When Henry II was born in 1133 , his grandfather , Henry I , was reportedly delighted , saying that the boy was " the heir to the kingdom " . The birth reduced the risk that the King 's realm would pass to his son @-@ in @-@ law 's family , which might have occurred if the marriage of Matilda and Count Geoffrey had proved childless . The birth of a second son , also named Geoffrey , increased the likelihood that , in accordance with French custom , Henry would receive the English maternal inheritance and Geoffrey the Angevin paternal inheritance . This would separate the realms of England and Anjou . In order to secure an orderly succession , Geoffrey and Matilda sought more power from Henry I , but quarrelled with him after the King refused to give them power that might be used against him . When he died in November 1135 , the couple were in Anjou , allowing Matilda 's cousin Stephen to seize the crown of England . Stephen 's contested accession initiated the widespread civil unrest later called the Anarchy .
Count Geoffrey had little interest in England . Instead he commenced a ten @-@ year war for the duchy of Normandy , but it became clear that to bring this conflict to a successful conclusion Stephen would need to be challenged in England so in 1139 Matilda and her half @-@ brother , Robert invaded England . From the age of nine , Henry was repeatedly sent to England to be the male figurehead of the campaigns , since it became apparent that he would become king if England was conquered . In 1141 Stephen was captured at the Battle of Lincoln and later exchanged for Robert who had also been captured . Geoffrey continued the conquest of Normandy and in 1150 transferred the duchy to Henry while retaining the primary role in the duchy 's government .
Three events allowed the Angevins ' successful termination of the conflict :
Count Geoffrey died in 1151 before finalizing the division of his realm between Henry and Henry 's younger brother Geoffrey , who would have inherited Anjou . According to William of Newburgh , who wrote in the 1190s , Count Geoffrey decided that Henry would receive England and Anjou for as long as he needed the resources for the conflict against Stephen . Count Geoffrey instructed that his body should not be buried until Henry swore an oath that the young Geoffrey would receive Anjou when England and Normandy were secured . W. L. Warren cast doubt on this account on the grounds that it was written later based on a single contemporary source , it would be questionable that either Geoffrey or Henry would consider such an oath binding and it would break the inheritance practice of the time . The young Geoffrey died in 1158 , before receiving Anjou , but he had become count of Nantes when the citizens of Nantes rebelled against their ruler . Henry had supported the rebellion .
Louis VII of France was granted an annulment of his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine on 18 March 1152 , and she married Henry ( who would become Henry II ) on 18 May 1152 . Consequently , the Angevins acquired the Duchy of Aquitaine .
Stephen 's wife and elder son , Eustace , died in 1153 leading to the Treaty of Wallingford . The treaty agreed the peace offer that Matilda had rejected in 1142 , recognised Henry as Stephen 's heir , guaranteed Stephen 's second son William his father 's estates and allowed Stephen to be king for life . Stephen died soon afterwards , and Henry acceded to the throne in late 1154 .
= = = Angevin zenith = = =
Of Henry 's siblings , William and Geoffrey died unmarried and childless , but the tempestuous marriage of Henry and Eleanor , who already had two daughters ( Marie and Alix ) through her first marriage to King Louis , produced eight children in thirteen years :
William , Count of Poitiers ( 1153 – 1156 )
Henry the Young King ( 1155 – 1183 )
Matilda , Duchess of Saxony ( 1156 – 1189 ) — married Henry the Lion , Duke of Bavaria . The eldest amongst the couple 's children , Richenza , is probably the daughter English chroniclers call Matilda , who was left in Normandy with her grandparents in 1185 and married firstly to Geoffrey , count of Perche , and secondly to Enguerrand de Coucy . The eldest son , Henry , became duke of Saxony and count palatine of the Rhine . His brother Otto was nominated by his uncle Richard I as earl of York and count of Poitiers before being elected emperor in opposition to the Hohenstaufen candidate . Otto was crowned in Rome but he was later excommunicated and declared deposed . Childless , Otto lost power following the defeat of the Welf and Angevin forces at the Battle of Bouvines . The youngest child , William of Winchester married Helena daughter of Valdemar I of Denmark . Their only son , also called Otto , was the sole male heir of his uncle Henry . The ducal house of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg and the British royal house of Windsor both descend from him .
King Richard the Lionheart ( 1157 – 1199 ) . He had no legitimate offspring , but is thought to have had two illegitimate sons , of whom little is known , called Fulk and Phillip , Lord of Cognac .
Geoffrey , Duke of Brittany ( 1158 – 1186 ) — married Constance daughter of Duke Conan of Brittany and became duke of Brittany by right of his wife . The couple 's son Arthur was a competitor to John for the Angevin succession .
Eleanor , Queen of Castile ( 1161 – 1214 ) — married King Alfonso VIII of Castile . The couple 's children included King Henry of Castile and four queen consorts , Berengaria of Leon , Urraca of Portugal , Blanche of France and Eleanor of Aragon .
Joan , Queen of Sicily ( 1165 – 1199 ) — married firstly King William II of Sicily and secondly Count Raymond VI of Toulouse . Her children included Raymond VII of Toulouse .
King John Lackland ( 1166 – 1216 )
Henry also had illegitimate children with several mistresses , possibly as many as twelve . These children included Geoffrey , William , Peter and four children who died young by Alice , the daughter of Louis VII , while she was betrothed to his son Richard . William ’ s many competencies and importance as a royal bastard led to a long and illustrious career .
Henry reasserted and extended previous suzerainties to secure possession of his inherited realm . In 1162 he attempted to re @-@ establish what he saw as his authority over the English Church by appointing his friend Thomas Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury upon the death of the incumbent archbishop , Theobald . Becket 's defiance as Archbishop alienated the king and his counsellors . Henry and Becket had repeated disputes over issues such as church tenures , the marriage of Henry 's brother , and taxation . Henry reacted by getting Becket and other English bishops to recognise sixteen ancient customs in writing for the first time in the Constitutions of Clarendon , governing relations between the king , his courts and the church . When Becket tried to leave the country without permission , Henry tried to ruin him by filing legal cases relating to Becket 's previous tenure as chancellor . Becket fled and remained in exile for five years . Relations later improved , and Becket returned , but they declined again when Henry 's son was crowned as coregent by the Archbishop of York , which Becket perceived as a challenge to his authority . Becket later excommunicated those who had offended him . When he received this news , Henry said : " What miserable drones and traitors have I nurtured and promoted in my household who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low @-@ born clerk . " Four of Henry 's knights killed Becket in Canterbury Cathedral after Becket resisted a failed arrest attempt . Henry was widely considered complicit in Becket 's death throughout Christian Europe . This made Henry a pariah ; in penance , he walked barefoot into Canterbury Cathedral , where he was severely whipped by monks .
From 1155 Henry claimed that Pope Adrian IV had given him authorisation to reform the Irish church by assuming control of Ireland , but Professor Anne Duggan 's research indicates that the Laudabiliter is a falsification of an existing letter and that was not in fact Adrian 's intention . It originally allowed Henry 's brother William some territory . Henry did not personally act on this until 1171 by which time William was already dead . He invaded Ireland to assert his authority over knights who had accrued autonomous power after they recruited soldiers in England and Wales and colonised Ireland with his permission . Henry later gave Ireland to his youngest son , John . In 1172 Henry gave John the castles of Chinon , Loudun and Mirebeau as a wedding gift . This angered Henry 's eighteen @-@ year @-@ old son , Henry the Young King , who believed these were his . A rebellion by Henry II 's wife and three eldest sons ensued . Louis VII of France supported the rebellion . William the Lion , king of the Scots , and others joined the revolt . After eighteen months , Henry subdued the rebels .
In Le Mans in 1182 , Henry II gathered his children to plan a partible inheritance : his eldest surviving son , Henry , would inherit England , Normandy and Anjou ; Richard ( his mother 's favourite ) would inherit the Duchy of Aquitaine ; Geoffrey would inherit Brittany ; and John would inherit Ireland . This resulted in further conflict . The younger Henry rebelled again , but died of dysentery . Geoffrey died in 1186 after an accident in a tournament . In 1189 , Richard and Philip II of France reasserted their various claims exploiting the aging Henry 's failing health . Henry was forced to accept humiliating peace terms , including naming Richard his sole heir . The old King died two days later , defeated and miserable . French and English contemporary moralists viewed this fate as retribution for the murder of Becket ; even his favourite legitimate son , John , had rebelled although the constantly loyal illegitimate son Geoffrey remained with Henry until the end .
Following Richard 's coronation he quickly put the kingdom 's affairs in order and departed on a Crusade for the Middle East . Opinion of Richard has fluctuated . Although he was respected for his military leadership and courtly manners , he had rejected and humiliated the sister of the king of France , deposed the king of Cyprus and later sold the island , he made enemies on the Third Crusade such as Leopold V , Duke of Austria by showing disrespect to his banners as well as refusing to share the spoils of war , and was rumoured to have arranged the assassination of Conrad of Montferrat . His ruthlessness was demonstrated by his massacre of 2 @,@ 600 prisoners in Acre . He obtained victories during the Third Crusade , but failed to capture Jerusalem . According to Steven Runciman Richard was " a bad son , a bad husband and a bad king " . Jonathan Riley @-@ Smith described him as " vain ... devious and self @-@ centred " . In an alternate view John Gillingham points out that for centuries Richard was considered a model king .
Returning from the crusade with a small band of followers , Richard was captured by Leopold and was passed to Emperor Henry VI . Henry held Richard captive for eighteen months ( 1192 – 1194 ) for a ransom valued at 100 @,@ 000 marks . In Richard 's absence , Philip II overran large portions of Normandy and John acquired control of Richard 's English lands . After returning to England , Richard forgave John and re @-@ established his authority in England . He left again in 1194 and battled Philip for five years , attempting to regain the lands seized during his captivity . When close to complete victory , he was injured by an arrow during a siege and died ten days later .
= = = Decline and the loss of Anjou = = =
Richard 's failure to provide an heir caused a succession crisis and conflict between supporters of the claim of his nephew , Arthur , and John . Guillaume des Roches led the magnates of Anjou , Maine , and Touraine declaring for Arthur . Once again Philip II of France attempted to disturb the Plantagenet territories on the European mainland by supporting his vassal Arthur 's claim to the English crown . John won a significant victory while preventing Arthur 's forces from capturing his mother , seizing the entire rebel leadership at the Battle of Mirebeau . Foolishly John disregarded his allies ' opinions on the fate of the prisoners , many of them their neighbours and kinsmen . Instead ' he kept his prisoners so vilely and in such evil distress that it seemed shameful and ugly to all those who were with him and who saw this cruelty ' according to the L 'Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal . As a result of John 's behaviour the powerful Thouars , Lusignan , and des Roches families rebelled and John lost control of Anjou , Maine , Touraine , and northern Poitou . His son , King Henry III , maintained the claim to the Angevin territories until December 1259 when he formally surrendered them and in return was granted Gascony as duke of Aquitaine and a vassal of the king of France . John ’ s reputation was further damaged by the rumour , described in the Margam annals , that while drunk he himself had murdered Arthur and if not true it is almost certain John ordered the killing . There are two contrasting schools of thought explaining the sudden collapse of John 's position . Sir James Holt suggests this was the inevitable result of superior French resources . John Gillingham identifies diplomatic and military mismanagement and points out that Richard managed to hold the Angevin territory with comparable finances . Nick Barratt has calculated that Angevin resources available for use in the war were 22 per cent less than those of Phillip , putting the Angevins at a disadvantage .
By 1214 John had re @-@ established his authority in England and planned what Gillingham has called a grand strategy to recapture Normandy and Anjou . The plan was that John would draw the French from Paris , while another army , under his nephew Otto IV , the Holy Roman Emperor , and his half @-@ brother William attacked from the north . The plan failed when John 's allies were defeated at the Battle of Bouvines . Otto retreated and was soon overthrown , William was captured by the French and John agreed to a five @-@ year truce . John 's defeat weakened his authority in England , and his barons forced him to agree to the Magna Carta , which limited royal power . Both sides failed to abide by the terms of the Magna Carta , leading to the First Barons ' War , in which rebellious barons invited Prince Louis , the husband of Blanche , Henry II 's granddaughter , to invade England . Louis did so but in October 1216 , before the conflict was conclusively ended , John died . The official website of the British Monarchy presents John 's death as the end of the Angevin dynasty and the beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty .
= = Main line = =
= = = Baronial conflict and the establishment of Parliament = = =
All subsequent English monarchs were descendants of the Angevin line via John , who had five legitimate children with Isabella :
Henry III – king of England for most of the 13th @-@ century
Richard – king of the Romans in the Holy Roman Empire
Joan – queen consort of Alexander II of Scotland
Isabella – wife of the Holy Roman Emperor , Frederick II
Eleanor – wife of William Marshal 's son ( also named William ) , and later the English rebel Simon de Montfort .
John also had illegitimate children with several mistresses . These children probably included nine sons called Richard , Oliver , Henry , Osbert Gifford , Geoffrey , John FitzJohn or Courcy , Odo or Eudes FitzRoy , Ivo , Henry , Richard the constable of Wallingford Castle and three daughters called Joan , Matilda the abbess of Barking and Isabella la Blanche . Joan was the best known of these , since she married Prince Llewelyn the Great of Wales .
William Marshal , 1st Earl of Pembroke , was appointed regent for the nine @-@ year @-@ old King Henry on King John 's death . Thereafter , support for Louis declined , and he renounced his claims in the Treaty of Lambeth after Marshal 's victories at the battles of Lincoln and Sandwich in 1217 . The Marshal regime issued an amended Magna Carta as a basis for future government . Despite the Treaty of Lambeth , hostilities continued and Henry was forced to compromise with the newly crowned Louis VIII of France and Henry 's stepfather , Hugh X of Lusignan . They both overran much of Henry 's remaining continental lands , further eroding the Angevins ' power on the continent . In his political struggles , Henry perceived many similarities between himself and England 's patron saint , Edward the Confessor . Consequently , he named his first son Edward and built the existing magnificent shrine for the Confessor .
In early 1225 a great council approved a tax of £ 40 @,@ 000 to dispatch an army , which quickly retook Gascony . During an assembly feudal prerogatives of the king were challenged by the barons , bishops and magnates who demanded that the King reissue the Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest in exchange for support . Henry declared that the charters were issued of his own " spontaneous and free will " and confirmed them with the royal seal , giving the new Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest of 1225 much more authority than any previous versions .
Henry III had nine children :
Edward ( 1239 – 1307 )
Margaret of England ( 1240 – 1275 ) . Her three children predeceased her husband , Alexander III of Scotland ; consequently , the crown of Scotland became vacant on the death of their only grandchild , Margaret , Maid of Norway in 1290 .
Beatrice , Countess of Richmond ( 1242 – 1275 ) . She initially married John de Montfort of Dreux , and later married John II , Duke of Brittany .
Edmund Crouchback ( 1245 – 1296 ) , who was granted the titles and estates of Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester and the earldom of Leicester after Henry defeated Montfort in the Second Barons ' War . Henry later granted Edmund the earldoms of Lancaster and Ferrers . From 1276 , through his wife , Edmund was Count of Champagne and Brie . Later Lancastrians would attempt to use Henry IV 's maternal descent from Edmund to legitimise his claim to the throne , spuriously claiming that Edmund was the eldest son of Henry III but had not become king due to deformity . Through his second marriage to Blanche , the widow of Henry I of Navarre , Edmund was at the centre of European aristocracy . Blanche 's daughter , Joan , was queen regnant of Navarre and queen consort of France through her marriage to Philip IV . Edmund 's son Thomas became the most powerful nobleman in England , adding to his inheritance the earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury through his marriage to the heiress of Henry de Lacy , 3rd Earl of Lincoln .
Four others who died as children : Richard ( 1247 – 1256 ) , John ( 1250 – 1256 ) , William ( c . 1251 / 1252 – 1256 ) , Katherine ( c . 1252 / 3 – 1257 ) and Henry ( no recorded dates ) .
Henry was bankrupted by his military expenditure and general extravagance . The pope offered Henry 's brother Richard the Kingdom of Sicily , but the military cost of displacing the incumbent Emperor Frederick was prohibitive . Matthew Paris wrote that Richard stated : " You might as well say , ' I make you a present of the moon — step up to the sky and take it down ' . " Instead , Henry purchased the kingdom for his son Edmund , which angered many powerful barons . The barons led by Henry 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Simon de Montfort forced him to agree to the Provisions of Oxford , under which his debts were paid in exchange for substantial reforms . In France , with the Treaty of Paris , Henry formally surrendered the territory of his Angevin ancestors to Louis IX of France , receiving in return the title duke of Aquitaine and the territory of Gascony as a vassal of the French king .
Disagreements between the barons and the king intensified . The barons , under Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester , captured most of southeast England in the Second Barons ' War . At the Battle of Lewes in 1264 , Henry and Prince Edward were defeated and taken prisoner . De Montfort assembled the Great Parliament , recognized as the first Parliament because it was the first time the cities and boroughs had sent representatives . Edward escaped , raised an army and defeated and killed de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in 1265 . Savage retribution was inflicted upon the rebels , and authority restored to Henry . With the realm now peaceful , Edward left England to join Louis IX on the Ninth Crusade ; he was one of the last crusaders . Louis died before Edward 's arrival , but Edward decided to continue . The result was disappointing ; Edward 's small force only enabled him to capture Acre and launch a handful of raids . After surviving an assassination attempt , Edward left for Sicily later in the year , never to participate in a crusade again . When Henry III died , Edward acceded to the throne ; the barons swore allegiance to him even though he did not return for two years .
= = = Constitutional change and the reform of feudalism = = =
Edward married Eleanor of Castile , daughter of King Ferdinand of Castile , a great grandson of Henry II through his second daughter Eleanor in 1254 . Edward and Eleanor had sixteen children ; five daughters survived to adulthood , but only one son survived Edward :
Eleanor , Countess of Bar ( 1264 / 69 − 1298 )
Three daughters ( Joan , Alice , and Juliana / Katherine ) and two sons ( John and Henry ) born between 1265 and 1271 . They died between 1265 and 1274 with little historical trace .
Joan , Countess of Gloucester ( 1272 – 1307 )
Alphonso , Earl of Chester ( 1273 – 1284 )
Margaret , Duchess of Brabant ( 1275 – 1333 )
Mary of Woodstock ( 1278 – 1332 ) , who became a nun
Isabella ( 1279 – 1279 )
Elizabeth , firstly Countess of Holland and on widowhood , secondly Countess of Hereford ( 1282 – 1316 ) . Among her eleven children were the earls of Hereford , Essex , and Northampton , and the countesses of Ormond and Devon .
King Edward II
Two other daughters ( Beatrice and Blanche ) , who died as children .
Following Eleanor 's death in 1290 , Edward married Margaret of France , daughter of Philip III of France , in 1299 . Edward and Margaret had two sons , who both lived to adulthood , and a daughter who died as a child :
Thomas ( 1300 – 1338 ) , whose daughter Margaret inherited his estates . Margaret 's grandson , Thomas Mowbray , was the first duke of Norfolk , but Henry IV exiled him and stripped him of his titles .
Edmund , Earl of Kent ( 1301 to 1330 ) . Edmund 's loyalty to his half @-@ brother , Edward II , resulted in his execution by order of the rebel Mortimer and his lover , Edward 's queen , Isabella . His daughter , Joan , inherited his estates and married her own cousin , Edward the Black Prince ; together , they had Richard , who later became the English king .
Eleanor ( 1306 – 1311 ) .
Evidence for Edward 's involvement in legal reform is hard to find but his reign saw a major programme of legal change . Much of the drive and determination is likely to have come from the king and his experience of the baronial reform movement of the late 1250s and early 1260s . With the Statutes of Mortmain , Edward imposed his authority over the Church ; the statutes prohibited land donation to the Church , asserted the rights of the Crown at the expense of traditional feudal privileges , promoted the uniform administration of justice , raised income and codified the legal system . His military campaigns left him in heavy debt and when Philip IV of France confiscated the Duchy of Gascony in 1294 , Edward needed funds to wage war in France . When Edward summoned a precedent @-@ setting assembly in order to raise more taxes for military finance , he included lesser landowners and merchants . The resulting parliament included barons , clergy , knights , and burgesses for the first time .
= = = Expansion in Britain = = =
On his accession , Edward I sought to organise his realm , enforcing his claims to primacy in the British Isles . Llywelyn ap Gruffudd claimed to rule North Wales " entirely separate from " England but Edward viewed him to be " a rebel and disturber of the peace " . Edward 's determination , military experience and skilful naval manoeuvres ended what was to him rebellion . The invasion was executed by one of the largest armies ever assembled by an English king , comprising Anglo @-@ Norman cavalry and Welsh archers and laying the foundation for future victories in France . Llywelyn was driven into the mountains , later dying in battle . The Statute of Rhuddlan established England 's authority over Wales , and Edward 's son was proclaimed the first English Prince of Wales upon his birth . Edward spent vast sums on his two Welsh campaigns with a large portion of it spent on a network of castles .
Edward asserted that the king of Scotland owed him feudal allegiance , and intended to unite the two nations by marrying his son Edward to Margaret , the sole heir of King Alexander III . When Margaret died in 1290 , competition for the Scottish crown ensued . By invitation of Scottish magnates , Edward I resolved the dispute , ruling in favour of John Balliol , who duly swore loyalty to him and became king . Edward insisted that he was Scotland 's sovereign and possessed the right to hear appeals against Balliol 's judgements , undermining Balliol 's authority . Balliol allied with France in 1295 ; Edward invaded Scotland the following year , deposing and exiling Balliol .
Edward was less successful in Gascony , which was overrun by the French . With his resources depleting , Edward was forced to reconfirm the Charters , including Magna Carta , to obtain the necessary funds . In 1303 the French king restored Gascony to Edward by signing the Treaty of Paris . Meanwhile , William Wallace rose in Balliol 's name and recovered most of Scotland . Wallace was defeated at the Battle of Falkirk , after which Robert the Bruce rebelled and was crowned king of Scotland . Edward died while travelling to Scotland for another campaign .
King Edward II 's coronation oath on his succession in 1307 was the first to reflect the king 's responsibility to maintain the laws that the community " shall have chosen " ( " aura eslu " ) . He was not unpopular initially but faced three challenges : discontent over the financing of wars ; his household spending ; and the role of his favourite Piers Gaveston . When Parliament decided that Gaveston should be exiled the king was left with no choice but to comply . Edward engineered Gaveston 's return , but was forced to agree to the appointment of Ordainers , led by his cousin Thomas , 2nd Earl of Lancaster , to reform the royal household with Piers Gaveston exiled again . When Gaveston returned again to England , he was abducted and executed after a mock trial . The ramifications of this drove Thomas and his adherents from power . Edward 's humiliating defeat by Bruce at the Battle of Bannockburn , confirming Bruce 's position as an independent king of Scots , leading to Lancaster being appointed head of the king 's council . Edward finally repealed the Ordinances after defeating and executing Lancaster at the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322 .
The French monarchy asserted its rights to encroach on Edward 's legal rights in Gascony . Resistance to one judgement in Saint @-@ Sardos resulted in Charles IV declaring the duchy forfeit . Charles 's sister , Queen Isabella , was sent to negotiate and agreed a treaty that required Edward to pay homage in France to Charles . Edward resigned Aquitaine and Ponthieu to his son Edward , who travelled to France to give homage in his stead . With the English heir in her power , Isabella refused to return to England unless Edward II dismissed his favourites , and she became the mistress of Roger Mortimer . The couple invaded England and , with Henry , 3rd Earl of Lancaster , captured the king . Edward II abdicated on condition that his son would inherit the throne rather than Mortimer . Although there is no historical record of the cause of death , he is popularly believed to have been murdered at Berkeley Castle by having a red @-@ hot poker thrust into his bowels . A coup by Edward III ended four years of control by Isabella and Mortimer . Mortimer was executed . Though removed from power , Isabella was treated well , and lived in luxury for the next 27 years .
= = = Conflict with the House of Valois = = =
In 1328 Charles IV of France died without a male heir . Queen Isabella made a claim to throne of France on behalf of her son Edward on the grounds that he was a matrilineal grandson of Philip IV of France . However , the precedents set by Philip V 's succession over his niece Joan II of Navarre and Charles IV 's succession over his nieces meant that the senior grandson of Philip III in the male line , Phillip of Valois , became king . Not yet in power , Edward paid homage to Phillip as Duke of Aquitaine .
In 1337 Phillip confiscated Aquitaine and Ponthieu from Edward alleging he was harbouring Phillip ’ s fugitive cousin and enemy , Robert of Artois . In response , Edward proclaimed himself king of France to encourage the Flemish to rise in open rebellion against the French king . The conflict , later known as the Hundred Years ' War , included a significant English naval victory at the Battle of Sluys , and a victory on land at Crécy , leaving Edward free to capture the important port of Calais . A subsequent victory against Scotland at the Battle of Neville 's Cross resulted in the capture of David II and reduced the threat from Scotland . The Black Death brought a halt to Edward 's campaigns by killing perhaps a third of his subjects . The only Plantagenet known to have died from the Black Death was Edward III 's daughter Joan in Bordeaux .
Edward , the Black Prince resumed the war with destructive chevauchées starting from Bordeaux . His army was caught by a much larger French force at Poitiers , but the ensuing battle was a decisive English victory resulting in the capture of John II of France . John agreed a treaty promising the French would pay a four million écus ransom . The subsequent Treaty of Brétigny was demonstrably popular in England , where it was both ratified in parliament and celebrated with great ceremony . To reach agreement , clauses were removed that would have had Edward renounce his claim to the French crown in return for territory in Aquitaine and the town of Calais . These were entered in another agreement to be effected only after the transfer of territory by November 1361 but both sides prevaricated over their commitments for the following nine years . Hostages from the Valois family were held in London while John returned to France to raise his ransom . Edward had restored the lands of the former Angevin Empire holding Normandy , Brittany , Anjou , Maine and the coastline from Flanders to Spain . When the hostages escaped back to France , John was horrified that his word had been broken and returned to England , where he eventually died .
Fighting in the Hundred Years ' War spilled from the French and Plantagenet lands into surrounding realms , including the dynastic conflict in Castile between Peter of Castile and Henry II of Castile . The Black Prince allied himself with Peter , defeating Henry at the Battle of Nájera . Edward and Peter fell out when Peter was unable to reimburse Edward ’ s military expenses leaving him bankrupt . The Plantagenets continued to interfere , and John of Gaunt , 1st Duke of Lancaster , the Black Prince 's brother , married Peter 's daughter Constance , claiming the Crown of Castile in her name . He invaded with an army of 5000 men . Fighting was inconclusive before Gaunt agreed a treaty with King Juan of Castile . Terms of the treaty included the marriage of John of Gaunt 's daughter Katherine to Juan 's son , Enrique .
Charles V of France maintained the terms of the treaty of Brétigny but encouraged others in Aquitaine to challenge the authority of the Plantagenets in Aquitaine . The prince , who had suffered a debilitating illness for nearly a decade which often restricted his movement to being carried in a litter , returned to England , where he soon died . John of Gaunt assumed leadership in France with limited success , and peace negotiations over several years were inconclusive .
= = = Descendants of Edward III = = =
The marriage of Edward III and Philippa of Hainault produced thirteen children and thirty @-@ two grandchildren :
Edward ( 1330 – 1376 ) — married his cousin Joan of Kent , a granddaughter of Edward I , with whom he had two sons :
Edward ( 1365 – 1371 / 2 )
Richard ( 1367 – 1400 )
Isabella ( 1332 – 1382 ) — married Enguerrand II , Lord of Coucy , and had two daughters :
Marie
Philippa
Joan ( 1335 – 1348 )
William ( 1334 / 6 – 1337 )
Lionel ( 1338 – 1368 ) — had one daughter with Elizabeth de Burgh :
Philippa ( 1355 – 1378 / 81 ) — through Philippa , the House of York , by cognatic kinship , asserted that its claim to the throne was superior to the House of Lancaster 's . Philippa 's granddaughter and heir , Anne Mortimer , married Richard of Conisburgh , 3rd Earl of Cambridge , the Duke of York 's heir . The earls of Northumberland and Clifford , significant supporters of the Lancasters during the Wars of the Roses , were descendants of Philippa through her other daughter , Elizabeth Mortimer .
John of Gaunt ( 1340 – 1399 ) — married Blanche of Lancaster , the heiress to the duchy of Lancaster and a direct descendent of Henry III , and had six children with her :
Philippa ( 1360 – 1415 ) — married John I of Portugal .
John ( c . 1362 / 1364 ) — died as an infant .
Elizabeth ( 1364 – 1426 ) — married John Hastings , 3rd Earl of Pembroke , John Holland , 1st Duke of Exeter , and John Cornwall , 1st Baron Fanhope , respectively .
Edward of Lancaster ( 1365 – 1365 )
John of Lancaster ( 1366 ) — died as an infant .
Henry ( 1367 – 1413 )
Isabella of Lancaster ( b . 1368 ) — died as a child .
After Blanche 's death in 1369 , John married Constance of Castile , trying unsuccessfully to obtain the throne of Castile . The marriage produced two children :
Catherine of Lancaster ( 1372 – 1418 ) — married Henry III of Castile , with whom she was a great @-@ grandmother of Catherine of Aragon , first wife of Henry VIII of England .
John ( 1374 – 1375 )
Constance died in 1394 , after which John married Katherine Swynford on 13 January 1396 . Their four children were born before they married . The pope legitimised them in 1396 , as did Richard II by charter , on the condition that their children could not ascend the throne :
John ( c . 1371 / 1372 – 1410 ) — grandfather of Margaret Beaufort , Henry VII 's mother .
Henry ( 1375 – 1447 )
Thomas ( 1377 – 1427 )
Joan ( 1379 – 1440 ) — Joan 's son , Richard Neville , 5th Earl of Salisbury , and her grandson , Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick , were leading supporters of the House of York .
Edmund ( 1341 – 1402 ) — founder of the House of York . He had three children with Isabella of Castile :
Edward ( 1373 – 1415 ) — killed at the Battle of Agincourt .
Constance ( 1374 – 1416 )
Richard — ( 1375 – 1415 )
Blanche ( 1342 ) — died as a child .
Mary of Waltham ( 1344 – 1362 ) — married John V , Duke of Brittany . No issue .
Margaret ( 1346 – 1361 ) — married John Hastings , 2nd Earl of Pembroke . No issue .
Joan ( b . 1351 )
Thomas ( 1355 – 1397 ) — murdered or executed for treason by order of Richard II ; his daughter , Anne , married Edmund Stafford .
Edward ’ s long reign had forged a new national identity , reinforced by Middle English beginning to establish itself as the spoken and written language of government . As a result he is considered by many historians in cultural respects the first ‘ English ’ post @-@ conquest ruler .
= = = Demise of the main line = = =
The Black Prince 's ten @-@ year @-@ old son succeeded as Richard II of England on the death of his grandfather , nominally exercising all the powers of kingship supported by various councils . His government levied poll taxes to finance military campaigns and combined with the poor state of the economy resulted in the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381 , followed by brutal reprisals against the rebels .
The king 's uncle Thomas of Woodstock , 1st Duke of Gloucester , Richard FitzAlan , 11th Earl of Arundel , and Thomas de Beauchamp , 12th Earl of Warwick , became known as the Lords Appellant when they sought to impeach five of the king 's favourites and restrain what was increasingly seen as tyrannical and capricious rule . Later they were joined by Henry Bolingbroke , the son and heir of John of Gaunt , and Thomas de Mowbray , 1st Duke of Norfolk . Initially , they were successful in establishing a commission to govern England for one year , but they were forced to rebel against Richard , defeating an army under Robert de Vere , Earl of Oxford , at the skirmish of Radcot Bridge .
Richard was reduced to a figurehead with little power . As a result of the Merciless Parliament , de Vere and Michael de la Pole , 1st Earl of Suffolk , who had fled abroad , were sentenced to death in their absence . Alexander Neville , Archbishop of York , had all his possessions confiscated . Several of Richard 's council were executed . On John of Gaunt 's return from Spain , Richard was able to re @-@ establish his power , having Gloucester murdered in captivity in Calais . Warwick was stripped of his title . Bolingbroke and Mowbray were exiled .
When John of Gaunt died in 1399 , Richard disinherited John 's son , Henry , who invaded England in response with a small force that quickly grew in numbers . Meeting little resistance , Henry deposed Richard to have himself crowned Henry IV of England . Richard died in captivity early the next year , probably murdered , bringing an end to the main Plantagenet line . None of Henry 's heirs were free from challenge on the grounds of not being the true heir of Richard II and that the Lancastrian dynasty had gained the throne by an act of usurpation .
= = House of Lancaster = =
Henry married his Plantagenet cousin Mary de Bohun , who was paternally descended from Edward I and maternally from Edmund Crouchback . They had seven children :
Edward ( b . 1382 ; died as a child ) — buried at Monmouth Castle , Monmouth .
Henry ( 1386 – 1422 ) — had one son :
Henry ( 1421 – 1471 ) — also had one son :
Edward ( 1453 – 1471 )
Thomas ( 1387 – 1421 ) — killed at the Battle of Baugé . His marriage to Margaret Holland proved childless ; he had an illegitimate son named John , also known as the Bastard of Clarence .
John ( 1389 – 1435 ) — had two childless marriages : to Anne of Burgundy , daughter of John the Fearless , and Jacquetta of Luxembourg . John had an illegitimate son and daughter , named Richard and Mary , respectively .
Humphrey ( 1390 – 1447 ) — died under suspicious circumstances while imprisoned for treason against Henry VI ; his death may have been the result of a stroke .
Blanche ( 1392 – 1409 ) — married Louis III , Count Palatine of the Rhine , in 1402 .
Philippa ( 1394 – 1430 ) — married Eric of Pomerania , king of Denmark , Norway and Sweden , in 1406 .
Henry went to convoluted legal means to justify his succession . Many Lancastrians asserted that his mother had had legitimate rights through her descent from Edmund Crouchback , who it was claimed was the elder son of Henry III of England , set aside due to deformity . As the grandson of Lionel of Antwerp , 1st Duke of Clarence , Edmund Mortimer , Earl of March , was the heir presumptive to Richard II and Henry used multiple rationales stressing his Plantagenet descent , divine grace , powerful friends , and the Richard 's misgovernment . In fact Mortimer never showed interest in the throne . The later marriage of his granddaughter Anne to Richard 's son consolidated his descendants ' claim to the throne with that of the more junior House of York . Henry planned to resume war with France , but was plagued with financial problems , declining health and frequent rebellions . He defeated a Scottish invasion , a serious rebellion by Henry Percy , 1st Earl of Northumberland in the North and Owain Glyndŵr 's rebellion in Wales . Many saw it as a punishment from God when Henry was later struck down with unknown but chronic illnesses .
Henry IV died in 1413 . His son and successor , Henry V of England , aware that Charles VI of France 's mental illness had caused instability in France , invaded to assert the Plantagenet claims and won a near total victory over the French at the Battle of Agincourt . In subsequent years Henry recaptured much of Normandy and secured marriage to Catherine of Valois . The resulting Treaty of Troyes stated that Henry 's heirs would inherit the throne of France , but conflict continued with the Dauphin . When Henry died in 1422 , his nine @-@ month @-@ old son succeeded him as Henry VI of England . During the minority of Henry VI the war caused political division among his Plantagenet uncles , Bedford , Humphrey of Lancaster , 1st Duke of Gloucester , and Cardinal Beaufort . Humphrey 's wife was accused of treasonable necromancy after two astrologers in her employ unwisely , if honestly , predicted a serious illness would endanger Henry VI 's life , and Humphrey was later arrested and died in prison .
Depopulation stemming from the Black Death led to increased wages , static food costs and a resulting improvement in the standard of living for the peasantry . However , under Henry misgovernment and harvest failures depressed the English economy to a pitiful state known as the Great Slump . The economy was in ruins by 1450 , a consequence of the loss of France , piracy in the channel and poor trading relations with the Hanseatic League . The economic slowdown began in the 1430s in the north of the country , spreading south in the 1440s , with the economy not recovering until the 1480s . It was also driven by multiple harvest failures in the 1430s and disease amongst livestock , which drove up the price of food and damaged the wider economy . Certain groups were particularly badly affected : cloth exports fell by 35 per cent in just four years at the end of the 1440s , collapsing by up to 90 per cent in some parts of the South @-@ West . The Crown 's debts reached £ 372 @,@ 000 , Henry 's deficit was £ 20 @,@ 000 per annum , and tax revenues were half those of his father .
= = House of York = =
Edward III made his fourth son Edmund the first duke of York in 1362 . Edmund was married to Isabella , a daughter of King Peter of Castile and María de Padilla and the sister of Constance of Castile , who was the second wife of Edmund 's brother John of Gaunt . Both of Edmund 's sons were killed in 1415 . Richard became involved in the Southampton Plot , a conspiracy to depose Henry V in favour of Richard 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Edmund Mortimer . When Mortimer revealed the plot to the king , Richard was executed for treason . Richard 's childless older brother Edward was killed at the Battle of Agincourt later the same year . Constance of York was Edmund 's only daughter and was an ancestor of Queen Anne Neville . The increasingly interwoven Plantagenet relationships were demonstrated by Edmund 's second marriage to Joan Holland . Her sister Alianore Holland was mother to Richard 's wife , Anne Mortimer . Margaret Holland , another of Joan 's sisters , married John of Gaunt 's son . She later married Thomas of Lancaster , John of Gaunt 's grandson by King Henry IV . A third sister , Eleanor Holland , was mother @-@ in @-@ law to Richard Neville , 5th Earl of Salisbury — John 's grandson by his daughter Joan Beaufort , Countess of Westmorland . These sisters were all granddaughters of Joan of Kent , the mother of Richard II , and therefore Plantagenet descendants of Edward I.
Edmund 's son Richard was married to Anne Mortimer , the daughter of Roger Mortimer , 4th Earl of March and Eleanor Holland and great @-@ granddaughter of Edward III 's second surviving son Lionel . Anne died giving birth to their only son in September 1411 . Richard 's execution four years later left two orphans : Isabel , who married into the Bourchier family , and a son who was also called Richard . Although his earldom was forfeited , Richard ( the father ) was not attainted , and the four @-@ year @-@ old orphan Richard was his heir . Within months of his father 's death , Richard 's childless uncle , Edward Duke of York , was killed at Agincourt . Richard was allowed to inherit the title of Duke of York in 1426 . In 1432 he acquired the earldoms of March and Ulster on the death of his maternal uncle Edmund Mortimer , Earl of March , who had died campaigning with Henry V in France , and the earldom of Cambridge which had belonged to his father . Being descended from Edward III in both the maternal and the paternal line gave Richard a significant claim to the throne if the Lancastrian line should fail , and by cognatic primogeniture arguably a superior claim . He emphasised the point by being the first to assume the Plantagenet surname in 1448 . Having inherited the March and Ulster titles , he became the wealthiest and most powerful noble in England , second only to the king himself . Richard married Cecily Neville , a granddaughter of John of Gaunt , and had thirteen or possibly fifteen children :
Joan ( b . 1438 ; died as a child )
Anne of York ( 1439 – 1476 ) — Mitochondrial DNA taken from a descendant of her second daughter , Anne St Leger , Baroness de Ros , was used in the identification of the remains of Richard III , which were found in 2012 .
Henry ( b . 1441 ; died as a child )
Edward ( 1442 – 1483 )
Edmund ( 1443 – 1460 )
Elizabeth ( 1444 – 1503 ) — married John de la Pole , 2nd Duke of Suffolk ; she was the mother of several claimants to the throne .
Margaret ( 1446 – 1503 ) — married Charles the Bold , Duke of Burgundy .
William ( b . 1447 ; died as a child )
John ( b . 1448 ; died as a child )
George ( 1449 – 1478 )
Thomas ( b . 1450 / 51 ; died as a child )
Richard ( 1452 – 1485 )
Ursula ( b . 1455 ; died as a child )
In her will , Cecily stated that Katherine and Humphrey were her children , but they may have been her grandchildren through de la Pole .
When Henry VI had a mental breakdown , Richard was named regent , but the birth of a male heir resolved the question of succession . When Henry 's sanity returned , the court party reasserted its authority , but Richard of York and the Nevilles defeated them at a skirmish called the First Battle of St Albans . The ruling class was deeply shocked and reconciliation was attempted . York and the Nevilles fled abroad , but the Nevilles returned to win the Battle of Northampton , where they captured Henry . When Richard of York joined them he surprised Parliament by claiming the throne and forcing through the Act of Accord , which stated that Henry would remain as king for his lifetime , but would be succeeded by York . Margaret found this disregard for her son 's claims unacceptable , and so the conflict continued . York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield and his head set on display at Micklegate Bar along with those of Edmund , Earl of Rutland , and Richard Neville , Earl of Salisbury , who had been captured and beheaded . The Scottish queen Mary of Guelders provided Margaret with support but London welcomed York 's son Edward , Earl of March and Parliament confirmed that Edward should be made king . He was crowned after consolidating his position with victory at the Battle of Towton .
Edward 's preferment of the former Lancastrian @-@ supporting Woodville family , following his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville , led Warwick and Clarence to help Margaret depose Edward and return Henry to the throne . Edward and Richard , Duke of Gloucester , fled , but on their return , Clarence switched sides at the Battle of Barnet , leading to the death of the Neville brothers . The subsequent Battle of Tewkesbury brought the demise of the last of the male line of the Beauforts . The battlefield execution of Edward of Westminster , Prince of Wales , and the later probable murder of Henry VI extinguished the House of Lancaster .
By the mid @-@ 1470s , the victorious House of York looked safely established , with seven living male princes : Edward IV and his two sons , his brother George and George 's son , his brother Richard and Richard 's son . Edward and Elizabeth Woodville themselves had ten children , seven of whom survived him :
Elizabeth ( 1466 – 1503 ) — queen consort to Henry VII of England
Mary ( 1467 – 1482 )
Cecily ( 1469 – 1507 ) — initially married John Welles , 1st Viscount Welles , and later married Thomas Kyme ( or Keme ) following John 's death .
Edward ( 1470 – c . 1483 ) — briefly succeeded his father as King Edward V.
Margaret ( 1472 ; died that year )
Richard ( 1473 – c . 1483 )
Anne ( 1475 – 1511 ) — married Thomas Howard
George ( 1477 – 1479 )
Catherine of York ( 1479 – 1527 ) — married William Courtenay , 1st Earl of Devon .
Bridget of York ( 1480 – 1517 ) — became a nun — possibly had an illegitimate daughter called Agnes of Eltham
Dynastic infighting and misfortune quickly brought about the demise of the House of York . George Plantagenet , 1st Duke of Clarence , plotted against his brother and was executed . Following Edward 's premature death in 1483 , his brother Richard had Parliament declare Edward 's two sons illegitimate on the pretext of an alleged prior pre @-@ contract to Lady Eleanor Talbot , leaving Edward 's marriage invalid . Richard seized the throne , and the Princes in the Tower were never seen again . Richard 's son predeceased him and Richard was killed in 1485 after an invasion of foreign mercenaries led by Henry Tudor , who claimed the throne through his mother Margaret Beaufort . Tudor assumed the throne as Henry VII , founding the Tudor dynasty and bringing the Plantagenet line of kings to an end .
= = House of Tudor and other Plantagenet descendants = =
= = = Tudor = = =
When Henry Tudor seized the throne there were eighteen Plantagenet descendants who might today be thought to have a stronger hereditary claim , and by 1510 this number had been increased further by the birth of sixteen Yorkist children . Henry mitigated this situation with his marriage to Elizabeth of York . She was the eldest daughter of Edward IV , and all their children were his cognatic heirs . Indeed , Polydore Vergil noted Henry VIII 's pronounced resemblance to his grandfather Edward : " For just as Edward was the most warmly thought of by the English people amongst all English kings , so this successor of his , Henry , was very like him in general appearance , in greatness of mind and generosity and for that reason was the most acclaimed and approved of all . "
This did not deter Margaret of York , Duchess of Burgundy — Edward 's sister and Elizabeth 's aunt — and members of the de la Pole family — children of Edward 's sister and John de la Pole , 2nd Duke of Suffolk — from frequent attempts to destabilise Henry 's regime . Henry imprisoned Margaret 's nephew Edward , Earl of Warwick , the son of her brother George , in the Tower of London , but in 1487 Margaret financed a rebellion led by Lambert Simnel pretending to be Edward . John de la Pole , 1st Earl of Lincoln , joined the revolt , probably anticipating that it would further his own ambitions to the throne , but he was killed in the suppression of the uprising at the Battle of Stoke Field in 1487 . Warwick was implicated by two further failed invasions supported by Margaret using Perkin Warbeck pretending to be Edward IV 's son Richard of Shrewsbury , and Warbeck 's later planned escape for them both ; Warwick was executed in 1499 . Edward 's execution may simply have been a precondition for the marriage of Arthur , Prince of Wales to Katherine of Aragon in 1501 .
= = = De La Pole = = =
John de la Pole 's attainder meant that his brother Edmund inherited their father 's titles , but much of the wealth of the duchy of Suffolk was forfeit . Edmund did not possess sufficient finances to maintain his status as a duke , so as a compromise he accepted the title of earl of Suffolk . Financial difficulties led to frequent legal conflicts and Edmund 's indictment for murder in 1501 . He fled with his brother Richard , while their remaining brother , William , was imprisoned in the Tower — where he would remain until his death 37 years later — as part of a general suppression of Edmund 's associates Philip the Fair had been holding Edmund and in 1506 he returned him to Henry . Edmund was imprisoned in the Tower . In 1513 , he was executed after Richard de la Pole , whom Louis XII of France had recognised as king of England the previous year , claimed the kingship in his own right . Richard , known as the White Rose , plotted an invasion of England for years but was killed in 1525 at the Battle of Pavia while fighting as the captain of the French landsknechts during François I of France 's invasion of Italy .
= = = Pole = = =
Warwick 's sister , and therefore Edward IV 's niece , Margaret Pole , Countess of Salisbury , was executed by Henry VIII in 1541 . By then , the cause was more religious and political rather than dynastic . The attainder of her father , Clarence , was a legal bar to any claims to the throne by his children . Additionally her marriage , arranged by Henry VII , to Sir Richard Pole , his half @-@ cousin and trusted supporter , was not auspicious . Nevertheless , it did allow the couple to be closely involved in court affairs . Margaret 's fortunes improved under Henry VIII and in February 1512 she was restored to the earldom of Salisbury and all the Warwicks ' lands . This made her the first and , apart from Anne Boleyn , the only woman in 16th @-@ century England to hold a peerage title in her own right .
Her daughter Ursula married the son of Edward Stafford , 3rd Duke of Buckingham . Buckingham 's fall after arguments with the king over property , and Margaret 's open support for Catherine of Aragon and Princess Mary began the Poles ' estrangement from the king . Hope of reconciliation was dashed by De unitate , the letter that Margaret 's son Reginald Pole wrote to Henry VIII , in which Reginald declared his opposition to the royal supremacy . In 1538 evidence came to light that Pole family members in England had been in communication with Reginald . Margaret 's sons Geoffrey and Henry were arrested for treason along with several friends and associates , including Henry 's wife and brother @-@ in @-@ law — Edward Neville . Among those arrested was the king 's cousin Henry Courtenay , 1st Marquess of Exeter , his wife and 11 @-@ year @-@ old son . Courteney 's wife was released two years later , but their son spent 15 years in the Tower until Queen Mary released him . Except for the surviving Geoffrey Pole , all the others implicated were beheaded .
Margaret was attainted . The possibility of an invasion involving Reginald via her south coast estates and her embittered relationship with Henry VIII precluded any chance of pardon . However , the decision to execute her seems a spontaneous , rather than a premeditated , act . According to the Calendar of State Papers her execution was botched at the hands of " a wretched and blundering youth ... who literally hacked her head and shoulders to pieces in the most pitiful manner " . In 1886 she was beatified by Pope Leo XIII on the grounds she had laid down her life for the Holy See " and for the truth of the orthodox Faith " .
= = = Stafford = = =
Edward Stafford , Duke of Buckingham , combined multiple lines of Plantagenet descent : from Edward III by his son Thomas of Woodstock , from Edward III via two of his Beaufort children , and from Edward I from Joan of Kent and the Holland family . His father failed in his rebellion against Richard III in 1483 but was restored to his inheritance on the reversal of his father 's attainder late in 1485 . His mother married Henry VII 's uncle Jasper Tudor , and his wardship was entrusted to the king 's mother , Lady Margaret Beaufort . In 1502 , during Henry VII 's illness , there was debate as to whether Buckingham or Edmund de la Pole should act as regent for Henry VIII . There is no evidence of continuous hostility between Buckingham and Henry VIII , but there is little doubt of the duke 's dislike of Thomas Wolsey , whom he believed to be plotting to ruin the old nobility . Therefore , Henry VIII instructed Wolsey to watch Buckingham , his brother Henry Stafford , 1st Earl of Wiltshire , and three other peers . Neither Henry VIII nor his father planned to destroy Buckingham because of his lineage and Henry VIII even allowed Buckingham 's son and heir , Henry Stafford , 1st Baron Stafford , to marry Ursula Pole , giving the Staffords a further line of royal blood descent . Buckingham himself was arrested in April 1521 ; he was found guilty on 16 May and executed the next day . Evidence was provided that the duke had been listening to prophecies that he would be king and that the Tudor family lay under God 's curse for the execution of Warwick . This was said to explain Henry VIII 's failure to produce a male heir . Much of this evidence consisted of ill @-@ judged comments , speculation and bad temper , but it underlined the threat presented by Buckingham 's descent .
= = = Tudor succession = = =
As late as 1600 , with the Tudor succession in doubt , older Plantagenet lines remained as possible claimants to a disputed throne , and religious and dynastic factors gave rise to complications . Thomas Wilson wrote in his report The State of England , Anno Domini 1600 that there were 12 " competitors " for the succession . At the time of writing ( about 1601 ) , Wilson had been working on intelligence matters for Lord Buckhurst and Sir Robert Cecil . The alleged competitors included five descendants of Henry VII and Elizabeth , including the eventual successor James I of England , but also seven from older Plantagenet lines :
Henry Hastings , 3rd Earl of Huntingdon
George Hastings , 4th Earl of Huntingdon
Charles Neville , 6th Earl of Westmorland
Henry Percy , 9th Earl of Northumberland
António , Prior of Crato
Ranuccio I Farnese , Duke of Parma
Philip III of Spain and his infant daughter
Ranulph Crewe , Chief Justice of the King 's Bench , argued that by 1626 the House of Plantagenet could not be considered to remain in existence in a speech during the Oxford Peerage case , which was to rule on who should inherit the earldom of Oxford . It was referred by Charles I of England to the House of Lords , who called for judicial assistance . Crewe said :
I have labored to make a covenant with myself , that affection may not press upon judgment ; for I suppose there is no man that hath any apprehension of gentry or nobleness , but his affection stands to the continuance of a house so illustrious , and would take hold of a twig or twine @-@ thread to support it . And yet time hath his revolutions ; there must be a period and an end to all temporal things — finis rerum — an end of names and dignities , and whatsoever is terrene ; and why not of de Vere ? For where is Bohun ? Where is Mowbray ? Where is Mortimer ? Nay , which is more , and most of all , where is Plantagenet ? They are entombed in the urns and sepulchres of mortality ! yet let the name of de Vere stand so long as it pleaseth God .
= = Further information = =
= Russian battleship Georgii Pobedonosets =
Georgii Pobedonosets ( Russian : Георгий Победоносец Saint George the Victorious ) was a battleship built for the Imperial Russian Navy , the fourth and final ship of the Ekaterina II class . She was , however , only a half @-@ sister to the others as her armor scheme was different and she was built much later than the earlier ships . She participated in the pursuit of the mutinous battleship Potemkin in June 1905 , but her crew mutinied themselves . However , loyal crew members regained control of the ship the next day and they ran her aground when Potemkin threatened to fire on her if she left Odessa harbor . She was relegated to second @-@ line duties in 1908 . She fired on SMS Goeben during her bombardment of Sevastopol in 1914 , but spent most of the war serving as a headquarters ship in Sevastopol . She was captured by both sides during the Russian Civil War , but ended up being towed to Bizerte by the fleeing White Russians where she was eventually scrapped .
= = Design and development = =
Georgii Pobedonosets was originally intended as a version of Sinop rearmed with three 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) and four 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) guns , but this changed when the decision was made to provide her with three twin 12 @-@ inch turrets rather than the barbettes used by her sisters . The turrets were significantly heavier than the barbette mountings so the armour scheme was revised in compensation . However this revised design was still deemed overweight and rejected . The Naval Ministry held a competition for a replacement , but these were rejected by the Naval Technical Committee in turn . So a modified version of Sinop , with barbettes , was chosen again as the most readily available choice . The height of her armour was lowered to reduce the overweight condition of her half @-@ sisters . Other changes were made while building , but they came early in the process and did not seriously delay her completion past her contractual date of 13 September 1893 . These changes included smaller mountings for her main guns that eliminated the sponsons needed in her sisters for the forward barbettes , the substitution of 35 @-@ calibre guns for the older 30 @-@ calibre guns and steel armor imported from Schnider et Cie of France replaced the compound armour used in her half @-@ sisters .
Georgii Pobedonosets was 347 feet 6 inches ( 105 @.@ 9 m ) long at the waterline and 339 feet 4 inches ( 103 @.@ 4 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 68 feet 11 inches ( 21 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 27 feet 11 inches ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 032 long tons ( 11 @,@ 209 t ) at load , over 700 long tons ( 710 t ) more than her designed displacement of 10 @,@ 280 long tons ( 10 @,@ 440 t ) .
She had two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines driving screw propellers 16 feet 5 inches ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) in diameter . Sixteen cylindrical boilers provided steam to the engines . The engines and boilers were both imported from Maudslay and Sons of the United Kingdom and were 114 long tons ( 116 t ) overweight . The engines had a total designed output of 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) , but they only produced 9 @,@ 843 ihp ( 7 @,@ 340 kW ) on trials and gave a top speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) . At full load she carried 900 long tons ( 910 t ) of coal that provided her a range of 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and 1 @,@ 367 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 532 km ; 1 @,@ 573 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) .
Her main armament consisted of three pairs of 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Obukhov Model 1886 35 @-@ calibre guns mounted in two twin barbette mounts side by side forward and one aft of the superstructure . They had a maximum elevation of 15 ° and could depress to − 2 ° . Each of the forward mounts could traverse 30 ° across the bow and 35 ° abaft the beam , or a total of 155 ° . The rear mount could traverse 202 ° . Their rate of fire was one round every four minutes , fifty seconds , including training time . They fired a 731 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 331 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 090 ft / s ( 640 m / s ) to a range of 11 @,@ 600 yards ( 10 @,@ 600 m ) at maximum elevation . They also had a ' heavy ' shell available that weighed 1 @,@ 003 lb ( 455 kg ) that was fired at a velocity of 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 610 m / s ) although the range is not available .
The seven 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Model 1877 35 @-@ calibre guns were mounted on broadside pivot mounts in hull embrasures , except for one gun mounted in the stern in the hull . The eight 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) single @-@ barrelled Hotchkiss guns were mounted on the battery deck to defend the ship against torpedo boats . Ten 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns were mounted in the fighting top . She carried seven above @-@ water 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , three tubes on each broadside and a tube in the stern .
In contrast to her half @-@ sisters the armour used on Georgii Pobedonosets was steel . The belt armor had a maximum thickness of 16 inches ( 410 mm ) which reduced , in 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) steps , down to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) forward and down to 8 inches ( 200 mm ) aft . Its height was reduced by 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) in comparison to the other ships of the class to 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) to reduce weight . However this left only six inches of her belt above her load waterline as she was still overweight , a decrease of 7 inches ( 180 mm ) from her half @-@ sisters . The deck armour was 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 57 mm ) outside the citadel and reduced to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) over it .
= = Service history = =
Georgii Pobedonosets was named after Saint George the Victorious . She was built by the Russian Steam Navigation Company ( RoPIT ) at Sevastopol . She was laid down on 5 May 1891 , launched on 9 March 1892 , and completed in 1893 , although her trials lasted until mid @-@ 1895 . She spent her career in the Black Sea Fleet . She began her trials in September 1893 , but they were not completed until the middle of 1895 .
In 1905 , Georgii Pobedonosets briefly joined the Potemkin mutiny . On 29 June 1905 , the ship was one of eight vessels ( three battleships , a cruiser and four torpedo boats ) sent to capture the Potemkin in Odessa . The next day the fleet approached Potemkin , then suddenly retreated . She then followed them , deliberately goading the officers to order the sailors to fire on their comrades . The crew of Georgii Pobedonosets refused : " We won 't fire ! We won 't man the guns ! We refuse to engage the Potemkin . " Her sailors cheered the rebel sailors ' bravery . Dorofey Koshuba , a member of the revolutionary sailors ' organisation Tsentralka , broke into the armoury , ordered Captain Ilya Guzevich to halt the ship , pushing him away when he refused . The ship halted , Guzevich pleaded with the sailors to go to Sevastopol , even offering to let the 70 revolutionaries onto Potemkin . Afanasi Matushenko , the leader of Potemkin 's crew , arrived with several revolutionaries who made a speech that inspired the sailors to arrest the officers . This was enough to make his second @-@ in @-@ command , Lieutenant Grigorkov , blow his own brains out . Apart from this , the seizure was bloodless . The sailors elected a committee ( Koshuba and nine others ) , locked the officers in the stateroom and ripped off their epaulettes . The officers were put ashore in Odessa . It was decided that the petty officers should be put ashore too the next day . Senior Boatswain A. O. Kuzmenko became captain .
The next day , however , loyal crew members regained control of the ship and they ran her aground and surrendered to the authorities . In August 1905 , 75 mutineers were tried . Koshuba and two others were executed and 19 sailors got 185 years of hard labour .
In 1907 , the Naval General Staff made a proposal for a radical reconstruction that was similar to the proposals to reconstruct Chesma and Sinop made before the Russo @-@ Japanese War that involved cutting her down by one deck and replacing her armament with two twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ calibre guns and the compound armor replaced by Krupp armor . This new proposal differed from the older one in that eight 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns replaced the ten six @-@ inch guns originally planned . This was rejected as she still would have lacked the speed to stay with the main fleet and the hull protection required to withstand high @-@ explosive shell fire .
She became a training ship in 1908 and her 6 @-@ inch 35 @-@ calibre guns were replaced by modern 6 @-@ inch 45 @-@ calibre guns . She was modified as a harbour guard ship in 1911 and her 12 @-@ inch guns were removed . Six more six @-@ inch guns were added for a total of fourteen . She fired three rounds , missing each time , at the German battlecruiser Goeben during her bombardment of Sevastopol on 29 October 1914 , but spent the bulk of World War I as a static headquarters ship in Sevastopol . After the Russian Revolution , she joined the Red Black Sea Fleet in December 1917 . She was captured by the Germans in 1918 in Sevastopol and was handed over to the Allies in December 1918 . The British sabotaged her engines on 25 April 1919 . She was captured by both sides in the Russian Civil War , but eventually became part of Wrangel 's fleet and was towed to Bizerte in 1920 . She was sold for scrap between 1930 and 1936 .
= Bolton =
Bolton ( / ˈbɒltən / or locally [ ˈbɜʏtn ̩ ] ) is a town in Greater Manchester in North West England . A former mill town , Bolton has been a production centre for textiles since Flemish weavers settled in the area in the 14th century , introducing a wool and cotton @-@ weaving tradition . The urbanisation and development of the town largely coincided with the introduction of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution . Bolton was a 19th @-@ century boomtown , and at its zenith in 1929 its 216 cotton mills and 26 bleaching and dyeing works made it one of the largest and most productive centres of cotton spinning in the world . The British cotton industry declined sharply after the First World War , and by the 1980s cotton manufacture had virtually ceased in Bolton .
Close to the West Pennine Moors , Bolton is 10 miles ( 16 km ) northwest of Manchester . It is surrounded by several smaller towns and villages that together form the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton , of which Bolton is the administrative centre . The town of Bolton has a population of 139 @,@ 403 , whilst the wider metropolitan borough has a population of 262 @,@ 400 . Historically part of Lancashire , Bolton originated as a small settlement in the moorland known as Bolton le Moors . In the English Civil War , the town was a Parliamentarian outpost in a staunchly Royalist region , and as a result was stormed by 3 @,@ 000 Royalist troops led by Prince Rupert of the Rhine in 1644 . In what became known as the Bolton Massacre , 1 @,@ 600 residents were killed and 700 were taken prisoner .
Football club Bolton Wanderers play home games at the Macron Stadium and the WBA World light @-@ welterweight champion Amir Khan was born in the town . Cultural interests include the Octagon Theatre and the Bolton Museum and Art Gallery , as well as one of the earliest public libraries established after the Public Libraries Act 1850 .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Bolton is a common Northern English name derived from the Old English bothl @-@ tun , meaning a settlement with a dwelling . The first recorded use of the name , in the form Boelton , dates from 1185 to describe Bolton le Moors , though this may not be in relation to a dwelling . It was recorded as Bothelton in 1212 , Botelton in 1257 , Boulton in 1288 , and Bolton after 1307 . Later forms of Botheltun were Bodeltown , Botheltun @-@ le @-@ Moors , Bowelton , Boltune , Bolton @-@ super @-@ Moras , Bolton @-@ in @-@ ye @-@ Moors , Bolton @-@ le @-@ Moors . The town 's motto of Supera Moras means " overcome difficulties " ( or " delays " ) , and is a pun on the Bolton @-@ super @-@ Moras version of the name meaning literally , " Bolton on the moors " .
= = = Early history to the Civil War = = =
There is evidence of human existence on the moors around Bolton since the early part of the Bronze Age , including a stone circle on Cheetham Close above Egerton , and Bronze Age burial mounds on Winter Hill . A Bronze Age mound was excavated in Victorian times outside Haulgh Hall . The Romans built roads from Manchester to Ribchester to the east and a road along what is now the A6 to the west . It is claimed that Agricola built a fort at Blackrod by clearing land above the forest . Evidence of a Saxon settlement exists in the form of religious objects found when the Victorian parish church was built .
In 1067 Great Bolton was the property of Roger de Poitou and after 1100 , of Roger de Meresheys . It became the property of the Pilkingtons who forfeited it in the Civil War and after that the Stanleys who became Earls of Derby . Great Bolton and Little Bolton were part of the Marsey fee , in 1212 Little Bolton was held by Roger de Bolton as plough @-@ land , by the service of the twelfth part of a knight 's fee to Randle de Marsey . The parish church in Bolton has an early foundation although the exact date is unknown ; it was given by the lord of the manor to the Gilbertine canons of Mattersey Priory in Nottinghamshire , founded by Roger de Marsey .
A charter to hold a market in Churchgate was granted on 14 December 1251 by King Henry III of England . Bolton became a market town and borough by a charter from the Earl of Derby , William de Ferrers , on 14 January 1253 , and a market was held until the 18th century . Burgage plots were laid out on Churchgate and Deansgate in the centre of the medieval town close to where Ye Olde Man & Scythe public house , dating from 1251 , is situated today . In 1337 Flemish weavers settled and introduced the manufacture of woollen cloth . More Flemish weavers , fleeing the Huguenot persecutions , settled here in the 17th century . The second wave of settlers wove fustian , a rough cloth made of linen and cotton . Digging sea coal was recorded in 1374 . There was an outbreak of the plague in the town in 1623 .
During the English Civil War , the people of Bolton were Puritans and supported the Parliamentarian cause . A parliamentary garrison in the town was attacked twice without success but on 28 May 1644 Prince Rupert 's Royalist army with troops under the command of the Earl of Derby attacked again . The attack became known as the Bolton Massacre in which 1 @,@ 500 died , 700 were taken prisoner and the town plundered . At the end of the Civil War Lord Derby was tried as a traitor at Chester and condemned to death . When his appeal for pardon to parliament was rejected he attempted to escape but was recaptured and executed for his part in the massacre outside Ye Olde Man & Scythe Inn at Bolton on 15 October 1651 .
= = = Industrial revolution onward = = =
A tradition of cottage spinning and weaving and improvements to spinning technology by local inventors , Richard Arkwright and Samuel Crompton , led to rapid growth of the textile industry in the 19th century . Crompton , whilst living at Hall i ' th ' Wood , invented the spinning mule in 1779 . Streams draining the surrounding moorland into the River Croal provided the water necessary for bleach works that were a feature of this area . Bleaching using chlorine was introduced in the 1790s by the Ainsworths at Halliwell Bleachworks . Bolton and the surrounding villages had more than thirty bleachworks including the Lever Bank Bleach Works in the Irwell Valley . The mule revolutionised cotton spinning by combining the roller drafting of Arkwright 's water frame with the carriage drafting and spindle tip twisting of James Hargreaves 's spinning jenny , producing a high quality yarn . Self @-@ acting mules were used in Bolton mills until the 1960s producing fine yarn . The earliest mills were situated by the streams and river as at Barrow Bridge , but steam power led to the construction of the large multi @-@ storey mills and their chimneys that dominated Bolton 's skyline , some of which survive today .
Growth of the textile industry was assisted by the availability of coal in the area . By 1896 John Fletcher had coal mines at Ladyshore in Little Lever ; The Earl of Bradford had a coal mine at Great Lever ; the Darcy Lever Coal Company had mines at Darcy Lever and there were also coal mines at Tonge , Breightmet , Deane and Doffcocker . Some of these pits were close to the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal providing the owners with markets in Bolton and Manchester . Coal mining declined in the 20th century .
Important transport links contributed to the growth of the town and the textile industry ; the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal constructed in 1791 , connected the town to Bury and Manchester providing transport for coal and other basic materials . The Bolton and Leigh Railway was the oldest in Lancashire , opening to goods traffic in 1828 and Great Moor Street station opened to passengers in 1831 . The railway initially connected Bolton to the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in Leigh , an important link with the port of Liverpool for the import of raw cotton from America , but was extended in 1829 to link up with the Manchester to Liverpool Line . Local firms built locomotives for the railway , in 1830 " Union " was built by Rothwell , Hick and Co. and two locomotives , " Salamander " and " Veteran " were built by Crook and Dean .
Bolton 's first Mayor , Charles James Darbishire was sympathetic to Chartism and a supporter of the Anti @-@ Corn Law League . In August 1839 Bolton was besieged by Chartist rioters and the Riot Act was read and special constables sworn in . The mayor accompanied soldiers called to rescue special constables at Little Bolton Town Hall , which was besieged by a mob , and the incident ended without bloodshed .
By 1900 Bolton was Lancashire 's third largest engineering centre after Manchester and Oldham . About 9 @,@ 000 men were employed in the industry , half of them working for Dobson and Barlow in Kay Street . The firm made textile machinery . Another engineering company Hick , Hargreaves & Co based at the Soho Foundry made Lancashire boilers and heavy machinery . Thomas Ryder and Son of Turner Bridge manufactured machine tools for the international motor industry . Wrought iron was produced for more than 100 years at Thomas Walmsley and Sons ' Atlas Forge .
By 1911 the textile industry in Bolton employed about 36 @,@ 000 people . The last mill to be constructed was Sir John Holden 's Mill in 1927 . The cotton industry declined from the 1920s . A brief upturn after the Second World War was not sustained , and the industry had virtually vanished by the end of the 20th century .
During the night of 26 September 1916 , Bolton was the target for an aerial offensive . L21 , a Zeppelin commanded by Oberleutnant Kurt Frankenburg of the Imperial German Navy , dropped twenty @-@ one bombs on the town , five of them on the working class area of Kirk Street , killing thirteen residents and destroying six houses . Further attacks followed on other parts of the town , including three incendaries dropped close to the Town Hall .
= = = Lord Leverhulme = = =
In 1899 William Lever , Lord Leverhulme , bought Hall i 'th ' Wood as a memorial to Samuel Crompton inventor of the spinning mule . Lever restored the dilapidated building and presented it to the town in 1902 , having turned it into a museum furnished with household goods typical of domestic family life in the 16th and 17th centuries . Lever re @-@ endowed Bolton Schools , giving land and his house on Chorley New Road . He presented the town with 67 acres ( 270 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land for a public park which the corporation named Leverhulme Park in 1914 . In 1902 he gave the people of Bolton Lever Park at Rivington . In 1911 , Lever consulted Thomas Mawson , landscape architect and lecturer in Landscape Design at the University of Liverpool , regarding town planning in Bolton . Mawson published " Bolton – a Study in Town Planning and Civic Art " and gave lectures entitled " Bolton Housing and Town Planning Society " which formed the basis of an illustrated book " Bolton – as it is and as it might be " . In 1924 , Leverhulme presented Bolton Council with an ambitious plan to rebuild the town centre based on Mawson 's designs funded partly by himself . The council declined in favour of extending the town hall and building the civic centre .
= = Governance = =
Lying within the county boundaries of Lancashire , until the early 19th century , Great Bolton and Little Bolton were two of the eighteen townships of the ecclesiastical parish of Bolton le Moors . These townships were separated by the River Croal , Little Bolton on the north bank and Great Bolton on the south . Bolton Poor Law Union was formed on 1 February 1837 . It continued using existing poorhouses at Fletcher Street and Turton but in 1856 started to build a new workhouse at Fishpool Farm in Farnworth . Townleys Hospital was built on the site which is now Royal Bolton Hospital .
In 1838 Great Bolton , most of Little Bolton and the Haulgh area of Tonge with Haulgh were incorporated under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 as a municipal borough , the second to be created in England . Further additions were made adding part of Rumworth in 1872 and part of Halliwell in 1877 . In 1889 Bolton was granted County Borough status and became self @-@ governing and independent from Lancashire County Council jurisdiction . In 1898 , the borough was extended further by adding the civil parishes of Breightmet , Darcy Lever , Great Lever , the rest of Halliwell , Heaton , Lostock , Middle Hulton , the rest of Rumworth which had been renamed Deane in 1894 , Smithills , and Tonge plus Astley Bridge Urban District , and part of Over Hulton civil parish . The County Borough of Bolton was abolished in 1974 and became a constituent part of the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton in Greater Manchester . Bolton unsuccessfully applied for city status in 2011 .
Bolton Metropolitan Borough Council is divided into twenty wards , each of which elects three councillors for a term of up to four years . As of 2014 there are forty Labour councillors , sixteen Conservatives and three Liberal Democrats , with one seat remaining vacant .
Under the Reform Act of 1832 , a Parliamentary Borough was established . The Bolton constituency was represented by two Members of Parliament . The Parliamentary Borough continued until 1950 when it was abolished and replaced with two parliamentary constituencies , Bolton East and Bolton West , each with one Member of Parliament . In 1983 Bolton East was abolished and two new constituencies were created , Bolton North East , and Bolton South East covering most of the former Farnworth constituency . At the same time major boundary changes also took place to Bolton West , which took over most of the former Westhoughton constituency . Under the town twinning scheme the local council have twinned Bolton with Le Mans in France , since 1967 , and Paderborn in Germany , since 1975 .
= = Geography = =
Bolton is a town in Greater Manchester , in the North West of England . Close to the West Pennine Moors , it is 10 miles ( 16 km ) northwest of the city of Manchester and surrounded by several smaller towns and villages which together form the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton , of which Bolton is the administrative centre .
The early name , Bolton le Moors , described the position of the town amid the low hills on the edge of the West Pennine Moors southeast of Rivington Pike ( 456 m ) . Bolton lies on relatively flat land on both sides of the clough or steep @-@ banked valley through which the River Croal flows in a southeasterly direction towards the River Irwell . The geological formation around Bolton consists of sandstones of the Carboniferous series and Coal Measures ; in the northern part of Bolton the lower Coal Measures are mixed with underlying Millstone Grit .
Climate in the Greater Manchester area is generally similar to the climate of England , although owing to protection from the mountains in North Wales it experiences slightly lower than average rainfall except during the summer months , when rainfall is higher than average . Bolton has mild differences between highs and lows , and there is adequate rainfall year round . The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is " Cfb " ( Marine West Coast Climate / Oceanic climate ) .
= = Demography = =
At the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , according to the Office for National Statistics , the Urban Subdivision of Bolton was part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area and had a total resident population of 139 @,@ 403 , of which 67 @,@ 823 ( 48 @.@ 7 % ) were male and 71 @,@ 580 ( 51 @.@ 3 % ) were female , living in 57 @,@ 827 households . The settlement occupied 4 @,@ 446 hectares ( 17 @.@ 17 sq mi ) , compared with 2 @,@ 992 hectares ( 11 @.@ 55 sq mi ) in the 1991 census , though it should be noted that the 2001 Urban census area contains a large rural area to the south of the town . Its population density was 31 @.@ 35 people per hectare compared with an average of 40 @.@ 20 across the Greater Manchester Urban Area . The median age of the population was 35 , compared with 36 within the Greater Manchester Urban Area and 37 across England and Wales .
The majority of the population of Bolton were born in England ( 87 @.@ 10 % ) ; 2 @.@ 05 % were born elsewhere within the United Kingdom , 1 @.@ 45 % within the rest of the European Union , and 9 @.@ 38 % elsewhere in the world .
Data on religious beliefs across the town in the 2001 census show that 67 @.@ 9 % declared themselves to be Christian , 12 @.@ 5 % stated that they were Muslim , 8 @.@ 6 % said they held no religion , and 3 @.@ 4 % reported themselves as Hindu .
= = = Population change = = =
= = Economy = =
At the time of the 2001 Census , there were 56 @,@ 390 people in employment who were resident within Bolton . Of these , 21 @.@ 13 % worked in the wholesale and retail trade , including repair of motor vehicles ; 18 @.@ 71 % worked within manufacturing industry ; 11 @.@ 00 % worked within the health and social work sector and 6 @.@ 81 % were employed in the transport , storage and communication industries .
In the last quarter of the 20th century heavy industry was replaced by service @-@ based activities including data processing , call centres , hi @-@ tech electronics and IT companies . The town retains some traditional industries employing people in paper @-@ manufacturing , packaging , textiles , transportation , steel foundries and building materials . Missiles were produced at the British Aerospace ( BAe ) factory in Lostock , now closed . The Reebok brand 's European headquarters are located at the Reebok Stadium . Bolton is also the home of the family bakery , Warburtons , established in 1876 on Blackburn Road . On 13 February 2003 , Bolton was granted Fairtrade Town status .
Bolton attracts visitors to its shopping centres , markets , public houses , restaurants and cafes in the town centre as well retail parks and leisure facilities close to the town centre and in the surrounding towns and suburbs . Tourism plays a part in the economy , visitor attractions include Hall i ' th ' Wood , Smithills Hall and Country Park , Last Drop Village , Barrow Bridge and the Bolton Steam Museum .
There are several regeneration projects planned for Bolton over the next ten years , including Church Wharf by Ask Developments and Bluemantle and Merchant 's Quarter by local developer Charles Topham group , which together will contribute 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) of business space . The Bolton Innovation Zone is a large £ 300 million development with the University of Bolton at its core .
= = Landmarks = =
Situated in the town centre on the site of a former market is the Grade II * listed town hall , an imposing neoclassical building designed by William Hill and opened in June 1873 by Albert Edward , Prince of Wales . In the 1930s the building was extended by Bradshaw Gass & Hope . Within the Town Hall are the Albert Halls and several function rooms . The original , single Albert Hall was destroyed by fire on 14 November 1981 . After rebuilding work , it was replaced by the present Albert Halls , which were opened in 1985 .
The Great Hall of Smithills Hall was built in the 14th century when William de Radcliffe received the Manor of Smithills from the Hultons , the chapel dates from the 16th century and was extended during the 19th . Smithills Hall was where , in 1555 , George Marsh was tried for heresy during the Marian Persecutions . After being " examined " at Smithills , according to local tradition , George Marsh stamped his foot so hard to re @-@ affirm his faith , that a footprint was left in the stone floor . It is a Grade I listed building and is now a museum .
Hall i ' th ' Wood , now a museum , is a late mediaeval yeoman farmer 's house built by Laurence Brownlow . Around 1637 it was owned by the Norris family , who added the stone west wing . In the 18th century it was divided up into tenements . Samuel Crompton lived and worked there . In the 19th century it deteriorated further until in 1895 it was bought by industrialist William Hesketh Lever , who restored it and presented it to Bolton Council in 1900 .
Bolton 's 26 conservation areas contain 700 listed buildings , many of which are in the town centre , and there is parkland including the Victorian Queen 's Park , Leverhulme Park and other open spaces in the surrounding area . These include Le Mans Crescent , Ye Olde Man & Scythe , Little Bolton Town Hall , the Market Place , Wood Street and Holy Trinity Church . The Market Hall of 1854 is a Grade II listed building . Outside the town centre can be found Mere Hall , Firwood Fold , Haulgh Hall , Park Cottage , St Mary 's Church , Deane , Lostock Hall Gatehouse and All Souls Church . Notable mills still overlooking parts of the town are Sir John Holden 's Mill and Swan Lane Mills .
Most views northwards are dominated by Rivington Pike and the Winter Hill TV Mast on the West Pennine Moors above the town .
= = Transport = =
Bolton is well served by the local road network and national routes . The A6 , a major north – south trunk road , passes to the west through Hunger Hill and Westhoughton . The A666 dual carriageway ( sometimes referred to as the Devil 's Highway because of its numeric designation ) , is a spur from the M61 / M60 motorway interchange through the town centre to Astley Bridge , Egerton , Darwen and Blackburn . The M61 has three dedicated junctions serving the borough .
A network of local buses coordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester serves the Bolton district and beyond ; bus operators include Arriva North West , First Greater Manchester , Diamond Bus North West and Maytree Travel . Bolton is also served by the National Express coach network . The bus station on Moor Lane is scheduled to be replaced by a new interchange in the town centre next to the railway station by the end of 2014 , at a cost of £ 48 million .
Bolton Interchange is located on the Manchester loop of the West Coast Mainline which was served by Virgin West Coast trains passing through Manchester Piccadilly station . Managed by Northern , the station is part of a town @-@ centre transport interchange with services to Manchester , Wigan , Southport , Blackburn and intermediate stations operated by TransPennine Express and Northern trains .
= = Education = =
Bolton School , an independent day school , was founded on a site next to the parish church in 1524 as a grammar school for boys ; it merged around 1656 with a free grammar school that had been founded shortly after 1641 . In 1898 , it moved to its present site in Chorley New Road , and in 1913 merged with Bolton Girls ' Day School . In 1855 the Bolton Church Institute was founded by Canon James Slade near to the parish church . The school became Canon Slade School , which has since relocated to Bradshaw . The town 's other secondary schools include Bolton St Catherine 's Academy , Ladybridge High School , Sharples School , Smithills School , Thornleigh Salesian College and UTC Bolton . Bolton College provides further education from sites throughout the borough . Bolton Sixth Form College comprises the Town Centre Campus and Farnworth Campus . The Bolton TIC ( Technical Innovation Centre ) , opened in 2006 , supports local schools by providing additional technical training . The University of Bolton , formerly the Bolton Institute of Higher Education , gained university status in 2005 .
= = Religion = =
There is evidence from Saxon times of Christian churches and at the time of the Civil War a Puritan and nonconformist presence in the town . The Unitarians were among the early dissenting congregations which eventually included Methodists , Baptists , Seventh Day Adventist and other denominations . More than forty churches were built during the Victorian era , but some have now been closed , demolished or converted to other uses .
Today , the parish of Bolton @-@ le @-@ Moors covers a small area in the town centre , but until the 19th century it covered a much larger area , divided into eighteen chapelries and townships . The neighbouring ancient parish of Deane centred around St Mary 's Church once covered a large area to the west and south of Bolton , and the township of Great Lever was part of the ancient parish of Middleton .
The Church of St Peter , commonly known as Bolton Parish Church , is an example of the gothic revival style . Built between 1866 and 1871 of Longridge stone to designs by Paley , the church is 67 ft ( 20 @.@ 4 m ) in width , 156 ft ( 47 @.@ 5 m ) in length , and 82 ft ( 25 @.@ 0 m ) in height . The tower is 180 ft ( 54 @.@ 9 m ) high with 13 bells . The first church on the same site was built in Anglo @-@ Saxon times . It was rebuilt in Norman times and again in the early 15th century . Little is known of the first two earlier churches , but the third building was a solid , squat building with a sturdy square tower at the west end . It was modified over the years until it fell into disrepair and was demolished in 1866 . Fragments of stone and other artefacts from these first three buildings are displayed in the museum corner of the present church .
St Mary 's Deane , once the only church in a parish of ten townships in the hundred of Salford , is a church established in Saxon times . The current building dates from 1250 with extensions and restoration in the 19th century and is a Grade II * listed building .
St George 's Church was built between 1794 and 1796 when Little Bolton was a separate township . Built by Peter Rothwell and paid for by the Ainsworth family. in 1975 it was leased to Bolton Council , and became a craft centre in 1994 . St Patrick 's Roman Catholic Church on Great Moor Street , was built in 1861 .
The New Zakaria Mosque , the first mosque in Bolton , served the Muslim community from Pakistan and India from the 1960s . The first place of worship for Hindus was in the former St Barnabus Church , converted into a Hindu temple .
= = Sport = =
Bolton Wanderers F.C. is an English Football League club which was formed in 1874 and for 102 years played at Burnden Park . The club moved to the Reebok Stadium in Horwich in 1997 . The club has won four FA Cups , the most recent in 1958 , and spent 73 seasons in the top division of the English league – more than any club never to have been league champions .
Bolton Hockey Club fields women 's men 's and junior teams and has more than 120 playing members . The town has two local cricket leagues , the Bolton Cricket League , and the Bolton Cricket Association . Bolton also has a rugby union club , Bolton RUFC formed in 1872 situated on Avenue Street . The club operates four senior teams , as well as women 's and junior sections . Bolton Robots of Doom is a baseball club started in 2003 , playing home games at Stapleton Avenue . In addition to the adult team there is a junior team , Bolton Bears . Baseball in Bolton dates back to 1938 with a team called Bolton Scarlets . An American football team , the Bolton Bulldogs , plays home games at Smithills School operating varsity and junior varsity teams . Speedway racing , known as Dirt Track Racing , was staged at Raikes Park in the pioneering days of 1928 , but the venue was short @-@ lived .
= = Culture and society = =
According to a survey of the British Association for the Advancement of Science Boltonians are the friendliest people in Britain . Humphrey Spender photographed Bolton calling it Worktown for the Mass @-@ Observation Project , a social research organisation which aimed to record everyday life in Britain . His photographs provide a record of ordinary people living and working in a British pre @-@ War industrial town .
Bolton has several theatres including the Octagon and independent groups such as Bolton Little Theatre and the Phoenix Theatre Company . Inside the Town Hall there is a theatre and conference complex , the Albert Halls . Le Mans Crescent , home to the central library , museum , art gallery , aquarium , magistrates ' court and town hall , is to be the centre of a new Cultural Quarter . The library and museum are to be extended into the area now occupied by the Magistrates Court . Bolton Museum and Art Gallery houses a collection of local and international art , including work by the Bolton @-@ born American artist Thomas Moran.Bolton Steam Museum houses a variety of preserved steam engines in part of the old Atlas Mill .
Bolton Central Library was one of the earliest public libraries established after the Public Libraries Act 1850 , opening in October 1853 in the Exchange Building on the old market square ( Victoria Square ) before moving to Le Mans Crescent in July 1938 . The Bolton Symphony Orchestra performs regular concerts at the Albert Halls and Victoria Hall in the town centre . The 2008 BBC Radio 3 Adult Choir of the Year and five times gold @-@ medal winning barbershop chorus The Cottontown Chorus is based in Bolton .
The town 's daily newspaper is The Bolton News , formerly the Bolton Evening News . There is a weekly free paper , the Bolton Journal and Bolton Council 's monthly newspaper , Bolton Scene . The town is part of the BBC North West and ITV Granada television regions , served by the Winter Hill transmitter near Belmont . Local radio is provided by Tower FM , which broadcasts across Bolton and Bury ; Bolton FM began broadcasting in 2009 .
The fictional village of Newbank in Benjamin Disraeli 's novel Coningsby was based in part on the industrial village of Barrow Bridge . Spring and Port Wine by playwright , Bill Naughton was filmed and set in Bolton and The Family Way based on Naughton 's play All in Good Time was also filmed and set in the town . Peter Kay filmed comedy TV series That Peter Kay Thing in the town .
Bolton buildings have stood in for other towns and cities . Le Mans Crescent has featured as a London street in the Jeremy Brett version of Sherlock Holmes and a Russian secret service building in the 1990s comedy series Sleepers . The 1990s BBC drama Between the Lines filmed an episode in Victoria Square .
In A grammar of the dialect of the Bolton area by linguist Graham Shorrocks , the local dialect is described as being distinct from those of nearby Salford and Manchester .
= = Public services = =
Bolton is policed by the Bolton Central Division of Greater Manchester Police , which covers the town centre , Rumworth and Halliwell . Great Lever and Little Lever are covered by Farnworth Police Station , Astley Bridge Police Station covers Tonge and The Haulgh , Breightmet and Crompton while Heaton and Lostock , and Smithills are covered by Horwich Police ( Middlebrook ) . The statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , from Bolton Central , Bolton North , Horwich and Farnworth Fire Stations . Hospital services are provided by the Royal Bolton Hospital NHS Foundation Trust , which provides Accident and Emergency and other services at Royal Bolton Hospital in Farnworth . Community health services , including GPs , district and community nurses , dentists and pharmacists , are co @-@ ordinated by the Bolton Primary Care Trust . Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . Bolton 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Electricity North West Ltd . United Utilities manage Bolton 's drinking and waste water .
See also Healthcare in Greater Manchester
= = Notable people = =
Among the notable people born in Bolton are the Protestant martyr George Marsh , 1515 – 55 , the inventor of the spinning mule that revolutionised the textile industry , Samuel Crompton , 1753 – 1827 , and industrialist Lord Leverhulme of Bolton @-@ le @-@ Moors , 1851 – 1925 .
More recently , people born and raised in Bolton include Fred Dibnah , a steeplejack who became a popular television historian of Britain 's industrial past ; world champion boxer Amir Khan , who became the WBA World light @-@ welterweight champion on 18 July 2009 at the age of 22 , making him Britain 's third @-@ youngest world champion boxer ; comedian Peter Kay ; and President of the International Paralympic Committee Philip Craven . Playwright and author Bill Naughton was born in Ireland but brought up in Bolton from an early age .
= Black bean aphid =
The black bean aphid ( Aphis fabae ) is a small black insect in the Aphis genus , with a broad , soft body , a member of the order Hemiptera . Other common names include blackfly , bean aphid and beet leaf aphid . In the warmer months of the year it is found in large numbers on the undersides of leaves and on the growing tips of host plants , including various agricultural crops and many wild and ornamental plants . Both winged and wingless forms exist and at this time of year , they are all females . They suck sap from stems and leaves and cause distortion of the shoots , stunted plants , reduced yield and spoiled crops . This aphid also acts as a vector for viruses that cause plant disease and the honeydew it secretes may encourage the growth of sooty mould . It breeds profusely by live birth but its numbers are kept in check , especially in the later part of the summer , by various predatory and parasitic insects . Ants feed on the honeydew it produces and take active steps to remove the aphid 's enemies . It is a widely distributed pest of agricultural crops and can be controlled by chemical or biological means . In the autumn , winged forms move to different host plants where both males and females are produced . These mate and the females lay eggs which overwinter .
= = Taxonomy = =
The specific name of the black bean aphid , " fabae " comes from the Latin faba meaning a " bean " , a plant on which this aphid often feeds . Aphis fabae is in the superfamily Aphidoidea and the subgenus Aphis .
Fauna Europaea lists six subspecies :
A. f. cirsiiacanthoidis
A. f. eryngii
A. f. evonymi
A. f. fabae
A. f. mordvilkoi
A. f. solanella
= = Description = =
The black bean aphid is a small , soft @-@ bodied insect that has specialised piercing and sucking mouthparts which are used to suck the juice from plants . This aphid is usually seen in large numbers and is a tiny , plump insect about two millimetres long with a small head and bulbous abdomen . The body is blackish or dark green in colour . Many adults are devoid of wings , a state known as aptery . Winged forms , known as alates , are longer and more slender than aptates and have shiny black heads and thoraxes . The membranous wings of the alates are held angled over the body . The antennae are less than two @-@ thirds of the length of the body and both they and the legs are pale yellow in colour with black tips . The tibiae of the hind legs are swollen in egg @-@ laying females . Near the rear of the abdomen are a pair of slender , elongated tubes known as cornicles or siphunculi . Their function is the production of a defensive waxy secretion . They are twice as long as the finger @-@ like tail and both are brownish @-@ black .
= = Lifecycle = =
The black bean aphid has both sexual and asexual generations in its life cycle . It also alternates hosts at different times of year . The primary host plants are woody shrubs , and eggs are laid on these by winged females in the autumn . The adults then die and the eggs overwinter . The aphids that hatch from these eggs in the spring are wingless females known as stem mothers . These are able to reproduce asexually , giving birth to live offspring , nymphs , through parthenogenesis . The lifespan of a parthenogenetic female is about 50 days and during this period , each can produce as many as 30 young . The offspring are also females and able to reproduce without mating , but further generations are usually winged forms . These migrate to their secondary host plants , completely different species that are typically herbaceous plants with soft , young growth .
Further parthenogenesis takes place on these new hosts on the undersides of leaves and on the growing tips . All the offspring are female at this time of year and large populations of aphids develop rapidly with both winged and wingless forms produced throughout the summer . Winged individuals develop as a response to overcrowding and they disperse to new host plants and other crops . By midsummer , the number of predators and parasites has built up and aphid populations cease to expand . As autumn approaches , the winged forms migrate back to the primary host plants . Here , both males and sexual females are produced parthogenetically , mating takes place , and these females lay eggs in crevices and under lichens to complete the lifecycle . Each female can lay six to ten black eggs which can survive temperatures as low as − 32 ° C ( − 26 ° F ) . More than 40 % of the eggs probably survive the winter but some are eaten by birds or flower bugs , and others fail to hatch in the spring .
= = Host plants = =
The black bean aphid can feed on a wide variety of host plants . Its primary hosts on which the eggs overwinter are shrubs such as the spindle tree ( Euonymus europaeus ) , Viburnum species , or the mock @-@ orange ( Philadelphus species ) . Its secondary hosts , on which it spends the summer , include a number of crops including sugar beets , spinach , beans , runner beans , celery , potatoes , sunflowers , carrots , artichokes , tobacco , and tomatoes . It colonises more than two hundred different species of cultivated and wild plants . Among the latter , it shows a preference for poppies ( Papaver species ) , burdock ( Arctium tomentonum ) , fat @-@ hen ( Chenopodium album ) , saltbush ( Atriplex rosea ) , chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla ) , thistles ( Cirsium arvense ) , and docks ( Rumex spp . ) .
Two conflicting factors are involved in host preferences , the species and the age of the leaf . Offered spindle and beet leaves on growing plants throughout the year , winged aphids moved from one to the other depending on the active growth state of each and the senescence of each host plant . Thus in late summer and autumn , the beet leaves were old and unattractive to the aphids in comparison with the leaves of the spindle , whereas in spring , the young unfolding leaves of the beet were more attractive than those of the spindle .
= = Damage = =
The black bean aphid is a major pest of sugar beet , bean and celery crops with large numbers of aphids cause stunting of the plants . Beans suffer damage to flowers and pods which may not develop properly . Early @-@ sown crops may avoid significant damage if they have already flowered before the number of aphids | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
builds up in the spring . Celery can be heavily infested . The plants are stunted by the removal of sap , the stems are distorted , harmful viruses are transmitted , and aphid residues may contaminate the crop . As a result of infestation by this aphid , leaves of sugar beet become swollen , roll , and cease developing . The roots grow poorly and the sugar content is reduced . In some other plants the leaves do not become distorted but growth is affected and flowers abort due to the action of the toxic saliva injected by the aphid to improve the flow of sap .
To obtain enough protein , aphids need to suck large volumes of sap . The excess sugary fluid , honeydew , is secreted by the aphids . It adheres to plants where it promotes growth of sooty molds . These are unsightly , reduce the surface area of the plant available for photosynthesis and may reduce the value of the crop . These aphids are also the vectors of about thirty plant viruses , mostly of the nonpersistent variety . The aphids may not be the original source of infection but are instrumental in spreading the virus through the crop . Various chemical treatments are available to kill the aphids and organic growers can use a solution of soft soap .
= = Ecology = =
Natural predators of black bean aphids include both adults and larvae of ladybirds and lacewings and the larvae of hoverflies . Certain species of tiny parasitic wasps lay their eggs inside aphids and the developing wasp larvae devour their hosts from inside . Members of the wasp genera Diaeretiella and Lysiphlebus behave in this way and may provide a measure of control of the aphids .
Ants climb the host plants and feed on the honeydew secreted by the aphids . Many species of ants have developed behaviours to enable them to protect and encourage their aphids . Black garden ants ( Lasius niger ) , for example , remove predators such as ladybirds from the vicinity of aphids , thus keeping their " milch cows " safe . On a test plot of field beans ( Vicia faba ) , plants without black bean aphids yielded an average of 56 seeds per plant , those with aphids and no ants yielded 17 seeds , and those with both ants and aphids averaged eight seeds per plant .
= = Distribution = =
The black bean aphid may have originated in Europe and Asia but it is now one of the most widely distributed species of aphids . It is found throughout temperate areas of Western Europe , Asia and North America and in the cooler parts of Africa , the Middle East and South America . In the warmer parts of its range , apterous individuals can survive the winter and they may continue to reproduce asexually all year round .
= Chika Ideal =
" Chika Ideal " ( English : " Ideal Girl " ) is a song by Puerto Rican recording artist Ivy Queen from her fourth studio album Real ( 2004 ) . It was written by Martha Ivelisse Pesante , produced by Rafi Mercenario and released as the lead single from the album in May 2004 on Universal Music Latino and Perfect Image .
Lyrically , the song follows the protagonist talking to her lover , assuring him that she is going to be with him . Queen performed the song for the first time on Don Francisco Presenta . Furthermore , the video for the song reached the top of the music video countdown hosted by Terra Networks .
= = Background = =
Queen 's 2003 third studio recording , Diva , was a factor in reggaetón 's mainstream exposure in 2004 ( with Daddy Yankee 's Barrio Fino and Tego Calderon 's El Enemy de los Guasíbiri ) , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . Queen released a platinum edition of the album with extra tracks , including " Papi Te Quiero " and " Tu No Puedes " , and began recording her next album . Her fourth studio album was originally planned to be Queen 's debut full @-@ length English language album after she received recording contract offerings from multiple record labels including Sony . She said it was a good opportunity to reach and take over the competitive market of English hip hop music after becoming popular in Latin American countries . Queen signed a deal to record an English @-@ language album after Sony contacted her and notified her that her albums from when she was with the label six years prior are now being heard in cities like London . This was because of the success of Diva . Despite her concerns over her poor English pronunciation , she continued with the project . She recorded songs with many of hip hop 's biggest MCs including American rapper Fat Joe , who recorded a song in English for her debut English album in support of her . The song was later turned into " Quítate Two " and included on Real , while American hip hop producer Swizz Beatz handled production of " Soldados " showcasing her crossover appeal .
= = Composition and recording = =
According to an editor for Rolling Stone , the album contains " raspy braggadocio and sexy rhymes " which complement Queen 's raspy vocals . Queen said " I really think this album is for people to really just sit down and listen to it " . She explained that " there are times that the songs will make you want to dance " but their lyrical content was more meaningful . Queen wanted the overall feeling of the album to express that she is a well – rounded artist . Furthermore , describing the album : " [ the songs ] are always going to be real because they are feelings that people have , " she asserts . " The hits that I have now , the girls love them because they are real . If I am feeling hurt and need to curse to express that , then I will . I am going to be real all the way because that 's what made Ivy Queen . " This is prominent on " Chika Ideal " , where she assures the protagonists ' lover that she wants to be with him and fulfill his fantasies .
Ivy Queen appeared on " Don Francisco Presenta " where she performed " Chika Ideal " in promotion of the album . Queen performed on the " Reggaeton Tour 2004 " which also featured other artist including Aldo Ranks and La Factoria in various South American countries including Ecuador where she performed songs such as " Papi Te Quiero " and " Chika Ideal " , promoting both Diva and Real . At the end of the month , Queen appeared on a special network television news segment detailing her career and struggle for respect within the genre of reggaetón . This occurred during studio recording sessions for the album . In February 2005 , she performed " Chika Ideal " , among other songs , at the " Festival of Puerto Rican Stars " , which was a historic achievement for reggaetón , as no other performer from the genre was invited to attend the event . In June 2005 , she appeared on the " Invasion Del Reggaetón Tour " with Daddy Yankee , which grossed $ 817 @,@ 220 for the week of June 18 . She also attended and performed at the Billboard Bash ! , the night before the 2005 Billboard Latin Music Awards .
= = Reception = =
While reviewing the reggaetón compilation album , Jamz TV Hits , Vol . 3 , an editor for Allmusic listed " Chika Ideal " as an selected " Allmusic Pick " . The song was also selected as one of the hits from " The Golden Era of Reggaetón " which lasted from 2003 until 2007 by Jesus Trivino of Latina magazine . Terra Networks named the music video for " Chika Ideal " as one of the hottest of the summer and claimed the song to show " why she is the queen of reggaetón " .
Despite not charting in Billboard magazine , the video reached the Top 10 for four consecutive weeks on Terra Networks ' Top Music Video countdown . In the music video for the song , Queen is video taped showing sensual scenes by several cameras from different angles . Scenes alternate between a dance in a darkened room and Queen is a record studio and the cameras . She is surrounded by multiple computers and flat screen television sets which display the feeds from the cameras .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from album 's liner notes .
Executive Production – Goguito " Willy " Guadalupe , Omar Navarro
Co @-@ Executive Production – " La Diva " Ivy Queen
Audio Production – Rafi Mercenario
Musical Production – Rafi Mercenario
Mastering – Esteban Piñero
Mixing – Dennis Nieves
Engineer – Dennis Nieves
Arranging – Dennis Nieves
Vocals – Ivy Queen , Noriega
Recording – Marroneo Studios in Bayamón , Puerto Rico
Record Label – Universal Music Latino
Representation – Goguito " Willy " Guadalupe
Publishing – Perfect Image Music Publishing / EMI 2004
Photography – Dr. Mannix Guillaera
Footwear – Steve Maden from Plaza Las Américas in San Juan , Puerto Rico
Graphic Art – MusicDesign
= Tasmanian devil =
The Tasmanian devil ( Sarcophilus harrisii ) is a carnivorous marsupial of the family Dasyuridae , now found in the wild only on the Australian island state of Tasmania . The size of a small dog , it became the largest carnivorous marsupial in the world following the extinction of the thylacine in 1936 . It is characterised by its stocky and muscular build , black fur , pungent odour , extremely loud and disturbing screech , keen sense of smell , and ferocity when feeding . The Tasmanian devil 's large head and neck allow it to generate among the strongest bite per unit body mass of any extant mammal land predator , and it hunts prey and scavenges carrion as well as eating household products if humans are living nearby . Although it usually is solitary , it sometimes eats with other devils and defecates in a communal location . Unlike most other dasyurids , the devil thermoregulates effectively and is active during the middle of the day without overheating . Despite its rotund appearance , the devil is capable of surprising speed and endurance , and can climb trees and swim across rivers .
It is believed that ancient marsupials migrated from what is now South America to Australia tens of millions of years ago during the time of Gondwana , and that they evolved as Australia became more arid . Fossils of species similar to modern devils have been found , but it is not known whether they were ancestors of the contemporary species , or whether the current devils co @-@ existed with these species . The date that the Tasmanian devil became locally extinct from the Australian mainland is unclear ; most evidence suggests they had contracted to three relict populations around 3000 years ago . A tooth found in Augusta , Western Australia has been dated to 430 years ago , but archaeologist Oliver Brown disputes this and considers the devil 's mainland extinction to have occurred around 3000 years ago . This disappearance is usually blamed on dingoes , which are absent from Tasmania . Because they were seen as a threat to livestock and animals that humans hunted for fur in Tasmania , devils were hunted and became endangered . In 1941 , the devils , which were originally seen as implacably vicious , became officially protected . Since then , scientists have contended that earlier concerns that the devils were the most significant threat to livestock were overestimated and misplaced .
Devils are not monogamous , and their reproductive process is very robust and competitive . Males fight one another for the females , and then guard their partners to prevent female infidelity . Females can ovulate three times in as many weeks during the mating season , and 80 % of two @-@ year @-@ old females are seen to be pregnant during the annual mating season . Females average four breeding seasons in their life and give birth to 20 – 30 live young after three weeks ' gestation . The newborn are pink , lack fur , have indistinct facial features and weigh around 0 @.@ 20 g ( 0 @.@ 0071 oz ) at birth . As there are only four nipples in the pouch , competition is fierce and few newborns survive . The young grow rapidly and are ejected from the pouch after around 100 days , weighing roughly 200 g ( 7 @.@ 1 oz ) . The young become independent after around nine months , so the female spends most of her year in activities related to birth and rearing .
Since the late 1990s , devil facial tumour disease has drastically reduced the devil population and now threatens the survival of the species , which in 2008 was declared to be endangered . Programs are currently being undertaken by the Government of Tasmania to reduce the impact of the disease , including an initiative to build up a group of healthy devils in captivity , isolated from the disease . While the thylacine was extant it preyed on the devil , which targeted young and unattended thylacine cubs in their dens . Localised populations of devils have also been severely reduced by collisions with motor vehicles , particularly when they are eating roadkill .
The devil is an iconic symbol of Tasmania and many organisations , groups and products associated with the state use the animal in their logos . It is seen as an important attractor of tourists to Tasmania and has come to worldwide attention through the Looney Tunes character of the same name . Starting in 2013 , Tasmanian devils are again being sent to zoos around the world as part of the Australian government 's Save the Tasmanian Devil Program .
= = Taxonomy = =
Believing it to be a type of opossum , naturalist George Harris wrote the first published description of the Tasmanian devil in 1807 , naming it Didelphis ursina , due to its bearlike characteristics such as the round ear . He had earlier made a presentation on the topic at the Zoological Society of London . However , that particular binomial name had been given to the common wombat ( later reclassified as Vombatus ursinus ) by George Shaw in 1800 , and was hence unavailable . In 1838 a specimen was named Dasyurus laniarius by Richard Owen , but by 1877 he had relegated it to Sarcophilus . The modern Tasmanian devil was named Sarcophilus harrisii ( " Harris 's meat @-@ lover " ) by French naturalist Pierre Boitard in 1841 . A later revision of the devil 's taxonomy , published in 1987 , attempted to change the species name to Sarcophilus laniarius based on mainland fossil records of only a few animals . However , this was not accepted by the taxonomic community at large ; the name S. harrisii has been retained and S. laniarius relegated to a fossil species . " Beelzebub 's pup " was an early vernacular name given to it by the explorers of Tasmania , in reference to a religious figure who is a prince of hell and an assistant of Satan ; the explorers first encountered the animal by hearing its far @-@ reaching vocalisations at night . Related names that were used in the 19th century were Sarcophilus satanicus ( " Satanic meatlover " ) and Diabolus ursinus ( " bear devil " ) , all due to early misconceptions of the devil as implacably vicious .
The Tasmanian devil ( Sarcophilus harrisii ) belongs to the family Dasyuridae . The genus Sarcophilus contains two other species , known only from Pleistocene fossils : S. laniarius and S. moomaensis . The relationships between the three species are not clear . Phylogenetic analysis shows that the devil is most closely related to quolls .
The roots of Australian marsupials are thought to trace back tens of millions of years to when much of the current Southern Hemisphere was part of the supercontinent of Gondwana ; marsupials are believed to have originated in what is now South America and migrated across Antarctica , which had a temperate climate at the time . As soil degradation took hold , it is believed that the marsupials adapted to the more basic flora of Australia . According to Pemberton , the possible ancestors of the devil may have needed to climb trees to acquire food , leading to a growth in size and the hopping gait of many marsupials . He speculated that these adaptations may have caused the contemporary devil 's peculiar gait . The specific lineage of the Tasmanian devil is theorised to have emerged during the Miocene , molecular evidence suggesting a split from the ancestors of quolls between 10 and 15 million years ago , when severe climate change came to bear in Australia , transforming the climate from warm and moist to an arid , dry ice age , resulting in mass extinctions . As most of their prey died of the cold , only a few carnivores survived , including the ancestors of the quoll and thylacine . It is speculated that the devil lineage may have arisen at this time to fill a niche in the ecosystem , as a scavenger that disposed of carrion left behind by the selective @-@ eating thylacine . The extinct Glaucodon ballaratensis of the Pliocene age has been dubbed an intermediate species between the quoll and devil .
Fossil deposits in limestone caves at Naracoorte , South Australia , dating to the Miocene include specimens of S. laniarius , which were around 15 % larger and 50 % heavier than modern devils . Older specimens believed to be 50 – 70 @,@ 000 years old were found in Darling Downs in Queensland and in Western Australia . It is not clear whether the modern devil evolved from S. laniarius , or whether they coexisted at the time . Richard Owen argued for the latter hypothesis in the 19th century , based on fossils found in 1877 in New South Wales . Large bones attributed to S. moornaensis have been found in New South Wales , and it has been conjectured that these two extinct larger species may have hunted and scavenged . It is known that there were several genera of thylacine millions of years ago , and that they ranged in size , the smaller being more reliant on foraging . As the devil and thylacine are similar , the extinction of the co @-@ existing thylacine genera has been cited as evidence for an analogous history for the devils . It has been speculated that the smaller size of S. laniarius and S. moornaensis allowed them to adapt to the changing conditions more effectively and survive longer than the corresponding thylacines . As the extinction of these two species came at a similar time to human habitation of Australia , hunting by humans and land clearance have been mooted as possible causes . Critics of this theory point out that as indigenous Australians only developed boomerangs and spears for hunting around 10 @,@ 000 years ago , a critical fall in numbers due to systematic hunting is unlikely . They also point out that caves inhabited by Aborigines have a low proportion of bones and rock paintings of devils , and suggest that this is an indication that it was not a large part of indigenous lifestyle . A scientific report in 1910 claimed that Aborigines preferred the meat of herbivores rather than carnivores . The other main theory for the extinction was that it was due to the climate change brought on by the most recent ice age .
While dingoes are seen as the main reason for the disappearance of devils from the mainland , another theory is that the increasing aridity of the mainland caused it , while the population in Tasmania has been largely unaffected as the climate remains cool and moist . According to this theory , the dingo was only a secondary cause .
As the devil is the thylacine 's closest relative , there has been speculation that the thylacine could be revived by combining DNA from museum samples of thylacines with ova of the devil .
= = = Genetics = = =
The Tasmanian devil 's genome was sequenced in 2010 by the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute . Like all dasyurids , the devil has 14 chromosomes . Devils have a low genetic diversity compared to other Australian marsupials and placental carnivores ; this is consistent with a founder effect as allelic size ranges were low and nearly continuous throughout all subpopulations measured . Allelic diversity was measured at 2 @.@ 7 – 3 @.@ 3 in the subpopulations sampled , and heterozygosity was in the range 0 @.@ 386 – 0 @.@ 467 . According to a study by Menna Jones , " gene flow appears extensive up to 50 km ( 31 mi ) " , meaning a high assignment rate to source or close neighbour populations " in agreement with movement data . At larger scales ( 150 – 250 km or 90 – 200 mi ) , gene flow is reduced but there is no evidence for isolation by distance " . Island effects may also have contributed to their low genetic diversity . Periods of low population density may also have created moderate population bottlenecks , reducing genetic diversity . Low genetic diversity is thought to have been a feature in the Tasmanian devil population since the mid @-@ Holocene . Outbreaks of devil facial tumour disease ( DFTD ) cause an increase in inbreeding . A sub @-@ population of devils in the north @-@ west of the state is genetically distinct from other devils , but there is some exchange between the two groups .
One strand conformation polymorphism analysis ( OSCP ) on the major histocompatibility complex ( MHC ) class I domain taken from various locations across Tasmania showed 25 different types , and showed a different pattern of MHC types in north @-@ western Tasmania to eastern Tasmania . Those devils in the east of the state have less MHC diversity ; 30 % are of the same type as the tumour ( type 1 ) , and 24 % are of type A. Seven of every ten devils in the east are of type A , D , G or 1 , which are linked to DFTD ; whereas only 55 % of the western devils fall into these MHC categories . Of the 25 MHC types , 40 % are exclusive to the western devils . Although the north @-@ west population is less genetically diverse overall , it has higher MHC gene diversity , which allows them to mount an immune response to DFTD . According to this research , mixing the devils may increase the chance of disease . Of the fifteen different regions in Tasmania surveyed in this research , six were in the eastern half of the island . In the eastern half , Epping Forest had only two different types , 75 % being type O. In the Buckland @-@ Nugent area , only three types were present , and there were an average of 5 @.@ 33 different types per location . In contrast , in the west , Cape Sorell yielded three types , and Togari North @-@ Christmas Hills yielded six , but the other seven sites all had at least eight MHC types , and West Pencil Pine had 15 types . There was an average of 10 @.@ 11 MHC types per site in the west .
= = Description = =
The Tasmanian devil is the largest surviving carnivorous marsupial . It has a squat , thick build , with a large head and a tail which is about half its body length . Unusually for a marsupial , its forelegs are slightly longer than its hind legs , and devils can run up to 13 km / h ( 8 @.@ 1 mph ) for short distances . The fur is usually black , often with irregular white patches on the chest and rump ( although approximately 16 % of wild devils do not have white patches ) . These markings suggest that the devil is most active at dawn and dusk , and they are thought to draw biting attacks toward less important areas of the body , as fighting between devils often leads to a concentration of scars in that region . Males are usually larger than females , having an average head and body length of 652 mm ( 25 @.@ 7 in ) , a 258 mm ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) tail and an average weight of 8 kg ( 18 lb ) . Females have an average head and body length of 570 mm ( 22 in ) , a 244 mm ( 9 @.@ 6 in ) tail and an average weight of 6 kg ( 13 lb ) , although devils in western Tasmania tend to be smaller . Devils have five long toes on their forefeet , four pointing to the front and one coming out from the side , which gives the devil the ability to hold food . The hind feet have four toes , and the devils have non @-@ retractable claws . The stocky devils have a relatively low centre of mass .
Devils are fully grown at two years of age , and few devils live longer than five years in the wild . Possibly the longest @-@ lived Tasmanian devil recorded was Coolah , a male devil which lived in captivity for more than seven years . Born in January 1997 at the Cincinnati Zoo , Coolah died in May 2004 at the Fort Wayne Children 's Zoo .
The devil stores body fat in its tail , and healthy devils have fat tails . The tail is largely non @-@ prehensile and is important to its physiology , social behaviour and locomotion . It acts as a counterbalance to aid stability when the devil is moving quickly . An ano @-@ genital scent gland at the base of its tail is used to mark the ground behind the animal with its strong , pungent scent .
The male has external testes in a pouch @-@ like structure formed by lateral ventrocrural folds of the abdomen , which partially hides and protects them . The testes are subovoid in shape and the mean dimensions of 30 testes of adult males was 3 @.@ 17 cm × 2 @.@ 57 cm ( 1 @.@ 25 in × 1 @.@ 01 in ) . The female 's pouch opens backwards , and is present throughout its life , unlike some other dasyurids .
The Tasmanian devil has an exceptionally strong bite for its size , generating a force of over 553 N ( 124 lbf ) . The jaw can open to 75 – 80 degrees , allowing the devil to generate the large amount of power to tear meat and crush bones — sufficient force to allow it to bite through thick metal wire . The power of the jaws is in part due to its comparatively large head . The teeth and jaws of Tasmanian devils resemble those of hyenas , an example of convergent evolution . Dasyurid teeth resemble those of primitive marsupials . Like all dasyurids , the devil has prominent canines and cheek teeth . It has three pairs of lower incisors and four pairs of upper incisors . These are located at the top of the front of the devil 's mouth . Like dogs , it has 42 teeth , however , unlike dogs , its teeth are not replaced after birth but grow continuously throughout life at a slow rate . It has a " highly carnivorous dentition and trophic adaptations for bone consumption " . The devil has long claws that allow it to dig burrows and seek subterranean food easily and grip prey or mates strongly . The teeth and claw strength allow the devil to attack wombats up to 30 kg ( 66 lb ) in weight . The large neck and forebody that give the devil its strength also cause this strength to be biased towards the front half of the body ; the lopsided , awkward , shuffling gait of the devil is attributed to this .
The devil has long whiskers on its face and in clumps on the top of the head . These help the devil locate prey when foraging in the dark , and aid in detecting when other devils are close during feeding . The whiskers can extend from the tip of the chin to the rear of the jaw and can cover the span of its shoulder . Hearing is its dominant sense , and it also has an excellent sense of smell , which has a range of 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) . The devil , unlike other marsupials , has a " well @-@ defined , saddle @-@ shaped ectotympanic " . Since devils hunt at night , their vision seems to be strongest in black and white . In these conditions they can detect moving objects readily , but have difficulty seeing stationary objects .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Devils are found in all habitats on the island of Tasmania , including the outskirts of urban areas , and are distributed throughout the Tasmanian mainland and on Robbins Island ( which is connected to mainland Tasmania at low tide ) . The north @-@ western population is located west of the Forth River and as far south as Macquarie Heads . Previously , they were present on Bruny Island from the 19th century , but there have been no records of them after 1900 , and they were introduced to Badger Island in the mid @-@ 1990s but are thought to have died out by 2005 . A study has modelled the reintroduction of DFTD @-@ free Tasmanian devils to the mainland in areas where dingoes are sparse . It is proposed that devils would have fewer impacts on both livestock and native fauna than dingoes , and that the mainland population could act as an additional insurance population . In September 2015 , 20 immunised captive @-@ bred devils were released into Narawntapu National Park , Tasmania . Two later died from being hit by cars .
The " core habitat " of the devils is considered to be within the " low to moderate annual rainfall zone of eastern and north @-@ western Tasmania " . Tasmanian devils particularly like dry sclerophyll forests and coastal woodlands . Although they are not found at the highest altitudes of Tasmania , and their population density is low in the button grass plains in the south @-@ west of the state , their population is high in dry or mixed sclerophyll forests and coastal heaths . Devils prefer open forest to tall forest , and dry rather than wet forests . They are also found near roads where roadkill is prevalent , although the devils themselves are often killed by vehicles while retrieving the carrion . According to the Threatened Species Scientific Committee , their versatility means that habitat modification from destruction is not seen as a major threat to the species .
The devil is directly linked to the Dasyurotaenia robusta , a tapeworm which is classified as Rare under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 . This tapeworm is found only in devils .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The Tasmanian devil is a nocturnal and crepuscular hunter , spending the days in dense bush or in a hole . It has been speculated that nocturnalism may have been adopted to avoid predation by eagles and humans . Young devils are predominantly crepuscular . There is no evidence of torpor .
Young devils can climb trees , but this becomes more difficult as they grow larger . Devils can scale trees of trunk diameter larger than 40 cm ( 16 in ) , which tend to have no small side branches to hand onto , up to a height of around 2 @.@ 5 – 3 m ( 8 @.@ 2 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Devils that are yet to reach maturity can climb shrubs to a height of 4 metres ( 13 @.@ 1 ft ) , and can climb a tree to 7 m ( 23 ft ) if it is not vertical . Adult devils may eat young devils if they are very hungry , so this climbing behaviour may be an adaptation to allow young devils to escape . Devils can also swim and have been observed crossing rivers that are 50 metres ( 160 ft ) in width , including icy cold waterways , apparently enthusiastically .
Tasmanian devils do not form packs , but rather spend most of their time alone once weaned . Classically considered as solitary animals , their social interactions were poorly understood . However , a field study published in 2009 shed some light on this . Tasmanian devils in Narawntapu National Park were fitted with proximity sensing radio collars which recorded their interactions with other devils over several months from February to June 2006 . This revealed that all devils were part of a single huge contact network , characterised by male @-@ female interactions during mating season , while female @-@ female interactions were the most common at other times , although frequency and patterns of contact did not vary markedly between seasons . Previously thought to fight over food , males only rarely interacted with other males . Hence , all devils in a region are part of a single social network . They are considered to be non @-@ territorial in general , but females are territorial around their dens . This allows a higher total mass of devils to occupy a given area than territorial animals , without conflict . Tasmanian devils instead occupy a home range . In a period of between two and four weeks , devils ' home ranges are estimated to vary between 4 and 27 km2 ( 990 and 6 @,@ 670 acres ) , with an average of 13 km2 ( 3 @,@ 200 acres ) . The location and geometry of these areas depend on the distribution of food , particularly wallabies and pademelons nearby .
Devils use three or four dens regularly . Dens formerly owned by wombats are especially prized as maternity dens because of their security . Dense vegetation near creeks , thick grass tussocks , and caves are also used as dens . Adult devils use the same dens for life . It is believed that , as a secure den is highly prized , some may have been used for several centuries by generations of animals . Studies have suggested that food security is less important than den security , as habitat destruction that impacts the latter has had more effect on mortality rates . Young pups remain in one den with their mother , and other devils are mobile , changing dens every 1 – 3 days and travelling a mean distance of 8 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) every night . However , there are also reports that an upper bound can be 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) per night . They choose to travel through lowlands , saddles and along the banks of creeks , particularly preferring carved @-@ out tracks and livestock paths and eschewing steep slopes and rocky terrain . The amount of movement is believed to be similar throughout the year , except for mothers who have given birth recently . The similarity in travel distances for males and females is unusual for sexually dimorphic , solitary carnivores . As a male needs more food , he will spend more time eating than travelling . Devils typically make circuits of their home range during their hunts . In areas near human habitation , they are known to steal clothes , blankets and pillows and take them for use in dens in wooden buildings .
While the dasyurids have similar diet and anatomy , differing body sizes affect thermoregulation and thus behaviour . In ambient temperatures between 5 and 30 ° C ( 41 and 86 ° F ) , the devil was able to maintain a body temperature between 37 @.@ 4 and 38 ° C ( 99 @.@ 3 and 100 @.@ 4 ° F ) . When the temperature was raised to 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) , and the humidity to 50 % , the devil 's body temperature spiked upwards by 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) within 60 minutes , but then steadily decreased back to the starting temperature after a further two hours , and remained there for two more hours . During this time , the devil drank water and showed no visible signs of discomfort , leading scientists to believe that sweating and evaporative cooling is its primary means of heat dissipation . A later study found that devils pant but do not sweat to release heat . In contrast , many other marsupials were unable to keep their body temperatures down . As the smaller animals have to live in hotter and more arid conditions to which they are less well @-@ adapted , they take up a nocturnal lifestyle and drop their body temperatures during the day , whereas the devil is active in the day and its body temperature varies by 1 @.@ 8 ° C ( 35 @.@ 2 ° F ) from its minimum at night to the maximum in the middle of the day .
The standard metabolic rate of a Tasmanian devil is 141 kJ / kg ( 15 @.@ 3 kcal / lb ) per day , many times lower than smaller marsupials . A 5 @-@ kilogram ( 11 lb ) devil uses 712 kilojoules ( 170 kcal ) per day . The field metabolic rate is 407 kJ / kg ( 44 @.@ 1 kcal / lb ) . Along with quolls , Tasmanian devils have a metabolic rate comparable to non @-@ carnivorous marsupials of a similar size . This differs from placental carnivores , which have comparatively high basal metabolic rates . A study of devils showed a loss of weight from 7 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 1 kilograms ( 17 to 16 lb ) from summer to winter , but in the same time , daily energy consumption increased from 2 @,@ 591 to 2 @,@ 890 kilojoules ( 619 to 691 kcal ) . This is equivalent to an increase in food consumption from 518 to 578 grams ( 18 @.@ 3 to 20 @.@ 4 oz ) . The diet is protein @-@ based with 70 % water content . For every 1 gram ( 0 @.@ 035 oz ) of insects consumed , 3 @.@ 5 kilojoules ( 0 @.@ 84 kcal ) of energy are produced , while a corresponding amount of wallaby meat generated 5 @.@ 0 kilojoules ( 1 @.@ 2 kcal ) . In terms of its body mass , the devil eats only a quarter of the eastern quoll 's intake , allowing it to survive longer during food shortages .
The devil is a keystone species in the ecosystem of Tasmania .
= = = Feeding = = =
Tasmanian devils can take prey up to the size of a small kangaroo , but in practice they are opportunistic and eat carrion more often than they hunt live prey . Although the devil favours wombats because of the ease of predation and high fat content , it will eat all small native mammals such as bettong and potoroos , domestic mammals ( including sheep ) , birds , fish , fruit , vegetable matter , insects , tadpoles , frogs and reptiles . Their diet is widely varied and depends on the food available . Before the extinction of the thylacine , the Tasmanian devil ate thylacine cubs left alone in dens when their parents were away . This may have helped to hasten the extinction of the thylacine , which also ate devils . They are known to hunt water rats by the sea and forage on dead fish that have been washed ashore . Near human habitation , they can also steal shoes and chew on them , and eat the legs of otherwise robust sheep when they have slipped in wooden shearing sheds , leaving their legs dangling below . Other unusual matter observed in devil scats includes collars and tags of devoured animals , intact echidna spines , pencil , plastic and jeans . Although devils can bite through metal traps , they tend to reserve their strong jaws for escaping captivity rather than breaking into food storage . Due to their relative lack of speed , they can not run down a wallaby or a rabbit , but they can attack animals that have become slow due to illness . They survey flocks of sheep by sniffing them from 10 – 15 m away and attack if the prey is ill . The sheep stamp their feet in a show of strength .
Despite their lack of extreme speed , there have been reports that devils can run at 25 km / h for 1 @.@ 5 km , and it has been conjectured that , before European immigration and the introduction of livestock , vehicles and roadkill , they would have had to chase other native animals at a reasonable pace to find food . Pemberton has reported that they can average 10 km / h for " extended periods " on several nights per week , and that they run for long distances before sitting still for up to half an hour , something that has been interpreted as evidence of ambush predation .
Devils can dig to forage corpses , in one case digging down to eat the corpse of a buried horse that had died due to illness . They are known to eat animal cadavers by first ripping out the digestive system , which is the softest part of the anatomy , and they often reside in the resulting cavity while they are eating .
On average , devils eat about 15 % of their body weight each day , although they can eat up to 40 % of their body weight in 30 minutes if the opportunity arises . This means they can become very heavy and lethargic after a large meal ; in this state they tend to waddle away slowly and lie down , becoming easy to approach . This has led to a belief that such eating habits became possible due to the lack of a predator to attack such bloated individuals .
Tasmanian devils can eliminate all traces of a carcass of a smaller animal , devouring the bones and fur if desired . In this respect , devils have earned the gratitude of Tasmanian farmers , as the speed at which they clean a carcass helps prevent the spread of insects that might otherwise harm livestock . Some of these dead animals are disposed of when the devils haul off the excess feed back to their residence to continue eating at a later time .
The diet of a devil can vary substantially for males and females , and seasonally , according to studies at Cradle Mountain . In winter , males prefer medium mammals over larger ones , with a ratio of 4 : 5 , but in summer , they prefer larger prey in a 7 : 2 ratio . These two categories accounted for more than 95 % of the diet . Females are less inclined to target large prey , but have the same seasonal bias . In winter , large and medium mammals account for 25 % and 58 % each , with 7 % small mammals and 10 % birds . In summer , the first two categories account for 61 % and 37 % respectively .
Juvenile devils are sometimes known to climb trees ; in addition to small vertebrates and invertebrates , juveniles climb trees to eat grubs and birds ' eggs . Juveniles have also been observed climbing into nests and capturing birds . Throughout the year , adult devils derive 16 @.@ 2 % of their biomass intake from arboreal species , almost all of which is possum meat , just 1 @.@ 0 % being large birds . From February to July , subadult devils derive 35 @.@ 8 % of their biomass intake from arboreal life , 12 @.@ 2 % being small birds and 23 @.@ 2 % being possums . Female devils in winter source 40 @.@ 0 % of their intake from arboreal species , including 26 @.@ 7 % from possums and 8 @.@ 9 % from various birds . Not all of these animals were caught while they were in trees , but this high figure for females , which is higher than for male spotted @-@ tailed quolls during the same season , is unusual , as the devil has inferior tree climbing skills .
Although they hunt alone , there have been unsubstantiated claims of communal hunting , where one devil drives prey out of its habitat and an accomplice attacks . Eating is a social event for the Tasmanian devil . This combination of a solitary animal that eats communally makes the devil unique among carnivores . Much of the noise attributed to the animal is a result of raucous communal eating , at which up to 12 individuals can gather , although groups of two to five are common ; it can often be heard several kilometres away . This has been interpreted as notifications to colleagues to share in the meal , so that food is not wasted by rot and energy is saved . The amount of noise is correlated to the size of the carcass . The devils eat in accordance with a system . Juveniles are active at dusk , so they tend to reach the source before the adults . Typically , the dominant animal eats until it is satiated and leaves , fighting off any challengers in the meantime . Defeated animals run into the bush with their hair and tail erect , their conqueror in pursuit and biting their victim 's rear where possible . Disputes are less common as the food source increases as the motive appears to be getting sufficient food rather than oppressing other devils . When quolls are eating a carcass , devils will tend to chase them away . This is a substantial problem for spotted @-@ tailed quolls , as they kill relatively large possums and cannot finish their meal before devils arrive . In contrast , the smaller eastern quolls predate much smaller victims , and can complete feeding before devils turn up . This is seen as a possible reason for the relatively small population of spotted @-@ tailed quolls .
A study of feeding devils identified twenty physical postures , including their characteristic vicious yawn , and eleven different vocal sounds that devils use to communicate as they feed . They usually establish dominance by sound and physical posturing , although fighting does occur . The white patches on the devil are visible to the night @-@ vision of its colleagues . Chemical gestures are also used . Adult males are the most aggressive , and scarring is common . They can also stand on their hind legs and push each other 's shoulders with their front legs and heads , similar to sumo wrestling . Torn flesh around the mouth and teeth , as well as punctures in the rump , can sometimes be observed , although these can also be inflicted during breeding fights .
Digestion is very fast in dasyurids and , for the Tasmanian devil , the few hours taken for food to pass through the small gut is a long period in comparison to some other dasyuridae . Devils are known to return to the same places to defecate , and to do so at a communal location , called a devil latrine . It is believed that the communal defecation may be a means of communication that is not well understood . Devil scats are very large compared to body size ; they are on average 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long , but there have been samples that are 25 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) in length . They are characteristically grey in colour due to digested bones , or have bone fragments included .
Owen and Pemberton believe that the relationship between Tasmanian devils and thylacines was " close and complex " , as they competed directly for prey and probably also for shelter . The thylacines preyed on the devils , the devils scavenged from the thylacine 's kills , and the devils ate thylacine young . Menna Jones hypothesises that the two species shared the role of apex predator in Tasmania . Wedge @-@ tailed eagles have a similar carrion @-@ based diet to the devils and are regarded as competitors . Quolls and devils are also seen as being in direct competition in Tasmania . Jones believed that the quoll has evolved into its current state in just 100 – 200 generations of around two years as determined by the equal spacing effect on the devil , the largest species , the spotted @-@ tail quoll , and the smallest species , the eastern quoll . Both the Tasmanian devil and the quolls appears to have evolved up to 50 times faster than the average evolutionary rate amongst mammals .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Females start to breed when they reach sexual maturity , typically in their second year . At this point , they become fertile once a year , producing multiple ova while in heat . As prey is most abundant in spring and early summer , the devil 's reproductive cycle starts in March or April so that the end of the weaning period coincides with the maximisation of food supplies in the wild for the newly roaming young devils . Occurring in March , mating takes places in sheltered locations during both day and night . Males fight over females in the breeding season , and female devils will mate with the dominant male . Females can ovulate up to three times in a 21 @-@ day period , and copulation can take five days ; one instance of a couple being in the mating den for eight days has been recorded . Devils are not monogamous , and females will mate with several males if not guarded after mating ; males also reproduce with several females during a season . Females have been shown to be selective in an attempt to ensure the best genetic offspring , for example , fighting off the advances of smaller males . Males often keep their mates in custody in the den , or take them along if they need to drink , lest they engage in infidelity . Males can produce up to 16 offspring over their lifetime , while females average four mating seasons and 12 offspring . Theoretically this means that a devil population can double on an annual basis and make the species insulated against high mortality . The pregnancy rate is high ; 80 % of two @-@ year @-@ old females were observed with newborns in their pouches during the mating season . More recent studies of breeding place the mating season between February and June , as opposed to between February and March .
Gestation lasts 21 days , and devils give birth to 20 – 30 young standing up , each weighing approximately 0 @.@ 18 – 0 @.@ 24 grams ( 0 @.@ 0063 – 0 @.@ 0085 oz ) . At birth , the front limb has well @-@ developed digits with claws ; unlike many marsupials , the claws of baby devils are not deciduous . As with most other marsupials , the forelimb is longer ( 0 @.@ 26 – 0 @.@ 43 cm or 0 @.@ 10 – 0 @.@ 17 in ) than the rear limb ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 28 cm or 0 @.@ 079 – 0 @.@ 110 in ) , the eyes are spots , and the body is pink . There are no external ears or openings . Unusually , the gender can be determined at birth , with an external scrotum present .
Tasmanian devil young are variously called " pups " , " joeys " , or " imps " . When the young are born , competition is fierce as they move from the vagina in a sticky flow of mucus to the pouch . Once inside the pouch , they each remain attached to a nipple for the next 100 days . The female Tasmanian devil 's pouch , like that of the wombat , opens to the rear , so it is physically difficult for the female to interact with young inside the pouch . Despite the large litter at birth , the female has only four nipples , so there are never more than four babies nursing in the pouch , and the older a female devil gets , the smaller her litters will become . Once the young have made contact with the nipple , it expands , resulting in the oversized nipple being firmly clamped inside the newborn and ensuring that the newborn does not fall out of the pouch . On average , more females survive than males , and up to 60 % of young do not survive to maturity .
Milk replacements are often used for devils that have been bred in captivity , for orphaned devils or young who are born to diseased mothers . Little is known about the composition of the devil 's milk compared to other marsupials .
Inside the pouch , the nourished young develop quickly . In the second week , the rhinarium becomes distinctive and heavily pigmented . At 15 days , the external parts of the ear are visible , although these are attached to the head and do not open out until the devil is around 10 weeks old . The ear begins blackening after around 40 days , when it is less than 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long , and by the time the ear becomes erect , it is between 1 @.@ 2 and 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 47 and 0 @.@ 63 in ) . Eyelids are apparent at 16 days , whiskers at 17 days , and the lips at 20 days . The devils can make squeaking noises after eight weeks , and after around 10 – 11 weeks , the lips can open . Despite the formation of eyelids , they do not open for three months , although eyelashes form at around 50 days . The young — up to this point they are pink — start to grow fur at 49 days and have a full coat by 90 days . The fur growing process starts at the snout and proceeds back through the body , although the tail attains fur before the rump , which is the last part of the body to become covered . Just before the start of the furring process , the colour of the bare devil 's skin will darken and become black or dark grey in the tail .
The devils have a complete set of facial vibrissae and ulnar carpels , although it is devoid of anconeal vibrissae . During the third week , the mystacials and ulnarcarpals are the first to form . Subsequently , the infraorbital , interramal , supraorbital and submental vibrissae form . The last four typically occur between the 26th and 39th day .
Their eyes open shortly after their fur coat develops — between 87 and 93 days — and their mouths can relax their hold of the nipple at 100 days . They leave the pouch 105 days after birth , appearing as small copies of the parent and weighing around 200 grams ( 7 @.@ 1 oz ) . Zoologist Eric Guiler recorded its size at this time as follows : a crown @-@ snout length of 5 @.@ 87 cm ( 2 @.@ 31 in ) , tail length of 5 @.@ 78 cm ( 2 @.@ 28 in ) , pes length 2 @.@ 94 cm ( 1 @.@ 16 in ) , manus 2 @.@ 30 cm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) , shank 4 @.@ 16 cm ( 1 @.@ 64 in ) , forearm 4 @.@ 34 cm ( 1 @.@ 71 in ) and crown @-@ rump length is 11 @.@ 9 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . During this period , the devils lengthen at a roughly linear rate .
After being ejected , the devils stay outside the pouch , but they remain in the den for around another three months , first venturing outside the den between October and December before becoming independent in January . During this transitional phase out of the pouch , the young devils are relatively safe from predation as they are generally accompanied . When the mother is hunting they can stay inside a shelter or come along , often riding on their mother 's back . During this time they continue to drink their mother 's milk . Female devils are occupied with raising their young for all but approximately six weeks of the year . The milk contains a higher amount of iron than the milk of placental mammals . In Guiler 's 1970 study , no females died while rearing their offspring in the pouch . After leaving the pouch , the devils grow by around 0 @.@ 5 kg ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) a month until they are six months old . While most pups will survive to be weaned , Guiler reported that up to three fifths of devils do not reach maturity . As juveniles are more crepuscular than adults , their appearance in the open during summer gives the impression to humans of a population boom . A study into the success of translocated devils that were orphaned and raised in captivity found that young devils who had consistently engaged with new experiences while they were in captivity survived better than young who had not .
Embryonic diapause does not occur .
Guiler has reported that consecutive hermaphroditism ( sex change ) has occurred in captured devils , while Pemberton and Mooney recorded in 2004 the case of an animal with a scrotum and a non @-@ functional pouch .
In an apparent response to reduced competition caused by devil facial tumour disease , female devils in regions with the disease are now more likely to begin breeding at the age of one year . The disease has also led to the reproductive season being less well @-@ defined , with births more spread out throughout the year . Litters born to mothers with DFTD have more female pups than male pups .
A slow @-@ release hormonal contraceptive implant for female devils is being developed and tested in a joint program between the Save the Tasmanian Devil program , the Zoo and Aquarium Association , the Taronga Conservation Society and the University of Sydney . This wildlife contraceptive program is aimed to help the devils continue with their wild behaviour by mating freely , but without certain females contributing too much to the next generation , which " can have long @-@ term genetic consequences for the insurance population " . Contraceptive trials in male devils showed that their testosterone increased , instead of decreasing as other male mammals ' testosterone does . Early studies suggest that the female contraception has been successful , and the female contraceptive implants will be tested in the Maria Island insurance population .
= = Conservation status = =
Widespread across Australia in the Pleistocene , the Tasmanian devil had declined and become restricted to three relict populations during the mid @-@ Holocene period around 3 @,@ 000 years ago . Rock art and a single fossil near Darwin point to a northern population , and remains in the southeast signify a southeastern population ranging from the mouth of the Murray River eastwards to the vicinity of Port Phillip in Victoria . This population had contracted from northern Victoria and New South Wales . The rising sea levels in the Holocene also cut it off from Tasmanian populations . The third population was from southwest Western Australia . Fossil evidence from this last location has proven controversial . As with many native animals , ancient devils were larger than their contemporary descendants . In 1972 , Mike Archer and Alex Baynes found a devil tooth at the foot of a cliff near Augusta in Western Australia and dated it to 430 ± 160 years of age , a figure widely circulated and cited . Australian archaeologist Oliver Brown has disputed this , stating that the authors ' uncertainty about the origins of the tooth casts doubts on its age , especially as other remains all date to around 3 @,@ 000 years ago .
The cause of their disappearance from the mainland is unclear , but their decline seems to coincide with the expansion across the mainland of indigenous Australians and dingoes . However , whether it was direct hunting by people , competition with dingoes , changes brought about by the increasing human population , who by 3000 years ago were using all habitat types across the continent , or a combination of all three , is unknown ; devils had coexisted with dingoes on the mainland for around 3000 years . Brown has also proposed that the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) grew stronger during the Holocene , and that the devil , as a scavenger with a short life span , was highly sensitive to this . In dingo @-@ free Tasmania , carnivorous marsupials were still active when Europeans arrived . The extermination of the thylacine after the arrival of the Europeans is well known , but the Tasmanian devil was threatened as well .
Thylacines preyed on devils , and devils attacked thylacine young ; devils may have hastened the thylacine 's extinction . While the thylacine was extant , apart from hunting devils , it may also have put pressure on the devil for survival , by competing for scarce food and dens ; both animals sought caves and burrows . It has been speculated that devils may have become more predacious and presided over larger home ranges to fill in the vacancy left by the thylacine .
Habitat disruption can expose dens where mothers raise their young . This increases mortality , as the mother leaves the disturbed den with her pups clinging to her back , making them more vulnerable .
Cancer in general is a common cause of death in devils . In 2008 , high levels of potentially carcinogenic flame retardant chemicals were found in Tasmanian devils . Preliminary results of tests ordered by the Tasmanian government on chemicals found in fat tissue from 16 devils have revealed high levels of hexabromobiphenyl ( BB153 ) and " reasonably high " levels of decabromodiphenyl ether ( BDE209 ) . The Save the Tasmanian Devil Appeal is the official fundraising entity for the Save the Tasmanian Devil Program . The priority is to ensure the survival of the Tasmanian devil in the wild . For more information www.tassiedevil.com.au
Since 1999 , all devils caught in the field have had ear biopsies taken , providing samples of DNA . As of September 2010 , there are 5 @,@ 642 samples in this collection .
= = = Population declines = = =
At least two major population declines , possibly due to disease epidemics , have occurred in recorded history : in 1909 and 1950 . The devil was also reported as scarce in the 1850s . It is difficult to estimate the size of the devil population . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the population was estimated at 130 @,@ 000 – 150 @,@ 000 animals , but this is likely to have been an overestimate . The Tasmanian devil 's population has been calculated in 2008 by Tasmania 's Department of Primary Industries and Water as being in the range of 10 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 individuals , with 20 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 mature individuals being likely . Experts estimate that the devil has suffered a more than 80 % decline in its population since the mid @-@ 1990s and that only around 10 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 remain in the wild as of 2008 .
The species was listed as vulnerable under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 in 2005 and the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 in 2006 , which means that it is at risk of extinction in the " medium term " . The IUCN classified the Tasmanian devil in the lower risk / least concern category in 1996 , but in 2009 they reclassified it as endangered .
= = = Culling = = =
The first Tasmanian settlers ate Tasmanian devil , which they described as tasting like veal . As it was believed devils would hunt and kill livestock , possibly due to strong imagery of packs of devils eating weak sheep , a bounty scheme to remove the devil from rural properties was introduced as early as 1830 . However , Guiler 's research contended that the real cause of livestock losses was poor land management policies and feral dogs . In areas where the devil is now absent , poultry has continued to be killed by quolls . In earlier times , hunting possums and wallabies for fur was a big business — more than 900 @,@ 000 animals were hunted in 1923 — and this resulted in a continuation of bounty hunting of devils as they were thought to be a major threat to the fur industry , even though quolls were more adept at hunting the animals in question . Over the next 100 years , trapping and poisoning brought them to the brink of extinction .
After the death of the last thylacine in 1936 , the Tasmanian devil was protected by law in June 1941 and the population slowly recovered . In the 1950s , with reports of increasing numbers , some permits to capture devils were granted after complaints of livestock damage . In 1966 , poisoning permits were issued although attempts to have the animal unprotected failed . During this time environmentalists also became more outspoken , particularly as scientific studies provided new data suggesting the threat of devils to livestock had been vastly exaggerated . Numbers may have peaked in the early 1970s after a population boom ; in 1975 they were reported to be lighter , possibly due to overpopulation and consequent lack of food . Another report of overpopulation and livestock damage was reported in 1987 . The following year , Trichinella spiralis , a parasite which kills animals and can infect humans , was found in devils and minor panic broke out before scientists assured the public that 30 % of devils had it but that they could not transmit it to other species . Control permits were ended in the 1990s , but illegal killing continues to a limited extent , albeit " locally intense " . This is not considered a substantial problem for the survival of the devil . Approximately 10 @,@ 000 devils were killed per year in the mid @-@ 1990s . A selective culling program has taken place to remove individuals affected with DFTD , and has been shown to not slow the rate of disease progression or reduced the amount of animals dying . A model has been tested to find out whether culling devils infected with DFTD would assist in the survival of the species , and it has found that culling would not be a suitable strategy to employ .
= = = Foxes = = =
The decline in devil numbers is also seen as an ecological problem , since its presence in the Tasmanian forest ecosystem is believed to have prevented the establishment of the red fox , illegally introduced to Tasmania around the turn of the 21st century , and has limited the number of foxes , feral cats and dogs because devils eat carrion that would otherwise feed these creatures , as well as killing adult foxes and young foxes in dens . Foxes are a problematic invasive species in all other Australian states and , if established in Tasmania , they would both hinder the recovery of the Tasmanian devil and prey on many other vertebrate species . It is believed that Tasmanian devil young would be vulnerable to red fox predation and that devils and foxes would directly compete for habitat and dens . One common means of trying to stop the foxes is to use meat baits laced with sodium fluoroacetate . As devils and other native animals can also be attracted to the poisoned meat , which is placed inside an M @-@ 44 ejector device , adaptations have been made to the geometry of the device so that the force and jaw geometry needed to open it fits those of the fox but not the native species . Foxes are not yet sufficiently established in Tasmania to pose a threat to the Tasmanian devil .
= = = Road mortality = = =
Motor vehicles are a threat to localised populations of non @-@ abundant Tasmanian mammals , and a 2010 study showed that devils were particularly vulnerable . A study of nine species , mostly marsupials of a similar size , showed that devils were more difficult for drivers to detect and thus avoid . At high beam , devils had the lowest detection distance , 40 % closer than the median . This requires a 20 % reduction in speed for a motorist to avoid the devil . For low beam , the devils are the seventh worst in terms of detection distance , 16 % below the median . For avoidance of roadkill to be feasible , motorists would have to drive at around half the current speed limit in rural areas . A study in the 1990s on a localised population of devils in a national park in Tasmania recorded a halving of the population after a hitherto gravel access road was upgraded , surfaced with bitumen and widened . At the same time , there was a large increase in deaths caused by vehicles along the new road ; there had been none in the preceding six months . The vast majority of deaths occurred in the sealed portion of the road , believed to be due to an increase in speeds . It was also conjectured that the animals were harder to see against the dark bitumen instead of the light gravel . The devil and quoll are especially vulnerable as they often try to retrieve roadkill for food and travel along the road . To alleviate the problem , traffic slowing measures , man @-@ made pathways that offer alternative routes for devils , education campaigns , and the installation of light reflectors to indicate oncoming vehicles have been implemented . They are credited with decreases in roadkill . Devils have often been victims of roadkill when they are retrieving other roadkill . Work by scientist Menna Jones and a group of conservation volunteers to remove dead animals from the road resulted in a significant reduction in devil traffic deaths . It was estimated that 3 @,@ 392 devils , or between 3 @.@ 8 and 5 @.@ 7 % of the population , were being killed annually by vehicles in 2001 – 04 . In 2009 , the Save the Tasmanian Devil group launched the " Roadkill Project " , which allowed members of the public to report sightings of devils which had been killed on the road . On 25 September 2015 , 20 immunised devils were microchipped and released in Narawntapu National Park . By 5 October , 4 had been hit by cars , prompting Samantha Fox , leader of Save the Tasmanian Devil , to describe roadkill as being the biggest threat to the Tasmanian devil after DFTD . A series of solar @-@ powered alarms have been trialled that make noises and flash lights when cars are approaching , warning the animals . The trial ran for 18 months and the trial area had two @-@ thirds less deaths than the control .
= = = Devil facial tumour disease = = =
First seen in 1996 in Mount William in northeastern Tasmania , devil facial tumour disease ( DFTD ) has ravaged Tasmania 's wild devils , and estimates of the impact range from 20 % to as much as an 80 % decline in the devil population , with over 65 % of the state affected . The state 's west coast area and far north @-@ west are the only places where devils are tumour free . Individual devils die within months of infection .
The disease is an example of a transmissible cancer , which means that it is contagious and passed from one animal to another . Short of a cure , scientists are removing the sick animals and quarantining healthy devils in case the wild population dies out . Because Tasmanian devils have extremely low levels of genetic diversity and a chromosomal mutation unique among carnivorous mammals , they are more prone to the infectious cancer .
Wild Tasmanian devil populations are being monitored to track the spread of the disease and to identify changes in disease prevalence . Field monitoring involves trapping devils within a defined area to check for the presence of the disease and determine the number of affected animals . The same area is visited repeatedly to characterise the spread of the disease over time . So far , it has been established that the short @-@ term effects of the disease in an area can be severe . Long @-@ term monitoring at replicated sites will be essential to assess whether these effects remain , or whether populations can recover . Field workers are also testing the effectiveness of disease suppression by trapping and removing diseased devils . It is hoped that the removal of diseased devils from wild populations should decrease disease prevalence and allow more devils to survive beyond their juvenile years and breed .
Research published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences on 27 June 2011 , suggests picking a genetically diverse breeding stock , defined by the genome sequence , for conservation efforts . In 2011 , it was estimated that it would cost $ 11 million to preserve the Tasmanian devil species .
Research by Professor Greg Woods from the University of Tasmania 's Menzies Institute for Medical Research has shown encouraging evidence for the potential development of a vaccine using dead devil facial tumour disease cells to trigger an immune response in healthy devils . Field testing of the vaccine is being undertaken as a collaborative project between the Menzies Institute for Medical Research and the Save the Tasmanian Devil Program under the Wild Devil Recovery program , and aims to test the immunization protocol as a tool in ensuring the devil 's long term survival in the wild .
= = Relationship with humans = =
At Lake Nitchie in western New South Wales in 1970 , a male human skeleton wearing a necklace of 178 teeth from 49 different devils was found . The skeleton is estimated to be 7000 years old , and the necklace is believed to be much older than the skeleton . Archeologist Josephine Flood believes the devil was hunted for its teeth and that this contributed to its extinction on mainland Australia . Owen and Pemberton note that few such necklaces have been found . Middens that contain devil bones are rare — two notable examples are Devil 's Lair in the south @-@ western part of Western Australia and Tower Hill in Victoria .
In Tasmania , local Aborigines and devils sheltered in the same caves . Tasmanian Aboriginal names for the devil recorded by Europeans include " tarrabah " , " poirinnah " , and " par @-@ loo @-@ mer @-@ rer " . According to Fritz Noetling , the Secretary of the Royal Society of Tasmania in 1910 , there was no evidence that Tasmanian Aborigines ate any carnivorous animals . Owen and Pemberton feel this may have contributed to the devil 's survival prior to European settlement . Convicts at the time when Hobart was being settled in made a meal of Tasmanian devils and it was claimed to be not unlike veal .
It is a common belief that devils will eat humans . While they are known to eat the bodies of murder victims or people who have committed suicide , there are prevalent myths that they eat living humans who wander into the bush . Despite outdated beliefs and exaggerations regarding their disposition , many , although not all , devils will remain still when in the presence of a human ; some will also shake nervously . They can bite and scratch out of fear when held by a human , but a firm grip will cause them to remain still . Although they can be tamed , they are asocial and are not considered appropriate as pets ; they have an unpleasant odour and neither demonstrate nor respond to affection .
Until recently , the devil was not studied much by academics and naturalists . At the start of the 20th century , Hobart zoo operator Mary Roberts , who was not a trained scientist , was credited for changing people 's attitudes and encouraging scientific interest in native animals such as the devil that were seen as fearsome and abhorrent , and the human perception of the animal changed . Theodore Thomson Flynn was the first professor of biology in Tasmania and carried out some research during the period around World War I. In the mid @-@ 1960s Professor Guiler assembled a team of researchers and started a decade of systematic fieldwork on the devil . This is seen as the start of modern scientific study of it . However , the devil was still negatively depicted , including in tourism material . The first doctorate awarded for research into the devil came in 1991 .
= = = In captivity = = =
Early attempts to breed Tasmanian devils in captivity had limited success . The animal activist Mary Roberts , who was known for her work in presenting a less hostile image of the devil to the public and wrote about it in academic journals , bred a pair at Beaumaris Zoo which she named Billy and Truganini in 1913 . However , although advised to remove Billy , Roberts found Truganini too distressed by his absence , and returned him . The first litter was presumed eaten by Billy , but a second litter in 1914 survived after Billy was removed . Roberts wrote an article on keeping and breeding the devils for the London Zoological Society . Even by 1934 , successful breeding of the devil was rare . In a study on the growth of young devils in captivity , some developmental stages were very different from those reported by Guiler . The pinnae were free on day 36 , and eyes opened later , on days 115 – 121 .
In general , females tend to retain more stress after being taken into captivity than males .
A plan to create " insurance populations " of disease @-@ free devils has been ongoing since 2005 . As of June 2012 , the insurance population has reached a combined total of 500 animals and representing over 98 % of the genetic diversity of this species . Most of these devils are living in Australian zoos and wildlife reserves . Beginning in November 2012 however , in an effort to create a population that is both wild and disease @-@ free , Tasmanian devils have been relocated to Maria Island , a mountainous island off the east coast of Tasmania . The Maria Island population has grown from a starting population of twenty @-@ eight to 90 and experts will soon begin transferring healthy devils back to the mainland population .
Tasmanian devils were displayed in various zoos around the world from the 1850s onwards . In the 1950s several animals were given to European zoos . In October 2005 the Tasmanian government sent four devils , two male and two female , to the Copenhagen Zoo , following the birth of the first son of Frederik , Crown Prince of Denmark and his Tasmanian @-@ born wife Mary . Due to restrictions on their export by the Australian government , at the time these were the only devils known to be living outside Australia . In June 2013 , due to the successes of the insurance population program , it was planned to send devils to other zoos around the world in a pilot program . San Diego Zoo Global and Albuquerque Biopark were selected to participate in the program , and Wellington Zoo and Auckland Zoo soon followed . In the United States , four additional zoos have since been selected as part of the Australian government 's Save the Tasmanian Devil program , the zoos selected were : the Fort Wayne Children 's Zoo , the Los Angeles Zoo , the Saint Louis Zoo , and the Toledo Zoo . Captive devils are usually forced to stay awake during the day to cater to visitors , rather than following their natural nocturnal style .
There have been reports and suspicions of illegal trading in the past . In 1997 , a devil turned up in Western Australia ; it had not escaped from any licensed keeper . During the 1990s there were internet sites in the US that were advertising devil sales , and rumours that some US Navy personnel had tried to buy them illegally during a visit to Tasmania .
= = = Cultural references = = =
The devil is an iconic animal within Australia , particularly Tasmania ; it is the symbol of the Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Service , and the former Tasmanian Australian rules football team which played in the Victorian Football League was known as the Devils . The Hobart Devils were once part of the National Basketball League . The devil has appeared on several commemorative coins in Australia over the years . Cascade Brewery in Tasmania sells a ginger beer with a Tasmanian devil on the label . In 2015 , the Tasmanian devil was chosen as Tasmania 's state emblem .
Tasmanian devils are popular with tourists , and the director of the Tasmanian Devil Conservation Park has described their possible extinction as " a really significant blow for Australian and Tasmanian tourism " . There has also been a multimillion @-@ dollar proposal to build a giant 19 m @-@ high , 35 m @-@ long devil in Launceston in northern Tasmania as a tourist attraction . Devils began to be used in tourism from the 1970s , when studies showed | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
signing of the Implementation Agreement ceasefire of 3 January 1992 . Those areas , later better known as the pink zones , were supposed to be restored to Croatian control from the outset of the plan implementation . Failure of this aspect of the implementation of the Vance plan made the pink zones a major source of contention for Croatia and the RSK .
= = Prelude = =
Before the UNPROFOR fully deployed , the HV clashed with an armed force of the RSK in the village of Nos Kalik , located in a pink zone near Šibenik , and captured the village at 4 : 45 p.m. on 2 March 1992 . The JNA formed a battlegroup to counterattack the next day . The JNA battlegroup , augmented by elements of the 9th Military Police Battalion , deployed at 5 : 50 a.m. and clashed with the HV force in Nos Kalik . However , the JNA counterattack failed . The HV captured 21 RSK troops in Nos Kalik , intent on exchanging the prisoners for Croats held under arrest in Knin . Following negotiations , the HV agreed to pull back on 11 April , but later declined to do so , claiming deteriorating security at the battlefield in general prevented the withdrawal . Several Serb @-@ owned houses in Nos Kalik were torched after the HV captured the village .
The HV clashed with units subordinated to the 180th Motorised Brigade of the JNA in a pink zone near Zadar on 17 – 22 May . While the JNA repelled attacks in most areas around Zadar and Stankovci , the HV managed to cut a JNA base at the Križ Hill away from the rest of the force on 17 May . The JNA outpost occupied high ground overlooking the surrounding area , including Zadar . It housed radar equipment and was used as an artillery observer post . The JNA attempted to relieve the besieged garrison in the next few days , however the attempts failed and the base surrendered to the HV on 22 May . The attack and capture of the Križ Hill , codenamed Operation Jaguar , was carried out by the 2nd Battalion of the 159th Infantry Brigade of the HV , supported by artillery of the 112th Infantry Brigade .
= = Timeline = =
On 21 June , the HV attacked RSK positions at the Miljevci Plateau , located in the pink zone north of Šibenik . The TO forces in the area were subordinated to the 1st Brigade of the TO , and Lieutenant Colonel General Milan Torbica . The HV deployed 250 troops , elements of the 113th and 142nd Infantry Brigades , commanded by Brigadier Kruno Mazalin . The HV had infiltrated the pink zone along three routes — via Nos Kalik , across the Čikola river and by boat sailing upstream along the Krka River , during the night of 20 / 21 June . The fighting began at 5 a.m. as the HV force , deployed in 26 squads , captured six out of seven villages on the plateau by the end of the morning . At 8 : 00 p.m. , the HV captured the village of Ključ , and all of the plateau . The advance created a HV @-@ held salient south of Knin , several kilometres deep . It also led the RSK artillery to bombard Šibenik and HV bombardment of Knin in response , both on 22 June .
The artillery fire progressively intensified until 23 June , while the RSK mobilised and counterattacked against the HV positions at the Miljevci Plateau . However , the mobilisation yielded only 227 additional troops , and the counterattack failed . An UNPROFOR assessment concluded the situation might deteriorate further and engulf all of the pink zones . To address the situation , UNPROFOR military commander Lieutenant General Satish Nambiar met with Deputy Prime Minister of Croatia Milan Ramljak and Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia General Anton Tus in Zagreb the same day , in order to discuss the developments on the Miljevci Plateau . Skirmishes continued on 24 June , accompanied by some artillery fire . Morale of the RSK troops plummeted though , causing a TO garrison based in nearby Trbounj to abandon its barracks .
= = Aftermath = =
According to Croatian sources , the HV lost seven or eight troops killed in the battle . Serb sources cite 40 killed RSK troops , in the battle or its immediate aftermath , while the HV took seventeen prisoners . The prisoners were taken to the Kuline barracks in Šibenik . On 23 June , a total of 29 RSK soldiers killed at the Miljevci Plateau on the first day of the battle were thrown into the Bačića Pit , contrary to orders given by Brigadier Ivan Bačić , commanding officer of the 113th Infantry Brigade . Bačić ordered burial of the killed RSK troops at a local Serbian Orthodox cemetery . The same day , one prisoner , Miroslav Subotić , was shot in Nos Kalik by HV personnel . He was one of a group of prisoners tasked with clearance of the area after the fighting . The HV also destroyed ten tanks and armoured personnel carriers , and captured six howitzers and a considerable stockpile of other weapons and ammunition in the battle . The offensive brought seven villages and 108 square kilometres ( 42 square miles ) to HV control .
During their meeting with Nambiar , Ramljak and Tus claimed that the offensive was neither planned nor ordered by authorities in Zagreb . They stated that the advance was made in response to a series of provocations made by the RSK armed forces . Bačić claimed that while no specific order to attack was received , Tus did instruct him to respond aggressively and capture as much territory as possible in cases of grave breaches of ceasefire by the RSK forces . Nevertheless , Bačić was reprimanded by the President of Croatia Franjo Tuđman because of the offensive . In the RSK , Torbica was forced to resign his post and was replaced by Major General Mile Novaković .
UNPROFOR and the European Community Monitor Mission ( ECMM ) requested the HV to withdraw to positions held before the offensive , but the HV declined the request . However , Croatia agreed that UNPROFOR and ECMM monitors would continue to be present in the pink zones when Croatia assumed control over them . The move was planned as a way to reassure the Serb population that the pink zones could provide them safety . In the aftermath of the offensive , the United Nations Security Council ( UNSC ) adopted the UNSC Resolution 762 , urging cessation of hostilities in or near the UNPAs , and urging the HV to pull back to positions held before 21 June . The 113th Brigade of the HV remained at the plateau regardless . The resolution authorised the UNPROFOR to perform monitoring of the pink zones . It also recommended establishment of a joint commission chaired by an UNPROFOR representative , and including representatives of the Government of Croatia , local authorities and the ECMM to oversee restoration of Croatian control in the pink zones .
The prisoners taken by the HV were released in August , and they informed the UNPROFOR about the bodies in the Bačića Pit and the death of Subotić . The bodies were retrieved by Croatian authorities in the presence of UNPROFOR and other international organisations . Two Croatian military police members were charged with Subotić 's murder in 2011 . As of 2013 the trial is ongoing .
In 2012 , twenty years after the battle , President Ivo Josipović presented the Charter of the Republic of Croatia to the commanders and units involved in the battle , commending their military achievements . That was the first such move in twenty years , and a reversal of the official stance towards the offensive which had originally declared it as an unauthorised deployment of the HV .
= California State Route 177 =
State Route 177 ( SR 177 ) is a short state highway in the U.S. state of California in Riverside County . The route links Interstate 10 ( I @-@ 10 ) midway between the Coachella Valley and Blythe on the California – Arizona border , to SR 62 near Rice . SR 177 travels along the eastern portion of the Joshua Tree National Park ; like the eastern 100 miles ( 160 km ) of SR 62 , it passes through some of the most desolate areas of the Mojave Desert . The southernmost portion of SR 177 near I @-@ 10 runs concurrently with County Route R2 ( CR R2 ) .
= = Route description = =
SR 177 begins at I @-@ 10 near Desert Center and briefly travels north , intersecting with CR R2 . At this intersection , SR 177 turns northeast and travels across the Mojave Desert , through the Chuckwalla Valley . It passes near the Desert Center Airport and comes near Palen Lake , a dry lake . The highway passes along the southeastern boundary of Joshua Tree National Park before turning due north and crossing the desert for several miles . SR 177 briefly turns northeast again before intersecting with SR 62 and defaulting onto SR 62 eastbound .
The route is two lanes wide for its entire length . SR 177 is not part of the National Highway System , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2013 , SR 177 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 1 @,@ 200 at the northern terminus with SR 62 , and 3 @,@ 700 at the southern terminus with I @-@ 10 , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
The Metropolitan Water District built a road from Desert Center that ran north before turning east to Earp along with portions of the California Aqueduct from February 20 to August 4 in 1933 . This was part of a road system that was built in order to support the construction of the aqueduct by connecting the camps that construction workers resided in during the project . This road cost $ 389 @,@ 600 ( about $ 48 million in 2015 dollars ) to construct ; the roads in the system were paved . SR 177 was added to the state highway system in 1972 by the California State Legislature . As of 1998 , Caltrans had no plans to expand the highway , considering it to be " maintain only " through 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was when the route was established , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in Riverside County .
= Monetary Policy Committee =
The Monetary Policy Committee ( MPC ) is a committee of the Bank of England , which meets for three and a half days twelve times a year to decide the official interest rate in the United Kingdom ( the Bank of England Base Rate ) . It is also responsible for directing other aspects of the government 's monetary policy framework , such as quantitative easing and forward guidance . The Committee comprises eight members , along with the Governor of the Bank of England ( from 2013 Mark Carney ) , and is responsible primarily for keeping the Consumer Price Index ( CPI ) measure of inflation close to a target set by the government ( 2 % as of 2016 ) . Its secondary aim – to support growth and employment – was reinforced in March 2013 .
Announced on 6 May 1997 , only five days after that year 's General Election , and officially given operational responsibility for setting interest rates in the Bank of England Act 1998 , the Committee was designed to be independent of political interference and thus to add credibility to interest rate decisions . Each member has one vote , for which they are held to account : full minutes of each meeting are published alongside the Committee 's monetary policy decisions , and members are regularly called before the Treasury Select Committee , as well as speaking to wider audiences at events during the year .
= = Purpose = =
The Committee is responsible for formulating the United Kingdom 's monetary policy , most commonly via the setting of the rate at it which it lends to banks ( officially the Bank of England Base Rate or BOEBR for short ) . As laid out in law , decisions are made with a primary aim of price stability , defined by the government 's inflation target ( 2 % on the Consumer Price Index as of 2011 ) . The target takes the form of a " point " , rather than the " band " used by the Treasury prior to 1997 . The secondary aim of the Committee is to support the government 's economic policies , and help it meet its targets for growth and employment . That secondary aim was reinforced by then Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne in his March 2013 budget , with the MPC given more discretion to more openly " trade off " above @-@ rate inflation in the medium run to boost other economic indicators . The MPC is not responsible for fiscal policy , which is handled by the Treasury itself , but is briefed by the Treasury about fiscal policy developments at meetings .
Under the Bank of England Act 1998 the Bank 's Governor must write an open letter of explanation to the Chancellor of the Exchequer if inflation exceeds the target by more than one percentage point in either direction , and once every three months thereafter until prices are back within the allowed range . It should also set out what plans the Bank has for rectifying the problem , and how long it is expected to remain at those levels in the meantime .
In January 2009 the Chancellor announced an Asset Purchase Facility ( APF ) , to be administered by the MPC , aimed at ensuring greater liquidity in financial markets . The committee had already started to cut rates the previous autumn , but the effect of such changes can take up to two years and rates cannot go below zero . By March 2009 , faced with very low levels on inflation and interest rates already at 0 @.@ 5 % , the MPC voted to start the process of quantitative easing ( QE ) – the injection of money directly into the economy – via the APF . It had the Bank buy government bonds ( gilts ) , along with a smaller amount of high @-@ quality debt issued by private companies . Although non @-@ gilts initially made up a non @-@ negligible part of the APF portfolio , as of May 2015 the entirety of the APF was held as gilts . On 7 August 2013 , Governor Mark Carney issued the committee 's first forward guidance as a third tool for controlling future inflation .
Criticism of the MPC has centred on its predominant focus on inflation to the detriment of growth and employment , although that criticism may have been mitigated by the March 2013 revisions to the committee 's remit . There have also been complaints about the reluctance of lenders to pass on rate changes , and about the extent to which the introduction and management of QE have risked politicising the committee .
= = History = =
Traditionally , the Treasury set interest rates . After reforms in 1992 , officials held regular meetings and published minutes , but were not independent of government . The result was a feeling that political factors were clouding what should be purely economic judgements on monetary policy .
On 6 May 1997 , operational responsibility to set interest rates was granted to the independent Bank of England by the Chancellor of the Exchequer , Gordon Brown . Guidelines for the creation of a new " Monetary Policy Committee " were laid out in the Bank of England Act 1998 . The Act also set out the responsibilities of the MPC : it would meet monthly ; its membership comprise the Governor , two Deputy Governors , two of the Bank 's Executive Directors and four members appointed by the Chancellor . It should publish minutes of all meetings within six weeks ( in October 1998 the committee announced plans to publish far more quickly , after only one ) . The Act gave the government responsibility for specifying its price stability target and growth and employment objectives at least annually . The government reserved the right to instruct the Bank on what rate to set in times of emergency .
The years 1998 to 2006 witnessed an unprecedented period of price stability – during which inflation stayed within a percentage point of the target – despite earlier predictions that it could sit outside the range forty or more percent of the time . A 2007 report produced for the Treasury Committee noted that the MPC 's independence of government " has reduced the scope for short @-@ term political considerations to enter into the determination of interest rates " . The creation of the MPC , it said , brought with it " an immediate credibility gain " .
The original inflation target for the MPC was 2 @.@ 5 % on the RPI @-@ X measure of inflation , but in 2003 this was changed to 2 % on CPI . Under the Bank of England Act , on 16 April 2007 , the governor ( then Mervyn King ) , was obliged to write the first MPC open letter to the chancellor ( then Gordon Brown ) , explaining why the inflation had deviated from the target of 2 % and reached 3 @.@ 1 % . With prices more unstable since 2007 , by February 2013 , he had had to write 14 such letters to chancellors . Having taken over in August 2013 , Governor Mark Carney wrote his first open letter in February 2015 to explain why inflation had fallen below 1 % for the first time in the MPC 's history . This was followed by deflation of 0 @.@ 1 % in April 2015 , the first month of negative CPI growth since the 1960s , and triggering a second letter . As of February 2015 , Carney has written five such letters .
In its first ten years , the MPC kept interest rates relatively stable between 3 @.@ 5 % and 7 @.@ 5 % . Between October 2008 and March the following year , however , the base rate was cut six times to an all @-@ time low of 0 @.@ 5 % in order to avoid deflation and spur growth . In March 2009 , the MPC launched a programme of quantitative easing , initially injecting £ 75 billion into the economy . By March 2010 , it had also increased the amount of money set aside for quantitative easing to £ 200 billion , a figure later increased by a further £ 75 billion in the months following October 2011 . The MPC announced two further £ 50bn rounds of quantitative easing in February and July 2012 , bringing the total to £ 375 billion whilst simultaneously keeping the base rate at 0 @.@ 5 % . As of February 2016 , there have been no further changes to either policy instrument , with further gilt purchases keeping the stock of gilts at £ 375bn . In March 2013 , the Chancellor of the Exchequer , George Osborne , called on the MPC to follow its American counterpart ( the Federal Reserve Board ) in committing itself to keeping interest rates low for a prolonged period of time via appropriate forward guidance , which it did on 7 August .
In December 2014 , the Bank adopted the recommendations of a report prepared by Kevin Warsh aimed at improving the transparency of the Committee 's decision making processes .
= = Composition = =
Following a reshuffle in April 2014 , the Committee currently comprises :
The Governor of the Bank
The three Deputy Governors for Monetary Policy , Financial Stability and Markets and Banking
The Bank 's Chief Economist
Four external members , appointed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer for a renewable three @-@ year term
Each member has one vote of equal weight , for which they can be held publicly accountable . The Governor chairs the meeting and is the last to cast his vote , acting as a casting vote in event of a tie . Representatives from the Treasury may attend the meeting , but only as non @-@ voting observers .
= = Meetings = =
The MPC meets twelve times a year : eight meetings spread throughout the year , plus four joint meetings with the Financial Policy Committee . After a half @-@ day " pre @-@ MPC meeting " , usually the Wednesday before , meetings are held over three days , typically a Thursday , Monday and Wednesday . Prior to the implementation of the reforms recommended by Kevin Warsh , meetings were generally held monthly on the Wednesday and Thursday following the first Monday of the month , although this was sometimes deviated from . In 2010 , for example , the meeting was postponed from the 5 / 6 to the 7 / 10 May in order to avoid conflicting with the general election schedule for the 6th . The May 2015 meeting was similarly delayed .
On the first day of the three , the Committee studies data relating to the UK economy , as well as the worldwide economy , presented by the Bank 's economists and regional representatives , and topics for discussion are identified and addressed . The second day consists of a main policy discussion during which MPC members explain their personal views . The Governor chooses the policy most likely to command a majority and , on the third day of the meeting , a vote is taken ; each member gets one vote . Those in the minority are asked to give the action they would have preferred . The Committee 's decisions are announced at noon the day after the meeting has concluded . Following a procedural change in 2015 , minutes of each meeting ( including the policy preference of each member ) are published on the Bank 's website at the same time as any decision is announced , resulting in a " Super Thursday " effect . Prior to August 2015 , the Committee 's decisions were published at noon on the final day of the meeting , but there was a two @-@ week delay before any minutes were published . Starting with the March 2015 meeting , full transcripts of meetings will also be published , albeit after an eight @-@ year delay .
Outside of meetings , members of the MPC can be called upon by Parliament to answer questions regarding their decisions , via parliamentary committee meetings , often those of the Treasury Committee . MPC members also speak to audiences throughout the country , with the same aim . Their views and expectations for inflation are also republished in the Bank 's quarterly inflation report .
= = Membership = =
To date , 32 men and 6 women have served on the MPC . As of February 2016 , the current Committee comprises ( by status ) :
Other , former members of the Committee ( by date of appointment ) are :
The dates listed show when their current terms of appointment are due to , or did , end .
As of January 2008 , Mervyn King , the Bank of England 's then Governor , was the only MPC member to have taken part in every meeting since 1997 . As a result , after the MPC meeting in July 2013 , the first after King retired , no single member had attended every meeting . As of 2016 , Kate Barker is the only external member to date to have been appointed for three terms , each lasting three years . As of February 2016 , none of the current committee members were present when the base rate was last changed .
= Prick Up Your Ears ( Family Guy ) =
" Prick Up Your Ears " is the sixth episode of season five of Family Guy . The episode was originally broadcast on November 19 , 2006 . In this episode Lois discovers that Chris ’ school has removed the sex education program due to budget cuts and decides to bring the class back by becoming the teacher . Unfortunately , she gets fired a short time later for teaching the students about safe sex rather than abstinence . Meanwhile , Stewie attempts to find and kill the Tooth Fairy after being told horror stories by Brian .
The episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and directed by James Purdum . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 3 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Drew Barrymore , Mindy Cohn , Gary Cole , Taylor Cole , Lauren Conrad , David Cross , Margaret Easley , Lauren Hooser , Kim Parks , Kevin Michael Richardson , André Sogliuzzo and Crawford Wilson , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
As Lois finds Chris and his friends watching a pornographic film , she becomes convinced a proper sex @-@ ed class should be taught at his school . Since the sex @-@ ed class at her children 's school was removed , Lois decides to become the school 's newest sex @-@ ed teacher . In class , she attempts to teach students about safe sex , but her efforts are ruined by a botched attempt of Peter , who wishes to distribute his views on sex as well . Soon after the first sex @-@ ed class , parental protests arise as Lois taught kids about safe ways to perform premarital sex , rather than abstinence . Lois is subsequently fired . She is replaced by a reverend who promotes both premarital and marital abstinence , explaining fictional consequences of intercourse with various questionable examples . The idea appeals to most students , including Meg , who starts a relationship with a fellow student named Doug . In a subplot , Stewie loses a tooth and is told about the tooth fairy . Frightened by the fairy tale , Stewie develops a plan to capture the fairy , not knowing she does not exist . He borrows Herbert 's false teeth and provokes Brian 's girlfriend Jillian to throw up , as she has bulimia nervosa , in order to collect her teeth as well . Brian , overseeing Stewie 's increasing obsession with the fairy , reveals to Stewie that she does not exist , but another scene shows a man named T. Fairy , having an apparent tooth fetish , stealing teeth to roll around in them .
Peter , truly believing the anti @-@ sex propaganda Meg brings home , starts wearing a chastity belt and refuses to have sex with Lois . In her place , Lois grows tired of the whole ordeal , forcefully convinces Peter to change his mind by raping him . Meanwhile , Lois catches Meg and Doug engaging in " ear sex " ( which has become a fad at the school ) . Meg explains they did it so that it would not count as sex " in the eyes of the Lord . " This prompts Lois and Peter to collaborate into sneaking into the school after being banned . Lois tells the kids that while they should not have sex until they are ready , everyone has urges and it is okay to have premarital sex , but only as long as it is practiced safely and encourages them to use condoms . Following this revelation , Meg 's boyfriend breaks up with her after discovering Meg 's naked appearance . Humiliated , Meg blames Lois for ruining her relationship and runs away to her room , sobbing . As Peter , Brian , and Lois wrap things up , an announcer tells viewers to text which ending should end the episode : Lois retelling her speech ( FAMGUY1 ) , Meg talking about her day ( FAMGUY2 ) , or Cleveland giving his line ( FAMGUY 3 ) . In the end , the viewers choose FAMGUY 3 , and the episode ends with Cleveland poking out the window and saying the line " Hey Y 'all ! Sock it to me ! " .
= = Production and censorship = =
Many scenes from the original episode were seen as vulgar and were removed from the television broadcast . One of the scenes removed was from the beginning of the episode when Stewie , Chris , and his friends were watching Genital Hospital , a reference to the television show General Hospital . The original scene had included the doctor on the film undoing his zipper after discussing the patient ’ s health problems . The edited version cut away before the doctor could undo his zipper , but the sound can still be heard when it cuts back to Chris and his friends watching the porno . Another scene edited was a naked Peter shown crouched on top of Lois 's head ( attempting ear sex ) ( even though it was shown on Adult Swim every time the episode repeats ) . On the TV version , Peter is still naked , but it is implied ( through sound effects ) that Lois forcibly pushed him to the floor and she has a hand on her ear ( impling Peter attempted ear sex ) In this scene Peter refers to the Grimace as Ronald McDonald 's autistic friend , which was originally penned as " retarded friend " ( which is included in the uncut version ) . A scene in which Brian , wearing a robe , informs Lois of the weird tasting Smuckers jelly in the fridge leads Peter to reveal that the Smuckers was on his penis was edited on TV so that way he states that the jelly was on his crotch . In a scene added later to the episode , Mel Gibson apologizes to the Jewish community after being offensive while continuing to offend them . The scene was added after the episode had been made but prior to broadcasting . When Peter joins Meg in her quest to be abstinent , the TV version has a gag where Peter keeps mispronouncing the word , Meg corrects him , and Peter punishes her by sending her to her room . The Adult Swim and DVD version replaces that scene with one that was edited for being insensitive to Asian people in which Peter tells Meg that now that he is abstinent , he will be as untouched as the turn signal on an Asian woman 's car , followed by a cutaway of an Asian lady causing an accident on an eight @-@ lane highway . In the scene involving Stewie entering Herbert 's house , a picture of Chris with the body of a model was in the animatic , but not shown on TV . The original ending of this episode ( with the " choose your own ending " text message contest ) was supposed to have Lois and Peter throw Brian out the window instead of giving Cleveland his one and only appearance in the episode . This deleted scene is featured in the episode animatic on the season five DVD set .
In addition to the regular cast , actors Drew Barrymore , Mindy Cohn , Gary Cole , Taylor Cole , Lauren Conrad , David Cross , Margaret Easley , Lauren Hooser , Kim Parks , Kevin Michael Richardson , André Sogliuzzo and Crawford Wilson guest star in the episode . Recurring guest voices include Lori Alan , Alex Breckenridge , Steve Callaghan , Chris Cox , Ralph Garman , Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin , John Viener , and Adam West , who has a role of an exaggerated version of himself .
= = Cultural references = =
As Lois is informed the sex education classes will be terminated , she exclaims " Oh , no ! " , a cut @-@ a @-@ way scene then begins of a sports car driving along the road with music playing in the background , this is a reference to Knight Rider . When Stewie is using his toys in order to capture and kill the tooth fairy , the toys are SpongeBob from SpongeBob SquarePants , Starscream ( from The Transformers ) and Man @-@ E @-@ Faces , all of which are fictional characters for television programs . When Peter is watching television , he is watching Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County ; the women shown on the episode are actually cartoon animations of the real actors for the show . When Lois catches Chris and his friends watching a pornographic film , she tells them that without sex education , they can easily become sexually confused . The scene cuts to Michael Jackson in his childhood form eating a bowl of Frosted Mini @-@ Wheats , saying that he likes the frosted side , while the grown @-@ up in him likes his younger self . When Lois teaches a sex education class , Peter uses a bust of William Shakespeare and a Rainbow Brite doll to demonstrate sexual intercourse . In the scene where Stewie loses a tooth , everybody comes in and tells him to calm down , then it shows a long line of characters , mimicking a scene from the movie Airplane ! . While doing a news story on ear sex , Diane tells Tom that CSI is on Thursdays . When Brian talks about Jillian 's bulimia , he mentions the death of singer Karen Carpenter , who died from anorexia in 1983 .
= = Reception = =
In a slight improvement over the previous week , the episode was viewed in 9 @.@ 3 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 3 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , tying with The Simpsons , while still winning over American Dad ! .
Although the episode received little positive reception , it was given a positive review by IGN 's Dan Iverson who noted that its plot had “ great satire of the issue of sex education vs. abstinence . ” He also stated that “ the random flashback jokes are often what are most memorable about each episode . ” He gave the episode a rating of 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 . In his review of Family Guy , volume 5 , Francis Rizzo III of DVD Talk called the episode " a smart jab at the conservative Christian approach to sex education , " and stated that " the effect it has on Meg , as well as Peter , is great " .
= Quietly Confident Quartet =
The Quietly Confident Quartet was the self @-@ given name of the Australian men 's 4 × 100 metres medley relay swimming team that won the gold medal at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow . The United States boycotted the Moscow Olympics in protest against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and , as of 2015 , the Australian victory remains the only occasion the United States has not won the event at Olympic level since its inception in 1960 . The quartet consisted of backstroker Mark Kerry , breaststroker Peter Evans , butterflyer Mark Tonelli and freestyler Neil Brooks . The team was nominally led by its oldest member Tonelli , who was 23 and was also a spokesperson for the Australian athletes ' campaign for their right to compete at the Olympics against the wishes of the Fraser Government . The team was seen as an unlikely prospect to win ; all four of the swimmers had clashed with swimming authorities over disciplinary issues and three experienced suspension or expulsion from the Australian team during their careers .
Australia had previously won medals in the event , but was not regarded as one of the favourites for the gold , as the Soviet Union , Great Britain , and Sweden all fielded more decorated swimmers over the component legs of the relay . After the backstroke leg , Australia was in fourth place and more than a second in arrears of the Soviet leaders . However , Evans was the fastest among the breaststrokers and moved the team into second position at the halfway point in the race ; and Tonelli , a makeshift butterflyer , completed his leg in a time much faster than his previous best , allowing Australia to keep the Soviet lead reasonable . Australia 's anchor swimmer Brooks overtook his more credentialled Soviet counterpart Sergey Kopliakov in the latter half of the final leg to secure a narrow victory . The quartet disbanded after the Olympics due to Tonelli 's retirement , although some of the members continued to be present in the relay team at various times alongside new swimmers . By 1986 , all four members of the 1980 team had retired from international competition .
= = Personnel = =
The Australian team for the event was a young and inexperienced foursome . Mark Tonelli was the oldest at the age of 23 , followed by Mark Kerry , who turned 21 a month after the Olympics . Both were attending their second Olympics , while Peter Evans and Neil Brooks were 18 and 17 respectively and had never represented Australia at the Commonwealth , World Championship or Olympic level . Evans and Brooks were from Western Australia , a state that had never been prominent in Australian swimming . The team members had some contact prior to their Olympic selection ; Brooks ' family had billeted Tonelli in 1976 when the Australian Olympic team held a training camp in Perth . Brooks cited his experience with Tonelli as a motivating factor in his career .
The quartet was also marked by rebellious and anti @-@ establishment tendencies . Tonelli and Kerry were expelled from the 1978 Commonwealth Games team by the Australian Swimming Union for violating a curfew during a training camp in Hawaii before the team 's trip to Edmonton , Canada for the competition ; Tonelli had been out drinking and admitted to smoking marijuana , which was not illegal in Hawaii , while Kerry had been courting a female . In 1980 , during the lead @-@ up to the selection of the Olympic team , Brooks walked out of a training camp , alleging that the coaches were neglecting him , while Evans once stopped during a training session and refused to do extra mileage , emphatically proclaiming that " work is a poor substitute for talent " . Later in their careers , Evans and Brooks continued to have their clashes with swimming officialdom ; Evans over his coaches ' demands for more training mileage and Brooks over swimmers ' human rights . Brooks was later suspended twice in his career for his clashes with swimming authorities , and expelled from the Australian Institute of Sport for indiscipline .
The rebel qualities of the group were on show in the lead up to the Olympics . An obstacle arose with the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , which resulted in a boycott of the Games by a large part of the Western world , led by the United States . The Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser was also the patron of the Australian Olympic Committee , and he and sections of the public put significant political pressure on the athletes to join the boycott . Tonelli realised that only the sportspeople would suffer from a boycott and that trade relations would continue unabated . He took a leadership role among the athletes , fighting for their right to compete and publicising their cause to the Australian community . Evans was fully supportive of Tonelli 's campaign , reflecting that " We were political tools , and the only ones to suffer would be us . " He rhetorically asked : " Do you really think that if we didn 't go someone would come up to us after the Games and pat us on the back for not going ? "
Kerry was equally adamant that he was going to compete , unlike some swimmers who decided to make personal boycotts . He received offers from Australian officials to not compete in return for financial payments . He said
I felt the biggest statement we could make was to go to Moscow and show the world . If there was a total boycott , fine , but trade was still going on . It was disgusting . Why should the athletes be made to suffer ?
According to women 's swimming captain Lisa Forrest , Tonelli adopted populist tactics in championing the athletes ' cause . He said that Fraser was sending " wheat to feed the Russian army , wool to clothe the army and Australian metal to make Russian guns " , claiming that this contradicted the proposed protest against the invasion and Russian military aggression . Tonelli 's anti @-@ authoritarian and individualistic style manifested itself during media appearances , including a news interview in which he debated with Reverend Lance Shilton , who had called the athletes traitors . Shilton expressed sympathy for the athletes , which Tonelli interpreted as condescension . He responded by rolling his eyes and twirling his finger , a gaffe that was shown on national television ; Tonelli mistakenly thought that only his voice was being broadcast at the time and that the images were showing something else . Forrest said that " the damage was done — one of our most prominent anti @-@ boycott lobbyists ... looked like a smart alec " .
= = Event history and expectations = =
The United States had always won the 4 × 100 m medley relay since the event 's inception at the Olympics in 1960 with comfortable margins . The closest winning buffer was 2 @.@ 6 seconds and in 1972 and 1976 they had won by 4 @.@ 10 and 3 @.@ 72 s respectively ; their boycott opened up the field in the event . In the five previous times the event had been contested , Australia 's best result had come in the inaugural race in Rome , where the team of David Theile , Terry Gathercole , Neville Hayes and Geoff Shipton out @-@ touched Japan to claim silver . The only other time that Australia had won a medal was in Tokyo in 1964 , when Peter Reynolds , Ian O 'Brien , Kevin Berry and David Dickson finished behind the United States and Germany . The following two Games saw a fourth placing and an elimination in the heats . The previous outing in 1976 in Montreal had seen Australia come sixth . Kerry was the only veteran of the 1976 relay team who returned to the Olympics in Moscow .
Australia was regarded by swimming analysts as a medal chance , but were not seen as the main threats — Sweden , Great Britain and the Soviet Union were the most heavily fancied teams . The hosts had the silver medallists in the 100 m backstroke and breaststroke , Viktor Kuznetsov and Arsens Miskarovs respectively , and their butterflyer Yevgeny Seredin had come fifth in his 100 m event . Their freestyler Sergey Kopliakov later came fourth in the corresponding 100 m event . The British boasted Duncan Goodhew , the 100 m breaststroke gold medallist , and Gary Abraham , who had placed fifth in the 100 m backstroke . Sweden 's butterflyer Pär Arvidsson and backstroker Bengt Baron had won their respective 100 m events and their freestyle swimmer Per Holmertz would win silver in the 100 m a few days later . Their weakest swimmer was the breaststroker Peter Berggren , who came ninth in the 100 m . On paper , Australia 's team paled in comparison . Brooks later came seventh in his 100 m freestyle semifinal and 14th overall after having an asthma attack , and Evans was Australia 's only medallist in the corresponding individual event , winning bronze in the breaststroke . Kerry had been eliminated in the 100 m backstroke semifinals , while Tonelli was the Australian champion in the 100 m freestyle and backstroke but was swimming as a makeshift butterflyer ; the nation did not have an entrant in the 100 m butterfly . Adding to the pressure was Australia 's failure to win any gold medals in any sport at the 1976 Olympics . This meant that the public were still awaiting their first gold since the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich . Coming into the Olympics , Australia was ranked seventh out of the thirteen competing countries .
= = Race = =
The medley relay was scheduled for Thursday , 24 July , the fifth day of swimming competition , with heats in the morning and the final in the evening . Australia 's prospects improved when Sweden was disqualified in the first heat . Australia and the Soviet Union swam in the second heat . With their superior depth , the home team was able to rest their entire first @-@ choice quartet in the heats . On the other hand , Australia was only willing to rest Kerry — Glenn Patching swam the backstroke leg in his place . The hosts led the Australians from the start and extended their margin over each of the first three legs . Brooks reclaimed 1 @.@ 34 s on the freestyle leg , but the Australians fell 0 @.@ 13 s short to come second in their heat . Nevertheless , the Australians still qualified in second place overall , as they and the Soviets were more than 1 @.@ 5 s faster than the third @-@ placed Hungarians . In any case , despite resting all of their first @-@ choice quartet , the home team were still faster than the Australians , who had fielded all but one of their full @-@ strength team .
Evans brashly took the opportunity to attempt to regain the psychological ascendancy from Goodhew , confronting him privately and stating that " we will win it " , later reporting that the Briton was astounded by his posturing . The eldest swimmer in the quartet at the age of 23 , Tonelli convened the team as its de facto leader . He asked his compatriots to commit to swimming their legs in a certain time ; Kerry vowed to swim the backstroke in 57 s , Evans the breaststroke in 63 s flat , Tonelli the butterfly in 54 s and Brooks promised to anchor the team in 49 @.@ 8 s , even though he had never gone faster than 51 s . Tonelli named the foursome the " Quietly Confident Quartet " because they exhibited a reserved self @-@ belief as they lined up for the race . Whereas most of the other teams were " psyching up " in the marshalling area , the Australians were remaining light @-@ hearted and placid , confident that they could perform in the water .
Patching was one of several backstrokers who had slipped on the starting area earlier in the meet , so Kerry decided to rub a sticky red substance onto the soles of his feet . The Soviet organisers had provided a carpet following the incidents , resulting in Kerry leaving red footprints in the stadium . Kerry led off in a time faster than his effort in the individual event , but it was still two seconds slower than his personal best . He finished his leg in 57 @.@ 87 s , leaving Australia in fourth place . Kuznetsov gave the Soviets the lead after posting a time of 56 @.@ 81 s , with Hungary and Great Britain in second and third place . France was the last to reach the 100 m mark , recording a time of 58 @.@ 84 s . Evans then swam a personal best of 63 @.@ 01 s , the fastest split among the breaststrokers by 0 @.@ 63 s . His leg moved Australia into second place at the halfway mark , just 0 @.@ 45 s behind the hosts and roughly half a second ahead of the British and the Hungarians . The four leading teams had broken away , leaving a two @-@ second gap back to the fifth @-@ placed East Germans .
Tonelli then swam his leg in 54 @.@ 94 s , almost two seconds faster than his previous best over the distance . He began to lose ground in the last 50 m and was a bodylength behind Seredin until a late surge brought him to within a metre by the time the swimmers touched the wall . If Tonelli had replicated his relay leg in the individual event , he would have claimed the silver medal . Although he lost 0 @.@ 36 s to Seredin , he had minimised his loss and Australia were within 0 @.@ 81 s going into the final leg . Furthermore , the Australians were now more than a second clear of the third placed Great Britain .
Brooks then executed a powerful , well @-@ timed dive and surfaced almost even with his Soviet counterpart Kopliakov . He had drawn level halfway through his leg and made a superior turn to take the lead as they headed home . The Soviet freestyler pulled level with 25 m to go before Brooks again pulled away to seal an Australian victory by 0 @.@ 22 s . He did not breathe in the last ten metres , and claimed to be laughing for the final five metres , confident that his opponent could not pass him . Brooks had finished his leg in 49 @.@ 86 s as he had vowed to his team mates . In doing so , he recorded the swiftest freestyle split in the relay , faster than that of the individual 100 m freestyle gold medallist , Jörg Woithe of East Germany .
The time of 3 m 45 @.@ 70 s sealed Australia 's first win in a medley relay at the Olympics , for men or women . It remains the only time that the United States has not won the men 's event . The team made a celebratory dive into the water and did a poolside interview . Tonelli remarked that " I was totally stunned . After all the hassle , and my being the athletes ' mouthpiece , we 'd come through and done it " . Forrest hailed the win as " a gold medal that should never have been " .
Sportscaster Norman May 's dramatic call of the race on the 2UE radio network , ending with " Gold , gold for Australia , gold ! " , became one of Australia 's best @-@ known and most iconic sports commentaries .
= = Government reaction = =
Relations between the Olympians and the Australian Government remained tense after months of political struggle regarding the boycott . A prime minister would customarily send a congratulatory message to Olympic medallists . However , the Australian Olympic chef de mission Phil Coles confirmed at the following day 's press conference that the quartet had not received a message from Fraser . Australian journalists soon bombarded Fraser 's office with phone calls asking why he had not applauded the athletes . Various members of the government recommended that Fraser congratulate the swimmers , but the prime minister baulked . When questioned in a radio interview , he said " I hope that circumstances do not arise over the next few years which will cause them to have very great regrets about the fact that they 've gone " . Fraser relented and late in the night , his office sent a telegram . However , he would not send his message directly to the Olympic village , so the telegram was sent to the Australian Embassy in Moscow . Fraser had ordered the Australian diplomatic mission to close its doors to the Olympians , so the embassy staff had to pass the envelopes containing the message through the fence to Australian Olympic officials . Fraser 's telegram said :
You know I did not and do not approve of Australia being represented at these Olympic Games . I do want to say however that your performance in the relay was a truly great sporting achievement . My personal congratulations .
Coles reported that the relay squad tore up the prime minister 's message .
= = Aftermath = =
The quartet never competed as a unit after the Moscow Olympics . Tonelli retired immediately after the Games , while Kerry took an extended break . The backstroker attempted a comeback in the leadup to the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane , but his abbreviated preparation before the selection trials was not enough and he was defeated by other swimmers . This left Evans and Brooks as the only members of the 1980 team to participate in Australia 's medley relay victory at the Commonwealth Games . In 1984 , Kerry secured a recall to the team as Australia 's preferred backstroker , while Brooks was surpassed by Mark Stockwell as the leading freestyler . Australia came third in the 1984 Summer Olympics in the medley relay as the Americans returned to the Olympic fold ; Evans and Kerry swam in the final , while Brooks did the freestyle leg in the heats . Evans and Kerry retired after the Olympics , and Brooks was not the first @-@ choice swimmer in 1986 , meaning that a totally different quartet competed in the medley relay at the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh . Brooks was suspended for drunken behaviour on the flight back to Australia , and then retired , and all four members of the Quietly Confident Quartet had departed the Australian swimming scene .
= Long @-@ term potentiation =
In neuroscience , long @-@ term potentiation ( LTP ) is a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity . These are patterns of synaptic activity that produce a long @-@ lasting increase in signal transmission between two neurons . The opposite of LTP is long @-@ term depression , which produces a long @-@ lasting decrease in synaptic strength .
It is one of several phenomena underlying synaptic plasticity , the ability of chemical synapses to change their strength . As memories are thought to be encoded by modification of synaptic strength , LTP is widely considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory .
LTP was discovered in the rabbit hippocampus by Terje Lømo in 1966 and has remained a popular subject of research since . Many modern LTP studies seek to better understand its basic biology , while others aim to draw a causal link between LTP and behavioral learning . Still others try to develop methods , pharmacologic or otherwise , of enhancing LTP to improve learning and memory . LTP is also a subject of clinical research , for example , in the areas of Alzheimer 's disease and addiction medicine .
= = History = =
= = = Early theories of learning = = =
At the end of the 19th century , scientists generally recognized that the number of neurons in the adult brain ( roughly 100 billion ) did not increase significantly with age , giving neurobiologists good reason to believe that memories were generally not the result of new neuron production . With this realization came the need to explain how memories could form in the absence of new neurons .
The Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal was among the first to suggest a mechanism of learning that did not require the formation of new neurons . In his 1894 Croonian Lecture , he proposed that memories might instead be formed by strengthening the connections between existing neurons to improve the effectiveness of their communication . Hebbian theory , introduced by Donald Hebb in 1949 , echoed Ramón y Cajal 's ideas , further proposing that cells may grow new connections or undergo metabolic changes that enhance their ability to communicate :
Let us assume that the persistence or repetition of a reverberatory activity ( or " trace " ) tends to induce lasting cellular changes that add to its stability .... When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it , some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A 's efficiency , as one of the cells firing B , is increased .
Though these theories of memory formation are now well established , they were farsighted for their time : late 19th and early 20th century neuroscientists and psychologists were not equipped with the neurophysiological techniques necessary for elucidating the biological underpinnings of learning in animals . These skills would not come until the later half of the 20th century , at about the same time as the discovery of long @-@ term potentiation .
= = = Discovery = = =
LTP was first observed by Terje Lømo in 1966 in the Oslo , Norway , laboratory of Per Andersen . There , Lømo conducted a series of neurophysiological experiments on anesthetized rabbits to explore the role of the hippocampus in short @-@ term memory .
Lømo 's experiments focused on connections , or synapses , from the perforant pathway to the dentate gyrus . These experiments were carried out by stimulating presynaptic fibers of the perforant pathway and recording responses from a collection of postsynaptic cells of the dentate gyrus . As expected , a single pulse of electrical stimulation to fibers of the perforant pathway caused excitatory postsynaptic potentials ( EPSPs ) in cells of the dentate gyrus . What Lømo unexpectedly observed was that the postsynaptic cells ' response to these single @-@ pulse stimuli could be enhanced for a long period of time if he first delivered a high @-@ frequency train of stimuli to the presynaptic fibers . When such a train of stimuli was applied , subsequent single @-@ pulse stimuli elicited stronger , prolonged EPSPs in the postsynaptic cell population . This phenomenon , whereby a high @-@ frequency stimulus could produce a long @-@ lived enhancement in the postsynaptic cells ' response to subsequent single @-@ pulse stimuli , was initially called " long @-@ lasting potentiation " .
Timothy Bliss , who joined the Andersen laboratory in 1968 , collaborated with Lømo and in 1973 the two published the first characterization of long @-@ lasting potentiation in the rabbit hippocampus . Bliss and Tony Gardner @-@ Medwin published a similar report of long @-@ lasting potentiation in the awake animal which appeared in the same issue as the Bliss and Lømo report . In 1975 , Douglas and Goddard proposed " long @-@ term potentiation " as a new name for the phenomenon of long @-@ lasting potentiation . Andersen suggested that the authors chose " long @-@ term potentiation " perhaps because of its easily pronounced acronym , " LTP " .
= = = Models and theory = = =
The physical and biological mechanism of LTP is still not understood , but some successful models have been developed . [ 1 ] Studies of dendritic spines , protruding structures on dendrites that physically grow and retract over the course of minutes or hours , have suggested a relationship between the electrical resistance of the spine and the effective synapse strength , due to their relationship with intracellular calcium transients . Mathematical models such as BCM Theory , which depends also on intracellular calcium in relation to NMDA receptor voltage gates , have been developed since the 1980s and modify the traditional a priori Hebbian learning model with both biological and experimental justification . Still others have proposed re @-@ arranging or synchronizing the relationship between receptor regulation , LTP , and synaptic strength .
= = Types = =
Since its original discovery in the rabbit hippocampus , LTP has been observed in a variety of other neural structures , including the cerebral cortex , cerebellum , amygdala , and many others . Robert Malenka , a prominent LTP researcher , has suggested that LTP may even occur at all excitatory synapses in the mammalian brain .
Different areas of the brain exhibit different forms of LTP . The specific type of LTP exhibited between neurons depends on a number of factors . One such factor is the age of the organism when LTP is observed . For example , the molecular mechanisms of LTP in the immature hippocampus differ from those mechanisms that underlie LTP of the adult hippocampus . The signalling pathways used by a particular cell also contribute to the specific type of LTP present . For example , some types of hippocampal LTP depend on the NMDA receptor , others may depend upon the metabotropic glutamate receptor ( mGluR ) , while still others depend upon another molecule altogether . The variety of signaling pathways that contribute to LTP and the wide distribution of these various pathways in the brain are reasons that the type of LTP exhibited between neurons depends in part upon the anatomic location in which LTP is observed . For example , LTP in the Schaffer collateral pathway of the hippocampus is NMDA receptor @-@ dependent , whereas LTP in the mossy fiber pathway is NMDA receptor @-@ independent .
The pre- and postsynaptic activity required to induce LTP are other criteria by which LTP is classified . Broadly , this allows classification of LTP into Hebbian , non @-@ Hebbian , and anti @-@ Hebbian mechanisms . Borrowing its name from Hebb 's postulate , summarized by the maxim that " cells that fire together wire together , " Hebbian LTP requires simultaneous pre- and postsynaptic depolarization for its induction . Non @-@ Hebbian LTP is a type of LTP that does not require such simultaneous depolarization of pre- and postsynaptic cells ; an example of this occurs in the mossy fiber hippocampal pathway . A special case of non @-@ Hebbian LTP , anti @-@ Hebbian LTP explicitly requires simultaneous presynaptic depolarization and relative postsynaptic hyperpolarization for its induction .
Owing to its predictable organization and readily inducible LTP , the CA1 hippocampus has become the prototypical site of mammalian LTP study . In particular , NMDA receptor @-@ dependent LTP in the adult CA1 hippocampus is the most widely studied type of LTP , and is therefore the focus of this article .
= = Properties = =
NMDA receptor @-@ dependent LTP exhibits several properties , including input specificity , associativity , cooperativity , and persistence .
Input specificity
Once induced , LTP at one synapse does not spread to other synapses ; rather LTP is input specific . Long @-@ term potentiation is only propagated to those synapses according to the rules of associativity and cooperativity . However , the input specificity of LTP may be incomplete at short distances . One model to explain the input specificity of LTP was presented by Frey and Morris in 1997 and is called the synaptic tagging and capture hypothesis .
Associativity
Associativity refers to the observation that when weak stimulation of a single pathway is insufficient for the induction of LTP , simultaneous strong stimulation of another pathway will induce LTP at both pathways .
Cooperativity
LTP can be induced either by strong tetanic stimulation of a single pathway to a synapse , or cooperatively via the weaker stimulation of many . When one pathway into a synapse is stimulated weakly , it produces insufficient postsynaptic depolarization to induce LTP . In contrast , when weak stimuli are applied to many pathways that converge on a single patch of postsynaptic membrane , the individual postsynaptic depolarizations generated may collectively depolarize the postsynaptic cell enough to induce LTP cooperatively . Synaptic tagging , discussed later , may be a common mechanism underlying associativity and cooperativity . Bruce McNaughton argues that any difference between associativity and cooperativity is strictly semantic .
Persistence
LTP is persistent , lasting from several minutes to many months , and it is this persistence that separates LTP from other forms of synaptic plasticity .
= = = Early phase = = =
= = = = Maintenance = = = =
While induction entails the transient activation of CaMKII and PKC , maintenance of E @-@ LTP ( early @-@ form LTP ) is characterized by their persistent activation . During this stage , PKMz ( Protein kinase Mζ ) which does not have dependence on calcium , become autonomously active . Consequently , they are able to carry out the phosphorylation events that underlie E @-@ LTP expression .
= = = = Expression = = = =
Phosphorylation is a chemical reaction in which a small phosphate group is added to another molecule to change that molecule 's activity . Autonomously active CaMKII and PKC use phosphorylation to carry out the two major mechanisms underlying the expression of E @-@ LTP . First , and most importantly , they phosphorylate existing AMPA receptors to increase their activity . Second , they mediate or modulate the insertion of additional AMPA receptors into the postsynaptic membrane . Importantly , the delivery of AMPA receptors to the synapse during E @-@ LTP is independent of protein synthesis . This is achieved by having a nonsynaptic pool of AMPA receptors adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane . When the appropriate LTP @-@ inducing stimulus arrives , nonsynaptic AMPA receptors are rapidly trafficked into the postsynaptic membrane under the influence of protein kinases . As mentioned previously , AMPA receptors are the brain 's most abundant glutamate receptors and mediate the majority of its excitatory activity . By increasing the efficiency and number of AMPA receptors at the synapse , future excitatory stimuli generate larger postsynaptic responses .
While the above model of E @-@ LTP describes entirely postsynaptic mechanisms for induction , maintenance , and expression , an additional component of expression may occur presynaptically . One hypothesis of this presynaptic facilitation is that persistent CaMKII activity in the postsynaptic cell during E @-@ LTP may lead to the synthesis of a " retrograde messenger " , discussed later . According to this hypothesis , the newly synthesized messenger travels across the synaptic cleft from the postsynaptic to the presynaptic cell , leading to a chain of events that facilitate the presynaptic response to subsequent stimuli . Such events may include an increase in neurotransmitter vesicle number , probability of vesicle release , or both . In addition to the retrograde messenger underlying presynaptic expression in early LTP , the retrograde messenger may also play a role in the expression of late LTP .
= = = Late phase = = =
Late LTP ( L @-@ LTP ) is the natural extension of E @-@ LTP . Unlike E @-@ LTP , which is independent of protein synthesis , L @-@ LTP requires gene transcription and protein synthesis in the postsynaptic cell . Two phases of L @-@ LTP exist : the first depends upon protein synthesis , while the second depends upon both gene transcription and protein synthesis . These phases are occasionally called LTP2 and LTP3 , respectively , with E @-@ LTP referred to as LTP1 under this nomenclature .
= = = = Induction = = = =
Late LTP is induced by changes in gene expression and protein synthesis brought about by the persistent activation of protein kinases activated during E @-@ LTP , such as MAPK . In fact , MAPK — specifically the extracellular signal @-@ regulated kinase ( ERK ) subfamily of MAPKs — may be the molecular link between E @-@ LTP and L @-@ LTP , since many signaling cascades involved in E @-@ LTP , including CaMKII and PKC , can converge on ERK . Recent research has shown that the induction of L @-@ LTP can depend on coincident molecular events , namely PKA activation and calcium influx , that converge on CRTC1 ( TORC1 ) , a potent transcriptional coactivator for cAMP response element binding protein ( CREB ) . This requirement for a molecular coincidence accounts perfectly for the associative nature of LTP , and , presumably , for that of learning .
= = = = Maintenance = = = =
Upon activation , ERK may phosphorylate a number of cytoplasmic and nuclear molecules that ultimately result in the protein synthesis and morphological changes observed in L @-@ LTP . These cytoplasmic and nuclear molecules may include transcription factors such as CREB . ERK @-@ mediated changes in transcription factor activity may trigger the synthesis of proteins that underlie the maintenance of L @-@ LTP . One such molecule may be protein kinase Mζ ( PKMζ ) , a persistently active kinase whose synthesis increases following LTP induction . PKMζ is an atypical isoform of PKC that lacks a regulatory subunit and thus remains constitutively active . Unlike other kinases that mediate LTP , PKMζ is active not just in the first 30 minutes following LTP induction ; rather , PKMζ becomes a requirement for LTP maintenance only during the late phase of LTP . PKMζ thus appears important for the persistence of memory and would be expected to be important in the maintenance of long @-@ term memory . Indeed , administration of a PKMζ inhibitor into the hippocampus of the rat results in retrograde amnesia with intact short @-@ term memory ; PKMζ does not play a role in the establishment of short @-@ term memory . PKMζ has recently been shown to underlie L @-@ LTP maintenance by directing the trafficking and reorganization of proteins in the synaptic scaffolding that underlie the expression of L @-@ LTP . Even more recently , transgenic mice lacking PKMζ demonstrate normal LTP , questioning the necessity of PKMζ
The long @-@ term stabilization of synaptic changes is also determined by a parallel increase of pre- and postsynaptic structures such as axonal bouton , dendritic spine and postsynaptic density . On the molecular level , an increase of the postsynaptic scaffolding proteins PSD @-@ 95 and Homer1c has been shown to correlate with the stabilization of synaptic enlargement .
= = = = Expression = = = =
The identities of only a few proteins synthesized during L @-@ LTP are known . Regardless of their identities , it is thought that they contribute to the increase in dendritic spine number , surface area , and postsynaptic sensitivity to neurotransmitter associated with L @-@ LTP expression . The latter may be brought about in part by the enhanced synthesis of AMPA receptors during L @-@ LTP . Late LTP is also associated with the presynaptic synthesis of synaptotagmin and an increase in synaptic vesicle number , suggesting that L @-@ LTP induces protein synthesis not only in postsynaptic cells , but in presynaptic cells as well . As mentioned previously , for postsynaptic LTP induction to result in presynaptic protein synthesis , there must be communication from the postsynaptic to the presynaptic cell . This may occur via the synthesis of a retrograde messenger , discussed later .
Even in studies restricted to postsynaptic events , investigators have not determined the location of the protein synthesis that underlies L @-@ LTP . Specifically , it is unclear whether protein synthesis takes place in the postsynaptic cell body or in its dendrites . Despite having observed ribosomes ( the major components of the protein synthesis machinery ) in dendrites as early as the 1960s , prevailing wisdom was that the cell body was the predominant site of protein synthesis in neurons . This reasoning was not seriously challenged until the 1980s , when investigators reported observing protein synthesis in dendrites whose connection to their cell body had been severed . More recently , investigators have demonstrated that this type of local protein synthesis is necessary for some types of LTP .
One reason for the popularity of the local protein synthesis hypothesis is that it provides a possible mechanism for the specificity associated with LTP . Specifically , if indeed local protein synthesis underlies L @-@ LTP , only dendritic spines receiving LTP @-@ inducing stimuli will undergo LTP ; the potentiation will not be propagated to adjacent synapses . By contrast , global protein synthesis that occurs in the cell body requires that proteins be shipped out to every area of the cell , including synapses that have not received LTP @-@ inducing stimuli . Whereas local protein synthesis provides a mechanism for specificity , global protein synthesis would seem to directly compromise it . However , as discussed later , the synaptic tagging hypothesis successfully reconciles global protein synthesis , synapse specificity , and associativity .
= = = Retrograde signaling = = =
Retrograde signaling is a hypothesis that attempts to explain that , while LTP is induced and expressed postsynaptically , some evidence suggests that it is expressed presynaptically as well . The hypothesis gets its name because normal synaptic transmission is directional and proceeds from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic cell . For induction to occur postsynaptically and be partially expressed presynaptically , a message must travel from the postsynaptic cell to the presynaptic cell in a retrograde ( reverse ) direction . Once there , the message presumably initiates a cascade of events that leads to a presynaptic component of expression , such as the increased probability of neurotransmitter vesicle release .
Retrograde signaling is currently a contentious subject as some investigators do not believe the presynaptic cell contributes at all to the expression of LTP . Even among proponents of the hypothesis there is controversy over the identity of the messenger . Early thoughts focused on nitric oxide , while most recent evidence points to cell adhesion proteins .
= = = Synaptic tagging = = =
Before the local protein synthesis hypothesis gained significant support , there was general agreement that the protein synthesis underlying L @-@ LTP occurred in the cell body . Further , there was thought that the products of this synthesis were shipped cell @-@ wide in a nonspecific manner . It thus became necessary to explain how protein synthesis could occur in the cell body without compromising LTP 's input specificity . The synaptic tagging hypothesis attempts to solve the cell 's difficult problem of synthesizing proteins in the cell body but ensuring they only reach synapses that have received LTP @-@ inducing stimuli .
The synaptic tagging hypothesis proposes that a " synaptic tag " is synthesized at synapses that have received LTP @-@ inducing stimuli , and that this synaptic tag may serve to capture plasticity @-@ related proteins shipped cell @-@ wide from the cell body . Studies of LTP in the marine snail Aplysia californica have implicated synaptic tagging as a mechanism for the input @-@ specificity of LTP . There is some evidence that given two widely separated synapses , an LTP @-@ inducing stimulus at one synapse drives several signaling cascades ( described previously ) that initiates gene expression in the cell nucleus . At the same synapse ( but not the unstimulated synapse ) , local protein synthesis creates a short @-@ lived ( less than three hours ) synaptic tag . The products of gene expression are shipped globally throughout the cell , but are only captured by synapses that express the synaptic tag . Thus only the synapse receiving LTP @-@ inducing stimuli is potentiated , demonstrating LTP 's input specificity .
The synaptic tag hypothesis may also account for LTP 's associativity and cooperativity . Associativity ( see Properties ) is observed when one synapse is excited with LTP @-@ inducing stimulation while a separate synapse is only weakly stimulated . Whereas one might expect only the strongly stimulated synapse to undergo LTP ( since weak stimulation alone is insufficient to induce LTP at either synapse ) , both synapses will in fact undergo LTP . While weak stimuli are unable to induce protein synthesis in the cell body , they may prompt the synthesis of a synaptic tag . Simultaneous strong stimulation of a separate pathway , capable of inducing cell body protein synthesis , then may prompt the production of plasticity @-@ related proteins , which are shipped cell @-@ wide . With both synapses expressing the synaptic tag , both would capture the protein products resulting in the expression of LTP in both the strongly stimulated and weakly stimulated pathways .
Cooperativity is observed when two synapses are activated by weak stimuli incapable of inducing LTP when stimulated individually . But upon simultaneous weak stimulation , both synapses undergo LTP in a cooperative fashion . Synaptic tagging does not explain how multiple weak stimuli can result in a collective stimulus sufficient to induce LTP ( this is explained by the postsynaptic summation of EPSPs described previously ) . Rather , synaptic tagging explains the ability of weakly stimulated synapses , none of which are capable of independently generating LTP , to receive the products of protein synthesis initiated collectively . As before , this may be accomplished through the synthesis of a local synaptic tag following weak synaptic stimulation .
= = = Modulation = = =
As described previously , the molecules that underlie LTP can be classified as mediators or modulators . A mediator of LTP is a molecule , such as the NMDA receptor or calcium , whose presence and activity is necessary for generating LTP under nearly all conditions . By contrast , a modulator is a molecule that can alter LTP but is not essential for its generation or expression .
In addition to the signaling pathways described above , hippocampal LTP may be altered by a variety of modulators . For example , the steroid hormone estradiol may enhance LTP by driving CREB phosphorylation and subsequent dendritic spine growth . Additionally , β @-@ adrenergic receptor agonists such as norepinephrine may alter the protein synthesis @-@ dependent late phase of LTP . Nitric oxide synthase activity may also result in the subsequent activation of guanylyl cyclase and PKG . Similarly , activation of dopamine receptors may enhance LTP through the cAMP / PKA signaling pathway .
= = Relationship to behavioral memory = =
While the long @-@ term potentiation of synapses in cell culture seems to provide an elegant substrate for learning and memory , the contribution of LTP to behavioral learning — that is , learning at the level of the whole organism — cannot simply be extrapolated from in vitro studies . For this reason , considerable effort has been dedicated to establishing whether LTP is a requirement for learning and memory in living animals . Because of this , LTP also plays a crucial role in fear processing .
= = = Spatial memory = = =
In 1986 , Richard Morris provided some of the first evidence that LTP was indeed required for the formation of memories in vivo . He tested the spatial memory of rats by pharmacologically modifying their hippocampus , a brain structure whose role in spatial learning is well established . Rats were trained on the Morris water maze , a spatial memory task in which rats swim in a pool of murky water until they locate the platform hidden beneath its surface . During this exercise , normal rats are expected to associate the location of the hidden platform with salient cues placed at specific positions around the circumference of the maze . After training , one group of rats had their hippocampi bathed in the NMDA receptor blocker APV , while the other group served as the control . Both groups were then subjected to the water maze spatial memory task . Rats in the control group were able to locate the platform and escape from the pool , while the performance of APV @-@ treated rats was significantly impaired . Moreover , when slices of the hippocampus were taken from both groups , LTP was easily induced in controls , but could not be induced in the brains of APV @-@ treated rats . This provided early evidence that the NMDA receptor — and by extension , LTP — was required for at least some types of learning and memory .
Similarly , Susumu Tonegawa demonstrated in 1996 that the CA1 area of the hippocampus is crucial to the formation of spatial memories in living mice . So @-@ called place cells located in this region become active only when the rat is in a particular location — called a place field — in the environment . Since these place fields are distributed throughout the environment , one interpretation is that groups of place cells form maps in the hippocampus . The accuracy of these maps determines how well a rat learns about its environment and thus how well it can navigate it . Tonegawa found that by impairing the NMDA receptor , specifically by genetically removing the NR1 subunit in the CA1 region , the place fields generated were substantially less specific than those of controls . That is , mice produced faulty spatial maps when their NMDA receptors were impaired . As expected , these mice performed very poorly on spatial tasks compared to controls , further supporting the role of LTP in spatial learning .
= = = Inhibitory avoidance = = =
In 2006 , Jonathan Whitlock and colleagues reported on a series of experiments that provided perhaps the strongest evidence of LTP 's role in behavioral memory , arguing that to conclude that LTP underlies behavioral learning , the two processes must both mimic and occlude one another . Employing an inhibitory avoidance learning paradigm , researchers trained rats in a two @-@ chambered apparatus with light and dark chambers , the latter being fitted with a device that delivered a foot shock to the rat upon entry . An analysis of CA1 hippocampal synapses revealed that inhibitory avoidance training induced in vivo AMPA receptor phosphorylation of the same type as that seen in LTP in vitro ; that is , inhibitory avoidance training mimicked LTP . In addition , synapses potentiated during training could not be further potentiated by experimental manipulations that would have otherwise induced LTP ; that is , inhibitory avoidance training occluded LTP . In a response to the article , Timothy Bliss and colleagues remarked that these and related experiments " substantially advance the case for LTP as a neural mechanism for memory . "
= = Clinical significance = =
The role of LTP in disease is less clear than its role in basic mechanisms of synaptic plasticity . However , alterations in LTP may contribute to a number of neurological diseases , including depression , Parkinson 's disease , epilepsy , and neuropathic pain . Impaired LTP may also have a role in Alzheimer 's disease and drug addiction .
= = = Alzheimer 's disease = = =
LTP has received much attention among those who study Alzheimer 's disease ( AD ) , a neurodegenerative disease that causes marked cognitive decline and dementia . Much of this deterioration occurs in association with degenerative changes in the hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe structures . Because of the hippocampus ' well established role in LTP , some have suggested that the cognitive decline seen in individuals with AD may result from impaired LTP .
In a 2003 review of the literature , Rowan et al. proposed one model for how LTP might be affected in AD . AD appears to result , at least in part , from misprocessing of amyloid precursor protein ( APP ) . The result of this abnormal processing is the accumulation of fragments of this protein , called amyloid β ( Aβ ) . Aβ exists in both soluble and fibrillar forms . Misprocessing of APP results in the accumulation of soluble Aβ that , according to Rowan 's hypothesis , impairs hippocampal LTP and may lead to the cognitive decline seen early in AD .
AD may also impair LTP through mechanisms distinct from Aβ . For example , one study demonstrated that the enzyme PKMζ accumulates in neurofibrillary tangles , which are a pathologic marker of AD . PKMζ is an enzyme with critical importance in the maintenance of late LTP .
= = = Drug addiction = = =
Research in the field of addiction medicine has also recently turned its focus to LTP , owing to the hypothesis that drug addiction represents a powerful form of learning and memory . Addiction is a complex neurobehavioral phenomenon involving various parts of the brain , such as the ventral tegmental area ( VTA ) and nucleus accumbens ( NAc ) . Studies have demonstrated that VTA and NAc synapses are capable of undergoing LTP and that this LTP may be responsible for the behaviors that characterize addiction .
= The War for Late Night =
The War for Late Night : When Leno Went Early and Television Went Crazy is a 2010 non @-@ fiction book written by The New York Times media reporter Bill Carter . It chronicles the 2010 conflict surrounding the American late @-@ night talk show The Tonight Show involving Conan O 'Brien and Jay Leno . It is a sequel to Carter 's 1994 book The Late Shift , which detailed the struggle for the hosting spot on The Tonight Show between David Letterman and Jay Leno in the early 1990s following the retirement of Johnny Carson . It was first published on November 4 , 2010 , by Viking Press .
The book received a generally favorable reception from reviewers including the Associated Press , BusinessWeek , The Buffalo News , New York Magazine , Star Tribune , The Hollywood Reporter , The Washington Post , Entertainment Weekly , the New York Post , the Los Angeles Times , Time magazine , and ABC News . The Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal said , " The War for Late Night ... offers an exhaustive , eye @-@ opening , how @-@ could @-@ he @-@ possibly @-@ know @-@ that look at the late @-@ night feud that ultimately was a muddled victory for Leno : He won back ' The Tonight Show , ' but his ratings have fallen below O 'Brien 's . "
= = Background = =
Author Bill Carter previously wrote The Late Shift , a book about the 1992 conflict between Jay Leno and David Letterman to decide who would succeed Johnny Carson as host of The Tonight Show . The book was well received by critics from publications including The New York Times Book Review , and The Christian Science Monitor . A film adaptation of the book , which won several industry awards , was produced in 1996 by HBO .
= = Research = =
Carter researched for the book during 2010 . He had secured a publishing deal for the book by January of that year . Carter confirmed to Gillian Reagan of Business Insider that in his research , he tried to gather information from multiple viewpoints . He said , " I 'm reaching out to everyone I possibly can to get every side of the story . " Carter said that he was remaining neutral about the 2010 Tonight Show conflict . " I obviously have to reach out to all sides " , he said . " For the longest time , I personally tried to watch as many episodes of all the shows as I could to get sense of each show , and what each guy does . I don 't just pick one and stick with that guy . " Carter researched the impact of financial decision @-@ making on the controversy . He said he had known Leno for a long time , and O 'Brien since he began working for NBC , and that these connections gave him the benefit of familiarity .
= = Contents = =
The War for Late Night chronicles the 2010 conflict surrounding the American late @-@ night talk show The Tonight Show involving Conan O 'Brien and Jay Leno . Carter gives biographical description of other late @-@ night television personalities , including David Letterman , Jimmy Fallon , Jimmy Kimmel , Craig Ferguson , Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert . As host of Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , O 'Brien decided to remain with NBC after attempts by ABC and Fox to attract him to their networks — as NBC executives had told O 'Brien that he would become host of The Tonight Show after Leno 's retirement . While hosting The Tonight Show and analyzing ratings results , O 'Brien told his manager Gavin Polone that he feared that Leno might be moved back to the program . Carter 's book contains details of O 'Brien 's and Leno 's contracts , and describes O 'Brien 's emotional state during the 2010 conflict . According to Carter , Leno had an advantage during negotiations because of a stronger contract agreement with NBC , which gave Leno the option to sue NBC if his program was canceled .
NBC executives tried to solve the problem so that both Leno and O 'Brien would keep their jobs . Jeff Gaspin , the chairman of NBC Universal Television , instructed both parties that he did not wish to make a difficult decision but that the most appropriate solution was to move Leno back to his previous timeslot and push O 'Brien to 12 : 05 . Carter details a heated exchange between NBC executive Jeff Zucker and O 'Brien 's agent Rick Rosen during which Zucker told O 'Brien 's representatives he could enforce O 'Brien 's contract and " ice him for two years " , after details of the conflict were leaked to the media . The author cites O 'Brien 's disappointment with the perceived unfairness of the situation , and quotes O 'Brien 's comments at a meeting with NBC Entertainment and Universal Media Studios chairman Marc Graboff and Jeff Gaspin , " I know how hard I worked for this . It was promised to me . I had a shitty lead @-@ in . " Carter recounts how affiliates of NBC complained to the network about the poor ratings performance of Leno 's program The Jay Leno Show . O 'Brien asked the two NBC executives , " What does Jay have on you ? What does this guy have on you people ? What the hell is it about Jay ? "
Carter writes about how the " Team Coco " movement and fans impacted O 'Brien following the controversy , " The outpouring of support made Conan feel as if he was starring in his own version of the movie It 's a Wonderful Life , both because he was allowed to see a ' Tonight Show ' where he never existed and because the support made him realize he really was ' the richest man in town . ' " O 'Brien was hurt by the fact that Leno did not communicate directly with him during the fiasco . Carter also says that compared to the eventual payout to O 'Brien of $ 45 million , NBC would have suffered a financial loss of $ 235 million if O 'Brien had left the company in 2004 to host a talk show for another network . O 'Brien moved from NBC to host his own late night program on TBS . Carter 's work concludes with an interview from comic Jerry Seinfeld , who favored Leno ; Seinfeld argues that O 'Brien should have remained at NBC .
= = Reception = =
Writing for the New York Post , Larry Getlen wrote , " Veteran journalist Bill Carter details the vicious recent battle over ' The Tonight Show , ' showing how Leno was hardly the devious schemer he was made out to be , and how O ’ Brien was not always the angelic innocent the media portrayed , as he and his team aggressively pursued the show at every opportunity . " Jon Bershad of Mediaite commented , " It ’ s as tense and exciting as expected . " Writing for TV Squad , Joel Keller analyzed Carter 's comparison of Leno 's legal contract with O 'Brien 's , and wrote that the author " paints a picture of Leno and his producer , Debbie Vickers , as pragmatists and Conan as a cockeyed idealist " . Joe Flint of the Los Angeles Times commented about changes in the media industry since Carter 's prior book The Late Shift , " The only difference is that the media world has changed a lot then , and while " The Late Shift " had a lot of inside dirt and drama that was news to everyone but the most hardcore industry insiders , this time around the soap opera played out on TV and in the media . " James Poniewozik of Time magazine wrote , " There are lots of juicy bits , but the big takeaway : the guy with the best contract , wins " , and called the book , " Bill Carter 's Jaypocalypse dirt @-@ disher " . Writing for ABC News , journalist Sheila Marikar commented , " Bill Carter 's new book , ' The War for Late Night , ' reveals what happened behind the scenes , the expletives that were hurled during closed @-@ door discussions , the roller coaster that O 'Brien , Leno , and their cohorts rode during that tumultuous time . "
Frazier Moore of Associated Press wrote , " He plays this latest late @-@ night conflagration right down the middle . He keeps the story moving almost cinematically , crosscutting from one personality to another , deftly and revealingly presenting different points of view . " Writing for BusinessWeek , Jim Windolf gave the book a rating of three stars out of a possible five , and commented , " Bill Carter has become the Bob Woodward of the 11 : 35 time slot . " Paula Duffy of HULIQ News described the book as " a juicy tell @-@ all " . Dylan Stableford of TheWrap called the book " a must @-@ read " for fans of Conan O 'Brien . Jeff Simon of The Buffalo News called the book a " definitive history " of the 2010 Tonight Show conflict . Willa Paskin wrote for New York Magazine that Carter , " spoke with enough people involved in the situation to provide an account so detailed , it even includes re @-@ created conversations and dialogue " . Neal Justin of Star Tribune commented on the author 's neutrality in his writing style , " The next time network TV executives stumble into an ugly behind @-@ the @-@ scenes battle , they should consider hiring Bill Carter to negotiate . The veteran New York Times media reporter has a way of sharing juicy stories without painting anyone as a complete saint or sinner , a feat he pulls off again in his latest book , ' The War for Late Night : When Leno Went Early and Television Went Crazy ' " .
Nate Jones wrote for Time magazine , " There are no landmark surprises — Jay Leno comes off as affably opportunistic , Conan O 'Brien as a tragic self @-@ dramatist with a little bit of a martyrdom complex — but it 's a worthwhile look at the procedural negotiations that led to last winter 's messy divorce . " The Hollywood Reporter said , " Bill Carter 's book reveals explosive new details about the Jay Leno @-@ O 'Brien debacle . " Kyle Anderson of MTV.com wrote , " the story takes an amazingly candid look at the conversations and arguments that went on behind the scenes . It even takes you to the moment when O 'Brien decides that he has to walk away from ' The Tonight Show . ' " Paul Schwartzman of The Washington Post wrote that it " is a great read and an example of narrative journalism 's power when practiced by a reporter steeped in his subject matter . " Lynette Rice of Entertainment Weekly gave Carter 's book a rating of B- , and wrote , " In the end , Carter presents a pretty compelling argument that while the fourth @-@ place network lost the public relations war , it probably won the late @-@ night battle . " Speaking on his program The Howard Stern Show , host Howard Stern said of Carter 's writing style , " It is just endlessly fascinating the way he paints this picture . "
= = Film adaptation = =
On January 19 , 2010 , during O 'Brien 's last week of shows , guest Quentin Tarantino jokingly suggested that he direct a sequel to The Late Shift , cast O 'Brien as himself and make it a revenge movie in the style of his film Kill Bill with the title Late Shift 2 : The Rolling Thunder of Revenge . The Toronto Star reported in February 2010 that a sequel to The Late Shift film was in planning stages . In the final episode of The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien , O 'Brien said he wished that actress Tilda Swinton could portray him in a film version about The Tonight Show conflict . Swinton subsequently expressed interest in being cast as O 'Brien in a sequel to The Late Shift .
When asked in a June 2010 interview with Movieline whether there would be film adaptation of the book , Carter said that plans were not serious at that point , and , " Not really . Nothing serious . Let 's put it this way : There have always been people kicking it around because they think it 's funny ... Letterman made a ... joke saying that Max von Sydow should play him . So , you know , people are just kicking it around like that . " Actor Bob Balaban , who portrayed NBC executive Warren Littlefield in The Late Shift said he would like to portray Jeff Zucker , and said Jason Alexander would also be a good choice to play Zucker . Andy Richter jokingly told Movieline that he would want Justin Bieber to portray him in a film adaptation of the book .
= Jack Russell Terrier =
The Jack Russell Terrier is a small terrier that has its origins in fox hunting . It is principally white @-@ bodied and smooth , rough or broken @-@ coated .
The Jack Russell is frequently confused with the Parson Russell terrier ( see the American Kennel Club ) and the Russell terrier , which is a shorter @-@ legged , stockier variety . ( Within the Fédération Cynologique Internationale , the " Russell terrier " is also known as " Jack Russell terrier " . ) The term " Jack Russell " is also commonly misapplied to other small white terriers . The Jack Russell is a broad type , with a size range of 10 – 15 inches ( 25 – 38 cm ) . The Parson Russell is limited only to a middle range with a standard size of 12 – 14 inches ( 30 – 36 cm ) , while the Russell terrier is smaller at 8 – 12 inches ( 20 – 30 cm ) . Each breed has different physical proportions according to the standards of their breed clubs .
Jack Russells are an energetic breed that rely on a high level of exercise and stimulation , and are relatively free from serious health complaints . Originating from dogs bred and used by Reverend John Russell in the early 19th century , from whom the breed takes its name , the Jack Russell has similar origins to the modern Fox terrier . It has gone through several changes over the years , corresponding to different use and breed standards set by kennel clubs . Recognition by kennel clubs for the Jack Russell breed has been opposed by the breed 's parent societies – which resulted in the breeding and recognition of the Parson Russell terrier . Jack Russells have appeared many times in film , television and print - with several historical dogs of note .
= = History = =
= = = Sporting parson = = =
The small white @-@ fox working terriers we know today were first bred by the Reverend Jack Russell , a parson and hunting enthusiast born in 1795 , and they can trace their origin to the now extinct English White terrier . Difficulty in differentiating the dog from the creature it was pursuing brought about the need for a mostly white dog , and so in 1819 during his last year of university at Exeter College , Oxford , he purchased a small white and tan terrier female named Trump from a local milkman in the nearby small hamlet of Elsfield or Marston ) . Trump epitomised his ideal Fox terrier , which , at the time , was a term used for any terrier which was used to bolt foxes out of their burrows . Her colouring was described as " ... white , with just a patch of dark tan over each eye and ear ; whilst a similar dot , not larger than a penny piece , marks the root of the tail . " Davies , a friend of Russell 's , wrote " Trump was such an animal as Russell had only seen in his dreams " . She was the basis for a breeding program to develop a terrier with high stamina for the hunt as well as the courage and formation to chase out foxes that had gone to ground . By the 1850s , these dogs were recognised as a distinct breed .
An important attribute in this dog was a tempered aggressiveness that would provide the necessary drive to pursue and bolt the fox , without resulting in physical harm to the quarry and effectively ending the chase , which was considered unsporting . Russell was said to have prided himself that his terriers never tasted blood . This line of terriers developed by John Russell was well respected for those qualities , and his dogs were often taken on by hunt enthusiasts . It is unlikely , however , that any dogs alive today can be proven to be descendants from Trump , as Russell was forced to sell all his dogs on more than one occasion because of financial difficulty , and had only four aged ( and non @-@ breeding ) terriers left when he died in 1883 .
The Fox terrier and Jack Russell terrier type dogs of today are all descended from dogs of that period , although documented pedigrees earlier than 1862 have not been found , although several records remain of documented breeding by John Russell between the 1860s and 1880s . The Fox Terrier Club was formed in 1875 with Russell as one of the founder members ; its breed standard was aspiration , and not a description of how the breed appeared then . By the start of the 20th century , the Fox terrier had altered more towards the modern breed , but in some parts of the country the old style of John Russell 's terriers remained , and it is from those dogs that the modern Jack Russell type has descended .
Many breeds can claim heritage to the early Fox terrier of this period , including the Brazilian terrier , Japanese terrier , Miniature Fox terrier , Ratonero Bodeguero Andaluz , Rat terrier , and Tenterfield terrier .
= = = After John Russell = = =
Following Russell 's death , the only people who made serious efforts to continue those strains were two men , one in Chislehurst with the surname of East , and another in Cornwall named Archer . East , at one point , had several couples , all of which were descended from one of Russell 's dogs . The type aimed for were not as big as the show Fox terrier and were usually less than 15 pounds ( 6 @.@ 8 kg ) .
Arthur Blake Heinemann created the first breed standard and , in 1894 , he founded the Devon and Somerset Badger Club , the aims of which were to promote badger digging rather than fox hunting , and the breeding of terriers suitable for this purpose . Terriers were acquired from Nicholas Snow of Oare , and they were likely descended from Russell 's original dogs , as Russell would probably have hunted at some point with Snow 's hunting club and is likely to have provided at least some of their original terriers . By the turn of the 20th century , Russell 's name had become associated with this breed of dog .
The club was later renamed the Parson Jack Russell Terrier Club . Badger digging required a different type of dog than fox hunting , and it is likely that Bull terrier stock was introduced to strengthen the breed , which may have caused the creation of a shorter legged variety of Jack Russell terrier that started to appear around this period . At the same time that a split was appearing between show and working Fox terriers , a further split was occurring between two different types of white terrier , both carrying Jack Russell 's name . Heinemann was invited to judge classes for working terriers at Crufts with an aim to bring working terriers back into the show ring and influence those that disregard working qualities in dogs . These classes were continued for several years by various judges , but Charles Cruft dropped the attempt as the classes were never heavily competed . Following Heinemann 's death in 1930 , the kennel and leadership of the club passed to Annie Harris , but the club itself folded shortly before World War II .
= = = Post World War II = = =
Following World War II , the requirement for hunting dogs drastically declined , and with it the numbers of Jack Russell terriers . The dogs were increasingly used as family and companion dogs . Further cross breeding occurred , with Welsh corgis , Chihuahuas , and other smaller breeds of terrier . The offspring of these crosses became known as " Puddin ' Dogs " , " Shortie Jacks " , or " Russell Terriers " .
The Jack Russell Terrier Club of America was formed in 1976 by Ailsa Crawford , one of the first Jack Russell terrier breeders in the United States . Size ranges for dogs were kept broad , with the ability of working dogs awarded higher than those in conformation shows . An open registry was maintained , with restricted line breeding . Registration for the club is made at adulthood for Jack Russells , rather than at birth , to ensure the breed 's qualities remain , given the open registry .
Several breed clubs appeared in the United Kingdom during the 1970s to promote the breed , including the Jack Russell Club of Great Britain ( JRTCGB ) and the South East Jack Russell Terrier Club ( SEJRTC ) . The JRTCGB promoted the range of sizes that remain in its standards today , whereas the SEJRTC set a minimum height for dogs at 13 inches ( 33 cm ) . While the JRTCGB sought to ensure that the breed 's working ability remained through non @-@ recognition with other breed registries , the SEJRTC activity sought recognition with the UK Kennel Club . In 1983 , the Parson Jack Russell Club of Great Britain ( PJRTCGB ) was resurrected to seek Kennel Club recognition for the breed . Although the application was initially rejected , a new standard was created for the PJRTCGB based on the standard of the SEJRTC , and under that standard the breed was recognised by the Kennel Club in 1990 as the Parson Jack Russell terrier . Jack was dropped from the official name in 1999 , and the recognised name of the breed became the Parson Russell terrier .
In the late 1990s , the American Kennel Club explored the possibility of recognising the Jack Russell terrier . This move was opposed by the Jack Russell Terrier Club of America as they did not want the breed to lose its essential working characteristics . The Jack Russell Terrier Breeders Association was formed , and petitioned the AKC with the breed 's admission granted in 2001 . Under the AKC recognised standard , the size of the breed was narrowed from the previous club 's standard , and the name of the AKC recognised Jack Russell terrier was changed to Parson Russell terrier , with the Jack Russell Terrier Breeders Association renamed to the Parson Russell Terrier Association of America .
The Australian National Kennel Council ( ANKC ) and the New Zealand Kennel Club ( NZCK ) are the some of national kennel associations which registers both the Jack Russell terrier and the Parson Russell terrier , however the size requirements for the Jack Russell terrier under both those standards would classify a dog as a Russell terrier in the United States . In 2009 , there were 1073 Jack Russells registered with the ANKC , compared to 18 for the Parson Russell terrier . Other modern breeds are often mistaken for modern Jack Russell terriers , including their cousin the Parson Russell terrier , the Tenterfield terrier , and the Rat Terrier . Several other modern breeds exist that descended from the early Fox Terrier breed , including the Brazilian Terrier , Japanese Terrier , Miniature Fox Terrier , Ratonero Bodeguero Andaluz , Rat Terrier and Tenterfield Terrier .
= = Description = =
Due to their working nature , Jack Russell terriers remain much as they were some 200 years ago . They are sturdy , tough , and tenacious , measuring between 10 – 15 inches ( 25 – 38 cm ) at the withers , and weigh 14 – 18 pounds ( 6 @.@ 4 – 8 @.@ 2 kg ) . The body length must be in proportion to the height , and the dog should present a compact , balanced image . Predominantly white in coloration ( more than 51 % ) with black and / or tan markings , they exhibit either a smooth , rough or a combination of both which is known as a broken coat . A broken @-@ coated dog may have longer hair on the tail or face than that which is seen on a smooth @-@ coated dog . The skin can sometimes show a pattern of small black or brown spots , referred to as " ticking " that do not carry through to the outer coat . All coat types should be dense double coats that are neither silky ( in the case of smooth coats ) nor woolly ( in the case of rough coats ) .
The head should be of moderate width at the ears , narrowing to the eyes , and slightly flat between the ears . There should be a defined but not overpronounced stop at the end of the muzzle where it meets the head , and a black nose . The jaw should be powerful and well boned with a scissor bite and straight teeth . The eyes are almond shaped and dark coloured , and should be full of life and intelligence . Small V @-@ shaped ears of moderate thickness are carried forward on the head . When the dog is alert , the tip of the V should not extend past the outer corner of the eyes . The tail is set high and in the past was docked to approximately five inches in order to provide a sufficient hand @-@ hold for gripping the terrier .
The Jack Russell should always appear balanced and alert . As it is primarily a working terrier , its most important physical characteristic is its chest size , which must not be so large that it prevents the dog from entering and working in burrows . The red fox is the traditional quarry of the Jack Russell terrier , so the working Jack Russell must be small enough to pursue it . Red foxes vary in size , but across the world they average from 13 – 17 pounds ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 7 kg ) in weight and have an average chest size of 12 – 14 inches ( 30 – 36 cm ) at the widest part .
= = = Differences with related breeds = = =
The Jack Russell terrier and Parson Russell terrier breeds are similar , sharing a common origin , but have several marked differences — the most notable being the range of acceptable heights . Other differences in the Parson can include a longer head and larger chest as well as overall a larger body size . The height of a Parson Russell at the withers according to the breed standard is 12 – 14 inches ( 30 – 36 cm ) which places it within the range of the Jack Russell Terrier Club of America 's standard size for a Jack Russell of 10 – 15 inches ( 25 – 38 cm ) . However the Parson Russell is a conformation show standard whereas the Jack Russell standard is a more general working standard .
The Russell terrier , which is also sometimes called the English Jack Russell terrier or the Short Jack Russell terrier is a generally smaller related breed . Both the breed standards of the American Russell Terrier Club and the English Jack Russell Terrier Club Alliance states that at the withers it should be an ideal height of 8 – 12 inches ( 20 – 30 cm ) . Although sometimes called the English or Irish Jack Russell terrier , this is not the recognised height of Jack Russells in the United Kingdom . According to the Jack Russell Club of Great Britain 's breed standard , it is the same size as the standard for Jack Russells in the United States , 10 – 15 inches ( 25 – 38 cm ) . Compared to the Parson , the Russell terrier should always be longer than tall at the withers , whereas the Parson 's points should be of equal distance . The Fédération Cynologique Internationale standard for the Jack Russell terrier has this smaller size listed as a requirement . Terrierman Eddie Chapman , who has hunted in Devon for more than 30 years , the same area that John Russell himself hunted , notes that , " I can state categorically that if given the choice , ninety @-@ nine percent of hunt terrier men would buy an under 12 " worker , if it was available , over a 14 " one . "
= = Temperament = =
Jack Russells are first and foremost a working terrier . Originally bred to bolt fox from their dens during hunts , they are used on numerous ground @-@ dwelling quarry such as groundhog , badger , and red and grey fox . The working JRT is required to locate quarry in the earth , and then either bolt it or hold it in place until they are dug to . To accomplish this , the dog will not bark but will expect attention to the quarry continuously . Because the preservation of this working ability is of highest importance to most registered JRTCA / JRTCGB breeders , Jack Russells tend to be extremely intelligent , athletic , fearless , and vocal dogs . It is not uncommon for these dogs to become moody or destructive if not properly stimulated and exercised , as they have a tendency to bore easily and will often create their own fun when left alone to entertain themselves .
Their high energy and drive make these dogs ideally suited to a number of different dog sports such as flyball or agility . Obedience classes are also recommended to potential owners , as Jack Russells can be stubborn at times and aggressive towards other animals and humans if not properly socialized . Despite their small size , these dogs are not recommended for the condominium or apartment dweller unless the owner is ready to take on the daunting task of providing the dog with the necessary amount of exercise and stimulation . They have a tremendous amount of energy for their size , a fact which can sometimes lead to trouble involving larger animals . They may seem never to tire and will still be energetic after their owner has called it a day . While socialised members of the breed are friendly towards children , they will not tolerate abuse even if it is unintentional .
= = Health = =
The breed has a reputation for being healthy with a long lifespan . Breeders have protected the gene pool , and direct in @-@ line breeding has been prevented . Jack Russells can live from 13 to 16 years given proper care . However certain lines have been noted for having specific health concerns , and therefore could occur in any line or generation because of recessive genes . These issues can include hereditary cataracts , ectopia lentis , congenital deafness , patellar luxation , ataxia , myasthenia gravis , Legg – Calvé – Perthes syndrome and von Willebrand disease .
Being a hunt @-@ driven dog , the Jack Russell will usually pursue most creatures that it encounters . This includes the skunk , and the breed is prone to skunk toxic shock syndrome . The chemical in the skunk spray is absorbed by the dog and causes the red blood cells to undergo haemolysis , which can occasionally lead to fatal anaemia and kidney failure . If sprayed underground , it can also cause chemical burning of the cornea . Treatments are available to flush the toxin out of the dog 's system .
= = = Eye disorders = = =
Lens luxation , also known as ectopia lentis is the most common hereditary disorder in Jack Russell terriers . Even so , this condition is not a common occurrence in the breed . Most frequently appearing in dogs between the ages of 3 and 8 years old , it is where the lens in one or both eyes becomes displaced . There are two types , posterior luxation ( where the lens slips to the back of the eye ) and anterior luxation ( where the lens slips forward ) . Posterior luxation is the less severe of the two types , as the eye can appear normal although the dog 's eyesight will be affected . In anterior luxation , the lens can slip forward and rub against the cornea , damaging it . Anterior luxation also has a high probability of causing glaucoma which can lead to partial or complete blindness . Treatment is available and may include both medical and surgical options . Secondary lens luxation is caused by trauma to the eye , and is not hereditary . The condition appears in a number of terrier breeds as well as the Border collie , Brittany and Cardigan Welsh corgi .
Cataracts can affect any breed of dog , and is the same condition as seen in humans . Here the lens of the eye hardens and is characterised by cloudiness in the eye . Cataracts will blur the dog 's vision and can lead to permanent blindness if left untreated . While considered mainly a hereditary disease , it can also be caused by diabetes , old age , radiation , eye injury or exposure to high temperatures .
= = = Musculoskeletal conditions = = =
Patellar luxation , also known as luxating patella , is a hereditary disorder affecting the knees . It is where the kneecap slips off the groove on which it normally sits . The effects can be temporary with the dog running while holding its hind leg in the air before running on it again once the kneecap slipped back into place as if nothing has happened . Dogs can have a problem with both rear knees , and complications can include arthritis or torn knee ligaments . Severe cases can require surgery . Some are prone to dislocation of the kneecaps , inherited eye diseases , deafness and Legg Perthes — a disease of the hip joints of small dog breeds . Prone to mast cell tumors . Legg – Calvé – Perthes syndrome , also called Avascular Necrosis of the Femoral Head , is where the ball section of the femur in the hip joint deteriorates following interruption of the blood flow and is the same condition as in humans . In dogs , this causes lameness of the hind @-@ legs , the thigh muscles to atrophy and pain in the joint . It usually occurs between 6 – 12 months of age and has been documented in a variety of other terrier breeds including the Border terrier , Lakeland terrier and Wheaten terrier .
= = Well @-@ known Jack Russell terriers = =
Nipper was a dog born in 1884 who was thought to be a dog of the Jack Russell terrier type . He was the inspiration for the painting Dog looking at and listening to a Phonograph , later renamed to His Master 's Voice . The painting was used by a variety of music related companies including The Gramophone Company , EMI , and RCA . Today it remains in use incorporated into the logo for HMV in UK and Europe .
A Jack Russell named Bothy made history in 1982 as part of the Transglobe Expedition . Owned by explorers Ranulph and Ginny Fiennes , he became the first dog to travel to both the north and south poles . This feat is unlikely to be repeated , as all dogs have been banned from Antarctica by the Antarctic Treaty nations since 1994 , due to fears that they could transmit diseases to the native seal population . Ranulph Fiennes and Charles Burton actually made the trip to the north pole by powered sledges before signalling to the base camp that they had arrived . To celebrate their achievement , a plane was sent out to take the two men champagne , along with Bothy .
On 29 April 2007 , a Jack Russell named George saved five children at a carnival in New Zealand from an attack by two pit bulls . He was reported to have charged at them and held them at bay long enough for the children to get away . Killed by the pit bulls , he was posthumously awarded the PDSA Gold Medal in 2009 , the animal equivalent of the George Cross . A statue has been erected in Manaia , New Zealand in his memory . A former US Marine also donated to George 's owner a Purple Heart award he had received for service in Vietnam .
= = = On screen and in literature = = =
In the UK , one of the more recognisable canine stars was restaurateur and chef Rick Stein 's irrepressible terrier Chalky , who frequently upstaged his owner on his various cookery series . He was unique in having his own line of merchandise , including plushes , tea towels , art prints , art paw prints and two real ales – Chalky 's Bite and Chalky 's Bark , which won gold in the Quality Drink Awards 2009 . Chalky was given a BBC obituary when he died in 2007 .
Father Moose and son Enzo played the role of Eddie on the long @-@ running TV sitcom Frasier . Eddie belonged to lead character Frasier 's father Martin Crane , and constantly " stole the show " with his deadpan antics , receiving more fan mail than any other Frasier character . Moose and Enzo also starred as Skip in the 2000 film My Dog Skip .
Wishbone , from the television show of the same name which aired from 1995 to 2001 in the United States , was a Jack Russell terrier . Wishbone 's real name was Willowall Soccer , and was chosen from over a hundred other dogs vying for the part .
Actor Gene Hackman 's pet in the 1995 movie Crimson Tide was a smooth @-@ coated Jack Russell terrier named " Bear " . Max , a Jack Russell terrier , played the role of Milo who is one of Stanley Ipkiss 's only friends in the 1994 U.S film The Mask starring Jim Carrey . Max also played the female dog Audrey in the 2000 film Mr. Accident . In the 2009 movie Hotel for Dogs , Friday , one of the main characters is a Jack Russell , played by the dog actor Cosmo . Cosmo went on to appear in the films Paul Blart : Mall Cop and Beginners .
Jack Russell : Dog Detective is a series of children 's books by authors Darrell and Sally Odgers , and published by Scholastic . It is about the adventures of a Jack Russell terrier named Jack Russell and his gang of friends including Jill Russell , Lord " Red " Setter and Foxie Terrier .
Uggie ( 2002 @-@ 2015 ) was an animal actor , appearing in commercials starting in 2005 and most notably cast in Water for Elephants and The Artist , both in 2011 . In the same year , based on interest following The Artist , the " Consider Uggie " campaign was launched , which attempted to gain the dog a nomination for an Academy Award . In 2012 Uggie was named Nintendo 's first @-@ ever spokesdog .
Patrick McDonnell 's comic strip Mutts features a Jack Russell terrier named Earl who is a main character in the comic strip .
= = = Clubs and associations = = =
American Working Terrier Association
Jack Russell Terrier Club of America
= Fracture ( Fringe ) =
" Fracture " is the third episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode followed the Fringe team 's investigation into a man who mysteriously hardens and then explodes , killing those around him . The case leads them to a secret government project and an AWOL colonel .
The episode was written by David Wilcox , and was directed by Bryan Spicer . " Fracture " was the third of a four episode plot arc called the " gun arc " , which focused on Olivia 's physical and mental recovery from the season premiere . It featured guest actors Kevin Corrigan and Stephen McHattie . " Fracture " first broadcast in the United States on October 1 , 2009 on the Fox network to an estimated 6 @.@ 21 million viewers . It received generally mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
In Philadelphia , an on @-@ duty cop gets a call from a man he calls " Colonel " to pick up a briefcase at Suburban Station . As he does so , a nearby pulse causes electronics to gain static , and his body becomes hardened . He explodes , killing eleven people and injuring others with his hardened body parts . Initially thinking the explosion was caused by a bomb , the Fringe team arrives to investigate , and discover that instead of a bomb , the cop 's body parts killed the others . A further autopsy reveals needle marks between the cop 's toes , and they realize he was injecting some type of drug every day for at least a year .
While Peter and Olivia interview his wife , Olivia gets sick with flashes of crossing to the parallel universe , and accidentally discovers the drugs the cop was injecting . The cop had served in Iraq a year previously , and was involved in a secret military experiment called " Project Tin Man " . Peter tells them they can find the project 's doctors , and he and Olivia travel to Iraq . Peter learns from an old acquaintance the identity of one of the Iraqi doctors ; he tells them the project was meant to cure soldiers exposed to a fatal chemical , but it failed to work , instead turning remaining survivors into human bombs . An AWOL colonel , Raymond Gordon , was opposed to ending the project ; Peter and Olivia suspect he is behind the cop 's explosion , and caused the deaths by emitting a radio signal . They find a list of names from the experiment , the victim in the train station being one of them . They return to find the surviving members , and are able to prevent the next subject , Diane Burgess , from exploding after she is contacted by Gordon to take a briefcase at a train station . Peter and Olivia find Gordon ( Stephen McHattie ) at the station , and bring him into custody ; the man suggests the bombs were intended to eliminate agents working for the Observer .
In a side plot , Olivia and Sam Weiss continue to meet at the bowling alley , where he subjects her to seemingly menial tasks like tying her shoes and keeping score during games . Although initially finding their conversations useless , he cures Olivia 's inability to walk without a cane by the end of the episode .
= = Production = =
Co @-@ executive producer David Wilcox wrote the episode , and filmmaker Bryan Spicer directed it . According to producers Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz , " Fracture " was the third episode in the " gun arc " , which involved Olivia gradually recovering from the wounds sustained in the premiere enough to be able to wield a gun and fight the shapeshifters .
Sound editor Bruce Tanis explained the production of sound that went into the episode in an interview with Designing Sound :
" In ' Fracture ' , the villain has created a serum which several characters inject because of a type of post @-@ hypnotic suggestion . He has invented a frequency generator which causes these people to crystallize and then explode . In one of the best scenes all season , Walter and Astrid are in the lab and , using a watermelon for their experiments , are able to determine the exact frequency that the villain ’ s generator operates on . It was something like 68 @.@ 7 megacycles ( I don ’ t recall exactly ) , so I used the signal generator plugin and created some tones that started out as 68 @.@ 7 megacycles . They were simply low @-@ frequency tones on their own so I processed them so that they warbled and chorused and were a bit more mysterious than the straight tone . It ended up being pretty subtle for television , but when Walter identifies the tone as a certain frequency , that ’ s what ’ s actually playing . "
Actor John Noble noted that in the episode , " We see [ Olivia ] broken down . And it 's kind of frightening to see our heroine who 's carried the series basically ... Suddenly she can 't move , she can 't even load her gun " . " Fracture " marked the first and only guest appearance by actor Stephen McHattie as Colonel Raymond Gordon , as well as another appearance by previous guest actor Kevin Corrigan as Sam Weiss .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode featured the song " The Air That I Breathe " by The Hollies , as well as music from Roy Orbison , Les Paul , and The Marshall Tucker Band . Olivia makes a reference to Star Wars when she says , " Cut the Yoda crap and tell me what 's happening to me " . Peter mentions that his father taught him human reproduction using a jigsaw puzzle of " Ms. July " , a reference to a glamour photography shot of an unknown Playboy model used in calendars to differentiate each month of the year .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode was initially watched by an estimated 6 @.@ 21 million viewers in the United States , and scored a 2 @.@ 3 / 6 rating share among viewers 18 – 49 and 3 @.@ 7 / 6 for all households . After time shifted viewing | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
landing by sea . On 1 August Hitler gave the Luftwaffe 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Reichsmarschall ( Empire Marshal ) Hermann Göring and the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( High Command of the Air Force ) a ( Directive No. 17 ) to launch the air assault .
The essential target was RAF Fighter Command . The service 's destruction would deny the British their air superiority asset . Throughout July and early August , the Germans made preparations for Adlertag . The date of the assault was postponed several times because of bad weather . Eventually , it was carried out on 13 August 1940 . The German attacks on 13 August inflicted significant damage and casualties on the ground , but , marred by poor intelligence and communication , they did not make a significant impression on Fighter Command 's ability to defend British air space .
Göring had promised Hitler that Adlertag and Adlerangriff would achieve the results required within days , or at worst weeks . It had meant to be the beginning of the end of RAF Fighter Command , but Adlertag and the following operations failed to destroy the RAF , or gain the necessary local air superiority . As a result , Operation Sea Lion was postponed indefinitely .
= = Background = =
= = = Strategic overview = = =
After the declaration of war on Nazi Germany by Britain and France in the aftermath of the German invasion of Poland , nine months of stalemate took place along the Western Front . After the Polish Campaign , in October 1939 , the planners of the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( Luftwaffe High Command ) and the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( Supreme Command of the Armed Forces ) turned their attentions to Western Europe .
The German offensive — named Unternehmen Gelb ( Operation Yellow ) , and also known as the Manstein Plan — began in the West on 10 May 1940 . The central campaign — the Battle of France — ended in Allied defeat and the destruction of the main French Army forces . The British Expeditionary Force escaped during the Battle of Dunkirk , but the Wehrmacht captured Paris on 14 June and overran ⅔ of France . The French surrendered on 25 June 1940 .
With Western Europe neutralised , the OKL and OKW turned their attention to Britain , which was now home to the Allied base of operations in Europe . Hitler hoped Britain would negotiate for an armistice , for which he was prepared to offer generous terms . The tentative offers made by Hitler were rejected by the Churchill coalition government . Hitler now ordered the Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine to prepare for an amphibious assault of Britain , codenamed Operation Sealion . The Luftwaffe was to eliminate enemy air power and the Kriegsmarine was ordered to make all the necessary preparations for transporting the Heer ( Army ) across the English Channel . The Luftwaffe 's task came first . Once the RAF had been rendered impotent , Göring and Hitler hoped that an invasion would be unnecessary . If this proved not to be the case , the Luftwaffe would then support the army and prevent the Royal Navy interdicting German sea traffic . Göring named the offensive against the RAF as Operation Eagle Attack ( Adlerangriff ) .
= = = Background : early battles = = =
The losses of the spring campaign had weakened the Luftwaffe before the Battle of Britain . The service was forced to wait until it had reached acceptable levels before a main assault against the RAF could be made . Therefore , the first phase of the German air offensive took place over the English Channel . It rarely involved attacks against RAF airfields inland , but encouraged RAF units to engage in battle by attacking British Channel convoys . These operations would last from 10 July @-@ 8 August 1940 . The attacks against shipping were not successful ; only 24 @,@ 500 long tons ( 24 @,@ 900 t ) was sunk . Mine laying from aircraft had proved more profitable , sinking 38 @,@ 000 long tons ( 39 @,@ 000 t ) . The impact on Fighter Command was minimal . It had lost 74 fighter pilots killed or missing and 48 wounded in July , and its strength rose to 1 @,@ 429 by 3 August . By that date , it was only short of 124 pilots .
In the second phase of attacks , shipping , coastal airfields , radar and stations south of London were attacked during 8 – 18 August . The Luftwaffe gradually increased the frequency of attacks . German bombers also raided targets as far north as Liverpool during night hours . The first major raid inland and against RAF airfields came on 12 August . RAF Hawkinge , Lympne , Manston and radar stations at Pevensey , Rye and Dover were to be destroyed . Portsmouth docks were also targeted . The results of the raids were mixed . The Radar station at Ventnor was badly damaged and others targeted were also damaged , but not destroyed . All were in working order by the following morning . The attacks against the harbour and RAF stations had failed to destroy them . All were not in fully working order by the end of the day , but were back in action the following morning . Unknown to German intelligence , Lympne itself was not even an operational station . This sort of intelligence blunder contributed to the failure of Adlertag .
The Germans had not achieved a degree of success commensurate with their exertions . Nevertheless , in the belief they were having considerable effect on Fighter Command , they prepared to launch their all @-@ out assault on the RAF the following day . By 12 August , German air strength had reached acceptable levels . After bringing its serviceable rates up , the Luftwaffe began Adlertag with 71 percent of its bomber force , 85 percent of its Bf 109 units , and 83 percent of its Bf 110 units operational .
= = Luftwaffe preparations = =
= = = Intelligence = = =
Faulty intelligence was the component that was mostly responsible for the failure of Adlertag . While the gap between the British and Germans was not yet wide in this regard , the British were starting to gain a decisive lead in intelligence . The breaking of the Enigma machine and poor Luftwaffe signals discipline allowed the British easy access to German communications traffic . The impact of Ultra on the Battle of Britain is a matter of dispute , with Official Histories claiming there was no direct impact . Whatever the truth , Ultra , and the Y service in particular , gave the British an increasingly accurate picture of German order of battle deployments .
Joseph " Beppo " Schmid was commander of the Luftwaffe 's Military Intelligence Branch ( Abteilung 5 as Chief IC ) . Throughout this time , Schmid 's reports made a series of errors . In July 1940 , Schmid grossly overestimated the strengths of the Luftwaffe and underestimated the RAF . The most serious mistakes were made concerning radar , airfield identification , and production sites . Schmid asserted that the number of operational airfields in southern England were severely limited ; estimated that the British could produce only 180 – 330 fighters per month ( the true figure was 496 ) and that figure would decrease , indicating that the RAF could not sustain a long battle of attrition . Schmid also claimed the command at all levels was rigid and inflexible , with fighters being tied to home bases . In his list of omissions , Schmid failed to mention the RAF maintenance and organisation operations , which put back damaged aircraft with rapid effect . He anticipated a short battle . Crucially , Schmid failed to mention radar at all .
The lack of sustained and concentrated attacks on radar left it free to help direct the deployment of RAF units at opportune moments . Its continued warnings of incoming raids were a crucial benefit to Fighter Command . The Luftwaffe also had poor intelligence on the type of RAF airfields . It made repeated errors , often misidentifying airfields as Fighter Command bases , which turned out to belong to RAF Coastal Command and RAF Bomber Command . On Adlertag , most of the targets on the Luftwaffe 's list — if destroyed — would not have impaired Fighter Command in the slightest .
= = = Targets and order of battle = = =
The following targets were chosen for attack on 13 August 1940 :
= = RAF preparations = =
= = = Detection = = =
The keystone of the British defence was the complex infrastructure of detection , command , and control that ran the battle . This was the " Dowding System " , after its chief architect , Air Chief Marshal Sir H.C.T. " Stuffy " Dowding , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of RAF Fighter Command . Dowding modernised a system created up from 1917 by Major General E B Ashmore . The core of Dowding 's system was implemented by Dowding himself : the use of Radio Direction Finding ( RDF or radar ) was at his behest , and its use , supplemented by information by the Royal Observer Corps ( ROC ) , was crucial to the RAF 's ability to efficiently intercept incoming enemy aircraft . The technology was named RDF with misleading intent - the vague description would disguise the full nature of the system to the enemy if its existence ever became known .
The first indications of incoming air raids were received by the Chain Home Radio Direction Finding ( RDF ) facilities , which were located along the coastlines of Britain . In most circumstances , RDF could pick up formations of Luftwaffe aircraft as they organised over their own airfields in northern France and Belgium . Once the raiding aircraft moved inland , the formations were also plotted by the ROC . The information from RDF and the Observer Corps were sent through to the main operations room of Fighter Command Headquarters at RAF Bentley Priory . The plots were assessed to determine whether they were " hostile " or " friendly " . If hostile , the information was sent to the main " operations room " , which was in a large underground bunker .
= = = Plotting raids = = =
Here , the course information of each raid was plotted by Women 's Auxiliary Air Force ( WAAF ) , who received information by telephone . Additional intelligence was provided by the Y Service radio posts , which monitored enemy radio communications , and the Ultra decoding centre based at Bletchley Park , which gave the RAF intelligence on the German order of battle . Colour @-@ coded counters representing each raid were placed on a large table , which had a map of Britain overlaid and squared off with a British Modified Grid . As the plots of the raiding aircraft moved , the counters were pushed across the map by magnetic " rakes " . This system enabled the main " Fighter Controller " and Dowding to see where each formation was heading , at what height , and in what strength . This allowed an estimate to be made of possible targets . The age of the information was denoted from the colour of the counter . The simplicity of the system meant that decisions could be made quickly .
= = = Communication and interception = = =
This information was simultaneously sent to the headquarters of each Group where it was cross @-@ checked through a filter room before being sent through to another operations room , housed in an underground bunker . Because Group had tactical control of the battle , the operations room was different in layout from the main Headquarters at Bentley Priory . The main map on the plotting table represented the Group command area and its associated airfields . Extensive radio and telephone equipment transmitted and received a constant flow of information from the various sector airfields as well as the Observer Corps , AA Command and the navy . The " Duty fighter controller " was the Group GOC 's personal representative and was tasked with controlling how and when each raid would be intercepted . If the telephone system failed engineers would be on site within minutes to repair the broken links .
= = Battle = =
= = = KG 2 raid = = =
On the morning of 13 August , the weather was bad and Göring ordered a postponement of raids . However , the Dornier Do 17s of KG 2 were not informed and took off at 04 : 50 for their target . They were to meet with their escorts from ZG 26 over the Channel . ZG 26 received the cancellation order , but II . , and III . / KG 2 did not. kg 2 had formed up by 05 : 10 , led by Geschwaderkommodore Johannes Fink . Part of the ZG 26 formation that had taken off — led by Oberstleutnant Joachim Huth — tried to warn the Dorniers of the cancellation . Unable to contact the bombers by radio , Huth tried to signal them by flying in front of them and performing aerobatics . Fink ignored him and flew on. kg 2 flew around the coast to his target , Eastchurch airfield on the Isle of Sheppey . Albert Kesselring had issued orders for bombers to abandon missions if their escorts did not show up , but Fink did not want to be accused on failing to obey orders and continued onward even though the Bf 110s turned back . The return leg would take KG 2 across No. 11 Group 's territory , which could have been disastrous without fighter escort . But owing to the Observer Corps misjudging the direction of the bombers , owing to low @-@ lying cloud , and the radar not picking up the direction of the German bombers , the WAAF plotted the course of the raid incorrectly and the RAF failed to prevent the target being attacked .
For an hour after dawn on 13 August , there were few German tracks upon the plot tables in operations rooms , and none at all in the central and eastern Channel . The first signs of concentration , however , came earlier than usual , for between 05 : 30 and 05 : 40 two formations of 30 or more aircraft were located in the Amiens area . For 30 minutes , they remained over land , but at 06 : 10 they began moving inland . The Observer Corps and radar tracked them and guided the RAF units to intercept . Unaware of the German intent , the controllers directed three full Squadrons and detachments of three others were alerted by 06 : 15 . No. 151 was protecting a convoy in the Thames , No. 111 was protecting RAF Hawkinge and No. 74 Squadron RAF was covering RAF Manston . Parts of No. 85 , No. 43 and No. 238 Squadron RAF were also airborne near London . By 06 : 25 , the German formations were well over the Channel . No. 238 was moved to cover their own base at RAF Warmwell . No. 257 Squadron RAF was also ordered to take off at 06 : 20 to patrol Canterbury . Not satisfied with the strength of the forces already airborne , controllers dispatched No. 601 , 213 , 64 and 87 Squadrons to intercept between 06 : 30 and 06 : 35 . The first combats began at 06 : 30 .
Owing to the mistake by the Observer Corps , and the Geschwader being missed approaching the eastern , instead of central Channel by radar , KG 2 hit the RAF airfield. kg 2 claimed 10 Spitfires destroyed on the ground . In fact , no Fighter Command fighters were lost . For some time afterward , this wrong claim convinced German intelligence that Eastchurch was a fighter station and the Luftwaffe would launch seven fruitless raids on it in the coming weeks . Added to this mistake was the failure to keep up pressure . Raids were spaced out , giving the field time to recover . The station was used by RAF Coastal Command , which lost five Bristol Blenheims in the attack and one Coastal Command Spitfire . However , severe damage was done to the infrastructure . Much equipment and ammunition was destroyed and 16 of the Command 's personnel were killed . RAF Eastchurch was back in operation by 16 : 00 .
Eventually the bombers were intercepted. kg 2 lost five Do 17s in the attempt . Six Dorniers were also badly damaged . In return , accurate fire from the Dornier gunners shot down two Hurricanes from the attacking Squadrons ; No. 111 , No. 151 and No. 74 Squadron led by Adolph Malan . Malan himself shot down one Do 17 . Another source suggests the destruction of five Do 17s and another seven damaged . German manpower losses amounted to 11 killed in action and nine prisoners of war .
= = = Coastal airfields and ports = = =
Most units of Luftflotte 2 received the order to abandon morning operations , but some began their attacks aimed at airfields and ports in southern Britain. kg 76 abandoned its attack on Debden but struck at RAF Kenley and other airfields in Kent and Essex . Losses and results are unknown . KG 27 also abandoned most of its operations . III . / KG 27 did attempt to make it through to the Bristol docks , losing one He 111 to No. 87 Squadron RAF in the attempt . Little damage was done .
The cancellation order had not reached Luftflotte 3 HQ at all . Its commander , Hugo Sperrle ordered attacks to commence . At 05 : 00 , 20 Junkers Ju 88s of I. / KG 54 took off to bomb the Royal Aircraft Establishment 's airfield at ' RAF Farnborough ' ( RAE Farnborough ) . At 05 : 05 , 18 Ju 88s from II . / KG 54 took off for RAF Odiham . At 05 : 50 , 88 Junkers Ju 87s of StG 77 began heading for Portland Harbour . The raids were escorted by about 60 Bf 110s of Zerstörergeschwader 2 ( Destroyer Wing 2 ; ZG 2 ) , and V. / LG 1 and 173 Bf 109s from Jagdgeschwader 27 ( JG 27 ) , JG 53 and JG 3 , which all flew ahead of the bomber stream to clear the airspace of enemy fighters . StG 77 's target was obscured by cloud , but KG 54 continued to their target . RAF fighters from RAF Northolt , RAF Tangmere and RAF Middle Wallop intercepted . Four Ju 88s and one Bf 109 from JG 2 was shot down . The German fighters claimed six RAF fighters and the bombers another 14 . In reality , the bombers only damaged five . The Bf 109s destroyed only one and damaged another . Of the five RAF fighters damaged by the bombers , two were write @-@ offs . Of the 20 claimed , just three fighters were lost and three pilots were wounded . None were killed .
Further missions by II . / KG 54 to RAF Croydon were cancelled . I. / KG 54 struck at the Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) base at Gosport . ZG 2 was supposed to provide escort during one these attacks , and in a breakdown of communications , arrived over the target without their Ju 88s , which had been ordered to stand down . One Bf 110 was shot down by No. 238 Squadron RAF .
At 11 : 10 , V. / LG 1 Bf 110s took off in advance of a raid by KG 54 , possibly to tempt RAF fighters into battle before the main assault , so the RAF would be out of position . The bomber 's mission was cancelled . The order did not reach V. / LG 1 who continued to their target area . The 23 Bf 110s continued to the target of Portland . They ran into No. 601 Squadron RAF Hurricanes and lost six Bf 110s destroyed and three damaged . Only one Hurricane was shot down and another damaged . A second source states only four Bf 110s were destroyed , whilst a third gives the loss of five destroyed and five damaged . The Zerstörergeschwader optimistically claimed 30 RAF fighters destroyed ( in reality RAF fighter losses in aerial combat amounted to 13 throughout the entire day ) , for a loss of 13 Bf 110s . The morning 's effort had been a fiasco . The attacks showed a serious German technical failure in air @-@ to @-@ air communication .
= = = Renewed attacks = = =
The official go @-@ ahead was given at 14 : 00 . At 15 : 30 , some 58 – 80 Ju 88s from I. , II . , and III . / LG 1 , escorted by 30 Bf 110s of V. / LG 1 , took off to bomb Boscombe Down and Worthy Down . RAF Andover was to be bombed as well , with the support of 52 Ju 87s from StG 1 and StG 2 who were to strike at RAF Warmwell and Yeovil . I. / JG 53 flew a fighter sweep ahead of the bombers from Poole to Lyme Regis in order to tempt the RAF into battle . I. / JG 53 made landfall at 16 : 00 . The sweep failed to attract and divert RAF squadrons . Instead , all it succeeded in doing was to alert the RAF defences a critical five minutes earlier . When the main wave of LG 1 and StG 2 arrived over the coast , they were greeted by 77 RAF fighters .
II . , and III . / JG 53 and III . / ZG 76 flew escort for the Ju 87s . ZG 2 and JG 27 flew escort for LG 1 . In response the whole of No. 10 Group RAF intercepted . One Staffel ( Squadron ) of II . / StG 2 was badly hit by No. 609 Squadron RAF ; six out of nine Ju 87s were shot down . StG 1 and 2 gave up on their original targets owing to cloud . Both headed for Portland .
I. / LG 1 abandoned Boscombe Down and bombed Southampton instead . No. 238 Squadron had been detailed to intercept , but the fighter escort was too strong and the bombers were not diverted from their course . Several warehouses were destroyed and a cold storage plant was also knocked out . All fires were under control by dusk . One III . / LG 1 dropped its bombs by RAF Middle Wallop Sector Station by mistake . Only Andover airfield was hit , and it was used for bomber operations , not fighters . III . / LG 1 lost two Ju 88s . The 13 Ju 88 Gruppen ( Groups ) had lost six destroyed and many damaged . They had escaped lightly . The bombing succeeded in destroying a bicycle factory , a furniture warehouse and a refrigerated meat depot . Luftwaffe intelligence had not identified the Southampton Spitfire factory — on the water front near the docks — as an important target . Poor intelligence suggested it was a bomber factory . Only later , in September , was it attacked and severely damaged . However , even then the Germans were unaware of the damage inflicted to Spitfire production . The factory would later be broken up and production dispersed .
= = = Ju 87 operations = = =
StG 77 was also in action , escorted by JG 27 Bf 109s . StG 77s 52 Ju 87s were joined by 40 Ju 88s of KG 54 . Both formations were heading for No. 10 Group RAF 's airfields . StG 77 was targeting RAF Warmwell . The Geschwader failed to find its target , dropping its bombs at random . The other Ju 87 units had attracted much attention and StG 77 escaped unnoticed .
Erprobungsgruppe 210 were sent further east for an operation to attack targets near Southend . They took off at 15 : 15 and were escorted by ZG 76 . Unfortunately , they found unbroken cloud over Essex . No. 56 Squadron RAF intercepted , but Erprobungsgruppe 210 dropped their bombs over Canterbury . II . / StG 1 was sent to bomb airfields near Rochester . It failed to find the target and returned without incident . IV . / LG 1 — also with Ju 87s — was sent after RAF Detling . JG 26 went out on a fighter sweep to clear the skies in advance of the attack . JG 26 lost one Bf 109 over Folkestone from an unknown cause . The Ju 87s bombed the station and 40 Bf 109s strafed it , killing the commander . The operations block was hit , causing high casualties . The losses were disastrous for No. 53 Squadron RAF , which lost a number of Blenheims on the ground . The commander killed was Group Captain E P Meggs @-@ Davis . One Squadron Leader was killed — a J.H Lowe — and a further two were wounded . One of the wounded men was a First World War ace Robert J. O. Compston . The station 's casualties amounted to 24 killed and 42 wounded . However , Detling was not an RAF Fighter Command station and the attack did not affect No. 11 Group RAF in any way .
= = = South East raids = = =
I. , II . , and III . / KG 55 were also in action . III . / KG 55 bombed Heathrow Airport . Results are unknown and losses are unclear. kg 55 suffered heavy losses the previous day , so its operations seemed limited . On 12 August it lost 13 Heinkel He 111s and their crews . The next day , 14 August , they would lose their Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) Alois Stoeckl .
In the afternoon , a force of 80 Do 17s of KG 3 — escorted by JG 51 , JG 52 , JG 54 and 60 Bf 109s from JG 26 ( some 270 aircraft in all ) — headed for Eastchurch airfield and the Short Brothers factory at Rochester . III . / KG 3 broke away from the main formation and attacked Eastchurch while II . / KG 3 headed for Rochester . Significant damage was done to the factory producing the Short Stirling heavy bomber . The RAF 's No. 3 , No. 64 , No. 111 , No. 151 , No. 234 , No. 249 , No. 601 and No. 609 Squadrons intercepted . According to the account of JG 26 , the British fighters made little impression on the bombers . Three JG 51 Bf 109s were shot down in skirmishes with RAF fighters .
RAF Bomber Command also took part in the day 's fighting . Although Charles Portal — AOC ( Air Officer Commanding ) — had protested against the pointlessness of attacking airfields in Scandinavia , the Air Ministry insisted on such raids . No. 82 Squadron RAF sent 12 Bristol Blenheims to bomb KG 30 airfields at Aalborg , Denmark . One pilot turned back complaining of " fuel problems " and was court @-@ martialled . That bomber was the only one to return . The rest fell to AAA fire and fighters . Some 24 airmen were killed and nine were captured .
= = = Night raids = = =
As darkness fell at the close of Adlertag , Sperrle sent nine Kampfgruppe 100 ( Bombing Group 100 ) He 111s to conduct a strategic bombing raid against the Supermarine Spitfire factory at Castle Bromwich , Birmingham . Despite the group being a specialist night strike unit which had high expertise in night navigation , only four of the crews found their targets . The eleven 551 lb ( 250 kg ) bombs dropped were not sufficient to disrupt fighter production . Around five of the 11 fell inside the compound . Casualties were small as workers had gone to shelter . Serious damage was done only to offices and a tool room , while a gas main was fractured . Another group , led by Gruppenkommandeur Hauptmann ( Captain ) Friedrich Achenbrenner , dispatched 15 He 111s from bases in Brittany across the Irish Sea to strike at the Short Brothers factory at Queen 's Island , Belfast Northern Ireland . Five Short Stirling aircraft were destroyed. kg 27 also took part in the missions , and bombed Glasgow during the night although their specific target is unclear . Other bombers , commencing the night stage of Adlertag , resolutely flew the length and breadth of Great Britain , bombing Bristol , Cardiff , Swansea , Liverpool , Sheffield , Norwich , Edinburgh and Aberdeen . Very little damage was done , though some rail tracks were cut temporarily and around 100 casualties were suffered . It is unknown if any German aircraft were lost . One German airman was found wandering around the countryside in Balcombe , Somerset . No other traces of the aircraft or other crew members were found .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Effect of raids = = =
The Germans had maintained the attacks on airfields in south @-@ western England which they had started the previous day . On 12 August , most of the Kentish airfields had been attacked ; and on 13 August , the Germans concentrated on the second line airfields south of London . The concentration on Detling and Eastchurch was a failure , as both were Coastal Command stations and bore no relation to Fighter Command . The Germans may have reasoned that if bases such as Manston , Hawkinge and Lympne were neutralised through the attacks on 12 August , then Fighter Command may have had to move onto these airfields . In fact , the bombing of 12 August had failed to knock out these strips , and Adlertag had failed to destroy or render Detling or Eastchurch nonoperational . Owing to poor intelligence , weather conditions , and RAF resistance , attacks on other targets had failed or been unsuccessful .
= = = Overclaiming = = =
Overclaiming in aerial warfare is not uncommon . During the Battle of Britain ( and , indeed , the rest of the Second World War ) , both sides claimed to have shot down and destroyed more enemy aircraft on the ground and in the air than they had in reality . RAF Fighter Command claimed 78 German aircraft shot down on 13 August 1940 . Another source states that official RAF claims amounted to 64 . Actual German losses amounted to 47 – 48 aircraft destroyed and 39 severely damaged . Conversely , the Luftwaffe claimed to have destroyed 70 Hawker Hurricanes and Spitfires in the air and a further 18 Blenheim bombers in the air alone . This was an exaggeration of 700 percent . Another 84 RAF fighters were claimed on the ground . Actual RAF losses in the air amounted to 13 fighters and 11 bombers , with 47 aircraft of various kinds on the ground .
= = = Battle of Britain = = =
The failure of Adlertag did not deter the Luftwaffe from continuing its campaign . The assault against RAF airfields continued throughout August and into September 1940 . The battles involved large numbers of aircraft and heavy losses on both sides . The Luftwaffe failed to develop any focused strategy for defeating RAF Fighter Command . At first , it attempted to destroy RAF bases , then switched to strategic bombing by day and night . It tried to achieve the destruction of several British industries at the same time , switching from bombing aircraft factories , to attacking supporting industries , import or distribution networks such as coastal ports . An attempt was even made against unrelated targets , such as destroying the morale of the British population .
The failure of the Luftwaffe to identify the radar chain and distinguish RAF fighter bases from those of other RAF commands undermined its ability to destroy the British fighter defences . The Luftwaffe underestimated British radar , and they had not realised its importance in the British operational system . To the contrary , OKL believed that the radar stations would benefit the German effort by sending RAF forces into large @-@ scale air battles for the Luftwaffe to decimate . The RAF aircraft industry supported the losses and its pilots were replaced sufficiently to limit the RAF ’ s decline in strength and deny the Germans victory . Conversely , the RAF were able to ensure the serviceability rates and aircrew numbers of the Luftwaffe declined in August – September .
Having failed to defeat the RAF , the Luftwaffe adopted a different and clearer strategy of strategic bombing known as The Blitz . However , as with the campaign against the RAF , the types of targets differed radically and no sustained pressure was put under any one type of British target . Disputes among the OKL staff revolved more around tactics than strategy . This method condemned the offensive over Britain to failure before it had even begun . The end result of the air campaign against Britain in 1940 and 1941 was a decisive failure to end the war . As Hitler committed Germany to ever increasing military adventures , the Wehrmacht became increasingly overstretched and was unable to cope with a multi @-@ front war . By 1944 , the Allies were ready to launch Operation Overlord , the invasion of Western Europe . The Battle of Britain ensured that the Western Allies had a base from which to launch the campaign and that there would be a Western Allied presence on the battlefield to meet the Soviet Red Army in central Europe at the end of the war in May 1945 .
= Enugu =
Enugu ( / eɪˈnuːɡuː / ay @-@ NOO @-@ goo ; Igbo : Énugwú ) is the capital of Enugu State in Nigeria . It is located in southeastern Nigeria . The city had a population of 722 @,@ 664 according to the disputed 2006 Nigerian census and nearly 2 million according to 2015 estimates . The name Enugu is derived from the two Igbo words Énú Ụ ́ gwụ ́ meaning " hill top " denoting the city 's hilly geography . The city was named after Enugwu Ngwo , under which coal was found .
Since the 17th century the location of present @-@ day Enugu has been inhabited by the Nike ( / niːˈkeɪ / nee @-@ KAY ) subgroup of the Igbo people ; one of Enugu 's neighbourhoods still retains the village 's old name Ogui . In 1900 the Southern Nigeria Protectorate was established by the colonial administration of the British Empire . The discovery of coal by the colonialists led to the building of the Eastern Line railway to carry coal from the inland city to the port of Port Harcourt , a city created for this purpose located 151 miles ( 243 km ) south of what was called Enugu Coal Camp . Enugu was then renamed simply Enugu and developed as one of the few cities in West Africa created from European contact . By 1958 Enugu had over 8 @,@ 000 coal miners . As of 2005 there are no significant coal mining activities left in the city .
Enugu became the capital of the Eastern Region after Nigeria 's independence in 1960 ; a succession of territorial adjustments in 1967 , 1976 and 1991 led to Enugu becoming the capital of what is now Enugu State . On 30 May 1967 Enugu was declared the capital of the short @-@ lived Republic of Biafra ; for this Enugu is known as the " capital of Igboland . " After Enugu was captured by the Nigerian armed forces , the Biafran capital was moved to Umuahia .
Industries in the city include the urban market and bottling industries . Enugu has become a preferred filming location for directors of the Nigerian movie industry , dubbed " Nollywood " . Enugu 's main airport is the Akanu Ibiam International Airport . The main educational establishment in the city is the Enugu campus of the University of Nigeria based in Nsukka , a town north of Enugu and in the same state .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The first settlement in the Enugu area was the small Nike village of Ogui , which was present since the era of the Atlantic Slave Trade . Nike in the Igbo language means " with strength or power . " It was through slave raiding that the Nike people acquired most of their lands , which were mostly unsettled . The Nike used slaves for a defence strategy , placing slave camps at the edge of their territories so that it was harder for an enemy to access the free born . The Nike people were allied to the Aro people who formed the Aro Confederacy ( 1690 — 1901 ) which was an Igbo organisation that controlled slave trading in the Enugu area . Along with the Aro people who came to trade from Arochukwu in the south were the Hausa people who came to trade from the north . The Hausa traders provided horses to the Nike which were used for rituals by the Igbo . Both the Aro and Hausa migrated back and forth to what is now the city of Enugu and were considered foreigners to the area .
= = = Industrialisation = = =
A British campaign to invade Arochukwu and open up the hinterland for British military and political rule was carried out in 1901 . A war between the British and Aro officially started on 1 December 1901 lasting till 24 March 1902 when the Aro were defeated . The Aro Confederacy ended and the rest of Aro dominated areas was added to The Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria , declared in 1900 . Europeans first arrived in the Enugu area in 1903 when the British / Australian geologist Albert Ernest Kitson led an exploration of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate to search for especially valued mineral resources under the supervision of the Imperial Institute , London . By 1909 coal was found under the village of Enugwu Ngwo in the Udi and Okoga areas and by 1913 the coal was confirmed to be in quantities that would be viable commercially . By 1914 the colonial government had already merged the Northern and Southern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria .
In 1915 the British began talks with the indigenous people of the land that would become Enugu about its acquisition in order to lay the Eastern Line railway and to build a colliery . The first houses built in the area were in a temporary settlement consisting of Igbo traditional mud housing inhabited by a W.J. Leck and some other Europeans on Milliken Hill . Another settlement known as Ugwu Alfred ( Igbo : Alfred 's Hill ) or " Alfred 's Camp " , inhabited by an Alfred Inoma ( a leader of indigenous labourers from Onitsha ) and his labourers , was located on a hillside . After the land acquisition by the British , Frederick Lugard , the Governor @-@ General of Nigeria at the time , named the colliery built at the bottom of the Udi Hills Enugu Coal Camp to distinguish it from Enugwu Ngwo which overlooks the city from atop a scarp on Enugu 's west . The first coal mine in the Enugu area was the Udi mine opened in 1915 which was shut down two years later and replaced with the Iva Valley mine . Enugu became a major coal mining area and the only significant one in West Africa . The Eastern Line railway connecting Enugu with Port Harcourt was completed in 1916 in order to export the coal through its seaport of which the city was created for this purpose . Enugu became one of the few cities in West Africa created out of contact with Europeans . By 1916 parts of Enugu reserved for Europeans were set up by the colonial government . The area now known as the Government Reserved Area ( GRA ) became the European Quarters located north of the Ogbete River ; alongside this was a section developed for African residents located south of the river . The built @-@ up area of Enugu comprised these two areas , and by 1917 the city officially gained township status . On the African side of the city a rapid influx of migrant workers sparked the development of squatter camps on the Udi Hills near the coal mines and the Iva Valley .
In 1938 Enugu became the administrative capital of the Eastern Region . The number of employed coal miners in Enugu grew from 6 @,@ 000 ( of mostly Udi men ) in 1948 to 8 @,@ 000 in 1958 . Enugu 's population rose sharply with its industrialisation ; the population of the city reached 62 @,@ 000 in 1952 . Mining in Enugu was sometimes turbulent , as demonstrated by the events of 18 November 1949 when 21 striking miners were shot and killed and 51 wounded by police under British governance . The massacre that came to be known as " The Iva Valley Shooting " fuelled nationalist or " Zikist " sentiments among most Nigerians , and especially amongst Eastern Nigerians . " Zikisim " was a post World War II movement that was created out of admiration for Nnamdi Azikiwe who was a prominent nationalist of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons ( NCNC ) . The shooting was right after a period of unrest when miners were angered by the belief that their full pay was being held back by the colliery management , a belief that was pushed by the nationalist press . Many of the Zikists tried to use the Iva Valley shooting to fuel their nationalistic agenda and push the British administration , who they viewed as imperialists , out of Nigeria .
= = = Independence , war , and after = = =
Enugu became a municipality in 1956 with Umaru Altine its first mayor . After four years passed , Nigeria gained its independence in 1960 . On 27 May 1967 the Nigerian government divided the Western , Northern and Eastern Region into 12 states and Enugu was made the capital of the new East Central State . On 30 May 1967 Enugu was declared the capital of the short @-@ lived Republic of Biafra , the latter created out of the eastern Nigerian states of East Central , Cross River and Rivers . Biafra was declared because of Eastern Nigerian sentiment to separate from Nigeria after their members were involved in a series of ethnic clashes with other ethnic groups in other parts of the country . The main rivals of the mostly Igbo Eastern Nigerians were the Hausa / Fulani people of Northern Nigeria . The Nigerian Civil War ( 1967 — 1970 ) lead , Igbo from northern and western Nigeria to return to their " native " areas in eastern Nigeria and Enugu became a destination . Radio Biafra , alternatively the Voice of Biafra ( formerly the Eastern Nigerian Broadcasting Service ) , was based in Enugu ; it was from here that the Biafran leader , Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu , broadcast speeches and propaganda to Biafrans and Nigeria . Because of the war , Enugu witnessed a decrease in the number of non @-@ Igbo , specifically non @-@ eastern Nigerian residents . On 4 October 1967 the Nigerian military bombarded Enugu with artillery just outside its boundaries before capturing it a week later , shortly after this Umuahia became the new capital of the republic . Years after the Republic of Biafra reverted to Nigeria , Enugu is still regarded as the " Capital of Igboland . "
Enugu resumed in 1970 as the capital of the East Central State after the republic was dissolved . On 3 February 1976 the East Central State was made into two new states , Imo and Anambra ; there were then 19 states in Nigeria ; Enugu was the capital of Anambra . On 27 August 1991 the military dictatorship of Ibrahim Babangida divided the old Anambra State into two new states , Enugu State and Anambra State . Enugu remained as the capital of the newly created Enugu State , while Awka became the capital of the new Anambra State .
= = Geography = =
= = = Topography = = =
Despite its name meaning hill top in the Igbo language , Enugu lies at the foot of an escarpment and not a hill . Enugu is located in the Cross River basin and the Benue trough and has the best developed coal in this area . Precambrian basement rock in this region is overlaid with sediments bearing coal from the Cretaceous and Tertiary age . Coal seams in the Enugu coal district measure between 1 and 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 and 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in thickness and the reserves have been estimated to be more than 300 million tonnes . Enugu 's hills at the extreme may reach an elevation of 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . Highlands surrounding Enugu for the most part are underlain by sandstone , while lowlands are underlain by shale . Much of the escarpment stretching from Enugu to Orlu has been ravaged by soil and gully erosion . Other geological features in Enugu include the Nike Lake near which the Nike Lake Hotel has been built . The Ekulu , Asata , Ogbete , Aria , Idaw and Nyaba rivers are the six largest rivers located in the city . The Ekulu River is the largest body of water in Enugu urban and its reservoir contributes to part of the city 's domestic water supply .
= = = Climate = = =
Enugu is located in a tropical rain forest zone with a derived savannah . The city has a tropical savanna climate ( Köppen : Aw ) . Enugu 's climate is humid and this humidity is at its highest between March and November . For the whole of Enugu State the mean daily temperature is 26 @.@ 7 ° C ( 80 @.@ 1 ° F ) . As in the rest of West Africa , the rainy season and dry season are the only weather periods that recur in Enugu . The average annual rainfall in Enugu is around 2 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 79 in ) , which arrives intermittently and becomes very heavy during the rainy season . Other weather conditions affecting the city include Harmattan , a dusty trade wind lasting a few weeks of December and January . Like the rest of Nigeria , Enugu is hot all year round .
= = = Cityscape and architecture = = =
The tallest building in Enugu 's Central Business District ( CBD ) is the African Continental Bank ( ACB ) tower with six stories . The tower was built in the late 50s for the African Continental Bank Limited which was founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe who became the first president of Nigeria after the country 's independence from the United Kingdom on October 1960 . The opening of the building took place on 30 April 1959 . Other tall buildings include the Hotel Presidential opened on August 1963 . The seven story building contains 100 rooms and is located in the Independence Layout . Hotel Presidential cost $ 2 @.@ 5 million to build and was commissioned by the government of what was then the Eastern Region to serve visiting businessmen , officials and tourists . In the middle of Enugu is the Michael Okpara Square , dedicated to the premier of the former Eastern Region Michael Okpara . Beside the square is located the Enugu State Government House , Enugu State House of Assembly and Enugu State Judiciary Complex .
Enugu 's coal mines are dotted around on the outskirts of the city , a majority of which are closed . The Colliery Camp mines are located in the Iva Valley which is near the neighbouring town of Ngwo and Hilltop of Enugu . The Iva Valley coal mine is accessed through the Iva Valley road linking Enugu with Ngwo . Other coal mines are located in the Ogbete and Coal Camp layouts ; these mines are located on the periphery of the city near the Iva Valley as well .
Architectural design in Enugu 's early years was in the hands of the British colonial administration ; Enugu 's architecture was consequently very European . English cottage housing and Victorian houses were used for housing Europeans and Nigerian colonial civil servants in the early 20th century until Europeans started trying to adapt their architecture to the tropical climate . Some other examples of these European styles are visible in churches of the colonial era , such as the Holy Ghost Cathedral with its Greco @-@ Roman stained glass windows depicting Europeans . Enugu 's roads were reflective of its British rule ; much of the city 's narrow roads in the GRA have been preserved dating back to the incorporation of the city itself . Low rent one bedroom flats in Enugu and other Nigerian cities are known as ' Face @-@ me @-@ I @-@ face @-@ you ' for the way a group of flats face each other and form a square where a compound entrance is lead into .
= = Government = =
Enugu city covers three local government areas : Enugu East , Enugu North and Enugu South . A Local Government Council exists for each of these seats that manages sectors including primary education and health ; an elected Executive Chairman and a group of elected Councillors form the Local Government Council that heads each Local Government Area . Enugu South is split between its rural and urban parts when electing an Executive Chairman . The Executive Chairmen include Paul Ogbe for Enugu South Urban , Theresa Egbo for Enugu South Rural , Emeka Nnamani for Enugu North , and Christopher Ugwu for Enugu East ; these chairmen represent their LGA 's in the Enugu State House of Assembly . The Ministry of Lands , Survey and Town Planning ( at the state level ) and the Local Planning Authority ( at the local government level ) are responsible for the administration of urban lands and town planning . Government House , Enugu is where the government of the state is based . On the federal level , the city of Enugu is split between two congressional areas ; Enugu North / South represented by Chukwuegbo Ofor and Enugu East represented by Gilbert Nnaji ; both representatives are in the People 's Democratic Party ( PDP ) as is Sunday Chukwuebuka Agbo , the governor of Enugu State .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2006 Nigerian census , the Enugu metropolitan area has an estimated population of 722 @,@ 664 . This estimate along with population estimates of other Nigerian cities have been disputed with accusations of population inflation and deflation in favour of the northern part of the country . The population of Enugu is predominantly Christian , as is the rest of southeastern Nigeria . Like the rest of Nigeria most people in Enugu speak Nigerian English alongside the dominant language in the region . In this case the dominant language is Igbo . Nigerian English , or pidgin ( a mix of English and indigenous words ) is often used because of ethnic diversity and sometimes because of the diversity of dialects in the Igbo language . In cultural and linguistic terms Enugu is within the Northern cluster of the Igbo region which includes other towns and cities like Awka and Nsukka .
The indigenous people of Enugu include the Ogui Nike who live in the areas surrounding Hotel Presidential , Obiagu , Ama @-@ Igbo , Ihewuzi and Onu @-@ Asata . Other groups include the Awkunanaw people , who live mainly in the Achara Layout and Uwani areas . The Enugwu Ngwo people live in Hilltop on the west of the city with their farm lands sprawling all over the valley . Other Nike people live around the Abakpa , Iji @-@ Nike , and Emene areas of the city . Most of the non @-@ indigenous people of Enugu are migrants from other parts of the Igbo cultural area . After the majority Igbo , the Yoruba people are another significant ethnic group found present in Enugu ; other groups include the Hausa , Kanuri , and Fulani people .
= = = Crime = = =
Enugu 's crime rate rose in 2009 as kidnapping and armed robbery rates increased in southeastern Nigeria specifically between September and December . The Enugu State government sought to check the high kidnapping rates by passing a bill on February 2009 that made kidnapping by the use of a weapon a capital offence ; the bill was passed by the Enugu House of Assembly unanimously . 1 @,@ 088 arrests were made in the city between September and December 2009 ; 270 of these were in September , 303 were in October , 295 in November and 220 were in December . 477 of these detainees were accused of committing capital offences which included kidnapping . The motives of kidnappers in Enugu are primarily financial and some ransoms went into the millions of Naira . The Chief Press Secretary to the Governor of Enugu State , Dan Nwomeh , had his ransom set as high as ₦ 500 million ( 3 @.@ 3 million US Dollars As of 26 June 2010 ) , dropping to ₦ 200 million and then ₦ 50 million before he was released without a ransom being paid because of the refusal of the government to negotiate with the kidnappers . Much of the crime in Enugu and the rest of Nigeria has been attributed to unemployment .
= = Culture = =
As a Northern Igbo city , Enugu shares cultural traits with its neighbouring towns . Two important Igbo traditional festivals take place in Enugu annually ; the Mmanwu festival and the New yam festival . The Mmanwu festival takes place in November and features various types of masquerades that each have a name . This festival is held at the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium as a parade of carnival @-@ like masquerades that are accompanied by music and it is supported by the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture . The second important Igbo festival , the New yam festival known as ' iwa ji ' , is held between August and October marking the harvesting and feasting of the new yam . The yam is a root vegetable that is the staple crop and a cultural symbol for the Igbo people . Recently created festivals include the Enugu Festival of Arts which is managed by the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture . The festival highlights African culture and traditions and it is here that the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture included the Mmanwu parade as part of the events . The Enugu Festival of Arts was started in 1986 ; it has modernised the Mmanwu festival by transferring it from its traditional village surroundings to the urban setting of Enugu . Diana , Princess of Wales was a notable spectator of Enugu 's cultural shows when she visited the city in 1990 .
The tourism industry in Enugu , managed by the Enugu State Tourism Board ( ESTB ) , is small ; however , the state government recognises a variety of historic and recreational sites . These sites include places like the Udi Hills , from which the majority of Enugu city can be viewed . The Polo amusement park is a funfair that is among the first generation of public parks in the city ; other parks in the city include the Murtala Muhammed Park . Enugu 's former coal mines , Onyeama and Okpara , are open to public visits . Some other spots include : The Institute of Management and Technology ( IMT ) Sculptural Garden and Art Gallery , the Eastern Region Parliamentary Building , the Old Government Lodge , and Enugu Golf course . Enugu Zoo is another attraction in the city . It is divided into the botanical garden and the zoological section . A National Museum is located near Enugu at its north , although it receives few visitors . It is managed by National Commission for Museums and Monuments ( NCMM ) . Other galleries include the Bona Gallery .
= = Entertainment = =
= = = Music = = =
Enugu rose as an important centre for Highlife music in Nigeria in the 1950s . The Igbo dominated version of the genre grew out of earlier " Igbo blues " or " palm wine music " and further spread in popularity to the Southern Cameroons where Enugu had considerable influence in arts and culture in towns such as Limbe , Tiko and Douala . Some prominent musicians with origins in Enugu include Sonny Okosun , an afrobeat musician who was born and raised in Enugu and joined his first band The Postmen that was based in the city in 1965 ; Celestine Ukwu joined Michael Ejeagha 's Enugu based Paradise Rhythm Orchestra in 1962 before creating his own band and had a recreational club in the city after the Nigeria Civil War ; other musicians include 2Face Idibia ; a Hip hop / R & B musician who partly grew up and studied music in the city . Other notable musicians originating from Enugu include rapper Phyno , Slowdog and highlife musician Flavour N 'abania .
= = = Media and literature = = =
English @-@ language newspapers published and sold in Enugu include the Daily Star , Evening Star , The Renaissance and New Renaissance . One of the earliest newspapers published in Enugu was the Eastern Sentinel published by Nnamdi Azikiwe 's Zik Group in 1955 , but failed in 1960 . Among the city 's television and radio stations are the Nigerian Television Authority 's network affiliate ( NTA Enugu ) headquarters located at Independence Layout ; and the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria ( FRCN ) network affiliate station ( Radio Enugu ) which broadcasts in English , Igbo , Efik , Ijaw and Tiv . Enugu State Broadcasting Service Television ( ESBS @-@ TV ) is a state owned television broadcasting company which offers 18 hours of continuous broadcasting on weekends . Enugu , after Lagos is the preferred city for shooting films in Nigeria and a film production centre in the East . In 2007 , Enugu hosted the first @-@ ever film festival in the state , the Enugu International Film Festival . Held at Hotel Presidential , the festival 's intent was to highlight Enugu as a " film making hub " in Africa including movie premiers and prizes for different film categories .
Some of Nigeria 's well @-@ known writers were born and have lived in the city of Enugu . Chinua Achebe , writer of Things Fall Apart lived in Enugu in 1958 , the year the book was published . He again moved to the city during the Nigerian Civil War after escaping Lagos with his family . It was at this time that he met and became friends with Nigerian poet Christopher Okigbo where they started the publishing house Citadel Press , among its titles How the Dog was Domesticated and How the Leopard Got His Claws . Okigbo lived in Enugu during the early months of the Nigerian Civil War . His home in Hilltop contained many of his unpublished writings which were mostly destroyed by bombing early in the war . Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie , writer of Half of a Yellow Sun , a winner of the Orange Prize for Fiction in 2007 , was born in Enugu in 1977 and grew up in Nsukka .
= = = Sports = = =
The Enugu Rangers , a first @-@ division professional league association football team , is Enugu 's home team that plays in the Nigerian Premier League and are based in the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium . Former Rangers players include Jay @-@ Jay Okocha and Taribo West . Enugu 's main sports centre is the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium , named after Nnamdi Azikiwe , the first president of Nigeria . The stadium remained the centre of sports for the whole of the Eastern Region until the Nigerian Civil War broke out . At the war 's end the stadium was refurbished . Enugu was a host for the 2009 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup games ( 24 October – 15 November ) alongside Calabar and five other Nigerian cities with matches taking place at the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium . Its hosting of the FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup benefited Enugu through the renovation of the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium , having had such things as a new artificial surface laid .
= = Economy = =
Nicknamed the Coal City , Enugu 's economy in the early 20th century depended on coal mining in the Udi plateau ; this industry was the pushing force towards the city 's growth . The Nigerian Coal Corporation has been based in Enugu since its creation in 1950 where it controlled coal mining . With the creation of the Eastern Line , Enugu was connected with the sea via Port Harcourt to its south and later connected to the city of Kaduna to Enugu 's north . The Nigerian Civil War brought widespread devastation that forced a decline in coal production from damage or destruction of equipment . As of 2005 coal mining is no longer the major source of income and mines lay unused . Other minerals mined in Enugu include iron ore , limestone , fine clay , marble , and silica sand .
In Enugu most goods are sold in open markets or by street hawkers ; a significant number of street hawkers in Nigeria are children . As of 2003 , around 44 under @-@ 16 @-@ year @-@ olds ( equally boys and girls ) hawk on every street on every hour in Enugu . There are three main urban markets in Enugu : Ogbete Market , Awkunanaw Market and New Market . New Market is a major market for the sale of garri . Ogbete market is patronised by merchants from all over the surrounding area , including merchants from cities like Onitsha , Aguleri , Abakaliki and Aba . In Ogebete market non @-@ food goods are also sold . Brewing and soft @-@ drink bottling are among other industries in the city ; there is also a Mercedes assembly plant as well as the production and manufacturing of machinery , pottery , tiles , steel , cement , asbestos , petroleum , and pharmaceuticals . For a period of time Sosoliso Airlines had its head office on the grounds of Akanu Ibiam International Airport in Enugu .
The former Eastern Region was once famed for producing half the world 's total output of palm kernels . Since the Nigerian Civil War production has markedly declined largely because the plantations and processing equipment were either damaged or destroyed . The production of other important cash crops such as cocoa , groundnut and groundnut oil , rubber , cassava , cotton and cotton seed and timber tumbled after the civil war and the subsequent oil boom years . Consequently , the area called Enugu State as well as the rest of Nigeria , which was once a self @-@ sufficient net exporter in agricultural produce , must import food .
= = Education = =
Enugu has three main tertiary institutions : the Enugu State University of Science & Technology ( ESUT ) ; the University of Nigeria , Nsukka Campus ( UNN ) and Enugu Campus ( UNEC ) ; and the Institute of Management & Technology ( IMT ) . Another notable tertiary institution in Enugu State is the Federal Cooperative College , Oji River ( FCCO ) . The city is also home to Our Saviour Institute of Science and Technology , a polytechnic . Some notable secondary schools in Enugu include the College of the Immaculate Conception ( CIC ) built in 1940 , Holy Rosary College ( HRC ) built in 1943 , Colliery Comprehensive Secondary school , Queen 's Secondary School , Federal Government College , Royal Crown Academy , Nsukka and the University of Nigeria Secondary school . University Teaching Hospital ( UNTH ) Enugu , under the university of Nigeria , is another university located in the city .
= = Healthcare = =
In Enugu , health care services can be obtained at several institutions including the ESUT ( Enugu State University of Science and Technology ) Teaching Hospital ; University of Nigeria , Enugu , Teaching Hospital ; Park Lane General Hospital in the GRA ; PMC ( Peenok Medical Center ) located on Ziks Avenue in Uwani ; Hansa Clinic on Awolowo Street in Uwani ; Niger Foundation Hospital and Diagnostic Centre on Presidential Close in the Independence Layout ; and the Ntasi Obi Ndi no n 'Afufu Hospital organization located on Enuguabor Street in the Trans @-@ Ekulu layout , among others . Some of the specialist hospitals in Enugu include the Psychiatric Hospital Enugu and the National Orthopaedic Hospital Enugu ( NOHE ) .
Many of the hospitals in Enugu are privately run . The UNTH and the National Orthopaedic Hospital are among some of the government controlled hospitals in the city . The medical equipment for the UNTH was upgraded in 2009 as well as parts of the hospital which were renovated in the same year . Most hospitals in the city suffer from a poor standard of medical facilities available to them ; many of the city 's citizens travel abroad for medical care . However , hospitals have been aided by foreign organisations and by Enugu 's community at home and abroad who have donated medicine and other medical equipment . The most developed government hospital in Enugu is the Park Lane Hospital . The governor has said that the state has bought some ambulance service vehicles in March 2010 . Enugu State has established free medical care for pregnant women and for all children under 5 years of age in the state . The child healthcare programme , founded under the District Health System ( DHS ) , was added to the states 2008 budget . Enugu State has a HIV / AIDS prevalence of 6 @.@ 5 % , one of the highest in the country .
= = Transport = =
Enugu is located on the narrow @-@ gauge Eastern Line railway linked to the city of Port Harcourt ; the Enugu train station is by the side of the National Stadium ; dating back to its coal @-@ mining origins , it is located on Ogui Street . The main forms of transportation in the city are taxi cabs and buses . Okada ( motorcycles ) , once served as public transportation in the city until the state government banned them from this use in April 2009 . Most transport enters and leaves the city through Enugu 's Ogbete Motor Park , Garki Motor Park serves as a transport pick @-@ up point as well . Unregistered taxis are known as Kabu Kabu and are differentiated with registered ones through the lack of yellow paint on the unregistered vehicles .
In 2009 , Enugu introduced a taxi job scheme under ' Coal City Cabs ' to help in the eradication of poverty in the city . 200 registered Nissan Sunny taxis , provided by the state government ; and 200 registered Suzuki taxis , provided by the Umuchinemere Pro @-@ Credit Micro Finance Bank , were given out on loan to unemployed citizens in the city who will operate as taxi drivers and will own the vehicles after payments are completed . 20 buses with the capacity for 82 passengers seated and standing were introduced as Coal City Shuttle buses on 13 March 2009 to run as public transport for Enugu urban .
The main airport in the state is the Akanu Ibiam International Airport which can be accessed by buses and taxis . Renovations began on 30 November 2009 to upgrade it to accommodate wide @-@ bodied aircraft . These plans include extending the 2 @,@ 400 @-@ metre ( 7 @,@ 900 ft ) runway by 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) to make it 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) long ; the runway will be widened from 45 to 60 metres ( 148 to 197 ft ) . It is estimated that the project will cost ₦ 4.13bn ( 27 @.@ 3 million US Dollars As of 26 June 2010 ) .
The A3 , or the Enugu @-@ Port Harcourt highway , was opened in the 1970s and links the two cities together by passing through Aba , a major urban settlement . The A3 goes further on past Enugu 's north to link to the city of Jos via Makurdi . Two more highways , the A232 from Benin City , Asaba and Onitsha to Enugu 's east and the A343 from Abakaliki to Enugu 's west , makes Enugu the site of a major junction .
= The Tales of Beedle the Bard =
The Tales of Beedle the Bard is a book of children 's stories by British author J. K. Rowling . There is a storybook of the same name mentioned in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , the last book of the Harry Potter series .
The book was originally produced in a limited edition of only seven copies , each handwritten and illustrated by J. K. Rowling . One of them was offered for auction through Sotheby 's in late 2007 and was expected to sell for £ 50 @,@ 000 ( US $ 77 @,@ 000 , € 69 @,@ 000 ) ; ultimately it was bought for £ 1 @.@ 95 million ( $ 3 million , € 2 @.@ 7 million ) by Amazon , making the selling price the highest achieved at auction for a modern literary manuscript . The money earned at the auction of the book was donated to The Children 's Voice charity campaign .
The book was published for the general public on 4 December 2008 , with the proceeds going to the Children 's High Level Group .
= = In the Harry Potter series = =
The Tales of Beedle the Bard first appeared as a fictional book in J. K. Rowling 's 2007 Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , the seventh and final novel of the Harry Potter series . The book is bequeathed to Hermione Granger by Albus Dumbledore , former headmaster of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . It is described as a popular collection of Wizarding children 's fairy tales , so that while Ron Weasley is familiar with the stories , Harry Potter and Hermione Granger had not previously heard of them due to their non @-@ magical upbringing .
The book Hermione receives in Dumbledore 's will is a copy of the original edition of the fictional book . It is described as an ancient @-@ looking small book with its binding " stained and peeling in places " . In the novel it is also said the book has a title on its cover , written in embossed runic symbols .
The book acts as the vehicle for introducing the Deathly Hallows . Above the story " The Tale of the Three Brothers " , Hermione Granger finds a strange symbol which later is revealed by Xenophilius Lovegood to be the symbol of the Hallows . The triangle from the symbol represents the Invisibility Cloak , the circle inside the triangle symbolises the Resurrection Stone , and the vertical line represents the Elder Wand .
These three objects are also mentioned in the story itself ( see below ) , and are said to belong to the Peverell brothers , who are later revealed as being both Voldemort 's and Harry Potter 's ancestors . Towards the end of the novel , Albus Dumbledore also confirms Harry 's connection to the Peverells , and states that the three brothers might in fact have been the creators of the Hallows .
The introduction ( written by Rowling ) to the publications released in December 2008 mentions that the fictional character Beedle the Bard was born in Yorkshire , lived in the 15th century , and had " an exceptionally luxuriant beard " .
= = Publication history = =
Rowling started writing the book soon after finishing work on the seventh Harry Potter novel . During an interview with her fandom she also stated that she used other books as a source of inspiration for the tales . More specifically , " The Tale of the Three Brothers " , the only story included entirely in The Deathly Hallows , was inspired by Geoffrey Chaucer 's " The Pardoner 's Tale " from The Canterbury Tales .
= = = Handmade edition = = =
Originally The Tales of Beedle the Bard had only been produced in a limited number of seven handmade copies , all handwritten and illustrated by the author herself . The books were bound in brown morocco leather , and decorated with hand @-@ chased silver ornaments and mounted semiprecious stones by silversmith and jeweller Hamilton & Inches of Edinburgh . Each of the silver pieces represents one of the five stories in the book . Rowling also asked that each of the seven copies be embellished using a different semiprecious stone .
Six of these original handwritten copies were uniquely dedicated and given by Rowling to six people who were most involved with the Harry Potter series . The recipients of these copies were not initially identified . Since then , two of these people have been named . One is Barry Cunningham , Rowling 's very first editor . Another is Arthur A. Levine , editor for Scholastic , the U.S. publisher of the Harry Potter books . Cunningham and Levine had lent their personal copies as part of Beedle the Bard exhibits in December 2008 .
Rowling also decided to create a seventh handwritten copy ( distinguished from the others by its moonstone jewelling ) to sell at auction in order to raise funds for The Children 's Voice charity campaign .
The idea came really because I wanted to thank six key people who have been very closely connected to the ' Harry Potter ' series , and these were people for whom a piece of jewellery wasn 't going to cut it . So I had the idea of writing them a book , a handwritten and illustrated book , just for these six people . And well , if I 'm doing six I really have to do seven , and the seventh book will be for this cause , which is so close to my heart .
= = = Auction = = =
The 157 @-@ page " Moonstone edition " of the book was first put on display prior to bidding on 26 November in New York and on 9 December in London . The book was auctioned 13 December 2007 , at Sotheby 's in London . The starting price was £ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 62 @,@ 000 , € 46 @,@ 000 ) , and originally it was expected to sell for approximately £ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 103 @,@ 000 , € 80 @,@ 000 ) . The closing bid far exceeded all prior projections , as ultimately the book was purchased by a representative from London fine art dealers Hazlitt Gooden and Fox on behalf of Amazon , for a total of £ 1 @.@ 95 million ( $ 3 @.@ 98 million , € 2 @.@ 28 million ) . This was the highest purchase price for a modern literary manuscript at that date . The money earned at auction later was donated by Rowling to The Children 's Voice charity campaign .
Sotheby 's printed a forty @-@ eight @-@ page promotional catalogue for the auction . The catalogue featured illustrations from the book , as well as comments from J. K. Rowling on The Tales of Beedle the Bard . The catalogue was sold as a collector 's item , and the money from the sales also has been donated to The Children 's Voice .
= = = Public editions = = =
On 31 July 2008 , it was announced The Tales of Beedle the Bard would also be made available for the public , in both standard and collector 's editions . The book was published by Children 's High Level Group and printed and distributed by Bloomsbury , Scholastic , and Amazon.com. The decision was taken due to disappointment among Harry Potter fans after it had initially been announced a wide public release was not intended .
Similarly to Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them and Quidditch Through the Ages ( two other books mentioned in the Harry Potter novels that have also been printed ) the standard and collector 's editions of The Tales of Beedle the Bard feature commentary and footnotes from Albus Dumbledore , headmaster of Hogwarts and one of the main characters of the series . The standard edition also includes illustrations reproduced from the handwritten edition auctioned in December 2007 and the introduction by the author . The limited collector 's edition features ten illustrations by J.K. Rowling not included in the standard edition or the original handcrafted edition , as well as an exclusive reproduction of J.K. Rowling 's handwritten introduction , and other miscellaneous objects such as replica gemstones and an emerald ribbon .
The book , released on 4 December 2008 , was published in the United Kingdom and Canada by Bloomsbury , while the US edition was published by Scholastic , and the limited collector 's edition of the book , available in all three countries , by Amazon . The limited edition retailed for £ 50 ( $ 100 , € 100 ) , and around 100 @,@ 000 copies have been printed . The book has been translated into 28 languages . Profits from the sale of the book were offered to the Children 's High Level Group . Initial sale estimates were roughly £ 4 million ( $ 7 @.@ 6 million , € 4 @.@ 7 million ) ; as of January 2010 an estimated £ 11 million ( $ 17 million , € 13 million ) were generated from sales for the charity .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Overview = = =
Rowling wrote five stories for the book . One , " The Warlock 's Hairy Heart " , is not mentioned in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows ; three others , " The Wizard and the Hopping Pot " , " The Fountain of Fair Fortune " , and " Babbitty Rabbitty and her Cackling Stump " , receive cursory attention . " The Tale of the Three Brothers " is the only story also included entirely in The Deathly Hallows .
= = = " The Wizard and the Hopping Pot " = = =
This story is about the legacy of an old man who , in his generosity , used his pot to brew magical potions and antidotes for other people when they needed his help . Upon his death , he leaves all his belongings to his only son , who has none of the virtues his father had . After his father 's death , the son finds the pot and a single slipper inside it together with a note from his father that reads , " In the fond hope , my son , that you will never need it " .
Bitter for having nothing left but a pot , the son closes the door on every person who asks for his help . Each time he does so , the pot takes on the symptoms of the ones who ask for help , it starts disturbing the son and prevents him from having any peace of mind . This continues until the son finally gives up and provides aid to the town . Upon doing this , the pot 's ailments are removed one by one and the son 's ordeal finally ends one day when the slipper he received from his father falls out of the pot ; he puts the slipper on the pot 's foot and the two walk off into the sunset .
= = = " The Fountain of Fair Fortune " = = =
In this story , there is a fountain where once per year , one person may bathe to have his or her problems answered . This is how three witches meet . The first witch , Asha , suffers from an incurable disease . The second , Altheda , endures poverty and powerlessness due to a robbery . The third , Amata , is distraught after being left by her beloved . The three witches decide to try to reach the fountain together but along the way , a knight , Sir Luckless , also joins them .
On their path to the fountain , they face three challenges . The first involves a giant worm that demands " proof of [ their ] pain " . The second , a steep slope where they have to bring the " fruit of their labours " . The third challenge , crossing a river , requires them to pay with " the treasure of [ their ] past " . Amata passes the challenge by using magic to withdraw the memories of her ex @-@ lover and drop them into the water .
At the fountain , Asha collapses from exhaustion . To save her , Altheda brews an invigorating potion that also cures Asha of her disease and need of the fountain . Altheda realises that her skills are a means to earn money , so she also no longer needs the fountain . Amata realises that washing away her regret for her lover removed her need as well . Sir Luckless bathes in the water , after which he flings himself at Amata 's feet and asks for " her hand and her heart " which she happily gives . Everyone gets an answer to his or her problem , unaware that the fountain held no magical power at all .
= = = " The Warlock 's Hairy Heart " = = =
The story is about a young and handsome warlock who decides to never fall in love , so he uses Dark Arts to prevent himself from doing so . His family , hoping he will change , does nothing . However , one day , he hears two servants whispering about him not having a wife , so he decides to find a talented , rich , and beautiful witch and marry her to gain everyone 's envy .
He meets that girl the next day . Though the girl is both " fascinated and repelled " , the warlock persuades her to come to a dinner feast at his castle . During the feast , she tells him that she needs to know he has a heart . The warlock shows her his beating hairy heart inside a crystal casket in his dungeon . The witch begs him to put it back inside himself . After the warlock does so , she embraces him . However , being disconnected from its body for so long , his heart has developed savage tastes as it has degenerated into an animalistic state . And so he is driven to take by force a truly human heart . He tears out the witch 's heart to replace his own , but finding that he cannot magic the hairy heart back out of his chest , he cuts it out with a dagger . Thus he and the maiden both die , with him holding both hearts in his hands .
= = = " Babbitty Rabbitty and her Cackling Stump " = = =
This story is about a king who wants to keep all magic to himself . To do this he needs to solve two problems : he must capture and imprison all of the sorcerers in the kingdom and he has to learn magic . He creates a " Brigade of Witch Hunters " and calls for an instructor in magic . Only a " cunning charlatan " with no magical ability responds . The charlatan proves himself with a few simple tricks and begins to ask for jewellery and money to continue teaching . However , Babbitty , the king 's washerwoman , laughs at the king one day as he attempts to do magic with an ordinary twig . This causes the king to demand the charlatan join him in a public demonstration of magic and warns that the charlatan will be beheaded if anyone laughs . The charlatan later witnesses Babbitty performing magic in her house . He threatens to expose her if she does not assist him . She agrees to hide and help the demonstration .
During the performance , the brigade captain asks the king to bring his dead hound back to life . Because Babbitty cannot use magic to raise the dead , the crowd thinks the previous acts were tricks . The charlatan exposes Babbitty , accusing her of blocking the spells . Babbitty flees into a forest and disappears at the base of an old tree . In desperation , the charlatan states that she has turned " into a crab apple " and has the tree cut down .
As the crowd departs , the stump starts cackling and makes the charlatan confess . The stump cackles again , demanding the king never hurt a wizard again , and build a statue of Babbitty on the stump to remind him of his foolishness . The king agrees and heads back to the palace . Afterwards , a " stout old rabbit " with a wand in its teeth hops out from a hole beneath the stump and leaves the kingdom .
= = = " The Tale of the Three Brothers " = = =
The story is about three brothers who , travelling together , reach a treacherous river . They make a magical bridge over the river . Halfway across the bridge , they meet the personification of Death who is angry for losing three potential victims . He pretends to be impressed by them and grants each a wish as a reward . The oldest brother asks for an unbeatable dueling wand , so Death gives him the Elder Wand . The middle brother asks for the ability to resurrect the dead , so Death gives him the Resurrection Stone . The youngest brother doesn 't trust Death and asks for a way to stop Death from following him , so Death reluctantly gives him his Cloak of Invisibility . Afterwards , the brothers go their separate ways .
The oldest brother , bragging about his powerful wand , is robbed of it and murdered while he is asleep . The middle brother uses his ability to bring back the woman he loved , who died before he could marry her . However , she is not fully alive and is full of sorrow . He kills himself to join her . As for the youngest brother , Death never manages to find him , as he stays hidden under his Cloak . Many years later , the brother removes his cloak and gives it to his son . Pleased with his achievements , he greets Death as an old friend and chooses to leave with him as equals .
= = Reception = =
Sotheby 's deputy director Dr. Philip W. Errington described the handmade edition as " one of the most exciting pieces of children 's literature " to have passed through the auction house . After buying the book , Amazon also released a review , describing it as " an artifact pulled straight out of a novel " .
The Times reviewed the published book favourably , calling the tales " funny , sinister , wise and captivating " and likening them to the Brothers Grimm . The Telegraph reviewed it unfavourably , noting that they " would be unremarkable were it not for the body of work that lies behind it " and that there was " an element of padding to make it a respectable length " .
= = Live show = =
A live puppet show of The Fountain of Fair Fortune and The Tale of the Three Brothers is presented daily at the Diagon Alley expansion of The Wizarding World of Harry Potter at Universal Studios Florida .
= SM U @-@ 67 =
SM U @-@ 67 was a Type U 66 submarine or U @-@ boat for the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during the First World War . She had been laid down in November 1913 as U @-@ 8 the second boat of the U @-@ 7 class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) but was sold to Germany , along with the others in her class , in November 1914 .
The submarine was ordered as U @-@ 8 from Germaniawerft of Kiel as the second of five boats of the U @-@ 7 class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy became convinced that none of the submarines of the class could be delivered to the Adriatic via Gibraltar . As a consequence , the entire class , including U @-@ 8 , was sold to the German Imperial Navy in November 1914 . Under German control , the class became known as the U 66 type and the boats were renumbered ; U @-@ 8 became U @-@ 67 , and all were redesigned and reconstructed to German specifications . U @-@ 67 was launched in May 1915 and commissioned in August . As completed , she displaced 791 tonnes ( 779 long tons ) , surfaced , and 933 tonnes ( 918 long tons ) , submerged . The boat was 69 @.@ 50 metres ( 228 ft ) long and was armed with five torpedo tubes and a deck gun .
A part of the IV Flottilla throughout the war , U @-@ 67 sank 18 ships with a combined gross register tonnage ( GRT ) of 39 @,@ 937 in thirteen war patrols . She also damaged three other ships of 14 @,@ 766 GRT . On 20 November 1918 , nine days after the Armistice , U @-@ 67 was surrendered to the British . She was broken up in 1921 at Fareham .
= = Design and construction = =
After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy had competitively evaluated three foreign submarine designs , it selected the Germaniawerft 506d design , also known as the Type UD , for its new U @-@ 7 class of five submarines . The Navy ordered five boats on 1 February 1913 .
The U @-@ 7 class was seen by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as an improved version of its U @-@ 3 class , which was also a Germaniawerft design . As designed for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the boats were to displace 695 tonnes ( 684 long tons ) on the surface and 885 tonnes ( 871 long tons ) while submerged . The doubled @-@ hulled boats were to be 69 @.@ 50 metres ( 228 ft ) long overall with a beam of 6 @.@ 30 metres ( 20 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 3 @.@ 79 metres ( 12 ft 5 in ) . The Austrian specifications called for two shafts with twin diesel engines ( 2 @,@ 300 metric horsepower ( 2 @,@ 269 bhp ; 1 @,@ 692 kW ) total ) for surface running at up to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) , and twin electric motors ( 1 @,@ 240 PS ( 1 @,@ 223 shp ; 912 kW ) total ) for a maximum of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) when submerged . The boats were designed with five 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes ; four located in the bow , one in the stern . The boats ' armament was to also include a single 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) L / 26 deck gun .
U @-@ 8 and sister boat U @-@ 7 were both laid down on 1 November 1913 , the first two boats of the class begun . Her construction was slated to be complete within 29 to 33 months .
Neither U @-@ 8 nor any of her sister boats were complete when World War I began in August 1914 . With the boats under construction at Kiel , the Austrians became convinced that it would be impossible to take delivery of the boats , which would need to be towed into the Mediterranean past Gibraltar , a British territory . As a result , U @-@ 8 and her four sisters were sold to the Imperial German Navy on 28 November 1914 .
U @-@ 8 was renumbered by the Germans as U @-@ 67 when her class was redesignated as the Type U 66 . The Imperial German Navy had the submarines redesigned and reconstructed to German standards , which increased the surface displacement by 96 tonnes ( 94 long tons ) and the submerged by 48 tonnes ( 47 long tons ) . The torpedo load was increased by a third , from 9 to 12 , and the deck gun was upgraded from the 6 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) gun originally specified to an 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) one .
= = Service career = =
U @-@ 67 was launched on 15 May 1915 . On 4 August , SM U @-@ 67 was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy under the command of Korvettenkapitän Erich von Rosenberg @-@ Grusczyski . On 28 October 1915 , U @-@ 67 was assigned to the IV . U @-@ Halbflotille in which she remained for the duration of the war .
In March 1916 , Kapitänleutnant Hans Nieland replaced von Rosenberg @-@ Grusczyski as the captain of U @-@ 67 , and it was under his command that U @-@ 67 was most successful , sinking 18 ships with a combined a total of 39 @,@ 937 gross register tons ( GRT ) , while damaging a further three of 14 @,@ 766 tons . U @-@ 67 's most successful month was April 1917 , when she sank four ships of 15 @,@ 223 tons in a span of twelve days .
Nieland was succeeded as commander of U @-@ 67 by Oberleutnant zur See Helmuth von Rabenau in December 1917 . Under his command during the last eleven months of the war , U @-@ 67 sank no more ships . During her service career under three commanders , U @-@ 67 had completed thirteen war patrols . She was surrendered to the British on 20 November 1918 , nine days after the Armistice , and broken up at Fareham in 1921 .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
= Monica Reyes =
Monica Julieta Reyes / ˈreɪ.ɛz / is a fictional character in the Fox science fiction @-@ supernatural television series The X @-@ Files . Monica Reyes is portrayed by Annabeth Gish . A Special Agent with the FBI , she works with her longtime friend and partner John Doggett in the X @-@ Files office , which is concerned with the investigation of paranormal cases , dubbed " X @-@ Files " . Introduced in the series ' eighth season , Reyes would become a main character throughout the entirety of its ninth season , before returning for a single @-@ episode guest appearance in the tenth season finale .
= = Conceptual history = =
Due to their decision to continue The X @-@ Files television series and try to appeal to a new generation of viewers , the production personnel knew from the beginning of season 8 that they were going to introduce another female character who would be a believer , as departing character Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) had been a believer . However , the writers wanted a different kind of believer character to contrast with the sceptical nature of John Doggett , who had already been established . The writers were required to create a character who was unlike any of the preconceived main characters that were a part of the series . This female character was initially named Karen Miller and then Jane Jones before the name " Monica Reyes " was decided upon , named after a friend of series creator Chris Carter 's acquaintance who had an art gallery in Vancouver .
When the role was being cast , actress Annabeth Gish received a call from her agent , who informed her that the producers of The X @-@ Files were looking for a new female character . Gish applied for the part , but her audition consisted of a meeting with writers Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz . Spotnitz considered Reyes to be like Mulder in her optimism , faith and enjoyment of being open to beliefs , while still being somewhat different as she was more spiritual and subscribed to a more New Age @-@ like view than Mulder had . Reyes was seen as different from both Mulder and the other main characters as she was somewhat more neurotic , scattered , and quirky . She smiled and laughed more than the other characters , having a nature that writer Frank Spotnitz felt was lighter , sunnier , brighter , warmer and more " overtly sexy " .
The character of Brad Follmer was created in season nine to provide a love interest for Reyes , as the writers believed the audience needed to know more about her . However , Follmer 's unresolved relationship with Reyes also served to heighten the conflict between Doggett and Follmer , as both men had feelings for her . Portraying actress Annabeth Gish was pleased that the relationship between her character and Scully was similar to that of two sisters , rather than Reyes serving as an antagonist to Scully .
The ninth season episode " Hellbound " , in which Reyes discovers that she was apparently reincarnated , began as an effort to give Reyes or Doggett a " drive " or sense of motivation , as they were seen by the writers as the successors to Mulder and Scully . According to the writer of the episode , David Amann , executive producer Frank Spotnitz was interested in giving Reyes " some darkness to play " and her past life was consequently written with sombre overtones .
= = Background = =
Monica Reyes was born and raised in Mexico City , Mexico , and speaks fluent Spanish . She studied folklore and mythology at Brown University , and has a master 's degree in Religious Studies . In 1990 , Reyes enrolled in the Federal Bureau of Investigation at Quantico , Virginia . Her first assignment in the FBI was serving on a special taskforce investigating Satanic ritual abuse . Reyes then served in the New York City field office , where she became romantically involved with special agent Brad Follmer despite the FBI 's strict anti @-@ fraternization rules . Reyes was the head investigator in the kidnapping of 7 year @-@ old Luke Doggett , son of then NYPD officer John Doggett . The boy was eventually found dead , but no suspect was ever apprehended . In 1999 , Monica Reyes transferred to the New Orleans field office .
= = Character arc = =
= = = Season 8 ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = =
In 2001 , Reyes was contacted by Doggett , now an FBI agent assigned to X @-@ Files department , to assist in on a case involving the disappearances of several individuals who claimed to be alien abductees , as well as the disappearance of fellow agent Fox Mulder . Because of her background , Reyes considered that these believers may have simply formed a cult , but did not rule out the possibility of alien intervention . She stayed with the case until after Mulder was returned by his abductors , but returned to her field office soon after .
She later contacted Mulder , who was back to full health at the time , seeking help on a case she suspected had some link to the murder of Doggett 's son . However , as before , she soon returned to her own work . Reyes remained with the New Orleans field office until she was called upon to protect agent Dana Scully in May 2001 , driving her out to a remote location in Georgia so that the pregnant Scully might deliver her child out of harm 's way . Reyes helped deliver the child , and made a permanent move soon afterwards , becoming Doggett 's partner on The X @-@ Files .
= = = Season 9 ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = =
Season nine sees Reyes join the X @-@ Files on a permanent basis , working with both John Doggett and Dana Scully . Following a year of investigating the paranormal , Doggett and Reyes were last seen in the New Mexico desert in 2002 , where they were warning Agents Mulder and Scully of the arrival of Knowle Rohrer , a Super Soldier linked to the alien colonists . They were fleeing the scene as black helicopters destroyed the Anazasi adobes where The Smoking Man had been living . The X @-@ Files office was closed shortly after the involvement of Walter Skinner and Alvin Kersh in Mulder 's escape was revealed ; Reyes still stayed with the FBI in some capacity for a time afterwards .
= = = Between seasons 9 and 10 = = =
Shortly after the closure of the X @-@ Files , Reyes was contacted by C.G.B. Spender ( the Cigarette Smoking Man ) , who had miraculously survived the confrontation in New Mexico , albeit with devastating major injuries . Spender offered to secure Reyes a place among the designated survivors of end @-@ times , in exchange for her assistance . Reyes departed the FBI shortly thereafter , electing to take Spender 's offer . She spent the next 14 years personally assisting the physically damaged Spender ( even lighting his cigarettes for him ) , but with the intent to halt the invasion from within the syndicate .
= = = Season 10 ( 2016 ) = = =
Following the widespread outbreak of a contagion , Dana Scully is contacted by Reyes , who claims to know how to develop a vaccine . During their meeting , Reyes reveals her arrangement with Spender . Scully implies that Monica was weak for accepting the deal , though Reyes ' information ultimately allows Scully to create , and administer , a vaccine to Agent Einstein — and , presumably , to the rest of humanity thereafter .
= = Reception = =
The character of Monica Reyes has attracted mixed reviews from critics . Gish 's portrayal of the character has been described by Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker as " ferocious yet lissome " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , felt that Reyes ' introduction in " This Is Not Happening " was " rather forced " , finding her upbeat personality at odds with the tone of the series at that time ; Shearman and Pearson also felt that the overall use of the character in season nine was " lazy " , with her willingness to believe in anything compromising the tension of episodes such as " 4 @-@ D " or " Hellbound " . However , Shearman considered the character 's appearance in " Empedocles " to be " very clever " , while Gish 's acting in " 4 @-@ D " was described as " stand out " . Writing for The New York Times , Joyce Millman described Reyes and her partner Doggett as " the Diet Coke of Mulder and Scully " , referring to their secondary standing . Fellow New York Times writer Caryn James felt that Reyes and Doggett were " colorless " , and " a shadow " of their predecessors , noting that " where Scully and Mulder 's muted sexual attraction linked them to reality , Doggett and Reyes 's chemistry was nonexistent , even as platonic partners " .
= Black Arrow =
Black Arrow , officially capitalised BLACK ARROW , was a British satellite carrier rocket . Developed during the 1960s , it was used for four launches between 1969 and 1971 . Its final flight was the first and only successful orbital launch to be conducted by the United Kingdom , and placed the Prospero satellite into low Earth orbit .
Black Arrow originated from studies by the Royal Aircraft Establishment for carrier rockets based on the Black Knight rocket , with the project being authorised in 1964 . It was initially developed by Saunders @-@ Roe , and later Westland Aircraft as the result of a merger .
Black Arrow was a three @-@ stage rocket , fuelled by RP @-@ 1 paraffin ( kerosene ) and high test peroxide , a concentrated form of hydrogen peroxide . It was retired after only four launches in favour of using American Scout rockets , which the Ministry of Defence calculated to be cheaper than maintaining the Black Arrow programme .
= = Development = =
Black Arrow originated from a Royal Aircraft Establishment proposal for a rocket capable of placing a 317 @-@ pound ( 144 kg ) payload into low Earth orbit , in order to test systems designed for larger spacecraft . In the autumn of 1964 , the programme was authorised by Conservative Aviation Minister Julian Amery . Then , following a general election in October , the incoming Labour government put the project on hold to reduce expenditure . Following another election , the government approved the continuation of the programme with several modifications , including the reduction of the test programme from five to three launches . The first launch was set for 1968 .
Most of the technology and systems used on Black Arrow had already been developed or flight @-@ proven on the Black Knight rocket , or the Blue Steel missile . Black Arrow was designed to reuse as much technology from the earlier programmes as possible in order to reduce costs , and simplify the development process . Many senior staff of the Black Knight programme transferred directly to Black Arrow , including the Chief Missile Scientist , Roy Dommett , the Chief Design Engineer , Ray Wheeler and the Deputy Chief Engineer , John Underwood .
Initial development was conducted by Saunders @-@ Roe , which merged into Westland Aircraft in 1964 . Westland was subsequently the prime contractor for the Black Arrow , and assembled the first and second stages at East Cowes on the Isle of Wight . Bristol Siddeley produced the first and second stage engines at a factory in Ansty , Warwickshire . The engines were test fired at the factory before being shipped to the Isle of Wight , where they were integrated into the rocket and the first stage engines were fired again at High Down . Bristol Aerojet produced the third stage in Somerset , while the Explosives Research and Development Establishment produced its solid propellant in Waltham Abbey , Essex . The Rocket Propulsion Establishment , based in Westcott , Buckinghamshire , was responsible for the design and integration of the stage .
The name Black Arrow came from the Ministry of Supply policy of assigning designations consisting of a colour and a noun , unofficially known as Rainbow Codes , to research programmes conducted by the Armed Forces .
= = Vehicle = =
The first and second stages of the Black Arrow were fuelled by RP @-@ 1 paraffin ( kerosene ) , burnt using high test peroxide as an oxidiser . Due to the optimum mixture ratio being about 7 , a larger oxidiser tank was required compared to many contemporary launch systems . The oxidiser tanks were located below the fuel tanks , following the practice of putting the more dense propellent at bottom in order to lower the centre of gravity and make the rocket easier to control . This arrangement had been pioneered by Germany and the United States , whereas the Soviet Union had placed oxidiser tanks above fuel tanks , making it easier for the lower tank to be filled first .
Thrust vectoring was used to provide attitude control on the first two stages . The eight first stage combustion chambers were arranged in pairs which could gimbal either way along one axis . Two of the pairs were arranged perpendicular to the other two , and when all four pairs were used together , they provided roll , pitch and yaw control . The second stage had two combustion chambers , which could gimbal along two axes , providing the same level of control . During a coast phase after second stage cut @-@ off , the rocket was controlled by a reaction control system . The third stage did not have an attitude control system , and was instead spin @-@ stabilised .
The first stage was powered by a single Gamma 8 engine , which burned for 127 seconds . The Gamma 8 was an eight @-@ chamber engine , derived from the Gamma 301 engine used on the Black Knight . It was 6 @.@ 9 metres ( 23 ft ) long , and had a diameter of 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) , the same diameter as the French Coralie . Coralie was used as the second stage of the Europa rocket , and the decision to give Black Arrow the same diameter as Coralie was taken in order to make it compatible with Blue Streak , which was used as the first stage of Europa . This would have allowed Black Arrow 's payload capacity to have been increased , and would also have allowed Britain to use the first stage of Black Arrow as a backup to the Coralie . For this reason , all dimensions in the original specification were given in imperial units except the first stage diameter , which was given in metres .
The first and second stages were connected by an interstage structure containing four S | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
but senior members of Congress were horrified when they discovered that it gave the British a veto over the use of nuclear weapons . The McMahon Act fuelled resentment from British scientists and officials alike , and led directly to the British decision in January 1947 to develop its own nuclear weapons . In January 1948 , Bush , James Fisk , Cockcroft and Mackenzie concluded an agreement known as the modus vivendi , that allowed for limited sharing of technical information between the United States , Britain and Canada .
As the Cold War set in , enthusiasm in the United States for an alliance with Britain cooled as well . A September 1949 poll found that 72 per cent of Americans agreed that the United States should not " share our atomic energy secrets with England " . The reputation of the British Mission to Los Alamos was tarnished by the 1950 revelation that Fuchs was a Soviet atomic spy . It damaged the relationship between the United States and Britain , and provided ammunition for Congressional opponents of cooperation like Senator Bourke B. Hickenlooper .
British wartime participation in the Manhattan Project provided a substantial body of expertise that was important to the subsequent success in October 1952 of the United Kingdom 's nuclear weapons programme , although it was not without important gaps , such as in the field of plutonium metallurgy . The development of the independent British nuclear deterrent led to the Atomic Energy Act being amended in 1958 , and to a resumption of the nuclear Special Relationship between America and Britain under the 1958 US – UK Mutual Defence Agreement .
= Delta County Courthouse =
The Delta County Courthouse is a historic , three @-@ story courthouse building in the city of Cooper , in Delta County , Texas , United States . The building is located at 200 West Dallas Avenue , and functions as the meeting place for the county government . The building also houses all of the county records . The county 's first courthouse was built in 1873 , in Cooper . A courthouse was built to replace the original in 1898 . After the Great Depression , the new courthouse was built by the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) , helping the community to grow . The building has remained virtually unchanged since .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
During the Texas Constitutional Convention of 1868 , the delegates paid attention to northeastern portion of the state , especially the increasing need for the creation of new counties in the region . At the time , there were a total of twenty counties located in the region , compared to twenty @-@ three presently . The convention originally met to write a new state constitution , but members quickly tried to shift the focus to other issues . During the convention , the Committee on Counties and County Boundaries presented proposals for the creation of three new counties in the region . They were to be called Delta , Webster , and Richland . Delta County was established on July 29 , 1870 , by the Twelfth State Legislature . The proposals for Webster and Richland counties , however , were not passed .
= = = Creation and development = = =
After Delta County was established , it held its first election on October 6 , 1870 . The first five members of the county commissioners board were chosen in the election . Cooper was established as the county seat for the newly formed county . However , a courthouse was not established for the county government until 1873 . Constructed in the county seat , the courthouse was built in the town square . Confederate and Union veterans of the Civil War planted pecan trees on the square around the courthouse , to symbolize the end of conflict . The building , which was two stories tall , was designed by architects R.C. Andrews and E. Blackwell , for a price of approximately $ 6000 ( equivalent to $ 118 @,@ 500 in 2016 ) .
In 1898 , the newly incorporated city of Cooper passed a $ 40 @,@ 000 bond ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 137 @,@ 800 in 2016 ) to begin construction of a new , three @-@ story brick courthouse . While construction of the new courthouse was underway , the original courthouse was destroyed in a fire . Construction of the second courthouse was completed in 1900 .
Delta County 's economy plummeted in 1926 when the local cotton crop failed . The county 's economy was slow to recover , finally reaching a steady level in the late 1930s . In 1940 , the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) began working on improving several items in Delta County . Among these projects was the demolition of the existing courthouse and the construction of a new one . The new courthouse was built at a cost of $ 110 @,@ 450 ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 865 @,@ 600 in 2016 ) . The courthouse was designed by architect Hook Smith . The building was constructed in a modern architecture style , and is three stories tall . The present courthouse was constructed two blocks west of the previous building , on the site of the former Blackwell Livery Stable , which had closed in 1912 . The site of the former courthouse is still surrounded by the brick roads that were constructed for the courthouse and is now home to a gazebo .
= = Location and usage = =
The present courthouse is located at 200 West Dallas Avenue , two blocks west of the center of the city of Cooper . The building and its property take up half of the city block . It is bordered by Texas State Highway 154 ( Dallas Avenue ) to the south , Bonham Avenue to the north , NW 2nd Street to the east , and a small alleyway to the west . The courthouse is located slightly south of the geographic center of Delta County . The courthouse serves as the offices for most of the county government , including the county judge , commissioners ' court , county auditor , clerk , sheriff , and the justice of the peace . The court also houses all of the county 's historical records .
= Yoga Yajnavalkya =
The Yoga Yajnavalkya ( Sanskrit : योगयाज ् ञवल ् क ् य , Yoga @-@ Yājñavalkya ) is a classical Hindu yoga text in the Sanskrit language . The text is written in the form of a male @-@ female dialogue between the sage Yajnavalkya and Gargi . The text consists of 12 chapters and contains 504 verses .
Like Patanjali 's Yogasutras , the Yoga Yajnavalkya describes the eight limbs of yoga ; however , it has different goals . The text contains additional material that is not found in Yogasutras , such as the concept of kundalini . The Yoga Yajnavalkya contains one of the most comprehensive discussion of yoga limbs such as the Pranayama , Pratyahara Dhyana , and Dharana . The Yajnavalkya – Gargi ( man – woman ) dialogue structure of this ancient text is notable in implying that the Yoga Yajnavalkya teachings is universally applicable and encouraged for both women and men .
The text was influential in the development and practice of the yoga traditions of India before the 12th century .
= = Author = =
The text is attributed to Yajnavalkya , a revered Vedic sage in Hinduism . He is estimated to have lived in around the 8th century BCE , and is associated with several other major ancient texts in Sanskrit , namely the Shukla Yajurveda , the Shatapatha Brahmana , the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , the Dharmasastra named Yājñavalkya Smṛti , Vriddha Yajnavalkya , and Brihad Yajnavalkya . He is also mentioned in the Mahabharata and the Puranas , as well as in ancient Jainism texts such as the Isibhasiyaim . These references to Yajnavalkya in other texts , in addition to the eponymous Yoga Yajnavalkya , may be to different sages with the same name .
The actual author of Yoga Yajnavalkya text was probably someone who lived many centuries after the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya , and is unknown . Ian Whicher , a professor of Religion at the University of Manitoba , writes that the author of Yoga Yajnavalkya may be an ancient Yajnavalkya , but this Yajnavalkya is not to be confused with the Vedic @-@ era Yajnavalkya " who is revered in Hinduism for Brihadaranyaka Upanishad " .
David White , a professor of Comparative Religion at the University of California , suggests that the author – a 9th- to 12th @-@ century South Indian with the name of Yajnavalkya – was " the author of two works that combined the eight part practice with teachings on Hatha Yoga and Vedanta Philosophy " : the Yoga Yajnavalkya and the Yogi Yajnavalkya @-@ smriti .
= = Chronology = =
The composition date of Yoga Yajnavalkya is unclear . Prahlad Divanji , an Indologist and Sanskrit scholar , states that the text was composed between the second century BCE and fourth century CE , because Yoga Upanishads and Hatha Yoga texts contain verses from Yoga Yajnavalkya . Divanji cites Tantra texts , Ayurveda tradition texts , and literature of Advaita Vedanta from the 4th century CE , which mention the Yoga Yajnavalkya , thereafter concluding that the text or some version of the Yoga Yajnavalkya text must have been in existence by the 4th century CE . However , adds Divanji , the text is likely to have been composed after Patanjali 's Yogasutra , which itself is variously estimated to have composed sometime between 500 BCE and 400 CE . Divanji premises his dating proposal from the observation that Yoga Yajnavalkya expands on ideas in Patanjali 's text , such as its list of Yamas , which includes the Patanjali 's five plus five additional ones .
A. G. Mohan , an author and yoga teacher , states that the text was likely completed before the 4th century CE . David White , in contrast , suggests the date of composition to be much later , between the 10th and 12th centuries . White states that the 13th @-@ century Dattatreya Yoga @-@ shastra acknowledges Yajnavalkya , and describes its teachings as " supplementary to the eight part practice as taught by Yajnavalkya " , which means that the text was already established and accepted by then . Other manuscripts with devotional , " non @-@ mental " and " mental " yoga texts in the Hindu tradition also refer to teachings of the text , suggesting the text originated before many other yoga texts .
Ram Shankar Bhattacharya , an Indologist , dates the Pune version of a manuscript of the text to about the 13th or 14th century CE , and notes that this version of the Yoga Yajnavalkya quotes verses from Hatha Yoga texts . He also points out that Gargi is mentioned as the wife of Yajnavalkya in the manuscript . However , no other text affirms that Gargi was the wife of Yajnavalkya ; rather , Maitreyi and Katyayani are listed as his two wives , leading to the theory that the Pune manuscript is a corrupted and more modern edition of the original text .
= = Manuscripts = =
Several versions of the Yoga Yajnavalkya manuscripts are known . The earliest published manuscript of Yoga Yajnavalkya was discovered in Bengal in 1893 . Since then , other manuscripts have been discovered with differing numbers of verses . The text published by Divanji in 1954 , for example , has over 500 verses , while the manuscript translated by Krishnamacharya and Desikachar , writers and teachers of yoga books , has 460 verses .
= = Structure = =
The Yoga Yajnavalkya ( or Yogayajnavalkya ) text is structured as a conversation between a man ( Yajnavalkya ) and a woman ( Gargi ) , in the presence of an audience . It is organized into twelve chapters , and cumulatively contains 504 verses .
The text opens with a discussion of virtues and lifestyle of a yogi , with 70 verses in the first chapter dedicated primarily to Yamas and 19 in second dedicated to Niyamas . The yoga postures with breathing and cleansing exercises are described in 149 verses of the third through seventh chapters , wherein the text asserts that these yoga exercises help the yogi master his senses and achieve awareness of his body .
Meditation discussions start in the eighth chapter of the text , where 40 verses discuss how to start and develop meditative practices with the help of Om and resonating sounds , followed by 44 verses in the ninth chapter for advanced meditation that is reflective on one 's mind , Vedana ( feelings ) and nature of one 's Atman ( self , soul ) . The text dedicates 23 verses in the tenth chapter on samadhi ( concentration ) to become aware of the equality of one 's Atman and Brahman ( Universal Ultimate Reality , God ) .
The final sections of the text discuss the need for a Guru ( teacher ) along with the duties of a yogin , and what to do when one realizes one has made a mistake . The last chapter briefly discusses the kundalini , the benefits of yoga and the nature of calmness , contentedness in one 's mind and consciousness .
= = Contents = =
The text opens with reverence and introduction for Yajnavalkya and Gargi , and then gives its purpose : " to disclose the nature of yoga " . In verses 10 to 19 , Gargi remarks that yoga has been called the best karma , and asks Yajnavalkya to explain yoga to her . Yajnavalkya agrees , but first attributes his knowledge to the Hindu god Brahma who taught him this jnana ( knowledge ) and karma ( works ) .
= = = Knowledge and Varnas = = =
Yajnavalkya states that there are two paths to attain knowledge . One path is Pravritti @-@ karma , wherein a person is driven by desire and a craving for rewards , forms his will , and then uses his knowledge to act out his free will . The second path is Nivritti @-@ karma , wherein a person is not driven by desire and does not crave for rewards , but he uses his knowledge in his works in a detached way . The Pravritti @-@ karma path is the cause for suffering and rebirth , while the Nivritti @-@ karma is liberating and practiced by those who want to end suffering and rebirth .
Verses 1 @.@ 27 – 40 are a non @-@ yoga commentary on the duties of four social classes – this section is missing in manuscripts of Yoga Yajnavalkya that contain 460 verses . The commentary presents two theories on the duties of the four Varna in terms of ashrama dharmas of Brahmacharya , Grihastha , Vanaprastha and Sannyasa . One theory allows only the Brahmins , Kshatriyas and Vaishyas to enter Brahmacharya and study the Vedas , and the other states that Shudras can also enter Brahmacharya .
Neither theory is recommended , and according to Bhattacharya 's translation it adds that all four varnas are required to " pay off the debts owed to the sages , men and gods " by practicing Brahmacharya , procreating offspring and performing karma . All four social classes should strive for Nivritti @-@ karma ( work without craving for rewards ) . According to Desikachar 's translation , yoga is open to all , without restrictions to varna or gender .
Verses 1 @.@ 41 – 49 state that " karma with knowledge is the means to liberation " . Yoga is the essence of this knowledge , and it has eight components : Yama , Niyama , Asana , Pranayama , Pratyahara , Dharana , Dhyana and Samadhi .
= = = Yamas : virtuous restraints of a yoga student = = =
The Yoga Yajnavalkya starts its description of yoga practice with a statement of virtuous self @-@ restraints that a yogi or yogini needs to adhere to . This list is longer than the five yamas listed by Patañjali in Yogasūtra , but similar to those found in other Hindu texts such as the Shandilya Upanishad and other ancient and medieval @-@ era Yoga texts . Verses 1 @.@ 50 – 51 of Yoga Yajnavalkya list the following ten Yamas ( the restraints ) , while verses 1 @.@ 52 – 70 explain what these virtues mean and why they are necessary :
Ahiṃsā ( अहिंसा ) : nonviolence , nonharmfulness by action , with word or in thought
Satya ( सत ् य ) : truthfulness
Asteya ( अस ् तेय ) : not stealing
Brahmacharya ( ब ् रह ् मचर ् य ) : celibacy , fidelity to one 's partner
Dayā ( दया ) : kindness , compassion
Ārjava ( आर ् जव ) : no hypocrisy , sincerity
Kṣamā ( क ् षमा ) : forgiveness
Dhṛti ( धृति ) : fortitude
Mitāhāra ( मितहार ) : moderation in diet
Śauca ( शौच ) : purity , cleanliness
Verse 1 @.@ 69 asserts that in a cleansed body resides a peaceful mind , and when this mind achieves purity , Atmavidya ( knowledge of soul ) becomes feasible .
= = = Niyamas : virtuous observances of a yoga student = = =
The chapter 2 begins with a list of ten Niyamas ( the Observance , Do @-@ these list , positive duties ) , followed by an explanation of each in the rest of the chapter . The list is again longer than the list of five found in Patanjali 's Yogasutras , but similar to those found in the Shandilya and Varaha Upanishads , the Hatha Yoga Pradipika , and verses 552 to 557 in Book 3 of the Tirumandhiram of Tirumular , in the sense of positive duties , desirable behaviors and discipline . The list of the ten niyamas are :
Tapas : austerity , persistence and perseverance in one 's purpose
Santoṣa : contentment , acceptance of others and of one 's circumstances as they are , optimism for self
Āstika : faith in merit and demerit
Dāna : generosity , charity , sharing with others
Īśvarapūjana : worship of the Ishvara ( Brahman , Vishnu , Rudra , God / Supreme Being , True Self )
Siddhānta śrāvaṇa : listening to the Vedas and Upanishads , texts about virtues and principles
Hrī : shyness , modesty , remorse and acceptance of one 's past , humility
Mati : faith in self and duties , reflection to reconcile conflicting ideas
Japa : steady reading of the Vedas , repetition of mantras or sacred sounds set in poetic meters , either with sound or silently in one 's mind
Vratam : vows and self @-@ promise to focus and achieve appropriate self set goals on Dharma , Artha , Kama and Moksha .
Richard Rosen , yoga teacher and a contributing editor at Yoga Journal , states that the first two chapters provides the moral foundations of its yoga teachings , and are more detailed than many other yoga texts in the Indian traditions .
= = = Asanas : the yoga postures = = =
Chapter 3 is short , and opens with a list of eight asanas ( postures ) , followed by the description of each one . The asanas are of two types : one set is for meditative contemplation , and the other for cleansing the body . Both are said to be important in the journey of yoga . Different asanas focus on different organ groups . Of the eight asanas , the text discusses two variations each for the Swastikasana and the Mukta Sirsasana in verses 3 @.@ 3 – 5 and 3 @.@ 13 – 14 respectively , with claims that each asana helps cleanse the body when these are practiced with Yamas and Niyamas .
Cleansing asanas are those that when practiced for short periods of time help the body prevent or correct internal imbalances and tone inner organs ; while meditative asanas are those postures , either sitting or standing , that one can maintain steadily and comfortably for extended periods of time . In both , a proper posture is achieved when one can combine relaxed steadiness with deep breathing exercises . Such comfortable and stable asanas are necessary for cleansing of the Nadi ( blood vessels ) through the Pranayama stage of yoga . This view is shared by other yoga texts , such as in verse 5 @.@ 2 of Gheranda Samhita . The Padmasana ( lotus position ) is esteemed for both cleansing and meditative contemplation .
= = = A theory of human body and inner fire = = =
Gargi inquires in chapter 4 about the nature of Nadis , the human body and how vital airs function in it . Yajnavalkya begins his reply by asserting that the height of every adult human being is about 96 times the width of his or her Angula ( thumb ) .
The Prana ( breath , vital air ) of the body is dispersed within and outside the body . The first aim of yoga is to become aware and control this vital air , to be equal to or lower than the inner fire within one 's body . This inner fire resides in the middle part of the body , and he calls it the Nabhi ( center ) and a Chakra . This is the residence of the Jiva , and the vital air nourishes it from below while one is alive . Just above this Nabhi is the kundalini which normally is dormant . Yoga awakens her , by bringing vital air and heat to her .
Verses 4 @.@ 26 – 35 state that the human body has fourteen nadis ( blood vessels ) , of which three are primary . Sushumna ( Sanskrit : सुषुम ् णा ) is the most important , as it extends all along the spinal cord and reaches into the head , sustaining the whole body . Vishnu is the deity whose power propels Sushumna according to verse 4 @.@ 31 . On both sides of the Sushumna reside the Ida and Pingala vessels , the former connected to the moon and the latter to the sun . These three drive the three Guṇas ( forces behind the innate character ) of a being , with Sushumna driving Sattva ( goodness ) , Pingala driving the Rajas ( action ) , and Ida driving the Tamas ( destructiveness ) . These primary vessels are connected to numerous channels inside the human body , which pervade the whole body , and nourish it .
When one inhales or exhales , according to verses 4 @.@ 47 – 65 , the Nadis are loaded with vital airs . There are ten types of vital airs , corresponding to different stages of breathing , and they are named Prana , Apana , Samana , Udana , Vyana , Naga , Kurma , Krikara , Devadatta and Dhananjaya . These affect the Nadis in different ways , and how the body functions and what the balance of organs within the body is , depends on food one takes in and how well inhalation and exhalation are able to deliver the vital airs to various body parts .
The body interacts with nature , and removes liquids and excretes waste through nine holes . The aim of pranayama ( breath control ) is to purify the channels and nourish the inner body with vital airs . This benefits a yogi and yogini in preventing and curing diseases , as well as preparing the mind for meditation .
= = = Breath control and meditation for self @-@ purification = = =
Chapters 5 and 6 discuss the means of cleansing the body and mind . The first ten verses of chapter 5 summarize and restate the need for always practicing virtuous self @-@ restraints ( Yamas ) , observances ( Niyamas ) , avoiding anger against anyone or anything , truthfully following Dharma , respecting and learning from the Guru ( teacher ) , and pursuing the proper goals of life without craving for rewards of one 's action .
= = = = Location for yoga = = = =
Solitary places are the best venues for yoga . A matha ( hut ) in a forest is ideal , but any private place that is free from distractions , high winds or intense sunshine is a good location for yoga . Either a pad made of kusha grass or a solid ground with deer skin mat on it , is desirable . Yoga can be learned , with the help of a teacher , within three to four months if practiced six times a day . If frequent practice is not possible , yoga can be mastered over a period of three to four years .
= = = = Mastering the breath = = = =
The text dedicates the largest number of verses to the discussion of breath and breath exercises .
Yajnavalkya dedicates significant amount of text to explain the art of mastering each stage of breathing , that is inhalation , exhalation and stoppage between the two . Each stage is discussed in terms of its nature , speed , duration , depth on its own and relative to the other stage of breathing , regulating these at will during asanas meant for cleansing body or mind . In order to keep time for each stage without distraction , he recommends silently reciting time @-@ measured mantras or sound beats to help measure each stage and thus establish progress during the yoga . The mantras for internal time measurement mentioned include Pranava ( Om ) , Gayatri with Vyahritis , or Gayatri with Siras .
The text classifies three levels of breath regulation , namely Puraka ( पूरक , satisfying ) , Kumbhaka ( कुम ् भक , prominent ) and Rechaka ( रेचक , purging ) . The Puraka exercise is shortest and counts twelve moments ( matras , music beats ) ; the Kumbhaka is medium and stretches over twenty @-@ four moments , while the Rechaka is highest lasting thirty @-@ six moments . The text then describes various combinations of Puraka , Kumbhaka and Rechaka in various asanas for the purposes of energizing the Nadis and cleansing the body , asserting that , when mastered , Prana , Apana , Samana , Udana , Vyana and other vital airs help gain endurance , calmness , measured speed , ascension and inner healing . The text says that Pranayama exercises have therapeutic powers . Yajnavalkya describes Sanmukhi mudra , Kevaka kumbhaka and Sahita kumbhaka in chapter 6 , asserting that the best exercises are those that make one feel lightness in the body and relaxation in the mind .
= = = Meditation = = =
Chapter 7 discusses the fifth limb of yoga , Pratyahara , which it says is of five forms . This stage is one where the focus of the mind shifts from external stimuli received by sensory organs to various levels of internal awareness . The theory of Marma ( joints ) is presented , and 18 vital points inside one 's body are listed that can be used as focal points to help initial stages of the meditative exercises .
Verses 1 – 10 of chapter 8 elaborate on the practice of Dharana or meditation to train the mind in the consciousness of the self . The five elements in the universe correspond to five body functional systems , and that systems are gods residing within the human body . The next level of meditation is to fix one 's undistracted attention to these five , while simultaneously performing the breath exercises mastered in the previous step .
The five deities are addressed by chanting the five letters or syllables ( Bijamantra which are the sounds of the Chakras ) which are laṃ ( लं ) , vaṃ ( वं ) , raṃ ( रं ) , yaṃ ( यं ) , and haṃ ( हं ) to become one with Parameshvara ( God ) . Verses 8 @.@ 11 – 15 state that a yogin should practice meditating on these respective body systems as deities , with the help of Om mantra , as this leads to dissolution , and realization of the Brahman @-@ Purusha . After mastery is achieved with the aid of envisioning the five deities within one 's body , the text mentions that the yogin overcomes three Dosha ( दोष , faults ) . The chapter ends by reminding the yoga student to not forget the daily duties and works , the virtuous self @-@ restraints ( yamas ) and virtuous observances ( niyamas ) as he gains mastery to this level of yoga .
Chapter 9 discusses Dhyana limb of yoga . Dhyana can lead to freedom or bondage , depending on how and what one concentrates on . Freedom comes from realizing the oneness of individual self with the universal self . The Nirguna ( non @-@ qualified , attribute less ) form of meditation is best suited for those who have mastered the vital airs as well as all the Asanas with inner awareness of Marmans ( vital points ) and Nadis ( blood vessels ) . These yogins and yoginis can abstract , feel the Self within , and should meditate on " I am Brahman , who is all pervasive , all embracing , all perceiving and full of bliss " .
The Saguna meditation , that is qualified and with attributes , is for those who need a concrete symbol such as a Murti , or a visualization aid . They should think of the identity of their lotus heart having eight petals with the highest self visualized as Vasudeva , Narayana or Purushottama . The meditation should concentrate on one 's own identity with this image of imperishable highest self . This is the path to the state of Vaishvanara , or qualified Dhyana .
The text suggests variations to the Saguna meditation , such as perceiving the union of a golden disc with four @-@ faced golden Purusha , imagining a lustrous inner self inside oneself and then oneness with it , and other variations . Verses 9 @.@ 43 – 44 state that the inner self , whether meditated upon as Nirguna or Saguna , is one and the same .
= = = Concentration = = =
Chapter 10 states meditation practice perfects one 's ability to concentrate , wherein the object one concentrates on becomes the one of attachment , of oneness and one feels one 's identity with it . Verses 10 @.@ 6 – 15 suggest that one must concentrate on self as the supreme self , oneness with Brahman in everything , and this process of attachment of one 's individual self to the supreme self leads to oneness and liberation .
Verses 10 @.@ 19 – 23 advise that those who seek liberation in life or after death , should do yoga and reach the stage of Samadhi wherein one fixes one 's mind on the supreme self . This is recommended for those in their advanced years and seekers of inner liberation and peace . Yajnavalkya suggests to Gargi that she should meditate on the self in her through yoga , and thus attain nirvana .
= = = Dharma of a yogin , Astanga yoga = = =
Gargi , in chapter 11 asks Yajnavalkya whether a yogin in the state of Samadhi needs to perform Vedic duties . He replies , " No , any one in the state of yoga need not do Vedic duties " , because that state is the goal . However , anyone who leaves the state of Samadhi must perform Dharmic duties because " no living being can survive without performing any actions " . All duties should be performed until the end of one 's life , when the self unites with the supreme self . Gargi then asks Yagnavalkya to summarize the eight limbs of yoga .
= = = The theory of kundalini = = =
In the first 47 verses of chapter 12 , Yajnavalkya elucidates Siddha yoga and Kundalini . The aim of these yogic exercises , according to verses 12 @.@ 1 – 4 , is to reach the " internal fire " with Prana ( life force , breath energy ) ; these should be performed three times daily for ten days . With the vital air under control through the yoga , the yogin realizes signs of progress such as a relaxed state of body , manifested divine sound or nada inside . Verses 12 @.@ 10 – 14 state that this Kundalini fire is situated in the navel , and should be meditated upon by breathing exercises . This warms up the Kundalini , awakening her , and the warmth glows through the entire body , and at this stage the yogin must draw the breath above the navel .
Yagnavalkya explains that warm air inhaled passes to the Brahmarandhra via the navel which helps in curing diseases . When hot air is retained in the heart it is the stage when it makes entry into the Sahasrara Chakra , the thousand petaled lotus , that then emerges in an inverted form . When the vital air is held in the abode of Brahman ( Atman ) , which is the heart , according to verses 12 @.@ 15 – 22 , the fire located in the region of Susumna , which is between the eyebrows glows . These exercises , which stimulates the heart with vital air and fire , lead to the perception of light internally and externally . At this stage one should behold with the mind 's eye , the fire @-@ like glowing moon in the forehead , and meditate on the inner self in the Chitta ( mind ) .
Verses 12 @.@ 23 – 31 state that the lingasharira , which is the subtle body that is not visible , glistens in the central region of the body or the heart or the forehead . This shining Shakti ( force , energy , power ) , translates Bhattacharya , is realised by the knower of Brahman through his concentrated vision . Atman is perceived when the mind located in the space between the eyebrows , becomes free of all distractions and activities . In this state , the yogin becomes aware of self within , and in the sages , in siddhas and others . If dissolution of the mind in the space between the eye brows does not occur , the yogin should envision absolute bliss , alternatively the full moon inside the mouth . This helps the mind dissolve away distractions and activity , helping it reside in Vishnupada or the Akasha ( sky ) , and brings the yogin closer to moksha or liberation . This is a stage where the feeling of liberation and bliss begins to emerge , the goal of the practice of yoga .
Brahman is the origin of all , it is all that exists and all that into which it will dissolve back , and the Vedas teach that this Brahman resides in the heart of a person . It is , translates Bhattacharya , " subtler than the subtle , greater than the great " and is perceived with the cleansing of one 's mind and intellect , one achievable with breathing exercises , sacred sound exercises and yoga .
= = = Epilogue = = =
Following the complete exposition of all the principles of yoga , Yagnavalkya leaves for a secluded place to continue his meditative contemplation , while Gargi forsakes her world , retires to a forest hermitage , and seeks refuge in the practice of yoga .
= = Translations = =
Two English translations of the complete text are known , one by Desikachar and the other by Mohan , while Bhattacharya has published a condensed summary of the twelve chapters .
According to Desikachar 's translation : " In the 1960s only two [ Sanskrit ] versions of this valuable text were available [ Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society ( BBRAS ) and Trivandrum editions ] , and both were incomplete or inaccurate . He [ Krishnamacharya ] took the pains of writing the whole manuscript . " Desikachar further states in his introduction : " However many verses of this twelve @-@ chapter text are missing in both versions ... He [ Krishnamacharya ] even corrected those manuscripts that were incomplete . " In The Heart of Yoga , Desikachar indicates : " There is one critical edition of the Yoga Yājñavalkya written by Śrī Prabhad [ sic ] C. Divanji [ BBRAS edition ] . "
According to A. G. Mohan 's English translation : " However , a comparative reading shows that the Desikachar edition is a faithful reproduction of the 1938 Trivandrum publication . The only edits made are to fill in a negligible number of missing words – around 60 words out of 6000 – in mostly obvious contexts . There are no significant corrections to existing verses . The Divanji publication is easily more complete and error free , containing copious footnotes comparing different versions of the text from sixteen manuscripts and five printed editions ( including the Trivandrum publication ) ... The Trivandrum publication offered by the Desikachar misses 39 1 ⁄ 2 verses that appear in the Divanji publication . "
= = Significance = =
According to David White , Yoga Yajnavalkya was more significant in practice than the Patanjali 's Yogasutras before the 12th century . Among the texts on asanas and meditation , it dominated the Indian yoga scene . Along with texts such as Yoga Vasistha , chapters embedded inside the Hindu epic the Mahabharata and literature related to traditions such as Hatha Yoga , Pashupata Yoga and Tantric Yoga , the Yoga Yajnavalkya was historically influential in Indian spiritual traditions .
Secondary Sanskrit language texts from the 9th to 12th centuries incorporate the ideas of Yoga Yajnavalkya into their own traditions . These include the bhasya ( commentary ) of Lakshmidhara and manuscripts of Vedanta schools such as Advaita Vedanta that discuss and incorporate yoga philosophy and practices as essential for their traditions .
The presence of Gargi in Yoga Yajnavalkya is significant in a historical sense , as encouraging yoga to women . According to Divanji , the text includes some yoga @-@ related verses exclusively addressed to women , such as those in verses 1 @.@ 21 – 40 , 2 @.@ 8 – 9 and 6 @.@ 11 – 20 .
The text was influential on many later yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika , and Yoga Upanishads such as the Yoga @-@ kundalini Upanishad and Yogatattva Upanishad , because they make frequent references to it .
= = = Yoga Yajnavalkya versus Patanjali 's Yogasutra = = =
The philosophical premises of Yajnavalkya and Patanjali are different , according to Richard Rosen . Patanjali accepts the dualism premise , and defines yoga as cessation of mental activity associated with sensory interaction with nature , leading to Kaivalya ( aloneness ) of the self and a state of self @-@ awareness . Yajnavalkya accepts the Advaita Vedanta premise of non @-@ dualism , " essential oneness of self and nature " , and defines yoga as path to intense interconnectedness between Jiva and Paramatman , where the union of self and supreme self is realized .
= North Carolina @-@ class battleship =
The North Carolina class was a class of two fast battleships , North Carolina and Washington , built for the United States Navy in the late 1930s and early 1940s . The navy was originally uncertain whether the ships should be fast enough to counter the Japanese Kongō class , which was believed by the United States to be capable of 26 knots ( 30 mph ; 48 km / h ) , or should sacrifice speed for additional firepower and armor . The Second London Naval Treaty 's requirement that all capital ships have a standard displacement of under 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 35 @,@ 560 metric tons ) prevented the desired objectives from being fully realized within its limits , and the navy considered over fifty designs before one was chosen .
Towards the end of this lengthy design period the General Board of the United States Navy declared its preference for a battleship with a speed of 30 knots ( 35 mph ; 56 km / h ) , faster than any in US service or under construction , with a main battery of nine 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark B guns . The board believed that such ships could fulfill a multitude of roles , as they would have enough protection to be put into a battle line while also having enough speed to escort aircraft carriers or engage in commerce raiding . However , the acting Secretary of the Navy authorized a modified version of a different design , which in its original form had been rejected by the General Board . This called for a 27 @-@ knot ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) ship with twelve 14 @-@ inch guns in quadruple turrets and protection against guns of the same caliber . In a major departure from traditional American design practices , this design accepted lower speed and protection in exchange for maximum firepower . After construction had begun , the United States became concerned over Japan 's refusal to commit to the caliber limit of the Second London Naval Treaty , so they invoked the " escalator clause " of that pact and increased the class ' main armament to nine 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 45 Mark 6 caliber guns from the original twelve 14 @-@ inch guns .
Both North Carolina and Washington saw extensive service during the Second World War in a variety of roles , primarily in the Pacific theater where they escorted fast carrier task forces and conducted shore bombardments . North Carolina shot down between seven and fourteen Japanese aircraft in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons , and later sustained a torpedo hit from a Japanese submarine . During the naval battle of Guadalcanal , which was a chaotic night engagement , Washington 's radar @-@ directed main batteries fatally damaged the Japanese battleship Kirishima causing it to sink the next day . In February 1944 , Washington crushed its bow in a collision with battleship Indiana . Following repairs , Washington rejoined its sister for the Battle of the Philippine Sea . After the end of the war , both ships took part in Operation Magic Carpet , the withdrawal of American military personnel from overseas deployments . The vessels were laid up in the reserve fleet until the early 1960s , when North Carolina was sold to its home state as a museum ship , and Washington was broken up for scrap .
= = Background = =
After the end of the First World War , several navies continued and expanded naval construction programs that they had started during the conflict . The United States ' 1916 program called for six Lexington @-@ class battlecruisers and five South Dakota @-@ class battleships ; in December 1918 , the government of President Woodrow Wilson called for building an additional ten battleships and six battlecruisers . 1919 – 20 General Board proposals planned for slightly smaller , but still significant , acquisitions beyond the 1916 plan : two battleships and a battlecruiser for the fiscal year 1921 , and three battleships , a battlecruiser , four aircraft carriers and thirty destroyers between the fiscal years 1922 and 1924 . The United Kingdom was in the final stages of ordering eight capital ships ( the G3 battlecruisers , with the first 's keel laying in 1921 , and N3 @-@ class battleships , to be laid down beginning in 1922 ) . Imperial Japan was , by 1920 , attempting to build up to an 8 @-@ 8 standard with the Nagato , Tosa , Amagi , Kii and Number 13 classes . Two ships from these designs would be laid down per year until 1928 .
With the staggering costs associated with such programs , the United States ' Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes invited delegations from the major maritime powers — France , Italy , Japan , and the United Kingdom — to come together in Washington , D.C. to discuss , and hopefully end , the naval arms races . The subsequent Washington Naval Conference resulted in the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty . Along with many other provisions , it limited all future battleships to a standard displacement of 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) and a maximum gun caliber of 16 inches ( 406 mm ) . It also decreed that the five countries could not construct another capital ship for ten years and could not replace any ship that survived the treaty until it was at least twenty years old .
The 1936 Second London Naval Treaty , while superseding the 1922 agreement , nonetheless kept many of the same requirements , though it restricted gun size on new warships to 14 inches ( 356 mm ) . These treaties heavily influenced the design of the North Carolina class , as can be attested to in the long quest to find a ship that incorporated everything considered necessary while remaining under 35 @,@ 000 long tons .
= = Design = =
= = = Early = = =
The General Board began preparations for a new class of battleships in May – July 1935 . Three design studies were submitted to them : " A " would be 32 @,@ 150 long tons ( 32 @,@ 670 t ) armed with nine 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) guns in triple turrets — all forward of the bridge — capable of 30 knots ( 35 mph ; 56 km / h ) , and armored against 14 @-@ inch shells ; " B " and " C " would both be over 36 @,@ 000 long tons ( 37 @,@ 000 t ) , able to reach 30 @.@ 5 knots ( 35 @.@ 1 mph ; 56 @.@ 5 km / h ) and armored against 14 @-@ inch shells — the major difference between the two was the planned main battery , as " B " had twelve 14 @-@ inch guns in triple turrets , while " C " had eight 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 45 @-@ caliber guns in dual turrets . " A " was the only one to remain within the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) displacement limit set in the Washington Naval Treaty and reaffirmed in the Second London Naval Treaty . When the Bureau of Ordnance introduced a " super @-@ heavy " 16 @-@ inch shell , the ships were redesigned ( " A1 " , " B1 " and " C1 " ) in an attempt to provide protection against it , but this introduced severe weight problems : " A1 " was only 500 long tons ( 510 t ) below the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ ton limit , while the other two were close to 40 @,@ 000 long tons ( 41 @,@ 000 t ) .
Although these original three studies were all fast battleships , the General Board was not definitively committed to the higher maximum speeds . It posed questions to the Naval War College , asking for their opinion as to whether the new class should be a " conventional " 23 @-@ knot ( 26 mph ; 43 km / h ) ship with an eight @-@ nine , 16 @-@ inch main battery , or rather one akin to " A " , " B " or " C " .
Five more design studies were produced in late September 1935 , which had characteristics of 23 – 30 @.@ 5 knots , eight or nine 14- or 16 @-@ inch guns , and a standard displacement between 31 @,@ 500 long tons ( 32 @,@ 000 t ) and 40 @,@ 500 long tons ( 41 @,@ 100 t ) . " D " and " E " were attempts at fast battleships with 16 @-@ inch guns and protections against the same , but their displacement was greater than the Washington Naval Treaty allowed . " F " was a radical attempt at a hybrid battleship @-@ carrier , with three catapults mounted fore and eight 14 @-@ inch guns aft . It was reportedly favored by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt , but as aircraft launched from catapults were necessarily inferior to most carrier- or land @-@ based aircraft because of the floats used to land , nothing came of the design . " G " and " H " were slower 23 @-@ knot ships with nine 14 @-@ inch guns ; in particular , " H " was thought to be a very well balanced design by the Preliminary Design section of the Bureau of Construction and Repair . However , the General Board finally decided to use faster ships , which " G " and " H " were not .
These studies demonstrated the difficulty the designers faced . With a displacement of 35 @,@ 000 tons , there were two basic choices : a ship similar to " A1 " which was faster ( 30 knots ) but more lightly armed and armored than contemporary battleships or one which was slower but armed with heavier guns — although fitting in protection against 16 @-@ inch guns would be extremely difficult . Preliminary Design drew up five more studies in October , based upon either " A " with additional armor or a scaled @-@ down " B " ; all utilized 14 @-@ inch guns and called for 30 or 30 @.@ 5 knots . Two called for four turrets , but this would be too heavy and mount less armor . Another , " K , " 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) belt and 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 133 mm ) deck and a 19 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 yd ( 11 – 17 mi ; 17 – 27 km ) immune zone against the United States ' super @-@ heavy 14 @-@ inch shell . While " K " was liked by the naval constructors , its designed standard displacement of 35 @,@ 000 tons left little room for error or any modifications and improvements to the design . A final two , " L " and " M , " would use quadruple turrets to save weight ( similar to the French Dunkerque ) while still mounting 12 guns .
Many officers in the United States Navy supported the construction of three or four battlecruiser @-@ type ships for carrier escorts and to counter Japan 's Kongō class . These included the acting Secretary of the Navy and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral William Standley , the president of the Naval War College Admiral William S. Pye , a small majority ( 9 – 7 ) of senior officers at sea , and five of six line officers engaged in strategic planning as part of the War Plans Division , although at least one officer believed that an aerial attack would also be capable of sinking the Kongōs . With the above recommendations , the General Board selected " K " to undergo further development .
= = = Final = = =
At least 35 different final designs were proposed . All numbered with Roman numerals ( " I " through " XVI @-@ D " ) , the first five ( " I " – " V " , variations upon " K " ) were completed on 15 November 1935 . They were the first to employ so @-@ called " paper " weight reductions : not counting certain weights in the ship 's 35 @,@ 000 long ton limit that were not specifically part of the definition of standard displacement . In this case , even though there was designed storage room for 100 shells per main battery gun and an extra 100 rounds , the weight of the rounds did not figure toward the treaty @-@ mandated limit .
These designs varied greatly in everything but their standard displacements and speeds . " II " called for 35 @,@ 743 long tons ( 36 @,@ 317 t ) , every other design called for 35 @,@ 000 long tons , and only five planned for a top speed of under 27 knots ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) ; of those , only one was lower than 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 5 mph ; 49 @.@ 1 km / h ) : " VII " , with 22 knots ( 25 mph ; 41 km / h ) . " VII " returned to a lower speed to obtain more firepower ( twelve 14 @-@ inch guns in triple turrets ) and protection ; as such , the design called for only 50 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( shp ) and a length of only 640 ft ( 200 m ) . Most other plans called for 710 ft ( 220 m ) or 725 ft ( 221 m ) , although six had lengths between 660 ft ( 200 m ) and 690 ft ( 210 m ) . The first eight designs ( " I " – " IV @-@ C " ) carried nine 14 @-@ inch guns , but many other combinations were tried , including eight 14 @-@ inch in two quadruple turrets ( one design , " V " , even planned for two quadruple 16 @-@ inch ) , eight 14 @-@ inch guns in four dual turrets ( " VIA " and " VIB " ) , and ten , eleven or twelve 14 @-@ inch guns .
The " XVI " version of 20 August 1936 was a 27 @-@ knot , 714 ft ( 218 m ) -long ship that the Bureau of Ordnance found many problems in . Model tests showed at high speeds , waves generated by the design of the hull would leave some lower parts of the ship uncovered — including the magazines . To complicate the issue , the Bureau found low or underwater shell hits could be a serious problem when fighting at ranges between 20 @,@ 000 yd ( 10 nmi ( 12 mi ; 19 km ) ) and 30 @,@ 000 yd ( 15 nmi ( 17 mi ; 28 km ) ) . Other problems included the design 's defense against aircraft @-@ dropped bombs , as the Bureau thought the formula used to calculate its effectiveness was not realistic ; and the tapering of a fore bulkhead below the waterline could worsen underwater shell hit problems because the mostly unarmored bow could easily be penetrated . The solutions for these issues were all impractical ; added patches of armor around the magazines could neutralize the torpedo @-@ defense system 's effectiveness , and deepening the belt near the bow and stern would put the ships over the 35 @,@ 000 long ton limit . The General Board detested this design , saying it was " not ... a true battleship " due to its speed and armor problems .
To address these problems , a final set of designs , " XVI @-@ B " – " XVI @-@ D " , was presented by Preliminary Design in October 1936 . They were modifications of the " XVI " plan for a ship that was 714 ft. long , had twelve 14 in ( 356 mm ) guns in three quadruple turrets , a belt of 11 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 284 @.@ 5 mm ) sloped at 10 ° , and a deck 5 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 129 @.@ 5 mm ) to 5 @.@ 6 @-@ inch ( 142 @.@ 2 mm ) thick . In the final set , length was fixed at 725 ft ( 221 m ) for greater speed , but this meant only eleven 14 @-@ inch guns could be mounted with a thin 10 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 260 mm ) belt . Alternatively , one gun could be traded for a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 342 @.@ 9 mm ) belt , and another could be swapped for a 30 @-@ knot speed and one more tenth of an inch of belt armor ; this became design " XVI @-@ C " . The General Board liked " XVI @-@ C " very much , seeing in it a ship that had enough protection to fight — and survive — in a battle line formed with the older battleships while also having enough speed to operate in a detached wing with , for example , aircraft carrier or cruiser commerce raiding groups .
However , one member of the Board , Admiral Joseph Reeves — who had previously been one of the principal developers of the United States ' aircraft carrier strategy — disliked " XVI @-@ C " because he believed that it was not fast enough to work with the 33 @-@ knot ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) fast carriers , and it was not powerful enough to justify its cost . Instead , he advocated a development of the previously rejected " XVI " , adding additional underwater protection and patches of armor within the ship to make the magazines immune to above- and below @-@ water shell hits from 19 @,@ 000 yd ( 9 @.@ 5 nmi ( 10 @.@ 9 mi ; 17 @.@ 6 km ) and beyond . The immune zone 's outer limit was increased from 28 @,@ 200 yd ( 14 nmi ( 16 mi ; 26 km ) ) ) to 30 @,@ 000 yd ( 15 nmi ( 17 mi ; 28 km ) ) . After further revisions , Reeves went to Admiral William Standley , the Chief of Naval Operations , who approved " XVI " in its newly modified form over the hopes of the General Board , who still thought that " XVI @-@ C " should be built . Standley 's only addition to the characteristics was provision for a switch from quadruple 14 @-@ inch to triple 16 in ( 406 mm ) turrets if the " escalator clause " in the Second London Naval Treaty was invoked .
= = = The " escalator clause " = = =
Although the Second London Naval Treaty stipulated that warship guns could be no larger than 14 inches , a so @-@ called " escalator clause " was included at the urging of American negotiators in case any country that had signed the Washington Naval Treaty refused to adhere to this new limit . The provision allowed signatory countries of the Second London Treaty — France , the United Kingdom and the United States — to raise the limit from 14 to 16 inches if Japan or Italy still refused to sign after 1 April 1937 . When figuring potential configurations for the North Carolinas , designers focused most of their planning on 14 @-@ inch weaponry ; Standley 's requirement meant that a switch from 14- to 16 @-@ inch , even after the ships ' keels had been laid , was possible . Japan formally rejected the 14 @-@ inch limit on 27 March 1937 , meaning that the " escalator clause " could be invoked . There were hurdles that still needed to be overcome , though : Roosevelt was under heavy political pressure and , as a result , was reluctant to allow the 16 @-@ inch gun .
I am not willing that the United States be the first naval power to adopt the 16 in. gun . ... Because of the international importance of the United States not being the first to change the principles laid down in the Washington and London Treaties , it seems to me that the plans for the two new battleships should contemplate the ... 14 @-@ inch gun .
Admiral Reeves also came out strongly in favor of the larger weapon . In a two @-@ page letter to Secretary of the Navy Claude A. Swanson and indirectly to Roosevelt , Reeves argued that the 16 @-@ inch gun 's significantly greater armor penetration was of paramount importance , drawing examples from the First World War 's Battle of Jutland , where some battleships were able to survive ten or twenty hits from large guns , but other battlecruisers were blown up in three to seven hits because the shells were able to cut through the armor protecting magazines and turrets . Reeves also argued that the larger gun would favor the " indirect method " of shooting then being developed , where airplanes would be used to relay targeting information to allied battleships so that they could bombard targets that were out of their sight or over the horizon , because new battleships being built by foreign powers would have more armor . Reeves believed that if the 14 @-@ inch gun was adopted , it would not be able to penetrate this larger amount of protection , whereas the 16 @-@ inch would be able to break through .
In a final vain attempt , Roosevelt 's Secretary of State Cordell Hull sent a telegram on 4 June to the Ambassador to Japan Joseph Grew instructing him that the United States would still accept a cap of 14 @-@ inch guns if he could get Japan to as well . The Japanese replied that they could not accept this unless the number of battleships was also limited ; they wanted the United States and the United Kingdom to agree to having an equal number of battleships with Japan , but this was a condition that the two countries refused to accept . On 24 June , the two North Carolinas were ordered with the 14 @-@ inch weapons , but on 10 July , Roosevelt directed that they be armed with triple 16 @-@ inch instead .
= = Specifications = =
= = = Armament = = =
The two North Carolinas were principally armed with nine 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 45 caliber ( cal ) Mark 6 and twenty 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) / 38 cal Mark 28 Mod 0 guns . Their lighter armament consisted of varying numbers of 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 28 mm ) , .50 caliber machine guns , Bofors 40 mm and Oerlikon 20 mm .
= = = = Main battery = = = =
Mounted on both the North Carolina class and the follow @-@ up South Dakota class , the nine 16 in / 45 were improved versions of the guns mounted on the Colorado @-@ class battleships , hence the designation of " Mark 6 " . A major alteration from the older guns was the Mark 6 's ability to fire a new 2 @,@ 700 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 200 @-@ kilogram ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shell developed by the Bureau of Ordnance . At full charge with a brand @-@ new gun , the heavy shell would be expelled at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 300 feet per second ( 701 m / s ) ; at a reduced charge , the same shell would be fired at 1 @,@ 800 f / s ( 549 m / s ) . Barrel life — the approximate number of rounds a gun could fire before needing to be relined or replaced — was 395 shells when using AP , although if only practice shots were used this figure was significantly higher : 2 @,@ 860 . Turning at 4 degrees a second , each turret could train to 150 degrees on either side of the ship . The guns could be elevated to a maximum inclination of 45 degrees ; turrets one and three could depress to − 2 degrees , but due to its superfiring position , the guns on turret two could only depress to 0 degrees .
Each gun was 736 inches ( 18 @,@ 700 mm ) long overall ; its bore and rifling length were 720 @-@ inch ( 18 @,@ 000 mm ) and 616 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 15 @,@ 670 mm ) , respectively . Maximum range with the heavy AP shell was obtained at an inclination of 45 degrees : 36 @,@ 900 yards ( 21 @.@ 0 mi ; 33 @.@ 7 km ) . At the same elevation a lighter 1 @,@ 900 @-@ pound ( 860 @-@ kilogram ) high capacity ( HC ) shell would travel 40 @,@ 180 yards ( 22 @.@ 83 miles ; 36 @.@ 74 kilometres ) . The guns weighed 192 @,@ 310 lb ( 87 @,@ 230 kg ; 86 long tons ) not including the breech ; the turrets weighed slightly over 3 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 lb ( 1 @,@ 410 @,@ 000 kg ; 1400 long tons ) .
When firing the same shell , the 16 in / 45 Mark 6 had a slight advantage over the 16 in / 50 Mark 7 when hitting deck armor — a shell from a 45 cal gun would be slower , meaning that it would have a steeper trajectory as it descended . At 35 @,@ 000 yards ( 20 miles ; 32 kilometres ) , a shell from a 45 cal would strike a ship at an angle of 45 @.@ 2 degrees , as opposed to 36 degrees with the 50 cal .
= = = = Secondary battery = = = =
The North Carolinas carried ten twin enclosed base ring mounts supporting 5 in / 38 caliber Mark 28 Mod 0 guns . Originally designed to be mounted upon destroyers built in the 1930s , these guns were so successful that they were added to a myriad of American ships during the Second World War , including every major ship type and many smaller warships constructed between 1934 and 1945 . They were considered to be " highly reliable , robust and accurate " by the Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance .
The 5 in / 38 functioned as a dual purpose gun ; that is , it was able to fire at both surface and air targets with reasonable degrees of success . However , this did not mean that it possessed inferior anti @-@ air abilities ; as established during 1941 gunnery tests conducted on board North Carolina , the gun possessed the ability to consistently shoot down aircraft flying at 12 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 5 miles ; 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 0 kilometres ) , which was twice as far as the effective range of the earlier single purpose 5 in / 25 anti @-@ air gun .
Each 5 in / 38 weighed almost 4 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 800 kg ) without the breech ; the entire mount weighed 156 @,@ 295 pounds ( 70 @,@ 894 kilograms ) . It was 223 @.@ 8 inches ( 5 @,@ 680 mm ) long overall , had a bore length of 190 inches ( 4 @,@ 800 mm ) , and had a rifling length of 157 @.@ 2 inches ( 3 @,@ 990 mm ) . The gun could fire shells at about 2 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 762 – 792 m / s ) ; about 4 @,@ 600 could be fired before the barrel needed to be replaced . Minimum and maximum elevations were − 15 and 85 degrees , respectively . The guns ' elevation could be raised or lowered at about 15 degrees per second . The mounts closest to the bow and stern could aim from − 150 to 150 degrees ; the others were restricted to − 80 to 80 degrees . They could be turned at about 25 degrees per second .
= = = = Smaller weaponry = = = =
The remaining weaponry on board the two North Carolinas was composed of differing numbers of 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 28 @-@ millimetre ) , .50 caliber machine guns , Bofors 40 mm and Oerlikon 20 mm guns . Although the ships were originally designed to carry only four quadruple 1 @.@ 1 in and twelve .50 caliber , this was greatly increased and upgraded during the war .
On both ships , two more quadruple sets of 1 @.@ 1 in guns were added in place of two searchlights amidships . After it was torpedoed in 1942 , North Carolina had these removed and ten quadruple sets of 40 mm guns added . Fourteen were present by June 1943 , while a fifteenth mount was added on top of the third main turret that November . Washington retained its six 1 @.@ 1 in quads until the middle of 1943 , when ten quad 40 mm guns replaced them . By August , it had fifteen . The two ships carried these through to the close of the war .
The .50 caliber machine guns did not have the range or power needed to combat modern aircraft and were scheduled for replacement by equal numbers of 20 mm guns , but nothing immediately came of the proposal . In fact , both North Carolina and Washington carried 20 mm and .50 caliber guns for most of 1942 . In April , North Carolina had , respectively , forty and twelve , while Washington had twenty and twelve . Two months later , the number of 20 mm guns remained the same , but twelve .50 caliber guns had been added . By September , Washington had twenty more 20 mm guns added , for a total of forty , but five were removed — along with all of the .50 caliber guns — shortly thereafter when two quadruple sets of 1 @.@ 1 in guns were added . In its refit after being torpedoed , North Carolina had an additional six 20 mm guns added and all of its .50 caliber weapons removed . Washington had sixty @-@ four 20 mm weapons by April 1943 , prior to one single mount being replaced by a quadruple mount , and North Carolina had fifty @-@ three by March 1944 . In April 1945 , North Carolina was assigned to have fifty @-@ six 20 mm , while Washington was assigned seventy @-@ five . In August 1945 , the ships both had eight twin 20 mm mounts ; North Carolina also carried twenty single , while Washington carried one quad and sixty @-@ three single .
= = = Electronics = = =
Both North Carolina and Washington , designed prior to radar , were originally fitted with many fire @-@ control and navigational optical range @-@ finders . The former lasted until 1944 , when it was replaced by a Mark 27 microwave radar — though it was supplemented by a Mark 3 main armament fire control radar . The range @-@ finders were removed in favor of additional 20 mm guns sometime between the end of 1941 and mid @-@ 1942 . In addition , the ships were commissioned with two Mark 38 directors and were originally fitted with a CXAM air search , two Mark 3s and three Mark 4 secondary armament .
By November 1942 , North Carolina had an additional Mark 4 and a SG surface search radar added . The normal battleship configuration was present aboard North Carolina in April 1944 , with SK and SG radars ( air and surface search , respectively ) , a backup SG , and Mark 8s to direct its main battery . All of the Mark 4s remained for the secondary battery , and one of the older Mark 3s was still present , possibly as a backup for the Mark 8s . An SK @-@ 2 dish replaced the older SK radar and Mark 12s and 22s superseded the Mark 4s in September of that year . Aside from never receiving an SK @-@ 2 , Washington was the recipient of similar upgrades .
Both ships underwent extensive refits near the end or after the war ; North Carolina received a secondary air search set ( SR ) and a SCR @-@ 720 zenith search radar on the forward funnel . At the end of the war , it had an SP surface @-@ search , a SK @-@ 2 air @-@ search , a Mark 38 main battery fire control system with Mark 13 and 27 radars , a Mark 37 secondary battery fire control system with Mark 12 , 22 and 32 radars , and a Mark 57 smaller weaponry fire control system , with a Mark 34 radar . In March 1946 , Washington had a SK fore and a SR aft , a SG both fore and aft , and a TDY jammer ( which could scramble radar on other ships ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships in the North Carolina class were equipped with four General Electric geared turbines and eight Babcock & Wilcox three @-@ drum express type boilers . The ships ' powerplant incorporated several recent developments in turbine equipment , including double helical reduction gears and high @-@ pressure steam technology . North Carolina 's boilers supplied steam at 575 pounds per square inch and as hot as 850 ° F ( 454 ° C ) . To meet the design requirement of 27 knots , the engine system was originally designed to supply 115 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( shp ) , but the new technologies increased this output to 121 @,@ 000 shp . Despite this increase , the maximum speed for the ships did not change , since the modifications to the powerplant were incorporated later in the design process . The turbines that had already been installed could not fully take advantage of the higher pressure and temperature steam , and so the level of efficiency was not as high as it should have been . When going astern , the engines provided 32 @,@ 000 shp .
The engine system was divided into four engine rooms , all on the centerline . Each room contained a turbine and two boilers , without any division between the boilers and turbines . This was done to limit the risk of capsizing should the ship sustain heavy flooding in the engine rooms . The engine rooms alternated in their layout : the first and third engine rooms were arranged with the turbine on the starboard side and its corresponding boilers on the port , this was reversed in the second and fourth rooms . The forward @-@ most engine room powered the starboard outer shaft , the second turbine drove the outer screw on the port side , the third engine supplied power to the inner starboard propeller , and the fourth turbine drove the port @-@ side inner screw . All four screws had four blades ; the two outer propellers were 15 ft 4 in ( 4 @.@ 674 m ) in diameter and the inner pair were 16 ft 7 @.@ 5 in ( 5 @.@ 067 m ) wide . Steering was controlled by a pair of rudders .
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, who granted 8 @.@ 8 / 10 . GameSpot 's review gave it an 8 @.@ 7 , commenting that " the game 's aesthetic presentation is unparalleled , by any standard " , while multimedia website IGN hailed the game as " an amazing experience " and " an absolute must @-@ have title " , rating it 9 @.@ 7 / 10 . GameSpy described it as " possibly the most innovative and visually arresting game of the year for the PS2 " . A retrospective Edge article described the game as " a fiction of unquestionable thematic richness , of riveting emotional power , whose fundamental artistic qualities are completely fused with its interactivity . " Dave Ciccoricco , a literature lecturer at the University of Otago , praised the game for its use of long cutscenes and stretches of riding to make the player engage in self @-@ reflection and feel immersed in the game world .
Many reviewers consider the game 's soundtrack to be one of its greatest aspects . In addition to Electronic Gaming Monthly 's award of " Soundtrack of the Year " , GameSpot commented that the musical score conveyed , and often intensified , the mood of any given situation , while it was described as " one of the finest game soundtracks ever " by a reviewer from Eurogamer .
However , the game has been criticised for its erratic frame rate , which is usually smooth while traversing the landscape , but often slows down in fast @-@ paced situations , such as colossus battles . Concern was also expressed about the game 's camera , which was described by GameSpy as being " as much of an opponent as the Colossi " , " manag [ ing ] to re @-@ center itself at the worst and most inopportune times " . Reviewers are often mixed about Agro 's AI and controls ; while gaming website Thunderbolt insists the realism of Agro 's movement and behaviour " create [ s ] a videogame experience unlike any other " , Edge commented that the controls were " clumsy , crude , and unpredictable " . Other critics like Game Revolution and GameSpot felt the game was too short ( average playthrough time estimated 6 to 8 hours ) , with little replay value given the puzzle elements to each colossus battle .
= = = Awards = = =
Shadow of the Colossus has received several awards , including recognition for " Best Character Design " , " Best Game Design " , " Best Visual Arts " and " Game of the Year " , as well as one of three " Innovation Awards " at the 2006 Game Developers Choice Awards . At the 2006 DICE Summit , the game won the award for " Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction " at the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences , while it received one of two " Special Rookie Awards " at the Famitsu Awards 2005 . It was nominated for " Best Original Music " , " Best Artistic Graphics " and " Best PS2 Game " , yet also " Most Aggravating Frame Rate " in GameSpot 's awards for 2005 , while it won " Best Adventure Game " and " Best Artistic Design " in IGN 's Best of 2005 awards , who cited Agro as the best sidekick in the history of video games . Two years after its release IGN listed Shadow as the second greatest PlayStation 2 game of all time . Games Radar awarded it Best Game of the Year 2006 ( being released in the UK in early 2006 , later than the US ) , and appears in the site 's " The 100 best games ever " list at number ten . The game 's ending was selected as the fourth greatest moment in gaming by the editors of GamePro in July 2006 . The readers of PlayStation Official Magazine voted it the 8th greatest PlayStation title ever released . Destructoid named the game # 1 in their list of the top 50 video games of the decade . IGN named Shadow of the Colossus the best game of 2005 , and the second best game of the decade , behind Half @-@ Life 2 . In 2012 , Complex magazine named Shadow of the Colossus the second @-@ best PlayStation 2 game of all time , behind God of War II . In 2015 , the game placed 4th on USgamer 's The 15 Best Games Since 2000 list .
= = = In other media = = =
The game plays a significant role in the 2007 Mike Binder film Reign Over Me as one of the ways Adam Sandler 's character copes with his primary struggle – with aspects of the game mirroring the tragedy that befell Sandler 's character ; Shadow of the Colossus falling giants mirroring the crashing towers of the September 11 attacks in which his wife and children died , and the game 's lead character trying to resurrect his deceased love are two of the main themes which strike a similarity . Sandler is said to have ad libbed a detailed description of the control scheme in a scene with Don Cheadle , who plays his old friend . Both actors are said to have become experts at the game during the filming .
= = Further adaptions = =
= = = Film adaptation = = =
In April 2009 , it was reported that Sony Pictures would adapt Shadow of the Colossus into a film . Kevin Misher , producer of The Scorpion King , The Interpreter and the recent attempted remake of Dune , is negotiating to produce . It was revealed that Fumito Ueda , the game 's creator , will be involved in the film 's production . On May 23 , 2012 , it was reported that Chronicle director Josh Trank would be directing the film adaptation . Kevin Misher will still be producing the film . Seth Lochhead will be writing the film . On September 4 , 2014 , Variety reports that Mama director Andrés Muschietti will direct the film after Trank has dropped out due of his commitment to one of the upcoming Star Wars spin @-@ off movies . As of 2016 , no cast or release date has been announced .
= = = Deathcore band = = =
There is a deathcore band named Shadow of the Colossus . Many of the band 's lyrics and album art are inspired by the video game .
= Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women =
The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women ( OP @-@ CEDAW ) is an international treaty which establishes complaint and inquiry mechanisms for the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ( CEDAW ) . Parties to the Protocol allow the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to hear complaints from individuals or inquire into " grave or systematic violations " of the Convention . The Protocol has led to a number of decisions against member states on issues such as domestic violence , parental leave and forced sterilization , as well as an investigation into the systematic killing of women in the Mexican city of Ciudad Juárez , Chihuahua .
The Protocol was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 6 October 1999 , and in force from 22 December 2000 . As of May 2016 , the Protocol has 80 signatories and 107 parties .
= = Genesis = =
In 1979 , the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ( CEDAW ) . The Convention outlawed discrimination against women , but did not include any mechanism by which this prohibition could be legally enforced .
An individual complaints mechanism was suggested during the original drafting of CEDAW , but was rejected at the time . Fifteen years later , the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action of the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights suggested that new procedures were needed to implement the Convention , and suggested a " right of petition " . An independent expert group produced a draft in 1994 , containing a complaint procedure and an inquiry procedure , and this was adopted for further study by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in early 1995 . The idea of an Optional Protocol was further endorsed by the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 , which called for " the elaboration ( of ) a draft optional protocol to the Women 's Convention that could enter into force as soon as possible . "
In March 1996 the Commission on the Status of Women established an open @-@ ended working group to produce a formal draft . This reported back after three years of deliberation in early 1999 . The Optional Protocol was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 6 October 1999 .
= = Summary = =
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women outlaws discrimination on the basis of gender , and obliges its parties to repeal discriminatory laws and guarantee equality in the fields of health , employment , and education . The Optional Protocol is a subsidiary agreement to the Convention . It does not establish any new rights , but rather allows the rights guaranteed in the Convention to be enforced .
Articles 1 – 7 create an individual complaints mechanism similar to those of the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and Article 14 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination . Parties agree to recognise the competence of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to consider complaints " by or on behalf of " individuals or groups who claim their rights under the Convention have been violated . If a complaint is submitted on behalf of a victim , then this requires their consent , unless the submitter can justify acting without it . What constitutes " justification " in such a case is up to the Committee . The ability for complaints to be submitted on behalf of victims is seen as vital in allowing NGOs such as women 's organizations and human rights groups to use the Protocol to enforce the Convention .
Complainants must have exhausted all domestic remedies , and anonymous complaints and complaints referring to events which occurred before the country concerned joined the Optional Protocol are not permitted . The Committee can request information from and make recommendations to a party , though these are not binding .
Articles 8 – 10 create an inquiry mechanism . Parties may permit the Committee to investigate , report on and make recommendations on " grave or systematic violations " of the Convention . The Committee may invite the relevant party to respond and inform it of any measures taken as a result of such an inquiry , either directly or through the normal reporting process under the Convention . Parties may opt out of this obligation on signature or ratification , but only Bangladesh , Belize and Colombia have done so .
Article 11 requires parties to ensure that those complaining under the Optional Protocol are not subjected to ill @-@ treatment or intimidation .
Article 13 requires parties to inform their citizens about the Convention , the Optional Protocol , and the rulings of the Committee , so as to facilitate complaints .
Articles 12 and 14 govern the procedure and reporting of the Committee in handling complaints .
Articles 15 – 21 govern ratification , entry into force , and amendment of the Optional Protocol .
= = Reservations and membership = =
A number of parties have made reservations and interpretative declarations to their application of the Protocol . Bangladesh , Belize and Colombia have exercised their right under Article 10 of the Protocol not to recognise the jurisdiction of the Committee to investigate " grave or systematic violations " of the Convention . Colombia declares that neither the Protocol nor the Committee can require it to decriminalise " offences against life or personal integrity " .
Not every state which is a party to CEDAW is a party to the Protocol , and several major states still remain outside the Protocol . The United States has not become a signatory because it has not yet ratified CEDAW . Japan does not participate in any of the individual communications mechanisms for human rights treaties , but is currently considering joining while observing how these procedures are functioning . China is currently " studying the problem of accession to the Optional Protocol " .
= = Individual complaints = =
The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has considered eleven complaints against seven countries since the Optional Protocol came into force , on subjects such as domestic violence , division of property , forced sterilization and parental leave . Six complaints were rejected for lack of jurisdiction or because the complainants had not exhausted all domestic remedies . The other five decisions are summarised below :
In 2005 , in the case of A.T. v. Hungary , the Committee ruled that Hungary had violated numerous articles of the Convention by failing to adequately protect women against domestic violence . It recommended that the complainant be immediately protected from her abusive former partner , and that Hungary improve its handling of domestic violence cases and immediately adopt the Committee 's previous recommendation for a law allowing protection and exclusion orders . The recommendations were implemented by the time of Hungary 's sixth periodic report to the Committee in 2006 .
In 2006 , in the case of Dung Thi Thuy Nguyen v. The Netherlands , the Committee expressed concerns about aspects of parental leave provisions in The Netherlands . It recommended the Dutch government collect further information on the number of women combining part @-@ time salaried employment with self @-@ employment , and review the law if this revealed that a significant number of women were disadvantaged .
In 2006 , in the case of A.S. vs Hungary , the Committee ruled that the forced sterilization of a Romani woman in Hungary violated the Convention . It recommended compensating the complainant for the breach of her rights , a full review of legislation surrounding informed consent in cases of sterilisation to ensure it complied with international human rights standards , and ongoing monitoring of Hungarian medical facilities to ensure that any changes were put into practice .
In 2007 , in the cases of Şahide Goekce ( deceased ) v. Austria and Fatma Yildirim ( deceased ) v. Austria , the Committee ruled that the Austrian government was failing to protect women from domestic violence . It recommended strengthening the implementation and monitoring of existing domestic violence laws and greater training for police .
= = Inquiries = =
The Committee has also conducted one inquiry into " grave or systematic violations " under Article 8 , in relation to the systematic killing of women in the Mexican city of Ciudad Juárez , Chihuahua . This found " serious lapses in compliance " by the Mexican government and tolerance of severe and systematic abuses of women 's rights . The Committee recommended the involvement of federal as well as state authorities in the investigation of the murders , the punishment of negligent or complicit officials and those involved in the persecution of victims ' relatives , and increased violence prevention plans .
= = Impact and criticism = =
The impact of an international treaty can be measured in two ways : by its acceptance , and by its implementation . On the first measure , the Optional Protocol has gained widespread international acceptance . Most major states are parties , and the Protocol is the second most @-@ accepted enforcement mechanism after the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights .
On the second measure , the number of complaints dealt with by the Committee has been limited . A 2008 assessment for the UK government found that the Protocol had hardly been used by NGOs as originally expected , that the reasoning of the Committee was unpredictable , and that it had not had an impact on policy @-@ making . It found that there had been some limited success in highlighting the importance of effective policies to protect women from domestic violence and forced sterilization , but that outside these areas , the Protocol " has not led to a breakthrough in advancing women 's rights . " It concludes that unless greater efforts are made to highlight awareness of the Optional Protocol and build trust in the rulings of the Committee , the complaints mechanism will remain under @-@ utilized .
The Protocol has been criticised by legal academics such as Bal Sokhi @-@ Bulley and feminists such as Catharine MacKinnon who view the complaints mechanism as difficult , lengthy , and lacking transparency . The voluntary nature of the Protocol and the non @-@ binding nature of its " recommendations " are seen as key limits on its effectiveness . Despite this , these critics tend to view the Protocol as a valuable , if flawed , instrument for realizing women 's rights .
= North Carolina Highway 68 =
North Carolina Highway 68 ( NC 68 ) is a north – south state highway in North Carolina . It serves as a connector between Interstate 40 ( I @-@ 40 ) and Piedmont Triad International Airport ( via Bryan Boulevard ) . On its routing from Thomasville to Stokesdale , NC 68 passes through urban High Point , the western outskirts of Greensboro , and the town of Oak Ridge . The segment from just north of the I @-@ 40 interchange to Pleasant Ridge Road in Guilford County is a limited access freeway .
= = Route description = =
Beginning in the south at Business I @-@ 85 / US 29 / US 70 , the route travels north out of Thomasville in Davidson County as National Highway , a name which referred to the former routing of US 29 / 70 ( later US 29A / 70A ) along this segment . Crossing from Davidson County into neighboring Guilford County and the city of High Point , NC 68 is cosigned with English Road . Approximately one mile within the city limits , NC 68 turns left onto Westchester Drive , a boulevard that bypasses High Point 's downtown area . Arriving at the Main Street interchange , the city 's busiest , NC 68 continues onto Eastchester Drive , another boulevard . After passing Oak Hollow Mall , I @-@ 74 / US 311 ( High Point East Belt ) , and the Wendover Avenue interchange , NC 68 and Eastchester Drive continue north into neighboring Greensboro .
Shortly after entering Greensboro , NC 68 meets Interstate 40 / US 421 , and becomes a limited access freeway after a traffic signal at Triad Center Drive . Continuing north as a divided four @-@ lane highway , NC 68 has junctions with W. Market Street ( Colfax exit ) and Bryan Boulevard , the exit for Piedmont Triad International Airport . The road downgrades to an undivided primary road at the Pleasant Ridge Road junction . From there , the route heads north through the heart of Oak Ridge , North Carolina , passing the Oak Ridge Military Academy at the route 's intersection with NC 150 . After crossing the Haw River into Stokesdale , NC 68 crosses US 158 and joins NC 65 for a short 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) concurrency , before splitting to the northeast en route to its northern terminus at NC 220 in Rockingham County .
= = History = =
The first NC 68 was an original state highway that traversed from NC 60 , in Millers Creek ( west of Wilkesboro ) , northwest through Glendale Springs , Jefferson and Crumpler , before crossing into Virginia . By 1928 , NC 68 was rerouted west of Jefferson onto new primary routing west to the Tennessee state line ; the old alignment becoming NC 681 . In 1929 , all of NC 68 was replaced by an extension of NC 16 .
The second and current NC 68 was established in 1930 as a new primary routing from US 70 / US 170 / NC 10 , northeast of High Point , to NC 65 , in Stokesdale . In 1936 , NC 68 was rerouted south through High Point to US 29A / US 70A ( Lexington Avenue ) ; its old alignment , along Penny Road , became a secondary road . In 1941 , NC 68 was extended north on new primary routing to US 220 ( Sylvania Road ) .
In 1952 , NC 68 was extended north to its current terminus with US 220 , replacing part of old US 220 . Between 1950 @-@ 1953 , NC 68 was extended south to English Street . In 1956 or 1957 , NC 68 was extended to its current southern terminus , sharing a concurrency with US 29A / US 70A , until 1991 . In 1982 , NC 68 was placed on new freeway connecting I @-@ 40 and the Piedmont Triad International Airport , its old alignment along Bull Road ( today 's Regional Road ) a secondary road .
= = Future = =
Future NCDOT plans call for the construction of a new four @-@ lane highway connecting NC 68 and US 220 . Starting with a new interchange with I @-@ 73 ( near Pleasant Ridge Road ) , improvements will be made along a short section of existing NC 68 before going northwest onto new construction that will bypass east of Oak Ridge and connect with US 220 in Summerfield . This section will become part of I @-@ 73 . North of Oak Ridge , safety improvements are to be done between East Harrell Road ( SR 2111 ) and Bartonshire Drive ( SR 4831 ) . The estimated cost is $ 1 @.@ 96 million . Property acquisition is expected to start in December 2014 .
= = Junction list = =
= Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact =
The cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact is the corpus of changes to terrestrial science , technology , religion , politics , and ecosystems resulting from contact with an extraterrestrial civilization . Although closely related to it , the study of the cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact is distinct from the search for extraterrestrial intelligence ( SETI ) , which attempts to locate intelligent life as opposed to analyzing the implications of contact with that life .
The potential changes from extraterrestrial contact could vary greatly in magnitude and type , based on the extraterrestrial civilization 's level of technological advancement , degree of benevolence or malevolence , and level of mutual comprehension between itself and humanity . The medium through which humanity is contacted , be it electromagnetic radiation , direct physical interaction , extraterrestrial artefact , or otherwise , may also influence the results of contact . Incorporating these factors , various systems have been created to assess the implications of extraterrestrial contact .
The implications of extraterrestrial contact , particularly with a technologically superior civilization , have often been likened to the meeting of two vastly different human cultures on Earth , a historical precedent being the Columbian Exchange . Such meetings have generally led to the destruction of the civilization receiving contact ( as opposed to the " contactor " , which initiates contact ) , and therefore destruction of human civilization is a possible outcome . However , the absence of verified public contact to date means such conjecture is largely speculative .
= = Background = =
= = = Search for extraterrestrial intelligence = = =
To detect extraterrestrial civilizations with radio telescopes , one must identify an artificial , coherent signal against a background of various natural phenomena that also produce radio waves . Telescopes capable of this include the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico and the newer Allen Telescope Array in Hat Creek , California . Various programs to detect extraterrestrial intelligence have had government funding in the past . Project Cyclops was commissioned by NASA in the 1970s to investigate the most effective way to search for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial sources , but the report 's recommendations were set aside in favor of the much more modest approach of Messaging to Extra @-@ Terrestrial Intelligence ( METI ) , the sending of messages that intelligent extraterrestrial beings might intercept . NASA then drastically reduced funding for SETI programs , which have since turned to private donations to continue their search .
With the discovery in the late 20th and early 21st centuries of numerous extrasolar planets , some of which may be habitable , governments have once more become interested in funding new programs . In 2006 the European Space Agency launched COROT , the first spacecraft dedicated to the search for exoplanets , and in 2009 NASA launched the Kepler space observatory for the same purpose . By February 2013 Kepler had detected 105 of the 3 @,@ 472 confirmed exoplanets , and one of them , Kepler @-@ 22b , is potentially habitable . After it was discovered , the SETI Institute resumed the search for an intelligent extraterrestrial civilization , focusing on Kepler 's candidate planets , with funding from the United States Air Force .
Newly discovered planets , particularly ones that are potentially habitable , have enabled SETI and METI programs to refocus projects for communication with extraterrestrial intelligence . In 2009 A Message From Earth ( AMFE ) was sent toward the Gliese 581 system , which contains two potentially habitable planets , the confirmed Gliese 581 d and the more habitable but unconfirmed Gliese 581 g . In the SETILive project , which began in 2012 , human volunteers analyze data from the Allen Telescope Array to search for possible alien signals that computers might miss because of terrestrial radio interference . The data for the study is obtained by observing Kepler target stars with the radio telescope .
In addition to radio @-@ based methods , some projects , such as SEVENDIP ( Search for Extraterrestrial Visible Emissions from Nearby Developed Intelligent Populations ) at the University of California , Berkeley , are using other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum to search for extraterrestrial signals . Various other projects are not searching for coherent signals , but want to rather use electromagnetic radiation to find other evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence , such as megascale astroengineering projects .
Several signals , such as the Wow ! signal , have been detected in the history of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence , but none have yet been confirmed as being of intelligent origin .
= = = Impact assessment = = =
The implications of extraterrestrial contact depend on the method of discovery , the nature of the extraterrestrial beings , and their location relative to the Earth . Considering these factors , the Rio Scale has been devised in order to provide a more quantitative picture of the results of extraterrestrial contact . More specifically , the scale gauges whether communication was conducted through radio , the information content of any messages , and whether discovery arose from a deliberately beamed message ( and if so , whether the detection was the result of a specialized SETI effort or through general astronomical observations ) or by the detection of occurrences such as radiation leakage from astroengineering installations . The question of whether or not a purported extraterrestrial signal has been confirmed as authentic , and with what degree of confidence , will also influence the impact of the contact . The Rio Scale was modified in 2011 to include a consideration of whether contact was achieved through an interstellar message or through a physical extraterrestrial artifact , with a suggestion that the definition of artifact be expanded to include " technosignatures " , including all indications of intelligent extraterrestrial life other than the interstellar radio messages sought by traditional SETI programs .
A study by astronomer Steven J. Dick at the United States Naval Observatory considered the cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact by analyzing events of similar significance in the history of science . The study argues that the impact would be most strongly influenced by the information content of the message received , if any . It distinguishes short @-@ term and long @-@ term impact . Seeing radio @-@ based contact as a more plausible scenario than a visit from extraterrestrial spacecraft , the study rejects the commonly stated analogy of European colonization of the Americas as an accurate model for information @-@ only contact , preferring events of profound scientific significance , such as the Copernican and Darwinian revolutions , as more predictive of how humanity might be impacted by extraterrestrial contact .
The physical distance between the two civilizations has also been used to assess the cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact . Historical examples show that the greater the distance , the less the contacted civilization perceives a threat to itself and its culture . Therefore , contact occurring within the Solar System , and especially in the immediate vicinity of Earth , is likely to be the most disruptive and negative for humanity . On a smaller scale , people close to the epicenter of contact would experience a greater effect than would those living farther away , and a contact having multiple epicenters would cause a greater shock than one with a single epicenter . Space scientists Martin Dominik and John Zarnecki state that in the absence of any data on the nature of extraterrestrial intelligence , one must predict the cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact on the basis of generalizations encompassing all life and of analogies with history .
The beliefs of the general public about the effect of extraterrestrial contact have also been studied . A poll of United States and Chinese university students in 2000 provides factor analysis of responses to questions about , inter alia , the participants ' belief that extraterrestrial life exists in the Universe , that such life may be intelligent , and that humans will eventually make contact with it . The study shows significant weighted correlations between participants ' belief that extraterrestrial contact may either conflict with or enrich their personal religious beliefs and how conservative such religious beliefs are . The more conservative the respondents , the more harmful they considered extraterrestrial contact to be . Other significant correlation patterns indicate that participants took the view that the search for extraterrestrial intelligence may be futile or even harmful .
= = = Post @-@ detection protocols = = =
Various protocols have been drawn up detailing a course of action for scientists and governments after extraterrestrial contact . Post @-@ detection protocols must address three issues : what to do in the first weeks after receiving a message from an extraterrestrial source ; whether or not to send a reply ; and analyzing the long @-@ term consequences of the message received . No post @-@ detection protocol , however , is binding under national or international law , and Dominik and Zarnecki consider the protocols likely to be ignored if contact occurs .
One of the first post @-@ detection protocols , the " Declaration of Principles for Activities Following the Detection of Extraterrestrial Intelligence " , was created by the SETI Permanent Committee of the International Academy of Astronautics ( IAA ) . It was later approved by the Board of Trustees of the IAA and by the International Institute of Space Law , and still later by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) , the Committee on Space Research , the International Union of Radio Science , and others . It was subsequently endorsed by most researchers involved in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence , including the SETI Institute .
The Declaration of Principles contains the following broad provisions :
Any person or organization detecting a signal should try to verify that it is likely to be of intelligent origin before announcing it .
The discoverer of a signal should , for the purposes of independent verification , communicate with other signatories of the Declaration before making a public announcement , and should also inform their national authorities .
Once a given astronomical observation has been determined to be a credible extraterrestrial signal , the astronomical community should be informed through the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams of the IAU . The Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations and various other global scientific unions should also be informed .
Following confirmation of an observation 's extraterrestrial origin , news of the discovery should be made public . The discoverer has the right to make the first public announcement .
All data confirming the discovery should be published to the international scientific community and stored in an accessible form as permanently as possible .
Should evidence for extraterrestrial intelligence take the form of electromagnetic signals , the Secretary @-@ General of the International Telecommunications Union ( ITU ) should be contacted , and may request in the next ITU Weekly Circular to minimize terrestrial use of the electromagnetic frequency bands in which the signal was detected .
Neither the discoverer nor anyone else should respond to an observed extraterrestrial intelligence ; doing so requires international agreement under separate procedures .
The SETI Permanent Committee of the IAA and Commission 51 of the IAU should continually review procedures regarding detection of extraterrestrial intelligence and management of data related to such discoveries . A committee comprising members from various international scientific unions , and other bodies designated by the committee , should regulate continued SETI research .
A separate " Proposed Agreement on the Sending of Communications to Extraterrestrial Intelligence " was subsequently created . It proposes an international commission , membership of which would be open to all interested nations , to be constituted on detection of extraterrestrial intelligence . This commission would decide whether to send a message to the extraterrestrial intelligence , and if so , would determine the contents of the message on the basis of principles such as justice , respect for cultural diversity , honesty , and respect for property and territory . The draft proposes to forbid the sending of any message by an individual nation or organization without the permission of the commission , and suggests that , if the detected intelligence poses a danger to human civilization , the United Nations Security Council should authorize any message to extraterrestrial intelligence . However , this proposal , like all others , has not been incorporated into national or international law .
Paul Davies , a member of the SETI Post @-@ Detection Taskgroup , has stated that post @-@ detection protocols , calling for international consultation before taking any major steps regarding the detection , are unlikely to be followed by astronomers , who would put the advancement of their careers over the word of a protocol that is not part of national or international law .
= = Contact scenarios and considerations = =
Scientific literature and science fiction put forward various models of the ways in which extraterrestrial and human civilizations might interact . Their predictions range widely , from sophisticated civilizations that could advance human civilization in many areas to imperial powers that might draw upon the forces necessary to subjugate humanity . Some theories suggest that an extraterrestrial civilization could be advanced enough to dispense with biology , living instead inside of advanced computers .
The implications of discovery depend very much on the level of aggressiveness of the civilization interacting with humanity , its ethics , and how much human and extraterrestrial biologies have in common . These factors will govern the quantity and type of dialogue that can take place . The question of whether contact is physical or through electromagnetic signals will also govern the magnitude of the long @-@ term implications of contact . In the case of communication using electromagnetic signals , the long silence between the reception of one message and another would mean that the content of any message would particularly affect the consequences of contact , as would the extent of mutual comprehension .
= = = Friendly civilizations = = =
Many writers have speculated on the ways in which a friendly civilization might interact with humankind . Albert Harrison , a professor emeritus of psychology at the University of California , Davis , thought that a highly advanced civilization might teach humanity such things as a physical theory of everything , how to use zero @-@ point energy , or how to travel faster than light . They suggest that collaboration with such a civilization could initially be in the arts and humanities before moving to the hard sciences , and even that artists may spearhead collaboration . Seth D. Baum , of the Global Catastrophic Risk Institute , and others consider that the greater longevity of cooperative civilizations in comparison to uncooperative and aggressive ones might render extraterrestrial civilizations in general more likely to aid humanity . In contrast to these views , however , Paolo Musso , a member of the SETI Permanent Study Group of the International Academy of Astronautics ( IAA ) and the Pontifical Academy of Sciences , took the view that extraterrestrial civilizations possess , like humans , a morality driven not entirely by altruism but for individual benefit as well , thus leaving open the possibility that at least some extraterrestrial civilizations are hostile .
Futurist Allen Tough suggests that an extremely advanced extraterrestrial civilization , recalling its own past of war and plunder and knowing that it possesses superweapons that could destroy it , would be likely to try to help humans rather than to destroy them . He identifies three approaches that a friendly civilization might take to help humanity :
Intervention only to avert catastrophe : this would involve occasional limited intervention to stop events that could destroy human civilization completely , such as nuclear war or asteroid impact .
Advice and action with consent : under this approach , the extraterrestrials would be more closely involved in terrestrial affairs , advising world leaders and acting with their consent to protect against danger .
Forcible corrective action : the extraterrestrials could require humanity to reduce major risks against its will , intending to help humans advance to the next stage of civilization .
Tough considers advising and acting only with consent to be a more likely choice than the forceful option . While coercive aid may be possible , and advanced extraterrestrials would recognize their own practices as superior to those of humanity , it may be unlikely that this method would be used in cultural cooperation . Lemarchand suggests that instruction of a civilization in its " technological adolescence " , such as humanity , would probably focus on morality and ethics rather than on science and technology , to ensure that the civilization did not destroy itself with technology it was not yet ready to use .
According to Tough , it is unlikely that the avoidance of immediate dangers and prevention of future catastrophes would be conducted through radio , as these tasks would demand constant surveillance and quick action . However , cultural cooperation might take place through radio or a space probe in the Solar System , as radio waves could be used to communicate information about advanced technologies and cultures to humanity .
Even if an ancient and advanced extraterrestrial civilization wished to help humanity , humans could suffer from a loss of identity and confidence due to the technological and cultural prowess of the extraterrestrial civilization . However , a friendly civilization may calibrate its contact with humanity in such a way as to minimize unintended consequences . Michael A. G. Michaud suggests that a friendly and advanced extraterrestrial civilization may even avoid all contact with an emerging intelligent species like humanity , to ensure that the less advanced civilization can develop naturally at its own pace .
= = = Hostile civilizations = = =
Science fiction films often depict humans successfully repelling alien invasions , but scientists more often take the view that an extraterrestrial civilization with sufficient power to reach the Earth would be able to destroy human civilization with minimal effort . Operations that are enormous on a human scale , such as destroying all major population centers on a planet , bombarding a planet with deadly neutron radiation , or even traveling to another planetary system in order to lay waste to it , may be important tools for a hostile and totalitarian civilization .
Deardorff speculates that a small proportion of the intelligent life forms in the galaxy may be aggressive , but the actual aggressiveness or benevolence of the civilizations would cover a wide spectrum , with some civilizations " policing " others . According to Harrison and Dick , hostile extraterrestrial life may indeed be rare in the Universe , just as belligerent and autocratic nations on Earth have been the ones that lasted for the shortest periods of time , and humanity is seeing a shift away from these characteristics in its own sociopolitical systems . In addition , the causes of war may be diminished greatly for a civilization with access to the galaxy , as there are prodigious quantities of natural resources in space accessible without resort to violence .
SETI researcher Carl Sagan believed that a civilization with the technological prowess needed to reach the stars and come to Earth must have transcended war to be able to avoid self @-@ destruction . Representatives of such a civilization would treat humanity with dignity and respect , and humanity , with its relatively backward technology , would have no choice but to reciprocate . Seth Shostak , an astronomer at the SETI Institute , disagrees , stating that the finite quantity of resources in the galaxy would cultivate aggression in any intelligent species , and that an explorer civilization that would want to contact humanity would be aggressive . Similarly , Ragbir Bhathal claims that since the laws of evolution would be the same on another habitable planet as they are on Earth , an extremely advanced extraterrestrial civilization may have the motivation to colonize humanity , much as British colonizers did to the aboriginal peoples of Australia .
Disputing these analyses , David Brin states that while an extraterrestrial civilization may have an imperative to act for no benefit to itself , it would be naïve to suggest that such a trait would be prevalent throughout the galaxy . Brin points to the fact that in many moral systems on Earth , such as the Aztec or Carthaginian one , non @-@ military killing has been accepted and even " exalted " by society , and further mentions that such acts are not confined to humans but can be found throughout the animal kingdom .
Baum et al. speculate that highly advanced civilizations are unlikely to come to Earth to enslave humans , as the achievement of their level of advancement would have required them to solve the problems of labor and resources by other means , such as creating a sustainable environment and using mechanized labor . Moreover , humans may be an unsuitable food source for extraterrestrials because of marked differences in biochemistry . For example , the chirality of molecules used by terrestrial biota may differ from those used by extraterrestrial beings .
Politicians have also commented on the likely human reaction to contact with hostile species . In his 1987 speech to the United Nations General Assembly , Ronald Reagan said , " I occasionally think how quickly our differences worldwide would vanish if we were facing an alien threat from outside this world . "
= = = Equally advanced and more advanced civilizations = = =
Robert Freitas speculated in 1978 that the technological advancement and energy usage of a civilization , measured either relative to another civilization or in absolute terms by its rating on the Kardashev scale , may play an important role in the result of extraterrestrial contact . Given the infeasibility of interstellar space flight for civilizations at a technological level similar to that of humanity , interactions between such civilizations would have to take place by radio . Because of the long transit times of radio waves between stars , such interactions would not lead to the establishment of diplomatic relations , nor any significant future interaction at all , between the two civilizations .
According to Freitas , direct contact with civilizations significantly more advanced than humanity would have to take place within the Solar System , as only the more advanced society would have the resources and technology to cross interstellar space . Consequently , such contact could only be with civilizations rated as Type II or higher on the Kardashev scale , as Type I civilizations would be incapable of regular interstellar travel . Freitas expected that such interactions would be carefully planned by the more advanced civilization to avoid mass societal shock for humanity .
However much planning an extraterrestrial civilization may do before contacting humanity , the humans may experience great shock and terror on their arrival , especially as they would lack any understanding of the contacting civilization . Ben Finney compares the situation to that of the tribespeople of New Guinea , an island that was settled fifty thousand years ago during the last glacial period but saw little contact with the outside world until the arrival of European colonial powers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . The huge difference between the indigenous stone @-@ age society and the Europeans ' technical civilization caused unexpected behaviors among the native populations known as cargo cults : to coax the gods into bringing them the technology that the Europeans possessed , the natives created wooden " radio stations " and " airstrips " as a form of sympathetic magic . Finney argues that humanity may misunderstand the true meaning of an extraterrestrial transmission to Earth , much as the people of New Guinea could not understand the source of modern goods and technologies . He concludes that the results of extraterrestrial contact will become known over the long term with rigorous study , rather than as fast , sharp events briefly making newspaper headlines .
Billingham has suggested that a civilization which is far more technologically advanced than humanity is also likely to be culturally and ethically advanced , and would therefore be unlikely to conduct astroengineering projects that would harm human civilization . Such projects could include Dyson spheres , which completely enclose stars and capture all energy coming from them . Even if well within the capability of an advanced civilization and providing an enormous amount of energy , such a project would not be undertaken . For similar reasons , such civilizations would not readily give humanity the knowledge required to build such devices . Nevertheless , the existence of such capabilities would at least show that civilizations have survived " technological adolescence " . Despite the caution that such an advanced civilization would exercise in dealing with the less mature human civilization , Sagan imagined that an advanced civilization might send those on Earth an Encyclopædia Galactica describing the sciences and cultures of many extraterrestrial societies .
Whether an advanced extraterrestrial civilization would send humanity a decipherable message is a matter of debate in itself . Sagan argued that a highly advanced extraterrestrial civilization would bear in mind that they were communicating with a relatively primitive one and therefore would try to ensure that the receiving civilization would be able to understand the message . Arguing against this view , astronomer Guillermo Lemarchand stated that an advanced civilization would probably encrypt a message with high information content , such as an Encyclopædia Galactica , in order to ensure that only other ethically advanced civilizations would be able to understand it .
= = = Interstellar groups of civilizations = = =
Given the age of the galaxy , Harrison surmises that there exist several " galactic clubs " , groupings of multiple civilizations from across the galaxy . Such clubs could begin as loose confederations or alliances , eventually developing into powerful unions of many civilizations . If humanity could enter into a dialogue with one extraterrestrial civilization , it might be able to join such a galactic club . As more extraterrestrial civilizations , or unions thereof , are found , these could also become assimilated into such a club . Sebastian von Hoerner has suggested that entry into a galactic club may be a way for humanity to handle the culture shock arising from contact with an advanced extraterrestrial civilization .
Whether a broad spectrum of civilizations from many places in the galaxy would even be able to cooperate is disputed by Michaud , who states that civilizations with huge differences in the technologies and resources at their command " may not consider themselves even remotely equal " . It is unlikely that humanity would meet the basic requirements for membership at its current low level of technological advancement . A galactic club may , William Hamilton speculates , set extremely high entrance requirements that are unlikely to be met by less advanced civilizations .
Michaud suggests that an interstellar grouping of civilizations might take the form of an empire , which need not necessarily be a force for evil , but may provide for peace and security throughout its jurisdiction . Owing to the distances between the stars , such an empire would not necessarily maintain control solely by military force , but may rather tolerate local cultures and institutions to the extent that these would not pose a threat to the central imperial authority . Such tolerance may , as has happened historically on Earth , extend to allowing nominal self @-@ rule of specific regions by existing institutions , while maintaining that area as a puppet or client state to accomplish the aims of the imperial power . However , particularly advanced powers may use methods , including faster @-@ than @-@ light travel , to make centralized administration more effective .
In contrast to the belief that an extraterrestrial civilization would want to establish an empire , Ćirković proposes that an extraterrestrial civilization would maintain equilibrium rather than expand outward . In such an equilibrium , a civilization would only colonize a small number of stars , aiming to maximize efficiency rather than to expand massive and unsustainable imperial structures . This contrasts with the classic Kardashev Type III civilization , which has access to the energy output of an entire galaxy and is not subject to any limits on its future expansion . According to this view , advanced civilizations may not resemble the classic examples in science fiction , but might more closely reflect the small , independent Greek city @-@ states , with an emphasis on cultural rather than territorial growth .
= = = Extraterrestrial artifacts = = =
An extraterrestrial civilization may choose to communicate with humanity by means of artifacts or probes rather than by radio , for various reasons . While probes may take a long time to reach the Solar System , once there they would be able to hold a sustained dialogue that would be impossible using radio from hundreds or thousands of light @-@ years away . Radio would be completely unsuitable for surveillance and continued monitoring of a civilization , and should an extraterrestrial civilization wish to perform these activities on humanity , artifacts may be the only option other than to send large , crewed spacecraft to the Solar System .
Although faster @-@ than @-@ light travel has been seriously considered by physicists such as Miguel Alcubierre , Tough speculates that the enormous amount of energy required to achieve such speeds under currently proposed mechanisms means that robotic probes traveling at conventional speeds will still have an advantage for various applications . 2013 research at NASA 's Johnson Space Center , however , shows that faster @-@ than @-@ light travel with the Alcubierre drive requires dramatically less energy than previously thought , needing only about 1 metric ton of exotic mass @-@ energy to move a spacecraft at 10 times the speed of light , in contrast to previous estimates that stated that only a Jupiter @-@ mass object would contain sufficient energy to power a faster @-@ than @-@ light spacecraft .
According to Tough , an extraterrestrial civilization might want to send various types of information to humanity by means of artifacts , such as an Encyclopædia Galactica , containing the wisdom of countless extraterrestrial cultures , or perhaps an invitation to engage in diplomacy with them . A civilization that sees itself on the brink of decline might use the abilities it still possesses to send probes throughout the galaxy , with its cultures , values , religions , sciences , technologies , and laws , so that they may not die along with their civilization .
Freitas finds numerous reasons why interstellar probes may be a preferred method of communication among extraterrestrial civilizations wishing to make contact with Earth . A civilization aiming to learn more about the distribution of life within the galaxy might , he speculates , send probes to a large number of star systems , rather than using radio , as one cannot ensure a response by radio but can ( he says ) ensure that probes will return to their sender with data on the star systems they survey . Furthermore , probes would enable the surveying of non @-@ intelligent populations , or those not yet capable of space navigation ( like humans before the 20th century ) , as well as intelligent populations that might not wish to provide information about themselves and their planets to extraterrestrial civilizations . In addition , the greater energy required to send living beings rather than a robotic probe would , according to Michaud , be only used for purposes such as a one @-@ way migration .
Freitas points out that probes , unlike the interstellar radio waves commonly targeted by SETI searches , could store information for long , perhaps geological , timescales , and could emit strong radio signals unambiguously recognizable as being of intelligent origin , rather than being dismissed as a UFO or a natural phenomenon . Probes could also modify any signal they send to suit the system they were in , which would be impossible for a radio transmission originating from outside the target star system . Moreover , the use of small robotic probes with widely distributed beacons in individual systems , rather than a small number of powerful , centralized beacons , would provide a security advantage to the civilization using them . Rather than revealing the location of a radio beacon powerful enough to signal the whole galaxy and risk such a powerful device being compromised , decentralized beacons installed on robotic probes need not reveal any information that an extraterrestrial civilization prefers others not to have .
Given the age of the Milky Way galaxy , an ancient extraterrestrial civilization may have existed and sent probes to the Solar System millions or even billions of years before the evolution of Homo sapiens . Thus , a probe sent may have been nonfunctional for millions of years before humans learn of its existence . Such a " dead " probe would not pose an imminent threat to humanity , but would prove that interstellar flight is possible . However , if an active probe were to be discovered , humans would react much more strongly than they would to the discovery of a probe that has long since ceased to function .
= = Further implications of contact = =
= = = Theological = = =
The confirmation of extraterrestrial intelligence could have a profound impact on religious doctrines , potentially causing theologians to reinterpret scriptures to accommodate the new discoveries . However , a survey of people with many different religious beliefs indicated that their faith would not be affected by the discovery of extraterrestrial intelligence , and another study , conducted by Ted Peters of the Pacific Lutheran Theological Seminary , shows that most people would not consider their religious beliefs superseded by it . Surveys of religious leaders indicate that only a small percentage are concerned that the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence might fundamentally contradict the views of the adherents of their religion . Gabriel Funes , the chief astronomer of the Vatican Observatory and a papal adviser on science , has stated that the Catholic Church would be likely to welcome extraterrestrial visitors warmly .
Contact with extraterrestrial intelligence would not be completely inconsequential for religion . The Peters study showed that most non @-@ religious people , and a significant majority of religious people , believe that the world could face a religious crisis , even if their own beliefs were unaffected . Contact with extraterrestrial intelligence would be most likely to cause a problem for western religions , in particular traditionalist Christianity , because of the geocentric nature of western faiths . The discovery of extraterrestrial life would not contradict basic conceptions of God , however , and seeing that science has challenged established dogma in the past , for example with the theory of evolution and the teachings of Giordano Bruno , it is likely that existing religions will adapt similarly to the new circumstances . In the view of Musso , however , a global religious crisis would be unlikely even for Abrahamic faiths , as the studies of himself and others on Christianity , the most " anthropocentric " religion , see no conflict between that religion and the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence . In addition , the cultural and religious values of extraterrestrial species would likely be shared over centuries if contact is to occur by radio , meaning that rather than causing a huge shock to humanity , such information would be viewed much as archaeologists and historians view ancient artifacts and texts .
Funes speculates that a decipherable message from extraterrestrial intelligence could initiate an interstellar exchange of knowledge in various disciplines , including whatever religions an extraterrestrial civilization may host . Billingham further suggests that an extremely advanced and friendly extraterrestrial civilization might put an end to present @-@ day religious conflicts and lead to greater religious toleration worldwide . On the other hand , Jill Tarter puts forward the view that contact with extraterrestrial intelligence might eliminate religion as we know it and introduce humanity to an all @-@ encompassing faith .
= = = Political = = =
Tim Folger speculates that news of radio contact with an extraterrestrial civilization would prove impossible to suppress and would travel rapidly , though Cold War scientific literature on the subject contradicts this . Media coverage of the discovery would probably die down quickly , though , as scientists began to decipher the message and learn its true impact . Different branches of government ( for example legislative , executive , and judiciary ) may pursue their own policies , potentially giving rise to power struggles . Even in the event of a single contact with no follow @-@ up , radio contact may prompt fierce disagreements as to which bodies have the authority to represent humanity as a whole . Michaud hypothesizes that the fear arising from direct contact may cause nation @-@ states to put aside their conflicts and work together for the common defense of humanity .
Apart from the question of who would represent the Earth as a whole , contact could create other international problems , such as the degree of involvement of governments foreign to the one whose radio astronomers received the signal . The United Nations discussed various issues of foreign relations immediately before the launch of the Voyager probes , which in 2012 left the Solar System carrying a golden record in case they are found by extraterrestrial intelligence . Among the issues discussed were what messages would best represent humanity , what format they should take , how to convey the cultural history of the Earth , and what international groups should be formed to study extraterrestrial intelligence in greater detail .
According to Luca Codignola of the University of Genoa , contact with a powerful extraterrestrial civilization is comparable to occasions where one powerful civilization destroyed another , such as the arrival of Christopher Columbus and Hernán Cortés into the Americas and the subsequent destruction of the indigenous civilizations and their ways of life . However , the applicability of such a model to contact with extraterrestrial civilizations , and that specific interpretation of the arrival of the European colonists to the Americas , have been disputed . Even so , any large difference between the power of an extraterrestrial civilization and our own could be demoralizing and potentially cause or accelerate the collapse of human society . Being discovered by a " superior " extraterrestrial civilization , and continued contact with it , might have psychological effects that could destroy a civilization , as is claimed to have happened in the past on Earth .
Even in the absence of close contact between humanity and extraterrestrials , high @-@ information messages from an extraterrestrial civilization to humanity have the potential to cause a great cultural shock . Sociologist Donald Tarter has conjectured that knowledge of extraterrestrial culture and theology has the potential to compromise human allegiance to existing organizational structures and institutions . The cultural shock of meeting an extraterrestrial civilization may be spread over decades or even centuries if an extraterrestrial message to humanity is extremely difficult to decipher .
= = = Legal = = =
Contact with extraterrestrial civilizations would raise legal questions , such as the rights of the extraterrestrial beings . An extraterrestrial arriving on Earth would only have the protection of animal cruelty statutes . Much as various classes of human being , such as women , children , and indigenous people , were initially denied human rights , so might extraterrestrial beings , who could therefore be legally owned and killed . If such a species were not to be treated as a legal animal , there would arise the challenge of defining the boundary between a legal person and a legal animal , considering the numerous factors that constitute intelligence .
Freitas considers that even if an extraterrestrial being were to be afforded legal personhood , problems of nationality and immigration would arise . An extraterrestrial being would not have a legally recognized earthly citizenship , and drastic legal measures might be required in order to account for the technically illegal immigration of extraterrestrial individuals .
If contact were to take place through electromagnetic signals , these issues would not arise . Rather , issues relating to patent and copyright law regarding who , if anyone , has rights to the information from the extraterrestrial civilization would be the primary legal problem .
= = = Scientific and technological = = =
The scientific and technological impact of extraterrestrial contact through electromagnetic waves would probably be quite small , especially at first . However , if the message contains a large amount of information , deciphering it could give humans access to a galactic heritage perhaps predating the human species itself , which may greatly advance our technology and science . A possible negative effect could be to demoralize research scientists as they come to know that what they are researching may already be known to another civilization .
On the other hand , extraterrestrial civilizations with malicious intent could send information that could enable human civilization to destroy itself , such as powerful computer viruses or information on how to make extremely potent weapons that humans would not yet be able to use responsibly . While the motives for such an action are unknown , it would require minimal energy use on the part of the extraterrestrials . According to Musso , however , computer viruses in particular will be nearly impossible unless extraterrestrials possess detailed knowledge of human computer architectures , which would only happen if a human message sent to the stars were protected with little thought to security . Even a virtual machine on which extraterrestrials could run computer programs could be designed specifically for the purpose , bearing little relation to computer systems commonly used on Earth . In addition , humans could send messages to extraterrestrials detailing that they do not want access to the Encyclopædia Galactica until they have reached a suitable level of technological advancement , thus mitigating harmful impacts of extraterrestrial technology .
Extraterrestrial technology could have profound impacts on the nature of human culture and civilization . Just as television provided a new outlet for a wide variety of political , religious , and social groups , and as the printing press made the Bible available to the common people of Europe , allowing them to interpret it for themselves , so an extraterrestrial technology might change humanity in ways not immediately apparent . Harrison speculates that a knowledge of extraterrestrial technologies could increase the gap between scientific and cultural progress , leading to societal shock and an inability to compensate for negative effects of technology . He gives the example of improvements in agricultural technology during the Industrial Revolution , which displaced thousands of farm laborers until society could retrain them for jobs suited to the new social order . Contact with an extraterrestrial civilization far more advanced than humanity could cause a much greater shock than the Industrial Revolution , or anything previously experienced by humanity .
Michaud suggests that humanity could be impacted by an influx of extraterrestrial science and technology in the same way that medieval European scholars were impacted by the knowledge of Arab scientists . Humanity might at first revere the knowledge as having the potential to advance the human species , and might even feel inferior to the extraterrestrial species , but would gradually grow in arrogance as it gained more and more intimate knowledge of the science , technology , and other cultural developments of an advanced extraterrestrial civilization .
The discovery of extraterrestrial intelligence would have various impacts on biology and astrobiology . The discovery of extraterrestrial life in any form , intelligent or non @-@ intelligent , would give humanity greater insight into the nature of life on Earth and would improve the conception of how the tree of life is organized . Human biologists could learn about extraterrestrial biochemistry and observe how it differs from that found on Earth . This knowledge could help human civilization to learn which aspects of life are common throughout the universe and which are specific to Earth .
= = = Ecological and biological @-@ warfare impacts = = =
An extraterrestrial civilization might bring to Earth pathogens or invasive life forms that do not harm its own biosphere . Alien pathogens could decimate the human population , which would have no immunity to them , or they might use terrestrial livestock or plants as hosts , causing indirect harm to humans . Invasive organisms brought by extraterrestrial civilizations could cause great ecological harm because of the terrestrial biosphere 's lack of defenses against them .
On the other hand , pathogens and invasive species of extraterrestrial origin might differ enough from terrestrial organisms in their biology to have no adverse effects . Furthermore , pathogens and parasites on Earth are generally suited to only a small and exclusive set of environments , to which extraterrestrial pathogens would have had no opportunity to adapt .
If an extraterrestrial civilization bearing malice towards humanity gained sufficient knowledge of terrestrial biology and weaknesses in the immune systems of terrestrial biota , it might be able to create extremely potent biological weapons . Even a civilization without malicious intent could inadvertently cause harm to humanity by not taking account of all the risks of their actions .
According to Baum , even if an extraterrestrial civilization were to communicate using electromagnetic signals alone , it could send humanity information with which humans themselves could create lethal biological weapons .
= Australian blacktip shark =
The Australian blacktip shark ( Carcharhinus tilstoni ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , endemic to northern and eastern Australia . Favoring the upper and middle parts of the water column , it can be found from the intertidal zone to a depth of 50 m ( 160 ft ) . Appearance @-@ wise this species is virtually identical to the common blacktip shark ( C. limbatus ) , from which it can be reliably distinguished only by its lower vertebra number and by genetic markers . Generally reaching 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in length , it is a fairly stout @-@ bodied , bronze @-@ colored shark with a long snout and black @-@ tipped fins .
Primarily piscivorous , the Australian blacktip shark forms large groups of similar size and sex that tend to remain within a local area . It exhibits vivipary , meaning that the unborn young are provisioned through a placental connection . There is a well @-@ defined annual reproductive cycle with mating occurring in February and March . Females bear one to six pups around January of the following year , after a 10 @-@ month gestation period . The Australian blacktip shark is among the sharks most commonly caught by northern Australian commercial fisheries . It is mainly valued for its meat , which is sold as " flake " . This species was an important catch of a Taiwanese gillnet fishery that operated from 1974 to 1986 , and of the Australian Northern Shark Fishery that continues to the present day . As current fishing levels are not thought to threaten this shark 's population , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Australian blacktip shark was described by Australian ichthyologist Gilbert Percy Whitley in a 1950 issue of the scientific journal Western Australian Naturalist . He named it Galeolamna pleurotaenia tilstoni in honor of Richard Tilston , assistant surgeon at Port Essington , Northern Territory . The type specimen is a 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long female caught from Van Cloon Reef in Joseph Bonaparte Gulf . Later authors have regarded Galeolamna as a synonym of the genus Carcharhinus . This shark may also be referred to as blacktip whaler , Tilston 's whaler shark , and Whitley 's blacktip shark .
After Whitley 's initial description , C. tilstoni was generally regarded as synonymous with C. limbatus , the common blacktip shark . In the 1980s , additional morphological and life history data again favored the recognition of C. tilstoni as a separate species , which was eventually confirmed by allozyme studies performed by Shane Lavery and James Shaklee . Several molecular phylogenetic studies based on allozymes , mitochondrial DNA , and nuclear DNA have found that that the Australian and common blacktip sharks form a closely related clade with the graceful shark ( C. amblyrhynchoides ) and the smoothtooth blacktip shark ( C. leiodon ) . The interrelationships between them have not been fully resolved , but available data suggest that C. tilstoni and C. limbatus are not the most closely related species within the clade despite their similarity .
= = Description = =
Physically , the Australian blacktip shark can only reliably be distinguished from the common blacktip shark by the number of vertebrae ( 174 – 182 total , 84 – 91 before the tail in C. tilstoni , 182 – 203 total , 94 – 102 before the tail in C. limbatus ) . It has a moderately robust , spindle @-@ shaped body and a long , pointed snout . The anterior rims of the nostrils are slightly enlarged into low triangular flaps . The large , circular eyes are equipped with nictitating membranes . The furrows at the corners of the mouth are barely evident . There are 32 – 35 upper and 29 – 31 lower tooth rows ; each upper tooth has a slender , upright cusp and fine serrations that become coarser near the base , while the lower teeth are narrower and more finely serrated . The five pairs of gill slits are long .
The long and narrow pectoral fins are falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) with pointed tips . The large first dorsal fin is also falcate and originates over or slightly behind the rear of the pectoral fin bases . The second dorsal fin is moderately tall and positioned about opposite the anal fin . There is no midline ridge between the dorsal fins . A crescent @-@ shaped notch is present on the caudal peduncle just before the upper caudal fin origin . The caudal fin is asymmetrical , with a strong lower lobe and a longer upper lobe with a ventral notch near the tip . The roughly diamond @-@ shaped dermal denticles are placed closely together and slightly overlapping ; each bears five to seven ( three in juveniles ) horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth . The Australian blacktip shark is bronze above ( gray after death ) and whitish below , with a pale stripe on the flanks . Some individuals have black tips on all fins , while others have unmarked pelvic and anal fins . It typically reaches 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) long ; the maximum length and weight on record are 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and 52 kg ( 115 lb ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Inhabiting the continental shelf , the Australian blacktip shark is found from Thevenard Island in Western Australia to Sydney in New South Wales . Within its range , it co @-@ occurs with the common blacktip shark ; the ratio between C. limbatus and C. tilstoni was once thought to be 1 : 300 , but recent genetic studies have found it to be closer to 50 : 50 . This species has been reported from the intertidal zone to a depth of 150 m ( 490 ft ) ; larger sharks tend to occur in deeper water . Though it occupies the entire water column , it is most common close to the surface or in midwater . Genetic data suggest Australian blacktip sharks across northern Australia are all members of a single population . Tagging studies have found this species mostly moves only short distances along the coastline and rarely enters offshore waters . However , some individuals have been recorded traveling longer distances , up to 1 @,@ 348 km ( 838 mi ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The Australian blacktip shark is known to form large groups , segregated by size and sex . It preys mainly on teleost fishes , including ponyfishes , grunters , tunas , and herring . Cephalopods are a secondary food source , which are particularly important around April . This species also occasionally consumes smaller sharks , including snaggletooth sharks ( Hemipristis pristis ) , spottail sharks ( C. sorrah ) , and sharpnose sharks ( Rhizoprionodon ) . Their diets shift with age : smaller individuals feed on proportionately more bottom @-@ dwelling fish , while larger individuals feed on proportionately more midwater fish and cephalopods . Documented parasites of this shark include the tapeworms Fossobothrium perplexum and Platybothrium sp . , and the copepod Perissopus dentatus .
Like other requiem sharks , the Australian blacktip shark is viviparous : once the embryos exhaust their yolk supply , the depleted yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which the mother provides sustenance . Females bear litters of one to six pups ( average three ) every year . Mating takes place in February and March , with the females storing the sperm until ovulation in March and April . After a gestation period of 10 months , the young are born around January of the following year . Near @-@ term females move into shallow , coastal nurseries , such as Cleveland Bay in northern Queensland , to give birth . Such nursery areas appear to be widespread , as newborns have been recorded throughout the range of the species . The newborns are relatively large , measuring about 60 cm ( 24 in ) long . They grow rapidly in their first year , increasing in length by an average of 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) . The growth rate subsequently slows , averaging 8 – 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) per year by age five . Both sexes attain sexual maturity at three to four years of age , at lengths of roughly 1 @.@ 1 and 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 6 and 3 @.@ 9 ft ) for males and females , respectively . The maximum lifespan is estimated to be 20 years .
Hybrids between the Australian blacktip shark and the common blacktip shark , comprising both F1 and backcrossed individuals , have been discovered all along the eastern coast of Australia . Despite the widespread incidence of hybridization , there is no evidence that the two parental lineages are merging and the mechanisms preventing introgression are unclear . This is the first confirmed case of hybridization among cartilaginous fishes .
= = Human interactions = =
Along with the spottail shark , the Australian blacktip shark is one of the most economically important sharks off northern Australia . It was historically fished for its meat and fins by a Taiwanese gillnet fishery , which began operating off northern Australia in 1974 . The annual catch initially averaged around 25 @,@ 000 tons ( live weight ) , with approximately 70 % consisting of Australian blacktip sharks , spottail sharks , and longtail tuna ( Thunnus tonggol ) . Following the establishment of the Australian Fishing Zone ( AFZ ) in November 1979 , the Australian government progressively excluded Taiwanese gillnet vessels from large portions of Australian waters and imposed fishing quotas . The fishery eventually became uneconomical when Australia restricted gillnet lengths to 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) in May 1986 , and Taiwanese vessels ceased fishing in Australian waters that year . At end of the fishery , Australian blacktip shark numbers were estimated to have been diminished by around 50 % . Given its relatively high reproductive rate , its population has likely since recovered .
Since 1980 , the Australian blacktip shark has also been targeted by Australian commercial gillnetters and longliners in the Northern Shark Fishery . It is additionally caught incidentally by other commercial fisheries targeting bony fishes or prawns . The contemporary northern Australian shark catch is estimated to be between 100 and 900 tons ( live weight ) annually , of which most are Australian blacktip and spottail sharks . The meat of this species is sold in Australia as " flake " , though it may contain high concentrations of mercury . The fins are exported to Asia , while the cartilage , liver oil , and skin may also be used . Since fishing pressure on the Australian blacktip shark is now much lower than historical levels , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it under Least Concern . However , of potential concern are Indonesian fishers in the Arafura Sea , who are increasingly trespassing into the AFZ .
= Freedom Monument =
The Freedom Monument ( Latvian : Brīvības piemineklis , pronounced [ ˈbriːviːbas ˈpiɛmineklis ] ) is a memorial located in Riga , Latvia , honouring soldiers killed during the Latvian War of Independence ( 1918 – 1920 ) . It is considered an important symbol of the freedom , independence , and sovereignty of Latvia . Unveiled in 1935 , the 42 @-@ metre ( 138 ft ) high monument of granite , travertine , and copper often serves as the focal point of public gatherings and official ceremonies in Riga .
The sculptures and bas @-@ reliefs of the monument , arranged in thirteen groups , depict Latvian culture and history . The core of the monument is composed of tetragonal shapes on top of each other , decreasing in size towards the top , completed by a 19 @-@ metre ( 62 ft ) high travertine column bearing the copper figure of Liberty lifting three gilded stars . The concept for the monument first emerged in the early 1920s when the Latvian Prime Minister , Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics , ordered rules to be drawn up for a contest for designs of a " memorial column " . After several contests the monument was finally built at the beginning of the 1930s according to the scheme " Shine like a star ! " submitted by Latvian sculptor Kārlis Zāle . Construction works were financed by private donations .
Following the Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940 Latvia was annexed by the Soviet Union and the Freedom Monument was considered for demolition , but no such move was carried out . Soviet sculptor Vera Mukhina is sometimes credited for rescuing the monument , because she considered it to be of high artistic value . Soviet propaganda attempted to alter the symbolic meaning of the monument to better fit with Communist ideology , but it remained a symbol of national independence to the general public . Indeed , on June 14 , 1987 , about 5 @,@ 000 people gathered at the monument to commemorate the victims of the Soviet regime and to lay flowers . This rally renewed the national independence movement , which culminated three years later in the re @-@ establishment of Latvian sovereignty after the fall of the Soviet regime .
= = Design = =
The sculptures and bas @-@ reliefs of the Freedom Monument , arranged in thirteen groups , depict Latvian culture and history . The core of the monument is composed of tetragonal shapes on top of each other , decreasing in size towards the top . A red granite staircase of ten steps , 1 @.@ 8 meters ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in height , winds around the base of the monument between two travertine reliefs 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) high and 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 15 ft ) wide , " Latvian riflemen " ( 13 ; Latvian : Latvju strēlnieki ) and " Latvian people : the Singers " ( 14 ; Latvian : Latvju tauta – dziedātāja ) , which decorate its 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) thick sides . Two additional steps form a round platform , which is 28 meters ( 92 ft ) in diameter , on which the whole monument stands . At the front of the monument this platform forms a rectangle , which is used for ceremonial proposes . The base of the monument , also made of red granite , is formed by two rectangular blocks : the lower one is a monolithic 3 @.@ 5 meters ( 11 ft ) high , 9 @.@ 2 meters ( 30 ft ) wide and 11 meters ( 36 ft ) long , while the smaller upper block is 3 @.@ 5 meters ( 11 ft ) high , 8 @.@ 5 meters ( 28 ft ) wide and 10 meters ( 33 ft ) long and has round niches in its corners , each containing a sculptural group of three figures . Its sides are also paneled with travertine .
On the front of the monument , in between the groups " Work " ( 10 ; depicting a fisherman , a craftsman and a farmer , who stands in the middle holding a scythe decorated with oak leaves and acorns to symbolize strength and manhood ) and " Guards of the Fatherland " ( 9 ; depicting an ancient Latvian warrior standing between two kneeling modern soldiers ) , a dedication by the Latvian writer Kārlis Skalbe is inscribed on one of the travertine panels : For Fatherland and Freedom ( 6 ; Latvian : Tēvzemei un Brīvībai ) . On the sides the travertine panels bear two reliefs : " 1905 " ( 7 ; Latvian : 1905.gads in reference to the Russian Revolution of 1905 ) , and " The Battle against the Bermontians on the Iron Bridge " ( 8 ; Latvian : Cīņa pret bermontiešiem uz Dzelzs tilta , referring to the decisive battle in Riga during the Latvian War of Independence ) . On the back of the monument are another two sculptural groups : " Family " ( 12 ; Latvian : Ģimene ) ( a mother standing between her two children ) and " Scholars " ( 11 ; Latvian : Gara darbinieki ( a Baltic pagan priest , holding a crooked stick standing between figures of modern scientist and writer ) . On the red granite base there is yet another rectangular block , 6 meters ( 20 ft ) high and wide , and 7 @.@ 5 meters ( 25 ft ) long , encircled by four 5 @.@ 5 – 6 meters ( 18 – 20 ft ) high gray granite sculptural groups : " Latvia " ( 2 ; Latvian : Latvija ) , " Lāčplēsis " ( 3 ; English : Bear @-@ Slayer , an epic Latvian folk hero ) , " Vaidelotis " ( 5 ; a Baltic pagan priest ) and " Chain breakers " ( 4 ; Latvian : Važu rāvēji ) ( three chained men trying to break free from their chains ) .
The topmost block serves also as the foundation for the 19 meters ( 62 ft ) high monolithic travertine column , which is 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) by 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) at the base . To the front and rear a line of glass runs along the middle of the column . The column is topped by a copper figure of Liberty ( 1 ) , which is 9 meters ( 30 ft ) tall and in the form of a woman lifting three gilded stars , symbolizing the constitutional districts of Latvia : Vidzeme , Latgale and Courland . The whole monument is built around a frame of reinforced concrete and was originally fastened together with lead , bronze cables and lime mortar . However , some of the original materials were replaced with polyurethane filler during restoration . There is a room inside the Monument , accessed through a door in its rear side , which contains a staircase leading upwards in the Monument that is used for electrical installation and to provide access to the sewerage . The room cannot be accessed by the public and is used mainly as storage , however it has been proposed that the room could be redesigned forming a small exhibition , which would be used to introduce foreign officials visiting Latvia with the history of the Monument after the flower @-@ laying ceremony .
= = Location = =
The monument is located in the center of Riga on Brīvības bulvāris ( English : Freedom Boulevard ) , near the old town of Riga . In 1990 a section of the street around the monument , about 200 meters ( 660 ft ) long , between Rainis and Aspazija boulevards , was pedestrianized , forming a plaza . Part of it includes a bridge over the city 's canal , once a part of the city 's fortification system , which was demolished in the 19th century to build the modern boulevard district . The canal is 3 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) long and surrounded by parkland for half of its length . The earth from the demolition of the fortifications was gathered in the park and now forms an artificial hill with a cascade of waterfalls to the north of the monument . The Boulevard district east of the park is the location of several embassies and institutions , of which the closest to the Freedom Monument are the German and French embassies , the University of Latvia and Riga State Gymnasium No.1.
Situated in the park near the monument to the south is the National Opera House with a flower garden and a fountain in front of it . Opposite the opera house on the western part of plaza near the old town , is a small café and the Laima clock . The clock was set up in 1924 , and in 1936 it was decorated with an advertisement for the Latvian confectionery brand " Laima " , from which it took its name ; it is a popular meeting spot .
Originally it was planned that an elliptical plaza would be built around the foot of the monument , enclosed by a granite wall 1 @.@ 6 meters ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) high , with benches placed inside it , while a hedge of thujas was to be planted around the outside . This project was however not carried out in the 1930s . The idea was reconsidered in the 1980s but shelved again .
= = Construction = =
The idea of building a memorial to honor soldiers killed in action during the Latvian War of Independence first emerged in the early 1920s . On July 27 , 1922 , the Prime Minister of Latvia , Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics , ordered rules to be drawn up for a contest for designs of a " memorial column " . The winner of this contest was a scheme proposing a column 27 meters ( 89 ft ) tall with reliefs of the official symbols of Latvia and bas @-@ reliefs of Krišjānis Barons and Atis Kronvalds . It was later rejected after a protest from 57 artists . In October 1923 , a new contest was announced , using for the first time the term " Freedom Monument " . The contest ended with two winners , and a new closed contest was announced in March 1925 , but , due to disagreement within the jury , there was no result .
Finally in October 1929 , the last contest was announced . The winner was the design " Shine like a star ! " ( Latvian : " Mirdzi kā zvaigzne ! " ) by sculptor Kārlis Zāle , who had had success in the previous contests as well . After minor corrections made by the author and supervising architect Ernests Štālbergs , construction began on November 18 , 1931 . Financed by private donations , the monument was erected by the entrance to the old town , in the same place where the previous central monument of Riga , a bronze equestrian statue of the Russian Emperor Peter the Great had stood from 1910 until the outbreak of World War I. It was calculated in 1935 , the year when the monument was unveiled , that in four years of construction 308 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours were required to work the stone materials alone : 130 years would have been required if one person were to carry out the work using the most advanced equipment of the time . The total weight of materials used was about 2 @,@ 500 tons : such a quantity of materials would have required about 200 freight cars if transported by railway .
= = Restoration = =
The monument is endangered by the climate ( which has caused damage by frost and rain ) and by air pollution . Although in 1990 the area around the monument was pedestrianized , there are still three streets carrying traffic around it . High concentrations of nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide have been recorded near the monument , which in combination with water cause corrosion of the fabric of the monument . In addition , water has caused cracking of the reinforced concrete core and rusting of its steel reinforcements and the fastenings of the monument , which also have been worn out by constant vibrations caused by traffic . The porous travertine has gradually crumbled over time and its pores have filled with soot and particles of sand , causing it to blacken and providing a habitat for small organisms , such as moss and lichens . Irregular maintenance and the unskillful performance of restoration work have also contributed to the weathering of the monument . To prevent its further decay some of the fastenings were replaced with polyurethane filler and water repellent was applied to the monument during the restoration in 2001 . It was also determined that maintenance should be carried out every 2 years .
The monument was restored twice during the Soviet era ( 1962 and 1980 – 1981 ) . In keeping with tradition the restorations and maintenance after the renewal of Latvia 's independence are financed partly by private donations . The monument underwent major restoration in 1998 – 2001 . During this restoration the statue of Liberty and its stars were cleaned , restored and gilded anew . The monument was formally re @-@ opened on July 24 , 2001 . The staircase , column , base and inside of the monument were restored , and the stone materials were cleaned and re @-@ sealed . The supports of the monument were fixed to prevent subsidence . Although the restorers said at the time that the monument would withstand a hundred years without another major restoration , it was discovered a few years later that the gilding of the stars was damaged , due to the restoration technique used . The stars were restored again during maintenance and restoration in 2006 ; however , this restoration was rushed and there is no warranty of its quality .
= = Guard of honor = =
The guard of honor was present from the unveiling of the monument until 1940 , when it was removed shortly after the occupation of Latvia . It was renewed on November 11 , 1992 . The guards are soldiers of The Company of Guard of Honor of the Headquarters Battalion of the National Armed Forces ( Latvian : Nacionālo Bruņoto spēku Štāba bataljona Goda sardzes rota ) . The guard is not required to be on duty in bad weather conditions and if the temperatures are below − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) or above 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) . The guards work in two weekly shifts , with three or four pairs of guards taking over from each other hourly in a ceremony commanded by the chief of the guard . Besides them there also are two watchmen in each shift , who look out for the safety of the guards of honor .
Normally the guard changes every hour between 9 a.m. and 6 p.m. After an hour on watch the guards have two hours free that they spend in their rooms at the Ministry of Defence . Since September 2004 the guards also patrol every half hour during their watch : they march off from the base of the monument and march twice along each side of it and then return to their posts . The guards are required to be at least 1 @.@ 82 meters ( 6 @.@ 0 ft ) tall and in good health , as they are required to stand without moving for half an hour .
= = Political significance = =
After the end of World War II , there were plans to demolish the monument , although little written evidence is available to historians and research is largely based on oral testimony . On September 29 , 1949 ( although according to oral testimony , the issue was first raised as early as October 1944 ) the Council of People 's Commissars of the Latvian SSR proposed the restoration of the statue of the Russian Emperor Peter the Great . While they did not expressly call for the demolition of the Freedom Monument , the only way to restore the statue to its original position would have been to tear down the monument . The result of the debate is unrecorded , but since the monument still stands the proposition was presumably rejected . The Soviet sculptor Vera Mukhina ( 1889 – 1953 ; designer of the monumental sculpture Worker and Kolkhoz Woman ) is sometimes credited with the rescue of the monument , although there is no written evidence to support the fact . According to her son , she took part in a meeting where the fate of the monument was discussed , at which her opinion , as reported by her son , was that the monument was of very high artistic value and that its demolition might hurt the most sacred feelings of the Latvian people .
The Freedom Monument remained , but its symbolism was reinterpreted . The three stars were said to stand for the newly created Baltic Soviet Republics – Estonian SSR , Latvian SSR , and Lithuanian SSR – held aloft by Mother Russia , and the monument was said to have been erected after World War II as a sign of popular gratitude toward the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin for the liberation of the Baltic States . In the middle of 1963 , when the issue of demolition was raised again , it was decided that the destruction of a structure of such artistic and historic value , the building of which had been funded by donations of the residents of Latvia , would only cause deep indignation , which in turn would cause tension in society . Over time the misinterpretation of symbolism also was toned down and by 1988 the monument was said , with somewhat more accuracy , to have been built to " celebrate the liberation from bondage of the autocracy of the tsar and German barons " , although withholding the fact that the Bolshevik Red Army and the Red Latvian Riflemen were also adversaries in the Latvian War of Independence .
Despite the Soviet government 's efforts , on June 14 , 1987 , about 5 @,@ 000 people rallied to commemorate the victims of Soviet deportations . This event , organized by the human rights group Helsinki @-@ 86 , was the first time after the Soviet occupation that the flower @-@ laying ceremony took place , as the practice was banned by the Soviet authorities . In response the Soviet government organized a bicycle race at the monument at the time when the ceremony was planned to take place . Helsinki @-@ 86 organized another flower @-@ laying ceremony on August 23 in the same year to commemorate the anniversary of the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , at which the crowd was dispersed using jets of water . Yet the independence movement grew in size , amounting in some events to more than half a million participants ( about one quarter of Latvia 's population ) and three years later , on May 4 , 1990 , the re @-@ establishment of the independence of Latvia was declared .
Since the re @-@ establishment of independence the monument has become a focal point for a variety of events . One of these – on March 16 , the commemoration day of veterans of the Latvian Legion of the Waffen @-@ SS , who fought the Soviet Union during World War II – has caused controversy . The date was first celebrated by Latvians in exile before being brought to Latvia in 1990 and for a short time ( 1998 – 2000 ) was the official remembrance day . In 1998 the event drew the attention of the foreign mass media and in the following year the Russian government condemned the event as a glorification of Nazism . The event evolved into a political conflict between Latvians and Russians , posing a threat to public safety .
The Latvian government took a number of steps in order to try to bring the situation under control , and in 2006 not only were the events planned by right wing organizations not approved , but the monument was fenced off , according to an announcement by Riga city council , for restoration . The monument was indeed restored in 2006 , but this statement was later questioned , as politicians named various other reasons for the change of date , the enclosed area was much larger than needed for restoration , and the weather appeared inappropriate for restoration work . Therefore , the government was criticized by the Latvian press for being unable to ensure public safety and freedom of speech . The unapproved events took place despite the ban . On November 23 , 2006 , the law requiring the approval of the authorities for public gatherings was ruled unconstitutional . In the future years the government mobilized the police force to guard the neighborhood of the monument and the events were relatively peaceful .
= Junior Hemingway =
Kenneth Earl " Junior " Hemingway , Jr . ( born December 27 , 1988 ) is an American football wide receiver who is currently a free agent . He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the 2012 NFL Draft . He completed his redshirt senior season in 2011 for the Michigan Wolverines football team . He led the 2011 team in receptions and receiving yards , and was tied for the lead in receiving touchdowns . Hemingway was the 2010 and 2011 Big Ten Conference leader in yards per reception , ranking third in all of Division I Football Bowl Subdivision as a senior . He received 2011 All @-@ Big Ten honorable mention and was the 2012 Sugar Bowl Most Outstanding Player .
After totaling 593 receiving yards in 2010 , Hemingway surpassed this yardage total in his senior season , finishing with a career @-@ best 699 yards . The improvement resulted in Hemingway 's league @-@ leading 2010 average of 18 @.@ 5 yards per reception improving to 20 @.@ 6 yards per reception in 2011 , which was the third @-@ best average per catch in the nation ( up from 15th in 2010 ) .
= = High school = =
In high school , he was rated as the 4th , 26th and 38th best high school football wide receiver in the country by ESPN , Scout.com , and Rivals.com respectively . He was regarded as the 12th best player in the state of South Carolina by Rivals . ESPN rated him as the 19th best player in the national class of 2007 , while Sports Illustrated regarded him as the 83rd best player in the class . Prior to his 2006 senior season , USA Today listed him as one of six players to watch in the state of South Carolina based on his 56 receptions for 846 yards and 10 touchdowns . He was the second highest rated recruit in Michigan 's class of 2007 ( behind Ryan Mallett ) according to ESPN . He posted 12 receptions in the 2006 Class 4A Division 2 South Carolina High School League championship game against Greenwood High School . He participated in the North @-@ South Game of the Carolinas .
= = College = =
As a true freshman on the 2007 Michigan team , he appeared in 10 games , making his first start September 22 against Penn State . His first receptions came during an October 6 game against Eastern Michigan when he recorded 3 catches for 33 yards . He also recorded a reception in the January 1 , 2008 Capital One Bowl against the Florida Gators . He was limited as a true sophomore by mononucleosis which caused him to miss the final eight games of the season for the 2008 team , but did make one start . He received a medical redshirt as a result of the illness .
Hemingway posted his first 100 @-@ yard reception game , first two @-@ touchdown performance and a career @-@ high five @-@ reception effort in the September 5 season opener for the 2009 team against Western Michigan , during his third career start . He missed the following week 's rivalry game against Notre Dame due to an ankle sprain . In November , he played through back problems . As a redshirt sophomore , he totaled 16 receptions and 268 total yards from scrimmage as a receiver . He also served as a punt returner making 10 returns for 86 yards .
As a fourth @-@ year junior for the 2010 Wolverines , he posted three 100 @-@ yard games and another two @-@ touchdown performance . He did this despite missing the first two games of the season due to a hamstring injury as well as the November 27 regular season finale against Ohio State due to an injury . On October 2 , his then career @-@ high 129 @-@ yard , three @-@ reception effort included a 70 @-@ yard touchdown on the second play of the second half which gave the team a 28 – 21 lead . It also included a 42 @-@ yard reception with 21 seconds left to put the ball on the four @-@ yard @-@ line before the game winning score on the next play in the 42 – 35 contest against Indiana . Two weeks later , he broke his career highs for both yards and receptions in a nine @-@ catch 134 @-@ yard effort against Iowa . On November 6 , he recorded 104 yards and two touchdowns in a six @-@ catch performance against Illinois . For the season he totaled 593 yards on 32 receptions . This ranked third on the team behind Roy Roundtree and Darryl Stonum . However , he led the Big Ten Conference in yards / reception with an 18 @.@ 5 average . This ranked him 15th in the nation .
When Brady Hoke replaced Rich Rodriguez as Michigan 's head coach , AnnArbor.com predicted that Hemingway would be the biggest individual beneficiary on the team , as Hoke was expected to change the team 's offensive schemes from the spread offense to a pro @-@ style offense . He was also expected to help pick up the slack created by the full @-@ season suspension of Stonum . As a fifth @-@ year senior , he established a new career high on September 10 , 2011 , against Notre Dame in the rivalry game and during the first night game ever played at Michigan Stadium , when he recorded three receptions for 165 yards . Before the game , Desmond Howard , who had worn number 21 before Hemingway at Michigan , was honored for his enshrinement in the College Football Hall of Fame , and the jersey number was designated to be adorned with a " Desmond Howard : Michigan Legend " patch on the upper @-@ right chest . On October 8 , against the Northwestern , Hemingway had 5 receptions for a total of 124 yards . Following the 2011 Big Ten Conference football season , he earned All @-@ Big Ten Conference honorable mention recognition from the coaches . In the January 3 , 2012 Sugar Bowl , 23 – 20 overtime victory over Virginia Tech he recorded the team 's only two touchdowns , earning 2012 Sugar Bowl Most Outstanding Player honors . He concluded the season with team highs of 34 receptions , 699 yards and four receiving touchdowns , giving him a conference leading 20 @.@ 6 yards per reception . His receiving average ranked third in all of Division I FBS . Hemingway was invited to the January 21 , 2012 East – West Shrine Game , and he was an early invite to the February 22 — 28 , 2012 NFL Scouting Combine .
In the September 3 , 2011 season opener against Western Michigan at Michigan Stadium , Hemingway recorded a 37 @-@ yard reception . The game was ended by mutual agreement in the third quarter due to inclement weather . At first , the stats for the game were considered official by the Big Ten Conference and the University of Michigan , but the NCAA vacated the statistics for this game because three quarters were not completed . However , at the conclusion of the regular season , the NCAA reversed course and announced that the statistics from the game would be counted in the season totals .
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
Hemingway was one of 47 wide receivers that participated in the February 22 — February 28 , 2012 NFL Scouting Combine . He ranked first among the wide receivers ( 26 participated in this event ) and 3rd at the combine in the 3 cone drill with a time of 6 @.@ 59 . He ranked first among the wide receivers ( 26 participated in this event ) and seventh overall in the 20 @-@ yard shuttle with a time of 3 @.@ 98 . He ranked second among wide receivers ( 13 participated in this event ) and seventh overall in the 60 @-@ yard shuttle with a time of 11 @.@ 16 . He ranked 3rd among the wide receivers in the bench press with 21 reps . He ranked 8th among the wide receivers in the standing long jump with a distance of 10 feet 4 inches ( 3 @.@ 15 m ) . His time of 4 @.@ 53 ranked 19th of the 40 wide receivers who participated in the 40 @-@ yard dash .
= = Professional career = =
He was selected by the Kansas City Chiefs in the seventh round of the 2012 NFL Draft with the 238th selection overall . He is one of three Michigan Wolverines and 41 Big Ten players drafted . On May 11 , 2012 , he signed a four @-@ year contract . On August 31 , Hemingway was cut . He was initially signed to the practice squad but was released to make room for Rich Ranglin on September 3 before being resigned to replace Ranglin on September 8 . On December 29 ( the day before the last game of the 2012 NFL season ) , the Chiefs placed Terrance Copper on injured reserve and elevated Hemingway from injured reserve .
During the 2013 preseason , Hemingway led the Chiefs in receptions and touchdowns . He seemed to have moved into the fourth wide receiver position behind Dwayne Bowe , Donnie Avery and Dexter McCluster . In the 2013 Chiefs season opener , he caught a touchdown against the Jacksonville Jaguars , who had his college freshman season quarterback Chad Henne and his redshirt senior season quarterback Denard Robinson on their roster . The reception , which came from Alex Smith , was Hemingway 's first in the NFL . Hemingway had a three @-@ reception game that included the game 's opening score on December 1 against the Denver Broncos . In the final game of the season , he had 5 receptions for 45 yards , giving him 13 receptions and 125 yards for the season . Hemingway also posted 2 receptions for the Chiefs in the 2013 – 14 NFL playoffs against Indianapolis .
Hemingway injured his hamstring in week 7 of the 2014 NFL season against the San Diego Chargers on October 19 . On September 1 , 2015 , the Chiefs cut Hemingway . He announced his retirement in 2016 .
= Special Boat Service =
The Special Boat Service ( SBS ) is the special forces unit of the Naval Service of the United Kingdom . Together with the Special Air Service , Special Reconnaissance Regiment and the Special Forces Support Group , they form the United Kingdom Special Forces and come under joint control of the same Director Special Forces .
The Special Boat Service is described as the naval special forces of the United Kingdom and the sister unit of the SAS . The operational capabilities of both units are broadly similar , however , the SBS ( being the principal Royal Navy contribution to UKSF ) has the additional training and equipment to lead in the maritime , amphibious and riverine environments . Both units come under the operational command of HQ Directorate of Special Forces ( DSF ) and undergo an identical selection process , enjoy significant interoperability in training and on operations .
In times of armed conflict and war , the Special Boat Service ( SBS ) and 22 Special Air Service Regiment ( 22 SAS ) are required to operate in small parties in enemy @-@ controlled territory . Operations of this nature require men of courage and high morale who have excellent tactical awareness be it knowledge of special tactics or simply knowing one 's place in a polyvalent unit . Self @-@ discipline neatly ties into this . Intelligence , reliability , determination and also being physically fit are key skills . These men possess mental , moral and physical stamina .
Principal roles of the SBS are Surveillance Reconnaissance ( SR ) , including information reporting and target acquisition ; Offensive Action ( OA ) , including direction of air strikes , artillery and naval gunfire , designation for precision guided munitions , use of integral weapons and demolitions ; and Support and Influence ( SI ) , including overseas training tasks . The SBS also provide immediate response Military Counter Terrorism ( CT ) and Maritime Counter Terrorism ( MCT ) teams .
The SBS can trace its origins to the Second World War , when they were formed as the Special Boat Section in 1940 . They became the Special Boat Squadron after the Second World War and the Special Boat Service in the 1980s .
The SBS is manned by ranks drawn mostly from the Royal Marines and carries out a role that is similar to the Special Air Service , but with a traditionally stronger focus on amphibious operations . Their training involves parachute exercises , helicopter training and boat training , which recruits will get the chance to earn their licence for .
All of the SBS 's four squadrons , C , Z , M and X , are configured for general operations. and rotate through the Maritime Counter Terrorism Role , also known as Black Role . The SBS also operates on land , with recent operations in the mountains of landlocked Afghanistan and in the deserts of Iraq . Their main tasks include intelligence gathering , counter @-@ terrorism operations ( surveillance or offensive action ) , sabotage and the disruption of enemy infrastructure , capture of specific individuals , close protection of senior politicians and military personnel , plus reconnaissance and direct action in foreign territory .
= = History = =
= = = Second World War = = =
The Special Boat Section was founded in July 1940 by a Commando officer , Roger Courtney . Courtney became a commando recruit in mid @-@ 1940 , and was sent to the Combined Training Centre in Scotland . He was unsuccessful in his initial attempts to convince Admiral of the Fleet Sir Roger Keyes and later Admiral Theodore Hallett , commander of the Combined Training Centre , that his idea of a folding kayak brigade would be effective . He decided to infiltrate HMS Glengyle , a Landing Ship , Infantry anchored in the River Clyde . Courtney paddled to the ship , climbed aboard undetected , wrote his initials on the door to the captain 's cabin , and stole a deck gun cover . He presented the soaking cover to a group of high @-@ ranking Royal Navy officers meeting at a nearby Inveraray hotel . He was promoted to captain , and given command of twelve men , the first Special Boat Service / Special Boat Section .
It was initially named the Folboat Troop , after the type of folding canoe employed in raiding operations , and then renamed No. 1 Special Boat Section in early 1941 . Attached to Layforce , they moved to the Middle East , they later worked with the 1st Submarine Flotilla based at Alexandria and carried out beach reconnaissance of Rhodes , evacuated troops left behind on Crete and a number of small @-@ scale raids and other operations . In December 1941 Courtney returned to the United Kingdom where he formed No2 SBS , and No1 SBS became attached to the Special Air Service ( SAS ) as the Folboat Section . In June 1942 , they took part in the Crete airfield raids . In September 1942 , they carried out Operation Anglo , a raid on two airfields on the island of Rhodes , from which only two men returned . Destroying three aircraft , a fuel dump and numerous buildings , the surviving SBS men had to hide in the countryside for four days before they could reach the waiting submarine . After the Rhodes raid , the SBS was absorbed into the SAS due to the casualties they had suffered .
In April 1943 , 1st SAS was divided into two with 250 men from the SAS and the Small Scale Raiding Force , forming the Special Boat Squadron under command Major the Earl Jellicoe . They moved to Haifa and trained with the Greek Sacred Regiment for operations in the Aegean .
They later operated among the Dodecanese and Cyclades groups of islands in the Dodecanese Campaign and took part in the Battle of Leros and the Battle of Kos . They with Greek Sacred Band took part in the successful Raid on Symi in July 1944 in which the entire German garrison was either killed or captured . In August 1944 , they joined with the Long Range Desert Group in operations in the Adriatic , on the Peloponnese , in Albania , and , finally , Istria . So effective were they that , by 1944 , 200 – 300 SBS men held down six German divisions .
Throughout the war , No.2 SBS did not use the Special Boat Squadron name , but instead retained the name Special Boat Section . They accompanied Major General Mark Clark ashore before the Operation Torch landings in November 1942 . Later , one group , Z SBS , which was based in Algiers from March 1943 , carried out the beach reconnaissance for the Salerno landings and a raid on Crete , before moving to Ceylon to work with the Special Operations Executives , Force 136 and later with Special Operations Australia . The rest of No. 2 SBS became part of South @-@ East Asia Command 's Small Operations Group , operating on the Chindwin and Irrawaddy rivers , and in the Arakan , during the Burma campaign .
= = = Postwar = = =
In 1946 , the SBS , whether of Commando or SAS parentage , were disbanded . The functional title SBS was adopted by the Royal Marines . It became part of the school of Combined Operations under the command of " Blondie " Hasler . Their first missions were in Palestine ( ordnance removal ) and in Haifa ( limpet mine removal from ships ) . The SBS went on to serve in the Korean War deployed on operations along the North Korean coast as well as operating behind enemy lines destroying lines of communication , installations and gathering intelligence . It was during the Korean War that the SBS first started operating from submarines . In 1952 , SBS teams were held at combat readiness in Egypt in case Gamal Abdel Nasser 's coup turned more violent than it did . The SBS were also alerted during the Suez Crisis of 1956 and coup against King Idris I of Libya ( 1959 ) , but in both cases they did not see action . In 1961 , SBS teams carried out reconnaissance missions during the Indonesian Confrontation ( see Operation Claret ) . In the same year , Iraq threatened to invade Kuwait for the first time , and the SBS put a detachment at Bahrain . In 1972 , the SBS and SAS came into prominence when members of a combined SBS and SAS team parachuted into the Atlantic Ocean after a bomb threat on board the cruise liner RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 . A thorough search of the ship found no evidence of any device drawing the conclusion that it was a hoax .
= = = Special Boat Squadron = = =
In 1977 , their name was changed to the Special Boat Squadron and in 1980 the SBS relinquished North Sea oil rig protection to Comacchio Company . In 1982 , after the Argentinian invasion of the Falkland Islands , they deployed to South Georgia . The only losses to the SBS during the Falklands War occurred when the SBS and SAS were operating behind the lines and two members of the SBS were shot by an SAS patrol , who had mistaken them for Argentinians .
= = = Special Boat Service = = =
In 1987 , they were renamed Special Boat Service , and became part of the United Kingdom Special Forces Group alongside the Special Air Service and 14 Intelligence Company . In the Gulf War , there was no amphibious role assigned to the SBS , an " area of operations line " was drawn down the middle of Iraq , the SAS would operate west of the line and the SBS to the east . As well as searching for mobile scuds , their area contained a mass of fibre @-@ optic cable that provided Iraq with intelligence , the location of the main junction was 32 miles from Baghdad ; On 22 January 1991 , 36 SBS operators were inserted by 2 chinook helicopters from No. 7 Squadron RAF , into an area full of Iraqi ground and air forces as well as spies and nomands , they avoided them and destroyed a 40 @-@ yard section of the cable with explosives @-@ destroying what was left of the Iraqi communication grid . The SBS carried out one of its most high profile operations when it liberated the British Embassy in Kuwait , abseiling from helicopters hovering above the embassy . They were also responsible for carrying out diversionary raids along the Kuwaiti coast which in effect diverted a number of Iraqi troops to the SBS area of operations and away from the main thrust of the coalition build up . In September 1999 the SBS were involved in operations in East Timor . A small SBS team landed and drove out the back of a C @-@ 130 Hercules transport aircraft in Land Rover Defenders at Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport in Dili .
= = = 21st century = = =
In September 2000 , the SBS was involved in Operation Barras , a hostage rescue operation in Sierra Leone . In November 2001 the SBS had an extensive role in the invasion of Afghanistan and were involved in the Battle of Tora Bora . The SBS was used in vital phases of the invasion of Afghanistan . A small SBS contingent secured Bagram Airbase prior to the deployment of larger forces that would become the main staging area for allied forces during Operation Enduring Freedom . Members of the SBS helped quell an Afghan prison revolt during the Battle of Qala @-@ i @-@ Jangi near Mazar @-@ i @-@ Sharif , in November 2001 .
In the invasion of Iraq in 2003 , M squadron was involved in a fierce firefight , which has since been commended by senior British officials . Sixty Men from M squadron with the call sign Zero Six Bravo travelled 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) into Iraq to take the surrender of the Iraqi 5th Corps . The call @-@ sign was engaged in a fierce firefight that saw most of its vehicles destroyed . The SBS squadron escaped by splitting up , two men escaped on quad bikes to Syria . C squadron also had a 3 @-@ month tour in early 2003 . Corporal Ian Plank , an SBS operator attached to the SAS was killed by Iraqi insurgents during a house @-@ to @-@ house search for a wanted high @-@ ranking Islamist terrorist in an insurgent compound in Ramadi on 31 October 2003 , he was the first UKSF combat casualty of the Iraq War . The SBS was also very active as part of Task Force Black , C squadron deployed to Baghdad as part of the task force in 2004 , in its four @-@ month deployment it mounted 22 raids .
In Spring 2005 , the Director of Special Forces rebalanced British special forces deployments so that Afghanistan would be the responsibility of the SBS and Iraq would be the 22nd SAS Regiment 's . In Spring 2006 , the British military deployed over 4 @,@ 000 troops to southern Afghanistan and the SBS were assigned to take the lead in supporting the deployment . The main objective of the SBS ( and later on other British special forces units with Afghan forces ) was targeting Taliban leaders and drug barons using " Carrot and stick " tactics . On 27 June 2006 , Captain David Patten , SAS ( other sources say SRR ) and Sergeant Paul Bartlett , SBS , were killed and another serviceman seriously injured in a Taliban ambush in Helmand province , southern Afghanistan . They were part of an SBS patrol that had arrested 4 Taliban organisers when they were ambushed by a large Taliban force , their vehicles were destroyed and the team were pursued by at least 70 Taliban insurgents , they were rescued by a platoon of Gurkhas who were supported by US and British aircraft , however in the chaos ; Bartlett and Patten became separated from the main group , their bodies were later found . One SBS member was awarded the MC On 12 May 2007 , an SBS team killed the Taliban leader Mullah Dadullah in Helmand province after a raid on a compound where his associates were meeting . On 24 September 2007 , members of the SBS and Italian commando 's rescued two Italian intelligence officers who were kidnapped by the Taliban in Herat province near Farah , they had been kidnapped 2 days before ; the mission was successful the officers were rescued and all 8 or 9 Taliban were killed . On 18 February 2008 , Taliban leader Mullah Abdul Matin and one of his sub @-@ commanders , Mullah Karim Agha , were travelling through the desert in Helmand province on motorbikes when they were ambushed and killed by an SBS unit dropped into his path by helicopter . In February 2009 , members of the SBS took part in Operation Diesel , which resulted in the seizure of £ 50 million of heroin and the killing of at least 20 Taliban insurgents . On 9 September 2009 , a joint SAS @-@ SBS team supported by the SFSG rescued Times journalist Stephen Farrell after he was captured by the Taliban in Kunduz Province . On 1 July 2010 whilst carrying out an operation against insurgents in Haji Wakil , Helmand Province , Corporal Seth Stephens of the SBS was killed during a heavy firefight whilst clearing a compound , as a result of his actions during that operation , he was awarded the Conspicuous Gallantry Cross . On 15 April 2012 , during the Taliban attack on Kabul SBS operators cleared Taliban militants from a central location overlooking foreign embassies .
On 27 February 2011 , during the Libyan Civil War , the BBC reported that C Squadron assisted in the evacuation of 150 oil workers in three flights by RAF C @-@ 130 Hercules from an airfield near Zella to Valletta .
On 8 March 2012 , a small Special Boat Service ( SBS ) team , attempted to rescue two hostages , Chris McManus ( British ) and Franco Lamolinara ( Italian ) , being held in Nigeria by members of the Boko Haram terrorist organisation loyal to al @-@ Qaeda . The two hostages were killed before or during the rescue attempt . All the hostage takers were reportedly killed . In 2013 , Captain Richard Holloway was serving with the SBS when he was killed by two Taliban bullets while conducting an operation to suppress the Taliban in a joint SBS @-@ Afghan forces raid ( with air support ) on Taliban insurgents in a valley east of Kabul ahead of the Afghanistan elections .
= = Present day = =
= = = Organisation = = =
The Ministry of Defence does not comment on special forces matters , therefore little verifiable information exists in the public domain . The SBS is under the Operational Command of Director Special Forces and are based in Hamworthy barracks , Poole , Dorset .
In 1987 , when renamed the Special Boat Service , the SBS was also reformed along SAS lines , with 16 man troops instead of the traditional sections . About 200 – 250 men make up the SBS at any one time , and once qualified , personnel are known as " Swimmer Canoeists " . They are experts in swimming , diving , parachuting , navigation , demolition and reconnaissance .
There are four active squadrons and a reserve unit :
Since the SBS joined the UKSF Group in the 1980s it has been restructured . Instead of one squadron being tasked with a permanent role the unit adopted the same system of squadron rotation as the SAS . Each Squadron rotates through Counter Terrorism Duties and Conventional Operations and tasking . For example , in December 2001 it was C squadron who were on MCT Role and were called in to intercept the MV Nisha while M and Z Squadron were deployed in Afghanistan .
C Squadron
X Squadron
Z Squadron
M Squadron
SBS Reserve or SBS ( R ) – provides individual reservists to augment the regular SBS , rather than forming independent teams . Only candidates with previous military experience are eligible to enlist . The SBS ( R ) is located at locations throughout the United Kingdom , but training is carried out in the South of England .
= = = Recruitment , selection and training = = =
In the past , the SBS was staffed almost entirely by the Royal Marines . Volunteers for the SBS are now taken from all branches of the British Armed Forces , although volunteers still predominantly come from the Royal Marines Commandos . Candidates wishing to serve with the SBS must have completed two years regular service and will only be accepted into the SBS after completion of the selection process .
Until recently , the SBS had its own independent selection programme in order to qualify as a Swimmer Canoeist , but its selection program has now been integrated into a joint UKSF selection alongside candidates for the SAS . All male members of the United Kingdom armed forces can be considered for special forces selection , but historically the majority of candidates have an airborne forces background . There are two selections a year , one in winter and the other in summer , and all the instructors are full members of the Special Air Service Regiment .
Before being loaded on to a UKSF Selection course , a candidate must complete a two @-@ week Special Forces Briefing Course . The course tests the candidates physical fitness and looks of their willingness to conduct water @-@ borne operations .
The UKSF course is broken down into two main parts , Selection and Continuation Training .
Selection
Aptitude Phase ( hill phase ) – 4 weeks . This phase is conducted in the Brecon Beacons , South Wales .
The Aptitude Phase is designed to select those individuals who are suitable for Special Forces training . The initial three weeks are devoted to gradual physical training and progressive exercises designed to develop physical and navigational ability . Volunteers will be expected to complete the Basic Combat Fitness Test ( Infantry ) on the first day of the course . Exercise HIGH WALK ( Fan dance ) will take place on Day 6 and takes the form of an escorted hill march over approximately 23 km ( 14 mi ) . As with all assessment marches , additional time may be added for inclement weather conditions . Exercise HIGH WALK identifies those individuals that are not adequately prepared to continue on the course . All other training during this initial period is directed at preparing volunteers for " Test Week " which is the fourth and final week of Aptitude . " Test Week " consists of five timed marches of between 23 – 28 km ( 14 – 17 mi ) conducted on consecutive days followed by a final Endurance march of 64 km ( 40 mi ) ; this must be completed within 20 hours . Bergen weights carried during " Test Week " increase from 40 lb ( 18 kg ) to 55 lb ( 25 kg ) for the Endurance march ; in addition a rifle is carried on all marches . Volunteers are also required to pass the UKSF swimming test that consists of ; high water entry ( 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) ) , treading water for nine minutes followed immediately by a swim of 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) wearing Combat 95 . The test finishes with an underwater swim of 10 m ( 33 ft ) including a retrieval of a small weight .
Continuation Training
Tactics , Techniques and Procedures ( TTPs ) – 9 weeks
Those who pass the Aptitude Phase will undertake an intensive period of instruction and assessment of Special Forces Tactics , Techniques and Procedures ( TTPs ) , including SF weapons and Standard Operation Procedures . The majority of this period is spent in the jungle , an environment that is suitable for SF training and ideal to achieve the purpose of this phase . Much of the training is aimed at discovering an individual 's qualities . Continuation training , which consists of SOP and Tactical training in temperate and jungle environments , lasts nine weeks . This is conducted in the UK and Brunei .
Employment Training – 14 weeks
Employment Training consists of surveillance and reconnaissance training ( 2 weeks ) , army combat survival ( 2 weeks ) , SF parachute training ( 4 weeks ) , counter terrorist course ( 3 weeks ) , signals training ( 1 week ) , patrol training and squadron induction training ( 2 weeks ) , and 1 week officers week for potential officers . At the end of the resistance to interrogation phase the surviving candidates are transferred to an operational squadron .
When accepted into an operational squadron , the candidates must complete the SBS Swimmer Canoeist Course , SC3 Course . The course lasts for several months and covers long distance Dives , Swims and Kayaks in open sea , often in poor weather . Underwater demolitions , Maritime counter terrorism , are also practised . On completing SBS troopers will be put on one year probation .
Reserve selection
For SBS ( R ) selection , only candidates with previous military experience are eligible to enlist . Training is carried out in the South of England and candidates are required to complete the following tests over the four @-@ day initial selection course :
Combat Fitness Test ( CFT ) – 12 @.@ 8 km ( 8 mi ) carrying 25 kg ( 55 lb ) within 1 hour 50 minutes .
Swim test – 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) using any stroke in uniform and retrieve an object from 5 m ( 16 ft ) .
Gym tests .
Advanced CFT 1 – 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) carrying 25 kg ( 55 lb ) .
Advanced CFT 2 – 24 km ( 15 mi ) carrying 30 kg ( 66 lb ) .
The Special Boat Service wear the green commando beret , but with their own cap badge .
= The Obvious Child =
" The Obvious Child " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Paul Simon . It was the lead single from his eighth studio album , The Rhythm of the Saints ( 1990 ) , released by Warner Bros. Records . Written by Simon , its lyrics explore mortality and aging . The song is accompanied by a performance from Brazilian drumming collective Olodum in a live recording . Simon wrote his lyrics to complement the song 's rhythm ; in following this approach he wrote many passages that could be considered nonsensical .
The single , released in September 1990 , was commercially successful , performing well on charts worldwide . In the United States , it was mainly successful on the Album Rock Tracks chart , where it peaked at number 21 . Outside the US , " The Obvious Child " was a top 15 hit in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . The song received highly positive reviews upon its release . Simon promoted the song alongside Olodum in a performance on Saturday Night Live . The song also influenced popular culture ; it is the namesake of the 2014 film Obvious Child .
= = Background = =
The rhythm tracks are performed by Grupo Cultural Olodum , a drumming collective ( " bloco afro " ) directed by " Neguinho do Samba " ( Alves de Souza ) and also signed to Warner Bros. It , like many songs on The Rhythm of the Saints , was recorded live in the streets of Pelourinho Square of Salvador , Brazil in February 1988 . Microphones were hung from windows or on telephone poles to capture the performances . According to Simon , " Hundreds of people gathered . It was an amazing day — an amazing recording experience . " The vocal track was recorded at the Hit Factory in New York City .
= = Composition = =
The song 's drum introduction is indebted to " Madagascar " , a song by Olodum from their 1987 LP Egito Madagáscar . Writer Steve Sullivan writes that the figure is a " standard device " for the group , who also employ abbreviated versions of it elsewhere on the album : " Salvador Nao Inerte " and " Vinheta Cuba @-@ Brasil " . Following this , the song breaks into an instrumental fragment that , according to Stephen Holden of The New York Times , echoes the Silhouettes ' 1957 doo @-@ wop hit , " Get a Job " . Holden also compared the song 's conclusion to another doo @-@ wop song , the Charts ' " Desirie " ( 1957 ) .
The song 's lyrics thematically relate to a fear of aging and leaving behind the " boldness of youth , " according to Sullivan . Holden considered it a story of an everyman pondering the uncertainty of life whilst navigating his high school yearbook . Rolling Stone 's John Mcalley too found it an everyman battling the fact that his " days have become defined by their limitations and dogged ordinariness . " For The Rhythm of the Saints , Simon was inspired by poet Derek Walcott , and would base first @-@ draft lyrics on his poems . Simon attempted to match the rhythmic quality of the composition with his lyrics , whether that meant a lyric was meaningless or not . A lyric relating to " the cross is in the ballpark , " for example , has no meaning ; Simon said , " I found [ it ] to be a satisfying rhythmic phrase against the drums . "
= = Chart performance = =
" The Obvious Child " performed well on singles charts in several territories worldwide . In the United States , the song reached a peak of number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 on January 5 , 1991 ; it spent five weeks on the chart as a whole . It performed better on the magazine 's Mainstream Rock Tracks chart , where it placed at number 21 on November 10 , 1990 , and on the Modern Rock Tracks chart , where it reached a peak of number 24 a week earlier on November 3 . It had more longevity on the former chart , where it spent ten weeks total . In Canada , the song first debuted on the RPM 100 on October 20 , 1990 at position 98 . It peaked at number 28 during the week of December 8 , 1990 , and remained at that peak for two weeks .
Internationally , the single performed better . In the United Kingdom , the song premiered on the UK Singles Chart on September 30 , 1990 at number 61 , and rose over the following weeks to a peak of number fifteen on November 4 , 1990 . It charted best in the Netherlands ' Nationale Top 100 , where it reached a peak of number 12 . On Belgium 's Ultratop 50 , it hit number 29 . In Australasian territories , it charted right outside the top 40 : in Australia , the song reached number 42 , and in New Zealand , it peaked at number 46 .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , " The Obvious Child " received positive reviews from music critics of the time . Stephen Holden of The New York Times was perhaps the most effusive :
Greg Sandow of Entertainment Weekly praised the song 's " confident drums that resound with special exuberant zing . " A reviewer for People felt that " the more exotic musical elements are subsumed by Simon 's pretty pop structures [ ... ] You never get the impression that Paul has truly gone native or even considered it . He 's more like a kid camping under the stars in his own backyard . "
Reviews have continued to be very positive over time . Writer Steve Sullivan , in his book Encyclopedia of Great Popular Song Recordings , Volume 1 ( 2013 ) , calls the song " an extraordinary work that surpasses any individual song Paul Simon had ever produced as a solo artist . " Cameron Scheetz , in a 2014 article for The A.V. Club , examined the song ; he called it " the perfect confluence of the wild , frenetic drumming and Simon 's folksy melodies . "
= = Promotion and use in media = =
Simon performed the song , accompanied by Olodum and Neguinho do Samba , on Saturday Night Live on November 17 , 1990 .
The song is the namesake for the 2014 film Obvious Child ; it appears in a scene in which two characters drunkenly dance together . Director Gillian Robespierre titled the film with hope that its meaning would be ambiguous .
= = Formats and track listing = =
All songs written by Paul Simon , except where noted .
= = Charts = =
= Renown @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Renown class comprised a pair of battlecruisers built during the First World War for the Royal Navy . They were originally laid down as improved versions of the Revenge @-@ class battleships . Their construction was suspended on the outbreak of war on the grounds they would not be ready in a timely manner . Admiral Lord Fisher , upon becoming First Sea Lord , gained approval to restart their construction as battlecruisers that could be built and enter service quickly . The Director of Naval Construction ( DNC ) , Eustace Tennyson @-@ D 'Eyncourt , quickly produced an entirely new design to meet Admiral Lord Fisher 's requirements and the builders agreed to deliver the ships in 15 months . They did not quite meet that ambitious goal , but they were delivered a few months after the Battle of Jutland in 1916 . They were the world 's largest and fastest capital ships upon completion .
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out " and to be unsure how to respond to the events Angelou describes . These techniques force white readers to explore their feelings about race and their privileged status in society . Glazier found that although critics have focused on where Angelou fits within the genre of African @-@ American autobiography and her literary techniques , readers react to her storytelling with " surprise , particularly when [ they ] enter the text with certain expectations about the genre of autobiography " .
Educator Daniel Challener , in his 1997 book Stories of Resilience in Childhood , analyzed the events in Caged Bird to illustrate resiliency in children . Challener states that Angelou 's book provides a useful framework for exploring the obstacles many children like Maya face and how a community helps these children succeed as Angelou did . Psychologist Chris Boyatzis has used Caged Bird to supplement scientific theory and research in the instruction of child development topics such as the development of self @-@ concept and self @-@ esteem , ego resilience , industry versus inferiority , effects of abuse , parenting styles , sibling and friendship relations , gender issues , cognitive development , puberty , and identity formation in adolescence . He has called the book a highly effective tool for providing real @-@ life examples of these psychological concepts .
= = = Censorship = = =
Caged Bird has been criticized by many parents , causing it to be removed from school curricula and library shelves . The book was approved to be taught in public schools and was placed in public school libraries through the U.S. in the early 1980s , and was included in advanced placement and gifted student curricula , but attempts by parents to censor it began in 1983 . It has been challenged in 15 U.S. states . Educators have responded to these challenges by removing it from reading lists and libraries , by providing students with alternatives , and by requiring parental permission from students . Some have been critical of its sexually explicit scenes , use of language , and irreverent religious depictions .
Caged Bird appeared third on the American Library Association ( ALA ) list of the 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 1990 – 2000 , sixth on the ALA 's 2000 – 2009 list , and one of the ten books most frequently banned from high school and junior high school libraries and classrooms .
= = = Film version = = =
A made @-@ for @-@ TV movie version of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings was filmed in Mississippi and aired on April 28 , 1979 on CBS . Angelou and Leonora Thuna wrote the screenplay ; the movie was directed by Fielder Cook . Constance Good played young Maya . Also appearing were actors Esther Rolle , Roger E. Mosley , Diahann Carroll , Ruby Dee , and Madge Sinclair . Two scenes in the movie differed from events described in the book . Angelou added a scene between Maya and Uncle Willie after the Joe Louis fight ; in it , he expresses his feelings of redemption and hope after Louis defeats a white opponent . Angelou also presents her eighth grade graduation differently in the film . In the book , Henry Reed delivers the valedictory speech and leads the Black audience in the Negro national anthem . In the movie , Maya conducts these activities .
= One Meridian Plaza =
One Meridian Plaza was a 38 @-@ story high @-@ rise office building in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . The 492 feet ( 150 m ) tower was designed by Vincent Kling & Associates and completed in 1972 . The building was demolished in 1999 as a result of damage of a fire that began on February 23 , 1991 . The fire began on the 22nd floor after linseed oil soaked rags ignited a blaze that raged out of control for hours . Philadelphia firefighters fought the blaze , but struggled due to a lack of power in the skyscraper and insufficient water pressure from the building 's standpipes . Three firefighters died in the twelve alarm fire after becoming disoriented by heavy smoke . Firefighting efforts inside One Meridian Plaza eventually were abandoned due to fears the structure would collapse . The fire was only brought under control once it reached the 30th floor which was one of the few floors that had automatic sprinklers installed . Ten sprinklers held back the fire until it started burning itself out and was finally brought under control almost a full day after it started . The blaze seriously damaged the building destroying eight floors and damaged neighboring buildings .
For eight years after the fire , One Meridian Plaza sat vacant and damaged right in the center of Philadelphia 's business district . The building was caught in litigation between the owners and the insurance company over how much the insurers would pay the owners and how repairs or demolition would proceed . Businesses near the empty high @-@ rise closed or moved and the city sued the owners to do something with the building . After lawsuits were settled , the building was declared a total loss and began to be dismantled in 1998 . At the time of its demolition in 1999 , One Meridian Plaza was the third @-@ tallest destroyed building in the world .
= = Building = =
One Meridian Plaza was a 38 @-@ story high @-@ rise office building designed by Vincent Kling & Associates . Construction on the 492 feet ( 150 m ) tower began in 1968 , was completed in 1972 and approved for occupancy in 1973 . Built at the corner of 15th Street and South Penn Square in Center City , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , the US $ 40 million high @-@ rise was built adjacent to the Girard Trust Building , now the Ritz @-@ Carlton Philadelphia , and the front faced Philadelphia City Hall across the street . The rectangular One Meridian Plaza was 243 feet ( 74 m ) long and 92 feet ( 28 m ) wide and contained 756 @,@ 000 square feet ( 70 @,@ 000 m2 ) . Of the 38 floors , 36 were occupiable and 2 were mechanical floors . The structure also had 3 underground levels . The building 's structure was composed of steel and concrete and the facade was a granite curtain wall . There were two helipads on the roof . One Meridian Plaza 's eastern stairwell connected the building to the adjacent Girard Trust Building . At one point there were plans to build a structure on the south side of One Meridian Plaza that would share one of the elevator banks in the high @-@ rise , but nothing came of the plans mainly due to neither site having the same owner . On the northwest corner of the property is a bronze sculpture called " Triune . " Designed by Robert Engman the abstract sculpture was not damaged in the 1991 fire and is still there .
When One Meridian Plaza was built Philadelphia was enforcing a building code from 1949 that made no distinction between high @-@ rises and other buildings . In 1984 Philadelphia adopted new codes that required automatic sprinkler systems in all new buildings . At the time of construction , sprinklers were only built on the service levels below ground . In 1988 plans were put in place to have automatic sprinklers placed throughout the building by November 1993 . By 1991 four floors were completely protected by sprinklers and in part on three other floors . The sprinklers had been installed during floor renovations at the request of tenants and the building 's owners had plans to install more as other floors were renovated .
The high @-@ rise was originally known as the Fidelity Mutual Life Building , named for Fidelity Mutual Life Insurance Co. who developed the building in a joint venture with Girard Bank . The high @-@ rise was the tallest building built in Philadelphia since the early 1930s . Girard Bank sold its share of the property , which was also known as Three Girard Plaza , to Fidelity Mutual Life in 1982 . Fidelity Mutual Life , which had moved its offices out of the building to Radnor Township , Pennsylvania earlier that year , subsequently sold the building to E / R Partners in 1983 . A joint venture of the Rubin Organization and Equitable Life Assurance Company of America , E / R Partners bought the property for US $ 143 million . In 1989 a Dutch pension fund , Algemeen Burgerlijk Pensioenfonds , paid US $ 120 million to enter E / R Partners with a sixty @-@ five percent stake in the building . In 1984 Three Girard Plaza became the Three Mellon Bank Center after Girard Bank was bought by Mellon Bank , and in 1990 was renamed again to One Meridian Plaza after Meridian Bank replaced Mellon Bank as the lead tenant . Another major tenant was Comcast , who made 81 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 500 m2 ) of One Meridian Plaza its corporate headquarters in 1989 .
= = Fire = =
On February 23 , 1991 , at about 8 : 23 PM , a fire began on the 22nd floor of the building . It was a Saturday night and there were only three people in the building at the time , an engineer and two security guards . Workers had been refinishing woodwork in a vacant office earlier in the day and workers left a pile of rags soaked in linseed oil on the floor . The linseed oil oxidized and generated enough heat to ignite the rags which then set fire to other solvents nearby . Smoke detectors did not cover the entire floor and by the time the fire alarm went off the fire was already well established . After the fire alarm sounded in the building the engineer went up to the 22nd floor to investigate . When the elevator reached the 22nd floor the engineer found heavy smoke and heat which prevented him from reaching the elevator controls he needed to return to the lobby . The engineer escaped after radioing to a security guard in the lobby to recall the elevator using fire safety controls there . The second security guard was on the 30th floor when the alarm went off and used the stairwell to get to the ground floor .
The lobby guard returned a call to the alarm monitoring service which had called when the alarm initially went off to confirm that there was a fire , but never called the Philadelphia Fire Department . The first call came from someone on the street who saw smoke coming from the building . During the first 911 call , at about 8 : 27 PM , the alarm company alerted the fire department to the fire . Engine 43 was the first firefighting unit to arrive at the scene and reported seeing heavy smoke and flames in one of the windows . As firefighters started fighting the fire it had grown with flames breaking through windows and lapping up the side of the building .
= = = Problems = = =
Firefighters began experiencing problems before they even reached the fire . By the time firefighters reached the 11th floor the building had lost power after the heat from the blaze damaged electrical cables . The emergency generator never began producing electricity , and despite efforts to restore power the building was without electricity for the entirety of the event . This forced firefighters to work in darkness and without the aid of elevators . In addition , the transformers that provided power to the neighboring Girard Trust Building were in the basement of One Meridian Plaza . The transformers were eventually shut down due to water accumulation in the basement and firefighters directing water streams from that building had to do so without the aid of elevators .
Firefighters were again hampered when it was discovered the pressure relief valves on the standpipes were improperly adjusted when installed in the building . The Philadelphia Fire Department nozzles allowed 100 psi nozzle pressure while One Meridian Plaza 's pressure relief valves were giving less than 60 psi discharge pressure , which was not sufficient to fight the fire . It was several hours into the fire before a technician who could adjust the valves arrived at the scene .
The area around the building was cleared of pedestrians and firefighting personnel because of falling glass and debris . The falling debris was dangerous for firefighters because they often had to cross the perimeter around the building to enter and leave the high @-@ rise . Hose lines stretched into the building were damaged by falling debris and one firefighter was struck by debris and seriously injured while tending to the lines .
= = = Lost firefighters = = =
During the second hour of the fire it spread onto the 23rd and 24th floors . Heavy smoke was building up in the stairwells and a captain and two firefighters from Engine 11 were assigned to go to the top level to ventilate the stairwell . The three firefighters went up a center staircase from the 22nd floor and soon radioed that they were disoriented by heavy smoke on the 30th floor . There were attempts to direct the firefighters through the radio , and soon after the captain requested permission to break a window for ventilation , which was followed by a message that the captain was down . Permission to break the window was given and a search and rescue effort was initiated .
Search teams were sent from the lower floors and searched the 30th floor , but did not find the missing firefighters . The teams then moved onto the upper levels where one team got lost on the 38th floor and ran out of air in their self @-@ contained breathing apparatus ( SCBA ) . That team was rescued by a search team that had been placed on the roof by a helicopter . Rescue attempts continued until helicopter operations were suspended due to heavy smoke and thermal drafts caused by the blaze .
Using a searchlight the helicopter crew searched the exterior of the building and at 1 : 17 AM February 24 , the helicopter spotted a broken window on the 28th floor located in an area that could not be seen from the street . At about 2 : 15 AM a rescue team was sent to the spot and found the three missing firefighters unconscious and out of air in their SCBAs . The firefighters were brought to a medical triage set up on the 20th floor . There were attempts at resuscitation , but they were unsuccessful and the firefighters were pronounced dead .
= = = Fire Companies on Scene = = =
1st / Box Alarm Assignment - Box 495 - 15th & Chestnut Streets
Squirt 43 , Engine 1 , Engine 20 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) Engine 11 ( 3 Firefighter Line of Duty Deaths from this Company )
Ladder 9 , Snorkel 5
Medic 7
Battalion Chief 5 , Battalion Chief 4
2nd Alarm Assignment :
Squirt 8 , Engine 10 , Engine 24 , Engine 44 , Engine 13 ( Lobby Control )
Ladder 23 , Ladder 1
Medic 13
Battalion Chief 3 ( Lobby Officer ) , Battalion Chief 11
Division ( Deputy ) Chief 1
Air Unit 2
3rd Alarm Assignment :
Engine 49 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 40 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 60
Battalion Chief 1
Chemical Unit 1 , Chemical Unit 2
4th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 5 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 29 , Engine 16 , Engine 3 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 34 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH )
Snorkel 2
Medic 21B , Medic 25B
Battalion Chief 8
Air Unit 1
5th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 33 , Engine 27 , Engine 53 , Engine 25
Ladder 11
Car 1 ( Chief of Department )
Light Wagon 1
6th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 12 , Engine 22 , Engine 50 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 59
Medic 3
ES @-@ 10 ( Decontamination Trailer )
7th Alarm Assignment :
Squirt 57 , Engine 63 , Engine 14 , Engine 28 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH )
8th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 61 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Squirt 9 , Engine 56 , Engine 41
Ladder 13
Medic 16 , Medic 1
Battalion Chief 2 , Battalion Chief 10
Car 6
9th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 38 , Engine 66 , Engine 45 , Engine 68
Ladder 18 , Tower Ladder 6
Battalion Chief 1102 ( Call @-@ Back for Battalion Chief 2 )
10th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 72 , Engine 18 , Engine 7 , Engine 2
Ladder 25
11th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 71 , Engine 35 , Engine 103 ( Reserve ) , Engine 119 ( Reserve )
12th Alarm Assignment :
Engine 125 ( Reserve ) , Engine 181 ( Reserve ) , Engine 36 , Engine 52 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH ) , Engine 180 ( ARFF @-@ Reserve @-@ LDH ) , Engine 19 ( Water Supply @-@ LDH )
Ladder 14
Rescue 1 ( Reactivated Company for Incident )
Medic 15 , Medic 14
Battalion Chief 13 , Battalion Chief 9
Division ( Deputy ) Chief 1A
= = = Fire 's end = = =
As the fire was going into its sixth hour it had spread up to the 26th floor . With inadequate water pressure coming from the standpipes , firefighters stretched hoses up the building 's stairwells to help fight the fire . While hoses were being taken up to the fire a sprinkler technician arrived to fix the water pressure . This improved the hose streams , but the fire had engulfed several floors and could not be contained with just hoses . By 7 : 00 AM , almost eleven hours into the fire , firefighters were able to get control of the fire on the 22nd through 24th floors , but the fire was still out of control on the 25th and 26th floors and was spreading upwards . Structural damage observed inside the building by firefighters and consultations with a structural engineer led to fears that the damaged floors might collapse . At 7 : 00 AM an order to evacuate the building was issued by Fire Commissioner Roger Ulshafer and the building was completely evacuated by 7 : 30 AM . After the evacuation , the only fire suppression efforts left were water streams being directed to the building from the neighboring Girard Trust Building and One Centre Square .
The fire 's spread only stopped when it reached the 30th floor which was the first fire affected floor to have automatic sprinklers . Ten sprinklers extinguished the fire on the 30th floor and prevented continued spread . Contained by the automatic sprinklers and running out of fuel , the fire was declared under control at 3 : 01 PM . The fire lasted over nineteen hours , destroyed eight floors , and killed three firefighters and injured twenty @-@ four . Twelve alarms were called which brought fifty @-@ one engine companies , fifteen ladder companies , eleven specialized units , and over three hundred firefighters . The fire caused an estimated US $ 100 million in direct property loss .
= = After the fire = =
By February 26 city officials had determined One Meridian Plaza was not in danger of collapse . There was structural damage to horizontal steel beams and floor sections on most of the fire damaged floors . Under extreme fire exposure the beams and girders sagged and twisted and cracks appeared in the concrete floors . However , the overall structure was stable and able to support the weight of the building . Thermal expansion of the steel frame caused some of the granite panels to be dislodged from the building 's facade . The streets and buildings around One Meridian Plaza were closed and cordoned off . The 20 @-@ story Morris Building and several three @-@ story shops behind One Meridian Plaza on Chestnut Street were damaged by falling debris and sat unused for years until they were demolished in 2000 . The neighboring Girard Trust Building , then called Two Mellon Plaza , experienced extensive water damage forcing the closure of the building . A bank in the building reopened a month later but the rest of the tower remained vacant for years . The roads around the building were closed for months after the fire , including a portion of two of Philadelphia 's major streets , Broad and Market .
The removal of the uninhabitable One Meridian Plaza from the real estate market and the sudden relocation of the building 's tenants to other offices in Philadelphia took 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 140 @,@ 000 m2 ) of real estate off the market . The city 's office vacancy rate was 14 @.@ 3 percent at the end of 1990 ; in the two months after the fire , the vacancy rate lowered to 10 @.@ 7 percent . On December 18 Mayor Wilson Goode signed a law requiring every nonresidential building 75 feet ( 23 m ) tall or taller have sprinklers installed by 1997 . An estimated three hundred buildings in the city were affected by the law .
= = = Vacant eyesore = = =
In the years after the fire One Meridian Plaza stood in the middle of Philadelphia vacant . The fate of the building was up in the air as the building 's owners and the insurance company prepared for ligation on how to proceed with repairs , who would control those repairs , and at what cost . E / R Partners were proposing deconstructing the building down to the 19th floor and rebuilding from there . Aetna Corporation , the fire insurer , claimed that girders above the 19th level could be repaired and used cutting US $ 115 million in repair costs from the owner 's US $ 250 million estimate . Aetna also proposed taking over the reconstruction . E / R Partners spent US $ 50 million securing one Meridian Plaza and spent up to US $ 500 @,@ 000 a month on security guards , utilities and inspections by engineers as the building stood empty .
Lawsuits on behalf of sixteen people and businesses claiming losses as a result of the blaze were filed shortly after the fire in 1991 . In February 1995 a US $ 15 million agreement was reached to reimburse workers and businesses affected by the fire . While not admitting any liability , the US $ 15 million minus legal fees was paid by E / R Partners and was meant for uninsured losses for businesses and workers in One Meridian and the surrounding damaged buildings .
Declared " eyesore of the year " by The Philadelphia Inquirer in 1994 , the burned , empty tower was an embarrassment to the city according to an editorial in The Inquirer . The editorial said the feeling only became worse after One Meridian Plaza could be seen in the background in the film Philadelphia . The One Meridian Plaza fire left the area around it a commercial void . Nearly every major store in the area closed and property values fell . Neighboring property owners , such as the owner of the damaged buildings behind One Meridian Plaza , were waiting for a decision on the future of the building before going through with their own development plans . In 1996 the city of Philadelphia sued E / R Partners saying One Meridian Plaza was an environmental hazard and should be demolished or repaired . The city and Mayor Ed Rendell were afraid that when E / R Partners settled with Aetna they would take the money and leave the building unfixed .
= = = Deconstruction = = =
In March 1997 E / R Partners settled with Aetna receiving around US $ 300 million . After the legal issues were settled E / R Partners announced the building would be dismantled . With the announcement of the demolition the city dropped its lawsuit against the owners . Unable to implode the building because of the building density of the area , E / R Partners began an eighteen @-@ month , US $ 23 million process to dismantle the building . Early in the process , which began in 1998 , the owners hoped someone would buy the property as is or with the damaged portion of the structure removed , but that hope was soon abandoned . The process was finished in 1999 . At the time of the demolition it was the third tallest habitable building destroyed and is currently the seventh , ranking after the World Trade Center 's twin towers , the Singer Building , and the original Seven World Trade Center in New York , the Morrison Hotel in Chicago , and 130 Liberty Street in New York .
= = Replacement = =
The site of One Meridian Plaza was bought by the Arden Group in 2000 . The site was converted into a parking lot as construction on a new building was held up in a zoning feud with the neighboring site , 1441 Chestnut Street . 1441 Chestnut Street was the site of the Morris Building and other smaller buildings that sat behind One Meridian Plaza . The feud between Arden Group 's chief executive Craig Spencer and 1441 Chestnut Street developer Tim Mahoney began in 2003 . Spencer and Mahoney settled their dispute in March 2006 and construction on One Meridian 's 48 @-@ story replacement , the Residences at the Ritz @-@ Carlton began in May . The Residences at The Ritz @-@ Carlton opened in January 2009 . A memorial was unveiled on October 21 , 2009 at the skyscraper honoring the three firefighters who died in the fire . The memorial features plaques with the firefighter 's names .
= 1948 Bermuda – Newfoundland hurricane =
The 1948 Bermuda hurricane ( Air Weather Service designation : Dog ) was an intense and long @-@ lived Cape Verde @-@ type tropical cyclone that wrought significant damage to Bermuda and areas of Newfoundland in September 1948 . The storm was the eighth named storm and third hurricane of the annual hurricane season . Originating as a tropical wave off the coast of Africa on September 4 , the cyclone tracked a general westward path for much of its initial stages as it gradually intensified , reaching tropical storm intensity shortly after development and then hurricane intensity a day later . After reaching a longitude roughly equal to that of the Lesser Antilles , the hurricane began to curve northward on a parabolic track , bringing it near Bermuda at peak intensity as a Category 4 hurricane on September 13 . Afterwards , the hurricane began to accelerate northeastwards and weaken . The waning tropical cyclone grazed Cape Race before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on September 15 ; these remnants persisted for an additional day .
Despite never making landfall , the tropical cyclone disrupted numerous shipping lanes and inflicted damage on Bermuda and Newfoundland . In the former , the hurricane brought winds in excess of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , downing power lines and felled trees . Property damage also resulted from the strong winds . Overall damage on the island totaled $ 400 @,@ 000 . After passing west of Bermuda , the tropical cyclone tracked across numerous shipping lanes . Two ships , the Leicester and Gaspar , encountered the hurricane and became stricken in open waters . Though most people were rescued from both ships , six people perished on the former while one died on the latter . Beginning on September 15 , the hurricane tracked east of Newfoundland , producing heavy rainfall on land . The precipitation flooded roads and caused streams to overflow , inundating additional areas . On the island , two people were killed . Overall , the hurricane caused eight fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 3 , the tropical wave from which the resulting hurricane would develop from was detected just off the coast of western Africa near Dakar . This marked the second consecutive year in which a tropical cyclone could be traced back as far east as Africa . In HURDAT – the official database for tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic dating back to 1851 Atlantic hurricane season – the area of disturbed weather is estimated to have organized into a tropical storm by 0600 UTC the following day . Over the course of the succeeding week , the tropical cyclone moved in a general westward direction as it gradually intensified , reaching hurricane intensity by 0000 UTC on September 5 and then attaining the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale at 0600 UTC on September 8 . Up until this time , its existence and trek across the central Atlantic was only inferred , however , aircraft reconnaissance detected and as such confirmed the existence of the tropical cyclone the following day while the hurricane was situated approximately 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) east of Antigua . Operationally , however , the reconnaissance flight significantly underestimated the winds of the tropical cyclone , with estimates of tropical storm @-@ force winds at the storm 's center .
Thereafter , the hurricane began curving northward as it continued to intensify , reaching the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 3 hurricane – a major hurricane – by September 11 . Two days later , the storm strengthened further into a Category 4 hurricane . As no reasonably quantifiable strengthening occurred afterwards , this also marked the storm 's official peak intensity as maximum sustained winds were analyzed at 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . However , aircraft reconnaissance estimated wind speeds of at least 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) at roughly the same time frame . The storm 's northward recurvature caused it to track just west of Bermuda late on September 13 . Afterwards , a weakening trend began as the hurricane tracked northeastward into more northerly latitudes . By September 15 , the storm had been downgraded to minimal hurricane intensity . After passing south of Cape Race later that day , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , and continued to track northward until it was last noted by 1800 UTC the next day near Greenland . During the storm 's twelve @-@ day trek , the hurricane tracked approximately 3 @,@ 500 mi ( 5 @,@ 600 km ) , roughly equidistant to the distance between New York and London .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Central Atlantic and Bermuda = = =
As the hurricane traversed the Central Atlantic , the United States Weather Bureau indicated that the storm would not be a threat to continental land masses due to its isolated position . However , ships in the storm 's vicinity and to the northwest of the hurricane were advised caution . Other shipping lanes in the forecast path of the hurricane were also warned . After recurving in the direction of Bermuda , the British overseas colony was advised to begin prompt precautionary measures against storm surge and strong winds , which were expected from the hurricane . Aircraft from the United States Air Force and Navy stationed in Bermuda were sent to airfields in the United States to avoid the hurricane , while a Navy task force of twelve ships including the escort carrier USS Mindoro ( CVE @-@ 120 ) were dispatched from the island . The U.S. naval operating base moved boats from exposed areas into safer parts of the base . Similar precautionary measures were undertaken by the British naval operating base .
On Bermuda , the hurricane brought sustained winds estimated between 93 – 103 mph ( 150 – 166 km / h ) , with higher gusts . A minimum pressure of 958 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 30 inHg ) was recorded , though a lower pressure may have occurred on the island as the barometer had been falling at the time . The strong winds downed power lines and felled trees , littering insular streets with debris . As a result , power outages occurred and loss of telecommunications was reported . Radio stations based on the island went silent due to the power loss . An emergency backup power generator at King Edward Memorial Hospital was used to restore electrical power to the facility . However , oil lamps were still used in place of any form of electrical lighting . Several slate roofs were torn from their buildings from the strong winds . Heavy rainfall associated with the hurricane flooded long stretches of roadway . Some roads were blocked and rendered impassable by the rainfall . At the local harbor , six vessels were inundated by the strong offshore wave action . Overall , property damage on the island was estimated at $ 400 @,@ 000 .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic and Newfoundland = = =
After sweeping past Bermuda , the Weather Bureau continued to advise caution to shipping lanes in the storm 's proximity . Two coastal railway steamers destined for a Newfoundland port were delayed as a result of the approaching storm . All flights headed for Torbay Airport were suspended until the storm 's passage . Before affecting Newfoundland , however , the hurricane impacted numerous shipping lanes in the open Atlantic . The freighter Leicester , which had departed from London and was headed for New York City , was caught in the hurricane late on September 14 while situated roughly 400 mi ( 640 km ) southwest of Cape Race , Newfoundland . As weather conditions deteriorated , the ship began to list , and as such the crew abandoned the ship late the following day . The American steamship Cecil N. Bean and the Argentinian steamship Tropero both assisted in rescue operations and rescued 39 crew members . However , six other remained unaccounted for and were presumed dead . The Portuguese fishing schooner Gaspar was also caught in the storm roughly 300 mi ( 480 km ) off of Newfoundland , and although initial reports presumed that it had already sunk , the United States Coast Guard indicated that the ship was in no need of assistance . However , the ship was still abandoned and 41 crewmen were rescued , though one person was lost .
Much of the effects from the hurricane on Newfoundland occurred on September 15 and continued until September 18 . With winds equivalent to that of a Category 1 hurricane , the cyclone brushed east of the island , bringing extensive flooding . Offshore , a ship estimated winds in excess of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) off of Grand Bank . Precipitation peaked at a record 4 @.@ 5 in ( 110 mm ) at Fort Pepperrell . In St. John 's , train traffic was effectively halted because of the hurricane . Silt kicked up by the strong winds covered railroad tracks in the southern portions of the city , while heavy rainfall flooded several city streets . Similar problems occurred in Avondale . The nearby Rennie River overflowed its banks , inundating adjacent land . The urban flooding damaged adjacent infrastructure . A three @-@ year @-@ old girl died on September 16 after a landslide triggered by the rain filled the first floor of her home . This was the only death associated with the hurricane on the island . In Holyrood , the local highway was washed out in areas . A small trestle with two concrete abutments were swept off into the adjacent bay . Another road leading to Cape Saint Francis suffered wash outs as deep as 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) . Small bridges were also damaged , and some were washed away . As with the Rennie River , the Waterford River also overflowed its banks due to excessive recharge , and as such inundated 13 homes . Another river near Kilbride overflowed , flooding adjacent plots of land and tearing apart pavement . In this manner , several roads were rendered impassable and were cut off to traffic .
= Russian cruiser Gromoboi =
Gromoboi ( Russian : Громобой , meaning : " Thunderer " ) was an armoured cruiser built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the late 1890s . She was designed as a long @-@ range commerce raider and served as such during the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . When the war broke out , she was based in Vladivostok and made several sorties in search of Japanese shipping in the conflict 's early months without much success .
Gromoboi , with the other armoured cruisers of the Vladivostok Cruiser Squadron , attempted to rendezvous in the Strait of Tsushima with the main portion of the Russian Pacific Fleet sailing from Port Arthur in August 1904 . The Fleet was delayed , and the squadron returned to port alone . On the return , the squadron encountered a Japanese squadron of four armoured cruisers blocking their passage to base . The Japanese sank the oldest Russian ship , Rurik , and damaged Gromoboi and Rossia during the subsequent Battle off Ulsan . Both Russian ships were repaired within two months . Gromoboi ran aground immediately after completing her repairs and was out of action for four months . Three months after the damage from the grounding incident was repaired , she struck a mine , but successfully returned to port . Her armament was reinforced while under repair , but she saw no further action during the war .
Gromoboi was transferred to the Russian Baltic Fleet after the end of the war and began a lengthy refit that was completed in 1911 . She was mostly inactive during World War I , but had her armament and protection upgraded during the war . She was placed into reserve in 1918 and sold to a German company in 1922 for scrapping . She was forced aground near Liepāja during a storm en route to Germany and was scrapped in place .
= = Design and description = =
Gromoboi was originally intended to be a repeat of Rossia , but a design modification for thicker armour and improved engines made that unfeasible . The use of Rossia 's hull design meant that the ships looked alike .
Gromoboi was 481 feet ( 146 @.@ 6 m ) long overall . She had a maximum beam of 68 @.@ 6 feet ( 20 @.@ 9 m ) and a draught of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . The ship displaced 12 @,@ 455 long tons ( 12 @,@ 655 t ) , only 95 long tons ( 97 t ) more than designed . She was sheathed in wood and copper to reduce biofouling . As completed Gromoboi trimmed badly by the bow , which reduced her speed and made her very wet forward . Loads had to be shifted aft and ballast added to the rear of the ship to correct her trim , but she was regarded as a good sea boat afterward with an easy , although rapid , roll .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Gromoboi dispensed with Rossia 's cruising engine on the centre shaft . Three equally powerful vertical triple expansion steam engines were used with a designed total of 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 813 kW ) , but they developed 15 @,@ 496 ihp ( 11 @,@ 555 kW ) on trials and drove the ship to a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 1 knots ( 37 @.@ 2 km / h ; 23 @.@ 1 mph ) . Thirty @-@ two Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for the engines . She could carry a maximum of 2 @,@ 400 long tons ( 2 @,@ 439 t ) of coal . This gave her a radius of action of 8 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 320 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Gromoboi 's main armament consisted of four 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 45 @-@ calibre Pattern 1892 guns ; the forward pair was mounted in casemates above the forward main @-@ deck 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) gun 's casemate . The two rear guns were situated in sponsons abreast the mizzenmast , protected by gun shields . The guns could be depressed to − 5 ° and elevated to 18 ° . They fired 193 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 87 @.@ 8 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 950 feet per second ( 900 m / s ) which gave a range of 12 @,@ 000 yd ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) at 13 ° elevation .
Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 45 Pattern 1892 guns . One gun was mounted under the forecastle and another in the stern ; neither gun could fire to the side . Most of the remaining guns were mounted in casemates , the forward pair in front of the eight @-@ inch guns on the upper deck and the rest on the main deck . One pair was mounted on the upper deck protected by gun shields . In their pivot mounts the guns could depress to -6 ° and elevate to + 20 ° . They fired 91 @.@ 4 @-@ pound ( 41 @.@ 5 kg ) Pattern 1907 high explosive projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 feet per second ( 790 m / s ) . This gave a range of 12 @,@ 600 yd ( 11 @,@ 500 m ) at maximum elevation . 240 rounds per gun were carried by Gromoboi .
Defence against torpedo boats was provided by a variety of light @-@ calibre weapons . Gromoboi had 24 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Canet Pattern 1892 50 @-@ caliber guns mounted in sponsons on the upper deck , protected by gun shields . The gun fired 10 @.@ 8 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 9 kg ) shells to a range of about 8 @,@ 600 yards ( 7 @,@ 864 m ) at its maximum elevation of 21 ° with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) . The rate of fire was between twelve and fifteen rounds per minute .
The ship carried twelve 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . They fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 476 ft / s ( 450 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 2 @,@ 020 yards ( 1 @,@ 850 m ) . The ship also carried 18 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . These fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 450 ft / s ( 440 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 3 @,@ 038 yards ( 2 @,@ 778 m ) .
Gromoboi also had four submerged 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , with two mounted on each broadside .
= = = Armour = = =
The Naval Ministry had hoped to increase the Gromoboi 's armour thickness and increase the armour protection of the armament , but still use Rossia 's hull design . The Ministry also hoped to use the new , more resistant Krupp armour , but Russian plants had proven unable to manufacture it when it was ordered and Harvey armour was used instead . In fact , for Gromoboi , the waterline belt was reduced in thickness by 2 inches ( 51 mm ) from the older ship to six inches to better protect her guns . The belt was shortened by 100 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) in length to only 300 feet ( 91 @.@ 4 m ) . It was reduced in height by 9 inches ( 229 mm ) as well to a total of 7 feet 9 inches ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) ; it extended 2 feet 9 inches ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) above the waterline and 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) below the waterline . The belt was closed off by six @-@ inch bulkheads fore and aft .
The Gromoboi casemates were 4 @.@ 7 inches ( 119 mm ) thick , with two @-@ inch backs and 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) roofs . The two @-@ inch thick transverse bulkhead fore and aft protected them from raking fire . The armour deck was 1 @.@ 5 inches thick on the flat and 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick where it sloped down to meet the belt . The protective deck extended fore and aft of the armour deck and ranged from 2 @.@ 5 – 3 inches ( 64 – 76 mm ) in thickness . The change in the machinery allowed Gromoboi to dispense with Rossia 's glacis armour that had been necessary to protect the tops of the engine cylinders . The conning tower had walls 12 inches ( 305 mm ) thick , made of Krupp armour . The funnel uptakes and ammunition hoists were protected by 1 @.@ 5 inches of armour between the lower and middle decks .
= = Service = =
Gromoboi was built by the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg . Construction began on 14 June 1897 , although she was not formally laid down until 7 May 1898 , and the ship was launched on 8 May 1899 . She was transferred to Kronstadt on 24 November 1899 to finish fitting out , but was forced aground by sea ice . She was freed three days later , but needed repairs to her sheathing . She left Liepāja on 10 December 1900 en route to the Far East and stopped briefly at Kiel , where she was inspected by Prince Henry of Prussia , and at Plymouth where the officers visited the Devonport naval base . She represented Russia at the granting of the constitution to Australia , visiting Sydney and Melbourne in April – May 1901 , before visiting Nagasaki in July . Gromoboi finally reached Port Arthur on 29 July 1901 . She remained in the Pacific until the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 . During this voyage she was commanded by Karl Petrovich Jessen .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
By this time , Gromoboi was assigned of the Vladivostok Cruiser Squadron under the command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen . The other ships were the armoured cruisers Rossia and Rurik as well as the protected cruiser Bogatyr . The squadron made a number of sorties against Japanese shipping early in the war . Only one was reasonably successful : in June 1904 the squadron sank the Hitachi Maru , carrying eighteen 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) siege howitzers and over 1000 troops intended for the siege of Port Arthur .
= = = = Battle off Ulsan = = = =
During the war the bulk of the Russian Pacific Fleet was located in Port Arthur where it was blockaded by the Japanese . On 10 August , the ships at Port Arthur attempted breakout to Vladivostok , but were turned back in the Battle of the Yellow Sea . Admiral Jessen was ordered to rendezvous with them , but the order was delayed . His ships had to raise steam , so he did not sortie until the evening of 13 August . Bogatyr had been damaged earlier when she grounded and did not sail with the squadron . By dawn he had reached the island of Tsushima in the Tsushima Strait between Korea and Japan . He turned back for Vladivostok when he failed to see any ships from the Port Arthur squadron . 36 miles ( 58 km ) north of the island he encountered the Japanese squadron commanded by Vice Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō tasked to patrol the Tsushima Strait . The Japanese force had four modern armoured cruisers , Iwate , Izumo , Tokiwa , and Azuma . The two squadrons had passed during the night without spotting one another and each had reversed course around first light . This put the Japanese ships astride the Russian route to Vladivostok .
Jessen turned to the northeast when he spotted the Japanese at 05 : 00 and they followed suit , albeit on a slightly converging course . Both sides opened fire around 05 : 23 at a range of 8 @,@ 500 metres ( 9 @,@ 300 yd ) . The Japanese ships concentrated their fire on Rurik , the rear ship of the Russian formation . She was hit fairly quickly and began to fall astern of the other two ships . Jessen turned southeast in an attempt to open the range , but this blinded the Russian gunners with the rising sun and prevented any of their broadside guns from bearing on the Japanese . About 06 : 00 , Jessen turned 180 ° to starboard in an attempt to reach the Korean coast and to allow Rurik to rejoin the squadron . Kamimura followed suit around 06 : 10 , but turned to port , which opened the range between the squadrons . Azuma then developed engine problems and the Japanese squadron slowed to conform with her best speed . Firing recommenced at 06 : 24 and Rurik was hit three times in the stern , flooding her steering compartment ; she had to be steered with her engines . Her speed continued to decrease , further exposing her to Japanese fire , and her steering jammed to port around 06 : 40 .
Jessen made another 180 ° turn in an attempt to interpose his two ships between the Japanese and Rurik , but the latter ship suddenly turn to starboard and increased speed and passed between Jessen 's ships and the Japanese . Kamimura turned 180 ° as well so that both squadrons were heading southeast on parallel courses , but Jessen quickly made another 180 ° turn so that they headed on opposing courses . Iwate was hit around this time , which knocked out three 6 @-@ inch and one 12 @-@ pounder guns , killing 32 and wounding 43 . The Japanese squadron opened the range again when it made a 180 ° another turn to port . The Russians reversed course for the third time around 07 : 45 in another attempt to support Rurik although Rossia was on fire herself ; her fires were extinguished about twenty minutes later . Kamimura circled Rurik to the south at 08 : 00 and allowed the other two Russian ships to get to his north and gave them an uncontested route to Vladivostok . Despite this , Jessen turned back once more at 08 : 15 and ordered Rurik to make her own way back to Vladivostok before turning north at his maximum speed , about 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
About this time Kamimura 's two elderly protected cruisers , Naniwa and Takachiho , were approaching from the south . Their arrival allowed Kamimura to pursue Jessen with all of his armoured cruisers while the two new arrivals dealt with Rurik . They fought a running battle with the Russians for the next hour and a half ; scoring enough hits on them to force their speed down to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Azuma 's engines again broke down during this chase and she was replaced in the line by Tokiwa . The Japanese closed to a minimum of about 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 5 @,@ 500 yd ) , but Kamimura then opened the range up to 6 @,@ 500 metres ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) .
About 10 : 00 , Kamimura 's gunnery officer erroneously informed him that Izumo had expended three @-@ quarters of her ammunition and he turned back after a five @-@ minute rapid @-@ fire barrage . He did not wish to leave the Tsushima Strait unguarded and thought that he could use his remaining ammunition on Rurik . By this time she had been sunk by Naniwa and Takachiho which had closed to 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) of Rurik in order to finish her off . They had radioed Kamimura that she was sunk , but he did not receive the message . Shortly after the Japanese turned back , Gromoboi and Rossia were forced to heave @-@ to to make repairs .
Gromoboi suffered 87 dead and 170 wounded ; far more than Rossia 's 44 dead and 156 wounded . This was attributable to Rossia 's captain 's policy of ordering the gun crews for his quick @-@ firing guns on the engaged side to lie down and those on the unengaged side to go below , in contrast to the Gromoboi keeping her light guns manned at all times . Gromoboi was hit fifteen times on the starboard side of her hull and seven times on her port side , plus other hits in her funnels , boats and decks . She also suffered a fire caused by the ignition of excess propellant charges . Despite this number of hits , she was not badly damaged because her waterline belt was not penetrated . She was repaired within two months by the rudimentary facilities available at Vladivostok .
Immediately following her repairs she ran aground outside Vladivostok on 13 October and was not ready for sea until February 1905 . The Russians took this opportunity to reinforce her armament with six more 6 @-@ inch guns mounted on her upper deck , protected by lightly armoured casemates . Her armament was rearranged as well with her foremost six @-@ inch guns moved from their casemates to the forecastle and the rearmost six @-@ inch guns moved forward . Room for these changes was made by removing many of her lighter guns ; she retained only nineteen 75 mm and two 37 mm guns . She also received several Barr and Stroud rangefinders at this time . While testing her new Telefunken radio equipment on 24 May she struck a mine near her forward boiler room . She was able to return to Vladivostok for repairs , but took no further part in the war .
= = = Interwar period = = =
Gromoboi returned to the Baltic Fleet after the war . There she was given a lengthy refit that was finished in 1911 . Her engines and boilers were reconditioned , and her rear torpedo tubes were removed . The forward 15 @-@ inch torpedo tubes were replaced by 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) tubes . Her foremast was removed and replaced by her mizzenmast ; her mainmast was moved aft in place of the mizzenmast and searchlights were installed on a platform on each mast . A casemate with 3 @-@ inch sides and a 1 @-@ inch roof was built around the rear eight @-@ inch guns and the rear six @-@ inch guns were moved aft and protected by a casemate with two @-@ inch sides and a .75 @-@ inch ( 19 mm ) roof . The thickness of the upper @-@ deck casemates was increased to two inches . Armoured towers fore and aft were built for her rangefinders . Her light armament was reduced to four 75 mm and four 47 mm guns . Engine trials were conducted in late 1910 and were unsatisfactory as they were overheating while delivering only 9 @,@ 979 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 441 kW ) . The trials were run again on 27 July 1911 and were more satisfactory as they developed 13 @,@ 337 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 945 kW ) while Gromoboi reached 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) .
= = = World War I = = =
Gromoboi served in the 2nd Cruiser Brigade of the Baltic Fleet during World War I. She was modified to serve as a fast minelayer with a capacity of two hundred mines .
She engaged the German battlecruiser SMS Von der Tann at the entrance to the Gulf of Finland on August 10 , 1915 .
Her armament was changed in 1916 – 17 as well ; she exchanged the six @-@ inch guns on the bow and stern for eight @-@ inch guns . These additions increased her broadside to four eight @-@ inch and eleven six @-@ inch guns . All of her remaining light guns were removed and she received two 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch and two 47 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns . All of these additions raised her displacement to about 13 @,@ 200 long tons ( 13 @,@ 412 t ) .
Gromoboi came under control of the Soviet Red Fleet in September 1917 . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have them interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Gromoboi sailed to Kronstadt in what became known as the ' Ice Voyage ' and was placed into reserve shortly after her arrival . She was sold to a German company for scrapping on 1 July 1922 and ran aground near Liepāja while under tow to Germany . She was scrapped in place .
= Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith =
Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith is a 2005 American epic space opera film written and directed by George Lucas . It is the third and final installment of the Star Wars prequel trilogy and stars Ewan McGregor , Natalie Portman , Hayden Christensen , Ian McDiarmid , Samuel L. Jackson , Christopher Lee , Anthony Daniels , Kenny Baker and Frank Oz .
The film begins three years after the onset of the Clone Wars . The Jedi Knights are spread across the galaxy , leading a massive war against the Separatists . The Jedi Council dispatches Jedi Master Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi to eliminate the notorious General Grievous , leader of the Separatist Army . Meanwhile , Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker grows close to Palpatine , the Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic and , unknown to the public , a Sith Lord . Their deepening friendship threatens the Jedi Order , the Republic , and Anakin himself .
Lucas began writing the script before production of Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones ended . Production of Revenge of the Sith started in September 2003 , filming in Australia with additional locations in Thailand , Switzerland , China , Italy and the United Kingdom . Revenge of the Sith premiered on May 15 , 2005 at the Cannes Film Festival , then released worldwide on May 19 , 2005 . The film received generally positive reviews from critics , especially in contrast to the less positive reviews of the previous two prequels , receiving praise for its storyline , action scenes , John Williams ' musical score , the visual effects , and the performances of Ewan McGregor , Ian McDiarmid , Frank Oz , Jimmy Smits , and Samuel L. Jackson . It is the last film in the Star Wars franchise to be distributed by 20th Century Fox before the acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company in 2012 .
Revenge of the Sith broke several box office records during its opening week and went on to earn over $ 848 million worldwide , making it , at the time , the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film in the Star Wars franchise , unadjusted for inflation . It was the highest @-@ grossing film of 2005 in the U.S. and the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2005 behind Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . As of 2016 , it is the 50th highest @-@ grossing film . The Star Wars saga continued with the release of Star Wars : The Force Awakens , the first installment of the sequel trilogy , in 2015 .
= = Plot = =
During a space battle over the planet Coruscant , Jedi Knights Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi and Anakin Skywalker lead a mission to rescue the kidnapped Supreme Chancellor Palpatine from Separatist commander General Grievous . After infiltrating Grievous 's flagship , the Jedi battle the Sith Lord Count Dooku . Anakin subdues Dooku and , on Palpatine 's urging , kills him . Grievous flees the battle @-@ torn cruiser , which the Jedi crash @-@ land on Coruscant . There , Anakin reunites with his wife , Padmé Amidala , who reveals she is pregnant . While initially excited , Anakin begins to have prophetic visions of Padmé dying in childbirth , and his worry steadily grows .
Palpatine appoints Anakin to the Jedi Council as his representative , but the Council refuses to grant Anakin the rank of Jedi Master and orders him to spy on Palpatine , which diminishes Anakin 's faith in the Jedi . Palpatine tantalizes Anakin with secret knowledge of the dark side of the Force , including the power to save his loved ones from dying . Meanwhile , Obi @-@ Wan is dispatched to the planet Utapau to deal with General Grievous , and Yoda is dispatched to Kashyyyk to defend the planet from invasion .
Tempting Anakin , Palpatine eventually reveals that he is the Sith Lord Darth Sidious , saying that only he has the knowledge to save Padmé from dying . Anakin reports Palpatine 's treachery to Mace Windu , who confronts and subdues the Sith Lord . Fearing that he will lose Padmé , Anakin intervenes on Palpatine 's behalf , allowing Palpatine to kill Windu . Anakin pledges himself to Palpatine , who dubs him Darth Vader .
Palpatine issues an order for the clone troopers to kill their Jedi commanders and dispatches Vader and a legion of clones to kill everyone in the Jedi Temple . Vader massacres the remaining Separatist leaders hiding on the volcanic planet Mustafar , while Palpatine addresses the Senate , transforming the Republic into the Galactic Empire and declaring himself Emperor . Having survived the attack , Obi @-@ Wan and Yoda return to Coruscant and uncover Anakin 's treachery .
Unable to convince Padmé about Anakin 's turn to the dark side , Obi @-@ Wan stows aboard her ship . Padmé travels to Mustafar and implores Vader to leave the dark side . Vader refuses , and when he witnesses Obi @-@ Wan , he chokes Padmé into unconsciousness . Obi @-@ Wan duels and defeats Vader , leaving him for dead on the bank of a lava flow . On Coruscant , Yoda fights Palpatine ; their duel reaches a stalemate and Yoda flees . Palpatine , sensing that his apprentice is in danger , travels to Mustafar .
On the asteroid Polis Massa , Obi @-@ Wan regroups with Yoda and Padmé gives birth to twins , Luke and Leia , as she dies . A funeral is held for Padmé on Naboo . On Mustafar , Palpatine finds Vader badly burnt but alive . After returning to Coruscant , he rebuilds Vader 's mutilated body and outfits him in a black armored suit . Palpatine tells Vader that he killed Padmé in his anger . Meanwhile , Obi @-@ Wan and Yoda decide to hide the twins from the Sith . Yoda exiles himself to the planet Dagobah . Bail Organa adopts Leia as his own daughter and takes her to Alderaan , while Obi @-@ Wan delivers Luke to his step @-@ family Owen and Beru Lars on Tatooine , where Obi @-@ Wan intends to watch over Luke until the time is right to challenge the Empire .
= = Cast = =
Ewan McGregor as Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi : a Jedi Master and general for the Galactic Republic .
Natalie Portman as Padmé Amidala : a senator of Naboo and secretly Anakin 's wife .
Hayden Christensen as Anakin Skywalker / Darth Vader : a recently knighted Jedi hero of the Clone Wars who turns to the dark side of the Force .
Ian McDiarmid as Palpatine / Darth Sidious : the Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic who is secretly a Sith lord .
Samuel L. Jackson as Mace Windu : a senior member of the Jedi Council .
Christopher Lee as Count Dooku / Darth Tyranus : Darth Sidious ' Sith apprentice , who was selected by his master to lead the Separatists .
Anthony Daniels as C @-@ 3PO : Padmé 's personal humanoid protocol droid , created by Anakin .
Kenny Baker as R2 @-@ D2 : Anakin 's astromech droid .
Frank Oz voices Yoda : the leader of the Jedi Council .
Jimmy Smits , Peter Mayhew , Oliver Ford Davies , Ahmed Best and Silas Carson reprise their roles as Senator Bail Organa , Chewbacca , Sio Bibble , Jar Jar Binks , Nute Gunray and Ki @-@ Adi @-@ Mundi , respectively from the previous films . Joel Edgerton and Bonnie Piesse also reprise their roles as Owen Lars and Beru Lars , respectively from Attack of the Clones . Matthew Wood provides the voice of General Grievous , the fearsome cyborg commander of the Separatists ' droid army ; Temuera Morrison portrays the Clone Troopers and Commander Cody , who are clones of the bounty hunter , Jango Fett ; Bruce Spence portrays Tion Medon , local administrator of Utapau ; Jeremy Bulloch , who played Boba Fett in The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi , appears as Captain Colton , the pilot of the Rebel Blockade Runner Tantive IV , Wayne Pygram appears as a younger Grand Moff Tarkin ; and stunt coordinator Nick Gillard appears as a Jedi named Cin Drallig ( his name spelled backward , without the k ) . Editor Roger Barton 's son Aidan Barton portrays Luke Skywalker and Leia Organa as infants . James Earl Jones possibly provides the uncredited voice of Darth Vader ; when specifically asked if he had supplied the voice — either newly or from a previous recording — Jones answered , " You 'd have to ask Lucas about that . I don 't know " .
Director George Lucas cameos as Baron Papanoida , a blue @-@ faced being attending the Coruscant Opera House . Lucas ' son Jett portrays a young Jedi @-@ in @-@ training named Zett Jukassa . Lucas ' daughter Amanda appears as a character called Terr Taneel , seen in the security hologram ; while his other daughter Katie plays a blue @-@ skinned Pantoran named Chi Eekway , visible when Palpatine arrives at the Senate after being saved by the Jedi , and talking to Baron Papanoida at the Opera House ( she also has a brief speaking role in one of the deleted scenes where Padmé is meeting in secret with other senators ) . Christian Simpson appeared as a stunt double for Hayden Christensen . When Anakin , Obi @-@ Wan , and Palpatine arrive via shuttle to the Senate docks after crash landing on Coruscant , the Millennium Falcon can be seen landing on one of the lower platforms as the shuttle approaches .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Lucas stated that he conceived the Star Wars saga 's story in the form of a plot outline in 1973 . However , he later clarified that , at the time of the saga 's conception , he had not fully realized the details — only major plot points . He began working on Episode III even before the previous film , Attack of the Clones , was released , proposing to concept artists that the film would open with a montage of seven battles on seven planets . Michael Kaminski , in The Secret History of Star Wars , surmises that Lucas found flaws with Anakin 's fall to the dark side and radically re @-@ organized the plot . For instance , instead of opening the film with various Clone Wars battles , Lucas decided instead to focus on Anakin , ending the film 's first act with his killing of Count Dooku , an action that signals his descent to the dark side .
A significant number of fans speculated online about the film 's subtitle ; rumored titles included Rise of the Empire , The Creeping Fear ( which was also named as the film 's title on the official website on April Fool 's 2004 ) , and Birth of the Empire . Eventually , Revenge of the Sith also became a " guessed title " that George Lucas would later announce to be true . The title is a reference to Revenge of the Jedi , the original title of Return of the Jedi ; Lucas changed the title scant weeks before the premiere of Return of the Jedi , declaring that Jedi do not seek revenge .
Since Lucas refocused the film on Anakin , he had to sacrifice certain extraneous plot points relating to Attack of the Clones . Lucas had previously promised fans that he would explain the mystery behind the erasure of the planet Kamino from the Jedi Archives . However , Lucas abandoned this plot thread in order to devote more time to Anakin 's story , leaving the matter unresolved on film . As a compromise , Lucas permitted author James Luceno to explain the mystery of Kamino 's erasure and the origins of the Clone army in his expanded universe novel Labyrinth of Evil .
Lucas had originally planned to include even more ties to the original trilogy , and wrote early drafts of the script in which a 10 @-@ year @-@ old Han Solo appeared on Kashyyyk , but the role was not cast or shot . He also wrote a scene in which Palpatine reveals to Anakin that he created him from midichlorians , and is thus his " father " , a clear parallel to Vader 's revelation to Luke in The Empire Strikes Back , but Lucas ejected this scene as well .
After principal photography was complete in 2003 , Lucas made even more changes in Anakin 's character , sharpening Anakin 's motivations for turning to the dark side . Lucas accomplished this " rewrite " through editing the principal footage and filming new scenes during pick @-@ ups in London in 2004 . In the previous versions , Anakin had a myriad of reasons for turning to the dark side , one of which was his sincere belief that the Jedi were plotting to take over the Republic . Although this is still intact in the finished film , by revising and refilming many scenes , Lucas emphasized Anakin 's desire to save Padmé from death . Thus , in the version that made it to theatres , Anakin falls to the dark side primarily to save Padmé .
= = = Art design = = =
After the screenplay 's earliest draft was submitted , the art department began designing the various ways that each element could appear on screen .
For the Kashyyyk environment , the art department turned to the much derided Star Wars Holiday Special for inspiration . Over a period of months , Lucas would approve hundreds of designs that would eventually appear in the film . He would later rewrite entire scenes and action sequences to correspond to certain designs he had chosen . The designs were then shipped to " pre @-@ visualization " to create moving CGI versions known as " animatics " . Ben Burtt would edit these scenes with Lucas in order to previsualize what the film would look like before the scenes were even filmed . The pre @-@ visualization footage featured a basic raw CGI environment with equally unprocessed CGI characters performing a scene ( typically an action sequence ) . Steven Spielberg was also allowed to assist both the art and pre @-@ visualization department 's designs for several action sequences in Revenge of the Sith . Later , the pre @-@ visualization and art department designs were sent to the production department to begin " bringing the film out of the concept phase " by building the various sets , props and costumes . To determine the required sets , Lucas analyzed each scene with the staff to see which moments the actors would come in most contact with the set , warranting the set to be constructed .
= = = Filming = = =
Although the first scene filmed was the final scene to appear in the film ( shot during the filming of Attack of the Clones in 2000 ) , principal photography on the film occurred from June 30 , 2003 to September 17 , 2003 , with additional photography occurring at Shepperton Studios and Elstree Studios in London from August 2004 to January 31 , 2005 . The initial filming took place on sound stages at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney , although practical environments were shot as background footage later to be composited into the film . These included the limestone mountains depicting Kashyyyk , which were filmed in Phuket , Thailand ( they were later damaged by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami ) . The production company was also fortunate enough to be shooting at the same time that Mount Etna erupted in Italy . Camera crews were sent to the location to shoot several angles of the volcano that were later spliced into the background of the animatics and the final film version of the planet Mustafar .
While shooting key dramatic scenes , Lucas would often use an " A camera " and " B camera " , or the " V technique " , a process that involves shooting with two or more cameras at the same time in order to gain several angles of the same performance . Using the HD technology developed for the film , the filmmakers were able to send footage to the editors the same day it was shot , a process that would require a full 24 hours had it been shot on film . Footage featuring the planet Mustafar was given to editor Roger Barton , who was on location in Sydney , Australia cutting the climactic duel . All other footage was forwarded to lead editor Ben Burtt at Skywalker Ranch in California .
Actors Hayden Christensen and Ewan McGregor began rehearsing their climactic lightsaber duel long before Lucas would shoot it . They trained extensively with stunt coordinator Nick Gillard to memorize and perform their duel together . As in the previous two prequel films , McGregor and Christensen performed their own lightsaber fighting scenes without the use of stunt doubles . The speed at which Vader and Obi @-@ Wan engage in their duel is mostly the speed at which it was filmed , although there are instances where single frames were removed to increase the velocity of particular strikes . An example of this occurs as Obi @-@ Wan strikes down on Vader after applying an armlock in the duel 's first half .
Revenge of the Sith eventually became the first Star Wars film in which Anakin Skywalker and the suited Darth Vader were played by the same actor in the same film . As Christensen recounted , it was originally intended to simply have a " tall guy " in the Darth Vader costume , but after " begging and pleading " Christensen persuaded Lucas to have the Vader costume used in the film created specifically to fit him . The new costume featured shoe lifts and a muscle suit . It also required Christensen ( who is 6 feet 1 inch or 1 @.@ 85 metres tall ) to look through the helmet 's mouthpiece .
In 2004 , Gary Oldman was originally approached to provide the voice of General Grievous ; however , complications arose during contract negotiations after Oldman learned the film was to be made outside of the Screen Actors Guild , of which he is a member . He backed out of the role rather than violate the union 's rules . Matthew Wood , who ultimately voiced Grievous , disputed this story at Celebration III , held in Indianapolis . According to him , Oldman is a friend of producer Rick McCallum , and thus recorded an audition as a favor to him , but was not chosen . Wood , who was also the supervising sound editor , was in charge of the auditions and submitted his audition anonymously in the midst of 30 others , under the initials " A.S. " for Alan Smithee . Days later he received a phone call asking for the full name to the initials " A.S. " An internet hoax said John Rhys @-@ Davies was considered for the role .
= = = Visual effects = = =
The post @-@ production department began work during filming and continued until weeks before the film was released in 2005 . Special effects were created using almost all formats , including model work , CGI and practical effects . The same department later composited all such work into the filmed scenes — both processes taking nearly two years to complete . Revenge of the Sith has 2 @,@ 151 shots that use special effects , a world record .
As the DVD featurette Within a Minute illustrates , the film required 910 artists and 70 @,@ 441 man @-@ hours to create 49 seconds of footage for the Mustafar duel alone . Members of Hyperspace , the Official Star Wars Fan Club , received a special look into the production . Benefits included not only special articles , but they also received access to a webcam that transmitted a new image every 20 seconds during the time it was operating in Fox Studios Australia . Many times the stars , and Lucas himself , were spotted on the webcam .
= = = Deleted scenes = = =
During the process of shaping the film for its theatrical release , Lucas and his editors dropped many scenes , and even an entire subplot , from the completed film .
Lucas excised all the scenes of a group of Senators ( including Padmé , Bail Organa , and Mon Mothma ( Genevieve O 'Reilly ) ) organizing an alliance to prevent the Chancellor from receiving any more emergency powers . Though this is essentially the Rebel Alliance 's birth , the scenes were discarded to achieve more focus on Anakin 's story . The scene where Yoda arrives on Dagobah to begin his self @-@ imposed exile was also cut , but is featured in a deleted scene in the DVD release , although McCallum stated he hopes Lucas may add it to the release if Lucas releases a six @-@ episode DVD box set .
Many scenes concerning Jedi deaths during the execution of Order 66 were cut . The deaths of Barriss Offee and Luminara Unduli were either cut from the film or not filmed in the first place .
Bai Ling filmed minor scenes for the film playing a senator , but her role was cut during editing . She claimed this was because she posed for the June 2005 issue of Playboy , whose appearance on newsstands coincided with the film 's May release . Lucas denied this , stating that the cut had been made more than a year earlier , and that he had cut his own daughter 's scenes as well .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's soundtrack was released by Sony Classical on May 3 , 2005 , more than two weeks before the film 's release . The music was composed and conducted by John Williams ( who composed and conducted the score for the other six films in the Star Wars saga ) , and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra and London Voices . A music video titled A Hero Falls was created for the film 's theme , " Battle of the Heroes " , featuring footage from the film and was also available on the DVD .
The soundtrack also came with a collectors ' DVD , Star Wars : A Musical Journey , at no additional cost . The DVD , hosted by McDiarmid , features 16 music videos set to remastered selections of music from all six film scores , set chronologically through the saga . This album was chosen as one of Amazon.com 's Top 100 Editors ' Picks of 2005 ( # 83 ) .
= = Releases = =
Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith charity premieres took place in Seattle , Los Angeles , Chicago , Washington D.C. , Boston , Denver , Atlanta , San Francisco , and Miami on Thursday , May 12 , 2005 ; and on May 13 , 2005 , there were two additional charity premiere screenings in George Lucas 's hometown of Modesto.The official premiere was at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival ( out of competition ) on May 16 . Its theatrical release in most other countries took place on May 19 to coincide with the 1999 release of The Phantom Menace ( the 1977 release of A New Hope and the 1983 release of Return of the Jedi were also released on the same day and month , six years apart ) . The global outplacement firm Challenger , Gray & Christmas claimed one week before the premiere that it may have cost the U.S. economy approximately US $ 627 million in lost productivity because of employees who took a day off or reported in sick . Grauman 's Chinese Theatre , a traditional venue for the Star Wars films , did not show it . However , a line of people stood there for more than a month hoping to convince someone to change this . Most of them took advantage of an offer to see the film at a nearby cinema , ArcLight Cinemas ( formerly the " Cinerama Dome " ) . On May 16 , the Empire Cinema in London 's Leicester Square hosted a day @-@ long Star Wars marathon showing of all six films ; an army of Imperial stormtroopers " guarded " the area , and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra gave a free concert of Star Wars music .
= = = Leaked workprint = = =
A copy of the film leaked onto peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing networks just hours after opening in theaters . The film was a time @-@ stamped workprint , suggesting it may have come from within the industry rather than from someone who videotaped an advance screening . Eight people were later charged with copyright infringement and distributing material illegally . Documents filed by the Los Angeles District Attorney allege that a copy of the film was taken from an unnamed Californian post @-@ production office by an employee , who later pleaded guilty to his charges . The illegal copy was passed among seven people until reaching an eighth party , who also pleaded guilty to uploading to an unnamed P2P network .
Shortly after the above @-@ mentioned print was leaked , it was released in Shanghai as a bootleg DVD with Chinese subtitles . The unknown producer of this DVD also chose to include English subtitles , which were in fact translated back into English from the Chinese translation , rather than using the original English script . One error in translation that recurs several times in the film is that the phrase " it seems " ( 好象 ) was rendered as " good elephant " . Jedi Council becomes Presbyterian Church . The mis @-@ translation also caused the word " fuck " ( a mis @-@ translation of " work " ) to appear four times in the subtitles , and rendered Darth Vader 's cry of " Noooooooo " ( 不要 ) as " Do not want . " This last translation error would later be popularized as an internet meme .
= = = Rating = = =
Revenge of the Sith is the first Star Wars film to receive a PG @-@ 13 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) , officially for " sci @-@ fi violence and some intense images " , namely for the scene in which Darth Vader is set aflame by lava and molten rock . Lucas had stated months before the MPAA 's decision that he felt the film should receive a PG @-@ 13 rating , because of Anakin 's final moments and the film 's content being the darkest and most intense of all six films . Some critics , including Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper , later responded that children would be able to handle the film as long as they had parental guidance , hence a " PG rating " . All previously released films in the series were rated PG . The PG @-@ 13 rating had not existed when the films in the original trilogy were released ; however , the original trilogy 's films were later re @-@ submitted to the MPAA due to changes in the re @-@ released versions and once again received PG ratings . When Revenge of the Sith was released in Canada , it was given a PG rating in most provinces , excluding Quebec , where it was rated G. In the United Kingdom it received a 12A rating by the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) . In Australia , the film was rated M for mature audiences by the Australian Classification Board ( ACB ) .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD on October 31 , 2005 ( Halloween ) , in the United Kingdom , on November 1 , 2005 , in the United States and Canada and on November 3 , 2005 , in Australia . It was also released in most major territories on or near the same day . The DVD was a two @-@ disc set , with picture and sound mastered from the original digital source material .
The DVD included a number of documentaries including a new full @-@ length documentary as well as two featurettes , one which explores the prophecy of Anakin Skywalker as the Chosen One , the other looking at the film 's stunts and a 15 @-@ part collection of web @-@ documentaries from the official web site . Like the other DVD releases , included is an audio commentary track featuring Lucas , producer Rick McCallum , animation director Rob Coleman , and ILM visual effects supervisors John Knoll and Roger Guyett . Six deleted scenes were included with introductions from Lucas and McCallum . An Xbox game demo for Star Wars : Battlefront II along with a trailer for the Star Wars : Empire at War PC game was featured on the second disc .
Also , a special two @-@ pack exclusive , sold only at Wal @-@ Mart stores , included another bonus DVD , The Story of Star Wars .
This release is notable because , due to marketing issues , it was the first Star Wars film never to be released on VHS in the United States . However , the film was released on VHS in Australia , the U.K. and other countries in the world .
The DVD was re @-@ released in a prequel trilogy box set on November 4 , 2008 .
The Star Wars films were released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on Blu @-@ ray Disc on September 16 , 2011 in three different editions .
On April 7 , 2015 , Walt Disney Studios , 20th Century Fox , and Lucasfilm jointly announced the digital releases of the six released Star Wars films . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Revenge of the Sith through the iTunes Store , Amazon Video , Vudu , Google Play , and Disney Movies Anywhere on April 10 , 2015 .
= = = 3D re @-@ release = = =
On September 28 , 2010 , it was announced that all six films in the series were to be stereo @-@ converted to 3D . The films would be re @-@ released in chronological order beginning with The Phantom Menace on February 10 , 2012 . Revenge of the Sith was originally scheduled to be re @-@ released in 3D on October 11 , 2013 ( later pushed up to October 4 , 2013 ) . However , on January 28 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
in nearly every marine environment . Some species live in the coldest ocean temperatures of the hadal zone , while others can be found in the extremely hot waters adjacent to hydrothermal vents .
Within the abyssal and hadal zones , the areas around submarine hydrothermal vents and cold seeps have by far the greatest biomass and biodiversity per unit area . Fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids , these areas are often home to large and diverse communities of thermophilic , halophilic and other extremophilic prokaryotic microorganisms ( such as those of the sulfide @-@ oxidizing Beggiatoa genus ) , often arranged in large bacterial mats near cold seeps . In these locations , chemosynthetic archaea and bacteria typically form the base of the food chain . Although the process of chemosynthesis is entirely microbial , these chemosynthetic microorganisms often support vast ecosystems consisting of complex multicellular organisms through symbiosis . These communities are characterized by species such as vesicomyid clams , mytilid mussels , limpets , isopods , giant tube worms , soft corals , eelpouts , galatheid crabs , and alvinocarid shrimp . The deepest seep community discovered thus far is located in the Japan Trench , at a depth of 7700 meters .
Probably the most important ecological characteristic of abyssal ecosystems is energy limitation . Abyssal seafloor communities are considered to be food limited because benthic production depends on the input of detrital organic material produced in the euphotic zone , thousands of meters above . Most of the organic flux arrives as an attenuated rain of small particles ( typically , only 0 @.@ 5 – 2 % of net primary production in the euphotic zone ) , which decreases inversely with water depth . The small particle flux can be augmented by the fall of larger carcasses and downslope transport of organic material near continental margins .
= = Exploitation of resources = =
In addition to their high biodiversity , abyssal plains are of great current and future commercial and strategic interest . For example , they may be used for the legal and illegal disposal of large structures such as ships and oil rigs , radioactive waste and other hazardous waste , such as munitions . They may also be attractive sites for deep @-@ sea fishing , and extraction of oil and gas and other minerals . Future deep @-@ sea waste disposal activities that could be significant by 2025 include emplacement of sewage and sludge , carbon @-@ dioxide sequestration , and disposal of dredge spoils .
As fish stocks dwindle in the upper ocean , deep @-@ sea fisheries are increasingly being targeted for exploitation . Because deep sea fish are long @-@ lived and slow growing , these deep @-@ sea fisheries are not thought to be sustainable in the long term given current management practices . Changes in primary production in the photic zone are expected to alter the standing stocks in the food @-@ limited aphotic zone .
Hydrocarbon exploration in deep water occasionally results in significant environmental degradation resulting mainly from accumulation of contaminated drill cuttings , but also from oil spills . While the oil gusher involved in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico originates from a wellhead only 1500 meters below the ocean surface , it nevertheless illustrates the kind of environmental disaster that can result from mishaps related to offshore drilling for oil and gas .
Sediments of certain abyssal plains contain abundant mineral resources , notably polymetallic nodules . These potato @-@ sized concretions of manganese , iron , nickel , cobalt , and copper , distributed on the seafloor at depths of greater than 4000 meters , are of significant commercial interest . The area of maximum commercial interest for polymetallic nodule mining ( called the Pacific nodule province ) lies in international waters of the Pacific Ocean , stretching from 118 ° – 157 ° , and from 9 ° – 16 ° N , an area of more than 3 million km ² . The abyssal Clarion @-@ Clipperton Fracture Zone ( CCFZ ) is an area within the Pacific nodule province that is currently under exploration for its mineral potential .
Eight commercial contractors are currently licensed by the International Seabed Authority ( an intergovernmental organization established to organize and control all mineral @-@ related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction ) to explore nodule resources and to test mining techniques in eight claim areas , each covering 150 @,@ 000 km ² . When mining ultimately begins , each mining operation is projected to directly disrupt 300 – 800 km ² of seafloor per year and disturb the benthic fauna over an area 5 – 10 times that size due to redeposition of suspended sediments . Thus , over the 15 @-@ year projected duration of a single mining operation , nodule mining might severely damage abyssal seafloor communities over areas of 20 @,@ 000 to 45 @,@ 000 km ² ( a zone at least the size of Massachusetts ) .
Limited knowledge of the taxonomy , biogeography and natural history of deep sea communities prevents accurate assessment of the risk of species extinctions from large @-@ scale mining . Data acquired from the abyssal North Pacific and North Atlantic suggest that deep @-@ sea ecosystems may be adversely affected by mining operations on decadal time scales . In 1978 , a dredge aboard the Hughes Glomar Explorer , operated by the American mining consortium Ocean Minerals Company ( OMCO ) , made a mining track at a depth of 5000 meters in the nodule fields of the CCFZ . In 2004 , the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea ( IFREMER ) conducted the Nodinaut expedition to this mining track ( which is still visible on the seabed ) to study the long @-@ term effects of this physical disturbance on the sediment and its benthic fauna . Samples taken of the superficial sediment revealed that its physical and chemical properties had not shown any recovery since the disturbance made 26 years earlier . On the other hand , the biological activity measured in the track by instruments aboard the manned submersible bathyscaphe Nautile did not differ from a nearby unperturbed site . This data suggests that the benthic fauna and nutrient fluxes at the water – sediment interface has fully recovered .
= = List of abyssal plains = =
= Did I Stutter ? =
" Did I Stutter ? " is the 16th episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's sixty @-@ ninth episode overall . Written by Brent Forrester and Justin Spitzer , and directed by Randall Einhorn , the episode first aired in the United States on May 1 , 2008 on NBC .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is shocked when Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) yells at him , and is unsure how to handle the situation . Michael tries to assert his power over Stanley , by pretending to fire him , but that only makes matters worse . The two eventually end up alone in the office . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) receives a warning about his job performance , Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) is forced to wear her glasses , and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) buys Andy Bernard 's ( Ed Helms ) car .
Originally , episode writers Justin Spitzer and Brent Forrester were supposed to write two separate episodes . However , the effects of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike forced the two to share an episode . " Did I Stutter ? " contained several pop culture references . It received largely positive reviews from critics , who praised the interaction between Carell and Baker . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 9 in the 18 – 49 demographic , being viewed by 7 @.@ 76 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) calls an emergency meeting asking everyone to come up with an idea to " re @-@ invigorate " the office . Michael asks Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) for ideas , but Stanley is preoccupied with a crossword puzzle and says he 's busy . Michael keeps asking him , and Stanley finally snaps at Michael , and says the titular " Did I stutter ? " in a very loud , threatening tone . Michael , who is visibly shaken , ends the meeting . Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) encourages Michael to take disciplinary action against Stanley , and Michael , initially resistant , decides to pretend to fire him to teach him a lesson . Michael first tells everyone in the office that he is not really firing him , and does so in front of all of them . Stanley responds by threatening to sue him and tell corporate of Michael 's antics . When Michael tells Stanley that the firing was actually an attempt at teaching him a lesson , Stanley is angered and goes on a rant , yelling and insulting Michael . Michael suddenly barks at him to stop it , and tells everyone to leave the office , making everyone think he 's about to berate Stanley . The camera crew sneak back in to film the exchange , where Michael tearfully ( much to Stanley 's annoyance ) but calmly asks Stanley why he picks on him . Stanley states that he simply does not respect him , and when Michael suggests that Stanley doesn 't know him very well he replies " Michael , I 've known you for a very long time . And the more I 've gotten to know you , the less I 've come to respect you . " Michael then takes an uncharacteristically professional tone with Stanley , and says that , while he accepts that Stanley doesn 't respect him , he can 't take such a disrespectful tone with him , because he is his boss . Stanley responds by saying , " Fair enough , " and the two shake hands .
Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , after spending the night at " a friend 's " ( Jim 's ) house , forgot her contact lens solution , so she must wear her glasses all day . She finds it difficult to handle Michael 's criticism and Kevin 's sexual advances , and spends the rest of the day without her glasses , reducing her productivity . Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) comes to Dunder Mifflin 's Scranton branch , and after a talk with Toby , Ryan tells Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) that he is giving him an official warning about his job performance . Ryan denies that his action is motivated by Jim 's previous complaints to David Wallace , saying he thrives on constructive criticism ( while Toby 's comments to the documentary crew indicate he 's not upset about the warning , owing to his envy of Jim 's relationship with Pam ) . Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) is selling his 2001 Nissan Xterra for $ 8 @,@ 700 , and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) pressures him into selling it for $ 1 @,@ 500 less than the asking price , because according to Dwight , " ( the ) car is crap " . Dwight assures Andy that he will only use it as a wagon and dragged by a mule on Dwight 's beet farm . Andy then sells it to Dwight , who , in a passive @-@ aggressive method of getting back at him for dating Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) , washes it and posts a sign asking for $ 9 @,@ 995 for the vehicle , which upsets Andy when he finds Dwight 's advertisement posted on the cabinet in the office kitchen . Dwight declares that it is already on Ebay which he claims is the subject of a three @-@ way bidding war .
= = Production = =
The episode was the fourth episode of the series directed by Randall Einhorn . Einhorn had previously directed the third season episodes " Initiation " , " Ben Franklin " and " Product Recall " , as well as the ten summer webisodes " The Accountants " . It was Einhorn 's idea to show the cameramen sneaking back into the office after Michael told everyone to leave . This aspect of the episode was praised by fans as wells as the cast and crew . Brent Forrester , the co @-@ writer of the episode , noted that Einhorn 's " energy doubled when shooting that " scene .
" Did I Stutter ? " was written by Justin Spitzer and Brent Forrester . Although the two writers initially planned to write separate episodes , the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike forced the two to share an episode . Forrester and Spitzer initially disagreed about what the episode 's title should be . Forrester wanted to name it " Did I Stutter ? " — a phrase popularized by Judd Nelson 's character Bender in the 1985 film The Breakfast Club — while Spitzer wanted a name like " The Reprimand " or " Insubordination " . Gene Stupnitsky and Lee Eisenberg wrote the scenes featuring Andy and Angela playing Mad Libs . Justin Spitzer called the sequence " amazing " .
In the opening scene in which Michael puts his face in cement , the wet cement that was used was actually putty . The crew was planning to do only one take of Steve Carell putting his face in the putty , so he was instructed to hold his breath as long as he possibly could . But the crew forgot to tell the other actors about that , so during the filming of the scene , the actors thought he was actually stuck and there was a rush to pull him out . Kim M. Ferry , owner of the Nissan Xterra featured in the episode , is the show 's Department Head Hairstylist . After it was used on the show , she decided to sell it on eBay . The listing was first put up on eBay on May 1 , 2008 , the night the episode aired .
The Season Four DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael trying to convince Jim , Pam , and Kelly , while they are in the break room having lunch that Stanley talks badly about everyone behind their backs , Michael making Pam stand up during the meeting and confessing that she wears glasses , Jim talking to Toby about the warning ( in contrast to how Toby seems happy that Jim is getting in trouble during the broadcast episode , here the HR head makes it clear that Jim 's sales performance is good and that Ryan is the sole person who isn 't happy with his work ) , and Ryan saying that " going after Jim " is " a risky move " , since CFO David Wallace likes Jim .
= = Cultural references = =
Andy and Angela play Mad Libs , a phrasal template word game where one player prompts another for a list of words to substitute for blanks in a story , usually with funny results . Ryan chides Jim for being a fan of the Philadelphia Eagles , a professional American football team . While Daryl is telling Michael how gang members deal with problems , he mentions that he was a member of the Newsies ( the name of a 1992 musical drama ) and The Warriors ( the gang in the 1979 cult action film of the same name ) . Near the end of the episode , Michael does a succession of comedian impressions . These include badly performed spoofs of Rodney Dangerfield , Henny Youngman , Jeff Foxworthy , Sacha Baron Cohen as Borat , and Jerry Seinfeld .
= = Reception = =
" Did I Stutter ? " originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 1 , 2008 . The episode received 3 @.@ 9 / 10 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . This means that 3 @.@ 9 percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and ten percent had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 67 million viewers .
The episode was highly acclaimed by critics , with many praising the performance from Leslie David Baker . Nathan Rabin of the A.V. Club gave the episode an " A " , citing the dynamic between Michael and Stanley as its main strengths . He was also complimentary towards the cold opening and the realistic way in which Michael and Stanley 's confrontation was filmed . Ultimately , Rabin concluded that the interaction between Carell and Baker was reason to " love the Stanley / Michael dynamic " and that the episode " was all about rage and conflict " . M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A – " .
Rick Porter of Zap2It said that even though " it ( the episode ) was long on uncomfortable and even disturbing behavior " and " only out @-@ and @-@ out funny in a few spots " he found himself " respecting it a fair amount at the end " . BuddyTV Senior Writer Oscar Dahl said that " the insubordination of Stanley was a necessary plot point to cover " because " without it , too much Stanley being Stanley becomes unbelievable " . Furthermore , he wrote that there " was a lot of really funny stuff tonight " and highlighted " the scene between Darryl and Michael " due to Robinson 's acting . Aubry D 'Arminio from Entertainment Weekly stated that " Mike 's embarrassment , and his unwillingness at first to admit he is disliked , was very very well played on Carell 's part . " Furthermore , D 'Arminio praised several of the episode 's lines of dialogue and wrote " I cannot even come near to picking a favorite quote [ ... ] for this episode "
= Gwen Stefani =
Gwen Renée Stefani ( / stəˈfɑːni / ; born October 3 , 1969 ) is an American singer , songwriter , fashion designer , and actress . She is the co @-@ founder and lead vocalist of the rock band No Doubt . During the band 's hiatus , Stefani embarked on a solo career in 2004 by releasing her debut studio album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . Inspired by pop music from the 1980s , the album was met with both critical and commercial success . It spawned three major worldwide hit singles : " What You Waiting For ? , " " Rich Girl , " and " Hollaback Girl , " the latter becoming the first US download to sell one million copies . In 2006 Stefani released her second studio album The Sweet Escape . The album produced two successful singles : " Wind It Up " and the album 's title track " The Sweet Escape . " Including her work with No Doubt , Stefani has sold more than 30 million albums worldwide . Her third solo album This Is What the Truth Feels Like was released in March 2016 and became her first solo number one album on the Billboard 200 .
Stefani has won three Grammy Awards . As a solo artist , she has received several accolades , including a World Music Award , an American Music Award , a Brit Award , and two Billboard Music Awards . In 2003 , she debuted her clothing line L.A.M.B. and expanded her collection with the 2005 Harajuku Lovers line , drawing inspiration from Japanese culture and fashion . Stefani performs and makes public appearances with four back @-@ up dancers known as the Harajuku Girls . She was married to British musician Gavin Rossdale from 2002 to 2015 and they have three sons . Billboard magazine ranked Stefani the 54th most successful artist and 37th most successful Hot 100 artist of the 2000 – 09 decade . VH1 ranked her 13th on their " 100 Greatest Women in Music " list in 2012 .
= = Early life = =
Stefani was born on October 3 , 1969 , in Fullerton , California , and raised Roman Catholic in Anaheim , California . She was named after a stewardess in the 1968 novel Airport , and her middle name , Renée , comes from The Four Tops ' 1968 cover of The Left Banke 's 1966 hit song " Walk Away Renée " . Her father , Dennis Stefani , is Italian American and worked as a Yamaha marketing executive . Her mother is Patti ( née Flynn ) . descent , and worked as an accountant before becoming a housewife . Gwen 's parents were fans of folk music and exposed her to music by artists like Bob Dylan and Emmylou Harris . She is the second oldest of four children : she has a younger sister , Jill ; a younger brother , Todd ; and an older brother , Eric . Eric was the keyboardist for No Doubt , but left the band to pursue a career in animation on The Simpsons .
= = Career = =
= = = 1986 – 2004 : No Doubt = = =
Her brother Eric introduced Gwen to 2 Tone music by Madness and The Selecter , and in 1986 , he invited her to provide vocals for No Doubt , a ska band he was forming . Finally , in 1991 , the band was signed to Interscope Records . The band released its self @-@ titled debut album in 1992 , but its ska @-@ pop sound was unsuccessful due to the popularity of grunge . Before the mainstream success of both No Doubt and Sublime , Stefani contributed guest vocals to " Saw Red " on Sublime 's 1994 album Robbin ' the Hood . Stefani rejected the aggressiveness of female grunge artists and cited Blondie singer Debbie Harry 's combination of power and sex appeal as a major influence . No Doubt 's third album , Tragic Kingdom ( 1995 ) , which followed the self @-@ released The Beacon Street Collection ( 1995 ) , took more than three years to make . Five singles were released from Tragic Kingdom ' , including " Don 't Speak , " which led the Hot 100 Airplay year @-@ end chart of 1997 . Stefani left college for one semester to tour for Tragic Kingdom but did not return when touring lasted two and a half years . The album sold more than 16 million copies worldwide , and received several Grammy Award nominations in 1997 and 1998 . In late 2000 , Rolling Stone magazine named her " The Queen of Confessional Pop . "
During the time when No Doubt was receiving mainstream success , Stefani collaborated on the singles " You 're the Boss " with the Brian Setzer Orchestra , " South Side " with Moby , and " Let Me Blow Ya Mind " with Eve . No Doubt released the less popular Return of Saturn in 2000 , which expanded upon the new wave influences of Tragic Kingdom . Most of the lyrical content focused on Stefani 's often rocky relationship with then @-@ Bush frontman Gavin Rossdale and her overall insecurities , including indecision on settling down and having a child . The band 's 2001 album , Rock Steady , explored more reggae and dancehall sounds , while maintaining the band 's new wave influences , and generally received positive reviews . The album generated career @-@ highest singles chart positions in the United States , and " Hey Baby " and " Underneath It All " received Grammy Awards . A greatest hits collection , The Singles 1992 – 2003 , which includes a cover of Talk Talk 's " It 's My Life " , was released in 2003 to moderate sales . In 2002 , Eve and Stefani won a Grammy Award for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " Let Me Blow Ya Mind " .
= = = 2004 – 06 : Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and acting debut = = =
Stefani 's debut solo album Love . Angel . Music . Baby. was released in November 2004 . The album features a large number of collaborations with producers and other artists , including Tony Kanal , Tom Rothrock , Linda Perry , André 3000 , Nellee Hooper , The Neptunes and New Order . Stefani created the album to modernize the music to which she listened when in high school , and L.A.M.B. takes influence from a variety of music styles of the 1980s and early 1990s such as new wave , synthpop and electro . Stefani 's decision to use her solo career as an opportunity to delve further into pop music instead of trying " to convince the world of [ her ] talent , depth and artistic worth " was considered unusual . As a result , reviews of the album were mixed , and it was described as " fun as hell but [ ... ] not exactly rife with subversive social commentary . " The album debuted on the US Billboard 200 albums chart at number seven , selling 309 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . L.A.M.B. was a commercial success reaching multi @-@ platinum status in the United States , the United Kingdom , Australia , and Canada . At the 2005 Grammy Awards , Stefani was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for " What You Waiting For ? " , and at the next year 's awards , Stefani received five nominations for Album of the Year , Record of the Year , Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , Best Pop Vocal Album , and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration .
The first single released from the album was " What You Waiting For ? " , which debuted atop the ARIA Singles Chart , charted at number 47 on the US and reached the top ten on most other charts . The song served to explain why Stefani produced a solo album and discusses her fears in leaving No Doubt for a solo career as well as her desire to have a baby . " Rich Girl " was released as the album 's second single . A duet with rapper Eve , and produced by Dr. Dre , it is an adaptation of a 1990s pop song by British musicians Louchie Lou & Michie One , which itself is a very loose cover lyrically but closer melodically of " If I Were a Rich Man " , from the musical Fiddler on the Roof . " Rich Girl " proved successful on several formats , and reached the US and UK top ten . The albums third single " Hollaback Girl " became Stefani 's first US and second Australian number @-@ one single ; it reached top ten elsewhere . The song was the first US music download to sell more than one million copies , and its brass @-@ driven composition remained popular throughout 2005 . The fourth single " Cool " was released shortly following the popularity of its predecessor , reaching the top 20 in US and UK . The song 's lyrics and its accompanying music video , filmed in Lake Como , Italy , depict Stefani 's former relationship with Kanal . " Luxurious " was released as the album 's fifth single , but did not perform as well as its predecessors . " Crash " was released in early 2006 as the album 's sixth single in lieu of Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ' s sequel , which Stefani postponed because of her pregnancy .
In 2004 , Stefani showed interest in making film appearances and began auditioning for films such as Mr. & Mrs. Smith . She made her acting debut playing Jean Harlow in Martin Scorsese 's The Aviator in 2004 . Scorsese , whose daughter was a No Doubt fan , showed reciprocal interest in casting Stefani after seeing her picture from a Marilyn Monroe @-@ inspired photo shoot for Teen Vogue in 2003 . To prepare for the role , Stefani read two biographies and watched 18 of Harlow 's films . Shooting her part took four to five days , and Stefani had few lines . Stefani lent her voice to the title character of the 2004 video game Malice ; before completion , however , the company opted not to use No Doubt band members ' voices .
= = = 2006 – 08 : The Sweet Escape = = =
Stefani 's second studio album , The Sweet Escape , was recorded by Guy Charbonneau 's Le Mobile Remote Recording Studio and released in December 2006 . Stefani recollaborated with Kanal , Perry , and The Neptunes , along with Akon and Tim Rice @-@ Oxley from English rock band Keane . The album focuses more heavily on electronic and dance music for clubs than its predecessor . Stefani commented that it differed from L.A.M.B. because " I just wasn 't inspired to do another album and ... I was a lot more relaxed making it . " Its release coincided with the DVD release of Stefani 's first tour , entitled Harajuku Lovers Live . The album received mixed reviews by critics , who found that it " has a surprisingly moody , lightly autobiographical feel ... [ but ] Stefani isn 't convincing as a dissatisfied diva " and called the album a " hasty return " that repeats Love . Angel . Music . Baby. with less energy .
" Wind It Up " , the album 's lead single , received mixed reviews by critics for its use of yodeling and an interpolation of The Sound of Music , but was moderately successful , peaking inside the top 10 in the US and the UK . The title track was well received and was a major hit , reaching the top 10 in over 15 nations , including number two peaks in the US , Australia and the UK . To promote The Sweet Escape , Stefani was a mentor on the sixth season of American Idol and performed the song with Akon . The song earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals . Three more singles were released from the album ; " 4 in the Morning " , " Now That You Got It " which featured Damian Marley and " Early Winter " . To promote the album , Stefani embarked on a worldwide tour , The Sweet Escape Tour , which covered North America , Europe , Asia and the Pacific and part of Latin America . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly on June 6 , 2011 , Stefani stated that she had no plans to continue work as a solo artist , adding , " That was a moment in time [ ... ] It went on a little longer than we all thought it would , because it was inspired and you have to go with wherever you 're at in that time in your life ... [ But ] everything works out how it should . "
= = = 2008 – 13 : Return to No Doubt = = =
With Stefani promoting The Sweet Escape , No Doubt began work on a new album without her and planned to complete it after Stefani 's The Sweet Escape Tour was finished . In March 2008 , the band started making posts concerning the progression of the album on their official fan forum . Stefani made a post on March 28 , 2008 stating that songwriting had commenced but was slow on her end because she was , at the time , pregnant with her second child . The Singles 1992 – 2003 became available on December 9 , 2008 for the video game Rock Band 2 . Adrian Young played drums on Scott Weiland 's album " Happy " in Galoshes . No Doubt announced on their official website they wanted to tour in 2009 while finishing their upcoming album , which was set for release in 2010 . On November 24 , 2008 , it was announced that No Doubt would be headlining the Bamboozle 2009 festival in May , along with Fall Out Boy . The band completed a national tour in the summer of 2009 . In 2010 , they resumed writing their record , which was later recorded in 2011 .
On June 11 , 2012 , the band announced on their official website that the new album would be out on September 25 , preceded by the first single in July 16 . The album was titled Push and Shove and the first single was a song called " Settle Down " . The music video for " Settle Down " was directed by Sophie Muller ( who has previously directed numerous music videos for No Doubt ) . Also around this time No Doubt were guest mentors for the UK version of the X Factor . " Settle Down " peaked at 34 on the Billboard Hot 100 with the album peaking at number three on the US Billboard 200 . On November 3 , 2012 , the band pulled its music video " Looking Hot " from the Internet after receiving complaints that it was insensitive towards Native Americans . In October 2013 , Tom revealed on social networking site Twitter that the band were once again on hiatus , also hinting that the band would regroup in 2014 .
= = = 2014 – present : The Voice and This Is What the Truth Feels Like = = =
On April 12 , 2014 , Stefani made a surprise appearance at the Coachella festival , where she joined Pharrell Williams onstage during his set to perform " Hollaback Girl " . She and Williams were coaches for season 7 of The Voice . After nine years since the last time , she attended the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards , and during an interview on the red carpet she said , " I didn 't know I was gonna have a baby , I didn 't know I was gonna be on The Voice , I didn 't know I was gonna be writing new music , so I 'm just like , what 's gonna be next ? " . Stefani appears as a featured artist on " My Heart Is Open " , co @-@ written by Sia Furler , from Maroon 5 's V , which was performed for the first time with Adam Levine and an orchestra at the 2015 Grammy Awards . Gwen also appeared on " Together " , from Calvin Harris ' Motion . Both albums were released in 2014 . A collaboration with Snoop Dogg , entitled " Run Away " , was released on his 2015 studio album , Bush .
On September 8 , 2014 , Stefani told MTV News during New York Fashion Week that she was working on both a No Doubt album and a solo album . She also revealed that she was working with Williams . Stefani released her comeback single " Baby Don 't Lie " on October 20 , 2014 , co @-@ written with producers Ryan Tedder , Benny Blanco , and Noel Zancanella . Billboard magazine revealed that her third studio album was set to be released in December and Benny Blanco is set to executive produce it . In late October , a sneak peek of a new track from Stefani 's third album , named " Spark the Fire " , was premiered . The song was produced by Pharrell Williams . On November 23 , the full song was uploaded online and was made available for download on December 1 . Both " Baby Don 't Lie " and " Spark the Fire " were later scrapped from Stefanis third album . On January 13 , 2015 , Stefani and Williams also recorded a song titled " Shine " , for the Paddington soundtrack . Stefani and Sia Furler worked together on a ballad , called " Start a War " that is expected to be released on Stefani 's third studio album as well . On July 10 , 2015 , American rapper Eminem featured Stefani on his single " Kings Never Die " , from the Southpaw soundtrack . The track debuted and peaked at # 80 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart .
On October 17 , 2015 , Stefani performed a one @-@ night concert at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City , where she performed a new song , reportedly about her breakup with ex @-@ husband Gavin Rossdale , titled " Used to Love You " . It was released as a download on October 20 , 2015 . The video was released later that same day . The song was released to Mainstream radio in the U.S. on October 27 , 2015 . The track is the first official single off her third solo album This Is What the Truth Feels Like , which she has been working on since summer 2015 . Stefani said much of the previous material she worked on in 2014 felt forced and inauthentic , while the songs written since she returned to the studio in June 2015 were more natural and better described where she was in her life . The album 's second single , " Make Me Like You " , was released on February 12 , 2016 . This Is What the Truth Feels Like was released on March 18 , 2015 and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , it was Stefanis first number one album in the US as a solo artist . To further promote the album , Stefani will embark on her This Is What the Truth Feels Like Tour with rapper Eve in the United States .
= = Other ventures = =
Stefani made most of the clothing that she wore on stage with No Doubt , resulting in increasingly eclectic combinations . Stylist Andrea Lieberman introduced her to haute couture clothing , which led to Stefani launching a fashion line named L.A.M.B. in 2004 . The line takes influence from a variety of fashions , including Guatemalan , Japanese , and Jamaican styles . The line achieved popularity among celebrities and is worn by stars such as Teri Hatcher , Nicole Kidman , and Stefani herself . In June 2005 , she expanded her collection with the less expensive Harajuku Lovers line , which she referred to as " a glorified merchandise line " , with varied products including a camera , mobile phone charms , and undergarments . In late 2006 , Stefani released a limited edition line of dolls called " Love . Angel . Music . Baby . Fashion dolls " . The dolls are inspired by the various fashion that Stefani and the Harajuku Girls wore while touring for the album .
In 2014 , Stefani announced she is producing an animated series about her and the Harajuku Girls . Along with Vision Animation and Moody Street Kids , Stefani has helped create the show which features her , Love , Angel , Music , and Baby as the band , HJ5 , who fight evil whilst trying to pursue their music career . Mattel have signed on as the global toy licensee . Kuukuu Harajuku will be distributed worldwide by DHX Media .
In late summer 2007 , Stefani launched a perfume , L , as a part of her L.A.M.B. collection of clothing and accessories . The perfume has high notes of sweet pea and rose . In September 2008 , Stefani released a fragrance line as a part of her Harajuku Lovers product line . There are five different fragrances based on the four Harajuku Girls and Stefani herself called Love , Lil ' Angel , Music , Baby and G ( Gwen ) . As of January 2011 , Stefani has become the spokesperson for L 'Oréal Paris .
= = Personal life = =
Soon after Stefani joined No Doubt , she and bandmate Tony Kanal began dating . Stefani stated that she was heavily invested in the relationship , commenting that " ... all I ever did was look at Tony and pray that God would let me have a baby with him . " During this time , the band almost split up because of the failed romantic relationship between Stefani and Kanal . Kanal ended the relationship . Their break @-@ up inspired Stefani lyrically , and many of the album 's songs , such as " Don 't Speak " , " Sunday Morning " , and " Hey You " , chronicle the ups and downs of their relationship .
During mid @-@ 1995 , No Doubt and rock band Goo Goo Dolls went on tour opening for alternative rock band Bush . Stefani met Bush guitarist and lead singer Gavin Rossdale . They married on September 14 , 2002 , with a wedding in St Paul 's , Covent Garden , London . A second wedding was held in Los Angeles two weeks later . According to Stefani , it was held so that she could wear her custom @-@ designed wedding dress by John Galliano twice .
Stefani has three sons with Rossdale ; Kingston James McGregor Rossdale born on May 26 , 2006 , Zuma Nesta Rock Rossdale born on August 21 , 2008 , and Apollo Bowie Flynn Rossdale born February 28 , 2014 . On August 3 , 2015 , Stefani filed for divorce from Rossdale , citing " irreconcilable differences " . The divorce was finalized in October 2015 . On November 4 , 2015 , Stefani and her The Voice co @-@ star , country music artist Blake Shelton , announced that they were dating .
= = Artistry = =
Stefani possesses a mezzo @-@ soprano , which can span three octaves . Stefani 's unusual and dynamic vocals have been noted for their " deep vibrato " and Stefani has been described as having a " unique vocal prowess " . The Chicago Tribune stated that Stefani had a " brash alto . " In the single " Cool " , her vocal range covers around one and a half octaves . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times joked that as Stefani grew as a musician , she kicked her " addiction " to vibrato . Stefani received five nominations at the 2006 Grammy Awards , including Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Best Pop Vocal Album .
Stefani 's debut album Love . Angel . Music . Baby. took influence from a variety of 1980s genres Which included electropop , new wave , dance @-@ rock , hip hop , R & B , soul , and disco music . Stefani cited early Madonna , Lisa Lisa , Club Nouveau , Depeche Mode , Prince , New Order and The Cure as major influences for the album . Her second studio album The Sweet Escape resembles musically its predecessor while exploring more modern pop sounds , dabbling heavily into genres such as dance @-@ pop , electropop , and rap .
Stefani 's work has influenced a number of new artists including Best Coast , Hayley Williams , Rihanna , Katy Perry , Marina and the Diamonds , Cover Drive , Sky Ferreira , and Rita Ora .
= = Public image = =
Stefani began wearing a bindi in the mid @-@ 1990s after attending several family gatherings for Tony Kanal , who is of Indian heritage . During No Doubt 's breakthrough , Stefani wore the forehead decoration in several of the band 's music videos and briefly popularized the accessory in 1997 . First attracting attention in the 1995 music video for " Just a Girl " , Stefani is known for her midriff and frequently wears shirts that expose it . Stefani 's makeup design generally includes light face powder , bright red lipstick , and arched eyebrows ; she wrote about the subject in a song titled " Magic 's in the Makeup " for No Doubt 's Return of Saturn , asking " If the magic 's in the makeup / Then who am I ? " . Stefani is a natural brunette , though her hair has not been its natural color since she was in ninth grade . Since late 1994 , she has had usually platinum blond hair . Stefani discussed this in the song " Platinum Blonde Life " on Rock Steady and played original blond bombshell Jean Harlow in the 2004 biopic The Aviator . Despite appearing mostly with blonde hair , she also dyed her hair blue in 1998 and pink in 2000 , notably appearing on the cover of Return of Saturn with pink hair .
In 2006 , Stefani modified her image , inspired by that of Michelle Pfeiffer 's character in the 1983 film Scarface . The reinvented image included a symbol consisting of two back @-@ to @-@ back ' G 's , which appears on a diamond @-@ encrusted key she wears on a necklace and which became a motif in the promotion of The Sweet Escape . Stefani raised concerns in January 2007 about her rapid weight loss following her pregnancy . She stated she lost the weight through diet and exercise but admitted to obsessing over her weight due to the size zero trend . She later stated that she had been on a diet since the sixth grade to fit in size 4 clothing , commenting , " It 's an ongoing battle and it 's a nightmare . But I like clothes too much , and I always wanted to wear the outfits I would make . " A wax figure of Stefani was unveiled at Madame Tussauds Las Vegas at The Venetian on September 22 , 2010 . The release of Stefani 's first solo album brought attention to her entourage of four Harajuku Girls , who appear in outfits influenced by Gothic Lolita fashion , and are named for the area around the Harajuku Station of Tokyo , Japan . Stefani 's clothing also took influence from Japanese fashion , in a style described as a combination between Christian Dior and Japan . The dancers are featured in her music videos , press coverage , and on the album cover for Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , with a song named for and dedicated to them on the album . They were also featured in , and the namesake for , Stefani 's Harajuku Lovers Tour . Forbes magazine reported Stefani 's earnings in 2008 , calculating that she earned $ 27 million between June 2007 to June 2008 for her tour , fashion line and commercials , making her the world 's 10th highest paid music personality at the time .
= = Awards and accolades = =
As a solo artist , Gwen has won several music awards , including one Grammy Award , four MTV Video Music Awards , one American Music Award , one Brit Award , and two Billboard Music Awards . With No Doubt , she has won two Grammy Awards . In 2005 , Rolling Stone called her " the only true female rock star left on radio or MTV " and featured her on the magazine 's cover . Stefani received the Style Icon Award at the first People Magazine Awards in 2014 .
= = Philanthropy = =
Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , Stefani donated $ 1 million to Save the Children 's Japan Earthquake – Tsunami Children in Emergency Fund . Stefani also ran an auction on eBay from April 11 to April 25 , 2011 , allowing participants to bid on vintage clothing items from her personal wardrobe and custom T @-@ shirts designed and signed by her , as well as on admission to a private Harajuku @-@ themed tea party hosted by her on June 7 , 2011 at Los Angeles ' first @-@ ever Japanese @-@ style maid café and pop art space , Royal / T , with proceeds from the auction going to Save the Children 's relief effort .
At the amfAR gala during the 2011 Cannes Film Festival , Stefani auctioned off the lacy black dress she wore at the event for charity , raising over $ 125 @,@ 000 . The dress sparked controversy after a representative for designer Michael Angel — who helped Stefani with the design and worked as a stylist — alleged that it was Angel who created the gown , not Stefani . In response , Angel released a statement confirming that the dress was designed by Stefani for L.A.M.B. to wear and be auctioned off at the amfAR gala , adding , " I 'm disappointed that the focus has shifted away from what Gwen and I originally intended , which was to create a custom outfit for a great cause . We both were thrilled with the outcome and enjoyed the process . I have nothing but respect for her and look forward to working with her on more projects in the future . " Stefani hosted a fundraiser with First Lady Michelle Obama in August 2012 at the singer 's Beverly Hills home .
= = Discography = =
Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 )
The Sweet Escape ( 2006 )
This Is What the Truth Feels Like ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Harajuku Lovers Tour ( 2005 )
The Sweet Escape Tour ( 2007 )
MasterCard Priceless Surprises Presents Gwen Stefani ( 2015 – 16 )
This Is What the Truth Feels Like Tour ( 2016 )
= = Filmography = =
= We Can Do It ! =
" We Can Do It ! " is an American wartime propaganda poster produced by J. Howard Miller in 1943 for Westinghouse Electric as an inspirational image to boost worker morale .
The poster was seen very little during World War II . It was rediscovered in the early 1980s and widely reproduced in many forms , often called " We Can Do It ! " but also called " Rosie the Riveter " after the iconic figure of a strong female war production worker . The " We Can Do It ! " image was used to promote feminism and other political issues beginning in the 1980s . The image made the cover of the Smithsonian magazine in 1994 and was fashioned into a US first @-@ class mail stamp in 1999 . It was incorporated in 2008 into campaign materials for several American politicians , and was reworked by an artist in 2010 to celebrate the first woman becoming prime minister of Australia . The poster is one of the ten most @-@ requested images at the National Archives and Records Administration .
After its rediscovery , observers often assumed that the image was always used as a call to inspire women workers to join the war effort . However , during the war the image was strictly internal to Westinghouse , displayed only during February 1943 , and was not for recruitment but to exhort already @-@ hired women to work harder . Feminists and others have seized upon the uplifting attitude and apparent message to remake the image into many different forms , including self empowerment , campaign promotion , advertising , and parodies .
After she saw the Smithsonian cover image in 1994 , Geraldine Hoff Doyle said that she was the subject of the poster . Doyle thought that she had also been captured in a wartime photograph of a woman factory worker , and she innocently assumed that this photo inspired Miller 's poster . Conflating her as " Rosie the Riveter " , Doyle was honored by many organizations including the Michigan Women 's Historical Center and Hall of Fame . However , in 2015 , the woman in the wartime photograph was identified as 20 @-@ year @-@ old Naomi Parker , working in early 1942 before Doyle had graduated high school . Doyle 's notion that the photograph inspired the poster cannot be proved or disproved , so first Doyle and then Parker cannot be confirmed as the model for " We Can Do It ! "
= = Background = =
After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , the US government called upon manufacturers to produce greater amounts of war goods . The workplace atmosphere at large factories was often tense because of resentment built up between management and labor unions throughout the 1930s . Directors of companies such as General Motors ( GM ) sought to minimize past friction and encourage teamwork . In response to a rumored public relations campaign by the United Auto Workers union , GM quickly produced a propaganda poster in 1942 showing both labor and management rolling up their sleeves , aligned toward maintaining a steady rate of war production . The poster read , " Together We Can Do It ! " and " Keep ' Em Firing ! " In creating such posters , corporations wished to increase production by tapping popular pro @-@ war sentiment , with the ultimate goal of preventing the government from exerting greater control over production .
= = = Westinghouse Electric = = =
In 1942 , Pittsburgh artist J. Howard Miller was hired by Westinghouse Electric 's internal War Production Coordinating Committee , through an advertising agency , to create a series of posters to display to the company 's workers . The intent of the poster project was to raise worker morale , to reduce absenteeism , to direct workers ' questions to management , and to lower the likelihood of labor unrest or a factory strike . Each of the more than 42 posters designed by Miller was displayed in the factory for two weeks , then replaced by the next one in the series . Most of the posters featured men ; they emphasized traditional roles for men and women . One of the posters pictured a smiling male manager with the words " Any Questions About Your Work ? ... Ask your Supervisor . "
No more than 1 @,@ 800 copies of the 17 @-@ by @-@ 22 @-@ inch ( 559 by 432 mm ) " We Can Do It ! " poster were printed . It was not initially seen beyond several Westinghouse factories in East Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , and the Midwest , where it was scheduled to be displayed for two five @-@ day work weeks starting Monday , February 15 , 1943 . The targeted factories were making plasticized helmet liners impregnated with Micarta , a phenolic resin invented by Westinghouse . Mostly women were employed in this enterprise , which yielded some 13 million helmet liners over the course of the war . The slogan " We Can Do It ! " was probably not interpreted by the factory workers as empowering to women alone ; they had been subjected to a series of paternalistic , controlling posters promoting management authority , employee capability and company unity , and the workers would likely have understood the image to mean " Westinghouse Employees Can Do It " , all working together . The upbeat image served as gentle propaganda to boost employee morale and keep production from lagging . The pictured red , white and blue clothing was a subtle call to patriotism , one of the frequent tactics of corporate war production committees .
= = Rosie the Riveter = =
During World War II , the " We Can Do It ! " poster was not connected to the 1942 song " Rosie the Riveter " , nor to the widely seen Norman Rockwell painting called Rosie the Riveter that appeared on the cover of the Memorial Day issue of the Saturday Evening Post , May 29 , 1943 . The Westinghouse poster was not associated with any of the women nicknamed " Rosie " who came forward to promote women working for war production on the home front . Rather , after being displayed for two weeks in February 1943 to some Westinghouse factory workers , it disappeared for nearly four decades . Other " Rosie " images prevailed , often photographs of actual workers . The Office of War Information geared up for a massive nationwide advertising campaign to sell the war , but " We Can Do It ! " was not part of it .
Rockwell 's emblematic Rosie the Riveter painting was loaned by the Post to the US Treasury Department for use in posters and campaigns promoting war bonds . Following the war , the Rockwell painting gradually sank from public memory because it was copyrighted ; all of Rockwell 's paintings were vigorously defended by his estate after his death . This protection resulted in the original painting gaining value — it sold for nearly $ 5 million in 2002 . Conversely , the lack of protection for the " We Can Do It ! " image is one of the reasons it experienced a rebirth .
Ed Reis , a volunteer historian for Westinghouse , noted that the original image was not shown to female riveters during the war , so the recent association with " Rosie the Riveter " was unjustified . Rather , it was targeted at women who were making helmet liners out of Micarta . Reis joked that the woman in the image was more likely to have been named " Molly the Micarta Molder or Helen the Helmet Liner Maker . "
= = Rediscovery = =
In 1982 , the " We Can Do It ! " poster was reproduced in a magazine article , " Poster Art for Patriotism 's Sake " , a Washington Post Magazine article about posters in the collection of the National Archives .
In subsequent years , the poster was re @-@ appropriated to promote feminism . Feminists saw in the image an embodiment of female empowerment . The " We " was understood to mean " We Women " , uniting all women in a sisterhood fighting against gender inequality . This was very different from the poster 's 1943 use to control employees and to discourage labor unrest . History professor Jeremiah Axelrod commented on the image 's combination of femininity with the " masculine ( almost macho ) composition and body language . "
Smithsonian magazine put the image on its cover in March 1994 , to invite the viewer to read a featured article about wartime posters . The US Postal Service created a 33 ¢ stamp in February 1999 based on the image , with the added words " Women Support War Effort " . A Westinghouse poster from 1943 was put on display at the National Museum of American History , part of the exhibit showing items from the 1930s and ' 40s .
= = Wire service photograph = =
In 1984 , former war worker Geraldine Hoff Doyle came across an article in Modern Maturity magazine which showed a wartime photograph of a young woman working at a lathe , and she assumed that the photograph was taken of her in mid @-@ to @-@ late 1942 when she was working briefly in a factory . Ten years later , Doyle saw the " We Can Do It ! " poster on the front of the Smithsonian magazine and assumed the poster was an image of herself . Without intending to profit from the connection , Doyle decided that the 1942 wartime photograph had inspired Miller to create the poster , making Doyle herself the model for the poster . Subsequently , Doyle was widely credited as the inspiration for Miller 's poster . From an archive of Acme news photographs , Professor James J. Kimble obtained the original photographic print , including its yellowed caption identifying the woman as Naomi Parker . The photo is one of a series of photographs taken at Naval Air Station Alameda in California , showing Parker and her sister working at their war jobs during March 1942 . These images were published in various newspapers and magazines beginning in April 1942 , during a time when Doyle was still attending high school in Michigan . In February 2015 , Kimble interviewed the Parker sisters , now named Naomi Fern Fraley , 93 , and her sister Ada Wyn Morford , 91 , and found that they had known for five years about the incorrect identification of the photo , and had been rebuffed in their attempt to correct the historical record .
Although many publications have repeated Doyle 's unsupported assertion that the wartime photograph inspired Miller 's poster , Westinghouse historian Charles A. Ruch , a Pittsburgh resident who had been friends with J. Howard Miller , said that Miller was not in the habit of working from photographs , but rather live models . Penny Coleman , the author of Rosie the Riveter : Women working on the home front in World War II , said that she and Ruch could not determine whether the wartime photo had appeared in any of the periodicals that Miller would have seen .
= = Legacy = =
Today , the image has become very widely known , far beyond its narrowly defined purpose during WWII . It has adorned T @-@ shirts , tattoos , coffee cups and refrigerator magnets — so many different products that the Washington Post called it the " most over @-@ exposed " souvenir item available in Washington , D.C. It was used in 2008 by some of the various regional campaigners working to elect Sarah Palin , Ron Paul and Hillary Clinton . Michelle Obama was worked into the image by some attendees of the 2010 Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear . The image has been employed by corporations such as Clorox who used it in advertisements for household cleaners , the pictured woman provided in this instance with a wedding ring on her left hand . Parodies of the image have included famous women , men , animals and fictional characters . A bobblehead doll and an action figure toy have been produced . The Children 's Museum of Indianapolis showed a 4 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 by 1 @.@ 5 m ) replica made by artist Kristen Cumings from thousands of Jelly Belly candies .
After Julia Gillard became the first female prime minister of Australia in June 2010 , a Melbourne street artist calling himself Phoenix pasted Gillard 's face into a new monochrome version of the " We Can Do It ! " poster . AnOther Magazine published a photograph of the poster taken on Hosier Lane , Melbourne , in July 2010 , showing that the original " War Production Co @-@ ordinating Committee " mark in the lower right had been replaced with a URL pointing to Phoenix 's Flickr photostream . In March 2011 , Phoenix produced a color version which stated " She Did It ! " in the lower right , then in January 2012 he pasted " Too Sad " diagonally across the poster to represent his disappointment with developments in Australian politics .
Geraldine Doyle died in December 2010 . Utne Reader went ahead with their scheduled January – February 2011 cover image : a parody of " We Can Do It ! " featuring Marge Simpson raising her right hand in a fist . The editors of the magazine expressed regret at the passing of Doyle , " the likely inspiration for the Rosie character " .
A stereoscopic ( 3D ) image of " We Can Do It ! " was created for the closing credits of the 2011 superhero film Captain America : The First Avenger . The image served as the background for the title card of English actress Hayley Atwell .
The Ad Council claimed the poster was developed in 1942 by its precursor , the War Advertising Committee , as part of a " Women in War Jobs " campaign , helping to bring " over two million women " into war production . In February 2012 during the Ad Council 's 70th anniversary celebration , an interactive application designed by Animax 's HelpsGood digital agency was linked to the Ad Council 's Facebook page . The Facebook app was called " Rosify Yourself " , referring to Rosie the Riveter ; it allowed viewers to upload images of their faces to be incorporated into the " We Can Do It ! " poster , then saved to be shared with friends . Ad Council President and CEO Peggy Conlon posted her own " Rosified " face on Huffington Post in an article she wrote about the group 's 70 @-@ year history . The staff of the television show Today posted two " Rosified " images on their website , using the faces of news anchors Matt Lauer and Ann Curry . However , Seton Hall University professor James J. Kimble and University of Pittsburgh professor Lester C. Olson researched the origins of the poster and determined that it was not produced by the Ad Council nor was it used for recruiting women workers .
= So Under Pressure =
" So Under Pressure " is a dance @-@ pop song performed by Australian singer Dannii Minogue . The song was written by Minogue , Terry Ronald and LMC , and produced by Lee Monteverde for Minogue 's fifth album Club Disco ( 2007 ) and was also used as the lead single for her greatest hits compilation The Hits & Beyond ( 2006 ) . The song 's lyrics discuss the cancer diagnoses of Minogue 's sister Kylie .
The song was released as a single on 12 June 2006 in the United Kingdom . It entered the top forty in Australia , Ireland and the UK and became Minogue 's tenth consecutive Upfront Club Chart number one . The song 's music video , directed by Phil Griffin , features Minogue in a variety of high pressure situations . She has described it as " the hardest video I 've ever done " .
= = Background and reception = =
In 2005 , Minogue began writing and recording material with longtime collaborator Terry Ronald and British dance group LMC . During one of their sessions , they penned " So Under Pressure " , which was inspired by the cancer diagnoses of her sister Kylie as well as that of an unnamed friend . Minogue has described the recording of " So Under Pressure " as a " real achievement " as she was " brave enough to put all [ her feelings ] into words " . Allmusic reviewer John Lucas called the track one of " Minogue 's more inventive moments " .
= = Chart performance = =
" So Under Pressure " was officially released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 12 June 2006 . The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart on 19 June 2006 at number twenty . The following week , " So Under Pressure " fell to number sixty and exited the chart in its third week of release . The track became Minogue 's seventh consecutive Upfront Club Chart number one in the UK . In Ireland , the song reached number thirty @-@ one , remaining on the singles chart for one week . " So Under Pressure " proved popular in Irish dance clubs where it reached number six on the Dance Singles Chart .
The track was released in Australia on 29 July 2006 . It debuted on 8 August 2006 at number sixteen and became Minogue 's eighth top twenty single . The song remained on the singles chart for five weeks , exiting on 5 September 2006 . It was the 30th highest selling dance single in Australia for 2006 .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Phil Griffin in mid @-@ 2006 . Minogue described the video :
" I tried to put different things in the video that made me feel under pressure and it really did ! It was the hardest video I`ve ever done so I kept thinking , why on earth did I come up with this concept ? People don ’ t realise but I definitely have that Australian tomboy side to me . I love snakes and sharks and jumping out of planes and stuff . Growing up it never occurred to me that it wasn ’ t a girly thing to ride a bike , covered in mud holding frogs and collecting lizards ! " .
The music video 's crew did not believe that Minogue could work with the python , but she said that it did not bother her at all . The music video was released commercially on The Hits & Beyond special edition companion DVD , released in June 2006 .
The video opens with a scene of Minogue in a white room dressed in a black swimsuit . She is then shown lying on top of a white platform with a python wrapped around her body . Scenes of Minogue and her three dancers walking a catwalk , posing for photographs and dancing are intercut throughout the music video . The video concludes with Minogue trapped inside a spinning perspex box .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " So Under Pressure " .
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to " So Under Pressure " :
Dannii Minogue – lead vocals
Justine Riddock – backing vocals
Lee Monteverde – keyboards
Chris Martin – guitar
Terry Ronald – backing vocals , additional vocal production
Recorded and mixed at AATW Studios
= = Charts = =
= Let 's Stay Together ( 30 Rock ) =
" Let 's Stay Together " is the third episode of the fifth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 83rd overall episode of the series . It was directed by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi and written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on October 7 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include John Amos , Todd Buonopane , Reg E. Cathey , Queen Latifah and Rob Reiner .
In the episode , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) must appear before Congress to discuss NBC 's merger with the fictitious company network KableTown ( a parody of Comcast ) . He hopes that he will charm celebrity members for the deal to go through , but one Congresswoman ( Latifah ) demands more diversity in the NBC programming lineup . As a result , Jack enlists Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) to come up with some new development ideas . Meanwhile , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , the head writer of the fictitious sketch show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) is fed up with the criticism her writing staff gives her , and finally Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) helps Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) reapply in the competitive NBC page program .
This episode of 30 Rock was generally , though not universally , well received among television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 4 @.@ 90 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
NBC executive Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) attends a Congressional hearing in Washington D.C. regarding the Kabletown @-@ NBC merger deal . He is able to consolidate support for the deal , until Representative Regina Bookman ( Queen Latifah ) calls out NBC for being racist and demands that there be more diversity in the programming lineup . Following the hearing , Jack goes back to New York and asks Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) to produce a program for the African @-@ American community . Dot Com suggests a show called Let 's Stay Together , about an African @-@ American family in the 1970s , but when Grizz Griswold ( Grizz Chapman ) suggests that a talking dog be added to the show , Tracy orders Dot Com to incorporate it into the rewrite , much to Dot Com 's dismay .
Meanwhile , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , the head writer of the sketch show TGS with Tracy Jordan , is unhappy about the lack of respect she gets from her writing staff and complains to Jack , her boss , about the situation . Jack asks her if staff writer James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) can be promoted to co @-@ head writer in an effort to diversify NBC . Liz accepts , seeing this as an opportunity for someone else to get the lack of respect and complaints she does . She gets upset , though , when Toofer gets a television interview as head writer , and insists that she herself should also be there as she is co @-@ head writer . The two appear on Rutherford Rice 's ( Reg E. Cathey ) talk show Right On , a show aimed toward African @-@ American audiences . Liz gets visibly upset when Rice gives Toofer all of the credit she deserves , and as a result of her behavior she is escorted off the set by a security guard .
At the same time , Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) , a former NBC page , is back at NBC and wants to reapply to the page program , but notes that it has become a pageant . When Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) hears of this , she volunteers to help him win the pageant using her own pageant experience . Jenna treats Kenneth as her mother Verna ( Jan Hooks ) treated her during her pageant years . After a failed , over @-@ the @-@ top performance in front of Human resources mediator Jeffrey Weinerslav ( Todd Buonopane ) , Jenna vows to get Kenneth his job back . She goes to Jack to ask him for his help , and Jack orders Jeffrey to hire Kenneth back .
When Representative Bookman makes an unexpected visit to New York , Jack tries to show NBC 's commitment to diversity , but is thwarted when Bookman sees signs next to two bathrooms that read " Colored " and " White " that were really intended for the paper recycling bins that had been removed only moments ago , and Jeffrey informing Jack and Bookman that the minority slot in the page program was filled by Kenneth . Jack tries to improve the situation by giving " head writer " Toofer a medal for his work , but Bookman sees right through this , and discovers that Liz is the only one that truly deserves her respect , and congratulates her . After more grandstanding , Bookman tells Jack she will vote no on the Kabletown @-@ NBC deal unless he gives her reason not to .
The episode ends with a taping of the Let 's Stay Together rewrite , including the talking dog .
= = Production = =
" Let 's Stay Together " was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and directed by co @-@ executive producer and staff writer John Riggi . This was Burditt 's thirteenth writing credit after " Jack Meets Dennis " , " The Baby Show " , " The Fighting Irish " , " Cleveland " , " Rosemary 's Baby " , " Subway Hero " , " Sandwich Day " , " The One with the Cast of Night Court " , " St. Valentine 's Day " , " The Ones " , " Kidney Now ! " , and " Don Geiss , America and Hope " . This was Riggi 's fourth helmed episode , having directed " Goodbye , My Friend " , " The Problem Solvers " and " The Moms " . This episode of 30 Rock originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 7 , 2010 , as the third episode of the show 's fifth season and the 83rd overall episode of the series .
In September 2010 , it was announced that actress and singer Queen Latifah would guest star on the show as a Congresswoman named Regina Bookman who demands from Alec Baldwin 's character , Jack Donaghy , more diversity in its NBC programming lineup . Latifah is a fan of the show and big fan of Baldwin and series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey . She said in an interview she was " out of my mind " excited to guest star . Latifah is due to appear in a future episode of 30 Rock . In addition , it was also confirmed that actor / director Rob Reiner would appear as himself , and in " Let 's Stay Together " he played a Congressman . Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly reported in August 2010 that the show set a casting call " for an African @-@ American male in the 30s @-@ 60s age range " to play a fictitious host named Rutherford Rice , a well @-@ spoken host of Right On , a fictitious talk show focusing on African @-@ American issues . In this episode , Rutherford Rice was played by actor Reg E. Cathey , best known for his role on the HBO drama The Wire as Norman Wilson . Actor John Amos made a brief appearance in the episode in which he stars in one scene from the Let 's Stay Together show alongside a talking dog named Stanley the Dog . This was actor Todd Buonopane 's fourth appearance as the character Jeffrey Weinerslav , an NBC Human resource mediator . Buonopane previously appeared in the season three episodes " Believe in the Stars " , " Cutbacks " , and " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " .
In an August 2010 interview , co @-@ showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock was asked if the series would continue to make reference of the real @-@ life acquisition of NBC Universal by cable company Comcast — which occurred in November 2009 — to which Carlock replied that their version of the acquisition was in the " works " . Carlock noted that the NBC @-@ Comcast deal would not change the show 's " reason for existence " , explaining that since the merger has occurred it has made things " even funnier " for the staff writers . " To us it 's great , we 've been able to do our version of ' ripped from the headlines , ' which a lot of comedies don 't get to do . " In the episode , Representative Bookman called out NBC for being racist in regards to its programming lacking diversity . This subplot was based on real @-@ life in which Jeff Zucker , then @-@ President and CEO of NBC Universal , who attended the House Judiciary Committee hearing in February 2010 in discussions of the NBC @-@ Comcast deal , was asked by United States Representative Maxine Waters why the NBC network had not attempted to create shows that would appeal to the black community .
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of the episode , Liz tells Jack that her writing staff have been replacing her name @-@ plate title with various names including " F. Krueger . " She explains that the name refers to a time in which she got a chemical peel , wore a red and green sweater with a fedora . This is a reference to the fictional horror villain from the A Nightmare on Elm Street series Freddy Krueger 's appearance . During the hearing in Washington D.C. , Representative Rob Reiner says " The acclaimed director of When Harry Met Sally ... would never do that ! " , a reference to Reiner who directed the 1989 romantic comedy When Harry Met Sally ....
One of the applicants to become an NBC page plays a keyboard and sings in the tune of musician Billy Joel 's 1989 song " We Didn 't Start the Fire " . After returning from the hearing in Washington , in which Representative Bookman accused NBC of being racist , Jack tells Liz that during the hearing he did not pay attention to Bookman 's heartfelt speech as he was too busy trying to remember the name " of the black kid on Community " , a reference to actor Donald Glover who stars in Community — another NBC program — and who Jack is referring to . In addition , Glover was a former writer on 30 Rock . Coincidentally , guest star Queen Latifah executive produces the romantic comedy television series Let 's Stay Together that airs on BET .
30 Rock and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip — both of which debuted on 2006 – 07 NBC lineup — revolved around the off @-@ camera happenings on a sketch comedy series . The first season episode " Jack the Writer " contained a self @-@ referencing walk and talk sequence , which was commonly used on Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip and Sorkin 's previous series The West Wing . In this episode , the walk and talk sequence is seen here in which Jack , before departing to Washington , has a discussion with Liz .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Let 's Stay Together " was watched by 4 @.@ 90 million households , according to the Nielsen Media Research . It received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , that is 2 @.@ 1 percent of all people in that group , and 7 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " When It Rains , It Pours " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 688 million American viewers .
Andy Greenwald of New York magazine called " Let 's Stay Together " a " pretty great episode for a show that ... seems to have gotten its groove back . " Television columnist Alan Sepiwall for HitFix who enjoyed the previous week 's episode as he believed the show was back in peak , noted that the show " was back to more uneven , but still funny , territory " with this episode . Sepinwall felt that parts of the episode " worked just fine " , and enjoyed Liz 's disastrous appearance on Right On . He , however , did not like Jenna and Kenneth 's pageant story . A contributor from The Huffington Post said the episode had a " ton of hilarious moments " , and that Queen Latifah " was the highlight of the show " . Vanity Fair 's Juli Weiner enjoyed Maulik Pancholy 's appearance as Jack 's assistant Jonathan , writing that Jonathan is " perhaps the most underutilized character on the show , and we were happy to see him get some screen time this episode . " Further in her recap , Weiner said " Thank you , Jenna and Jack , for mercifully putting an end to the tension @-@ less Kenneth 's @-@ rehiring narrative . " Meredith Blake from the Los Angeles Times deemed it a " wildly clever and satiric episode " that also " delivered an important critique about the limitations of diversity programs . " Blake said that Jane Krakowski 's Jenna was on fire in " Let 's Stay Together " . Scott Eidler of The Cornell Daily Sun commented that the show has always dealt with racism issues " pretty well " and that the issue featured here " was no exception . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad reported that " Let 's Stay Together " was one of his favorite episodes of the season , and that it was a " massively pleasing episode . " Caitlan Smith of The Atlantic wrote that Latifah " stole the show " and " drove the action " as her character Regina Bookman in this episode of 30 Rock .
The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin called this episode " clumsy and tired " , explaining it was " misfiring on all cylinders . The satire was toothless , the playing strained and the whole enterprise reeked of mild desperation . " He continued in his recap that " Let 's Stay Together " had a " golden opportunity to comment insightfully and hilariously about the tricky intersection of politics , power , race and privilege " , however " it recycled jokes that were unfunny and overly familiar the first time around " . In conclusion , Rabin gave it a C grade rating . Brad Sanders of the Indiana Daily Student opined that the show 's writing " is still sharp – not ' as sharp as ever , ' but sharp – but a lot of the most interesting plots have already played out , and a lot of the new plots aren 't interesting . " Sanders said that the stories featured here had " a few big laughs ... but they 're assembled so haphazardly and put into such a bulky framework that the train just never gets enough steam to salvage the episode . "
= West Virginia Mountaineers football =
The West Virginia Mountaineers football team represents West Virginia University ( also referred to as " WVU " or " West Virginia " ) in the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) of college football . Dana Holgorsen is WVU 's current head coach , the 33rd in the program 's history . West Virginia plays its home games on Mountaineer Field at Milan Puskar Stadium on the campus of West Virginia University in Morgantown , West Virginia . The Mountaineers compete in the Big 12 Conference .
With a 727 – 482 – 45 record as of the conclusion of the 2015 season , WVU ranks 14th in victories among NCAA FBS programs , as well as the most victories among those programs that never claimed nor won a National Championship . West Virginia was originally classified as a College Division school in the 1937 season , and joined the University Division , forerunner of Division I , in 1939 . It has been a member of Division I FBS since 1978 ( known as Division I @-@ A until 2006 ) . The Mountaineers have registered 81 winning seasons in their history , including one unbeaten season ( 10 – 0 – 1 in 1922 ) and five 11 @-@ win seasons ( 1988 , 1993 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 ) . The Mountaineers have won or shared a total of 15 conference championships , including eight Southern Conference titles and seven Big East Conference titles .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1891 – 1920 ) = = =
The West Virginia University football program traces its origin back to November 28 , 1891 when its first team fell to Washington & Jefferson 72 – 0 on a converted cow pasture . Despite its humble beginning , West Virginia enjoyed a 25 – 23 – 3 overall record prior to 1900 , which proved to be a fruitful century of Mountaineer football . The early 1900s brought about early successes for the program , namely during the 1903 and 1905 seasons when WVU posted records of 7 – 1 and 8 – 1 respectively . WVU produced a 6 – 3 record in the 1904 season , despite losing to Penn State , Pitt , and Michigan by a combined score of 217 – 0 . The 1908 – 20 period produced the four @-@ year head coaching tenures of C.A. Lueder ( 1908 – 11 ) and Mont McIntire ( 1916 – 17 , 1919 – 20 ) , representing the longest coaching tenures during this early period of Mountaineer football . Lueder 's Mountaineers produced a 17 – 13 – 3 record , while McIntire 's teams produced the most success of any Mountaineer team prior to 1921 , compiling a 24 – 11 – 4 record including an 8 – 2 finish in 1919 . That same Mountaineer team also produced West Virginia 's first ever Consensus All @-@ American and potential College Football Hall of Fame inductee , Ira Errett Rodgers . Rodgers scored 19 touchdowns and kicked 33 extra points for WVU in 1919 season , leading the nation with 147 total points . Rodgers also threw 11 touchdown passes that season , an unheard of feat at the time and a Mountaineer record until 1949 .
= = = The Spears and Rodgers years ( 1921 – 31 ) = = =
The Mountaineers enjoyed their first period of success during the 1920s , coinciding with the successful coaching tenures of Clarence Spears ( 1921 – 24 ) and Ira Errett Rodgers ( 1925 – 30 , 1943 – 45 ) . Under the tutelage of Spears , West Virginia compiled a 30 – 6 – 3 record with its best performance coming in the 1922 season . The 1922 edition of the Mountaineers remains the only team in West Virginia history to produce an unbeaten season , finishing with a 10 – 0 – 1 mark . Spears 's Mountaineers surrendered only 34 total points in 1922 , posting six consecutive shutouts to finish the regular season . The 1922 season also produced notable victories against rival Pitt and against Gonzaga in the East @-@ West Bowl , the program 's first bowl game appearance . Offensive tackle Russell Meredith garnered First @-@ Team All @-@ American honors . In homage to the successes of the 1922 season , West Virginia University undertook construction of what became the first incarnation of Mountaineer Field .
The Mountaineers continued their success under Spears in posting subsequent one @-@ loss seasons in 1923 ( 7 – 1 – 1 ) and in 1924 ( 8 – 1 ) , with Spears departing the program for Minnesota thereafter . Ira Errett Rodgers replaced Spears and the Mountaineers posted an 8 – 1 record in 1925 . After a 6 @-@ 4 finish in 1926 and a 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 3 record in 1927 , the program produced a 8 – 2 finish in 1928 . Rodgers 's first tenure as West Virginia coach ended with records of 4 – 3 – 3 in 1929 and 5 @-@ 5 in 1930 .
= = = The Neale , Tallman and Glenn years ( 1931 – 39 ) = = =
Taking over for Rodgers in 1931 was Earle " Greasy " Neale , but his tenure was short @-@ lived as the Mountaineers failed to produce a single winning season under his guise , going a combined 12 – 16 – 3 over Neale 's three years as coach . Charles Tallman , an End who achieved All @-@ American status with the Mountaineers in 1923 with the Mountaineers , replaced Neale in 1934 and produced immediate results as the program posted 6 – 4 records in 1934 and 1936 . Although West Virginia posted a 3 – 4 – 2 record in 1935 , the program produced an All @-@ American in Joe Stydahar , an offensive tackle . " Jumbo Joe " later became both a College Football Hall of Fame and Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee . Despite his winning record , Tallman resigned after the 1936 season to pursue his career in law enforcement as Superintendent of the West Virginia State Police .
Marshall Glenn picked up right where Tallman left off , leading West Virginia to an 8 – 1 – 1 record in 1937 . The season concluded with an upset of Texas Tech in the 1938 Sun Bowl . Running back Harry Clarke led the way for the Mountaineers that season , rushing for a then school record 921 yards and 10 touchdowns . Glenn 's success was short @-@ lived , however , as subsequent WVU teams posted losing records of 4 – 5 – 1 in 1938 and 2 – 6 – 1 in 1939 , leading to his ouster .
= = = The split tenures of Rodgers and Kern , and the DeGroot years ( 1940 – 49 ) = = =
West Virginia experienced a lag in success during much of the 1940s , producing only three winning seasons while witnessing the split coaching tenures of Bill Kern ( 1940 – 42 , 1946 – 47 ) and the second appearance of Ira Errett Rodgers ( 1943 – 45 ) . Under the direction of head coach Dudley DeGroot in the 1948 season , the Mountaineers returned to prominence with a 9 – 3 finish , adding another Sun Bowl victory to its resume with a 21 – 12 defeat of Texas Western ( now known as UTEP ) . Despite that successful first season at the program 's helm , DeGroot resigned after a disappointing 4 – 6 – 1 finish in 1949 .
= = = The Lewis , Corum and Carlen years ( 1950 – 69 ) = = =
When Art " Pappy " Lewis became West Virginia 's head coach in 1950 , he remarked that it was the job that he had always wanted . Known by his peers as an exceptional recruiter and by his players as a father figure , Lewis established a family @-@ like atmosphere within the Mountaineer football program . Lewis 's Mountaineer teams held true to form , experiencing their most consistent success during the 1950s as it ever had previously . After forgettable campaigns in 1950 and ' 1951 , the 1952 season brought WVU its first winning season since 1948 . The Mountaineers finished with a 7 – 2 record , highlighted by a 16 – 0 upset victory of No. 18 Pitt in Pittsburgh . It was this winning season that would set the tone for the halcyon days of Art Lewis 's program .
Beginning with the 1953 season , the Mountaineers would reel off three consecutive eight @-@ win seasons and five Southern Conference ( SoCon ) championships in six seasons . Led by three All @-@ Americans — running back Tommy Allman , guard Gene Lamone , and center Bob Orders — the Mountaineers finished with an 8 – 2 record , their first SoCon championship , a No. 10 ranking in the Associated Press ( AP ) Poll , and a berth in the 1953 Sugar Bowl with Georgia Tech . The 1954 edition of the Mountaineers also finished the regular season with an 8 – 1 mark , losing their only game to Pitt by a 13 – 10 score . The Mountaineers did not earn a bowl bid , however , despite winning their second consecutive SoCon title and earning a No. 12 ranking in the AP Poll . In 1955 , the Mountaineers engineered yet another eight @-@ win season and SoCon championship , but upset losses to Pitt and Syracuse doomed West Virginia 's shot at a bowl bid . Despite its disappointing finish , WVU produced two All @-@ American offensive linemen and future College Football Hall of Fame inductees in Bruce Bosley and Sam Huff . Bosley earned Consensus All @-@ American status that season , becoming the first Mountaineer to do so since Ira Errett Rodgers in 1919 .
Despite finishing with a modest 6 – 4 record in 1956 , West Virginia won its fourth consecutive SoCon title with a 5 – 0 record in conference play . The 1957 season was yet another winning endeavor for Lewis and WVU , finishing with a 7 – 2 – 1 record and a 3 – 0 mark in Southern Conference play . Although the Mountaineers once again compiled an undefeated SoCon record , Mountaineers were not awarded the conference championship , as VMI earned the title with a 9 – 0 – 1 overall record and 6 – 0 record in SoCon play . In 1958 , the Mountaineers had their first losing season in eight years , but their 4 – 0 record in SoCon play earned them a 5th conference title in six seasons . Unfortunately for Art Lewis and his Mountaineers , 1958 was the final season that West Virginia would win a conference championship under his tenure . The Mountaineers finished 3 – 7 in 1959 , losing the final five games of the season by a combined score of 24 – 140 . Lewis resigned as head coach afterward . Despite the program 's drop off in success in his final two seasons as coach , Lewis produced 58 victories overall during his tenure at West Virginia , placing him third overall in the program 's history .
After Lewis 's departure , the program hit an all @-@ time low in 1960 under first @-@ year head coach Gene Corum , posting its worst season to date : 0 – 8 – 2 . The Mountaineers were simply outclassed by their opponents , being outscored 40 – 259 on the season . The Mountaineers rebounded , however , and by 1962 were back to their winning ways , posting an 8 – 2 record and 4 – 0 conference record . Despite their undefeated conference record , once again the SoCon crown eluded the Mountaineers in favor of the VMI Keydets and their 6 – 0 record in conference play . West Virginia did not have to wait long for its next SoCon title , however , as the program won the title in the 1964 and 1965 seasons consecutively . The Mountaineers finished 7 – 4 in 1964 and participated in the Liberty Bowl against Utah , West Virginia 's first bowl game in 11 years as well as the first major college football bowl game ever played indoors and to be broadcast nationwide in the United States . Corum 's tenure ended thereafter , posting a 29 – 30 – 2 record over his six seasons as head coach . Corum 's legacy went well beyond wins and losses , however , as he integrated WVU football in 1963 with the program 's first African @-@ American recruits in Roger Alford and Dick Leftridge .
Following the 1965 season , Jim Carlen took over for Corum as head coach . After a 3 – 5 – 2 finish in 1966 , Carlen guided the Mountaineers to their 8th and final SoCon championship in 1967 . West Virginia left the Southern Conference thereafter , participating as an independent until 1991 . Carlen 's Mountaineers would produce subsequent winning seasons in 1968 and 1969 , posting records of 7 – 3 and 10 – 1 , respectively . The 1969 edition of the Mountaineers was the most successful West Virginia team since the 1922 season . Not only did the Mountaineers win 10 games , but they earned their first bowl game victory since 1948 with a Peach Bowl victory over No. 19 South Carolina , as well as a No. 18 final ranking in the Coaches Poll . The dynamic rushing tandem of running back Bob Gresham ( 1 @,@ 155 yards and 9 touchdowns ) and fullback Jim Braxton ( 843 yards , 12 touchdowns ) led the Mountaineers . Gresham became the second Mountaineer to ever rush for more than 1 @,@ 000 yards ( Garrett Ford , Sr. was the first with 1 @,@ 068 yards in 1966 ) . At the conclusion of the 1969 season , Carlen departed West Virginia for Texas Tech . The Mountaineers responded by hiring Bobby Bowden .
= = = The Bowden years ( 1970 – 75 ) = = =
It appeared that the Bobby Bowden era of Mountaineer football could not have begun more smoothly early in the 1970 season , or so it seemed . The Mountaineers were 4 – 1 to start the season and led arch rival Pitt 35 – 8 at halftime in week six . What transpired was one of the most infamous collapses in Backyard Brawl and West Virginia football history . The Mountaineers surrendered 28 unanswered points , losing to the Panthers 36 – 35 and leading Bowden to remark that he had " embarrassed the whole state of West Virginia " in the process . Despite the disappointment of the Pitt defeat , West Virginia went on to finish the 1970 season with a 8 – 3 record.Fullback Jim Braxton and linebacker Dale Farley earned All @-@ American honors .
The Mountaineers continued their winning ways under Bowden in 1971 and 1972 , posting records of 7 – 4 and 8 – 4 respectively . The 1972 West Virginia team earned the program 's first trip back to a bowl game in three years , participating once again in the Peach Bowl against North Carolina State . The season also witnessed the offensive prowess of running back Kerry Marbury and wide receiver Danny Buggs . Marbury ran for 16 touchdowns in 1972 , a record that remained unbroken until 2002 . Buggs recorded 35 receptions for 791 yards and eight touchdowns , ran for four touchdowns , and returned two punts for touchdowns to amass 14 total touchdowns .
The 1973 and 1974 seasons , however , were not successful campaigns for the Mountaineers , as they finished with lackluster records of 6 – 5 and 4 – 7 . Despite the disappointment of those seasons , Danny Buggs earned All @-@ American status for his contributions in both campaigns . His 69 @-@ yard punt return for a touchdown with 36 seconds remaining to beat Maryland in the 1973 season opener remains one of the greatest moments in Mountaineer history . The 1975 season , however , was successful . The Mountaineers compiled a 9 – 3 record , a 13 – 10 Peach Bowl victory over North Carolina State , and a final ranking of No. 17 in the Coaches Poll and # 20 in the AP Poll . Additionally , the Mountaineers upset the No. 20 Pitt Panthers 17 – 14 on a game @-@ winning field goal in the closing seconds in yet another memorable chapter of the Backyard Brawl . Bowden later described the victory as one of the most exciting ones of his coaching career . Following the 1975 season , Bowden left WVU to become the head coach at Florida State , where he would become the second winningest coach in NCAA Division I @-@ A / FBS history . In just six seasons with the Mountaineers , Bowden produced a 42 – 26 record , good for fifth all @-@ time in the program . Bowden 's departure not only signaled the end of his tenure at West Virginia , but to the end of WVU 's winning ways in the 1970s .
= = = The Cignetti years ( 1976 – 79 ) = = =
Under the direction of Frank Cignetti , the Mountaineers endured four consecutive losing seasons . West Virginia completed the 1976 season with a 5 – 6 record , losing four of its final six games . The disappointment of 1976 was realized again the following season , as the Mountaineers posted another 5 – 6 finish in 1977 . After a promising 4 – 1 start to the season , including an upset road victory over No. 11 Maryland , WVU lost five of its final six games . The Mountaineers finished 2 @-@ 9 in 1978 , being outscored 364 – 167 . It was later revealed that Cignetti had suffered from a rare form of cancer during the season , nearly losing his life on the operating table during a procedure to remove his spleen in the winter of 1978 . The 1979 season was Cignetti 's final with the program . The Mountaineers produced another 5 – 6 finish , losing their first three games and later dropping three out of their final four games .
Despite the program 's losing seasons during Cignetti 's tenure , Cignetti managed to land prized recruit and future Consensus All @-@ American linebacker Darryl Talley , as well as standout quarterback and future Athletic Director Oliver Luck and running back Robert Alexander . Cignetti ’ s coaching staffs also consisted of some of the best coaches in college football , including Nick Saban , Joe Pendry and Rick Trickett ( who , along with Rich Rodriguez , was later credited as an innovator in utilizing the zone blocking scheme in conjunction with the run @-@ based spread offense at WVU ) . However , with a 17 – 27 record during his four years with the program , and in having to follow in the footsteps of the great Bobby Bowden ( who later became the second all @-@ time leader in victories amongst NCAA FBS coaches ) , Cignetti 's legacy is one of the most conflicted in the program 's history .
= = = The Nehlen years , part one ( 1980 – 90 ) = = =
In the wake of Frank Cignetti 's firing , the West Virginia Athletic Department determined that a full rebuild was in order . On December 10 , 1979 , West Virginia introduced Don Nehlen as its new head coach , the 30th coach in the program 's history . Coinciding with Nehlen 's hire was the construction of the second incarnation of Mountaineer Field , the program 's current home stadium . Nehlen brought several changes to the Mountaineer football program , including a new logo and color scheme that remains in use to this day . The result was consistency and success for the program during his two @-@ decade tenure at West Virginia . After a 6 – 6 campaign in 1980 , Nehlen 's 1981 Mountaineer team produced the first of 15 winning seasons under his direction . It also marked the first of three consecutive nine @-@ win seasons and four consecutive bowl game appearances for the Mountaineers . Led by senior quarterback Oliver Luck 's 2 @,@ 448 yards passing and 16 touchdowns , the 1981 team posted a 9 – 3 record and earned a trip back to the Peach Bowl , where they defeated the Florida Gators 26 – 6 . WVU also finished ranked in the polls for the first time since 1975 , coming in at No. 17 and No. 18 in the AP and Coaches Polls , respectively .
The 1982 Mountaineers experienced similar success . Sparked by their come @-@ from @-@ behind upset victory over No. 9 Oklahoma to open the season , the Mountaineers finished with a 9 – 2 record , remaining ranked in the AP poll throughout the season en route to a Gator Bowl berth with Bobby Bowden and Florida State . Despite its Gator Bowl loss , West Virginia once again finished the season 9 – 3 and ranked 19th in both final polls . The team also produced the program 's first Consensus All @-@ American since 1955 in senior linebacker Darryl Talley . The Mountaineers won their first six games at the outset of the 1983 season , attaining a No. 4 ranking in the AP Poll . With a 41 – 23 upset loss to 1983 in week 8 , however , West Virginia 's hopes of an undefeated season collapsed . WVU lost three of its final five regular season games before defeating Kentucky in the Hall of Fame Classic to finish the season at 9 – 3 . It was the third consecutive season for WVU to finish ranked , coming in at No. 16 in both the AP and Coaches Polls . Quarterback Jeff Hostetler led the offensive attack with 2 @,@ 345 yards passing and 16 touchdowns , while Kicker Paul Woodside received All @-@ American honors in converting 21 of 25 field goal attempts and all 37 of his extra point attempts en route to a team @-@ leading 100 points .
Although the 1984 season had all off the makings of a memorable one for West Virginia , the Mountaineers experienced another letdown . WVU started the season with a 7 – 1 record , posting an upset victory over No. 4 Boston College and its first victory over Penn State in 25 meetings along the way . The Mountaineers were upset in each of their final three regular season games , however , losing to Virginia , Rutgers and Temple . WVU rebounded to defeat Texas Christian in the Bluebonnet Bowl , finishing the season at 8 – 4 with a No. 21 ranking in the final Coaches poll . The Mountaineers also produced three All @-@ Americans in return specialist Willie Drewrey , kicker Paul Woodside , and tight end Rob Bennett .
After four consecutive seasons of bowl berths and finishes in at least one of the polls , West Virginia went on a two @-@ year drought in 1985 and 1986 , finishing those seasons with records of 7 – 3 – 1 and 4 – 7 ( Nehlen 's first of only four losing seasons ) respectively . The shortcomings of those seasons came to a head in 1987 , where the Mountaineers endured a season of growing pains and near @-@ misses . Despite a 1 – 3 start , West Virginia rallied to finish the regular season at 6 – 5 with four of its five losses coming by deficits of 5 points or less . Freshman quarterback Major Harris led the way for the Mountaineers , compiling 16 total touchdowns and providing glimpses of what was to come in his illustrious collegiate career . The season culminated in a 35 – 33 loss to No. 11 Oklahoma State in the Sun Bowl , a game in which the Mountaineers led 24 – 14 at halftime and lost on a failed two @-@ point conversion attempt with 1 : 13 remaining .
The 1988 edition of the Mountaineers featured gifted sophomore quarterback Major Harris and a stifling defense . Entering the season at No. 16 in the AP Poll , West Virginia achieved an undefeated regular season , compiling 11 wins for the first time in its history . The Mountaineers averaged 43 points and 483 yards per game during the regular season , rolling up 30 or more points in 10 of their games , including a 51 – 30 rout of rival Penn State , the most points ever surrendered by a Joe Paterno @-@ coached team . The success of the regular season culminated in West Virginia 's first and only trip to a National Championship Game in its history , where the No. 3 Mountaineers met No. 1 Notre Dame in the Fiesta Bowl . On the third play of the game , Harris separated his left shoulder , an injury that diminished his scrambling ability as he amassed only 11 yards rushing . Despite the injury and with WVU trailing 26 – 13 in the 3rd quarter , Harris and the Mountaineers were in position to mount a comeback at the Irish 26 @-@ yard line . The WVU offense sputtered , however , and Notre Dame 's Tony Rice put the game out of reach with his second touchdown pass of the contest . Notre Dame went on to win 34 – 21 and claimed the National Championship . The once prolific Mountaineer offense amassed only 282 total yards against the Irish defense . West Virginia finished the 1988 campaign ranked No. 5 in both the AP and Coaches Polls . Major Harris compiled 610 yards rushing , 1 @,@ 915 yards passing , and 20 total touchdowns on the season .
Coming off of its first ever 11 @-@ win season and with junior Major Harris returning to lead a potent offense , West Virginia entered the 1989 season with high expectations and a No. 17 ranking in the AP Poll . The Mountaineers raced to a 4 – 0 record and to No. 9 in the AP Poll . In Week 5 against No. 10 Pitt , however , West Virginia fell victim to another memorable collapse in the Backyard Brawl . Trailing 31 – 9 in the 4th quarter , Pitt scored 22 unanswered points and kicked a game @-@ tying field goal as time expired to force a 31 – 31 tie . The Mountaineers suffered another defeat the following week with a 12 – 10 home loss to Virginia Tech , followed by a 19 – 9 loss to No. 16 Penn State in State College . Despite those defeats , WVU finished the regular season at 8 – 2 – 1 , a No. 17 ranking in the AP Poll , and a trip to the Gator Bowl to face No. 14 Clemson . The Mountaineers faltered , however , losing 27 – 7 and finished the season at 8 – 3 – 1 with a No. 21 ranking in the final AP Poll . The 1990 season , West Virginia 's final as a NCAA Division I @-@ A Independent , coincided with a lackluster 4 – 7 finish .
= = = The Nehlen years , part two ( 1991 – 2000 ) = = =
West Virginia entered the 1991 season as new members of the Big East in what became a 20 @-@ year affiliation with the conference . After finishes of 6 – 5 in 1991 and 5 – 4 – 2 in 1992 , the Mountaineers returned to ranks of the college football elite in the 1993 season . For the second time in six seasons , West Virginia produced an undefeated , 11 @-@ win regular season in 1993 . The Mountaineers engineered several close victories , beginning with a 36 – 34 upset of No. 17 Louisville at home in Morgantown . In its final two regular season games , WVU twice erased 4th quarter deficits to defeat No. 4 Miami and No. 11 Boston College . Despite finishing the regular season undefeated and ranked No. 2 in the Coaches Poll and No. 3 in the AP Poll , West Virginia was not selected to play in the Orange Bowl for a possible National Championship . The Bowl Coalition system , designed to place the top two ranked teams in a bowl to determine the National Champion , slotted the Mountaineers at No. 3 behind 11 – 1 Florida State . The Seminoles were selected to play No. 1 Nebraska in the Orange Bowl for the National Championship , while West Virginia settled for a Sugar Bowl berth against SEC Champion Florida . The Gators routed the Mountaineers 41 – 7 , denying West Virginia its perfect season . WVU finished the season at 11 – 1 , ranked No. 6 in the Coaches Poll and No. 7 in the AP Poll . Robert Walker amassed a then @-@ school record 1 @,@ 250 rushing yards , along with 11 touchdowns on the season .
Unfortunately for Nehlen , the 1993 season was his final season with double @-@ digit victories as his subsequent Mountaineer teams failed to recapture that level of success . After posting a 7 – 6 record in 1994 and a 5 – 6 mark in 1995 , the 1996 Mountaineers showed promise of returning the program to national prominence . West Virginia began the 1996 season with a 7 – 0 record , only to lose three of its final four regular season games en route to an 8 – 3 record and a 20 – 13 defeat in the Gator Bowl at the hands of No. 12 North Carolina to finish 8 – 4 . The Mountaineers put together another strong start in 1997 , taking a 7 – 2 record into the final two weeks of the season . Once again , the Mountaineers faltered as they lost 21 – 14 at Notre Dame and 41 – 38 in triple overtime to a 5 – 5 Pitt team to finish the regular season at 7 – 4 . The late season collapse culminated in another bowl game defeat , this time to Georgia Tech in the Carquest Bowl . Despite the disappointing conclusion to the season , quarterback Marc Bulger emerged as a capable leader throwing for 2 @,@ 465 yards and 14 touchdowns . Running back Amos Zereoué shattered Robert Walker 's rushing record with 1 @,@ 589 yards , and his 18 rushing touchdowns are the second most in a single season at WVU .
The 1998 season brought high expectations for the Mountaineers , as WVU entered the season ranked No. 11 in the AP Poll . Despite dropping its opening game to No. 1 Ohio State , West Virginia rebounded to win its next four games and went on to finish the season with an 8 – 3 record and 5 – 2 mark in Big East conference play . The Mountaineers failed to attain nine wins , however , as they lost their 8th consecutive bowl game in the Insight.com Bowl to Missouri . Bulger set two WVU records with 3 @,@ 607 yards passing and 31 touchdown passes , while Zereoué amassed 1 @,@ 462 yards rushing and 13 touchdowns in his final season as a Mountaineer . Receivers Shawn Foreman and David Saunders finished with eight touchdown receptions each . After a 4 – 7 finish in 1999 , Don Nehlen 's final season with the Mountaineers in 2000 culminated in a 7 – 5 record with a victory in the Music City Bowl over Ole Miss , ending West Virginia 's streak of futility in bowl games .
Overall , Nehlen posted a 149 – 93 – 4 record during his tenure at West Virginia , making him both the longest @-@ serving and most successful head coach in Mountaineer history . While his coaching tenure contained numerous successes , Nehlen 's time at WVU also included its share of shortcomings as his Mountaineer teams often struggled against ranked opponents and in bowl games . However , as the man responsible for shaping the Mountaineer football program and bringing it to national relevancy in his 21 seasons in Morgantown , Nehlen was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 2005 . Most importantly , his tenure laid the foundation for the program 's most successful and prominent era .
= = = The Rodriguez years ( 2001 – 2007 ) = = =
After Nehlen 's retirement , WVU welcomed its first new head coach in 20 years and the 31st coach in its history : Rich Rodriguez . Rodriguez 's tenure began ignominiously , as the 2001 edition of the Mountaineers finished 3 – 8 , its worst record since 1978 . The failures of 2001 , however , set the stage for the emergence of the most successful era in Mountaineer football history .
The 2002 season represented the biggest single @-@ season turnaround in program history . Despite a 5 – 3 record through the season 's first eight games , the Mountaineers reeled off four consecutive victories , including upset road wins over then @-@ ranked rivals Virginia Tech ( No. 13 ) and Pitt ( No. 17 ) .West Virginia finished the regular season at 9 – 3 overall , with a 6 – 1 conference record for second place in the Big East , and a berth in the Continental Tire Bowl with Virginia . Despite losing its bowl game , West Virginia finished with a 9 – 4 record and was ranked in both the final Coaches ( No. 20 ) and AP ( No. 25 ) polls for the first time since 1993 . The momentum generated from the 2002 campaign was short @-@ lived as the Mountaineers stumbled to a 1 – 4 record early in the 2003 season . In similar fashion to the previous season , West Virginia rebounded and recorded seven wins in a row , including upsets of No. 3 Virginia Tech and No. 16 Pitt . The Mountaineers ended the regular season at 8 – 4 with a 6 – 1 conference mark , earning them a share of their first Big East title since 1993 . West Virginia earned a trip to the Gator Bowl for a rematch with rival Maryland . The result for the Mountaineers was a near duplicate of their 34 – 7 defeat to the Terrapins earlier in the season , as they fell 41 – 7 and finished the season 8 – 5 .
In contrast to 2002 and 2003 , the 2004 season may best be remembered for what the Mountaineers failed to accomplish . West Virginia , ranked No. 10 in the AP Poll to begin the season , carried an 8 – 1 record through its first nine games . The Mountaineers collapsed in the final two games of the regular season , however , losing to No. 21 Boston College and to Pitt . West Virginia squandered its opportunity to win the Big East outright , leading to a four @-@ way tie for first place and the BCS Fiesta Bowl nomination going to Pitt by tiebreaker . The disappointing season drew to a close with 30 – 18 loss to Florida State in the Gator Bowl , giving WVU an 8 – 4 record .
The 2005 season was a noteworthy one for the Mountaineers . After a 5 – 1 ( albeit offensively sluggish ) start to the season , the Mountaineers came alive in Week 7 against No. 19 Louisville . Quarterback Pat White and running back Steve Slaton helped to erase a 24 – 7 4th quarter deficit en route to a thrilling 46 – 44 triple overtime victory . From that point forward , the Mountaineers outscored their opponents 156 – 39 en route to a 10 – 1 finish and a 7 – 0 record in conference play for their second outright Big East championship . The Mountaineers also earned their first ever BCS bowl game berth , facing No. 8 Georgia in the Sugar Bowl . West Virginia scored 21 points in the 1st quarter , holding on for a 38 – 35 upset victory . The Mountaineers finished the 2005 season with their third 11 @-@ win season and achieved rankings of No. 5 and No. 6 in the AP and Coaches Polls , respectively .
The Mountaineers once again posted 11 wins in the 2006 season , narrowly missing out on another Big East championship after losses to Louisville and South Florida . The Mountaineers produced another triple @-@ overtime thriller with a 41 – 39 victory over No. 13 Rutgers in the final game of the regular season . West Virginia remained ranked in the top 15 in both polls throughout the season , earning another New Year 's Day bowl game as they met Georgia Tech in the Gator Bowl . The Mountaineers came away with another 38 – 35 victory , winning consecutive bowl games for the first time since the 1983 and 1984 seasons . Additionally , center Dan Mozes and running back Steve Slaton earned Consensus All @-@ American honors . Slaton 's 1 @,@ 744 yards rushing set the WVU single @-@ season rushing record .
The 2007 season may well be regarded as the most infamous season in West Virginia football history . The Mountaineers attained a preseason ranking of No. 3 and had National Championship aspirations . WVU raced to a 10 – 1 record , including a 66 – 21 victory over UConn to secure its fifth Big East title and its second BCS bowl appearance . The Mountaineers rose to as high as No. 2 in the AP Poll and No. 1 in the Coaches Poll , needing only a victory at home over a 4 – 7 , 28 @-@ point underdog Pitt team in the 100th installment of the Backyard Brawl to secure its second ever National Championship Game appearance . That victory did not come , as The Mountaineer offense sputtered against an inspired Pitt defense to the tune of a devastating 13 – 9 defeat .
= = = The Stewart years ( 2007 @-@ 2011 ) = = =
The fallout of the Pitt defeat reached beyond National Championship implications for the program , as it culminated in the departure of Rich Rodriguez to Michigan . Rodriguez left prior to West Virginia 's meeting with No. 3 Oklahoma in the Fiesta Bowl . The Mountaineers proved resilient , however , as they put together a 48 – 28 victory over the heavily favored Sooners . Long @-@ time assistant coach Bill Stewart , named as interim head coach for the game , was rewarded afterward with a five @-@ year contract to become West Virginia 's 32nd head coach . The Mountaineers concluded the 2007 season with an 11 – 2 record and were ranked at No. 6 in both of the final AP and Coaches Polls .
The Mountaineers transitioned into the Bill Stewart era in the 2008 season . It was also the final season of Pat White 's decorated collegiate career . WVU amassed a 9 – 4 record and a second @-@ place finish in the Big East , closing the season Meineke Car Care Bowl victory over North Carolina and a No. 23 ranking in the AP Poll . The bowl victory was West Virginia 's fourth in a row , giving White a postseason record of 4 – 0 as a starting quarterback , a feat never before accomplished in collegiate play . White 's biggest accomplishment came in Week 13 , however , when he set the NCAA rushing yardage record for quarterbacks with a 200 @-@ yard performance in a 35 – 21 win over Louisville .
The 2009 season culminated in another nine @-@ win campaign and second @-@ place finish in the Big East for the Mountaineers . Most notably , WVU ended its two @-@ year losing streak in the Backyard Brawl and exacted a measure of revenge for the 2007 defeat with an upset victory over No. 8 Pitt on Tyler Bitancurt 's game @-@ winning 43 @-@ yard field goal in the closing seconds . West Virginia 's season ended on a sour note , however , as it lost the Gator Bowl to a 6 – 6 Florida State team in Bobby Bowden 's final game . The 2010 season brought the program its third consecutive nine @-@ win season . Nonetheless , the season was ultimately a disappointment for the Mountaineers . Despite assembling arguably the strongest defense in program history ( surrendering only 176 total points , an average of 13 @.@ 5 per game ) and having a talented offense , West Virginia struggled with consistency all season . The Mountaineers lost to No. 15 LSU , Syracuse and UConn by a combined 14 points , while the Mountaineer defense did not surrender more than 23 points scored against in a single game throughout the season . The most glaring defeat of the season came against Connecticut in Week 9 where West Virginia lost four fumbles , including one at Connecticut 's 1 @-@ yard line in overtime , in a 16 @-@ 13 loss . The loss came back to haunt the Mountaineers as they once again lost out on a BCS Bowl bid by virtue of a tiebreaker to Connecticut .
Prior to West Virginia 's Champs Sports Bowl match up with North Carolina State , Athletic Director Oliver Luck announced the hiring of Dana Holgorsen as the " coach @-@ in @-@ waiting , " serving as offensive coordinator during the 2011 season and replacing Stewart as head coach in 2012 . Luck reasoned that he did not believe that the Mountaineers had an opportunity to win a national championship with the program under Stewart 's guise . Nearly six months later , the coach @-@ in @-@ waiting arrangement imploded as Stewart resigned amid accusations of initiating a smear campaign against Holgorsen .
= = = The Holgorsen years ( 2011 @-@ 2016 ) = = =
The onset of the Dana Holgorsen era brought about heightened expectations for the program as the Mountaineers entered the 2011 season as the odds @-@ on favorite to win the Big East title . The Mountaineers finished the regular season with a 9 – 3 record ( 5 – 2 in Big East play ) and a share of its 7th Big East title . The Mountaineers were the only Big East team ranked in the final BCS standings ( No. 23 ) , earning the BCS bid by tiebreaker and an Orange Bowl berth against ACC champion No. 14 Clemson . West Virginia 's first ever appearance in the Orange Bowl was a memorable one , as the Mountaineers soundly defeated Clemson 70 – 33 , setting a NCAA record for points scored in a bowl game . The Mountaineers finished the season at 10 – 3 and ranked No. 17 in the AP Poll and No. 18 in the Coaches Poll . Stedman Bailey and Tavon Austin produced the two most prolific single @-@ season receiving yard totals in WVU history , finishing with 1 @,@ 279 yards and 1 @,@ 186 yards , respectively .
From 2002 – 2011 , the Mountaineer football program yielded its most prolific era to date , producing a 95 – 33 record . During that span WVU participated in ten bowl games , finished ranked in at least one of the AP or Coaches Polls on seven occasions , won six Big East Conference titles , and produced three BCS bowl game victories .
In the midst of continued college football conference realignment , WVU received an invitation to join the Big 12 Conference beginning July 1 , 2012 . West Virginia subsequently expressed its intention to leave the Big East prior to the 27 @-@ month waiting period stipulated by the conference 's by @-@ laws . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
controversy to rest in an interview with The Guardian , saying " contrary to myth , Jimmy didn 't play on ' You Really Got Me ' . " In a 7 November 2014 interview with SiriusXM 's ' Town Hall ' , Page finally confirmed that he did not play on the song , saying " Oh , Crikey ! I wasn 't on ' You Really Got Me , ' but I did play on the Kinks ' records . That 's all I 'm going to say about it . But every time I do an interview , people ask me about ' You Really Got Me . ' So maybe somebody can correct Wikipedia so people won 't keep asking me . "
In his 1998 autobiographical release The Storyteller , Ray Davies discusses the guitar solo . He confirms that his brother Dave played the solo and it was preceded by some bantering between the two :
Halfway through the song it was time for Dave 's guitar solo . This moment had to be right . So I shouted across the studio to Dave , give him encouragement . But I seemed to spoil his concentration . He looked at me with a dazed expression . ' Fuck off . ' If you doubt me , if you doubt what I 'm saying , I challenge you to listen to the original Kinks recording of ' You Really Got Me ' . Halfway through the song , after the second chorus , before the guitar solo , there 's a drum break . Boo ka , boo boo ka , boo ka , boo boo . And in the background you can hear ' fuck off ' . You can , you can . When I did the vocal I tried to cover it up by going ' Oh no ' , but in the background you still hear it ' fuck off ' . And it 's even clearer on CD , it 's really embarrassing .
= = Music and lyrics = =
While Ray Davies had been instructed at the time to write " Beatle @-@ type " material for commercial reasons , " You Really Got Me " was written as a more R & B @-@ based composition . The song is centred on a guitar riff by Dave Davies , which has since been referred to as " instantly identifiable . " American musicologist Robert Walser described " You Really Got Me " as " the first hit song built around power chords . " The song has since been labeled as an early influence of the heavy metal genre , with critic Denise Sullivan of AllMusic writing , " ' You Really Got Me ' remains a blueprint song in the hard rock and heavy metal arsenal . " However , Dave Davies has since rejected the idea that the song is heavy metal , saying " I 've never really like that term , heavy metal . I think , in all humility , it was the first heavy guitar riff rock record . Just because of the sound — if you played it on a ukulele , it might not have been so powerful . "
The lyrics of the song are about lust and sex . Dave Davies said of the song 's lyrics , " ' You Really Got Me ' [ is ] such a pure record , really . It 's a love song for street kids . They 're not going to wine and dine you , even if they knew how to chat you up . [ They say ] ' I want you — come here . ' "
= = Release and reception = =
" You Really Got Me " was released as the band 's third single on 4 August 1964 , backed with " It 's Alright " . Within three days of the single 's release , " You Really Got Me " began to appear on local charts . Eventually , the song climbed to the top of the British charts , the band 's first single to do so . Ray Davies later claimed that , due to the single 's high demand , Pye Records put all their other records on hold to solely produce copies of " You Really Got Me " . Due to the high level of success the single achieved in the UK , a rush @-@ release of " You Really Got Me " was put out in America on 2 September 1964 , despite being delayed from its initial release date of 26 August . Although it did not enter the charts until 26 September , the record rose to number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song later appeared on the band 's debut album , Kinks , with the title of the American release of the album being changed to You Really Got Me . Plans for Ray to sing versions of the song in French , German , Spanish , and Japanese for their respective markets were proposed by Shel Talmy , but they never materialized .
Upon release , the single received a positive review from Record Mirror , which said , " Highly promising group with strong guitar sound and a compact sort of vocal performance . Mid @-@ tempo but bustling song should sell well . " In Melody Maker , singer Dave Berry was featured in a blindfold test of the song , with Berry at first guessing the song was by the Kingsmen . He said , " It 's fabulous , this one . I like these records that sound as if they 've gone into a recording studio and done what they wanted to on the spot . It 's a good chance of being a big hit . " The Melody Maker review had a lasting impact on Ray Davies , who said that Berry " had a few hits – so he mattered " and that Berry 's belief that the band had " done what they wanted " had " said it all " for him .
The Kinks ' use of distorted guitar riffs continued with songs like " All Day and All of the Night " , " Tired of Waiting for You " , and " Set Me Free " , among others . Pete Townshend of the Who , a band also produced by Talmy at that time , has stated that their first single , " I Can 't Explain " , was influenced by the Kinks ' work at the time . Other artists influenced by " You Really Got Me " include Tom Petty , John Lydon , Chris Bell of Big Star , and Jimi Hendrix , who , according to Dave Davies , describing the song as " a landmark record . "
In 1999 , " You Really Got Me " was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame . Rolling Stone magazine placed the song at number 82 on their list of the 500 greatest songs of all time and at number four on their list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time . In early 2005 , the song was voted the best British song of the 1955 – 1965 decade in a BBC radio poll . In March 2005 , Q magazine placed it at number nine in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks . In 2009 , it was named the 57th Greatest Hard Rock Song by VH1 .
= = Live history = =
Prior to its release , the Kinks performed " You Really Got Me " in some of their early concerts . It was a crowd favourite , with Ray Davies later claiming to feel a connection with the crowd as he performed the song . Ray later said , " Our success came from playing [ the song ] live . When we played ' You Really Got Me ' people actually took notice . They realised we had something original . "
The Kinks continued to perform successfully for over 30 years through many musical styles , but " You Really Got Me " remained a mainstay in concert . During some shows , the song was played in a medley with its follow @-@ up single " All Day and All of the Night , " while in 1977 , a performance on Saturday Night Live featured a four song medley of " You Really Got Me , " " All Day and All of the Night , " " A Well Respected Man , " and " Lola . " In a live performance on the Don Lane Show in 1982 , " You Really Got Me " was featured in a medley with the band 's 1981 song , " Destroyer . " In 1984 , Dave Davies claimed that , even after twenty years of performing " You Really Got Me , " the track was " still fun to play live . "
A live version of " You Really Got Me " was released on the band 's 1980 live album , One for the Road . This version , following the minor success of the same album 's live version of " Lola " , was released as a single in America , backed with the live take of Low Budget 's " Attitude " . However , the single failed to chart . This version was later included on the 1986 compilation album , Come Dancing with the Kinks : The Best of the Kinks 1977 @-@ 1986 .
Other live renditions of " You Really Got Me " have also been released . A version on Live at Kelvin Hall recorded at Kelvin Hall in Glasgow , Scotland was released in 1967 , while a performance at the Mann Music Center in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania appeared on 1994 's To the Bone . The Davies brothers also performed a live version in Boston , Massachusetts with the Smithereens in November 1991 , which later appeared on the latter band 's 1995 compilation album Attack of the Smithereens . Both Ray and Dave Davies still perform the song in solo shows , generally as a closing number .
In December 2015 , Ray Davies joined brother Dave onstage at one of his concerts to perform " You Really Got Me . " The event marked the first time the brothers performed on stage together in nearly twenty years , sparking rumors of a possible Kinks reunion .
= = Charts = =
= = Van Halen version = =
The American hard rock band Van Halen released a cover of " You Really Got Me " for their 1978 debut album , Van Halen in 1978 . As the band 's first single , it was a popular radio hit which helped jump @-@ start the band 's career , as it had done for the Kinks 14 years earlier . This version , which was cited by Eddie Van Halen as an " updated " version of the original , featured " histrionic " guitar playing by Eddie Van Halen and " vocal shenanigans " by David Lee Roth . The song had been played by the band live for years before its studio release . On the radio , it is often featured with " Eruption " , the instrumental that precedes it on the album , as an intro .
The song was released as a single as a result of an encounter between Eddie Van Halen and members of the band Angel . Eddie Van Halen and Angel drummer Barry Brandt had both been bragging about their new material to one another , resulting in Eddie Van Halen showing a demo of " You Really Got Me " to Brandt . On the following day , the band 's producer , Ted Templeman told Van Halen that Angel was recording their own cover of " You Really Got Me " to release before Van Halen 's version . As a result , the song was rush @-@ released as a single before Angel could do so .
Eddie Van Halen has since expressed dissatisfaction with the use of " You Really Got Me " as the band 's debut single . He said , " It kind of bummed me out that Ted [ Templeman ] wanted our first single to be someone else 's tune . I would have maybe picked " Jamie 's Cryin ' " , just because it was our own . "
The Kinks ' Dave Davies has claimed to dislike Van Halen 's rendition of the song , saying " There 's the thing : good art isn 't always about having the comfiest technique . I shouldn 't encourage him , but I 'm sure Eddie Van Halen played better when he was drunk . " He also told of how a concert @-@ goer approached him after a live show and congratulated him on performing a " great cover of the Van Halen song . " Ray Davies , on the other hand , claimed to like the track because it made him laugh .
= = = Personnel = = =
David Lee Roth – lead vocals
Eddie Van Halen – guitar , backing vocals
Alex Van Halen – drums
Michael Anthony – bass guitar , backing vocals
= = = Charts = = =
= Hurricane Linda ( 1997 ) =
Hurricane Linda was the second @-@ strongest eastern Pacific hurricane on record . Forming from a tropical wave on September 9 , 1997 , Linda steadily intensified and reached hurricane status within 36 hours of developing . It rapidly intensified , reaching winds of 185 mph ( 295 km / h ) and an estimated central pressure falling to 902 millibars ( 26 @.@ 6 inHg ) ; both were records for the eastern Pacific until Hurricane Patricia surpassed it in 2015 . The hurricane was briefly forecast to move toward southern California , but instead , it turned out to sea and dissipated on September 17 . It was the fifteenth tropical cyclone , thirteenth named storm , seventh hurricane , and fifth major hurricane of the 1997 Pacific hurricane season .
While near peak intensity , Hurricane Linda passed near Socorro Island , where it damaged meteorological instruments . The hurricane produced high waves along the southwestern Mexican coastline , forcing the closure of five ports . If Linda had made landfall on southern California as predicted , it would have been the strongest storm to do so since a storm in 1939 . Though it did not hit the state , the hurricane produced light to moderate rainfall across the region , causing mudslides and flooding in the San Gorgonio Wilderness ; two houses were destroyed and 77 others were damaged , and damage totaled $ 3 @.@ 2 million ( 1997 USD , $ 4 @.@ 3 million 2008 USD ) . Despite the intensity , the name was not retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Linda are believed to have been in a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on August 24 . The wave tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without development . An area of convection developed to the west of Panama in the Pacific Ocean on September 6 , which is believed to have been related to the tropical wave . The system continued westward , and within three days of entering the basin , a poorly defined circulation formed . Banding features began to develop , and at around 1200 UTC on September 9 , the system organized into Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E. At the time , it was approximately 460 miles ( 740 km ) south of the Mexican city of Manzanillo .
On becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression moved northwestward at 6 and 12 miles per hour ( 9 @.@ 7 and 19 @.@ 3 km / h ) , partially under the influence of a mid- to upper @-@ level low near the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula . Deep convection and banding features increased , and the depression intensified into a tropical storm early on September 10 . Upon being designated , the cyclone was named Linda by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) . As upper @-@ level outflow became well @-@ established , the storm began to strengthen quickly . By September 11 , an intermittent eye appeared , by which time the NHC estimated that Linda reached hurricane status . The storm began to rapidly intensify ; its small eye became well @-@ defined and surrounded by very cold convection . In a 24 ‑ hour period , the minimum pressure dropped 81 millibars ( 2 @.@ 4 inHg ) , or an average drop of 3 @.@ 38 millibars ( 0 @.@ 100 inHg ) per hour . Such intensification met the criterion for explosive deepening , an average hourly pressure decrease of at least 2 @.@ 5 millibars ( 0 @.@ 074 inHg ) . By early September 12 , Hurricane Linda reached Category 5 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , and around 0600 UTC , Linda attained estimated peak winds of 185 mph ( 295 km / h ) about 145 mi ( 235 km ) southeast of Socorro Island . Its maximum sustained winds were estimated between 180 mph ( 285 km / h ) and 195 mph ( 315 km / h ) , based on Dvorak T @-@ numbers of 7 @.@ 5 and 8 @.@ 0 respectively , and gusts were estimated to have reached 220 mph ( 350 km / h ) . The hurricane 's pressure is estimated at 902 millibars ( 26 @.@ 6 inHg ) , making Linda the most intense Pacific hurricane at the time . When the storm was active , its pressure was estimated to have been slightly lower , at 900 millibars ( 27 inHg ) .
Shortly after reaching peak intensity , Hurricane Linda passed near Socorro Island as a Category 5 hurricane . Around that time , tropical cyclone forecast models suggested that the hurricane would turn toward southern California due to an approaching upper @-@ level trough . Had Linda struck the state , it would have been much weaker at that time , possibly moving ashore as a tropical storm . Instead , Hurricane Linda turned west @-@ northwestward away from land in response to a building ridge to the north of the hurricane . Despite remaining away from land , moisture from the storm reached southern California to produce rainfall . On September 14 , the Hurricane Hunters and airplanes from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration investigated the hurricane to provide better data on the powerful hurricane . Hurricane Linda quickly deteriorated as it tracked toward cooler waters , weakening to tropical storm status on September 15 . Two days later , when located about 1 @,@ 105 miles ( 1 @,@ 778 km ) west of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula , it weakened to tropical depression status . Linda no longer met the criteria for a tropical cyclone by September 18 , although its remnant circulation persisted for a few more days before dissipating .
Forecasters and computer models did not anticipate how quickly Linda would strengthen ; in one advisory , the NHC under @-@ forecast how strong the winds would be in 72 hours by 115 miles per hour ( 185 km / h ) . The maximum potential intensity for Linda was 880 millibars ( 26 inHg ) , 22 millibars ( 0 @.@ 65 inHg ) lower than its actual intensity . The 1997 season was affected by the 1997 @-@ 98 El Niño event , which brought warmer than normal water temperatures and contributed to the high intensity of several storms . Hurricane Linda occurred about a month after the similarly powerful Hurricane Guillermo , which also reached Category 5 status . The passage of Linda cooled the waters in the region , causing Hurricane Nora to weaken when it passed through the area on September 21 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Although the eye of Hurricane Linda did not make landfall , the hurricane passed near Socorro Island while near peak intensity . The hurricane cut power to wind and pressure instruments . A station on the island recorded a pressure of 986 millibars ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) before it stopped producing data . No tropical cyclone warnings or watches were issued for the hurricane . However , the threat for high tides and strong winds in Mexico prompted officials to issue coastal flood warnings and to close five ports . Waves of up to 7 @.@ 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) were reported along the coastline , causing flooding in the states of Michoacán , Jalisco , Nayarit , and Sinaloa .
When Linda was predicted to turn towards the northeast , it was forecast to move ashore in southern California as a weak tropical storm , which would have made Linda the first to do so since a tropical storm in 1939 . The Oxnard , California National Weather Service office issued public information and special weather statements that discussed the possible impact of Linda on southern California . The advisories mentioned forecasting uncertainty , and advised the media not to exaggerate the storm . The office noted a threat for significant rainfall — possibly causing flash flooding — as well as high surf . To prepare for possible flooding , workers cleaned storm drains and prepared sandbags for coastal properties .
Although the storm did not make the turn , 15 and 18 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 5 m ) waves reached southern California . In Newport Beach , a wave swept five people off a jetty and carried them 900 feet ( 270 m ) out to sea , although all were rescued by a passing boat . Moisture from the hurricane moved across the state , producing heavy rainfall and golfball @-@ sized hail . A station in Forrest Falls , located within the San Gorgonio Wilderness , recorded rainfall rates of 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) per hour . The rainfall caused severe flooding and mudslides which destroyed two houses , damaged 77 others , and inflicted $ 3 @.@ 2 million in damage ( 1997 USD , $ 4 @.@ 3 million 2008 USD ) . San Diego recorded 0 @.@ 05 inches ( 1 @.@ 3 mm ) of rain , the first measurable precipitation in 164 days ; this tied the record for the longest duration without rainfall at the station , previously set in 1915 and 1924 . Moisture from Linda extended into the Upper Midwest , contributing to a record daily rainfall total of 1 @.@ 97 inches ( 50 mm ) in Minneapolis , Minnesota .
= = Records = =
With an estimated pressure of 902 millibars ( 26 @.@ 6 inHg ) , Hurricane Linda became the most intense Pacific hurricane since reliable records began in the 1966 season . Until Hurricane Patricia of 2015 , Linda was also believed to have been the strongest since overall records began in the basin in 1949 . The previous most intense hurricane was Hurricane Ava in 1973 , which contained a confirmed pressure of 915 millibars ( 27 @.@ 0 inHg ) . Since no observations recorded the pressure during Linda 's peak , its peak intensity was estimated . As such , Ava remained the strongest measured hurricane in the basin at that time .
= G. Ledyard Stebbins =
George Ledyard Stebbins Jr . ( January 6 , 1906 – January 19 , 2000 ) was an American botanist and geneticist who is widely regarded as one of the leading evolutionary biologists of the 20th century . Stebbins received his Ph.D. in botany from Harvard University in 1931 . He went on to the University of California , Berkeley , where his work with E. B. Babcock on the genetic evolution of plant species , and his association with a group of evolutionary biologists known as the Bay Area Biosystematists , led him to develop a comprehensive synthesis of plant evolution incorporating genetics .
His most important publication was Variation and Evolution in Plants , which combined genetics and Darwin 's theory of natural selection to describe plant speciation . It is regarded as one of the main publications which formed the core of the modern evolutionary synthesis and still provides the conceptual framework for research in plant evolutionary biology ; according to Ernst Mayr , " Few later works dealing with the evolutionary systematics of plants have not been very deeply affected by Stebbins ' work . " He also researched and wrote widely on the role of hybridization and polyploidy in speciation and plant evolution ; his work in this area has had a lasting influence on research in the field .
From 1960 , Stebbins was instrumental in the establishment of the Department of Genetics at the University of California , Davis , and was active in numerous organizations involved in the promotion of evolution , and of science in general . He was elected to the National Academy of Science , was awarded the National Medal of Science , and was involved in the development of evolution @-@ based science programs for California high schools , as well as the conservation of rare plants in that state .
= = Early life and education = =
Stebbins was born in Lawrence , New York , the youngest of three children . His parents were George Ledyard Stebbins , a wealthy real estate financier who developed Seal Harbor , Maine and helped to establish Acadia National Park , and Edith Alden Candler Stebbins ; both parents were native New Yorkers and Episcopalians . Stebbins was known throughout his life as Ledyard , to distinguish himself from his father . The family encouraged their sons ' interest in natural history during their periodic journeys to Seal Harbor . In 1914 , Edith contracted tuberculosis and the Stebbins moved to Santa Barbara , California to improve her health . In California , Stebbins was enrolled at the Cate School in Carpinteria where he became influenced by Ralph Hoffmann , an American natural history instructor and amateur ornithologist and botanist . After graduating from high school , he embarked on a major in political studies at Harvard . By the third year of his undergraduate study , he had decided to major in botany .
Stebbins started graduate studies at Harvard in 1928 , initially working on flowering plant taxonomy and biogeography — particularly that of the flora of New England — with Merritt Lyndon Fernald . He completed his MA in 1929 and continued to work toward his Ph.D. He became interested in using chromosomes for taxonomic studies , a method that Fernald did not support . Stebbins chose to concentrate his doctoral work on the cytology of plant reproductive processes in the genus Antennaria , with cytologist E. C. Jeffrey as his supervisor and Fernald on his supervisory panel . During his Ph.D. candidature , Stebbins sought advice and supervision from geneticist Karl Sax . Sax identified several errors in Stebbins 's work and disapproved of his interpretation of results that , while in accordance with Jeffrey 's views , were inconsistent with the work of contemporary geneticists . Jeffrey and Sax argued over Stebbins 's dissertation , and the thesis was revised numerous times to accommodate their differing views .
Stebbins 's Ph.D. was granted by Harvard in 1931 . In March that year , he married Margaret Chamberlin , with whom he had three children . In 1932 , he took a teaching position in biology at Colgate University . While at Colgate , he continued his work in cytogenetics ; in particular , he continued to study the genetics of Antennaria and began to study the behaviour of chromosomes in hybrid peonies bred by biologist Percy Saunders . Saunders and Stebbins attended the 1932 International Congress of Genetics in Ithaca , New York . Here , Stebbins 's interest was captured by talks given by Thomas Hunt Morgan and Barbara McClintock , who spoke about chromosomal crossover . Stebbins reproduced McClintock 's crossover experiments in the peony , and published several papers on the cytogenetics of Paeonia , which established his reputation as a geneticist .
= = UC Berkeley = =
In 1935 , Stebbins was offered a genetics research position at the University of California , Berkeley working with geneticist E. B. Babcock . Babcock needed assistance with a large Rockefeller @-@ funded project characterizing the genetics and evolutionary processes of plants from the genus Crepis and was interested in developing Crepis into a model plant , to enable genetic investigations similar to those possible in the model insect Drosophila melanogaster . Like the genera that Stebbins had previously studied , Crepis commonly hybridized , displayed polyploidy ( chromosome doubling ) , and could make seed without fertilization ( a process known as apomixis ) . The collaboration between Babcock and Stebbins produced numerous papers and two monographs . The first monograph , published in 1937 , resulted in splitting off the Asiatic Crepis species into the genus Youngia . The second , published in 1938 , was titled The American Species of Crepis : their interrelationships and distribution as affected by polyploidy and apomixis .
In The American Species of Crepis , Babcock and Stebbins described the concept of the polyploid complex , and its role in plant evolution . Some genera , such as Crepis , have a complex of reproductive forms that center on sexually diploid populations that have also given rise to polyploid ones . Babcock and Stebbins also observed that allopolyploid types formed from the hybridization of two different species always have a wider distribution than diploid or autotetraploid species , and proposed that polyploids formed through hybridization have a greater potential to exploit varied environments , because they inherit all traits from both parents . They also showed that hybridization in the polyploid complex could provide a mechanism for genetic exchange between diploid species that were otherwise unable to breed . Their observations offered insight into species formation and knowledge of how all these complex processes could provide information on the history of a genus . This monograph was described by Swedish botanist Åke Gustafsson as the most important work on the formation of species during that period .
Stebbins 's review , " The significance of polyploidy in plant evolution " , published in American Naturalist in 1940 , demonstrated how work done on artificial polyploids and natural polyploid complexes had shown that polyploidy was important in developing large , complex , and widespread genera . However , by looking at the history of polyploidy in plant families , he argued that polyploidy was only common in herbaceous perennials and infrequent in woody plants and annuals . As such , polyploids played a conservative role in evolution since problems with fertility prevented the acquisition and replication of new genetic material that might lead to a new line of evolution . This work continued with the 1947 paper " Types of polyploids : their classification and significance " , which detailed a system for the classification of polyploids and described Stebbins ' ideas about the role of paleopolyploidy in angiosperm evolution , where he argued that chromosome number may be a useful tool for the construction of phylogenies . These reviews were highly influential and provided a basis for others to study the role of polyploidy in evolution .
In 1939 , with Babcock 's support , Stebbins was made a full professor in the Department of Genetics at UC Berkeley , after the Department of Botany failed to promote him . Stebbins was required to teach a course on evolution , and during his preparation he became excited by contemporary research combining genetics and evolution . He became associated with a group known as the Bay Area Biosystematists , which included botanist Jens Clausen , taxonomist David D. Keck , physiologist William Hiesey and the evolutionary geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky . During this time he also became friends with the botanist Herbert Baker . With the encouragement of this group of scientists , Stebbins directed his research towards evolution . He became involved with the Society for the Study of Evolution in 1946 , and was one of the few botanists involved with the new organization .
His research on plant evolution also progressed during this period ; he worked on the genetics of forage grasses , looking at polyploidy and the evolution of the Poaceae and publishing numerous papers on the subject though the 1940s . He produced an artificial autotetraploid grass from the diploid species Ehrharta erecta through treatment with the chromosome doubling agent colchicine . He was able to establish the plant in the field , and after 39 years of field trials was able to show that the autopolyploid was not as successful as its diploid parent in an unchanging environment .
= = Variation and Evolution in Plants = =
Columbia University 's Jesup Lectures were the starting point for many of the most important works of the modern evolutionary synthesis . The presenters introduced the connection between two important discoveries — the units of evolution ( genes ) with selection as the primary mechanism of evolution . In 1941 , Edgar Anderson ( whose work on hybridization in the genus Iris had interested Stebbins since they met in 1930 ) and Ernst Mayr co @-@ presented the lecture series and Mayr later published his lectures as Systematics and the Origin of Species . In 1946 , Stebbins was invited on Dobzhansky 's recommendation to present the prestigious lectures . Stebbins ' lectures drew together the otherwise disparate fields of genetics , ecology , systematics , cytology , and paleontology . In 1950 , these lectures were published as Variation and Evolution in Plants , which proved to be one of the most important books in 20th @-@ century botany . The book brought botanical science into the new synthesis of evolutionary theory , and became part of the canon of biological works written between 1936 and 1950 that formed the modern synthesis of evolution .
Variation and Evolution in Plants was the first book to provide a wide @-@ ranging explanation of how evolutionary mechanisms operated in plants at the genetic level . It brought concepts related to plant evolution into line with animal evolution as it emerged from Dobzhansky 's 1937 Genetics and the Origin of Species and provided the conceptual framework to organize a disparate set of disciplines into a new field : plant evolutionary biology . In the book Stebbins argued that evolution needed to be studied as a dynamic problem and that evolution must be considered on three levels : first , that of individual variation within an interbreeding population ; second , that of the distribution and frequency of this variation ; and third , that of the separation and divergence of populations as the result of the building up of isolating mechanisms leading to the formation of species . He used the work of biosystematists Clausen , Keck , Hiesey , and Turesson to show that it was possible to distinguish between genotypic and phenotypic variation — that is , genetically identical plants could have different phenotypes in different environments . One of the book 's most original chapters used the cytogenetics work of C. D. Darlington to show that genetic systems like hybridization and polyploidy were also subject to selection .
The book offered few original hypotheses , but Stebbins hoped that by summarising the available research on plant evolution the book would " help to open the way towards a deeper understanding of evolutionary problems and more fruitful research in the direction of their solution . " The book effectively ended any serious belief in alternative mechanisms of evolution in plants , such as Lamarckian evolution or soft inheritance , which were still upheld by some botanists . Following that publication , Stebbins was regarded as an expert on modern evolutionary theory and is widely credited with the founding of the science of plant evolutionary biology . Variation and Evolution in Plants continues to be widely cited in contemporary scientific botanical literature more than 50 years after its publication .
Stebbins regarded his contribution to the modern synthesis as the application of genetic principles already established by other workers to botany . " I didn 't add any new elements [ to the modern synthetic theory ] to speak of . I just modified things so that people could understand how things were in the plant world . "
= = UC Davis and later life = =
Stebbins took an appointment at the University of California , Davis in 1950 , where he was a key figure in the establishment of the University 's Department of Genetics ; he was the Department 's first chairman and held the position from 1958 to 1963 . At Davis , the focus of his research changed to incorporate newer areas , such as developmental morphology and genetics in crop plants , including barley . He continued to publish widely and extensively on plant evolution , writing over 200 papers and several books after 1950 .
Stebbins and Edgar Anderson wrote a paper in 1954 on the importance of hybridization in adapting to new environments . They proposed novel adaptations would facilitate the invasion of habitats not utilized previously by either parent and that novel adaptations may facilitate the formation of stabilized hybrid species . Following this paper , Stebbins developed the first model of adaptive radiation . He proposed that a high degree of genetic variability was necessary for major evolutionary advances , that because of slow mutation rates , genetic recombination was the most likely source of this variation , and that variation could be maximised though hybridization . As of 2006 , research is ongoing regarding whether hybridization is an accidental consequence of evolution or if it is necessary for the creation and evolution of plant species ; it has been argued that contemporary studies are part of an intellectual lineage that started with the work of Stebbins and Anderson .
Stebbins wrote several books during his time at UC Davis . These included his follow @-@ up to Variation and Evolution , Flowering Plants : Evolution Above the Species Level , which was published in 1974 , following his delivery of the Prather Lectures at Harvard . Stebbins discusses the origins , genetics and developmental biology of the angiosperms . He argues for the role of adaptive radiation in the diversification of the angiosperms and the usefulness of applying our current understanding of species ' genetics and ecology to gain knowledge about the evolution of ancient species . He also wrote Processes of Organic Evolution , The Basis of Progressive Evolution , Chromosomal Evolution in Plants and the textbook Evolution with co @-@ authors Dobzhansky , Francisco Ayala and James W. Valentine . His last book , Darwin to DNA , Molecules to Humanity was published in 1982 .
Stebbins was passionate about teaching evolution , advocating during the 1960s and 70s the teaching of Darwinian evolution in public schools . He worked closely with the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study to develop high school curricula based on evolution as the central unifying principle in biology . He also opposed scientific creationism groups . Stebbins was active in numerous science organizations — including the International Union of Biological Sciences , the Western Society of Naturalists , the Botanical Society of America , and the Society for the Study of Evolution — and served as President of the American Society of Naturalists . He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1952 . Stebbins received numerous awards for his contributions to science : the National Medal of Science , the Gold Medal from the Linnean Society of London , the Addison Emery Verrill Medal from the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History , and the John Frederick Lewis Award from the American Philosophical Society . He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1952 . He was awarded the 1983 Leidy Award from the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia .
Stebbins was active in conservation issues in California during his later life . He established a California Native Plant Society branch in Sacramento in the early 1960s . Through the society , he created an active field trip program to increase interest in the native flora of California and to document rare plants . Stebbins was the state President of the Society during 1966 . The society was instrumental in preventing the destruction of a beach on the Monterey Peninsula that he referred to as " Evolution Hill " — the area is now known as the S.F.B. Morse Botanical Area and is managed by the Del Monte Forest Foundation . He was a major contributor to the Society 's 1996 book California 's Wild Gardens : A Living Legacy . Stebbins was instrumental in the establishment of the Inventory of Rare and Endangered Vascular Plants of California by the California Native Plant Society ; it is still used by state and federal bodies in the United States for conservation policy @-@ making . Stebbins was also a member of the Sierra Club .
During his tenure at UC Davis , he trained more than 30 graduate students in genetics , developmental biology and agricultural science . In 1973 , Stebbins gave his last lectures at UC Davis and was made professor emeritus . Following his retirement , he travelled widely , taught , and visited colleagues for the next 20 years . His last paper , " A brief summary of my ideas on evolution " , was published in the American Journal of Botany in 1999 . The same year he was co @-@ recipient with Ernst Mayr of the Distinguished Service award from the American Institute of Biological Sciences . A colloquium was held by the National Academies of Science in 2000 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the publication of Variation and Evolution in Plants . Stebbins died in his home in Davis the same year from a cancer @-@ related illness . Stebbins was honored at a Unitarian memorial service — he had been active in the church in his later years following his 1958 marriage to his second wife , Barbara Monaghan Stebbins . His ashes were scattered at Stebbins Cold Canyon Reserve .
= = Legacy = =
Stebbins made an enormous contribution to scientific thought and botany by developing an intellectual framework for studying plant evolution including modern concepts of plant species and plant speciation . His contributions to the literature of plant evolutionary biology , in addition to his seven books , include more than 280 journal articles and book chapters , a compilation of which were published in 2004 — The Scientific Papers of G. Ledyard Stebbins ( 1929 – 2000 ) ( ISBN 3 @-@ 906166 @-@ 15 @-@ 5 ) . Betty Smocovitis , a historian of science who is preparing a book @-@ length biography on Stebbins , described Stebbins 's scientific contribution as follows :
In science as in everything , small @-@ scale synthesizers usually get credit from all constituent parties , but truly great synthesizers can fall between the cracks in the cycle of scientific credit . Ledyard Stebbins was in the latter category ; neither fish nor fowl , he frequently failed to receive credit for work in some areas , usually at the hands of narrower colleagues . Few , however , have challenged his contributions to plant evolutionary biology , nor questioned his ability to synthesize disparate literature into a coherent framework . His ability to read quickly , recognize novel insights , digest new material , and then integrate the knowledge were the hallmarks of his scientific work style . He was a masterful synthesizer and master of the review essay or synthetic thought piece .
In 1980 , the University of California , Davis , named a parcel of land near Lake Berryessa , California , the Stebbins Cold Canyon Reserve in recognition of his contributions to conservation and evolutionary science . The reserve is part of the University of California Natural Reserve System . The UC Davis Herbarium maintains a G. Ledyard Stebbins student grant program , established in celebration of his 90th birthday .
Calystegia stebbinsii , Lomatium stebbinsii , Harmonia stebbinsii , Elymus stebbinsii , Lewisia stebbinsii and others are named in honor of Stebbins .
= = Key publications = =
Variation and Evolution in Plants ( 1950 )
Processes of Organic Evolution ( 1966 )
The Basis of Progressive Evolution ( 1969 )
Chromosomal Evolution in Higher Plants ( 1971 ) ( ISBN 0 @-@ 7131 @-@ 2287 @-@ 0 )
Flowering plants : evolution above the species level ( 1974 ) . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 30685 @-@ 6 .
Evolution ( 1977 ) with Dobzhansky , Ayala and Valentine
Darwin to DNA , Molecules to Humanity ( 1982 ) ( ISBN 0 @-@ 7167 @-@ 1331 @-@ 4 )
= = = General biographical references = = =
= The Man with Two Brians =
" The Man with Two Brians " is the fifth episode of the seventh season of the animated series Family Guy . It premiered on Fox in the United States on November 9 , 2008 . The episode centers on anthropomorphic dog Brian after he is injured during a stunt being enacted by his owner , Peter , after he watches Jackass with his friends . The family comes to realize that Brian may be getting too old , so Peter brings home an optimistic new dog . Brian is prompted to leave when his family begins to favor New Brian over him .
The episode was written by John Viener and marked the directorial debut of Dominic Bianchi . It received generally favorable reviews from critics for its storyline and various cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 60 million households in its original airdate . Johnny Knoxville , Will Sasso and Camille Guaty provided guest performances in the episode .
= = Plot = =
After watching Jackass , Peter and his friends , Cleveland , Quagmire , and Joe are impressed into filming their own highly dangerous stunts . In one stunt , Peter attempts to jump a lake but instead crashes into a tree , causing him to fall into the lake and become incapacitated . Brian swims out to save him from drowning , but strains his back during the rescue and also ends up stranded in the water along with Peter , before being rescued by Joe . Lois berates Peter for his actions , since Brian is becoming old and has been smoking and drinking . Peter begins to grow upset about Brian 's age so he obtains another dog and names him New Brian . His positive attitude and desirable personality make Brian feel like an outcast and Brian becomes sad that he is now unloved , and rejected . For example in one scene , when the Griffins hear New Brian fart , they think it is cute and when Brian does it , they get furious and kick him out . He ultimately decides to leave the residence , while his family begins to miss him .
Meanwhile , New Brian 's constant cheerfulness begins to aggravate Stewie . Stewie pleads for Brian to return , but he informs him that as long as New Brian is there , he has no place in the Griffin household . Stewie reveals to New Brian that they do not like several of his traits , including how he humps the leg of one of their chairs , but New Brian replies by boasting about how he violated Rupert , Stewie 's teddy bear . Stewie then stabs New Brian to death off @-@ screen and forges a suicide note . The Griffins then ultimately accept Brian back , while Stewie , traumatized by what happened to Rupert , frantically washes him in the shower while comforting him .
= = Production = =
" The Man with Two Brians " was written by John Viener and directed by Dominic Bianchi . In the storyboard animatic scene of Brian 's rescue of a drowning Peter , music from Rambo : First Blood Part II was used . The scene in which Peter broke his neck and the design of New Brian were both based on drawings by creator Seth MacFarlane . New Brian was supposed to be a Golden Retriever , but his color was changed so that he would stand out from the yellow kitchen . In the scene when Peter wears the costume from The Greatest American Hero , the theme from E.T. was originally used . Several scenes were cut when the episode aired on television , mostly due to lack of time . The song New Brian sang to Peter was written by series writer Alec Sulkin . The original ending for the episode was a Beverly Hills , 90210 basketball joke , but it was cut .
" The Man with Two Brians " , along with the first eight episodes of the seventh season were released on DVD by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on June 16 , 2009 . The " Volume 7 " DVD release features bonus material including deleted scenes , animatics , and commentaries for every episode .
Johnny Knoxville , star of Jackass , provided his own voice in this episode , and Will Sasso and Camille Guaty guest starred as various characters . The episode 's writer , John Viener , provided the voice of New Brian . Recurring voice actors and writers Kirker Butler , Mark Hentemann , Danny Smith and Alec Sulkin made minor appearances in the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The television series Jackass is referred to frequently by Peter and his neighbors , and is the principal reason that they try to do stunts . Johnny Knoxville cameoes and takes a shotgun blast which blows off part of his face . In the episode , while being launched off a ramp and flying through the air , Peter wears the costume from The Greatest American Hero and sings that series ' theme song .
Peter dresses up like a stereotypical adolescent bully featured in 1980s films , and makes references to Pretty in Pink , No Retreat , No Surrender and The Karate Kid . He then looks at the ocean on a pier as Howard Jones ' song , " No One Is to Blame " , plays . In one scene , Stewie refers to " aging supermodel Carol Alt . " Before New Brian and Lois sing " Summer Nights " as featured in Grease , Peter sings R.E.M. ' s " Everybody Hurts " . Stewie reads and then rips apart Nancy Reagan 's memoir , My Turn . Mumm @-@ Ra , the antagonist from the 1980s cartoon Thundercats and its 2011 remake , appears in the scene where Cleveland Brown is making Brian go to the bathroom on a leash whilst staying at his house . Mumm @-@ Ra watches through his cauldron and laughs evilly before remarking , " I 'm watching you make stool ! "
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Man with Two Brians " was watched by 8 @.@ 60 million households according to the Nielsen ratings . The episode acquired a 4 @.@ 3 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , and was the most @-@ watched show in the Animation Domination block that night . Family Guy finished fourth in its timeslot , after NBC 's Sunday Night Football , ABC 's Desperate Housewives and CBS 's The Amazing Race .
The episode received generally favorable reviews from television sources and critics . Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode 7 @.@ 5 / 10 and said : " While it featured more than [ ... ] a couple of genuinely unfunny ideas , this episode succeeds for the most part . [ ... ] While this episode definitely won 't make anyone 's top ten list of great Family Guy , there was a much better balance between random humor and storytelling in this outing " . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A- , and said that Family Guy " started things out on the wrong foot with an oh @-@ so @-@ relevant Jackass storyline . [ ... ] Most of the Jackass stuff was way too stale – Peter jackknifing Quagmire into the crate of bees notwithstanding – but thankfully it was just setup for a far superior storyline , the introduction of a younger ' New Brian ' " .
Robin Pierson of The TV Critic was more critical about the episode , and gave it 32 / 100 and said : " As usual the problem with this episode is that there is no point to it . [ The episode had ] some needless jokes but others which were bearable and a logical enough story even though it addressed nothing .
= Community Trolls =
Community Trolls was the group name of a short @-@ lived musical duo between Michael Stipe of R.E.M. and Matthew Sweet . In 1983 , they collaborated as part of the Athens , Georgia music scene , writing and recording three songs together . One of the compositions , " Tainted Obligation " , was nearly released on a compilation album in 1986 , and later appeared on bootlegs ; it was released officially in 2002 . Another Community Trolls ' song , " Six Stock Answers " , appeared in an unreleased indie film featuring Stipe , Sweet and some of their friends .
Community Trolls , who may have at times included additional band members , performed in public at least twice . By sometime in 1984 , however , Sweet began distancing himself from the Athens music scene , and in 1985 he got a record deal and moved to New York . While some people accused him of using his Athens music connections to get ahead and then desert the scene , R.E.M. did not hold any hard feelings towards him .
= = Background = =
As a teenager in Lincoln , Nebraska , Sweet was a big fan of Mitch Easter . Easter produced R.E.M. ' s first single , the Hib @-@ Tone version of " Radio Free Europe " . Sweet loved its B @-@ side , " Sitting Still " , and became a fan of the band . When R.E.M. performed in Lincoln in September 1982 , Sweet went to the show . At that point R.E.M. were still relatively unknown , so there was almost nobody at the concert . Sweet met the band and gave Michael Stipe a tape of songs he had been working on . R.E.M. was from Athens , Georgia , which was becoming famous for its vibrant music scene . Sweet had also read about Athens in New York Rocker magazine .
R.E.M. put Sweet in touch with Easter , who wrote Sweet a number of long letters , and suggested he move to Athens after graduating from high school . Meanwhile , Stipe really liked Sweet 's tape , and he also played it for his sister , Lynda , and friend Linda Hopper , who were both in the band Oh @-@ OK . All three sent Sweet postcards saying he should come perform in Athens , with Lynda and Linda inviting him to open for Oh @-@ OK there . Sweet told his parents that he wanted to study at the University of Georgia , in Athens . Within weeks of moving there , he had become a member of Oh @-@ OK , who recorded their EP Furthermore What in August 1983 with him on board . While a member of Oh @-@ OK , Sweet also began collaborating with Michael Stipe as the band Community Trolls .
= = Songs = =
Sometime in the autumn of 1983 , Stipe and Sweet wrote at least three songs together . Of their songwriting process , Sweet has said : " [ Stipe ] was the real powerhouse behind it . I was pretty tentative in those days . We just sat around , Michael went through the little book he wrote lyrics in , with me just kind of strumming along behind . "
= = = " Tainted Obligation " = = =
They recorded their three compositions with producer John Keane that fall , but only one of the tracks from the session , " Tainted Obligation " , has been officially released . Stipe plays accordion on the song , and Sweet acoustic guitar , with vocals by both .
In 1986 , " Tainted Obligation " was planned for inclusion on the Zippo / Demon Records compilation album Don 't Shoot , but ultimately was left off . It was included on a UK cassette advance version of the compilation , but was removed before the album was officially released . In the early 1990s , the song surfaced as " Tainted Obligations " on R.E.M. bootlegs such as Stab It and Steer It and Chestnut . The track was released officially on the 2002 Matthew Sweet compilation To Understand : The Early Recordings of Matthew Sweet . In a review of the album , Rolling Stone critic Gavin Edwards describes the song as " enchanting " and as having " harmonies as pretty as you can imagine " .
= = = " Six Stock Answers " and " My Roof to Your Roof " = = =
Two other documented Community Trolls ' songs are entitled " Six Stock Answers " and " My Roof to Your Roof " . " Six Stock Answers " , whose vocals are by Stipe , was used in an unreleased low @-@ budget forty @-@ five @-@ minute Super @-@ 8 film called Just Like a Movie . It was shot in September 1983 in Athens by New York Rocker photographer Laura Levine , a friend of the members of R.E.M. Those with acting roles included Levine , Michael Stipe , Sweet , Hopper , Lynda Stipe , and R.E.M. ' s Bill Berry . One scene in the film , a parody of the " Subterranean Homesick Blues " sequence in D. A. Pennebaker 's Bob Dylan documentary Dont Look Back , shows Michael Stipe wearing a skirt and tights flipping placards with the song 's lyrics , " Six stock answers to 74 @,@ 000 questions " repeated ad nauseam . Just Like a Movie 's plot has two rival bands performing on the same night , leading up to the climax question of " Which band is everybody going to go see ? "
= = Live performances = =
Community Trolls ' first public performance was busking outside the 40 Watt Club in Athens in September , 1983 . On September 30 , Community Trolls played a set between two R.E.M. sets at the Stitchcraft in Athens , performing four songs : " Six Stock Answers " , " My Roof to Your Roof " , " Tainted Obligation " and the Velvet Underground 's " Pale Blue Eyes " . ( R.E.M. biographer Marcus Gray believes it is likely that footage of the show , including the Trolls ' set , was used in Just Like a Movie . ) Part of R.E.M. ' s performance , and the Trolls ' four songs , have been released on the R.E.M. bootleg 20th Century Boys Volume 1 . Sweet performed with members of R.E.M. at least one other time while he was in Athens : When R.E.M. shared a bill with Oh @-@ OK on October 3 , 1983 , at the University of Georgia 's Legion Field , Sweet joined R.E.M. onstage and played guitar .
= = Possible other band members = =
Although only Stipe and Sweet performed in the studio on " Tainted Obligation " , it is not clear whether other musicians may have sometimes been included in the band . Gray writes that " the line @-@ up of the Community Trolls remains elusive , but Sweet was guitarist and singer " . In the book Rolling Stone 's Alt @-@ Rock @-@ A @-@ Rama , their line @-@ up is described as an " Athens @-@ based , looseknit ensemble , which included Matthew Sweet , [ and which ] featured Michael Stipe 's vocals on a handful of tracks " .
= = Aftermath = =
Around the time as he was collaborating with Stipe , and while still a member of Oh @-@ OK , Sweet began writing songs for another project , the Buzz of Delight , which consisted of Sweet and former Oh @-@ OK drummer David Pierce . In October 1983 , they recorded a six @-@ song EP , Soundcastles , released in the spring of 1984 on DB Records , and performed in New York , Florida and Georgia State to promote it . In the summer and November 1984 , the Buzz of Delight recorded more songs , none of which were immediately released . ( In 1990 , one previously unreleased Buzz of Delight track appeared on the DB Records compilation Squares Blot out the Sun , and , in 2002 , three others on To Understand . ) Meanwhile , Stipe continued his work with R.E.M. , who were getting acclaim and success with their album Murmur . In 1983 , it was named album of the year by Rolling Stone and Trouser Press , and by the middle of 1984 , it had sold 200 @,@ 000 copies . In November 1983 , R.E.M. began recording their follow @-@ up , Reckoning .
Sweet began distancing himself from other people in the Athens music scene and in 1984 quit Oh @-@ OK ; by 1985 , the Buzz of Delight had broken up . That year , Sweet got a record deal with CBS Records and moved to New York City . He was accused of being opportunistic and using his Athens connections to get a record deal and leave . Sweet maintains that when he went to CBS , he never claimed to have anything to do with Athens , so that nobody could say he used the town . He says that after months of living in Athens , he realized things weren 't as happy there as everyone pretended , and that there was backstabbing going on . In 1993 , he said , " Things really turned dark there when R.E.M. got famous , because everyone wanted that fame so bad . Maybe I wanted it too , but I had this musical goal all of my own and wasn 't going to go along with the way it was done there . " Everybody was telling him that he should be touring and building up a following before doing his record , like R.E.M. had done . However , more than making the record itself and becoming a rock star , Sweet 's main motivation was to get money to buy studio gear .
R.E.M. , for their part , held no hard feelings towards Sweet . Peter Buck has said , " The guy wanted to make records . I don 't see anything wrong with that . " Years later , Sweet recorded with R.E.M. ' s Mike Mills on the song " The Ballad of El Goodo " , on the Big Star tribute Big Star , Small World . It was originally scheduled to come out in 1998 , but its release was delayed until 2006 . On March 26 , 2011 , Sweet and Mills performed the Big Star song " September Gurls " together live at a tribute to Big Star singer Alex Chilton ; Stipe also performed at this concert , singing " The Letter " , by Chilton 's 1960s group , the Box Tops .
= McKinley Birthplace Memorial dollar =
The McKinley Birthplace Memorial dollar was a commemorative coin struck in gold by the United States Bureau of the Mint in 1916 and 1917 , depicting the 25th President of the United States , William McKinley . The coin 's obverse was designed by Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber , and the reverse by his assistant , George T. Morgan . As McKinley had appeared on a version of the 1903 @-@ dated Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar , the 1916 release made him the first person to appear on two issues of U.S. coins .
The coins were to be sold at a premium to finance the National McKinley Birthplace Memorial at Niles , Ohio , and were vended by the group constructing it . The issue was originally proposed as a silver dollar ; this was changed when it was realized it would not be appropriate to honor a president who had supported the gold standard with such a piece . The coins were poorly promoted , and did not sell well . Despite an authorized mintage of 100 @,@ 000 , only about 20 @,@ 000 were sold , many of these at a reduced price to Texas coin dealer B. Max Mehl . Another 10 @,@ 000 pieces were returned to the Mint for melting .
= = Background = =
William McKinley was born in Niles , Ohio , in 1843 . He left college to work as a teacher , and enlisted in the Union Army when the American Civil War broke out in 1861 . He served throughout the war , ending it as a brevet major . Afterwards , he attended law school and was admitted to the bar . He settled in Canton , Ohio , and after practicing there , was elected to Congress in 1876 . In 1890 , he was defeated for re @-@ election , but was elected governor the following year , serving two two @-@ year terms .
With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna , he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 , amid a deep economic depression . He defeated his Democratic rival , William Jennings Bryan , after a front porch campaign in which he advocated " sound money " , that is , the gold standard unless modified by international agreement . This contrasted to " free silver " , pushed by Bryan in his campaign .
McKinley was president during the Spanish – American War of 1898 , in which the U.S. victory was quick and decisive . As part of the peace settlement , Spain turned over to the United States its overseas colonies of Puerto Rico , Guam , and the Philippines . With the nation prosperous , McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election . President McKinley was assassinated by Leon Czolgosz in September 1901 , and was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt .
In the years after McKinley 's death , several memorials were built to him , including a large structure housing his remains at Canton . Another memorial was built at his birthplace in Niles under the auspices of the National McKinley Birthplace Memorial Association ( the Association ) . Designed by the firm of McKim , Mead , and White , the Greek Classic memorial was built of Georgia marble and was dedicated in 1917 . Housing a museum , library , and auditorium , as well as a statue of McKinley and busts of his associates , it remains open to the public , free of charge .
= = Inception and preparation = =
The McKinley Birthplace Memorial dollar was proposed as a fundraiser for the construction of the site in Niles . In February 1915 , the Association 's head , Joseph G. Butler , Jr . , met with Ohio Congressman William A. Ashbrook , chairman of the House Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures , to propose a silver dollar in honor of McKinley . Ashbrook was willing , and the two men saw Treasury Secretary William G. McAdoo and Acting Director of the Mint Frederic Dewey , who envisioned no difficulty . Accordingly , Ashbrook introduced a bill in the final days of the 63rd Congress , which took no action on it . When the 64th Congress opened in December 1915 , Ashbrook reintroduced his bill , H.R. 2 .
A hearing was held before Ashbrook 's committee on January 13 . Originally , the bill called for mintage of 100 @,@ 000 silver dollars in commemoration of McKinley , but at the hearing , Butler requested that they be gold instead , stating , " if you will recall the fact , McKinley was elected in 1896 mainly on the question of the gold standard . " The gold dollar had not been struck as a circulating coin since 1889 . Asked a question from New York Congressman James W. Husted as to whether a gold dollar would be too small to be a souvenir , Butler responded , " No ; I do not think so . I think , on the other hand , a silver dollar might be too large . I think we can dispose of gold dollars very much easier . Mr. Husted , and you know gold dollars are rather scarce just now . " Ashbrook agreed , and stated :
my understanding is that these dollars will be sold at not less than $ 2 each which would make a profit of at least $ 100 @,@ 000 . I think there will be no trouble about disposing of them at that price . I understand they will be on sale in this memorial , and visitors who go to see it very largely will not leave the building without buying one , and will be willing to pay at least $ 2 . I might say in that connection that any gold dollar coined by the United States is worth at least $ 2 at this time . They all command a premium , and there is no reason why this dollar would not sell for at least $ 2 and likely more .
Ohio Senator Warren G. Harding was present at the House committee meeting and spoke in favor of the bill , arguing that " this assistance on the part of the Federal Government will cost nothing more than the making of the dies " . On being told that the dies , per the legislation , would be at the Association 's expense , Harding replied , " I did not notice that . Then , it essentially costs the Government nothing whatever to render this mark of tribute and assistance . " The committee reported the bill favorably on January 18 , amending the bill to allow for the 100 @,@ 000 gold dollars , to be purchased by the Association at par and sold at a profit to help build the memorial . The report indicated that the committee members " believe it is a deserved testimonial to the worth and service of a great man who lost his life while serving our Nation as its Chief Executive " . The bill passed the House on February 7 , 1916 , and the Senate on February 15 . It was enacted when President Woodrow Wilson signed it on February 23 , 1916 .
The act provided that no more than 100 @,@ 000 pieces be struck , with the necessary gold bullion to be acquired in the open market . The Association could purchase the coins at face value . The act required that the pieces be struck at the Philadelphia Mint , one of only two pieces of authorizing legislation in the classic commemorative coin series ( through 1954 ) that specified the place of striking ( the Panama @-@ Pacific issue of 1915 had to be struck in San Francisco ) . The act also required that the dies be destroyed after the coining was done , something numismatists Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen questioned as duplicating provisions in the Coinage Act of 1873 .
The designs were prepared in @-@ house at the Philadelphia Mint by Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber , who designed the obverse and his assistant , George T. Morgan , who prepared the reverse . They did not seek outside artists to submit proposals . Numismatic author Q. David Bowers suggested that this was because Secretary McAdoo had sought non @-@ employees to propose designs for the five Panama @-@ Pacific coins along with those sketches prepared by Barber and his assistants , and the Mint 's engravers had prepared only two of the five , and that because the artist assigned one , Evelyn Longman , had fallen ill . When the McKinley designs were submitted to the Commission of Fine Arts on March 31 , 1916 , it recommended changes , though Don Taxay , who so stated , does not say what they were . In any event , no alteration was made , and the designs were approved .
= = Design = =
The obverse of the dollar features an unadorned bust of McKinley , facing left , with the name of the country above and " McKinley Dollar " ( in all capitals ) below . McKinley , who had appeared on one version of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar ( issued beginning in 1903 ) , thus became the first person to appear on two different issues of American coinage . The earlier pieces had also been designed by Barber , and the later coins , according to Bowers , " present an image so different that the uninformed observer would not know that the same man was being depicted " . Bowers suggested that Barber might have been trying to create " a distinctively new version " . Taxay agreed , opining that Barber 's " chief concern seems to have been in making the portrait of McKinley as different as possible from that on the Louisiana Purchase coins " .
The reverse , designed by Morgan , is intended to be a facing view of the McKinley birthplace memorial in Niles , but according to Swiatek and Breen , " the most charitable view must characterize it as inaccurate and incompetently done " . Above the building is " McKinley Birthplace / Niles Ohio " , and beneath it the date and " Memorial " .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule , in his volume on U.S. coins , disliked the McKinley pieces . " When Barber and Morgan collaborated ... the results were almost always oppressive . The McKinley Memorial dollars of 1916 and 1917 bear witness to these stylistic judgments , the unclothed bust on the obverse looking tastelessly Roman and the classical , colonnaded Memorial Building placed across a reverse further constricted by too much , too large lettering . "
= = Distribution and collecting = =
The Philadelphia Mint struck 20 @,@ 000 gold dollars in August and October 1916 , plus 26 extra reserved for inspection and testing at the 1917 meeting of the United States Assay Commission . In February 1917 , 10 @,@ 000 more ( plus 14 assay coins ) were minted , again at Philadelphia . The Association sold these to the public at $ 3 each , the same price at which the Louisiana Purchase pieces , which sold poorly , had been vended . The McKinley Memorial pieces were ill @-@ publicized , and few were sold at full price . Texas coin dealer B. Max Mehl purchased 10 @,@ 000 pieces at an unknown price , selling them for years afterwards at $ 2 @.@ 50 each .
The Washington Post reported on July 30 , 1916 that the gold dollars had been released and were being " gobbled up as souvenirs " . Nevertheless , according to Mehl in his 1937 volume on commemoratives , " the Committee in charge apparently realized that the number of collectors in the country could not and would not absorb an issue of 100 @,@ 000 coins at $ 3 @.@ 00 each " and some 10 @,@ 000 coins " were disposed of at a greatly reduced price to the ' Texas Dealer ' [ that is , himself ] who in turn distributed them extensively among collectors of the country at a reduced price " . A total of 10 @,@ 023 were returned by the Committee to the Mint for melting . It is uncertain how many of each year were melted , as the Mint did not keep records of this . Mehl estimated that the Committee sold 15 @,@ 000 of the 1916 and 5 @,@ 000 of the 1917 ( including the sale to him ) , meaning that about 5 @,@ 000 of each were melted . Bowers deemed these figures " probably correct " , given Mehl 's personal dealings with the Committee . Bowers calculated that 8 @,@ 000 of the 1916 were sold by the Committee to collectors and the public , plus 7 @,@ 000 to Mehl . He opined that 2 @,@ 000 of the 1917 were sold by the Committee at full price , plus 3 @,@ 000 to Mehl . Swiatek , in his 2012 book on commemoratives , estimated that between a third and half of the melted pieces were dated 1917 .
According to R. S. Yeoman 's 2015 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins , the 1916 is catalogued for $ 500 in slightly @-@ worn AU @-@ 50 ( almost uncirculated ) to $ 1 @,@ 850 in near @-@ pristine MS @-@ 66 . The 1917 is listed at $ 550 in AU @-@ 50 and $ 3 @,@ 250 in MS @-@ 66 . A 1916 in MS @-@ 68 condition was sold by Heritage Auctions in 2009 for $ 16 @,@ 100 .
= Hammersmith & City line =
The Hammersmith & City line of the London Underground runs between Hammersmith and Barking . Coloured salmon pink on the tube map , it serves 29 stations in 15 @.@ 8 miles ( 25 @.@ 5 km ) . It runs below ground in the central section between Paddington and Bow Road ; between Farringdon and Aldgate East it skirts the City of London , the capital 's financial heart . The tunnels are just below the surface and are a similar size to those on British main lines . Most of the track and all stations are shared with the District , Circle or Metropolitan lines , the other parts of London Underground 's sub @-@ surface railway , and over 114 million passenger journeys are made each year on this line and the Circle line . Of the 29 stations served , 14 are below ground .
In 1863 the Metropolitan Railway began the world 's first underground railway service between Paddington and Farringdon with wooden carriages and steam locomotives . The following year a railway west from Paddington to Hammersmith opened and this soon became operated and owned jointly by the Metropolitan and Great Western railways . The line was extended to the east in stages , reaching the East London Railway in 1884 . The line was electrified in 1906 , and in 1936 , after the Metropolitan Railway had been absorbed by London Passenger Transport Board , some Hammersmith & City trains were extended over the former District Railway line to Barking . The Hammersmith & City route was shown on the tube map as part of the Metropolitan line until 1990 , when it appeared as a separate line .
The track and signalling systems are being upgraded , and the old 6 @-@ car C Stock trains have been replaced by new 7 @-@ car S Stock trains in a programme to increase capacity by 65 per cent by 2019 .
The line runs parallel to the Great Western Main Line between Paddington and Westbourne Park , and parallel to the London , Tilbury and Southend Railway between West Ham and Barking .
= = History = =
= = = Metropolitan Railway = = =
The first line built by the Metropolitan Railway ( Met ) was from Paddington to near Smithfield , near London 's financial heart in the City ; with gas @-@ lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives opened on 10 January 1863 it was the world 's first underground railway . The line was built mostly under the New Road using the " cut @-@ and @-@ cover " method between Paddington and King 's Cross and then in tunnel and cuttings beside Farringdon Road . Supported by the Met and the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) , the Hammersmith & City Railway ( H & CR ) was built from the GWR 's main line a mile west of Paddington station to the developing suburbs of Shepherd 's Bush and Hammersmith . Built on viaduct largely across open fields , the line opened on 13 June 1864 with a GWR service from Farringdon to Hammersmith , services to Addison Road ( now Kensington ( Olympia ) ) on the West London Railway via a link at Latimer Road starting a few weeks later . From 1865 the Met ran trains to Hammersmith and the GWR trains to Addison Road . In 1867 the line became jointly owned by the two companies . In 1871 two additional tracks parallel to the GWR between Westbourne Park and Paddington were brought into use for the H & CR , and in 1878 the flat crossing at Westbourne Park was replaced by a dive @-@ under . A year earlier some services had been extended via London & South Western Railway 's Hammersmith ( Grove Road ) railway station and their line to Richmond .
The railway was extended east of Farringdon and a terminus opened at Aldgate on 18 November 1876 . The Met wished to access the South Eastern Railway via the East London Railway ( ELR ) and jointly with the District Railway built lines from their Mansion House station to the Met 's Aldgate station and east from Aldgate to reach the ELR at Whitechapel . In October 1884 the Met extended some Hammersmith services over the ELR to New Cross .
In 1902 the Whitechapel & Bow Railway was opened , linking the District Railway at Whitechapel to the London , Tilbury and Southend Railway ( LT & SR ) at an above @-@ ground junction at Bow , to the west of Bromley @-@ by @-@ Bow station , and some District services were extended from Whitechapel to East Ham . When the line was electrified in 1906 services to Richmond were withdrawn and the western termini became Hammersmith and Kensington ( Addison Road ) , and to the east services were diverted from the ELR to Whitechapel , until the ELR was electrified in 1914 and services ran from Hammersmith to New Cross and New Cross Gate . The 6 @-@ car electric multiple units were jointly owned by the Met and GWR until 1923 when the GWR sold theirs to the Met .
= = = London Transport = = =
On 1 July 1933 the Metropolitan Railway was amalgamated with other Underground railways , tramway companies and bus operators to form the London Passenger Transport Board . To relieve congestion on the District line east of Whitechapel from 1936 some trains from Hammersmith were diverted from the East London line to Barking . Through trains to New Cross and New Cross Gate were withdrawn in November 1939 , the Hammersmith & City line trains terminating at Whitechapel while the longer 8 @-@ car Uxbridge line trains ran to Barking . However , this caused operational problems and from 1941 Barking was again served by trains from Hammersmith .
From 1937 new steel O stock trains , with doors remotely operated by the guard , replaced the wooden @-@ bodied trains dating from 1906 . It had been intended to operate the new trains with four or six cars , but after initial problems with the traction current only six @-@ car formations were used . Services to Kensington ( Olympia ) via the curve at Latimer Road were suspended in 1940 after bomb damage to the West London line and not restarted after the war . When the similar trains running on the Circle line were lengthened to six cars in 1959 and 1960 , the stock of the two lines was integrated with maintenance at Hammersmith depot . Aluminium C Stock trains , with public address systems and originally unpainted , replaced these trains from 1970 . One person operation was proposed in 1972 , but due to conflict with the trade unions was not introduced until 1984 .
= = = A separate identity = = =
The route between Hammersmith and Barking was shown on the tube map as part of the Metropolitan line , but since 1990 has been shown separately , the Metropolitan line becoming the route from Aldgate to Baker Street and northwards through " Metro @-@ Land " to Uxbridge , Watford and Amersham . In 2003 , the infrastructure of the Hammersmith & City line was partly privatised in a public – private partnership , managed by the Metronet consortium . Metronet went into administration in 2007 and the local government body Transport for London took over responsibilities . The reconstruction of Whitechapel station for the new Crossrail underground line required the reversing platforms to be taken out of use and since December 2009 all services have been extended to Plaistow or Barking .
The C Stock trains have recently been replaced by S7 Stock ; the first new train entered service on the Hammersmith & City line on 6 July 2012 , running a shuttle service between Hammersmith and Moorgate before operating between Hammersmith and Barking on 9 December 2012 . By March 2014 all services were provided by S7 Stock trains .
= = Route = =
The line is 15 @.@ 8 miles ( 25 @.@ 5 km ) long with 29 stations . Almost all of its track is shared with the other London Underground sub @-@ surface lines : from Hammersmith to Baker Street with the Circle line , from Baker Street to Aldgate with the Circle and Metropolitan lines , and from Aldgate East station to Barking with the District line . All its stations are shared with other lines .
The line is electrified with a four @-@ rail DC system : a central conductor rail is energised at − 210 V and a rail outside the running rails at + 420 V , giving a potential difference of 630 V. Much of the 2 @-@ mile @-@ 35 @-@ chain ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) double @-@ track railway from the Hammersmith terminus to Westbourne Park station is on a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high brick viaduct . After Westbourne Park the line passes beneath the Great Western main line re @-@ surfacing at Royal Oak station and running alongside the main lines to Paddington station . The line enters a cut @-@ and @-@ cover tunnel at the end of the platforms and meets the Circle line from Bayswater at Praed Street Junction before passing through Edgware Road station in a cutting . After King 's Cross St Pancras the line is in cutting , passing under the Ray Street Gridiron that carries the City Widened Lines used for Thameslink services . There are bay platforms at Moorgate . Just before Aldgate the line diverges from the Circle and Metropolitan lines to Aldgate East . The line passes over the London Overground at Whitechapel station continuing on the 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) former Whitechapel & Bow Railway to Bow Road where it surfaces , and then to Bromley @-@ by @-@ Bow , where it runs alongside the London , Tilbury and Southend line from Fenchurch Street . At the next station , West Ham , there is interchange with the Jubilee line , the Docklands Light Railway and c2c . There is a bay platform at the next station , Plaistow , and the line terminates after two more stations at Barking .
= = Services = =
As of December 2012 off @-@ peak there are six trains per hour , calling at all stations , and requiring 15 trains for the peak @-@ hour service . Together with the Circle line , over 114 million passenger journeys are made each year . The journey from Hammersmith to Barking takes 61 minutes off @-@ peak . The central section from Paddington to Aldgate East is in Fare Zone 1 , to the west to Hammersmith and east to Bromley @-@ by @-@ Bow in Zone 2 . Barking and East Ham are in Zone 4 .
= = Rolling stock = =
Services are provided by seven @-@ car S Stock , part of Bombardier 's Movia family , with air @-@ conditioning as the sub @-@ surface tunnels ( unlike those on the deep @-@ level tube lines ) are able to disperse the exhausted hot air . These trains have regenerative brakes , returning around 20 per cent of their energy to the network . With a top speed of 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) , a 7 @-@ car S Stock train has a capacity of 865 passengers , compared to 739 for the six @-@ car C Stock train it replaced . With a length of 384 feet ( 117 m ) , S Stock trains are 79 feet ( 24 m ) longer than 305 @-@ foot ( 93 m ) long C Stock trains and station platforms have been lengthened . It is planned to increase the traction voltage from the present nominal 630 V to 750 V to give better performance and allow the trains to return more energy to the network through their regenerative brakes .
= = Depot = =
The line 's depot is at Hammersmith , close to Hammersmith station , built by the Great Western Railway to be operated by the Metropolitan Railway when the joint railway was electrified in the early 20th century . Sidings at Barking and near High Street Kensington ( Triangle Sidings ) stable trains overnight . Sidings at Farringdon were used during the C stock era ; due to the greater length of the new S stock trains , these are no longer in use .
= = Upgrade programme = =
Together with the introduction of S Stock trains , the track , electrical supply and signalling systems are being upgraded in a programme planned to increase peak @-@ hour capacity on the Circle and Hammersmith & City lines by 65 per cent by the end of 2018 . A single control room for the sub @-@ surface railway is to be established in Hammersmith and an automatic train control ( ATC ) system will replace signalling equipment installed from the 1940s . The cross @-@ London Crossrail line , planned to open in 2018 , is expected to reduce crowding between Paddington and Whitechapel .
= = List of stations = =
= Gustav Holst =
Gustav Theodore Holst ( born Gustavus Theodore von Holst ; 21 September 1874 – 25 May 1934 ) was an English composer , arranger and teacher . Best known for his orchestral suite The Planets , he composed a large number of other works across a range of genres , although none achieved comparable success . His distinctive compositional style was the product of many influences , Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss being most crucial early in his development . The subsequent inspiration of the English folksong revival of the early 20th century , and the example of such rising modern composers as Maurice Ravel , led Holst to develop and refine an individual style .
There were professional musicians in the previous three generations of Holst 's family , and it was clear from his early years that he would follow the same calling . He hoped to become a pianist , but was prevented by neuritis in his right arm . Despite his father 's reservations , he pursued a career as a composer , studying at the Royal College of Music under Charles Villiers Stanford . Unable to support himself by his compositions , he played the trombone professionally and later became a teacher — a great one , according to his colleague Ralph Vaughan Williams . Among other teaching activities he built up a strong tradition of performance at Morley College , where he served as musical director from 1907 until 1924 , and pioneered music education for women at St Paul 's Girls ' School , where he taught from 1905 until his death in 1934 . He was the founder of a series of Whitsun music festivals , which ran from 1916 for the remainder of his life . Holst 's works were played frequently in the early years of the 20th century , but it was not until the international success of The Planets in the years immediately after the First World War that he became a well @-@ known figure . A shy man , he did not welcome this fame , and preferred to be left in peace to compose and teach .
In his later years his uncompromising , personal style of composition struck many music lovers as too austere , and his brief popularity declined . Nevertheless , he was a significant influence on a number of younger English composers , including Edmund Rubbra , Michael Tippett and Benjamin Britten . Apart from The Planets and a handful of other works , his music was generally neglected until the 1980s , since when recordings of much of his output have been available .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
= = = = Family background = = = =
Holst was born in Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , the elder of the two children of Adolph von Holst , a professional musician , and his wife , Clara Cox , née Lediard . She was of mostly British descent , daughter of a respected Cirencester solicitor ; the Holst side of the family was of mixed Swedish , Latvian and German ancestry , with at least one professional musician in each of the previous three generations .
Holst 's great @-@ grandfather , Matthias Holst , born in Riga , Latvia , was of German origin ; he served as composer and harp @-@ teacher to the Imperial Russian Court in St Petersburg . Matthias 's son Gustavus , who moved to England with his parents as a child in 1802 , was a composer of salon @-@ style music and a well @-@ known harp teacher . He appropriated the aristocratic prefix " von " and added it to the family name in the hope of gaining enhanced prestige and attracting pupils .
Holst 's father , Adolph von Holst , became organist and choirmaster at All Saints ' Church , Cheltenham ; he also taught , and gave piano recitals . His wife , Clara , a former pupil , was a talented singer and pianist . They had two sons ; Gustav 's younger brother , Emil Gottfried , became known as Ernest Cossart , a successful actor in the West End , New York and Hollywood . Clara died in February 1882 , and the family moved to another house in Cheltenham , where Adolph recruited his sister Nina to help raise the boys . Gustav recognised her devotion to the family and dedicated several of his early compositions to her . In 1885 Adolph married Mary Thorley Stone , another of his pupils . They had two sons , Matthias ( known as " Max " ) and Evelyn ( " Thorley " ) . Mary von Holst was absorbed in theosophy and not greatly interested in domestic matters . All four of Adolph 's sons were subject to what one biographer calls " benign neglect " , and Gustav in particular was " not overburdened with attention or understanding , with a weak sight and a weak chest , both neglected — he was ' miserable and scared ' . "
= = = = Childhood and youth = = = =
Holst was taught to play the piano and the violin ; he enjoyed the former very much more than the latter . At the age of twelve he took up the trombone at Adolph 's suggestion , thinking that playing a brass instrument might improve his asthma . Holst was educated at Cheltenham Grammar School between 1886 and 1891 . He started composing in or about 1886 ; inspired by Macaulay 's poem Horatius he began , but soon abandoned , an ambitious setting of the work for chorus and orchestra . His early compositions included piano pieces , organ voluntaries , songs , anthems and a symphony ( from 1892 ) . His main influences at this stage were Mendelssohn , Chopin , Grieg and above all Sullivan . Adolph tried to steer his son away from composition , hoping that he would have a career as a pianist . Holst 's health played a decisive part in his musical future ; he had never been strong , and in addition to his asthma and poor eyesight he suffered from neuritis , which made playing the piano difficult . He said that the affected arm was " like a jelly overcharged with electricity " .
After Holst left school in 1891 , Adolph paid for him to spend four months in Oxford studying counterpoint with George Frederick Sims , organist of Merton College . On his return Holst obtained his first professional appointment , aged seventeen , as organist and choirmaster at Wyck Rissington , Gloucestershire . The post brought with it the conductorship of the Bourton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Water Choral Society , which offered no extra remuneration but provided valuable experience that enabled him to hone his conducting skills . In November 1891 Holst gave what was perhaps his first public performance as a pianist ; he and his father played the Brahms Hungarian Dances at a concert in Cheltenham . The programme for the event gives his name as " Gustav " rather than " Gustavus " ; he was called by the shorter version from his early years .
= = = Royal College of Music = = =
In 1892 Holst wrote the music for an operetta in the style of Gilbert and Sullivan , Lansdown Castle , or The Sorcerer of Tewkesbury . The piece was performed at Cheltenham Corn Exchange in February 1893 ; it was well received and its success encouraged him to persevere with composing . He applied for a scholarship at the Royal College of Music ( RCM ) in London , but the composition scholarship for that year was won by Samuel Coleridge @-@ Taylor . Holst was accepted as a non @-@ scholarship student , and Adolph borrowed £ 100 to cover the first year 's expenses . Holst left Cheltenham for London in May 1893 . Money was tight , and partly from frugality and partly from his own inclination he became a vegetarian and a teetotaller . Two years later he was finally granted a scholarship , which slightly eased his financial difficulties , but he retained his austere personal regime .
Holst 's professors at the RCM were Frederick Sharpe ( piano ) , William Stephenson Hoyte ( organ ) , George Case ( trombone ) , George Jacobi ( instrumentation ) and the director of the college , Hubert Parry ( history ) . After preliminary lessons with W. S. Rockstro and Frederick Bridge , Holst was granted his wish to study composition with Charles Villiers Stanford . To support himself during his studies Holst played the trombone professionally , at seaside resorts in the summer and in London theatres in the winter . His daughter and biographer , Imogen Holst , records that from his fees as a player " he was able to afford the necessities of life : board and lodging , manuscript paper , and tickets for standing room in the gallery at Covent Garden Opera House on Wagner evenings " . He secured an occasional engagement in symphony concerts , playing in 1897 under the baton of Richard Strauss at the Queen 's Hall .
Like many musicians of his generation , Holst came under Wagner 's spell . He had recoiled from the music of Götterdämmerung when he heard it at Covent Garden in 1892 , but encouraged by his friend and fellow @-@ student Fritz Hart he persevered and quickly became an ardent Wagnerite . Wagner supplanted Sullivan as the main influence on his music , and for some time , as Imogen put it , " ill @-@ assimilated wisps of Tristan inserted themselves on nearly every page of his own songs and overtures . " Stanford admired some of Wagner 's works , and had in his earlier years been influenced by him , but Holst 's sub @-@ Wagnerian compositions met with his disapprobation : " It won 't do , me boy ; it won 't do " . Holst respected Stanford , describing him to a fellow @-@ pupil , Herbert Howells , as " the one man who could get any one of us out of a technical mess " , but he found that his fellow students , rather than the faculty members , had the greater influence on his development .
In 1895 , shortly after celebrating his twenty @-@ first birthday , Holst met Ralph Vaughan Williams , who became a lifelong friend and had more influence on Holst 's music than anybody else . Stanford emphasised the need for his students to be self @-@ critical , but Holst and Vaughan Williams became one another 's chief critics ; each would play his latest composition to the other while still working on it . Vaughan Williams later observed , " What one really learns from an Academy or College is not so much from one 's official teachers as from one 's fellow @-@ students ... [ we discussed ] every subject under the sun from the lowest note of the double bassoon to the philosophy of Jude the Obscure . In 1949 he wrote of their relationship , " Holst declared that his music was influenced by that of his friend : the converse is certainly true . " The year 1895 was also the bicentenary of Henry Purcell , which was marked by various performances including Stanford conducting Dido and Aeneas at the Lyceum Theatre ; the work profoundly impressed Holst , who over twenty years later confessed to a friend that his search for " the ( or a ) musical idiom of the English language " had been inspired " unconsciously " by " hearing the recits in Purcell 's Dido " .
Another early influence was William Morris . In Vaughan Williams 's words , " It was now that Holst discovered the feeling of unity with his fellow men which made him afterwards a great teacher . A sense of comradeship rather than political conviction led him , while still a student , to join the Kelmscott House Socialist Club in Hammersmith . " At Kelmscott House , Morris 's home , Holst attended lectures by his host and Bernard Shaw . His own socialism was moderate in character , but he enjoyed the club for its good company and his admiration of Morris as a man . His ideals were influenced by Morris 's but had a different emphasis . Morris had written , " I do not want art for a few any more than education for a few , or freedom for a few . I want all persons to be educated according to their capacity , not according to the amount of money which their parents happen to have " . Holst said , " ' Aristocracy in art ' — art is not for all but only for the chosen few — but the only way to find those few is to bring art to everyone — then the artists have a sort of masonic signal by which they recognise each other in the crowd . " He was invited to conduct the Hammersmith Socialist Choir , teaching them madrigals by Thomas Morley , choruses by Purcell , and works by Mozart , Wagner and himself . One of his choristers was ( Emily ) Isobel Harrison ( 1876 – 1969 ) , a beautiful soprano two years his junior . He fell in love with her ; she was at first unimpressed by him , but she came round and they were engaged , though with no immediate prospect of marriage given Holst 's tiny income .
= = = Professional musician = = =
In 1898 the RCM offered Holst a further year 's scholarship , but he felt that he had learned as much as he could there and that it was time , as he put it , to " learn by doing " . Some of his compositions were published and performed ; the previous year The Times had praised his song " Light Leaves Whisper " , " a moderately elaborate composition in six parts , treated with a good deal of expression and poetic feeling " . Occasional successes notwithstanding , Holst found that " man cannot live by composition alone " ; he took posts as organist at various London churches , and continued playing the trombone in theatre orchestras . In 1898 he was appointed first trombonist and répétiteur with the Carl Rosa Opera Company and toured with the Scottish Orchestra . Though a capable rather than a virtuoso player he won the praise of the leading conductor Hans Richter , for whom he played at Covent Garden . His salary was only just enough to live on , and he supplemented it by playing in a popular orchestra called the " White Viennese Band " , conducted by Stanislas Wurm . Holst enjoyed playing for Wurm , and learned much from him about drawing rubato from players . Nevertheless , longing to devote his time to composing , Holst found the necessity of playing for " the Worm " or any other light orchestra " a wicked and loathsome waste of time " . Vaughan Williams did not altogether agree with his friend about this ; he admitted that some of the music was " trashy " but thought it had been useful to Holst nonetheless : " To start with , the very worst a trombonist has to put up with is as nothing compared to what a church organist has to endure ; and secondly , Holst is above all an orchestral composer , and that sure touch which distinguishes his orchestral writing is due largely to the fact that he has been an orchestral player ; he has learnt his art , both technically and in substance , not at second hand from text books and models , but from actual live experience . "
With a modest income secured , Holst was able to marry Isobel ; the ceremony was at Fulham Register Office on 22 June 1901 . Their marriage lasted until his death ; there was one child , Imogen , born in 1907 . In 1902 Dan Godfrey and the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra premiered Holst 's symphony The Cotswolds ( Op. 8 ) , the slow movement of which is a lament for William Morris who had died in October 1896 , three years before Holst began work on the piece . In 1903 Adolph von Holst died , leaving a small legacy . Holst and his wife decided , as Imogen later put it , that " as they were always hard up the only thing to do was to spend it all at once on a holiday in Germany " .
= = = Composer and teacher = = =
While in Germany , Holst reappraised his professional life , and in 1903 he decided to abandon orchestral playing to concentrate on composition . His earnings as a composer were too little to live on , and two years later he accepted the offer of a teaching post at James Allen 's Girls ' School , Dulwich , which he held until 1921 . He also taught at the Passmore Edwards Settlement , where among other innovations he gave the British premieres of two Bach cantatas . The two teaching posts for which he is probably best known were director of music at St Paul 's Girls ' School , Hammersmith , from 1905 until his death , and director of music at Morley College from 1907 to 1924 . Vaughan Williams wrote of the former establishment : " Here he did away with the childish sentimentality which schoolgirls were supposed to appreciate and substituted Bach and Vittoria ; a splendid background for immature minds . " Several of Holst 's pupils at St Paul 's went on to distinguished careers , including the soprano Joan Cross , and the oboist and cor anglais player Helen Gaskell . Of Holst 's impact on Morley College , Vaughan Williams wrote : " [ A ] bad tradition had to be broken down . The results were at first discouraging , but soon a new spirit appeared and the music of Morley College , together with its offshoot the ' Whitsuntide festival ' ... became a force to be reckoned with " . Before Holst 's appointment , Morley College had not treated music very seriously ( Vaughan Williams 's " bad tradition " ) , and at first Holst 's exacting demands drove many students away . He persevered , and gradually built up a class of dedicated music @-@ lovers .
According to the composer Edmund Rubbra , who studied under him in the early 1920s , Holst was " a teacher who often came to lessons weighted , not with the learning of Prout and Stainer , but with a miniature score of Petrushka or the then recently published Mass in G minor of Vaughan Williams " . He never sought to impose his own ideas on his composition pupils . Rubbra recalled that he would divine a student 's difficulties and gently guide him to finding the solution for himself . " I do not recall that Holst added one single note of his own to anything I wrote , but he would suggest — if I agreed ! — that , given such and such a phrase , the following one would be better if it took such and such a course ; if I did not see this , the point would not be insisted upon ... He frequently took away [ because of ] his abhorrence of unessentials . "
As a composer Holst was frequently inspired by literature . He set poetry by Thomas Hardy and Robert Bridges and , a particular influence , Walt Whitman , whose words he set in " Dirge for Two Veterans " and The Mystic Trumpeter ( 1904 ) . He wrote an orchestral Walt Whitman Overture in 1899 . While on tour with the Carl Rosa company Holst had read some of Max Müller 's books , which inspired in him a keen interest in Sanskrit texts , particularly the Rig Veda hymns . He found the existing English versions of the texts unconvincing , and decided to make his own translations , despite his lack of skills as a linguist . He enrolled in 1909 at University College , London to study the language . Imogen commented on his translations : " He was not a poet , and there are occasions when his verses seem naïve . But they never sound vague or slovenly , for he had set himself the task of finding words that would be ' clear and dignified ' and that would ' lead the listener into another world ' . " His settings of translations of Sanskrit texts included Sita ( 1899 – 1906 ) , a three @-@ act opera based on an episode in the Ramayana ( which he eventually entered for a competition for English opera set by the Milan music publisher Tito Ricordi ) ; Savitri ( 1908 ) , a chamber opera based on a tale from the Mahabharata ; four groups of Hymns from the Rig Veda ( 1908 – 14 ) ; and two texts originally by Kālidāsa : Two Eastern Pictures ( 1909 – 10 ) and The Cloud Messenger ( 1913 ) .
Towards the end of the nineteenth century , British musical circles had experienced a new interest in national folk music . Some composers , such as Sullivan and Elgar , remained indifferent , but Parry , Stanford , Stainer and Alexander Mackenzie were founding members of the Folk @-@ Song Society . Parry considered that by recovering English folk song , English composers would find an authentic national voice ; he commented , " in true folk @-@ songs there is no sham , no got @-@ up glitter , and no vulgarity " . Vaughan Williams was an early and enthusiastic convert to this cause , going round the English countryside collecting and noting down folk songs . These had an influence on Holst . Though not as passionate on the subject as his friend , he incorporated a number of folk melodies in his own compositions and made several arrangements of folk songs collected by others . The Somerset Rhapsody ( 1906 – 07 ) , was written at the suggestion of the folk @-@ song collector Cecil Sharp and made use of tunes that Sharp had noted down . Holst described its performance at the Queen 's Hall in 1910 as " my first real success " . A few years later Holst became excited by another musical renaissance — the rediscovery of English madrigal composers . Weelkes was his favourite of all the Tudor composers , but Byrd also meant much to him .
Holst was a keen rambler . He walked extensively in England , Italy , France and Algeria . In 1908 he travelled to Algeria on medical advice as a treatment for asthma and the depression that he suffered after his opera Sita failed to win the Ricordi prize . This trip inspired the suite Beni Mora , which incorporated music he heard in the Algerian streets . Vaughan Williams wrote of this exotic work , " if it had been played in Paris rather than London it would have given its composer a European reputation , and played in Italy would probably have caused a riot . "
= = = 1910s = = =
In June 1911 Holst and his Morley College students gave the first performance since the seventeenth century of Purcell 's The Fairy @-@ Queen . The full score had been lost soon after Purcell 's death in 1695 , and had only recently been found . Twenty @-@ eight Morley students copied out the complete vocal and orchestral parts . There were 1 @,@ 500 pages of music and it took the students almost eighteen months to copy them out in their spare time . A concert performance of the work was given at The Old Vic , preceded by an introductory talk by Vaughan Williams . The Times praised Holst and his forces for " a most interesting and artistic performance of this very important work " .
After this success , Holst was disappointed the following year by the lukewarm reception of his choral work The Cloud Messenger . He again went travelling , accepting an invitation from H. Balfour Gardiner to join him and the brothers Clifford and Arnold Bax in Spain . During this holiday Clifford Bax introduced Holst to astrology , an interest that later inspired his suite The Planets . Holst cast his friends ' horoscopes for the rest of his life and referred to astrology as his " pet vice " .
In 1913 , St Paul 's Girls ' School opened a new music wing , and Holst composed St Paul 's Suite for the occasion . The new building contained a sound @-@ proof room , handsomely equipped , where he could work undisturbed . Holst and his family moved to a house in Brook Green , very close to the school . For the previous six years they had lived in a pretty house overlooking the Thames at Barnes , but the river air , frequently foggy , affected his breathing . For use at weekends and during school holidays , Holst and his wife bought a cottage in Thaxted , Essex , surrounded by mediaeval buildings and ample rambling opportunities . In 1917 they moved to a house in the centre of the town , where they stayed until 1925 .
At Thaxted , Holst became friendly with the Rev Conrad Noel , known as the " Red Vicar " , who supported the Independent Labour Party and espoused many causes unpopular with conservative opinion . Noel also encouraged the revival of folk @-@ dancing and processionals as part of church ceremonies , innovations which caused controversy among traditionally @-@ minded churchgoers . Holst became an occasional organist and choirmaster at Thaxted Parish Church ; he also developed an interest in bell @-@ ringing . He started an annual music festival at Whitsuntide in 1916 ; students from Morley College and St Paul 's Girls ' School performed together with local participants | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. Holst 's a cappella carol , " This Have I Done For My True Love " , was dedicated to Noel in recognition of his interest in the ancient origins of religion ( the composer always referred to the work as " The Dancing Day " ) . It received its first performance during the Third Whitsun Festival at Thaxted in May 1918 . During that festival , Noel , a staunch supporter of Russia 's October Revolution , demanded in a Saturday message during the service that there should be a greater political commitment from those who participated in the church activities ; his claim that several of Holst 's pupils ( implicitly those from St Paul 's Girls ' School ) were merely " camp followers " caused offence . Holst , anxious to protect his students from being embroiled in ecclesiastical conflict , moved the Whitsun Festival to Dulwich , though he himself continued to help with the Thaxted choir and to play the church organ on occasion .
= = = First World War = = =
At the outbreak of the First World War , Holst tried to enlist but was rejected as unfit for military service . He felt frustrated that he could not contribute to the war effort . His wife became a volunteer ambulance driver ; Vaughan Williams went on active service to France as did Holst 's brother Emil ; Holst 's friends the composers George Butterworth and Cecil Coles were killed in battle . He continued to teach and compose ; he worked on The Planets and prepared his chamber opera Savitri for performance . It was first given in December 1916 by students of the London School of Opera at the Wellington Hall in St John 's Wood . It attracted no attention at the time from the main newspapers , though when professionally staged five years later it was greeted as " a perfect little masterpiece . " In 1917 he wrote The Hymn of Jesus for chorus and orchestra , a work which remained unperformed until after the war .
In 1918 , as the war neared its end , Holst finally had the prospect of a job that offered him the chance to serve . The music section of the YMCA 's education department needed volunteers to work with British troops stationed in Europe awaiting demobilisation . Morley College and St Paul 's Girls ' School offered him a year 's leave of absence , but there remained one obstacle : the YMCA felt that his surname looked too German to be acceptable in such a role . He formally changed " von Holst " to " Holst " by deed poll in September 1918 . He was appointed as the YMCA 's musical organiser for the Near East , based in Salonica .
Holst was given a spectacular send @-@ off . The conductor Adrian Boult recalled , " Just before the Armistice , Gustav Holst burst into my office : ' Adrian , the YMCA are sending me to Salonica quite soon and Balfour Gardiner , bless his heart , has given me a parting present consisting of the Queen 's Hall , full of the Queen 's Hall Orchestra for the whole of a Sunday morning . So we 're going to do The Planets , and you 've got to conduct ' . " There was a burst of activity to get things ready in time . The girls at St Paul 's helped to copy out the orchestral parts , and the women of Morley and the St Paul 's girls learned the choral part in the last movement . The performance was given on 29 September to an invited audience including Sir Henry Wood and most of the professional musicians in London . Five months later , when Holst was in Greece , Boult introduced The Planets to the general public , at a concert in February 1919 ; Holst sent him a long letter full of suggestions , but failed to convince him that the suite should be played in full . The conductor believed that about half an hour of such radically new music was all the public could absorb at first hearing , and he gave only five of the seven movements on that occasion .
Holst enjoyed his time in Salonica , from where he was able to visit Athens , which greatly impressed him . His musical duties were wide @-@ ranging , and even obliged him on occasion to play the violin in the local orchestra : " it was great fun , but I fear I was not of much use " . He returned to England in June 1919 .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
On his return from Greece , Holst resumed his teaching and composing . In addition to his existing work he accepted a lectureship in composition at the University of Reading and joined Vaughan Williams in teaching composition at their alma mater the RCM . Inspired by Adrian Boult 's conducting classes at the RCM , Holst tried to further pioneer music education for women by proposing to the High Mistress of St Paul 's Girls ' School that he should invite Boult to give classes at the school : " It would be glorious if the SPGS turned out the only women conductors in the world ! " In his soundproof room at SPGS he composed the Ode to Death , a setting of a poem by Whitman , which according to Vaughan Williams is considered by many to be Holst 's most beautiful choral work .
Holst , in his forties , suddenly found himself in demand . The New York Philharmonic and Chicago Symphony Orchestra vied to be the first to play The Planets in the US . The success of that work was followed in 1920 by an enthusiastic reception for The Hymn of Jesus , described in The Observer as " one of the most brilliant and one of the most sincere pieces of choral and orchestral expression heard for some years . " The Times called it " undoubtedly the most strikingly original choral work which has been produced in this country for many years . " To his surprise and dismay Holst was becoming famous . Celebrity was something wholly foreign to his nature . As the music scholar Byron Adams puts it , " he struggled for the rest of his life to extricate himself from the web of garish publicity , public incomprehension and professional envy woven about him by this unsought @-@ for success . " He turned down honours and awards offered to him , and refused to give interviews or autographs .
Holst 's comic opera The Perfect Fool ( 1923 ) was widely seen as a satire of Parsifal , though Holst firmly denied it . The piece , with Maggie Teyte in the leading soprano role and Eugene Goossens conducting , was enthusiastically received at its premiere in the Royal Opera House . At a concert in Reading in 1923 , Holst slipped and fell , suffering concussion . He seemed to make a good recovery , and he felt up to accepting an invitation to the US , lecturing and conducting at the University of Michigan . After he returned he found himself more and more in demand , to conduct , prepare his earlier works for publication , and , as before , to teach . The strain caused by these demands on him was too great ; on doctor 's orders he cancelled all professional engagements during 1924 , and retreated to Thaxted . In 1925 he resumed his work at St Paul 's Girls ' School , but did not return to any of his other posts .
= = = Later years = = =
Holst 's productivity as a composer benefited almost at once from his release from other work . His works from this period include the First Choral Symphony to words by Keats ( a Second Choral Symphony to words by George Meredith exists only in fragments ) . A short Shakespearian opera , At the Boar 's Head , followed ; neither had the immediate popular appeal of A Moorside Suite for brass band of 1928 .
In 1927 Holst was commissioned by the New York Symphony Orchestra to write a symphony . Instead , he wrote an orchestral piece Egdon Heath , inspired by Thomas Hardy 's Wessex . It was first performed in February 1928 , a month after Hardy 's death , at a memorial concert . By this time the public 's brief enthusiasm for everything Holstian was waning , and the piece was not well received in New York . Olin Downes in The New York Times opined that " the new score seemed long and undistinguished " . The day after the American performance , Holst conducted the City of Birmingham Orchestra in the British premiere . The Times acknowledged the bleakness of the work but allowed that it matched Hardy 's grim view of the world : " Egdon Heath is not likely to be popular , but it says what the composer wants to say , whether we like it or not , and truth is one aspect of duty . " Holst had been distressed by hostile reviews of some of his earlier works , but he was indifferent to critical opinion of Egdon Heath , which he regarded as , in Adams 's phrase , his " most perfectly realized composition " .
Towards the end of his life Holst wrote the Choral Fantasia ( 1930 ) and he was commissioned by the BBC to write a piece for military band ; the resulting prelude and scherzo Hammersmith was a tribute to the place where he had spent most of his life . The composer and critic Colin Matthews considers the work " as uncompromising in its way as Egdon Heath , discovering , in the words of Imogen Holst , ' in the middle of an over @-@ crowded London ... the same tranquillity that he had found in the solitude of Egdon Heath ' " . The work was unlucky in being premiered at a concert that also featured the London premiere of Walton 's Belshazzar 's Feast , by which it was somewhat overshadowed .
Holst wrote a score for a British film , The Bells ( 1931 ) , and was amused to be recruited as an extra in a crowd scene . Both film and score are now lost . He wrote a " jazz band piece " that Imogen later arranged for orchestra as Capriccio . Having composed operas throughout his life with varying success , Holst found for his last opera , The Wandering Scholar , what Matthews calls " the right medium for his oblique sense of humour , writing with economy and directness " .
Harvard University offered Holst a lectureship for the first six months of 1932 . Arriving via New York he was pleased to be reunited with his brother , Emil , whose acting career under the name of Ernest Cossart had taken him to Broadway ; but Holst was dismayed by the continual attentions of press interviewers and photographers . He enjoyed his time at Harvard , but was taken ill while there : a duodenal ulcer prostrated him for some weeks . He returned to England , joined briefly by his brother for a holiday together in the Cotswolds . His health declined , and he withdrew further from musical activities . One of his last efforts was to guide the young players of the St Paul 's Girls ' School orchestra through one of his final compositions , the Brook Green Suite , in March 1934 .
Holst died in London on 25 May 1934 , at the age of 59 , of heart failure following an operation on his ulcer . His ashes were interred at Chichester Cathedral in Sussex , close to the memorial to Thomas Weelkes , his favourite Tudor composer . Bishop George Bell gave the memorial oration at the funeral , and Vaughan Williams conducted music by Holst and himself .
= = Music = =
= = = Style = = =
Holst 's absorption of folksong , not only in the melodic sense but in terms of its simplicity and economy of expression , helped to develop a style that many of his contemporaries , even admirers , found austere and cerebral . This is contrary to the popular identification of Holst with The Planets , which Matthews believes has masked his status as a composer of genuine originality . Against charges of coldness in the music , Imogen cites Holst 's characteristic " sweeping modal tunes mov [ ing ] reassuringly above the steps of a descending bass " , while Michael Kennedy points to the 12 Humbert Wolfe settings of 1929 , and the 12 Welsh folksong settings for unaccompanied chorus of 1930 – 31 , as works of true warmth .
Many of the characteristics that Holst employed — unconventional time signatures , rising and falling scales , ostinato , bitonality and occasional polytonality — set him apart from other English composers . Vaughan Williams remarked that Holst always said in his music what he wished to say , directly and concisely ; " He was not afraid of being obvious when the occasion demanded , nor did he hesitate to be remote when remoteness expressed his purpose " . Kennedy has surmised that Holst 's economy of style was in part a product of the composer 's poor health : " the effort of writing it down compelled an artistic economy which some felt was carried too far " . However , as an experienced instrumentalist and orchestra member , Holst understood music from the standpoint of his players and made sure that , however challenging , their parts were always practicable . According to his pupil Jane Joseph , Holst fostered in performance " a spirit of practical comradeship ... none could know better than he the boredom possible to a professional player , and the music that rendered boredom impossible " .
= = = Early works = = =
Although Holst wrote a large number of works — particularly songs — during his student days and early adulthood , almost everything he wrote before 1904 he later classified as derivative " early horrors " . Nevertheless , the composer and critic Colin Matthews recognises even in these apprentice works an " instinctive orchestral flair " . Of the few pieces from this period which demonstrate some originality , Matthews pinpoints the G minor String Trio of 1894 ( unperformed until 1974 ) as the first underivative work produced by Holst . Matthews and Imogen Holst each highlight the " Elegy " movement in The Cotswold Symphony ( 1899 – 1900 ) as among the more accomplished of the apprentice works , and Imogen discerns glimpses of her father 's real self in the 1899 Suite de ballet and the Ave Maria of 1900 . She and Matthews have asserted that Holst found his genuine voice in his setting of Whitman 's verses , The Mystic Trumpeter ( 1904 ) , in which the trumpet calls that characterise Mars in The Planets are briefly anticipated . In this work , Holst first employs the technique of bitonality — the use of two keys simultaneously .
= = = Experimental years = = =
At the beginning of the 20th century , according to Matthews , it appeared that Holst might follow Schoenberg into late Romanticism . Instead , as Holst recognised afterwards , his encounter with Purcell 's Dido and Aeneas prompted his searching for a " musical idiom of the English language " ; the folksong revival became a further catalyst for Holst to seek inspiration from other sources during the first decade or so of the new century .
= = = = Indian period = = = =
Holst 's interest in Indian mythology , shared by many of his contemporaries , first became musically evident in the opera Sita ( 1901 – 06 ) . During the opera 's long gestation , Holst worked on other Indian @-@ themed pieces . These included Maya ( 1901 ) for violin and piano , regarded by the composer and writer Raymond Head as " an insipid salon @-@ piece whose musical language is dangerously close to Stephen Adams " . Then , through Vaughan Williams , Holst discovered and became an admirer of the music of Ravel , whom he considered a " model of purity " on the level with Haydn , another composer he greatly admired . The combined influence of Ravel , Hindu spiritualism and English folk tunes enabled Holst to get beyond the once all @-@ consuming influences of Wagner and Richard Strauss and to forge his own style . Imogen Holst has acknowledged Holst 's own suggestion ( written to Vaughan Williams ) : " [ O ] ne ought to follow Wagner until he leads you to fresh things " . She notes that although much of his grand opera , Sita , is " ' good old Wagnerian bawling ' ... towards the end a change comes over the music , and the beautifully calm phrases of the hidden chorus representing the Voice of the Earth are in Holst 's own language . "
According to Rubbra , the publication in 1911 of Holst 's Rig Veda Hymns was a landmark event in the composer 's development : " Before this , Holst 's music had , indeed , shown the clarity of utterance which has always been his characteristic , but harmonically there was little to single him out as an important figure in modern music . " Dickinson describes these vedic settings as pictorial rather than religious ; although the quality is variable the sacred texts clearly " touched vital springs in the composer 's imagination " . While the music of Holst 's Indian verse settings remained generally western in character , in some of the vedic settings he experimented with Indian raga ( scales ) .
The chamber opera Savitri ( 1908 ) is written for three solo voices , a small hidden female chorus , and an instrumental combination of two flutes , a cor anglais and a double string quartet . The music critic John Warrack comments on the " extraordinary expressive subtlety " with which Holst deploys the sparse forces : " ... [ T ] he two unaccompanied vocal lines opening the work skilfully convey the relationship between Death , steadily advancing through the forest , and Savitri , her frightened answers fluttering round him , unable to escape his harmonic pull " . Head describes the work as unique in its time for its compact intimacy , and considers it Holst 's most successful attempt to end the domination of Wagnerian chromaticism in his music . Dickinson considers it a significant step , " not towards opera , but towards an idiomatic pursuit of [ Holst 's ] vision " . Of the Kālidāsa texts , Dickinson dismisses The Cloud Messenger ( 1910 – 12 ) as an " accumulation of desultory incidents , opportunistic dramatic episodes and ecstatic outpourings " which illustrate the composer 's creative confusion during that period ; the Two Eastern Pictures ( 1911 ) , in Dickinson 's view , provide " a more memorable final impression of Kālidāsa " .
= = = = Folksong and other influences = = = =
Holst 's settings of Indian texts formed only a part of his compositional output in the period 1900 to 1914 . A highly significant factor in his musical development was the English folksong revival , evident in the orchestral suite A Somerset Rhapsody ( 1906 – 07 ) , a work that was originally to be based around eleven folksong themes ; this was later reduced to four . Observing the work 's kinship with Vaughan Williams 's Norfolk Rhapsody , Dickinson remarks that , with its firm overall structure , Holst 's composition " rises beyond the level of ... a song @-@ selection " . Imogen acknowledges that Holst 's discovery of English folksongs " transformed his orchestral writing " , and that the composition of A Somerset Rhapsody did much to banish the chromaticisms that had dominated his early compositions . In the Two Songs without Words of 1906 , Holst showed that he could create his own original music using the folk idiom . An orchestral folksong fantasy Songs of the West , also written in 1906 , was withdrawn by the composer and never published , although it emerged in the 1980s in the form of an arrangement for wind band by James Curnow .
In the years before the First World War , Holst composed in a variety of genres . Matthews considers the evocation of a North African town in the Beni Mora suite of 1908 the composer 's most individual work to that date ; the third movement gives a preview of minimalism in its constant repetition of a four @-@ bar theme . Holst wrote two suites for military band , in E flat ( 1909 ) and F major ( 1911 ) respectively , the first of which became and remains a brass band staple . This piece , a highly original and substantial musical work , was a signal departure from what Short describes as " the usual transcriptions and operatic selections which pervaded the band repertoire " . Also in 1911 he wrote Hecuba 's Lament , a setting of Gilbert Murray 's translation from Euripides built on a seven @-@ beat refrain designed , says Dickinson , to represent Hecuba 's defiance of divine wrath . In 1912 Holst composed two psalm settings , in which he experimented with plainsong ; the same year saw the enduringly popular St Paul 's Suite ( a " gay but retrogressive " piece according to Dickinson ) , and the failure of his large scale orchestral work Phantastes .
= = = Full flowering = = =
= = = = The Planets = = = =
Holst conceived the idea of The Planets in 1913 , partly as a result of his interest in astrology , and also from his determination , despite the failure of Phantastes , to produce a large @-@ scale orchestral work . The chosen format may have been influenced by Schoenberg 's Fünf Orchesterstücke , and shares something of the aesthetic , Matthews suggests , of Debussy 's Nocturnes or La mer . Holst began composing The Planets in 1914 ; the movements appeared not quite in their final sequence ; " Mars " was the first to be written , followed by " Venus " and " Jupiter " . " Saturn " , " Uranus " and " Neptune " were all composed during 1915 , and " Mercury " was completed in 1916 .
Each planet is represented with a distinct character ; Dickinson observes that " no planet borrows colour from another " . In " Mars " , a persistent , uneven rhythmic cell consisting of five beats , combined with trumpet calls and harmonic dissonance provides battle music which Short asserts is unique in its expression of violence and sheer terror , " ... Holst 's intention being to portray the reality of warfare rather than to glorify deeds of heroism " . In " Venus " , Holst incorporated music from an abandoned vocal work , A Vigil of Pentecost , to provide the opening ; the prevalent mood within the movement is of peaceful resignation and nostalgia . " Mercury " is dominated by uneven metres and rapid changes of theme , to represent the speedy flight of the winged messenger . " Jupiter " is renowned for its central melody , in Dickinson 's view " a fantastic relaxation in which many retain a far from sneaking delight " . Dickinson and other critics have decried the later use of the tune in the patriotic hymn " I Vow to Thee , My Country " — despite Holst 's full complicity .
For " Saturn " , Holst again used a previously @-@ composed vocal piece , Dirge and Hymeneal , as the basis for the movement , where repeated chords represent the relentless approach of old age . " Uranus " , which follows , has elements of Berlioz 's Symphonie fantastique and Dukas 's The Sorcerer 's Apprentice , in its depiction of the magician who " disappears in a whiff of smoke as the sonic impetus of the movement diminishes from fff to ppp in the space of a few bars " . " Neptune " , the final movement , concludes with a wordless female chorus gradually receding , an effect which Warrack likens to " unresolved timelessness ... never ending , since space does not end , but drifting away into eternal silence " . Apart from his concession with " I Vow to Thee ... " ' , Holst insisted on the unity of the whole work , and opposed the performance of individual movements . Nevertheless , Imogen writes that the piece has " suffered from being quoted in snippets as background music " .
= = = = Maturity = = = =
During and after the composition of The Planets , Holst wrote or arranged numerous vocal and choral works , many of them for the wartime Thaxted Whitsun Festivals , 1916 – 18 . They include the Six Choral Folksongs of 1916 , based on West Country tunes , of which " Swansea Town " , with its " sophisticated tone " , is deemed by Dickinson to be the most memorable . Holst downplayed such music as " a limited form of art " in which " mannerisms are almost inevitable " ; the composer Alan Gibbs , however , believes Holst 's set at least equal to Vaughan Williams 's Five English Folk Songs of 1913 .
Holst 's first major work after The Planets was the Hymn of Jesus , completed in 1917 . The words are from a Gnostic text , the apocryphal Acts of St John , using a translation from the Greek which Holst prepared with assistance from Clifford Bax and Jane Joseph . Head comments on the innovative character of the Hymn : " At a stroke Holst had cast aside the Victorian and Edwardian sentimental oratorio , and created the precursor of the kind of works that John Tavener , for example , was to write in the 1970s " . Matthews has written that the Hymn 's " ecstatic " quality is matched in English music " perhaps only by Tippett 's The Vision of Saint Augustine " ; the musical elements include plainsong , two choirs distanced from each other to emphasise dialogue , dance episodes and " explosive chordal dislocations " .
In the Ode to Death ( 1918 – 19 ) , the quiet , resigned mood is seen by Matthews as an " abrupt volte @-@ face " after the life @-@ enhancing spirituality of the Hymn . Warrack refers to its aloof tranquillity ; Imogen Holst believed the Ode expressed Holst 's private attitude to death . The piece has rarely been performed since its premiere in 1922 , although the composer Ernest Walker thought it was Holst 's finest work to that date . The influential critic Ernest Newman considered The Perfect Fool " the best of modern British operas " , but its unusually short length ( about an hour ) and parodic , whimsical nature — described by The Times as " a brilliant puzzle " — put it outside the operatic mainstream . Only the ballet music from the opera , which The Times called " the most brilliant thing in a work glittering with brilliant moments " , has been regularly performed since 1923 . Holst 's libretto attracted much criticism , although Edwin Evans remarked on the rare treat in opera of being able to hear the words being sung .
= = = Later works = = =
Before his enforced rest in 1924 , Holst demonstrated a new interest in counterpoint , in his Fugal Overture of 1922 for full orchestra and the neo @-@ classical Fugal Concerto of 1923 , for flute , oboe and strings . In his final decade he mixed song settings and minor pieces with major works and occasional new departures ; the 1925 Terzetto for flute , violin and oboe , each instrument playing in a different key , is cited by Imogen as Holst 's only successful chamber work . Of the Choral Symphony completed in 1924 , Matthews writes that , after several movements of real quality , the finale is a rambling anticlimax . Holst 's penultimate opera , At the Boar 's Head ( 1924 ) , is based on tavern scenes from Shakespeare 's Henry IV , Parts 1 and 2 . The music , which is largely derived from old English melodies gleaned from Cecil Sharp and other collections , has pace and verve ; the contemporary critic Harvey Grace discounted the lack of originality , a facet which he said " can be shown no less convincingly by a composer 's handling of material than by its invention " .
Egdon Heath ( 1927 ) was Holst 's first major orchestral work after The Planets . Matthews summarises the music as " elusive and unpredictable [ with ] three main elements : a pulseless wandering melody [ for strings ] , a sad brass processional , and restless music for strings and oboe . " The mysterious dance towards the end is , says Matthews , " the strangest moment in a strange work " . Richard Greene in Music & Letters describes the piece as " a larghetto dance in a siciliano rhythm with a simple , stepwise , rocking melody " , but lacking the power of The Planets and , at times , monotonous to the listener . A more popular success was the Moorside Suite for brass band , written as a test piece for the National Brass Band Festival championships of 1928 . While written within the traditions of north @-@ country brass band music , the suite , Short says , bears Holst 's unmistakable imprint , " from the skipping 6 / 8 of the opening Scherzo , to the vigorous melodic fourths of the concluding March , the intervening Nocturne bearing a family resemblance to the slow @-@ moving procession of Saturn " .
After this , Holst tackled his final attempt at opera in a cheerful vein , with The Wandering Scholar ( 1929 – 30 ) , to a text by Clifford Bax . Imogen refers to the music as " Holst at his best in a scherzando ( playful ) frame of mind " ; Vaughan Williams commented on the lively , folksy rhythms : " Do you think there 's a little bit too much 6 / 8 in the opera ? " Short observes that the opening motif makes several reappearances without being identified with a particular character , but imposes musical unity on the work .
Holst composed few large @-@ scale works in his final years . A Choral Fantasia of 1930 was written for the Three Choirs Festival at Gloucester ; beginning and ending with a soprano soloist , the work , also involving chorus , strings , brass and percussion , includes a substantial organ solo which , says Imogen Holst , " knows something of the ' colossal and mysterious ' loneliness of Egdon Heath " . Apart from his final uncompleted symphony , Holst 's remaining works were for small forces ; the eight Canons of 1932 were dedicated to his pupils , though in Imogen 's view that they present a formidable challenge to the most professional of singers . The Brook Green Suite ( 1932 ) , written for the orchestra of St Paul 's School , was a late companion piece to the St Paul 's Suite . The Lyric Movement for viola and small orchestra ( 1933 ) was written for Lionel Tertis . Quiet and contemplative , and requiring little virtuosity from the soloist , the piece was slow to gain popularity among violists . Robin Hull , in Penguin Music Magazine , praised the work 's " clear beauty — impossible to mistake for the art of any other composer " ; in Dickinson 's view , however , it remains " a frail creation " . Holst 's final composition , the orchestral scherzo movement of a projected symphony , contains features characteristic of much of Holst 's earlier music — " a summing up of Holst 's orchestral art " , according to Short . Dickinson suggests that the somewhat casual collection of material in the work gives little indication of the symphony that might have been written .
= = Recordings = =
Holst made some recordings , conducting his own music . For the Columbia company he recorded Beni Mora , the Marching Song and the complete Planets with the London Symphony Orchestra ( LSO ) in 1922 , using the acoustic process . The limitations of early recording prevented the gradual fade @-@ out of women 's voices at the end of " Neptune " , and the lower strings had to be replaced by a tuba to obtain an effective bass sound . With an anonymous string orchestra Holst recorded the St Paul 's Suite and Country Song in 1925 . Columbia 's main rival , HMV , issued recordings of some of the same repertoire , with an unnamed orchestra conducted by Albert Coates . When electrical recording came in , with dramatically improved recording quality , Holst and the LSO re @-@ recorded The Planets for Columbia in 1926 .
In the early LP era little of Holst 's music was available on disc . Only six of his works are listed in the 1955 issue of The Record Guide : The Planets ( recordings under Boult on HMV and Nixa , and another under Sir Malcolm Sargent on Decca ) ; the Perfect Fool ballet music ; the St Paul 's Suite ; and three short choral pieces . In the stereo LP and CD eras numerous recordings of The Planets were issued , performed by orchestras and conductors from round the world . By the early years of the 21st century most of the major and many of the minor orchestral and choral works had been issued on disc . The 2008 issue of The Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music contained seven pages of listings of Holst 's works on CD . Of the operas , Savitri , The Wandering Scholar , and At the Boar 's Head have been recorded .
= = Legacy = =
Warrack emphasises that Holst acquired an instinctive understanding — perhaps more so than any English composer — of the importance of folksong . In it he found " a new concept not only of how melody might be organized , but of what the implications were for the development of a mature artistic language " . Holst did not found or lead a school of composition ; nevertheless , he exercised influences over both contemporaries and successors . According to Short , Vaughan Williams described Holst as " the greatest influence on my music " , although Matthews asserts that each influenced the other equally . Among later composers , Michael Tippett is acknowledged by Short as Holst 's " most significant artistic successor " , both in terms of compositional style and because Tippett , who succeeded Holst as director of music at Morley College , maintained the spirit of Holst 's music there . Of an early encounter with Holst , Tippett later wrote : " Holst seemed to look right inside me , with an acute spiritual vision " . Kennedy observes that " a new generation of listeners ... recognized in Holst the fount of much that they admired in the music of Britten and Tippett " . Holst 's pupil Edmund Rubbra acknowledged how he and other younger English composers had adopted Holst 's economy of style : " With what enthusiasm did we pare down our music to the very bone " .
Short cites other English composers who are in debt to Holst , in particular William Walton and Benjamin Britten , and suggests that Holst 's influence may have been felt further afield . Above all , Short recognises Holst as a composer for the people , who believed it was a composer 's duty to provide music for practical purposes — festivals , clebrations , ceremonies , Christmas carols or simple hymn tunes . Thus , says Short , " many people who may never have heard any of [ Holst 's ] major works ... have nevertheless derived great pleasure from hearing or singing such small masterpieces as the carol ' In the Bleak Midwinter ' " .
On 27 September 2009 , after a weekend of concerts at Chichester Cathedral in memory of Holst , a new memorial was unveiled to mark the 75th anniversary of the composer 's death . It is inscribed with words from the text of The Hymn of Jesus : " The heavenly spheres make music for us " . In April 2011 a BBC television documentary , Holst : In the Bleak Midwinter , charted Holst 's life with particular reference to his support for socialism and the cause of working people .
= Hervey le Breton =
Hervey le Breton ( also known as Hervé le Breton ; died 30 August 1131 ) was a Breton cleric who became Bishop of Bangor in Wales and later Bishop of Ely in England . Appointed to Bangor by King William II of England , when the Normans were advancing into Wales , Hervey was unable to remain in his diocese when the Welsh began to drive the Normans back from their recent conquests . Hervey 's behaviour towards the Welsh seems to have contributed to his expulsion from his see . Although the new king , Henry I wished to translate Hervey to the see of Lisieux in Normandy , it was unsuccessful .
In 1109 , a new diocese was created in England , at Ely , and Hervey was appointed to the bishopric created . While bishop , Hervey ordered the compilation of a house chronicle , which later became the Liber Eliensis . He supervised the construction of a causeway between Ely and Exning , which allowed easier access to Ely .
= = Early life = =
Hervey was a native of Brittany , and some sources state a chaplain of King William II of England , while others are less certain that he was a chaplain for the king . He was appointed Bishop of Bangor in 1092 by King William . Bangor at the time was in the Kingdom of Gwynedd , which had recently been overrun by the Normans , and following the killing of Robert of Rhuddlan had been taken over by Hugh d 'Avranches , 1st Earl of Chester . The appointment of Hervey was probably intended to further consolidate the Norman hold on the area . Bangor was under the jurisdiction of the diocese of Canterbury , but Hervey was consecrated by Thomas of Bayeux , who was the Archbishop of York , since the see of Canterbury was vacant at the time .
= = Problems at Bangor = =
Relations between Hervey and the Welsh appear to have been very bad . The Liber Eliensis described the situation as follows :
Since they [ the Welsh ] did not show the respect and reverence due to a bishop , he [ Hervey ] wielded the sharp two @-@ edged sword to subdue them , constraining them both with repeated excommunications and with the host of his kinsmen and other followers . They resisted him nonetheless and pressed him with such dangers that they killed his brother and intended to deal with him the same way , if they could lay hands on him .
Hervey was forced to rely on his own armed bands for protection . In 1094 a Welsh revolt against Norman rule in Gwynedd began under the leadership of Gruffudd ap Cynan , and by the late 1090s Hervey had been driven from his diocese by the Welsh . William of Malmesbury , however , states that the reason Hervey left Bangor was that the revenues of the see were too low . He remained nominally Bishop of Bangor until 1109 . King Henry I of England tried to translate Hervey to the see of Lisieux in 1106 , but the attempt was unsuccessful . The main opposition came from Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury , who was the metropolitan of Bangor , and refused to allow Hervey to go to a Norman bishopric . Anselm had the ability to decide the issue as Pope Paschal II had turned the decision of whether to translate Hervey to another see over to Anselm in 1102 . While in exile , Hervey served as King Henry 's confessor . Bangor itself remained vacant until 1120 , when David the Scot was appointed .
= = Appointment to Ely = =
Before his death in 1107 , Richard the abbot of Ely had attempted to secure from the papacy the elevation of his abbey into a bishopric . After Richard 's death , Hervey was appointed to oversee the abbey during the vacancy . He convinced the monks of Ely to support Richard 's project , which received the conditional approval of Archbishop Anselm , contingent on papal approval . Paschal signalled his approval , and in 1109 the monastery became a bishopric . Ely still remained a monastic house , as the abbey itself became the cathedral and the monks of the abbey became the monks of the cathedral chapter . Also in 1109 , the pope approved Hervey 's translation to a new see , and he was made Bishop of Ely . He was enthroned at Ely in October 1109 .
While bishop , Hervey ordered the compilation of a history of the refounding of the abbey of Ely , which later became incorporated into the Liber Eliensis . This was a Latin reworking of an Old English book of grants compiled by Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester . He was energetic in recovering the feudal rights of the bishopric against knights who had intruded themselves on the lands , but were not rendering knight service to the bishop . As bishop , he attended a legatine council , or council held by a papal legate , in 1127 , and a royal council in 1129 , but otherwise his administrative actions remain obscure . The causeway between the island of Ely and Exning , which made it easier for pilgrims to visit the shrine of Saint Ethelreda , was built under Hervey 's orders . Insight into his activities as bishop is given in the Pipe Roll of 1130 , the first surviving Pipe Roll . In that record , Hervey is recorded as owing King Henry 45 pounds to provide an office for a nephew , 100 pounds on an old settlement with the king , another 100 pounds for the settlement of a case dealing with Ramsey Abbey , Bury St. Edmunds Abbey and the bishop , 240 pounds for the right to be rid of a surplus of knights , and finally 1000 pounds for the king to allow the bishop 's knights to serve castleguard at Ely instead of Norwich .
= = Death = =
Hervey died on 30 August 1131 . He was buried in Ely Cathedral on 31 August 1131 . He was disliked by Archbishop Anselm , and he was described as a man of " secular tastes " . His nephew , William Brito , was a royal chaplain and was appointed Archdeacon of Ely by 1110 . Another nephew was Richard , who in 1130 is recorded in the Pipe Roll as paying a fine to the king because of land that his uncle had given him . Another of Hervey 's relative was Gilbert Universalis , who was appointed to the see of London in 1128 by Henry I.
= Too Much Too Soon ( album ) =
Too Much Too Soon is the second studio album by American hard rock band the New York Dolls , released on May 10 , 1974 , by Mercury Records . The group was dissatisfied with the sound of their 1973 self @-@ titled debut album , so frontman David Johansen enlisted veteran producer Shadow Morton for Too Much Too Soon . Morton had become disenchanted by the music industry , but was motivated by the band 's energy and agreed to work with them as a challenge . They recorded the album at A & R Studios in New York City .
Although the New York Dolls shared an affinity for Morton , they produced little original material with him . To complete Too Much Too Soon , they covered older songs and re @-@ recorded their past demos . Johansen impersonated different characters on some of the novelty covers , while Morton incorporated many studio sound effects and female backing vocals in his production . For the album , lead guitarist Johnny Thunders wrote and recorded " Chatterbox " , his first lead vocal track .
Too Much Too Soon was released to poor sales and only charted at number 167 on the Billboard 200 . After a problem @-@ ridden national tour , the New York Dolls were dropped by Mercury and disbanded in 1975 . The album received positive reviews from most critics , who felt Morton 's production highlighted the group 's raw sound and made it a better record than their first . Like their debut album , Too Much Too Soon became one of the most popular cult records in rock music and has since been viewed by music journalists as a predecessor to punk rock .
= = Background = =
After being signed by Mercury Records , the New York Dolls released their self @-@ titled debut album in 1973 to poor sales . Although it was praised by critics , the band members were not satisfied with producer Todd Rundgren 's sound for the album and had disagreements with him before recording Too Much Too Soon . Songwriting and production partners Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller were originally enlisted to produce their second album , while the band 's guitarist Johnny Thunders wanted to produce it himself . However , Leiber and Stoller withdrew shortly before recording was to begin . The group held a single session with Mercury A & R executive Paul Nelson at Media Sound Recording Studios , where they recorded 14 songs , most of which were cover songs .
At the recommendation of Leiber and Stoller , frontman David Johansen asked veteran producer Shadow Morton to work on Too Much Too Soon . Morton was best known for his work with the Shangri @-@ Las , of whom the New York Dolls were fans , and had also been Johansen 's original choice to produce their debut album . Morton had become disenchanted with the music industry and wanted to challenge himself by producing the band 's second album : " The Dolls had energy , sort of a disciplined weirdness . I took them into the room as a challenge . I was bored with the music and the business . The Dolls can certainly snap you out of boredom . "
= = Recording and production = =
With Morton , the New York Dolls recorded Too Much Too Soon in 1974 at A & R Studios in New York City . The album was later mastered at Sterling Sound and Masterdisk . During the sessions , Morton had Johansen record his vocals several times and incorporated sound effects such as gongs , gunshots , and feminine choruses . In a report on the album 's progress for Melody Maker , journalist Lenny Kaye wrote that they were taking more time than they had on their first record , " bringing in occasional strings and horns , following Shadow 's advice not ' to settle ' . " Morton and the band shared an affinity for each other , as he found the group 's energy in the studio refreshing , while Johansen was fond of Morton and the " looser " feel he provided for their music : " That man is completely unpretentious . He doesn 't think he ever did a marvellous thing in his life . "
The New York Dolls and Morton produced little original material together and had to record cover songs and re @-@ recorded some of the band 's earlier demos to complete Too Much Too Soon ; " Babylon " , " Who Are the Mystery Girls ? " , " It 's Too Late " , and " Human Being " had been recorded by the band in March 1973 as demos for Mercury before the label signed them . They had also recorded demos of two songs written by guitarist Sylvain Sylvain , " Teenage News " and " Too Much Too Soon " , before working with Morton , but neither were considered for the album . Sylvain said he confronted Morton about this decision , recalling he had been in a rush : " He was too quick with me and said that he 'd been told only to listen to David Johansen and Johnny Thunders . He didn 't want to tell me who had told him that but obviously it was the managers . I just walked out , it was all driving me nuts . "
According to journalist Tony Fletcher , Morton would have been more productive on Too Much Too Soon had it not been for his alcoholism and the lifestyles of the band members — bassist Arthur Kane was also an alcoholic , while Thunders and drummer Jerry Nolan had heroin addictions . Robert Christgau believed the New York Dolls relied more on cover songs for the album because , " like so many cocky songwriters , David Johansen overloaded his debut with originals and then found that record promotion wasn 't a life activity that inspired new ones . " English writer Clinton Heylin said their inability to sell enough records before may have discouraged them from writing original songs .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to Billboard magazine , Too Much Too Soon was another hard rock record by the New York Dolls but with a more " sophisticated " production . Music journalist Nina Antonia wrote that because of the group 's " untamable wildness " , the record still sounded eccentric despite attempts by Morton to " polish " their sound , such as by subduing their otherwise unrefined guitar playing . The album featured covers of the Cadets ' 1956 hit " Stranded in the Jungle " , Archie Bell 's 1969 hit " There 's Gonna Be a Showdown " , and Sonny Boy Williamson 's " Don 't Start Me Talkin ' " . On the novelty cover songs , Johansen impersonated characters such as the high @-@ stepper in " ( There 's Gonna Be A ) Showdown " and Charlie Chan in " Bad Detective " , which has lyrics describing a nonsensical narrative set in China . On " Stranded in the Jungle " , he alternated between a comical reject and a lecherous man at lover 's lane . Journalist Ellen Willis remarked that , like the band 's 1973 song " Personality Crisis " , " Stranded in the Jungle " suggested a theme of " clashing cultures and the dilemma of preserving one 's uniqueness while reaching out to others " .
For " Babylon " , Johansen wrote the lyrics as a tribute to the New York Dolls ' following from outside New York City : " [ The song ] is about people who live in Babylon , Long Island , New York , who go into the city every night dressed to kill . These people have to get home before sun @-@ up , you know , like vampires that can 't get caught by the sun . " By contrast , Spin magazine 's Eric Weisbard and Craig Marks interpreted " Babylon " as a reference to the Biblical city of the same name because of how the song portrayed " the symbol of decadence as a sanctuary " . The song 's subject leaves Babylon for Manhattan , where she is then hired to work in a massage parlour .
" It 's Too Late " was a commentary on nostalgic fashions and made reference to actress Diana Dors in a lyric rebuking drug use . According to Antonia , the song criticized indifferent , decadent people who cannot , as Johansen sang , " parlez New York français " . On " Who Are the Mystery Girls ? " , he scolded those who abuse love , wanting to " kick it on the floor " and " beat it like a scatter rug " . " Puss ' n ' Boots " was titled after an illustrated , podoerotic magazine sold in adult book stores . Johansen said the song was about shoe fetishism , " or as Arthur [ Kane ] observed , it 's about ' the woofers in relationship with the woofee ' . " Its lyrics depicted adversities faced by the protagonist , " Little Rhinestone Target " , as he tried to change his name in pursuit of his shoe fetish before the music ended with a gunshot , a sound effect inspired by the Olympics ' 1958 song " Western Movies " . Willis interpreted a feminist subtext in the song , citing the lyrics " sometimes you gotta get away someway / and now you 're walkin ' just like you 're ten feet tall ... I hope you don 't get shot for tryin ' . "
" Chatterbox " was written and sung by Thunders , whom Willis felt " uses his voice as a wailing instrument " similarly to rock singer Robert Plant . The song was Thunders 's first time singing lead and featured vocals Weisbard and Marks said were delivered in a quavering but proud New York accent . His lyrics described the narrator 's growing frustration over a crossed @-@ wire phone connection with a female subject . On " Human Being " , an ode to self @-@ respect and personal liberty , Thunders introduced his guitar playing with a roughly performed variation on Bill Doggett 's 1956 song " Honky Tonk " . Johansen addressed critics of the band in the song , telling them if they found him objectionable they should instead find themselves " a saint " , " a boy who 's gonna be what I ain 't " , and a " plastic doll with a fresh coast of paint who 's gonna sit through the madness and always act so quaint " .
= = Release and promotion = =
Too Much Too Soon was titled after the biography of the same name on actress Diana Barrymore . According to music journalist Jon Savage , the title was " more than applicable to the Dolls themselves " because of alcoholism and other issues among the band members , including Thunders 's heroin use and Nolan 's contraction of hepatitis . A dedication to Barrymore was printed in the album 's gatefold LP . For its front cover , the group eschewed the drag image that their first album had presented and they had developed a reputation for in favor of a fake concert shot . During the shoot , Thunders held a doll in his arm as if to strike it against his guitar to add shock value .
Released on May 10 , 1974 , Too Much Too Soon was another commercial failure for the New York Dolls , as it only charted at number 167 on the Billboard 200 . It performed well below Mercury 's expectations and sold less than 100 @,@ 000 copies . Two double A @-@ sided , 7 " singles were released to promote the album — " Stranded in the Jungle " / " Who Are the Mystery Girls ? " in July and " ( There 's Gonna Be A ) Showdown " / " Puss ' n ' Boots " in September 1974 — but neither charted . According to Antonia , the selected singles demonstrated how " the Dolls were in need of a hit single and their current producer wanted to see them attain it " by accommodating radio audiences with toned @-@ down studio versions of songs the band had performed more rowdily in concert . Joe Gross wrote in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) that the band 's attempt to garner more airplay by enlisting Morton did not work because , " with a slicker sound , background choruses , and cleaner riffs , the Dolls just sounded skankier " .
When Too Much Too Soon was released in Europe in July , the New York Dolls performed at the Buxton Festival in Derbyshire and the Rock Prom Festival at Olympia in London . They also embarked on their second tour of the United States , which lasted only a few months . It was marred by cancelled shows and conflicts between the band members stemming from their escalating addictions to alcohol and other drugs . Because of their alcoholism , they failed to set up a recording session for a scheduled third album after the tour had ended , and by 1975 , they were dropped by Mercury and disbanded .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Too Much Too Soon received positive reviews from critics . In a review of the album for Rolling Stone , Dave Marsh hailed the New York Dolls as the leading hard rock band in the US and noted what he felt was Nolan 's competent drumming , Johansen 's ability to add depth to his characters , and Thunders 's innovative guitar playing . Marsh especially praised his playing on " Chatterbox " , calling it " a classic " , and believed even the most brazen songs sounded successful because Morton 's production highlighted the group 's more unrefined musical qualities . Writing for Creem magazine , Christgau said the polished sound reproduction preserved the band 's raw qualities , especially in the case of Johansen 's vocals and Nolan 's drumming , and remarked that Rundgren " should be ashamed — Shadow Morton has gotten more out of the Dolls than they can give us live on any but their best nights . " Robert Hilburn from the Los Angeles Times felt Too Much Too Soon was a better @-@ produced album that proved the band to be " the real thing " , calling it the best record of derisive punk rock since Exile on Main St. ( 1972 ) by the Rolling Stones . In The New Yorker , Ellen Willis wrote that she learned to appreciate Too Much Too Soon more than New York Dolls after seeing the band perform songs from the former album in concert , particularly " Human Being " and " Puss ' n ' Boots " , while Ron Ross from Phonograph Record magazine said the group 's " easy going ironic sensibility " was expressed " far more amusingly and accessibly " here than on their debut album .
Some reviewers were critical of Too Much Too Soon for what they felt was a poorly recorded and overproduced sound . In a negative review for NME , Nick Kent said it sounded cluttered and " shot through with unfulfilled potential " , while Circus magazine panned the record as " cut after cut of annoying screeching " . It was nonetheless voted the tenth best album of 1974 in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published in The Village Voice . Willis , one of the critics polled , listed it as her fifth favorite record of the year . Christgau , the poll 's creator and supervisor , named it third best , and in a decade @-@ end list for The Village Voice , he named it the fourth best album of the 1970s . Los Angeles Times critic Richard Cromelin included it in his list of favorite records from the decade and wrote that Morton 's production made it slightly better than New York Dolls .
Along with New York Dolls , Too Much Too Soon became one of the most popular cult albums in rock music . According to AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine , the group predated punk rock with their " gleeful sleaziness and reckless sound " on the record , which he said was embellished by Morton 's production details and exemplified by " musically visceral and dangerous " songs such as " Human Being " . In 1986 , Sounds magazine ranked it sixtieth on its list of the 100 best albums of all time . After it was reissued by Mercury in 1987 , Don McLeese of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that Morton 's production highlighted the New York Dolls ' sense of humor and was rendered vividly by the CD remaster . However , he felt Too Much Too Soon was marred by inconsistent material and rated it lower than their first record . In a review of the reissue , Don Waller of the Los Angeles Times said the underappreciated album was just as much an " instant classic " as New York Dolls .
In 2005 , Too Much Too Soon was remastered and reissued by Hip @-@ O Select and Mercury , after which Christgau wrote in Blender that both it and New York Dolls make up " a priceless proto @-@ punk legacy " . He wrote that although Johansen 's best original songs are on the first record , Too Much Too Soon has consistent hooks , clever lyrics , and exceptional cover songs , including " two R & B novelties whose theatrical potential was barely noticed until the Dolls penetrated their holy essence " . That year , rock journalist Toby Creswell named " Babylon " as one of the greatest songs of all time in his book 1001 Songs . In the Encyclopedia of Popular Music ( 2006 ) , Colin Larkin felt the band 's issues with alcohol and other drugs affected their performance on the record , which he deemed " a charismatic collection of punk / glam @-@ rock anthems , typically delivered with ' wasted ' cool " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = New York Dolls = = =
David Johansen – vocals , gong
Arthur " Killer " Kane – bass
Jerry Nolan – drums , percussion
Sylvain Sylvain – guitar , piano , vocals
Johnny Thunders – guitar , vocals
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Album Graphics – graphic supervision
Dennis Druzbik – engineering
Bob Gruen – photography
Gilbert Kong – mastering
Hans G. Lehmann – photography
Pieter Mazel – photography
Shadow Morton – production
Paul Nelson – A & R
Dixon Van Winkle – engineering
= = Release history = =
Information is adapted from Nina Antonia 's Too Much Too Soon : The New York Dolls ( 2006 ) .
= Go Man Go =
Go Man Go ( 1953 – 1983 ) was an American Quarter Horse stallion and race horse . He was named World Champion Quarter Running Horse three times in a row , one of only two horses to achieve that distinction . Go Man Go was considered to be of difficult temperament . While waiting in the starting gate for his very first race , he threw his jockey , broke down the gate , and ran alone around the track ; he was eventually caught and went on to win the race . During his five years of competition until his retirement from racing in 1960 he had 27 wins , earning more than $ 86 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 726 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) .
Neither of Go Man Go 's parents raced . His sire ( father ) , the Thoroughbred stallion Top Deck , was bred by the King Ranch . His dam ( mother ) hailed from Louisiana ; Go Man Go is thought to have gained his swiftness on the track from her . For the first years of Go Man Go 's racing career , his owner faced difficulty in registering him with the American Quarter Horse Association ( AQHA ) , a matter that remained unresolved until 1958 .
Go Man Go went on to sire two All American Futurity winners and seven Champion Quarter Running Horses . He was inducted into the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame , as were two of his offspring . His daughters also produced , or were the mothers of , a number of race winners , including the Hall of Fame members Kaweah Bar and Rocket Wrangler . The director of racing for the AQHA once compared his impact on Quarter Horse racing and breeding to that of Man o ' War in Thoroughbred racing , or that of human athletes such as Ben Hogan and Babe Ruth .
= = Background and early life = =
Go Man Go was foaled in Wharton , Texas in 1953 , as a result of the second breeding between the Thoroughbred stallion Top Deck and the Appendix Quarter Horse mare Lightfoot Sis . Top Deck was bred by the King Ranch , and was unraced . J. B. Ferguson had purchased Lightfoot Sis when her then @-@ owner , Octave Fontenot of Prairie Ronde , Louisiana , decided to get out of the horse breeding business . Ferguson paid $ 350 for her ( approximately $ 3 @,@ 100 as of 2016 ) and bred her in 1952 to Top Deck ( TB ) , resulting in Go Man Go 's birth the next year . Ferguson also purchased Top Deck , after the stallion injured himself as a yearling .
Lightfoot Sis showed classic short speed in her pedigree , although she was unraced due to an injury as a filly that left her blind in one eye . Her sire was the Thoroughbred stallion Very Wise , and her dam was a Quarter Horse mare named Clear Track .
Scott Wells , a racing correspondent , wrote in The Speedhorse Magazine that Go Man Go " grew up lean and hard @-@ boned , long @-@ bodied and long @-@ hipped , but not the best looking horse in the world . Not the best looking , just the best . " Go Man Go had a reputation for being difficult to handle . His trainer once told Walt Wiggins , Sr. that Go Man Go was " jes plain mean as a bear most of the time " . Throughout his racing career , Go Man Go stayed mean . One of his jockeys , Robert Strauss , recalled later that Go Man Go " was ornery from the day I met him , but he was the greatest horse I ever rode " .
= = Racing career = =
In his five @-@ year racing career , Go Man Go competed in 47 races . He appeared to take naturally to racing ; during his training he ran off with his rider — his eventual jockey Robert Strauss — before he was supposed to run . As Strauss said , " When we were breaking him , he ran off with me before we ever wanted him to run . I mean , just flat ran off with me . " Robert 's brother Eldridge , who was the trainer , once worked the colt minus half a shoe and Go Man Go still managed a time of 18 @.@ 9 seconds for a 350 @-@ yard ( 320 m ) distance .
In the moments before his very first race began , Go Man Go flipped over in the starting gate , unseated his rider , crashed through the front , and ran around the whole track . He finally allowed himself to be caught and reloaded into the starting gate and went on to win that race . He won his next five races with a total lead of nine horse @-@ lengths . He faced Vandy 's Flash , himself a World Champion Quarter Racing Horse , twelve times . Their last meeting , on September 6 , 1959 at Ruidoso Downs , was also Go Man Go 's final race , and was the only one of their races won by Vandy 's Flash .
Go Man Go won 27 times , placed second 9 times and was third 3 times . Because he placed so regularly , by the end of his racing career tracks had difficulty filling races if other racing stables knew he was entered . His race earnings were $ 86 @,@ 151 ( approximately $ 725 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) with 88 AQHA racing points , which earned him a Superior Race Horse award as well as a Race Register of Merit from the AQHA . The best speed rating , or racing grade , he achieved was AAAT , the highest grade awarded at the time . Go Man Go was named World Champion Quarter Running Horse for three years running , from 1955 to 1957 . He was the first two @-@ year @-@ old to win the title . He was a multiple stakes winner , and his wins included the Pacific Coast Quarter Racing Association Futurity , LA Autumn Championship , and the Clabbertown G Stakes , which he won three times in a row . At his retirement , he held the world records at 440 yards ( 400 m ) and 350 yards ( 320 m ) , as well as age and sex records at 400 yards ( 370 m ) . Go Man Go is still the only stallion who has been World Champion Quarter Running Horse three times , and , along with the mare Woven Web ( TB ) , is one of only two horses to be three @-@ time winners of the award .
= = Ownership and registration problems = =
In 1955 , when Go Man Go was a two @-@ year @-@ old , A.B. Green bragged that he intended to buy the horse from Ferguson . Although Ferguson did not want to sell , he felt he had to at least set a price . After hearing rumors that Green was prepared with a cashier 's check for $ 40 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 353 @,@ 300 as of 2016 ) , Ferguson set the price at $ 42 @,@ 000 cash ( approximately $ 371 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) and twenty @-@ one breedings to the stallion . To Ferguson 's surprise , Green had that much cash available ; Ferguson felt compelled to sell Go Man Go . Two years later , at a Los Alamitos race meet , Green claimed that his newest horse , Double Bid , could outrace Go Man Go . This incensed Ferguson , who had just entered Go Man Go 's full brother Mr Mackay in a race with Double Bid . Ferguson bet Green $ 42 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 353 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) against Go Man Go that Mr Mackay would beat Double Bid in the upcoming race . Mr Mackay won the race , and Ferguson regained ownership of Go Man Go . Later in 1960 , because he also owned Go Man Go 's full brother , father , and mother , he sold Go Man Go to Frank Vessels Sr. and Bill and Harriet Peckham for $ 125 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 999 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) . Later , however , all three horses retained by Ferguson died prematurely .
Green ran into problems with Go Man Go 's registration . At that time , the AQHA had two types of registration , the Appendix and the Tentative . Appendix @-@ registered horses were the offspring of Thoroughbreds and either Tentative @-@ registered Quarter Horses or Appendix @-@ registered Quarter Horses . Go Man Go was originally registered in the Appendix , as his dam was an Appendix @-@ registered mare . The way to advance out of the Appendix into the Tentative registry was to qualify on performance grounds and pass a conformation examination conducted by the AQHA . Go Man Go certainly qualified under the performance criteria , but his conformation was such that he resembled a Thoroughbred more than he resembled a Quarter Horse . Green knew that in order to increase his stud fees — the price paid for the right to breed a mare to a stallion — Go Man Go needed to acquire a regular registration number instead of his Appendix number . So Green appealed to the Executive Committee of the AQHA , which had the authority to award Tentative numbers to horses regardless of conformation exam results . In both 1956 and 1957 , the committee declined to take action , waiting to evaluate the quality of Go Man Go 's first foals before making a decision . Finally , in 1958 , they awarded Go Man Go number 82 @,@ 000 in the Tentative registry .
= = Breeding career and legacy = =
Retired to the breeding shed , Go Man Go early on proved his worth as a stallion . Of his first foal crop , born in 1958 , three reached the finals of the All American Futurity : Mr Meyers , Dynago Miss and Angie Miss . His stud fee in 1960 was $ 500 ( approximately $ 3 @,@ 999 as of 2016 ) , but by 1963 it had risen to $ 2 @,@ 500 ( approximately $ 19 @,@ 323 as of 2016 ) . He sired 942 foals , of which 552 earned their Race Register of Merit . Seventy @-@ two of his offspring were awarded a Superior Race Horse award . Among his get , or offspring , were Go Josie Go , Dynago Miss , Duplicate Copy , Story Man , and Hustling Man . His daughter Goetta won the All American Futurity and was inducted into the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame . Another daughter , Ought To Go was also inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame . Two grandget were also inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame : Kaweah Bar and Rocket Wrangler . Eight of his offspring won Champion Quarter Running Horse awards . His entry listing his offspring who won Race Register of Merits in the Quarter Racing Digest covers five full pages plus part of another . As a broodmare sire , or maternal grandsire , his daughters have produced Rocket Wrangler , Mr Kid Charge , Kaweah Bar , and Go Together . As of April 2008 , his offspring had earned over $ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on the racetrack .
As a breeding stallion , Go Man Go continued to have a reputation as a scoundrel , although Kathlyn Green , wife of A. B. Green , disputed that image . She said that he liked to have his lip tugged , and would lean over the stall door waiting for people to come along and tug on it for him . However , she said of him " he absolutely hated getting his feet dirty " . Go Man Go passed through a number of hands after Green owned him , including Les Gosselin , Frank Vessels , and Harriett Peckham , who was his owner by 1972 . In 1967 , when Vessels sold his half @-@ interest in Go Man Go to Briarwood Farms , the deal was said to be a record price for a Quarter Horse . Go Man Go died in 1983 and was buried near the headquarters of the Buena Suerte Ranch in Roswell , New Mexico . His crown @-@ shaped granite headstone is engraved : " Go Man Go , The King . "
Go Man Go was inducted into the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame in 1990 . A further honor was the naming of a stakes race after him , the Grade I Go Man Go Handicap run in September at Los Alamitos . Walt Wiggins , a racing commentator and author , said of Go Man Go : " He was a brilliant speedhorse , some say the fastest ever . He was wild and reckless , a rogue at first , and often a clown who seldom saw the uniqueness of his talents or the seriousness of his commission . He had intrinsic greatness and couldn 't care less . " Dan Essary , who was Director of Racing for the AQHA for many years , described Go Man Go 's impact on the Quarter Horse breed as " He was to Quarter Horse racing what Babe Ruth was to baseball , what Ben Hogan was to Golf and what Man o 'War was to Thoroughbred racing . Horses may have run faster and horses have earned more money , but the fame of Go Man Go lingers . "
= = Pedigree = =
= French ironclad Invincible =
The French ironclad Invincible was the second of the three wooden @-@ hulled Gloire @-@ class ironclads built for the French Navy in 1858 – 62 . The ships of the Gloire class were classified as armoured frigates because they only had a single gun deck and their traditional disposition of guns arrayed along the length of the hull also meant that they were broadside ironclads . Invincible had an uneventful career and was deployed in North American waters during the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 . The unseasoned timber of her hull rotted quickly and she was condemned in 1872 and scrapped in 1876 .
= = Design and description = =
Designed by the French naval architect Henri Dupuy de Lôme , the ships of the class were intended to fight in the line of battle , unlike the first British ironclads . The ship was 77 @.@ 25 metres ( 253 ft 5 in ) long , with a beam of 17 metres ( 55 ft 9 in ) . Invincible had a maximum draft of 8 @.@ 48 metres ( 27 ft 10 in ) , a depth of hold of 10 @.@ 67 metres ( 35 ft 0 in ) and displaced 5 @,@ 650 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 560 long tons ) . The ships of the class had a high metacentric height of 2 @.@ 1 metres ( 7 ft ) and consequently rolled badly . With their gun ports only 1 @.@ 88 metres ( 6 ft 2 in ) above the waterline , they proved to be very wet . She had a crew of 570 officers and enlisted men .
Invincible had a single horizontal return connecting @-@ rod compound steam engine that drove one propeller . The engine was powered by eight Indret oval boilers and was designed for a capacity of 2 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) . On sea trials , Invincible reached 13 @.@ 2 knots ( 24 @.@ 4 km / h ; 15 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried a maximum of 675 tonnes ( 664 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The Gloire @-@ class ships were initially fitted with a light barquentine rig with three masts that had a sail area around 1 @,@ 100 square metres ( 11 @,@ 800 sq ft ) . This was later changed to a full ship rig of 2 @,@ 500 square metres ( 27 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , but later had to be reduced because of excessive rolling .
The Gloire @-@ class ships were armed with 36 Modèle 1858 164 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns , 34 of which were positioned on the single gun deck in the broadside . The remaining two guns were placed on the upper deck as chase guns . They fired a 44 @.@ 9 @-@ kilogram ( 99 @.@ 0 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of only 322 metres per second ( 1 @,@ 060 ft / s ) and proved to be ineffective against armour . They were replaced by rifled breech @-@ loading Modèle 1864 guns in 1868 . Six 240 @-@ millimetre ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns were mounted in the centre of the gun deck and a pair of 194 @-@ millimetre ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) guns replaced the original chase guns .
Invincible 's wooden hull was completely armoured with wrought iron plates 120 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick . Backed by the 760 @-@ millimetre ( 30 in ) sides of the hull , the armour extended 5 @.@ 4 metres ( 17 ft 9 in ) above the waterline and 2 @.@ 0 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) below . The Gloire @-@ class ships had an open @-@ topped conning tower with armour 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick and 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) of armour underneath the wooden upper deck .
= = Construction and service = =
Ordered on 4 March 1858 , Invincible was laid down at the Arsenal de Toulon on 1 May 1858 , launched on 4 April 1861 and completed in March 1862 . In September – October 1863 , she conducted tactical trials with other ironclads . While assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , the ship made a port visit in August 1865 to Brest where the fleet hosted the British Channel Fleet . As part of the festivities , Invincible put on a banquet for the midshipmen of both fleets that was reportedly the noisiest and most enjoyable of the visit . A few days later the French fleet made a reciprocal visit to Portsmouth where it was hosted by the Channel Fleet . During the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 , the ship was sent to defend the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon from Prussian commerce raiders . Built of unseasoned timber , Invincible was in poor shape upon her return and was decommissioned . Condemned on 12 August 1872 , the ship was scrapped in 1876 at Cherbourg .
= No. 114 Mobile Control and Reporting Unit RAAF =
No. 114 Mobile Control and Reporting Unit is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) radar surveillance and air defence unit . Located at RAAF Base Darwin , Northern Territory , it is controlled by No. 41 Wing , under Surveillance and Response Group . Its role is to " prepare for , conduct and sustain effective deployable Air Surveillance and Air Battle Management in the Unit 's designated area of responsibility " . The unit was formed during World War II , and deployed in the South West Pacific . Since the war it has seen service in the Malayan Emergency , the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia in the mid @-@ 1960s , and the War in Afghanistan .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
No. 114 Mobile Control and Reporting Unit was formed as No. 14 ( Mobile ) Fighter Sector Headquarters at Camden , New South Wales , on 23 May 1943 , under the command of Wing Commander Gordon Steege . The following month it deployed to Goodenough Island in New Guinea as part of No. 71 ( Fighter ) Wing , and became operational on 27 June . It controlled two radar stations , No. 401 of the US Army Signal Corps and No. 305 of the RAAF . On 8 August it moved to Kiriwina , under the aegis of No. 73 ( Fighter ) Wing . Steege relinquished command on 1 October to take charge of No. 73 Wing .
Responsible for controlling anti @-@ aircraft batteries and air @-@ to @-@ air interceptions of Japanese raiders , the unit was renamed No. 114 ( Mobile ) Fighter Sector on 18 October . It registered its first " kill " on 31 October , when it directed a Spitfire of No. 79 Squadron to intercept a Japanese " Tony " fighter north @-@ east of Kiriwina . On 2 March 1944 , No. 114 Fighter Sector began redeploying with No. 73 Wing from Goodenough to Los Negros Island . Charged with coordinating air defence during the Admiralty Islands campaign , it was renamed No. 114 Mobile Fighter Control Unit ( MFCU ) five days later . The redesignated unit became operational on 2 April , and controlled Nos. 337 , 340 , 345 , 346 and 347 Radar Stations .
In January 1945 , No. 114 MFCU was withdrawn to Brisbane , where it began preparations to participate in the Australian @-@ led liberation of Tarakan . In April , with a complement of over 800 officers and men , and Nos. 167 , 168 , 308 , 354 and 355 Radar Stations under its command , it embarked for Morotai in the Dutch East Indies . From there it departed for Tarakan , arriving with the main invasion force on 1 May . Controlled by No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing under the Australian First Tactical Air Force ( No. 1 TAF ) , No. 114 MFCU became operational on the island four days after the landing . In addition to its regular duties , it temporarily took responsibility for maintaining contact with No. 1 TAF headquarters on Morotai and US Army Air Forces commands in the Philippines , when equipment belonging to the RAAF 's Mobile Telecommunications Unit failed to be unloaded at Tarakan before the departure of its transport ship .
= = = Cold War and after = = =
No. 114 MFCU was rapidly reduced in size following the end of the war . It departed Tarakan for Australia on 3 December 1945 with No. 78 Wing , arriving at RAAF Station Deniliquin , New South Wales , on the 14th . Still under the wing 's control , it relocated to RAAF Station Schofields on 31 May and then to RAAF Station Williamtown on 1 August , disbanding on 1 April 1948 . No. 114 MFCU was re @-@ established under a newly organised No. 78 Wing on 24 January 1949 — " in name only " , however , as it remained non @-@ operational . It began training in late 1955 prior to anticipated reactivation , and was renamed No. 114 Mobile Control and Reporting Unit ( MCRU ) on 12 March 1956 . It relocated to RAAF Dubbo and stood up as an independent unit on 14 November .
No. 114 MCRU deployed to Malaya in 1958 , becoming operational at RAAF Base Butterworth on 19 August . It took over responsibility for aerial surveillance and ground @-@ controlled interception from the Royal Air Force 's No. 487 Signals Unit on 1 December . From Butterworth , No. 114 MCRU directed the Sabre fighters of Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons and the Canberra bombers of No. 2 Squadron in the last years of the Malayan Emergency . It also sent controllers on attachment to Ubon Air Base in Thailand , where No. 79 Squadron was based from 1962 . On 3 September 1964 , the unit went on to a 24 @-@ hour operational footing to support the Sidewinder @-@ armed Sabres of Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons during the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia , though no combat ensued . Konfrontasi having been declared over in August 1966 , No. 114 MCRU transferred its responsibilities to RAF Western Hill on 22 September , and disbanded at Butterworth on 31 October .
The unit was reactivated again at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , on 1 April 1968 , employing the Plessey " Hub Cap " automated air defence system , which utilised Westinghouse radar and Marconi computer programs . It was to have moved directly from Butterworth to Amberley but delivery of the Hub Cap system , ordered in 1965 , was delayed owing to programming issues . The system was also physically larger and heavier than had been anticipated , rendering it less easily transportable . In 1979 , No. 114 MCRU upgraded to the Westinghouse AN / TPS @-@ 43 radar system , improving both its mobility and its tactical capabilities . It inaugurated the RAAF 's Tactical Air Defence System ( TADS , subsequently Tactical Air Defence Radar System or TADRS ) on 10 July 1985 . No. 114 MCRU was presented with a Squadron Standard on 23 May 1990 , becoming the only non @-@ flying unit in the Air Force to receive such an honour . The standard displays battle honours for the Pacific ( 1943 – 45 ) , New Britain ( 1943 ) , New Guinea ( 1943 – 44 ) and Borneo ( 1945 ) . No. 114 MCRU was transferred to RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory , in May – June 1997 , and then to RAAF Base Darwin in December 1999 . The AN / TPS @-@ 43 was retired in September 2005 , and replaced by the AN / TPS @-@ 77 radar . In May 2007 , a detachment of 75 members of No. 114 MCRU deployed for active service at Kandahar Airfield in southern Afghanistan , utilising the AN / TPS @-@ 77 to coordinate coalition combat air operations . The detachment returned to Australia in August 2009 . No. 114 MCRU celebrated its 70th anniversary at Darwin on 23 May 2013 . It marked ten years service with the AN / TPS @-@ 77 radar in November 2015 .
= The Proposal ( film ) =
The Proposal is a 2009 American romantic comedy film set in Sitka , Alaska . Directed by Anne Fletcher and written by Peter Chiarelli , the film features Ryan Reynolds and Sandra Bullock in the leading roles , with Betty White , Mary Steenburgen , and Craig T. Nelson in supporting roles . The film was produced by Mandeville Films and released on June 19 , 2009 , in North America by Touchstone Pictures . The plot centers on a Canadian executive , Margaret Tate , who learns that she may face deportation from the U.S. because of her expired visa . Determined to retain her position as editor in chief of a publishing house , Tate convinces her assistant , Andrew Paxton , to temporarily act as her fiancé . Initially planning on resuming their lives after Tate resolves her visa issues , they appear to abandon those plans as their relationship intensifies .
Development on the film began in 2005 , when Chiarelli wrote the film 's script . Principal filming occurred over a period of two months from March to May 2008 . The film received mixed reviews from critics , who criticized its script , but praised the chemistry between Bullock and Reynolds . The film was a box office success , grossing over $ 317 million worldwide , becoming the highest grossing romantic comedy film of 2009 .
= = Plot = =
Margaret Tate is an executive editor in chief of a book publishing company . After learning she is about to be deported to Canada because she violated the terms of her work visa , she persuades her assistant , Andrew Paxton , to marry her . She reminds Andrew that if she 's deported , the work he put in as her assistant will be lost , and he 'll be set back in his dream to become an editor . Mr. Gilbertson , a U.S. immigration agent , informs them that he suspects they are committing fraud to avoid Margaret 's deportation . Gilbertson tells them that they 'll be asked questions about each other separately . If their answers don 't match , Margaret will be deported to Canada permanently and Andrew will be convicted of a felony punishable by a $ 250 @,@ 000 fine and five years in prison . Andrew insists that Margaret make him an editor after their marriage and publish the book he 's been recommending to her . Margaret agrees .
The couple travels to Sitka , Alaska , Andrew 's hometown , to meet his family . Margaret meets Andrew 's mother Grace and grandmother Annie a.k.a. " Gammy " . During the trip to the family home , Margaret notices that nearly every shop in town carries the name Paxton and learns that Andrew 's family is in fact very wealthy . During a welcome home party , Andrew confronts his father , Joe , who is angry about Andrew 's dating the boss he has so long disliked and thinks he is using her to get ahead in his career . After their argument , Andrew announces the engagement to everyone . Margaret also meets Gertrude , Andrew 's ex @-@ girlfriend .
The next day , Grace and Annie take Margaret to a local bar to watch a strip dance by a locally famous but over @-@ the @-@ hill exotic dancer , Ramone . Stepping away from the show , Margaret learns from Gertrude that Andrew wanted to become an editor and make his own life and that Andrew had proposed to Gertrude . However , Gertrude refused because she didn 't want to leave Sitka for New York . Returning home , Margaret learns of the conflict between Andrew and Joe . That night , Margaret asks Andrew about his relationship with his father , but Andrew refuses to talk . Instead , Margaret opens up to Andrew .
The next day , the family convinces them to marry while they 're in Sitka . After Margaret realizes how close Andrew 's family is , she becomes upset , gets on Andrew 's boat , and speeds away with him . She tells him she has been alone since she was sixteen years old after her parents died and had forgotten what it felt like to have a family . She lets go of the helm and stumbles to the back of the boat . Andrew makes a sharp turn to avoid hitting a buoy , and Margaret falls out of the boat . Andrew quickly turns the boat around and saves her because she can 't swim . At the wedding ceremony , Margaret confesses the truth about the wedding to the guests , including Gilbertson , who informs her she has twenty @-@ four hours to leave for Canada . Margaret returns to the Paxton home to pack her things . Andrew rushes to their room only to find Margaret has already left , leaving the aforementioned book manuscript with a note of praise and a promise to publish it . Gertrude attempts to comfort Andrew and asks if he is going to go after her . As he rushes out to find Margaret , another argument arises between him and Joe . Annie fakes a heart attack and convinces them to reconcile before she " passes away " . After she succeeds in getting things moving again , she owns up to faking the heart attack . Andrew 's parents realize he really loves Margaret . He goes to New York and tells Margaret he loves her in front of the entire office staff . They kiss , then go to Gilbertson and inform him they are again engaged , but for real this time . The film ends with Gilbertson asking questions ( some of them irrelevant ) not only to Andrew and Margaret , but also Joe , Grace , Annie and Ramone .
= = Cast = =
Ryan Reynolds as Andrew Paxton , Margaret 's assistant whose ultimate career goal is to become an editor .
Sandra Bullock as Margaret Tate , a chief editor at a major New York City book publisher .
Mary Steenburgen as Grace Paxton , Andrew 's mother .
Craig T. Nelson as Joe Paxton , Andrew 's father who owns the family business that dominates the entire town of Sitka .
Betty White as Grandma Annie " Gammy " , Andrew 's grandmother and Joe 's mother .
Denis O 'Hare as Mr. Gilbertson , the immigration agent investigating Margaret 's case .
Oscar Nuñez as Ramone , a resident of Sitka who holds many jobs , including waiter , male stripper , shopkeeper and minister .
Malin Åkerman as Gertrude , Andrew 's ex @-@ girlfriend .
Michael Nouri as publisher Bergen , Tate 's superior .
Aasif Mandvi as Bob Spaulding , an editor .
Michael Mosley as Chuck , Andrew 's friend .
= = Production = =
Peter Chiarelli initially wrote the script for the film in 2005 . In May 2007 , it was announced that Sandra Bullock had been given a lead role for The Proposal . Julia Roberts was originally approached by producers for a lead role in the film , but later declined . Nearly two months after the announcement , it was reported that negotiations were being finalized for Ryan Reynolds to star opposite to Bullock . In January 2008 , Touchstone Pictures signed Anne Fletcher to direct the film . It premiered on June 1 , 2009 at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California .
Filming for The Proposal initiated in April 2008 in Rockport , Massachusetts . In the oncoming days leading to production , areas of the town were temporarily remodeled to represent Sitka , Alaska , the setting of most of the film . Principal photography officially began on April 9 at Bearskin Neck , where it continued over a period of 24 hours . Filming continued at the Motif Number One building on Bradley Wharf ( April 14 – 16 ) , the Haskins Building ( April 15 – 18 ) , and the central business district of Rockport ( April 17 ) . Principal photography relocated to Manchester @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea , Massachusetts on April 22 , where it resumed over an approximate period of two weeks . In response , city officials accommodated the producers by renting out all publicly owned parking lots . Filming for The Proposal was shortly delayed after Bullock and her husband were involved in a car accident . The wedding scene was filmed in a three @-@ story twentieth century Victorian home ; photography took place at the residence for three weeks . In an interview with the New York Times , the owners of the home stated that Nelson Coates knocked on their door asking for leaves . Initially , the owners directed Coates to other residences in the area ; however , they eventually gave the film 's producer a tour of the house . Production occurred on the first floor of the home . Outside of the Cape Ann area , filming took place in Boston , Massachusetts at the State Street Bank Building and in Lower Manhattan in New York City . The Proposal contained 350 special effect shots , and some parts were edited using computer @-@ generated imagery . The score to The Proposal was composed by Aaron Zigman , who recorded his score with the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Sony Scoring Stage .
As part of an extensive advertising campaign , Reynolds discussed about taking part in the production of a nude scene . The scene was filmed in a period of three days , and took approximately twelve takes to complete . Expressing that she was initially nervous , Bullock stated in an interview with Sky News that " when everyone else acts like it 's just a normal day it really helps you relax . " Although she revealed that producers provided them with fig leaves , Bullock stated that they would continuously fall off . She added , " You could literally see everything . " Similar sentiments were expressed by Reynolds , who in an interview with People , stated , " Filming a scene that involves being entirely naked and takes a couple days can be a little awkward . " He continued : " Thankfully you 're there for so long and you 're doing it for so long that you dispense with the awkwardness pretty quickly and start to have mundane , normal conversations – the difference being you 're not wearing pants . "
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
The Proposal was released in the United States on June 19 , 2009 . On its opening day , the film grossed an estimated $ 12 @.@ 7 million in 3 @,@ 056 theaters , becoming the highest grossing film of the day . It later went on to gross over $ 34 million during its opening weekend , beating out Year One , Up , and The Hangover . In an exit poll conducted by Disney , nearly 63 % of the opening audience consisted of female viewers , 78 % were eighteen or older , and 71 % were classified as couples . It marked the biggest opening weekend out of any film in Bullock 's career , nearly doubling from her previous holder , Premonition . As of October 2011 , the film had grossed over $ 164 million in the United States and Canada .
Box office performances showed similar numbers in international markets . The film was released in Australia on June 18 , 2009 , grossing over $ 2 @.@ 8 million on its opening weekend . In Russia , the film grossed over $ 2 @.@ 6 million on its opening weekend , accounting for 34 % of all total film revenue in that country . In South Africa the film debuted at number two , losing out to the new release Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs . It managed to gross over $ 2 @.@ 6 million as of October 2011 . In the United Kingdom , estimated first opening weekend grosses stand at £ 3 @.@ 2 million . The film has grossed over $ 317 million worldwide , with international grosses standing at $ 153 million . It is the twentieth highest @-@ grossing film of 2009 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Proposal received mixed reviews . The film has a 44 % approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on 180 reviews with an average rating of 5 @.@ 3 / 10 , with the consensus : " Sandra Bullock and Ryan Reynolds exhibit plenty of chemistry , but they 're let down by The Proposal 's devotion to formula . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score , gave the film a 48 out of 100 based on 30 reviews from critics .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave a mixed review , giving the film three out of four stars despite complaining that the film " recycles a plot that was already old when Tracy and Hepburn were trying it out " . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone was very critical of the film , calling it insipid . He wrote , " Anne Fletcher directs Peter Chiarelli 's script like a manufacturer of hard plastic that is guaranteed to ward off intrusion from all recognizable human emotion . " New York Times writer Manohla Dargis felt that Bullock 's character was awkward in comparison to her previous work . She continued : " She ’ s always been better in fundamentally independent roles that allow her to grab the wheel [ ... ] and take the spotlight [ ... ] , an independence that persists all the way through the last @-@ act coupling . She can smile as brightly at a man as well as the next leading lady , though , like all genuinely big female stars , she ’ s really more of a solo act . " The Telegraph 's Tim Robey expressed disappointment towards the film , giving it a two out of five stars .
The interaction between Reynolds and Bullock was well received by critics . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly opined that the chemistry between the two actors was " fresh and irresistible . " Zorianna Kit of The Huffington Post exclaimed that " what [ kept ] audiences of this lite @-@ fare comedy in their seats is the undeniable on @-@ screen chemistry between leads Sandra Bullock and Ryan Reynolds . " She continued : " The two are so adept at comedy and have so much fun with one another , viewers watching The Proposal won 't be able to resist their charms , even when some of the plot veers in to unnecessarily silliness . " Betsey Sharkley of the Los Angeles Times felt that their relationship was a " cheeky update of The Taming of the Shrew . " She opined , " Bullock 's deft physical comedy , one of her most endearing qualities , is given a full run . [ ... ] Reynolds ' ability to deliver a line , or a look , with withering , surgical precision is there at every turn . " Giving it a one out of five stars , The Guardian writer Peter Bradshaw gave a negative reaction to the interaction between Reynolds and Bullock . Bradshaw stated : " Their initial sparky detestation isn 't convincing , and neither is their later thawing and romance . In each scene , it looks as if they have never met before . And Margaret isn 't permitted to be a convincing cow , because that would make her unsympathetic [ ... ] . Andrew can 't be a total wimp , because that would be unsexy , so the fundamental comic premises of the film are fudged . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
The Proposal was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on October 13 , 2009 . It sold over 2 @.@ 4 million units within its first week , translating to an addition of $ 39 @.@ 3 million in the box office . In its second week , sales numbers declined by 70 % to 623 @,@ 744 units , ranking second among DVD sales of the week . By July 2013 , The Proposal had sold over 5 @.@ 6 million units and earned over $ 90 million in sales .
= = Remakes = =
The 2012 Malayalam – language Indian film My Boss is a remake of The Proposal . Set in Mumbai and Kerala , the remade version has many differences from the original although the basic storyline remains the same . Popular actors Dileep and Mamta Mohandas played the lead roles in this version . The remake was also a hit .
A Chinese remake co @-@ produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Linmon Pictures and directed by Yee Chin @-@ yen was announced in June 2016 .
= 1960 South Vietnamese coup attempt =
On November 11 , 1960 , a failed coup attempt against President Ngô Đình Diệm of South Vietnam was led by Lieutenant Colonel Vương Văn Đông and Colonel Nguyễn Chánh Thi of the Airborne Division of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) .
The rebels launched the coup in response to Diệm 's autocratic rule and the negative political influence of his brother Ngô Đình Nhu and his sister @-@ in @-@ law Madame Nhu . They also bemoaned the politicisation of the military , whereby regime loyalists who were members of the Ngô family 's covert Cần Lao Party were readily promoted ahead of more competent officers who were not insiders . Đông was supported in the conspiracy by his brother @-@ in @-@ law Lieutenant Colonel Nguyen Trieu Hong , whose uncle was a prominent official in a minor opposition party . The main link in the coup was Đông 's commanding officer Thi , whom he persuaded to join the plot .
The coup caught the Ngô family completely off @-@ guard , but was also chaotically executed . The plotters neglected to seal the roads leading into the capital Saigon to seal off loyalist reinforcements , and they hesitated after gaining the initiative . After initially being trapped inside the Independence Palace , Diệm stalled the coup by holding negotiations and promising reforms , such as the inclusion of military officers in the administration . In the meantime , opposition politicians joined the fray , trying to exploit Diệm 's position . However , the president 's real aim was to buy time for loyalist forces to enter the capital and relieve him . The coup failed when the 5th and 7th Divisions of the ARVN entered Saigon and defeated the rebels . More than four hundred people — many of whom were civilian spectators — were killed in the ensuing battle . These included a group of anti @-@ Diệm civilians who charged across the palace walls at Thi 's urging and were cut down by loyalist gunfire .
Đông and Thi fled to Cambodia , while Diệm berated the United States for a perceived lack of support during the crisis . Afterwards , Diệm ordered a crackdown , imprisoning numerous anti @-@ government critics and former cabinet ministers . Those that assisted Diệm were duly promoted , while those that did not were demoted . A trial for those implicated in the plot was held in 1963 . Seven officers and two civilians were sentenced to death in absentia , while 14 officers and 34 civilians were jailed . Diệm 's regime also accused the Americans of sending Central Intelligence Agency members to assist the failed plot . When Diệm was assassinated after a 1963 coup , those jailed after the 1960 revolt were released by the new military junta .
= = Background = =
The revolt was led by 28 @-@ year @-@ old Lieutenant Colonel Vương Văn Đông , a northerner , who had fought with the French Union forces against the Viet Minh during the First Indochina War . Later trained at Fort Leavenworth in the United States , Đông was regarded by American military advisers as a brilliant tactician and the brightest military prospect of his generation and he served in the Airborne Division . Back in Vietnam , Đông became discontented with Diệm 's arbitrary rule and constant meddling in the internal affairs of the army . Diệm promoted officers on loyalty rather than skill , and played senior officers against one another in order to weaken the military leadership and prevent them from challenging his rule . Years after the coup , Đông asserted that his sole objective was to force Diệm to improve the governance of the country . Đông was clandestinely supported by his brother @-@ in @-@ law Lieutenant Colonel Nguyen Trieu Hong , the director of training at the Joint General Staff School , and Hong 's uncle Hoang Co Thuy . Thuy was a wealthy Saigon @-@ based lawyer , and had been a political activist since World War II . He was the secretary @-@ general of a minority opposition party called the Movement of Struggle for Freedom , which had a small presence in the rubber @-@ stamp National Assembly .
Many Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) officers were members of other anti @-@ communist nationalist groups that were opposed to Diệm , such as the Đại Việt Quốc dân đảng ( Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam ) and the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng ( VNQDĐ , Vietnamese Nationalist Party ) , which were both established before World War II . The VNQDĐ had run a military academy in Yunnan near the Chinese border with the assistance of their nationalist Chinese counterparts , the Kuomintang . Diệm and his family had crushed all alternative anti @-@ communist nationalists , and his politicisation of the army had alienated the servicemen . Officers were promoted on the basis of political allegiance rather than competence , meaning that many VNQDĐ and Đại Việt trained officers were denied such promotions . They felt that politically minded officers , who joined Diệm 's secret Catholic @-@ dominated Cần Lao Party , which was used to control South Vietnamese society , were rewarded with promotion rather than those most capable .
Planning for the coup had gone on for over a year , with Đông recruiting disgruntled officers . This included his commander , Colonel Nguyễn Chánh Thi . In 1955 , Thi had fought for Diệm against the Bình Xuyên organised crime syndicate in the Battle for Saigon . This performance so impressed Diệm — a lifelong bachelor — that he thereafter referred to Thi as " my son " . However , the Americans who worked with Thi were less impressed . The CIA described Thi as " an opportunist and a man lacking strong convictions " . An American military advisor described Thi as " tough , unscrupulous , and fearless , but dumb " . There is some dispute as to whether Thi participated in the coup of his free choice . According to some sources , Thi was still an admirer of Diệm and was forced at gunpoint by Đông and his supporters to join the coup at the last minute , having been kept unaware of the plotting . According to this story , Thi 's airborne units were initially moved into position for the coup without his knowledge .
Many months before the coup , Đông had met Diệm 's brother and adviser Ngô Đình Nhu , widely regarded as the brains of the regime , to ask for reform and de @-@ politicisation of the army . Đông said that the meeting went well and was hopeful that Nhu would enact change . However , a few weeks later , Dong and his collaborators were transferred to different commands and physically separated . Fearing that Diệm and Nhu were trying to throw their plans off balance , they accelerated their planning work , and decided to move on October 6 . However , they were then scheduled to go into battle against the communists near Kon Tum in the II Corps in the Central Highlands , forcing a postponement . According to the historian George McTurnan Kahin , Đông was without a command by the time the coup was held .
The Americans started to notice and become alarmed at increasing reports of political disillusionment in the military officer corps in August . An intelligence report prepared by the US State Department in late August claimed the " worsening of internal security , the promotion of incompetent officers and Diệm 's direct interference in army operations ... his political favoritism , inadequate delegation of authority , and the influence of the Can Lao " . It also claimed that discontent with Diệm among high @-@ ranking civil servants was at their highest point since the president had established in power , and that the bureaucrats wanted a change of leadership , through a coup if needed . It was said that Nhu and his wife were the most despised among the civil service . The report predicted that if a coup was to occur , the objective would probably be to force Nhu and his wife out of positions of power and allow Diệm to continue to lead the country with reduced power , should he be willing to do so . The intelligence analysis turned out to be correct .
The US Ambassador Elbridge Durbrow , who had been in the post since 1957 , had a long record of trying to pressure Diệm into political reforms . He felt that South Vietnam 's political problems were due to Diệm 's illiberalism and thought the communist insurgency would be more easily defeated if Diệm reached out to a broader cross @-@ section of society , cracked down on corruption , cronyism , abusive public servants , and implemented land reform . However , the South Vietnamese president saw authoritarianism as the solution to political problems and opposition , and the US military hierarchy in Vietnam agreed , leading to frequent disputes between Durbrow and the Military Assistance Advisory Group . Durbrow frequently reported to Washington that Diệm 's strong @-@ arm tactics against opposition only created more dissent and opportunities for the communists .
Around this time , Durbrow began to advise Diệm to remove Nhu and his wife from the government , basing his arguments on a need to cultivate broad popular support to make South Vietnam more viable in the long term . His key suggestions included Nhu being sent abroad as an ambassador and " altering the nature of the Cần Lao Party " . As Nhu and the Can Lao were a core means of his keeping power , Diệm did not follow Durbrow 's advice .
On September 16 , after another fruitless meeting with Diệm , Durbrow reported to Washington : " If Diệm 's position in [ the ] country continues to deteriorate ... it may become necessary for [ the ] US government to begin consideration [ of ] alternative courses of action and leaders in order [ to ] achieve our objective . " In another State Department Report , it was concluded that a coup would become more likely " if Diệm continued to remain uncompromising and if the opposition felt that the United States would not be unsympathetic to a coup or that U.S.-Vietnamese relations would not be seriously damaged . " As it turned out those in Vietnam discontented with Diệm reached the same conclusion , that the US would not mind them toppling the president .
The coup was organised with the help of some VNQDĐ and Đại Việt members , civilians and officers alike . Đông enlisted the cooperation of an armoured regiment , marine unit and three paratrooper battalions . The marine battalion was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Pham Van Lieu . The operation was scheduled to launch on November 11 at 05 : 00 . However , the airborne soldiers were not aware of what their officers had in store . They were told that they were heading into the countryside to attack the Viet Cong . Once they were on their way , the officers claimed that the Presidential Guard , who were meant to guard the presidential palace , had mutinied against Diệm .
= = Coup = =
According to Stanley Karnow , the Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning author of Vietnam : A History , the coup was ineffectively executed ; although the rebels captured the headquarters of the Joint General Staff at Tan Son Nhut Air Base , they failed to follow the textbook tactics of blocking the roads leading into Saigon . They also failed to disconnect phone lines into the palace , which allowed Diệm to call for aid from loyal units .
The paratroopers headed down the main thoroughfare of Saigon towards Independence Palace . At first , the forces encircled the compound without attacking , believing that Diệm would comply with their demands . Đông attempted to call on US ambassador Elbridge Durbrow to put pressure on Diệm . Durbrow , although a persistent critic of Diệm , maintained his government 's position of supporting Diệm , stating " We support this government until it fails " . Durbrow later recalled receiving a telephone call from an aide to Diệm who insisted that he call Diệm and tell him to surrender or face a howitzer attack on the palace . Durbrow refused and no attack took place . He consequently learned that the aide was forced to make the call .
Most of the rebel soldiers had been told that they were attacking in order to save Diệm from a mutiny by the Presidential Guard . Only one or two officers in any given rebel unit knew the true situation . A high wall , a fence and a few guard posts , surrounded the palace grounds . The mutinous paratroopers disembarked from their transport vehicles and moved into position for an attack on the main gate . Some ran forward and others raked automatic gunfire at the front of the palace , shattering most of the windows and puncturing the walls . Diệm was nearly killed in the opening salvoes . A rebel machine gun fired into Diệm 's bedroom window from the adjacent Palais de Justice and penetrated his bed , but the president had arisen just a few minutes earlier .
The paratroopers ' first assault on the palace met with surprising resistance . The Presidential Guardsmen who stood between the rebels and Diệm were estimated at between 30 and 60 , but they managed to repel the initial thrust and kill seven rebels who attempted to scale the palace walls and run across the grass . The rebels cordoned off the palace and held fire . They trucked in reinforcements and the attack restarted at 7 : 30 , but the Presidential Guard continued to resist . Half an hour later , the rebels brought in five armored vehicles and circumnavigated the palace . They fired at the perimeter posts , and mortared the palace grounds . However , the exchange had petered out by 10 : 30 . In the meantime , the rebels had captured the national police offices , Radio Saigon and the barracks of the Presidential Guard . They had also put most of the Saigon @-@ based generals under house arrest , meaning that Diệm 's saviours would have to come from outside Saigon . However , the rebels also suffered a setback when Hong was killed during the battle for the police headquarters . He had been sitting in his jeep behind the frontline when he was hit by stray gunfire .
Diệm headed for the cellar , joining his younger brother and confidant Ngô Đình Nhu , and his wife Madame Nhu . Brigadier General Nguyễn Khánh , at the time the Chief of Staff of the ARVN , climbed over the palace wall to reach Diệm during the siege . Khanh lived in the city center , close to the palace , and awoken by the gunfire , he drove towards the action . The plotters had tried to put him under house arrest at the start of the coup , but were unaware that he moved house . Khanh proceeded to coordinate the loyalist defenders , along with Ky Quan Liem , the deputy director of the Civil Guard .
At dawn , civilians began massing outside the palace gates , verbally encouraging the rebels and waving banners advocating regime change . Saigon Radio announced that a " Revolutionary Council " was in charge of South Vietnam 's government . Diệm appeared lost , while many Saigon @-@ based ARVN troops rallied to the insurgents . According to Nguyễn Thái Bình , an exiled political rival , " Diệm was lost . Any other than he would have capitulated . " However , the rebels hesitated as they decided their next move . There was debate on what Diệm 's role would be in future . Đông felt that the rebels should take the opportunity of storming the palace and capturing Diệm . Thi on the other hand , was worried that Diệm could be killed in an attack . Thi felt that despite Diệm 's shortcomings , the president was South Vietnam 's best available leader , believing that enforced reform would yield the best outcome . The rebels wanted Nhu and his wife out of the government , although they disagreed over whether to kill or deport the couple .
Thi demanded that Diệm appoint an officer as prime minister and that Diệm remove Madame Nhu from the palace . Saigon Radio broadcast a speech authorised by Thi 's Revolutionary Council , claiming that Diệm was being removed because he was corrupt and suppressed liberty . Worried by the uprising , Diệm sent his private secretary Vo Van Hai to negotiate with the coup leaders . In the afternoon , Khanh left the palace to meet with rebel officers to keep abreast of their demands , which they reiterated . The rebels ' negotiators were Đông and Major Nguyen Huy Loi . They wanted officers and opposition figures to be appointed to a new government to keep Diệm in check .
The plotters unilaterally named Brigadier General Lê Văn Kim , the head of the Vietnamese National Military Academy , the nation 's premier officer training school in Da Lat , would be their new prime minister . Kim was not a Can Lao member and was later put under house arrest after Diệm regained control . According to Kim 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Major General Trần Văn Đôn , Kim was willing to accept the post but was not going to say anything unless the coup succeeded . The rebels also suggested that Diệm appoint General Lê Văn Tỵ , the chief of the armed forces , be made defence minister . Diệm asked Ty , who had been put under house arrest by the plotters , if he was willing , but the officer was not . During the afternoon of November 11 , the rebels used Ty as an intermediary to pass on their demands to the president . A broadcast was made over Saigon Radio , during which Ty said he had consulted with Diệm and obtained his agreement for the " dissolution of the present government " and that " with agreement of the Revolutionary Council " had given the officers the task of constituting " a provisional military government " .
Phan Quang Đán joined the rebellion and acted as the rebels ' spokesman . The most prominent political critic of Diệm , Đán had been disqualified from the 1959 legislative election after winning his seat by a ratio of 6 : 1 despite Diệm having organised votestacking against him . He cited political mismanagement of the war against the Viet Cong and the government 's refusal to broaden its political base as the reason for the revolt . Đán spoke on Radio Vietnam and staged a media conference during which a rebel paratrooper pulled a portrait of the president from the wall , ripped it and stamped on it . In the meantime , Thuy went about organising a coalition of political parties to take over post @-@ Diệm . He had already lined up the VNQDĐ , Đại Việt , and the Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài religious movements , and was seeking more collaborators .
Khanh returned to the palace and reported the result of his conversation to the Ngos . He recommended that Diệm resign due to the demands of the rebel forces and protestors outside the palace . Madame Nhu railed against Diệm agreeing to a power @-@ sharing arrangement , asserting that it was the destiny of Diệm and his family to save the country . Madame Nhu 's aggressive stance and persistent calls for Khanh to attack , prompted the general to threaten to leave . This forced Diệm to silence his sister @-@ in @-@ law , and Khanh remained with the president .
During the standoff , Durbrow ambivalently noted " We consider it overriding importance to Vietnam and Free World that agreement be reached soonest in order avoid continued division , further bloodshed with resultant fatal weakening Vietnam 's ability [ to ] resist communists . " American representatives privately recommended to both sides to reach a peaceful agreement to share power .
In the meantime , the negotiations allowed time for loyalists to enter Saigon and rescue the president . Khanh used the remaining communication lines to message senior officers outside Saigon . The Fifth Division of Colonel Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , a future president , brought infantry forces from Biên Hòa , a town north of Saigon . The Seventh Division of Colonel Trần Thiện Khiêm brought in seven infantry battalions and tanks from the Second Armored Battalion from Mỹ Tho , a town in the Mekong Delta south of Saigon . Khiêm was a Catholic with ties to Diệm 's older brother , Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục . Khanh also convinced Lê Nguyên Khang , the acting head of the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps to send the 1st and 2nd Marine Battalions . Rangers were called into Saigon from the western town of Tây Ninh . Assistant Secretary of Defense Nguyễn Đình Thuận phoned Durbrow and discussed the impending standoff between the incoming loyalists and the rebels . Durbrow said " I hope that the Revolutionary Committee and President Diệm can get together and agree to cooperate as a civil war could only benefit communists . If one side or the other has to make some concessions in order [ to ] reach an agreement , I believe that would be desirable to ensure unity against the communists . " Durbrow was worried that if he sided with one faction over the other , and that group was defeated , the United States would be saddled with a hostile regime .
Diệm advised Khanh to continue to negotiate with the paratroopers and seek a rapprochement . After consenting to formal negotiations , the parties agreed to a ceasefire . In the meantime , loyalist forces continued to head towards the capital , while the rebels publicly claimed on radio that Diệm had surrendered in an apparent attempt to attract more troops to their cause . Diệm promised to end press censorship , liberalise the economy , and hold free and fair elections . Diệm refused to sack Nhu , but he agreed to dissolve his cabinet and form a government that would accommodate the Revolutionary Council . In the early hours of November 12 , Diệm taped a speech detailing the concessions , which the rebels broadcast on Saigon Radio . In it he expressed his intention to " coordinate with the Revolutionary Council to establish a coalition government " .
As the speech was being aired , two infantry divisions and supporting loyal armour approached the palace grounds . Some of these had broken through the rebel encirclement by falsely claiming to be anti @-@ Diệm reinforcements , before setting up their positions next to the palace . The loyalists opened fire with mortars and machine guns , and both sides exchanged fire for a few hours . During the morning , Durbrow tried to stop the fighting , phoning Diệm to say that if the violence was not stopped , " the entire population will rise up against both loyalists and rebels , and the communists will take over the city . If a bloodbath is not avoided , all of Vietnam will go communist in a very short time . " Durbrow deplored the attempt to resolve the situation with force . Diệm blamed the rebels for causing the outbreak of fighting and the collapse of the power @-@ sharing deal . Some of the Saigon @-@ based units that had joined the rebellion sensed that Diệm had regained the upper hand and switched sides for the second time in two days . The paratroopers became outnumbered and were forced to retreat to defensive positions around their barracks , which was an ad hoc camp that had been set up in a public park approximately 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) away . After a brief but violent battle that killed around 400 people , the coup attempt was crushed . This included a large number of civilians , who had been engaging in anti @-@ Diệm protests outside the palace grounds . Thi exhorted them to bring down the Ngos by charging the palace , and 13 were gunned down by the loyalist soldiers from the 2nd Armored Battalion as they invaded the grounds . The others dispersed quickly .
= = Aftermath = =
After the failed coup , Đông , Thi , Lieu and several other prominent officers fled to Tan Son Nhut and climbed aboard a C @-@ 47 . They fled to Cambodia , where they were happily given asylum by Prince Norodom Sihanouk . Cambodia and South Vietnam had been on bad terms ; Cambodia turned a blind eye to Vietnamese communists using their territory as a staging ground , while Diệm and Nhu had tried to foment opposition and had supported attempts to overthrow the Cambodian leader . Nhu had failed in a 1959 attempt to assassinate Sihanouk with a parcel bomb , and both nations ' leaders despised one another .
Diệm promptly reneged on his promises , and began rounding up scores of critics , including several former cabinet ministers and some of the Caravelle Group of 18 who had released a petition calling for reform . One of Diệm 's first orders after re @-@ establishing command was to order the arrest of Dan , who was imprisoned and tortured .
For Diệm and his family , the failed coup was a turning point in relations with the US support , which had generally been unconditional and strong since 1955 . He felt the US had let him down and that some Americans had been encouraging his overthrow and undermining his rule . He had previously though the Americans had full support for him , but afterwards , he told his confidants that he felt like Syngman Rhee , the President of the anti @-@ communist South Korea who had been strongly backed by Washington until being deposed in a coup earlier in 1960 , a regime change Diệm saw as US @-@ backed . Diệm 's opponents felt the same way about the similarities to Korea . Lieu later told Kahin " We had no worry about getting continued American assistance if we were successful ; we felt we could count on it , just like Park did when he overthrew Rhee . " Kahin also wrote that several | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
0 mi ) along Poole Bay from the Sandbanks peninsular to Branksome Dene Chine at the border with Bournemouth . The beaches are divided into four areas : Sandbanks , Shore Road , Canford Cliffs Chine and Branksome Chine . Poole 's beaches have been awarded the European Blue Flag for cleanliness and safety 21 times since 1987 , more than any other British seaside resort and in 2000 the Tidy Britain Group resort survey rated Poole 's beaches among the top five in the country . Along the seafront there are seaside cafés , restaurants , beach huts and numerous water @-@ sports facilities . Royal National Lifeboat Institution Beach Rescue lifeguards patrol the coastline in the busy summer season between May and September .
= = Religious sites = =
Poole falls within the Church of England Diocese of Salisbury and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth . Poole has many sites of Christian worship including five Grade II * and five Grade II listed churches , but no notable sites of worship for any other major religious groups . The Grade II * St James ' Church is a simplified Gothic Revival style Church of England parish church in the Old Town which was rebuilt in 1820 . The previous church on the site was first mentioned in documents from 1142 and had been extensively rebuilt in the 16th century , but in 1819 it was deemed structurally unsafe by a surveyors report . The United Reformed Church hall , also in the town centre , is a Grade II * building built in 1777 . The other Grade II * churches are : St. Peter 's Parish Church in Parkstone which was first built in 1833 and replaced in 1876 ; St Dunstan of Canterbury Orthodox Church , also in Parkstone , an Antiochian Orthodox church , formerly the Anglican Church of St Osmund , in a Neo @-@ Byzantine style building ; and the Parish Church of St. Aldhelm in Branksome , built by the architects Bodley and Garner in 1892 in the Gothic Revival style . Described by English Heritage as " one of Poole 's most important landmarks " , the Gothic Revival church of St Mary 's in Longfleet , built in 1833 , is one of Poole 's Grade II listed churches .
= = Sport and recreation = =
Poole Harbour and Poole Bay are popular areas for a number of recreational pursuits , including sailing , windsurfing , surfing , kitesurfing and water skiing . The harbour 's large areas of sheltered waters attract windsurfers , particularly around the northern and eastern shores . Water skiing takes place in the harbour in a special designated area known as the Wareham Channel . The waters around the harbour , Poole Bay and Studland Bay are also popular for recreational angling and diving .
Poole 's wide and sandy beaches are used for swimming , sunbathing , water sports and sailing . The beaches at Sandbanks are often used for sporting events such as the Sandbanks Beach Volleyball Festival , and the annual British Beach polo Championship .
Since 1999 the town 's Rossmore Leisure Centre has hosted the GMPD Poole Gymnastics Competition every October with the Holiday Inn Express hosting some of the competitors as well as a Disco on the Saturday evening , hundreds of competitors from across the country compete each year , the competition celebrates its 14th Anniversary in 2013 .
Dorset Dolphins VI Cricket Club - Est 2013 - Visually Impaired Cricket Team - Representing Dorset - Steve Bailey - Captain / Coach
= = = Sailing = = =
Poole Harbour is one of the largest centres for sailing in the UK with yacht clubs including Lilliput Sailing Club , Parkstone Yacht Club and Poole Yacht Club . Parkstone Yacht Club hosted the OK Dinghy World Championships in 2004 , the J / 24 National Championships in 2006 and the J / 24 European Championships in 2007 , and are the organisers of Youth Week and Poole Week – two of the largest annual dinghy regattas of their type in the country .
= = = Football = = =
Poole 's oldest football team is Poole Town F.C. , a semi @-@ professional team who play in the Southern League Premier Division – the seventh tier of the English football league system . Established in 1880 , the team has had erratic success at their level ; they have never risen above non @-@ League levels but once reached the third round of the FA Cup . They played at Poole Stadium until 1994 and have since settled at Tatnam Farm , sharing the school playing field with Oakdale Junior School . Poole 's other football teams are Hamworthy United , who formed in 1970 and also play in the Wessex Premier League , and amateur team Poole Borough F.C. who play in the Dorset Premier League . Poole is one of the largest towns in England without a professional football team .
= = = Speedway = = =
Poole 's motorcycle speedway team , the Poole Pirates , were established and began racing at Poole Stadium in 1948 in the National League Division Three . The team now races in the top tier of league racing ( the Elite League ) which they won in 2008 , 2011 , 2013 , and 2014 . Poole Stadium is also a venue for greyhound racing ; race nights occur three days a week throughout the year .
= = = Scouting = = =
Poole has three of the oldest Scout Association groups in the world . 1st Parkstone Air Scout Group holds records dating back to February 1908 and 1st Hamworthy Scout Group has records dating back to October 1908 ; both groups were formed out of the original Boys Brigade units that had members take part in the original Scout Camp in 1907 . Broadstone Group has records dating back to December 1908 and was home to the first King 's / Queen 's Scout .
= = Culture = =
The ' Beating of the bounds ' is an ancient annual custom first carried out in 1612 , which revives the traditional checking of the sea boundaries awarded to Poole by the Cinque Port of Winchelsea in 1364 . The Admiral of the Port of Poole ( the mayor ) and other dignitaries , and members of the public sail from the mouth of the River Frome to Old Harry Rocks to confirm the Mayor 's authority over the water boundaries of the harbour and check for any encroachments . As there are no physical landmarks that can be beaten at sea , traditionally children from Poole were encouraged to remember the bounds of their town by taking part in the ' Pins and Points ' ceremony involving the beating of a boy and pricking of a girl 's hand with a needle . In modern times , the acts have been symbolically carried out .
Poole 's Summertime in the South is an annual programme providing various events on Poole Quay and Sandbanks from May until September . During June and July , live music , street entertainment and a large firework display take place on Poole Quay every Thursday evening . In August , the entertainment moves to the beaches at Sandbanks .
Poole 's Lighthouse is the largest arts centre complex in the United Kingdom outside London . Built in 1978 , the centre contains a cinema , concert hall , studio , theatre , image lab and media suite and galleries featuring exhibitions of contemporary photography and modern digital art . The venue underwent an £ 8 @.@ 5 million refurbishment in 2002 , paid for by the Arts Council England , the Borough of Poole and private donations . The centre 's concert hall has been the residence of the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra 's main concert series since their former base at the Bournemouth Winter Gardens closed in 1985 . Situated in the centre of the Old Town , Poole Museum illustrates the story of the area and its people and the collections reflect the cultural , social and industrial history of Poole . Displays include the Poole Logboat and a detailed history of Poole from the Iron Age to the present day . The museum has a floor devoted to the history of Poole Pottery and some of the company 's products are on display . Entrance to the museum is free .
= = Transport = =
The A350 road is Poole town centre 's main artery , running north from Poole Bridge along Holes Bay and on to the A35 , and as a single carriageway to Bath and Bristol . To the east , the A337 road leads to Lymington and the New Forest . The A35 trunk road runs from Devon to Southampton and connects to the A31 on the outskirts of the town . The A31 , the major trunk road in central southern England , connects to the M27 motorway at Southampton . From here the M3 motorway leads to London , and fast access may also be gained via the A34 to the M4 north of Newbury . A second bridge is being built to connect Poole and Hamworthy as the existing bridge is unsuitable for the traffic flow . The £ 34 million Twin Sails bridge project was given approval by the Department for Transport in 2006 but construction was initially held up due to a stalemate between the council and the land owners and delays by the Department for Transport in approving a £ 14 million grant . After negotiations between the council and the land owners were settled in August 2009 and the government grant was provided in March 2010 , construction began in May 2010 with completion due by early 2012 . A road link to Studland and the Isle of Purbeck across the narrow entrance of Poole Harbour is provided by the Sandbanks Ferry .
Most local bus services are run by More Bus who are based at the town 's bus station and have served Poole since 1983 . More Bus operate networks across Poole , Bournemouth , Christchurch and Salisbury , in addition to operations on the Isle of Purbeck and the New Forest . Other services are run by Bournemouth @-@ based Yellow Buses and Damory Coaches . Poole is connected to towns and villages along the Jurassic Coast by the First in Hampshire & Dorset X53 service , which runs along a route of 142 kilometres ( 88 mi ) to Weymouth , Bridport , Lyme Regis , Seaton and Exeter . Poole is also a calling point for National Express Coaches , which have frequent departures to London Victoria Coach Station . There are also direct services to the Midlands , the North of England and to Heathrow and Gatwick airports .
Poole has four railway stations on the South Western Main Line from London Waterloo to Weymouth . From east to west these are Branksome near the border with Bournemouth , Parkstone , Poole railway station in the town centre and Hamworthy . Services are operated by South West Trains and consist of up to three trains an hour ( fast , semi @-@ fast and stopping services ) to and from London , and twice an hour to and from Weymouth . Plans for a £ 50 million redevelopment of Poole railway station have stalled since 2006 due to contractual issues between land owners Network Rail and developers the Kier Group .
Poole is a cross @-@ Channel port for passengers and freight . Ferry services from Poole Harbour to Cherbourg are provided by Brittany Ferries who operate one round trip per day using the Barfleur The Condor Ferries catamarans Condor Express and Condor Vitesse run seasonal services to Guernsey , Jersey and St. Malo , Brittany . LD Lines run a year round passenger and freight service to Santander , Spain and in January 2014 will launch a service to Gijón , Spain using the ferry Norman Asturias . Bournemouth International Airport in Hurn , on the periphery of Bournemouth , is the nearest airport to Poole – 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) from Poole town centre . Ryanair , easyJet , Thomson Airways and Palmair operate from the airport and provide scheduled services to destinations in the UK and Europe .
= = Education = =
Poole has sixteen first schooleight a few junior school , middle schools , seven combined schools , eight secondary and grammar schools , five special schools , two independent schools and one college of further education . Canford School is an independent boarding school administered by Poole local education authority . Poole 's two grammar schools maintain a selective education system , assessed by the Twelve plus exam . Poole High School is the largest secondary school in Poole with 1 @,@ 660 pupils . The Bournemouth and Poole College attracts over 16 @,@ 000 students a year and is one of the largest further education colleges in the country and the leading provider of academic and vocational education in Dorset . It has two centrally located main campuses in Poole and Bournemouth . In 2008 , the college announced plans to refurbish and redevelop its campuses at an estimated cost of £ 120 million . However , the project stalled in 2009 when the Learning and Skills Council , which had promised to provide 80 % of the money , ran out of funds .
From the 2007 General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) results , Poole was ranked 18th out of 148 local authorities in England based on the percentage of pupils attaining at least five A * to C grades at GCSE level including maths and English ( 54 @.@ 5 % compared with the national average of 46 @.@ 8 % ) . Parkstone Grammar School was the most successful secondary school in Poole for GCSE results in 2007 : 100 % of pupils gained five or more GCSEs at A * to C grade including maths and English . Canford School also achieved 100 % and Poole Grammar School was the next best performing school with 98 % . Poole High School achieved 39 % and the worst performing school was Rossmore Community College where only 19 % of students achieved five or more A * to C grade results . Poole 's grammar schools were also the best performing for A @-@ level results . Poole Grammar School was the 60th most successful school / sixth form in the country in 2007 : each student achieved on average 1071 @.@ 4 points compared to the national average of 731 @.@ 2 . Parkstone Grammar School students averaged 1017 @.@ 9 points .
Bournemouth University was designated as a university in 1992 and despite its name , the university 's main campus ( the Talbot Campus ) and buildings are within the boundaries of Poole Borough ; a smaller campus is situated in Bournemouth itself . Media courses are the university 's strength , and recent teaching quality assessments have resulted in ratings of ' excellent ' for courses in the areas of communication and media , business and management , catering and hospitality , archaeology and nursing and midwifery . The Arts University Bournemouth was designated as a university in 2012 and is located at Wallisdown . The AUB offers undergraduate , foundation degree , postgraduate and further education courses in contemporary arts , design and media .
= = Public services = =
Home Office policing in Poole is provided by the Poole and Bournemouth Division of Dorset Police which has two police stations in Poole : on Wimborne Road in the town centre , and on Gravel Hill in Canford Heath . Dorset Fire and Rescue Service provides statutory emergency fire and rescue services for Poole and are based at Poole Fire Station in Creekmoor which opened in 2008 . The former fire station on Wimborne Road was demolished in 2008 and was replaced with a new joint fire and police divisional headquarters which opened in 2009 .
Poole Hospital is a large NHS Foundation Trust hospital in Longfleet with 789 beds . It opened in 1969 as Poole General Hospital , replacing Poole 's Cornelia Hospital which had stood on the site since 1907 . The hospital is the major trauma center for East Dorset and provides core services such as child health and maternity for a catchment area including Bournemouth and Christchurch . Specialist services such as neurological care and cancer treatment are also provided for the rest of Dorset . The South Western Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport .
Waste management and recycling are co @-@ ordinated by Poole Borough Council in partnership with Viridor Waste Management . Locally produced inert waste is sent to landfill for disposal . Recycle waste is taken to the recycling plant at the Allington Quarry Waste Management Facility in Kent for processing . Poole 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Scottish and Southern Energy . Drinking and waste water is managed by Wessex Water ; groundwater sources in Wiltshire and Dorset provide 80 % of drinking water , the rest comes from reservoirs fed by rivers and streams .
= = Media = =
Poole has two local newsbrands , the Daily Echo , which is owned by Newsquest . Published since 1900 , the newspaper and app features news from Poole , Bournemouth and the surrounding area . Issues appear Monday through Saturday with a daily circulation of 32 @,@ 441 . And the " Poole Post " , a community media hub supporting the work of ROC , and reporting Poole news , sport , business and entertainment . For local television , Poole is served by the BBC South studios based in Southampton , and by ITV Meridian from studios in Fareham . Radio stations broadcasting to the town include BBC Radio Solent , Wave 105 , Heart Dorset & New Forest ( formerly 2CR FM ) , Hopefm , Fire Radio and Hot Radio .
= = Notable people = =
The town has been the birthplace and home to notable people , of national and international acclaim . Former residents include British radio disc jockey Tony Blackburn , the artist Augustus John , John Lennon 's aunt and parental guardian Mimi Smith , and The Lord of the Rings author J. R. R. Tolkien who lived in Poole for four years during his retirement . Alfred Russel Wallace , the 19th century explorer , naturalist and co @-@ formulator of the theory of evolution by natural selection , moved to Poole in 1902 when he was 78 years old and is buried in Broadstone cemetery .
Notable people born in Poole include Greg Lake of the band Emerson , Lake & Palmer , the author John le Carré , the novelist Maggie Gee , stage actor Oswald Yorke , boxer Freddie Mills , the writer and actor David Croft , and James Stephen , the principal lawyer associated with the British abolitionist movement . Edgar Wright , the director of films such as Shaun of the Dead , Hot Fuzz and The World 's End was born in Poole and out of the five previous British winners of the Miss World title , two have hailed from Poole : Ann Sydney and Sarah @-@ Jane Hutt . Harry Redknapp , the former Tottenham Hotspur F.C. manager , and his son Jamie Redknapp , a former England national football team player , have owned homes in Sandbanks . Former Blue Peter presenter Katy Hill was also born in Poole .
= = Twin towns = =
Poole is twinned with :
Cherbourg in France ( since 1977 )
= Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States =
The Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States , also called the Rumsfeld Commission , was an independent commission formed by the US Congress to evaluate the ballistic missile threat posed to the United States .
The group began work in January 1998 and issued their unanimous final report on July 15 , 1998 , within the six @-@ month mandate . The report warned of a growing threat of ballistic missiles and the inability for US intelligence to keep track of developments . This contrasted with the views of previous US intelligence estimates , which stated that the threat of ballistic missiles was still 10 to 20 years away . The commission further fueled the debate over a national missile defense system , and may have contributed to the coining of the phrase axis of evil .
= = Background = =
The argument for a national missile defense system in the United States was traditionally to protect the country from a Soviet missile attack . With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 , proponents of a missile defense shield began instead to focus on the risk posed by rogue states developing ballistic missiles capable of eventually reaching the US .
This case was blunted by a 1995 National Intelligence Estimate ( NIE ) , which stated that no country besides the five major nuclear powers was capable of acquiring missiles that could reach Canada or the contiguous United States within the ensuing 15 years . Republican lawmakers intent on funding a defensive shield criticized the report and the Clinton administration for inaccurate assessments and distorted intelligence . Republican Congressman Curt Weldon of Pennsylvania walked out of a CIA briefing on the NIE , and later said that it was " the most outrageous politicisation of an intelligence document that I 've seen in the 10 years I 've been in Washington . "
From February to May 1996 , the House National Security Committee held hearings on the ballistic missile threat , and in a final report recommended that two reviews be created : one to investigate the NIE itself , and another to complete a new investigation of the ballistic missile threat . This process was also highly politicized , and the ranking Democrat on the committee , California Congressman Ronald Dellums , accused it of relying far too heavily on outside experts . Many of the witnesses called before the committee were in fact strong proponents of missile defense . The first review was conducted by former Director of Central Intelligence ( DCI ) and future Defense Secretary Robert Gates . He concluded that while there was evidence of faulty methodology in the NIE , there was no political bias in its conclusions . This conclusion again angered the missile defense supporters who had counted on this review to further their arguments .
= = Commission history = =
The second review was to be conducted by an outside commission , although it took lawmakers until 1997 to agree upon the commission 's membership . The commission eventually began to meet in mid @-@ January 1998 in the Old Executive Office Building and under the chairmanship of the once and future Secretary of Defense , Donald Rumsfeld . Although the commission was not formed to investigate the feasibility of a national missile defense shield , the reality that their conclusions would influence that debate led many in Washington to doubt that a unanimous conclusion was possible . Rumsfeld still wished to reach a consensus , and instituted a policy whereby any noted objection in the report needed to have the support of at least two commissioners .
The first weeks of deliberations and testimonies gleaned little new information on the threat being investigated , so in mid @-@ February , with their mandate supposedly giving them access to all necessary information from the executive branch , the commission complained in person to then DCI George Tenet . From that point on , the commission gained much greater access to the information and personnel of the US intelligence community .
The commission continued briefings until mid @-@ July 1998 . During that time they were frustrated by the compartmentalization of intelligence , the refusal of analysts to speculate or hypothesize on given information , and what they considered general inexperience in the intelligence personnel . The group did not limit their interviews to members of the government , but also spoke with employees of Boeing and Lockheed Martin , especially about how Scud missile designs could be used as the basis for a long @-@ range ballistic missile program .
= = Conclusions = =
There were two final reports of the commission : a 300 @-@ page classified report for Congress and a 27 @-@ page unclassified report . In the unclassified version , the group came to four unanimous conclusions :
The US is threatened by ballistic missiles tipped with biological or nuclear payloads from China , Russia , Iran , Iraq , and North Korea . Iran and North Korea could develop the capability to strike the US within five years of a decision to pursue ballistic missile technology ; Iraq would require ten years .
The US intelligence community has underestimated these growing threats .
The processes of the intelligence community to make estimates on this threat are causing an erosion of accurate assessments .
The US has a diminishing warning time before missile systems are operationally deployed , and may conceivably have no warning in the future .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Immediate = = =
The findings of the commission generated mixed reactions among lawmakers , intelligence officers , and experts . The intelligence community was privately angered by the harsh language the report used to describe their own assessments of the threat , although CIA Director George Tenet did not openly criticize it in public . Congressional proponents of a national missile shield , especially Republicans , used the findings to further push their case that such a shield was necessary . However , some experts in and out of government questioned the usefulness of the report , saying that it made general speculations without reaching any definite conclusions . Whereas the intelligence estimate focused on what was actually occurring , the commission focused on what might occur . This was labeled in one article " ' hypothesis @-@ based ' threat assessment " .
Many observers took a moderate tone in their reaction , acknowledging that funding should be provided for further national missile defense tests , but also saying that the US should not rush into developing technology that might prove ineffective and too costly .
Within months of the final report several events occurred which to some supporters reinforced the commission 's conclusions . In late July , Iran tested for the first time its new Shahab @-@ 3 missile , which traveled 620 miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km ) before exploding . Its basic design was modeled on the North Korean Rodong @-@ 1 . North Korea launched what it described as a three @-@ stage satellite launch on August 31 of that year , a surprise for US intelligence , which had expected a test of the two @-@ stage Taepodong @-@ 1 ( partially based on the Scud ) . While the third stage failed , it was nonetheless a major development in that introduced stage separation and solid fuel in North Korean rocketry .
= = = Bush Administration = = =
The commission reentered the public consciousness in 2000 when the former chairman of the commission , Donald Rumsfeld , was named by newly elected President George W. Bush to be Secretary of Defense , his second time in that office . On December 30 , 2000 , Richard Garwin , a former commissioner , praised Rumsfeld for his commission work in a New York Times op @-@ ed piece , although he reiterated that the commission never suggested whether or not the US should build a missile defense system . Other staffers and members of the commission were also appointed by the new Bush administration : Paul Wolfowitz was named Deputy Secretary of Defense , William Schneider , Jr. was appointed by Rumsfeld to the Defense Science Board , and in March 2003 Stephen Cambone was selected by Rumsfeld to fill the newly created Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence position . Robert Gates , the man who conducted the first review of the ballistic missile threat , was appointed Secretary of Defense after Rumsfeld 's November 2006 resignation .
The commission is thought by some foreign policy analysts to be the basis for President George W. Bush 's axis of evil line in his 2002 State of the Union Address , in which he accused Iraq , Iran , and North Korea of being state sponsors of terrorism and of pursuing weapons of mass destruction . The Rumsfeld Commission grouped the three countries together because they all were believed to be pursuing ballistic missile programs based on the Scud missile . In the pre @-@ 9 / 11 days of the Bush presidency , the administration had focused heavily on developing a national missile defense system to counter such threats . A month after the address , former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich , who appointed Rumsfeld as head of the commission , mentioned the importance of the commission 's findings in relation to the US ability to predict the threat posed by the axis members .
= = Participants = =
The commission was chaired by former Secretary of Defense and Republican Donald Rumsfeld , and included the following members :
= = = Republicans = = =
William Graham
William Schneider , Jr .
General Larry Welch , US Air Force Ret .
Paul Wolfowitz
James Woolsey
= = = Democrats = = =
Barry Blechman
General Lee Butler , US Air Force Ret .
Richard Garwin
= = = Core Staff = = =
Stephen Cambone
Steven Maaranen
Eric Desautels
David Dunham
Jason Roback
Bernard Victory
Delonnie Henry
= Covenant ( Millennium ) =
" ' Covenant " is the sixteenth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on March 21 , 1997 . The episode was written by Robert Moresco , and directed by Roderick J. Pridy . " Covenant " featured guest appearances by John Finn , Michael O 'Neill and Sarah Koskoff .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) travels to Utah to construct a profile on a convicted murderer ( Finn ) who is asking for the death sentence . Reconstructing the crime , Black begins to doubt the man 's guilt .
Elements of " Covenant " were inspired by real @-@ life murderers Albert Fish , Susan Smith and Arthur Shawcross . The episode was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 7 million households in its original broadcast . It has received positive reviews , with Moresco 's script praised for its subtlety .
= = Plot = =
Millennium Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) travels to Provo , Utah to meet Calvin Smith ( Michael O 'Neill ) , the prosecutor in a local murder case ; and Didi Higgens ( Sarah Koskoff ) , a pathologist for the County Medical Examiner 's office . Smith and Higgens have been involved in the trial of former sheriff William Garry ( John Finn ) , who has been convicted of killing his three children and wife . Garry pleaded guilty to murders , and forensic evidence has linked him to a wood @-@ carving chisel used to commit the murders . Black has been asked to construct an offender profile for Garry , to determine whether the man is sufficiently dangerous to society for a judge to issue a death penalty . Garry himself is asking to be executed .
Black travels to Garry 's home with a deputy , Kevin Reilly ( Steve Bacic ) . Daubed in blood on the kitchen window are the numbers " 1 28 15 " , which Reilly notes no one has been able to understand . Black also listens to a recording of Garry 's confession , which details the murders meticulously . Black convinces Garry 's attorney to allow him an interview , insisting he will be entirely impartial . Garry tells Black he had planned the murders for some time , motivated by hatred for his wife and monetary concerns . Black refutes this , pointing out that Garry had carved a wooden angel as a gift for his wife that same day , using the chisel that was the murder weapon . Smith , realizing that Black does not believe Garry to be guilty , dismisses him from the case .
Black discovers that Garry had been having an affair , having previously believed that Mrs. Garry was the unfaithful one ; he also realizes that Garry was unaware that his wife was pregnant . Black has Higgens help him in getting the bodies exhumed , allowing the two to see that Mrs. Garry 's wounds were not defensive , but self @-@ inflicted . Black also determines that the message written in blood was in fact " I 28 15 " — Book of Isaiah , chapter 28 , verse 15 ; which is concerned with lies and falsehoods . Black pieces together the actual events of the night of the murders , realizing that Mrs. Garry killed her children before committing suicide ; before she died she blamed Garry for her actions , causing him to seek atonement by admitting to the crimes . Reilly admits to having helped Garry rearrange the crime scene to incriminate himself ; Black urges him to come forward with the real events to save his friend 's life .
= = Production = =
" Covenant " was written by Robert Moresco and directed by Roderick J. Pridy , and was the first contribution to the series by either of the two . Moresco would go on to write " Broken World " later in the first season , and also acted as a producer during the series ' run . Pridy would return to helm the second season episode " The Mikado " .
Guest star John Finn would go on to appear in Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , playing the recurring character Michael Kritschgau in several episodes beginning with season four 's " Gethsemane " . Sarah Koskoff , who portrayed assistant pathologist Didi Higgens , also had a minor recurring role in The X @-@ Files , making several appearances as an alien abductee . " Covenant " featured the last appearance in the series by Don MacKay as the Black family 's neighbour Jack Meredith . MacKay had previously portrayed the character in " Pilot " , " Gehenna " and " Weeds " .
The premise of a repentant murderer seeking to atone for their actions appears to have been based on the real @-@ life case of Albert Fish , who practised severe self @-@ harm after killing twelve @-@ year @-@ old Grace Budd . Fish would insert needles into his perineum and force rose stems along his urethra to be forcibly pulled out . However , the actual murders may have been inspired by the case of Susan Smith , a mother of two who drowned her children by sinking her car in a lake . Mention is also made in the episode of Arthur Shawcross , whose recidivism is cited by Garry 's prosecutors as an example of why murder should warrant a death penalty . Shawcross was released from prison after serving a sentence for killing two children , only to kill eleven women while on parole .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Covenant " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on March 21 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 9 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 9 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 6 @.@ 7 million households , and left the episode the sixty @-@ third most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a B + , praising Moresco 's script for its subtlety . VanDerWerff noted the premise 's similarity to the Susan Smith case , and felt that the episode " actually gains strength from a certain distance from when it originally aired . Back then , it was just another ripped @-@ from @-@ the @-@ headlines tale of a murderous mother . Now , it ’ s a crafty mystery that doesn ’ t reveal its cards until late " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 out of 5 , noting that the episode " broke clichés and trampled all over formulas " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Covenant " four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , calling it " Millennium 's version of Twelve Angry Men " . Shearman praised Morseco 's writing , noting that the episode was " tightly plotted and boast [ ed ] extremely good dialogue " . Shearman felt that Koskoff 's acting showed a " naivety that isn 't as subtle as the script demands " , but overall felt that the episode was " fresh and exciting " .
= Inon Zur =
Inon Zur ( Hebrew : ינון צור ; born July 4 , 1965 ) is an Israeli @-@ American music composer who has won several awards for his work . Originally writing for movies and television , he later moved into composing for video games . He has been described as being " internationally recognized as one of the A @-@ list orchestral composers in the video games industry " . During his career to date , Zur has composed the music to over 50 video games , 15 television shows , and 10 movies , as well as many movie trailers . He has been nominated for numerous awards , and has won three — a Telly Award in 1997 for Best Score on Power Rangers : Turbo , a Game Audio Network Guild award in 2004 for Best Original Instrumental track for Men of Valor , and a Hollywood Music in Media Award in 2009 for Best Original Song – Video Game for Dragon Age : Origins . He currently lives in Encino , California , in the United States , and is composing the scores for several unreleased games .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Inon Zur was born in Israel . As early as five years old , he was trying to compose harmonies with his mother 's singing , and became inspired by classical music . He learned to play french horn as a child , studied piano by the age of eight , and was studying composition by the age of ten . He graduated from the Music Academy of Tel Aviv , and spent four years in the Israeli military . He emigrated to the United States in 1990 to study at the Dick Grove School of Music for a year , and then under private tutor Jack Smalley , a television music composer , and others for two years at the University of California , Los Angeles .
= = = Career = = =
Zur began his career in 1994 by working on soundtracks for movies , such as Yellow Lotus , featured at the Sundance Film Festival . He then signed on to compose for Fox Family for six years , and made soundtracks for various children 's television shows , including Digimon and Power Rangers . By 2002 he estimated that he had composed the soundtrack to over 360 Power Rangers episodes alone . He won his first award during this period in his career , a Telly Award for his work on Power Rangers : Turbo . While he enjoyed the work , he began to want to go work somewhere " more intriguing , more advanced , and basically a place that people really appreciate music more " ; his agent overcame his initial reluctance and convinced him to work in the video games industry . His first video game soundtrack was 2000 's Star Trek : Klingon Academy , though he started composing for the game in 1997 . Zur quickly moved on to prestigious titles , composing for the award @-@ winning and critically acclaimed Baldur 's Gate II : Throne of Bhaal in 2001 and Icewind Dale II in 2002 , among many others . Icewind Dale II earned him the first of many nominations for video game music awards , that of the Game Audio Network Guild 's Music of the Year award . He continued to work on movies and television programs during these years , composing the soundtrack to Au Pair in 1999 and the English version of the 2000 anime series Escaflowne .
Zur 's latest movie soundtrack to date was that of 2001 's Au Pair II . He has worked on a few television series since then ; his last traditional television soundtrack was for The Bachelor in 2002 , though he has composed music for three webisode series since then . He continued to work on numerous best @-@ selling video games , including Prince of Persia : The Two Thrones in 2005 and Crysis in 2007 . He has also garnered several nominations for video game music awards , including his first win , for Men of Valor in the Best Original Instrumental track category of the 2004 Game Audio Network Guild awards . His latest released titles have been the highly successful Fallout 3 and Prince of Persia in 2008 , and 2009 's Dragon Age : Origins and the Nintendo DS version of James Cameron 's Avatar : The Game . He is currently working on the soundtracks to several unreleased video games , and continues to live in Encino , California . Dragon Age has earned Zur his third career award , that of Best Original Song – Video Game in the 2009 Hollywood Music In Media Awards .
Zur penned the original musical score for The Lord of the Rings : War in the North ( Warner Bros. ) video game , conducting and recording with the London Philharmonia Orchestra and the Pinewood Singers Choir at the legendary Abbey Road Studios in London . In an industry first , a dedicated concert of his music from THE LORD OF THE RINGS was performed each evening at the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) in Los Angeles . The one @-@ hour concert series was conducted by Zur and performed by The Hollywood Orchestra and Choir with the participation of The Lyris Quartet and solos from celebrated vocalist Aubrey Ashburn .
= = Performances = =
Zur 's compositions have been played several times in live concerts . The first of these was a concert held in Seoul , South Korea on May 30 , 2006 dedicated to his music for Lineage II : Chronicle V : Oath of Blood . On August 20 , 2008 , music from his soundtrack to Crysis was played in Leipzig , Germany at a Video Games Live concert . His music from Dragon Age : Origins and Prince of Persia was performed at the September 26 , 2009 " A Night in Fantasia 2009 " concert in Sydney , Australia by the Eminence Symphony Orchestra . Inon Zur was a special guest at the concert .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Zur 's compositions frequently are focused on full orchestras , choir and , in some games like Prince of Persia , ethnic instruments like Arabic flutes and the woodwind duduk . He has often collaborated with the Northwest Sinfonia orchestra from Seattle , though he has on occasion used other orchestras . Whenever Zur works with a real orchestra , he always conducts it himself . He has named some of his musical influences as classical artists such as Sergey Prokofiev , Igor Stravinsky , and Beethoven , movie composers like John Williams and Jerry Goldsmith , and jazz artists like George Gershwin and Henry McFeeny . While he would one day like to compose music not intended to be part of a larger piece of media , he finds that the pressure of a deadline and the feedback from the developers are crucial in his development process . He feels that his music sounds best when it is in the context given by the media it was made for , though he feels that performances of the music by itself transforms it " from just a soundtrack to an art form on its own " . Zur sometimes collaborates with other musicians while composing his game soundtracks ; for example , he worked with Florence and the Machine to create a unique rendition of " I ’ m Not Calling You A Liar " for the Dragon Age II soundtrack .
Zur typically is brought in to compose for a game once it is mostly complete , though he notes that that is earlier than for films and television — where nothing changes after he starts besides post @-@ production effects — making video game music composition a more " flexible " process . He finds that it is " crucial " for him to play a game before he can compose music for it , even if it only a development version . Rather than compose music based around the setting in the game where it will be played , Zur composes music around the emotion that he wants the player to feel at that point in the game . While he feels that music composition technology has come far enough in recent years to no longer be a limiting factor in his music , he does feel that the music budgets for games limit what he can create . Zur feels that he is considered in the industry to be a very fast composer , which he attributes to his tendency to compose music " intuitively " , rather than spending a lot of time planning it out . When not composing , Zur likes to play video games , especially those he has composed for , as well as play basketball and spend time with his family . The types of projects that he would like to work on in the future that he has not yet done are children 's games and soundtracks incorporating jazz music .
= = Works = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Dead Letters ( Millennium ) =
" ' Dead Letters " is the third episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on November 8 , 1996 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Thomas J. Wright . " Dead Letters " featured guest appearances by Chris Ellis , Ron Halder and James Morrison .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) is sent to evaluate a prospective member of the group , who perform private investigative work and liaise with law enforcement . Meeting this hopeful member , Jim Horn ( Morrison ) , Black is drawn to investigate a serial killer operating in the area ; while Horn begins to unravel under the strain of the case .
Several of the cast and crew made their first contributions to the series in " Dead Letters " , with Wright , Morgan , Wong and Ellis all returning for future episodes . Production of " Dead Letters " impressed other series regulars — series writer Chip Johannessen praised the script 's attention to detail , while producer John Peter Kousaskis called positive attention to its physical and make @-@ up effects .
= = Plot = =
Jordan Black ( Brittany Tiplady ) is awakened by a nightmare , and is comforted by her father Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) . However , Black is soon called to investigate the body of a woman at a dog pound in Portland , Oregon . Black works for the Millennium Group , an organisation which offers private investigation services and consults with law enforcement on certain types of cases . He is asked by Group member Jim Penseyres ( Chris Ellis ) to help a local detective on the murder case , as he is being considered as prospective member of the Millennium Group . Black believes the murder to be the work of a serial killer , and is convinced there will be a message from him on the bodies .
Black meets up with the detective , Jim Horn ( James Morrison ) , and sees that he is a competent and experienced investigator , although his recent separation from his wife has left him distracted and on edge .
The killer murders another woman , disposing of the body in a post office 's dead letter office . Investigating , Black finds a human hair with a message etched into it — " hair today , gone tomorrow " — which he takes as an indication that the murderer is lashing out at a world that he feels has treated him as insignificant . Horn 's mental condition seems to deteriorate , and he begins to take the case personally , leading Black to doubt his ability .
A third victim turns up , with another message — " nothing ventured , nothing gained " . A lens from the killer 's glasses is also recovered . Black organises a press release in an attempt to draw out the killer , taunting his intelligence by including a falsified profile describing him as uneducated . Black and Horn feel this will tempt the killer to show up at the latest victim 's memorial service . Horn attacks an innocent man at the service , believing him to be the killer ; although a cross found at the memorial with " ventured " etched upon it proves the killer did attend . Surveillance footage of the service yields two leads — a local optician recognizes the suspect as a customer having a glasses lens replaced , and the killer 's vehicle is identified .
Black and Horn realize that the killer will have chosen the optician as his next victim , and agree to set another trap with her as the bait . Horn , more and more unhinged throughout the case , begins imagining the killer and his van at every turn . As he and Black wait for the killer to make an attempt on the optician 's life , Horn admits that he cannot trust himself to be there , and is told to go home . However , he parks his car on the route towards the trap , feigning a flat tyre . When the killer 's van attempts to pass , Horn attacks him , but the police arrive in time to stop him beating the killer to death . The attack renders any evidence found in the van inadmissible in court , although Black tells him enough evidence was found at the killer 's home to secure a conviction . Later , Horn asks Black how he can deal with cases like this on a regular basis . Black does not answer , but later comforts his daughter after another bad dream .
= = Production = =
" Dead Letters " is the first episode of Millennium to be written by James Wong and Glen Morgan , who would go on to write another fourteen episodes across the first and second seasons . The episode is also the first not to have been written by series creator Chris Carter , who had penned both of the preceding episodes , " Pilot " and " Gehenna " . " Dead Letters " also marked the first time Thomas J. Wright had directed an episode of the series . Wright would go on to direct twenty @-@ six episodes across all three seasons , as well as directing " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files . He had also previously worked with Morgan and Wong on their series Space : Above and Beyond .
The episode marked the second of three appearances by Chris Ellis as Millennium Group member Jim Penseyres ; Ellis had previously appeared in " Gehenna " , and would reappear in the next episode , " The Judge " . Guest star James Morrison , who portrayed the troubled Jim Horn , had also previously appeared as a main character in Morgan and Wong 's Space : Above and Beyond , playing Tyrus Cassius McQueen ; his character 's son in this episode is named TC as a reference to this . Lisa Vultaggio , who played the optician used to bait the killer , had previously worked with Morgan and Wong in The X @-@ Files , appearing in the first season episode " Beyond the Sea " .
Producer and writer Chip Johannessen felt that the scene in this episode in which a human hair is discovered with a message inscribed upon it was a " perfect " moment , in that it " told you everything about this guy [ the killer ] ... but you had no idea what he was or what he was going to do next ... you know what kind of crazy motherfucker would do that , but where he is or what he 's going to do next , who knows " . The episode 's opening nightmare sequence , in which Jordan Black ( Brittany Tiplady ) is terrified by a clown crawling along the ceiling , was inspired by the childhood nightmares of Morgan and Wong , and left Tiplady suffering from bad dreams herself for several nights after filming . Producer John Peter Kousakis recalls having visited the episode 's set late during production , having felt that make @-@ up effects supervisor Toby Lindala had been doing " fabulous " work on the series ' prosthetic body parts . Walking on set to find Lindala 's recreation of a quartered corpse , Kousakis remarked " we 're doing something special here , but we 're also doing something really outrageous " . Lance Henriksen also found this scene too graphic to film all at once , taking time between shots to compose himself .
= = Reception = =
" Dead Letters " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on November 8 , 1996 ; and earned a Nielsen rating of 8 , meaning that roughly 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode .
" Dead Letters " earned positive reviews from critics . Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen rated the episode a B + . Handlen felt that the episode is " not art , not yet , but it is deeply personal " , and praised the opening dream sequence , describing it as " flat @-@ out Lynchian nightmare territory " . However , he noted that the episode 's dialogue felt too " flat " and " expository " , adding that it serves to draw " attention to themes that were already plastered across the screen in blinding red and black " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 out of 5 , describing it as being " one of the more horrifying episodes in Season 1 " . Gibron added that " seeing Jim Horn go through his mental breakdown gives us insight into where Frank Black is coming from " , although he felt that the lack of real insight into the killer 's personality let the episode down . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , describing it as a " gripping and sincere portrait of human ugliness at its most banal " . Shearman and Pearson praised guest star James Morrison 's acting , noting that he was " the very humanity that the show is crying out for " .
= Marburg 's Bloody Sunday =
Marburg 's Bloody Sunday ( German : Marburger Blutsonntag , Slovene : Mariborska krvava nedelja ) is the name of a massacre that took place on Monday , 27 January 1919 in the city of Maribor ( German : Marburg an der Drau ) in Slovenia . Soldiers from the army of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , under the command of Slovene officer Rudolf Maister , killed between 9 and 13 civilians of German ethnic origin , wounding a further 60 , during a protest in a city centre square . Estimates of casualties differ between Slovene and Austrian sources .
In November 1918 , after the First World War ended , the territories of southern Carinthia and southern Styria , which had been claimed by the Republic of German Austria , were captured by military units under Maister 's command .
Maribor was the largest city of southern Styria , and had a predominately German population . A US delegation led by Sherman Miles visited Maribor on 27 January 1919 as part of a wider mission to resolve territorial disputes . On the same day , German citizens organised a protest proclaiming their desire for Maribor to be incorporated into the Republic of German Austria . The protest was interrupted by Meister 's soldiers firing at the people and causing numerous casualties . In response , German Austria launched a military offensive which expelled the Yugoslavs from several small towns in Upper Styria along the Mur River . A ceasefire was agreed under the mediation of France in February 1919 . According to the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , signed on 10 September 1919 , Maribor and the rest of Lower Styria became part of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes . No @-@ one was ever charged over the Maribor massacre .
= = Background = =
The Republic of German Austria was created following the defeat of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire in the First World War and claimed areas with a predominantly German @-@ speaking population within the bounds of the former empire . In addition to the current area of the Republic of Austria , these included parts of South Tyrol and the town of Tarvisio , both now in Italy ; southern Carinthia and southern Styria , now in Slovenia ; and Sudetenland proper and German Bohemia ( later also part of Sudetenland ) , now in the Czech Republic .
The victorious Allied Powers divided the territories of the former Austro @-@ Hungarian empire between German Austria , Hungary and several other countries . Though the division of territories was conducted through a proclaimed principle of national self @-@ determination , populations of ethnic Germans and Hungarians remained resident in many of these territories , including Czechoslovakia , Romania and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia .
Control of the city of Maribor was disputed by Yugoslavia and German Austria . A Federal Act of German Austria , concerning " the Extent , the Borders and the Relations of the State Territories of November 22 , 1918 " , asserted a claim to the region of Lower Styria within which Marburg / Maribor was located , but excluded from its claim the predominantly Slav @-@ populated regions . To resolve the question of the ownership of Carinthia , the greater region of which Lower Styria formed a part , the U.S.-administered Coolidge Mission in Vienna proposed a demographic investigation of the territory . The mission was led by Archibald Cary Coolidge , professor of history at Harvard College , and operated under the American Commission to Negotiate Peace . The mission appointed a delegation to be led by Colonel Sherman Miles and including Lieutenant LeRoy King , professor of Slavic languages at the University of Missouri , and professors Robert Kerner and Lawrence Martin .
On the way to Carinthia , the delegation visited Maribor which , prior to the First World War , had a population comprising 80 % Austrian Germans and 20 % Slovenes . Most of Maribor 's capital and public life was in Austrian German hands and it was known mainly by its German @-@ language name Marburg an der Drau . According to the last Austro @-@ Hungarian census in 1910 , the city and its suburbs Studenci ( Brunndorf ) , Pobrežje ( Pobersch ) , Tezno ( Thesen ) , Radvanje ( Rothwein ) , Krčevina ( Kartschowin ) , and Košaki ( Leitersberg ) housed 31 @,@ 995 Austrian Germans ( including German @-@ speaking Jews ) , and 6 @,@ 151 ethnic Slovenes . The surrounding area however was populated almost entirely by Slovenes , although many Austrian Germans lived in smaller towns like Ptuj ( Pettau , 79 @.@ 39 % ) or Celje ( Cilli , 66 @.@ 80 % ) .
In November 1918 , the Slovene major ( later general ) Rudolf Maister seized the city of Maribor and surrounding areas of Lower Styria in the name of the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs , a forerunner of Yugoslavia . On 23 November 1918 , Maister and his soldiers disarmed and disbanded the " Green Guard " ( German : Schutzwehr , Slovene : Zelena Garda ) security force maintained by the Maribor city council . Maister captured several villages and towns north of the Mur River , including Lichendorf , Bad Radkersburg , Mureck and Marenberg . On 31 December 1918 , Maister 's units imprisoned 21 notable Maribor citizens of ethnic German origin .
= = Massacre = =
Sources differ on the exact cause and extent of the massacre in Maribor . All agree that on 27 January 1919 , the Coolidge Mission 's delegation , led by Sherman Miles , visited Maribor and found thousands of citizens of German ethnic origin gathered in the main city square and waving flags of German Austria , many of which also decorated nearby buildings . German Austrian sources indicate that there were 10 @,@ 000 protesters singing songs and wearing patriotic dress . Twenty soldiers under Maister 's command were stationed in front of the city hall , armed with rifles mounted with bayonets .
German @-@ language sources assert that the soldiers began firing into the crowd without provocation , aiming for unarmed civilians . According to these sources the fatalities numbered 13 , and a further 60 protesters were wounded .
A Slovene account of the same event asserts that the soldiers began to fire only when an Austrian citizen discharged a revolver in the direction of the Slovene soldiers , striking the bayonet of one . The soldiers then returned fire : according to this account 11 were killed , and an unknown number wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
Subsequently , on 4 February 1919 , German Austria commenced a military offensive to recover the regions of Upper Styria controlled by Maister 's troops . A ceasefire was agreed on 10 February 1919 , under French mediation from their military mission located in Maribor . On 13 February 1919 , a ceasefire agreement was signed and Maister 's troops retreated from part of Upper Styria .
LeRoy King , one of the members of the Coolidge Mission , wrote in his report that the authorities in Maribor were suspicious of the work of the mission and apparently feared that it had uncovered information they would have preferred to conceal . He argued that there were Slovene populations in Styria who would have preferred the maintenance of Austrian rule .
The Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , signed on 10 September 1919 observed that Maribor was firmly under the control of the Yugoslav army and that , since Slovenes constituted a majority in the region surrounding the city , Maribor should remain , with the rest of Lower Styria , within the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes .
Responsibility for the shooting in Maribor was never conclusively established . Austrian sources attributed blame to Rudolf Maister , and referenced him in some accounts as the Butcher of Maribor . In Slovenia , by contrast , Maister remains well @-@ regarded ; numerous societies institutions and streets are named in his honour and he is commemorated in several monuments .
= Ian Craig =
Ian David Craig , OAM ( 12 June 1935 – 16 November 2014 ) was an Australian cricketer who represented the Australian national team in 11 Tests between 1953 and 1958 . A right @-@ handed batsman , Craig holds the records for being the youngest Australian to make a first @-@ class double century , appear in a Test match , and captain his country in a Test match . Burdened by the public expectation of being the " next Bradman " , Craig 's career did not fulfil its early promise . In 1957 , he was appointed Australian captain , leading a young team as part of a regeneration plan following the decline of the national team in the mid @-@ 1950s , but a loss of form and illness forced him out of the team after one season . Craig made a comeback , but work commitments forced him to retire from first @-@ class cricket at only 26 years of age .
A teenage prodigy , Craig made his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales in the last match of the 1951 – 52 Australian season , aged only 16 . The following summer , Craig earned comparisons to Don Bradman , generally regarded as the greatest batsman of all time , after becoming the youngest player to score a first @-@ class double century , an unbeaten 213 against the touring South African team . The innings secured Craig 's Test debut in the final match against South Africa , making him the youngest player to represent Australia in a Test , aged 17 years and 239 days . Craig started his Test career well , scoring 53 and 47 to ensure his selection for the 1953 Ashes tour , making him the youngest Australian player to tour England . Craig 's arrival precipitated media comparisons to the arrival and success of Bradman in 1930 , but he performed poorly and was not selected for any of the Tests .
Having missed a season due to national service and university studies , Craig returned to first @-@ class cricket in 1955 – 56 , earning a place in the 1956 Ashes touring squad . Craig regained a Test position for the final two Tests of the series . After the series , at which point Australia had suffered three consecutive Ashes series defeats , captain Ian Johnson and vice @-@ captain Keith Miller retired . The selectors focussed on young players to rebuild the team , appointing Craig as the captain for the 1957 – 58 tour of South Africa , although he had played just six Tests and was not an established member of the team . Aged 22 years and 194 days , Craig was , at the time , the youngest captain in Test history and led a team that critics dismissed as having no chance to a convincing 3 – 0 victory ; his own batting form was poor , and he averaged less than 20 . He contracted hepatitis before the start of the 1958 – 59 season and withdrew from cricket . Although he returned the following season for New South Wales , he could not regain his Test place . He retired from first @-@ class cricket at the age of just 26 : work commitments as a pharmacist increasingly restricted his ability to train . In later life , Craig was the managing director of the Australian subsidiary of the British pharmaceutical firm Boots . He had a continued involvement with cricket as an administrator , working with the New South Wales Cricket Association , the Sydney Cricket Ground Trust and the Bradman Museum . Craig was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia in 1997 for his service to cricket .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth and school success = = =
Ian Craig was the first son of John Craig and his wife Katherine ( née Dun ) . Shortly after Ian 's birth in the rural town of Yass , John jokingly told friends that " Australia 's second Don Bradman has just been born . " When John 's employers , the Bank of New South Wales , moved him to Sydney , the family relocated when Ian was just three ; John went on to be the chief manager of the Sydney office . Ian studied at North Sydney Boys High School , and showed an aptitude for ball games from an early age . He was a member of Australia 's schoolboy baseball team for three years , first playing at 13 years of age . He captained his school 's rugby union team and was a member of the state 's schoolboy team , but was only vice captain of the First XI cricket team behind Peter Philpott , another future Test player . At the time , cricket was only his third priority ; his obituary in the Sydney Morning Herald suggests that he was initially a better rugby player but was persuaded to focus on cricket when he broke his jaw playing rugby . He joined Mosman Cricket Club on Sydney 's North Shore and scored a first @-@ grade century at the age of 16 . Craig was not coached heavily ; the philosophy of the day was to supervise young players and to only intervene if mistakes were being made .
After good performances for Mosman , Craig was selected to make his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales at the age of 16 years and 249 days , during the 1951 – 52 season , making him the youngest ever Sheffield Shield player . He struck 91 against South Australia in his only first @-@ class innings of the season , before falling leg before wicket . He remained in the team for the following season ; in the first eight games he scored 350 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 00 , with three fifties . Given a chance to push his claims for Test selection after being selected for the Australian XI to play South Africa , he made only 38 and 11 .
= = = The " Next Bradman " = = =
Craig 's breakthrough came in January 1953 when , at the age of 17 years and 207 days , he became the youngest double centurion in the history of first @-@ class cricket at the time , in only his 13th first @-@ class innings . As of 2015 , he remains the youngest Australian to have achieved the feat . In a match for New South Wales against the touring South Africans , Craig came into bat on the second day and after a slow start reached 105 not out at the close of play . After play , he went to work at his job as an apprentice pharmacist . The next day , teammate Sid Barnes offered him a new bat if he reached 200 . When play resumed , he took his score to 213 not out , helping to build a total of 416 runs for the loss of seven wickets ( 7 / 416 ) . Hitting many cover drives , Craig scored quickly , making 98 of the 159 runs scored in a partnership with Keith Miller , a Test player known for his attacking strokeplay . Craig brought up his double century by sweeping Hugh Tayfield for a boundary .
The innings generated comparisons with Don Bradman , widely regarded as the finest batsman in cricket history . Bradman had dominated Australian sports media coverage for two decades until his retirement in 1948 and the Australian public were eager for another sporting hero of his magnitude . Bradman had not played first @-@ class cricket at the age of 17 and was 20 when he made his Test debut , so Craig 's quicker rise up the ranks caused much excitement . The Daily Telegraph said that Craig batted with " a grim purposefulness " that was " reminiscent of Bradman . " Miller cautioned against heaping so much media pressure on Craig , but the newspapers persisted , even comparing Craig 's batting grip to that of Bradman .
Craig 's innings also caught the eye of Australian selectors and he was selected for the Test team . He was named twelfth man for the Fourth Test , before making his debut in the Fifth Test after Miller and Ray Lindwall were rested due to mild injuries . Australia were leading the series 2 – 1 heading into the deciding match .
= = Test match career = =
= = = Debut = = =
Making his Test debut at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , Craig became , at the age of 17 years and 239 days , the youngest ever Australian to play Test cricket . Australia batted first and Craig received a standing ovation from the 47 @,@ 000 @-@ strong crowd as he walked out to bat amid high expectations from the public . As South African captain Jack Cheetham stopped proceedings to set his field , the crowd jeered . Australia were comfortably positioned at 3 / 269 with Craig 's partner Neil Harvey on his way to a double century . Craig cover drove his third ball , bowled by Percy Mansell , for four and quickly moved to 20 . In an innings marked by leg glances and fine cuts , Craig progressed to 53 before the new ball was taken . He hit a ball into the covers and was caught , ending the 148 @-@ run partnership with Harvey and silencing the crowd . Australia collapsed and ended at 520 but still took a first innings lead of 85 runs . Craig top @-@ scored in the second innings with 47 , giving him exactly 100 runs for the match as Australia collapsed to be all out for 209 and conceded defeat by six wickets . Given Bradman 's Test average of 99 @.@ 94 , Craig 's match aggregate prompted further press discussions of Bradmanesque similarities . However , his debut ended on a sour note as South Africa scored 4 / 297 to win by six wickets and level the series 2 – 2 .
= = = Ashes tour of 1953 = = =
Craig was selected for his first tour of England in 1953 as the last player to make the cut , after only 10 first @-@ class matches . The youngest Australian player ever to be sent to England , Craig was 15 months younger than Clem Hill in 1896 . He had been one of the leading batsmen of the summer , scoring 867 first @-@ class runs at a batting average of 54 @.@ 18 with seven half @-@ centuries in addition to his double century . This placed him fourth among Australian batsmen for the season in terms of run @-@ scoring , with only leading Test batsman Neil Harvey averaging higher . Craig had a strong preparation before departing for England , scoring fifties in three consecutive matches for the Australians on home soil .
Craig was again the centre of media speculation , with some media likening his arrival to Bradman 's first tour of England in 1930 . Bradman had scored a world Test series record of 974 runs in 1930 , a mark that remains unsurpassed . At a reception at the start of the tour , British judge and cricket enthusiast Lord Birkett said " If I know the English as I think I do , every Mother in the land will pray for him . " During the tour he was presented with a birthday cake on television . However , the trip was unsuccessful in terms of batting .
Craig began poorly ; in ten innings before the Tests started , he scored only 146 runs at 14 @.@ 60 without passing fifty . He was overlooked for the First Test , and continued to struggle for runs during the tour ; he ended with 429 runs in 27 innings with a top score of 71 not out and an average of 16 @.@ 50 . He was not selected for any Tests . Craig had difficulty adjusting to the English pitch conditions and his confidence plummeted . Craig had particular trouble against off cutters on the seaming pitches . In a reception at Lord 's , the home of cricket , Queen Elizabeth II asked him " I understand this is your first visit to England ? " , which prompted Craig to reply " Yes , your majesty , and unless my batting improves , it will be my last . " During the tour , tensions sometimes arose between the senior players , who were war veterans and drinkers , while the younger players including Craig tended to abstain from alcohol . Craig estimated that bus journeys to matches proceeded at an average speed of 16 km / h because of persistent stoppages outside pubs , something that frustrated the non @-@ drinkers .
= = = In the wilderness = = =
Upon returning home , Craig was unable to maintain the level of performances that he displayed in the previous Australian summer . In a season which contained no international cricket , he scored 395 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 90 in eight matches , placing him 20th in the season 's run scoring list . He scored 93 in an eight @-@ wicket victory over South Australia , and 106 for Arthur Morris 's XI in a testimonial match against Lindsay Hassett 's XI , his first century against Australian opposition .
Craig 's career was interrupted by final year university studies for a diploma of pharmacy at the University of Sydney and national service , causing him to miss the entire 1954 – 55 season , including the home Test series against England , the early 1955 tour to the West Indies and the Sheffield Shield season . He returned to first @-@ class cricket during the 1955 – 56 Australian season , and a healthy aggregate of 495 runs at 45 @.@ 09 with one century . During the season , he made his first century in the Sheffield Shield , amassing 145 against Queensland . For these performances , he was selected for the 1956 Ashes tour , the last player to be picked .
= = = Second Ashes tour = = =
Craig 's tour started poorly , and food poisoning hampered him until after the Second Test — one particular severe bout forced him to be hospitalised . In his first six first @-@ class matches , Craig made only 104 runs at 17 @.@ 33 . His tour began to improve in late June , when he made consecutive half @-@ centuries against Yorkshire and Gloucestershire before breaking through in a match against Somerset . He was dropped before going on to score 62 and 100 not out — his first century in 38 innings in England . He was selected for the Fourth Test at Old Trafford , after Australia had suffered a heavy defeat at Headingley in the Third Test at the hands of the Surrey spin pairing of Jim Laker and Tony Lock , Australia 's first innings defeat in 18 years . The Fourth Test was to be known as Laker 's Test , in which Laker took a record 19 wickets in the match . Laker trapped Craig leg before wicket for eight in the first innings as Australia were bowled out for 84 . In the second innings , Craig came out to bat at 1 / 28 in the second innings on a sticky wicket and combined in a defiant third @-@ wicket partnership of 59 with Colin McDonald . He battled for over four hours in compiling 38 before being dismissed by Laker . Reflecting on the match , Craig said " Jim bowled well , and we batted very badly . We were all pissed off , felt we 'd been dudded and we dropped our bundle a bit . " His stubborn display saw him retain his position for the Fifth Test at The Oval when he scored two and seven . Craig ended the season with 872 runs at 36 @.@ 33 from 20 matches , with one century and five fifties , the fifth highest aggregate for the Australians .
Despite his failure to reach double figures at The Oval , Craig maintained his position in the playing XI on the tour of the Indian subcontinent en route to Australia in late 1956 , playing Test matches against Pakistan and India . However , he failed to pass 40 in his five innings . He made a duck and 18 on a matting wicket in Australia 's one @-@ off Test against Pakistan in Karachi before playing in the First Test against India , scoring 40 in an innings win in Madras . He was dropped for the Second Test but returned to make 36 and 6 in the Third Test in Calcutta as Australia took a 2 – 0 series win . The matches were the first time that Australia had played a Test in Asia .
= = Captaincy of Australia = =
= = = Youngest ever captain = = =
The 1956 – 57 season marked the start of a renewal phase in Australian cricket . Australia had lost three consecutive Ashes series and had fallen from the heights of the " Invincibles " team that had toured England in 1948 . Australia were not scheduled to play any Tests until a tour of South Africa in 1957 – 58 and captain Ian Johnson and his deputy Keith Miller retired upon their return to Australia , both men being in their late 30s . In a move regarded as surprising , the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Craig , rather than Richie Benaud , replaced the retired Miller as state captain and staked his claim to be a part of Australia 's long @-@ term future with a consistent season in which he scored 521 runs at an average of 47 @.@ 36 , with two centuries . New South Wales won another Sheffield Shield title under Craig 's leadership . In one match against arch @-@ rivals Victoria , Craig was ill with tonsillitis , but came out to bat with his team struggling at 7 / 70 while chasing a low total of 161 . Craig made 24 and put on 70 with Benaud to take his team towards victory , but the match eventually ended in a tie .
Near the end of the 1956 – 57 season , the selectors met to choose a team for a short non @-@ Test tour of New Zealand . The leading contender for the captaincy was 28 @-@ year @-@ old Victorian Neil Harvey , who had been a regular member of the team for eight years and was the senior batsman . However , both Harvey and Miller had been criticised for their attitude towards Johnson in an official report to the board about the 1956 tour . The selectors thus thrust Craig into the leadership at the age of 21 and a half . He was a young player leading an inexperienced team — the youngest cricket team from any country to be sent overseas , with no players older than 30 . It was seen as a bold move , as Craig had only played six Tests , was far from being a regular member of the team and had only a year of captaincy at first @-@ class level .
The day after the announcement , the Harvey @-@ led Victorians met Craig 's New South Welshmen at the SCG . Harvey admitted to being irked by the board 's snub and felt that it was because of his blunt nature . The men were cordial at the toss and Craig sent the Victorians in to bat . At the same time , Colin McDonald broke his nose while practising in the nets and was taken to hospital . Harvey asked Craig for a gentleman 's agreement to allow a substitute , but the home skipper refused . An angry Harvey struck 209 in five hours , but Craig scored 45 and 93 to help secure a draw and therefore win the Sheffield Shield .
Craig , regarded as a personable , level @-@ headed and well educated man , was seen as an investment in the future . Personal skills were seen as important in an era when captains were expected to make many after @-@ dinner speeches at functions on tours , especially to England . Ray Robinson opined that " a sincere nature and unassuming manner " reduced the risk of team friction in the rebuilding phase and that Craig was " level headed and tactful beyond his years . " Craig 's lack of leadership ambition was cited as a major reason for the improvement in team harmony . The New Zealand tour was regarded as a test of Craig 's leadership . Wicket @-@ keeper Barry Jarman said that Craig " had to do it himself ... I wasn 't so dumb that I couldn 't see the senior players didn 't give him much support . " The senior players resented his surprise selection as captain , but he gained favour by defying a management @-@ imposed curfew , which was later scrapped .
During the tour , the Australians won all three of their first @-@ class matches against the hosts ' provincial teams . The Australians then played against a New Zealand representative team , although the matches were not classified as Tests . In the first game , Craig scored an unbeaten 123 in the second innings to ensure a draw after the visitors had conceded a first innings lead . In the second match , Australia stumbled to 6 / 146 in their second innings after conceding a first innings lead of 34 . After the unconvincing performances in the first two matches , Craig scored 57 in the third , which Australia won by ten wickets . Craig ended with 224 runs at 56 @.@ 00 in the three international matches and 308 runs at 38 @.@ 50 overall .
= = = South African tour = = =
At the start of the 1957 – 58 season , Craig was made captain for Australia 's Test tour to South Africa , making him the youngest captain in Test history at the age of 22 years and 194 days , with Harvey as his deputy . The appointment came despite his mixed batting form during the New Zealand tour . The selectors further demonstrated their view to the future when they dropped veteran Ray Lindwall altogether . The average age of Craig 's team was two and a half years younger than the Australian squad sent to England in 1956 , and they had only one player over the age of 30 , whereas the 1956 team had five members over the age of 30 . As a result of the team 's relative inexperience , they were judged by critics to be the worst to have left Australian shores . Craig joined his team in Johannesburg after flying in from London , where he had been working for six months as a pharmacist , with the approval of the Australian board .
Craig 's workload grew after the team manager Jack Jantke suffered a heart attack before the tour , leaving the captain to handle off @-@ field matters until a replacement for Jantke was found two weeks later . Craig instituted a novel set of rules to raise morale , but journalists and former player Dick Whitington derided it as " Anglicised fripperies " , while Jack Fingleton said that Craig was " much too callow in years and experience to lead a team abroad . " Some players remained resentful of Craig 's dubious elevation but appreciated that he had not promoted himself and that he was fair and open to input from teammates .
Craig made a good start to the tour in two warm @-@ up matches against Rhodesia , scoring a century in each match . Australia won the matches by an innings and ten wickets respectively . Craig led his men in five first @-@ class matches before the Tests and Australia won all by convincing margins ; three ended in innings victories and the others were won by nine and ten wickets . This included a match against a South African XI , in which Craig scored 88 as Australia amassed 8 / 519 declared before winning by an innings .
Craig led his team into the First Test at Johannesburg starting on 23 December with an inexperienced bowling attack . With Lindwall dropped , the pace attack was led by Alan Davidson , who at the time had managed only 16 Test wickets in 12 matches . Davidson 's partner Ian Meckiff was making his debut . Benaud was in his first Test as the lead spinner , while left arm wrist spinner Lindsay Kline was another debutant . In all , Craig 's team had four debutants . Craig made only 14 and 17 as his team held on for a draw . At the end of the match , an unpopular 10 p.m. curfew that was imposed by the replacement manager was repealed .
The Australian skipper again struggled with the bat in the Second Test in Cape Town , making a duck , but this was overlooked by the media as his team won by a decisive innings margin . In the Third Test at Durban , Craig made 52 on a pitch that was difficult for batting , his first Test half @-@ century since his debut . His team scored 163 in their first innings , and after the hosts made 384 , Craig made a duck as Australia struggled to a score of 7 / 292 , salvaging a draw in the process . In the Fourth Test at Johannesburg , Craig promoted Benaud ahead of him in the batting order , feeling that flexibility in the team interest was paramount . Benaud scored a century , prompting Robinson to describe Craig 's action as " the most imaginative piece of captaincy of the season . " The innings allowed Australia to seize the momentum and set up a 10 @-@ wicket victory , which yielded an unassailable 2 – 0 series lead .
Despite the disagreement as to whether Craig was deserving of the captaincy , the team proceeded without infighting . Prior to the Fifth Test , Craig wanted to drop himself due to poor form , which would have made Harvey captain . Peter Burge , the third member of the selection panel and a Harvey supporter , was comfortable with this , but Harvey ordered Burge to retain Craig . When the vote was formally taken , Harvey and Burge outvoted Craig , who was still offering to drop himself .
Craig failed to pass 20 in the Fifth Test as Australia won again to take a creditable 3 – 0 series win , something highly unexpected at the beginning of the tour . Overall , Craig 's men won 11 of their 20 first @-@ class games on tour , and the South African Cricket Annual recognised the Australian captain 's leadership by naming him as one of their Five Cricketers of the Year .
= = Later career = =
= = = Hepatitis = = =
Although the match results were encouraging for such a young and inexperienced team , Craig scored only 103 runs at 14 @.@ 71 . Despite his contributions as a leader , this was not up to standard . He had trouble with his defence , being bowled eight times in 17 innings . In the 12 matches in the last three months of the tour , Craig passed fifty only once in 13 innings . However , the selectors did not have to reverse their youth policy : Craig contracted a bout of hepatitis before the start of the 1958 – 59 season . He returned to cricket at the beginning of the season , but was underprepared , scoring two ducks in his only two innings of the season , the second coming against the touring England team . Craig declared that he was not ready for a return to Test cricket and relinquished the captaincy , which the selectors handed to Benaud . Benaud went on to defeat England 4 – 0 ; as England were widely regarded as the best team at the time , this established him as captain of a resurgent Australia .
The illness @-@ enforced layoff left Craig facing an uphill battle to regain his place in the national team . Prior to the start of the 1959 – 60 season , Craig recovered his health and toured South Africa with a Commonwealth XI , where he scored 276 runs at 55 @.@ 20 including a century against a combined Transvaal XI .
= = = Attempted comeback = = =
Returning to Australia , he had a moderately successful Sheffield Shield season , accumulating 376 runs at 31 @.@ 33 with three half @-@ centuries . New South Wales went on to win another title . The selectors named him to lead an Australian Second XI to New Zealand — while the first choice team toured the Indian subcontinent — hoping that he was still good enough to secure a long @-@ term future in the Australian team . The four matches against New Zealand were closely contested . In the first match , Australia were 7 / 201 in pursuit of 22 for victory when time ran out . In the second fixture , Craig made 70 as the tourists struggled to 8 / 211 in pursuit of 262 for victory to hold on for a draw . After narrowly escaping defeat in the first two matches , Australia won the third match by eight wickets . In the final match , Australia reduced New Zealand to 8 / 149 in pursuit of 284 when time ran out , sealing a 1 – 0 series win . Craig struggled with the bat , making 222 runs at 27 @.@ 75 in the games against New Zealand .
Craig had a strong Sheffield Shield season in 1960 – 61 . At the time , he had become a production manager at his pharmaceutical firm and declared that the season would be his last owing to work commitments . His employers had been pressuring him to commit to a career after cricket . Early in the campaign , Craig scored consecutive centuries against Queensland and Victoria . He then scored 83 as New South Wales defeated the touring West Indians by an innings and 97 runs , but he was overlooked for Test selection . He ended his season with 197 in an innings victory over Western Australia . Overall , he totalled 710 runs at 59 @.@ 16 , as New South Wales won their eighth successive Shield . After a successful campaign , he reversed his decision and made himself available for the 1961 tour of England , but Bill Lawry was selected ahead of him .
= = = Final season = = =
The 1961 – 62 season was Craig 's last at first @-@ class level ; he accumulated 629 runs at 37 @.@ 00 , with seven fifties but he was unable to convert any of these into a century . In one match against arch @-@ rivals Victoria , Craig scored 80 and 65 not out to help his team to a ten @-@ wicket triumph . New South Wales won six consecutive matches to seal another title , but Craig found himself under increasing pressure for his place in the state team ; with no internationals that season , all the Test players were available , which put his position under threat . New South Wales had a streak of nine consecutive Shield titles up until 1961 – 62 , and the batting line @-@ up was particularly strong . The 1950s – 60s era teams were regarded as among the strongest in Australian history . In total , Craig acted as captain in 48 first @-@ class matches , winning 27 , tying one and losing only two . Although Craig 's record as the youngest captain in Test history has now been surpassed , he remains the youngest Australian to have scored a first @-@ class double century , play a Test match and then captain the national team .
Craig signed off on his first @-@ class career at the end of the season with a tour of New Zealand with an International XI . He played in three matches and ended with 240 runs at 48 @.@ 00 ; in his final match , against the Cricket Club of India President 's XI , he made 101 , his 15th century at first @-@ class level .
= = Style = =
Standing 173 cm ( 5 ft 8 in ) and weighing 63 kg ( 139 lb ) , Craig was a lightly built and frail looking batsman . He had a neat and compact batting style . Craig was known for his leg side batting repertoire , in particular his ability to clip the ball from his pads . He had an unorthodox grip , low on the bat handle with the back of the top hand pointing to point . This caused him to have a tendency to close the face of his bat . Although Craig was small in stature , he was still able to hit the ball a long distance . During the testimonial match for Lindsay Hassett at the end of the 1953 – 54 season , Craig struck four sixes in five balls from the off spin of Johnson . During his first tour to England , Craig had difficulty with off cutters bowled by pacemen and eschwed the hook shot , but after his comeback from illness , he transformed himself into an opening batsman , earning praise for his performances against the express pace of Wes Hall and Ian Meckiff . Benaud felt that Craig was finally reaping the rewards of his early experience . On Australian pitches , Craig had a reputation for having difficulty with the left arm wrist spin of Kline and David Sincock . Craig 's light build allowed him to move quickly while fielding , prompting Robinson to call him " the Bambi of the fielding side . " In his early years , Craig was a non @-@ smoker , but the pressure and tension brought on by the burden of captaincy resulted in him taking up the habit . He was known for being softly spoken , with his players often having to ask him to repeat his instructions . Craig had a reputation for being good @-@ natured ; he did not complain about his cricket career and said that he had " no regrets . "
= = After cricket = =
Craig retired from first @-@ class cricket at just 26 years of age in 1962 , but continued playing for Mosman in Sydney grade cricket on weekends until 1969 . His marriage to Rosslyn Carroll in 1962 and his pharmaceutical career prevented him from applying himself fully to cricket . The couple had a boy and a girl , as well as an adopted son . Craig joined the Australian subsidiary of the British pharmaceutical firm Boots , rising to the position of managing director . He later served on the board of directors of the Bradman Museum in Bowral and later became its chairman . He was a board member of the New South Wales Cricket Association ( NSWCA ) for three years and served on the Trust of the Sydney Cricket Ground for varying periods from 1968 to 1996 , totalling 18 years . Upon first being appointed in 1968 to replace Stan McCabe , Craig was the youngest ever trustee of the SCG . One of the most controversial incidents during this time occurred in 1977 – 78 during the period of the breakaway World Series Cricket , which wanted to install floodlights at the SCG . The NSWCA opposed this , while the government sided with WSC . As a result of Craig 's support of the NSWCA , the government dismissed him . Craig retired as the managing director of Boots ' Australian subsidiaries . Craig was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia in 1997 for his contributions to cricket as a player and administrator . He died in Bowral from cancer on 16 November 2014 .
= = Test match performance = =
= Phellodon =
Phellodon is a genus of tooth fungi in the family Bankeraceae . Species have small- to medium @-@ sized fruitbodies with white spines on the underside from which spores are released . All Phellodon have a short stalk or stipe , and so the genus falls into the group known as " stipitate hydnoid fungi " . The tough and leathery flesh usually has a pleasant , fragrant odor , and develops a cork @-@ like texture when dry . Neighboring fruitbodies can fuse together , sometimes producing large mats of joined caps . Phellodon species produce a white spore print , while the individual spores are roughly spherical to ellipsoid in shape , with spiny surfaces .
The genus , with about 20 described species , has a distribution that includes to Asia , Europe , North America , South America , Australia , and New Zealand . About half of the species are found in the southeastern United States , including three species added to the genus in 2013 – 14 . Several Phellodon species were placed on a preliminary Red List of threatened British fungi because of a general decline of the genus in Europe . Species grow in a symbiotic mycorrhizal association with trees from the families Fagaceae ( beeches and oaks ) and Pinaceae ( pines ) . Accurate DNA @-@ based methods have been developed to determine the presence of Phellodon species in the soil , even in the extended absence of visible fruitbodies . Although Phellodon fruitbodies are considered inedible due to their fibrous flesh , the type species , P. niger , is used in mushroom dyeing .
= = Taxonomy = =
Phellodon was circumscribed in 1881 by Finnish mycologist Petter Karsten to contain white @-@ toothed fungi . Karsten included three species : P. cyathiformis , P. melaleucus , and the type , P. niger ( originally published with the epithet nigrum ) . P. nigrum was originally described by Elias Fries in 1815 as a species of Hydnum . Some early authors did not consider Phellodon distinct enough to be a separate genus , and folded species assigned to this genus into Hydnellum .
Hydnellum is classified in the family Bankeraceae , which was circumscribed by Marinus Anton Donk in 1961 . Donk 's original family concept included the genera Bankera and Phellodon , whose species produce hyaline ( translucent ) and echinulate spores ( covered with small spines ) . Donk also noted that Bankeraceae species lacked clamp connections . When clamp connections were discovered in Phellodon fibulatus and tuberculate spore ornamentation ( the presence of small nodules on the spores ) was found in P. niger , Kenneth Harrison thought the family Bankeraceae was superfluous , and placed Phellodon and Bankera in the family Hydnaceae . This taxonomic rearrangement was rejected by Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus in 1974 , who showed that the tuberculate spores of P. niger were the result of an immature specimen . Richard Baird and Saeed Khan investigated spore ornamentation in North American Phellodon species using scanning electron microscopy , and rejected the placement of Phellodon in the Bankeraceae , preferring to leave it and Bankera in the Hydnaceae . Modern molecular phylogenetic analysis places Phellodon in the thelephoroid clade ( roughly equivalent to the order Thelephorales ) along with the related genera Bankera , Hydnellum , and Sarcodon . Although the status of the Bankeraceae has not been fully clarified with molecular genetic techniques , Phellodon is classified in this family by authorities on fungal taxonomy .
The generic name is derived from phell- , meaning " cork " , and -don , meaning " tooth " . In North America , Phellodon species are commonly known as " cork hydnums " . The British Mycological Society , in their recommended list of common names for fungi in the United Kingdom , name Phellodon species in the form " descriptor word " plus " tooth " : fused tooth ( P. confluens ) , grey tooth ( P. melaleucus ) , black tooth ( P. niger ) , and woolly tooth ( P. tomentosus ) .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Phellodon species have caps and stipe , and thus fall into the general category " stipitate hydnoid fungi " . The cap surfaces are initially velvety to tomentose , eventually becoming matted . The surface is rough , with pits and ridges , and sometimes with concentrical zones of color or texture . The color can vary considerably , from cream to yellowish , brownish , greenish , greyish or black . Neighboring fruitbodies can fuse together , forming intertwined caps and partially fused stipes . Alexander H. Smith wrote of P. tomentosus , " It often occurs in large mats of fused caps almost producing a ceiling over large areas of the moss under conifers . " Phellodon fruitbodies can envelop nearby grass or twigs . The stipe is thickly tomentose or smooth , typically the same color as the cap or darker . In P. niger , the outer covering of the stipe is a thick felty layer of mycelium that absorbs water like a sponge . The hymenophore ( the fertile , spore @-@ bearing surface ) is on the underside of the cap . The spines become grey at maturity . In conditions of high humidity , P. niger can form striking drops of black liquid on the actively growing caps .
The fibrous flesh is single to double @-@ layered ; duplex layering results from differences in compactness or in the alignment of the constituent hyphae . Tough and leathery when fresh , the flesh develops a corklike texture when dry . In the dried state it often has an odor of fenugreek or curry powder . Phellodon species are often free of insect damage , suggesting that they may have defensive chemicals that deter predation . Fruitbodies are not considered edible due to their fibrous flesh .
The hyphal system is monomitic , containing only generative hyphae . These hyphae are not less than 6 μm in diameter . All European species lack clamp connections , but they are present in the North American species P. fibulatus and P. mississippiensis . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored . Cystidia are either absent , or present infrequently as incompletely differentiated cystidioles ( sterile cells about the size of an immature basidium ) . In mass , the spores are white . Spores are broadly ellipsoid to roughly spherical , and echinulose ( covered with small spines ) . They are also hyaline and inamyloid .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Fruit bodies grow on the ground . Phellodon species , like all members of the order Thelephorales , are thought to be mycorrhizal , forming symbiotic relationships with trees . Usual hosts include species from the families Fagaceae ( beeches and oaks ) and Pinaceae . The ectomycorrhizae that P. niger forms with Norway spruce ( Picea abies ) has been comprehensively described . It is distinguished from the ectomycorrhizae of other Thelephorales species by the unique shape of its chlamydospores . Stable isotope ratio analysis of the abundance of the stable isotope carbon @-@ 13 shows that P. niger has a metabolic signature close to that of saprotrophic fungi , indicating that it may be able to obtain carbon from sources other than a tree host .
Many Phellodon species are known from the southeastern United States , where they have been extensively researched . According to Baird and colleagues , there are nine distinct Phellodon species from Great Smoky Mountains and the surrounding southern Appalachian Mountains . Three additional species from this area , P. mississippiensis , P. brunneo @-@ olivaceus , and P. fuligineoalbus were added to the genus in 2013 – 14 .
= = Conservation = =
Phellodon species , like other members of the family Bankeraceae , are sensitive to air pollution and soil pollution , and are in general decline in western Europe . In a preliminary assessment for a red list of threatened British Fungi , P. confluens , P. tomentosus , and P. melaleucus are considered vulnerable , and P. niger is rare .
Conservation efforts for stipitate hydnoid fungi are hampered by a dearth of information about their basic ecology , and so molecular genetic techniques are increasingly employed in attempts to better understand these fungi . In the case of Phellodon tomentosus , for example , there is little correlation between fruitbody appearance and below @-@ ground mycelium , making it hard to determine the distribution and rarity of the fungus with standard surveying techniques . Phellodon melaleucus and P. niger were included in a Scottish study to develop species @-@ specific PCR primers that can be used to detect the mycelia of stipitate hydnoids in soil . DNA testing of collections labelled as P. melaleucus and P. niger from the United Kingdom revealed additional cryptic species . PCR analysis can be used to determine the presence of a Phellodon species up to four years after the appearance of fruitbodies , allowing a more accurate determination of their possible decline and threat of extinction .
= = Chemistry = =
Phellodon species contain thelephoric acid , a metabolite of the shikimic acid pathway . Thelephoric acid is a terphenyl quinone — a 1 @,@ 4 @-@ benzoquinone wherein positions carbon @-@ 2 and carbon @-@ 5 are substituted with phenyl groups . The hirsutane derivative phellodonic acid is found in P. melaleucus . Phellodonic acid , which exhibits antibiotic activity towards bacteria and other fungi , was the first bioactive compound reported from any member of the order Thelephorales . A total synthesis was described for phellodonic acid in 2008 using cis @-@ 1 @,@ 2 @-@ dihydrocatechol as the starting material . The compound atromentin was reported to occur in fruitbodies of P. melaleucus , but this was not confirmed in a later analysis . P. niger has been a source for several bioactive compounds : the cyathane @-@ type diterpenoids , nigernin A and B ; a nitrogenous terphenyl derivative , phellodonin ; 2 ' , 3 ' -diacetoxy @-@ 3 @,@ 4 @,@ 5 ' , 6 ' , 4 ' '-pentahydroxy @-@ p @-@ terphenyl ; grifolin ; and 4 @-@ O @- | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
monstrous Ing guardians on her mission .
After Samus has retrieved three pieces of the Light of Aether , she enters the Ing 's Sky Temple and faces the Emperor Ing , the strongest Ing who guards the remaining Light of Aether in the Dark Aether . Samus defeats the creature and retrieves the last remaining energy as Dark Aether , becomes critically unstable and collapses ; however , her path out of the temple is blocked by a horribly altered and unstable Dark Samus . After defeating her foe , Samus escapes as the dark world disappears around her . Returning to U @-@ Mos , she finds that the Luminoth were in a state of hibernation but have now awakened . After a brief celebration , Samus leaves Aether in her repaired gunship . If the player has collected 100 percent of the power @-@ ups , a post @-@ credits scene shows Dark Samus has survived the implosion , and now reforming herself above Aether .
= = Development = =
After the critical and commercial success of Metroid Prime , Nintendo asked Retro Studios to produce a sequel . The developers decided against recycling the features of the first game , and instead used new sound models , weapon effects , and art designs . They also implemented the Screw Attack and wall jumping features seen in previous Metroid games , which were not incorporated in the first Prime due to time constraints . Another element considered for the previous game was the multiplayer component . Since the game was a first @-@ person adventure and its deathmatch mode could not easily replicate other shooters in the market , Retro just tried to " make a multiplayer experience that fans of Metroid games would instantly know and recognise " .
The staff opted for a more immersive storyline , with increased use of cut scenes and a plot that focused less on the Space Pirates and Metroids that permeate the rest of the series . Retro decided that the game would follow a theme of light and dark , which originated from " something that everyone understands : the conflict between good and evil " . Mike Wikan , the game 's senior designer , elaborated on the theme : " We wanted a push and pull , the whole game is pushing and pulling you back and forth between the dark and the light . It ended up being that we wanted something that would feed into that dichotomy , that conflict between the two , and how the player 's basic abilities reflect that . " The developers asked the producers of The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past , another Nintendo game , for advice because the game also used the theme of parallel worlds .
In developing Dark Samus , Retro wanted to create a character that was similar to Samus and be the same size , as opposed to the enormous monsters of Metroid Prime . One of the inspirations for the character was a boss battle in Metroid : Zero Mission , where Samus fights a mirror image of herself . The developers considered Dark Samus a " natural choice " for the game because it fit in well with the " dramatic feel of dark and light " .
Retro decided to make the game more challenging than Metroid Prime — which was supposed to familiarize players with the control scheme — and felt that " with the second Prime , we had the ability or the freedom " to do so . They wanted Echoes to be focused towards a hardcore audience by making the player " always worried about his health " , so more mini @-@ bosses were added to provide unique boss fights . After the game 's release , the developers admitted that it was more difficult to develop than they first imagined , and Michael Kelbaugh , Retro Studios ' president , commented : " We wanted to expand and add to the title , and not just slam out a sequel . Nintendo doesn 't do things that way . " Retro tried to include some extras , such as a hidden version of Super Metroid , but were halted by the short development time . Producer Kensuke Tanabe later revealed that the game was just about thirty percent complete three months before the strict deadline Nintendo had set for a release in the 2004 holiday season .
The music for Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes was composed by Kenji Yamamoto . The themes used for areas on Dark Aether are dark variations of the themes used for the same areas on Light Aether . Some remixes of music from the previous Metroid games were also used , with the escape theme being a remix of Metroid 's " Escape " theme , the " Hunters " multiplayer theme taking on Super Metroid 's " Upper Brinstar " theme , and the theme for the underwater Torvus region , the " Lower Brinstar " theme from the same game .
= = Release = =
= = = Versions = = =
Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes was originally released for the GameCube in North America on November 15 , 2004 , Europe on November 26 , and in Australia on December 2 . The PAL version of Echoes have lacked the standard 50 Hz mode , and offered 60 Hz mode only . In Japan , it was later released on May 26 , 2005 , titled Metroid Prime 2 : Dark Echoes .
Echoes was re @-@ released in Japan in 2009 for the Wii as part of the New Play Control ! series . It has revamped controls that use the Wii Remote 's pointing functionality , similar to those of Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption . The credit system from Corruption is also included to unlock the original bonus content , as well as the ability to take snapshots of gameplay . The difficulty of the boss battles in Echoes was also lowered . Metroid Prime , Echoes , and Corruption were bundled together on a single disc as Metroid Prime : Trilogy , released in North America on August 24 , 2009 . Both Prime and Echoes contain all of the enhancements found in their Japanese New Play Control ! counterparts . On January 29 , 2015 , the compilation became available for download from the Wii U 's Nintendo eShop .
= = = Marketing = = =
Nintendo launched several websites to initiate a viral marketing campaign for Echoes , with inspiration drawn from Halo 2 's alternate reality game I Love Bees . The websites included Luminoth Temple , an Internet forum ; Channel 51 , a conspiracy theory website that featured grainy QuickTime videos of Metroid Prime 2 as if it were footage of extraterrestrials ; Orbis Labs , which sold a " self @-@ contained armored machine " called " Battle Sphere " , similar to the Morph Ball ; and Athena Astronautics , which advertised sending women into space , featured a blog , and offered job positions for bounty hunters on Monster.com. Athena Astronautics gave a random selection of 25 people who replied to the offer an " interactive training manual " , which was in fact a free copy of Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes .
A Metroid @-@ related spoof of " I Love Bees " appeared online in October 2004 , to which Nintendo reacted by stating that it was not involved with it . The campaign featured similarly named domain names such as ilovebeams.com , which each had an image of Samus with the caption : " All your bees are belong to us . Never send a man to do a woman 's job . "
= = Reception = =
Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes was critically acclaimed upon release . When comparing it to its predecessor , Metroid Prime , GameSpot 's Brad Shoemaker said that Echoes was as good as its predecessor , and delivered everything he expected . IGN 's Matt Casamassina called the gameplay " superb " and " nearly flawless " , and Vicious Sid of GamePro praised Echoes as " an extraordinary return to form " . Echoes was considered one of the best single @-@ player experiences on the GameCube by Kristan Reed of Eurogamer , who also considered the story to be " intricately designed and elaborately constructed into a coherent environment " . GameSpot and IGN praised the campaign as a lengthy and rewarding adventure and appreciated the minimum 20 hours required to complete the game . The game was considered suitable for players of any age by Computer and Video Games , which called Echoes essential for anyone who owned a GameCube . The theme 's dynamics between dark and light was lauded by GamePro , along with the " simple , quirky , and ridiculously addictive " multiplayer mode .
Echoes 's graphics and design received significant praise ; GameSpot considered it some of the best on the GameCube , and IGN called it " gorgeous " and " one of the prettiest GameCube titles " . The Guardian 's Nick Gillett found the game entertaining and stated that its maps , terrain , and bestiary made the game an amazing epic space adventure . Bryn Williams from GameSpy complimented the game 's controls and level design , commenting that the game was challenging but fair .
A major criticism of Echoes focused on the game 's high difficulty , with Game Informer declaring that " not only are the boss fights unforgiving , the environment is sometimes difficult to follow " . Some reviewers found it difficult to search for the Sky Temple keys . GameSpot criticized this mechanism and called it " a scavenger hunt much tougher than the rest of the game " , and 1UP.com said that the only purpose it served was to artificially extend the game 's length . The game 's multiplayer mode was also considered unsatisfying . GameSpy called it a " secondary feature " , The Age 's Jason Hill called it " bland and dull " and Eurogamer said that the single @-@ player features did not translate well to that mode . Game Informer criticized the multiplayer mode because of its inclusion of the lock @-@ on mechanism , considering it a feature that made multiplayer too simple .
IGN was critical of Echoes ' graphics and noted that the textures sometimes blurred when viewed up close , and the frame rate occasionally decreased . Publications including IGN and The Independent considered the gameplay too similar to Metroid Prime , while GamePro was unhappy that the game did not have a customizable control scheme . Computer and Video Games and The Age were disappointed that Echoes was not as innovative in terms of gameplay as Metroid Prime . The Age 's review also found the control scheme " unwieldy " and the difficulty " unforgiving " . Serge Pennings of The Observer noted there were too few opportunities to save the game while playing , an aspect X @-@ Play also criticized by saying that most of the game 's difficulty was " because the save system is poorly implemented and downright cheap " .
Echoes sold 470 @,@ 000 copies in North America in December 2004 . It was the ninth best @-@ selling game in its debut month in Japan with 16 @,@ 105 copies sold , ranking it behind Yu Yu Hakusho Forever and Hanjuku Hero 4 : 7 @-@ Jin no Hanjuku Hero . By August 2009 , 800 @,@ 000 copies had sold worldwide . Echoes won an award in almost every category it was nominated for at the 2004 Nintendo Power Awards , and won awards for Best GameCube Game of 2004 from IGN , Electronic Gaming Monthly , and GameSpy . It was rated the 174th best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list , the 74th best game by GameFAQs users , the 15th best GameCube game by IGN , and the 13th best by GameSpy .
= Delrina =
Delrina was a Canadian software company , which was founded in 1988 and was subsequently acquired by the American software firm Symantec in 1995 . The company sold electronic form products , including PerForm and FormFlow , but was best known for its WinFax software package , which enabled computers equipped with fax modems to transmit copies of documents to standalone fax machines or other similarly equipped computers .
Delrina also produced a set of screensavers , including one that resulted in a well @-@ publicized lawsuit for copyright and trademark infringement ( Berkeley Systems Inc. v. Delrina ) . The case set a precedent in American law whereby satiric commercial software products are not subject to the same First Amendment exemptions as parodic cartoons or literature .
It also sold online communications software with its WinComm product and produced a Web browser called Cyberjack . The firm was sold to Symantec in 1995 . After the company was acquired by Symantec , various divisions were sold off and several of Delrina 's former executives went on to found venture capital firms .
= = Corporate history = =
Delrina was founded in Toronto in 1988 by Zimbabwean expatriate Bert Amato , South African expatriates Mark Skapinker and Dennis Bennie and American Lou Ryan . Delrina was Bennie 's second major entrepreneurial start up after co @-@ founding Mission Electronics , a home theatre equipment company . Delrina 's business strategy was to " establish technical and market leadership in niche markets " , which it accomplished with its electronic form and PC @-@ based fax software . A year before the firm was incorporated , Amato and Skapinker had quit their jobs to start work on an electronic forms product which would eventually become PerForm . Both would later meet with Bennie , who was then the Chief Executive Officer of Carolian Systems International , a firm that made business software for Hewlett @-@ Packard . Bennie facilitated an initial seed investment of $ 1 @.@ 5 million CAD to finance a new start @-@ up company , " Delrina " , to develop this idea . In return , Carolian received 51 % of Delrina 's shares .
Delrina 's initial corporate headquarters was located in a small office on Mount Pleasant St in Toronto . A sales office was set up in San Jose , California which became its worldwide sales center run by co @-@ founder Lou Ryan . From its Toronto headquarters , the company expanded by establishing branch offices in Kirkland , Washington ; Washington , DC ; and Lexington , Massachusetts . Other offices were later established in the United Kingdom , France , and Germany .
= = = Origins of PerForm = = =
Delrina 's initial product offering was an electronic forms application called PerForm . Amato and Skapinker came up with the idea for the product while working as consultants that what their clients wanted was a way to fill in forms electronically , rather than an easier way to create paper @-@ based forms from a computer . There was significant and long @-@ term uptake of electronic forms products within governmental agencies both in Canada and the United States , the latter spurred on in particular by the requirements of the Paperwork Reduction Act to reduce the total amount of paperwork handled by the United States government . One of the firm 's early major software deals included a multi @-@ year agreement to sell PerForm to the U.S. Navy in 1990 . Soon after the software was installed on Compaq laptops that accompanied U.S. troops during the First Gulf War , where it was used to requisition " everything from Coca @-@ Cola to privies " . Other significant volume sales went to 3M and Rockwell International . What helped set apart Delrina 's electronic forms from its competitors in product reviews included its easy @-@ to @-@ use interface , its extensive development tools , and its comparatively low price . It also scored highly when it came to workflow and routing functions as well as security features . In early 1991 InfoWorld selected PerForm Pro as its " Product of the Year " in the electronic forms category , and PC World Magazine gave the product it 's " Best Buy " designation . PerForm proved to be successful in its niche , effectively capturing the retail market by 1993 .
In the early 1990s Delrina made deals with value @-@ added resellers like NCR and GE Information Services who had the staff to customize the product to the needs of corporate customers looking to move away from paper @-@ based forms . The forms products sold well and the annual revenues for the firm grew steadily ; 1989 annual revenues ( in Canadian dollars ) were $ 5 @,@ 630 @,@ 393 , in 1990 they were $ 8 @,@ 759 @,@ 623 , and by 1991 they were $ 11 @,@ 894 @,@ 474 .
= = = Struggle for profitability = = =
Despite the growing revenues , the company struggled to make a profit . Heavy expenditures — primarily marketing along with research and development costs — drove the firm 's losses from $ 500 @,@ 000 from 1989 to $ 1 @.@ 5 million by the end of the following fiscal year . For fiscal 1991 it posted a net loss of $ 1 @.@ 7 million .
Needing an infusion of funds , in April 1991 Bennie managed to raise $ 7 @.@ 7 million in a private placement .
The firm subsequently sought to find ways to more widely distribute its electronic form software , with Bennie saying in May 1992 that " we 've barely scratched the surface of our market " .
In early 1992 word leaked to the press on a possible merger between WordStar International Inc . , and soon after both firms made public the fact that they had signed a letter of intent on a merger deal . However , just over a month later word came out that the merger talks had fallen through , at the time cited to differences over " complex legal , accounting and management issues " . WordStar , whose share of the word processing market had by that time fallen to 5 % ( from a high of 80 % ) was seeking Delrina 's advanced technologies while Delrina was hoping to utilize the other firm 's established global sales network . Despite the failure of the merger talks , Bennie said soon after that " we 're still convinced that a larger sales force would give us the kind of marketing clout we need . I still believe that it 's possible for us to become a global operation " . Not long after WordStar merged with Spinnaker Software Corporation and SoftKey Software Products Inc. to form SoftKey International . Delrina subsequently signed deals with Wallace Computer Services , UARCO and NCR Corporation in an effort to gain greater sales distribution of its products .
= = = Development of WinFax = = =
In a deliberate attempt to diversify the business , The Company chose to move into the fax software market with its WinFax product . Software developer Tony Davis ( another South African expatriate who had moved to Canada ) was initially hired as a consultant to work on the forms line of products in the late 1980s , soon afterwards becoming part of that team . In his spare time he developed a prototype of what would become the first WinFax product , with the agreement that Delrina would be its publisher . In 1990 Delrina devoted a relatively small space to this new product at that year 's COMDEX ( a computer trade show ) , under a sign that said simply : " Send a Fax from Your PC " . It garnered the most attention of any Delrina product being demonstrated at that show . This interest convinced the founding partners of the commercial viability of the product . Tony Davis went on to sell his product idea to Delrina , and stayed on as its lead software architect and designer .
The initial version of WinFax only worked on fax modems containing a specific chipset , and was only capable of sending faxes ; it could not receive them . This was remedied with the launch of the WinFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 product during the summer of 1991 . One of the key factors that differentiated this version of WinFax from other fax software packages of the time was the deliberate attempt to make the program compatible with all fax / modems . Prior to the introduction of WinFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 , competitors concentrated primarily on building software that would only work with a single brand of fax / modem hardware . At the same time that it launched its WinFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 product , Delrina also announced an OEM version of the same product designed to be bundled with new fax / modems . Within a few months , eight modem manufacturers had agreed to bundle this OEM version ( called " WinFax LITE " ) of the program along with their own product . By the summer of the following year this number had grown to 50 OEM partnerships with various fax @-@ modem and computer system manufacturers to bundle the " LITE " version of Delrina 's WinFax software with their own products . By February 1993 this number had grown to over 100 OEM partnerships .
Bundling the LITE version of WinFax proved to be lucrative for Delrina . Whenever a person used the program for the first time and submitted their registration information by fax to the company , Delrina would subsequently mail the user an upgrade offer for the PRO version . This sales technique proved to be very effective , and the firm ended up making most of its sales from these upgrades .
In order to reach Apple computer users in this marketplace Delrina acquired Solutions Inc. and their BackFax software for the Macintosh platform in December 1991 , which would become " Delrina Fax Pro " . A version of the program was also designed for use in DOS ( " DosFax PRO " ) which was launched in June 1992 .
Initially looking for ways to further improve its electronic forms software , in November 1991 Delrina had attempted to buy two associated firms that produced Optical Character Recognition ( OCR ) software , with the intention of incorporating OCR functionality into its forms products . The acquisition deal fell through , though by Fall 1992 Delrina had made a deal with Caere Corporation to include its AnyFax OCR software within its products . This functionality was incorporated into WinFax PRO 3 @.@ 0 in late 1992 , and subsequently in FormFlow Despite the agreement with Caere , the subsequent version of WinFax used Xerox 's TextBridge OCR engine instead .
Based on strong sales of WinFax , by October 1992 Delrina posted its first profitable quarter in three years . At the same time , the firm also announced its intention to acquire other software firms that sold into the consumer software market .
= = = Acquisition of Amaze Inc . = = =
In October 1992 Delrina acquired Amaze Inc . , based out of Kirkland , Washington . The firm created daily planner software , providing time management features while providing some humour by featuring licensed cartoon strips like Cathy , Bloom County , B.C. and The Far Side . The firm became a wholly owned subsidiary of Delrina in a deal which also paid down Amaze 's $ 3 million ( U.S. ) debt and placed two of the firm 's directors on Delrina 's board . These two individuals were Rowland Hanson , former VP Corporate Communications for Microsoft and George Clut .
= = = = Berkeley Systems Inc. v. Delrina = = = =
One of Delrina 's screensaver products was based on the licensed Bloom County characters Opus the Penguin and Bill the Cat . The initial Opus ' n Bill screensaver , launched in 1993 , landed the company in court as its Death Toasters module depicted Opus taking shots at a number of flying toasters , a well @-@ known emblem in Berkeley System 's Flying Toasters module from their After Dark screensaver . Berkeley Systems sued for copyright and trademark infringement . The following court case of Berkeley Systems Inc. v. Delrina was fought by Delrina on the basis that a software @-@ based parody should fall under the same First Amendment protection offered to the press .
A preliminary injunction was filed against Delrina in September 1993 which halted the sale of the product , and subsequently forced a recall of it through the court . The case drew political satirist Mark Russell to speak in defense of Delrina , who argued in favour of the screensaver as a valid parody , while the estate of composer Irving Berlin sided with Berkeley . Commenting on the case involving his characters , cartoonist Berkeley Breathed said : " If David Letterman can depict the NBC peacock wearing men 's boxer shorts , then Delrina should be able to plug a flying toaster with hot lead " .
Judge Eugene Lynch found in favour of Berkeley , citing that a commercial software product was not subject to the same exemptions as parodist literature , and that the toasters were too similar in design . The total cost of the court case and the recalled product was roughly $ 150 @,@ 000 U.S.
In the court case , it was also cited that the design for winged toasters was not original and that the Berkeley Systems ' design was itself derived from the Jefferson Airplane album Thirty Seconds Over Winterland , which also used flying toasters adorned with wings . Berkeley argued that the firm was unaware of the previous artwork until 1991 , and that the album cover 's toasters had clocks in addition to their wings . Jefferson Airplane later sued Berkeley Systems in turn for the use of the same flying toaster emblem . The rock group lost the case as they did not trademark the album cover at the time of publication .
The court decision was interpreted by the writer L. Ray Patterson as an erosion of First Amendment rights over the increasing protection provided to copyright holders .
While Delrina lost the court case , the publicity it generated was substantial , with coverage in over a thousand newspapers across North America , resulting in consumers turning out in droves to buy the offending program before it could be recalled .
Delrina subsequently removed the wings from the toasters and replaced them with propellers in order to avoid trademark infringement . The module was also renamed from " Death Toasters " to " Censored Toaster Module " . Thanks to the publicity from the court case , sales of this new version ended up being triple what had been expected . Updated modules for this particular screensaver were sold for the next couple of years .
Josef Zankowicz , who managed the firm 's publicity during this period , later commented : " We had the feeling that we might get sued — actually , we prayed to get sued . Because by suing us , the number one player in the marketplace opened up the door . Anyone can create an interesting product , spend $ 10 million and create awareness of it . But it 's another thing to create a product and spend one @-@ tenth that amount and create twice as much awareness . "
This division of the firm at its height only represented less than 15 % of the company 's total revenues .
= = = WinFax = = =
The increasing sales of the WinFax product lead to significant growth in revenues for the firm ; by 1992 its sales had climbed to $ 19 @,@ 208 @,@ 420 , and more than doubling the next year to $ 48 @,@ 583 @,@ 932 . The product soon overtook that of the initial forms product in terms of revenues , and within a few years of its launch , WinFax would account for 80 % of the company 's revenues . By 1994 the firm had sold more than 3 million copies of WinFax , and it regularly featured in the " Top 10 " lists of software applications sold during this period .
The rapid growth in sales of this product was unexpected , with Bennie quoted in an interview from late 1993 as saying " the success of WinFax really caught us by surprise " . With the success of the WinFax product , the company grew rapidly . By early 1993 the number of employees had grown to 250 , and by the end of the year to 350 . The increasing success of the WinFax product consequently led to significant strains on the firm to handle the increasing volume of calls to its Technical Support department , as each of the over 300 modems on the market at the time had their own nuances in how they implemented the fax data standard . Delrina spent roughly $ 800 @,@ 000 in an improved telephone infrastructure in an attempt to get wait times to under five minutes . In December 1993 Delrina hired 40 additional people to help alleviate the growing number of calls to the firm for technical support . By the end of 1994 the situation had improved to the point where noted industry commentator Robert X. Cringely put Delrina in his shortlist of firms providing " exceptional " product support .
In order to further enhance the appeal of its new flagship product , in 1993 the firm established a Communication Services division , designed to tap into the commercial market . The firm started making deals with major telecommunication companies , such as BellSouth and MCI Inc. in preparation for the services the firm was about to offer . In November of that year the division launched its Fax Broadcast service . The Fax Broadcast service allowed subscribers to upload a single fax and a recipient list to Delrina . Systems at Delrina would then send out the fax to the recipients on that list , to a maximum of 500 fax numbers . A subsequent Fax Mailbox feature — which enabled subscribers to remotely access both fax and voice messages from a single phone number — was initially held up following a dispute with AlphaNet Telecom for the rights to the technology . This dispute was resolved by June 1994 , though with both sides publicly disputing the story of the other , and with AlphaNet receiving an undisclosed sum in compensation .
By late 1994 the firm was considered one of the fastest @-@ growing software companies in North America , and employed over 500 people , most located at its offices in Toronto . The firm 's financial situation improved greatly , and by February 1995 Delrina was reported to have captured almost three @-@ quarters of the fax software market , was debt @-@ free and had $ 40 million in the bank . The firm was shipping 200 @,@ 000 units of WinFax a month , and had an installed base of four million users . The cost of doing business had also improved , as the firm 's cost of sales was now 25 % of net sales , down from 30 % the previous fiscal year , improving the firm 's gross profits .
= = = The impact of Windows 95 = = =
In November 1992 Skapinker met Bill Gates at a Microsoft @-@ sponsored dinner where he asked whether there were any plans to include any fax functionality in their forthcoming operating system ( which could become Windows 95 ) . Gates replied that there were plans to include " base @-@ level fax capability " in the next version of Windows , and suggested that Skapinker get in touch with his development staff in order to produce a value @-@ added product for it .
The firm decided to work on a suite of applications designed to be an enhancement on what was to be available of Windows 95 . In response to a question about Windows 95 , Bennie responded by saying : " We are quite convinced that on top of Windows 95 , we can build four different applications and will encompass fax , data , telephony or digital voice , and Internet access " . This would later become the CommSuite 95 product .
In 1994 the firm acquired AudioFile , a company that specialized in computer @-@ based voice technology . The company created a product called TalkWorks , which enabled users to use certain fax / modems as a voice mail client .
Seeing a growing business in online communications utilities , Delrina licensed Hilgraeve 's HyperACCESS terminal emulator system in 1993 , and used it as the basis for the initial version of its WinComm online communications software . The initial version of the product was originally bundled with WinFax as part of the Delrina Communications Suite , but in March 1994 was issued as a standalone product . It was a relative latecomer to the market , which was then dominated at the time by Datastorm 's Procomm series of communications software .
Delrina tried to expand aggressively into this market space , first by acquiring the Canadian online bulletin board service CRS Online , and then using it as a distribution channel for free versions of its WinComm LITE and DOS @-@ based FreeComm products in March 1995 .
When the Internet was opened to commercial interests in the mid @-@ 1990s , Delrina started to expand in this nascent market space with their Cyberjack 7 @.@ 0 product , launched in December 1995 . Created by a development team based in South Africa , it included a Web browser , Usenet news reader , ftp client , IRC and integration with the Microsoft Exchange email program . The program used an interesting variant of the now @-@ common bookmark , using a " Guidebook " to store information for various Internet addresses .
CommSuite 95 shipped later that same month , bundling WinFax PRO 7 @.@ 0 along with WinComm PRO 7 @.@ 0 , TalkWorks and the Cyberjack suite of Internet components .
With the release of Windows 95 in August 1995 , Delrina was now competing directly against Microsoft in the fax / electronic communications marketplace , as Windows 95 included a basic faxing application as an accessory , along with a licensed version of Hilgraeve 's HyperTerminal communication package , ( which was also used as the basis for Delrina 's own WinComm program ) . While these applications offered only rudimentary fax and online communication services in comparison to the mature Delrina products , Microsoft was perceived as a potentially serious future competitor in the communications market space . The release of the initial version of Microsoft 's Internet Explorer in late 1995 as a free product effectively killed off the early emerging market for non @-@ free browsers , creating a market where Delrina 's Cyberjack browser could not hope to compete .
= = = Acquisition by Symantec and aftermath = = =
In late Spring of 1995 , Delrina Chairman Dennis Bennie met with Symantec CEO Gordon Eubanks to discuss the possibility of merging the two firms . In September 1995 Delrina 's founders — who owned a controlling interest in the firm — sold the firm to Symantec in a stock deal worth $ 415 million US . The deal was first announced on July 6 of that year , with shareholders from both firms approving the merger on November 20 . The merger was completed on November 22 , 1995 and Delrina officially became part of Symantec . The deal made the merged company the fifth largest American software firm at the time . The firm became the " Delrina Group " within Symantec , which brought under its control other communication software products that belonged to the parent firm , such as pcAnywhere . Bennie joined the Board of Symantec and was also appointed an Executive Vice President .
At its height the company employed more than 700 people worldwide , the majority based in Canada . Symantec was following a general trend of large American firms buying smaller Canadian software companies . Other contemporaneous examples include Softimage and Zoom @-@ it being bought by Microsoft , and Alias being bought by Silicon Graphics .
Parts of the company were subsequently sold off , such as the sale of Delrina 's Electronic Forms Division to JetForm in September 1996 . JetForm , which later changed its name to Accelio , was in turn bought by Adobe Systems . Adobe officially discontinued the electronic forms products in 2004 . Creative Wonders bought the rights to the Echo Lake multimedia product , which was re @-@ shaped as an introductory program on multimedia and re @-@ released as Family Album Creator .
Though the market for fax software would shrink significantly as the use of email became more pervasive , WinFax brought in significant revenue for Symantec ; a year after the merger sales of fax software accounted for 10 % of Symantec 's revenues .
= = = Post @-@ Delrina = = =
Delrina was a catalyst for entrepreneurial talent and greatness , as many of the principals and employees of Delrina went on to find new successful ventures . With investments from Skapinker and Amato , and Bennie as lead Director , Davis went on to form Lanacom , which developed an early Internet " push content " product . This firm and its technology were sold just over a year after its inception to Backweb , a NASDAQ listed software company ; Davis remained president and Bennie was brought on as Director .
Skapinker and Davis then went on to found Brightspark , a software venture capital firm . Brightspark Ventures raised a number of VC Funds from Canadian Financial institutions raising $ 60m in 1999 and $ 55m in 2004 . Brightspark employed a number of ex @-@ Delrina employees including Allen Lau , Eva Lau , Sandy Pearlman , Marg Vaillancourt . Brightspark Ventures has twice won the Canadian Venture Capital Association " Deal of the Year Award " , for the sale of ThinkDynamics to IBM and for the sale of Radian6 to Salesforce.com.
Bennie would move on to found XDL Capital , a company which manages venture capital funds . XDL Capital — appropriately named after " Ex Delrina " — raised money for two funds : XDL Ventures ( XDL ) , raising $ 25 million in 1997 , and XDL Intervest ( XDLI ) , raising $ 155 million in 1999 . David Latner , former legal counsel for Delrina , was a partner in both funds , and Amato ( former partner , Delrina ) was an advisor and major investor to XDL Capital . He also participated in several investee companies as a Director and / or Advisor .
XDL Intervest focuses primarily on internet @-@ specific entrepreneurial companies and Bennie brought in two new principals : Tony Van Marken , former CEO of Architel Systems Corp. ( ASYC ) , and Michael Bregman , former CEO of Second Cup Ltd . ( T.SKL ) . XDL has assembled an established board and advisory team , which includes Canadian billionaire Robert Young , a native of Hamilton , Ontario , who co @-@ founded Red Hat Inc ( RHAT ) and remains its chairman . Several of XDL 's venture investments were in companies started or run by ex @-@ Delrina employees who founded successful businesses , fostered by the innovative and entrepreneurial environment of Delrina . A few of the successes today are listed below :
Delano Founded by Bahman Koohestani , another early developer at Delrina , was a company which developed e @-@ business solutions for corporations . XDL Capital provided seed capital prior to Delano listing publicly . Bennie was the Chairman . Delano was listed on NASDAQ ( DTEC ) was subsequently sold to divine in 2003 .
Pinpoint Software Corporation a supplier of software solutions for managing networked PCs , was founded in 1992 by Lou Ryan . Ryan was CEO & President with Bennie acting as director . Pinpoint was partially funded by XDL Capital . Pinpoint changed its name to ClickNet Software in 1998 . Uniting the company name with the successful ClickNet product family name strengthens the product and corporate identity . The company was eventually renamed Entercept Security Technologies Inc . In 2004 , Entercept was sold to Network Associates for $ 120M where they incorporated Entercept 's technology into its McAfee line of antivirus protection and other security products .
Protégé Software was formed in 1996 and was founded by Larry Levy , Delrina 's European Managing Director . Levy acted as President and CEO with Bennie as the principal investor . The company raised a $ 120M round of finance with XDL Intervest participating in 2003 . Protégé has successfully launched 20 U.S. companies in Europe , nine of which are among Red Herring Top 50 Private Companies . In addition , five of these companies have gone public during Protégé 's tenure with them . The company was ultimately sold to various buyers including Warburg Pincus after the internet bubble burst .
Netect Ltd . , an XDL financed venture developing network security software , was purchased by Bindview Development Corporation ( NASDAQ : BVEW ) in 2001 . Marc Camm ( Ex Delrina GM Desktop Communications Business Unit ) was brought on by Bennie to manage Netect . After the Company was purchased , Camm joined Bindview as the E.V.P. of Marketing . Prior to joining Netect , Marc was the general manager of Symantec and systems group product manager for Microsoft Canada .
Within a few years all of Delrina 's major market focuses — fax and form software — would be overtaken or superseded by email , e @-@ commerce and the Internet . Daily planning software remains a niche market , and the immersive 3D environment used for creating multimedia presentations has ( so far ) fallen by the wayside in favour of more traditional user interfaces . Symantec ended support for its final WinFax PRO product in June 2006 .
Delrina is best remembered by its former employees as an incubator for ideas and for providing industry experience to the many people who would go on to work at subsequent software and hardware companies , many in the Toronto region . A forum exists on Yahoo called " xdelrina " , where many former employees of the firm continue to keep in contact with each other .
= = Delrina software and services = =
= = = Forms products = = =
The company 's first product was PerForm , an electronic forms software package . PerForm and its sibling product , FormFlow , ( which was aimed at workgroup and enterprise @-@ level electronic forms processing and delivery ) became one of the best selling products in its market . Delrina competed against WordPerfect 's Informs package , Microsoft 's Electronic Forms Designer , Novell 's Informs , Lotus Software 's Forms and JetForm 's JetForm Workflow software .
PerForm and FormFlow were designed to allow users to create self @-@ contained form applications which could be passed back and forth across a network . Both PerForm and FormFlow consisted of two distinct parts : " Designer " , which created the form application , and " Filler " , so users could submit the forms either by fax or , later , e @-@ mail . The program could ease repetitive fill tasks , include mandatory fields , and use an input mask to accept only data entered in a valid format . The information could be saved and restored in a dBase file that used a Public @-@ key cryptography system to encrypt the data running from client to server .
The initial version of PerForm was designed for the Graphical Environment Manager ( better known as " GEM " ) , a DOS @-@ based windowing system . Later versions of this program , known as PerForm PRO , were designed to work under Windows 3 @.@ 1 and subsequent Windows operating systems . PerForm PRO 3 @.@ 0 included integration with Delrina 's own WinFax software , and included a range of automation tools .
As PerForm captured the retail market , it became apparent that there was a need for electronics forms delivery and processing at the workgroup and enterprise levels . In 1994 Delrina FormFlow was released , which was designed to meet this need . One of the key features of FormFlow 1 @.@ 1 was forms integration with email , and its Filler module was available for DOS , Windows and Unix .
= = = WinFax = = =
WinFax enabled computers equipped with fax @-@ modems to send faxes directly to stand @-@ alone fax machines or other similarly equipped computers .
Several versions of the WinFax product were released over the next few years , initially for Windows 3.x and then a Windows 95 @-@ based version . WinFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 for Windows was released in July 1991 . The Windows versions were also localized to major European and Asian languages . The company made further in @-@ roads by establishing tie @-@ ins with modem manufacturers such as U.S. Robotics and Supra that bundled simple versions of the product ( called " WinFax LITE " ) that offered basic functionality . Those wanting more robust features were encouraged to upgrade to the " PRO " version , and were offered significant discounts over the standalone retail version . All of this rapidly established WinFax as the de facto fax software . By 1994 almost one hundred companies were bundling versions of WinFax in with their own product , including IBM , Compaq , AST Research , Gateway 2000 , Intel and Hewlett @-@ Packard .
WinFax PRO 3 @.@ 0 was launched in late 1992 for Windows 3.x machines . This was followed by a version for Macintosh systems . The " Lite " version of WinFax 3 @.@ 0 was bundled as OEM software by a number of fax @-@ modem manufacturers , which was later be superseded by WinFax Lite 4 @.@ 0 a couple of years later .
The release of WinFax PRO 4 @.@ 0 in March 1994 brought together a number of key features and technologies . It introduced an improved OCR engine , introduced improvements aimed specifically at mobile fax users , better on @-@ screen fax viewing capabilities and a focus on consistency and usability of the interface . It also included for the first time the ability to integrate directly with popular new email products such as cc : Mail and Microsoft Mail . It was preceded by a Workgroup version of the same product , which allowed a number of users to share a single fax modem on a networked system . The stand @-@ alone version of the product was also later bundled with a grayscale scanner , and sold as WinFax Scanner .
The final Delrina @-@ branded version of WinFax was WinFax PRO 7 @.@ 0 , which shipped in late 1995 , the subsequent version 8 @.@ 0 being a Symantec product . There was no intervening version 5 @.@ 0 or 6 @.@ 0 , and the jump to version 7 @.@ 0 was purely a marketing decision , based on keeping up with the suite of products in Microsoft Office which were then at the same number . It also reflected the development effort required to develop the first full 32 @-@ bit application version , designed to work with the Windows 95 operating system , which set it apart from its competition at the time .
By the time WinFax PRO 7 @.@ 0 was being sold from retail shelves , Delrina had been acquired by Symantec .
= = = Multimedia products = = =
Screensavers were designed to ensure that there would be no phosphor burn @-@ in of images left on a CRT @-@ based screen . Delrina added sound and basic interactivity with its series of screensaver products , arguably qualifying it as an early form of multimedia .
Under Delrina several of the already @-@ licensed cartoons brought over from their acquisition of Amaze Inc. were further developed into screensaver applications . The " Opus ' n Bill Brain Saver " , which would land the company in court for copyright violations , was launched in 1993 . Subsequent screensavers include a licensed version based on the first Flintstone live @-@ action movie , and " The Scott Adams Dilbert Screen Saver Collection " which came out in September 1994 .
= = = = Echo Lake = = = =
A notable multimedia software produced by Delrina was Echo Lake , an early form of scrapbook software that came out in June 1995 . During development it was touted internally as a " cross [ of ] Quark Xpress and Myst " . It featured an immersive 3D environment where a user could manipulate objects within a virtual desktop in a virtual office and assemble video and audio clips along with images , and then send them as either a virtual book other users of the program could then access , or its content could be printed . It was an innovative product for its time , and ultimately was hampered by the inability of many users to easily input or playback their own multimedia content into a computer from that period .
= = List of Delrina products = =
Electronic Forms Products
Delrina PerForm – October 1988
Delrina PerForm PRO – August 1990
Delrina PerForm Tracer – June 1991
Delrina PerForm PRO Plus – August 1992
Delrina FormFlow – October 1993
Delrina FormFlow 1 @.@ 1 – June 1994
PerForm for Windows 3 @.@ 0 – November 1994
Multimedia Products
The Far Side Daily Planner and Calendar Publisher 3 @.@ 0 – September 1991
Delrina Intermission 4 @.@ 0 Screen Saver – November 1990
Bill ' n ' Opus ScreenSaver – November 1993
Opus ' n Bill On The Road Again Screensaver – September 1994
The Scott Adams Dilbert Screen Saver Collection – September 1994
Echo Lake – June 1995
Fax @-@ related Products ( released by Delrina )
WinFax 1 @.@ 0 – December 1990
WinFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 – June 1991
WinFax Lite – April 1992
DosFax Lite – April 1992
DosFax PRO 2 @.@ 0 – June 1992
WinFax PRO 3 @.@ 0 – November 1992
Delrina Fax PRO 1 @.@ 5 for Macintosh – September 1993
WinFax PRO for Networks – November 1993
WinFax PRO 4 @.@ 0 – March 1994
WinFax Scanner – 1994
WinFax PRO 7 @.@ 0 – November 1995
Fax @-@ related Products ( released by Symantec )
WinFax PRO 7 @.@ 5 ( bundled with TalkWorks ) – October 1996
WinFax PRO 8 @.@ 0 ( bundled with TalkWorks PRO ) – March 1997
TalkWorks PRO 2 @.@ 0 – August 1998
WinFax PRO 9 @.@ 0 – August 1998
TalkWorks PRO 3 @.@ 0 – August 1999
WinFax PRO 10 @.@ 0 – February 2000
Online Communications Products
Delrina Communications Suite ( WinComm and WinFax ) – March 1993
WinComm ( Standalone ) – March 1994
Cyberjack – December 1995
CommSuite95 – December 1995
= LW12 =
LW12 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit skiing sport class defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) . An LW12 skier needs to meet a minimum of one of several conditions including a single below knee but above ankle amputation , monoplegia that exhibits similar to below knee amputation , legs of different length where there is at least a 7 centimetres difference , combined muscle strength in the lower extremities less than 71 . For international competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing . For sub @-@ international competitions , classification is done by a national federation such as Alpine Canada . For para @-@ Alpine , this class is subdivided into two subclasses . : LW12.1 and LW12.2. A new sit @-@ skier competitor with only national classification will compete as LW12.2 in international competitions until they have been internationally classified .
In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a mono @-@ ski , while para @-@ Nordic skiers use a two ski sit @-@ ski . Skiers in this class use outriggers , and are required to wear special helmets for some para @-@ Alpine disciplines . In learning to ski , one of the first skills learned is getting into and out of the ski , and how to position the body in the ski in order to maintain balance . The skier then learns how to fall and to get up .
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The alpine skiing factoring during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season for LW12.1 was 0 @.@ 8031 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 8608 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 8489 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 851 for downhill , and for LW12.2 was 0 @.@ 8279 for slalom , 0 @.@ 8708 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 8587 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8605 for downhill . The percentage for the 2012 / 2013 para @-@ Nordic ski season was 100 % . This classification has been able to compete at different skiing competitions including the Paralympics , IPC Alpine World Championships and the IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships . Competitors in this class include Australians Michael Norton and David Munk , and American Russell Docker .
= = Definition = =
This is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ skiing classification , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . To generally be eligible for a sit @-@ skiing classification , a skier needs to meet a minimum of one of several conditions including a single below knee but above ankle amputation , monoplegia that exhibits similar to below knee amputation , legs of different length where there is at least a 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) difference , combined muscle strength in the lower extremities less than 71 . Skiers in this class " may have Grade 3 @-@ 5 hip flexion and extension ( unilateral or bilateral ) " . This classification is comparable to para classes 5 and 6 . When not skiing , the competitor may be able to walk with or without the use of assisitive devices . This class is the equivalent of LW4 , but skiers must choose to compete in LW4 or LW12 : they cannot compete in both classifications during the same skiing season .
For para @-@ Alpine skiing , the Australian Paralympic Committee defined this classification as a sit skiing classification for " athletes with spinal injury or some other disability affecting the function in their lower limbs but they have good sitting balance . " This classification is often subdivided into two separate categories for para @-@ Alpine skiing . In July 1997 , at the World Cup Technical Meeting for para @-@ Alpine skiing , this classes was subdivided into two classes in order to improve factoring for the range of disabilities found within the class at the time .
The IPC defines this class for para @-@ Nordic skiing as for " those with impairments in the lower limb ( s ) with normal trunk function . " For the 1998 Winter Paralympics , the classification was defined for para @-@ Nordic skiing as " Disability of the lower limbs and good sitting balance @-@ Paraplegia and Standing classes with LW 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 . " Cross Country Canada defined this para @-@ Nordic classification as " Impairments in the lower limb ( s ) with normal trunk function . "
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through International Paralympic Committee Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing . During the assessment process , a testing board is used for this classification with six different tests being conducted that look for balance on different planes and to test for upper body strength and levels of mobility . The guideline scores for people to be assessed in this classification are 16 - 18 .
= = = LW12.1 = = =
LW12.1 skiers have a spinal chord injury . The IPC defined this para @-@ Alpine subclass as " athletes with spinal @-@ chord lesion with a function in the lower limbs and a good sitting balance " . Adapted Physical Education and Sport defined this class as " Athletes with disabilities in the lower limbs , paraplegia only with good sitting balance ; point score 16 to 18 points . "
= = = LW12.2 = = =
LW12.2 skiers in this class have differences in between one limb and another . The IPC defined this para @-@ Alpine classification as " Athletes with amputations of the lower limbs . " Adapted Physical Education and Sport described this class as " Athletes with disabilities in the lower limbs , amputations , and standing L classes L1 , L2 , L3 / 1 , L3 / 2 , L4 , L9 / 2 with good sitting balance ; point score 16 to 18 points . " This classification is comparable to LW4 but for those who compete while sitting . A new sit @-@ skier competitor with only national classification will compete as LW12.2 in international competitions until they have been internationally classified .
= = Equipment = =
In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a mono @-@ ski , which are required to have breaks on both sides of the ski . The chair can detach from a ski . Helmets are required for this class in para @-@ Alpine competition , with slalom helmets required for slalom and crash helmets required for the giant slalom . The para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ ski configuration has two skis . Skiers in this classification can use a sit @-@ ski and outriggers , which are forearm crutches with a miniature ski on a rocker at the base . In the Biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Technique = =
In learning to ski , one of the first skills learned is getting into and out of the ski , and how to position the body in the ski in order to maintain balance . The skier then learns how to fall and to get up . The skier then works with the instructor on learning to ski on flat terrain , with the purpose of this exercise being to learn how to use the outriggers . The skier next learns how to get into and out of a chairlift . After this , the skier learns how to make basic turns , edging , medium radius turns and advance skiing techniques .
Skiers use outriggers for balance and as leverage when they fall to right themselves . Outriggers are also used for turning , with the skier using the outrigger and their upper body by leaning into the direction they want to turn . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , outriggers or ski poles are used top propel the skier forward . If a skier falls , they may require assistance in righting themselves to get back to the fall line . Doing this on their own , the skier needs to position their mono @-@ ski facing uphill relative to the fall line .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . During the 1997 / 1998 ski season , the percentage for this para @-@ Nordic classification was 100 % ( a factor of 1 @.@ 000 ) . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for was 100 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 ski seasons was 100 % . The alpine skiing factoring during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season for LW12.1 was 0 @.@ 8031 for slalom , 0 @.@ 8608 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 8489 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 851 for downhill , and for LW12.2 was 0 @.@ 8279 for slalom , 0 @.@ 8708 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 8587 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8605 for downhill . The percentage for the 2012 / 2013 para @-@ Nordic ski season was 100 % .
In para @-@ Alpine events , this classification is grouped with sitting classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and before standing classes . A skier is allowed one push from the starting position at the start of the race : no one is allowed to run while pushing them . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other sitting classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's sit @-@ ski group first , and the women 's sit @-@ ski group section , with the visually impaired and standing skiers following . If the competitor skis off the course during a para @-@ Nordic race , they may be assisted back onto the course where they left it by a race official . Skiers cannot use their legs to break or steer during the race .
Skiers in this class may injure themselves while skiing . Between 1994 and 2006 , the German national para @-@ Alpine skiing team had a skier in the LW12 class that had an injury while skiing . The skier fractured their wrist at the 2002 Winter Paralympics . This class has a higher rate of " plexus brachialis distorsion and a higher rate of shoulder injuries " compared to able bodied skiers .
= = Events = =
This classification has been able to compete at different skiing competitions . At the 1992 Paralympics , included on the programme for the classification were the Super G and Downhill disciplines . Slalom , Giant Slalom and Super @-@ G were included on the programme for the 1994 Winter Paralympics . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , this classification was not grouped with others for the men 's downhill , giant slalom , slalom , Super @-@ G medal events . On the women 's side , this classification was not grouped with others for the women 's giant slalom medal event , but it was grouped with LW11 and LW12 for the women 's slalom and Super @-@ G. At the 2004 Alpine World Championships , LW10 , LW11 and LW12 women competed against each other in a competition with factored results during the downhill event . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other sit @-@ skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race , with women eligible to compete in the 2 @.@ 5 km , 5 km and 10 km individual races . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with sit @-@ ski classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 World Championships , there were three women from this class the sitting downhill event , two LW12.2 skiers and one LW12.1 skier . In the men 's sitting downhill , there were six skiers from this class .
= = Competitors = =
Competitors in this class include Australians Michael Norton and David Munk , American Russell Docker , and Spain 's Óscar Espallargas .
= First Roumanian @-@ American Congregation =
The First Roumanian @-@ American Congregation , also known as Congregation Shaarey Shomayim ( Hebrew : שַׁעֲרֵי שָׁמַיִם , " Gates of Heaven " ) , or the Roumanishe Shul ( Yiddish for " Romanian synagogue " ) , was an Orthodox Jewish congregation which , for over 100 years , occupied a historic building at 89 – 93 Rivington Street on the Lower East Side of Manhattan , New York .
Those who organized the congregation in 1885 were part of a substantial wave of Romanian @-@ Jewish immigrants , most of whom settled in the Lower East Side . The Rivington Street building , built around 1860 , had previously been a church , then a synagogue , then a church again , and had been extensively remodeled in 1889 . It was transformed into a synagogue for a second time when the First Roumanian @-@ American congregation purchased it in 1902 and again remodeled it .
The synagogue became famous as the " Cantor 's Carnegie Hall " , because of its high ceiling , good acoustics , and seating for up to 1 @,@ 800 people . Yossele Rosenblatt , Moshe Koussevitzky , Zavel Kwartin , Moishe Oysher , Jan Peerce and Richard Tucker were all cantors there . Red Buttons sang in the choir , George Burns was a member , and Edward G. Robinson had his Bar Mitzvah there .
The congregation 's membership was in the thousands in the 1940s , but by the early 2000s had declined to around 40 , as Jews moved out of the Lower East Side . Though its building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1998 , the congregation was reluctant to accept outside assistance in maintaining it . In December 2005 , water damage was found in the structural beams , and services were moved to the living room of the rabbi 's mother . In January 2006 , the synagogue 's roof collapsed , and the building was demolished two months later .
= = Origins = =
= = = First Roumanian @-@ American / Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim = = =
From 1881 through 1914 , approximately 2 million Jews immigrated to the United States from Europe . An estimated three @-@ quarters of them settled in New York City , primarily in the Lower East Side . Over 75 @,@ 000 of these immigrants were from Romania , where Jews faced antisemitic laws , violence and expulsion . These hardships , combined with low crop yields and economic depression , resulted in 30 percent of the Jews in Romania emigrating to the United States .
Romanian Jewish immigrants in New York City gravitated to a fifteen @-@ block area bounded by Allen , Ludlow , Houston and Grand streets . This " Romanian quarter " became the most densely populated part of the Lower East Side , with 1 @,@ 500 to 1 @,@ 800 people per block . These immigrants founded the First Roumanian @-@ American congregation , also known as Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim .
The origins of the congregation are disputed ; its establishment in 1885 may have been a re @-@ organization of a congregation originally founded in 1860 . Located initially close to the Romanian quarter at 70 Hester Street , and later situated at the heart of it with the move to Rivington Street , the synagogue was the preferred house of worship for the quarter 's inhabitants .
= = = Rivington Street building = = =
The Rivington Street building was constructed as a Protestant church around 1860 by the Second Reformed Presbyterian Church , which served the area 's large German immigrant community . In November 1864 the building was sold to the Orthodox German @-@ Jewish Congregation Shaaray Hashomayim ( " Gates of the Heavens " ) , which had been founded in 1841 . Though its Hebrew name was essentially the same as that used by the First Roumanian @-@ American congregation — Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim — which later purchased the building in 1902 , the two congregations were unrelated .
By the late 1880s , the German @-@ Jewish community had mostly moved from the Lower East Side . In 1889 , Congregation Shaaray Hashomayim moved to 216 East 15th Street , near Second Avenue , selling the Rivington Street building to the New York City Church Extension and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church , which built or purchased churches , missions , and Sunday schools in New York City .
The Church Extension and Missionary Society engaged J. Cleaveland Cady to design major alterations to the structure . Cady was , at the time , New York 's most famous church architect , and had designed many other public institutional buildings , including university buildings , hospitals and museums . His work included the original Metropolitan Opera building ( since demolished ) , the Richardsonian Romanesque West 78th Street wing of the American Museum of Natural History , and several other buildings for the Church Extension and Missionary Society . The renovations cost approximately $ 36 @,@ 000 ( today $ 948 @,@ 000 ) , and included an entirely new Romanesque Revival facade in the reddish @-@ orange brick that Cady also used on several other churches .
Renamed the Allen Street Methodist Episcopal Church ( or Allen Street Memorial Church ) , the Rivington Street building 's new purpose was to " attract Jewish immigrants seeking conversion " . It was , however , unsuccessful in this endeavor . In 1895 , the church 's pastor stated , " The existence of the church here attracts few . Our audiences are small , and contain almost no Jews . "
= = Purchase and renovation by First Roumanian @-@ American = =
In 1902 , the First Roumanian @-@ American congregation / Congregation Shaarey Shamoyim purchased the Rivington Street building from the Church Extension and Missionary Society to satisfy a need for a larger building to serve the Lower East Side 's rapidly growing Romanian @-@ Jewish population . At the time , the property was valued at $ 95 @,@ 000 ( today $ 2 @.@ 6 million ) . The funds for the purchase were raised from the members of the congregation , and to honor those contributing $ 10 or more , names were engraved on one of four marble slabs in the stairway to the main sanctuary . The most generous gift was $ 500 , at a time when $ 10 was two weeks ' pay . The congregation also took out two mortgages ; one for $ 50 @,@ 000 ( today $ 1 @.@ 37 million ) with the Title Insurance Company , and a second for $ 30 @,@ 000 ( today $ 820 @,@ 000 ) with the Church Extension and Missionary Society .
The congregation commissioned Charles E. Reid for extensive renovations , at a cost of $ 6 @,@ 000 ( today $ 164 @,@ 000 ) . The " eclectic Byzantine " remodeling involved converting it for Jewish use by removing Christian symbols and adding a Torah ark and bimah ( central platform from which the Torah is read ) at the sanctuary 's north end . The renovations retained the original " horseshoe @-@ shaped gallery supported by twelve Ionic columns " and wooden pews with reading shelves ( likely from the 1889 Cady renovation ) , but a number of structural changes were made . Steel beams were added to support the weight of the ark and bimah , the rear wall was re @-@ built and the gallery extended to meet it , two skylights were added ( a concave stained glass one and a clear glass one over the ark ) , and at the front of the building , on top of the shallow ( 14 feet deep ) fourth @-@ story attic , an equally shallow fifth @-@ story attic was added .
The completed structure filled almost the entire width of its approximately 70 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 21 m ) by 100 @-@ foot @-@ deep ( 30 m ) lot , and seated 1 @,@ 600 to 1 @,@ 800 . Dedicated in late December 1902 , it was the Lower East Side 's largest synagogue and only Romanesque one , and it became an " architectural and public showpiece " .
= = Early activities = =
By 1903 the synagogue was well established on Rivington Street , and , due to its capacity and prominence , was often the site of significant or mass meetings . In April 1903 a service to honor the memory of Reform rabbi and Zionist leader Gustav Gottheil was held there , and a similar service was held for Theodore Herzl the following year . At the latter service , which was boycotted by Orthodox rabbis , Herzl was not eulogized , nor was his name mentioned .
The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America ( UOJCA ) held its third annual convention at the synagogue in June 1903 , attended by around 100 delegates , and presided over by the organization 's president , Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes . The most important resolutions adopted at that meeting were one which deprecated the granting of a get ( religious divorce document ) to — or allowing subsequent re @-@ marriage by — people who had not first obtained a civil divorce , and the request that congregations with mostly foreign @-@ born members " secure an English @-@ speaking rabbi for the benefit of their American @-@ born English @-@ speaking children " . Pereira Mendes spoke in favor of the creation of a committee to bring victims of the Kishinev pogrom to the United States , and against a proposal by the Union of American Hebrew Congregations ( UAHC ) that the Jewish Sabbath be moved to Sunday . Pereira Mendes also announced that the UOJCA would " unite " with the UAHC and other national " religious , philanthropic , or educational " Jewish organizations in Washington " to discuss the subjects of vital concern to Judaism and Jews " , while rejecting the proposition that " the main topic of the discussion at the first congress shall be the immigration problem . "
At the meeting Albert Lucas also spoke out strongly against attempts by Christian groups to proselytize Jewish children in nurseries and kindergartens . Ostensibly to combat this proselytization , in 1903 the congregation was one of several New York City synagogues that allowed Lucas the use of its premises for free religious classes , " open to all children of the neighborhood " .
In December 1905 a mass meeting was held at the synagogue to protest massacres of Jews in Russia and mourn their deaths , and the congregation donated $ 500 to a fund for the sufferers . In March 1909 Orthodox groups held meetings there to organize opposition to the constitution and make @-@ up of Judah Leon Magnes 's Kehilla , an overarching organization intended to represent all of New York 's Jews , which lasted until 1922 . A mass meeting of local residents and businessmen to combat Lower East Side gangsters was held at the synagogue in 1913 .
The Rivington Street synagogue was also a preferred venue for airing issues relevant specifically to Romanian @-@ American Jews . In 1905 it was the site of New York City 's only memorial service honoring United States Secretary of State John Hay , who had worked on behalf of oppressed Jews in Romania . In 1908 , the synagogue hosted a meeting of over 30 religious organizations representing Romanian @-@ American Jews , at which the formation of a federation of those organizations was proposed , and again in 1916 hosted a similar meeting of " two hundred delegates representing thirty @-@ five organizations ... to plan incorporation of the American League of Rumanian Jews " . At the latter meeting steps were taken to raise $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( today $ 22 million ) for oppressed Jews in Romania , and to campaign for their " equal rights and their emancipation from thralldom " .
The congregation carried out extensive charity campaigns during the Passover season ; by 1905 the congregation was distributing wagon @-@ loads of matzos to poor Jews so they could celebrate the holiday . By 1907 – 1908 membership had risen to 500 ( up from 160 in 1900 ) , the Talmud Torah had 250 students , and the synagogue 's annual revenues were $ 25 @,@ 000 ( today $ 630 @,@ 000 ) . The congregation ran into financial difficulties of its own in 1908 , and in October of that year raised funds by selling a number of its Torah scrolls in a public auction .
Members who would become famous included George Burns and Bucharest @-@ born Edward G. Robinson , who had his Bar Mitzvah there in 1906 . Robinson would later laugh that his propensity for taking the stage was demonstrated when he gave the longest Bar Mitzvah speech in the history of the congregation — " but the men sat still and listened " .
In 1911 First Roumanian @-@ American celebrated its ten @-@ year jubilee at the synagogue . Guest speakers included United Synagogue of America president Solomon Schechter , Congressman Henry M. Goldfogle , and the principal speaker was William Jay Gaynor , then Mayor of New York City .
Membership had grown to 350 families by 1919 . The congregational school held classes daily , and had 4 teachers and 300 students . The American Jewish Year Book listed the synagogue 's rabbi as Abraham Frachtenberg , a well @-@ known cantor .
= = " Cantor 's Carnegie Hall " = =
The synagogue 's sanctuary had a high ceiling and " opera house " characteristics , and was renowned for its " exquisite " or " magnificent " acoustics . Known as " the Cantor 's Carnegie Hall " , First Roumanian @-@ American became a center for cantorial music , and many of the greatest cantors of the 20th century led services there . Yossele Rosenblatt , Moshe Koussevitzky , Zavel Kwartin and Moishe Oysher all sang there , as did Jan Peerce and Richard Tucker before they became famous opera singers . Having a reputation for good cantorial singing had a positive impact on a synagogue 's finances ; congregations depended on the funds from the sale of tickets for seats on the High Holy Days , and the better the cantor , the greater the attendance .
Red Buttons sang at the synagogue with Rosenblatt in 1927 , and when visiting the synagogue almost 70 years later could still remember the songs . Though his family actually went to a " small storefront synagogue " , Buttons was discovered , at age eight , by a talent scout for Rosenblatt 's Coopermans Choir , who heard him singing near the intersection of Fifth Street and Avenue C , at a " pickle stand " . Buttons would sing in the choir for three years . Eddie Cantor has also been claimed as a choir member , though this is less likely .
Oysher — " the greatest of all popularizers of cantorial singing " — became the synagogue 's cantor in 1935 , and the congregation 's membership peaked in the 1940s , when it numbered in the thousands . In a 1956 interview by Brendan Gill in The New Yorker magazine , Oysher described First Roumanian @-@ American as " the most orthodox Orthodox synagogue in town " . Oysher died of a heart attack two years later " at the young age of 51 " . The week of his death , he had said , " half @-@ jokingly " , that he wanted only one person to deliver his eulogy : Chaim Porille , rabbi of the First Roumanian @-@ American Congregation . Porille had been born in Uscieczko ( then in Poland ) in 1899 , and moved to the United States in 1927 , to serve as rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of Providence , Rhode Island . He became rabbi of First Roumanian @-@ American in 1932 , a post he filled until 1962 , and was a member of the executive board of the Agudath Harabonim . He died in September 1968 .
= = Subsequent building renovations and appearance in the 1990s = =
In the years following First Roumanian @-@ American 's initial purchase and renovation of the Rivington Street building , the congregation made a number of other structural alterations . These included :
1916 – 1917 : Adding fire escapes on the east and west sides of the building .
1920s or later : Installing individual theatre @-@ style seats in the gallery .
1938 – 1943 : Removing the staircase to the fourth floor , leaving access only from the fire escapes .
1948 – 1950 : Reconstructing the portico with some of the existing stone and brick , and adding new " fireproof steel stairs with terrazzo treads " and light @-@ yellow and blue tinted glass windows on the east and west walls of the sanctuary , and other improvements .
1964 : Adding a kitchen to the basement " for social purposes " .
In the 1990s , the north @-@ facing orange @-@ red brick facade presented a large , compound arched brick and stone portico , with deeply recessed doors . This arch was " supported by three carved columns , two twisted columns , and a central column with a chevron pattern , each with a Byzantine @-@ style capital " , and had a stone coping on top . Carved into the portico arch in capital letters were the words " First Roumanian @-@ American Congregation " .
Originally there were large rectangular window openings on the ground floor on each side of the portico , each divided into two windows , but these had been bricked in by the 1990s . The second- and third @-@ floor windows above them were originally stained glass but later clear glass , each second @-@ floor window having eight square panes , and each third @-@ floor window six panes topped with an arch . " Ornamental red terra cotta panels " separated the second- and third @-@ floor openings . On the third floor , centered above the portico , was a similar window , this one flanked by two short recessed twisted columns , each " supporting a stone lintel incised with a cupid 's @-@ bow ornament " . Similar lintels capped three @-@ story pilasters at each corner of the facade , and these pilasters and lintels extended around the northeast and northwest corners . The six @-@ paned windows were each capped with a roundel and three spandrels , " two large and one small " , and these retained their original stained glass .
The shallow fourth floor was demarcated on the bottom by " a heavy frieze and corbelled brick cornice " , which supported " eight round @-@ arched windows with molded brick voussoirs ... massed in a 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 pattern " . By the 1990s these had also been bricked in . The attic on top of the fourth floor , added during the 1902 – 1903 renovations , was " capped by a band of small red terra @-@ cotta blocks " .
The sides of the building were faced with plain brick , and flanked by narrow alleys with iron gates at each entrance . The walls generally had plain windows , though there was a round arched one on each side of the fourth floor . One fire escape remained , in the east alley .
Inside , the building held a two @-@ story balconied main sanctuary and dining room , in addition to the basement kitchen and bathrooms . The heating system was in a sub @-@ basement . The front ark and wood bimah in the sanctuary were ornate ; the red velvet draped ark was elaborately decorated , and the bimah was also decorated , and supported a large bronze candelabra . The sanctuary floor was wood , with wood wainscoting and plaster walls .
= = = Appearances in popular culture = = =
The synagogue building can be seen in the 1956 film Singing in the Dark , starring Oysher , and also starring ( and produced by ) Joey Adams . The entrance can be seen in the panoramic photograph of the corner of Ludlow and Rivington streets found on the Beastie Boys ' 1989 Paul 's Boutique album cover foldout , and the building ( and Jacob Spiegel ) can also be seen in Raphael Nadjari 's 2001 film I Am Josh Polonski 's Brother .
= = Decline = =
Over time the synagogue appealed to a broader constituency than just Roumanian @-@ American Jews . Nevertheless , membership declined during the latter half of the 20th century as the upwardly mobile Jewish population of the Lower East Side moved to north Manhattan , Brooklyn , and the Bronx . First Roumanian @-@ American was particularly affected : as it was an Orthodox congregation , in order to attend Sabbath services its members had to live within walking distance .
In 1980 First Roumanian @-@ American was one of the few congregations on the Lower East Side to still have its own Talmud Torah . This school had been housed in a small building on the east side of the synagogue that had formerly served as the church rectory . The congregation was eventually forced to sell the building , but the new owners retained the school 's carved sign .
Rabbi Mordecai Mayer , who had led the congregation for 20 years , died in 1981 , two days before his 66th birthday . Born in Chortkov ( then in Poland ) , he had graduated from the Chachmei Lublin Yeshiva , and had emigrated to the United States in 1936 . He had , for 40 years , conducted programs on Jewish topics on radio station WEVD , then owned by The Forward . In the 1970s he was a columnist for the Yiddish weekly Algemeiner Journal , and was the author of the English @-@ language books Israel 's Wisdom in Modern Life ( 1949 ) and Seeing Through Believing ( 1973 ) . He was succeeded by Jacob Spiegel .
In the early 1990s the congregation could still be assured of the required quorum of ten men for the minyan during the week , as local businessmen attended the morning and evening prayers before opening and after closing their shops . By 1996 , however , the membership was down to around two dozen , and Spiegel began holding services in the small social hall in the basement , as the main sanctuary had become too expensive to maintain .
With the decline in membership , the building deteriorated . In 1997 the congregation received a grant for preservation and repair of the structure from the New York Landmarks Conservancy , and the following year received $ 4 @,@ 000 from the Landmarks Conservancy 's Sacred Sites program for roof truss repairs . That same year the synagogue building was listed in the National Register of Historic Places at the local level . In the fall of that year Shimon Attie 's laser visual work Between Dreams and History was projected onto the synagogue and neighboring buildings for three weeks .
Spiegel had a heart attack and died in 2001 , leaving charge of the synagogue to the youngest of his three sons , Rabbi Shmuel Spiegel . The other sons , Rabbi Gershon and Rabbi Ari , were , respectively , synagogue president and assistant rabbi . In June 2003 the name " Rabbi Yaakov Spiegel Way " was given collectively to the corner of Rivington Street and Ludlow Street near the synagogue location and the stretch of Rivington in front of the synagogue .
The roof had long been in bad shape by the time of Jacob Spiegel 's death in 2001 and it was threatening to collapse . In December of that year , Shmuel Spiegel managed to raise $ 25 @,@ 000 for emergency repairs . However , despite offering cholent ( the traditional Sabbath lunch stew ) at the Sabbath morning kiddush , Spiegel had to search local streets to make the ten men for the minyan . In 2004 the regular membership hovered around 40 . Spiegel kept the synagogue running at an annual cost of around $ 75 @,@ 000 .
= = Collapse = =
On January 22 , 2006 , the roof of the synagogue caved in , severely damaging the main sanctuary . Joshua Cohen , writing in The Forward in 2008 , described the roof as " falling in respectfully , careful not to disturb the local nightclubs , or the wine and cheesery newly opened across the street . " No one was injured , and a party to celebrate that fact was later held at the Chasam Sopher Synagogue on Clinton Street .
The National Trust for Historic Preservation issued a press release about the collapse , in which it described " older religious properties , like the First Roumanian @-@ American Synagogue " as " national treasures " , and stated :
The roof collapse at First Roumanian – American Synagogue this week demonstrates that houses of worship must have access to necessary technical assistance , staff and board training , and the development of new funding sources in order to save these landmarks of spirituality , cultural tradition , and community service .
Amy Waterman , executive director of a project to repair and renovate the Eldridge Street Synagogue , noted in The Forward :
Synagogues like the First Roumanian @-@ American Congregation , more familiarly known as the Rumanische shul , were the first spiritual homes for successive waves of European immigrants . They were built more than 100 years ago , and just like the bridges and tunnels of New York City , they 're bound to fail if not attended to .
Though First Roumanian @-@ American had hosted a wedding as recently as October 30 , 2005 , the sanctuary had not been in regular use for over 10 years as a result of the difficulty maintaining it . Services had been held instead on a lower floor , and by autumn 2005 the roof was so porous that on Yom Kippur — even in the basement — they prayed " with buckets " . After a contractor found water damage in the ceiling beams in early December , the three Spiegel brothers had been holding services in their mother Chana 's apartment at 383 Grand Street , where they placed the congregation 's 15 Torah scrolls following the roof cave @-@ in . The synagogue 's historic ark was also retrieved from the ruins . According to Shmuel Spiegel , " the insurance company [ was ] playing hardball . "
Because the building had never been registered as a National Historic Landmark , after the collapse it was demolished on March 3 , 2006 . The New York City Department of Buildings said that the decision to demolish was the congregation 's , but congregational vice president Joshua Shainberg said the Department of Buildings had left them no choice : " The Department of Buildings told us , ' You are to demolish it or we are to demolish it . ' There were figures of up to $ 1 @.@ 5 million for demolition . " At the time of the building 's collapse , the Spiegel brothers vowed that it would be re @-@ built , but not nearly as large : " perhaps 20 feet high by 60 feet deep by 75 feet wide , which would cost about $ 2 million to $ 3 million . "
Richard Price described the collapsed building in his novel Lush Life , writing that , after the demolition , only the rear wall with a Star of David in stained glass remained : " The candlesticks were standing up in the rubble , and the whole place looked like an experimental stage set — like Shakespeare in the Park . " By October 2007 all that was left was " an empty lot dotted with weeds and crushed bricks " . In a 2008 addendum to his book Dough : A Memoir , Mort Zachter described the remains as " a multimillion dollar real estate opportunity masquerading as a vacant , weed @-@ strewn lot . "
= = Controversy = =
The collapse of the roof , and subsequent destruction of the synagogue , generated widespread concern and criticism among preservationists , who blamed Jacob and Shmuel Spiegel — a charge the family rejected .
Julia Vitullo @-@ Martin , senior fellow at the Manhattan Institute and director of its Center for Rethinking Development , stated that First Roumanian @-@ American 's roof collapse and subsequent destruction dramatized an " ongoing though undocumented synagogue crisis — particularly in poor neighborhoods " and revealed a broader problem peculiar to Jewish houses of worship :
Since Judaism , unlike Catholicism , lacks a hierarchy that could keep track of how many [ synagogues ] are abandoned and demolished , the breadth of the problem is more difficult to ascertain .
In the years preceding the building 's collapse , the congregation had received offers of assistance from the New York Landmarks Conservancy , the National Trust for Historic Preservation , Lower East Side Conservancy , and the New York State Office of Parks , Recreation and Historic Preservation , though reports on the amounts and types of assistance offered varied . The congregation , then under the leadership of Jacob Spiegel , rejected them . Joel Kaplan of the Lower East Side Conservancy stated that the congregation " didn 't want the several hundred thousand dollars in landmarking grants that went to other Lower East shuls , money that could have kept the shul in repair . "
The reasons given for this rejection also varied . According to Vitullo @-@ Martin , writing in The Wall Street Journal , Shmuel Spiegel was not sure why the offers were rejected , as the records were " buried in the rubble " . Vitullo @-@ Martin speculated that congregants might have hesitated to agree to a condition that they would need permission from the state for any sale or alteration of the building during the following 20 years . According to The New York Times , Spiegel stated that the repairs required were so extensive that the congregation could not have made them even with this financial assistance . According to The Jewish Week , Spiegel stated that the congregation " didn 't want outside interference " , was " uncomfortable with the idea of being landmarked and having to answer to landmark guidelines " , and was also uncomfortable with making part of the building into a " museum of past glory " , as others nearby had done .
Zachter writes :
A few blocks away , the Eldridge Street Synagogue survives . Why this synagogue was renovated , and the First Roumanian torn down , is a question for the rabbis and the historians .
= Osteopathic medicine in the United States =
Osteopathic Medicine is a branch of the medical profession in the United States . Osteopathic physicians ( D.O.s ) are equivalent to both Doctors of Medicine ( M.D.s ) and Bachelor of Medicine , Bachelor of Surgery ( MBBS ) doctors in the United Kingdom and are considered fully licensed physicians ( medical doctors ) to practice medicine and surgery in all 50 states and are recognized in sixty five other countries , including all Canadian provinces .
Frontier physician Andrew Taylor Still founded the profession as a rejection of the prevailing system of medical thought of the 19th century . Still 's techniques relied on manipulation of joints and bones , to diagnose and treat illness , and he called his practices “ osteopathy ” . By the middle of the 20th century , the profession had moved closer to mainstream medicine , adopting modern public health and biomedical principles . American " osteopaths " became " osteopathic medical doctors " , ultimately achieving full practice rights as allopathic medical doctors in all 50 states , including serving in the U.S. armed forces as physicians .
In the 21st century , the training of osteopathic medical physicians in the United States is equivalent to the training of Doctors of Medicine ( M.D.s ) . Osteopathic medical physicians attend four years of medical school followed by an internship and a minimum two years of residency . They use all conventional methods of diagnosis and treatment . Though still trained in osteopathic manipulative treatment ( OMT ) , the modern derivative of Still 's techniques , they work in all specialties of medicine . OMT is a skill they use often in family practice , sports medicine , emergency medicine , but OMT is not commonly used in specialties such as dermatology , surgery , or other fields that do not lend themselves to correcting the body with their hands .
In modern medicine , any distinction between the M.D. and the D.O. professions has eroded steadily ; diminishing numbers of D.O. graduates enter primary care fields , fewer use OMT , and increasing numbers of osteopathic graduates choose to train in non @-@ osteopathic residency programs . An osteopathic physician ( DO ) is a fully licensed , patient @-@ centered medical doctor . DO has full medical practice rights throughout the United States and in 44 countries abroad .
Discussions about the future of modern medicine frequently debate the utility of maintaining separate , distinct pathways for educating physicians in the United States .
= = Nomenclature = =
Physicians and surgeons who graduate from osteopathic medical schools are known as physicians or osteopathic medical doctors . Upon graduation , they are conferred a professional doctorate , the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine ( D.O. ) .
Osteopathic curricula in other countries differ from those in the United States . European @-@ trained practitioners of osteopathic manipulative techniques are referred to as " osteopaths " : their scope of practice excludes most medical therapies and relies more on osteopathic manipulative medicine and alternative medical modalities . While it was once common for D.O. graduates in the United States to refer to themselves as ' osteopaths , ' this term is now considered archaic and those holding the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree are commonly referred to as ' osteopathic medical physicians ' .
= = Demographics = =
Currently , there are 30 accredited osteopathic medical schools offering education in 42 locations across the United States and 141 accredited U.S. M.D. medical schools .
In 1960 , there were 13 @,@ 708 physicians who were graduates of the 5 osteopathic medical schools .
In 2002 , there were 49 @,@ 210 physicians from 19 osteopathic medical schools .
Between 1980 and 2005 , the number of osteopathic graduates per year increased over 250 percent from about 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 800 . This number is expected to approach 5 @,@ 000 by 2015 .
In 2015 , there were 31 colleges of osteopathic medicine in 45 locations . One in four medical students in the United States is enrolled in an osteopathic medical school .
As of 2015 , there are more than 96 @,@ 000 osteopathic medical physicians in the United States .
By 2020 , the number of osteopathic medical physicians will be over 100 @,@ 000 , say expert predictions , according to the American Medical Association .
Osteopathic physicians are not evenly distributed in the United States . States with the highest concentration of osteopathic medical physicians are Oklahoma , Iowa , and Michigan where osteopathic medical physicians comprise 17 @-@ 20 % of the total physician workforce . The state with the greatest number of osteopathic medical physicians is Pennsylvania , with 7 @,@ 260 DOs in active practice in 2011 . The states with the lowest concentrations of DOs are Louisiana , Massachusetts and Vermont where only 1 – 3 % of physicians have an osteopathic medical degree . Public awareness of osteopathic medicine likewise varies widely in different regions . People living in the midwest states are the most likely to be familiar with osteopathic medicine . In the Northeastern United States , osteopathic medical physicians provide more than one third of general and family medicine patient visits .
Between 2010 and 2015 twelve states experienced greater than 50 % growth in the number of DOs — Virginia , South Carolina , Utah , Tennessee , North Dakota , Kentucky , South Dakota , Wyoming , Oregon , North Carolina , Minnesota , Washington .
= = Osteopathic principles = =
Osteopathic medical students take the Osteopathic Oath , similar to the Hippocratic oath , to maintain and uphold the " core principles " of osteopathic medical philosophy . Revised in 1953 , and again in 2002 , the core principles are :
The body is a unit ; a person is a unit of body , mind , and spirit .
The body is capable of self @-@ regulation , self @-@ healing , and health maintenance .
Structure and function are reciprocally interrelated .
Rational treatment is based on an understanding of these principles : body unity , self @-@ regulation , and the interrelationship of structure and function .
Contemporary osteopathic physicians practice evidence @-@ based medicine , indistinguishable from their MD colleagues .
= = = Significance = = =
There are different opinions on the significance of these principles . Some note that the osteopathic medical philosophy is akin to the tenets of holistic medicine , suggestive of a kind of social movement within the field of medicine , one that promotes a more patient @-@ centered , holistic approach to medicine , and emphasizes the role of the primary care physician within the health care system . Others point out that there is nothing in the principles that would distinguish D.O. from M.D. training in any fundamental way . One study , published in The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association found a majority of M.D. medical school administrators and faculty saw nothing objectionable in the core principles listed above , and some endorse them generally as broad medical principles .
= = History = =
= = = 19th century , a new movement within medicine = = =
Frontier physician Andrew Taylor Still , M.D. , DO , founded the American School of Osteopathy ( now the A.T. Still University @-@ Kirksville ( Mo . ) College of Osteopathic Medicine ) in Kirksville , MO , in 1892 as a radical protest against the turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century medical system . A. T. Still believed that the conventional medical system lacked credible efficacy , was morally corrupt , and treated effects rather than causes of disease . He founded osteopathic medicine in rural Missouri at a time when medications , surgery , and other traditional therapeutic regimens often caused more harm than good . Some of the medicines commonly given to patients during this time were arsenic , castor oil , whiskey , and opium . In addition , unsanitary surgical practices often resulted in more deaths than cures .
Dr. Still intended his new system of medicine to be a reformation of the existing 19th @-@ century medical practices . He imagined that someday " rational medical therapy " would consist of manipulation of the musculoskeletal system , surgery , and very sparingly used drugs . He invented the name " osteopathy " by blending two Greek roots osteon- for bone and -pathos for suffering in order to communicate his theory that disease and physiologic dysfunction were etiologically grounded in a disordered musculoskeletal system . Thus , by diagnosing and treating the musculoskeletal system , he believed that physicians could treat a variety of diseases and spare patients the negative side @-@ effects of drugs .
The new profession faced stiff opposition from the medical establishment at the time . The relationship of the osteopathic and medical professions was often " bitterly contentious " and involved " strong efforts " by medical organizations to discredit osteopathic medicine . Throughout the first half of the twentieth century , the policy of the American Medical Association labeled osteopathic medicine as a cult and osteopaths were seen as " cultist . " The AMA code of ethics declared it unethical for a medical physician to voluntarily associate with an osteopath .
One notable advocate for the fledgling movement was Mark Twain . Manipulative treatments had purportedly alleviated the symptoms of his daughter Jean 's epilepsy as well as Twain 's own chronic bronchitis . In 1909 , he spoke before the New York State Assembly at a hearing regarding the practice of osteopathy in the state . " I don 't know as I cared much about these osteopaths until I heard you were going to drive them out of the state , but since I heard that I haven 't been able to sleep . " Philosophically opposed to the American Medical Association 's stance that its own type of medical practice was the only legitimate one , he spoke in favor of licensing for osteopaths . Physicians from the New York County Medical Society responded with a vigorous attack on Twain , who retorted with " [ t ] he physicians think they are moved by regard for the best interests of the public . Isn 't there a little touch of self @-@ interest back of it all ? " " ... The objection is , people are curing people without a license and you are afraid it will bust up business . "
= = = 1916 – 1966 , federal recognition = = =
Recognition by the U.S. federal government was a key goal of the osteopathic medical profession in its effort to establish equivalency with its M.D. counterparts . Between 1916 and 1966 , the profession engaged in a " long and tortuous struggle " for the right to serve as physicians and surgeons in the U.S. Military Medical Corps . On May 3 , 1966 Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara authorized the acceptance of osteopathic physicians into all the medical military services on the same basis as MDs . The first osteopathic physician to take the oath of office to serve as a military physician was Harry J. Walter . The acceptance of osteopathic physicians was further solidified in 1996 when Ronald Blanck , DO was appointed to serve as Surgeon General of the Army , the only osteopathic physician to hold the post .
= = = 1962 , California = = =
In the 1960s in California , the American Medical Association ( AMA ) spent nearly $ 8 million to end the practice of osteopathic medicine in the state . In 1962 , Proposition 22 , a statewide ballot initiative in California , eliminated the practice of osteopathic medicine in the state . The California Medical Association ( CMA ) issued M.D. degrees to all DOs in the state of California for a nominal fee . " By attending a short seminar and paying $ 65 , a doctor of osteopathy ( D.O. ) could obtain an M.D. degree ; 86 percent of the DOs in the state ( out of a total of about 2000 ) chose to do so . " Immediately following , the AMA re @-@ accredited the formerly the osteopathic University of California at Irvine College of Osteopathic Medicine as the University of California , Irvine School of Medicine , an M.D. medical school . It also placed a ban on issuing physician licenses to DOs moving to California from other states . However , the decision proved to be controversial . In 1974 , after protests and lobbying by influential and prominent DOs , the California Supreme Court ruled in Osteopathic Physicians and Surgeons of California v. California Medical Association , that licensing of DOs in that state must be resumed . Four years later , in 1978 , the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific opened in Pomona , and in 1997 Touro University California opened in Vallejo . As of 2012 , there were 6 @,@ 368 D.O.s practicing in California .
= = = 1969 , AMA House of Delegates approval = = =
In 1969 , the American Medical Association ( AMA ) approved a measure allowing qualified osteopathic physicians as full and active members of the Association . The measure also allowed osteopathic physicians to participate in AMA @-@ approved intern and residency programs . However , the American Osteopathic Association rejected this measure , claiming it was an attempt to eliminate the distinctiveness of osteopathic medicine . In 1970 , AMA President Dwight L. Wilbur , M.D. sponsored a measure in the AMA 's House of Delegates permitting the AMA Board of Trustees ' plan for the merger of D.O. and M.D. professions . Today , a majority of osteopathic physicians are trained alongside MDs , in residency programs governed by the ACGME , an independent board of the AMA .
= = = 1993 , first African @-@ American woman to serve as dean of a U.S. medical school = = =
In 1993 , Barbara Ross @-@ Lee , DO was appointed to the position of dean of the Ohio University College of Osteopathic Medicine ; she was the first African @-@ American woman to serve as the dean of a U.S. medical school . Ross @-@ Lee now is the dean of the NYIT College of Osteopathic Medicine at Arkansas State University in Jonesboro , Arkansas .
= = = Non @-@ discrimination policies = = =
Recent years have seen a professional rapprochement between the two groups . DOs have been admitted to full active membership in the American Medical Association since 1969 . The AMA has invited a representative of the American Osteopathic Association to sit as a voting member in the AMA legislative body , the house of delegates .
= = = = 2006 , American Medical Student Association = = = =
In 2006 , during the presidency of an osteopathic medical student , the American Medical Student Association ( AMSA ) adopted a policy regarding the membership rights of osteopathic medical students in their main policy document , the " Preamble , Purposes and Principles . "
AMSA RECOGNIZES the equality of osteopathic and allopathic medical degrees within the organization and the healthcare community as a whole . As such , DO students shall be entitled to the same opportunities and membership rights as allopathic students .
= = = = 2007 , AMA = = = =
In recent years , the largest M.D. organization in the U.S. , the American Medical Association , adopted a fee non @-@ discrimination policy discouraging differential pricing based on attendance of an M.D. or D.O. medical school .
In 2006 , calls for an investigation into the existence of differential fees charged for visiting D.O. and M.D. medical students at American medical schools were brought to the American Medical Association . After an internal investigation into the fee structure for visiting D.O. and M.D. medical students at M.D. medical schools , it was found that one institution of the 102 surveyed charged different fees for D.O. and M.D. students . The house of delegates of the American Medical Association adopted resolution 809 , I @-@ 05 in 2007 .
Our AMA , in collaboration with the American Osteopathic Association , discourages discrimination against medical students by institutions and programs based on osteopathic or allopathic training .
= = = State licensing of practice rights = = =
In the United States , laws regulating physician licenses are governed by the states . Between 1901 and 1989 , osteopathic physicians lobbied state legislatures to pass laws giving those with a D.O. degree the same legal privilege to practice medicine as those with an M.D. degree . In many states , the debate was long and protracted . Both the AOA and the AMA were heavily involved in influencing the legislative process . The first state to pass such a law was California in 1901 , the last was Nebraska in | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
1989 .
= = Current status = =
= = = Education and training = = =
According to Harrison 's Principles of Internal Medicine , " the training , practice , credentialing , licensure , and reimbursement of osteopathic physicians is virtually indistinguishable from those of allopathic ( MD ) physicians , with 4 years of osteopathic medical school followed by specialty and subspecialty training and [ board ] certification . "
D.O.-granting U.S. medical schools have curricula identical for the most part to those of M.D.-granting schools . Generally , the first two years are classroom @-@ based , while the third and fourth years consist of clinical rotations through the major specialties of medicine . Some schools of Osteopathic Medicine have been criticized by the osteopathic community for relying too heavily on clinical rotations with private practitioners , who may not be able to provide sufficient instruction to the rotating student . Other D.O.-granting and M.D.-granting schools place their students in hospital @-@ based clinical rotations where the attending physicians are faculty of the school , and who have a clear duty to teach medical students while treating patients .
= = = = Graduate medical education = = = =
Upon graduation , most osteopathic medical physicians pursue residency training programs . Depending on state licensing laws , osteopathic medical physicians may also complete a one @-@ year rotating internship at a hospital approved by the American Osteopathic Association ( AOA ) .
Osteopathic physicians may apply to residency programs accredited by either the AOA or the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education ( ACGME ) . Currently , osteopathic physicians participate in more ACGME programs than in programs approved by the American Osteopathic Association ( AOA ) . By June 30 , 2020 , all AOA residencies will also be required to have ACGME accreditation , and the AOA will cease accreditation activities .
= = Osteopathic manipulative treatment ( OMT ) = =
Within the osteopathic medical curriculum , manipulative treatment is taught as an adjunctive measure to other biomedical interventions for a number of disorders and diseases . However , a 2001 survey of osteopathic physicians found that more than 50 % of the respondents used OMT on less than 5 % of their patients . The survey follows many indicators that osteopathic physicians have become more like M.D. physicians in every respect — few perform OMT , and most prescribe medications or suggest surgery as the first line of treatment . The American Osteopathic Association has made an effort in recent years to support scientific inquiry into the effectiveness of osteopathic manipulation as well as to encourage osteopathic physicians to consistently offer manipulative treatments to their patients . However , the number of osteopathic physicians who report consistently prescribing and performing manipulative treatment has been falling steadily . Medical historian and sociologist Norman Gevitz cites poor educational quarters and few full @-@ time OMT instructors as major factors for the decreasing interest of medical students in OMT . He describes problems with " the quality , breadth , nature , and orientation of OMM instruction , " and he claims that the teaching of osteopathic medicine has not changed sufficiently over the years to meet the intellectual and practical needs of students .
In their assigned readings , students learn what certain prominent DOs have to say about various somatic dysfunctions . There is often a theory or model presented that provides conjectures and putative explanations about why somatic dysfunction exists and what its significance is . Instructors spend the bulk of their time demonstrating osteopathic manipulative ( OM ) techniques without providing evidence that the techniques are significant and efficacious . Even worse , faculty members rarely provide instrument @-@ based objective evidence that somatic dysfunction is present in the first place .
At the same time , recent studies show an increasingly positive attitude of patients and physicians ( M.D. and D.O. ) towards the use of manual therapy as a valid , safe and effective treatment modality . One survey , published in the Journal of Continuing Medical Education , found that a majority of physicians ( 81 % ) and patients ( 76 % ) felt that manual manipulation ( MM ) was safe , and over half ( 56 % of physicians and 59 % of patients ) felt that manipulation should be available in the primary care setting . Although less than half ( 40 % ) of the physicians reported any educational exposure to MM and less than one @-@ quarter ( 20 % ) have administered MM in their practice , most ( 71 % ) respondents endorsed desiring more instruction in MM. Another small study examined the interest and ability of M.D. residents in learning osteopathic principles and skills , including OMT . It showed that after a 1 @-@ month elective rotation , the M.D. residents responded favorably to the experience .
= = = Professional attitudes = = =
In 1998 , a New York Times article described the increasing numbers , public awareness , and mainstreaming of osteopathic medical physicians , illustrating an increasingly cooperative climate between the D.O. and M.D. professions .
In 2005 , during his tenure as president of the American Association of Medical Colleges , Jordan Cohen described a climate of cooperation between D.O. and M.D. practitioners :
" We now find ourselves living at a time when osteopathic and allopathic graduates are both sought after by many of the same residency programs ; are in most instances both licensed by the same licensing boards ; are both privileged by many of the same hospitals ; and are found in appreciable numbers on the faculties of each other 's medical schools " .
Elsewhere , he has remarked that osteopathic manipulative medicine ( OMT ) " can be an aid to the physician in fostering a relationship with the patient . "
= = = International practice rights = = =
Each country has different requirements and procedures for licensing or registering osteopathic physicians and osteopaths . The only osteopathic practitioners that the U.S. Department of Education recognizes as physicians are graduates of osteopathic medical colleges in the United States . Therefore , osteopaths who have trained outside the United States are not eligible for medical licensure in the United States . On the other hand , U.S.-trained DOs are currently able to practice in 45 countries with full medical rights and in several others with restricted rights .
The Bureau on International Osteopathic Medical Education and Affairs ( BIOMEA ) is an independent board of the American Osteopathic Association . The BIOMEA monitors the licensing and registration practices of physicians in countries outside of the United States and advances the recognition of American @-@ trained DOs . Towards this end , the BIOMEA works with international health organizations like the World Health Organization ( WHO ) , the Pan American Health Organization ( PAHO ) as well as other groups .
The procedure by which countries consider granting physician licensure to foreigners varies widely . For U.S. trained physicians , the ability to qualify for " unlimited practice rights " also varies according to one 's degree , M.D. or D.O. Many countries recognize U.S.-trained MDs as applicants for licensure , granting successful applicants " unlimited " practice rights . The American Osteopathic Association has lobbied the governments of other countries to recognize U.S.-trained DOs similarly to their M.D. counterparts , with some success .
In over 65 countries , U.S.-trained DOs have unlimited practice rights . In 2005 , after one year of deliberations , the General Medical Council announced that U.S.-trained DOs will be accepted for full medical practice rights in the United Kingdom . According to Josh Kerr of the AOA , " some countries don ’ t understand the differences in training between an osteopathic physician and an osteopath . " The American Medical Student Association strongly advocates for U.S.-trained D.O. international practice rights " equal to that " of M.D. qualified physicians .
= = = Osteopathic medicine and primary care = = =
Osteopathic physicians have historically entered primary care fields at a higher rate than their M.D. counterparts . Some osteopathic organizations make claims to a greater emphasis on the importance of primary care within osteopathic medicine . However , the proportion of osteopathic students choosing primary care fields , like that of their M.D. peers , is declining . Currently , only one in five osteopathic medical students enters a family medicine residency ( the largest primary care field ) . In 2004 , only 32 % of osteopathic seniors planned careers in any primary care field ; this percentage was down from a peak in 1996 of more than 50 % .
= = Criticism and internal debate = =
= = = OMT = = =
Traditional osteopathic medicine , specifically OMT , has been criticized for many techniques such as cranial and cranio @-@ sacral manipulation . A study performed in the early 2000s questioned the therapeutic utility of osteopathic manipulative treatment modalities . Also , New York University health information website claims that " it is difficult to properly ascertain the effectiveness of a hands @-@ on therapy like OMT . "
= = = Research emphasis = = =
Another area of criticism has been the relative lack of research and lesser emphasis on scientific inquiry at D.O. schools in comparison with M.D. schools .
The inability to institutionalize research , particularly clinical research , at osteopathic institutions has , over the years , weakened the acculturation , socialization , and distinctive beliefs and practices of osteopathic students and graduates .
= = = Identity crisis = = =
There is currently a debate within the osteopathic community over the feasibility of maintaining osteopathic medicine as a distinct entity within U.S. health care . JD Howell , author of The Paradox of Osteopathy , notes claims of a " fundamental yet ineffable difference " between MD and DO qualified physicians are based on practices such as " preventive medicine and seeing patients in a sociological context " that are " widely encountered not only in osteopathic medicine but also in allopathic medicine . " Studies have confirmed the lack of any " philosophic concept or resultant practice behavior " that would distinguish a D.O. from an M.D. Howell summarizes the questions framing the debate over the future of osteopathic distinctiveness thus :
If osteopathy has become the functional equivalent of allopathy [ meaning the MD profession ] , what is the justification for its continued existence ? And if there is value in therapy that is uniquely osteopathic , why should its use be limited to osteopaths ?
= = = = Rapid expansion = = = =
As the number of osteopathic schools has increased , the debate over distinctiveness has often seen the leadership of the American Osteopathic Association at odds with the community of osteopathic physicians .
within the osteopathic community , the growth is drawing attention to the identity crisis faced by [ the profession ] . While osteopathic leaders emphasize osteopaths ' unique identity , many osteopaths would rather not draw attention to their uniqueness .
The rapid expansion has raised concerns about the number of available faculty at osteopathic schools and the role that those faculty play in maintaining the integrity of the academic program of the schools . Norman Gevitz , author of the leading text on the history of osteopathic medicine , recently published ,
DO schools are currently expanding their class sizes much more quickly than are their MD counterparts . Unlike MD colleges , where it is widely known that academic faculty members — fearing dilution of quality as well as the prospect of an increased teaching workload — constitute a powerful inhibiting force to expand the class size , osteopathic faculty at private osteopathic schools have traditionally had little or no input on such matters . Instead , these decisions are almost exclusively the responsibility of college administrators and their boards of trustees , who look at such expansion from an entrepreneurial as well as an educational perspective . Osteopathic medical schools can keep the cost of student body expansion relatively low compared with that of MD institutions . Although the standards of the Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation ensure that there will be enough desks and lab spaces to accommodate all new students , they do not mandate that an osteopathic college must bear the expense of maintaining a high full @-@ time @-@ faculty : student ratio .
The president of the American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine commented on the current climate of crisis within the profession .
The simultaneous movement away from osteopathic medicine ’ s traditionally separate training and practice systems , when coupled with its rapid growth , has created a sense of crisis as to its future . The rapid rate of growth has raised questions as to the availability of clinical and basic science faculty and clinical resources to accommodate the increasing load of students .
= Foramen spinosum =
The foramen spinosum is one of two foramina located in the base of the human skull , on the sphenoid bone . It is situated just anterior to the spine of the sphenoid bone , and just lateral to the foramen ovale . The middle meningeal artery , middle meningeal vein , and the meningeal branch of the mandibular nerve pass through the foramen .
The foramen spinosum is often used as a landmark in neurosurgery , due to its close relations with other cranial foramina . It was first described by Jakob Benignus Winslow in the 18th century .
= = Structure = =
The foramen spinosum is a foramen through the sphenoid bone situated in the middle cranial fossa . It is one of two foramina in the greater wing of the sphenoid bone . The foramen ovale is one of these two cranial foramina , situated directly anterior and medial to the foramen spinosum . The spine of sphenoid falls medial and posterior to the foramen . Lateral to the foramen is the mandibular fossa , and posterior is the Eustachian tube .
= = = Variation = = =
The foramen spinosum varies in size and location . The foramen is rarely absent , usually unilaterally , in which case the middle meningeal artery enters the cranial cavity through the foramen ovale . It may be incomplete , which may occur in almost half of the population . Conversely , in a minority of cases ( less than 1 % ) , it may also be duplicated , particularly when the middle meningeal artery is also duplicated .
The foramen may pass through the sphenoid bone at the apex of the spinous process , or along its medial surface .
= = = Development = = =
In the newborn , the foramen spinosum is about 2 @.@ 25 mm long and in adults about 2 @.@ 56 mm . The width of the foramen extends from 1 @.@ 05 mm to about 2 @.@ 1 mm in adults . The average diameter of the foramen spinosum is 2 @.@ 63 mm in adults .
The earliest perfect ring @-@ shaped formation of the foramen spinosum was observed in the eighth month after birth and the latest seven years after birth in a developmental study of the foramen rotundum , foramen ovale and foramen spinosum . The majority of the foramina in the skull studies were round in shape . The sphenomandibular ligament , derived from the first pharyngeal arch and usually attached to the spine of the sphenoid bone , may be found attached to the rim of the foramen .
= = = Animals = = =
In other great apes , the foramen spinosum is found not in the sphenoid bone but in parts of the temporal bone such as the squamous part , found at the sphenosquamosal suture , or absent .
= = Function = =
The foramen spinosum permits the passage of the middle meningeal artery , middle meningeal vein , and the meningeal branch of the mandibular nerve .
= = Clinical significance = =
Due to its distinctive position , the foramen is used as an anatomical landmark during neurosurgery . As a landmark , the foramen spinosum reveals the positions of other cranial foramina , the mandibular nerve and trigeminal ganglion , foramen ovale , and foramen rotundum . It may also be relevant in achieving haemostasis during trauma surgery .
= = History = =
The foramen spinosum was first described by the Danish anatomist Jakob Benignus Winslow in the 18th century . It is so @-@ named because of its relationship to the spinous process of the greater wing of the sphenoid bone . However , due to incorrectly declining the noun , the literal meaning is " hole full of thorns " ( Latin : foramen spinosum ) . The correct , but unused name would , in fact , be foramen spinae .
= = Additional images = =
= Blue wildebeest =
The blue wildebeest ( Connochaetes taurinus ) , also called the common wildebeest , white @-@ bearded wildebeest or brindled gnu , is a large antelope and one of the two species of wildebeest . It is placed in the genus Connochaetes and family Bovidae and has a close taxonomic relationship with the black wildebeest . The blue wildebeest is known to have five subspecies . This broad @-@ shouldered antelope has a muscular , front @-@ heavy appearance , with a distinctive robust muzzle . Young blue wildebeest are born tawny brown , and begin to take on their adult colouration at the age of two months . The adults ' hues range from a deep slate or bluish gray to light gray or even grayish @-@ brown . Both sexes possess a pair of large curved horns .
The blue wildebeest is a herbivore , feeding primarily on the short grasses . It forms herds which move about in loose aggregations , the animals being fast runners and extremely wary . The mating season begins at the end of the rainy season and a single calf is usually born after a gestational period of about eight and a half months . The calf remains with its mother for eight months , after which time it joins a juvenile herd . Blue wildebeest are found in short grass plains bordering bush @-@ covered acacia savannas in southern and eastern Africa , thriving in areas that are neither too wet nor too arid . Each year , some East African populations of blue wildebeest take part in a long @-@ distance migration , seemingly timed to coincide with local patterns of rainfall and grass growth .
The blue wildebeest is native to Angola , Botswana , Kenya , Mozambique , South Africa , Swaziland , Tanzania , Zambia and Zimbabwe . Today it is extinct in Malawi , but has been successfully reintroduced in Namibia . The southern limit of the blue wildebeest range is the Orange River , while the western limit is bounded by Lake Victoria and Mt Kenya . The blue wildebeest is widespread and is being introduced into private game farms , reserves and conservancies . For this reason , the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) rates the blue wildebeest as being of Least Concern . The population has been estimated to be around one and a half million and the population trend is stable .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The blue wildebeest was first described by English naturalist William John Burchell in 1823 and he gave it the scientific name Connochaetes taurinus . It shares the genus Connochaetes with the black wildebeest ( C. gnou ) , and is placed in the family Bovidae , ruminant animals with cloven hooves . The generic name Connochaetes derives from the Greek words κόννος , kónnos , " beard " , and χαίτη , khaítē , " flowing hair " , " mane " . The specific name taurinus originates from the Greek word tauros , which means a bull or bullock . The common name " blue wildebeest " refers to the conspicuous , silvery @-@ blue sheen of the coat , while the alternative name " gnu " originates from the name for these animals used by the Khokloi people , a native pastoralist tribe of southwestern Africa .
Though the blue and black wildebeest are currently classified in the same genus , the former was previously placed in a separate genus , Gorgon . In a study of the mitotic chromosomes and mtDNA which was undertaken to understand more of the evolutionary relationships between the two species , it was found that the two had a close phylogenetic relationship and had diverged about a million years ago .
= = = Subspecies = = =
C. taurinus has five subspecies :
C. t. albojubatus ( Thomas , 1912 ; Eastern white @-@ bearded wildebeest ) , is found in the Gregory Rift Valley ( south of the equator ) . Its range extends from northern Tanzania to central Kenya .
C. t. cooksoni ( Blaine , 1914 ; Cookson 's wildebeest ) , is restricted to the Luangwa Valley in Zambia . Sometimes these animals may wander into the plateau region of central Malawi .
C. t. johnstoni ( Sclater , 1896 ; Nyassaland wildebeest ) , occurs from Mozambique ( north of the Zambezi river ) to east @-@ central Tanzania . This subspecies is now extinct in Malawi .
C. t. mearnsi ( Heller , 1913 ; Western white @-@ bearded wildebeest ) , is found in northern Tanzania and southern Kenya . Its range extends from the west of the Gregory Rift Valley to Speke Bay on Lake Victoria .
C. t. taurinus ( Burchell , 1823 ; Blue wildebeest , common wildebeest or brindled gnu ) is found in southern Africa . Its range extends from Namibia and South Africa to Mozambique ( north of the Orange River ) and from southwestern Zambia ( south of the Zambezi river ) to southern Angola .
= = = Hybrids = = =
The blue wildebeest is known to hybridise with the black wildebeest . The differences in social behaviour and habitats have historically prevented interspecific hybridisation , however it may occur when both species are confined within the same area , and the offspring is usually fertile . A study of these hybrid animals at Spioenkop Dam Nature Reserve in South Africa revealed that many had congenital abnormalities relating to their teeth , horns and the Wormian bones of the skull . Another study reported an increase in the size of the hybrid as compared to either of its parents . In some hybrid animals the auditory bullae are highly deformed and in others the radius and ulna are fused .
= = Genetics and evolution = =
The diploid number of chromosomes in the blue wildebeest is 58 . Chromosomes were studied in a male and a female wildebeest . In the female , all except a pair of very large submetacentric chromosomes were found to be acrocentric . Metaphases were studied in the male 's chromosomes , and very large submetacentric chromosomes were found there as well , similar to those in the female both in size and morphology. the rest were acrocentric . The X chromosome is a large acrocentric while the Y chromosome a minute one .
This species of wildebeest seems to have evolved around 2 @.@ 5 million years ago . The black wildebeest is believed to have diverged from the blue wildebeest to become a distinct species around a million years ago , in the mid to late Pleistocene . Fossil evidence suggests that the blue wildebeest were quite common in the Cradle of Humankind in the past . Apart from eastern Africa , fossils are commonly found in Elandsfontein , Cornelia and Florisbad .
= = Description = =
The blue wildebeest exhibits sexual dimorphism , with males being larger and darker than females . The blue wildebeest is typically between 170 – 240 cm ( 67 – 94 in ) in head @-@ and @-@ body length . The average height of the species is 115 – 145 cm ( 45 – 57 in ) . While males weigh up to 290 kg ( 640 lb ) , females seldom exceed 260 kg ( 570 lb ) . A characteristic feature is the long , black tail , which is around 60 – 100 cm ( 24 – 39 in ) in length . All features and markings of this species are bilaterally symmetrical for both sexes . The average life span is 20 years in the wild , and 21 years in captivity . The oldest known captive individual lived for 24 @.@ 3 years .
= = = Colouration = = =
This broad @-@ shouldered antelope has a muscular , front @-@ heavy appearance , with a distinctive robust muzzle . Young blue wildebeest are born tawny brown , and begin to take on their adult colouration at the age of two months . The adults ' hues range from a deep slate or bluish gray to light gray or even grayish @-@ brown . The back and flanks are slightly lighter than the ventral surface and underparts . Dark brown vertical stripes mark the area between the neck and the back of the ribcage , thus giving it the name " brindled gnu " . The manes of both sexes appear long , stiff , thick and jet black , the same colour as the tail and face as well . While the manes of the western and eastern white @-@ bearded wildebeest are lank , those of the Nyassaland wildebeest and common wildebeest stick up . Scent glands , which secrete a clear oil , are present in the forefeet and are larger in males than females .
In terms of skull length , the smallest subspecies of the blue wildebeest is the western white @-@ bearded wildebeest . It is also the darkest subspecies , the eastern white @-@ bearded wildebeest being the lightest race . Both these subspecies possess a creamy white beard , whereas the beard is black in both the Nyassaland wildebeest and the common wildebeest . The longest muzzles are found in the Nyassaland wildebeest , and the shortest in female western white @-@ bearded wildebeest .
= = = Horns = = =
Both sexes possess a pair of large horns which are shaped like parentheses . These extend outward to the side , and then curve upward and inward . In the males , the horns can be 83 cm ( 33 in ) long , while the horns of the females are 30 – 40 cm ( 12 – 16 in ) long . Despite being an antelope , the blue wildebeest possesses various bovine characteristics . For instance , the horns resemble those of the female African buffalo . Further , the heavy build and disproportionately large forequarters give it a bovine appearance .
= = = Diseases and parasites = = =
The blue wildebeest is susceptible to foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease , anthrax , sarcoptic mange and hoof gangrene . The herpesvirus was first isolated from the blue wildebeest in 1960 by veterinary scientist Walter Plowright . Although the causes of death will vary from year to year , in one drought in Botswana , young calves and aged females were the most likely to die . On another occasion it was estimated that 47 % of deaths were caused by disease , 37 % were due to predation and the remainder were the result of accidents .
The animal can be host to a number of different parasites . In one study , blue wildebeest were found to be hosts to thirteen species of nematode , one trematode , larvae of five oestrid flies , three species of lice , seven ixodid tick species , one mite and the larvae of a tongue worm . Of these , most were more prevalent at some times of the year than others . Generally , the larvae of Gedoelstica and Oestrus occur in the nasal passages and respiratory cavities of the blue wildebeest , and sometimes migrate to the brain . Compared to some other bovids , blue wildebeest are resistant to infestations by several species of tick .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The blue wildebeest is mostly active during the morning and the late afternoon , with the hottest hours of the day being spent in rest . These extremely agile and wary animals can run at speeds of up to 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , waving their tails and tossing their heads . An analysis of the activity of blue wildebeest at the Serengeti National Park showed that the animals devoted over half of their total time to rest , 33 % to grazing , 12 % to moving about ( mostly walking ) and a little to social interactions . However , there were variations among different age and sex groups .
The wildebeest usually rest close to others of their kind and move about in loose aggregations . Males form bachelor herds , and these can be distinguished from juvenile groups by the lower amount of activity and the spacing between the animals . Around 90 % of the male calves join the bachelor herds before the next mating season . Bulls become territorial at the age of four or five years , and become very noisy ( most notably in the western white @-@ bearded wildebeest ) and active . The bulls tolerate being close to each other and a square kilometre of plain can accommodate 270 bulls . Most territories are of a temporary nature and fewer than a half of the male population hold permanent territories . In general , blue wildebeest rest in groups of a few to thousands at night , with a minimum distance of 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) between individuals ( though mothers and calves may remain in contact ) . They are a major prey item for lions , hyenas , and crocodiles .
Bulls mark the boundaries of their territories with heaps of dung and with secretions from their scent glands . The territories are advertised by their behaviour as well as by the physical marking . Body language used by a territorial male includes standing tall with an erect posture , profuse ground pawing and horning , frequent defecation , rolling and bellowing , the sound " ga @-@ noo " being produced . When competing over territory , males grunt loudly , paw the ground , make thrusting motion with their horns , and perform other displays of aggression .
= = = Diet = = =
The blue wildebeest is a herbivore , feeding primarily on the short grasses which commonly grow on light , and alkaline soils that are found in savanna grasslands and on plains . The animal 's broad mouth is adapted for eating large quantities of short grass and it feeds both during the day and night . When grass is scarce , it will also eat the foliage of shrubs and trees . Wildebeest commonly associate with plains zebras as the latter eat the upper , less nutritious grass canopy , exposing the lower , greener material which the wildebeest prefer . Whenever possible , the wildebeest likes to drink twice daily and due to its regular requirement for water , it usually inhabits moist grasslands and areas with available water sources . Despite this , it can also survive in the arid Kalahari desert , where it obtains sufficient water from melons and water @-@ storing roots and tubers .
In a study of the dietary habits of the wildebeest , the animals were found to be feeding on the three dominant grasses of the area , namely : Themeda triandra , Digitaria macroblephara and Penisetum mezianum . The time spent grazing increased by about 100 % during the dry season . Though the choice of diet remained the same in both the dry and the wet season , the animals were more selective during the latter .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Male blue wildebeest become sexually mature at about two years of age while females can conceive at sixteen months if adequately nourished . Nevertheless , most females do not start to breed until a year later . The mating season , which lasts for about three weeks , coincides with the end of the rainy season . This means that the animals are in good condition , having been feeding on highly nutritious new grass growth , and the conception rate is often as high as 95 % . The mating season , or rut , typically begins on the night of a full moon , suggesting that the lunar cycle influences breeding . At this time , testosterone production peaks in males , resulting in increased calling and territorial behaviour . The activities of these sexually excited males may also stimulate female to come into estrus .
As they stake out their territories and compete for females , males exhibit rivalry . When they clash , they face up to each other with bent knees and exchange horn thrusts . Elaborate individual displays are made during their rivalry and they may bellow , snort and dig their horns into the ground . Once dominance has been established , each male attempts to lure the female into his domain . During courtship , urination and low @-@ stretch are common activities and the male soon attempts to mount the female . A receptive female holds her tail to one side and stands still while copulation takes place . Matings may be repeated several times and may take place twice or more times within a minute . The male neither eats nor rests when a female is present in his territory and during this time , the female keeps close to the male , often rubbing her head on his torso and sniffing his penis . While in season , a female may visit several territories and mate with several different males .
The gestation period is about eight and a half months and between 80 and 90 % of the calves are born within a three @-@ week time period . Female wildebeest give birth in the middle of a herd rather than alone , and typically in the middle of the day . This allows time for the newborn to become steady on its feet before night falls and the predators become more active . Calves weigh about 19 kg ( 42 lb ) at birth , and can usually stand on their own within a few minutes of birth . To escape predation , calves remain close to their mothers for a significant time , and may continue suckling until the next year 's calf is nearly due . Some calves leave their mother at about eight months and form herds with other juveniles . In large female herds , 80 % of the wildebeest offspring survive the first month , compared to a 50 % survival rate in smaller herds .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The blue wildebeest is native to Kenya , Tanzania , Botswana , Zambia , Zimbabwe , Mozambique , South Africa , Swaziland and Angola . Today it is extinct in Malawi , but has been successfully reintroduced into Namibia .
Blue wildebeest are mainly found in short grass plains bordering bush @-@ covered acacia savannas in southern and eastern Africa , thriving in areas that are neither too wet nor too arid . They can be found in habitats that vary from overgrazed areas with dense bush to open woodland floodplains . Trees such as Brachystegia and Combretum are common in these areas . Blue wildebeest can tolerate arid regions as long as a potable water supply is available , normally within about 15 – 25 km ( 9 @.@ 3 – 15 @.@ 5 mi ) distance . The southern limit of the blue wildebeest stops at the Orange River , while the western limit is bounded by Lake Victoria and Mt Kenya . The range does not include montane or temperate grasslands . These wildebeest are rarely found at altitudes in excess of 1 @,@ 800 – 2 @,@ 100 m ( 5 @,@ 900 – 6 @,@ 900 ft ) . With the exception of a small population of Cookson 's wildebeest that occurs in the Luangwa Valley ( Zambia ) , the wildebeest is absent in the wetter parts of the southern savanna country , and particularly is not present in miombo woodlands .
Each year , some East African populations of blue wildebeest take part in a long @-@ distance migration , seemingly timed to coincide with the annual pattern of rainfall and grass growth . The timing of the migration in both directions can vary considerably from year to year . At the end of the rainy season , they migrate to dry @-@ season areas in response to a lack of drinking water . When the rainy season begins again a few months later , the animals trek back to their wet @-@ season range .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The blue wildebeest is preyed on by lions , leopards , African wild dogs and hyenas and predation is the main cause of death . They are also prone to outbreaks of disease which may also lead to a decline in numbers . Major human @-@ related factors affecting populations include large @-@ scale deforestation , the drying up of water sources , the expansion of settlements and poaching . Diseases of domestic cattle such as sleeping sickness can be transmitted to the animals and take their toll . The erection of fences that interrupt traditional migratory routes between wet and dry @-@ season ranges have resulted in mass death events when the animals become cut off from water sources and the areas of better grazing they are seeking during droughts . A study of the factors influencing wildebeest populations in the Maasai Mara ecosystem revealed that the populations had undergone a drastic decline of around 80 % from about 119 @,@ 000 individuals in 1977 to around 22 @,@ 000 twenty years later . The major cause of this was thought to be the expansion of agriculture , which led to the loss of wet season grazing and the traditional calving and breeding ranges .
The total number of blue wildebeest is estimated to be around 1 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 . The population trend overall is stable and the numbers in the Serengeti National Park ( Tanzania ) have increased to about 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 . The population density ranges from 0 @.@ 15 / km2 in Hwange and Etosha National Parks to 35 / km2 in Ngorongoro Crater and Serengeti National Park where they are most plentiful . Blue wildebeest have also been introduced into a number of private game farms , reserves and conservancy areas . For these reasons , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) rates the blue wildebeest as being of Least Concern . However , the numbers of the eastern white @-@ bearded wildebeest ( C. t. albojubatus ) have seen a steep decline in numbers to a current level of probably 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 animals and this is causing some concern .
= = Relationship with humans = =
As one of the major herbivores of southern and eastern Africa , the blue wildebeest plays an important role in the ecosystem and is a main prey item for large predators such as the lion . It is one of the animals that draws tourists to the area to observe big game and as such it is of major economic importance to the region . Traditionally blue wildebeest have been hunted for their hides and meat , the skin making good quality leather though the flesh is coarse , dry and rather hard .
However , blue wildebeest can also affect human beings negatively . They can compete with domestic livestock for grazing and water and can transmit fatal diseases like rinderpest to cattle and cause epidemics among animals . They can also spread ticks , lungworms , tapeworms , flies and paramphistome flukes .
An ancient carved slab of slate depicting an animal very similar to the blue wildebeest has been discovered . Dating back to around 3000 BC , it was found in Hierakonopolis ( Nekhen ) , which used to be the religious and political capital of Upper Egypt at that time . This may be evidence that the animal used to occur in North Africa and was associated with the ancient Egyptians .
= Thriller ( Michael Jackson album ) =
Thriller is the sixth studio album by American singer Michael Jackson . It was released by Epic Records on November 30 , 1982 , as the follow @-@ up to Jackson 's critically and commercially successful 1979 album Off the Wall . Thriller explores similar genres to those of Off the Wall , including pop , post @-@ disco , rock and funk . Recording sessions took place on April to November 1982 at Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles with a production budget of $ 750 @,@ 000 , assisted by producer Quincy Jones .
Of the album 's nine tracks , four were written by Jackson . Seven singles were released from the album , all of which reached the top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Three of the singles had music videos released . " Baby Be Mine " and " The Lady in My Life " were the only tracks that were not released as singles . In just over a year , Thriller became — and currently remains — the best @-@ selling album of all time , with estimated sales of 65 million copies worldwide according to various sources . In the United States , it is the best @-@ selling album and has become the first album ever to be certified 32 times multi @-@ platinum for 32 million album @-@ equivalent units . The album won a record @-@ breaking eight Grammy Awards in 1984 , including for Album of the Year .
Thriller enabled Jackson to break down racial barriers in pop music via his appearances on MTV and meeting with President of the United States Ronald Reagan at the White House . The album was one of the first to use music videos as successful promotional tools — the videos for " Thriller " , " Billie Jean " and " Beat It " all received regular rotation on MTV . In 2001 , a special edition issue of the album was released , which contains additional audio interviews , demo recordings and the song " Someone in the Dark " , which was a Grammy @-@ winning track from the E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial storybook . In 2008 , the album was reissued again as Thriller 25 , containing re @-@ mixes that feature contemporary artists , a previously unreleased song and a DVD , which features the short films from the album and the Motown 25 performance of " Billie Jean " . That same year the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame along with Jackson 's Off The Wall LP .
In 2012 , Slant Magazine listed Thriller at number one on its list of " Best Albums of the 1980s " . The album was ranked number 20 on Rolling Stone magazine 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list in 2003 , and was listed by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers at number three in its " Definitive 200 " albums of all time . The Thriller album was included in the Library of Congress ' National Recording Registry of culturally significant recordings and the Thriller video was included in the National Film Preservation Board 's National Film Registry of " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant films " .
= = Background = =
Jackson 's previous album Off the Wall ( 1979 ) received strong critical acclaim and was also a commercial success , eventually selling over 20 million copies worldwide . The years between Off the Wall and Thriller were a transitional period for the singer , a time of increasing independence . The period saw the singer become deeply unhappy ; Jackson explained , " Even at home , I 'm lonely . I sit in my room sometimes and cry . It 's so hard to make friends ... I sometimes walk around the neighborhood at night , just hoping to find someone to talk to . But I just end up coming home . " When Jackson turned 21 in August 1979 , he hired John Branca as his manager .
Jackson confided in Branca that he wanted to be the biggest star in show business and " the wealthiest " . The singer was upset about what he perceived to be the under @-@ performance of Off the Wall , stating , " It was totally unfair that it didn 't get Record of the Year and it can never happen again . " He also felt undervalued by the music industry ; in 1980 when Jackson asked the publicist of Rolling Stone if they would be interested in doing a cover story on him , the publicist declined , to which Jackson responded , " I 've been told over and over that black people on the cover of magazines doesn 't sell copies ... Just wait . Someday those magazines are going to be begging me for an interview . Maybe I 'll give them one , and maybe I won 't . "
= = Recording = =
Jackson reunited with Off the Wall producer Quincy Jones to record his sixth studio album ( his second under the Epic label ) . The pair worked together on 30 songs , nine of which were eventually included . Thriller was recorded at Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California , with a production budget of $ 750 @,@ 000 . The recording for Thriller commenced on April 14 , 1982 at 12 : 00 noon with Jackson and Paul McCartney recording " The Girl Is Mine " and the album was completed with the final day of mixing on November 8 , 1982 . Several members of the band Toto were also involved in the album 's recording and production . Jackson wrote four songs for the record : " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , " The Girl Is Mine " , " Beat It " and " Billie Jean " . Unlike many artists , Jackson did not write these songs on paper . Instead , he would dictate into a sound recorder ; when recording he would sing from memory .
The relationship between Jackson and Jones became strained during the album 's recording . Jackson spent much of his time rehearsing dance steps alone . When the album 's nine songs were completed , both Jones and Jackson were unhappy with the result and remixed every song , spending a week on each .
Jackson was inspired to create an album where " every song was a killer " and developed Thriller with that in mind . Jones and songwriter Rod Temperton gave detailed accounts of what occurred for the 2001 reissue of the album . Jones discussed " Billie Jean " and why it was so personal to Jackson , who struggled to deal with a number of obsessed fans . Jones wanted the long introduction on the song to be shortened ; however , Jackson insisted that it remain because it made him want to dance . The ongoing backlash against disco made it necessary to move in a different musical direction from the disco @-@ heavy Off the Wall . Jones and Jackson were determined to make a rock song that would appeal to all tastes and spent weeks looking for a suitable guitarist for the song " Beat It " . Eventually , they found Steve Lukather of Toto to play the rhythm @-@ guitar parts and Eddie Van Halen of the rock band Van Halen to play the solo .
When Rod Temperton wrote the song " Thriller " , he originally wanted to call it " Starlight " or " Midnight Man " , but settled on " Thriller " because he felt the name had merchandising potential . Always wanting a notable person to recite the closing lyrics , Jones brought in actor Vincent Price who was an acquaintance of Jones ' wife , who completed his part in just two takes . Temperton wrote the spoken portion in a taxi on the way to the recording studio . Jones and Temperton said that some recordings were left off the final cut because they did not have the " edginess " of other album tracks .
Songs recorded by Jackson for consideration included " Carousel " ( written by Michael Sembello ) , " Got the Hots " ( written by Michael Jackson and Quincy Jones ) , " Nite Line " ( written by Glen Ballard ) , " Trouble " ( aka " She 's Trouble " , written by Terry Britten , Bill Livsey and Sue Shifrin ) and " Hot Street " ( written by Rod Temperton and aka " Slapstick " ) . Jackson also cut a version of " Starlight " . Demos of all these songs exist and have leaked onto the internet . " Carousel " , " Got the Hots " and " Hot Street " were completed , but left off the final version of the album . A short clip of " Carousel " appeared as a bonus track on the 2001 reissue of the album ; the full version was later released on iTunes in 2013 as part of The Ultimate Fan Extras Collection .
= = Composition = =
Thriller explores different music genres , including pop , post @-@ disco , rock and funk . According to Steve Huey of AllMusic , it refined the strengths of Jackson 's previous album Off the Wall ; the dance and rock tracks were more aggressive , while the pop tunes and ballads were softer and more soulful . The album includes the ballads " The Lady in My Life " , " Human Nature " and " The Girl Is Mine " ; the funk pieces " Billie Jean " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " ; and the disco set " Baby Be Mine " and " P.Y.T. ( Pretty Young Thing ) " and has a similar sound to the material on Off the Wall . " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " is accompanied by a bass and percussion background and the song 's centerpiece , a climaxing African @-@ inspired chant ( often misidentified as Swahili , but actually syllables based on Duala ) , gave the song an international flavor . " The Girl Is Mine " tells of two friends ' fight over a woman , arguing over who loves her more and concludes with a spoken rap . The album 's songs have a tempo ranging from 80 beats per minute on " The Girl is Mine " , to 138 on " Beat It " .
Despite the light pop flavor of these two records , Thriller , more so than Off the Wall , displayed foreshadowings of the contradictory thematic elements that would come to characterize Jackson 's subsequent works . With Thriller , Jackson would begin his association with the subliminal motif of paranoia and darker themes , including supernatural imagery in the album 's title track . This is evident on the songs " Billie Jean " , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " and " Thriller " . In " Billie Jean " , Jackson sings about an obsessive fan who alleges he has fathered a child of hers ; in " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " he argues against gossips and the media . In the former song , Jones had Jackson sing vocal overdubs through a six @-@ foot @-@ long cardboard tube and brought in jazz saxophonist Tom Scott to play a rare instrument , the lyricon , a wind @-@ controlled analog synthesizer . Bassist Louis Johnson ran through his part on a Yamaha bass guitar . The song opens with a long bass @-@ and @-@ drums introduction . In the song " Thriller " , sound effects such as creaking door , thunder , feet walking on wooden planks , winds and howling dogs can be heard .
The anti @-@ gang @-@ violence " Beat It " became a homage to West Side Story and was Jackson 's first successful rock cross @-@ over piece . Jackson later said of " Beat It " , " the point is no one has to be the tough guy , you can walk away from a fight and still be a man . You don 't have to die to prove you 're a man " . " Human Nature " , co @-@ written by Steve Porcaro of the band Toto , is moody and introspective , as conveyed in lyrics such as , " Looking out , across the morning , the City 's heart begins to beat , reaching out , I touch her shoulder , I 'm dreaming of the street " .
By the late 1970s , Jackson 's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded ; AllMusic described him as a " blindingly gifted vocalist " . Rolling Stone compared his vocals to the " breathless , dreamy stutter " of Stevie Wonder . Their analysis was also that " Jackson 's feathery @-@ timbred tenor is extraordinarily beautiful . It slides smoothly into a startling falsetto that 's used very daringly " . With the release of Thriller , Jackson could sing low — down to a basso low C — but he preferred to sing higher because pop tenors have more range to create style . Rolling Stone was of the opinion that Jackson was now singing in a " fully adult voice " that was " tinged by sadness " . " P.Y.T. ( Pretty Young Thing ) " , credited to James Ingram and Quincy Jones and " The Lady in My Life " by Rod Temperton , both gave the album a stronger R & B direction ; the latter song was described as " the closest Jackson has come to crooning a sexy , soulful ballad after his Motown years " by Taraborrelli . The singer had already adopted a " vocal hiccup " which he continued to implement in Thriller . The purpose of the hiccup — somewhat like a gulping for air or gasping — is to help promote a certain emotion , be it excitement , sadness or fear .
= = Release and reception = =
Thriller was released on November 30 , 1982 , and sold one million copies worldwide per week at its peak . Seven singles were released from the album , including " The Girl Is Mine " — which was seen as a poor choice for the lead release and led some to believe that the album would be a disappointment and to suggestions that Jackson was bowing to a white audience . " The Girl Is Mine " was followed by the hit single " Billie Jean " , which made Thriller a chart @-@ topper . Success continued with the single " Beat It " , which featured guitarists Eddie Van Halen and Steve Lukather . The album 's title track was released as a single and also became a hit internationally .
Thriller was well received by most critics . Christopher Connelly in a January 1983 review in Rolling Stone gave it four out of five stars and described it as " a zesty LP " with a " harrowing , dark message " . Comparing the songs on the album with the life challenges that the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Jackson had faced since Off the Wall , Connelly remarks that he has " dropped the boyish falsetto " and is facing his " challenges head @-@ on " with " a feisty determination " and " a full , adult voice " . John Rockwell in a December 1982 review in The New York Times also commented on Jackson 's age , comparing his youth with his experience as an entertainer , feeling that perhaps he is a " sometimes too practiced ... performer " , that at times Quincy Jones may " depersonalize his individuality " with his " slightly anonymous production " and that Jackson may be hiding his true emotions behind " layers of impenetrable , gauzy veils " . The bulk of Rockwell 's review concentrated on how he felt that the album was helping breach " the destructive barriers that spring up regularly between white and black music " , especially as " white publications and radio stations that normally avoid black music seem willing to pretend he isn 't black after all " . He feels that Thriller is " a wonderful pop record , the latest statement by one of the great singers in popular music today " and that there are " hits here , too , lots of them " .
In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau gave the album an A – rating and commented that " this is virtually a hits @-@ plus @-@ filler job , but at such a high level it 's almost classic anyway " . He later revised it to an A , and commented in retrospect , " what we couldn 't know is how brilliantly every hit but ' P.Y.T. ' would thrive on mass exposure and public pleasure . " A year after the album 's release , Time summed up the three main singles from the album , saying , " The pulse of America and much of the rest of the world moves irregularly , beating in time to the tough strut of " Billie Jean " , the asphalt aria of " Beat It " , the supremely cool chills of " Thriller " . In 1989 , the Toronto Star music critics took to look over the albums they had reviewed in the past ten years to include in a list based on " commercial impact to social import , to strictly musical merit . " Thriller was placed at number 1 on the list , where it was referred to as his " master work " and that " commercial success has since overshadowed Jackson 's artistic accomplishments on Thriller , and that 's a pity . It was a record for the times , brimming with breathless anticipation and a dread fear of the adult world , a brilliant fantasy that pumped with sexual heat , yet made room for serious reflection "
The album won a record @-@ breaking eight Grammy Awards in 1984 , including Album of the Year . Jackson won seven of the Grammys for the album while the eighth Grammy went to Bruce Swedien . That same year , Jackson won eight American Music Awards , the Special Award of Merit and three MTV Video Music Awards . Thriller was recognized as the world 's best @-@ selling album on February 7 , 1984 , when it was inducted into the Guinness Book of World Records . It is one of four albums to be the best @-@ seller of two years ( 1983 – 1984 ) in the US .
On December 16 , 2015 , Thriller was certified 30 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , for shipments of at least 30 million units in the US . After the inclusion of streaming and tracks sales into the RIAA album awards in 2016 , Thriller was re @-@ certified 32 × platinum for a total of 32 million album @-@ equivalent units . The album topped the charts in many countries , sold 4 @.@ 2 million copies in the UK , 2 @.@ 5 million in Japan , and was certified 15 × Platinum in Australia . Still popular today , Thriller sells an estimated 130 @,@ 000 copies in the US per year ; it reached number two in the US Catalog charts in February 2003 and number 39 in the UK in March 2007 .
= = Influence and legacy = =
= = = Music industry = = =
Blender described Jackson as the " late 20th century 's preeminent pop icon " , while The New York Times gave the opinion that he was a " musical phenomenon " and that " in the world of pop music , there is Michael Jackson and there is everybody else " . Jackson changed the way the industry functioned : both as an artistic persona and as a financial , profitable entity . His attorney John Branca observed that Jackson achieved the highest royalty rate in the music industry to that point : approximately $ 2 for each album sold . As a result , Jackson earned record @-@ breaking profits from compact disc sales and from the sale of copies of the documentary , The Making of Michael Jackson 's Thriller , produced by Jackson and John Landis . Funded by MTV , the film sold over 350 @,@ 000 copies in its first few months . In a market then driven by singles , Thriller raised the significance of albums , yet its multiple hit singles changed perceived notions as to the number of successful singles that could be taken from an individual album . The era saw the arrival of novelties like the Michael Jackson doll , that appeared in stores in May 1984 at a price of $ 12 . Thriller retains a position in American culture ; biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli explains , " At some point , Thriller stopped selling like a leisure item — like a magazine , a toy , tickets to a hit movie — and started selling like a household staple " .
At the time of the album 's release , a press statement from Gil Friesen , the then President of A & M Records , read that , " The whole industry has a stake in this success " . Time magazine speculated that " the fallout from Thriller has given the [ music ] business its best years since the heady days of 1978 , when it had an estimated total domestic revenue of $ 4 @.@ 1 billion " . Time summed up Thriller 's impact as a " restoration of confidence " for an industry bordering on " the ruins of punk and the chic regions of synthesizer pop " . The publication described Jackson 's influence at that point as , " Star of records , radio , rock video . A one @-@ man rescue team for the music business . A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade . A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street . A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style and color too " .
When Thriller and " Billie Jean " were searching to reach their market demographic , MTV and cable TV had a smaller market share than the much larger reach of broadcast television stations in the United States . A national broadcast TV audience on ABC , NBC and CBS affiliate stations , as well as major independent TV stations , was desired by CBS / Epic Records to promote Thriller . The national broadcast TV premiere of the Thriller album 's first video , " Billie Jean " , was during the week of Halloween in October 1984 and was the idea of Video Concert Hall executive producers Charles Henderson and Jerry Crowe . Video Concert Hall , the first nationwide music video TV network , taped the one @-@ hour special in Hollywood and Atlanta , where the TV studios of Video Concert Hall were located . The Thriller TV special was hosted by Thriller video co @-@ star Vincent Price , distributed by Henderson @-@ Crowe Syndications , Inc. and aired in the top 20 TV markets and much of the United States , including TV stations WNEW ( New York ) , WFLD ( Chicago ) , KTTV ( Los Angeles ) , WPLG ( Miami ) , WQTV ( Boston ) and WXIA ( Atlanta ) , for a total of 150 TV stations .
From the moment Thriller was released , it set the standard for the music industry : artists , record labels , producers , marketers and even choreographers . The music video was ahead of its time and it is considered a monumental one — not only in Jackson 's career , but also in the history of pop music . Epic Records ' approach to creating a song and video that would appeal to the mass market ended up influencing the way that professionals now market and release their songs . John Landis 's production of a mini @-@ movie , rather than the usual short music video , would raise the bar for other directors and producers .
= = = Music videos and racial equality = = =
Before the success of Thriller , many felt Jackson had struggled to get MTV airing because he was black . In an effort to attain air time for Jackson , CBS Records President Walter Yetnikoff pressured MTV and declared , " I 'm not going to give you any more videos and I 'm going to go public and fucking tell them about the fact you don 't want to play music by a black guy . "
His position persuaded MTV to begin airing " Billie Jean " and later " Beat It " , ( along with Prince 's " Little Red Corvette " ) which led to a long partnership and later helped other black music artists to gain mainstream recognition . MTV denies claims of racism in their broadcasting . The popularity of his videos , such as " Beat It " and " Billie Jean " , helped to place the young channel " on the map " and MTV 's focus shifted in favor of pop and R & B. Jackson transformed the medium of music video into an art form and promotional tool through the use of complex story lines , dance routines , special effects and cameo appearances by well known personalities . When the 14 @-@ minute @-@ long Thriller video aired , MTV ran it twice an hour to meet demand . The short film marked an increase in scale for music videos and has been routinely named the best music video ever . The popularity of the video sent the album back to number one in the album chart , but Jackson 's label did not support the release of the third music video from the album . They were already pleased with its success , so Jackson convinced MTV to fund the project . Author , music critic and journalist Nelson George wrote in 2004 , " It 's difficult to hear the songs from Thriller and disengage them from the videos . For most of us the images define the songs . In fact it could be argued that Michael is the first artist of the MTV age to have an entire album so intimately connected in the public imagination with its imagery " . Short films like Thriller largely remained unique to Jackson , while the group dance sequence in " Beat It " has been frequently imitated . The choreography in Thriller has become a part of global pop culture , replicated everywhere from Bollywood to prisons in the Philippines .
For a black artist in the 1980s to that point , Jackson 's success was unprecedented . According to The Washington Post , Thriller paved the way for other African @-@ American artists to achieve mainstream recognition , such as Prince . " The Girl Is Mine " was credited for getting interracial love on the radio . Time noted , " Jackson is the biggest thing since the Beatles . He is the hottest single phenomenon since Elvis Presley . He just may be the most popular black singer ever " .
= = = Contemporary appeal = = =
Today , Thriller is still viewed in a positive light by critics some three decades later . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album the maximum five stars and wrote that the record had something to interest everyone . He believed it showcased harder funk and hard rock while remaining " undeniably fun " . He went on to compliment " Billie Jean " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " and said , " The record 's two best songs : ' Billie Jean , ... and the delirious ' Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' ' , the freshest funk on the album [ but ] the most claustrophobic , scariest track Jackson ever recorded . " Erlewine gave the opinion that it was an improvement on the artist 's previous album , although he was critical of the title track , describing it as " ridiculous " and as having the effect of " arriving in the middle of the record and sucking out its momentum " . Slant Magazine gave the album five stars and , like the AllMusic review and the original Rolling Stone review , paid compliment to the lyrics of " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . Giving it five stars in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Rolling Stone journalist Jon Pareles commented that Jackson " doubled his ambitions and multiplied his audience " with the album and wrote of its legacy , " Thriller had extramusical help in becoming the best @-@ selling noncompilation album of all time : Jackson 's dancing feet and dazzling stage presence , amplified by the newfound promotional reach of music video and the Reagan era 's embrace of glossy celebrity . But especially in the album 's seven hit singles ( out of nine songs ) , the music stands on its own . "
Culture critic Nelson George wrote that Jackson " has educated R. Kelly , Usher , Justin Timberlake and countless others with Thriller as a textbook " . As a sign of the album 's longevity , in 2003 Thriller was ranked at number 20 on the Rolling Stone 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list and was listed by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers at number three of the " Definitive 200 " albums of all time . In 2008 , 25 years after its release , the record was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame and , a few weeks later , was among 25 recordings preserved by the Library of Congress to the National Recording Registry as " culturally significant " . In 2009 , music critics for MTV Base and VH1 both listed Thriller as the best album released since 1981 . Thriller , along with other critic favorites , were then polled by the public . 40 @,@ 000 people found Thriller to be the Best Album of all time by MTV Generation , gaining a third of all votes .
= = Reissues and catalog sales = =
Thriller was reissued on October 16 , 2001 , in an expanded set titled Thriller : Special Edition . The original tracks were remastered and the album included a new booklet and bonus material , including the songs " Someone in the Dark " , " Carousel " and Jackson 's original " Billie Jean " demo , as well as audio interviews with Jones and Temperton discussing the recording of the album . Sony also hired sound engineer and mixer Mick Guzauski to work with Jackson on creating 5 @.@ 1 @-@ channel surround sound mixes of Thriller , as well as all his other albums , for release on the then @-@ new Super Audio CD format . Despite numerous retries , the artist never approved any of the mixes . Consequently , Thriller was issued on SACD only in a stereo version .
In February 2008 , Epic Records released Thriller 25 ; Jackson served as executive producer . Thriller 25 appeared on CD , USB and vinyl with seven bonus tracks , a new song called " For All Time " , a snippet of Vincent Price 's voice @-@ over and five remixes featuring American artists Fergie , will.i.am , Kanye West and Akon . It also included a DVD featuring three music videos , the Motown 25 " Billie Jean " performance and a booklet with a message from Jackson . The ballad " For All Time " supposedly dates from 1982 , but is often credited as being from Dangerous sessions . Two singles were released from the reissue : " The Girl Is Mine 2008 " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 " .
Thriller 25 was a commercial success and did particularly well as a reissue . It peaked at number one in eight countries and Europe . It peaked at number two in the US , number three in the UK and reached the top 10 in over 30 national charts . It was certified Gold in 11 countries including the UK , received a 2 × Gold certification in France and received platinum certification in Poland . In the United States , Thriller 25 was the second best @-@ selling album of its release week , selling one hundred and sixty six thousand copies , just fourteen thousand short of reaching the number one position . It was ineligible for the Billboard 200 chart as a re @-@ release but entered the Pop Catalog Charts at number one ( where it stayed for ten non @-@ consecutive weeks ) , with the best sales on that chart since December 1996 . With the arrival of Halloween that November , Thriller 25 spent an eleventh non @-@ consecutive week atop the US catalog chart . This brought US sales of the album to 688 @,@ 000 copies , making it the best @-@ selling catalog album of 2008 . This was Jackson 's best launch since Invincible in 2001 , selling three million copies worldwide in 12 weeks .
After Jackson 's death in June 2009 , Thriller set additional records . It sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies , placing it at number two on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart . Songs from Thriller also helped Jackson become the first artist to sell more than one million song downloads in a week . According to Nielsen SoundScan , Thriller was the 14th best @-@ selling album of 2009 in the United States , with 1 @.@ 27 million copies sold .
For one week beginning November 20 , 2015 , Google Play Music offered a free copy of the album to its users in the U.S. It is called Thriller ( Google Play Exclusive Version ) . It adds a tenth track to the original , Billie Jean ( Home Demo from 1981 ) . To date , Thriller remains the best @-@ selling album of all time , selling over 65 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Decade @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= Work Bus =
" Work Bus " is the fourth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 180th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC on October 18 , 2012 . The episode was written by Brent Forrester and was directed by Bryan Cranston .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Jim ( John Krasinski ) convinces Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) that the building is unsafe , leading to Dwight renting a bus and setting up the office inside . Meanwhile , Nellie ( Catherine Tate ) asks for Andy 's ( Ed Helms ) help in adopting a baby . Jim tries to make Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) happy with some pie .
" Work Bus " received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Many praised the episode 's humor and the dynamic between Jim and Pam , and Jim and Dwight . Despite this , Andy 's characterization throughout the episode was mainly criticized . " Work Bus " was viewed by 4 @.@ 28 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 / 6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its timeslot . The Office also ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
When Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) is irritated that Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) will not fulfill his landlord responsibilities and fix the dangerously substandard office wiring , he comes up with a plan to pretend that magnetic power is affecting the office and thus get the repairs as well as a week off from work for his wife Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) ( whom he 's trying to be extra nice to in the wake of not telling her about his new job plans ) . Dwight calls Jim 's bluff and rents an overcrowded bus for the staff to work on , but Jim harnesses the office workers ' love of a local pie stand to please Pam . Dwight eventually gets angry and climbs into the roof of the bus , refusing to drive any further . Pam suspects something else is wrong and asks Jim to talk to him . Jim learns that Dwight thought his magnetic power prank was real as he suspects he is infertile , which he has convinced himself explains why he was not the father of Angela Martin 's ( Angela Kinsey ) baby . Jim tells Dwight he is like a father to the entire office , and Dwight then drives everyone to the pie stand where they have a great finish to their day .
Meanwhile , Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) asks for Andy Bernard 's ( Ed Helms ) help in adopting a baby , as the local adoption agency requires a reference letter from an employer . Andy promises to read her application letter , but tells the camera crew he 'll only sign it if she admits that she 's a horrible person in it . However , Andy is unaware that Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) is using her own painful past as a non @-@ adopted orphan to help Nellie with the process . When Andy coldly rejects Nellie 's letter ( which Erin helped her write ) , Nellie accepts his decision , but Andy is stunned to hear Erin crying sadly over the failure . He finally adds some mildly snarky but complimentary lines to her letter and signs onto it as a reference , leaving Nellie overjoyed .
= = Production = =
" Work Bus " was written by executive producer Brent Forrester , marking his tenth writing credit for the series , his first since the seventh season episode , " The Search " . Forrester had been previously been named executive producer to the series , before the start of the season . The episode was also directed by Bryan Cranston , the star of the AMC drama series , Breaking Bad . It was initially announced he was going to guest direct an episode by cast member Rainn Wilson , via Twitter . Cranston had previously directed episodes from other comedy series , including Malcolm in the Middle and Modern Family . Entertainment Weekly later confirmed the episode title and its airdate .
The official website of The Office included three cut scenes from " Work Bus " within a week of the episode 's release . In the 43 @-@ second clip , Pete and Erin indulge in a little unlawful fantasy . In the second 104 @-@ second clip , the office continues their " Shabooya Roll Call " , with Phylis , Oscar , Dwight ( reluctantly ) and Andy participating , while Angela criticizes their game . In the final 67 @-@ second clip , Clark helps Darryl out with Power Point .
= = Cultural references = =
The cold opening for the episode features Andy showing the office various sports bloopers that he edited to make look funnier than they actually are , a reference to the popular " Fail " internet memes . Dwight notes that he is fine living in an EMF field , because most of his super @-@ hero idols got their powers from massive amounts of electricity . Andy , by Nellie 's own admission , thinks that she should " go back to Loch Ness " , a reference to the mythical Loch Ness monster .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Work Bus " originally aired on NBC on October 18 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by 4 @.@ 28 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marks a slight decrease in the ratings when compared to the previous episode , " Andy 's Ancestry " . The Office finished third in its time slot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 4 / 9 percent rating and an entry of the CBS drama Person of Interest , which received a 2 @.@ 8 / 7 percent rating Despite this , The Office was the highest @-@ rated NBC television program of the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Work Bus " received mostly positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club reviewer Erik Adams considered " Work Bus " to be the funniest episode of the series since the seventh season . He noted that while the episode had a slow start , " the script [ ... ] doesn ’ t get moving until the bus gets moving " and comended the writers for using the ensemble cast to reach a " height of funniness " and compared the " mob mentality " of the cast to The Simpsons . He ultimately awarded the episode a B + . IGN writer Cindy White called the episode a " pretty good example of how to do an out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ office episode right " , considering it to be superior to other out @-@ of @-@ office episodes , including " Christening " and " Gettysburg " . She also complimented the characterization of the characters , specifically Jim , Pam and Dwight , and their relationships with each other . Despite this , she criticized the " aforementioned characterization of Andy " as well as the cold open , for making Andy too similar to Michael and later on commented that his new " douche @-@ bagery " spoiled the episode for her . She ultimately gave the episode a 7 @.@ 8 / 10 , concluding that it was a " good " episode . Michael Tedder of New York gave a positive review and praised the scene featuring Jim and Dwight on the roof of the bus , and praised their dynamic for maturing over the years . Tedder also complimented Cranston 's direction in the episode , commenting that the " cramped quality of ' Work Bus ' was well matched with Cranston 's talents " . He also wrote that the Nellie @-@ Andy subplot had some potential to become " promising " if their rivalry continues through the rest of the season , but " we 'll have to see " .
Brett Harrison Davinger of California Literary Review was more positive , writing that the episode had a more " classic Office " feeling , due to its humor and emotion , which he considered missing from the series in the previous seasons . He praised Jim for being " the show 's heart " for being motivated from " a real place " and complimented his final scenes with Dwight , for actually being more in @-@ character in his motivation unlike previous episodes , such as " The Incentive " and " Last Day in Florida " . He also praised Jim and Pam 's final scene together for having " genuine , quite tenderness " to it . He also complimented the episode 's humor and for Andy 's " dick " behavior .
Other reviews were more mixed . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix had a more mixed review , calling the episode " decent " , by " late @-@ era [ Office ] standards . While he criticized Andy 's behavior for being too much like Michael Scott , and Kevin for being " developmentally disabled " , he complimented the episode for having " some decent laughs " and for the Jim @-@ Dwight @-@ Pam storyline . He especially praised Jim and Dwight 's scene on the roof of the bus , comparing it to previous scenes in the series between Jim and Michael or Pam and Michael , saying it was able to show the " core of real emotion underneath the cartoon character [ Dwight ] " . Dan Forcella of TV Fantatic awarded the episode three stars out of five , saying that without Brian Baumgartner 's performance , the episode " might not have been worth watching " . He only had praise for Baumgartner 's performance in his character 's gags throughout the episode .
= 32 Old Slip =
32 Old Slip , also known as One Financial Square , is a skyscraper in the Financial District of New York City . Completed in 1987 , the building has 36 floors and stands at 575 ft 0 in ( 175 @.@ 26 m ) . It is home to Convene , AIG Global Real Estate , Goldman Sachs , the New York Regional Office of the United States Census Bureau , and the ground floor houses the New York City Fire Department ( FDNY ) Engine Company 4 and Ladder Company 15 .
= = History = =
The building site originally held the United States Assay Office , the last public gold refinery in the United States . It also melted damaged coins and incinerated damaged paper money . In 1983 , the United States Mint put the 42 @,@ 176 square feet ( 3 @,@ 918 @.@ 3 m2 ) property up for auction . Beginning at US $ 3 million , the winning bid was made by HRO International Ltd . , a New York realty developer , at $ 27 million . The sale established it as the most valuable government estate sold at public auction . The Assay office building was demolished in 1986 .
In 1987 , HRO built the 36 @-@ floor building that stands today , naming the 23 @-@ 43 Old Slip property One Financial Square . The Paramount Group purchased the property for $ 135 million in 1995 , then in August 2007 sold it to Beacon Capital Partners for $ 751 million , which is one of the largest sales on record of an office building in Lower Manhattan .
Like many buildings in Lower Manhattan , 32 Old Slip was battered with storm waters during Hurricane Sandy in 2012 . In contrast to most in the region , the building was designed to resist a powerful earthquake , which in part made the structure less prone to flooding . Within a year the building 's market value declined by 21 @.@ 6 % ( $ 65 @.@ 7 million ) . In 2013 a renovation effort began to add improved flood barriers , pumps and piping systems to better ward against future storms .
= = Architecture = =
The building is considered to be postmodern . Four sides of granite and silver @-@ tinted glass make up the base , which give way to stepped transitions , eventually resulting in an octagonal , entirely glass curtain wall .
The floor sizes range from 23 @,@ 404 to 38 @,@ 750 rentable square feet , totaling 1 @,@ 161 @,@ 435 rentable square feet . It consists of columnless interior on each floor and a 40 ft 0 in ( 12 @.@ 19 m ) lobby . There are 26 elevators in service and a parking garage beneath the structure . The ground level side and rear of the building feature a privately owned arcade and urban plaza .
= Tropical Storm Wukong ( 2006 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Wukong was a slow moving tropical cyclone which produced torrential rains over Japan . The tenth named storm of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season , Wukong developed out of a tropical depression over the open waters of the western Pacific Ocean . On August 13 , both the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the depression as a tropical storm . The storm traveled along a curving path south of Japan , absorbing the remnants of Tropical Storm Sonamu on August 15 before turning towards the west . Wukong made landfall at peak intensity late on August 17 near Miyazaki City in southern Kyūshū . The cyclone remained over land for about 24 hours before moving out over the Sea of Japan . The storm weakened to a tropical depression before dissipating on August 21 . Due to the slow movement of the storm , it produced heavy rains , peaking at 516 mm ( 20 @.@ 3 in ) . Two people were killed due to rough seas produced by the storm and three others were injured .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 12 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring a tropical depression located to the south of Chichi @-@ jima island . The depression formed within a monsoonal gyre which also spawned Tropical Storm Sonamu . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression 11W several hours after the JMA while the system was located about 140 km ( 85 mi ) south of Iwo Jima . The depression gradually strengthened as it moved towards the northwest . Early on August 13 , it was upgraded to a tropical storm and given the name Wukong ; a name which was contributed by China . The names means " the king of the monkeys " and was featured in the novel Journey to the West . The storm slowed significantly as a ridge built eastward over Japan . On August 14 , Wukong turned towards the northeast and reached its peak intensity with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) as a severe tropical storm .
At the same time , the JTWC assessed Wukong to have reached its initial peak intensity with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . The next day , the storm began to accelerate due to an interaction with the nearby Tropical Storm Sonamu . Wukong absorbed the weakening Sonamu later in the day before turning towards the west . On August 16 , the storm turned towards the northwest due to a weakness in the ridge near Japan . Wukong made landfall late on August 17 near Miyazaki City in southern Kyūshū . As the storm made landfall , the JTWC assessed Wukong to have winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . The cyclone slowly traveled across land , entering the Sea of Japan about 24 hours after landfall . Several hours after entering the Sea of Japan , the JMA downgraded Wukong to a tropical depression . The depression persisted for two more days before dissipating near the Russian coastline .
= = Preparations and impact = =
According to Japanese weather officials , heavy rain , flood , storm and high wave warnings were put into effect for all of Kyūshū and adjacent areas in Honshū . The two largest air carriers in Japan , Japan Airlines and All Nippon Airways , cancelled at least 36 domestic flights ahead of the storm . Several of the largest oil refineries halted oil product shipments from three refineries . Kyushu Railways postponed services on five lines , one of which crossed the entire prefecture . Long distance ferries were also shut down . Iwakuni , Yamaguchi was placed under Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness 3 and Sasebo , Nagasaki was placed under Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness Storm Watch .
Wukong produced torrential rains over Japan , peaking at 516 mm ( 20 @.@ 3 in ) in Hinokage , Miyazaki Prefecture . Flooding in Kyūshū and the Yamaguchi Prefecture caused the evacuation of about 300 households . At least 200 residences were left without power in Kyūshū . Two people were killed by rough seas produced by Wukong , and three others were injured in storm @-@ related accidents . A total of seven landslides occurred , one of which damaged several homes . As the storm brushed the Korean Peninsula , it produced heavy rains , but caused no known damage .
= First Test , 1948 Ashes series =
The First Test of the 1948 Ashes series was one of five Tests in a cricket series between Australia and England . The match was played at Trent Bridge in Nottingham from 10 to 15 June with a rest day on 13 June . Australia won the match by eight wickets to take a 1 – 0 series lead .
The Australians started the match as firm favourites , having won the previous series against England 3 – 0 ; in the lead @-@ up to the 1948 series , they had won 10 of their 12 tour matches in England , mostly by large margins . This included a crushing innings defeat in a match over the Marylebone Cricket Club — a team consisting almost entirely of Test @-@ capped and current England players . England captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat on a cloudy day . After the first morning was interrupted by inclement weather , the Australian fast bowlers quickly made inroads into the English batting . Despite the loss of leading Australian paceman Ray Lindwall with a groin injury , the hosts had difficulty against his colleagues and fell to be 74 runs for the loss of eight wickets ( 74 / 8 ) . However , a rearguard action by tail @-@ enders Alec Bedser and Jim Laker saw England reach 165 , Bill Johnston taking five wickets for 36 runs ( 5 / 36 ) for Australia , while compatriot Keith Miller took 3 / 38 . Laker top @-@ scored for the hosts with 63 . The tourists then reached 17 without loss by stumps .
On the second day , Yardley attempted to slow the Australian batsmen by employing leg theory , a defensive strategy that sought more to contain the opposition than to attack . As England had batted poorly in the first innings , allowing Australia to take the lead quickly , the home team sought to slow the tourists ' momentum and force a drawn match . Despite the tactics , Australia reached 293 / 4 at the end of the day 's play , captain Donald Bradman having registered his 28th Test century . Although Bradman and his batsmen made gestures indicating frustration at England 's stifling tactics , they remained patient as there was still much time left in the match for them to convert their dominance into a victory . The next morning , Bradman departed for 138 , the first in a series of dismissals in the leg trap , but his vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett continued , making 137 and putting on a century partnership with Lindwall as Australia were eventually out for 509 , giving them a 344 @-@ run first innings lead . Laker was the leading bowler , taking 4 / 138 . England reached 121 / 2 by stumps on the third day , which ended with a hostile crowd reaction to Miller , who bowled a large amount of bouncers at Len Hutton and Denis Compton .
After the rest day , play resumed in poor visibility , with frequent interruptions due to rain and bad light . England 's batsmen progressed steadily as Australia struggled in Lindwall 's absence , which forced his fellow bowlers to bear a greater workload . Hutton made 74 and Compton batted through the entire day to be unbeaten on 154 , with England one run ahead at the close of play , on 345 / 6 . Compton 's innings in the difficult conditions was highly praised and his team still had a chance of hanging on for a draw if the lower order could bat for a large part of the final day . The next day , Australia prised out the remaining wickets and England were dismissed for 441 , with Compton out for 184 after falling on his stumps . Miller and Johnston had both taken four wickets . Australia then made the 98 runs required for victory with the loss of two wickets ; opener Sid Barnes made his second half @-@ century for the match in the pursuit .
= = Background = =
Prior to the First Test , Australia had played 12 first @-@ class matches since arriving in England and starting their campaign in late @-@ April , winning ten and drawing two . Eight of the victories were by an innings , and another was by eight wickets . One of the drawn matches , against Lancashire , was rain @-@ affected , with the first day washed out entirely .
One of the tour matches was against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) , which fielded a team composed almost entirely of Test players . In what was effectively a dress rehearsal for the Tests , Australia fielded their full @-@ strength team and won by an innings . The difference in Australia 's team for the First Test was the omission of leg spinner Colin McCool , who had been struggling from a torn callus on his spinning finger , which prevented him from bowling long spells . It was thought that Bradman would play another leg spinner — Doug Ring — in McCool 's place , but the Australian captain changed his mind on the first morning when rain was forecast . Bill Johnston was played in the hope of exploiting a wet wicket . In previous rain @-@ affected matches on the tour , Johnston had been highly effective , taking match figures of 10 / 40 and 11 / 117 against Yorkshire and Hampshire respectively . Bill Brown , the reserve opener , played out of position in the middle @-@ order , as he had against Worcestershire and the MCC . Aside from Brown and Johnston 's inclusion , Australia 's team was the same as that which started the previous Ashes series in 1946 – 47 , which they won 3 – 0 .
England lost their leg spinner Doug Wright before the match to lumbago , so the off spin of Jim Laker was brought in at late notice . Laker had struggled when he had played for Surrey and the MCC against Australia in the lead @-@ up matches , taking 1 / 137 and 3 / 127 respectively . In the MCC match , the Australians had attacked him , taking nine sixes from his bowling in one 82 @-@ minute passage of play . Of the team that took to the field for the MCC , Len Hutton , Bill Edrich , Denis Compton , captain Norman Yardley , Laker and Jack Young were also selected for the First Test . Hutton scored 52 and 64 in the MCC match but nobody else managed to pass 26 in either innings . Young had bowled 55 @.@ 2 overs in Australia 's only innings , taking 4 / 155 . Opener Jack Robertson was left out after scoring six and a duck , and Cyril Washbrook , who had played against Australia in the 1946 – 47 series , partnered Hutton . Joe Hardstaff junior had scored 107 for Nottinghamshire , the only century made against Australia in the lead @-@ up matches , earning himself Test selection . Paceman Alec Bedser did not play in the MCC match , but had been a regular during England 's last series against Australia in 1946 – 47 , and had taken 4 / 104 for Surrey in their match against the tourists . Godfrey Evans , who kept wickets in the previous Ashes series , also gained Test selection . According to former England bowler Bill Bowes , England went into the match with the intention of securing a draw through the selection of defensive bowlers . The home team 's bowlers would tie down the Australians , forcing the batsmen to take risks to score runs and thereby increasing the chances of dismissal ; however , if rain produced a sticky wicket , the England attack might be able to dismiss Australia relatively easily . As such , England filled their team with batsmen and only played three frontline bowlers , Laker , Bedser and Young , and relied on Yardley , Edrich and Charlie Barnett to support them with their occasion seam bowling . It was speculated that England would use only two specialist bowlers ; the all @-@ rounder George Pope was in the squad and it was thought he would be used in place of one of the bowlers , but in the end , he was omitted , as was Reg Simpson . The latter had made 74 and 70 for Nottinghamshire against Australia and had impressed observers with his display , and was made twelfth man .
Before the start of the match , much of the attention was placed on the weather forecast and the prospects of rain . In their 12 tour matches leading up to the Tests , Australia had been almost completely untroubled by the opposition except in the two matches against Yorkshire and Hampshire on rain @-@ affected pitches . In these two matches they came close to defeat after heavy batting collapses before recovering to victory . It was thus thought that the toss could be of great importance , especially if the team batting first had accumulated a substantial total by the time rain came . The match was the first Ashes Test to be played on English soil since the end of World War II .
= = Scorecard = =
= = = England innings = = =
= = = Australia innings = = =
= = 10 June : Day One = =
England captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat despite the dull light ; Trent Bridge had reputation for being favourable to batsmen , and in the previous Test between Australia and England at the ground in 1938 , four Englishmen scored centuries as the hosts made 658 , before Stan McCabe of Australia made 232 runs himself . The first innings set the pattern of the series as the English top order struggled against Australia 's pace attack . Only twenty minutes of play was possible before lunch on the first day due to inclement weather , and the opening pair of Washbrook and Hutton had to deal with the contrasting bowling actions of Lindwall — with a low , somewhat round @-@ arm action — and Miller , who extracted more bounce from a higher arm at the point of delivery . In the first two overs , the Australian pairing extracted little bounce and it seemed as though the hosts would be in a strong position to make a large score on a placid track if they made a solid start . Lindwall bowled the first ball of the match at a moderate pace , and Hutton pushed it square of the wicket on the off side for a single to start proceedings . Gradually , the Australian bowlers got into their rhythm and began to raise their pace . Miller induced an edge from Washbrook in his first over , but it bounced before reaching a fielder . In his second over , Miller bowled Hutton for three with a faster ball that skidded off the pitch to leave England at 9 / 1 . The ball went between bat and pads as Hutton moved forward onto his front foot . The journalist and former Australian Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly criticised Hutton for not moving his leg across to the pitch of the ball , thereby leaving a gap between bat and pad .
During the lunch interval , heavy rain fell , before the sun began to dry the pitch , making the ball skid through upon England 's resumption at 13 / 1 . Miller beat Washbrook 's bat twice in one over soon after the resumption , but was unable to extract an edge . Lindwall reached his peak speed and Edrich edged to first slip , where Ian Johnson got both hands to the ball above his head , but failed to hold on . Edrich was on four at the time and this was part of a 20 @-@ minute passage of play during which England was unable to score . The next ball from Lindwall , Washbrook was caught on the run by Brown on the fine leg boundary after attempting to hook a bouncer pitched on the line of leg stump . It was to be the first of several times that Washbrook was dismissed while hooking , attracting substantial criticism . Washbrook 's fall left England at 15 / 2 after 41 minutes of batting and brought Compton to the crease to join Edrich . Compton square drove Miller to the boundary for four , which prompted a retaliatory bouncer and a negative crowd reaction . Edrich was not scoring quickly but he defied the bowling of Miller and Lindwall as the English pair took the score to 46 . Likewise , Compton was restraining his natural inclination to attack in an attempt to rebuild the innings after the two early wickets . During this period Brown made a series of one @-@ handed run @-@ saving stops in the field . The rain had also softened up the pitch and as a result , the playing surface did not offer much bounce .
Bradman then made a double change and brought on the two left @-@ arm pacemen , Bill Johnston and Ernie Toshack . In his first over , Johnston bowled Edrich with a delivery that knocked the off stump out of the ground as the batsman leaned forward on the front foot . Two balls later , Johnston removed Hardstaff for a duck , caught by Miller in slips after attempting a cut . Wisden described the catch as " dazzling " . Miller dived and balanced himself on his spine as he caught the ball heels over head . O 'Reilly said : " Johnston had trimmed and embroidered the efforts of his opening bowlers and had swung the fortunes of the game completely in Australia 's favour " .
Bradman then decided to bring Miller back in place of Toshack . Two runs later , Compton was bowled attempting a leg sweep against Miller , his leg stump knocked out of the ground as he moved across his wickets . Five English wickets had fallen with only 48 runs on the board after 100 minutes of play ; three batsmen had been dismissed in just ten minutes . O 'Reilly said " There was nothing whatsoever to suggest that the pitch had been instrumental in the English debacle . It was purely and simply an exhilarating display of splendid bowling fit to be classed with any match @-@ winning bowling performance in the story of Test cricket . "
The collapse left Barnett and captain Yardley as the new men at the crease . Both players attacked the bowling but could not get their shots through the field for runs . Soon after , Lindwall was forced to leave the field due to a groin injury and did not bowl again . Barnett hit one four before Johnston bowled him for eight off the inside edge as he leaned onto the front foot . This brought Evans to the crease with the score at 60 / 6 , and he attempted to disrupt the Australians ' line and length by counter @-@ attacking with a series of shots in front of the wicket . He drove the ball forward of point to the boundary for four , and was then given two lives . He hit Johnston hard to cover , but the catch went through Bradman for another boundary . The second chance of a catch went through Bradman 's hand and struck the Australian captain in the abdomen . However , the missed opportunities cost the tourists little ; Evans hit a ball strongly but it was caught at close range at short leg by Morris . Without further addition to the score , Toshack trapped Yardley , who had lingered at the crease for 26 minutes in accumulating three runs , leg before wicket ( lbw ) with a ball that straightened after pitching , leaving the score at 74 / 8 .
England was facing the prospect of setting a new record for the lowest Test innings score at Trent Bridge , worse than the 112 made by England against Warwick Armstrong 's Australians in 1921 . However , a late fightback averted the unwanted record . Laker and Bedser , both from Surrey , joined forces and scored more than half of England 's total , adding 89 runs in only 73 minutes . Laker 's innings was highlighted by hooking and driving , while Bedser defended stoutly and drove in front of the wicket , much to the delight of the Nottingham crowd , who had appeared to have become depressed by the collapse of England 's batsmen . At first , Bradman did not appear concerned by the partnership between the two bowlers from Surrey — it was thought the Australian captain may have been happy for England to continue batting so his top order would not have to bat in fading light towards the end of the afternoon , but he became anxious as the total continued to mount and both Bedser and Laker appeared comfortable . O 'Reilly speculated that both players had batted confidently as their home ground in Surrey — The Oval — had a reputation for being batsman @-@ friendly , and that as they would have had to contend with opposition batsmen who had the benefit of consistently favourable conditions , then they should also prepare so they too could capitalise on their opportunities with the willow . According to English commentator John Arlott , the playing surface was easier for batting than it had been at the start of the day , " but the difference was not such as to cause hesitation in the best batsmen in England " .
Eventually , Australia was forced to take the second new ball , and Bedser was finally removed by Johnston and Miller had Laker caught behind two runs later , ending England 's innings at 165 . Laker top @-@ scored with 63 in 101 minutes , with six boundaries , having reached his first 50 in only 60 minutes . O 'Reilly said " There was nothing about his batting to suggest that luck was going his way or that he was short of batting experience . " Johnston ended with 5 / 36 , a display characterised with his accuracy and variations in pace and swing . Miller took 3 / 38 and a catch , while Lindwall and Toshack took one wicket each . Spin was not used in abundance , as Johnson bowled five overs and Morris three . Following England 's struggles in the first innings , many pundits criticised Yardley 's decision to bat first .
Australia had less than 15 minutes of batting before the scheduled close of play . Barnes made an appeal against the light after the first ball of the innings , which was a wide by Edrich . Barnes walked down the pitch and reportedly muttered to umpire Frank Chester in a casual tone " Eh , the light ! " , which allegedly shocked the arbiter . During the previous Ashes series in Australia , Barnes had continuously made time @-@ wasting appeals against the light , which forced cricket administrators to limit the batting team to one appeal ; if this was declined it would be up to the umpires to offer an adjournment . Despite the appeal against the light , the Australians showed little desire to be watchful against Edrich 's bowling , scoring 11 runs from his two overs . Morris and Barnes successfully negotiated the new ball bowling of Edrich and Bedser . They reached stumps at 17 without loss , with Morris on 10 and Barnes on six . Barnes had been fortunate , edging both Edrich and Bedser through the slip cordon , and Yardley 's decision to place his bowlers Young and Bedser in that region raised surprise ; bowlers tend to lack the agility and reflexes needed for such positions . At this stage , following their tail @-@ end resistance , England were in a good position with runs on the board if rain struck overnight and caused a sticky wicket , forcing the Australians to bat in hostile conditions the following day .
= = 11 June : Day Two = =
Ideal batting conditions and clear weather greeted the players on the second day . After only four overs had been bowled in total the previous afternoon , Edrich was relieved of the new ball , which was given to Barnett , who accompanied Bedser . Both bowlers swung the ball into the right @-@ handed Barnes and away from the left @-@ handed Morris . Not a frontline bowler , Barnett focused on bowling defensively at medium pace , and the Australians wanted to make a safe start , so they decided to play him watchfully . This prompted some commentators to claim Barnett had allowed the Australians to settle into their rhythm by not trying to pressure them .
Barnes batted assuredly , while Morris was hesitant and shuffled around the crease . At one stage , Morris scored only seven runs in 55 minutes . Barnes was involved in some interplay with umpire Chester when the umpire failed to evade a drive from Morris and stopped it with his foot . Barnes picked the ball off the ground and handed it to the bowler , prompting a finger @-@ wagging from Chester , to which Barnes responded by admonishing the umpire for blocking the ball . Morris unnecessarily played at a ball outside off stump from Bedser and edged it to wicket @-@ keeper Evans , who dropped the catch . The batsman recomposed himself and hit Young 's first ball — a full toss — for runs as Australia passed 50 without loss . After the wayward start , Young began to bowl with consistent accuracy .
Barnes and Morris took the score to 73 before the latter was bowled for 31 by Laker after two hours of batting . Morris tried to force a ball from Laker away , but hit it from the middle of his bat into his back pad , and the ball rebounded onto the stumps . Bradman came in and Yardley set a defensive field , employing leg theory to slow the scoring . The English leader packed the leg side with fielders , including two short legs , and ordered Bedser to bowl at leg stump . Bradman almost inside @-@ edged the second ball onto his stumps , before defending uneasily for a period . With Laker stopping the scoring at the other end , Bradman managed only four runs in his first 20 minutes of batting . The Australian captain regarded Bedser as the finest seam bowler he faced in his career , and he batted in a circumspect manner as he sought to establish himself . At the other end , Bradman misjudged a ball from Laker and an incorrectly executed cut shot narrowly went wide of the slip fielder . Now aged 40 , Bradman 's reflexes had slowed and he no longer started his innings as confidently as he had done in the past . Barnes then reached his half @-@ century after 135 minutes , pulling Barnett for four , and the Australians passed 100 before lunch after 125 minutes of batting . At the adjournment , the tourists were 104 / 1 .
The score had progressed to 121 when Barnes tried to cut Laker , but only edged it onto the thigh of wicket @-@ keeper Evans . The ball bounced away and the gloveman turned around and took a one @-@ handed diving catch to dismiss Barnes for 62 . Umpire Cooke was unsure of whether Barnes had hit the ball into the ground before Evans took the catch , and consulted with Chester , who had been standing at point on the other side of the field , before ruling the batsman out . Miller came in and was dismissed for a duck in Laker 's next over without further addition to Australia 's total . He failed to pick Laker 's arm ball , which drifted away and went straight on instead of turning inwards , thereby clipping the outside edge of his bat . The ball flew to slip where Edrich completed the catch . The hard @-@ hitting Miller had come in at No. 4 , a position usually occupied by vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett , a more sedate batsman , indicating that Bradman may have been looking to attack , but the change in batting order failed .
Laker to this point had taken 3 / 22 from 12 @.@ 4 overs , having also top @-@ scored in the first innings . All the while , Australia had been scoring slowly , as they would for most of the day . Brown came in at No. 5 , but he had played most of his career as an opening batsman and looked unaccustomed to playing in the middle order , but Bradman brought him in ahead of Hassett as the new ball was due and Brown was used to starting his innings against pace bowlers and a new ball . The Australian captain decided to hasten the new ball by using his feet to get to the pitch of the ball to attack the spinners , hitting them through the off side . Yardley removed Laker — who was bowling effectively — from the attack and took the second new ball , bringing back Bedser and Edrich . However , this move backfired as Bradman struck his first boundary in over 80 minutes , and in the first 40 minutes after lunch , 43 runs were added . Yardley brought back his two spinners , and Australia passed England 's total before the English captain brought himself on to bowl , trapping Brown — who was attempting to push the ball to mid @-@ on — lbw with an off cutter in his first over . This ended a 64 @-@ run stand in 58 minutes and Hassett came in at 185 / 4 . The Australian vice @-@ captain came close to being caught when he knocked a ball from Bedser into the air , narrowly evading the grasp of Evans . Following the departure of Brown , the Australian scoring slowed as Bradman changed the team strategy to one of attempting to bat only once .
Yardley continued to employ a leg side field as he and Barnett bowled outside leg stump . During one over , Bradman did not attempt a single shot and then put his hands on his hips to express his displeasure at England 's tactics . During the 15 minutes before tea , the Australian captain did not add a single run and was heckled by the crowd . Bradman reached tea on 78 , and 55 minutes after the resumption of play , he cover drove Bedser to reach his century in 218 minutes . It was his 28th Test century , and his 18th in Ashes Tests . The last 29 runs took 70 minutes to accumulate , and it was one of Bradman 's slower innings as Yardley focused on stopping runs rather than taking wickets . Nevertheless , Bradman had appeared comfortable after the early stages of his innings , and patiently scored most of his runs between mid @-@ off and mid @-@ on , often from the back foot . After Bradman had reached his milestone , many of the spectators began to leave the ground , content with what they had seen .
Bradman added a further 30 in the last hour to end with 130 . Hassett also batted patiently , with one period of 20 minutes during which his score remained on 30 . Australia batted to stumps on the second day without further loss , ending at 293 / 4 , a lead of 128 , with Hassett on 41 . Young had bowled 32 overs to a leg side field , conceding only 53 runs . Fingleton described the afternoon day 's play as a " very shrewd display of tactics " and said that although the proceedings and the progress of the Australian batsmen had been slow , they were " never ... dull " . He added : " Bradman was on top by virtue of the facts that his side was well ahead of England , his own score was 130 and he was also unconquered . " However , O 'Reilly disagreed and said the Australians had not made enough progress as they should or could have . He said the batsmen failed to capitalise on the fatigue of the bowlers late in the day by not going on the attack in search of quick runs , instead of their " monotonously dull " strategy of patient attrition . O 'Reilly claimed that in containing the opposition batsmen , the English attack had " shared the honours of the day with — if they did not actually steal them from — Bradman . " Bradman and Hassett had made physical gestures indicating their displeasure at England 's tactics , but O 'Reilly felt Yardley had no choice after his team had squandered the initiative with their poor batting , and claimed it was up to the Australians to turn their advantage into a decisive , match @-@ winning position . Arlott disagreed with O 'Reilly , and said Australia " had time to build ... without risk or hurry on a gentle and accommodating ... wicket . Given a winning opportunity , it is characteristic of the Australians that they will never dissipate it by over @-@ anxiety or by carelessness . "
After the day 's play , O 'Reilly — a former teammate of Bradman who was covering the tour as a journalist — consulted Bedser on his use of leg theory . During his career O 'Reilly had often attacked leg stump , and had devised a plan to ensnare Bradman .
= = 12 June : Day Three = =
On the third morning , amid sunshine , Bradman resumed on 130 , before progressing to 132 and becoming the first player to pass 1 @,@ 000 runs for the English season . The Australian captain was not aware of the reason for the spontaneous crowd applause until being notified by wicket @-@ keeper Evans .
Bedser was bowling and he soon implemented O 'Reilly 's plans . Hutton was moved from leg slip to a squarer position at short fine leg , around 11 metres from the bat . Two short legs and a mid @-@ on were put in place . Bradman drove Bedser through cover for a boundary , but on the next ball , his innings terminated at 138 when he glanced an inswinger from Bedser straight to Hutton at short fine leg , who caught the ball without having to move . Bradman had batted for 290 minutes and faced 321 balls and as Johnson walked in to replace him with Australia at 305 / 5 , Bedser waved to O 'Reilly in the press box . When former Australian Test opener Jack Fingleton — a teammate of both Bradman and O 'Reilly who was also working as a journalist — reported what his colleague had done , there was some debate as to whether O 'Reilly 's actions were treacherous .
Johnson made 21 , including an edge over the slips cordon , before being bowled by Laker . He inside edged the ball onto his foot and it rolled back into his stumps . At the same time , Yardley pinned Hassett down with more leg theory . Laker bowled with one slip , while Young had none and had all of his fielders evenly spread in a circular formation . Tallon came in and took 39 minutes to compile 10 before hitting a return catch to the left @-@ arm orthodox spin of Young . The scoring was very slow during this passage of play — Young delivered 11 consecutive maiden overs and his 26 @-@ over spell conceded only 14 runs . Hassett conducted himself in a humorous way , and Arlott said : " only his grace and concealed humour made his innings tolerable " . He mainly scored from deflections and was for the most part prepared to take his time .
The injured Lindwall came out to bat at 365 / 7 without a runner to join Hassett , and appeared to be able to run twos and threes without significant difficulty . Hassett , who had scored only 30 runs in the first 75 minutes of the day , swept Laker for four and then hit him for the first six of the match . The Australian vice @-@ captain added 53 in the two hours of the morning session to reach lunch at 94 . The tourists were unhurried and remained patient as they had bowled England out quickly on the first day and there was still sufficient time to force a result with less than half the playing time elapsed .
After the break , Hassett reached his century after 305 minutes of batting , his first in Tests in England . He then accelerated , adding a further 37 runs in 49 minutes before being bowled by Bedser , having struck 20 fours and a six . The dismissal ended an eighth @-@ wicket partnership of 107 with Lindwall , who was caught by Evans down the leg side four runs later , having scored 42 with seven fours . Australia 's last @-@ wicket pair of Johnston and Toshack wagged a further 33 runs in only 18 minutes , batting in a carefree and freewheeling manner , before Bedser trapped Toshack to end the innings at 509 , leaving the tourists with a 344 @-@ run lead . Australia had batted for 216 @.@ 2 overs , the longest innings in terms of overs and the highest total in the series . Yardley placed the majority of the bowling load on his spinners ; Young ( 1 / 79 ) and Laker ( 4 / 138 ) delivered 60 and 55 overs respectively . Bedser bowled 44 @.@ 2 overs , taking 3 / 113 . The part @-@ time seam bowlers , Edrich , Barnett and Yardley , bowled 18 , 17 and 17 overs respectively . Australia had scored slowly but they had no need to take risks when there was so much time remaining . Yardley 's leg theory tactics failed to coax them into losing their patience .
England thus started their second innings still 344 runs in arrears . Although Lindwall was able to run between the wickets , he did not take to the field in the second innings and the 12th man Neil Harvey took his place . Fingleton called Harvey " by far the most brilliant fieldsman of both sides " . Yardley was sceptical as to whether Lindwall was sufficiently injured to be forced from the field , but did not formally object to Harvey 's presence on the field . O 'Reilly said Lindwall had demonstrated his mobility during his innings , was in no way " incapacitated " and that the English captain " must be condemned for carrying his concepts of sportsmanship too far " when no substitute was justified . O 'Reilly decried the benefit Australia derived through the substitution , agreeing with Fingleton 's judgement of Harvey was the tourists ' best fielder by far . Arlott went further , calling Harvey the best fielder in the world .
Four of the first five runs were leg byes ; Miller then removed Washbrook for one from a top @-@ edged hook shot that was caught by Tallon . The batsman was displeased with the umpire 's decision and gestured to a red mark on his shirt , indicating he felt the ball had touched his body and not the bat . Edrich came in and while he continued to struggle , he defiantly held up his end of the pitch . After scoring 13 from 43 minutes , Edrich was caught behind attempting a cut from the off spin of Johnson . He did not read the arm ball , which went straight on and took the outside edge , leaving England 39 / 2 . Johnson was extracting a substantial amount of spin from the surface . This brought together England 's leading batsmen , Hutton and Compton . The latter , coming in upon the fall of Edrich , ran down the pitch before the ball was bowled and had to quickly play a defensive shot on the run . He clipped the next ball to the leg side for two runs before surviving a confident leg before wicket appeal from Johnson when he was on eight . Compton appeared ready to walk off , but umpire Chester declined the appeal , much to his surprise . England reached 50 in 65 minutes and with Lindwall missing , Bradman had difficulties in spreading the workload among his depleted bowling resources . The part @-@ time leg spin of Barnes was brought on as the fifth bowling option to give the others some time to rest , and Miller resumed bowling late in the day , delivering slow off spin to conserve energy . Hutton and Compton exploited the depleted bowling attack and began to score freely , using their placement to bisect the gaps between the fielders . The pair did not give a chance apart from when Compton aimed an uppish square drive from Johnston that flew in the air wide of cover point .
Hutton then leg glanced Miller , before cover driving and square cutting him in another over . All three shots went for four and he reached his fifty in 110 minutes . Miller responded to the spate of boundaries with a series of bouncers , including five in the last over of the day . One of these struck Hutton high on his left arm . The batsmen survived , but Miller received a hostile reaction from the crowd throughout his short @-@ pitched barrage , including shouts of " Bodyline " . The original practitioners of Bodyline , Harold Larwood and Bill Voce , were both from Nottinghamshire and played at Trent Bridge , and were later excluded from selection for England after being blamed for the ill @-@ feeling caused by Bodyline . The Nottinghamshire supporters were still angry with how their players had been removed and were not happy that Miller was able to do something they saw to be equivalent . For his part , Miller appeared to be amused by the crowd reaction and revelled in it , grinning and flicking his hair . However , Hutton had the last word , glancing Miller down to fine leg for a four from the final ball of the day . England were 121 / 2 , with Hutton and Compton on 63 and 36 respectively . Miller was widely jeered and heckled as he walked off the field , and the crowded surged towards him as he walked up the steps into the dressing room . O 'Reilly defended Miller 's use of short @-@ pitched deliveries , pointing out that he had not employed a packed leg side field and had allowed the batsman the opportunity to score from hook and pull shots if he was willing to try ; in contrast the packed Bodyline field meant batsmen would find little reward for such shots and defensive play would only lead to dismissal .
= = 14 June : Day Four = =
The third day was followed by a rest day on Sunday and play resumed on the fourth morning , a Monday , with England still 223 runs in arrears . Before the start of play , the Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club ( NCCC ) secretary , H. A. Brown , broadcast an appeal to the gallery over the public address system to refrain from their heckling of Miller .
Let us keep Nottingham a place where Test matches can continue to be played . On Saturday the Australian , Miller , was booed and there was much subsequent publicity in the press . These Australians are great sportsmen . They stood by the Empire in the war and we should always be pleased to greet them . Let us show them how really pleased we are and give them a warmhearted greeting this morning .
The crowd responded by clapping as the Australians took to the field . The chairman of the NCCC reportedly apologised to Bradman in private for the crowd reaction to Miller .
As the new ball was due soon after the start of the play , Johnson and Toshack opened the attack as Bradman saved Johnston and Miller . In his first over , Johnson extracted sharp turn from one delivery that pitched outside off stump ; not expecting much spin , Compton did not play a shot and was hit on the pads , but the umpire rejected the loud appeal for lbw . Otherwise , Hutton and Compton progressed steadily before the light deteriorated , although Johnson and Toshack were able to make the ball deviate regularly . Despite this , Bradman opted to have Miller take the new ball in the fifth over of the day as soon as it was available . Mindful of recent events , Miller refrained from bouncers during the morning . In the overcast conditions , Miller bowled a relatively full length and swung the ball ; one of his deliveries beat Hutton and narrowly missed his stumps . At the other end , Johnston was also able to make the ball move sideways . Meanwhile , Compton appeared to be untroubled by the bowling . After half an hour of play , an unsuccessful appeal against the light was made as dark clouds hovered overhead . The rejection of the appeal made little difference , as a thunderstorm stopped proceedings for five minutes soon after . Shortly after the resumption , Miller bowled Hutton with an off cutter in the dark conditions , ending the 111 @-@ run partnership at 150 / 3 . Hutton had made 74 runs in 168 minutes with 11 fours , and as in the first innings , he played forward to a ball without getting his front foot close to the bat , resulting in the delivery moving through the gap into the stumps . The wicket prompted the entrance of Hardstaff , and on the third ball he aimed a cut at a wide Miller delivery , and it again went low to second slip as in the first innings . However , this time Morris was in the position and the catch was dropped . It was part of an eventful over during which Hardstaff had many near @-@ misses . He played and missed at one ball , inside edged another into his pads and edged another through the slips for two runs . Hardstaff had a reputation for being an uncertain starter , especially as he had a tendency to poke at deliveries outside his off stump , and the poor visibility further hindered him .
At 12 : 35 , bad light stopped proceedings , and after two inspections the umpires resumed play , although Arlott claimed that visibility was " barely more than a half candle @-@ power better " . Hardstaff then batted aggressively , walking towards the bowling and hitting three cover drives for four from Miller and Johnston , in one period in which he outscored Compton 23 to four . He then edged through slips for another boundary before Compton swept Toshack to the fence . In the final over before the lunch break , Hardstaff square drove Johnston for four off the back foot and England adjourned at 191 / 3 with Compton on 63 and Hardstaff 31 , still 153 in arrears . During the session , Bradman used Miller for 11 overs in a row in an attempt to pressure the Englishmen , while Toshack bowled defensively from the other end .
After lunch , the light was again poor , but England did not appeal to the umpires for an adjournment . Yardley wanted to bat now in poor visibility in order to eradicate the deficit and build a lead , so that if a shower came later and turned the pitch into a sticky wicket , Australia would have to chase a target on an erratic surface . Bradman anticipated rain , so he utilised Toshack and Johnson to bowl defensively to slow England 's progress in the hope that the hosts would not have a lead by the time a sticky wicket materialised . As the umpires were obliged to not call off play unless the light was so poor as to endanger the batsman , the lack of pace of Johnson and Toshack forced play to continue as they posed no physical threat to the batsmen . In foggy and misty conditions , Hardstaff brought up England 's 200 with a strongly @-@ hit hook that almost hit Barnes . Compton then hit a boundary from Toshack , prompting Bradman to further stack the leg side with fielders in defensive positions . Scoring was slow as Toshack pinned down the batsmen with an effective leg stump line .
The innings was interrupted by bad light and upon the resumption of proceedings , poor visibility intervened for a second time with Compton on 97 . After 55 minutes of delay , the umpires called the players back onto the field . Wisden said : " rarely can a Test Match have been played under such appalling conditions as on this day . " Fingleton said the conditions were " pitiable " and lamented the " utmost gloom in which batsmen and fieldsmen had intense difficulty in sighting the ball " . O 'Reilly said it was " without doubt the worst light " under which he had seen a first @-@ class match proceed . Compton brought up his third consecutive century at Trent Bridge by hitting a single to square leg , a " lovely century of stroke @-@ play and patience " according to Fingleton . The innings had taken 227 minutes and included 12 fours , and Compton had regularly hit the ball in the middle of his bat despite the poor visibility , which meant the batsmen could not see the ball once it was close to the boundary . O 'Reilly described the innings as " one of the greatest batting efforts in the story of Anglo @-@ Australian Tests " , adding that " his hundred runs was but a poor measure by which to estimate the value of his magnificent innings " , deeming Compton 's innings equivalent to a double century under normal conditions . Arlott said " In its manner , its style and its context it must rank with any innings he has ever played ... his innings will remain a Test classic . "
Soon after , Compton edged to the slips from the bowling of Miller , but Johnson spilled the catch . Hardstaff fell for 43 , lofting Toshack to Hassett on the leg side , having put on 93 with Compton . The ball looped up in the air and travelled half @-@ way to the square leg boundary , but Hassett managed to keep track of its trajectory through the fog . Barnett came in and together with Compton added 21 runs in 33 minutes before edging Johnston to Miller , who completed a difficult catch in slips . Yardley came out to bat at 264 / 5 and Compton drove Miller square for four , provoking the bowler 's first bouncer of the day . Compton hooked it away for two and Miller 's next delivery slipped out of his hand and cleared Compton 's head on the full to some jeering in the crowd . Such a ball is known as a beamer and is illegal because of the physical danger it poses to the batsman . Compton and Yardley put on a 57 @-@ run partnership in 66 minutes before Johnston held a return catch to dismiss Yardley for 22 . England reached stumps at 345 / 6 , just one run ahead of Australia , with Compton on 154 and Evans on 10 . During the day , Johnston bowled the most overs , 30 .
= = 15 June : Day Five = =
Compton and Evans continued to resist the Australians on the final morning , the latter being the more aggressive , and proceedings were briefly interrupted by rain less than 30 minutes after the start of play . At the time , it appeared the downpour might cause the match to end in a draw . After half an hour of stoppages , play resumed and Evans attacked , hitting two fours in quick succession . England 's wicket @-@ keeper played Johnston and Johnson confidently , but Bradman nevertheless persisted in giving Compton easy singles in order to bring Evans on strike so he could be targeted . For his part , Compton thought his partner could be relied upon and accepted the runs gifted to him by the Australian captain , while Evans continued to attack the bowling . The batsmen appealed against the light after the first stoppage of the day , but were turned down . Australia took the new ball , but the home team 's batsmen continued to proceed steadily , Evans being particularly aggressive . After a second interruption for poor light , this time for ten minutes , play resumed , and England had added a further 60 runs to their overnight total to reach 405 / 6 .
Miller bowled a fast and very short bouncer at Compton , who moved into position to hook before changing his mind and attempting to evade the ball . He lost balance and threw his legs apart , trying to avoid stepping onto his stumps . However , he was unsuccessful and was out hit wicket for 184 , having batted for 413 minutes and hit 19 fours . Wisden said : " No praise could be too high for the manner in which Compton carried the side 's responsibilities and defied a first @-@ class attack in such trying circumstances . " Fingleton said it was " a most depressing end to an innings that will live always " . O 'Reilly described it as " an unsavoury ending to one of the greatest fighting knocks in Test history " . Compton 's fall at 405 / 7 exposed the English tail and Australia quickly finished off the rest of the batsmen in 36 minutes . Miller bowled Laker — who played outside the line of the ball — for four , Evans reached 50 and was caught behind from Johnston , who then castled Young for nine . England were all out for 441 after 183 overs , leaving Australia a target of 98 in three hours . Lindwall 's absence throughout the England innings meant the remaining four Australian frontline bowlers had bowled more than 32 overs each — Johnston delivered 59 and ended with 4 / 147 while Miller took 4 / 125 from 44 overs . Toshack and Johnson took a wicket each from 33 and 42 overs respectively .
Australia progressed quickly at the start of the chase . Barnes took 13 runs , including three boundaries , from the opening over , bowled by Bedser , while Morris again lacked fluency . However , Barnes continued to score quickly , and 24 runs came from the first four overs . Yardley tried to stop the run @-@ scoring by bringing on Young , but Morris hit him for four and the bowler was promptly taken off . The tourists proceeded steadily to 38 from 32 minutes before Bedser bowled Morris for nine ; after bowling several balls that moved away , Bedser caught out Morris with an inswinger . Morris had developed a habit of trying to defend the ball to the leg side while shuffling towards the off , and was not in a position to deal with a ball that hurried off the pitch . Bradman came to the crease and batted for 12 minutes without getting off the mark . From the 10th ball he faced , the Australian skipper was out for a duck , again caught by Hutton at short fine leg in Bedser 's leg trap . Bradman showed obvious displeasure at allowing himself to be dismissed by the same trap in consecutive innings , and his departure left Australia at 48 / 2 . It was the first time in four tours to England that Bradman had made a duck in a Test .
Upon Bradman 's dismissal , dark clouds began to close in on the ground , and rain appeared to be a possible saviour for England . However , it never came , and meanwhile Hassett joined Barnes . The pair attacked , Hassett twice driving Bedser over the infield for boundaries , and later pulling another ball in the air for another four . Barnes gave Young an opportunity for a return catch , but the ball was dropped . The pair reached the target without further loss after 87 minutes of batting . Barnes ended on 64 with 11 boundaries , having been prolific on the square cut . He tied the scores with a swept boundary , and having taken a stump as souvenir , ran off the ground believing the match was over . Barnes tossed his souvenir back into the playing arena and returned to the field after noticing the reaction of the amused crowd and Hassett promptly hit the winning run .
= = Aftermath = =
The First Test was a continuation of the trend of English batsmen being largely unable to cope with Australia 's pacemen . Hutton was the only Englishman to pass 50 in the MCC match , and at Trent Bridge only he and Compton managed this feat . Apart from Hardstaff , none of the remaining batsmen passed 25 . Wisden 's verdict was that England fought back very well , but that avoiding defeat was almost impossible after their poor batting on the first day . Bowes considered the defensive English bowling display worthy of a draw , and blamed the first innings batting for the failure to prevenet defeat . However , he believed the English tactics to be justified and should have been continued .
Australia 's success came at a cost , with Lindwall injured and unable to bowl in the lead @-@ up to the Second Test , missing the intervening matches against Northamptonshire and Yorkshire . The heavy workload on Miller caused by Lindwall 's breaking down mid @-@ Test generated severe back pain , and he was still not fully recovered by the start of the Second Test at Lord 's . Lindwall was subjected to a thorough fitness test on the first morning of the Lord 's Test . Bradman was not convinced of Lindwall 's fitness , but the bowler 's protestations were sufficient to convince his captain to risk his inclusion . Australia won the toss and elected to bat , allowing Lindwall further time to recover from his injury . Miller also played , but still nursing his back , was unfit to bowl .
Content with their convincing win at Trent Bridge , Australia made no changes to their team , while England made three , omitting Barnett , Hardstaff and Young due to a combination of injury and poor form . Barnett and Hardstaff never played another Test . Despite his injury , Lindwall played a key role in a heavy 409 @-@ run Australian victory , taking eight wickets . His bowling also led to the controversial omission of Hutton , who performed poorly at Lord 's , for the Third Test . The reason was said to be Hutton 's struggles with Lindwall 's short @-@ pitched bowling . This decision pleased the Australians , who regarded Hutton as their most formidable opponent with the bat .
On the field , the Australians continued to flourish . The Third Test was a rain @-@ affected draw , and between the First and Fourth Tests , they won four of their five county matches , drawing the other . On the final day of the Fourth Test , Australia 's batsmen set a world Test cricket record by scoring 404 to win the match , thereby taking a series @-@ winning 3 – 0 lead .
After the historic win in the Fourth Test , Australia had five tour matches before the final Test . They won three while two ended in rain @-@ curtailed draws . Australia then completed the series with an innings victory in the Fifth Test at The Oval to complete a 4 – 0 result . The Fifth Test was the last international match of the tour , and the tourists had seven further matches to negotiate in order to fulfil Bradman 's aim of going through the English season undefeated . Apart from two washed @-@ out matches , Bradman 's men had little difficulty , winning the remaining five fixtures by an innings . They thus became the first touring Test team to complete an English season undefeated , earning themselves the sobriquet The Invincibles .
= Periodic table =
The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements , ordered by their atomic number ( number of protons ) , electron configurations , and recurring chemical properties . This ordering shows periodic trends , such as elements with similar behavior in the same column . It also shows four rectangular blocks with some approximately similar chemical properties . In general , within one row ( period ) the elements are metals on the left , and non @-@ metals on the right .
The rows of the table are called periods ; the columns are called groups . Six groups ( columns ) have names as well as numbers : for example , group 17 elements are the halogens ; and group 18 , the noble gases . The periodic table can be used to derive relationships between the properties of the elements , and predict the properties of new elements yet to be discovered or synthesized . The periodic table provides a useful framework for analyzing chemical behavior , and is widely used in chemistry and other sciences .
Dmitri Mendeleev published in 1869 the first | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
span of the Stone Age , Wright places the first sign of progress as being the ability to create fire . The competition between Cro @-@ Magnon and Neanderthals is examined with respect to the conditions that allowed one to out @-@ compete the other .
The second chapter , " The Great Experiment " , continues the examination of Stone Age progress by looking at the advancements in hunting . Wright uses the term " progress trap " to refer to innovations that create new problems for which the society is unable or unwilling to solve , or inadvertently create conditions that are worse than what existed before the innovation . For example , innovations in hunting during the Stone Age allowed for more successful hunts and consequently more free time during which culture and art were created ( e.g. cave paintings , bone carvings , etc . ) , but also led to extinctions , most notably of megafauna . As smaller and smaller game were hunted to replace larger extinct animals , the hunts became less successful and culture declined . Agriculture , and subsequently civilisations , independently arising in multiple regions at about the same time , ~ 10 @,@ 000 years ago , indicates to Wright that " given certain broad conditions , human societies everywhere will move towards greater size , complexity and environmental demand " . The chapter title refers to the human experience which Wright sees as a large experiment testing what conditions are required for a human civilisation to succeed .
In the third chapter , " Fools ' Paradise " , the rise and fall of two civilisations are examined : Easter Island and Sumer . Both flourished , but collapsed as a result of resource depletion ; both were able to visually see their land being eroded but were unwilling to reform . On Easter Island logging , in order to erect statues and build boats , destroyed their ecosystem and led to wars over the last planks of wood on the island . In Sumer , a large irrigation system , as well as over @-@ grazing , land clearing , and lime @-@ burning led to desertification and soil salination .
In the fourth chapter , " Pyramid Schemes " , the fates of the Roman and Mayan civilisations are compared ; both peaked with centralised empires but ended with power being diffused to their periphery as the center collapsed and ultra @-@ conservative leadership refused reformations . Anthropologist Joseph Tainter 's explanation for the fall of the Roman Empire is invoked , that " complex systems inevitably succumb to diminishing returns " so that the costs of operating an empire are so high that alternatives are implemented . Two examples of civilisations that have been sustainable are described : China and Egypt . Both had an abundance of resources , particularly topsoil , and used farming methods that worked with , rather than against , natural cycles , and settlement patterns that did not exceed , or permanently damage , the carrying capacity of the local environment .
The final chapter , " The Rebellion of the Tools " , seeks to answer the final Gauguin question , ' where are we going ? ' , by applying these past examples to modern society . Technological advancements in bio @-@ engineering , nanotechnology , cybernetics , amongst others , have the potential to be progress traps , and the global scale of modern society means that a societal collapse could impact all of mankind . Wright sees needed reforms being blocked by vested interests who reject multi @-@ lateral organisations , and support laissez @-@ faire economics and transfers of power to corporations as leading to the social and environmental degradations that led to the collapse of previous civilisations . Necessary reforms are , in Wright 's view , being blocked by vested interests who are hostile to change , including American market extremists . Wright concludes that " our present behaviour is typical of failed societies at the zenith of their greed and arrogance " and calls for a shift towards long @-@ term thinking :
= = Style = =
The contents of the book were originally written and delivered as a set of five speeches for the 2004 Massey Lectures ; each speech is presented in the book as one chapter . The writing reflects Wright oration style with the use of high rhetoric . Patrick Parrinder notes that Wright sometimes uses " the rhetorical armoury of a rationalistic lay preacher . " Wright takes a broad , philosophical approach , not focusing on individual people or specific politics or religions , but rather focusing on civilisations including ' the elites and the masses ' . Wright 's tone was described as " rarely depressing ... [ and that ] he remains surprisingly upbeat and even entertaining . " The use of the word progress is intended to be ironic : what is viewed as technological or social advancement have , in the historical narratives he provides , led to the fall of civilizations . Wright coins the term " progress trap " to describe the phenomenon of turning " cleverness into recklessness . "
Comparisons have been made between this book and Jared Diamond 's Collapse : How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed which both cover similar subject matter with " a cautious problem @-@ solving approach " and come to similar conclusions . Writing in Alternatives Journal , philosophy professor Kent Peacock notes that " both are well @-@ written " but that Diamond includes examples of societies which had achieved sustainability for centuries , whereas Wright has " a stronger grasp of the dark side of human nature " , like impatience , aggressiveness , and obstinacy . Author and journalist Brian Brett described Collapse as " a slow , rich feast " while " the compact A Short History of Progress is an arrow loosed from a powerful bow , a lyric dart into the heart of human behaviour . "
= = Publication and reception = =
The book , published by House of Anansi Press , was released at the same time the Massey Lectures were being delivered . In early November 2004 , one lecture was given by Wright in each of the following cities : Ottawa , Edmonton , Saskatoon , Halifax and Toronto . Their recording was broadcast on CBC Radio 's Ideas during the week of November 22 . The book was named the Canadian Booksellers Association 's 2005 Non @-@ Fiction Book of the Year at their annual Libris Awards and short @-@ listed for the first annual British Columbia Award for Canadian Non @-@ Fiction . A hardcover edition title An Illustrated Short History of Progress was released with a print run of 15 @,@ 000 copies in 2006 .
In The Globe and Mail , Canadian author Paul William Roberts praised the book , calling it " ... the most important use of printed word and post @-@ consumer recycled fibres I have seen since Jérôme Deshusses 's Délivrez Prométhée , 25 years ago . " Roberts explains , " [ Wright ] has such a firm grasp of his goal that scarcely a word is extraneous ... You feel you 've read volumes , though , not just because of the density of Wright 's thoughts , but due to the crushing weight of the burden they carry . In prose that is balefully evocative and irreducibly precise ... " On the other hand , in the National Post review , Peter Foster gave a negative review , chiding Wright for " not having the slightest clue about how economies work , or how , by their fundamental nature , markets are both moral and sustainable . " Foster ended his review by insulting Wright 's intellect , " What really needs some psychological excavation is Ronald Wright 's mind , which carries a set of inflated , emotionally based moralistic assumptions derived from the structure of his primitive ignorance about markets and economics . "
Other reviews were encouraging . In Maclean 's magazine Brian Bethune wrote it was " an elegant and learned discussion " on the topic . The review in The Times said it was " an eminently readable account ... written with an incredible lightness of touch that belies the very serious issues . " In the Montreal Gazette , Bryan Demchinsky called Wright eloquent and the book " a brief , trenchant essay . " Diane Barlee in Skeptic magazine , said Wright is a " remarkably gifted wordsmith whose talent makes turgid facts not only digestible , but also generates a hunger for more " and commented " A Short History of Progress is an important , well @-@ crafted book , however , I can 't promise that it will change your life . "
= = Film = =
The film rights were sold to Cinémaginaire in 2008 . It was filmed as a documentary , Surviving Progress directed by Mathieu Roy and co @-@ directed by Harold Crooks with Daniel Louis and Denise Robert as producers for Cinemaginaire and Gerry Flahive as producer for NFB . Martin Scorsese was attached to the project as executive producer as were Mark Achbar and Betsy Carson ( Big Picture Media Corporation ) and Silva Basmajian ( NFB ) . The film premiered at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival . It was also shown as part of Festival Atmospheres on 31 March 2012 in Paris France .
While the book focused on ancient civilizations , the majority of the film addresses environmental impacts of our current ' global civilization ' , including the impact of concentrating wealth in the hands of the ' financial class ' . It is filmed as a mixture of interviews with individuals , from Wright himself to Jane Goodall and Margaret Atwood , interspersed with striking footage from all over the world . Mathieu Roy and Harold Crooks gave an interview in early 2012 on the challenges of adapting Ronald Wright 's book into a succinct film .
= The Fight ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" The Fight " is the thirteenth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 43rd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 12 , 2011 . In the episode , the parks department employees become very drunk during a bar outing , where Leslie and Ann have their first major fight . Meanwhile , Chris tells Tom he must sell his share in the bar due to a conflict with his government job . According to Nielsen Media Research , " The Fight " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 55 million household viewers , a drop from the previous original episode , " Eagleton " .
= = Plot = =
Chris ( Rob Lowe ) has fired Denis Cooper , the former health department public relations director , who hung posters around city hall to publicly condemn his adulterous wife . Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) suggests Ann ( Rashida Jones ) replace him , mainly because they can spend more time together , since Ann has been so busy dating numerous men . Although reluctant to leave her job as a nurse , Ann agrees to attend the job interview , and Leslie provides her with an overwhelming amount of reading material to prepare for it . Meanwhile , Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) encourages the parks department to attend the Snakehole Lounge , a nightclub he partially owns with his friend Jean @-@ Ralphio Saperstein ( Ben Schwartz ) , for the unveiling of his new alcoholic beverage , Snake Juice . Tom also encourages them to spread the word about the drink through word of mouth guerilla marketing . April ( Aubrey Plaza ) shows little interest in attending , until Andy ( Chris Pratt ) suggests they make a game of it by role @-@ playing as different people at the bar . April pretends to be Janet Snakehole , an aristocratic widow with a dark secret , while Andy poses as his frequent alter @-@ ego , FBI agent Burt Macklin .
That night , at the Snakehole Lounge , Leslie is surprised and annoyed to find Ann partying on the dance floor instead of preparing for the job interview . Ann introduces Leslie to her latest boyfriend , local radio host " The Douche " ( Nick Kroll ) . As Leslie and Ann become increasingly drunk from Snake Juice , Leslie insults Ann 's current dating lifestyle . This prompts Ann to insult Leslie for moving too slow with Ben ( Adam Scott ) , whom Leslie is attracted to . The fight escalates throughout the night , and Leslie ultimately claims she always has to keep Ann motivated or she would not go anywhere . Both declare it best that Ann not work with Leslie after all and they storm off . Meanwhile , the Snake Juice proves delicious and popular with the rest of the parks department employees , all of whom become extremely drunk , with the exception of Donna ( Retta ) who is the only one not drinking , claiming it 's " basically rat poison " . Chris arrives to warn Tom that using government employees to promote his own personal ventures is a breach of ethics . He tells a disappointed Tom that he must sell his shares of the Snakehole Lounge if he wants to keep his job .
The next morning , everyone who drank Snake Juice is extremely hungover ( except Ron ( Nick Offerman ) ) , and Leslie deeply regrets how she treated Ann . Ben visits Ann at her home and asks her to forgive Leslie . Ann , who also regrets the fight , is touched by Ben 's gesture and reveals that Leslie likes him . Ann decides to attend the job interview , during which she and Leslie apologize to each other . After a second interview with Chris , Ann is given the job in a part @-@ time basis , which also would allow her to continue her work as a nurse . Tom reluctantly decides to sell his Snakehole Lounge shares . Tom sells his shares the next morning to Jean @-@ Ralphio , while Donna tries to comfort Tom , causing him to ask why Chris did not make her sell her shares , to which she replies that Chris does not know that she owns shares . She then tells Jean @-@ Ralphio that " [ s ] nitches get stiches . " Ron attempts to convince Chris to let him keep the shares , and defends Tom 's efforts to branch out by claiming the move was not unethical , but Chris is not persuaded . Instead , Ron comforts Tom by building him a special case to hold a bottle of Snake Juice . At the same time , April tries to reprise her role of Janet Snakehole and have Andy reprise Burt Macklin , but a hungover Andy says that " ... Burt Macklin died last night after the 10th shot of Snake Juice . " However , after seeing a sad April walk away , Andy creates himself a new role : Kip Hackman , Burt Macklin 's brother and chases after Janet , although he vomits as this happens .
= = Production = =
" The Fight " was directed by Randall Einhorn and written by Parks and Recreation star Amy Poehler , the second script she penned for the series after " Telethon " in the second season . Filmed in December 2010 , " The Fight " was originally broadcast on May 12 , 2011 , and ran back @-@ to @-@ back with the episode " Road Trip " , which aired immediately afterward . The two are stand @-@ alone episodes that were not originally designed to be shown together . However , because the third season premiered late as a mid @-@ season replacement in January , the two episodes aired together so the series ' season would conclude at the end of the television season . The filming of " The Fight " involved a particularly large amount of improvisation among the actors , a common technique among Parks and Recreation episodes . Each actor spent about two days on their own filming their Snakehole Lounge scenes , which included the shots used in a montage sequence that showed how drunk each character had become by the end of the night . Poehler described the filming as " the most fun I 've ever had " .
Although Ann Perkins was initially conceived as a character outside of city hall who became involved with Leslie and her political world , series co @-@ creator Michael Schur said he believed it made sense that she would take a city hall job because " we just decided that Leslie ’ s pull would be strong enough to get her to make a move , career @-@ wise " . Schur also said it would make it easier for the character to become involved in stories with the others . " The Fight " featured several appearances by actors who had appeared in previous Parks and Recreation episodes , including Ben Schwartz as Tom 's friend Jean @-@ Ralphio , who helps him promote Snake Juice throughout the night . Andy Forrest appeared as Andy 's shoeshine customer Kyle , who is often insulted and mocked by Andy and the other characters during his shoeshines . Nick Kroll also appeared as " The Douche " , the host of the Pawnee morning zoo @-@ style radio show " Crazy Ira and The Douche " , which was previously featured in the episode " Media Blitz " .
During one scene , Ron says , " I won 't publicly endorse a product unless I use it exclusively and I really believe in it . My only official recommendations are US Army issued mustache trimmers , Morton 's Salt , and the C.R. Lawrence fine two inch style oscillating knife blade . " That line was written by Schur , and the scene used in the episode was Nick Offerman 's first take , with no mistakes made with the complicated dialogue . Immediately after " The Fight " first aired , a " Producer 's Cut " version was made available on the official NBC.com website . It included an additional four minutes of material , that include a previously @-@ unaired cold open in which Ron sternly demands to know which employee has broken the parks department 's coffee machine ; this prompts a fight as the staff make accusations against each other . Ron secretly reveals to the camera that he broke the machine himself , but questioned the other employees anyway to deliberately start the arguments .
= = Cultural references = =
Before the credits , Ron mockingly refers to a pig 's head on a stick , a reference to the novel Lord of the Flies .
While providing Ann with reading material to prepare for her job interview , Leslie also gives her a copy of the 2010 Jonathan Franzen novel Freedom , claiming she wants to discuss the protagonist Patty Berglund with her . While drunk at the Snakehole Lounge , Ben says the words " baba booey " and starts laughing . The phrase is a nickname for Gary Dell 'Abate , a radio producer with The Howard Stern Show , and became a common catchphrase among Howard Stern fans .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Fight " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 55 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . A rating point represents one percent of the total number of television sets in American households , and a share means the percentage of television sets in use tuned to the program . " Road Trip " , which aired immediately after " The Fight " , was seen by an estimated 3 @.@ 54 million households . Both ratings constituted a drop over the previous episode , " Eagleton " , which was seen by an estimated 5 @.@ 06 million household viewers . In its 9 : 30 p.m. timeslot , " The Fight " was outperformed by the CBS forensic crime series CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , which was seen by 11 @.@ 77 million households ; the Fox crime drama series Bones , which was seen by 10 @.@ 48 million household viewers ; and the ABC medical drama series Grey 's Anatomy , which was seen by 9 @.@ 63 million household viewers . Parks and Recreation outperformed an episode of the CW Television Network drama series Nikita , which was seen by 1 @.@ 94 million households .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Fight " received generally positive reviews , and several commentators noted that Ann 's new part @-@ time job at city hall provides a good explanation for why she is always spending time around the parks department despite working at the hospital . The scenes at the Snakehole Lounge were also praised as particularly funny , especially a shot where Ron Swanson dances drunkenly while wearing April 's small woman 's hat . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said the episode was a good character study of the relationship between Leslie and Ann , and that the bar scenes " gave the whole episode a chaotic yet welcoming feel , like it was the show 's drunken greatest hits " . Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis said she loved the episode and called the Snakehole Lounge scenes a " tour @-@ de @-@ force " that highlighted the comedic skills of the entire cast . Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com enjoyed the silliness of the episode , and claimed that the characters are so well @-@ developed and likable that watching the Snakehole Lounge scenes felt like hanging out with real @-@ life friends at a bar . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club called it a " stellar " episode that was " loose , silly , rich with details and heart " . He praised the fast pace and comedic timing of the jokes , and wrote , " it felt like the director was having as much fun as possible in ' The Fight . ' " Scott Meslow of The Atlantic called " The Fight " a very funny episode which offers a " great solution " to why Ann Perkins spends so much time in city hall , which he called one of the show 's " last nagging questions " .
Joel Keller of TV Squad said the cast did a good job of playing drunk without being overly exaggerated . He also believed Ann 's part @-@ time job was a good way to integrate her into the case , as she had " seemed adrift this season " . Zap2it writer Rick Porter felt the episode was " a little light on plot " but included many funny scenes , particularly Andy and April 's role @-@ playing , and Ron 's chipper attitude the morning after the bar visit , while everyone else remained hungover . Porter also praised Rashida Jones 's performance during her hangover scenes . Matt Fowler of IGN said he enjoyed Tom 's efforts to " become a high @-@ roller this season " , and said Andy and April were fantastic during their role @-@ playing scenes . Fowler also described Ron 's defense of Tom 's actions as " heart @-@ warming " . He gave the episode a 9 out of 10 . Nick McHatton of TV Fanatic said he believed Ann 's new part @-@ time job would help better integrate her into the cast . McHatton said the sweet scenes between Leslie and Ben are " quickly becoming my favorite scenes in the series " , and said a shot of Ron dancing while drunk at the Snakehole Lounge was " easily one of the funniest things he ’ s done yet " .
= Japanese battleship Aki =
Aki ( 安芸 ) was a Satsuma @-@ class semi @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during the first decade of the 20th century . She was the second battleship built domestically in Japan and the first to use steam turbines for propulsation . The ship was named for Aki Province , now a part of Hiroshima Prefecture . The ship saw no combat during World War I. Aki was disarmed in 1922 and sunk as a target in 1924 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 .
= = Background = =
The Satsuma class was ordered in late 1904 under the 1904 War Naval Supplementary Program during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Unlike the previous Katori @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , they were the first battleships ordered from Japanese shipyards . They were originally designed with a dozen 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns , but had to be redesigned because of a shortage of guns in Japan and to reduce costs .
= = Design and description = =
The ship had an overall length of 492 feet ( 150 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 83 feet 7 inches ( 25 @.@ 5 m ) , and a normal draft of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She displaced 20 @,@ 100 long tons ( 20 @,@ 400 t ) at normal load . The crew consisted of 931 officers and enlisted men .
Aki was fitted with a pair of Curtiss steam turbine sets using steam from 15 Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines were rated at a total of 24 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 18 @,@ 000 kW ) for a design speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The ship reached a top speed of 20 @.@ 25 knots ( 37 @.@ 50 km / h ; 23 @.@ 30 mph ) during her sea trials from 27 @,@ 740 shp ( 20 @,@ 690 kW ) . She carried enough coal and oil to give her a range of 9 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 900 km ; 10 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Unlike her half @-@ sister , she had three funnels .
The ship was completed with four 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns in two gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells to a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 yd ( 22 @,@ 000 m ) . The intermediate armament consisted of six twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 45 @-@ caliber Type 41 10 @-@ inch guns , three turrets on each side of the superstructure . Her heavy intermediate armament of guns larger than 9 inches ( 229 mm ) is why the ship is considered to be a semi @-@ dreadnought .
Aki 's secondary armament consisted of eight 40 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns , mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull . The ship was also equipped with eight quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 40 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt guns and four 28 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder QF guns . In addition , the battleship was fitted with five submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern .
The waterline main belt of the Satsuma @-@ class vessels consisted of Krupp cemented armor that had a maximum thickness of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) amidships . It tapered to a thickness of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) at the ends of the ship . A 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) strake of armor protected the casemates . The barbettes for the main guns were 7 – 9 @.@ 5 inches ( 180 – 240 mm ) thick . The armor of Aki 's main gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 8 inches ( 203 mm ) . The deck armor was 2 – 3 inches ( 51 – 76 mm ) thick and the conning tower was protected by six inches of armor .
= = Construction = =
Aki was laid down at Kure Naval Arsenal on 15 March 1906 . She was launched on 15 April 1907 , but construction was suspended for about five months after the decision was made on 26 November to install steam turbines on Aki and the armored cruiser Ibuki . Aki 's turbines were already behind schedule and the suspension allowed the less valuable ship to be completed first , and changes made to its turbines after testing were also incorporated into Aki 's turbines . Aki was finally completed on 11 March 1911 and her first captain was Tatsuo Matsumura .
= = Operational history = =
When World War I began in August 1914 , Aki was refitting at Kure Naval Arsenal . She was assigned to the 1st Battleship Squadron upon the completion of her refit and remained with it until she was transferred to the 2nd Battleship Squadron in 1918 , seeing no combat during the war . From December 1915 to December 1916 , she was commanded by Captain Kiyokazu Abo . The ship was disarmed at Yokosuka in 1922 to comply with the provisions of the Washington Naval Treaty , stricken from the navy list during 1923 and converted into a target ship . Aki was sunk by the battlecruiser Kongō and the battleship Hyūga on 2 September 1924 in Tokyo Bay . Two of her 10 @-@ inch gun turrets were installed as coastal artillery batteries on Jōgashima island to protect Tokyo Bay .
= Justin ( consul 540 ) =
Flavius Mar ( cianus ? ) Petrus Theodorus Valentinus Rusticius Boraides Germanus Iustinus , simply and commonly known as Justin ( Latin : Iustinus , Greek : Ἰουστίνος ; circa 525 – 566 ) , was an East Roman ( Byzantine ) aristocrat and general . A member of the Justinian Dynasty and nephew of Emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) , he was appointed as one of the last Roman consuls in 540 , before going on to assume senior military commands in the Balkans and in Lazica . He fought against the Slavs , the Sassanid Persians and supervised the Byzantine Empire 's first contacts with the Avars . At the time of Justinian 's death , he was seen as a probable successor , but was beaten to the throne by his cousin , Justin II ( r . 565 – 578 ) , who exiled him to Egypt , where he was murdered .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and campaigns = = =
Justin was born around 525 , the eldest son of Germanus and his wife Passara . Germanus was a cousin of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) and thus a member of the wider Justinian dynasty and cousin to Justinian 's successor , Emperor Justin II ( r . 565 – 578 ) . In 540 , he was named ordinary consul at a very young age ; he is illustrated as beardless in his consular diptych , and is still mentioned as a " young man " by Procopius nine years later . At this point , he already held the title of vir illustris and the honorary office of comes domesticorum . In the same year , he accompanied his father to the East against the Sassanid Persians , but saw no action . In 549 , he was instrumental in the revelation of the plot to overthrow Emperor Justinian by the Armenian general Artabanes and his associates . The conspirators intended to assassinate Emperor Justinian and his favourite general Belisarius , and raise Germanus to the Byzantine throne . Notified of their intentions , Justin informed his father , who then told Marcellus , the Count of the Excubitors , leading to the plotters ' arrest .
In 550 , together with his younger brother Justinian , he joined their father in his expedition against Ostrogoth Italy , but Germanus died suddenly in the autumn of 550 , before the army had left the Balkans , where it was assembling . After this , Justinian and Germanus 's son @-@ in @-@ law , John , led the army towards Salona ( modern Split , Croatia ) , where the eunuch Narses assumed command in late 551 . In early 551 , Justin was attached to a force under the eunuch Scholasticus that campaigned against a Slavic raid in the eastern Balkans . The Byzantines were initially defeated near Adrianople but went on to score a victory , after which the Slavs left Byzantine lands . In early 552 , Justin and Justinian were placed at the head of another expedition against a Slavic raid against Illyricum , but their forces were too small to confront the raiders directly . Instead , the brothers had to content themselves with harassing them . Shortly after , they were ordered north to assist the Lombards against the Gepids along with Aratius , Suartuas , and Amalafridas , but the Byzantines were detained from advancing too far north by the need to suppress religious strife in the city of Ulpiana .
= = = High command in Lazica and the Danube = = =
In 554 , now experienced in military affairs , Justin was sent east to Lazica to join the Byzantine forces under Bessas , Buzes , and Martin . His first encounter with the Persians was unsuccessful . Along with Bessas , Justin and his troops were encamped at the plain of Chytropolia , near the strategically important fortress of Telephis , which was held by Martin . The Persian general Mihr @-@ Mihroe , however , succeeded in dislodging Martin from Telephis . Martin withdrew to join the other two generals at Chytropolia , but there again the Byzantine army , too slow to take up position , was forced to flee in disarray before the advancing Persians , retreating along the Phasis river to the fortified island of Nesos ( Νήσος , Greek for " island " ) . Bessas was dismissed from high command as magister militum per Armeniam after this debacle , and succeeded by Martin with Justin as his second in command . Justin was ignorant of Martin 's intention to assassinate their ally , the Lazic king Gubazes II ; when he learned of the deed , he was shocked , but did not reprimand Martin because he believed – wrongly – that the murder had been carried out at the orders of Emperor Justinian .
The Byzantines then launched an attack on the Persian fort of Onoguris , but they were forced to abandon it at the unexpectedly quick arrival of Persian relief forces under Nachoragan . In spring 556 , Justin was with the rest of the Byzantine forces at Nesos , when Nakhoragan invaded western Lazica , making for the town of Phasis . The Byzantines hastily departed for the town , managing to reach it before the Persian army and then proceeded to successfully defend it during a prolonged siege . Following this success , in early 556 Justin returned to Nesos to guard it together with Buzes , while the rest of the army marched against the Misimians , a tribe that had recently allied itself with the Persians and killed the Byzantine general Soterichus . Justin 's only activity during this time was to dispatch one of his officers , Elminzur , to capture Rhodopolis ( modern Vardistzikhe ) with 2 @,@ 000 cavalry . In the next year , a general truce was agreed , which was finalized into a peace treaty in 562 .
Soon after , an imperial investigation into Gubazes 's murder brought to light Martin 's culpability . His military successes spared his life , but cost him his command ; he was replaced as magister militum per Armeniam by Justin in spring 557 . It was in this capacity that in late 557 Justin received the first Avar embassy to the Byzantine Empire . The Avars , who had fled their ancestral lands in Central Asia before the rise of the Göktürks , asked for imperial protection and for land to settle on . Justin forwarded them to Constantinople , where they arrived in December . Turned away from the Empire and towards the plains of the Ukraine by Justinian , the Avars defeated enemy after enemy and eventually reached the northeastern bank of the Danube in 561 / 562 . There they again encountered Justin , who had just been transferred to the command of the quaestura exercitus covering the lower Danubian limes ( the Limes Moesiae ) . At this time , the Avars demanded to settle in Byzantine imperial territory in Scythia Minor , whose defences had been devastated by a recent Kotrigur invasion led by Zabergan . Here , Justin played a crucial role and gained great fame , by learning of the Avars ' intentions and warning Justinian . Consequently , the Avar embassy to Constantinople was detained while the Byzantine defences were put in order . With Justin continuing to maintain a careful watch over the Danube river , the Avars contented themselves with the annual subsidy paid by Byzantium , and left the Empire in peace for some years to come .
= = = Exile and death = = =
At the time of Emperor Justinian 's death in 565 , due to his titles and reputation as a commander , as well his army 's proximity to the imperial capital , he was the leading contender for the vacant throne , along with his cousin Justin , the curopalates . The latter , however , was already present at Constantinople , and could count on the support of the Byzantine Senate , and especially of Patriarch John Scholasticus and the Count of the Excubitors Tiberius , whom he had helped secure his post . Thus Justin was hastily elevated to the throne on the same day that Justinian died . According to the contemporary historian Evagrius Scholasticus , the two Justins had reached an agreement whereby whoever would be crowned emperor would make the other the " second man " in the empire . When Justin II recalled his cousin to Constantinople , it seemed that this was the reason . The general was warmly received at first , but soon the new emperor began to make accusations against him , dismissed his bodyguard and placed him under house arrest , before sending him to exile in Alexandria , ostensibly as the new augustal prefect of Egypt . There , he was murdered in his sleep , ostensibly because he was plotting to seize the throne , and his head was cut off and brought to Constantinople . In reality , he was too great a threat to the new emperor to be left alive ; the Visigoth chronicler John of Biclaro explicitly attributes the murder to Justin II 's wife , the Empress Sophia .
= 1933 Outer Banks hurricane =
The 1933 Outer Banks hurricane lashed portions of the North Carolina and Virginia coasts less than a month after another hurricane hit the general area . The twelfth tropical storm and sixth hurricane of the 1933 Atlantic hurricane season , it formed by September 8 to the east of the Lesser Antilles . It moved generally to the north @-@ northwest and strengthened quickly to peak winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) on September 12 . This made it a major hurricane and a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . The hurricane remained at or near that intensity for several days while tracking to the northwest . It weakened approaching the southeastern United States , and on September 16 passed just east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina with winds of about 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Turning to the northeast , the hurricane became extratropical on September 18 before moving across Atlantic Canada , eventually dissipating four days later .
The threat of the hurricane prompted widespread tropical cyclone warnings and watches along the eastern United States and prompted some people to evacuate . Damage was heaviest in southeastern North Carolina near New Bern , where the combination of high tides and swollen rivers flooded much of the town . Across North Carolina , the hurricane caused power outages , washed out roads , and damaged crops . Several houses were damaged , leaving about 1 @,@ 000 people homeless . Damage was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 5 million , and there were 21 deaths in the state , mostly from drowning . Hurricane force winds extended into southeastern Virginia , where there were two deaths . High tides isolated a lighthouse near Norfolk and covered several roads . Farther north , two people on a small boat were left missing in Maine , and another person was presumed killed when his boat sank in Nova Scotia .
= = Meteorological history = =
Beginning on September 7 , there was an area of disturbed weather near and east of the Lesser Antilles , by which time there was a nearly closed circulation . At 0800 UTC the next day , a ship reported winds of about 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) ; on that basis , it is estimated a tropical depression developed eight hours earlier and into a tropical storm by the time of the report . The storm tracked generally to the north @-@ northwest , passing about 300 mi ( 480 km ) northeast of Saint Martin . Based on continuity and subsequent reports , it is estimated the storm intensified into a hurricane on September 10 . Early on September 12 , a ship reported a barometric pressure of 947 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) in the periphery of the storm while reporting winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . This suggested winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) , making it the equivalent of a modern Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale .
For over two days , the hurricane remained near peak intensity while tracking to the northwest , and during that time several ships reported low pressure and strong winds . The hurricane weakened as it turned to the north @-@ northwest toward the eastern United States . At around 1100 UTC on September 16 , the eye of the hurricane passed over Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , around which time a pressure of 957 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) was recorded . The eye also passed over Diamond Shoals , where a pressure of 952 mbar ( 28 @.@ 1 inHg ) was recorded . Based on the reading , it was estimated the hurricane remained about 15 mi ( 25 km ) east of the Outer Banks , with winds of about 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) occurring along the coast . By that time , the size of the storm had greatly increased , and hurricane force winds also extended into southeastern Virginia . The hurricane turned to the northeast , ahead of an approaching cold front , producing tropical storm force winds along the eastern United States through New England . After passing southeast of Cape Cod , the storm increasingly lost its tropical characteristics , and was an extratropical cyclone by 1100 UTC on September 18 when it made landfall on eastern Nova Scotia . Continuing to the northeast , the former hurricane crossed the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and subsequently near Newfoundland and Labrador , eventually dissipating on September 22 between southern Greenland and Iceland .
= = Preparations and impact = =
While the hurricane was approaching the Carolinas , the Weather Bureau issued storm warnings from Jacksonville , Florida to Beaufort , North Carolina at 2100 UTC on September 14 . Six hours later , these were extended northward to Virginia Capes . By 1530 UTC on September 15 , forecasters predicted that the hurricane would hit North Carolina in 12 hours and ordered hurricane warnings from Wilmington , North Carolina to Cape Hatteras . At the same time , the storm warning was expanded northward to Boston , Massachusetts , and later to Eastport , Maine . The early warnings gave ample time for preparation for the storm in Norfolk , reducing damages considerably . Residents in Virginia evacuated farther inland to escape the storm .
The outer rainbands of the hurricane dropped moderate to heavy rainfall , peaking at 12 @.@ 6 in ( 320 mm ) in Cape Hatteras . Due to the storm remaining offshore , damage was much less than another hurricane less than a month prior . Damage from this hurricane was heaviest near New Bern , North Carolina , where the storm surge reached 3 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) , which was 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) higher than the record set in 1913 . Much of the town was flooded due to the high tide and swollen nearby rivers . Strong winds in the city uprooted several trees and damaged roofs . Morehead City suffered similar but slightly lesser damage , including hundreds of downed trees , and Beaufort experienced one of its worst storms in the memory of its residents . Across the region , the storm downed telephone and telegraph lines . Several roads were washed out , and there was moderate agriculture damage , including hundreds of drowned livestock and flooded cotton crop . There were 21 deaths , mostly related to drownings , and damage was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 5 million . About 1 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . After the storm , relief agencies provided food and medical crews for the storm victims .
In southeastern Virginia , winds reached 79 mph ( 128 km / h ) . At Sewell 's Point in Norfolk , the storm produced 8 @.@ 3 ft ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) high tides , which turned the peninsula containing New Point Comfort Light into an island . Several roads were flooded , which disrupted traffic and forced residents to travel by rowboat . About 2 @,@ 000 people lost power , and due to well @-@ executed preparations , there were two deaths in the state . Damage was estimated at $ 250 @,@ 000 . Outside of Virginia , damage was minimal north of Cape Henry . Wind peaks included 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) in Atlantic City , New Jersey and 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) on Block Island . A boat required rescue in the Delaware Bay . Precipitation fell on the western periphery of the hurricane , associated with an approaching cold front . In Provincetown , Massachusetts , the storm dropped 12 @.@ 3 in ( 310 mm ) of rainfall it passed the region . In New England , high waves damaged waterfront properties . On Block Island , two boats were damaged , and another sank . In Maine , the rainfall flooded cellars and damaged roads . Two people were reported missing in Boothbay Harbor after venturing into the storm in a small boat .
Still maintaining strong winds by the time it struck Canada , the former hurricane washed one boat ashore , left three missing , and capsized one . One person was presumed killed when his boat sunk in Lockeport , Nova Scotia . The storm dropped heavy rainfall across the region , including 1 @.@ 1 in ( 27 mm ) in Yarmouth , Nova Scotia , and about 3 in ( 75 mm ) in 15 hours in Gagetown , New Brunswick ; there , the rains flooded roads and damaged crops . At Harvey Station in the same province , high rainfall washed out a 75 ft ( 22 m ) portion of a rail line .
= Metagenomics =
Metagenomics is the study of genetic material recovered directly from environmental samples . The broad field may also be referred to as environmental genomics , ecogenomics or community genomics . While traditional microbiology and microbial genome sequencing and genomics rely upon cultivated clonal cultures , early environmental gene sequencing cloned specific genes ( often the 16S rRNA gene ) to produce a profile of diversity in a natural sample . Such work revealed that the vast majority of microbial biodiversity had been missed by cultivation @-@ based methods . Recent studies use either " shotgun " or PCR directed sequencing to get largely unbiased samples of all genes from all the members of the sampled communities . Because of its ability to reveal the previously hidden diversity of microscopic life , metagenomics offers a powerful lens for viewing the microbial world that has the potential to revolutionize understanding of the entire living world . As the price of DNA sequencing continues to fall , metagenomics now allows microbial ecology to be investigated at a much greater scale and detail than before .
= = Etymology = =
The term " metagenomics " was first used by Jo Handelsman , Jon Clardy , Robert M. Goodman , Sean F. Brady , and others , and first appeared in publication in 1998 . The term metagenome referenced the idea that a collection of genes sequenced from the environment could be analyzed in a way analogous to the study of a single genome . Recently , Kevin Chen and Lior Pachter ( researchers at the University of California , Berkeley ) defined metagenomics as " the application of modern genomics technique without the need for isolation and lab cultivation of individual species " .
= = History = =
Conventional sequencing begins with a culture of identical cells as a source of DNA . However , early metagenomic studies revealed that there are probably large groups of microorganisms in many environments that cannot be cultured and thus cannot be sequenced . These early studies focused on 16S ribosomal RNA sequences which are relatively short , often conserved within a species , and generally different between species . Many 16S rRNA sequences have been found which do not belong to any known cultured species , indicating that there are numerous non @-@ isolated organisms . These surveys of ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) genes taken directly from the environment revealed that cultivation based methods find less than 1 % of the bacterial and archaeal species in a sample . Much of the interest in metagenomics comes from these discoveries that showed that the vast majority of microorganisms had previously gone unnoticed .
Early molecular work in the field was conducted by Norman R. Pace and colleagues , who used PCR to explore the diversity of ribosomal RNA sequences . The insights gained from these breakthrough studies led Pace to propose the idea of cloning DNA directly from environmental samples as early as 1985 . This led to the first report of isolating and cloning bulk DNA from an environmental sample , published by Pace and colleagues in 1991 while Pace was in the Department of Biology at Indiana University . Considerable efforts ensured that these were not PCR false positives and supported the existence of a complex community of unexplored species . Although this methodology was limited to exploring highly conserved , non @-@ protein coding genes , it did support early microbial morphology @-@ based observations that diversity was far more complex than was known by culturing methods . Soon after that , Healy reported the metagenomic isolation of functional genes from " zoolibraries " constructed from a complex culture of environmental organisms grown in the laboratory on dried grasses in 1995 . After leaving the Pace laboratory , Edward DeLong continued in the field and has published work that has largely laid the groundwork for environmental phylogenies based on signature 16S sequences , beginning with his group 's construction of libraries from marine samples .
In 2002 , Mya Breitbart , Forest Rohwer , and colleagues used environmental shotgun sequencing ( see below ) to show that 200 liters of seawater contains over 5000 different viruses . Subsequent studies showed that there are more than a thousand viral species in human stool and possibly a million different viruses per kilogram of marine sediment , including many bacteriophages . Essentially all of the viruses in these studies were new species . In 2004 , Gene Tyson , Jill Banfield , and colleagues at the University of California , Berkeley and the Joint Genome Institute sequenced DNA extracted from an acid mine drainage system . This effort resulted in the complete , or nearly complete , genomes for a handful of bacteria and archaea that had previously resisted attempts to culture them .
Beginning in 2003 , Craig Venter , leader of the privately funded parallel of the Human Genome Project , has led the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition ( GOS ) , circumnavigating the globe and collecting metagenomic samples throughout the journey . All of these samples are sequenced using shotgun sequencing , in hopes that new genomes ( and therefore new organisms ) would be identified . The pilot project , conducted in the Sargasso Sea , found DNA from nearly 2000 different species , including 148 types of bacteria never before seen . Venter has circumnavigated the globe and thoroughly explored the West Coast of the United States , and completed a two @-@ year expedition to explore the Baltic , Mediterranean and Black Seas . Analysis of the metagenomic data collected during this journey revealed two groups of organisms , one composed of taxa adapted to environmental conditions of ' feast or famine ' , and a second composed of relatively fewer but more abundantly and widely distributed taxa primarily composed of plankton .
In 2005 Stephan C. Schuster at Penn State University and colleagues published the first sequences of an environmental sample generated with high @-@ throughput sequencing , in this case massively parallel pyrosequencing developed by 454 Life Sciences . Another early paper in this area appeared in 2006 by Robert Edwards , Forest Rohwer , and colleagues at San Diego State University .
= = Sequencing = =
Recovery of DNA sequences longer than a few thousand base pairs from environmental samples was very difficult until recent advances in molecular biological techniques allowed the construction of libraries in bacterial artificial chromosomes ( BACs ) , which provided better vectors for molecular cloning .
= = = Shotgun metagenomics = = =
Advances in bioinformatics , refinements of DNA amplification , and the proliferation of computational power have greatly aided the analysis of DNA sequences recovered from environmental samples , allowing the adaptation of shotgun sequencing to metagenomic samples . The approach , used to sequence many cultured microorganisms and the human genome , randomly shears DNA , sequences many short sequences , and reconstructs them into a consensus sequence . Shotgun sequencing reveals genes present in environmental samples . Historically , clone libraries were used to facilitate this sequencing . However , with advances in high throughput sequencing technologies , the cloning step is no longer necessary and greater yields of sequencing data can be obtained without this labour @-@ intensive bottleneck step . Shotgun metagenomics provides information both about which organisms are present and what metabolic processes are possible in the community . Because the collection of DNA from an environment is largely uncontrolled , the most abundant organisms in an environmental sample are most highly represented in the resulting sequence data . To achieve the high coverage needed to fully resolve the genomes of under @-@ represented community members , large samples , often prohibitively so , are needed . On the other hand , the random nature of shotgun sequencing ensures that many of these organisms , which would otherwise go unnoticed using traditional culturing techniques , will be represented by at least some small sequence segments .
= = = High @-@ throughput sequencing = = =
The first metagenomic studies conducted using high @-@ throughput sequencing used massively parallel 454 pyrosequencing . Three other technologies commonly applied to environmental sampling are the Ion Torrent Personal Genome Machine , the Illumina MiSeq or HiSeq and the Applied Biosystems SOLiD system . These techniques for sequencing DNA generate shorter fragments than Sanger sequencing ; Ion Torrent PGM System and 454 pyrosequencing typically produces ~ 400 bp reads , Illumina MiSeq produces 400 @-@ 700bp reads ( depending on whether paired end options are used ) , and SOLiD produce 25 @-@ 75 bp reads . Historically , these read lengths were significantly shorter than the typical Sanger sequencing read length of ~ 750 bp , however the Illumina technology is quickly coming close to this benchmark . However , this limitation is compensated for by the much larger number of sequence reads . In 2009 , pyrosequenced metagenomes generate 200 – 500 megabases , and Illumina platforms generate around 20 – 50 gigabases , but these outputs have increased by orders of magnitude in recent years . An additional advantage to high throughput sequencing is that this technique does not require cloning the DNA before sequencing , removing one of the main biases and bottlenecks in environmental sampling .
= = Bioinformatics = =
The data generated by metagenomics experiments are both enormous and inherently noisy , containing fragmented data representing as many as 10 @,@ 000 species . The sequencing of the cow rumen metagenome generated 279 gigabases , or 279 billion base pairs of nucleotide sequence data , while the human gut microbiome gene catalog identified 3 @.@ 3 million genes assembled from 567 @.@ 7 gigabases of sequence data . Collecting , curating , and extracting useful biological information from datasets of this size represent significant computational challenges for researchers .
= = = Sequence pre @-@ filtering = = =
The first step of metagenomic data analysis requires the execution of certain pre @-@ filtering steps , including the removal of redundant , low @-@ quality sequences and sequences of probable eukaryotic origin ( especially in metagenomes of human origin ) . The methods available for the removal of contaminating eukaryotic genomic DNA sequences include Eu @-@ Detect and DeConseq .
= = = Assembly = = =
DNA sequence data from genomic and metagenomic projects are essentially the same , but genomic sequence data offers higher coverage while metagenomic data is usually highly non @-@ redundant . Furthermore , the increased use of second @-@ generation sequencing technologies with short read lengths means that much of future metagenomic data will be error @-@ prone . Taken in combination , these factors make the assembly of metagenomic sequence reads into genomes difficult and unreliable . Misassemblies are caused by the presence of repetitive DNA sequences that make assembly especially difficult because of the difference in the relative abundance of species present in the sample . Misassemblies can also involve the combination of sequences from more than one species into chimeric contigs .
There are several assembly programs , most of which can use information from paired @-@ end tags in order to improve the accuracy of assemblies . Some programs , such as Phrap or Celera Assembler , were designed to be used to assemble single genomes but nevertheless produce good results when assembling metagenomic data sets . Other programs , such as Velvet assembler , have been optimized for the shorter reads produced by second @-@ generation sequencing through the use of de Bruijn graphs . The use of reference genomes allows researchers to improve the assembly of the most abundant microbial species , but this approach is limited by the small subset of microbial phyla for which sequenced genomes are available . After an assembly is created , an additional challenge is " metagenomic deconvolution " , or determining which sequences come from which species in the sample .
= = = Gene prediction = = =
Metagenomic analysis pipelines use two approaches in the annotation of coding regions in the assembled contigs . The first approach is to identify genes based upon homology with genes that are already publicly available in sequence databases , usually by simple BLAST searches . This type of approach is implemented in the program MEGAN4 . The second , ab initio , uses intrinsic features of the sequence to predict coding regions based upon gene training sets from related organisms . This is the approach taken by programs such as GeneMark and GLIMMER . The main advantage of ab initio prediction is that it enables the detection of coding regions that lack homologs in the sequence databases ; however , it is most accurate when there are large regions of contiguous genomic DNA available for comparison .
= = = Species diversity = = =
Gene annotations provide the " what " , while measurements of species diversity provide the " who " . In order to connect community composition and function in metagenomes , sequences must be binned . Binning is the process of associating a particular sequence with an organism . In similarity @-@ based binning , methods such as BLAST are used to rapidly search for phylogenetic markers or otherwise similar sequences in existing public databases . This approach is implemented in MEGAN . Another tool , PhymmBL , uses interpolated Markov models to assign reads . MetaPhlAn and AMPHORA are methods based on unique clade @-@ specific markers for estimating organismal relative abundances with improved computational performances . In composition based binning , methods use intrinsic features of the sequence , such as oligonucleotide frequencies or codon usage bias . Once sequences are binned , it is possible to carry out comparative analysis of diversity and richness utilising tools such as Unifrac .
= = = Data integration = = =
The massive amount of exponentially growing sequence data is a daunting challenge that is complicated by the complexity of the metadata associated with metagenomic projects . Metadata includes detailed information about the three @-@ dimensional ( including depth , or height ) geography and environmental features of the sample , physical data about the sample site , and the methodology of the sampling . This information is necessary both to ensure replicability and to enable downstream analysis . Because of its importance , metadata and collaborative data review and curation require standardized data formats located in specialized databases , such as the Genomes OnLine Database ( GOLD ) .
Several tools have been developed to integrate metadata and sequence data , allowing downstream comparative analyses of different datasets using a number of ecological indices . In 2007 , Folker Meyer and Robert Edwards and a team at Argonne National Laboratory and the University of Chicago released the Metagenomics Rapid Annotation using Subsystem Technology server ( MG @-@ RAST ) a community resource for metagenome data set analysis . As of June 2012 over 14 @.@ 8 terabases ( 14x1012 bases ) of DNA have been analyzed , with more than 10 @,@ 000 public data sets freely available for comparison within MG @-@ RAST . Over 8 @,@ 000 users now have submitted a total of 50 @,@ 000 metagenomes to MG @-@ RAST . The Integrated Microbial Genomes / Metagenomes ( IMG / M ) system also provides a collection of tools for functional analysis of microbial communities based on their metagenome sequence , based upon reference isolate genomes included from the Integrated Microbial Genomes ( IMG ) system and the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea ( GEBA ) project .
One of the first standalone tools for analysing high @-@ throughput metagenome shotgun data was MEGAN ( MEta Genome ANalyzer ) . A first version of the program was used in 2005 to analyse the metagenomic context of DNA sequences obtained from a mammoth bone . Based on a BLAST comparison against a reference database , this tool performs both taxonomic and functional binning , by placing the reads onto the nodes of the NCBI taxonomy using a simple lowest common ancestor ( LCA ) algorithm or onto the nodes of the SEED or KEGG classifications , respectively .
= = = Comparative metagenomics = = =
Comparative analyses between metagenomes can provide additional insight into the function of complex microbial communities and their role in host health . Pairwise or multiple comparisons between metagenomes can be made at the level of sequence composition ( comparing GC @-@ content or genome size ) , taxonomic diversity , or functional complement . Comparisons of population structure and phylogenetic diversity can be made on the basis of 16S and other phylogenetic marker genes , or — in the case of low @-@ diversity communities — by genome reconstruction from the metagenomic dataset . Functional comparisons between metagenomes may be made by comparing sequences against reference databases such as COG or KEGG , and tabulating the abundance by category and evaluating any differences for statistical significance . This gene @-@ centric approach emphasizes the functional complement of the community as a whole rather than taxonomic groups , and shows that the functional complements are analogous under similar environmental conditions . Consequently , metadata on the environmental context of the metagenomic sample is especially important in comparative analyses , as it provides researchers with the ability to study the effect of habitat upon community structure and function .
Additionally , several studies have also utilized oligonucleotide usage patterns to identify the differences across diverse microbial communities . Examples of such methodologies include the dinucleotide relative abundance approach by Willner et al. and the HabiSign approach of Ghosh et al . Ghosh et al . ( 2011 ) also indicated that differences in tetranucleotide usage patterns can be used to identify genes ( or metagenomic reads ) originating from specific habitats . Additionally some methods as TriageTools or Compareads detect similar reads between two read sets . The similarity measure they apply on reads is based on a number of identical words of length k shared by pairs of reads .
A key goal in comparative metagenomics is to identify microbial group ( s ) which are responsible for conferring specific characteristics to a given environment . However , due to issues in the sequencing technologies artifacts need to be accounted for like in metagenomeSeq . Others have characterized inter @-@ microbial interactions between the resident microbial groups . A GUI @-@ based comparative metagenomic analysis application called Community @-@ Analyzer has been developed by Kuntal et al. which implements a correlation @-@ based graph layout algorithm that not only facilitates a quick visualization of the differences in the analyzed microbial communities ( in terms of their taxonomic composition ) , but also provides insights into the inherent inter @-@ microbial interactions occurring therein . Notably , this layout algorithm also enables grouping of the metagenomes based on the probable inter @-@ microbial interaction patterns rather than simply comparing abundance values of various taxonomic groups . In addition , the tool implements several interactive GUI @-@ based functionalities that enable users to perform standard comparative analyses across microbiomes .
= = Data analysis = =
= = = Community metabolism = = =
In many bacterial communities , natural or engineered ( such as bioreactors ) , there is significant division of labor in metabolism ( Syntrophy ) , during which the waste products of some organisms are metabolites for others . In one such system , the methanogenic bioreactor , functional stability requires the presence of several syntrophic species ( Syntrophobacterales and Synergistia ) working together in order to turn raw resources into fully metabolized waste ( methane ) . Using comparative gene studies and expression experiments with microarrays or proteomics researchers can piece together a metabolic network that goes beyond species boundaries . Such studies require detailed knowledge about which versions of which proteins are coded by which species and even by which strains of which species . Therefore , community genomic information is another fundamental tool ( with metabolomics and proteomics ) in the quest to determine how metabolites are transferred and transformed by a community .
= = = Metatranscriptomics = = =
Metagenomics allows researchers to access the functional and metabolic diversity of microbial communities , but it cannot show which of these processes are active . The extraction and analysis of metagenomic mRNA ( the metatranscriptome ) provides information on the regulation and expression profiles of complex communities . Because of the technical difficulties ( the short half @-@ life of mRNA , for example ) in the collection of environmental RNA there have been relatively few in situ metatranscriptomic studies of microbial communities to date . While originally limited to microarray technology , metatranscriptomcs studies have made use of direct high @-@ throughput cDNA sequencing to provide whole @-@ genome expression and quantification of a microbial community , as first employed by Leininger et al . ( 2006 ) in their analysis of ammonia oxidation in soils .
= = = Viruses = = =
Metagenomic sequencing is particularly useful in the study of viral communities . As viruses lack a shared universal phylogenetic marker ( as 16S RNA for bacteria and archaea , and 18S RNA for eukarya ) , the only way to access the genetic diversity of the viral community from an environmental sample is through metagenomics . Viral metagenomes ( also called viromes ) should thus provide more and more information about viral diversity and evolution . For example a metagenomic pipeline called Giant Virus Finder showed the first evidence of existence of giant viruses in a saline desert .
= = Applications = =
Metagenomics has the potential to advance knowledge in a wide variety of fields . It can also be applied to solve practical challenges in medicine , engineering , agriculture , sustainability and ecology .
= = = Medicine = = =
Microbial communities play a key role in preserving human health , but their composition and the mechanism by which they do so remains mysterious . Metagenomic sequencing is being used to characterize the microbial communities from 15 @-@ 18 body sites from at least 250 individuals . This is part of the Human Microbiome initiative with primary goals to determine if there is a core human microbiome , to understand the changes in the human microbiome that can be correlated with human health , and to develop new technological and bioinformatics tools to support these goals .
Another medical study as part of the MetaHit ( Metagenomics of the Human Intestinal Tract ) project consisted of 124 individuals from Denmark and Spain consisting of healthy , overweight , and irritable bowel disease patients . The study attempted to categorize the depth and phylogenetic diversity of gastrointestinal bacteria . Using Illumina GA sequence data and SOAPdenovo , a de Bruijn graph @-@ based tool specifically designed for assembly short reads , they were able to generate 6 @.@ 58 million contigs greater than 500 bp for a total contig length of 10 @.@ 3 Gb and a N50 length of 2 @.@ 2 kb .
The study demonstrated that two bacterial divisions , Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes , constitute over 90 % of the known phylogenetic categories that dominate distal gut bacteria . Using the relative gene frequencies found within the gut these researchers identified 1 @,@ 244 metagenomic clusters that are critically important for the health of the intestinal tract . There are two types of functions in these range clusters : housekeeping and those specific to the intestine . The housekeeping gene clusters are required in all bacteria and are often major players in the main metabolic pathways including central carbon metabolism and amino acid synthesis . The gut @-@ specific functions include adhesion to host proteins and the harvesting of sugars from globoseries glycolipids . Patients with irritable bowel syndrome were shown to exhibit 25 % fewer genes and lower bacterial diversity than individuals not suffering from irritable bowel syndrome indicating that changes in patients ’ gut biome diversity may be associated with this condition .
While these studies highlight some potentially valuable medical applications , only 31 @-@ 48 @.@ 8 % of the reads could be aligned to 194 public human gut bacterial genomes and 7 @.@ 6 @-@ 21 @.@ 2 % to bacterial genomes available in GenBank which indicates that there is still far more research necessary to capture novel bacterial genomes .
= = = Biofuel = = =
Biofuels are fuels derived from biomass conversion , as in the conversion of cellulose contained in corn stalks , switchgrass , and other biomass into cellulosic ethanol . This process is dependent upon microbial consortia that transform the cellulose into sugars , followed by the fermentation of the sugars into ethanol . Microbes also produce a variety of sources of bioenergy including methane and hydrogen .
The efficient industrial @-@ scale deconstruction of biomass requires novel enzymes with higher productivity and lower cost . Metagenomic approaches to the analysis of complex microbial communities allow the targeted screening of enzymes with industrial applications in biofuel production , such as glycoside hydrolases . Furthermore , knowledge of how these microbial communities function is required to control them , and metagenomics is a key tool in their understanding . Metagenomic approaches allow comparative analyses between convergent microbial systems like biogas fermenters or insect herbivores such as the fungus garden of the leafcutter ants .
= = = Environmental remediation = = =
Metagenomics can improve strategies for monitoring the impact of pollutants on ecosystems and for cleaning up contaminated environments . Increased understanding of how microbial communities cope with pollutants improves assessments of the potential of contaminated sites to recover from pollution and increases the chances of bioaugmentation or biostimulation trials to succeed .
= = = Biotechnology = = =
Microbial communities produce a vast array of biologically active chemicals that are used in competition and communication . Many of the drugs in use today were originally uncovered in microbes ; recent progress in mining the rich genetic resource of non @-@ culturable microbes has led to the discovery of new genes , enzymes , and natural products . The application of metagenomics has allowed the development of commodity and fine chemicals , agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals where the benefit of enzyme @-@ catalyzed chiral synthesis is increasingly recognized .
Two types of analysis are used in the bioprospecting of metagenomic data : function @-@ driven screening for an expressed trait , and sequence @-@ driven screening for DNA sequences of interest . Function @-@ driven analysis seeks to identify clones expressing a desired trait or useful activity , followed by biochemical characterization and sequence analysis . This approach is limited by availability of a suitable screen and the requirement that the desired trait be expressed in the host cell . Moreover , the low rate of discovery ( less than one per 1 @,@ 000 clones screened ) and its labor @-@ intensive nature further limit this approach . In contrast , sequence @-@ driven analysis uses conserved DNA sequences to design PCR primers to screen clones for the sequence of interest . In comparison to cloning @-@ based approaches , using a sequence @-@ only approach further reduces the amount of bench work required . The application of massively parallel sequencing also greatly increases the amount of sequence data generated , which require high @-@ throughput bioinformatic analysis pipelines . The sequence @-@ driven approach to screening is limited by the breadth and accuracy of gene functions present in public sequence databases . In practice , experiments make use of a combination of both functional and sequence @-@ based approaches based upon the function of interest , the complexity of the sample to be screened , and other factors .
= = = Agriculture = = =
The soils in which plants grow are inhabited by microbial communities , with one gram of soil containing around 109 @-@ 1010 microbial cells which comprise about one gigabase of sequence information . The microbial communities which inhabit soils are some of the most complex known to science , and remain poorly understood despite their economic importance . Microbial consortia perform a wide variety of ecosystem services necessary for plant growth , including fixing atmospheric nitrogen , nutrient cycling , disease suppression , and sequester iron and other metals . Functional metagenomics strategies are being used to explore the interactions between plants and microbes through cultivation @-@ independent study of these microbial communities . By allowing insights into the role of previously uncultivated or rare community members in nutrient cycling and the promotion of plant growth , metagenomic approaches can contribute to improved disease detection in crops and livestock and the adaptation of enhanced farming practices which improve crop health by harnessing the relationship between microbes and plants .
= = = Ecology = = =
Metagenomics can provide valuable insights into the functional ecology of environmental communities . Metagenomic analysis of the bacterial consortia found in the defecations of Australian sea lions suggests that nutrient @-@ rich sea lion faeces may be an important nutrient source for coastal ecosystems . This is because the bacteria that are expelled simultaneously with the defecations are adept at breaking down the nutrients in the faeces into a bioavailable form that can be taken up into the food chain .
DNA sequencing can also be used more broadly to identify species present in a body of water , debris filtered from the air , or sample of dirt . This can establish the range of invasive species and endangered species , and track seasonal populations .
= New York State Route 420 =
New York State Route 420 ( NY 420 ) is a north – south state highway in St. Lawrence County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in the town of Stockholm . Its northern terminus is at a junction with NY 37 in the village of Massena . NY 420 passes through undeveloped regions of St. Lawrence County for most of its routing and briefly overlaps with NY 11C in the hamlet of Winthrop .
NY 420 was originally part of Route 32 , an unsigned legislative route created by the New York State Legislature in 1908 . The Winthrop – Massena portion of Route 32 became part of the signed NY 56 in the mid @-@ 1920s ; however , NY 56 was realigned in 1927 to follow a new alignment well to the south of Winthrop . The former routing of NY 56 between Winthrop and Massena was redesignated as NY 420 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 420 was extended southward to its current terminus south of Winthrop in 1980 .
= = Route description = =
NY 420 begins at an intersection with US 11 in the town of Stockholm . The route heads north as a two @-@ lane highway through forested areas and across both branches of the St. Regis River to the hamlet of Winthrop , the first area of significant development along the highway . Here , the two branches of the St. Regis River converge and NY 420 meets NY 11C . NY 420 turns northeastward , overlapping NY 11C for two blocks before splitting from it in the center of Winthrop .
The route heads northwest from Winthrop , passing through heavily forested areas of St. Lawrence County . As NY 420 passes out of Stockholm and into Norfolk , the forests surrounding the highway begin to taper off and give way to small pockets of residences and cultivated fields . The amount of homes along the route begin to increase upon intersecting Plum Hill Road , at which point NY 420 becomes lined with residences for much of its run through north Norfolk . However , the string of homes ends near the northern town line , and the highway becomes flanked by forests once more as it curves northward and enters the town of Massena .
In Massena , the forests along NY 420 subside slightly as it passes by industrial warehouses and residences . The route curves back to the northwest as it enters the village of Massena . Just past the village line , NY 420 crosses the St. Lawrence Subdivision , a railroad line owned by CSX Transportation . The highway continues on , curving northward to cross the Raquette River . It curves back to the northwest on the northern riverbank and passes by a mixture of homes and commercial establishments before intersecting NY 37 south of the village center . NY 420 ends here ; however , the road continues north into the heart of the village as Main Street .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 32 , an unsigned legislative route extending from North Lawrence to Ogdensburg via Winthrop and Massena . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , all of Route 32 west of Massena became part of NY 3 while the section east of Winthrop was incorporated into NY 2 . The Winthrop – Massena segment of Route 32 did not initially receive a designation ; however , by 1926 , it had become the northwestern @-@ most portion of NY 56 , a highway linking Brighton to Massena via Nicholville and Winthrop . In 1927 , NY 56 was realigned to proceed west from Nicholville on modern NY 11B to a new terminus in the village of Potsdam . The former routing of NY 56 between Winthrop and Massena was left unnumbered until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York when it was designated as NY 420 .
The initial northern terminus of NY 420 was in the center of Massena at the junction of Orvis and Main Streets , where it ended at NY 37 . In the mid @-@ 1950s , construction began on a new alignment for NY 37 around the southern edge of the village . The highway opened to traffic by 1958 ; however , NY 420 continued to extend past the bypass into Massena until the early 1960s , when it was cut back to its junction with NY 37 's new routing . The former routing of NY 420 in Massena is still state @-@ maintained as part of NY 970B , an unsigned reference route designation for all of Main Street between NY 37 and NY 37B .
On September 1 , 1982 , ownership and maintenance of County Route 51 ( CR 51 ) from CR 110 north to US 11 in Winthrop was transferred from St. Lawrence County to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . Also transferred to the state as part of the swap was CR 110 itself , an east – west highway extending from Stockholm Center to Coteys Corner . The segment of CR 51 given to New York became a southward extension of NY 420 , which now began at NY 11C ( former CR 110 ) and briefly overlapped US 11 in Winthrop . The alignments of US 11 and NY 11C between Stockholm Center and Coteys Corner were flipped on June 13 , 1992 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in St. Lawrence County .
= Danie Mellor =
Danie Mellor ( born 13 April 1971 ) is an Australian artist who was the winner of the 2009 National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award . Born in Mackay , Queensland , Mellor grew up in Scotland , Australia and South Africa before undertaking tertiary studies at North Adelaide School of Art , the Australian National University ( ANU ) and Birmingham Institute of Art and Design . He then took up a post lecturing at Sydney College of the Arts . He works in different media including printmaking , drawing , painting , and sculpture . Considered a key figure in contemporary Indigenous Australian art , the dominant theme in Mellor 's art is the relationship between Indigenous and non @-@ Indigenous Australian cultures .
Since 2000 , Mellor 's works have been included regularly in National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award exhibitions ; in 2003 he was awarded a " highly commended " , for his print Cyathea cooperi , and in 2009 he won the principal prize , for a mixed media work From Rite to Ritual . His other major exhibitions have included the Primavera 2005 show at the Museum of Contemporary Art , Sydney , and the National Indigenous Art Triennial at the National Gallery of Australia in 2007 . In 2012 , his work was included in the National Museum of Australia 's exhibition Menagerie : Contemporary Indigenous Sculpture as well as in the second National Indigenous Art Triennial , while international recognition came in 2013 with representation in the National Gallery of Canada 's exhibition of international indigenous art .
= = Life = =
Mellor was born in Mackay , Queensland , in 1971 . His father was of American and Australian descent ; his mother had Irish , Mamu , Ngagen , and Ngajan heritage . Mellor 's maternal great @-@ great @-@ grandmother , Eleanor Kelly , and great @-@ grandmother , May Kelly , were Indigenous Australian people from the rainforest country around Cairns . The family was peripatetic : in his first twenty years , Mellor lived in Mackay , Queensland ; Scotland ; Brisbane , Queensland ; Sutton Grange , Victoria ; Adelaide , South Australia ; and Cape Town , South Africa , as well as in the Northern Territory . Mellor went to school at Steiner Schools in South Australia and South Africa ; in high school he was taught art by his mother . Looking back at the influence of his schooling upon his art , he remarked how , despite the Eurocentric origins of Rudolf Steiner 's approach to education , " there are comparable elements and themes inherent in [ Steiner 's ] philosophical narrative that parallel an Indigenous outlook , which is holistic in the way it approaches deeper and more intuitive readings of the environment and landscape . "
After completing a Certificate in Art at the North Adelaide School of Art in 1991 , Mellor undertook a Bachelor of Arts with Honours at the ANU in 1992 – 1994 , and a Masters in Fine Art at Birmingham Institute of Art and Design , part of the Birmingham City University , in 1995 – 1996 . In the early 2000s , he entered a doctorate at the ANU , where he also taught print @-@ media and drawing . He completed his PhD in 2004 . As of 2013 , Mellor is a lecturer at Sydney College of the Arts , within the University of Sydney . Mellor is married to artist Joanne Kennedy .
= = Career = =
In the early 1990s , Mellor won drawing prizes at the ANU 's Canberra School of Art and the Grafton Regional Gallery in New South Wales . Through the mid @-@ 1990s , while studying in Canberra and Birmingham , he was represented in numerous student and other exhibitions , in Australia , Belgium , Japan , Korea and the United Kingdom . These included exhibitions titled Passage , at Kyoto Seika University in Japan in 1994 , and Fragile Objects at the National Library of Australia in 1996 .
Mellor 's works have been included in the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award on several occasions , in 2000 , 2001 , and every year from 2003 to 2010 . In 2003 , his mezzotint print Cyathea cooperi , portraying tree ferns native to the Queensland rainforest , was highly commended . Subsequent entries have included Of fragile dreams the heart which nevermore in 2005 , Untitled ( Ernie Grant in Blackman Street ) in 2006 , Exotic lies and sacred ties ( the heart that conceals , the tongue that never reveals ) in 2008 , and A Transcendent Vision ( of life , death and resurrection ) in 2010 . Reviewing the 2008 exhibition , academic Sarah Scott expressed surprise that Mellor 's 2008 piece had neither attracted an award nor been purchased for the Northern Territory 's public collection .
Primavera 2005 , an annual exhibition of young artists ' work held at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Sydney , included Mellor 's work Fig 1 @-@ 100 ( This particular collection made sense ) , a mixed media composition that included specimens of Ulysses butterflies . He has had numerous other exhibitions , both individually and as part of group shows , at galleries including the Queensland Art Gallery in 2003 , the Canberra Museum and Art Gallery in 2006 , and the Indigenous Ceramic Art Awards , at Shepparton Gallery in Victoria in 2007 .
Mellor 's work was represented in the first National Indigenous Art Triennial in 2007 , with the elaborate ( and elaborately named ) sculpture The contrivance of a vintage Wonderland ( A magnificent flight of curious fancy for science buffs , a china ark of seductive whimsy , a divinely ordered special attraction , upheld in multifariousness ) featuring a diorama that included sculpted kangaroos made with blue and white crockery fragments ( evoking Spode bone china ) , real kangaroo skin ( used for the ears and paws ) , and synthetic eyeballs ; stuffed birds sat in a life @-@ sized mixed @-@ media tree overhead . The work featured in media reports of the exhibition , including by The Adelaide Advertiser , The Canberra Times , The West Australian and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation .
Since graduating , Mellor has won several awards , including the Canberra Critic 's Choice Award in 2006 , and the $ 15 @,@ 000 John Tallis National Works on Paper Acquisitive Award in 2008 . The following year , he won the Victorian Indigenous Ceramic Art Award , held at Shepparton Art Gallery in Shepparton , Victoria . In August 2009 , Mellor won the AU $ 40 @,@ 000 National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award , for his mixed media work From Rite to Ritual . It was only the third time in the award 's 26 years that an urban Aboriginal artist had been the winner . Earlier that year his solo show at Brisbane 's Jan Murphy Gallery had sold out . Also in that year , Mellor 's work was featured alongside that of Patricia Piccinini and Cherry Hood in the Newcastle Region Art Gallery 's show Animal Attraction . Though Mellor has not had a painting hung in the Archibald Prize , he was the subject of Paul Ryan 's portrait that was a 2010 finalist in that competition . In 2012 , his work was included in the National Museum of Australia 's exhibition Menagerie : Contemporary Indigenous Sculpture , and in the second National Indigenous Art Triennial . He was also selected for inclusion in that year 's Blake Prize , with his work Bulluru Storywater . Mellor received international recognition in 2013 , when he was included in Sakahàn , the National Gallery of Canada 's " most ambitious contemporary art exhibition in its history " .
Among the national collections containing Mellor 's work are the National Gallery of Australia , which owns his prize @-@ winning From Rite to Ritual , and the Parliament House Art Collection . Most other major Australian art collections have holdings , including the state gallery of his birth state , Queensland , and the main public gallery of the city where he completed much of his tertiary study , the Canberra Museum and Gallery . Other state and territory galleries in which he is represented include the Art Gallery of South Australia , the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory and the National Gallery of Victoria . Public regional galleries that have collected Mellor 's creations include Newcastle Regional Art Gallery in New South Wales , and Warrnambool Art Gallery in Victoria . He is also represented in the Australian government 's collection , Artbank , as well as in large , private collections such as the Kerry Stokes .
In the 2010s , Mellor became involved in administrative and leadership roles in the arts community . In 2010 , Mellor became a member of the Visual Arts Board of the Australia Council for the Arts . In 2011 , Mellor was not an entrant in the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award , as he instead became one of its judges . Appointed to the Visual Arts Board for a further term , Mellor in 2013 became its Chair . At the same time , Mellor continued to exhibit works . In 2014 , a survey of his works opened at the University of Queensland Art Museum , and was scheduled to travel to the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory later in the year . The exhibition was favourably reviewed in theguardian.com , with art critic Sharne Wolff drawing attention to Mellor 's newest sculpture , Anima , which she said " marks a dramatic change " for the artist , bearing " no resemblance to Mellor ’ s more glamorous output " . His work featured as part of the Edinburgh International Festival , with a show titled Primordial : SuperNaturalBayiMinyjirral displayed at the National Museum of Scotland .
= = Technique and themes = =
Mellor 's extensive scholarly art education has led to his art having a strong theoretical base . In interviews he has acknowledged the influence of diverse artists , including Indigenous painter Rover Thomas , Australian Sulman Prize winner Tim Storrier , Romantic painters including Germany 's Caspar David Friedrich , and contemporary German artists Joseph Beuys , and Beuys ' student Anselm Kiefer . He has harnessed a wide range of media during his career , including printmaking , drawing , painting and sculpture utilising wood , glass , steel and ceramics , as well as a range of more unorthodox materials , as his 2007 Indigenous Art Triennial entry demonstrated . Reflecting on that sculpture , Artlink Magazine 's reviewer , Daniel Thomas , remarked on how the work signified " how colonisers always get things wrong ; how Europeans looking for China , and its fine porcelain manufactures , stumbled instead upon the land of the kangaroo , and traded and planted ideas of racial and cultural superiority " .
When Sarah Scott considered the 2008 work Exotic Lies and Sacred Ties , which , like From Rite to Ritual , drew on evocations of Spode china , she highlighted its exploration of the history of cross @-@ cultural relations . Noting the landscape that forms the central element of the painting , she observed :
The stuffed parrot and upside @-@ down cockatoo that hang above the landscape recall the bizarre renditions of these birds produced by European artists following the eighteenth century European voyages of discovery to Australia . In front of the ' landscape ' are two mosaic kangaroo ' messengers . ' One kangaroo points to the painting . Another covers his ears in a ' hear no evil ' gesture , graphically signifying how under the black armband view of history ... , the oral history accounts of Indigenous people have been largely ignored . This work recalls the museum dioramas in which Aboriginal people , who until 1967 were classified under the Flora and Fauna act , appeared amongst exotic taxidermy objects .
From Rite to Ritual examined relationships between Indigenous and settler cultures , including differences in spiritual practices . Mellor , in an artist 's statement for the awards , described the work as showing " what is a moment of contact , a conversation and interaction between two cultures ; it speaks of the challenges of settlement , and the differences in spiritual enactment and belief " . Commenting on the work , the judges of the prize remarked that the " surprising scale and layering of imagery , with its understated political and historical references " made the work " outstanding " and of " great complexity and grace " . Art writer Nicolas Rothwell described the work as drawing a parallel " between Aboriginal initiation rituals and the ceremonies inside a Masonic lodge . "
Mellor 's earlier works examined the relationships between cultures , including in his mezzotint prints in which he juxtaposed " images of native and introduced flora and fauna — for example , a kangaroo with a bull — to symbolise two different peoples and cultures " . These issues were also addressed in his painting for the exhibition Native Titled Now , shown in South Australia in 1996 . Mellor 's interest in cultural interactions extends beyond the making of his art . In a panel discussion on Indigenous art education , Mellor emphasised that , in teaching Indigenous art within visual arts , it was important to be aware of both Aboriginal and settler history , " so you can talk about their interaction and the whole set of issues that arise from those two things being parallel " . Mellor 's emphasis on past interactions between cultures led gallerist and critic Michael Reid to consider that Mellor 's works had earned him " an important place in the visual narrative of Australian history " .
For Mellor , Indigenous identity is a theme highlighted both in his work and ( not necessarily by his own choice ) in public life . As a fair @-@ skinned man with blue eyes and caucasian features , his appearance has occasionally raised questions of " authenticity " . Mellor found himself the target of columnist Andrew Bolt , who took issue with Mellor entering and winning the 2009 National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award . Bolt wrote " This white university lecturer , with his nice Canberra studio , has by winning pushed aside real draw @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dirt Aboriginal artists such as Dorothy Napangardi , Mitjili Napanangka Gibson and Walangkura Napanangka , who had also entered and could really have used that cash and recognition . " Commentator Ellie Savage , criticising Bolt , wondered why someone who " neither draws in the dirt nor lives in it " should therefore have " no right to enter competitions for Indigenous artists " . Bolt two years later lost a case brought by nine Indigenous Australians — not including Mellor — for racial discrimination over articles that criticised fair @-@ skinned Indigenous people , including the post that had lambasted Mellor . Art writer Maurice O 'Riordan , reviewing the 2009 Award , noted the Bolt controversy , but pointed out that Mellor , while in early works acknowledging his own Indigenous heritage , is not concerned with the definition of Aboriginality , but with historical interaction between cultures and the re @-@ imagining of history .
= Louvre =
The Louvre or the Louvre Museum ( French : Musée du Louvre , pronounced : [ myze dy luvʁ ] ) ( French ) is the world 's largest museum and a historic monument in Paris , France . A central landmark of the city , it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the 1st arrondissement ( ward ) . Nearly 35 @,@ 000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 60 @,@ 600 square metres ( 652 @,@ 300 square feet ) . The Louvre is the world 's second most visited museum after the Palace Museum in China , receiving more than 9 @.@ 26 million visitors in 2014 .
The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace , originally built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II . Remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum . The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace . In 1682 , Louis XIV chose the Palace of Versailles for his household , leaving the Louvre primarily as a place to display the royal collection , including , from 1692 , a collection of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture . In 1692 , the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture , which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons . The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years . During the French Revolution , the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nation 's masterpieces .
The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings , the majority of the works being royal and confiscated church property . Because of structural problems with the building , the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801 . The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum renamed the Musée Napoléon , but after Napoleon 's abdication many works seized by his armies were returned to their original owners . The collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X , and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20 @,@ 000 pieces . Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic . The collection is divided among eight curatorial departments : Egyptian Antiquities ; Near Eastern Antiquities ; Greek , Etruscan and Roman Antiquities ; Islamic Art ; Sculpture ; Decorative Arts ; Paintings ; Prints and Drawings .
= = History = =
= = = 12th – 20th centuries = = =
= = = = Medieval , Renaissance , and Bourbon palace = = = =
The Louvre Palace , which houses the museum , was begun as a fortress by Philip II in the 12th century , with remnants of this building still visible in the crypt . Whether this was the first building on that spot is not known ; it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower . According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique , it derives from an association with wolf hunting den ( via Latin : lupus , lower Empire : lupara ) . In the 7th century , St. Fare , an abbess in Meaux , left part of her " Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris " to a monastery . ; this territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site , however .
The Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages . In the 14th century , Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546 , Francis I renovated the site in French Renaissance style . Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvre 's holdings , his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa . After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682 , constructions slowed ; however , the move permitted the Louvre to be used as a residence for artists .
By the mid @-@ 18th century there was an increasing number of proposals to create a public gallery , with the art critic La Font de Saint @-@ Yenne publishing , in 1747 , a call for a display of the royal collection . On 14 October 1750 , Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection , mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace . A hall was opened by Le Normant de Tournehem and the Marquis de Marigny for public viewing of the Tableaux du Roy on Wednesdays and Saturdays , and contained Andrea del Sarto 's Charity and works by Raphael ; Titian ; Veronese ; Rembrandt ; Poussin or Van Dyck , until its closing in 1780 as a result of the gift of the palace to the Count of Provence ( the future king , Louis XVIII ) by the king in 1778 . Under Louis XVI , the royal museum idea became policy . The comte d 'Angiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre – which contained maps – into the " French Museum " . Many proposals were offered for the Louvre 's renovation into a museum ; however , none was agreed on . Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution .
= = = = French Revolution = = = =
During the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum . In May 1791 , the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be " a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences and arts " . On 10 August 1792 , Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property . Because of fear of vandalism or theft , on 19 August , the National Assembly pronounced the museum 's preparation as | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
with money and SpongeBob 's boss at the Krusty Krab ; and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton , a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs ' business rival . The season had a number of secondary characters including Jill Talley as Plankton 's computer wife , Karen ; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff , SpongeBob 's driving instructor ; Lori Alan as Pearl , Mr. Krabs ' daughter ; and Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as the Flying Dutchman .
In addition to the regular cast members , episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions , including actors , athletes , authors , musicians , and artists . For instance , in the episode " House Fancy " , television personality Alton Brown guest starred as the character of Nicholas Whithers , the host and judge of a show of the same name . In an interview , Brown described the work as " a blast . " He said " I came up with this voice that didn 't sound anything like me . I channeled this very strange person . Only three people I know figured out it was even me when they saw it . " Actor and musician Johnny Depp guest starred in the episode " SpongeBob vs. The Big One " as the voice of Jack Kahuna Laguna , a surf guru that taught SpongeBob how to surf . According to Sarah Noonan , vice president of talent and casting for Nickelodeon , Depp accepted the role because he and his kids are fans of the show . The episode was also guest starred by musician and The Monkees ' Davy Jones who starred in the episode as himself , appearing at the bottom of the sea with his locker , and Bruce Brown providing vocal cameo as the episode 's narrator . In " The Card " , Ernest Borgnine returned , reprising his role as Mermaid Man . Borgnine later reappeared in the episodes " Ditchin ' " and " Shuffleboarding " , voicing his recurring role , with Tim Conway as Barnacle Boy . In " Dear Vikings " , English actor Ian McShane voiced Gordon , the leader of the large group of Vikings outside of Bikini Bottom . Dennis Quaid also appeared in the " Grandpappy the Pirate " as Grandpa Redbeard , Mr. Krabs ' grandfather . Furthermore , Dee Snider , the frontman of the heavy metal band Twisted Sister , guest starred in " Shell Shocked " as Angry Jack . Snider said " I knew they must be fans [ of mine ] because in the SpongeBob movie , they took my song ' I Wanna Rock ' and changed it to ' Goofy Goober Rock . ' I flipped at the opportunity to be in the show . I have four kids , and everybody loved SpongeBob . " In the entry " The Clash of Triton " , English singer Victoria Beckham guest starred in the episode as the wife of King Neptune , Queen Amphitrite . The writers created the role of a Queen Amphitrite especially for Beckham . The former Spice Girl accepted the role because her sons , Brooklyn , Romeo , and Cruz , love the show , were excited when their mother told them of the role , and looked forward to watching the episode with her . Beckham recorded the voice @-@ over in late @-@ 2008 in a day , and claimed that she was " thrilled " to provide the vocal cameo . Other guests in the episode including Seinfeld actor John O 'Hurley also made a vocal cameo in the episode as King Neptune , and Skid Row heavy metal vocalist Sebastian Bach as the voice of Triton .
Moreover , in the television film SpongeBob 's Truth or Square , various celebrities guest appeared , including Rosario Dawson , Craig Ferguson , Will Ferrell , Tina Fey , LeBron James , Triumph , the Insult Comic Dog , and Robin Williams as guest actors appearing as themselves in the live action sequences , while Ricky Gervais provided vocal cameo as the narrator .
= = Reception = =
The show itself received several recognition , including the Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon in 2009 and 2010 . SpongeBob SquarePants won the 2009 and 2010 Indonesia Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon , while being nominated at the 2010 Kids ' Choice Awards Mexico for the same category . At the 2009 ASTRA Awards , the show was nominated for the Favourite International Program category , but did not win . At the 37th Daytime Emmy Awards , the show won for Outstanding Special Class Animated Program , while the directors , including Andrea Romano , Tom Yasumi , Andrew Overtoom and Alan Smart , were nominated for Outstanding Directing in an Animated Program . The episode " SpongeBob vs. The Big One " was nominated at the 2010 Golden Reel Awards . At the 2009 and 2010 BAFTA Children 's Awards , the show was nominated for the Kids ' Vote – Television and International category , respectively . The DVD release of the episode was nominated at the 37th Annie Awards for Best Home Entertainment Production . At the same award body , SpongeBob SquarePants was nominated for Best Animated Television Production for Children , while Tom Kenny won Best Voice Acting in a Television Production for his work on the television film SpongeBob 's Truth or Square as SpongeBob SquarePants . Furthermore , at the 38th Annie Awards , the show won for Best Animated Television Production for Children , while the crew members , Jeremy Wakefield , Sage Guyton , Nick Carr and Tuck Tucker , won the Music in a Television Production category . SpongeBob SquarePants also won at the 2011 ASCAP Film and Television Awards for Top Television Series . At the 2010 and 2011 TP de Oro , the series won the Best Children and Youth Program category . Sarah Noonan has been nominated for two Artios Awards of the Casting Society of America , out of which she won for Television Animation .
In a DVD review , Paul Mavis of DVD Talk " highly recommended " the set , saying " [ The season has a shaky start ] , but the laughs definitely pick up on the second disc . " In particular , Mavis praised the episode " The Splinter " as " one of the very best SpongeBob [ episodes ] , " while " Slide Whistle Stooges " , " Boating Buddies " , and " The Slumber Party " were described by Mavis as " SpongeBob season 's best offerings . " In a separate review for the " Volume 2 " DVD , Mavis only " recommended " it . He said that the episodes , including " Choir Boys " , " Pet or Pests " , " Overbooked " , " Shell Shocked " , " Komputer Overload " , " Chum Bucket Supreme " , and " Single Cell Anniversary " are " solid entries " and " all deliver steady laughs , " but has doubts that " they 're on a par with series ' best entries like ' The Splinter ' , ' Slide Whistle Stooges ' , ' Boating Buddies ' , and ' The Slumber Party ' . "
In a DVD review for the individual episode DVD release Spongicus , Roy Hrab of DVD Verdict said that " In my previous SpongeBob reviews I have commented that series has lost its edge . This offering does nothing to change my opinion . But what the heck do I know ? Clearly , the show continues to maintain a large following and the franchise is a license to print money for Nickelodeon . " The DVD consists of eight episodes and praised the episodes " Not Normal " and " Gone " by describing them " the best episode on the disc " and " a decent episode " , respectively . Also from DVD Verdict , Gordon Sullivan , on the DVD release To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants , said that " [ it is ] a solid collection of SpongeBob SquarePants episodes . " He added that " My only serious problem with this set is that it 's only eight episodes long ; a more complete season @-@ style release would be more efficient . On the technical front everything is fine , with the bright , solid colors of Bikini Bottom shining through clearly and all the dialogue and effects clear and detailed . " Sullivan gave the episodes " The Splinter " , " Slide Whistle Stooges " , and " The Krabby Kronicle " an 8 / 10 rating , while " Boating Buddies " received the lowest rating with 3 / 10 .
= = Episodes = =
Key
The following episodes listed in the chart are arranged according to the numbering found in their U.S. Copyright registration records , rather than by their original air dates .
= = DVD release = =
The first 24 segment episodes of the sixth season were released on DVD by Paramount Home Entertainment in the United States and Canada on December 8 , 2009 . The " Volume 1 " DVD release features bonus material including animated shorts . The remaining 23 segment episodes were also released under the title " Volume 2 " in the United States and Canada on December 7 , 2010 . The DVD release also features bonus material including music videos , shorts and featurettes . In Region 2 and 4 , the DVD release for the season was a complete set . On November 13 , 2012 , The Complete Sixth Season DVD was released in Region 1 , two years after the season had completed broadcast on television .
= Stephen Harper =
Stephen Joseph Harper PC MP ( born April 30 , 1959 ) is a Canadian politician and member of Parliament who served as the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada , from February 6 , 2006 to November 4 , 2015 . He was the first prime minister to come from the modern Conservative Party of Canada , which was formed by a merger of the Progressive Conservative Party and the Canadian Alliance .
Harper has been the member of parliament for the riding of Calgary Heritage in Alberta , since 2002 ( previously known as Calgary Southwest from 2002 to 2015 ) . Earlier , from 1993 to 1997 , he was the MP for Calgary West , representing the Reform Party of Canada . He was one of the founding members of the Reform Party , but did not seek re @-@ election in the 1997 federal election . Harper instead joined and later led the National Citizens Coalition , a conservative lobbyist group . In 2002 , he succeeded Stockwell Day as leader of the Canadian Alliance , the successor to the Reform Party and returned to parliament as Leader of the Opposition . In 2003 , he reached an agreement with Progressive Conservative leader Peter MacKay for the merger of their two parties to form the Conservative Party of Canada . He was elected as the party 's first leader , in March 2004 .
The 2006 federal election resulted in a minority government led by the Conservative Party with Harper becoming the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada . By proportion of seats , this was Canada 's smallest minority government since Confederation . Despite this , it was the longest @-@ serving minority government overall . In the 2008 federal election , the Conservative Party won a stronger minority , showing a small increase in the percentage of the popular vote and increased representation in the Canadian House of Commons , with 143 of 308 seats . The 40th Canadian Parliament was dissolved in March , 2011 , after a no @-@ confidence vote that deemed the Cabinet to be in contempt of parliament . In the federal election that followed , the Conservatives won a majority government , the first since the 2000 federal election ; the party won 166 seats , an increase of 23 seats from the October 2008 election .
Though Harper won his seat of Calgary @-@ Heritage in the October 19 , 2015 , federal election , the Conservative Party was defeated by the Liberal Party of Canada , led by Justin Trudeau , who was sworn @-@ in as Harper 's successor on November 4 , 2015 . Harper resigned as party leader on October 19 , 2015 , and the Conservative Party caucus chose an interim leader , Rona Ambrose , on November 5 , 2015 , to serve until a leadership election . Harper moved back to Calgary , Alberta , and commuted to Ottawa as an opposition backbench member of parliament .
= = Early life and education = =
Harper was born and raised in Leaside , Toronto , the first of three sons of Margaret ( née Johnston ) and Joseph Harris Harper , an accountant at Imperial Oil . The Harper family traces its ancestry back to Yorkshire , England , with Christopher Harper emigrating from Yorkshire to Nova Scotia in 1784 , where he later served as justice of the peace in the area that is now New Brunswick .
Harper attended Northlea Public School and , later , John G. Althouse Middle School and Richview Collegiate Institute , both in Central Etobicoke . He graduated in 1978 , and was a member of Richview Collegiate 's team on Reach for the Top , a television quiz show for Canadian high school students . Harper enrolled at the University of Toronto but dropped out after two months . He then moved to Edmonton , Alberta , where he found work in the mail room at Imperial Oil . Later , he advanced to work on the company 's computer systems . He took up post @-@ secondary studies again at the University of Calgary , where he completed a bachelor 's degree in economics in 1985 . He later returned there to earn a master 's degree in economics , completed in 1991 . Harper has kept strong links to the University of Calgary . Harper is the first prime minister since Joe Clark without a law degree .
= = Political beginnings = =
Harper became involved in politics as a member of his high school 's Young Liberals Club . He later changed his political allegiance because he disagreed with the National Energy Program ( NEP ) of Pierre Trudeau 's Liberal government . He became chief aide to Progressive Conservative MP Jim Hawkes in 1985 , but later became disillusioned with the party and the government of Brian Mulroney , especially the administration 's fiscal policy and its inability to fully revoke the NEP until 1986 . He left the PC Party that same year .
He was then recommended by the University of Calgary 's economist Bob Mansell to Preston Manning , the founder and leader of the Reform Party of Canada . At that time Harper " didn 't see himself as a politician " , Mansell told CBC News in 2002 , adding , " Politics was not his first love . "
Manning invited him to participate in the party , and Harper gave a speech at Reform 's 1987 founding convention in Winnipeg . He became the Reform Party 's Chief Policy Officer , and he played a major role in drafting the 1988 election platform . He is credited with creating Reform 's campaign slogan , " The West wants in ! "
Harper ran for the Canadian House of Commons in the 1988 federal election , appearing on the ballot as Steve Harper in Calgary West and losing by a wide margin to Hawkes , his former employer . After Reform candidate Deborah Grey was elected as the party 's first MP in a 1989 by @-@ election , Harper became Grey 's executive assistant , and was her chief adviser and speechwriter until 1993 . He remained prominent in the Reform Party 's national organization in his role as policy chief , encouraging the party to expand beyond its Western base , and arguing that strictly regional parties were at risk of being taken over by radical elements . He delivered a speech at the Reform Party 's 1991 national convention , in which he condemned extremist views .
Harper 's relationship with Manning became strained in 1992 , because of conflicting strategies over the Charlottetown Accord . Harper opposed the Accord on principle for ideological reasons , while Manning was initially more open to compromise . Harper also criticized Manning 's decision to hire Rick Anderson as an adviser , believing that Anderson was not sufficiently committed to the Reform Party 's principles . He resigned as policy chief in October , 1992 .
Harper stood for office again in the 1993 federal election , and defeated Jim Hawkes amid a significant Reform breakthrough in Western Canada . His campaign likely benefited from a $ 50 @,@ 000 print and television campaign organized by the National Citizens Coalition against Hawkes , although the NCC did not endorse Harper directly .
= = Reform MP ( 1993 – 97 ) = =
Harper emerged a prominent member of the Reform Party caucus . He was active on constitutional issues during his first parliament , and played a prominent role in drafting the Reform Party 's strategy for the 1995 Quebec referendum . A long @-@ standing opponent of centralized federalism , he stood with Preston Manning in Montreal to introduce a twenty @-@ point plan to " decentralize and modernize " Canada in the event of a " no " victory . Harper later argued that the " no " side 's narrow plurality was a worst @-@ case scenario , in that no @-@ one had won a mandate for change .
Harper has expressed socially conservative views on some issues . In 1994 , he opposed plans by federal Justice Minister Allan Rock to introduce spousal benefits for same @-@ sex couples . Citing the recent failure of a similar initiative in Ontario , he was quoted as saying , " What I hope they learn is not to get into it . There are more important social and economic issues , not to mention the unity question . " Harper also spoke against the possibility of the Canadian Human Rights Commission or the Supreme Court changing federal policy in these and other matters .
At the Reform Party 's 1994 policy convention , Harper was part of a small minority of delegates who voted against restricting the definition of marriage to " the union of one man and one woman " . He actually opposed both same @-@ sex marriage and mandated benefits for same @-@ sex couples , but argued that political parties should refrain from taking official positions on these and other " issues of conscience " .
Harper was the only Reform MP to support the creation of the Canadian Firearms Registry at second reading in 1995 , although he later voted against it at third reading stage . He said at the time that he initially voted for the registry because of a poll showing that most of his constituents supported it , and added that he changed his vote when a second poll showed the opposite result . It was reported in April , 1995 , that some Progressive Conservatives opposed to Jean Charest 's leadership wanted to remove both Charest and Manning , and unite the Reform and Progressive Conservative parties under Harper 's leadership .
Despite his prominent position in the party , Harper 's relationship with the Reform Party leadership was frequently strained . In early 1994 , he criticized a party decision to establish a personal expense account for Manning at a time when other Reform MPs had been asked to forego parliamentary perquisites . He was formally rebuked by the Reform executive council despite winning support from some MPs . His relationship with Manning grew increasingly fractious in the mid @-@ 1990s , and he pointedly declined to express any opinion on Manning 's leadership during a 1996 interview . This friction was indicative of a fundamental divide between the two men : Harper was strongly committed to conservative principles and opposed Manning 's inclinations toward populism , which Harper saw as leading to compromise on core ideological matters .
These tensions culminated in late 1996 when Harper announced that he would not be a candidate in the next federal election . He resigned his parliamentary seat on January 14 , 1997 , the same day that he was appointed as a vice @-@ president of the National Citizens Coalition ( NCC ) , a conservative think @-@ tank and advocacy group . He was promoted to NCC president later in the year .
In April , 1997 , Harper suggested that the Reform Party was drifting toward social conservatism and ignoring the principles of economic conservatism . The Liberal Party lost seats but managed to retain a narrow majority government in the 1997 federal election , while Reform made only modest gains .
= = Out of parliament = =
= = = 1997 – 2000 = = =
Soon after leaving parliament , Harper and Tom Flanagan co @-@ authored an opinion piece entitled " Our Benign Dictatorship " , which argued that the Liberal Party only retained power through a dysfunctional political system and a divided opposition . Harper and Flanagan argued that national conservative governments between 1917 and 1993 were founded on temporary alliances between Western populists and Quebec nationalists , and were unable to govern because of their fundamental contradictions . The authors called for an alliance of Canada 's conservative parties , and suggested that meaningful political change might require electoral reforms such as proportional representation . " Our Benign Dictatorship " also commended Conrad Black 's purchase of the Southam newspaper chain , arguing that his stewardship would provide for a " pluralistic " editorial view to counter the " monolithically liberal and feminist " approach of the previous management .
Harper remained active in constitutional issues . He was a prominent opponent of the Calgary Declaration on national unity in late 1997 , describing it as an " appeasement strategy " against Quebec nationalism . He called for federalist politicians to reject this strategy , and approach future constitutional talks from the position that " Quebec separatists are the problem and they need to be fixed " . In late 1999 , Harper called for the federal government to establish clear rules for any future Quebec referendum on sovereignty . Some have identified Harper 's views as an influence on the Chrétien government 's Clarity Act .
As president of the NCC from 1998 to 2002 , Harper launched an ultimately unsuccessful legal battle against federal election laws restricting third @-@ party advertising . He led the NCC in several campaigns against the Canadian Wheat Board , and supported Finance Minister Paul Martin 's 2000 tax cuts as a positive first step toward tax reform .
In 1997 , Harper delivered a controversial speech on Canadian identity to the Council for National Policy , a conservative American think tank . He made comments such as " Canada is a Northern European welfare state in the worst sense of the term , and very proud of it " , " if you 're like all Americans , you know almost nothing except for your own country . Which makes you probably knowledgeable about one more country than most Canadians " , and " the NDP [ New Democratic Party ] is kind of proof that the Devil lives and interferes in the affairs of men . " These statements were made public and criticized during the 2006 election . Harper argued that the speech was intended as humour , and not as serious analysis .
Harper considered campaigning for the Progressive Conservative Party leadership in 1998 , after Jean Charest left federal politics . Among those encouraging his candidacy were senior aides to Ontario Premier Mike Harris , including Tony Clement and Tom Long . He eventually decided against running , arguing that it would " burn bridges to those Reformers with whom I worked for many years " and prevent an alliance of right @-@ wing parties from taking shape . Harper was sceptical about the Reform Party 's United Alternative initiative in 1999 , arguing that it would serve to consolidate Manning 's hold on the party leadership . He also expressed concern that the UA would dilute Reform 's ideological focus .
= = = 2000 – 01 = = =
When the United Alternative created the Canadian Alliance in 2000 as a successor party to Reform , Harper predicted that Stockwell Day would defeat Preston Manning for the new party 's leadership . He expressed reservations about Day 's abilities , however , and accused Day of " [ making ] adherence to his social views a litmus test to determine whether you 're in the party or not " . Harper endorsed Tom Long for the leadership , arguing that Long was best suited to take support from the Progressive Conservative Party . When Day placed first on the first ballot , Harper said that the Canadian Alliance was shifting " more towards being a party of the religious right " .
After the death of Pierre Trudeau in 2000 , Harper wrote an editorial criticizing Trudeau 's policies as they affected Western Canada . He wrote that Trudeau " embraced the fashionable causes of his time , with variable enthusiasm and differing results " , but " took a pass " on the issues that " truly defined his century " . Harper subsequently accused Trudeau of promoting " unabashed socialism " , and argued that Canadian governments between 1972 and 2002 had restricted economic growth through " state corporatism " .
After the Canadian Alliance 's poor showing in the 2000 election , Harper joined with other Western conservatives in co @-@ authoring a document called the " Alberta Agenda " . The letter called on Alberta to reform publicly funded health care , replace the Canada Pension Plan with a provincial plan and replace the Royal Canadian Mounted Police with a provincial police force . It became known as the " firewall letter " , because it called on the provincial government to " build firewalls around Alberta " to stop the federal government from redistributing its wealth to less affluent regions . Alberta Premier Ralph Klein agreed with some of the letter 's recommendations , but distanced himself from the " firewall " comments .
Harper also wrote an editorial in late 2000 arguing that Alberta and the rest of Canada were " embark [ ing ] on divergent and potentially hostile paths to defining their country " . He said that Alberta had chosen the " best of Canada 's heritage — a combination of American enterprise and individualism with the British traditions of order and co @-@ operation " while Canada " appears content to become a second @-@ tier socialistic country [ ... ] led by a second @-@ world strongman appropriately suited for the task " . He also called for a " stronger and much more autonomous Alberta " , while rejecting calls for separatism . In the 2001 Alberta provincial election , Harper led the NCC in a " Vote Anything but Liberal " campaign . Some articles from this period described him as a possible successor to Klein .
Harper and the NCC endorsed a private school tax credit proposed by Ontario 's Progressive Conservative government in 2001 , arguing that it would " save about $ 7 @,@ 000 for each student who does not attend a union @-@ run public school " . Education Minister Janet Ecker criticized this , saying that her government 's intent was not to save money at the expense of public education .
Day 's leadership of the Canadian Alliance became increasingly troubled throughout the summer of 2001 , as several party MPs called for his resignation . In June , the National Post newspaper reported that former Reform MP Ian McClelland was organizing a possible leadership challenge on Harper 's behalf . Harper announced his resignation from the NCC presidency in August , 2001 , to prepare a campaign .
= = Canadian Alliance leadership , 2002 – 03 = =
Stockwell Day called a new Canadian Alliance leadership race for 2002 , and soon declared himself a candidate . Harper emerged as Day 's main rival , and declared his own candidacy on December 3 , 2001 . He eventually won the support of at least 28 Alliance MPs , including Scott Reid , James Rajotte and Keith Martin . During the campaign , Harper reprised his earlier warnings against an alliance with Quebec nationalists , and called for his party to become the federalist option in Quebec . He argued that " the French language is not imperilled in Quebec " , and opposed " special status " for the province in the Canadian Constitution accordingly . He also endorsed greater provincial autonomy on Medicare , and said that he would not co @-@ operate with the Progressive Conservatives as long as they were led by Joe Clark . On social issues , Harper argued for " parental rights " to use corporal punishment against their children and supported raising the age of sexual consent . He described his potential support base as " similar to what George Bush tapped " .
The tone of the leadership contest turned hostile in February , 2002 . Harper described Day 's governance of the party as " amateurish " , while his campaign team argued that Day was attempting to win re @-@ election by building a narrow support base among different groups in the religious right . The Day campaign accused Harper of " attacking ethnic and religious minorities " . In early March , the two candidates had an especially fractious debate on CBC Newsworld . The leadership vote was held on March 20 , 2002 . Harper was elected on the first ballot with 55 % support , against 37 % for Day . Two other candidates split the remainder .
After winning the party leadership , Harper announced his intention to run for parliament in a by @-@ election in Calgary Southwest , recently vacated by Preston Manning . Ezra Levant had been chosen as the riding 's Alliance candidate and declared that he would not stand aside for Harper ; he later reconsidered . The Liberals did not field a candidate , following a parliamentary tradition of allowing opposition leaders to enter the House of Commons unopposed . The Progressive Conservative candidate , Jim Prentice , also chose to withdraw . Harper was elected without difficulty over New Democrat Bill Phipps , a former United Church of Canada moderator . Harper told a reporter during the campaign that he " despise [ d ] " Phipps , and declined to debate him .
Harper officially became Leader of the Opposition in May , 2002 . Later in the same month , he said that the Atlantic Provinces were trapped in " a culture of defeat " which had to be overcome , the result of policies designed by Liberal and Progressive Conservative governments . Many Atlantic politicians condemned the remark as patronizing and insensitive . The Legislature of Nova Scotia unanimously approved a motion condemning Harper 's comments , which were also criticized by Premier of New Brunswick Bernard Lord , federal Progressive Conservative leader Joe Clark and others . Harper refused to apologize , and said that much of Canada was trapped by the same " can 't @-@ do " attitude .
In March , 2003 , their speeches in favour gaining no traction in parliament , Harper and Stockwell Day co @-@ wrote a letter to The Wall Street Journal in which they condemned the Canadian government 's unwillingness to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq .
= = Conservative Party leadership , 2004 – 06 = =
On January 12 , 2004 , Harper announced his resignation as Leader of the Opposition , to run for the leadership of the Conservative Party of Canada . Harper was elected the first leader of the Conservative Party , with a first ballot majority against Belinda Stronach and Tony Clement on March 20 , 2004 . Harper 's victory included strong showings in Ontario , Quebec , and Atlantic Canada .
= = = 2004 federal election = = =
Harper led the Conservatives into the 2004 federal election . Initially , new Prime Minister Paul Martin held a large lead in polls , but this eroded because of infighting , Adscam ( a scandal that came as a result of a Government of Canada " sponsorship program " in the province of Quebec and involving the Liberal Party of Canada ) and other scandals surrounding his government . The Liberals attempted to counter this with an early election call , as this would give the Conservatives less time to consolidate their merger .
Martin 's weak performance in the leader 's debate , along with an unpopular provincial budget by Liberal Premier Dalton McGuinty in Ontario , moved the Conservatives into a lead for a time . However , comments by Conservative MPs , leaked press releases slandering the then prime minister , as well as controversial TV attack ads suggesting that the Conservatives would make Canada more like the United States , caused Harper 's party to lose some momentum .
Harper made an effort to appeal to voters in Quebec , a province where the Reform / Alliance side of the merged party had not done well . He was featured in several of the Tories ' French @-@ language campaign ads .
The Liberals were re @-@ elected to power with a minority government , with the Conservatives coming in second place . The Conservatives managed to make inroads into the Liberals ' Ontario stronghold , primarily in the province 's socially conservative central region . However , they were shut out of Quebec , marking the first time that a centre @-@ right party did not win any seats in that province . Harper , after some personal deliberation , decided to stay on as the party leader . Many credited him with bringing the Progressive Conservative Party and Canadian Alliance together in a short time to fight a close election .
= = = = Agreement with the BQ and the NDP = = = =
Two months after the federal election , Stephen Harper privately met Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe and New Democratic Party leader Jack Layton in a Montreal hotel . On September 9 , 2004 , the three signed a letter addressed to then @-@ Governor General Adrienne Clarkson , stating ,
We respectfully point out that the opposition parties , who together constitute a majority in the House , have been in close consultation . We believe that , should a request for dissolution arise this should give you cause , as constitutional practice has determined , to consult the opposition leaders and consider all of your options before exercising your constitutional authority .
On the same day the letter was written , the three party leaders held a joint press conference at which they expressed their intent to co @-@ operate on changing parliamentary rules , and to request that the Governor General consult with them before deciding to call an election . At the news conference , Harper said " It is the Parliament that 's supposed to run the country , not just the largest party and the single leader of that party . That 's a criticism I 've had and that we 've had and that most Canadians have had for a long , long time now so this is an opportunity to start to change that . " However , at the time , Harper and the two other opposition leaders denied trying to form a coalition government . Harper said , " This is not a coalition , but this is a co @-@ operative effort . "
One month later , on October 4 , Mike Duffy , who was later appointed as a Conservative senator by Harper , said " It is possible that you could change prime minister without having an election " , and that some Conservatives wanted Harper to temporarily become prime minister without holding an election . The next day Layton walked out on talks with Harper and Duceppe , accusing them of trying to replace Paul Martin with Harper as prime minister . Both Bloc and Conservative officials denied Layton 's accusations .
On March 26 , 2011 , Duceppe stated that Harper had tried to form a coalition government with the Bloc and NDP in response to Harper 's allegations that the Liberals may form a coalition with the Bloc and the NDP .
= = = Leader of the Opposition = = =
The Conservative Party 's first policy convention was held from March 17 – 19 , 2005 , in Montreal . Harper had been rumoured to be shifting his ideology closer to that of a Blue Tory , and many thought he 'd wanted to move the party 's policies closer to the centre . Any opposition to abortion or bilingualism was dropped from the Conservative platform . Harper received an 84 % endorsement from delegates in the leadership review .
Despite the party 's move to the centre , the party began a concerted drive against same @-@ sex marriage . Harper was criticized by a group of law professors for arguing that the government could override the provincial court rulings on same @-@ sex marriage without using the " notwithstanding clause " , a provision of Canada 's Charter of Rights and Freedoms . He also argued , in general , for lower taxes , an elected Senate , a tougher stance on crime , and closer relations with the United States .
Following the April 2005 release of Jean Brault 's damaging testimony at the Gomery Commission , implicating the Liberals in the scandal , opinion polls placed the Conservatives ahead of Liberals . The Conservatives had earlier abstained from the vote on the 2005 budget to avoid forcing an election . With the collapse in Liberal support and a controversial NDP amendment to the budget , the party exerted significant pressure on Harper to bring down the government . In May , Harper announced that the government had lost the " moral authority to govern " . Shortly thereafter , the Conservatives and Bloc Québécois united to defeat the government on a vote that some considered to be either a confidence motion or else a motion requiring an immediate test of the confidence of the House . The Martin government did not accept this interpretation and argued that vote had been on a procedural motion , although they also indicated that they would bring forward their revised budget for a confidence vote the following week . Ultimately , the effort to bring down the Government failed following the decision of Conservative MP Belinda Stronach to cross the floor to the Liberal Party . The vote on the NDP amendment to the budget tied , and with the Speaker of the House voting to continue debate , the Liberals stayed in power . At the time , some considered the matter to be a constitutional crisis .
Harper was also criticized for supporting his caucus colleague MP Gurmant Grewal . Grewal had produced tapes of conversations with Tim Murphy , Paul Martin 's chief of staff , in which Grewal claimed he had been offered a cabinet position in exchange for his defection .
The Liberals ' support dropped after the first report from the Gomery Commission was issued . On November 24 , 2005 , Harper introduced a motion of non @-@ confidence on the Liberal government , telling the House of Commons " that this government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons and needs to be removed . " As the Liberals had lost NDP support in the house by refusing to accept an NDP plan to prevent health care privatization , the no @-@ confidence motion was passed by a vote of 171 – 133 . It was the first time that a Canadian government had been toppled by a straight motion of non @-@ confidence proposed by the opposition . As a result , parliament was dissolved and a general election was scheduled for January 23 , 2006 .
On February 27 , 2008 , allegations surfaced that two Conservative Party officials offered terminally ill , Independent MP Chuck Cadman a million @-@ dollar life insurance policy in exchange for his vote to bring down the Liberal government in a May , 2005 , budget vote . If the story had been proved true , the actions may have been grounds for charges as a criminal offence since , under the Criminal Code of Canada , it is illegal to bribe an MP .
When asked by Vancouver journalist Tom Zytaruk about the alleged life insurance offer then @-@ opposition leader Stephen Harper states on an audio tape " I don 't know the details . I know there were discussions " and goes on to say " The offer to Chuck was that it was only to replace financial considerations he might lose due to an election " . Harper also stated that he had told the Conservative party representatives that they were unlikely to succeed . " I told them they were wasting their time . I said Chuck had made up his mind . " In February , 2008 , the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) investigated the allegations that Section 119 's provisions on bribery and corruption in the Criminal Code had been violated . The RCMP concluded their investigation stating that there was no evidence for pressing charges .
Harper denied any wrongdoing and subsequently filed a civil libel suit against the Liberal Party . Because libel laws do not apply to statements made in the House of Commons , the basis of the lawsuit was that statements made by Liberal party members outside the House and in articles which appeared on the Liberal party web site made accusations that Harper had committed a criminal act .
The audio expert hired by Harper to prove that the tape containing the evidence was doctored reported that the latter part of the tape was recorded over , but the tape was unaltered where Harper 's voice said " I don 't know the details , I know that , um , there were discussions , um , but this is not for publication ? " and goes on to say he " didn 't know the details " when asked if he knew anything about the alleged offer to Cadman .
= = = 2006 federal election = = =
The Conservatives began the campaign period with a policy @-@ per @-@ day strategy , contrary to the Liberal plan of holding off major announcements until after the Christmas holidays , so Harper dominated media coverage for the first weeks of the election . Though his party showed only modest movement in the polls , Harper 's personal numbers , which had always significantly trailed those of his party , began to rise . In response , the Liberals launched negative ads targeting Harper , similar to their attacks in the 2004 election . However , their tactics were not sufficient to erode the Conservative 's advantage , although they did manage to close what had been a ten @-@ point advantage in public opinion . As Harper 's personal numbers rose , polls found he was now considered not only more trustworthy , but a better choice for prime minister than Martin .
Immediately prior to the Christmas break , in a faxed letter to NDP candidate Judy Wasylycia @-@ Leis , the Commissioner of the RCMP , Giuliano Zaccardelli announced the RCMP had opened a criminal investigation into her complaint that it appeared Liberal Finance Minister Ralph Goodale 's office had leaked information leading to insider trading before making an important announcement on the taxation of income trusts . On December 27 , 2005 , the RCMP confirmed that information in a press release . At the conclusion of the investigation , Serge Nadeau , a top Finance Department civil servant , was charged with criminal breach of trust . No charges were laid against then Finance Minister Ralph Goodale .
The election gave Harper 's Conservatives the largest number of seats in the House , although not enough for a majority government , and shortly after midnight on January 24 , Martin conceded defeat . Later that day , Martin informed Governor General Michaëlle Jean that he would resign as prime minister , and at 6 : 45 p.m. Jean asked Harper to form a government . Harper was sworn in as Canada 's 22nd prime minister on February 6 , 2006 .
In his first address to parliament as head of government , Harper opened by paying tribute to the Queen of Canada , Elizabeth II , and her " lifelong dedication to duty and self @-@ sacrifice . " He also said before the Canada @-@ UK Chamber of Commerce that Canada and the United Kingdom were joined by " the golden circle of the Crown , which links us all together with the majestic past that takes us back to the Tudors , the Plantagenets , the Magna Carta , habeas corpus , petition of rights , and English common law . " Journalist Graham Fraser said in the Toronto Star that Harper 's speech was " one of the most monarchist speeches a Canadian prime minister has given since John Diefenbaker . " An analysis by Michael D. Behiels suggests a political realignment may be underway based on the continuance of Harper 's government .
After the election , the Conservative party were charged with improper election spending , in a case that became known as the In and Out scandal . It dragged on for years , but in 2012 they took a plea deal , admitting both improper spending and falsifying records to hide it .
= = Prime Minister ( 2006 – 15 ) = =
= = = 2008 federal election = = =
On October 14 , 2008 , after a 5 @-@ week @-@ long campaign , the Conservative Party won a federal election and increased its number of seats in parliament to 143 , up from 127 at the dissolution of the previous parliament ; however , the actual popular vote among Canadians dropped slightly by 167 @,@ 494 votes . As a result of the lowest voter turnout in Canadian electoral history , this represented only 22 % of eligible Canadian voters , the lowest level of support of any winning party in Canadian history . Meanwhile , the number of opposition Liberal MPs fell from 95 to 77 seats . 155 MPs are required to form a majority government in Canada 's 308 @-@ seat parliament .
= = = 2008 parliamentary dispute and prorogation = = =
On December 4 , 2008 , Harper asked Governor General Michaëlle Jean to prorogue parliament to avoid a vote of confidence scheduled for the following Monday , becoming the first Canadian prime minister to do so . The request was granted by Jean , and the prorogation lasted until January 26 , 2009 . The opposition coalition dissolved shortly after , with the Conservatives winning a Liberal supported confidence vote on January 29 , 2009 .
= = = 2010 prorogation = = =
On December 30 , 2009 , Harper announced that he would request the governor general to prorogue parliament again , effective immediately on December 30 , 2009 , during the 2010 Winter Olympics and lasting until March 3 , 2010 . Harper stated that this was necessary for Canada 's economic plan . Jean granted the request . In an interview with CBC News , Prince Edward Island Liberal Member of Parliament Wayne Easter accused the Prime Minister of " shutting democracy down " . Tom Flanagan , Harper 's University of Calgary mentor and former chief of staff , also questioned Harper 's reasoning for prorogation , stating that " I think the government 's talking points haven 't been entirely credible " and that the government 's explanation of proroguing was " skirting the real issue — which is the harm the opposition parties are trying to do to the Canadian Forces " regarding the Canadian Afghan detainee issue . Small demonstrations took place on January 23 in 64 Canadian cities and towns and five cities in other countries . A Facebook protest group attracted over 20 @,@ 000 members .
A poll released by Angus Reid on January 7 , found that 53 % of respondents were opposed to the prorogation , while 19 % supported it . 38 % believed Harper used the prorogation to curtail the Afghan detainee inquiry , while 23 % agreed with Harper 's explanation that the prorogation was necessary economically .
= = = 2010 Senate appointments = = =
Harper , on January 29 , 2010 , advised the Governor General to appoint new Conservative senators to fill five vacancies in the Senate , one each for Quebec , Newfoundland and Labrador , and New Brunswick , and two for Ontario . The new senators were Pierre @-@ Hugues Boisvenu , of Quebec ; Bob Runciman , of Ontario ; Vim Kochhar , of Ontario ; Elizabeth Marshall of Newfoundland and Labrador ; and Rose @-@ May Poirier , of New Brunswick . This changed the party standings in the Senate , which had previously been dominated by Liberals , to 51 Conservatives , 49 Liberals , and five others .
= = = 2011 vote of non @-@ confidence = = =
Harper 's Cabinet was defeated in a no @-@ confidence vote on March 25 , 2011 , after being found in contempt of parliament . Harper thus , in accordance with constitutional convention , advised the Governor General to call a general election . This was the first occurrence in Commonwealth history of a government in the Westminster parliamentary tradition losing the confidence of the House of Commons on the grounds of contempt of parliament . The no @-@ confidence motion was carried with a vote of 156 in favour of the motion and 145 against .
= = = 2011 election = = =
On May 2 , 2011 , after a five @-@ week campaign , Harper led the Conservatives to their third consecutive election victory — the first time a centre @-@ right party has accomplished this in half a century . The Conservatives increased their standing in parliament to 166 , up from 143 at the dissolution of the previous parliament . This resulted in the first centre @-@ right majority government since the Progressive Conservatives won what would be their last majority in 1988 . The Conservatives also received a greater number of total votes than in 2008 .
The election ended five years of minority governments , made the New Democratic Party the Official Opposition for the first time , relegated the Liberals to third place for the first time , brought Canada 's first Green Party Member of Parliament , and reduced the Bloc Québécois from 47 to 4 seats .
After the election , the Conservatives were accused of cheating in the Robocall scandal , mainly suppressing votes by directing voters to bogus polling stations . There were complaints in 247 of Canada 's 308 ridings , but only one person was charged ; Conservative staffer Michael Sona was convicted and jailed .
= = = 2015 election = = =
Under the Canada Elections Act , a general election had to take place no later than October 19 , 2015 . On August 2 , at Harper 's request , Governor General David Johnson dropped the writs of election for October 19 . In that election , Harper 's Conservative Party was defeated by Justin Trudeau 's Liberals , and became the Official Opposition , having won only 99 out of 338 seats where after the previous election they had 166 of 308 . This was mainly because of a collapse of Conservative support in southern Ontario , a region that swung heavily to them in 2011 . They lost all of their seats in Toronto , and won only three seats in the Greater Toronto Area . They were also shut out of Atlantic Canada — the first time in decades that there will be no centre @-@ right MPs from that region . Harper was reelected in Calgary Heritage , essentially a reconfigured version of his former riding .
Hours after conceding defeat on election night , Harper resigned as leader of the Conservative Party , though for the time being he will remain in the new parliament as a backbencher . Harper resigned as Prime Minister during a meeting with Governor General David Johnston , who accepted the resignation , after which Johnston invited Trudeau to form a government on November 4 , 2015 .
= = Conservative backbencher and departure from politics = =
Harper returned to Ottawa as a Conservative backbencher and addressed a meeting of the Conservative caucus that included defeated MPs in November . Interim leader Rona Ambrose stated that Harper would be in the House for key votes as the member for Calgary Heritage , but had earned the right to keep a low profile after his service as Prime Minister .
Harper announced in May 2016 that he plans to resign his seat in the House of Commons during the summer before the fall session of parliament . In the same month , Harper delivered a speech to the 2016 Conservative party convention where his accomplishments as party leader and prime minister were honoured by the party .
In December 2015 , Harper had set up Harper & Associates Consulting Inc . , a corporation that lists him a director alongside close associates Ray Novak and Jeremy Hunt .
= = Domestic policy = =
= = = Constitutional issues = = =
After sidestepping the political landmine for most of the first year of his time as prime minister , much as all the post @-@ Charlottetown Accord prime ministers had done , Harper 's hand was forced to reopen the Quebec sovereignty debate after the opposition Bloc Québécois were to introduce a motion in the House that called for recognition of Quebec as a " nation " . On November 22 , 2006 , Harper introduced his own motion to recognize that " the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada . " Five days later , Harper 's motion passed , with a margin of 266 – 16 ; all federalist parties , and the Bloc Québécois , supported it .
In 2004 , Harper said " the Upper House remains a dumping ground for the favoured cronies of the prime minister " . Between 2006 and 2008 , by which time Harper was prime minister , he did not put any names to the Governor General for appointment to the Senate , resulting in 16 Senate vacancies by the October 2008 election . The one exception was Michael Fortier . When Harper took office , he directed the Governor General to appoint Michael Fortier to both the Senate and the Cabinet , arguing the government needed representation from the city of Montreal . Although there is a precedent for this action in Canadian history , the appointment led to criticism from opponents who claimed Harper was reneging on his push for an elected Senate . In 2008 , Fortier gave up his Senate seat and sought election as a Member of Parliament ( MP ) , but was defeated by a large margin by the incumbent Bloc Québécois MP .
After the October , 2008 , election , Harper again named Senate reform as a priority . By December , he recommended the appointment of 18 senators and , in 2009 , provided an additional nine people for appointment as senators . Many of those appointed had close ties with the Conservative Party , including the campaign manager of the Conservative Party , Doug Finley . Critics accused Harper of hypocrisy ( the Liberals coined the term " Harpocrisy " ) . Conservative Senator Bert Brown defended Harper 's appointments and said " the only way [ the Senate ] ' s ever been filled is by having people that are loyal to the prime minister who 's appointing them . "
= = = Economic management = = =
By January , 2010 , the federal deficit had risen to $ 36 billion . It is claimed by certain pundits that the Conservatives raised Canada 's deficit to the largest in the country 's history . At the same time , Canada had the lowest debt @-@ to @-@ GDP ratio in the G7 economies . The Economist magazine stated that Canada had come out the recession stronger than any other rich country in the G7 . In 2013 , Canada came out with Global Markets Action Plan to generate employment opportunities for Canadians .
= = = 2011 Census = = =
Ahead of the Canada 2011 Census , the government announced that the long @-@ form questionnaire ( which collects detailed demographic information ) will no longer be mandatory . According to Minister of Industry Tony Clement , the change was made because of privacy @-@ related complaints and after consulting with Statistics Canada . However , Canada 's privacy commissioner reported only receiving three complaints between 1995 and 2010 , according to a report in the Toronto Sun .
Munir Sheikh , Canada 's Chief Statistician appointed on Harper 's advice , resigned on July 21 , 2010 , in protest of the government 's change in policy . Ivan Fellegi , the former Chief Statistician of Canada , criticized the government 's decision , saying that those who are most vulnerable ( such as the poor , new immigrants , and aboriginals ) are least likely to respond to a voluntary form , which weakens information about their demographic .
The move was opposed by some governmental and non @-@ governmental organizations . Federation of Canadian Municipalities ; City of Toronto ; Canadian Jewish Congress ; Evangelical Fellowship of Canada ; Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops ; Canadian Medical Association ; Statistical Society of Canada ; the American Statistical Association ; and Registered Nurses Association of Ontario all opposed the change . However , the Fraser Institute supported the change . The provincial governments of Ontario , Quebec , New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island , and Manitoba , also opposed the change .
= = = Veterans = = =
Under Stephen Harper , the annual budget of Veterans Affairs Canada increased from $ 2 @.@ 85 billion in 2005 – 2006 to $ 3 @.@ 55 billion in 2014 – 2015 , while the quantity of veterans served has declined from 219 @,@ 152 in 2008 – 2009 to 199 @,@ 154 in 2015 . Since 2006 , Veterans Affairs Canada returned $ 1 @.@ 13 billion in unspent funding back to the federal treasury . Nine Veterans Affairs offices were closed between 2012 and 2015 , and 900 positions were phased out from the department since 2009 . Former Minister of Veterans Affairs Erin O 'Toole stated that the closures were made to modernize Veterans Affairs , by moving services online and to Service Canada locations .
In 2006 , Harper implemented the New Veterans Charter passed with all party support by the previous Liberal government . This charter turned the previous lifetime veteran pension system into one of lump sum payments . Under Harper , the Canadian government spent $ 700 , 000 fighting a class @-@ action lawsuit brought by a group of wounded Afghan veterans who argued that the new Charter was discriminatory . In the statement of defence filed by the federal lawyers , they argued that the government has no obligation and no " social contract " with veterans .
= = Foreign policy = =
During his term , Harper has dealt with many foreign policy issues relating to the United States , War on Terror , Arab @-@ Israeli conflict , free trade , China and Africa .
He has reduced defence spending to 1 % of Canadian GDP .
In 2009 , Harper visited China . During the visit Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao publicly scolded Harper for not visiting earlier , pointing out that " this is the first meeting between the Chinese premier and a Canadian prime minister in almost five years " ; Harper in response said that , " it 's almost been five years since we had yourself or President Hu in our country . " In 2008 , former prime minister Jean Chrétien had criticized Harper for missing opening ceremonies for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing ; in response , Dimitri Soudas , a spokesperson for Harper , called the remarks hypocritical , pointing out that Chrétien " attended one of six Olympic opening ceremonies during his 13 years as prime minister .
On September 11 , 2007 , Harper visited Australia and addressed its parliament .
On January 20 , 2014 , Harper addressed the Israeli Knesset in Givat Ram , Jerusalem .
During mid @-@ 2015 , Harper repeatedly voiced his opinion that Russia should be excluded from association with the G7 group of nations because of Russia 's support for Russian @-@ speaking Ukrainian dissidents . On June 8 , Harper said , " Mr. Putin . . . has no place at the [ G7 ] table , and I don 't believe there 's any leader who would defend Mr.Putin having a place . " .
Michael Ignatieff criticized Harper for cutting foreign aid to Africa by $ 700 million , falling short of the UN Millennium Development Goals , and cutting eight African countries from the list of priority aid recipients .
= = = Afghanistan = = =
On March 11 and 12 , 2006 , Harper made a surprise trip to Afghanistan , where Canadian Forces personnel had been deployed as part of the NATO @-@ led International Security Assistance Force since late 2001 , to visit troops in theatre as a show of support for their efforts , and as a demonstration of the government 's commitment to reconstruction and stability in the region . Harper 's choice of a first foreign visit was closely guarded from the press until his arrival in Afghanistan ( citing security concerns ) , and is seen as marking a significant change in relationship between the government and the military . Harper returned to Afghanistan on May 22 , 2007 , in a surprise two @-@ day visit which included visiting Canadian troops at the forward operating base at Ma 'Sum Ghar , located 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) south of Kandahar , making Harper the first prime minister to have visited the front lines of a combat operation .
= = = Israeli and Jewish affairs = = =
Harper has shown admiration for the State of Israel since the early 1990s . Friends and colleagues describe his views as being the product of thinking and reading deeply about the Middle East . " Toronto Rabbi Philip Scheim , who accompanied Harper to Israel " in 2014 said , " I sense that [ Harper ] sees Israel as a manifestation of justice and a righting of historical wrongs , especially in light of the Holocaust . "
At the outset of the 2006 Israel – Lebanon conflict , Harper defended Israel 's " right to defend itself " and described its military campaign in Lebanon as a " measured " response , arguing that Hezbollah 's release of kidnapped Israel Defense Force ( IDF ) soldiers would be the key to ending the conflict . Speaking of the situation in both Lebanon and Gaza on July 18 , Harper said he wanted " not just a ceasefire , but a resolution " but such a thing would not happen until Hezbollah and Hamas recognize Israel 's right to exist . Harper blamed Hezbollah for all the civilian deaths . He asserted that Hezbollah 's objective is to destroy Israel through violence .
The media noted that Harper did not allow reporters opportunities to ask him questions on his position . Some Canadians , including many Arab and Lebanese Canadians , criticized Harper 's description of Israel 's response .
In December , 2008 , the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations recognized Harper 's support for Israel with its inaugural International Leadership Award , pointing out Harper 's decision to boycott the Durban II anti @-@ racism conference , and his government 's " support for Israel and [ its ] efforts at the U.N. against incitement and ... the delegitimization [ of Israel ] " .
In March , 2009 , Harper spoke at a Parliament Hill ceremony organized by Chabad @-@ Lubavitch to honour the Jewish victims of the 2008 Mumbai attacks , which included an attack on the Nariman House . He expressed condolences over the murder at Chabad 's Mumbai centre of Rabbi Gavriel Holtzberg and his wife Rivka . Harper described the killings as " affronts to the values that unite all civilized people " . Harper added that the quick instalment of a new rabbi at the Chabad centre in Mumbai as a signal that the Jewish people will " never bow to violence and hatred " .
In 2010 , Canada lost a bid for a seat on the UN Security Council . While initially blaming the loss on his rival Ignatieff , Harper later said that it was due to his pro @-@ Israeli stance . Harper then said that he would take a pro @-@ Israeli stance , no matter what the political cost to Canada . Ignatieff criticized Harper 's stance as a " mistake " , saying Canada would be better able to defend Israel through the Security Council than from the sidelines and pointed out that it is the Security Council that will determine if sanctions are imposed on Iran . Ignatieff also accused Harper of steering the discussion away from implementing the two @-@ state solution , and instead rendering all discussion into a competition " about who is Israel 's best friend " .
= = = Free trade with EFTA = = =
On June 7 , 2007 , the Conservative government announced it had finalized free trade negotiations with the European Free Trade Association ( EFTA ) . Under this agreement , Canada increased its trade ties with Iceland , Norway , Switzerland and Liechtenstein . In 2006 , the value of trade between these partners was $ 10 @.@ 7 billion . Canada had originally begun negotiations with the EFTA on October 9 , 1998 , but talks broke down because of a disagreement over subsidies to shipyards in Atlantic Canada .
= = = United States = = =
Shortly after being congratulated by George W. Bush for his victory , Harper rebuked US Ambassador David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives ' plans to assert Canada 's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with armed forces . Harper 's first meeting as prime minister with the US president occurred at the end of March , 2006 .
The government received American news coverage during the Democratic Party 's 2008 presidential primaries after the details of a conversation between Barack Obama 's economic advisor Austan Goolsbee , and Canadian diplomat Georges Rioux were revealed . Reportedly Goolsbee was reassuring the Canadians that Obama 's comments on potentially renegotiating the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) were more political rhetoric than actual policy . The accuracy of these reports has been debated by both the Obama campaign and the Canadian Government . The news came at a key time nearing the Ohio and Texas primaries , where perceptions among Democratic voters was ( and is ) that the benefits of the NAFTA agreement are dubious . Thus the appearance that Obama was not being completely forthright was attacked by his opponent Hillary Clinton .
ABC News reported that Harper 's chief of staff , Ian Brodie was responsible for the details reaching the hands of the media . Harper has denied that Brodie was responsible for the leak , and launched an investigation to find the source . The Opposition , as well as Democratic strategist Bob Shrum , criticized the Government on the issue , stating they were trying to help the Republicans by helping Hillary Clinton win the Democratic nomination instead of Obama . They also alleged the leak would hurt relations with the United States if Obama ever were to become President . Obama was elected President in November . In February , Obama made his first foreign visit , as president , to Ottawa , in which he affirmed support for free trade with Canada , as well as complimenting Canada on its involvement in Afghanistan .
= = Environmental policy = =
Since Harper 's government took office in 2006 , Canadian greenhouse gas emissions fell from 749 to 726 Mt of carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2 eq ) . From 1993 until 2006 , during the previous Liberal government greenhouse gas emissions increased from 600 to 749 Mt of CO2 eq . The reduction corresponded Canada 's decreased economic output during the Great Recession and emissions began increasing slightly in 2010 , when the economy began recovering . Other significant factors in Canada 's decreased emissions during Prime Minister Harper 's time in office are initiatives such as the carbon tax in British Columbia , the cap and trade system in Quebec , Ontario 's coal @-@ fired power plants , and the Clean Air Regulatory Agenda which regulates emissions for automobiles and light trucks . In 2006 , Canada 's Clean Air and Climate Change Act was introduced to address air pollution as well as greenhouse gas emissions ; it never became law . In 2006 , the Clean Air Regulatory Agenda ( CARA ) was established to " support Government of Canada efforts to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and air pollutant emissions in order to improve the environment and health of Canadians " . In December , 2011 , the Harper administration announced that Canada would formally withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol . Then Environment Minister Peter Kent stated , " It 's now clear that Kyoto is not the path forward for a global solution to climate change . In December , 2012 , Canada became the first signatory to formally withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol . /
= = = Renewable energy = = =
Other federal initiatives include the 2011 loan guarantee towards the Lower Churchill Project in Labrador , which is scheduled for completion in 2017 . The Lower Churchill 's two hydroelectric installations at Gull Island and Muskrat Falls will have a combined capacity of over 3 @,@ 074 MW and have the ability to provide 16 @.@ 7 TW · h of electricity per year , which is enough to " reduce greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to taking 3 @.@ 2 million vehicles off the road each year " .
= = = Public transit = = =
In 2006 , Harper administration invested over $ 5 billion towards towards public transit projects in Canada . In 2006 , the federal government provided $ 697 million towards the York @-@ University @-@ Spadina Subway Extension . In September 2013 , former finance minister Jim Flaherty invested a federal contribution of $ 660 million towards the Scarborough Subway Extension .
= = Supreme Court appointments = =
Harper chose the following jurists to be appointed as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada by the governor general :
Marshall Rothstein ( March 1 , 2006 – August 31 , 2015 )
Thomas Cromwell ( September 5 , 2008 – present )
Andromache Karakatsanis ( 2011 – present )
Michael J. Moldaver ( 2011 – present )
Richard Wagner ( 2012 – present )
Clément Gascon ( 2014 – present )
Russell Brown ( 2015 – present )
= = = Marshall Rothstein = = =
In keeping with Harper 's election promise to change the appointment process , Rothstein 's appointment involved a review by a parliamentary committee , following his nomination by the prime minister . Rothstein had already been short @-@ listed , with two other candidates , by a committee convened by Paul Martin 's previous Liberal government , and he was Harper 's choice . Harper then had Rothstein appear before an ' ad hoc ' , non @-@ partisan committee of 12 members of parliament . This committee was not empowered to block the appointment , though , as had been called for by some members of Harper 's Conservative Party .
= = = Thomas Cromwell = = =
On September 5 , 2008 , Harper nominated Thomas Cromwell of Nova Scotia Court of Appeal to fill the Supreme Court seat left vacant by the departure of Michel Bastarache . By and large Cromwell 's nomination was well received , with many lauding the selection ; however , dissent has been noted surrounding the nomination . First , Harper bypassed parliament 's supreme court selection panel , which was supposed to produce a list of three candidates for him to choose from . Second , Newfoundland justice minister Jerome Kennedy criticized the appointment , citing the Newfoundland government 's belief that constitutional convention stipulates that a Newfoundlander should have been named to the court in the rotation of Atlantic Canadian supreme court representation .
= = = Marc Nadon = = =
On October 3 , 2013 , Harper announced the nomination of supernumerary Federal Court of Appeals Marc Nadon to the supreme court to replace the retiring Morris Fish . The appointment was challenged by both Ontario lawyer Rocco Galati and the provincial government of Quebec as being contrary to the appointment criteria of section 6 of the Supreme Court Act . In response , Harper referred the criteria issue to the supreme court , as well as the question of whether the government 's amendments to the criteria were constitutional . The supreme court subsequently ruled in Reference re Supreme Court Act , ss . 5 and 6 that the Nadon appointment was invalid , and that the federal government could not unilaterally amend the Supreme Court Act . Harper subsequently nominated Clement Gascon to the position instead .
= = Honours = =
Harper received the Woodrow Wilson Award on October 6 , 2006 , for his public service in Calgary . The awards ceremony was held at the Telus Convention Centre in Calgary , the same place where he made his victory speech .
Time magazine also named him as Canada 's Newsmaker of the Year in 2006 . Stephen Handelman wrote " that the prime minister who was once dismissed as a doctrinaire backroom tactician with no experience in government has emerged as a warrior in power " .
On June 27 , 2008 , Harper was awarded the Presidential Gold Medallion for Humanitarianism by B 'nai B 'rith International . He is the first Canadian to be awarded this medal .
On July 11 , 2011 , Harper was honoured by Alberta 's Blood tribe . He was made honorary chief of the Kainai Nation during a ceremony , in which they recognized him for making an official apology on behalf of the Government of Canada for the residential schools abuse . Harper issued this apology in 2008 . The chief of the tribe explained that he believes the apology officially started the healing and rebuilding of relations between the federal and native councils . Lester B. Pearson , John Diefenbaker , and Jean Chrétien are the only other prime ministers of Canada to have been awarded the same honorary title .
On September 27 , 2012 , Harper received the World Statesman of the Year award . This award was offered through a US group of various faith representatives . This occurred at a black tie banquet in New York . Jean Chrétien was one of the previous recipients from Canada .
= = = Honorary degrees = = =
Tel Aviv University in Ramat Aviv , Tel Aviv , Israel , 2014 ( Ph.D. )
= = Personal life = =
Harper married Laureen Teskey on December 11 , 1993 . Laureen was formerly married to New Zealander Neil Fenton from 1985 to 1988 . The Harpers have two children : Benjamin and Rachel . Harper is the third prime minister , after Pierre Trudeau and John Turner , to send his children to Rockcliffe Park Public School , in Ottawa . He is a member of the evangelical Christian and Missionary Alliance and attends church at the East Gate Alliance Church in Ottawa . According to party literature , he is learning Spanish .
An avid follower of ice hockey , he has been a fan of the Toronto Maple Leafs since his childhood in the Leaside and Etobicoke communities in Toronto . He published a book , A Great Game : The Forgotten Leafs and the Rise of Professional Hockey ( 2013 ) , which chronicles the growth of professional hockey , particularly in Toronto , and writes articles occasionally on the subject . Harper appeared on The Sports Network ( TSN ) during the broadcast of the Canada – Russia final of the 2007 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . He was interviewed and expressed his views on the state of hockey , and his preference for an overtime period in lieu of a shoot @-@ out . In February , 2010 , Harper interviewed former National Hockey League greats Wayne Gretzky and Gordie Howe for a Saskatoon Kinsmen Club charity event .
Harper taped a cameo appearance in an episode of the television show Corner Gas which aired March 12 , 2007 . He reportedly owns a large vinyl record collection and is a fan of The Beatles and AC / DC . In October , 2009 , he joined Yo @-@ Yo Ma on stage in a National Arts Centre gala and performed " With a Little Help from My Friends " . He was also accompanied by Herringbone , an Ottawa band with whom he regularly practises . He received a standing ovation after providing the piano accompaniment and lead vocals for the song .
In October , 2010 , Harper taped a cameo appearance in an episode of the television show Murdoch Mysteries , which aired July 20 , 2011 , during the show 's fourth season .
Harper is 6 feet 2 inches ( 188 cm ) tall . He was the first prime minister to employ a personal stylist , Michelle Muntean , whose duties range from coordinating his clothing to preparing his hair and makeup for speeches and television appearances . While she used to be on the public payroll , she has been paid for by the Conservative Party since " some time [ in ] 2007 " .
The Harper family has two cats , Stanley and Gypsy. and they have fostered other cats as well . Since Harper is no longer prime minister , the family moved back to Calgary , Alberta and he will commute to his seat in parliament .
= = Electoral record = =
All electoral information is taken from Elections Canada . Italicized expenditures refer to submitted totals , and are presented when the final reviewed totals are not available .
= New York @-@ class battleship =
The New York class of battleship was a class of ships designed and constructed by the United States Navy between 1908 and 1914 . The two ships of the class , New York and Texas , each saw extensive service beginning in the occupation of Veracruz , World War I , and World War II .
Designed as a more heavily armed improvement over the previous Wyoming class , the New York class was the first battleship to feature the 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) / 45 caliber gun , but was one of the last battleship classes designed with several features , including a five @-@ turret layout and coal for fuel . The class also suffered several deficiencies such as a lack of anti @-@ aircraft weaponry and armor layout , which were addressed with the subsequent Nevada class . Because of these deficiencies , both ships saw several extensive overhauls over the course of their careers which greatly changed their profiles .
Both New York and Texas entered service in 1914 and immediately served in the occupation of Veracruz , and service reinforcing the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet in the North Sea during World War I , during which time New York is believed to have sunk a U @-@ boat in an accidental collision . Both ships undertook numerous training exercises and overhauls during the interwar era , and joined the Neutrality Patrol at the beginning of World War II . Outmoded by more advanced battleships in service , both ships served primarily as convoy escorts and naval artillery during the war . New York supported Operation Torch in North Africa , undertook convoy patrols and training in the Atlantic , and supported the Battle of Iwo Jima and the Battle of Okinawa . Texas supported Operation Torch , Operation Overlord , the bombardment of Cherbourg , Operation Dragoon and the battles at Iwo Jima and Okinawa . Following the war , New York was used as a target ship in Operation Crossroads and sunk as a target in 1948 , while Texas was converted into a museum ship , and remains permanently moored in San Jacinto State Park today .
= = Background = =
The New York class was the fifth of 11 separate classes planned by the United States Navy between 1906 and 1919 , a total of 29 battleships and 6 battlecruisers . Virtually the entire American battle line was being designed from pre @-@ dreadnought experience and observation of foreign designs . The design of the New York @-@ class battleship originated in the 1908 Newport Conference , which resulted in a new method for battleship design , with the General Board taking a more active role in the design process of ships , and the navy 's Board on Construction would implement the design instead of creating it . While the New York class was mostly designed by the Board on Construction , lessons learned on the class allowed the General Board to take the lead on the following Nevada @-@ class battleships .
The Newport Conference established a general consensus among leaders that US Navy ships should carry larger batteries in response to the increasing caliber of battleships in other countries , notably the BL 13 @.@ 5 inch Mk V naval gun which had been introduced by the Royal Navy 's Orion class , as well as the German Navy 's shift from 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) to 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimetre ( 12 in ) guns . There was debate at the time as to whether the Florida @-@ class battleships , laid down in 1909 , should carry heavier armament than the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 5 gun . Ultimately , on 30 March 1909 , US Congress approved the construction of two " Design 601 " battleships , also known as Battleship 1910 with six 12 @-@ inch turrets , which the General Board had selected over two 14 @-@ inch designs in 1909 . These would become the Wyoming class . At the same time , the General Board began planning for the next class of ships , and on 21 April 1909 decided on two battleships with similar sizes , and after some debate about main guns approval of two battleships was granted on 24 June in 1910 . In 1911 the US Senate 's Naval Affairs Committee suggested reducing the size of the ships as part of a $ 24 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 budget reduction , but Secretary of the Navy George von Lengerke Meyer fought to keep the original design and the ships were not altered .
The class is generally referred to as the New York class , but it is also occasionally called the Texas class because New York was completed several months after her sister , Texas .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
As designed , the ships had a standard displacement of 27 @,@ 000 long tons ( 27 @,@ 433 t ) and a full @-@ load displacement of 28 @,@ 367 long tons ( 28 @,@ 822 t ) . They were 573 ft ( 175 m ) in length overall , 565 ft ( 172 m ) at the waterline , and had a beam of 95 ft 6 in ( 29 @.@ 11 m ) and a draft of 28 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 69 m ) . The ships underwent significant changes and increases in armor and armament over their operational lives . Following her fourth and final refit in 1943 , New York increased her displacement to 29 @,@ 340 long tons ( 29 @,@ 810 t ) standard and 34 @,@ 000 long tons ( 35 @,@ 000 t ) full @-@ load . The final refit for Texas came in 1945 , after which she displaced 29 @,@ 500 long tons ( 30 @,@ 000 t ) standard and 32 @,@ 000 long tons ( 33 @,@ 000 t ) at full load . As designed , the ships had a crew complement consisted of 1 @,@ 042 officers and enlisted men . By 1945 , Texas was carrying 1 @,@ 723 officers and enlisted men with the addition of crews for additional weapons as well as a new complement of Marines .
= = = Armament = = =
The main battery of the class consisted of ten 14 @-@ inch / 45 caliber guns , arrayed in five twin turrets designated 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , and 5 . As constructed , these turrets had an elevation of 15 degrees , but this was increased to 30 degrees during an overhaul in 1940 – 1941 . The class was the last to feature a turret mounted amidships . In 1910 the US Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance had successfully designed and tested its 14 @-@ inch naval gun . The gun proved to have remarkable accuracy and uniformity of pattern . The New York class was the fifth class of US dreadnought battleship design created , and work had already started on the sixth design , the Nevada class . By 1910 no US dreadnought class battleship had yet hit the water , as all were either at some stage of building or in design . Virtually the entire US Navy battle line was being designed by drawing on experience from pre @-@ dreadnought designs or from observation of foreign battleship designs .
As built , both ships also carried 21 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber guns arrayed ten to a side with one in the stern , primarily for defense against destroyers and torpedo boats . Many of the 5 @-@ inch guns were poor in accuracy in rough seas due to being mounted near the ends of the ship and below the main deck . The ships were not designed with anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defense in mind , and with the development of naval aviation , this was seen as a serious drawback to the class . The New York class was the first US battleship to mount anti @-@ aircraft guns | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, with two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber guns mounted on platforms on top of the boat cranes of Texas in 1916 . In 1918 , the secondary armament was reduced to 16 5 @-@ inch / 51 caliber guns , eight to a side , as the guns near the ends of the ship were difficult to work in any kind of sea . When both ships were refitted 1925 @-@ 26 , AA defense was increased with eight 3 @-@ inch / 50 caliber guns arrayed four to a side . Six of the 16 remaining 5 @-@ inch guns were relocated higher in the ship to new casemates on the main deck . The New York class also initially featured four torpedo tubes , 1 each on the port side bow and stern and starboard bow and stern , for the Bliss @-@ Leavitt Mark 3 torpedo , instead of the previous two , because of advances in torpedo performance increasing the prominence of the weapon . The torpedo rooms held 12 torpedoes total , plus 12 naval defense mines . However , the torpedo tubes were removed in the 1925 @-@ 26 refit .
Magazine and machinery spaces were enclosed in the protected hull . Magazine volume was reduced for increased machinery , with each magazine accommodating 75 to 80 shells and charges , while more shells were carried in their turrets and handling rooms .
In 1937 eight 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 28 mm ) / 75 caliber AA guns in two quadruple mounts were added to improve the light AA armament . The ships were more extensively refitted with large amounts of light AA guns at the expense of the 5 @-@ inch / 51 caliber guns in 1942 , as the attack on Pearl Harbor had shown pre @-@ war light AA armament to be inadequate . The 1 @.@ 1 inch quad mounts were removed and 24 Bofors 40 mm guns were added in six quadruple mounts ( later increased to 40 guns ) , while 42 Oerlikon 20 mm guns in single mounts were also added . The 3 @-@ inch AA gun armament was increased to 10 guns , while the 5 @-@ inch gun armament was reduced to 6 guns .
= = = Armor = = =
The ships continued the armor suite of the Wyoming class with minor improvements . The deck armor scheme would continue to remain distinctly inferior to the succeeding Nevada class with their all or nothing armor scheme . However the leap forward in range provided by improved fire control was not yet envisioned and had it been there would not have been time to include it within the current design . The ship provided a 12 in ( 305 mm ) belt tapering to 10 in ( 254 mm ) and 6 @.@ 5 in ( 165 mm ) casemate armor with internal partitioning . The New York class was the first to incorporate an armored central plotting room below decks , but atop the protective deck , and enclosed in a thin box of splinter armor .
Armor on the New York class consisted of belt armor from 10 to 12 inches thick . Their lower casemates had between 9 in ( 229 mm ) and 11 in ( 279 mm ) of armor , and their upper casemate had 6 in ( 152 mm ) of armor . Deck armor was 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick , and turret armor was 14 inches on the face , 4 in ( 102 mm ) on the top , 2 inches on the sides , and 8 in ( 203 mm ) on the rear . Armor on her barbettes was between 10 and 12 inches . Conning towers were protected by 12 inches of armor , with 4 inches of armor on the tops . In all , the armor totaled 261 @.@ 67 t ( 257 @.@ 54 long tons ; 288 @.@ 44 short tons ) on the upper casemate , 1 @,@ 680 @.@ 33 t ( 1 @,@ 653 @.@ 79 long tons ; 1 @,@ 852 @.@ 25 short tons ) on the lower casemate , 1 @,@ 549 @.@ 16 t ( 1 @,@ 524 @.@ 69 long tons ; 1 @,@ 707 @.@ 66 short tons ) along the belt , 127 @.@ 42 t ( 125 @.@ 41 long tons ; 140 @.@ 46 short tons ) on the bulkheads , 1 @,@ 322 @.@ 11 t ( 1 @,@ 301 @.@ 23 long tons ; 1 @,@ 457 @.@ 38 short tons ) on the splinter deck , 2 @,@ 085 @.@ 39 t ( 2 @,@ 052 @.@ 45 long tons ; 2 @,@ 298 @.@ 75 short tons ) on the barbettes , and 856 @.@ 11 t ( 842 @.@ 59 long tons ; 943 @.@ 70 short tons ) on the conning tower for a total protection of 8 @,@ 120 @.@ 62 t ( 7 @,@ 992 @.@ 37 long tons ; 8 @,@ 951 @.@ 45 short tons ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were powered by 14 Babcock & Wilcox coal @-@ fired boilers driving two dual @-@ acting triple expansion reciprocating steam engines , with 28 @,@ 100 shp ( 20 @,@ 954 kW ) producing a maximum speed of 21 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . They had a range of 7 @,@ 060 nmi ( 8 @,@ 120 mi ; 13 @,@ 080 km ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Initially , designs called for a 14 percent increase in power to 32 @,@ 000 shp ( 24 @,@ 000 kW ) over the 28 @,@ 000 shp ( 21 @,@ 000 kW ) of the preceding class . However , it was discovered that greater propulsive efficiency of the reciprocating engine allowed a reduction in installed power , needing only 28 @,@ 100 shp to make 21 knots .
The New York class was the final class of US battleship to be powered by coal . The class was designed to carry 2 @,@ 850 long tons ( 2 @,@ 900 t ) of coal , the most of any battleship class . In 1910 , the succeeding battleships of the Nevada class were designed with fuel oil in mind . Both ships were converted to carry fuel oil in 1926 , and had a capacity of 5 @,@ 200 long tons ( 5 @,@ 300 t ) of oil . Six new Bureau Express oil @-@ fired boilers replaced the 14 older design coal @-@ fired boilers at that time with no loss of power .
= = Construction = =
Funding for the battleships was authorized by a 24 June 1910 act , which called for the ships to cost no more than $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The act also specified new labor policies for their construction which put strict limits on labor hours and working conditions for shipyard employees . Bids were solicited only for Battleship No. 35 , Texas , on 27 September 1910 , while Battleship No. 34 , New York , was to be built by New York Navy Yard . Bids opened for No. 35 on 1 December . Ultimately Newport News Shipbuilding Company won the contract with a bid of $ 5 @,@ 830 @,@ 000 . Battleship No. 35 began construction first , on 17 April 1911 , launched 18 May 1912 , and completed on 12 March 1914 . Battleship No. 34 was laid down on 11 September 1911 , launched on 30 October 1912 , and completed on 15 April 1914 .
By 1926 , the New York class was considered obsolete compared with other battleships in service , so both ships received a complete refit . While several other battleships in service , including Utah and Florida were converted to training ships or scrapped , New York and Texas were chosen to be overhauled to increase their speed , armor , armament , and propulsion systems , in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . An additional 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) were added for defense against aerial targets and submarines . Her 14 coal @-@ fired boilers were replaced by six Bureau Express oil @-@ fired boilers and the twin funnels were trunked into one , aft of the forward superstructure . Tripods were fitted in place of the lattice masts , and atop the forward tripod a control tower was installed . A tower was built amidships that contained additional fire control to backup the system on the foremast . A new aircraft catapult was installed atop turret Number 3 , and cranes were installed on either side of the funnel for boat and aircraft handling . Additional deck protection was added , and each ship 's beam was widened . The ships were fitted with anti @-@ torpedo bulges , though these made maneuvering harder at low speeds and both rolled badly , and gunfire accuracy was reduced in rough seas .
= = Service history = =
= = = USS New York = = =
Shortly after commissioning , New York became flagship for the United States occupation of Veracruz in 1914 . During World War I , she became flagship of Battleship Division 9 , commanded by Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman . Sent to reinforce the British Grand Fleet in the North Sea , she conducted blockade and escort duties . She twice came into contact with German U @-@ boats , and is believed to have accidentally sunk one . She returned to the United States at the end of the war , and began taking on patrol and training duties . New York was fitted with XAF RADAR in February 1938 , including the first United States duplexer so a single antenna could both send and receive .
She was a part of the Neutrality Patrol following the outbreak of World War II , and In September 1939 , and spent the beginning of the war escorting convoys between New York and Iceland . She saw action supporting Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of North Africa , where she targeted shore batteries threatening the landings in November 1942 . She remained in convoy patrol and training for several years , until she was moved to the Pacific Fleet late in the war and supported landings on Iwo Jima in February 1945 , and later the invasion of Okinawa in April 1945 . She was lightly damaged by a kamikaze attack in this battle . Following the war , she was used as a target ship during Operation Crossroads and subsequently studied for its effects , before being sunk as a target in 1948 .
= = = USS Texas = = =
Texas also participated in the occupation of Veracruz for several months in 1914 , before conducting training and upgrades to become the first ship of the US Navy to mount anti @-@ aircraft weapons . She conducted convoy patrols early in World War I and was the first US ship to fire on a German one during a convoy mission in 1917 . She joined other US battleships in reinforcing the British fleet near the end of the war and was present for the German surrender . In the inter @-@ war period she became one of the first battleships to launch and operate aircraft , and frequently alternated her time between the Atlantic and Pacific waters on training exercises .
She was part of the Neutrality Patrol at the beginning of World War II and supported Allied landings at North Africa , and then conducted convoy patrol duty to North African and European ports throughout 1943 . On 6 June 1944 , she supported Operation Overlord , covering Allied landings on the beaches of Normandy , France , in particular the battle at Pointe du Hoc . Later that month on 25 June , she supported the bombardment of Cherbourg and there was damaged when she was hit with a German artillery shell . In July she moved to support Operation Dragoon , the Allied invasion of southern France . Following extensive repairs and training , she moved to the Pacific and supported the invasion of Iwo Jima in February 1945 . She then moved to support landings on Okinawa in April . Following the end of the war , Texas was decommissioned and in 1948 she was moved to San Jacinto State Park and converted into a museum ship , where she remains today .
= J.D.B. v. North Carolina =
J.D.B. v. North Carolina , 564 U.S. 261 ( 2011 ) , was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that age is relevant when determining police custody for Miranda purposes . J.D.B. was a 13 @-@ year @-@ old student enrolled in special education classes whom police had suspected of committing two robberies . A police investigator visited J.D.B. at school , where he was interrogated by the investigator , a uniformed police officer , and school officials . J.D.B. subsequently confessed to his crimes and was convicted . J.D.B. was not given a Miranda warning during the interrogation , nor an opportunity to contact his legal guardian . During the trial , attempts to suppress the statements given by J.D.B. because he was not given a Miranda warning were denied on the grounds that J.D.B. was not in police custody . The case was appealed and the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case . " J.D.B. v. NORTH CAROLINA . " J.D.B. v. North Carolina . N.p. , n.d. Web . 23 Apr. 2015 . After examining the lower court 's reasoning , the Supreme Court found that J.D.B. ' s age should have been considered when determining whether he was in police custody . The Court remanded the case and instructed the lower court to make a new finding on custody while taking age into account .
= = Background = =
= = = Miranda warnings = = =
A Miranda warning is an explanation of a suspect 's rights that must be given by law enforcement before interrogation . It stems from the 1966 Miranda v. Arizona case , and is based primarily on the Fifth Amendment right against self @-@ incrimination . If a defendant in custody is not notified of their rights via a Miranda warning , any confession they give may not be admissible in court . If a defendant is not in police custody , however , police are free to question suspects without informing them of their rights , and their statements may still be admissible .
= = = Police investigation = = =
J.D.B. was a 13 @-@ year @-@ old student attending Smith Middle School in Chapel Hill , North Carolina when he was taken out of class by a uniformed police officer and questioned . J.D.B. had been questioned previously by the police when they saw him in the neighborhood where two home break @-@ ins had occurred . After questioning J.D.B. the first time , police learned that a digital camera matching the description of a stolen item had been seen in the possession of J.D.B. This prompted the juvenile investigator assigned to the case to go to the school to question J.D.B. Upon arriving at the school , the investigator informed the uniformed police officer on detail to the school and members of the school 's administration . The uniformed officer interrupted the class J.D.B. was in and escorted him to a school conference room , where J.D.B. was subsequently questioned by the investigator , police officer , and members of the schools administration for 30 to 45 minutes . Prior to the questioning , J.D.B. was neither given Miranda warnings nor an opportunity to speak to his legal guardian , nor was he informed that he was free to leave the room .
Initially J.D.B. denied any wrongdoing . After being confronted with the stolen camera and after the urging of a school administrator , J.D.B. confessed to the break @-@ ins . It was at this point after the confession that the investigator informed J.D.B. that he could refuse to answer questions and that he was free to leave . J.D.B. indicated that he understood and then proceeded to provide further details about the crime , including the location of the stolen property . J.D.B. wrote a statement at the investigators request and then he was allowed to leave to catch the bus home .
= = = Trial and appeal = = =
Two juvenile petitions were filed against J.D.B. Each alleged one count of larceny and one count of breaking and entering . J.D.B. ' s public defender moved to suppress J.D.B. ' s statements and the evidenced derived therefrom , arguing that J.D.B. had been interrogated in police custody without the required Miranda warnings . The trial court decided that J.D.B. was not in custody , and the motion was denied . The North Carolina Supreme Court affirmed with a divided panel , " declin [ ing ] to extend the test for custody to include consideration of the age ... of an individual subjected to questioning by police " .
The Supreme Court granted certiorari to determine whether the Miranda custody analysis includes consideration of a juvenile suspect ’ s age . The American Civil Liberties Union , American Bar Association , and the National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers were among the organizations that filed amicus briefs in support of J.D.B. The attorneys general of 30 states and 2 unincorporated territories filed an amicus brief in support of North Carolina .
= = Opinion of the court = =
Associate Justice Sonia Sotomayor wrote the opinion for the Court , which commanded a majority only in part . The Court held that a child 's age properly informs the Miranda custody analysis .
= = = Relevancy of age = = =
The Court underscored the dangers of not applying age to the custody analysis , writing : " to hold ... that a child 's age is never relevant to whether a suspect has been taken into custody — and thus to ignore the very real differences between children and adults — would be to deny children the full scope of the procedural safeguards that Miranda guarantees to adults " . The opinion cited Stansbury v. California where the Court held that a child 's age " would have affected how a reasonable person " in the suspect 's position " would perceive his or her freedom to leave " . Yarborough v. Alvarado was also cited , where the Court wrote that a child 's age " generates commonsense conclusions about behavior and perception " . Finally , the Court pointed out that the law reflects the idea that a child 's judgment is not the same as an adult 's , in the form of legal disqualifications on children as a class ( e.g. limitations on a child 's ability to marry without parental consent ) .
= = = Miranda as an objective test = = =
The Court placed emphasis on the fact that age is an objective circumstance and including it in a custody analysis does not place an undue burden on the police . The Court has repeatedly emphasized that the custody analysis is an objective test . In Thompson v. Keohane the Court wrote that :
Two discrete inquiries are essential to the determination : first , what were the circumstances surrounding the interrogation ; and second , given those circumstances , would a reasonable person have felt he or she was at liberty to terminate the interrogation and leave . Once the scene is set and the players ’ lines and actions are reconstructed , the court must apply an objective test to resolve the ultimate inquiry : was there a formal arrest or restraint on freedom of movement of the degree associated with formal arrest .
The Court wrote that consideration of age involved no consideration of the specific mindset of the individual . Rather , the Court held that age is an objective factor that affects how a reasonable person would perceive his or her freedom to leave .
= = = Dissent = = =
Associate Justice Samuel Alito wrote a dissenting opinion for four Justices . The primary objection of the dissent was that the ruling of the majority was inconsistent with one of the main justifications for the Miranda rule : the need for a clear rule that is easily applied in all cases . Alito argued the decision shifted custody determination from a simple test to an inquiry that must account for individualized characteristics . Alito emphasized that age is not the only characteristic that may affect a subject under interrogation and that in future cases the court will be tasked with adding additional characteristics to custody determination or by " arbitrarily distinguishing a suspect 's age from other personal characteristics " .
= = Reception and subsequent developments = =
The case attracted differing opinions within the legal community . Steven Drizin , professor at Northwestern University School of Law , characterized the ruling as " huge " , noting that police would no longer be able to choose to question young suspects at a school in order to avoid giving a Miranda warning , a practice he characterized as a " loophole " . The Juvenile Law Center praised the ruling as " a resounding statement " in line with " settled research and basic common sense " . Steven Shapiro , legal director of the ACLU concurred , stating that " we have to ensure that students ' rights are protected ... and the decision is a step in that direction . "
Other analysts were troubled that the decision would leave " a murky landscape for law enforcement " . John Charles Thomas , representing the National District Attorneys Association , concluded " The pressure is basically to err on the side of caution , to give the Miranda warning almost every time . " Professor Stephen Saltzburg of George Washington University agreed that the ruling would pressure police to adopt a strategy of " When in doubt , give Miranda warnings " , but also opined that it would make little practical difference to young people facing police questioning . " The reality is that even with Miranda warnings , it 's doubtful that young people understand exactly what it all means and understand their choices , and so in the long run , I doubt that there will be many fewer confessions because of this opinion . "
= Helmut Lent =
Oberst Helmut Lent ( 13 June 1918 – 7 October 1944 ) was a German night @-@ fighter ace in World War II . Lent shot down 110 aircraft , 102 of them at night , far more than the minimum of five enemy aircraft required for the title of " ace " . Born into a devoutly religious family , he showed an early passion for glider flying ; against his father 's wishes , he joined the Luftwaffe in 1936 . After completing his training , he was assigned to the 1 . Squadron , or Staffel , of Zerstörergeschwader 76 ( ZG 76 ) , a wing flying the Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin @-@ engine heavy fighter . Lent claimed his first aerial victories at the outset of World War II in the invasion of Poland and over the North Sea . During the invasion of Norway he flew ground support missions before he was transferred to the newly established Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 ( NJG 1 ) , a night @-@ fighter wing .
Lent claimed his first nocturnal victory on 12 May 1941 and on 30 August 1941 was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross for 22 victories . His steady accumulation of aerial victories resulted in regular promotions and awards . On the night of 15 June 1944 , Major Lent was the first night fighter pilot to claim 100 nocturnal aerial victories , a feat which earned him the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds on 31 July 1944 .
On 5 October 1944 , Lent flew a Junkers Ju 88 on a routine transit flight from Stade to Nordborchen , 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) south of Paderborn . On the landing approach one of the engines cut out and the aircraft collided with power lines . All four members of the crew were mortally injured . Three men died shortly after the crash and Lent succumbed to his injuries two days later on 7 October 1944 .
= = Childhood , education and early career = =
Helmut Lent was born on 13 June 1918 in Pyrehne , district of Landsberg an der Warthe , Province of Brandenburg , Germany ( now Pyrzany , Lubusz Province , western Poland ) and christened Helmut Johannes Siegfried Lent . He was the fifth child of Johannes Lent , a Lutheran minister and Marie Elisabeth , née Braune . Helmut Lent had two older brothers , Werner and Joachim , and two older sisters , Käthe and Ursula . His family was deeply religious ; in addition to his father , both of his brothers and both grandfathers were also Lutheran ministers .
From Easter 1924 until Easter 1928 , Lent attended the local public primary school at Pyrehne . His father and oldest brother Werner then tutored him at home in preparation for the entrance examination at the public secondary school at Landsberg . In February 1933 , Helmut joined the Jungvolk , the junior branch of the Hitler Youth . From March 1933 , he acted as a youth platoon leader , or Jungzugführer ( 1 March 1933 – 1 April 1935 ) and flag @-@ bearer , or Fähnleinführer ( 1 April 1935 – 9 November 1935 ) until he left the Jungvolk to prepare for his diploma examination . Helmut passed his graduation examinations at the age of seventeen on 12 December 1935 . On 2 February 1936 , he began the eight @-@ week compulsory National Labor Service ( Reichsarbeitsdienst ) at Mohrin . He joined the military service in the Luftwaffe as a Fahnenjunker on 1 April 1936 , against the wishes of his father .
His military training began on 6 April 1936 at the 2nd Air Warfare School ( Luftkriegsschule 2 ) at Gatow , on the south @-@ western outskirts of Berlin . He swore the National Socialist oath of allegiance on 21 April 1936 . Flight training began on Monday , 7 August 1936 at Gatow . His first flight was in a Heinkel He 72 Kadet D @-@ EYZA single engine biplane . Lent logged his first solo flight on 15 September 1936 in a Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 44 Stieglitz . By this time , Lent had accumulated 63 flights in his logbook . In conjunction with flight training , the students also learned to drive motorcycles and cars and during one of these training exercises , Lent was involved in a road accident , breaking his upper leg badly enough to prevent him from flying for five months . This did not adversely affect his classroom training and on 1 April 1937 , after taking his commission examination , he was promoted to Fähnrich . On 19 October 1937 Lent completed his flight training and was awarded the A / B License . He earned his wings on 15 November 1937 . On 1 February 1938 , he was promoted to Oberfähnrich ( first ensign ) , and on 1 March 1938 to Leutnant . By this time , he had made 434 flights in eight different types of aircraft and had accumulated 112 hours and 48 minutes flying time , mostly in daylight flights , in single engine training aircraft .
After leaving Gatow , Helmut Lent was posted to the Heavy Bomber Crew School , or Große Kampffliegerschule at Tutow , in northeast Germany . He spent three months training as an observer ( 1 March 1938 – 30 May 1938 ) . Prior to completing this course , Lent was run over by a car , resulting in a broken lower jaw , concussion , and internal bleeding . On 1 July 1938 , Lent was posted to the 3rd Group of Jagdgeschwader 132 " Richthofen " ( III . / JG 132 ) , flying on 19 July 1938 for the first time after his injuries .
At the beginning of September , Lent 's squadron , 7 . / JG 132 , relocated to Großenhain near Dresden , in preparation and support of the annexation of Czechoslovakia . Lent flew a number of operational patrols in this conflict until his Staffel relocated again to Rangsdorf on 29 September 1938 . After the tension over the occupation of the Sudeten territories eased , Lent 's unit began a conversion to the Messerschmitt Bf 108 Taifun . On 1 November 1938 III . / JG 132 moved to Fürstenwalde , between Berlin and Frankfurt an der Oder , and was renamed II . / JG 141 , and Lent was posted to the 6th Squadron .
II . / JG 141 changed its designation to I. / Zerstörergeschwader 76 ( I. / ZG 76 ) on 1 May 1939 at the same time relocating to an airfield at Olmütz , Czechoslovakia . The group was being re @-@ equipped with the Messerschmitt Bf 110 , and Lent made his first flight in the Bf 110 on 7 June 1939 . Lent was granted his Luftwaffe Advanced Pilot 's Certificate ( Erweiterter Luftwaffen @-@ Flugzeugführerschein ) , also known as ' C ' -Certificate , confirming proficiency on multi @-@ engine aircraft , on 12 May 1939 . While converting to the Bf 110 , Lent did not have a regular wireless operator ( Funker ) in the rear gunner 's seat , but on 14 August 1939 he was accompanied in M8 + AH for the first time by Gefreiter Walter Kubisch . During the prelude of World War II on 25 August 1939 I. / ZG 76 deployed to an airfield at Ohlau to the southeast of Breslau .
= = World War II = =
World War II began at 04 : 45 on Friday 1 September 1939 when German forces crossed the Polish border . Helmut Lent , flying a Bf 110 marked M8 @-@ DH , took off from Ohlau , at 04 : 44 to escort Heinkel He 111 bombers on a mission over Krakow .
= = = Invasion of Poland = = =
The German plans for the invasion of Poland were conceived under the codename Fall Weiss ( Case White ) . This operation called for simultaneous attacks on Poland from three directions , the north , the west and the south , beginning at 04 : 45 on the early morning of 1 September 1939 . On this morning Helmut Lent , with Kubisch as his wireless operator and rear gunner , escorted a formation of Heinkel 111 bombers of I. and III . / Kampfgeschwader 4 ( KG 4 ) attacking the airfields at Krakow in support of the southern prong of the German attack . At 16 : 30 on 2 September 1939 , the second day of the German attack , Lent took off in the direction of Łódź and claimed his first aerial @-@ victory of the war , shooting down a PZL P.11.
At this point of the campaign the Bf 110s switched from bomber escort to ground @-@ attack since the Polish Air Force was all but defeated . In this capacity Lent and Kubisch destroyed a twin @-@ engined monoplane on the ground on 5 September and another aircraft , a PZL P.24 , on 9 September . On 12 September 1939 he was attacked by a Polish aircraft which shot out his starboard engine . Lent made a forced landing behind German lines . He flew five more missions during the Polish campaign , destroying one anti @-@ aircraft battery . For his actions in the Polish campaign Lent was awarded one of the first Iron Cross 2nd class of World War II on 21 September 1939 . I. / ZG 76 relocated to the Stuttgart area on 29 September 1939 to defend the western border against the French and British , who had been at war with Germany since 3 September 1939 . From early October to middle December I. / ZG 76 operated from a number of airfields in the Stuttgart and Ruhr areas before relocating north to Jever on 16 December 1939 .
= = = Battle of the Heligoland Bight = = =
During the first month of the war the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) mostly focused its bomber attacks against anti @-@ shipping operations on the German Bight . RAF bombers mounted a heavy attack against shipping off Wilhelmshaven on 18 December 1939 in what became to be known as the Battle of the Heligoland Bight . Twenty @-@ four twin @-@ engine Vickers Wellington from No. 9 Squadron , No. 37 Squadron and No. 149 Squadron formed up over Norfolk heading for the island of Heligoland . Two aircraft aborted the mission due to mechanical defects , but the remaining 22 pursued the attack and were spotted by a Freya radar on the East Frisian Islands .
Helmut Lent was ordered to intercept and engage the attacking bomber force and after refuelling — Lent had just landed at Jever from an armed patrol — claimed three Wellingtons , two of which , shot down at 14 : 30 and 14 : 45 , were later confirmed . The two aircraft were both from No. 37 Squadron , captained by Flying Officer P.A. Wimberley and Flying Officer O.J.T. Lewis respectively , and both crashed in the shallow sea off Borkum . It is likely that his third claim may have been No. 37 Squadron Wellington 1A N2396 , LF @-@ J , piloted by Sergeant H. Ruse , which crash @-@ landed on the sand dunes of Borkum . Lent was refused the victory over Wimberley , as the Wellington was attacked by Lent after it had already been badly damaged and was about to crash . The Wellington was credited to pilot Carl @-@ August Schumacher .
His success as a fighter pilot over the North Sea had made him a minor national hero . Exploits such as those at Heligoland made good news stories for German propaganda machine . Consequently , he attracted fan mail — mainly from young girls and women — among them Elisabeth Petersen . Lent replied to her letter , and he and Elisabeth met on a blind date at the Reichshof hotel in Hamburg , after which they enjoyed a skiing holiday in Hirschegg in February 1940 .
= = = Norwegian Campaign and Battle of Britain = = =
On 8 April 1940 eight aircraft of 1 . / ZG 76 , under the command of Staffelkapitän Werner Hansen , deployed northward from Jever to Westerland on Sylt in preparation for operation Weserübung , the invasion of Norway . The German plan for the attack called for an amphibious assault on the Norwegian capital , Oslo , and six major ports from Kristiansand in the south to Narvik in the north . Simultaneously , Junkers 52 ( Ju 52 ) transport aircraft would drop parachute troops to secure Oslo 's Fornebu airport . Additional Ju 52s were scheduled to arrive at Fornebu twenty minutes after the parachute drop , by which time the airfield had to be in German hands . 1 . / ZG 76 was to provide air cover and ground @-@ attack support for both waves . Eight Bf 110 Zerstörer of 1 . / JG 76 took off at 7 : 00 in the morning , planning to synchronize their arrival at Fornebu with the parachute drop at 8 : 45 . The distance from Westerland to Fornebu meant that this was a one @-@ way operation ; the Bf 110s could not hold enough fuel for the return trip . Their fuel was calculated to provide them 20 minutes flying time over Fornebu , and the pilots would have to land at Fornebu once the airfield had been seized .
On the early morning flight to Fornebu , Lent engaged and shot down a Norwegian Gloster Gladiator . While the Ju 52s transporting the German paratroops came under heavy fire , Lent 's Rotte engaged the enemy ground positions . Lent 's starboard engine caught fire , forcing him to land immediately . With Kubisch manning the movable machine gun , Lent negotiated the capitulation with the Norwegian ground forces and the airfield was in German hands .
At 18 : 50 the same day , Lent and his Staffelkapitän Werner Hansen took off again from Fornebu in undamaged Bf 110s . During the 40 @-@ minute flight , they came across a RAF Short Sunderland flying boat , serial number L2167 , from No. 210 Squadron RAF which they shot down together ; Hansen received credit for the " kill " . Helmut Lent was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class on 13 May 1940 before he was transferred to Trondheim on 18 May . He claimed his second aerial victory of the Norwegian campaign on 27 May over a RAF Gloster Gladiator from No. 263 Squadron RAF , piloted by Flight Lieutenant Caesar Hull . On 2 June 1940 Lent and his wingman Thönes claimed a Gladiator each . The flight lasted 5 hours and 46 minutes and their opponents were again from No. 263 Squadron , aircraft serial number N5893 piloted by Pilot Officer J.L. Wilkie , and N5681 piloted by Pilot Officer L.R. Jacobsen . He claimed his seventh victory overall and final of the Norwegian theatre of operations on 15 June 1940 over a No. 254 Squadron RAF Bristol Blenheim , piloted by Pilot Officer P.C. Gaylord . On 1 July 1940 Lent was promoted to Oberleutnant and on 13 July 1 . / ZG 76 was relocated to Stavanger / Forus .
Helmut Lent briefly participated in the Battle of Britain when on 15 August 1940 twenty @-@ one Bf 110s from I. / ZG 76 escorted He 111 bombers from Kampfgeschwader 26 ( KG 26 ) on their attack on Yorkshire and the Newcastle / Sunderland area . I. / ZG 76 lost seven aircraft on this mission and it was Helmut Lent 's 98th and final mission as a Zerstörer pilot .
= = = Night fighter career = = =
By June 1940 RAF Bomber Command penetrations of German airspace had increased to the level that Hermann Göring decreed that a night @-@ fighter force should be formed . The officer tasked with its creation was Wolfgang Falck , Gruppenkommandeur of the I. / Zerstörergeschwader 1 ( ZG 1 ) . The night @-@ fighter force began to expand rapidly , with existing units being divided to form the nucleus of new units . By October 1940 Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 ( NJG 1 ) comprised three Gruppen , while Nachtjagdgeschwader 2 ( NJG 2 ) and Nachtjagdgeschwader 3 ( NJG 3 ) , were still forming . It was during this period that Helmut Lent reluctantly became a member of the night @-@ fighter force . At the end of August Lent wrote home , " We are currently converting to night fighting . We are not very enthusiastic . We would sooner head directly for England . "
Lent completed night fighter training at Ingolstadt in south @-@ western Germany , and was appointed squadron leader , or Staffelkapitän , of the newly formed 6 . / NJG 1 on 1 October 1940 . The squadron was based at Fliegerhorst Deelen , located 12 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 8 mi ) north of Arnhem in the Netherlands . On the night 11 – 12 May 1941 , Lent claimed his first nocturnal aerial victories against two Wellington IC bombers from No. 40 Squadron RAF on a mission against Hamburg . BL @-@ H ( serial number R1330 ) was shot down at 01 : 40 near Süderstapel and BL @-@ Z ( R1461 ) at 02 : 49 near Nordstrand .
On 1 July 1941 , he took command of 4 . / NJG 1 , stationed in the Netherlands at Fliegerhorst ( airfield ) Leeuwarden , 161 kilometres ( 100 mi ) north of Arnheim , on the Friesland coast , where he remained until his death . From this position in the so @-@ called German Bight , the squadron patrolled the North Sea coast , and could intercept Allied night @-@ time bombing missions , what the Luftwaffe called terror attacks , based out of England . By the end of the war , the 4 . / NJG 1 was one of the most successful Nachtjagdstaffel — a squadron of a night fighter wing — of the Luftwaffe . Other members included such night fighter pilots as Oberleutnant Helmut Woltersdorf , Leutnant Ludwig Becker ( 44 victories , KIA February 1943 ) , Leutnant Egmont Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld ( 51 victories , killed in a flying accident in the Netherlands in March 1944 ) , Leutnant Leopold Fellerer ( 41 victories ) , Oberfeldwebel Paul Gildner ( 46 victories , killed in a flying accident at Fliegerhorst Gilze @-@ Rijen in the Netherlands in February 1943 ) , and Unteroffizier Siegfried Ney ( 12 victories , KIA February 1943 ) . On 30 August 1941 , Lent received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross for seven daytime and 14 night victories .
On 1 November 1941 , Lent became acting Group Commander Gruppenkommandeur of the newly formed II . / NJG 2 . Lent 's first aerial victory as a Gruppenkommandeur , his 20th night @-@ time , and his last in 1941 , came during the night of Friday 7 November to Saturday 8 November . He shot down a Wellington 1C heading for Berlin , which came down near Akkrum . The six @-@ man crew of the bomber , X9976 of No. 75 ( New Zealand ) Squadron , was killed in action . This achievement earned Lent a reference in the Wehrmachtbericht ( his first of six in total ) , an information bulletin issued by the headquarters of the Wehrmacht . To be singled out individually in the Wehrmachtbericht was an honour and was entered in the Orders and Decorations ' section of one 's Service Record Book .
He was promoted to Hauptmann on 1 January 1942 . Later that year , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 6 June 1942 , at which time his total stood at 34 nocturnal victories plus seven day @-@ time victories . The award was presented at the Führerhauptquartier on 28 and 29 June , his tally standing then at 39 nocturnal and seven day @-@ time victories . Lent also held the distinction of achieving the first Lichtenstein radar @-@ assisted air victory in a Dornier Do 215B @-@ 5 night fighter .
By the end of 1942 , Lent had 56 victories and was the top German night @-@ fighter ace . He was promoted to Major on 1 January 1943 and appointed Geschwaderkommodore of Nachtjagdgeschwader 3 ( NJG 3 ) on 1 August 1943 . After 73 kills , of which 65 were claimed at night , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords on 2 August 1943 and notified by telegram on 4 August . The Swords were presented to him at the Führerhauptquartier at Rastenburg on 10 / 11 August 1943 .
In January 1944 , Lent downed three so @-@ called " heavies " — four @-@ engined strategic bombers — in one night , but his aircraft was damaged by return fire , requiring a forced landing . He used only 22 cannon shells to down two bombers on the night of the 22 – 23 March 1944 , and fired only 57 rounds in seven minutes against three Avro Lancasters on 15 – 16 June . Promoted to Oberstleutnant , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds in recognition of his 110 confirmed air kills , the first of two night @-@ fighter pilots to be awarded the decoration . The second was Heinz @-@ Wolfgang Schnaufer , who , with 121 aerial victories , became aviation history 's leading night @-@ fighter pilot .
= = = Personal life = = =
All German officers were required to obtain official permission to marry ; however , this was usually a bureaucratic formality . When Lent decided to marry Elizabeth Petersen , his admirer from Hamburg whom he had met on a blind date , his case was more complicated . ' Elisabeth Petersen ' was in fact Helene ( Lena ) Senokosnikova , born in Moscow in April 1914 . She had been afraid to reveal her true identity , since Russians were not popular in the Third Reich , but after a thorough investigation into her background and racial ancestry , she received her German citizenship on 15 March 1941 . They were married on 10 September 1941 in Wellingsbüttel , Hamburg . The marriage produced two daughters . Christina was born on 6 June 1942 ; the second , Helma , was born on 6 October 1944 , shortly after her father 's fatal crash .
Both of Helmut 's older brothers , Joachim and Werner , as members of the Confessing Church ( German : Bekennende Kirche ) , encountered trouble with the Nazi party . The Confessing Church , led by Pastor Martin Niemöller , was a schismatic Protestant church which opposed the Reich 's efforts to " Nazify " Germany 's Protestant churches . It stood in outspoken opposition to National Socialist principles , particularly those embodied in the Aryan Paragraph . Through the Barmen Declaration , the church condemned the national German Evangelical Church as heretical . Werner Lent , an adherent to the Confessing church , was arrested for the first time in 1937 after preaching an anti @-@ Nazi sermon . In June 1942 , his brother Joachim was arrested by the Gestapo after reading the so @-@ called Mölders letter from the pulpit . The Mölders letter was a propaganda piece conceived by Sefton Delmer , the chief of the British black propaganda in the Political Warfare Executive ( PWE ) to capitalize on the death of Germany 's fighter ace Werner Mölders ; this letter , ostensibly written by Mölders , attested to the supreme importance of his Catholic faith in his life — by implication , placing faith above his allegiance to the National Socialist Party .
= = = Death = = =
On 5 October 1944 , Lent flew his Junkers Ju @-@ 88 G – 6 , coded D5 + AA , from Stade to Paderborn . His crew included his long @-@ time radio operator Oberfeldwebel Walter Kubisch , the member of a Propagandakompanie ( propaganda company ) Leutnant Werner Kark in the aerial gunner position , and Oberleutnant Hermann Klöss , second radio operator . Lent was on his way to visit the Geschwaderkommodore of the Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 , Oberstleutnant Hans @-@ Joachim Jabs , to discuss operational matters . During the landing approach , the left engine of the plane failed , causing the wing to dip . Lent was unable to keep the plane steady and it struck high @-@ voltage cables and crashed . All four members of the crew sustained serious injuries but were rescued alive . Kubisch and Klöss succumbed to their injuries on the same day , Kark on the next morning and Lent himself died two days later on 7 October 1944 .
Helmut Lent 's state funeral was held in the Reich Chancellery , Berlin , on Wednesday 11 October 1944 . Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring took the salute at Lent 's coffin , which was draped in the national flag of the Third Reich . Ahead of the coffin , carrying Lent 's honours and decorations on a velvet cushion , marched Oberstleutnant Werner Streib , the Inspector of Night Fighters . Six steel @-@ helmeted officers , all recipients of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross , escorted the coffin on its caisson and stood as guard of honour during the ceremony : Oberstleutnant Günther Radusch , Oberstleutnant Hans @-@ Joachim Jabs , Major Rudolf Schoenert , Hauptmann Heinz Strüning , Hauptmann Karl Hadeball and Hauptmann Paul Zorner . On 12 October 1944 Lent and his crew were interred in a single grave in the military cemetery at Stade .
= = Legacy = =
On 18 July 1964 , a German Armed Forces ( Bundeswehr ) Army Aviation Corps ( Heeresflieger ) installation in Rotenburg ( Wümme ) ( Lower Saxony ) was renamed the Lent Barracks , or Lent @-@ Kaserne , in his honour . In 2014 , the German Armed Forces have decided to rename the Lent Barracks . Although Lent was not a war criminal , he was a Nazi and is therefore no longer considered an appropriate namesake within the German Armed Forces . The process , which is expected to finalize in end 2015 , involves 1 @,@ 500 soldiers and 250 civil employees of the site and was initiated by the commander Oberstleutnant Edmund Vogel in early 2015 .
A number of Helmut Lent 's awards were auctioned at Sotheby 's , London , on 18 July 1966 . The items were bought in one lot by an anonymous bidder for the total sum of £ 500 . The purchaser was Adolf Galland , the former General der Jagdflieger , acting on behalf of the Federal German Ministry of Defence . The awards were sold by Helmut Lent 's elder daughter Christina after consultation with her mother , Lena , who was in urgent need for money to pay for an operation . The Federal Ministry of Defence presented the collection to the Museum of Defence History ( Wehrgeschichtliches Museum ) in Rastatt , Germany .
= = Summary of career = =
Helmut Lent is officially credited with 110 victories in 507 flights . The total includes 103 victories at night , during which he destroyed 59 four @-@ engine bombers and one Mosquito , among other types . Lent received a posthumous promotion to Oberst ( Colonel ) .
= = = Awards = = =
Pilot 's Badge ( 15 November 1937 )
Sudetenland Medal
Narvik Shield ( 30 January 1941 )
Wound Badge ( 1939 )
in Black ( 14 July 1941 )
in Silver ( 22 December 1943 )
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd class ( 21 September 1939 )
1st class ( 11 May 1940 )
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ( 26 June 1941 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Destroyer Pilots in Gold
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Nightfighter Pilots in Gold with Pennant " 300 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds
German Cross in Gold on 9 April 1942 as Hauptmann in the II . / NJG 2
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross on 30 August 1941 as Oberleutnant and as Staffelkapitän of the 4 . / NJG 1
98th Oak Leaves on 6 June 1942 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the II . / NJG 2
32nd Swords on 2 August 1943 as Major and Gruppenkommandeur of the IV . / NJG 1
15th Diamonds on 31 July 1944 as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of the NJG 3
Mentioned six times in the Wehrmachtbericht ( see below )
= = = Promotions = = =
= Let Me In ( film ) =
Let Me In is a 2010 American horror romance film written and directed by Matt Reeves and starring Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee , Chloë Grace Moretz , Elias Koteas , and Richard Jenkins . It is a remake of the Swedish film Let the Right One In ( 2008 ) . It tells the story of a bullied 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy who develops a friendship with a female vampire child in Los Alamos , New Mexico in the early 1980s .
Interest in producing an English version of Let the Right One In began in 2007 shortly before it was released to audiences . In 2008 , Hammer Films acquired the rights for the English adaptation and initially offered Tomas Alfredson , the director of the Swedish film , the opportunity to direct , which he declined . Matt Reeves was then signed to direct and write the screenplay . Reeves made several changes for the English version such as altering the setting from Stockholm to New Mexico and renaming the lead characters . The film 's producers stated that their intent was to keep the plot similar to the original , yet make it more accessible to a wider audience . Principal photography began in early November 2009 , and concluded in January 2010 . The film 's budget was estimated to be $ 20 million .
Let Me In premiered at the Toronto Film Festival on September 13 , 2010 , and was released in North America on October 1 , 2010 . The film was placed on several critics ' top @-@ ten list . Many critics noted it as a rare Hollywood remake which stayed true to the original , while others criticized it for being too derivative of the Swedish film . The film earned $ 24 million in box office revenue worldwide , of which $ 12 million was earned in the United States and Canada . Chloë Grace Moretz won several awards for her performance with critics praising the on @-@ screen chemistry with her co @-@ star , Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee . Let Me In was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in North America on February 1 , 2011 , and in the UK on March 14 , 2011 . An official comic book miniseries prequel titled Let Me In : Crossroads was released after the film which establishes the back @-@ story of Abby and ends where the theatrical film begins .
= = Plot = =
In March 1983 , in Los Alamos , New Mexico , a disfigured man is taken to the hospital . An unnamed police detective ( Elias Koteas ) tries to question him about a recent murder . The detective is called to a phone and told that the man 's daughter was just downstairs . While he is on the phone , the man jumps out of the window leaving behind a scrawled note that reads " I 'm sorry Abby . "
Two weeks earlier , Owen ( Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee ) , an unhappy and lonely 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy who is neglected by his divorcing parents , sees a young girl named Abby ( Chloë Grace Moretz ) and an older man , Thomas ( Richard Jenkins ) , moving in next door and notices that she is barefoot despite the snow . Owen meets Abby one night and asks if she is cold upon seeing no footwear on her feet . Abby states that she doesn 't get cold . Owen and Abby become close friends and start communicating by Morse code through the walls of their apartments . At school , a bully named Kenny ( Dylan Minnette ) and two of his friends Donald ( Nicolai Dorian ) and Mark ( Jimmy " Jax " Pinchak ) constantly terrorize Owen , who lies to his mother about it but tells Abby the truth . Abby encourages him to retaliate .
Thomas murders a man and collects the blood , but accidentally spills it . Hungry , Abby attacks a concerned neighbor named Jack ( Chris Browning ) to drink his blood , revealing that she is a vampire . On another night , Thomas hides in the back of a teenager 's car , murders the passenger , and tries to flee , but crashes the car and becomes trapped inside . He pours concentrated sulfuric acid on his face , disfiguring himself to prevent his identification . He is taken to the hospital , bringing the story back to the first scene .
Abby learns what happened and climbs up the hospital building to see Thomas after speaking to the front desk worker who noticed that Abby is barefoot upon departure and couldn 't find her afterwards . She knocks on the window and he points to his throat , unable to speak , and leans out of the window ; Abby drinks his blood . Thomas passes out and falls to his death . That night , Owen is awakened by Abby who insists he verbally invite her in . She spends the night in his bed upon discarding her clothes and agrees to be his girlfriend . The next day , Owen 's class goes ice @-@ skating on the river . Kenny and his friends threaten to throw Owen into a hole in the ice . Emboldened by his relationship with Abby , Owen hits Kenny with a metal pole , splitting his left ear and causing him to scream in pain . At the same moment , several kids spot a body encased in the ice and begin screaming . It is the body of Jack who Thomas threw into the ( then unfrozen ) river . Along with the body is Thomas 's bag .
Later , Owen sees Abby and hoping to make a blood pact with her , cuts his finger . Unable to control herself , Abby laps up a drop of Owen 's blood revealing her vampire form . Not wanting to hurt Owen , the barefoot vampire flees and instead attacks a woman named Virginia ( Sasha Barrese ) upon jumping out of a tree . Virginia 's boyfriend Larry ( Dylan Kenin ) witnesses the attack and calls an ambulance upon chasing her off . The next night , Abby admits to Owen that she is a vampire and that Thomas was not her father . Owen discovers an aged photo of her with Thomas as a young boy . As Thomas continued to age , he posed as Abby 's father while she did not physically age past twelve .
In the hospital the next morning , a nurse goes into Virginia 's unit to open the curtains and finds Virginia feasting on her own bloody wrists . She has been turned into a vampire by Abby . As sunlight enters the room , Virginia bursts into flames that quickly spread throughout the unit , killing them both and setting the entire floor on fire .
Owen sneaks out to spend the night at Abby 's . The next morning , the detective forces his way into Abby 's apartment and finds her asleep . He begins to uncover a window but is distracted by Owen . Abby wakes and attacks the detective to feed on his blood . The dying detective appeals to Owen for help , but Owen does not intervene . Abby tells Owen she will have to leave town . They share a kiss and he watches tearfully as she enters a taxi and leaves .
During Owen 's swim class , Kenny , his sadistic older brother Jimmy ( Brett DelBuono ) , and their friends , are seeking revenge for the injury Owen had inflicted to Kenny 's ear . They ambush Owen and throw him into the pool . Jimmy says that if Owen can hold his breath underwater for three minutes , he will only be cut on the cheek , otherwise Jimmy will poke out one of Owen 's eyes . Owen is forced underwater by Jimmy . After one minute , Kenny and his friends realize this is excessive and try telling Jimmy to stop , but he angrily refuses . But then an unseen assailant breaks through the skylight , attacking the bullies , and Owen sees torn @-@ off limbs sinking into the pool all around him . Owen emerges from pool to catch his breath and then sees a pair of familiar bare feet come near him . He then looks up , faintly smiling to see an off @-@ screen Abby .
Owen leaves town in broad daylight on a train , traveling with a large trunk . From inside , a message in Morse code is tapped out . Owen taps out a response and then looks out the window , quietly singing to himself " Eat some now , save some for later , " the jingle of Now and Later candy , which Abby and Owen had shared in an earlier scene .
= = Cast = =
Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee as Owen , a 12 @-@ year @-@ old bullied schoolboy , later Abbey 's boyfriend .
Chloë Grace Moretz as Abby , a vampire who poses as Thomas 's daughter , later Owen 's girlfriend .
Richard Jenkins as Thomas , a man who is Abby 's adult companion .
Cara Buono as Owen 's mother , the unnamed mother of Owen .
Elias Koteas as Policeman
Elias Koteas also provides the voice of Owen 's father .
Sasha Barrese as Virginia , a woman who is one of Abby 's victims .
Dylan Minnette as Kenny , the bully who torments Owen .
Ritchie Coster as Mr. Zorić
Jimmy Pinchak as Mark , one of Kenny 's friends .
Nicolai Dorian as Donald , one of Kenny 's friends .
Colin Moretz as Cashier
Dylan Kenin as Larry , Virginia 's boyfriend .
Brett DelBuono as Jimmy , the older brother of Kenny .
Chris Browning as Jack , a man who is one of Abby 's victims .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
According to Hammer Films executive producer Nigel Sinclair , interest in the project initially began in the middle of 2007 , before the original Let the Right One In had screened for audiences . The rights for the English @-@ language film were later acquired by Hammer Films at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival , where Let the Right One In won the " Founders Award for Best Narrative Feature , " and Matt Reeves was quickly introduced as the director . John Nordling and Carl Molinder , the Swedish producers of the original film , were both involved as producers for the adaptation . Tomas Alfredson , the director of the Swedish film , was initially asked to direct the remake , but he turned it down stating that " I am too old to make the same film twice and I have other stories that I want to tell . " Hammer Films producer Simon Oakes initially referred to the film with " If you call it a faithful remake , I think that 's true to say that 's what it is . It 's not a reimagining ; the same beats [ are there ] , maybe the scares are a little bit more scary . " He later said , " I call it his [ Reeves ' ] version . I don 't call it his remake or his re @-@ imagining of it . " The decision to make a new film adaptation has been criticized by Tomas Alfredson . He has stated on numerous occasions that he is not in favor of remaking his film . " If one should remake a film , it 's because the original is bad . And I don 't think mine is , " he said . Producer Donna Gigliotti said , " We 're incredibly admiring of the original , but to be honest with you , that picture grossed $ 2 million . It 's not like we 're remaking Lawrence of Arabia . " Producer Simon Oakes made it clear that the plot of Let Me In would closely resemble that of the original film , except that it will be made " very accessible to a wider audience . "
Writer John Ajvide Lindqvist , on the other hand , says that Reeves told him that he " will make a new film based on the book , and not remake the Swedish film " and so " it 'll be something completely different , but it 's going to be really interesting to see . " Reeves expressed his intent to retain the book 's early 1980s setting and his admiration for the book and Alfredson 's adaptation . " It 's a terrific movie and a fantastic book . I think it could be a really touching , haunting and terrifying film . I 'm really excited about what it could be " , he said . In response to the criticism he said , " I can understand because of people 's love of the [ original ] film that there 's this cynicism that I 'll come in and trash it , when in fact I have nothing but respect for the film . I 'm so drawn to it for personal and not mercenary reasons ... I hope people give us a chance . " When Reeves was initially approached , he at first was against the idea but after reading the novel gained a better appreciation for the story ,
I said ... that we shouldn 't remake it . I read the book too and was completely taken with it and I was really intrigued how personal the story felt . I thought John Lindqvist had written this terrific story , and he also adapted it for the film ... I wrote Lindqvist and told him that it wasn 't just that I was drawn to the story because it was a brilliant genre story — which it is — but also because of the personal aspect of it . It really reminds me of my childhood .
= = = Adapting and writing = = =
In adapting the film , a few adjustments were made , such as changing the names of the protagonists to Owen and Abby , and moving the setting from the Stockholm suburb of Blackeberg to " a small New Mexico town . " Reeves was also asked to change the ages of the main characters , but he refused , saying that " would ruin the essence of the story and change everything completely ... we need that childlike innocence . " He also told his actors to not watch the original film beforehand so " we could make our own version but stay very true to the essence of the story . " The filmmakers have noted that " they intend to forge a unique identity for Let Me In , placing it firmly in an American context " , while at the same time paying respect to the original . In comparing his adaptation to the Swedish one , Reeves admitted to not adding many different details from the book that weren 't in the original film , stating that " the story was so big that you couldn 't really add a lot of stuff in without taking away the focus of the coming of age story so I tried to have allusions and references to stuff in the book . " Reeves also admitted to borrowing elements from the Swedish film , stating " There are things that [ Lindqvist ] adapted brilliantly in the movie and I borrowed from that because I thought he did a great adaptation . But there are some things that hopefully don 't detract and fit into the context of the story . It 's a mixture of details from the book , the original film and things that grew out of adapting it . " In adapting the story for American audiences , Reeves stated that keeping the 1980s time period within the film was critical in exploring the theme of good and evil . He used Ronald Reagan 's " evil empire speech " as an example of American thought during that period . Reeves stated , " The idea of Reagan 's ' evil empire ' speech and that whole sort of school of thought was that evil was something that was outside of us . Evil was ' Other , ' it was over there , it was the Soviets " . Reeves felt that this idea was central to the main character Owen , as he " would be grappling with these very , very dark feelings but being in a kind of American town where there was that sort of [ Reagan era ] mindset and religiousness . How would you fit in ? How would you feel about yourself being confused and being 12 or 13 years old and not knowing what it means that you wish you could kill those kids who were terrorizing you every day ? The humanity of that . "
= = = Casting = = =
In July 2009 , audition tapes were leaked to the Internet , showing Chloë Grace Moretz , Mary Mouser , and Ariel Winter auditioning for the role of the vampire , Abby . Smit @-@ McPhee , in an interview with The Herald Sun , hinted that he may have landed the role as Owen . The casting of Moretz and Smit @-@ McPhee in the leading roles was confirmed on October 1 , 2009 , along with the addition of Richard Jenkins as Abby 's adult companion . In a press release , director Matt Reeves described Smit @-@ McPhee , Moretz and Jenkins as his " absolute dream cast " , and added that he " couldn 't be more excited to be working with them . " Both Smit @-@ McPhee and Moretz were cast before the release of The Road or Kick @-@ Ass , and the films ' directors John Hillcoat and Matthew Vaughn respectively each praised the young actors and recommended them to Reeves .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in Albuquerque , New Mexico on November 2 , 2009 . Filming took place in several different New Mexico locations , before concluding in Albuquerque in January 2010 . A large section of the film was filmed at Los Alamos High School in Los Alamos , New Mexico . Los Alamos County granted a special request from the film 's director and producer to name the town in the movie " Los Alamos , New Mexico . " The local police department loaned the film crew 1980s style uniforms and patrol cars to use for the film and over 100 local teenagers were cast as extras . Reeves felt that Lindqvist 's story was very naturalistic and wanted the film to be shot the same way . After viewing Bright Star , he hired Greig Fraser as his cinematographer because he admired Fraser 's work with natural light on the film . Shortly before filming , Reeves sought advice from Steven Spielberg for directing child actors . Spielberg instructed Reeves to have the two leads each keep a diary in character with the intention of sharing with Reeves what they wrote in it . Reeves stated , " It was all a process of trying to , not only guide them , but in places , trying to let them guide me toward their perspective . That was important . "
= = = Visual effects = = =
Method Studios was contracted to handle the film 's visual effects work . The studio 's supervisor Sean Faden , worked alongside the film 's visual effects supervisor , Brad Parker throughout the production . Several of the film 's scenes proved to be a challenge for the team . Director Reeves wanted the " car @-@ crash " sequence to appear as if it were filmed uncut in first @-@ person . Several plates were shot with the first involving actor Jenkins backing the car out of the gas station and swerving , the second plate shot had a model of the car capable of being spun mechanically on a " rotisserie " in front of a blue screen which could simulate the car 's roll down the hill . Jenkin 's stunt double and a dummy were placed in the car as the rotisserie spun with additional effects work used to animate the dummy as the car rolled . The two shots were then combined to deceive the viewer into believing that it was one complete shot . Houdini software was used for much of the film 's shots which involved Abby in her vampiric form . Faden noted the techniques used in another challenging shot important to Abby 's character in which she begins bleeding when she enters Owen 's apartment without invitation . Faden stated , " Normally in such a scene , the character would be shot on set , dressed in blood . But in this case , the timing of the bleeding was so dependent on the emotional beats of the scene that this technique wouldn ’ t have allowed us enough control . " Actress Chloë Grace Moretz was first shot with minimal prosthetic blood applied to her face for reference . Then using techniques utilized in a prior Method Studios film , A Nightmare on Elm Street , Faden had the Houdini software track Moretz 's shaking movements and render the gradual release of blood from her face .
= = = Music and soundtrack = = =
Let Me In : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the film 's soundtrack album . It was released by Varèse Sarabande on October 12 , 2010 . The music was composed by Michael Giacchino . Giacchino stated that scoring the film was a difficult " balancing act " for some scenes . He mentioned , " I was always trying to say , ' let 's take music out ! ' and Matt [ Reeves ] was like , ' no , put it in ! ' " In composing the score , he stated that he also applied certain musical themes to each character for which the audience could respond to as the story progressed . Composing the score to convey the correct emotion was also a challenge for Giacchino who said , " ... it was tricky finding the right balance of , well , should this be scary ? Or should this be sentimental ? Or should it be emotional ? Or should it be this ? It was a weird balance because you 're dealing with a dynamic that is quite questionable as far as what everyone 's intentions are in the film .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
It was announced on August 17 , 2010 , that Let Me In would have its world premiere at Toronto International Film Festival on September 13 , 2010 , and its U.S. premiere on the opening night of Fantastic Fest on September 23 , 2010 . Overture Films released promotional items placed in small plastic evidence bags . With a budget estimated to be $ 20 million , the film was released on October 1 , 2010 , in North America opening at # 8 on its debut weekend with an estimated $ 5 @.@ 1 million in 2 @,@ 020 theaters . The film 's international release began on October 6 in European markets with other markets following thereafter . During the film 's 10 @-@ week theatrical run , Let Me In grossed over $ 24 million worldwide , $ 12 @.@ 1 million of which was from the United States and Canada . The film was # 5 among the ten lowest @-@ grossing releases of 2010 from major studios ( movies released in over 1500 theaters ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
Let Me In received critical acclaim upon release . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 88 % based on reviews from 220 critics , with an average score of 7 @.@ 6 / 10 . The consensus is that " similar to the original in all the right ways — but with enough changes to stand on its own — Let Me In is the rare Hollywood remake that doesn 't add insult to inspiration . " Let Me In was included on Rotten Tomatoes list of the ten best reviewed wide release films of 2010 in addition to being the best reviewed horror film of 2010 . Metacritic gave the film an average score of 79 % based on 35 reviews , judged to be " generally favorable reviews " . According to Metacritic , Let Me In was one of the ten best @-@ reviewed wide release films of 2010 and the best reviewed film of the year in the horror category . Particular praise was given to the film 's two leads , Kodi Smit @-@ McPhee and Chloë Grace Moretz , for their chemistry and maturity on @-@ screen .
Acclaimed horror author Stephen King wrote " Let Me In is a genre @-@ busting triumph . Not just a horror film , but the best American horror film in the last 20 years . " Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal wrote that the film " is more than a respectful remake ; ' Let Me In ' is quietly stylish and thoroughly chilling in its own right . "
Lou Lumenick of The New York Post called Let Me In " the scariest , creepiest and most elegantly filmed horror movie I ’ ve seen in years — it positively drives a stake through the competition . " A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote " what makes ' Let Me In ' so eerily fascinating is the mood it creates . It is at once artful and unpretentious , more interested in intimacy and implication than in easy scares or slick effects . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times praised the film while comparing it to the original . He stated , " Reeves understands what made the first film so eerie and effective , and here the same things work again . " Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers , who was initially skeptical , gave the film a positive review while writing , " I thought for sure that any Hollywood remake of Tomas Alfredson 's artful Swedish vampire film , Let the Right One In , would be a crass desecration . Well , color me blushing " and " Prepare to be wowed . It 's a spellbinder . " Roger Moore of Orlando Sentinel gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , stating , " Reeves has Americanized a very good foreign film without defanging it . "
Let Me In was not well received by all critics . Some disputed Reeves ' claims that he was not remaking the film but re @-@ adapting the book , criticizing it for being too similar to the Swedish film . Josh Tyler wrote " The movie he ’ s made is absolutely a direct remake of the 2008 film , the two are so similar that it ’ s almost impossible to differentiate between them . " In a similar vein , Jamie S. Rich noted that while there was plenty of content in the original novel that the Swedish film omitted , " Reeves hasn 't really ferreted out anything new ; on the contrary , there is actually less plot in Let Me In than in the Alfredson version . " Beth Accomando wrote , " How Reeves can take the credit ' written and directed by Matt Reeves ' seems almost laughable when you note how similar the script and the direction are to the original . " In comparing the two films , she opined that the remake " makes obvious all that the original film made subtle and does so with less complexity . " Mark Kermode called it " the most utterly redundant remake of the year " .
According to Sukhdev Sandhu of The Telegraph , " Let Me In doesn 't need to exist unless , that is , the very notion of Swedish cinema is strange and unpalatable to you .... What ’ s missing is the alluring otherness of Let the Right One In . That film 's brittle textures and haunted ambiance seemed in some strange way to have sprung organically from the nation in which it was set . This remake , by contrast , smells of boardrooms and calculating machines . "
Let Me In was a critics ' pick as one of the Top 10 Best Films of 2010 at CNN and at MSN Entertainment for the 2010 Year in Review Special Features .
= = = Comic book prequel = = =
In April 2010 , it was announced that Hammer Film Productions and Dark Horse Comics were producing a four @-@ issue comic book limited series based on the film . Marc Andreyko wrote the comic . The series , titled Let Me In : Crossroads , is a prequel to the film . The first issue has Abby and her " guardian " facing a ruthless real @-@ estate tycoon who wants to steal their home and was released in December 2010 . Original author John Ajvide Lindqvist said " Nobody has asked me about [ doing a comic ] and I think that the project stinks . I am looking into this matter and hope that they have no right to do this . " Later , he informed fans that he had in fact unwittingly sold the rights for the comic to be made , stating that the producers had misinformed him as to the nature of the contract he had signed .
= = = Author 's response = = =
John Ajvide Lindqvist , author of Let the Right One In , who also wrote the screenplay for the original Swedish film , was pleased with Let Me In . He said :
I might just be the luckiest writer alive . To have not only one , but two excellent versions of my debut novel done for the screen feels unreal . Let the Right One In is a great Swedish movie . Let Me In is a great American movie . There are notable similarities and the spirit of Tomas Alfredson is present . But Let Me In puts the emotional pressure in different places and stands firmly on its own legs . Like the Swedish movie it made me cry , but not at the same points . Let Me In is a dark and violent love story , a beautiful piece of cinema and a respectful rendering of my novel for which I am grateful . Again .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
Let Me In was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in North America on February 1 , 2011 , and in the UK on March 14 , 2011 . The disc includes an audio commentary with director Matt Reeves , a 17 @-@ minute featurette on the making of the film , a short that focuses on the art of the special effects , an in @-@ depth video about the process of making the film 's unique car crash scene , three deleted scenes , trailer and poster galleries and a digital copy of the film . The Blu @-@ ray disc contains an exclusive featurette titled " Dissecting Let Me In " . Both DVD and Blu @-@ ray come with a copy of the Limited Edition " Let Me In : Crossroads " comic book . As of April 2011 , DVD sales ( not including Blu @-@ ray ) totaled over 457 @,@ 000 units sold with over $ 6 @.@ 2 million in revenue .
= When Flanders Failed =
" When Flanders Failed " is the third episode of the The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 3 , 1991 . In the episode , Homer makes a wish for Ned Flanders 's new left @-@ handed store to go out of business . The wish comes true and gets the Flanders family into financial troubles . Ned is forced to sell his possessions , and Homer gleefully buys many of his things . When finding out that Ned 's house is to be repossessed , Homer feels guilty and decides to get the store back in business by telling all the left @-@ handed citizens about it . Meanwhile , Bart takes karate lessons but quits after discovering that it is not as interesting as he had expected it to be .
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Jim Reardon . It had an unusual amount of animation glitches because the animation studio was training a new group of animators . The episode features cultural references to playwright William Shakespeare and the film It 's a Wonderful Life . The title of the episode is a reference to the title of the poem " In Flanders Fields " . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 9 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Ned Flanders invites the Simpson family to a barbecue party and announces his plans to open a store for left @-@ handed people ; The Leftorium . During the pulling of a wishbone , Homer , who has been constantly jealous of the material success of Ned and his family , wishes for The Leftorium to be a failure and go out of business . Homer frequently checks in on Ned to ensure that business is going poorly and is happy to see precisely that happening . When Homer sees left @-@ handed citizens struggling with items made for right @-@ handed people , he thinks about informing them about The Leftorium , but decides not to . Eventually the store does indeed close due to lack of business , plunging the Flanders ' into debt and misery . Ned is forced to sell his possessions , and Homer gleefully buys many of Ned 's things . Homer starts to regret what he did , but when he goes to return Ned 's possessions , he finds Ned 's house repossessed and the family living in their car . Homer wrestles with the guilt his wish has brought , and tells Ned to open the store for one final day . He then tells all the left @-@ handed residents of Springfield about The Leftorium , and they all travel to the store and buy things . The increase in customers helps Ned keep the store open and get his house back .
In a subplot , Bart begins taking karate lessons at Akira 's karate school . On his first lesson , he finds that karate is quite boring , so he decides to skip each lesson in order to play video games at the mall arcade . Whenever he is questioned by his family and friends about the techniques he has learned , he refers to the " Touch of Death " , an ability he saw in one of the arcade games he played . He proceeds to terrorize his sister Lisa into doing his will by threatening her with the technique . His actions catch up to him when Lisa prods him to defend her from the school bullies and reclaim her saxophone . He ends up being pantsed and hung by his underwear from the basketball hoop rim by the bullies , as Lisa ( having reclaimed her saxophone ) wistfully notes that sometimes two wrongs do make a right .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Jim Reardon . It featured an unusual amount of animation glitches because the animation studio in Korea was training a new group of animators , and this episode was one of their first efforts . Show runner Mike Reiss said he will always remember it as the episode " that came back animated with a thousand mistakes in it and was just a complete and utter mess . " Reardon said there was " literally a mistake in every other scene " when the episode came back from Korea . Several scenes had to be re @-@ animated in the United States because of these glitches , but according to Reardon , " you can still see the lesser ones that got through , such as line quality problems particularly in the first act . " | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
area . Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos acceded to this in hopes of a favorable solution to Greece 's other outstanding problem : the recognition of Greek sovereignty over the islands of the North Eastern Aegean .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Declaration of Independence = = =
This turn of events was highly unpopular among the pro @-@ Greek party in the area . The pro @-@ Greek Epirotes felt betrayed by the Greek government , which had done nothing to support them with firearms . Additionally , the gradual withdrawal of the Greek army would enable Albanian forces to take control of the region . To avert this possibility , the Epirotes decided to declare their own separate political identity and self @-@ governance . Georgios Christakis @-@ Zografos , a distinguished Epirote statesman from Lunxhëri ( gr . Lioúntzi ) and former Greek foreign minister , took the initiative and discussed the situation with local representatives in a " Panepirotic Council " . Consequently , on 28 February 1914 , the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was declared in Gjirokastër ( gr . Argyrókastron ) and a provisional government , with Christakis @-@ Zografos as president , formed to support the state 's objectives . In his speech on 2 March , Christakis @-@ Zografos stated that the aspirations of the Northern Epirotes had been totally ignored , and that the Great Powers had not only rejected their becoming autonomous within the Albanian state but also refused to give guarantees regarding their fundamental human rights . Zografos concluded his speech by stating that the Northern Epirotes would not accept the destiny the Powers had imposed upon them :
The flag of the new state was a variant of the Greek national flag , consisting of a white cross centered upon the blue background surmounted by the imperial Byzantine eagle in black .
In the following days , Alexandros Karapanos , Zografos ' nephew and a MP for Arta , was installed as foreign minister . Colonel Dimitrios Doulis , a local from Nivice , resigned from his post in the Greek army and joined the provisional government as minister of military affairs . Within a few days , he managed to mobilize an army consisting of more than 5 @,@ 000 volunteer troops . The local bishop , Vasileios of Dryinoupolis , took office as minister of Religion and Justice . A number of officers of Epirote origin ( not exceeding 30 ) , as well as ordinary soldiers , deserted their positions in the Greek Army and joined the revolutionaries . Soon , armed groups , such as the " Sacred Band " or Spyromilios ' men around Himarë ( gr . Himárra ) , were formed in order to repel any incursion into the territory claimed by the autonomous government . The first districts to join the autonomist movement outside of Gjirokastër were Himarë , Sarandë and Përmet .
= = = Greece ’ s reaction and evacuation = = =
The Greek government was reluctant to overtly support the uprising . Military and political officials continued to carry out a slow evacuation process , which had begun in March and ended on 28 April . Resistance was officially discouraged , and assurances were given that the Great Powers and the International Control Commission ( an organization founded by the Great Powers in order to secure peace and stability in the area ) would guarantee their rights . Following the declaration in Gjirokastër , Zografos sent messages to local representatives in Korçë ( gr . Korytsá ) asking them to join the movement ; however , the Greek military commander of the city , Colonel Alexandros Kontoulis , followed his official orders strictly and declared martial law , threatening to shoot any citizen raising the Northern Epirote flag . When the local bishop of Kolonjë ( gr . Kolónia ) , Spyridon , proclaimed the Autonomy , Kontoulis had him immediately arrested and expelled .
On March 1 , Kontoulis ceded the region to the newly formed Albanian gendarmerie , consisting mainly of former deserters of the Ottoman army and under the command of Dutch and Austrian officers . On March 9 , the Greek navy blockaded the port of Sarandë ( gr . Ágioi Saránda , known also as Santi Quaranta ) , one of the first cities that had joined the autonomist movement . There were also sporadic conflicts between Greek army and Epirote units , with a few casualties on both sides .
= = = Negotiations and armed conflicts = = =
As the Greek army withdrew , armed conflicts broke out between Albanian and Northern Epirote forces . In the regions of Himarë , Sarandë , Gjirokastër and Delvinë ( gr . Delvínion ) , the revolt had been in full force since the first days of the declaration , and the autonomist forces were able to successfully engage the Albanian gendarmerie , as well as Albanian irregular units . However , Zografos , seeing that the Great Powers would not approve the annexation of Northern Epirus to Greece , suggested three possible diplomatic solutions :
full autonomy under the nominal sovereignty of the Albanian prince ;
an administrative and cantonal system autonomy ; and
direct control and administration by the European Powers .
On March 7 , Prince William of Wied arrived in Albania , and intense fighting occurred north of Gjirokastër , in the region of Cepo , in an attempt to take control over Northern Epirus ; Albanian gendarmerie units tried unsuccessfully to infiltrate southwardly , facing resistance from the Epirotes . On March 11 , a provisional settlement was brokered in Corfu by Dutch Colonel Thomson . Albania was prepared to accept a limited Northern Epirote government , but Karapanos insisted on complete autonomy , a condition rejected by the Albanian delegates , and negotiations reached a deadlock . Meanwhile , Epirote bands entered Erseka and continued on to Frashër and Korçë .
At this point , the entire region that had been claimed by the provisional government , with the exception of Korçë , was under its control . On March 22 , a Sacred Band unit from Bilisht reached the outskirts of Korçë and joined the local guerillas , and fierce street fighting took place . For several days , Northern Epirote units controlled the city , but on March 27 this control was lost to the Albanian gendarmerie upon the arrival of Albanian reinforcements .
The International Control Commission , in order to avoid a major escalation of the armed conflicts with disastrous results , decided to intervene . On May 6 , Zografos received a communication to initiate negotiations on a new basis . Zografos accepted the proposal and an armistice was ordered the next day . By the time the cease @-@ fire order was received , the Epirote forces had secured the Morava heights near Korçë , making the city 's Albanian garrison 's surrender imminent .
= = Recognition of autonomy and outbreak of World War I = =
= = = Protocol of Corfu = = =
Negotiations were carried out on the island of Corfu , where on 17 May 1914 Albanian and Epirote representatives signed an agreement known as the Protocol of Corfu . According to its terms , the two provinces of Korçë and Gjirokastër that constituted Northern Epirus would acquire complete autonomous existence ( as a corpus separatum ) under the nominal Albanian sovereignty of Prince Wied . The Albanian government had the right to appoint and dismiss governors and upper @-@ rank officials , taking into account as much as possible the opinion of the local population . Other terms included the proportional recruitment of natives into the local gendarmerie and the prohibition of military levies from people not indigenous to the region . In Orthodox schools , the Greek language would be the sole medium of instruction , with the exception of the first three classes . The use of the Greek language was made equal to Albanian in all public affairs . The Ottoman @-@ era privileges of Himarë were renewed , and a foreigner was to be appointed as its " captain " for 10 years .
The execution of and adherence to the Protocol was entrusted to the International Control Commission , as was the organization of public administration and the departments of justice and finance in the region . The creation and training of the local gendarmerie was to be conducted by Dutch officers .
Territory : All the provisions in question shall apply to the populations of the territories previously occupied by Greece and annexed to Albania.Armed Forces : Except in case of war or revolution , non @-@ native military units shall not be transferred to or employed in these provinces.Occupation : The International Control Commission ( I.C.C. ) will take possession in the territory in question , in the name of the Albanian Government , by proceeding to the place . The officers of the Dutch mission will at once begin the organization of the local gendarmerie ... Before the arrival of the Dutch officers , the necessary steps will be taken by the Provisional Government of Argyrokastro for the removal of the country of all armed foreign elements . These provisions will not only be applied in that part of the provinces of Korytsa now occupied militarily by Albania , but in any other southern regions.Liberty of language : The permission to use both Albanian and Greek shall be assured , before all authorities , including the Courts , as well as the elective councils.Guarantee : The Powers who , by the Conference of London , have guaranteed the institution of Albania and established the I.C.C. guarantee the execution and maintenance of the foregoing provisions .
The agreement of the Protocol was ratified by the representatives of the Great Powers at Athens on 18 June and by the Albanian government on 23 June . The Epirote representatives , in an assembly in Delvinë , gave the final approval to the terms of the Protocol , although the delegates from Himara protested , claiming that union with Greece was the only viable solution . On July 8 , control of the cities of Tepelenë and Korçë passed to the provisional government of Northern Epirus .
= = = Instability and disestablishment = = =
After the outbreak of World War I , the situation in Albania became unstable , and political chaos emerged as the country was split into a number of regional governments . As a consequence of the anarchy in central and northern Albania , sporadic armed conflicts continued to occur in spite of the Protocol of Corfu 's ratification , and on September 3 Prince Wilhelm departed the country . In the following days , an Epirote unit launched an attack on the Albanian garrison in Berat without approval from the provisional government , managing to capture its citadel for several days , while Albanian troops loyal to Essad Pasha initiated small @-@ scale armed operations .
These events worried Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos , as well as the possibility that the unstable situation could spill over outside Albania , triggering a wider conflict . On 27 October , after receiving the approval of the Great Powers , the Greek Army 's V Army Corps entered the area for a second time . The provisional government formally ceased to exist , declaring that it had accomplished its objectives .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Greek administration ( October 1914 – September 1916 ) = = =
During the Greek administration at the time of the First World War , it had been agreed to by Greece , Italy and the Great Powers that the final settlement of the Northern Epirote issue would be left for the post @-@ war future . In August 1915 , Eleftherios Venizelos stated in the Greek parliament that " only colossal faults " could separate the region from Greece . Upon Venizelos ' resignation in December , however , the succeeding royalist governments were determined to exploit the situation and predetermine the region 's future by formally incorporating it into the Greek state . In the first months of 1916 , Northern Epirus participated in the Greek elections and elected 16 representatives to the Greek Parliament . In March , the region 's union with Greece was officially declared , and the area was divided into the prefectures of Argyrokastro and Korytsa .
= = = Italian – French occupation and Interwar period = = =
The politically unstable situation that followed in Greece during the next months , with the National Schism between royalists and Venizelos ’ supporters , divided Greece into two states . This situation , according also to the development of the Balkan Front , led Italian forces in Gjirokastër to enter the area in September 1916 , after gaining the approval of the Triple Entente , and to take over most of Northern Epirus . An exception was Korçë which was retaken by French forces from Bulgarian occupation , and turned into the Autonomous Albanian Republic of Korçë under the military protection of the French army . After the war 's end in 1918 , the tendency to reestablish the autonomy of the region continued .
Under the terms of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 ( the Venizelos @-@ Tittoni agreement ) , Northern Epirus was to be awarded to Greece , but political developments such as the Greek defeat in the Greco @-@ Turkish War ( 1919 – 1922 ) and strong Italian opposition in favor of Albania caused the area to be finally ceded to Albania in 1921 .
In February 1922 , the Albanian Parliament approved the Declaration of Minority Rights . However , the Declaration , contrary to the Protocol of Corfu , recognized minority rights only in a limited area ( parts of Gjirokastër , Sarandë district and 3 villages in Himarë ) , without implementing any form of local autonomy . All Greek schools in the excluded area were forced to close until 1935 , in violation of obligations accepted by the Albanian government at the League of Nations . In 1925 , Albania 's present borders were set , leading Greece to abandon its claims to Northern Epirus .
= = The Northern Epirote issue and the autonomy question = =
From the Albanian perspective , adopted also by Italian and Austrian sources of that time , the Northern Epirote movement was directly supported by the Greek state , with the help of a minority of inhabitants in the region , resulting in chaos and political instability in all of Albania . In Albanian historiography , the Protocol of Corfu is either scarcely mentioned or seen as an attempt to divide the Albanian state and proof of the Great Powers ' disregard for Albania 's national integrity .
With the ratification of the Protocol of Corfu , the term " Northern Epirus " , the state ’ s common name — and consequently that of its citizens , " Northern Epirotes " — acquired official status . However , after the region 's cession to Albania , these terms were considered associated with Greek irredentist action and not granted legal status by the Albanian authorities ; anyone making use of them was persecuted as an enemy of the state .
The autonomy question remains on the diplomatic agenda in Albanian @-@ Greek relations as part of the Northern Epirote issue . In 1925 , Albania 's borders were fixed by the Protocol of Florence , and the Kingdom of Greece abandoned all claims to Northern Epirus . In the 1960s , Soviet General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev asked his Albanian counterpart about giving autonomy to the Greek minority , with no results . In 1991 , after the collapse of the communist regime in Albania , the chairman of Greek minority organization Omonoia called for autonomy for Northern Epirus , on the basis that the rights provided for under the Albanian constitution were highly precarious . This proposal was rejected , spurring the minority 's radical wing to call for a union with Greece . Two years later , Omonoia ’ s chairman was arrested by the Albanian police after publicly stating that the Greek minority goal was the creation of an autonomous region inside the Albanian borders , based on the provisions of the Protocol of Corfu . In 1997 , Albanian analysts stated that the possibility of a Greek minority @-@ inspired breakaway Republic still exists .
= = Official documents = =
Documents Officiel concernant l 'Epire du Nord , 1912 @-@ 1935 . Digital library of the Parliament of Greece . ( French )
= Halifax Explosion =
The Halifax Explosion was a maritime disaster in Halifax , Nova Scotia , Canada , on the morning of 6 December 1917 . SS Mont @-@ Blanc , a French cargo ship laden with high explosives , collided with the Norwegian vessel SS Imo in the Narrows , a strait connecting the upper Halifax Harbour to Bedford Basin . A fire on board the French ship ignited her cargo , causing a large explosion that devastated the Richmond district of Halifax . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 people were killed by blast , debris , fires and collapsed buildings , and an estimated 9 @,@ 000 others were injured .
Mont @-@ Blanc was under orders from the French government to carry her cargo of high explosives from New York via Halifax to Bordeaux , France . At roughly 8 : 45 am , she collided at low speed – approximately one knot ( 1 to 1 @.@ 5 miles per hour or 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 kilometres per hour ) – with the unladen Imo , chartered by the Commission for Relief in Belgium to pick up a cargo of relief supplies in New York . The resulting fire aboard the French ship quickly grew out of control . Approximately 20 minutes later at 9 : 04 : 35 am , Mont @-@ Blanc exploded . The blast was the largest man @-@ made explosion prior to the development of nuclear weapons , releasing the equivalent energy of roughly 2 @.@ 9 kilotons of TNT .
Nearly all structures within an 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) radius , including the entire community of Richmond , were obliterated . A pressure wave snapped trees , bent iron rails , demolished buildings , grounded vessels , and scattered fragments of the Mont @-@ Blanc for kilometres . Hardly a window in the city proper survived the blast . Across the harbour , in Dartmouth , there was also widespread damage . A tsunami created by the blast wiped out the community of Mi 'kmaq First Nations people who had lived in the Tuft 's Cove area for generations .
Relief efforts began almost immediately , and hospitals quickly became full . Rescue trains began arriving from across eastern Canada and the north @-@ eastern United States , but were impeded by a blizzard . Construction of temporary shelters to house the many people left homeless began soon after the disaster . The initial judicial inquiry found the Mont @-@ Blanc to have been responsible for the disaster , but a later appeal determined that both vessels were to blame . There are several memorials to the victims of the explosion in North End .
= = Background = =
The community of Dartmouth lies on the east shore of Halifax Harbour , while Halifax is on the west shore . Halifax and Dartmouth had thrived during times of war ; the harbour was one of the British Royal Navy 's most important bases in North America , a centre for wartime trade , and a home to privateers who harried the British Empire 's enemies during the American Revolution , the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812 . The completion of the Intercolonial Railway and its Deep Water Terminal in 1880 allowed for increased steamship trade and led to accelerated development of the port area , but Halifax faced an economic downturn after the British garrison left the city in late 1905 and early 1906 .
After 1906 , the Canadian Government took over the Halifax Dockyard ( now CFB Halifax ) from the Royal Navy . This dockyard later became the command centre of the Royal Canadian Navy upon its founding in 1910 . Just before the First World War , the Canadian government began to make a determined , costly effort to develop the harbour and waterfront facilities . The outbreak of the war brought Halifax back to prominence . As the Royal Canadian Navy had virtually no seaworthy ships of its own , the Royal Navy assumed responsibility for maintaining Atlantic trade routes by re @-@ adopting Halifax as its North American base of operations . In 1915 , management of the harbour fell under the control of the Royal Canadian Navy under the supervision of Captain Superintendent Edward Harrington Martin ; by 1917 there was a growing naval fleet in Halifax , including patrol ships , tugboats , and minesweepers .
The population of Halifax / Dartmouth had increased to between 60 @,@ 000 and 65 @,@ 000 people by 1917 . Convoys carried soldiers , men , animals and supplies to the European theatre of war . The two main points of departure were in Nova Scotia at Sydney in Cape Breton and Halifax . Hospital ships brought the wounded to the city , and a new military hospital was constructed in the city .
The success of German U @-@ boat attacks on ships crossing the Atlantic Ocean led the Allies to institute a convoy system to reduce losses while transporting goods and soldiers to Europe . Merchant ships gathered at Bedford Basin on the northwestern end of the harbour , which was protected by two sets of anti @-@ submarine nets and guarded by patrol ships of the Royal Canadian Navy . The convoys departed under the protection of British cruisers and destroyers . A large army garrison protected the city with forts , gun batteries , and anti @-@ submarine nets . These factors drove a major military , industrial and residential expansion of the city , while the weight of goods passing through the harbour increased nearly ninefold . All neutral ships , bound for ports in North America , were required to report to Halifax for inspection .
= = Disaster = =
The Norwegian ship SS Imo had sailed from the Netherlands en route to New York to take on relief supplies for Belgium , under the command of Haakon From . The ship arrived in Halifax on 3 December for neutral inspection and spent two days in Bedford Basin awaiting refuelling supplies . Though given clearance to leave the port on 5 December , Imo 's departure was delayed as her coal load did not arrive until late that afternoon . The loading of fuel was not completed until after the anti @-@ submarine nets had been raised for the night . Therefore , the vessel could not weigh anchor until the next morning .
The French cargo ship SS Mont @-@ Blanc arrived from New York late on 5 December , under the command of Aimé Le Medec . The vessel was fully loaded with the explosives TNT and picric acid , the highly flammable fuel benzole , and guncotton . She intended to join a slow convoy gathering in Bedford Basin readying to depart for Europe , but was too late to enter the harbour before the nets were raised . Ships carrying dangerous cargo were not allowed into the harbour before the war , but the risks posed by German submarines had resulted in a relaxation of regulations .
Navigating into or out of Bedford Basin required passage through a strait called the Narrows . Ships were expected to keep to the starboard ( right ) side of the channel as they passed oncoming traffic ; in other words , vessels were required to pass port to port . Ships were restricted to a speed of five knots within the harbour .
= = = Collision and fire = = =
Imo was granted clearance to leave Bedford Basin by signals from the guard ship HMCS Acadia at approximately 7 : 30 on the morning of 6 December , with Pilot William Hayes aboard . The ship entered the Narrows well above the harbour 's speed limit in an attempt to make up for the delay experienced in loading her cargo . Imo met American tramp steamer SS Clara being piloted up the wrong ( western ) side of the harbour . The pilots agreed to pass starboard to starboard . Soon afterwards though , Imo was forced to head even further towards the Dartmouth shore after passing the tugboat Stella Maris , which was travelling up the harbour to Bedford Basin near mid @-@ channel . Horatio Brannen , the captain of Stella Maris , saw Imo approaching at excessive speed and ordered his ship closer to the western shore to avoid an accident .
Francis Mackey , an experienced harbour pilot , had boarded the Mont @-@ Blanc on the evening of 5 December ; he had asked about " special protections " such as a guard ship given the Mont @-@ Blanc 's cargo , but no protections were put in place . The Mont @-@ Blanc started moving at 7 : 30 am on 6 December , heading towards Bedford Basin . Mackey kept his eye on the ferry traffic between Halifax and Dartmouth and other small boats in the area . He first spotted Imo when she was about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) away and became concerned as her path appeared to be heading towards his ship 's starboard side , as if to cut him off his own course . Mackey gave a short blast of his ship 's signal whistle to indicate that he had the right of way , but was met with two short blasts from the Imo , indicating that the approaching vessel would not yield its position . The captain ordered Mont @-@ Blanc to halt its engines and angle slightly to starboard , closer to the Dartmouth side of the Narrows . He let out another single blast of his whistle , hoping the other vessel would likewise move to starboard , but was again met with a double @-@ blast in negation .
Sailors on nearby ships heard the series of signals and , realizing that a collision was imminent , gathered to watch as Imo bore down on Mont @-@ Blanc . Though both ships had cut their engines by this point , their momentum carried them right on top of each other at slow speed . Unable to ground his ship for fear of a shock that would set off his explosive cargo , Mackey ordered Mont @-@ Blanc to steer hard to port ( starboard helm ) and crossed the Norwegian ship 's bows in a last @-@ second bid to avoid a collision . The two ships were almost parallel to each other , when Imo suddenly sent out three signal blasts , indicating the ship was reversing its engines . The combination of the cargoless ship 's height in the water and the transverse thrust of her right @-@ hand propeller caused the ship 's head to swing into Mont @-@ Blanc . Imo 's prow pushed into the French vessel 's No. 1 hold on her starboard side .
The collision occurred at 8 : 45 am . While the damage to Mont Blanc was not severe , it toppled barrels that broke open and flooded the deck with benzol that quickly flowed into the hold . As Imo 's engines kicked in , she quickly disengaged , which created sparks inside Mont @-@ Blanc 's hull . These ignited the vapours from the benzol . A fire started at the water line and travelled quickly up the side of the ship as the benzol spewed out from crushed drums on Mont @-@ Blanc 's decks . The fire quickly became uncontrollable . Surrounded by thick black smoke , and fearing she would explode almost immediately , the captain ordered the crew to abandon ship . A growing number of Halifax citizens gathered on the street or stood at the windows of their homes or businesses to watch the spectacular fire . The frantic crew of Mont @-@ Blanc shouted from their two lifeboats to some of the other vessels that their ship was about to explode , but they could not be heard above the noise and confusion . As the lifeboats made their way across the harbour to the Dartmouth shore , the abandoned ship continued to drift and beached herself at Pier 6 near the foot of Richmond street .
Towing two scows at the time of the collision , Stella Maris responded immediately to the fire , anchoring the barges and steaming back towards Pier 6 . The tug 's captain , Horatio H. Brannen , and his crew realized they were not equipped to fight the fire with their one small hose and quickly backed off from the burning Mont Blanc . They were approached by a whaler from HMS Highflyer and later a steam pinnace belonging to HMCS Niobe . Captain Brannen and Albert Mattison of Niobe agreed to secure a line to the French ship 's stern so as to pull it away from the pier to avoid setting it on fire . The five @-@ inch ( 127 @-@ millimetre ) hawser initially produced was deemed too small and orders for a ten @-@ inch ( 254 @-@ millimetre ) hawser came down . It was at this point that the blast occurred .
= = = Explosion = = =
At 9 : 04 : 35 am , the out @-@ of @-@ control fire aboard Mont @-@ Blanc finally set off her highly explosive cargo . The ship was completely blown apart and a powerful blast wave radiated away from the explosion at more than 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) per second . Temperatures of 5 @,@ 000 ° C ( 9 @,@ 030 ° F ) and pressures of thousands of atmospheres accompanied the moment of detonation at the centre of the explosion . White @-@ hot shards of iron fell down upon Halifax and Dartmouth . Mont @-@ Blanc 's forward 90 mm gun , its barrel melted away , landed approximately 5 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) north of the explosion site near Albro Lake in Dartmouth , while the shank of her anchor , weighing half a ton , landed 3 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) south at Armdale .
A cloud of white smoke rose to over 3 @,@ 600 metres ( 11 @,@ 800 ft ) . The shock wave from the blast travelled through the earth at nearly 23 times the speed of sound and was felt as far away as Cape Breton ( 207 kilometres or 129 miles ) and Prince Edward Island ( 180 kilometres or 110 miles ) . An area of over 160 hectares ( 400 acres ) was completely destroyed by the explosion , while the harbour floor was momentarily exposed by the volume of water that vaporized . A tsunami was formed by water surging in to fill the void ; it rose as high as 18 metres ( 60 ft ) above the high @-@ water mark on the Halifax side of the harbour . Imo was carried onto the shore at Dartmouth by the tsunami . The blast killed all save one aboard the whaler , everyone aboard the pinnace and 21 of the 26 men aboard Stella Maris ; she ended up on the Dartmouth shore , severely damaged . The captain 's son , First Mate Walter Brannen , who had been thrown into the hold by the blast , survived , as did four others . All but one of the Mont @-@ Blanc crew members survived .
Over 1 @,@ 600 people were killed instantly and 9 @,@ 000 were injured , more than 300 of whom later died . Every building within a 2 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) radius , over 12 @,@ 000 in total , was destroyed or badly damaged . Hundreds of people who had been watching the fire from their homes were blinded when the blast wave shattered the windows in front of them . Stoves and lamps overturned by the force of the blast sparked fires throughout Halifax , particularly in the North End , where entire city blocks were caught up in the inferno , trapping residents inside their houses . Firefighter Billy Wells , who was thrown away from the explosion and had his clothes torn from his body , described the devastation survivors faced : " The sight was awful , with people hanging out of windows dead . Some with their heads missing , and some thrown onto the overhead telegraph wires . " He was the only member of the eight @-@ man crew of the fire engine " Patricia " to survive .
Large brick and stone factories near Pier 6 , such as the Acadia Sugar Refinery , disappeared into unrecognizable heaps of rubble , killing most of their workers . The Nova Scotia cotton mill located 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mile ) from the blast was destroyed by fire and the collapse of its concrete floors . The Royal Naval College of Canada building was badly damaged , and several cadets and instructors maimed .
The death toll could have been worse had it not been for the self @-@ sacrifice of an Intercolonial Railway dispatcher , Patrick Vincent ( Vince ) Coleman , operating at the railyard about 750 feet ( 230 m ) from Pier 6 , where the explosion occurred . He and his co @-@ worker , William Lovett , learned of the dangerous cargo aboard the burning Mont @-@ Blanc from a sailor and began to flee . Coleman remembered , however , that an incoming passenger train from Saint John , New Brunswick , was due to arrive at the railyard within minutes . He returned to his post alone and continued to send out urgent telegraph messages to stop the train . Several variations of the message have been reported , among them this from the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic : " Hold up the train . Ammunition ship afire in harbor making for Pier 6 and will explode . Guess this will be my last message . Good @-@ bye boys . " Coleman 's message was responsible for bringing all incoming trains around Halifax to a halt . It was heard by other stations all along the Intercolonial Railway , helping railway officials to respond immediately . Passenger Train No. 10 , the overnight train from Saint John , is believed to have heeded the warning and stopped a safe distance from the blast at Rockingham , saving the lives of about 300 railway passengers . Coleman was killed at his post as the explosion ripped through the city . He was honoured with a Heritage Minute in the 1990s and inducted into the Canadian Railway Hall of Fame in 2004 .
= = Rescue efforts = =
First rescue efforts came from surviving neighbours and co @-@ workers who pulled and dug out victims from buildings . The initial informal response was soon joined by surviving policemen , firefighters and military personnel who began to arrive , as did anyone with a working vehicle ; cars , trucks and delivery wagons of all kinds were enlisted to collect the wounded . A flood of victims soon began to arrive at the city 's hospitals , which were quickly overwhelmed . The new military hospital , Camp Hill , admitted approximately 1400 victims on 6 December .
Firefighters were among the first to respond to the disaster , rushing to Mont @-@ Blanc to attempt to extinguish the blaze before the explosion even occurred . They also played a role after the blast , with fire companies arriving to assist from across Halifax , and by the end of the day from as far away as Amherst , Nova Scotia ( 200 kilometres or 120 miles ) and Moncton , New Brunswick ( 260 kilometres or 160 miles ) on relief trains . Halifax Fire Department 's West Street Station 2 was the first to arrive at Pier 6 with the crew of the Patricia , the first motorized fire engine in Canada . In the final moments before the explosion , hoses were being unrolled as the fire spread to the docks . Nine members of the Halifax Fire Department lost their lives performing their duty that day .
Royal Navy cruisers in port sent some of the first organized rescue parties ashore . HMS Highflyer , along with the armed merchant cruisers HMS Changuinola , HMS Knight Templar and HMS Calgarian , sent boats ashore with rescue parties and medical personnel and soon began to take wounded aboard . A US Coast Guard cutter , USCG Morrill , also sent a rescue party ashore . Out at sea , the American cruiser USS Tacoma and armed merchant cruiser USS Von Steuben ( formerly SS Kronprinz Wilhelm ) were passing Halifax en route to the United States . Tacoma was rocked so severely by the blast wave that her crew went to general quarters . Spotting the large and rising column of smoke , Tacoma altered course and arrived to assist rescue at 2 pm . Von Steuben arrived a half @-@ hour later . The American steamship Old Colony , docked in Halifax for repairs , suffered little damage and was quickly converted to serve as a hospital ship , staffed by doctors and orderlies from the British and American navy vessels in the harbour .
Dazed survivors immediately feared that the explosion was the result of a bomb dropped from a German plane . Troops at gun batteries and barracks immediately turned out in case the city was under attack , but within an hour switched from defence to rescue roles as the cause and location of the explosion were determined . All available troops were called in from harbour fortifications and barracks to the North End to rescue survivors and provide transport to the city 's hospitals , including the two army hospitals in the city .
Adding to the chaos were fears that a second explosion was imminent . A cloud of steam shot out of ventilators at the ammunition magazine at Wellington Barracks as naval personnel extinguished a fire by the magazine . While the fire was quickly put out , the cloud of steam was seen from blocks away and quickly led to rumours that a second explosion was imminent . Uniformed officers ordered everyone away from the area . As the rumour spread across the city , many families fled their homes . The confusion hampered efforts for over two hours until fears were dispelled by about noon . However , many rescuers ignored the evacuation and naval rescue parties continued working uninterrupted at the harbour .
Surviving railway workers in the railyards at the heart of the disaster carried out rescue work , pulling people from the harbour and from under debris . The overnight train from Saint John was just approaching the city when hit by the blast but was only slightly damaged . It continued into Richmond until the track was blocked by wreckage . Passengers and soldiers aboard used the emergency tools from the train to dig people out of houses and bandaged them with sheets from the sleeping cars . The train was loaded with injured and left the city at 1 : 30 with a doctor aboard , to evacuate the wounded to Truro .
Led by Lieutenant Governor MacCallum Grant , leading citizens formed the Halifax Relief Commission at around noon . The committee organized members in charge of organizing medical relief for both Halifax and Dartmouth , supplying transportation , food and shelter , and covering medical and funeral costs for victims . The commission would continue until 1976 , participating in reconstruction and relief efforts and later distributing pensions to survivors .
Rescue trains were dispatched from across Atlantic Canada , as well as the northeastern United States . The first left Truro around 10 am carrying medical personnel and supplies , arrived in Halifax by noon and returned to Truro with the wounded and homeless by 3 pm . The track had become impassable at Rockingham , on the western edge of Bedford Basin . To reach the wounded , rescue personnel had to walk through parts of the devastated city until they reached a point where the military had begun to clear the streets . By nightfall , a dozen trains had reached Halifax from the Nova Scotian towns of Truro , Kentville , Amherst and Stellarton and from the New Brunswick towns of Sackville , Moncton and Saint John .
Relief efforts were hampered the following day by a blizzard that blanketed Halifax with 16 inches ( 41 cm ) of heavy snow . Trains en route from other parts of Canada and from the United States were stalled in snowdrifts , while telegraph lines that had been hastily repaired following the explosion were again knocked down . Halifax was isolated by the storm , and rescue committees were forced to suspend the search for survivors , though the storm aided efforts to put out fires throughout the city .
= = Destruction and loss of life = =
The exact number killed by the disaster is unknown . The Halifax Explosion Remembrance Book , an official database compiled in 2002 by the Nova Scotia Archives and Records Management , identified 1 @,@ 950 victims . As many as 1 @,@ 600 people died immediately in the blast , tsunami , and collapse of buildings . The last body , a caretaker killed at the Exhibition Grounds , was not recovered until the summer of 1919 . An additional 9 @,@ 000 were injured . 1 @,@ 630 homes were destroyed in the explosion and fires , and another 12 @,@ 000 damaged ; roughly 6 @,@ 000 people were left homeless and 25 @,@ 000 had insufficient shelter . The city 's industrial sector was in large part gone , with many workers among the casualties and the dockyard heavily damaged .
A mortuary committee chaired by Alderman R. B. Coldwell was quickly formed at Halifax City Hall on the morning of the disaster . The Chebucto Road School in Halifax 's west end was chosen as a central morgue . A company of the Royal Canadian Engineers ( RCE ) repaired and converted the basement of the school to serve as a morgue and classrooms to serve as offices for the Halifax coroner . Trucks and wagons soon began to arrive with bodies . Coroner Arthur S. Barnstead took over from Coldwell as the morgue went into operation and implemented a system to carefully number and describe bodies ; it was based on the system developed by his father , John Henry Barnstead , to identify Titanic victims in 1912 .
Many of the wounds inflicted by the blast were permanently debilitating , such as those caused by flying glass or by the flash of the explosion . Thousands of people had stopped to watch the ship burning in the harbour , many from inside buildings , leaving them directly in the path of glass fragments from shattered windows . Roughly 5900 eye injuries were reported , and 41 people lost their sight permanently . The many eye injuries led to better understanding on the part of physicians of how to care for damaged eyes , and " with the recently formed Canadian National Institute for the Blind , Halifax became internationally known as a centre for care for the blind " , according to Dalhousie University professor Victoria Allen . The lack of coordinated pediatric care in such a disaster was also noted by a surgeon from Boston named William Ladd who had arrived to help . His insights from the explosion are generally credited with inspiring him to pioneer the specialty of pediatric surgery in North America .
An estimated $ C35 million in damages resulted ( $ 562 million today ) . About $ 30 million in financial aid was raised from various sources , including $ 18 million from the federal government , over $ 4 million from the British government , and $ 750 @,@ 000 from the state of Massachusetts .
= = = Dartmouth = = =
Dartmouth was not as densely populated as Halifax and was separated from the blast by the width of the harbour , but still suffered heavy damage . Almost 100 people were estimated to have died on the Dartmouth side . Windows were shattered and many buildings were damaged or destroyed , including the Oland Brewery and parts of the Starr Manufacturing Company . Nova Scotia Hospital was the only hospital in Dartmouth and many of the victims were treated there .
= = = Mi 'kmaq settlement = = =
There were small enclaves of Mi 'kmaq in and around the coves of Bedford Basin on the Dartmouth shore . Directly opposite to Pier 9 on the Halifax side sat a community in Tufts Cove , also known as Turtle Grove . The settlement , dating back to the 18th century , had been a subject of controversy because white settler landowners wanted to remove the Mi 'kmaq residents . In the years and months preceding the explosion , the Department of Indian Affairs had been actively trying to force the Mi 'kmaq to give up their land , though this had not occurred by the time of the explosion . The fire aboard Mont @-@ Blanc drew the attention of many onlookers on both sides of the harbour . The physical structures of the settlement were obliterated by the explosion and tsunami . While a precise Mi 'kmaq death toll is unknown , records show that nine bodies were recovered , and the settlement was abandoned in the wake of the disaster . Survivors were housed in a racially segregated building under generally poor conditions and eventually dispersed around Nova Scotia .
= = = Africville = = =
The black community of Africville , on the southern shores of Bedford Basin adjacent to the Halifax Peninsula , was spared the direct force of the blast by the shadow effect of the raised ground to the south . However , Africville 's small and frail homes were heavily damaged by the explosion . Families recorded the deaths of five residents . Africville received little of the donated relief funds and none of the progressive reconstruction invested in other parts of the city after the explosion .
= = Investigation = =
Many people in Halifax at first believed the explosion to be the result of a German attack . The Halifax Herald continued to propagate this belief for some time , for example reporting that Germans had mocked victims of the explosion . While John Johansen , the Norwegian helmsman of the Imo , was being treated for serious injuries sustained during the explosion , it was reported to the military police that he had been behaving suspiciously . Johansen was arrested on suspicions of being a German spy when a search turned up a letter on his person , supposedly written in German . It turned out that the letter was actually written in Norwegian . Immediately following the explosion , most of the German survivors in Halifax had been rounded up and imprisoned . Eventually the fear dissipated as the real cause of the explosion became known , although rumours of German involvement persisted .
A judicial inquiry known as the Wreck Commissioner 's Inquiry was formed to investigate the causes of the collision . Proceedings began at the Halifax Court House on 13 December 1917 , presided over by Justice Arthur Drysdale . The inquiry 's report of 4 February 1918 blamed Mont @-@ Blanc 's captain , Aimé Le Médec , the ship 's pilot , Francis Mackey , and Commander F. Evan Wyatt , the Royal Canadian Navy 's chief examining officer in charge of the harbour , gates and anti @-@ submarine defences , for causing the collision . Drysdale agreed with Dominion Wreck Commissioner L.A. Demers ' opinion that " it was the Mont @-@ Blanc 's responsibility alone to ensure that she avoided a collision at all costs " given her cargo ; he was likely influenced by local opinion , which was strongly anti @-@ French , as well as by the " street fighter " style of argumentation used by Imo lawyer Charles Burchell . According to Crown counsel W.A. Henry , this was " a great surprise to most people " , who had expected the Imo to be blamed for being on the wrong side of the channel . All three men were charged with manslaughter and criminal negligence at a preliminary hearing heard by Stipendiary Magistrate Richard A. McLeod , and bound over for trial . However , a Nova Scotia Supreme Court justice , Benjamin Russell found there was no evidence to support these charges . Mackey was discharged on a writ of habeas corpus and the charges dropped . The charges against Le Médec were also dismissed . This left only Wyatt to face a grand jury hearing . On 17 April 1918 , a jury acquitted him in a trial that lasted less than a day .
Drysdale also oversaw the first civil litigation trial , in which the owners of the two ships sought damages from each other . His decision ( 27 April 1918 ) found Mont @-@ Blanc entirely at fault . Subsequent appeals to the Supreme Court of Canada ( 19 May 1919 ) , and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London ( 22 March 1920 ) , determined Mont @-@ Blanc and Imo were equally to blame for navigational errors that led to the collision . No party was ever convicted for any crime or otherwise successfully prosecuted for any actions that precipitated the disaster .
= = Reconstruction = =
Efforts began shortly after the explosion to clear debris , repair buildings , and establish temporary housing for survivors left homeless by the explosion . By late January 1918 , around 5 @,@ 000 were still without shelter . A reconstruction committee under Colonel Robert Low constructed 832 new housing units , which were furnished by the Massachusetts @-@ Halifax Relief Fund .
The North End Halifax neighbourhood of Richmond bore the brunt of the explosion . In 1917 , Richmond was considered a working @-@ class neighbourhood and had few paved roads . After the explosion , the Halifax Relief Commission approached the reconstruction of Richmond as an opportunity to improve and modernize the city 's North End . English town planner Thomas Adams and Montreal architectural firm Ross and Macdonald were recruited to design a new housing plan for Richmond . Adams , inspired by the Victorian garden city movement , aimed to provide public access to green spaces and to create a low @-@ rise , low @-@ density and multifunctional urban neighbourhood . The planners designed 326 large homes that each faced a tree @-@ lined , paved boulevard . They specified that the homes be built with a new and innovative fireproof material , blocks of compressed cement called Hydrostone . The first of these homes was occupied by March 1919 . Once finished , the Hydrostone neighbourhood consisted of homes , businesses and parks , which helped create a new sense of community in the North End of Halifax . It has now become an upscale neighbourhood and shopping district . In contrast , the equally poor and underdeveloped area of Africville was not included in reconstruction efforts .
Every building in the Halifax dockyard required some degree of rebuilding , as did HMCS Niobe and the docks themselves ; however , all of the Royal Canadian Navy 's minesweepers and patrol boats were undamaged . Prime Minister Robert Borden pledged that the government would be " co @-@ operating in every way to reconstruct the Port of Halifax : this was of utmost importance to the Empire " . Although Captain Symington of the USS Tacoma speculated that the port would not be operational for months , in fact a convoy departed on 11 December and dockyard operations resumed before Christmas .
= = Legacy = =
The Halifax Explosion was one of the largest artificial non @-@ nuclear explosions . An extensive comparison of 130 major explosions by Halifax historian Jay White in 1994 concluded that " Halifax Harbour remains unchallenged in overall magnitude as long as five criteria are considered together : number of casualties , force of blast , radius of devastation , quantity of explosive material , and total value of property destroyed . " For many years afterward , the Halifax Explosion was the standard by which all large blasts were measured . For instance , in its report on the atomic bombing of Hiroshima , Time wrote that the explosive power of the Little Boy bomb was seven times that of the Halifax Explosion .
Construction began in 1964 on the Halifax North Memorial Library , designed to commemorate the victims of the explosion . The library entrance featured the first monument built to mark the explosion , the Halifax Explosion Memorial Sculpture , created by artist Jordi Bonet . The sculpture was dismantled by the Halifax Regional Municipality in 2004 and parts have been scattered and lost . The Halifax Explosion Memorial Bells were built in 1985 , relocating memorial carillon bells from a nearby church to a large concrete sculpture on Fort Needham Hill , facing the " ground zero " area of the explosion . The Bell Tower is the location of an annual civic ceremony every 6 December . A memorial at the Halifax Fire Station on Lady Hammond Road honours the firefighters killed while responding to the explosion . Fragments of Mont @-@ Blanc have been mounted as neighbourhood monuments to the explosion at Albro Lake Road in Dartmouth , at Regatta Point , and elsewhere in the area . Simple monuments mark the mass graves of explosion victims at the Fairview Lawn Cemetery and the Bayers Road Cemetery . A Memorial Book listing the names of all the known victims is displayed at the Halifax North Memorial Library and at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic , which has a large permanent exhibit about the Halifax Explosion . Harold Gilman was commissioned to create a painting memorializing the event , although his work , Halifax Harbour at Sunset , " tells very little about the recent devastation , as the viewpoint is set back so that the harbour appears undisturbed " .
The canonical novel Barometer Rising ( 1941 ) by the Canadian writer Hugh MacLennan is set in Halifax at the time of the explosion and includes a carefully researched description of its impact on the city . Following in MacLennan 's footsteps , journalist Robert MacNeil penned Burden of Desire ( 1992 ) and used the explosion as a metaphor for the societal and cultural changes of the day . MacLennan and MacNeil 's use of the romance genre to fictionalize the explosion is similar to the first attempt by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Frank McKelvey Bell , author of the short novella A Romance of the Halifax Disaster ( 1918 ) . This work follows the love affair of a young woman and an injured soldier . Keith Ross Leckie scripted a miniseries entitled Shattered City : The Halifax Explosion ( 2003 ) , which took the title but has no relationship to Janet Kitz 's non @-@ fiction book Shattered City : The Halifax Explosion and the Road to Recovery ( 1990 ) . The film was criticized for distortions and inaccuracies .
In 1918 , Halifax sent a Christmas tree to the City of Boston in thanks and remembrance for the help that the Boston Red Cross and the Massachusetts Public Safety Committee provided immediately after the disaster . That gift was revived in 1971 by the Lunenburg County Christmas Tree Producers Association , who began an annual donation of a large tree to promote Christmas tree exports as well as acknowledge Boston 's support after the explosion . The gift was later taken over by the Nova Scotia Government to continue the goodwill gesture as well as to promote trade and tourism . The tree is Boston 's official Christmas tree and is lit on Boston Common throughout the holiday season . In deference to its symbolic importance for both cities , the Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources has specific guidelines for selecting the tree .
= Odex 's actions against file @-@ sharing =
Odex 's actions against file sharing were legal actions against Internet Service Providers ( ISPs ) and their subscribers in Singapore by Odex , a Singapore @-@ based company that virtually distributes sub @-@ licensed Japanese anime . From early 2007 to January 2008 Odex took action against anyone who had downloaded anime through BitTorrent for alleged copyright infringement . Odex tracked their IP addresses without their consent and sought subpoenas to compel the ISPs to disclose the personal details of these subscribers . After rulings from the Subordinate Courts , Odex took personal data from affected ISPs and sent letters demanding payment in place of litigation . More than a third of the individuals contacted by Odex opted to settle out of court for at least S $ 3 @,@ 000 ( US $ 2 @,@ 000 ) to S $ 5 @,@ 000 ( US $ 4 @,@ 000 ) each .
The Singaporean anime community considered Odex 's actions to be controversial , sudden , and heavy @-@ handed — especially when it was discovered that the youngest person threatened was nine years old . In response , Odex dropped its pay @-@ or @-@ be @-@ sued letter approach in favour of cease @-@ and @-@ desist emails to downloaders . Odex halted active enforcement after its third subpoena was rejected by the courts and lost a lawsuit when trying to obtain customer data from another ISP . In January 2008 , Odex appealed the decision , and the High Court of Singapore ruled that one ISP was required to release data , but only directly to Japanese anime studios . Subsequently , these studios started their own legal actions against Singaporean downloaders . Some observers predicted that the High Court 's decision would set a precedent for online privacy in Singapore by making it more difficult for copyright licensees to take legal action against downloading . The case raised issues of individual privacy , intellectual property , and free use of the Internet . Odex 's actions attracted widespread criticism in Singapore and international attention and press coverage , which coincided with similar actions against consumer file sharing of music in the United States .
= = Actions = =
Odex is a Singaporean company that licenses and releases anime for local and regional consumption . The company tracked people it believed to be illegally downloading its releases in Singapore , using the method employed by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in the United States . Like the RIAA , Odex hired the American tracking company BayTSP to obtain the IP addresses of downloaders from their respective countries and to track them for several months . BayTSP singled out the website AnimeSuki as a major source of the downloads and tracked many of its BitTorrent users . This data was used to apply for subpoenas to compel ISPs to reveal personal information associated with each IP address . In May 2007 , the ISP SingNet consented in writing to release personal information about its customers , before Odex 's first application against the ISP had its hearing . On 13 August , Odex succeeded in its application against StarHub , which , as a result , was required to reveal the identities of about 1 @,@ 000 ISP users . However , it is revealed that Starhub didn 't revealed any user data to Odex as they were reviewing their rights when Odex lost their appeal to Pacific Internet ( PacNet ) . Odex was represented by law firm Rajah & Tann in all its cases against major ISPs , including its application against PacNet .
After downloading that originated from Singaporean IP addresses had been recorded by BayTSP , Odex sent letters of demand to people associated with the IP addresses it had tracked . The letters requested monetary compensation for downloads of the company 's licensed material . The recipients were asked to contact Odex within one week and pay settlement fees from S $ 3 @,@ 000 to S $ 5 @,@ 000 or face legal action . The recipients also had to sign a non @-@ disclosure agreement , promise to destroy all copies of the downloaded anime , and stop downloading the copyrighted material .
On 9 August 2007 , an Odex representative said it intended to obtain search warrants for illegally downloaded anime if necessary . The company initially believed that , unlike in other countries , mere warning letters would not stop the downloads in Singapore . Letters were sent mainly to people who had downloaded more popular series , such as Bleach , D.Gray @-@ man , Fullmetal Alchemist and InuYasha . There was speculation from the online community that the company would collect approximately S $ 15 million from 3 @,@ 000 individuals from out @-@ of @-@ court settlements , but Odex responded that it did not require each of them to pay a uniform S $ 5 @,@ 000 . The main factor it considered when deciding the level of compensation to demand was the amount of downloading by each individual . Odex confirmed that more than 3 @,@ 000 IP addresses had been disclosed as a result of the court orders , but estimated that the amount collected would cover less than 20 % of its enforcement costs . The company 's director , Peter Go , subsequently revealed that most of the compensation payments had been paid to BayTSP and to ISPs for the retrieval of their subscribers ' personal data . He justified his company 's actions by stating that , according to BayTSP 's statistics , Singapore had one of the highest rates of illegal anime downloads in the world and that Odex wanted to reduce this by 85 % .
On 3 September 2007 , Odex director Stephen Sing announced on his company 's Internet forum that Odex would no longer send letters of demand to Internet users who had stopped their illegal downloading since the beginning of the enforcement drive . Two weeks later , Odex installed an online warning system developed by BayTSP that generated cease and desist emails intended for the alleged downloaders . The company did not obtain subscribers ' information directly from ISPs , but relied on ISPs to forward such emails to their subscribers . Sing vowed that Odex would rely on weekly reports generated by BayTSP to continue its anti @-@ piracy drive , and that it would again resort to legal action if downloaders or their ISPs did not respond acceptably .
On 29 January 2008 , the High Court handed down its ruling on Odex 's appeal . It held that Pacific Internet had to release the names of the alleged illegal downloaders directly to the Japanese anime studios . In the light of this decision , Peter Go said that the company 's role would shift from active enforcement to assisting the studios in their possible courses of action .
= = Reactions = =
The company 's actions attracted national media attention and were harshly criticised by the Singaporean anime community as " sudden and severe " . Anime fans were outraged by the issuing of legal threats to children as young as nine years old , as they believed children were unable to differentiate between legal and illegal downloading . There were widespread calls in online blogs and forums to boycott Odex 's products .
Odex blamed the approximate 70 % fall in its Video CD ( VCD ) and Digital Video Disc ( DVD ) sales in 2006 and 2007 on illegal downloading . The response of anime fans was that the fall in sales was because Odex 's products were inferior , inaccurately translated , and released later than the online versions . Odex subsequently attributed the inaccurate subtitling on censorship laws against mature themes ( such as yaoi ) and on fansubbers — anime fans who had translated the Japanese dialogue — whom they had hired . In response , the Board of Film Censors said that it did not ask for subtitles to be changed , that it merely classified content , and that the onus was on distributors to ensure accurate subtitles . In addition to problems of quality and scheduling , criticisms were directed at Odex 's litigious strategy and poor public relations . Odex received support from the Anti Video Piracy Association of Singapore ( AVPAS ) in making its demands for compensation .
Stephen Sing was mocked and criticised after posting comments to an online forum which many considered to be gloating . Messages posted by Sing under the nickname " xysing " included " Me too busy suing people " [ sic ] and " Hahahahah ! I double @-@ 6 @-@ ed so many downloaders serve them right ! " Sing was labelled the " most hated man in Singapore 's anime community " by members of the blogosphere , a wanted poster with his face circulated online , and he was taunted openly in his office . Sing asserted that threats of arson , assault and even death were made against him and filed a police report . Although he expressed regret over the remarks because they were a " PR disaster " and " very wrong " , he said that he had written them while feeling frustrated and did not apologise . He dismissed his " double @-@ 6 @-@ ed " remark , an expression of joy at the threats of lawsuits , as having been made " two months ago " , but it was revealed that they had been made only three weeks earlier . A Sunday Times article condemned these online responses as " propaganda " spread by " lynch mobs " and noted that some of these netizens had revealed the home addresses of Odex 's employees . Odex placed a quarter @-@ page advertisement in The Straits Times on 22 August 2007 to explain its actions .
Allegations were made by the online community that Odex had passed off fansubs as its own work . Sing admitted that this was partially true as Odex had hired anime fans to do subtitling in 2004 who had taken " the easy way out and copied word for word the subtitles on fansubs they downloaded " . Sing explained that when Odex released its anime , the company did not realise what the anime fans had done , and it has been " paying for this mistake ever since " . It was reported at the same time that all of Odex 's translation and subtitling was now done " in house " . However , Odex 's release of The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya in September 2007 was found to contain translations strongly resembling an earlier unauthorised fansub release . Emails were also sent to the media saying that Sing and Go were directors and shareholders of a defunct company , Games Mart , that shared the same corporate address as Odex and had been raided in 1999 by the police for selling game consoles with unauthorized modifications . This information was confirmed by the press , and Go wrote a letter to the media explaining that Games Mart was not affiliated with Odex in any way .
Members of an online forum expressed their unhappiness by selling " anti @-@ Odex " T @-@ shirts . Another netizen created a video parody , entitled Xedo Holocaust , and uploaded it to YouTube and other video @-@ sharing websites . A website was established giving details of an " Odex VCD recycling drive " , where those who joined could exchange their Odex VCDs for a black awareness ribbon to wear . A protest by a few people with several action figurines took place on 25 August 2007 under intense police scrutiny , which was considered by Western observers to be a rarity in Singapore . An online group , Xedo Defense , was set up to provide support for the downloaders facing legal action . It raised funds to hire a collective lawyer from Infinitus Law Corporation to represent two of the downloaders when suits were filed against them in November 2008 by the anime studios .
There were assertions that Odex had charged 10 % interest for settlements paid through an instalment plan , but a press release by the company denied that it had required any such interest payments . By September 2007 , 105 out of the 300 SingNet subscribers who had received letters had negotiated with and paid Odex , although , in a news conference , Odex said that it had neither forced payment from nor fined anyone . The company explained that it would not profit from the enforcement process and intended to donate to charity any excess amount received . It would also release a financial audit of all the money collected at the close of proceedings . On 31 August 2007 , in an attempt to address criticisms of late releases , Odex began to offer video on demand ( VOD ) on its relaunched website . Users could legally download and unlock a digital rights management ( DRM ) -protected anime episode at S $ 2 for seven days .
In mid @-@ November 2007 , the cease @-@ and @-@ desist emails initiated by Odex and BayTSP reached several users in Japan , France , and the United States , some in the form of Digital Millennium Copyright Act ( DMCA ) notices from their ISPs . Although Odex and BayTSP announced shortly afterwards that the emails were sent out in error , Japanese commentators suggested that the enforcement action was " a step in a right direction " . On 21 November 2007 , Odex 's website was hacked and defaced and the VOD service put out of action . Its main page was replaced by an angry message against the company 's legal actions , and experts interviewed by representatives of the local media said that the perpetrator likely was from Singapore .
= = Odex v. Pacific Internet = =
= = = Subordinate Courts ' decision = = =
On 16 August 2007 , Odex initiated legal action against a third Internet Service Provider , Pacific Internet . Odex sought to have Pacific Internet disclose the personal information of about 1 @,@ 000 subscribers . The closed @-@ door hearing was held on 23 August 2007 in the Subordinate Courts , where District Judge Earnest Lau ruled that Pacific Internet did not have to reveal its subscribers ' personal information . Lau believed that Odex was not the correct party to make the application , despite having permission to prosecute on behalf of the Japanese anime studios . The decision came as a surprise to many , and Odex quickly announced its intent to appeal . Although Lau denied Odex the court order , he warned that the right to privacy was no defence for copyright infringement .
In light of the decision , the ISP StarHub , represented by Drew & Napier , said " [ we are ] assessing our options , given the different decisions rendered by the court " . Meanwhile , it was revealed that SingNet had consented to Odex 's application , had not instructed its lawyers to attend the hearing , and the two @-@ week deadline for appealing against the application had passed . SingNet 's failure to contest Odex 's application , perhaps even expediting it , was perceived by some of its subscribers as a voluntary breach of privacy . SingNet later declared that it neither " gave consent " nor assisted Odex in its application for the release of subscriber information , and that its customer subscriptions remained unaffected .
In a rare move , District Judge Earnest Lau released a 14 @-@ page judgment explaining the court 's denial of Odex 's request for Pacific Internet 's client information . He compared Odex 's demands to an Anton Piller order , which provides for the right to search premises and seize evidence without prior warning . Seen as draconian , it is only used under extreme circumstances . He held that only copyright holders themselves , or their exclusive licensees , can bring such applications and that he was not satisfied with the evidence harvested by BayTSP for the identification of downloaders . Out of all the anime licensed to Odex , only the license in respect of Mobile Suit Gundam SEED had been granted exclusively to the company . The judge noted that , out of the 13 authorisation letters presented in court , ten of them authorised the Anti Video Piracy Association of Singapore ( AVPAS ) , not Odex , to act for the copyright holders . Odex was ordered to pay Pacific Internet 's legal costs of S $ 7 @,@ 000 .
= = = High Court appeal = = =
Odex 's appeal against the Subordinate Courts ' decision began on 3 October 2007 before Justice Woo Bih Li in the High Court . BayTSP 's CEO , Mark Ishikawa , and representatives of four Japanese studios , including TV Tokyo , Gonzo and Toei Animation , flew to Singapore to testify on behalf of Odex . Although the Japanese companies intended to file lawsuits themselves should Odex fail , the High Court approved their addition as parties to Odex 's appeal .
In his judgment of 29 January 2008 , Justice Woo ordered Pacific Internet to release its subscribers ' information only to the six Japanese companies that were parties to the case . He explicitly denied Odex access to this information . He upheld District Judge Lau 's decision that Odex was not the correct party to have asked for release of subscriber data . As a result , he directed the company to pay Pacific Internet 's legal costs of S $ 20 @,@ 000 . Following the ruling , some downloaders who had already settled with Odex planned a countersuit to recover their settlement monies . The ruling may have set a precedent for online privacy in Singapore by making it more difficult for copyright licensees to take legal action against downloaders .
= = Further developments = =
= = = Subsequent action by anime studios = = =
In early August 2008 , seven months after the High Court ruling , Showgate ( previously Toshiba Entertainment ) , Geneon Entertainment , Sunrise , Gonzo and TV Tokyo initiated their own legal actions against downloaders . Like Odex , they were represented by Rajah & Tann and sent out letters of demand for payment to SingNet , StarHub and Pacific Internet subscribers asking users to " enter discussions " with the studios ' solicitors within seven days . Showgate , which supported Odex in its appeal against Pacific Internet , consulted Odex before beginning its legal actions . Settlements were reported to range between S $ 5 @,@ 000 and S $ 6 @,@ 000 per person , and in August 2008 , BayTSP was reported to be in contractual talks with other anime studios to track downloaders in Singapore .
Three months later , the anime studios filed a writ of summons with the Subordinate Courts against four " heavy downloaders " . The hearing was speculated to begin in 2009 or 2010 , with legal fees ranging from S $ 50 @,@ 000 to S $ 80 @,@ 000 . Because of its bearing on downloaders of other media , such as movies and games , the suits were closely watched by the public . In 2010 it was reported that Odex 's effort was unsuccessful as it was not the primary copyright holder .
= = = Similar actions in Singapore by other media owners = = =
In April 2015 , the makers of Dallas Buyers Club successfully obtained a court order against two major ISPs Starhub and M1 to reveal customers who have allegedly downloaded illegal copies of the movie . Samuel Seow Law Corporation represented the makers in sending demand letters to more than 500 subscribers asking for a written offer of damages and costs . This is the second reported instance of a major legal action taken by a media company against individuals in Singapore for alleged illegal downloading since Odex .
= = Legal opinions and analysis = =
The case was covered extensively by the country 's newspapers . In The Straits Times of Singapore , lawyers who were interviewed said anime fans would not have a strong defence against Odex if proof of uploading or downloading of unauthorised videos was presented . In his analysis , Thomas Koshy — a legal academic writing in Today — questioned the legality of Odex 's threatening criminal prosecution of downloaders . Koshy maintained that only the Attorney @-@ General had the power to prosecute and that there was no indication that he had authorised Odex to conduct prosecutions on his behalf . Moreover , Koshy opined that it was improper for Odex to have combined its demand for compensation with a threat of criminal prosecution ; although Odex 's letters alleged " illegal downloading activity " , the company threatened punishment associated with the more serious offence of distributing materials which infringed copyrights . Koshy noted that Odex had cited a legal provision intended to regulate people 's file sharing for monetary gain rather than downloading by a casual consumer . Burton Ong , an associate professor at the National University of Singapore Faculty of Law , suggested that an anime fan who downloaded a few episodes may have been able to rely on " fair dealing " as a defence against the charge of copyright infringement . One of the criteria for pursuing this line of defence would have been proving that the download subsequently boosted , rather than undermined , the commercial viability of the anime industry .
Anime fans and sympathisers used the Internet to raise funds and lodge a legal challenge to Odex 's methods ; one Internet user created an invitation @-@ only forum for those considering going to court against Odex over its allegations of illegal downloads . Fans solicited legal advice and put together a library of relevant material . A letter to The Straits Times pointed out that downloaders deciding to settle out of court with Odex were afforded no protection from lawsuits initiated by other companies within the anime industry .
Following District Judge Earnest Lau 's ruling in the Odex v. Pacific Internet lawsuit , Koshy expressed his belief that SingNet might be in breach of the spirit of the Telecommunications Competition Code , which protects the confidentiality of subscribers ' information and prohibits unauthorised release . Another lawyer interviewed by ZDNet , however , did not think that SingNet 's actions were improper , and a spokesman for the Infocomm Development Authority announced that SingNet was found to be in compliance with the code . Andy Ho , another The Straits Times editor , expressed concern that private entities might use intellectual property laws invasively , thus precipitating a chilling effect on free speech ; he called for privacy laws to be quickly enacted .
= 2007 – 08 Sunderland A.F.C. season =
The 2007 – 08 season was the 113th full season in Sunderland A.F.C. ' s history , their 107th in the league system of English football and 7th in the Premier League . After finishing 1st in the Championship during the 2006 – 07 season , Sunderland were promoted to the Premier League as champions . Sunderland had been relegated in the 2005 – 06 season with the record low points tally at the time of 15 . The 2007 – 08 season was Roy Keane 's first as a manager in the Premier League having won the Championship in his debut season .
Keane introduced 12 new signings in pre @-@ season and allowed seven players to leave the club . They won their first game of the season , but subsequently started to struggle for points , winning just two games in their first 16 . Their longest winning streak came towards the end of the season as they won three consecutive games . This late run helped Sunderland finish 15th , though they only managed to win two away games , of which the first came in late March . The team suffered first round exits in two of the cup competitions they entered : in the second round of the League Cup and the third round of the FA Cup . Kenwyne Jones was the club 's top goalscorer , recording 7 goals in the league . Left @-@ back Danny Collins was named as Sunderland 's player of the season , while on loan centre @-@ back Jonny Evans was named as the club 's young player of the season for the second season running . The club 's average attendance of 42 @,@ 728 was the fifth highest in the division .
= = Background = =
Discussions of takeover were held over the summer involving an Irish group , the Drumaville Consortium , led by Niall Quinn . They completed the takeover in July for £ 10 million as Quinn 's group took 72 @.@ 59 % of the club 's shares . During the 2006 – 07 season , Roy Keane took over as manager from chairman Niall Quinn , who served as manager for the first six games of the season . Keane had a successful start to his managerial career with a 2 – 1 win over Derby County on 11 September 2006 . On transfer window deadline day , Keane signed new players ; Dwight Yorke , Liam Miller , Ross Wallace , Stanislav Varga , Graham Kavanagh and David Connolly . A 2 – 0 win over Leicester City on 1 January 2007 sparked an 18 @-@ game unbeaten streak for Sunderland , which was eventually ended on 21 April 2007 after a 3 – 1 defeat at the hands of Colchester United .
Sunderland reached the top of the Football League Championship for the first time in the season with a 2 – 1 win over Southampton , which included an 87th @-@ minute winner from Grant Leadbitter . Their promotion was confirmed as third placed team Derby County lost 2 – 0 to Crystal Palace , as a result Birmingham City were also promoted . On the last day of the season , the Championship title would be decided . Sunderland won their game 5 – 0 against Luton Town , while Birmingham suffered a defeat against Preston North End thus crowning Sunderland as champions .
= = Review = =
= = = Pre @-@ season = = =
Sunderland 's pre @-@ season was busy with transfer activity , seeing eight players come in , and five players leave . Kenny Cunningham retired , Tommy Miller , William Mocquet , Kevin Smith were released , while Robbie Weir , Jamie Chandler and David Dowson were all promoted to the first team from the club 's youth system . Their first signing of the season was of Greg Halford from Charlton Athletic , and their first transfer out of the club when Stephen Elliott moved to Wolverhampton Wanderers . On 13 July 2007 , Sunderland signed the former Newcastle United player Michael Chopra from Cardiff City for £ 5 million and Manchester United midfielder Kieran Richardson on 16 July .
Fellow north east team Darlington was Sunderland 's first pre @-@ season friendly , Sunderland won the game 2 – 0 with goals from Ross Wallace and Anthony Stokes at The Darlington Arena . This was followed up by a shock defeat to Scunthorpe United on 21 July where they were beaten 1 – 0 . Sunderland went on a tour of Ireland , where they would play Bohemians , Cork City and Galway United . They beat Bohemians 1 – 0 on 28 July thanks to a Stern John goal , but were held to a 1 – 1 draw at Cork City as Liam Miller scored the Sunderland goal . Their final game of the tour against Galway United ended as a 4 – 0 win for Sunderland , with goals from Michael Chopra , Kieran Richardson , David Connolly and Stern John . Juventus travelled to the Stadium of Light to commemorate its ten @-@ year anniversary . The game ended 1 – 1 as Daryl Murphy scored , but the Italian side scored with two minutes remaining to draw the game .
Sunderland signed Dickson Etuhu from Norwich City for £ 1 @.@ 5 million on 17 July , and Paul McShane from West Bromwich Albion on 26 July for £ 2 @.@ 5 million . With the start of the Premier League season looming , Sunderland broke their transfer record to buy Scottish international goalkeeper Craig Gordon from Heart of Midlothian for £ 9 million . The club 's last signing before the start of the season was Roy O 'Donovan from Cork City for an undisclosed fee .
= = = August = = =
Sunderland 's season started against Tottenham Hotspur on 11 August 2007 . Sunderland won the game through a last minute goal from Michael Chopra in front of an attendance of 43 @,@ 967 . Their second game of the season was an away fixture to Birmingham City , a Paul McShane own goal had put Sunderland behind in the 28th minute , but Michael Chopra scored his second goal of the season to equalise . Birmingham took the lead again through Garry O 'Connor but Sunderland scored another last minute goal , this time from Stern John to save a point . On 24 August ex Manchester United and Newcastle United striker Andy Cole joined the club on a free transfer from Portsmouth . Sunderland travelled to the JJB Stadium unbeaten on 18 August but lost 3 – 0 to Wigan Athletic . On 25 September Liverpool beat Sunderland 2 – 0 to give them their second consecutive defeat . On the same day , Tobias Hysén returned to his native Sweden with IFK Göteborg after he and his wife were suffering from home sickness . Luton Town produced a league cup shock as they beat Sunderland 3 – 0 at Kenilworth Road . Sunderland signed three more players before the transfer deadline ; Ian Harte from Levante on a free transfer , Danny Higginbotham from Stoke City for £ 3 million , and Kenwyne Jones from Southampton for £ 6 million with Stern John going in the opposite direction .
= = = September = = =
Sunderland opened the month with a 1 – 0 defeat away to Manchester United on 1 September , Louis Saha scored the winner 18 minutes from full @-@ time . Roy Keane said " I 'm delighted with the overall performance . It would have been nice to test their goalkeeper a bit more but overall I 'm delighted with the players ' efforts . " about the team 's display . Jack Pelter signed for Sunderland on 8 September , from New Zealand team Canterbury United , on a free transfer in an original one @-@ month deal . Two weeks after the defeat to Manchester United , Sunderland beat Reading 2 – 1 on 15 September . Kenwyne Jones and Ross Wallace scored the Sunderland goals in a game which was overshadowed by the tribute paid to 1973 FA Cup Final scorer Ian Porterfield who died on 11 September 2007 . Sunderland met Middlesbrough on 22 September in their first north east derby of the season . Grant Leadbitter scored in the 2nd minute to put Sunderland in front , but two ex @-@ Sunderland players ; Julio Arca and Stewart Downing put Middlesbrough into the lead . Liam Miller scored an 89th minute volley to save a point for Sunderland . Grant Leadbitter scored his second goal in as many games on 29 September as Blackburn Rovers beat Sunderland 2 – 1 .
= = = October = = =
October started with an away fixture against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium on 7 October . Sunderland went 2 – 0 down within the first 14 minutes . However , Sunderland levelled the score at 2 – 2 with goals from Ross Wallace on the 25th minute and Kenwyne Jones on the 48 minute . Arsenal won the game 3 – 2 after a late Robin van Persie goal . Sunderland suffered back @-@ to @-@ back defeats when they lost 3 – 1 away to West Ham United on 21 October . Kenwyne Jones got the goal for Sunderland . Fulham came to the Stadium of Light on 27 October , Fulham took the lead in the 32nd minute with a 30 yard free kick from Simon Davies . Sunderland snatched a point when Kenywyne Jones scored an 86th @-@ minute equaliser . The wearsiders had gone down to ten men in the 67th minute when Greg Halford was sent off .
= = = November = = =
Sunderland lost 1 – 0 away to Manchester City on 5 November after a goal from Stephen Ireland . Manager , Roy Keane , expressed his frustration in a post match interview saying " We didn 't deserve anything . I don 't feel we did enough to get anything out of the game . I don 't think their keeper had too many saves to make , did he ? " . 10 November was the first Tyne – Wear derby of the season . Danny Higginbotham put Sunderland into the lead shortly after half time , but James Milner drew Newcastle level on the 68th minute after his cross beat goalkeeper Craig Gordon into the far post . Sunderland had a chance to win the game when ex @-@ Newcastle forward Michael Chopra headed against the bar minutes from full @-@ time . Sunderland ended the month on a low as they were beaten 7 – 1 away to Everton on 24 November . Dwight Yorke scored Sunderland 's only goal just before half time . Roy Keane said " It 's hard to take , but we lose as a team and I picked the team and sorted the tactics so I have no problem taking responsibility for what happened . "
= = = December = = =
On 1 December Sunderland beat Derby County 1 – 0 . The defeat against Everton led to Craig Gordon being dropped from the side . He was replaced by Darren Ward who made a save to push Kenny Miller 's strike onto the post . With the game looking to be heading towards a draw , Anthony Stokes scrambled to ball in to win the game . On 8 December Sunderland travelled to Stamford Bridge to play Chelsea . Sunderland went behind in the 23rd minute through an Andriy Shevchenko goal . Chelsea won the game 2 – 0 after Liam Miller was sent off whilst giving a penalty away , which Frank Lampard scored . Sunderland played Aston Villa on 15 December , Danny Higginbotham put Sunderland ahead with a 10th @-@ minute header . Villa midfielder Shaun Maloney equalised when he scored a from a 71st minute free kick . Sunderland could have won the game late on , but Danny Collins ' header was ruled out by referee Steve Bennett for a foul . Roy Keane displayed his annoyance at Bennett saying " It sums up ( the referee 's ) day . He was giving everything against us and to say we 're disappointed would be an unbelievable understatement . You could sense he was waiting to blow his whistle . It would be nice to see him later . "
Reading reversed their defeat to Sunderland previously in the season by winning 2 – 1 on 22 December . Reading had led 1 – 0 after a 69th @-@ minute goal from Ívar Ingimarsson . Michael Chopra levelled the match by scoring an 82nd @-@ minute penalty . A goal by Stephen Hunt in the 90th minute sparked controversy as it appeared not to have crossed the line . Sunderland met Manchester United on Boxing Day at the Stadium of Light , they were beaten 4 – 0 in a game were Sunderland striker Martyn Waghorn made the step up from the club 's Youth system to the first team . Martyn Waghorn promoted to first team from Youth system . Sunderland ended 2007 with a 3 – 1 home win to Bolton Wanderers on 29 December , Kieran Richardson , Kenwyne Jones and Daryl Murphy were the scorers .
= = = January = = =
Sunderland began the new year with a 1 – 0 away loss to Blackburn Rovers on 1 January . Dean Whitehead had the chance to put Sunderland in the lead , but missed his penalty kick . Minutes later , Blackburn won a penalty of their own ; Benni McCarthy converted the penalty before Dwight Yorke was sent off late on . Jonny Evans returned to Sunderland on loan for the second time for the remainder of season from Manchester United . Sunderland met Wigan Athletic in the FA Cup third round as they lost 3 – 0 on 5 January . On 12 January Kieran Richardson scored a double to beat Portsmouth 2 – 0 at the Stadium of Light . Sunderland made their first permanent signing of the January transfer window when Frenchman Jean @-@ Yves M 'voto signed from Paris Saint @-@ Germain on 15 January for an undisclosed fee . M 'voto said " This is a big opportunity for me , I 'm pleased to be at Sunderland . "
On 19 January Sunderland played Tottenham Hotspur . An early Aaron Lennon goal saw Spurs take the lead , and Robbie Keane 's 100th goal for the club in the 90th minute won the game for Tottenham at White Hart Lane . Phil Bardsley signed for the club on 22 January from Manchester United for £ 2 million , the next day Rade Prica also signed for the club , from AaB Aalborg for £ 2 million . New signing Rade Prica scored a goal on his debut for Sunderland to wrap up a 2 – 0 win at home to Birmingham City on 29 January . Daryl Murphy scored the first goal in the 15th minute . Andy Reid signed for the club on the last day of the January transfer window deadline from Charlton Athletic for £ 4 million .
= = = February = = =
Sunderland had a poor start to the month , as they lost 3 – 0 away to Liverpool on 2 February . They had two penalty appeals turned down , prompting Roy Keane to comment , " We felt they were penalties . But I didn 't feel we were going to get those decisions today . " Following a recent heart attack in a League Cup game between Leicester City and Nottingham Forest , Clive Clarke had his Sunderland contract terminated on 5 February due to the event while on loan at Leicester . Sunderland bounced back from the defeat to Liverpool with a 2 – 0 win against Wigan Athletic on 9 February . Dickson Etuhu put them in the lead before Daryl Murphy scored a 25 yard strike in off the bar . Sunderland , however , lost their next game 1 – 0 to Portsmouth on 23 February at Fratton Park .
= = = March = = =
On 1 March Sunderland drew 0 – 0 away to Derby County . Michael Chopra could have put the team in the lead , only for it to be ruled out for offside . Sunderland 's manager said , " He [ Chopra ] was clearly onside and we are always told that the advantage goes with the attacking player . " An Andrew Johnson goal on the verge of half time helped Everton to a 1 – 0 win at the Stadium of Light on 8 March . Sunderland lost consecutive games when Chelsea beat them 1 – 0 on 15 March due to a Didier Drogba goal . Andy Reid came close to putting Sunderland in front as his free kick was plucked from the top corner by Carlo Cudicini . Sunderland 's first away win of the season came on 22 March when they won 1 – 0 at Villa Park against Aston Villa . An 83rd minute Michael Chopra scored the winning goal for Sunderland . A 2 – 1 win at home to West Ham United on 29 February helped Sunderland to their first consecutive wins of the season . Kenwyne Jones ' first goal since late December levelled the score at 1 – 1 and a 95th minute Andy Reid goal won the game .
= = = April = = =
A 3 – 1 away win to Fulham on 5 April helped Sunderland to nine points in three games , as goals came from Danny Collins , Michael Chopra and Kenwyne Jones . They lost 2 – 1 at home to Manchester City on 12 April . Manchester City were awarded a dubious penalty given by Mike Riley , and Elano converted it in the 79 minute . Dean Whitehead equalised with a near post volley after Andy Reid crossed the ball . Manchester City , however , still had time to win the game and Darius Vassell scored an 89th minute scuffed shot to beat Craig Gordon . On the return fixture of the Tyne and Wear derby on 19 April Sunderland were defeated 2 – 0 away to Newcastle United . The next game was another derby for Sunderland , this time the Tees – Wear derby on 26 April . Sunderland won the game 3 – 2 at home to Middlesbrough , with goals from Danny Higginbotham , Michael Chopra and an Emanuel Pogatetz own goal , thus securing their safety and staying in the Premier League .
= = = May = = =
After ensuring their own safety , Sunderland travelled to Bolton Wanderers on 3 May , who were not yet safe from relegation . Sunderland lost the game 2 – 0 at the Reebok Stadium . On 11 May , the last game of the Premier League season , Sunderland played Arsenal at the Stadium of Light . Arsenal won the game 1 – 0 through a Theo Walcott goal . Sunderland also recorded their highest home attendance of the season , when the match was watched by 47 @,@ 802 people . Sunderland finished the season with 39 points in 15th place , with Kenwyne Jones as top goal scorer with seven goals . Left @-@ back Danny Collins was named as Sunderland 's player of the season , while on loan centre @-@ back Jonny Evans was named as the club 's young player of the season for the second season running . They finished with an average home attendance of 42 @,@ 728 which was the fifth highest in the league .
= = Match results = =
= = = Legend = = =
= = = Pre @-@ season = = =
= = = Premier League = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = League Cup = = =
= = League table = =
Source : Barclays Premier League
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored1 via FA Cup 2007 @-@ 082 via UEFA Fair Play ranking3 via Football League Cup 2007 @-@ 08 ( C )
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P )
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O )
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q )
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ )
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = Player details = =
Sources
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
= = = Out = = =
= = = Loans in = = =
= = = Loans out = = =
= Welcome Party =
" Welcome Party " is the twentieth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 172nd episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 12 , 2012 . " Welcome Party " was written by Steve Hely and directed by series regular Ed Helms , who portrays Andy Bernard .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Robert California ( James Spader ) forces the office to prepare a welcome party for Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) , but the party planners seek to sabotage it . Meanwhile , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) helps Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) break up with his girlfriend , Jessica .
" Welcome Party " was received differently by many critics , resulting in mixed reviews , with multiple critics feeling that the episode never lived up to its potential . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Welcome Party " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 39 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode ranked fourth in its timeslot and was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Robert California ( James Spader ) forces the office to throw a welcome party for Nellie ( Catherine Tate ) , but the Party Planning Committee works on ways to sabotage it . Meanwhile , Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) are sent to Nellie 's apartment to help her move in . When Dwight suggests bringing in a magician to move her furniture magically , Nellie quickly admits her disdain for stage magicians , prompting Jim to tell Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) about hiring a magician for Nellie 's party . Jim and Dwight find a shoe box with a note to Nellie from herself saying not to open it . Inside , they find photos of her with another man and deduce him to be an ex @-@ boyfriend . When Nellie finds them with the photos , she says that she lost everything when she broke up with him . One of the photos shows him as a stage magician , which became the root of her distaste of magicians . Jim calls Pam back ordering her to reconsider some of the party ideas . Pam tries to convince the other employees to little or no avail .
At the party , the employees vent their hatred of Nellie onto Pam to avoid admitting the truth , making Pam uncomfortable . The magician that was hired ( Brett Gelman ) arrives , much to Nellie 's dismay . Jim , Dwight , and Pam , out of solidarity to Nellie , sabotage the magician 's tricks until he reaches breaking point and Dwight kicks him out . Nellie and Robert commend the employees for throwing a good party , but Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) complains that the carrot cake has actual vegetables in it , which Pam made as a prank . When Jim and Pam leave for the day , Pam asks Hank ( Hugh Dane ) why he let the magician into the elevator when he was asked not to . Hank , busy reading a magazine , claims not to have noticed him , stating that as a magician he could have slipped by .
Meanwhile , Andy ( Ed Helms ) and Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) decide not to get together officially until he breaks up with Jessica ( Eleanor Siegler ) . On their way back to Scranton , they stop at Jessica 's family 's log cabin , where they encounter a bunch of Jessica 's friends having a bachelorette party and drinking . Andy and Erin decide to bail , but Jessica returns from her morning run . After staying a while , Andy asks Jessica into the kitchen where she deduces that he is breaking up with her . Erin is surprised however when Jessica said that Andy told her he didn 't think Erin was relationship material . Andy doesn 't deny saying that , instead opting to claim that he 's gay and leaves awkwardly with Erin . In the car , Andy says he made those comments about Erin because he was with Jessica before Erin falls asleep . Andy decides to head back to the cabin to tell Jessica and her party that he broke up with her because he wanted to be with Erin and that she is relationship material , while Erin overhears . Jessica and her party chase Andy and Erin back to the car . Erin passionately kisses Andy inside the car while the party throws cake at them , prompting a quick getaway .
= = Production = =
" Welcome Party " was written by Steve Hely , his second writing credit for the season after " Trivia " . The episode was directed by series regular Ed Helms , who portrays Andy Bernard . This marked his second director 's credit for both the series and season , after " Christmas Wishes " . The episode marks the seventh appearance of Catherine Tate as Nellie Bertram and her sixth consecutive appearance . She first appeared in the seventh season finale , " Search Committee " as a guest star , but starting with " Tallahassee " she was added to the cast as part of the main cast .
The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Jim trying to stall Nellie , Robert California asking the party planning committee how great the party will be , Nellie checking out her new neighbors and asking her neighbor if he is an abortionist , in order to make sure her building will not be the target of a fire @-@ bombing , and the party planning committee trying to think of catty ways to make Nellie angry .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Welcome Party " originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 12 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 39 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 2 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight drop in the ratings from the previous episode , " Get the Girl " . " Welcome Party " was ranked as the lowest @-@ rated episode of the series in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating the first season finale , " Hot Girl " , " Tallahassee " and " Get the Girl " . The episode finished fourth in its time slot , only beating The CW drama series , Supernatural . The episode was defeated by the Fox drama series Touch , ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy and a rerun of the CBS sitcom , The Big Bang Theory .
= = = Review = = =
" Welcome Party " received mixed reviews from critics . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt wrote that while the series had two goals to perform by the end of the episode — to turn Nellie into a relatable character and break Andy and Jessica up — he felt that both plots failed in execution . He wrote that because the audience knew nothing about Jessica and that he had " already given up on " Nellie as a character , the episode ultimately became an " ' unfunny ' experience " . He ultimately gave the episode a C. Cindy White of IGN compared the writer 's attempt to humanize Nellie to the previous seasons , specifically " The Dundies " when the writers humanized Michael and wrote that she hoped the writers would continue to do this with Nellie . She also went on to praise the interaction between Jim and Pam , saying " Their ability [ ... ] to communicate volumes with a few words or merely a glance demonstrates why their chemistry has been so difficult to replicate with other couples . " . Despite her mainly positive review , she criticized the Andy and Erin subplot because she neither cared about Jessica or Andy and Erin 's relationship and called the whole subplot " a waste of time " . She ultimately gave the episode a 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , calling it " Good " . Writing for New York , Lucy Teitler unfavorably compared the Andy @-@ Erin plotline to Jim and Pam 's from the early seasons of the series , writing that the romance wasn 't able to " take off , because Erin has no real agency " and that the scene where Andy returned to the bachelorette party felt too superficial to reach its potential of becoming a " classic " Office scene .
The cold open received particularly positive reviews from critics . Myles McNutt called it " clever " and noted that even he had forgotten whether Stanley had a mustache . Lucy Teitler positively compared it to Guys and Dolls . Cindy White considered a " great ensemble bit " and that it showed promise for the episode , although it didn 't reach that promise .
= Providence , Rhode Island =
Providence is the capital and most populous city in Rhode Island . Founded in 1636 , it is one of the oldest cities in the United States . It is located in Providence County , and is the third @-@ largest city in the New England region after Boston and Worcester . Providence has a city population of 179 @,@ 154 and is part of the 38th @-@ largest metropolitan population in the country , with an estimated population of 1 @,@ 604 @,@ 291 , exceeding that of Rhode Island by about 60 % , as it extends into southern Massachusetts . This can be considered in turn to be part of the Greater Boston commuting area , which contains 7 @.@ 6 million people . The city is situated at the mouth of the Providence River , at the head of Narragansett Bay .
Providence was founded by Roger Williams , a religious exile from the Massachusetts Bay Colony . He named the area in honor of " God 's merciful Providence " , which he believed was responsible for revealing such a haven for him and his followers to settle . After becoming one of the first cities in the country to industrialize , Providence became noted for its jewelry and silverware industry . Today , the city of Providence is home to eight hospitals and seven institutions of higher learning , which has shifted the city 's economy into service industries , though it still retains significant manufacturing activity .
Once nicknamed the " Beehive of Industry " , Providence began rebranding itself as the " Creative Capital " in 2009 to emphasize its educational resources and arts community .
= = History = =
= = = Settlement = = =
The area that is now Providence was first settled in June 1636 by Roger Williams , and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies of the United States . Williams and his company felt compelled to withdraw from Massachusetts Bay Colony . They were greeted by the Narragansetts on rocks near present @-@ day Gano Street with the greeting , " What Cheer , Netop . " They sought refuge with the Narragansett tribe at a place on the banks of a salt cove , as the chief of the Narragansett , Canonicus , made them welcome . In 1636 , Canonicus gave Williams the large tract of land which became the first nucleus of the colony of Providence Plantation . Williams ' Providence soon became a refuge for persecuted religious dissenters , as he himself had been exiled from Massachusetts . Providence 's growth would be slow during the next quarter @-@ century — the subsuming of its territory into surrounding towns , difficulty of farming the land , and differing of local traditions and land conflicts all slowed development .
= = = Revolution = = =
In the mid @-@ 1770s , the British government levied taxes that impeded Providence 's maritime , fishing and agricultural industries , the mainstay of the city 's economy . One example was the Sugar Act , which was a tax levied against Providence 's distilleries that adversely affected its trade in rum and slaves . These taxes caused Providence to join the other colonies in renouncing allegiance to the British Crown . In response to enforcement of unpopular trade laws , Providence residents spilled blood in the leadup to the American Revolution in the notorious Gaspée Affair of 1772 .
Though during the American Revolutionary War the city escaped British occupation , the capture of nearby Newport disrupted industry and kept the population on alert . Troops were quartered for various campaigns and Brown University 's University Hall was used as a barracks and military hospital . French troops were quartered in the city 's Market House .
After departing from Newport , French troops sent by King Louis XVI and commanded by the Comte de Rochambeau passed through Providence on their way to join the attack against British forces . The march from Newport to Providence was the beginning of a campaign led jointly by Rochambeau and General George Washington in a decisive march that ended with the defeat of General Cornwallis in the Siege of Yorktown at Yorktown , Virginia , and the Battle of the Chesapeake .
= = = Incorporation as a city = = =
Following the war , Providence was the country 's ninth @-@ largest city with 7 @,@ 614 people . The economy shifted from maritime endeavors to manufacturing , in particular machinery , tools , silverware , jewelry , and textiles . By the start of the 20th century , Providence boasted some of the largest manufacturing plants in the country , including Brown & Sharpe , Nicholson File , and Gorham Silverware . The city 's industries attracted many immigrants from Ireland , Germany , Sweden , England , Italy , Portugal , Cape Verde , and French Canada . Economic and demographic shifts caused social strife , notably with a series of race riots between whites and blacks during the 1820s .
In response to these troubles and the economic growth , Providence residents ratified a city charter in 1831 as the population passed 17 @,@ 000 .
= = = City Government = = =
From its incorporation as a city in 1832 until 1878 , the seat of city government was located in the Market House , located in Market Square , which was the geographic and social center of the city . The city offices quickly outgrew this building , and in 1845 the City Council resolved to create a permanent municipal building . The city spent the next 30 years searching for a suitable location , resulting in what some historians have referred to as " Providence 's Thirty Years ' War " , as the council bickered over where to site the new building . Finally , in 1878 the city offices moved into the newly completed City Hall .
= = = Civil War = = =
During the Civil War , local politics split over slavery as many had ties to Southern cotton . Despite ambivalence concerning the war , the number of military volunteers routinely exceeded quota , and the city 's manufacturing proved invaluable to the Union . Postwar , horsecar lines covering the city enabled its growth and Providence thrived with waves of immigrants and land annexations bringing the population from 54 @,@ 595 in 1865 to 175 @,@ 597 by 1900 . From the 1890s until around 1951 , a Chinatown existed around the Burrill Street and Empire Street neighborhoods , which were razed under controversy for a highway extension .
= = = Growth and decline = = =
The city 's boom began to wane in the mid @-@ 1920s as industries , notably textiles , shut down . Jewelry manufacturing continued to grow , taking up the slack and employing many of the city 's new immigrants , coming from Portuguese , Italian , Polish , Lithuanian , and Jewish backgrounds . A number of hospitals also opened . The Great Depression hit the city hard , and Providence 's downtown was subsequently flooded by the New England Hurricane of 1938 . Though the city received a boost from World War II , this ended with the war . The city saw further decline as a result of nationwide trends , with the construction of highways and increased suburbanization . The population would drop by 38 % over the next three decades . From the 1950s to the 1980s , Providence was a notorious bastion of organized crime . The mafia boss Raymond L.S. Patriarca ruled a vast criminal enterprise .
= = = Renaissance = = =
The city 's " Renaissance " began in the 1970s . From 1975 until 1982 , US $ 606 million of local and national Community Development funds were invested throughout the city , and the hitherto falling population began to stabilize . In the 1990s , Mayor Vincent " Buddy " Cianci , Jr showcased the city 's strength in arts and pushed for further revitalization , ultimately resulting in the uncovering of the city 's natural rivers ( which had been covered by paved bridges ) , relocation of a large section of railroad underground , creation of Waterplace Park and river walks along the river 's banks , and construction of the Fleet Skating Rink ( now the Bank of America Skating Rink ) downtown and the 1 @.@ 4 million ft ² Providence Place Mall .
New investment triggered within the city , with new construction including numerous condo projects , hotels , and a new office high @-@ rise all filling in the freed space . Despite new investment , poverty remains an entrenched problem as it does in most post @-@ industrial New England cities . Approximately 27 @.@ 9 percent of the city population is living below the poverty line . Recent increases in real estate values further exacerbate problems for those at marginal income levels , as Providence had the highest rise in median housing price of any city in the United States from 2004 to 2005 .
= = Geography = =
The Providence city limits enclose a small geographic region , with a total area of 20 @.@ 5 square miles ( 53 km2 ) . 18 @.@ 5 square miles ( 48 km2 ) of it is land and the remaining 2 @.@ 1 square miles ( 5 @.@ 4 km2 ) ( roughly 10 % ) of it is water .
Providence is located at the head of Narragansett Bay , with the Providence River running into the bay through the center of the city , formed by the confluence of the Moshassuck and Woonasquatucket Rivers . The Waterplace Park amphitheater and riverwalks line the river 's banks through downtown .
Providence is one of many cities claimed , like Rome , to be founded on seven hills . The more prominent hills are : Constitution Hill ( near downtown ) , College Hill ( east of the Providence River ) , and Federal Hill ( west of downtown and is New England 's largest Italian district outside of Massachusetts ) . The other four are : Tockwotten Hill at Fox Point , Smith Hill ( where the State House is located ) , Christian Hill at Hoyle Square ( junction of Cranston & Westminster Streets ) , and Weybosset Hill at the lower end of Weybosset Street , which was leveled in the early 1880s .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Providence has 25 official neighborhoods , though these neighborhoods are often grouped together and referred to collectively :
The East Side is a region comprising the neighborhoods of Blackstone , Hope ( aka Summit ) , Mount Hope , College Hill , Wayland , and Fox Point .
The Jewelry District describes the area enclosed by I @-@ 95 , the old I @-@ 195 , and the Providence River . The city has made efforts to rename this area the Knowledge District to reflect the area 's newly developing life sciences and technology @-@ based economy .
The North End is formed by the combination of the neighborhoods of Charles , Wanskuck , Smith Hill , Elmhurst , and Mount Pleasant .
The South Side ( or South Providence ) consists of the neighborhoods of Elmwood , Lower South Providence , Upper South Providence , and the West End .
West Broadway is an officially recognized neighborhood with its own association . It overlaps with the southern half of Federal Hill and the northern part of the West End .
The West Side is a vague term sometimes used to mean the West End , Olneyville , and Silver Lake .
= = = Cityscape = = =
The city of Providence is geographically very compact , characteristic of eastern seaboard cities that developed prior to use of the automobile . It is among the most densely populated cities in the country . For this reason , Providence has the eighth @-@ highest percentage of pedestrian commuters . The street layout is irregular — over one thousand streets ( a great number for the city 's size ) run haphazardly , connecting and radiating from traditionally bustling places like Market Square .
Downtown Providence has numerous 19th @-@ century mercantile buildings in the Federal and Victorian architectural styles , as well as several post @-@ modern and modernist buildings , located throughout the area . In particular , a fairly clear spatial separation appears between the areas of pre @-@ 1980s development and post @-@ 1980s development . West Exchange Street and Exchange Terrace serve as rough boundaries between the two .
The newer area , sometimes called " Capitol Center " , includes Providence Place Mall ( 1999 ) , the Omni Providence Hotel ( 1993 ) and The Residences Providence ( 2007 ) , GTECH Corporation ( 2006 ) , Waterplace condominiums ( 2007 ) , and Waterplace Park ( 1994 ) ; the area tends toward newer development , since much of it is land reclaimed in the 1970s from a mass of railroad tracks referred to colloquially as the " Chinese Wall " . This part of Downtown is characterized by open spaces , wide roads , and intent landscaping .
The historic part of downtown has many streetscapes that look as they did eighty years ago . Many of the state 's tallest buildings are found here . The largest structure , to date , is the art @-@ deco @-@ styled former Industrial Trust Tower , currently the Bank of America Building at 426 feet ( 130 m ) . By contrast , nearby to it is the second tallest One Financial Plaza , designed in modern taut @-@ skin cladding , constructed a half @-@ century later . In between the two is 50 Kennedy Plaza . The Textron Tower is also a core building to the modest Providence skyline . Downtown is also the home of the Providence Biltmore and Westminster Arcade , the oldest enclosed shopping mall in the U.S. , built in 1828 .
The city 's southern waterfront , away from the downtown core , is the location of many oil tanks , a docking station for a ferry boat , a non @-@ profit sailing center , bars , strip clubs , and power plants . The Russian Submarine Museum was located here until 2008 , after the submarine sank in a storm and was declared a loss . The Fox Point Hurricane Barrier is also found here , built to protect Providence from storm surge , like that which it had endured in the 1938 New England Hurricane and again in 1954 from Hurricane Carol .
The majority of the cityscape comprises abandoned and revitalized industrial mills , double- and triple @-@ decker housing ( though row houses , found so commonly in other Northeast cities , are rare here ) , a small number of high @-@ rise buildings ( predominantly for housing the elderly ) , and single family homes . I @-@ 95 serves as a physical barrier between the city 's commercial core and neighborhoods such as Federal Hill , and the West End .
= = = Climate = = =
Providence has a humid continental or humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cfa or Dfa ) depending on the January isotherm used , with warm summers , cold winters , and high humidity year @-@ round . The USDA places the city in Hardiness zone 6b , with the suburbs falling in zones 6a – 7b . The influence of the Atlantic Ocean keeps Providence , and the rest of the state of Rhode Island , warmer than many inland locales in New England . January is the coldest month with a daily mean of 29 @.@ 2 ° F ( − 1 @.@ 6 ° C ) , and low temperatures dropping to 10 ° F ( − 12 ° C ) or lower an average of 11 days per winter , while July is the warmest month with a daily mean of 73 @.@ 5 ° F ( 23 @.@ 1 ° C ) , and highs rising to 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) or higher an average of 10 days per summer . Extremes range from − 17 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) on February 9 , 1934 to 104 ° F ( 40 ° C ) on August 2 , 1975 ; the record cold daily maximum is 1 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) on February 5 , 1918 , while the record warm daily minimum is 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) on June 6 , 1925 . Temperature readings of 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) or lower are uncommon in Providence , and generally occur once every several years . The year which had the most days with a temperature reading of zero degrees or lower was 2015 with eight days total ; one day in January and seven days in February . Conversely , temperature readings of 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) or higher are even rarer , and the year with the most days in this category was 1944 with three days , all of which were in August .
As with the rest of the northeastern seaboard , Providence receives ample precipitation year @-@ round . Monthly precipitation ranges from a high of 4 @.@ 43 inches ( 112 @.@ 5 mm ) in March to a low of 3 @.@ 17 inches ( 80 @.@ 5 mm ) in July . In general , precipitation levels are slightly lesser in the summer months than the winter months , when powerful storms known as Nor 'easters can cause significant snowfall and blizzard conditions . Although hurricanes are not frequent in coastal New England , Providence 's location at the head of Narragansett Bay makes it vulnerable to them .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2000 , the population comprised 173 @,@ 618 people , 162 @,@ 389 households , and 35 @,@ 859 families . The population density was 9 @,@ 401 @.@ 7 inhabitants per square mile ( 3 @,@ 629 @.@ 4 / km ² ) , characteristic of comparatively older cities in New England such as New Haven , Connecticut ; Springfield , Massachusetts , and Hartford , Connecticut . Also like these cities , its population peaked in the 1940s just prior to the nationwide period of rapid suburbanization .
Providence has a racially and ethnically diverse population . In 2010 , White Americans formed 49 @.@ 8 % of the population , including a sizable White Hispanic community . Non @-@ Hispanic whites , historically predominant in the city , were 37 @.@ 6 % of the total population , down from 89 @.@ 5 % in 1970 . Providence has had a substantial Italian population since the start of the 20th century , with 14 % ( a plurality ) of the population claiming Italian ancestry . Italian influence manifests itself in Providence 's Little Italy in Federal Hill . Irish immigrants have also had considerable influence on the city 's history , with 8 % of residents claiming Irish heritage . The city also has a sizeable , active and important Jewish community , estimated at 10 @,@ 500 in 2012 or roughly 5 % of the city 's population .
In 2010 , people of Hispanic or Latino origin comprised 27 @.@ 8 % of the city 's population and currently form a majority of city public school students. of Providence 's population . The largest Hispanic groups are those having origins in Puerto Rico , Colombia , Bolivia , the Dominican Republic , and Guatemala . Hispanics are most concentrated in the neighborhoods of Elmwood , the West End , Upper , and Lower South Providence . The city elected its first Hispanic mayor in 2010 , Dominican @-@ American Angel Taveras .
African Americans constitute 16 % of the city 's population , with their greatest concentrations found in Mount Hope and Upper and Lower South Providence neighborhoods . Asians are 6 % of Providence 's population and have enclaves scattered throughout the city . The largest Asian groups are Cambodians ( 1 @.@ 7 % ) , Chinese ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) , Asian Indians ( 0 @.@ 7 % ) , Laotians ( 0 @.@ 6 % ) , and Koreans ( 0 @.@ 6 % ) . Another 6 % of the city has multiracial ancestry . Native Americans and Pacific Islanders make up the remaining 1 @.@ 3 % . With Liberians comprising 0 @.@ 4 % of the population , the city is home to one of the largest Liberian immigrant populations in the country .
Providence , like some nearby Massachusetts communities , has a considerable community of immigrants from various Portuguese @-@ speaking countries ( especially Portugal , Brazil , and Cape Verde ) , living mostly in the areas of Washington Park and Fox Point . Portuguese is the city 's third @-@ largest European ethnicity , ( after Italian and Irish ) at 4 % of the population ; Cape Verdeans comprise 2 % .
The Providence metropolitan area , which includes Providence , Fall River , Massachusetts , and Warwick is estimated to have a population of 1 @,@ 622 @,@ 520 . In 2006 , this area was officially added to the Boston Combined Statistical Area ( CSA ) , the fifth @-@ largest CSA in the country . In the last fifteen years , Providence has experienced a sizable growth in its under @-@ 18 population . The median age of the city is 28 years , while the largest age cohort is 20- to 24 @-@ year @-@ olds , owing to the city 's large student population .
The per capita income , as of the 2000 census , was $ 15 @,@ 525 , which is well below both the state average of $ 29 @,@ 113 , and the national average of $ 21 @,@ 587 . The median income for a household was $ 26 @,@ 867 , and the median income for a family in Providence was $ 32 @,@ 058 , according to the 2000 census . The city has one of the highest rates of poverty in the nation with 29 @.@ 1 % of the population and 23 @.@ 9 % of families living below the poverty line in 2000 , the largest concentrations being found in the city 's Olneyville , and Upper and Lower South Providence areas . Poverty has affected children at a disproportionately higher rate , with 40 @.@ 1 % of those under the age of 18 living below the poverty line , concentrated in particular west of downtown in the neighborhoods of Hartford , Federal Hill , and Olneyville .
= = = Crime = = =
Compared to the national average , Providence has an average rate of violent crime and higher rate of property crime per 100 @,@ 000 inhabitants . In 2010 , there were 15 murders , down from 2009 's 24 . In 2010 , Providence fared better regarding violent crime than most of its peer cities : Springfield , Massachusetts , a city with approximately 20 @,@ 000 fewer residents than Providence , reported 15 murders in 2009 ( i.e. , the same number of homicides as Providence , but a slightly higher rate per capita ) ; New Haven , Connecticut and Hartford , Connecticut , cities with approximately 50 @,@ 000 fewer people than Providence , reported , respectively , 24 and 26 murders in 2010 , significantly higher murder rates per capita than Providence . The police chief asserted that Providence 's violence was not stranger @-@ to @-@ stranger , but relationship driven . The pattern of violent crime was highly specific by neighborhood with vast majority of the murders taking place in the poorer sections of Providence , such as Olneyville , Elmwood , South Providence and the West End .
= = Economy = =
By 1830 , Providence had manufacturing industries in metals , machinery , textiles , jewelry , and silverware . Though manufacturing has declined , the city is still one of the largest centers for jewelry and silverware design and manufacturing . Services , in particular education , healthcare , and finance , also make up a large portion of the city 's economy . Providence also is the site of a sectional center facility ( SCF ) , a regional hub for the U.S. Postal Service . Since it is the capital of Rhode Island , Providence 's economy additionally consists of government services .
Prominent companies headquartered in Providence include Fortune 500 Textron and United Natural Foods , Fortune 1000 Nortek Incorporated , privately held engineering firm Gilbane , and GTECH Corporation , who recently moved their world headquarters to downtown Providence . Citizens Bank , the 15th @-@ largest bank in the country , is also headquartered in Providence . Another company whose origins were in the city is Fleet Bank . Once Rhode Island 's largest bank , it moved its headquarters to Boston , Massachusetts , after acquiring Shawmut Bank in 1995 . Before its acquisition by Bank of America , Fleet merged with BankBoston to become New England 's largest commercial bank .
The city is home to the Rhode Island Convention Center , which opened in December 1993 . Along with a hotel , the convention center is connected to the Providence Place Mall , a major retail center , through a skywalk . The Port of Providence , the second @-@ largest deepwater seaport in New England , handles cargo such as cement , chemicals , heavy machinery , petroleum , and scrap metal . Providence is also home to some of toy manufacturer Hasbro 's business operations , with headquarters remaining in Pawtucket .
= = = Top employers = = =
According to the City 's 2014 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report , the top ten employers in the city are :
= = Government = =
As the state capital , Providence houses the Rhode Island General Assembly as well as the offices of the Governor and the Lieutenant Governor in the Rhode Island State House .
Providence 's city government has a mayor @-@ council form of government . The Providence City Council consists of fifteen city councilors , one for each of the city 's wards . The council is tasked with enacting ordinances and passing an annual budget . Providence also has probate and superior courts . The U.S. District Court for the District of Rhode Island is located downtown across from City Hall adjacent to Kennedy Plaza .
David N. Cicilline finished his term as mayor in 2010 , eight years after taking office as the first openly | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
resident Cass Gilbert , and the House and Senate office buildings . The Minnesota Governor 's Residence , which is used for some state functions , is on Summit Avenue . The Minnesota Democratic @-@ Farmer @-@ Labor Party ( affiliated with the Democratic Party ) is headquartered in Saint Paul . Numerous state departments and services are also headquartered in Saint Paul , such as the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources .
The city includes four Minnesota Senate districts ( 64 , 65 , 66 and 67 ) , and Minnesota House of Representatives districts 64A , 64B , 65A , 65B , 66A , 66B , 67A and 67B are all in the city . The latest biannual election was in 2012 . At the federal level , the city is in Minnesota 's 4th congressional district , represented by Betty McCollum , a Democrat . Minnesota is represented in the Senate by Democrat Amy Klobuchar , a former Hennepin County Attorney , and Democrat Al Franken , a former comedian and satirist .
* District also includes Falcon Heights , Lauderdale and Roseville .
= = Education = =
Saint Paul is second in the United States in the number of higher education institutions per capita . Higher education institutions that call Saint Paul home include three public and eight private colleges and universities and five post @-@ secondary institutions . Well @-@ known colleges and universities include the Saint Catherine University , Concordia University , Hamline University , Macalester College , and the University of St. Thomas . Metropolitan State University and Saint Paul College , which focus on non @-@ traditional students , are based in Saint Paul , as well as two law schools , William Mitchell College of Law and Hamline University School of Law .
The Saint Paul Public Schools district is the state 's second largest school district and serves approximately 42 @,@ 000 students . The district is extremely diverse with students from families speaking 70 different languages , although only four languages are used for most school communication : English , Spanish , Hmong , and Somali . The district runs 82 different schools , including 52 elementary schools , twelve middle schools , seven high schools , ten alternative schools , and one special education school , employing over 6 @,@ 500 teachers and staff . The school district also oversees community education programs for pre @-@ K and adult learners , including Early Childhood Family Education , GED Diploma , language programs , and various learning opportunities for community members of all ages . In 2006 , Saint Paul Public Schools celebrated its 150th anniversary . Some students attend public schools in other school districts chosen by their families under Minnesota 's open enrollment statute .
A variety of K @-@ 12 private , parochial , and public charter schools are also represented in the city . In 1992 , Saint Paul became the first city in the US to sponsor and open a charter school , now found in most states across the nation . Saint Paul is currently home to 21 charter schools as well as 38 private schools . The Saint Paul Public Library system includes a Central Library and twelve branch locations .
= = Media = =
Residents of Saint Paul can receive 10 broadcast television stations , five of which broadcast from within Saint Paul . One daily newspaper , the St. Paul Pioneer Press , two weekly neighborhood newspapers , the East Side Review and City Pages ( owned by The Star Tribune Company ) , and several monthly or semimonthly neighborhood papers serve the city . Several media outlets based in neighboring Minneapolis also serve the Saint Paul community , including the Star Tribune . Saint Paul is home to Minnesota Public Radio , a three @-@ format system that broadcasts on nearly 40 stations around the Midwest . MPR locally delivers news and information , classical , and The Current ( which plays a wide variety of music ) . The station has 110 @,@ 000 regional members and more than 800 @,@ 000 listeners each week throughout the Upper Midwest , the largest audience of any regional public radio network . Also operating as part of American Public Media , MPR 's programming reaches five million listeners , most notably through A Prairie Home Companion , hosted by Garrison Keillor , who also lives in the city . The Fitzgerald Theater , renamed in 1994 for St. Paul native and novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald , is home to the show .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Interstate and roadways = = =
Residents utilize Interstate 35E running north @-@ south and Interstate 94 running east @-@ west . Trunk highways include U.S. Highway 52 , Minnesota State Highway 280 , and Minnesota State Highway 5 . Saint Paul has several unique roads such as Ayd Mill Road , Phalen Boulevard and Shepard Road / Warner Road , which diagonally follow particular geographic features in the city . Biking is also gaining popularity , due to both the creation of more paved bike lanes that connect to other bike routes throughout the metropolitan area and the creation of Nice Ride Minnesota , a seasonally operated nonprofit bicycle sharing and rental system that has over 1 @,@ 550 bicycles and 170 stations in both Minneapolis and Saint Paul . Downtown Saint Paul has a five mile ( 8 km ) enclosed skyway system over twenty @-@ five city blocks . The 563 @-@ mile Avenue of the Saints connects Saint Paul with Saint Louis , Missouri .
The layout of city streets and roads has often drawn complaints . While he was Governor of Minnesota , Jesse Ventura appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman , and remarked that the streets were designed by " drunken Irishmen " . He later apologized , though people had already been complaining about the fractured grid system for more than a century by that point . Some of the city 's road design is the result of the curve of the Mississippi River , hilly topography , conflicts between developers of different neighborhoods in the early city , and grand plans only half @-@ realized . Outside of downtown , the roads are less confusing , but most roads are named , rather than numbered , increasing the difficulty for non @-@ natives to navigate .
= = = Mass transit = = =
Metro Transit provides bus service and light rail in the Minneapolis – Saint Paul area . The METRO Green Line is an 11 @-@ mile ( 18 km ) light rail line that connects downtown Saint Paul to downtown Minneapolis with 14 stations in Saint Paul . The Green Line runs west along University Avenue , through the University of Minnesota campus , until it links up and then shares stations with the Blue Line in downtown Minneapolis . Construction began in November 2010 and the line began service on June 14 , 2014 . Roughly 45 @,@ 000 people rode on the first day ; an average 28 @,@ 000 riders are expected per day .
Metro Transit opened the A Line , Minneapolis – Saint Paul 's first arterial bus rapid transit line , along Snelling Avenue and Ford Parkway . The A Line connects the Blue Line at 46th Street station to Rosedale Center with a connection at the Green Line Snelling Avenue station . The A Line is the first in a series of planned arterial bus rapid transit lines and is set to open in early 2016 .
= = = Railroad = = =
Amtrak 's Empire Builder between Chicago and Seattle stops once daily in each direction at the newly renovated Saint Paul Union Station . Ridership on the train is increasing , about 6 % from 2005 to over 505 @,@ 000 in fiscal year 2007 . Increased ridership has prompted southern Minnesota leaders to plan for an expansion of Amtrak 's service in the area . Saint Paul is the site of the Pig 's Eye Yard , a major freight classification yard for Canadian Pacific Railway . As of 2003 , the yard handled over 1 @,@ 000 freight cars per day . Both Union Pacific and Burlington Northern Santa Fe run trains through the yard , though they are not classified at Pig 's Eye . Burlington Northern Santa Fe operates the large Northtown Yard in Minneapolis , which handles about 600 cars per day . There are several other small yards located around the city .
= = = Airports = = =
Saint Paul is served by the Minneapolis – Saint Paul International Airport ( MSP ) , which sits on 3 @,@ 400 acres ( 14 km2 ) southwest of the city on the west side of the Mississippi River between Minnesota State Highway 5 , Interstate 494 , Minnesota State Highway 77 , and Minnesota State Highway 62 . The airport serves three international , twelve domestic , seven charter , and four regional carriers and is a hub and home base for Delta Air Lines , Mesaba Airlines and Sun Country Airlines . Saint Paul is also served by the St. Paul Downtown Airport located just south of downtown , across the Mississippi River . The airport , also known as Holman Field , is a reliever airport run by the Metropolitan Airports Commission . The airport houses Minnesota 's Air National Guard and is tailored to local corporate aviation . There are three runways that serve about 100 resident aircraft and a flight training school . The Holman Field Administration Building and Riverside Hangar are on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Sister cities = =
Saint Paul has eight sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International :
= To the Stars ( album ) =
To the Stars is an album by American jazz fusion group the Chick Corea Elektric Band , released on August 24 , 2004 by Stretch Records . Jazz musician Chick Corea , a longtime member of the Church of Scientology , was inspired by Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard 's science fiction 1954 novel To the Stars . Hubbard 's book tells the story of an interstellar crew which experiences the effects of time dilation due to traveling at near light speed . A few days experienced by the ship 's crew could amount to hundreds of years for their friends and family back on Earth .
Corea was influenced in particular by a scene from Hubbard 's work where one of the main characters plays the piano , and he created the album as a tone poem piece . It was the first time members of his group Chick Corea Elektric Band had gotten together since 1991 . Scientology @-@ owned Galaxy Press reissued the book at the same time as the album 's release as a form of cross @-@ marketing . Corea later produced another album , The Ultimate Adventure , also inspired by and named after a work by Hubbard .
The album received mostly positive reviews . Christopher Blagg of the Boston Herald commented : " Somewhere L. Ron Hubbard was smiling , " and Mike Hobart of the Financial Times described the album as " a fine programme of jazz @-@ fusion " . It reached number eight on the U.S. Top Contemporary Jazz charts in September 2004 , and garnered Corea a 2004 Grammy Award nomination for instrumental arrangement for the track " The Long Passage " .
= = Inspiration = =
Hubbard 's To the Stars depicts a future where an interstellar ship travelling at near light speed slows down time experienced for its occupants . The ship 's members are affected by Albert Einstein 's time dilation theory , and the Earth experiences hundreds of years while only a few days have passed for members of the ship . The crew have no family or friends on Earth due to the time that separates them . Of the album 's 17 tracks , 10 are directly based on characters or concepts from the book . The protagonist of the book ( scientist Alan Corday ) , the ship 's captain ( Captain Jocelyn ) , and the ship 's name ( Hound of Heaven ) are all titles of tracks on the album . The other seven tracks are " Port Views " , short musical interludes between the larger pieces .
Corea explains at his website how he was motivated to work on music inspired by To the Stars , commenting that he was inspired by a scene from the book in which Hubbard describes the Captain of the spaceship in the story playing a melody on a piano . He had read the book eight or nine times , and after writing down musical composition based on Hubbard 's work the album was created as a tone poem piece . Previous tone poem albums by Corea include The Leprechaun ( 1975 ) , My Spanish Heart ( 1976 ) , and The Mad Hatter ( 1978 ) . The piece is Corea 's first attempt at musical interpretation from one of Hubbard 's works .
" The attraction to me was not only the challenge of writing music portraying characters in a fiction book but the fact that I 've had such an intimate connection with L. Ron Hubbard and his work in Scientology for 40 years now . I 've been a fan of his fiction for 25 years , and once I started into the act of working with his creations , it had an extra special excitement to me , " he said in an interview with The Washington Post . " Aside from the content in his message , and the fact that he 's the founder of the Church of Scientology and Dianetics , the thing I loved about Hubbard was the aesthetics of his writing . There is a musical wavelength to what he does , " said Corea to The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune .
= = Production = =
Corea brought together the original members of Chick Corea Elektric Band for the first time since 1991 , including bassist John Patitucci , drummer Dave Weckl , saxophonist Eric Marienthal and guitarist Frank Gambale . Gambale 's electric guitar playing figures prominently in some of the tracks . In a statement in The Harvard Crimson , Corea commented that To the Stars represented a synergy of his three greatest passions : " My passion as a composer / performer , my passion for the Elektric Band as a perfect orchestra , and my passion for L. Ron Hubbard as the ideal artist . " The album is his " favorite recording " out of his almost one hundred album discography .
Mike Manoogian designed the cover and book design for the 2004 hardcover edition of the novel To the Stars , and the artwork is copyrighted by the L. Ron Hubbard Library . The album cover utilizes the same design as the novel .
The novel To the Stars was reissued by Scientology @-@ owned Galaxy Press at the same time as the album as a form of cross @-@ marketing . According to Publishers Weekly , Corea 's soundtrack to the novel was issued by Galaxy Press to give the company 's " enormous marketing muscle " the ability to " tap into the vast Hubbard fan base " .
Corea 's 2004 piece " The Adventures of Hippocrates " was inspired by a robot like character named " Hippocrates " from Hubbard 's science fiction series Ole Doc Methuselah . Corea would go on to compose another album in 2006 , The Ultimate Adventure , also inspired by and named after a book by Hubbard , which earned him two Grammy Awards .
= = Reception = =
The album reached number eight on Billboard magazine 's Top Contemporary Jazz charts in September 2004 , and Corea earned a 2004 Grammy Award nomination for instrumental arrangement for the track " The Long Passage " . The album received a rating of three stars from Allmusic , three stars from The Observer , three and a half stars from The Star @-@ Ledger , and four stars from The Times . In a review of the work in The Washington Post , Geoffrey Himes writes that " Corea occasionally falls into his old bad habits of jazz @-@ rock fusion excess , substituting frenetic virtuosity for melodic content and emotional connection on tunes such as the album @-@ opening ' Check Blast ' and ' Hound of Heaven . ' " Himes highlights Corea 's compositions of the seven " Port View " interludes , and calls " Alan Corday " the best piece on the album . Mike Joyce of The Washington Post also appreciated the " flamenco @-@ tinged ballad " of the " Alan Corday " track . Christopher Blagg of the Boston Herald liked " the dense electrified samba of the joyous ' Mistress Luck - The Party ' " , and commented : " Somewhere L. Ron Hubbard was smiling . " Bob Young of the Boston Herald described the album as " music that shifts continually from bright , aggressive jazz fusion to melodic tranquility and back again " . James F. Collins gave the album a positive review in The Harvard Crimson , writing : " To The Stars is a testament to his [ Corea 's ] unflagging creativity and is a proud addition to his already expansive discography . " Mike Hobart reviewed the album for Financial Times , commenting that " once the band had delivered its first unison riff , the music 's inspirational source was irrelevant as a fine programme of jazz @-@ fusion poured out " .
In his review of the album , Ben Ratliff of The New York Times writes : " I did like the driving , collective muscle of the band , though , very much , " but he also describes its aesthetics as " cluttered and gaudy " . For PopMatters , Associate Music Editor Justin Cober @-@ Lake writes : " In many ways , it 's a supreme accomplishment with difficult technique passages and broad soundscapes ; on the other hand , it 's a journey that 's too long to take . " In his review of Corea 's later work The Ultimate Adventure , Will Friedwald of The New York Sun writes : " ' To the Stars ' was trite , electronic bubblegum music that sounded like a cheesy video @-@ game soundtrack . " Writing in The Times , John Bungey comments that " many of the pieces are straitjacketed into the cosmic concept " , concluding his review with : " If you prefer hi @-@ fi to sci @-@ fi , then you will be hoping that Corea leaves the space helmet at home next time . " John L. Walters gave the album a negative review in The Guardian , writing that the album " cries out for warning stickers - ' this album contains dangerously high levels of Scientology ' " , and that it " drags some perfectly fine jazz musicians ... through conceptual purgatory " .
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by Chick Corea .
= = Personnel = =
Band members
Frank Gambale – guitar
Chick Corea – piano , keyboards , producer , liner notes
Eric Marienthal – saxophone
John Patitucci – bass
Dave Weckl – drums
Additional personnel
Bernard Alexander – piano tuner
Brian Alexander – keyboard technician
Bob Cetti – assistant engineer
Bernie Grundman – mastering
Joe Hesse – equipment manager
Bernie Kirsh – engineer
Rik Pekkonen – mixing
Emanuele Ruffinengo – assistant producer
Pernell Saturnino – percussion , guest appearance
Steve Wilson – saxophone
= = Chart performance = =
= Mahavira =
Mahavira ( Mahāvīra ) , also known as Vardhamāna , was the twenty @-@ fourth and last Jain Tirthankara ( Teaching God ) . Mahavira was born into a royal family in what is now Bihar , India , in 599 BC . At the age of 30 , he left his home in pursuit of spiritual awakening , and abandoned worldly things , including his clothes , and became a monk . For the next twelve @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe penance , after which he became kevalī ( omniscient ) .
For the next 30 years , he travelled throughout South Asia to teach Jain philosophy . Mahavira taught that the observance of the vows ahimsa ( non @-@ injury ) , satya ( truth ) , asteya ( non @-@ stealing ) , brahmacharya ( chastity ) and aparigraha ( non @-@ attachment ) is necessary to elevate the quality of life . He gave the principle of Anekantavada ( pluralism ) , Syadavada and Nyadavada . The teachings of Mahavira were compiled by Gautama Swami ( his chief disciple ) and were called Jain Agamas . Most of these Agamas are not available today . Jains believe Mahavira attained moksha ( liberation from the cycle of birth and death ) at the age of 72 .
= = Biography = =
In Jainism , a Tirthankara ( Maker of the River @-@ Crossing or Teaching God ) signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths ( called saṃsāra ) . According to the Jain texts , twenty @-@ four Tirthankaras grace each half of the cosmic time cycle . Mahavira was the last Tirthankara of avasarpani ( present descending phase ) . Samantabhadra , an illustrious Digambara monk , who lived in the 2nd century A.D. , called the tīrtha of Mahavira by the name Sarvodaya ( universal uplift ) .
Mahavira is often called the founder of Jainism , but this was not the case because the Jain tradition recognizes his predecessors and he is considered the 24th Tirthankara . In addition to that , Parshvanatha ( 23rd tirthankara ) was a historical figure .
= = = Names = = =
According to Jain texts , Mahavira 's childhood name was Vardhamāna ( " the one who grows " ) , because of the increased prosperity in the kingdom at the time of his birth . He was called Mahavira ( " the great hero " ) because of the acts of bravery he performed during his childhood . Mahavira was given the title Jīnā ( " the victor or conqueror of inner enemies such as attachment , pride and greed " ) , which later became synonymous with Tirthankara .
Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as Nigaṇṭha Jñātaputta . Nigaṇṭha means " without knot , tie , or string " and Jñātaputta ( son of Natas ) , refers to his clan of origin as Jñāta or Naya ( Prakrit ) . He is also known as Sramana ( seeker ) .
= = = Birth = = =
Belonging to Kashyapa gotra , Mahavira was born into the royal Kshatriya family of King Siddhartha and Queen Trishala ( sister of King Chetaka of Vaishali ) of the Ikshvaku dynasty , on the thirteenth day of the rising moon of Chaitra in the Vira Nirvana Samvat calendar in 599 BC . In the Gregorian calendar , this date falls in March or April and is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti . Traditionally , Kundalpur in the ancient city of Kashtriya Kund Lachhuar is regarded as his birthplace , in the present @-@ day Sikandra Division of Jamui district , Bihar . According to Jainism , after his birth , anointment and abhisheka ( consecration ) — carried out by Indra on Mount Meru . Most modern historians agree he was born at Kundagrama , now Basokund in Muzaffarpur district in the state of Bihar , India . Jain traditions date Mahavira as living from 599 B.C. to 527 B.C. Western historians date Mahavira as living from 480 BC to 408 BC . Some Western scholars suggest Mahavira died around 425 BC .
= = = Early life = = =
As the son of a king , Mahavira had all luxuries of life at his disposal . According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara text Acharanga Sutra , both his parents were followers of Parshvanatha and lay devotees of Jain ascetics . Jain traditions do not agree about his marital state ; according to the Digambara tradition , Mahavira 's parents wanted him to marry Yashoda but Mahavira refused to marry . According to the Śvētāmbara tradition , he was married to Yashoda at a young age and had one daughter , Priyadarshana .
= = = Renunciation = = =
At the age of thirty , Mahavira abandoned the comforts of royal life and left his home and family to live an ascetic life in the pursuit of spiritual awakening . He underwent severe penances , meditated under the Ashoka tree and discarded his clothes . There is a graphic description of his hardships and humiliation in the Acharanga Sutra . According to Kalpa Sūtra , Mahavira spent forty @-@ two monsoons of his ascetic life at Astikagrama , Champapuri , Prstichampa , Vaishali , Vanijagrama , Nalanda , Mithila , Bhadrika , Alabhika , Panitabhumi , Shravasti and Pawapuri .
= = = Omniscience = = =
After twelve years of rigorous penance , at the age of 43 , Mahavira achieved the state of Kevala Jnana ( omniscience or infinite knowledge ) under a Sāla tree according to traditional accounts . The details of this event are mentioned in Jain texts like Uttar @-@ purāņa and Harivamśa @-@ purāņa . The Acharanga Sutra describes Mahavira as all @-@ seeing . The Sutrakritanga elaborates the concept as all @-@ knowing and provides details of other qualities of Mahavira . Jains believe that Mahavira had the most auspicious body ( paramaudārika śarīra ) and was free from eighteen imperfections when he attained omniscience .
For thirty years after gaining omniscience , Mahavira travelled throughout in India to teach his philosophy . According to the Jain tradition , Mahavira had 14 @,@ 000 muni ( male ascetics ) , 36 @,@ 000 aryika ( nuns ) , 159 @,@ 000 sravakas ( laymen ) and 318 @,@ 000 sravikas ( laywomen ) as his followers . Some of the royal followers included King Srenika ( popularly known as Bimbisara ) of Magadha , Kunika of Anga and Chetaka of Videha .
= = = Moksha ( Nirvāṇa ) = = =
Jains believe Mahavira attained moksha ( liberation from the cycle of birth and death ) at the age of seventy @-@ two and his soul is now resting in Siddhashila ( abode of the liberated souls ) . According to Jain texts , Mahavira attained nirvana ( final release ) at the town of Pawapuri ( now in Bihar ) . On the same day , his chief disciple Gautama Swami attained omniscience . According to the Jinasena 's Mahapurana , after the nirvana of Tīrthankaras , heavenly beings perform the funeral rites . According to the Pravachanasara , only the nails and hair of Tirthankaras are left behind ; the rest of the body is dissolved in the air like camphor . Today , a Jain temple called Jal Mandir stands at the place where Mahavira is believed to have attained moksha .
= = = Previous births = = =
Mahavira 's previous births are discussed in Jain texts such as the Mahapurana and Tri @-@ shashti @-@ shalaka @-@ purusha @-@ charitra . While a soul undergoes countless reincarnations in the transmigratory cycle of saṃsāra ( world ) , the births of a Tirthankara are reckoned from the time he determined the causes of karma and developed the Ratnatraya . Jain texts discuss twenty @-@ six births of Mahavira before his incarnation as a Tirthankara . As per the texts , Mahavira was born as Marichi , the son of Bharata Chakravartin , in one of his previous births .
= = Teachings = =
= = = Jain Agamas = = =
Mahavira 's teachings were compiled by his Ganadhara ( chief disciple ) , Gautama Swami . The sacred canonical scriptures had twelve parts . According to Vijay K. Jain , " These scriptures contained the most comprehensive and accurate description of every branch of learning that one needs to know . The knowledge contained in these scriptures was transmitted orally by the teachers to their disciple saints . " According to the Digambaras , Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon . Later , some learned Āchāryas started to restore , compile and write down the teachings of Lord Mahavira that were the subject matter of Agamas . Āchārya Dharasena , in first century CE , guided two Āchāryas , Āchārya Pushpadant and Āchārya Bhutabali , to write down these teachings . The two Āchāryas wrote on palm leaves , Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama — among the oldest known Digambara Jaina texts . Jain Agamas prescribe five major vratas ( vows ) that both ascetics and householders have to follow . These ethical principles were preached by Mahavira :
Ahimsa ( Non @-@ violence or Non @-@ injury ) . Mahavira taught that every living being has sanctity and dignity of its own and it should be respected just as one expects one 's own sanctity and dignity to be respected . Ahimsa is formalised into Jain doctrine as the first and foremost vow . According to the Jain text , Tattvarthasutra : " The severance of vitalities out of passion is injury " .
Satya ( Truthfulness ) — not to lie or speak what is not commendable . According to the Jain text Sarvārthasiddhi : " that which causes pain and suffering to the living is not commendable , whether it refers to actual facts or not " .
Asteya ( Non @-@ stealing ) , which states one should not take anything if not properly given .
Brahmacharya ( Chastity ) , which stresses steady but determined restraint over yearning for sensual pleasures .
Aparigraha ( Non @-@ attachment ) — non @-@ attachment to both inner possessions ( liking , disliking ) and external possessions like property .
Mahavira 's philosophy has eight cardinal ( law of trust ) , three metaphysical ( dravya , Jīva and ajiva ) , and five ethical principles . The objective is to elevate the quality of life . Mahavira said an individual or society should exercise self @-@ restraint to achieve social peace , security and an enlightened society .
= = = Ahiṃsā = = =
Mahavira preached that ahimsa ( non @-@ injury ) is the supreme ethical and moral virtue . Mahavira taught that no one likes pain and therefore non @-@ injury must cover all living beings . According to Mahatma Gandhi :
No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahimsa so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism . As and when the benevolent principle of Ahimsa or non @-@ violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond . Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Lord Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahimsa .
= = = Anekantavada = = =
Another fundamental teaching of Mahavira was Anekantavada ( pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints ) .
= = Jaina literature = =
= = = Biographies = = =
Tiloya @-@ paṇṇatti of Yativṛṣabha discusses almost all of the events connected with the life of Mahavira in a form convenient to memorise . Acharya Jinasena 's Mahapurāṇa include Ādi purāṇa and Uttara @-@ purāṇa . It was completed by his disciple Acharya Gunabhadra in the 8th century . In Uttara @-@ purāṇa the life of Mahavira is described in three parvans ( 74 – 76 ) in 1818 verses . Vardhamacharitra is a Sanskrit kāvya ( poem ) that describe the life of Mahavira written by Asaga in 853 .
= = = Adoration = = =
Svayambhustotra by Acharya Samantabhadra is the adoration of twenty @-@ four Tirthankaras . Its eight shlokas ( aphorisms ) adore the qualities of Mahavira . One such shloka is :
O Lord Jina ! Your doctrine that expounds essential attributes required of a potential aspirant to cross over the ocean of worldly existence ( Saṃsāra ) reigns supreme even in this strife @-@ ridden spoke of time ( Pancham Kaal ) . Accomplished sages who have invalidated the so @-@ called deities that are famous in the world , and have made ineffective the whip of all blemishes , adore your doctrine .
Yuktyanusasana by Acharya Samantabhadra is a poetic work consisting of sixty @-@ four verses in praise of Mahavira .
Mahaveerashtak Stotra was composed by Jain poet Bhagchand .
= = Influence = =
Mahavira 's teachings influenced many personalities . Rabindranath Tagore wrote :
Mahavira proclaimed in India , the message of salvation , that religion is a reality and not a mere social convention , that salvation comes from taking refuge in the true religion and not from observing the external ceremonies of the community , that religion cannot regard any barriers between man and man as an eternal variety . Wonderous to say , this teaching rapidly over topped the barriers of the race abiding instinct and conquered the whole county .
A major event is associated with the 2,500th anniversary of the Nirvana of Mahavira in 1974 . According to Padmanabh Jaini :
Probably few people in the West are aware that during this Anniversary year for the first time in their long history , the mendicants of the Śvētāmbara , Digambara and Sthānakavāsī sects assembled on the same platform , agreed upon a common flag ( Jaina dhvaja ) and emblem ( pratīka ) ; and resolved to bring about the unity of the community . For the duration of the year four dharma cakras , a wheel mounted on a chariot as an ancient symbol of the samavasaraṇa ( Holy Assembly ) of Tīrthaṅkara Mahavira traversed to all the major cities of India , winning legal sanctions from various state governments against the slaughter of animals for sacrifice or other religious purposes , a campaign which has been a major preoccupation of the Jainas throughout their history .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Mahavira : The Hero of Nonviolence is an illustrated children ’ s story based upon the life of Mahavira .
= = Iconography = =
Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting or standing meditative posture with the symbol of a lion beneath him . Every Tīrthankara has a distinguishing emblem that allows worshippers to distinguish similar @-@ looking idols of the Tirthankaras . The lion emblem of Mahavira is usually carved below the legs of the Tirthankara . Like all Tirthankaras , Mahavira is depicted with Shrivatsa and downcast eyes .
= = = Images = = =
= James Rainwater =
Leo James Rainwater ( December 9 , 1917 – May 31 , 1986 ) was an American physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975 for his part in determining the asymmetrical shapes of certain atomic nuclei .
During World War II , he worked on the Manhattan Project that developed the first atomic bombs . In 1949 , he began developing his theory that , contrary to what was then believed , not all atomic nuclei are spherical . His ideas were later tested and confirmed by Aage Bohr 's and Ben Mottelson 's experiments . He also contributed to the scientific understanding of X @-@ rays and participated in the United States Atomic Energy Commission and naval research projects .
Rainwater joined the physics faculty at Columbia in 1946 , where he reached the rank of full professor in 1952 and was named Pupin Professor of Physics in 1982 . He received the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award for Physics in 1963 and in 1975 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics , " for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection " .
= = Early life = =
Leo James Rainwater was born on December 9 , 1917 , in Council , Idaho , the son of a former civil engineer who ran the local general store , Leo Jaspar Rainwater and his wife Edna Eliza née Teague . He never used his first name and was always referred to as James or Jim . His father died in the great influenza epidemic of 1918 and Rainwater and his mother moved to Hanford , California , where she married George Fowler , a widower with two sons , Freeman and John . In time he also acquired a half @-@ brother , George Fowler , Jr . , who became naval officer . At high school he excelled in mathematics , chemistry and physics and was admitted to the California Institute of Technology on the strength of a chemistry competition . He received his Bachelor of Science degree as a physics major in 1939 .
= = Manhattan Project = =
Rainwater then chose to undertake postgraduate studies at Columbia University . At the time this was an unusual move for a scholar from California , as Columbia was not then renowned for its physics ; but this had recently changed . George B. Pegram had recently built up the physics department , and hired scientists like Enrico Fermi . At Columbia Rainwater studied under Isidor Isaac Rabi , Enrico Fermi , Edward Teller and John R. Dunning . Fermi was engaged in neutron moderator studies that would lead to the construction of the first nuclear reactor , while Dunning and Eugene T. Booth had built Columbia 's first cyclotron , in the basement of the Pupin Physics Laboratories . Rainwater received his Master of Arts in 1941 . For his Doctor of Philosophy thesis on " Neutron beam spectrometer studies of boron , cadmium , and the energy distribution from paraffin " , written under Dunning 's supervision , he built a neutron spectrometer and developed techniques for its use . Rainwater married Emma Louise Smith in March 1942 . They had three sons , James , Robert and William and a daughter , Elizabeth Ann , who died from leukaemia when she was nine .
Fermi 's reactor group moved to the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago in 1942 . Rainwater remained at Columbia , where he joined the Manhattan Project 's Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories . The Manhattan Project was the Allied effort during World War II to develop atomic bombs . The SAM Laboratories ' primary task was the development of gaseous diffusion technology for uranium enrichment , to produce fissile uranium @-@ 235 for use in atomic bombs . Rainwater worked with William W. Havens , Jr. and Chien @-@ Shiung Wu , mostly on studies of neutron cross sections , using the neutron spectrometer . After the war , a dozen papers by Dunning , Havens , Rainwater and Wu would be declassified and published . So too was his thesis , published in the Physical Review in two parts with Havens 's thesis , and he was awarded his doctorate in 1946 . In 1963 he was awarded the United States Atomic Energy Commission 's Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award , for his work on the Manhattan Project .
= = Later life = =
Rainwater remained at Columbia as an instructor . In 1948 , he began teaching courses on nuclear structure . Niels Bohr and John Wheeler had developed a theoretical treatment for nuclear fission in 1939 that they based on the liquid drop model of the nucleus . This was superseded in 1949 by Maria Goeppert Mayer 's nuclear shell model , which could explain more about the structure of heavy elements than the older theory but it still had limits . At a colloquium at Columbia in 1949 , Charles H. Townes reported experimental results that indicated quadrupole moments greater than those indicated by the shell model . It occurred to Rainwater that this could be explained and the differences between the liquid drop and nuclear shell models could be reconciled , if the atomic nucleus were not spherical , as had been assumed but could assume other shapes . Rainwater published his theoretical paper in 1950 . By chance , that year he was sharing an office with Aage Bohr , who took up the challenge of experimentally verifying Rainwater 's theory . Bohr and Ben Mottelson published their results in three papers in 1952 and 1953 that conclusively confirmed the theory . Rainwater felt that his model was overlooked . He later recalled that :
When I made my proposal for use of a spheroidal nuclear model , it seemed to be an obvious answer which would immediately be simultaneously suggested by all theorists in the field . I do not understand why it was not . I was also surprised and dismayed to hear one or more respected theorists announce in every Nuclear Physics Conference which I attended through 1955 some such comment as , " Although the Nuclear Shell Model seems empirically to work very well , there is at present no theoretical justification as to why it should apply . "
With funding from the Office of Naval Research , Rainwater built a synchrotron , which became operational in 1950 , at the Nevis Laboratories , on an estate on the Hudson River at Irvington , New York , willed to Columbia University by the DuPont family . He became a full professor in 1952 and was the director of Nevis Laboratories from 1951 to 1954 and again from 1957 to 1961 . He worked with his student Val Fitch on studies of muonic atoms , atoms where an electron is replaced by a muon . After 1965 , he worked on turning the Nevis synchrotron into a meson facility . When a reporter rang in 1975 to inform him that he had won the Nobel Prize in Physics , he initially thought that it was for his work on muonic atoms . Several hours passed before he discovered that it was for his was for his work on atomic structure , the Nobel Prize being shared with Bohr and Mottelson .
Rainwater succeeded Robert R. Wilson as Michael I. Pupin Professor of Physics in 1983 . He was a fellow of the American Physical Society , the New York Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers , and was a member of the National Academy of Science , the American Institute of Physics , the American Association of Physics Teachers and the Optical Society of America . Fitch noted that Rainwater seldom engaged and had little interest in sports except when his sons were involved . Rainwater collapsed after a lecture at the Pupin Laboratories in 1985 but was revived by a student who knew how to administer CPR . In declining health , he retired and became a professor emeritus in February 1986 . He died from cardiopulmonary arrest at St. John 's Riverside Hospital in Yonkers , New York on May 31 , 1986 . He was survived by his wife , three sons and half @-@ brother George .
= Romney Academy =
Romney Academy was an educational institution for higher learning in Romney , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) . Romney Academy was first incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly on January 11 , 1814 , and was active until 1846 when it was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute . In addition to the Romney Classical Institute , Romney Academy was also a forerunner institution to Potomac Seminary . Romney Academy was one of the earliest institutions for higher learning within the present boundaries of the state of West Virginia .
With the growth of settlement in Pearsall 's Flats , which was later the location of Romney , the need for educational facilities became apparent and the community began plans for the establishment of schools and churches . A log structure , which served as both a school and a church , was built at Pearsall 's Flats around 1752 near Fort Pearsall . To provide for a teacher 's payment , a form was circulated around Romney and each parent indicated on the paper how many of their children would attend the school and the type of payment the teacher would expect . By the time Romney was surveyed by Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron laid out the town of Romney in 1762 , the log school was still in existence . That year , a stone school building was erected on the site to the immediate north of the old Hampshire County Courthouse and became known as Romney Academy .
Local education , including Romney Academy , continued to depend exclusively upon subscriptions until 1810 when the Virginia General Assembly passed what was known as the " Literary Fund " . The assembly first incorporated Romney Academy on January 11 , 1814 . In 1817 , the assembly passed a bill for the incorporating the trustees of Romney Academy . The Virginia General Assembly reincorporated Romney Academy on February 11 , 1818 , and on March 25 , 1820 . In 1820 , as a result of a movement and debate for higher education by the Romney Literary Society , Romney Academy incorporated classical studies into its curriculum , thus making it the first institution of higher education in the region .
By 1831 , Romney Academy had outgrown its facilities , and the Romney Literary Society was given authorization to raise monies from a lottery to build a new school building . The society successfully raised the funds , and in 1845 bids were called for the construction of a new school building . On December 12 , 1846 , the Virginia General Assembly empowered the Romney Literary Society to establish a seminary for learning at the academy . That same year , a new brick building was constructed for the academy and for the library of the society ; the building now serves as the central unit of the administration building of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind .
Romney Academy was administered under the leadership of scholarly Englishman Dr. Henry Johnston , who was succeeded by Presbyterian Reverend and historian Dr. William Henry Foote . Foote introduced courses in theology into the school 's curriculum . As the school 's popularity grew and knowledge of its curriculum under Dr. Foote spread , Romney Academy began to attract students from beyond the South Branch Potomac River valley region . Other educators at Romney Academy during its early years were E. W. Newton , Silas C. Walker , Thomas Mulledy , and Samuel Mulledy . Thomas and Samuel Mulledy each later served as presidents of Georgetown University in Washington , D.C.
= = Background = =
The land upon which Romney Academy was established was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a land grant that Charles II of England awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 and renewed by an official patent in 1688 . One of these seven supporters , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the entire area in 1681 , and his grandson , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 .
The South Branch Survey of the Northern Neck Proprietary extended from the north end of The Trough to the confluence of the North and South Branches of the Potomac River . Lord Fairfax originally planned to maintain the South Branch Survey as his personal manor but later commissioned James Genn to survey the South Branch Potomac River lowlands for sale in 1748 , with land lots ranging in size from 300 acres ( 120 ha ) to 400 acres ( 160 ha ) .
Romney and its environs within the South Branch Survey were originally settled in the 1730s by Job Pearsall , and by 1748 approximately 200 people had settled at what was then known as Pearsall 's Flats . Prior to 1762 , Lord Fairfax sent surveyors into Hampshire County , who were charged with the selection of a site for the what would later become the town of Romney . Pearsall 's Flats was selected as the site due to its already having Fort Pearsall , a courthouse , and natural topographical advantages . Lord Fairfax commissioned a survey of Romney , and the town was laid out into 25 2 @-@ acre blocks with eight streets in a grid pattern in 1762 . On December 13 , 1762 , the Virginia General Assembly recognized the stability of the upper Potomac frontier when it passed a bill establishing the town of Romney , and the bill was signed by Governor Francis Fauquier on December 23 , 1762 .
In the early years in western Virginia , pioneer settlers were primarily concerned with providing defense from Native American attacks , so little emphasis was placed upon education . Education was viewed as a religious duty , to be provided for at home , where its quality was dependent upon the spare time and level of education of parents . With the growth of settlement in Pearsall 's Flats , and later Romney , the need for educational facilities became apparent and the community began plans for the establishment of schools and churches .
A log structure , which served as both a school and a church , was built at Pearsall 's Flats around 1752 near Fort Pearsall . During his travels in western Virginia in 1753 , George Washington made mention of this structure . The log building was constructed of roughly hewn logs with clay chinking and contained puncheon log floors , hewn side up , clapboard doors , and one small window covered by a paper greased with lard . Light in the log structure was provided by the small window and a fireplace measuring 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in height , which contained a tall pile of logs during the winter to provide for warmth in addition to lighting . The school 's teachers were paid by subscriptions from the attending students . To provide for a teacher 's payment , a form was circulated around Romney and each parent indicated on the paper how many of their children would attend the school and the type of payment the teacher would expect , whether in the form of cash renumeration , produce , or boarding . These early teachers were usually " wandering pedagogues , settling wherever they could obtain enough signers to insure a living " .
By the time the surveyors on behalf of Lord Fairfax had laid out the town of Romney in 1762 , the log school was still in existence along with other public buildings . Later in 1762 following the establishment of Romney , the school was rebuilt in stone on the same site . The stone building was erected on the site to the immediate north of the old Hampshire County Courthouse and became known as Romney Academy . The stone building was a rugged square building that served as Romney 's cultural center before the school was formally incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly , but the exact date of its construction is unknown . Romney Academy was first incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly on January 11 , 1814 .
Following the American Revolutionary War , education in Virginia was provided predominantly by private " district schools " whose curriculum was decided by the people who funded them . On February 8 , 1817 , the first comprehensive bill for public education in the southern United States was introduced to the Virginia House of Delegates by Federalist delegate Charles F. Mercer . Mercer 's bill provided for a centralized system for public education that was to be administered by a board of education and financed by the state of Virginia . The bill stated that primary schools were to be established first for " all free white children ... free of any charge whatever " and provided for the establishment of a system of academies , 48 for males and three for females , and four colleges that were to be dispersed throughout Virginia , and a university to be founded in a centralized location . The bill faced substantial partisan opposition and eventually failed . Despite the bill 's failure , the Virginia General Assembly continued incorporated academies or " classical schools " throughout the state to provide primary and secondary education . Despite being incorporated by the assembly , the academies were not public and were instead funded through tuition fees , which were generally low but prevented a larger number of students from attending them . By 1860 , the Virginia General Assembly had incorporated 250 of these academies , including Romney Academy .
= = Establishment and development = =
Local education , including Romney Academy , continued to depend upon subscriptions exclusively until 1810 when the Virginia General Assembly passed what was known as the " Literary Fund " , which was to be apportioned among the Virginia counties for the education of the poor . In 1817 , a bill " incorporating the trustees of Romney Academy in the county of Hampshire " was presented to the Virginia House of Delegates by Mr. Scott , a delegate on the Committee of Schools and Colleges . The bill was read a second time in the Virginia House of Delegates following a motion by Hampshire County delegate William Naylor , after which it was ordered to be " re @-@ committed to the Committee of Schools and Colleges " . An amended version of the bill was again presented to the Virginia House of Delegates for a third time by Mr. Scott , and it was passed by the legislative body and renamed " an act incorporating the trustees of Romney Academy in the county of Hampshire " .
A further provision for local education in Virginia was included in an act passed by the Virginia General Assembly in 1818 stating that : " It shall be the duty of the courts of the several counties , cities , and corporate towns — in the month of October or as soon thereafter as may be — to appoint not less than five or more than fifteen discreet persons to be called school commissioners . " The commissioners who were appointed in Hampshire County were John McDowell , David Gibson , John Pierce , John Randalls , Elisha Thompson , Charles Keller , Frederick Sheets , James Abernathy , and Robert Sherard . Accounts rendered to the Hampshire County court for the expenditure of the Literary Fund illustrated that " the average price of tuition , exclusive of books , paper , etc. has been within a small fraction of four cents for every day of each attendance for each poor child . " Because nearly 700 impoverished children in Hampshire County were entitled to the fund , each child was only able to receive only a few months ' worth of schooling , and because of the limited facilities , only about half of the total number of eligible children were able to be taken care of at each of the two periods of enrollment .
Romney Academy was formally established on February 11 , 1818 , when the Virginia General Assembly finally passed an act entitled " an act incorporating the trustees of Romney academy , in the county of Hampshire " in which the assembly incorporated Romney Academy and constituted and appointed a board of trustees for the operation of the institution . With a system of formal education underway in Hampshire County , forces were underway for the higher education in the community .
On a winter evening in 1819 , nine men in Romney conducting a meeting in the office of Dr. John Temple for the purpose " of taking into consideration the proprietary of financing a Society , having for its object the advancement of Literature and Science ; the purchase of a Library by and for the use of its members ; and their further improvement by discussing before the Society such questions as shall be selected under its directors . " The nine men consisted of Thomas Blair , David Gibson , James P. Jack , Virginia author and historian Samuel Kercheval , Nathaniel Kuykendall , Charles T. Magill , James M. Stephens , John Temple , and W. C. Wodrow . Shortly after the formation of the Romney Literary Society , the society recognized that the quality of the education provided by Romney Academy and other local subscription schools was not meeting the needs of the Romney community , and therefore , it launched a movement to establish an institution for " the higher education of the youth of the community " . The society frequently debated upon theories of education advancement and popular education . In 1820 , as a result of this movement and debate , Romney Academy incorporated classical studies into its curriculum , thus making it the first institution of higher education in the region . The institution was again incorporated by the Virginia General Assembly on March 25 , 1820 .
By 1831 , Romney Academy had outgrown its facilities , and the Romney Literary Society commenced its campaign to raise funds for a new academic building . On January 6 , 1832 , the Virginia General Assembly authorized the society to raise $ 20 @,@ 000 by lottery for educational purposes . Following a ten @-@ year lapse after this authorization , the society made arrangements with James Gregory of Jersey City , New Jersey , and Daniel McIntyre of Philadelphia to finance the lottery , " for raising a sum of money not exceeding Twenty Thousand dollars , for the purpose of erecting a suitable building for their accommodation , the purchase of a library and Philosophical apparatus " . The lottery was to be conducted for a period lasting 10 years , and the sums of $ 750 , $ 1 @,@ 000 , and $ 1 @,@ 500 were to be raised in semi @-@ annual installments . The society successfully raised the funds , and in 1845 bids were called for the construction of a new school building . On December 12 , 1846 , the Virginia General Assembly empowered the Romney Literary Society " to establish at or near the town of Romney a Seminary of Learning for the instruction of youth in various branches of science and literature ; and the Society may appropriate to the same such portion of the property which it now has or may acquire , as it may deem expedient " . That same year , a new brick building was constructed for the academy and for the library of the society , which now serves as the central unit of the administration building of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . Following the school 's move to the building , it was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute with Foote as its principal .
= = Faculty and curriculum = =
The earliest faculty members of Romney Academy are unknown , but the institution 's first principal and one of the institution 's longest serving teachers from its era of infancy was scholarly Englishman Dr. Henry Johnston . Under Johnston 's leadership , Romney Academy became known regionally for its courses in the " higher classics " and made Romney the seat of one the Eastern Panhandle 's most successful academies . Johnston believed in the " rule of the birch rod " and discipline was no light matter under his leadership . Some of Romney 's prominent men in its early history were among Johnston 's students . Other educators at Romney Academy during its early years were E. W. Newton , Silas C. Walker , a Mr. Brown , Thomas Mulledy , and Samuel Mulledy . Thomas and Samuel Mulledy each later served as presidents of Georgetown University in Washington , D.C.
Presbyterian Reverend and historian Dr. William Henry Foote succeeded Johnston as principal of Romney Academy around 1826 . Foote served in that capacity until his departure from Romney around 1837 or 1839 . Foote also concurrently served as the pastor of the Romney Presbyterian Church . Foote introduced courses in theology into the school 's curriculum , which broadened the make @-@ up of the student body to include young men preparing for the ministry . As the school 's popularity grew and knowledge of its curriculum under Dr. Foote spread , Romney Academy began to attract students from beyond the South Branch Potomac River valley region . Following Foote 's departure , Reverend Theodore Gallaudet served as Romney Academy 's principal .
= = Board of trustees = =
The inaugural board of trustees were constituted and appointed by the Virginia General Assembly in 1818 . Because there were several vacancies among the board of trustees , on March 25 , 1839 , the Virginia General Assembly passed an act , appointing a new board of trustees consisting of David Gibson , John Baker White , Angus William McDonald , Daniel Mytinger , and John Kern , Jr . In addition , the 1839 act authorized any of the five appointed trustees of Romney Academy to fill vacancies on the board " occasioned by death , resignation , removal , or legal disability " , thereby preventing future prolonged vacant trustee seats .
Romney Academy trustee John Baker White was a clerk of both the circuit and county courts of Hampshire County and was the father of Robert White , Attorney General of West Virginia from 1877 until 1881 . Robert White successfully lobbied the West Virginia Legislature to pass an act establishing the Institution for the Deaf , Dumb , and Blind of West Virginia ( later named the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind ) , which utilized the former campus of the Romney Classical Institute , a successor educational institution to Romney Academy . Another trustee , Angus William McDonald , was the father of Marshall McDonald , who served as commissioner of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries from 1888 until 1895 .
= = Building = =
Romney Academy utilized a native stone structure located behind the Hampshire County Courthouse at a site presently occupied by the Courthouse Annex building ( 1934 ) at 66 North High Street in Romney . According to West Virginia historians Hu Maxwell and Howard Llewellyn Swisher in their History of Hampshire County , West Virginia ( 1897 ) , the Romney Academy building was one of the earliest educational facilities in the county and regarding its architecture , Maxwell and Swisher noted : " the rough unhewn stones of which the academy was built gave it a very uncouth exterior . " By 1831 , Romney Academy had outgrown its quarters in the old stone school building and relocated to a new Classical Revival structure completed in 1846 , after which the institution was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute .
After the academy 's stone building ceased being used as an educational facility , it was subsequently utilized for various purposes including serving as the offices of the Virginia Argus and Hampshire Advertiser newspaper and as a meeting place for local fraternal organizations . Romney Academy 's stone building remained dormant and unoccupied for a number of years and was demolished by the time Maxwell and Swisher researched and authored their History of Hampshire County , West Virginia in the late 1890s .
= = Notable alumni = =
During its brief years of operation between 1814 and 1846 , Romney Academy educated a number of notable alumni . According to Seldon Brannon 's Historic Hampshire ( 1976 ) , " among the pupils of this school were some of the most prominent men in the early history of the [ Romney ] community . " The academy 's students included William C. Clayton , a West Virginia state senator ; John Jeremiah Jacob , 4th Governor of West Virginia ; Angus William McDonald , Jr . , a West Virginia lawyer , politician , and military officer ; and Reverend Stuart Robinson , a Presbyterian minister , orator , writer , and editor .
= = Legacy = =
According to West Virginia historian Hu Maxwell in his article entitled " West Virginia a Century Ago " published in The Transallegheny Historical Magazine ( 1901 ) , Romney Academy was " one of the oldest and most renowned schools on the early soil of West Virginia " . Of the institution , Maxwell stated that " from its halls went forth some of the teachers who became the disseminators of learning in the famous South Branch [ valley ] — whose people might appropriately be called the Phoenicians of the Alleghenies , the carriers of liberty , equality , and education . "
= Ontario Highway 51 =
King 's Highway 51 , commonly referred to as Highway 51 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that connected Highway 3 in Eatonville with Rondeau Provincial Park . An earlier designation existed south of Orangeville , connecting Highway 24 with Highway 10 . This iteration was assumed in 1938 , but later renumbered as Highway 24 In 1961 . The more recent incarnation of the route number was assumed in 1970 , but then decommissioned in 1997 and transferred to what is now the city of Chatham – Kent .
= = Route description = =
Highway 51 was a short connector road that served to link Highway 3 to Rondeau Provincial Park . At its southern terminus , the highway began at the entrance gates to the provincial park , proceeding northeast through a small community of recreational cottages . The highway exited the park and turned north onto what is now Chatham – Kent Road 15 . From here the highway progressed straight north to Highway 3 , passing through the community of New Scotland along the way . Trees continue to line both sides of this section of the highway , with farmland sprawling out beyond that .
= = History = =
In 1961 , the section of Highway 24 between Highway 51 and Orangeville was renumbered as Highway 136 ; Highway 51 was renumbered as Highway 24 and the latter signed concurrently with Highway 10 north to Orangeville . On April 9 , 1970 , the road from Eatonville to Rondeau Provincial Park was designated as Highway 51 . This iteration of the route remained unaltered until April 1 , 1997 , when it was transferred to Kent County , now the City of Chatham – Kent . It was subsequently designated as Chatham – Kent Road 15 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 51 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Chatham – Kent .
= Gilbert and Sullivan =
Gilbert and Sullivan refers to the Victorian @-@ era theatrical partnership of the librettist W. S. Gilbert ( 1836 – 1911 ) and the composer Arthur Sullivan ( 1842 – 1900 ) and to the works they jointly created . The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896 , of which H.M.S. Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado are among the best known .
Gilbert , who wrote the words , created fanciful " topsy @-@ turvy " worlds for these operas where each absurdity is taken to its logical conclusion — fairies rub elbows with British lords , flirting is a capital offence , gondoliers ascend to the monarchy , and pirates emerge as noblemen who have gone astray . Sullivan , six years Gilbert 's junior , composed the music , contributing memorable melodies that could convey both humour and pathos .
Their operas have enjoyed broad and enduring international success and are still performed frequently throughout the English @-@ speaking world . Gilbert and Sullivan introduced innovations in content and form that directly influenced the development of musical theatre through the 20th century . The operas have also influenced political discourse , literature , film and television and have been widely parodied and pastiched by humourists . Producer Richard D 'Oyly Carte brought Gilbert and Sullivan together and nurtured their collaboration . He built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 to present their joint works ( which came to be known as the Savoy Operas ) and founded the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , which performed and promoted Gilbert and Sullivan 's works for over a century .
= = Beginnings = =
= = = Gilbert before Sullivan = = =
Gilbert was born in London on 18 November 1836 . His father , William , was a naval surgeon who later wrote novels and short stories , some of which included illustrations by his son . In 1861 , to supplement his income , the younger Gilbert began writing illustrated stories , poems and articles of his own , many of which would later be mined as inspiration for his plays and operas , particularly Gilbert 's series of illustrated poems , the Bab Ballads .
In the Bab Ballads and his early plays , Gilbert developed a unique " topsy @-@ turvy " style in which humour was derived by setting up a ridiculous premise and working out its logical consequences , however absurd . Director and playwright Mike Leigh described the " Gilbertian " style as follows :
With great fluidity and freedom , [ Gilbert ] continually challenges our natural expectations . First , within the framework of the story , he makes bizarre things happen , and turns the world on its head . Thus the Learned Judge marries the Plaintiff , the soldiers metamorphose into aesthetes , and so on , and nearly every opera is resolved by a deft moving of the goalposts ... His genius is to fuse opposites with an imperceptible sleight of hand , to blend the surreal with the real , and the caricature with the natural . In other words , to tell a perfectly outrageous story in a completely deadpan way .
Gilbert developed his innovative theories on the art of stage direction , following theatrical reformer Tom Robertson . At the time Gilbert began writing , theatre in Britain was in disrepute . Gilbert helped to reform and elevate the respectability of the theatre , especially beginning with his six short family @-@ friendly comic operas , or " entertainments " , for Thomas German Reed .
At a rehearsal for one of these entertainments , Ages Ago ( 1869 ) , the composer Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to his friend , the young composer Arthur Sullivan . Two years later , Gilbert and Sullivan would write their first work together . Those two intervening years continued to shape Gilbert 's theatrical style . He continued to write humorous verse , stories and plays , including the comic operas Our Island Home ( 1870 ) and A Sensation Novel ( 1871 ) , and the blank verse comedies The Princess ( 1870 ) , The Palace of Truth ( 1870 ) , and Pygmalion and Galatea ( 1871 ) .
= = = Sullivan before Gilbert = = =
Sullivan was born in London on 13 May 1842 . His father was a military bandmaster , and by the time Arthur had reached the age of eight , he was proficient with all the instruments in the band . In school he began to compose anthems and songs . In 1856 , he received the first Mendelssohn Scholarship and studied at the Royal Academy of Music and then at Leipzig , where he also took up conducting . His graduation piece , completed in 1861 , was a suite of incidental music to Shakespeare 's The Tempest . Revised and expanded , it was performed at the Crystal Palace in 1862 and was an immediate sensation . He began building a reputation as England 's most promising young composer , composing a symphony , a concerto , and several overtures , among them the Overture di Ballo , in 1870 .
His early major works for the voice included The Masque at Kenilworth ( 1864 ) ; an oratorio , The Prodigal Son ( 1869 ) ; and a dramatic cantata , On Shore and Sea ( 1871 ) . He composed a ballet , L 'Île Enchantée ( 1864 ) and incidental music for a number of Shakespeare plays . Other early pieces that were praised were his Symphony in E , Concerto for Cello and Orchestra , and Overture in C ( In Memoriam ) ( all three of which premiered in 1866 ) . These commissions , however , were not sufficient to keep Sullivan afloat . He worked as a church organist and composed numerous hymns , popular songs , and parlour ballads .
Sullivan 's first foray into comic opera was Cox and Box ( 1866 ) , written with librettist F. C. Burnand for an informal gathering of friends . Public performance followed , with W. S. Gilbert ( then writing dramatic criticism for the magazine Fun ) saying that Sullivan 's score " is , in many places , of too high a class for the grotesquely absurd plot to which it is wedded . " Nonetheless , it proved highly successful , and is still regularly performed today . Sullivan and Burnand 's second opera , The Contrabandista ( 1867 ) was not as successful .
= = Operas = =
= = = First collaborations = = =
= = = = Thespis = = = =
In 1871 , producer John Hollingshead brought Gilbert and Sullivan together to produce a Christmas entertainment , Thespis , at his Gaiety Theatre , a large West End house . The piece was an extravaganza in which the classical Greek gods , grown elderly , are temporarily replaced by a troupe of 19th @-@ century actors and actresses , one of whom is the eponymous Thespis , the Greek father of the drama . Its mixture of political satire and grand opera parody mimicked Offenbach 's Orpheus in the Underworld and La belle Hélène , which ( in translation ) then dominated the English musical stage .
Thespis opened on Boxing Day and ran for 63 performances . It outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season , and its run was extended beyond the length of a normal run at the Gaiety , but no one at the time anticipated that this was the beginning of a great collaboration . Unlike the later Gilbert and Sullivan works , it was hastily prepared , and its nature was more risqué , like Gilbert 's earlier burlesques , with a broader style of comedy that allowed for improvisation by the actors . Two of the male characters were played by women , whose shapely legs were put on display in a fashion that Gilbert later condemned . The musical score to Thespis was never published and is now lost , except for one song that was published separately , a chorus that was re @-@ used in The Pirates of Penzance , and the Act II ballet music .
Over the next three years , Gilbert and Sullivan did not have occasion to work together again , but each man became more eminent in his field . Gilbert worked with Frederic Clay on Happy Arcadia ( 1872 ) and with Alfred Cellier on Topsyturveydom ( 1874 ) , and wrote The Wicked World ( 1873 ) Sweethearts ( 1874 ) and several other libretti , farces , extravaganzas , fairy comedies , dramas and adaptations . Sullivan completed his Festival Te Deum ( 1872 ) ; another oratorio , The Light of the World ( 1873 ) ; his only song cycle , The Window ; or , The Song of the Wrens ( 1871 ) ; incidental music to The Merry Wives of Windsor ( 1874 ) ; and more songs , parlour ballads , and hymns , including " Onward , Christian Soldiers " ( 1872 ) . At the same time , the audience for theatre was growing because of the rapidly expanding British population ; improvement in education and the standard of living , especially of the middle class ; improving public transportation ; and installation of street lighting , which made travel home from the theatre safer . The number of pianos manufactured in England doubled between 1870 and 1890 as more people began to play parlour music at home and more theatres and concert halls opened .
= = = = Trial by Jury = = = =
In 1874 , Gilbert wrote a short libretto on commission from producer – conductor Carl Rosa , whose wife would have played the leading role , but her death in childbirth cancelled the project . Not long afterwards , Richard D 'Oyly Carte was managing the Royalty Theatre , and he needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach 's La Périchole . Carte knew about Gilbert 's libretto for Rosa and suggested that Sullivan write a score for it . Gilbert read the piece to Sullivan in February 1875 , and the composer was delighted with it ; Trial by Jury was composed and staged in a matter of weeks .
The piece is one of Gilbert 's humorous spoofs of the law and the legal profession , based on his short experience as a barrister . It concerns a breach of promise of marriage suit . The defendant argues that damages should be slight , since " he is such a very bad lot , " while the plaintiff argues that she loves the defendant fervently and seeks " substantial damages . " After much argument , the judge resolves the case by marrying the lovely plaintiff himself . With Sullivan 's brother , Fred , as the Learned Judge , the opera was a runaway hit , outlasting the run of La Périchole . Provincial tours and productions at other theatres quickly followed .
Fred Sullivan was the prototype for the " patter " ( comic ) baritone roles in the later operas . F. C. Burnand wrote that he " was one of the most naturally comic little men I ever came across . He , too , was a first @-@ rate practical musician ... As he was the most absurd person , so was he the very kindliest ... " Fred 's creation would serve as a model for the rest of the collaborators ' works , and each of them has a crucial comic little man role , as Burnand had put it . The " patter " baritone ( or " principal comedian " , as these roles later were called ) would often assume the leading role in Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic operas , and was usually allotted the speedy patter songs .
After the success of Trial by Jury , Gilbert and Sullivan were suddenly in demand to write more operas together . Over the next two years , Richard D 'Oyly Carte and Carl Rosa were two of several theatrical managers who negotiated with the team but were unable to come to terms . Carte proposed a revival of Thespis for the 1875 Christmas season , which Gilbert and Sullivan would have revised , but he was unable to obtain financing for the project . In early 1876 , Carte requested that Gilbert and Sullivan create another one @-@ act opera on the theme of burglars , but this was never completed .
= = = Early successes = = =
= = = = The Sorcerer = = = =
Carte 's real ambition was to develop an English form of light opera that would displace the bawdy burlesques and badly translated French operettas then dominating the London stage . He assembled a syndicate and formed the Comedy Opera Company , with Gilbert and Sullivan commissioned to write a comic opera that would serve as the centrepiece for an evening 's entertainment .
Gilbert found a subject in one of his own short stories , " The Elixir of Love , " which concerned the complications arising when a love potion is distributed to all the residents of a small village . The leading character was a Cockney businessman who happened to be a sorcerer , a purveyor of blessings ( not much called for ) and curses ( very popular ) . Gilbert and Sullivan were tireless taskmasters , seeing to it that The Sorcerer opened as a fully polished production , in marked contrast to the under @-@ rehearsed Thespis . While The Sorcerer won critical acclaim , it did not duplicate the success of Trial by Jury . Nevertheless , Carte and his syndicate were sufficiently encouraged to commission another full @-@ length opera from the team .
= = = = H.M.S. Pinafore = = = =
Gilbert and Sullivan scored their first international hit with H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1878 ) , satirising the rise of unqualified people to positions of authority and poking good @-@ natured fun at the Royal Navy and the English obsession with social status ( building on a theme introduced in The Sorcerer , love between members of different social classes ) . As with many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , a surprise twist changes everything dramatically near the end of the story .
Gilbert oversaw the designs of sets and costumes , and he directed the performers on stage . He sought realism in acting , shunned self @-@ conscious interaction with the audience , and insisted on a standard of characterisation where the characters were never aware of their own absurdity . Gilbert insisted that his actors know their words perfectly and obey his stage directions , which was something new to many actors of the day . Sullivan personally oversaw the musical preparation . The result was a new crispness and polish in the English musical theatre . As Jessie Bond wrote later :
Our stage discipline was strict and unbending . Gilbert 's word was law ; he thoroughly worked out in his own mind every bit of action , by @-@ play and grouping , and allowed no deviation from his plan . He ... made drawings and took measurements with the minutest care .... He had unlimited fertility of invention in comic business and would allow no gag , no clowning , no departure from his own definite conception . Sullivan 's musical conception was equally clear @-@ cut and decided . Every part must be made subservient to the whole , and his sarcasms overwhelmed the transgressor with scorn . " And now , might I trouble you to try over my music , " he would say to a singer too anxious to display his or her top notes . But there was nothing to hurt or offend us in this unswerving discipline , we took their good @-@ humoured raillery as our due when we failed in our rendering or overstepped the bounds ; and the patience and enthusiasm of that artistic pair so infected all of us that we worked willingly for hours and hours at rehearsals , trying with all our might to realize the conceptions of those two brilliant minds .
H.M.S. Pinafore ran in London for 571 performances , the second longest run of any musical theatre piece in history up to that time ( after the operetta Les cloches de Corneville ) . Hundreds of unauthorised , or " pirated " , productions of Pinafore appeared in America . During the run of Pinafore , Richard D 'Oyly Carte split up with his former investors . The disgruntled former partners , who had invested in the production with no return , staged a public fracas , sending a group of thugs to seize the scenery during a performance . Stagehands successfully managed to ward off their backstage attackers . This event cleared the way for Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan to form the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , which then produced all of their succeeding operas .
The libretto of H.M.S. Pinafore relied on stock character types , many of which were familiar from European opera ( and some of which grew out of Gilbert 's earlier association with the German Reeds ) : the heroic protagonist ( tenor ) and his love @-@ interest ( soprano ) ; the older woman with a secret or a sharp tongue ( contralto ) ; the baffled lyric baritone — the girl 's father ; and a classic villain ( bass @-@ baritone ) . Gilbert and Sullivan added the element of the comic patter @-@ singing character . With the success of H.M.S. Pinafore , the D 'Oyly Carte repertory and production system was cemented , and each opera would make use of these stock character types . Before The Sorcerer , Gilbert had constructed his plays around the established stars of whatever theatre he happened to be writing for , as had been the case with Thespis and Trial by Jury . Building on the team he had assembled for The Sorcerer , Gilbert no longer hired stars ; he created them . He and Sullivan selected the performers , writing their operas for ensemble casts rather than individual stars .
The repertory system ensured that the comic patter character who performed the role of the sorcerer , John Wellington Wells , would become the ruler of the Queen 's navy as Sir Joseph Porter in H.M.S. Pinafore , then join the army as Major @-@ General Stanley in The Pirates of Penzance , and so on . Similarly , Mrs. Partlet in The Sorcerer transformed into Little Buttercup in Pinafore , then into Ruth , the piratical maid @-@ of @-@ all @-@ work in Pirates . Relatively unknown performers whom Gilbert and Sullivan engaged early in the collaboration would stay with the company for many years , becoming stars of the Victorian stage . These included George Grossmith , the principal comic ; Rutland Barrington , the lyric baritone ; Richard Temple , the bass @-@ baritone ; and Jessie Bond , the mezzo @-@ soprano soubrette .
= = = = The Pirates of Penzance = = = =
The Pirates of Penzance ( New Year 's Eve , 1879 ) also poked fun at grand opera conventions , sense of duty , family obligation , the " respectability " of civilisation and the peerage , and the relevance of a liberal education . The story also revisits Pinafore 's theme of unqualified people in positions of authority , in the person of the " modern Major @-@ General " who has up @-@ to @-@ date knowledge about everything except the military . The Major @-@ General and his many daughters escape from the tender @-@ hearted Pirates of Penzance , who are all orphans , on the false plea that he is an orphan himself . The pirates learn of the deception and re @-@ capture the Major @-@ General , but when it is revealed that the pirates are all peers , the Major @-@ General bids them : " resume your ranks and legislative duties , and take my daughters , all of whom are beauties ! "
The piece premiered first in New York rather than London , in an ( unsuccessful ) attempt to secure the American copyright , and was another big success with both critics and audiences . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas , without success . Nevertheless , Pirates was a hit both in New York , again spawning numerous imitators , and then in London , and it became one of the most frequently performed , translated and parodied Gilbert and Sullivan works , also enjoying successful 1981 Broadway and 1982 West End revivals by Joseph Papp that continue to influence productions of the opera .
In 1880 , Sullivan wrote the cantata The Martyr of Antioch , presented at the Leeds Triennial Music Festival , with a libretto modified by Gilbert from an 1822 epic poem by Henry Hart Milman concerning the martyrdom of St. Margaret of Antioch in the 3rd century . Sullivan became the conductor of the Leeds festival beginning in 1880 and conducted the performance . It could be said that Martyr was the 15th opera of the partnership , since the Carl Rosa Opera Company presented the work as an opera in 1898 .
= = = Savoy Theatre opens = = =
= = = = Patience = = = =
Patience ( 1881 ) satirised the aesthetic movement in general and its colourful poets , in particular , combining aspects of Algernon Charles Swinburne , Dante Gabriel Rossetti , Oscar Wilde , James McNeill Whistler and others in the rival poets Bunthorne and Grosvenor . Grossmith , who created the role of Bunthorne , based his makeup , wig and costume on Swinburne and especially Whistler , as seen in the adjacent photo . The work also lampoons male vanity and chauvinism in the military . The story concerns two rival " aesthetic " poets , who attract the attention of the young ladies of the village , who had been engaged to the members of a cavalry regiment . But both poets are in love with Patience , the village milkmaid , who detests one of them and feels that it is her duty to avoid the other despite her love for him . Richard D 'Oyly Carte was the booking manager for Oscar Wilde , a then lesser @-@ known proponent of aestheticism , and dispatched Wilde on an American lecture tour in conjunction with the opera 's U.S. run , so that American audiences might better understand what the satire was all about .
During the run of Patience , Carte built the large , modern Savoy Theatre , which became the partnership 's permanent home . It was the first theatre ( indeed the world 's first public building ) to be lit entirely by electric lighting . Patience moved into the Savoy after six months at the Opera Comique and ran for a total of 578 performances , surpassing the run of H.M.S. Pinafore and becoming the second longest @-@ running work of musical theatre up to that time in history .
= = = = Iolanthe = = = =
Iolanthe ( 1882 ) was the first of the operas to open at the Savoy . The fully electric Savoy made possible numerous special effects , such as sparkling magic wands for the female chorus of fairies . The opera poked fun at English law and the House of Lords and made much of the war between the sexes . The critics felt that Sullivan 's work in Iolanthe had taken a step forward . The Daily Telegraph wrote , " The composer has risen to his opportunity , and we are disposed to account Iolanthe his best effort in all the Gilbertian series . " Similarly , the Theatre asserted that " the music of Iolanthe is Dr Sullivan 's chef d 'oeuvre . The quality throughout is more even , and maintained at a higher standard , than in any of his earlier works ... "
Iolanthe is one of a number of Gilbert 's works , including The Wicked World ( 1873 ) , Broken Hearts ( 1875 ) , Princess Ida ( 1884 ) and Fallen Fairies ( 1909 ) , where the introduction of men and " mortal love " into a tranquil world of women wreaks havoc with the status quo . Gilbert had created several " fairy comedies " at the Haymarket Theatre in the early 1870s . These plays , influenced by the fairy work of James Planché , are founded upon the idea of self @-@ revelation by characters under the influence of some magic or some supernatural interference .
In 1882 , Gilbert had a telephone installed in his home and at the prompt desk at the Savoy Theatre so that he could monitor performances and rehearsals from his home study . Gilbert had referred to the new technology in Pinafore in 1878 , only two years after the device was invented and before London even had telephone service . Sullivan had one installed as well , and on 13 May 1883 , at a party to celebrate the composer 's 41st birthday , the guests , including the Prince of Wales ( later Edward VII ) , heard a direct relay of parts of Iolanthe from the Savoy . This was probably the first live " broadcast " of an opera .
During the run of Iolanthe , in 1883 , Sullivan was knighted by Queen Victoria . Although it was the operas with Gilbert that had earned him the broadest fame , the honour was conferred for his services to serious music . The musical establishment , and many critics , believed that this should put an end to his career as a composer of comic opera — that a musical knight should not stoop below oratorio or grand opera . Sullivan , despite the financial security of writing for the Savoy , increasingly viewed his work with Gilbert as unimportant , beneath his skills , and repetitious . Furthermore , he was unhappy that he had to simplify his music to ensure that Gilbert 's words could be heard . But paradoxically , in February 1883 , just after Iolanthe opened , Sullivan had signed a five @-@ year agreement with Gilbert and Carte requiring him to produce a new comic opera on six months ' notice .
= = = = Princess Ida = = = =
Princess Ida ( 1884 ) spoofed women 's education and male chauvinism and continued the theme from Iolanthe of the war between the sexes . The opera is based on Tennyson 's poem The Princess : A Medley . Gilbert had written a blank verse farce based on the same material in 1870 , called The Princess , and he reused a good deal of the dialogue from his earlier play in the libretto of Princess Ida . Ida is the only Gilbert and Sullivan work with dialogue entirely in blank verse and is also the only one of their works in three acts . Lillian Russell had been engaged to create the title role , but Gilbert did not believe that she was dedicated enough , and when she missed a rehearsal , he dismissed her .
Princess Ida was the first of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas that , by the partnership 's previous standards , was not a success . A particularly hot summer in London did not help ticket sales . The piece ran for a comparatively short 246 performances and was not revived in London until 1919 . Sullivan had been satisfied with the libretto , but two months after Ida opened , Sullivan told Carte that " it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself . " As Princess Ida showed signs of flagging , Carte realised that , for the first time in the partnership 's history , no new opera would be ready when the old one closed . On 22 March 1884 , he gave Gilbert and Sullivan contractual notice that a new opera would be required in six months ' time . In the meantime , when Ida closed , Carte produced a revival of The Sorcerer .
= = = Dodging the magic lozenge = = =
= = = = The Mikado = = = =
The most successful of the Savoy Operas was The Mikado ( 1885 ) , which made fun of English bureaucracy , thinly disguised by a Japanese setting . Gilbert initially proposed a story for a new opera about a magic lozenge that would change the characters , which Sullivan found artificial and lacking in " human interest and probability " , as well as being too similar to their earlier opera , The Sorcerer . As dramatised in the film Topsy @-@ Turvy , the author and composer were at an impasse until 8 May 1884 , when Gilbert dropped the lozenge idea and agreed to provide a libretto without any supernatural elements .
The story focuses on a " cheap tailor , " Ko @-@ Ko , who is promoted to the position of Lord High Executioner of the town of Titipu . Ko @-@ Ko loves his ward , Yum @-@ Yum , but she loves a musician , who is really the son of the emperor of Japan ( the Mikado ) , and who is in disguise to escape the attentions of the elderly and amorous Katisha . The Mikado has decreed that executions must resume without delay in Titipu . When news arrives that the Mikado will be visiting the town , Ko @-@ Ko assumes that he is coming to ascertain whether Ko @-@ | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
his libretti , vowing to write no more operas for the Savoy .
Gilbert next wrote The Mountebanks with Alfred Cellier and the flop Haste to the Wedding with George Grossmith , and Sullivan wrote Haddon Hall with Sydney Grundy . Gilbert eventually won the law suit , but his actions and statements had been hurtful to his partners . Nevertheless , the partnership had been so profitable that , after the financial failure of the Royal English Opera House , Carte and his wife sought to reunite the author and composer . In late 1891 , after many failed attempts at reconciliation , Gilbert and Sullivan 's music publisher , Tom Chappell , stepped in to mediate between two of his most profitable artists , and within two weeks he had succeeded , eventually leading to two further collaborations between Gilbert and Sullivan .
= = = Last works = = =
Utopia , Limited ( 1893 ) , their penultimate opera , was a very modest success , and their last , The Grand Duke ( 1896 ) was an outright failure . Neither work entered the canon of regularly performed Gilbert and Sullivan works until the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company made the first complete professional recordings of the two operas in the 1970s . Gilbert had also offered Sullivan another libretto , His Excellency ( 1894 ) , but Gilbert 's insistence on casting Nancy McIntosh , his protege from Utopia , led to Sullivan 's refusal , and His Excellency was instead composed by F. Osmond Carr . Meanwhile , the Savoy Theatre continued to revive the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , in between new pieces , and D 'Oyly Carte touring companies also played them in repertory .
After The Grand Duke , the partners saw no reason to work together again . A last unpleasant misunderstanding occurred in 1898 . At the premiere of Sullivan ’ s opera The Beauty Stone on 28 May , Gilbert arrived at the Savoy Theatre with friends , assuming that Sullivan had reserved some seats for him . Instead , he was informed that Sullivan objected to his presence . The composer later denied that this was true . The last time they met was at the Savoy Theatre on 17 November 1898 at the celebration of the 21st anniversary of the first performance of The Sorcerer . They did not speak to each other . Sullivan , by this time in exceedingly poor health , died in 1900 , although to the end he continued to write new comic operas for the Savoy with other librettists , most successfully with Basil Hood in The Rose of Persia ( 1899 ) . Gilbert also wrote several works , some with other collaborators , in the 1890s . By the time of Sullivan 's death in 1900 , Gilbert wrote that any memory of their rift had been " completely bridged over , " and " the most cordial relations existed between us . " He stated that Sullivan was " A composer of the rarest genius – who , because he was a composer of the rarest genius , was as modest and as unassuming as a neophyte should be , but seldom is .... I remember all that he has done for me in allowing his genius to shed some of its lustre upon my humble name . "
Richard D 'Oyly Carte died in 1901 , and his widow , Helen , continued to direct the activities of the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company at the Savoy and on tour . Gilbert went into semi @-@ retirement , although he continued to direct revivals of the Savoy Operas and wrote new plays occasionally . Between 1906 and 1909 , he assisted Mrs. Carte in staging two repertory seasons at the Savoy Theatre . These were very popular and revived interest in the works . Gilbert was knighted during the first repertory season . After Sullivan 's death , Gilbert wrote only one more comic opera , Fallen Fairies ( 1909 ; music by Edward German ) , which was not a success .
= = Legacy and assessment = =
Gilbert died in 1911 , and Richard 's son , Rupert D 'Oyly Carte , took over the opera company upon his step @-@ mother 's death in 1913 . His daughter , Bridget , inherited the company upon his death in 1948 . The D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company toured nearly year @-@ round , except for its many London seasons and foreign tours , performing exclusively the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , until it closed in 1982 . During the 20th century , the company gave well over 35 @,@ 000 performances . The Savoy operas , from the beginning , were produced extensively in North America and Australasia , and soon afterwards in Germany , Russia , and elsewhere in Europe and around the world .
In 1922 , Sir Henry Wood explained the enduring success of the collaboration as follows :
Sullivan has never had an equal for brightness and drollery , for humour without coarseness and without vulgarity , and for charm and grace . His orchestration is delightful : he wrote with full understanding of every orchestral voice . Above all , his music is perfectly appropriate to the words of which it is the setting .... He found the right , the only cadences to fit Gilbert 's happy and original rhythms , and to match Gilbert 's fun or to throw Gilbert 's frequent irony , pointed although not savage , into relief . Sullivan 's music is much more than the accompaniment of Gilbert 's libretti , just as Gilbert 's libretti are far more than words to Sullivan 's music . We have two masters who are playing a concerto . Neither is subordinate to the other ; each gives what is original , but the two , while neither predominates , are in perfect correspondence . This rare harmony of words and music is what makes these operas entirely unique . They are the work not of a musician and his librettist nor of a poet and one who sets his words to music , but of two geniuses .
G. K. Chesterton similarly praised the combination of the two artists , anticipating the operas ' success into the " remote future " . He wrote that Gilbert 's satire was " too intelligent to be intelligible " by itself , and that perhaps only Sullivan could have given " wings to his words ... in exactly the right degree frivolous and exactly the right degree fastidious . [ The words ' ] precise degree of levity and distance from reality ... seemed to be expressed ... in the very notes of the music ; almost ... in the note of the laughter that followed it . " In 1957 , a review in The Times gave this rationale for " the continued vitality of the Savoy operas " :
" [ T ] hey were never really contemporary in their idiom .... Gilbert and Sullivan 's [ world ] , from the first moment was obviously not the audience 's world , [ it was ] an artificial world , with a neatly controlled and shapely precision which has not gone out of fashion – because it was never in fashion in the sense of using the fleeting conventions and ways of thought of contemporary human society .... For this , each partner has his share of credit . The neat articulation of incredibilities in Gilbert 's plots is perfectly matched by his language .... His dialogue , with its primly mocking formality , satisfies both the ear and the intelligence . His verses show an unequalled and very delicate gift for creating a comic effect by the contrast between poetic form and prosaic thought and wording .... How deliciously [ his lines ] prick the bubble of sentiment .... [ Of ] equal importance ... Gilbert 's lyrics almost invariably take on extra point and sparkle when set to Sullivan 's music .... Sullivan 's tunes , in these operas , also exist in a make @-@ believe world of their own .... [ He is ] a delicate wit , whose airs have a precision , a neatness , a grace , and a flowing melody .... The two men together remain endlessly and incomparably delightful .... Light , and even trifling , though [ the operas ] may seem upon grave consideration , they yet have the shapeliness and elegance that can make a trifle into a work of art " .
Because of the unusual success of the operas , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company were able , from the start , to license the works to other professional companies , such as the J. C. Williamson Gilbert and Sullivan Opera Company , and to amateur troupes . For almost a century , until the British copyrights expired at the end of 1961 , and even afterwards , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company influenced productions of the operas worldwide , creating a " performing tradition " for most of the operas that is still referred to today by many directors , both amateur and professional . Indeed , Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte had an important influence on amateur theatre . Cellier and Bridgeman wrote in 1914 that , prior to the creation of the Savoy operas , amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals . After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies in the 1880s licensed to perform the operas , professionals recognised that the amateur performing groups " support the culture of music and the drama . They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage , and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present @-@ day favourites . " Cellier and Bridgeman attributed the rise in quality and reputation of the amateur groups largely to " the popularity of , and infectious craze for performing , the Gilbert and Sullivan operas " . The National Operatic and Dramatic Association ( NODA ) was founded in 1899 . It reported , in 1914 , that nearly 200 British troupes were performing Gilbert and Sullivan that year , constituting most of the amateur companies in the country ( this figure included only the societies that were members of NODA ) . The association further reported that almost 1 @,@ 000 performances of the Savoy operas had been given in Britain that year , many of them to benefit charities . Cellier and Bridgeman noted that strong amateur groups were performing the operas in places as far away as New Zealand . In the U.S. , and elsewhere where British copyrights on the operas were not enforced , both professional and amateur companies performed the works throughout the 20th century – the Internet Broadway Database counts about 150 productions on Broadway alone from 1900 to 1960 . The Savoy Company , an amateur group formed in 1901 in Philadelphia , continues to perform today .
Recordings of excerpts from the Gilbert and Sullivan operas began to be released in 1906 . In 1917 , the Gramophone Company ( also known as HMV ) produced the first album of a complete musical score of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera , The Mikado , followed by recordings of eight more of the operas . Electrical recordings of the complete musical scores of most of the operas were then issued by the Gramophone Company and Victor Talking Machine Company beginning in the late 1920s . These recordings were supervised by Rupert D 'Oyly Carte . The original D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company continued to produce well @-@ regarded recordings until 1979 , helping to keep the operas popular through the decades . Many of these recordings have been reissued on CD . After the copyrights on the operas expired , other professional companies were free to perform and record the operas . Many performing companies arose to produce the works , such as Gilbert and Sullivan for All in Britain and the Light Opera of Manhattan and Light Opera Works in the U.S. , and existing companies , such as English National Opera and Australian Opera added Gilbert and Sullivan to their repertories . These companies also released popular audio and video recordings of the operas . In 1980 , a Broadway and West End production of Pirates produced by Joseph Papp brought new audiences to Gilbert and Sullivan , and between 1988 and 2003 , the revived D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company revived the operas on tour and on the West End , also recording seven of the operas . A set of eleven of the operas ( omitting the last two ) was produced in 1982 for television , ten of which are available on VHS and DVD .
Today , numerous professional repertory companies , small opera companies , amateur societies , churches , schools and universities continue to produce the works . The most popular G & S works also continue to be performed from time to time by major opera companies , and professional recordings of the operas , and albums of songs from the operas , continue to be released . Since 1994 , a three @-@ week @-@ long International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival has been held every August in England , with some two dozen or more performances of the operas given on the main stage , and several dozen related " fringe " events given in smaller venues . The Festival sells both professional and amateur videos of its most popular productions . In connection with the 2009 festival , a contemporary critic wrote , " The appeal of G & S ’ s special blend of charm , silliness and gentle satire seems immune to fashion . " There continue to be hundreds of amateur companies performing the Gilbert and Sullivan works worldwide .
= = = Cultural influence = = =
In the past 125 years , Gilbert and Sullivan have pervasively influenced popular culture in the English @-@ speaking world , and lines and quotations from their operas have become part of the English language ( even if not originated by Gilbert ) , such as " short , sharp shock " , " What never ? Well , hardly ever ! " , " let the punishment fit the crime " , and " A policeman 's lot is not a happy one " . The operas have influenced political style and discourse , literature , film and television , have been widely parodied by humorists , and have been quoted in legal rulings .
The American and British musical owes a tremendous debt to G & S , who were admired and copied by early musical theatre authors and composers such as Ivan Caryll , Adrian Ross , Lionel Monckton , P. G. Wodehouse , Guy Bolton , and Victor Herbert , and later Jerome Kern , Ira Gershwin , Yip Harburg , Irving Berlin , Ivor Novello , Oscar Hammerstein II , and Andrew Lloyd Webber . Gilbert 's lyrics served as a model for such 20th @-@ century Broadway lyricists as Cole Porter , Ira Gershwin , and Lorenz Hart . Noël Coward wrote : " I was born into a generation that still took light music seriously . The lyrics and melodies of Gilbert and Sullivan were hummed and strummed into my consciousness at an early age . My father sang them , my mother played them , my nurse , Emma , breathed them through her teeth .... My aunts and uncles ... sang them singly and in unison at the slightest provocation .... "
Professor Carolyn Williams has noted , however : " The influence of Gilbert and Sullivan – their wit and sense of irony , the send ups of politics and contemporary culture – goes beyond musical theater to comedy in general . Allusions to their work have made their way into our own popular culture " . Gilbert and Sullivan expert and enthusiast Ian Bradley agrees :
The musical is not , of course , the only cultural form to show the influence of G & S. Even more direct heirs are those witty and satirical songwriters found on both sides of the Atlantic in the twentieth century like Michael Flanders and Donald Swann in the United Kingdom and Tom Lehrer in the United States . The influence of Gilbert is discernible in a vein of British comedy that runs through John Betjeman 's verse via Monty Python and Private Eye to ... television series like Yes , Minister ... where the emphasis is on wit , irony , and poking fun at the establishment from within it in a way which manages to be both disrespectful of authority and yet cosily comfortable and urbane .
The works of Gilbert and Sullivan are themselves frequently pastiched and parodied . Well known examples of this include Tom Lehrer 's The Elements and Clementine ; Allan Sherman 's I 'm Called Little Butterball , When I Was a Lad , You Need an Analyst and The Bronx Bird @-@ Watcher ; and The Two Ronnies ' 1973 Christmas Special . Other comedians have used Gilbert and Sullivan songs as a key part of their routines , including Hinge and Bracket , Anna Russell , and the HMS Yakko episode of the animated TV series Animaniacs . Songs from Gilbert and Sullivan are often pastiched in advertising , and elaborate advertising parodies have been published , as have the likenesses of various Gilbert and Sullivan performers throughout the decades . Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas are commonly referenced in literature , film and television in various ways that include extensive use of Sullivan 's music or where action occurs during a performance of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera , such as in the film The Girl Said No . There are also a number of Gilbert and Sullivan biographical films , such as Mike Leigh 's Topsy @-@ Turvy ( 2000 ) and The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan ( 1953 ) , as well as shows about the partnership , including a 1938 Broadway show , Knights of Song and a 1975 West End show called Tarantara ! Tarantara !
It is not surprising , given the focus of Gilbert on politics , that politicians and political observers have often found inspiration in these works . Chief Justice of the United States William Rehnquist added gold stripes to his judicial robes after seeing them used by the Lord Chancellor in a production of Iolanthe . Alternatively , Lord Chancellor Charles Falconer is recorded as objecting so strongly to Iolanthe 's comic portrayal of Lord Chancellors that he supported moves to disband the office . British politicians , beyond quoting some of the more famous lines , have delivered speeches in the form of Gilbert and Sullivan pastiches . These include Conservative Peter Lilley 's speech mimicking the form of " I 've got a little list " from The Mikado , listing those he was against , including " sponging socialists " and " young ladies who get pregnant just to jump the housing queue " . Political humour based on Gilbert and Sullivan 's style and characters continues to be written .
= = Collaborations = =
= = = Major works and original London runs = = =
Thespis ; or , The Gods Grown Old ( 1871 ) 63 performances
Trial by Jury ( 1875 ) 131 performances
The Sorcerer ( 1877 ) 178 performances
H.M.S. Pinafore ; or , The Lass That Loved a Sailor ( 1878 ) 571 performances
The Pirates of Penzance ; or , The Slave of Duty ( 1879 ) 363 performances
The Martyr of Antioch ( cantata ) ( 1880 ) ( Gilbert modified the poem by Henry Hart Milman )
Patience ; or Bunthorne 's Bride ( 1881 ) 578 performances
Iolanthe ; or , The Peer and the Peri ( 1882 ) 398 performances
Princess Ida ; or , Castle Adamant ( 1884 ) 246 performances
The Mikado ; or , The Town of Titipu ( 1885 ) 672 performances
Ruddigore ; or , The Witch 's Curse ( 1887 ) 288 performances
The Yeomen of the Guard ; or , The Merryman and his Maid ( 1888 ) 423 performances
The Gondoliers ; or , The King of Barataria ( 1889 ) 554 performances
Utopia , Limited ; or , The Flowers of Progress ( 1893 ) 245 performances
The Grand Duke ; or , The Statutory Duel ( 1896 ) 123 performances
= = = Parlour ballads = = =
The Distant Shore ( 1874 )
The Love that Loves Me Not ( 1875 )
Sweethearts ( 1875 ) , based on Gilbert 's 1874 play , Sweethearts
= = = Overtures = = =
The overtures from the Gilbert and Sullivan operas remain popular , and there are many recordings of them . Most of them are structured as a potpourri of tunes from the operas . They are generally well @-@ orchestrated , but not all of them were composed by Sullivan . However , even those delegated to his assistants were based on an outline he provided , and in many cases incorporated his suggestions or corrections . Sullivan invariably conducted them ( as well as the entire operas ) on opening night , and they were included in the published scores approved by Sullivan .
Those Sullivan wrote himself include the overtures to Thespis , Iolanthe , Princess Ida , The Yeomen of the Guard , The Gondoliers and The Grand Duke . Sullivan 's authorship of the overture to Utopia , Limited cannot be verified with certainty , as his autograph score is now lost , but it is likely attributable to him , as it consists of only a few bars of introduction , followed by a straight copy of music heard elsewhere in the opera ( the Drawing Room scene ) . Thespis is now lost , but there is no doubt that Sullivan wrote its overture . Very early performances of The Sorcerer used a section of Sullivan 's incidental music to Shakespeare 's Henry the VIII , as he did not have time to write a new overture , but this was replaced in 1884 by one executed by Hamilton Clarke . Of those remaining , the overtures to H.M.S. Pinafore and The Pirates of Penzance are by Alfred Cellier , the overture to Patience is by Eugene d 'Albert , and those to The Mikado and Ruddigore are by Hamilton Clarke ( although the Ruddigore overture was later replaced by one written by Geoffrey Toye ) .
Most of the overtures are in three sections : a lively introduction , a slow middle section , and a concluding allegro in sonata form , with two subjects , a brief development , a recapitulation and a coda . However , Sullivan himself did not always follow this pattern . The overture to Princess Ida , for instance , has only an opening fast section and a concluding slow section . The overture to Utopia Limited is dominated by a slow section , with only a very brief original passage introducing it .
In the 1920s , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company commissioned its musical director at the time , Geoffrey Toye , to write new overtures for Ruddigore and The Pirates of Penzance . Toye 's Ruddigore overture entered the general repertory , and today is more often heard than the original overture by Clarke . Toye 's Pirates overture , however , did not last long and is now presumed lost . Sir Malcolm Sargent devised a new ending for the overture to The Gondoliers , adding the " cachucha " from the second act of the opera . This gave the Gondoliers overture the familiar fast @-@ slow @-@ fast pattern of most of the rest of the Savoy Opera overtures , and this version has competed for popularity with Sullivan 's original version .
= = Alternative versions = =
= = = Translations = = =
Gilbert and Sullivan operas have been translated into many languages , including Portuguese , Yiddish , Hebrew , Swedish , Dutch , Danish , Estonian , Hungarian , Russian , Japanese , French , Italian , Spanish ( reportedly including a version of Pinafore transformed into zarzuela style ) , Catalan and others .
There are many German versions of Gilbert and Sullivan operas , including the popular Der Mikado . There is even a German version of The Grand Duke . Some German translations were made by Friedrich Zell and Richard Genée , librettists of Die Fledermaus and other Viennese operettas , who even translated one of Sullivan 's lesser @-@ known operas , The Chieftain , as ( Der Häuptling ) .
= = = Ballets = = =
Pirates of Penzance - The Ballet ! , created for the Queensland Ballet in 1991
Pineapple Poll , created by John Cranko in 1951 at Sadler 's Wells Theatre ; in repertoire at the Birmingham Royal Ballet . The ballet is based on Gilbert 's 1870 Bab Ballad " The Bumboat Woman 's Story " , as is H.M.S. Pinafore . Cranko expanded the plotline of Gilbert 's poem and added a happy ending . The music is arranged by Sir Charles Mackerras from themes by Sullivan .
= = = Adaptations = = =
Gilbert adapted the stories of H.M.S. Pinafore and The Mikado into children 's books called The Pinafore Picture Book and The Story of The Mikado giving , in some cases , backstory that is not found in the librettos . Many other children 's books have since been written retelling the stories of the operas or adapting characters or events from them . In the 19th century , the most popular Gilbert and Sullivan songs and music were adapted as dance pieces .
Many musical theatre and film adaptations of the operas have been produced , including the following :
The Swing Mikado ( 1938 ; Chicago – all @-@ black cast )
The Hot Mikado ( 1939 ) and Hot Mikado ( 1986 )
The Jazz Mikado ( 1927 , Berlin )
Hollywood Pinafore ( 1945 )
The Cool Mikado ( 1962 film )
The Black Mikado ( 1975 )
Dick Deadeye , or Duty Done ( 1975 animated film )
The Pirate Movie ( 1982 film )
The Ratepayers ' Iolanthe ( 1984 ; Olivier Award @-@ winning musical ) adapted by Ned Sherrin and Alistair Beaton
Metropolitan Mikado ( political satire adapted by Sherrin and Beaton , first performed at Queen Elizabeth Hall ( 1985 ) starring Louise Gold , Simon Butteriss , Rosemary Ashe , Robert Meadmore and Martin Smith )
Di Yam Gazlonim by Al Grand ( 1986 ; a Yiddish adaptation of Pirates ; a New York production was nominated for a 2007 Drama Desk Award )
Pinafore ! ( A Saucy , Sexy , Ship @-@ Shape New Musical ) ( adapted by Mark Savage , first performed at the Celebration Theater in Los Angeles , California in 2001 ; only one character is female , and all but one of the male characters are gay .
Gondoliers : A Mafia @-@ themed adaptation of the opera , broadly rewritten by John Doyle and orchestrated and arranged Sarah Travis , was given at the Watermill Theatre and transferred to the Apollo Theatre in the West End in 2001 . The production utilised Doyle 's signature conceit of the actors playing their own orchestra instruments .
Parson 's Pirates by Opera della Luna ( 2002 )
The Ghosts of Ruddigore by Opera della Luna ( 2003 )
Pinafore Swing , Watermill Theatre ( 2004 @.@ another Doyle adaptation in which the actors double as the orchestra )
= Cumberland ( rugby league team ) =
Cumberland , officially known as Central Cumberland , were a rugby league team in 1908 based in the region of Cumberland Plain in western Sydney . They were one of the nine original teams in the first New South Wales Rugby League ( NSWRL ) season , albeit admitted after the first round of matches had already been played . They are the shortest lived team in the history of first @-@ grade rugby league in Australia after disbanding late that year . Statistically , they are the club with the poorest all @-@ time record , only lasting eight games in their inaugural and only season .
= = History = =
The Cumberland area was dominated by rugby union , another form of the game , as the main winter sport . The local Kings School took part in a regular competition of rugby union with other clubs Aallaroo , Calder House , Civil , Lyndhurst , Military , Newington , North Shore and Waratah . These teams in the area by 1900 , were put under the banner of Western Suburbs Rugby Union .
= = = Formation = = =
The club was formed on the night of 21 April 1908 at Horse and Jockey Hotel , Homebush , the night after the first round of rugby league was being held in the NSWRL premiership . On that morning , Sydney newspaper The Daily Telegraph advertised a meeting for that night to discuss the formation of rugby league club in the Cumberland area . The meeting was attended by annoyed members of the Western Suburbs Rugby Union Club who were asked to form a rugby league club under the name Central Cumberland .
When the Western Suburbs formed their club , most of their players had come from Ashfield Rugby Union Club , which was a second division team to the Western Suburbs Rugby Union Club . All but two of the first grade team of Western Suburbs Rugby Union Club rejected offers from Western Suburbs . However , when Cumberland were looking for players , 23 of the 27 players present at the meeting signed with the club , most of which were rugby union players from the Western Suburbs Rugby Union Club .
The NSWRL were reluctant to admit a ninth team into the premiership and proposed they merge with nearby team Western Suburbs . However , the clubs involved declined so the NSWRL agreed to allowing the Cumberland team to a trial match against Eastern Suburbs . While Eastern Suburbs won the match 18 @-@ 4 , the NSWRL was convinced of that they could be competitive . As the NSWRL premiership had already begun , the NSWRL had to reformat the draw to include Cumberland , which meant increasing the number of teams from eight to nine . Cumberland did not have a home ground , like some of the other teams , and would play their games at the Agricultural Ground , Birchgrove Oval and Wentworth Park .
= = = 1908 season = = =
The first match they played was against Souths on 9 May 1908 and despite the loss , the league praised the club over the 20 @,@ 000 crowd that attended the game . Though the game , which Cumberland lost 23 @-@ 2 was played as a curtain @-@ raiser to an international match between Australia and New Zealand .
Both Cumberland and Western Suburbs had been winless to this point of the season and Cumberland had a score to settle with their rivals from Western Suburbs Rugby Union Club who were with Western Suburbs rugby league club . Cumberland led 4 @-@ 2 at half time , having two penalty goals kicked by Harry Bloomfield in the first half , however Western Suburbs goalkicker Jim Abercrombie kicked a penalty goal to equalize , after which George Cribb scored between the post and Bloomfield kicked the goal to make it 9 @-@ 4 . Abercrombie scored another penalty goal to make it 9 @-@ 6 , after which Bloomfield intercepted a pass , kicked the ball and regathered it to score which he also converted to win the match 14 @-@ 6 . Cumberland won its only game in the premiership season and ever .
In what turned out to be their final ever game , Cumberland were only able to field eleven out of the required thirteen players . The club ended up borrowing two players from the opposing team North Sydney to play for them , who were ' Paddy ' Boland and Bert Odbert . They lost this game 45 @-@ 0 and were awarded the wooden spoon for finishing on the bottom of the competition ladder .
= = = Demise = = =
Cumberland 's dismal winning percentage and the inability to field a team led to their disbanding at the end of the season . After only playing eight first @-@ grade matches and one trial match , Cumberland ceased to exist and passed into history . Seven of the Cumberland players moved to neighbours Western Suburbs , although only Harry Bloomfield , A. Halling and S. Jarvis played first @-@ grade rugby league again .
= = Colours and crest = =
Cumberland 's neighbour club Western Suburbs had used black and white as their colours , which had been taken from Ashfield rugby club , a second grade rugby union team which supplied many of Western Suburbs players . Unlike other clubs , Western Suburbs did not take their colours from their district rugby union team , due to Ashfield 's influence at the club . Cumberland thought of using the bottle green of the Western Suburbs Rugby Union Club ' , as many of their team members were from there . However , the club believed that some would be unable to distinguish Western Suburbs and Cumberland if this approach was taken .
The club eventually chose the colours of the local Parramatta council , which were royal blue and gold , which were represented on their jersey in horizontal stripes , or hoops . The crest used these colours and was like many of the other crests of the 1908 season , a badge with a letter ' C ' , to represent the first letter of Cumberland . The badge was royal blue , while the letter gold . These colours were later used by the Parramatta Eels at their introduction in the NSWRL premiership in 1947 , although there was no official affiliation between Cumberland and the later Parramatta team . The club 's jersey was , like most other clubs , the colours in hoops around the jersey . These hoops of blue and gold were mixed with a white collar and black or grey shorts .
= = Players = =
Cumberland used twenty @-@ four players in their eight matches :
Key
Position - the rugby league position that player played at .
Career - the years the player spent at the team .
Appearances - the number of times this player played for the team .
T - the number of tries the player scored for the team .
G - the number of goals the player scored for the team .
FG - the number of field goals the player scored for the team .
P - The total number of points scored by the player .
= = = Representative players = = =
Cumberland has no representative players
= = Records and statistics = =
= = = Individual records = = =
Harry Bloomfield , statistically , is Cumberland 's best player . Bloomfield , along with A. Halling , S. Jarvis , Thomas Lalor and F. O 'Grady played all eight matches for Cumberland . Bloomfield played fullback and scored nineteen points for Cumberland which encompassed one try and eight goals throughout the season which was enough to warrant representation for New South Wales in an interstate match against Queensland . This included eleven points in one match , against Wests in their only win for the Season . E. Bellamy claims hold to most tries in a season , scoring two , one in the match against Glebe , the other against Eastern Suburbs .
= = = Team honours = = =
Statistically , Cumberland are the worst team in the history of first @-@ grade rugby league in Australia . They only have won 12 @.@ 5 % of their games , lowest to Annandale ( 18 @.@ 3 % ) , who are also a defunct team . They won the wooden spoon for being last on the table in the 1908 season . They had only one win which was 14 @-@ 6 over Western Suburbs , and had their worst loss in their final game against Norths , 45 @-@ 0 . They lost six consecutive games from 9 May 1908 until 27 June 1908 , a win , then a final loss . They scored an average 4 @.@ 75 points each game whereas they had an average of 23 @.@ 88 points scored against them .
= Pattie Boyd =
Patricia Anne " Pattie " Weston ( née Boyd ) ( born 17 March 1944 ) is an English model , photographer and author . She was the first wife of both George Harrison and Eric Clapton . In August 2007 , she published her autobiography Wonderful Tonight . Her photographs of Harrison and Clapton , titled Through the Eye of a Muse , have been exhibited in Dublin , Sydney , Toronto , Moscow , London and throughout the United States .
= = Early life = =
Boyd was born on 17 March 1944 , in Taunton , Somerset , and was the first child to Colin Ian Langdon Boyd , and Diana Frances Boyd ( née Drysdale ) , who were married on 14 September 1942 . The Boyds moved to West Lothian , Scotland , where her brother Colin was born in 1946 . The Boyd family moved to Guildford , Surrey , where her sister , Helen Mary " Jenny " Boyd was born in 1947 . Boyd 's youngest sister , Paula , was born at Nakuru hospital , Kenya , in 1951 . The Boyds lived in Nairobi , Kenya , from 1948 to 1953 , after her father 's discharge from the Royal Air Force . Boyd 's parents divorced in 1952 , and her mother married Robert Gaymer @-@ Jones in February 1953 , in Tanganyika ( now Tanzania ) . The family returned to England where Boyd gained two half brothers , David J.B. ( b . 1954 ) and Robert , Jr . ( b . 1955 ) . Jenny would later marry Fleetwood Mac 's drummer Mick Fleetwood and have two daughters with him - Amy and Lucy .
Boyd attended Hazeldean School in Putney , the St Agnes and St Michael Convent Boarding School in East Grinstead , and St Martha 's Convent in Hadley Wood , Hertfordshire ( where she received three GCE O level passes in 1961 ) . Boyd moved to London in 1962 and worked as a shampoo girl at Elizabeth Arden 's salon , until a client who worked for a fashion magazine inspired her to begin work as a model .
= = Career = =
Boyd began her fashion career in 1962 , modelling in London , New York and Paris . She was photographed by David Bailey and Terence Donovan , and appeared on the cover of Vogue . Boyd appeared on the cover of the UK and Italian editions of Vogue magazine in 1969 , with other popular models of the day , such as Twiggy , who based her early modelling appearance on Boyd . Boyd was asked by Gloria Stavers to write a column for 16 Magazine , and appeared in a TV commercial promoting Smith 's crisps . She was cast for A Hard Day 's Night , where she met George Harrison .
Boyd exhibited her photos of Harrison and Clapton at the San Francisco Art Exchange on Valentine 's Day 2005 , in a show entitled Through the Eye of a Muse . The exhibition appeared in San Francisco and London during 2006 , and in La Jolla , California in 2008 . Boyd 's photography was shown in Dublin and in Toronto in 2008 and at the Blender Gallery in Sydney , Australia and in Almaty , Kazakhstan in 2009 and 2010 . Her exhibit " Yesterday and Today : The Beatles and Eric Clapton " was shown in Santa Catalina Island in California , and at the National Geographic Headquarters in Washington , DC in 2011 .
In 2007 Boyd published her autobiography , which includes some of her photographs , titled Wonderful Today in the UK ; in the US it was published with the title Wonderful Tonight : George Harrison , Eric Clapton , and Me . In the United States , Boyd 's book debuted at the top of the New York Times Best Seller list .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriage to George Harrison = = =
In 1964 , Boyd met Harrison during the filming of A Hard Day 's Night , in which she was cast as a schoolgirl . Her only line in the film was asking " Prisoners ? " , but she later appeared in the " I Should Have Known Better " segment . Boyd was " semi @-@ engaged " to photographer Eric Swayne at the time , and so declined a date proposal from Harrison . Several days later , after ending her relationship with Swayne , she went back to work on the film and Harrison asked her out on a date for a second time . The couple went to a private gentlemen 's club called the Garrick Club , chaperoned by the Beatles ' manager , Brian Epstein . According to Boyd , one of the first things Harrison said to her on the film set was : " Will you marry me ? Well , if you won 't marry me , will you have dinner with me tonight ? "
Boyd had her first encounter with LSD in early 1965 when the couple 's dentist , John Riley , secretly laced her coffee with the drug during a dinner party at his home . As she was getting ready to leave with Harrison and John and Cynthia Lennon , Riley told them that he had spiked their drinks and tried to convince them to stay . Outside , Boyd was in an agitated state from the drug and threatened to break a store window , but Harrison pulled her away . Later , when Boyd and her group were in a lift on their way up to the Ad Lib club , they mistakenly believed it was on fire .
Later that year , Boyd moved into Kinfauns with Harrison . The couple were engaged on 25 December 1965 , and married on 21 January 1966 , in a ceremony at a register office in Ashley Road , Epsom , with Paul McCartney as best man . Later , the couple went on a honeymoon in Barbados . In September , Boyd flew with Harrison to Bombay to visit sitar virtuoso Ravi Shankar , before returning to London on 23 October 1966 . The following year , Boyd attended the Our World broadcast of " All You Need Is Love " . Through her interest in Eastern mysticism and her membership in the Spiritual Regeneration Movement , she inspired all four Beatles to meet the Indian mystic Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in London on 24 August 1967 , which resulted in a visit to the Maharishi 's seminar in Bangor , the following day . Boyd accompanied Harrison on the Beatles ' visit to the Maharishi 's ashram in Rishikesh , India , in February 1968 . In March 1970 , Boyd moved with Harrison from Kinfauns to Friar Park , a Victorian neo @-@ Gothic mansion , in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames .
In 1973 , Boyd 's marriage to Harrison began to fail and she had an affair with Faces guitarist Ronnie Wood . She separated from Harrison in 1974 and their divorce was finalised on 9 June 1977 . Boyd said her decision to end their marriage and leave Harrison was based largely on his repeated infidelities , culminating in an affair with Ringo Starr 's wife Maureen , which Boyd called " the final straw " . Boyd characterised the last year of her marriage as " fuelled by alcohol and cocaine " , and claimed " George used coke excessively , and I think it changed him ... it froze his emotions and hardened his heart . "
= = = Marriage to Eric Clapton = = =
In the late 1960s , Clapton and Harrison became close friends , and began writing and recording music together . At this time Clapton fell in love with Boyd . His 1970 album with Derek and the Dominos , Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs , was written to proclaim his love for her , particularly the hit song " Layla " . When Boyd rebuffed his advances late that year , Clapton descended into heroin addiction and self @-@ imposed exile for three years . Boyd moved in with Clapton and married him in 1979 . Her struggles within the marriage were masked by her public image with Clapton . Boyd drank , and admits to past drug use , but she never became a drug addict like Clapton did . Boyd left Clapton in September 1984 , and divorced him in 1988 . Her stated reasons were Clapton 's years of alcoholism , as well as his numerous affairs including one with Italian model Lory Del Santo . In 1989 , her divorce was granted on the grounds of " infidelity and unreasonable behaviour " . Boyd was also the inspiration for the songs : " Bell Bottom Blues " and " Wonderful Tonight " .
= = = Marriage to Rod Weston = = =
On 30 April 2015 , Boyd was married for the third time at the Chelsea Register Office at Chelsea Old Town Hall in London . Her husband , property developer Rod Weston , was quoted as saying , " It 's almost our silver anniversary so we thought we had better get on with it " .
= 49th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 49th Battalion was an infantry unit of the Australian Army . Raised as part of the Australian Imperial Force during the First World War , the battalion fought along the Western Front between mid @-@ 1916 and late 1918 , before being disbanded in early 1919 . In 1921 , it was re @-@ formed as a part @-@ time unit based in the state of Queensland . Throughout the 1930s , the battalion was merged a couple of times as a result of manpower shortages , but in early 1940 , as Australia mobilised for the Second World War , the 49th was expanded and the following year deployed to New Guinea to undertake garrison duty . Following Japan 's entry into the war , the 49th was committed to the fighting in the early stages of the New Guinea campaign , taking part in the Battle of Sanananda in December 1942 , where it took many casualties and suffered heavily from disease . The battalion was withdrawn back to Australia in early 1943 and subsequently disbanded in July , with the majority of its personnel being redistributed to other units . During the post @-@ war period , the 49th Battalion was subsumed into the Royal Queensland Regiment , existing between 1966 and 1997 , before being merged with the 25th Battalion to form the 25th / 49th Battalion , Royal Queensland Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = First World War = = =
The 49th Battalion was originally formed on 27 February 1916 as part of an expansion of the all @-@ volunteer Australian Imperial Force , which took place after the failed Gallipoli Campaign , during the First World War . The expansion was undertaken by raising a new division in Australia – the 3rd Division – and by splitting the battalions of the veteran 1st Division in Egypt , using its experienced personnel to provide cadre staff for new battalions that would form the 4th and 5th Divisions . The 2nd Division , which had been sent to Gallipoli late in the campaign , remained intact . Upon formation , the 49th Battalion was assigned to the 13th Brigade , which was part of the 4th Division . The battalion drew its cadre staff – a total of 14 officers and 500 other ranks – from the 9th , which had been raised primarily from volunteers from the state of Queensland and had been in the thick of the fighting at Gallipoli , having come ashore during the landing at Anzac Cove in the first wave as part of the covering force provided by the 3rd Brigade . A further three officers and 470 other ranks from Australia brought the battalion up to full strength . The battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Francis Lorenzo , who had previously served with the 10th Battalion , and it had an authorised strength of 1 @,@ 023 officers and other ranks .
After forming at Tel @-@ el @-@ Kebir , the battalion moved 40 miles ( 64 km ) to the Suez Canal where they undertook a period of training in the desert until early June . At that time , the four AIF infantry divisions that were based in Egypt were transferred to Europe , where they would later be joined by the 3rd Division , which undertook its initial training in Australia before finalising its preparations in the United Kingdom at the end of the year . Sailing on the transport Arcadian , the 49th Battalion landed in Marseilles , France , on 12 June 1916 , and moved up to the front line around Strazelle , arriving on 21 June . For the next two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years the battalion would fight in numerous battles in the trenches along the Western Front in France and Belgium . The battalion 's first significant action came during the Battle of Mouquet Farm , taking part in two efforts in August and early September . Conceived as a follow on action to the Battle of Pozières to advance the line towards Thiepval to exploit a salient that had developed in the line , the battle proved a costly , and ultimately unsuccessful , introduction to the Western Front for the 4th Division . The first time they were committed in early August they suffered heavily from German artillery , and the second time , although succeeding in capturing the farm , they were eventually pushed back under the weight of strong German counter @-@ attacks .
The 49th Battalion suffered heavy casualties in making their debut – 14 officers and 417 other ranks killed or wounded – and did not take part in any more significant attacks for the rest of the year ; nevertheless , they rotated through the front a number of times – firstly around Ypres and then later back in the Somme – where they conducted patrols and raids , in between periods of rest , training and manual labour in the rear . After enduring the harsh winter of 1916 – 17 , early in the new year the Germans withdrew between 15 – 50 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 – 31 @.@ 1 mi ) across a broad front between Arras and the Aisne , as part of a plan to shorten their lines and free up reserves . A brief advance followed , as the Australians followed their opponents up , before they were checked by the strongly prepared defences of the Hindenburg Line . In early April , as a preliminary to the First Battle of Bullecourt , the 13th Brigade was thrown into an attack around Noreuil , during which the 49th was initially placed in brigade reserve , before putting in an attack that captured a railway cutting on the Cambrai – Arras line . Its next significant action came in June , after the AIF was transferred to the Ypres sector in Belgium , where a large salient had formed in the line . On 7 June the 49th joined the Battle of Messines where it advanced on the 13th Brigade 's right , past Despagne Farm , into the Blauwepoortbeck Valley where they encountered German pillboxes for the first time . The German machine @-@ gun fire was so intense that heavy casualties were suffered in the initial attack , particularly amongst the officers with every company commander killed . By the end of the battle , the 49th had suffered 379 casualties , with many being inflicted by their own artillery which had fallen on them during a German counterattack on 8 June . Further fighting was experienced in late September at Polygon Wood during the Third Battle of Ypres , as part of follow on actions after the success at Menin Road .
The Australians wintered in Belgium during which time they undertook mainly defensive actions as they held various positions along the line , but in early 1918 they were moved south to the Somme Valley . Following the collapse of Tsarist Russia in late 1917 , the Germans were able to transfer large amounts of equipment and manpower from the Eastern Front to the Western Front and subsequently launched their Spring Offensive in March . Falling on the southern flanks of the sector held by the British Third and Fifth Armies , the offensive initially succeeded in driving the Allies back and in late March , as the Germans closed in on the vital railhead around Amiens , the five Australian divisions , which had been grouped together as part of the Australian Corps , were transferred to the Somme to help blunt the attack . The 4th Division took up positions around Dernancourt , along the River Ancre , and on 5 April played a significant part in repelling a German attack there during the Second Battle of Dernancourt , where in the words of author Chris Coulthard @-@ Clark , the 4th Division " faced the strongest attack mounted against Australians during the war " . For their part , the 49th Battalion , supported by part of the 45th , put in a vital counter @-@ attack late in the afternoon amidst heavy rain , which saved the situation for the Australians , whose line had been penetrated by a German counterattack across a railway bridge west of the town ; in doing so they suffered heavily , though , losing 14 officers and 207 other ranks . Later in the month , they took part in the Second Battle of Villers @-@ Bretonneux , launching an Anzac Day attack that successfully recaptured the town , which had been lost the previous day following an attack by four German divisions .
After the German offensive was halted , a brief period of lull during which " Peaceful Penetration " operations were carried out as the Allies sought to regain the initiative . On 8 August , the Allies launched their own offensive , known as the Hundred Days Offensive , which ultimately brought about an end to the war . The 49th Battalion took part in the initial fighting , attacking around Bray , but by the end of the month was rotated to the rear . The following month , commencing on 18 September 1918 , the 49th undertook its final offensive action of the war , forming part of the divisional reserve during an attack against the Hindenburg Line 's outpost line , as part of efforts to penetrate the forward part of the German main line in Picardy . Shortly after the attack , the Australian Corps , which had been heavily depleted by the fighting throughout 1918 , was withdrawn from the line for rest and reorganisation . It did not return to the front before the armistice was signed on 11 November , and was subsequently disbanded on 9 May 1919 as part of the demobilisation and repatriation process .
According to the Australian War Memorial , throughout the course of the war , the 49th Battalion lost 769 men killed , and 1 @,@ 419 men wounded . Members of the unit received the following awards : one Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) , two Orders of the British Empire ( OBEs ) , 19 Military Crosses ( MCs ) with one bar , seven Distinguished Conduct Medals ( DCMs ) , 85 Military Medals ( MMs ) with eight bars , six Meritorious Service Medals , 21 Mentions in Despatches , and 10 foreign awards . The unit also received a total of 17 battle honours , which were bestowed in 1927 .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
During the inter @-@ war years , the focus of Australia 's defence planning was primarily upon the maintenance of a part @-@ time military force , known as the Citizen Force . During the war years , this force had existed alongside the AIF , albeit largely only on paper . After the demobilisation of the AIF , a process which was only completed in early 1921 , the Citizens Force was reorganised to mirror the divisional structure of the AIF , forming five infantry divisions and two cavalry divisions , and the previously existing structures were redesignated to adopt the numerical designations of the AIF units . Where possible , these units were allocated to the same geographical areas as those from which the AIF unit had been raised . Consequently , the 49th Battalion was reformed in south @-@ east Queensland within the 1st Military District , headquartered at Kelvin Grove , with company @-@ sized detachments at Toowong , Ipswich and Lowood ; it was assigned to the 7th Brigade . Upon formation , the newly raised battalion drew personnel from the 9th and 52nd Infantry Regiments . In 1927 , when territorial titles were adopted , the battalion assumed the title of the " Stanley Regiment " and adopted the motto of Semper Fidelis .
Initially , the manpower of the Citizen Forces was maintained through a mixture of voluntary and compulsory service , but in 1929 – 30 , the compulsory training scheme was abolished by the newly elected Scullin Labor government and the Citizen Forces replaced by the all @-@ volunteer Militia . The economic hardships of the period resulted in few volunteers , and by December 1929 the 49th Battalion 's strength had fallen to just 108 men of all ranks . As a result , in early 1930 the 49th Battalion merged with the Toowoomba @-@ based 25th to form the 25th / 49th Battalion . In October 1934 , amidst a wide @-@ scale reorganisation of the Militia , the two battalions were delinked and the 49th was amalgamated with the 9th Battalion . They remained linked until July 1940 , when the 49th Battalion was reformed in its own right as Australia mobilised for the Second World War .
= = = Second World War = = =
Throughout the initial stages of the war , the Militia battalions were used primarily to provide training for conscripts who were called up for short periods of continuous service once the scheme was re @-@ established in January 1940 . The provisions of the Defence Act prevented them from being sent overseas , though , and the main focus of Australia 's combat effort was the all volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force . The 9th / 49th , before it was split , undertook several concentrations in the early months , beginning in February 1940 , firstly at Redbank and then later at Chermside . As tensions in the Pacific grew and the possibility of war with Japan became more likely , measures were taken to improve the defences of the islands to Australia 's north . A detachment of around 200 soldiers from the 15th Battalion were sent to Port Moresby in the middle of 1940 and in October that year this detachment was transferred to the 49th . In March 1941 , the rest of the 49th Battalion was dispatched to join the detachment in New Guinea , with a strength of 26 officers and 527 other ranks . At Moresby , the 49th was occupied mainly digging defences and labouring ; some training was achieved , although it was largely rudimentary , and a small detachment was also sent to Thursday Island . Later , after the 39th and 53rd Battalions joined them , the 49th was transferred to the 30th Brigade . Boredom amongst the troops was high , though , and discipline described as " the worst ... in Moresby " according to the Australian War Memorial .
The Japanese entered the war in December 1941 and as they advanced south towards Papua , the 49th found itself under air attack . Throughout the Kokoda Track campaign , troops from the 49th Battalion joined Honner Force , an ad hoc unit tasked with conducting long @-@ range patrols along the Goldie River to prevent the Japanese from cutting the track , while the rest of the battalion established standing patrols between the Goldie and Laloki Rivers . Although no contact was made with the Japanese , the combat role helped improve the outlook of the soldiers and morale improved . Throughout the preceding months the battalion 's strength had been increased and by September 1942 it had a strength of 37 officers and 818 other ranks , including a draft of 12 officers who had been posted from experienced Second Australian Imperial Force units in August . The battalion continued to expand throughout October and November , by which time more than half its personnel had volunteered to transfer to the AIF . Training opportunities remained limited , though , even as preparations were made to send the unit into battle . As the tide of the fighting in Papua turned towards the Allies , the 49th Battalion joined the fighting on the northern coast around Buna – Gona . On the Sanananda front , the US 126th Infantry Regiment had become encircled around a position known as the Huggins Road Block on the road to Sanananda . Several attacks were launched in early December to break through to the beleaguered unit , but these all ended in failure . As ammunition began to run low , the 49th Battalion , supported by the 55th / 53rd Battalion , was thrown in to the battle , launching a frontal assault early on the morning of 7 December 1942 . Attacking with all four companies , the 49th suffered heavily as it came up against heavy machine @-@ gun fire from well @-@ sited and concealed Japanese positions . Over the course of five hours , the 49th lost over 60 per cent of its assault force and the attack failed . A second attempt , supported by armour , on 19 December also failed to break through and resulted in further casualties .
For the remainder of the month the 49th remained at the front , but their actions were confined mainly to patrolling , providing fire support to neighbouring units and defensive operations . It had been deployed for nearly two years and many of its personnel were suffering from illnesses such as malaria , dysentery and scrub typhus . The almost constant rain and fetid jungle conditions resulted in increasing numbers of non @-@ battle casualties and as the battalion 's numbers dwindled , in early January 1943 it was relieved by the 2 / 9th Battalion and moved back to Port Moresby by air , concentrating around Donedabu with a strength of just 17 officers and 302 other ranks . A period of training and rebuilding was undertaken to prepare the battalion to return to the front , but in early March , they were ordered to Australia . Sailing upon the transport Duntroon , they disembarked in Cairns and after a period of leave concentrated on the Atherton Tablelands with the rest of the 30th Brigade , which now consisted of the 39th and 3rd / 22nd Infantry Battalions . At this time , the government decided that the 30th Brigade would be converted to an all @-@ AIF unit , and to conduct a period of intense training before sending it back to New Guinea . As a result , many of the 49th Battalion 's Militia personnel were transferred to the 36th Battalion in late May , reducing the 49th to a cadre staff of just over 160 AIF personnel . Throughout June , the 49th Battalion took part in brigade exercises , but early the following month the decision was made that the 30th Brigade would be disbanded and used to reinforce the 6th Division , with reinforcements being sent specifically to the 16th and 19th Brigades . Consequently , the 49th Battalion was disbanded on 3 July 1943 and its remaining personnel were transferred to the 2 / 1st Infantry Battalion , with whom they went on to see further action , fighting in the Aitape – Wewak campaign with the 6th Division late in the war .
Casualties amongst the 49th Battalion are listed on the Australian War Memorial as 97 killed and 111 wounded , the majority of which were suffered during the fighting around Sanananda . Author Fred Cranston , who served with the 49th Battalion during the New Guinea campaign , disagrees with these figures , listing the 49th Battalion 's casualties during the fighting around Sanananda as 14 officers and 282 other ranks killed or wounded , and 313 all ranks evacuated sick . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one DSO , three MCs , one DCM , three MMs and 10 MIDs . For their involvement in the fighting in New Guinea , in 1961 the 49th Battalion was awarded three battle honours . Throughout the majority of their involvement in the New Guinea campaign , the battalion was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Owen Kessels .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
After the war , Australia 's military was rapidly demobilised and then re @-@ formed with the part @-@ time element , the Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) , being established in 1948 . The force was recreated on a reduced scale , though , and there was no room on the order of battle initially for the 49th Battalion . In 1965 , conscription was reintroduced in the form of the national service scheme , and this saw an influx of manpower into the CMF . The following year , the 49th Battalion was re @-@ raised as a " special conditions " battalion within the Royal Queensland Regiment , catering for the training needs of men who were eligible for call up who elected to serve in the CMF rather than the Regular Army , but who could not parade regularly due to where they lived or what civilian occupation they held . The national service scheme ended in December 1972 , after which many who had joined the CMF to defer national service took discharges . The immediate effect on the battalion was significant , with its personnel dropping from around 1 @,@ 000 to approximately 200 , but later it was able to rebuild its numbers to the extent that by 1982 it had a strength of 22 officers and 548 other ranks . In 1984 – 85 , the 49th Battalion was moved from the 7th Brigade , to the 6th , becoming that brigade 's third infantry battalion . In 1991 , the 49th Battalion became a Ready Reserve battalion , offering Reservists an increased training opportunity over and above normal Reserve service ; when the scheme ended in 1997 it was once again amalgamated with the 25th Battalion to become the 25th / 49th Battalion , Royal Queensland Regiment , and returned to the 7th Brigade .
= = Battle honours = =
The 49th Battalion received the following battle honours :
First World War : Somme , 1916 – 18 ; Pozières ; Bullecourt ; Messines , 1917 ; Ypres , 1917 ; Menin Road ; Polygon Wood ; Passchendaele ; Ancre , 1918 ; Villers Bretonneux ; Hamel ; Amiens ; Albert , 1918 ; Hindenburg Line ; Epéhy ; France and Flanders , 1916 – 18 ; and Egypt , 1915 – 16 .
Second World War : South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 43 ; Buna – Gona ; and Sanananda Road .
= Rated @-@ RKO =
Rated @-@ RKO was a professional wrestling tag team on World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) based on the Raw brand . The team consisted of Edge , Randy Orton , and Lita , their valet . The name " Rated @-@ RKO " contains part of Edge 's nickname , " The Rated R Superstar " , and Orton 's initials / finishing maneuver , RKO .
Edge and Orton formed an alliance in October 2006 to challenge the team of Triple H and Shawn Michaels , collectively known as D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) , who Rated @-@ RKO felt were preventing them from becoming world champions . Rated @-@ RKO would succeed in defeating DX , giving the latter their first loss since their reunion in June 2006 . The following month , Edge and Orton became World Tag Team Champions , and Lita left the group after her legitimate retirement .
In January 2007 , Rated @-@ RKO lost the World Tag Team Championship , which caused tension between the two . The group officially disbanded in May 2007 , after Edge moved to the SmackDown brand . Edge and Orton had occasional reunions until Edge 's retirement in 2011 .
= = History = =
= = = Feud with D @-@ Generation X ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =
On the October 2 , 2006 , episode of one of the WWE 's television programs , Raw , interference from the newly reformed D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) tag team cost Edge his promoted " final chance " at the WWE Championship held by John Cena in a Steel Cage match . This led to Edge approaching Randy Orton and asking him to join forces with him to " get rid of DX " . In his stand , Edge explained to Orton why he should join him as a tag team partner , as he cited Orton 's lack of success after being kicked out of Evolution ( Orton 's former group ) , as well as the antics of DX taking up TV time that he felt should rightfully go to the younger stars .
Edge and Orton , calling themselves " Rated @-@ RKO " , immediately became very outspoken against DX and began mocking them at every opportunity , including a sketch reminiscent of the ones DX did about their opponents on a usual basis . Eventually Orton traded wins with Triple H in singles matches on episodes of Raw , leading to a tag team match on November 5 , 2006 , at Cyber Sunday with the fans choosing the special guest referee . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view , the duo gave DX their first team loss since they reunited when Eric Bischoff ( the fan selected referee ) allowed the use of a steel chair without calling for a disqualification . Later in the night , Lita won the Women 's Championship in the finals of a seven @-@ woman tournament . The following night on Raw , Edge and Orton faced Ric Flair and Roddy Piper for the World Tag Team Championship with Eric Bischoff as the guest referee . Rated @-@ RKO lost the match , following help from DX .
The following week however , the team managed to capture the title in a rematch when they attacked Piper upon making his entrance , with Edge delivering a one man con @-@ chair @-@ to to Piper . As he was taken to the locker room by paramedics , Flair was forced to defend the title by himself , and Rated @-@ RKO won the match after Edge performed a spear on Flair . The real reason for the sudden switch was later revealed to be Piper 's diagnosis of lymphoma forcing him out of action .
At Survivor Series , Lita legitimately retired from WWE after losing her Women 's Championship to Mickie James and left the group in the process . At the same event , Team Rated @-@ RKO — consisting of Rated @-@ RKO along with Johnny Nitro , Mike Knox , and Gregory Helms — were swept by Team DX — DX , Jeff Hardy , Matt Hardy , and CM Punk — with Orton being the last member eliminated in a ten @-@ man elimination match . The night after Survivor Series , Edge and Orton beat Ric Flair until he was bloody and continued to beat him after dragging him to the ring , knowing that DX had already left the building . In doing so , DX claimed they had made their rivalry " personal " . At New Year 's Revolution in January 2007 , Rated @-@ RKO retained the World Tag Team Championship after fighting with DX to a no @-@ contest in a match that saw Triple H suffer a legitimate torn right quadriceps muscle .
With Triple H out of action , Rated @-@ RKO continued their on @-@ screen rivalry with remaining DX member Shawn Michaels . They were able to schedule a two @-@ on @-@ one handicap match against Michaels , during which he was able to beat the odds and defeat both men , leaving Orton lying in the ring after a one @-@ man con @-@ chair @-@ to as Edge stood and watched at ringside . On January 29 , 2007 , the duo lost the World Tag Team Championship to the impromptu team of John Cena and Michaels . Internal dissension continued as both men laid claim to being the number one contender to the WWE Championship , and Edge walked out on Orton during a February 26 , 2007 , rematch for the World Tag Team Championship due to miscommunication .
= = = WWE Championship chase ( 2007 ) = = =
The relationship strained further after both men qualified for the WrestleMania 23 Money in the Bank ladder match , which would grant the winner a championship match . For weeks Edge influenced various authority figures into putting Orton in matches that would cause Orton not to succeed .
On the April 16 , 2007 , episode of Raw , they reunited to take on John Cena in a handicap match but lost the match due to interference from Michaels . At Backlash , the two were involved in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match for the WWE Championship along with Michaels and Cena . Cena ended up retaining the title after pinning Orton .
= = = Breakup and on @-@ off reunions ( 2007 – 2011 ) = = =
On the April 30 , 2007 , episode of Raw , Edge and Orton met in a one @-@ on @-@ one match . Edge won the match by pinning Orton following a spear . Edge then moved to the SmackDown brand on the May 11 episode after cashing in the Money in the Bank briefcase ( which he had won from Mr. Kennedy on the same episode of Raw ) to win the World Heavyweight Championship from then @-@ champion The Undertaker . With this move , Rated @-@ RKO was officially disbanded .
During Raw 's 15th Anniversary episode on December 10 , 2007 , Rated @-@ RKO reunited for ' one night only ' and were involved in a six man tag team match , with their partner Umaga facing Evolution ( Triple H , Batista , and Ric Flair ) , Orton 's former teammates . They lost the match after being disqualified . The team had a reunion of sorts on the April 21 , 2008 , episode of Raw , when Orton and Edge teamed with John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) and Chavo Guerrero to take on John Cena , Triple H , The Undertaker , and Kane in a winning effort .
On the April 26 , 2010 , episode of Raw , Edge ( who became a heel again ) cost Orton ( who turned face again after defeating Legacy at WrestleMania 26 ) a title shot against John Cena by spearing him during a triple threat match against Batista and Sheamus . Orton and Edge faced off at May 's Over the Limit pay @-@ per @-@ view , though , Orton dislocated his right shoulder and concluded the match with a double countout . On the January 28 , 2011 , episode of SmackDown , Edge and Orton — now both fan favorites — reunited to take on Dolph Ziggler and The Miz which ended with Edge and Orton taking the win . On the February 18 , 2011 , episode of SmackDown , Edge and Orton reunited once again with John Morrison , R @-@ Truth , Rey Mysterio , and John Cena to take on CM Punk , Kane , Drew McIntyre , Wade Barrett , Dolph Ziggler , and Sheamus in a 12 @-@ man tag team match which was won by Edge , Orton , Morrison , Truth , Mysterio , and Cena .
On the April 11 episode of Raw , Edge announced his retirement from professional wrestling due to his neck injury permanently preventing him from being cleared , thus ending any possibility of he and Orton teaming up again .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing maneuvers
Con @-@ chair @-@ to
Double RKO ( Double jumping cutter ) | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ches Spring- und Dressurderby international tournament in 1937 , as did his brother , Waldemar , in 1939 . He was promoted to the rank of SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer on 30 January . On 25 July 1937 Reichsführer @-@ SS Himmler , by special order of the SS @-@ Oberabschnitt Süd , created the Haupt @-@ Reitschule München ( SS Main Riding School ) in Munich . The school was started from his father 's stud farm . Fegelein was named its commander and promoted to SS @-@ Standartenführer the same day . Funding for the very expensive horses came in part from then SS @-@ Brigadeführer Weber , who supported the school with more than 100 @,@ 000 Reichsmarks annually . Fegelein won the " Braunes Band von Deutschland " ( Brown Ribbon of Germany ) , an annual horse race which in 1938 was held on the premises of the riding school in Munich . Fegelein at the time had strong ambitions to participate in the 1940 Summer Olympics . With the help of his friend Höherer SS- und Polizeiführer ( HSSPF ; Higher SS and Police Leader ) Karl von Eberstein , he arranged the transfer of all the Bavarian State Police horses to the SS riding school in case of mobilization . His fear was that the horses would be handed to the Wehrmacht .
= = = World War II = = =
In September 1939 , Fegelein commanded the SS Totenkopf Reiterstandarte ( Death 's @-@ Head Horse Regiment ) , which arrived in Poland shortly after the end of the Polish Campaign . The unit was placed under the command of the Ordnungspolizei ( Orpo ; order police ) and was split into small groups assigned to support police activities at posts throughout the Poznan district . On 15 November , Himmler ordered the expansion of the regiment from four to thirteen squadrons and renamed it as 1 . SS @-@ Totenkopf @-@ Reiterstandarte ( 1st Death 's Head Cavalry Regiment ) . Additional men were recruited from ethnic Germans living in the General Government and further afield . Many of the officers , including Fegelein , had never attended officer training school , so much of the training provided to new recruits was rudimentary . However , it was rigorous , and the men developed a strong camaraderie . Fegelein 's unit was involved alongside the Orpo in the extermination , ordered by Hitler , of members of the Polish elite such as intellectuals , aristocrats , and clergy , in an action called Intelligenzaktion . On 7 December 1939 Fegelein 's unit was involved in the mass shooting of 1 @,@ 700 such people in the Kampinos Forest .
On 15 December , the unit was split into two Standarten ( regiments ) , with Fegelein commanding the 1 . Standarte under the overall command of Höherer SS- und Polizeiführer @-@ Ost Friedrich @-@ Wilhelm Krüger . The unit was short of basic supplies such as weapons , food , and uniforms , which led to deteriorating morale and ill health . Incidents of corruption and theft took place , particularly among members of the regimental staff in Warsaw . On 23 April 1941 , Fegelein faced court @-@ martial charges for an incident in 1940 where he and his unit had been caught stealing money and luxury goods for transportation back to Germany . Fegelein 's court @-@ martial was quashed by direct order of Himmler . The allegations brought forward against Fegelein had included " murder motivated by greed " . Apparently he had ordered arrests and executions in the Gestapo prison in Warsaw . In addition to this , Fegelein was charged with having had an unlawful sexual relationship with a Polish woman . The woman had become pregnant and Fegelein forced her to have an abortion . Reinhard Heydrich attempted multiple times to investigate the accusations against Fegelein , but each time the attempt was put down by Himmler .
Fegelein 's unit took part in anti @-@ partisan fighting against a group of about 100 former Polish soldiers in the area of Kammienna – Konsky – Kielce in March and April 1940 . They killed about half the partisans , and the remainder escaped . On 8 April , Fegelien 's unit killed 250 Polish men in villages in the area . While in his report he described the behaviour of his troops as " clean and decent " , there were many incidents in this period where his men behaved in an undisciplined way , killing and robbing civilians without any orders .
In May and June 1940 , Fegelein , who had been promoted to SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer of the Reserves in the Waffen @-@ SS on 1 March 1940 , participated in the Battle of Belgium and France as a member of the SS @-@ Verfügungstruppe . For his service in these campaigns he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class on 15 December 1940 . In March 1941 the SS Totenkopf Reiterstandarte 1 was renamed to 1st SS Cavalry Regiment .
= = = War against the Soviet Union = = =
With the start of the German invasion of the Soviet Union , which began on 22 June 1941 , Fegelein saw active service on the Eastern Front . His unit was assigned on the 87th Infantry Division on 23 June to cover a gap in the lines of the 9th Army near Białystok . The motorized elements of the 1st SS Cavalry reached the right flank of the operational area on 24 June , but the mounted elements were unable to maintain the pace . The exhausted horses had to be left behind and the men transported to the combat zone in lorries , while the horse @-@ drawn artillery pieces were towed using any available vehicles . The first units to arrive crossed the Narew near Wizna and engaged the Soviets but were unable to break through . They were ordered to retreat and move further north . Infantry elements of the 87th Division captured Osowiec Fortress on 26 June , and Fegelein 's cavalry was sent on a reconnaissance mission to the south @-@ east . Himmler , not keen to have his SS units under Wehrmacht control or used in combat other than as reserves , withdrew the SS cavalry from control of the 87th Division on 27 June . The ambitious Fegelein stressed in his reports that he believed his unit was combat ready and had played a bigger role in the operation than they actually had . Ten of his men received the Iron Cross , Second Class for their efforts , and Fegelein was awarded the Iron Cross , First Class .
The engagement had demonstrated the shortcomings of the cavalry units in modern mobile warfare , which requires quick redeployments in ever @-@ changing conditions . Fegelein sought to improve this by asking Himmler to combine the 1st and 2nd SS cavalry regiments into a brigade , with additional support units . As a temporary measure , Himmler assigned Fegelein to be in charge of both regiments . Fegelein 's unit was one of several that undertook field training and political indoctrination in the coming weeks . Himmler himself addressed the 1st Cavalry on 5 July , offering the opportunity for any men unwilling to participate in the upcoming " special tasks " to transfer to another unit . Nobody took advantage of this offer , at least partly because it was not made clear that the upcoming work would include the mass shooting of unarmed civilians .
On 19 July 1941 Himmler assigned Fegelein 's regiments to the general command of HSSPF Erich von dem Bach @-@ Zelewski for the " systematic combing " of the Pripyat swamps , an operation designed to round up and exterminate Jews , partisans , and civilians in that area of Byelorussian SSR . Himmler 's orders for the operation were passed to Fegelein via SS @-@ Brigadefuhrer Kurt Knoblauch , who met with him and Bach @-@ Zelewski on 28 July in their new quarters at Liakhovichi in Byelorussia . General instructions were given to " cleanse " the area of partisans and Jewish collaborators . Jewish women and children were to be driven away . Fegelein interpreted these orders as follows : Enemy soldiers in uniform were to be taken prisoner , and those found out of uniform were to be shot . Jewish males , with the exception of a few skilled workers such as doctors and leather workers , would be shot . Fegelein split the territory to be covered into two sections divided by the Pripyat River , with the 1st Regiment taking the northern half and the 2nd Regiment the south . The regiments worked their way from east to west through their assigned territory , and filed daily reports on the number of people killed and taken prisoner . In a meeting with Bach @-@ Zelewski on 31 July , Himmler announced the amalgamation of the two regiments into the SS Cavalry Brigade . Additional units such as a bicycle reconnaissance detachment were formed and added to the brigade 's complement . On 5 August Himmler assigned leadership of the brigade to Fegelein .
Himmler notified Fegelein by telegram on 1 August that the numbers killed were far too low . A few days later , Himmler issued regimental order no . 42 , which called for all male Jews over the age of 14 to be killed . The women and children were to be driven into the swamps and drowned . Thus Fegelein 's units were among the first in the Holocaust to wipe out entire Jewish communities . As the water in the swamps was too shallow and some areas had no swamps , it proved impractical to drown the women and children , so they were shot . Fegelein 's final report on the operation , dated 18 September 1941 , states that they killed 14 @,@ 178 Jews , 1 @,@ 001 partisans , 699 Red Army soldiers , with 830 prisoners taken and losses of 17 dead , 36 wounded , and 3 missing . The historian Henning Pieper estimates the actual number of Jews killed was closer to 23 @,@ 700 .
Fegelein received the Infantry Assault Badge on 2 October . Four days later , he was again brought before a court for peculation of captured goods . Again the prosecution was halted by Himmler . In mid @-@ October 1941 the brigade left Byelorussia and moved first to Toropets and then on to Rogachev by train , where they were subordinated to Army Group Centre . The new operational area had more partisan activity than the Pripyat swamps , with guerrillas who were well organised and difficult to find . Fegelein 's report for the period between 18 October and 18 November 1941 shows 3 @,@ 018 partisans and Red Army soldiers killed and 122 taken prisoner . However , as fewer than 200 weapons were captured , historians Martin Cüppers and Henning Pieper conclude that the majority of those killed must have been unarmed civilians . Brigade losses were seven dead and nine wounded .
Army Group Centre renewed their offensive on Moscow in mid @-@ November . Fegelein and the SS Cavalry Brigade were held back as an operational reserve in the rearward area of the 9th Army . Massive counter @-@ attacks by the Red Army led to a weakening of the entire German line , and the brigade was called in to fight at the front on 28 December . While Fegelein reported that his forces were the equivalent to one or two divisions , in reality he had only 4 @,@ 428 men in total at this point , of which 1 @,@ 800 were ready for combat . The brigade was deployed at the south @-@ eastern sector of the XXIII Army Corps , where it defended against attacks in the rearward area of the 206th Infantry Division in the Battles of Rzhev . The SS Cavalry Brigade took serious losses , with casualties of up to 60 per cent in some squadrons .
On 1 February 1942 Fegelein was promoted to SS @-@ Standartenführer in the Waffen @-@ SS and transferred from the reserve force to active service . Four days later , on 5 February , Fegelein on his own initiative led an attack on a strong enemy group northwest of Chertolino . The attack , carried out in difficult weather conditions , secured an important road junction and the railway station at Chertolino . In a nocturnal attack on 9 February , the brigade encircled and destroyed enemy forces at Chertolino , killing 1 @,@ 800 Red Army combatants . Yershovo was captured on 14 February , leading to the annihilation of the enemy units in the Rzhev area . For his leadership in these battles , Fegelein was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 2 March 1942 . Fegelein was then granted home leave and was appointed Inspector of Cavalry and Transportation ( Inspekteur des Reit- und Fahrwesens ) in the SS @-@ Führungshauptamt on 1 May 1942 . In this position he was awarded the Eastern Front Medal and the War Merit Cross 2nd Class with Swords , both on 1 September 1942 . The SS Cavalry Brigade was disbanded in March 1942 and the remaining men and equipment were formed into a battalion @-@ strength unit called Kampfgruppe Zehender , commanded by SS @-@ Sturmbannführer August Zehender .
Fegelein was sent back to the front line on 1 December 1942 and on the same day promoted to SS @-@ Oberführer . He was given command of Kampfgruppe " Fegelein " , based in the great bend of the Don . He was wounded in action by Soviet snipers on 21 December and 22 December 1942 .
On 20 April 1943 he was appointed commander of the SS Cavalry Division . Fegelein and his division were involved in operations against partisans in May to July 1943 , which included Operation Weichsel , Operation Zeithen , and Operation Seydlitz . On 17 May they annihilated a partisan group south west of Novoselki . He personally blew up a bunker in the attack . A week later , on 24 May , the division attacked another partisan strongpoint , and no prisoners were taken . During Weichsel ( 27 May – 10 June 1943 ) he reported the unit had killed 4 @,@ 018 persons and deported 18 @,@ 860 , confiscated 21 @,@ 000 cattle , and destroyed 61 villages southwest of Gomel . During Zeithen ( 13 – 16 June 1943 ) they destroyed a further 63 villages and ( under direct orders from Hitler ) killed all suspected partisans . During Seydlitz ( 26 June – 27 July 1943 ) he reported the destruction of 96 additional villages , with 5 @,@ 016 killed and 9 @,@ 166 deported , and 19 @,@ 941 cattle confiscated .
The division was then deployed in defensive operations against massed Soviet attacks . From 26 August to 15 September the division repulsed five attacks of divisional strength and a further 85 attacks of battalion strength . The heaviest combat occurred on 26 August near Bespalovka and on 28 August , when the division halted a Soviet breakthrough at Bol 'shaya Gomol 'sha . Fegelein led a counterattack on 8 September , recapturing the height 199 @,@ 0 at Verkhniy Bishkin . On 11 September 1943 , during these defensive battles , he was awarded the Close Combat Clasp in bronze . Fegelein was severely wounded on 30 September 1943 and was hospitalized for a few weeks . He received the German Cross in gold on 1 November 1943 . Following his convalescence he was appointed chief of Amt VI — Office for Rider and Driver Training — in the SS @-@ Führungshauptamt on 1 January 1944 .
At the same time , Himmler assigned him to Hitler 's headquarters staff as his liaison officer and representative of the SS . He was promoted to the rank of SS @-@ Gruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Waffen @-@ SS on 10 June 1944 . On 20 July 1944 Fegelein was present at the failed attempt on Hitler 's life at the Wolf 's Lair headquarters in Rastenburg , East Prussia , and received a minor wound to his left thigh from the bomb blast . Fegelein often showed around the photographs of the hanged men who had been executed as a result of this failed assassination attempt .
= = = Marriage = = =
Fegelein 's politically motivated marriage to Gretl Braun , Eva Braun 's sister , took place on 3 June 1944 in Salzburg . Historians Kershaw and Shirer believe he courted Braun as a way to advance his career . Hitler , Himmler , and Martin Bormann acted as witnesses at the ceremony . A two @-@ day celebration was then held at Hitler 's and Bormann 's Obersalzberg mountain homes and the Eagle 's Nest . Fegelein was a known playboy and had many extramarital affairs . Hitler 's secretaries , Christa Schroeder and Traudl Junge , state Fegelein was popular socially , particularly with women . He could be funny , amusing , and charming . After his marriage to Gretl , Eva was glad to have someone in the entourage with whom she could dance and flirt , as Hitler was distant in social situations and refrained from publicly showing affection . Thereafter , Fegelein worked hard to develop a friendship with Hitler 's powerful private secretary , Martin Bormann . Fegelein " never missed " Bormann 's drinking parties and told Junge that the only things that mattered were " his career and a life full of fun . "
= = Death = =
By early 1945 , Germany 's military situation was on the verge of total collapse . Hitler , presiding over a rapidly disintegrating Third Reich , retreated to his Führerbunker in Berlin on 16 January 1945 . To the Nazi leadership , it was clear that the battle for Berlin would be the final battle of the war . Berlin was bombarded by Soviet artillery for the first time on 20 April 1945 ( Hitler 's birthday ) . By the evening of 21 April , Red Army tanks reached the outskirts of the city . By 27 April , Berlin was cut off from the rest of Germany .
On 27 April 1945 , Reichssicherheitsdienst ( RSD ) deputy commander SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Peter Högl was sent out from the Reich Chancellery to find Fegelein who had abandoned his post at the Führerbunker after deciding he did not want to " join a suicide pact " . Fegelein was caught by the RSD squad in his Berlin apartment , wearing civilian clothes and preparing to flee to Sweden or Switzerland . He was carrying cash — German and foreign — and jewellery , some of which belonged to Braun . Högl also uncovered a briefcase containing documents with evidence of Himmler 's attempted peace negotiations with the Western Allies . According to most accounts , he was intoxicated when arrested and brought back to the Führerbunker . He was kept in a makeshift cell until the evening of 28 April . That night , Hitler was informed of the BBC broadcast of a Reuters news report about Himmler 's attempted negotiations with the western Allies via Count Bernadotte . Hitler flew into a rage about this apparent betrayal and ordered Himmler 's arrest . Sensing a connection between Fegelein 's disappearance and Himmler 's betrayal , Hitler ordered SS @-@ Gruppenführer Heinrich Müller to interrogate Fegelein as to what he knew of Himmler 's plans . Thereafter , according to Otto Günsche ( Hitler 's personal adjutant ) , Hitler ordered that Fegelein be stripped of all rank and to be transferred to Kampfgruppe " Mohnke " to prove his loyalty in combat . However , Günsche and Bormann expressed their concern to Hitler that Fegelein would only desert again . Hitler then ordered Fegelein court @-@ martialed .
Journalist James P. O 'Donnell , who conducted extensive interviews in the 1970s , provides one account of what happened next . SS @-@ Brigadeführer Wilhelm Mohnke , who presided over the court martial for desertion , told O 'Donnell that Hitler ordered him to set up a tribunal . Mohnke arranged for a court martial panel , which consisted of generals Wilhelm Burgdorf , Hans Krebs , SS @-@ Gruppenführer Johann Rattenhuber , and himself . Fegelein , still drunk , refused to accept that he had to answer to Hitler , and stated that he was responsible only to Himmler . Fegelein was so drunk that he was crying and vomiting ; he was unable to stand up , and even urinated on the floor . Mohnke was in a quandary , as German military and civilian law both require a defendant to be of sound mind and to understand the charges against them . Although Mohnke was certain Fegelein was " guilty of flagrant desertion " , it was the opinion of the judges that he was in no condition to stand trial , so Mohnke closed the proceedings and turned the defendant over to General Rattenhuber 's security squad . Mohnke never saw Fegelein again .
An alternative scenario of Fegelein 's death is based on the 1948 / 49 Soviet NKVD dossier of Hitler written for Joseph Stalin . The dossier is based on the interrogation reports of Günsche and Heinz Linge ( Hitler 's valet ) . This dossier differs in part from the accounts given by Mohnke and Rattenhuber . After the intoxicated Fegelein was arrested and brought back to the Führerbunker , Hitler at first ordered Fegelein to be transferred to Kampfgruppe " Mohnke " to prove his loyalty in combat . Günsche and Bormann expressed their concern to Hitler that Fegelein would desert again . Hitler then ordered Fegelein to be demoted and court @-@ martialed by a court led by Mohnke . At this point the accounts differ , as the NKVD dossier states that Fegelein was court @-@ martialed on the evening of 28 April , by a court headed by Mohnke , SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Alfred Krause , and SS @-@ Sturmbannführer Herbert Kaschula . Mohnke and his fellow officers sentenced Fegelein to death . That same evening , Fegelein was shot from behind by a member of the Sicherheitsdienst . Based on this stated chain of events , author Veit Scherzer concluded that Fegelein , according to German law , was deprived of all honours and honorary signs and must therefore be considered a de facto but not de jure recipient of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross .
Fegelein 's wife was then in the late stages of pregnancy ( the baby was born in early May ) . Hitler considered releasing him without punishment or assigning him to Mohnke 's troops . Junge — an eye @-@ witness to bunker events — stated that Braun pleaded with Hitler to spare her brother @-@ in @-@ law and tried to justify Fegelein 's actions . However , he was taken to the garden of the Reich Chancellery on 28 April , and was " shot like a dog " . Rochus Misch , who was the last survivor from the Führerbunker , disputed aspects of this account in a 2007 interview with Der Spiegel . According to Misch , Hitler did not order Fegelein 's execution , only his demotion . Misch claimed to know the identity of Fegelein 's killer , but refused to reveal his name .
= = Assessment = =
Historians William L. Shirer and Ian Kershaw characterise Fegelein as cynical and disreputable ; Albert Speer called him " one of the most disgusting people in Hitler 's circle " . Fegelein was an opportunist who ingratiated himself with Himmler , who in return granted him the best assignments — mostly related to cavalry — and rapid promotion through the ranks . The historian Henning Pieper , who studied the period up until March 1942 , notes Fegelein 's lack of formal training as an officer led to deficiencies in the way the SS Cavalry Brigade was prepared for combat . Fegelein repeatedly over @-@ stated the combat readiness of his troops and exaggerated their accomplishments , in Pieper 's opinion in order to be seen as a leader worthy of promotion and honours . Fegelein 's faulty analysis of his brigade 's readiness led to their use in December 1941 through March 1942 in combat situations for which they were unsuitable and untrained . ( However , as the military situation was deteriorating , they would eventually have been thrown into this role regardless . ) By the end of March 1942 , the brigade had suffered casualties of 50 per cent , much higher than army units deployed in the same area .
Fegelein 's parents and his brother Waldemar survived the war . Gretl , who inherited some of Eva 's valuable jewellery , also survived the war . She gave birth to a daughter ( named Eva Barbara Fegelein , after her late aunt ) on 5 May 1945 . Eva Fegelein committed suicide on 25 April 1971 after her boyfriend was killed in a car accident . Gretl Braun @-@ Fegelein moved to Munich and remarried in 1954 . She died in 1987 , aged 72 .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Olympic Games Decoration ( 1st Class )
German Equestrian Badge ( gold )
German Sports Badge ( bronze )
SA Sports Badge ( bronze )
Nazi Party Long Service Award ( bronze )
General Assault Badge ( silver )
Infantry Assault Badge ( silver )
Close Combat Clasp ( silver )
Wound Badge ( silver )
Wound Badge of 20 July 1944 ( silver )
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 15 December 1940 )
1st Class ( 28 June 1941 )
German Cross in Gold on 1 November 1943 as SS @-@ Brigadeführer and Generalmajor of the Waffen @-@ SS in the SS @-@ Kavallerie @-@ Division
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 2 March 1942 as SS @-@ Standartenführer and commander of the SS @-@ Kavallerie @-@ Brigade
157th Oak Leaves on 22 December 1942 as SS @-@ Oberführer and commander of a Kampfgruppe
83rd Swords on 30 July 1944 as SS @-@ Gruppenführer and Generalleutnant of the Waffen @-@ SS and commander of the 8 . SS @-@ Freiwilligen @-@ Kavallerie @-@ Division Florian Geyer
The death sentence on 28 April resulted in the loss of all orders , awards , and honorary signs .
= = Dates of rank = =
Fegelein held various ranks in both the Allgemeine @-@ SS and Waffen @-@ SS . The following table shows that progression was not synchronous .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= Green Day =
Green Day is an American punk rock band formed in 1986 by vocalist / guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong and bassist Mike Dirnt . For much of the group 's career , the band has been a trio with drummer Tré Cool , who replaced former drummer John Kiffmeyer in 1990 prior to the recording of the band 's second studio album , Kerplunk ( 1992 ) . In 2012 , guitarist Jason White became a full @-@ time member after having performed with the band as a session and touring member since 1999 .
Green Day was originally part of the punk scene at the DIY 924 Gilman Street club in Berkeley , California . The band 's early releases were with the independent record label Lookout ! Records . In 1994 , its major label debut Dookie ( released through Reprise Records ) became a breakout success and eventually shipped over 10 million copies in the U.S. Green Day was widely credited , alongside fellow California punk bands Sublime , Bad Religion , The Offspring and Rancid , with popularizing and reviving mainstream interest in punk rock in the United States .
Green Day 's three follow @-@ up albums , Insomniac ( 1995 ) , Nimrod ( 1997 ) , and Warning ( 2000 ) did not achieve the massive success of Dookie , though they were still successful , with Insomniac and Nimrod reaching double platinum and Warning achieving platinum status . The band 's rock opera , American Idiot ( 2004 ) , reignited the band 's popularity with a younger generation , selling six million copies in the U.S. The band 's eighth studio album , 21st Century Breakdown , was released in 2009 and achieved the band 's best chart performance to date . 21st Century Breakdown was followed up by a trilogy of albums called ¡ Uno ! , ¡ Dos ! , and ¡ Tré ! , which were released in September , November and December 2012 respectively .
Green Day has sold more than 75 million records worldwide . The group has won five Grammy Awards : Best Alternative Album for Dookie , Best Rock Album for American Idiot , Record of the Year for " Boulevard of Broken Dreams " , Best Rock Album for the second time for 21st Century Breakdown and Best Musical Show Album for American Idiot : The Original Broadway Cast Recording . In 2010 , a stage adaptation of American Idiot debuted on Broadway . The musical was nominated for three Tony Awards : Best Musical , Best Scenic Design and Best Lighting Design , losing only the first . Also in 2010 , Green Day was ranked no . 91 in the VH1 list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " . On April 18 , 2015 , the band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a part of the 2015 class , in the band 's first year of eligibility .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and Lookout ! years ( 1986 – 1993 ) = = =
In 1986 , friends Billie Joe Armstrong and Mike Dirnt , 14 years old at the time , formed a band called Sweet Children . The group 's first live performance took place on October 17 , 1987 , at Rod 's Hickory Pit in Vallejo , California . In 1988 , Armstrong and Dirnt began working with former Isocracy drummer John Kiffmeyer , also known as " Al Sobrante " . Sean Hughes left the band in 1988 , and Dirnt took over on bass duties . As said in the film Punk 's Not Dead , Armstrong cites the band Operation Ivy ( which featured Tim Armstrong and Matt Freeman of Rancid ) as a major influence , and a group that inspired him to form a band .
In 1988 , Larry Livermore , owner of Lookout ! Records , saw the band play an early show and signed the group to his label . In 1989 , the band recorded its debut extended play , 1 @,@ 000 Hours . Before 1 @,@ 000 Hours was released , the group dropped the name Sweet Children ; according to Livermore , this was done to avoid confusion with another local band Sweet Baby . The band adopted the name Green Day , due to the members ' fondness for cannabis .
Lookout ! released Green Day 's debut studio album , 39 / Smooth in early 1990 . Green Day recorded two extended plays later that year , Slappy and Sweet Children , the latter of which included older songs that the band had recorded for the Minneapolis independent record label Skene ! Records . In 1991 , Lookout ! Records re @-@ released 39 / Smooth under the name 1 @,@ 039 / Smoothed Out Slappy Hours , and added the songs from the band 's first two EPs , Slappy , and 1 @,@ 000 Hours . In late 1990 , shortly after the band 's first nationwide tour , Kiffmeyer left the East Bay area to attend Humboldt State University in Arcata , California . The Lookouts drummer Tré Cool began filling in as a temporary replacement and later Cool 's position as Green Day 's drummer became permanent , which Kiffmeyer " graciously accepted " . The band went on tour for most of 1992 and 1993 , and played a number of shows overseas in Europe . The band 's second studio album Kerplunk sold 50 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S.
= = = Breakthrough success ( 1994 – 1996 ) = = =
Kerplunk 's underground success led to a number of major record labels being interested in signing Green Day , and the band eventually left Lookout ! and signed to Reprise Records after attracting the attention of producer Rob Cavallo . The group was impressed by his work with fellow Californian band The Muffs , and later remarked that Cavallo " was the only person we could really talk to and connect with " . Reflecting on the period , Armstrong told Spin magazine in 1999 , " I couldn 't go back to the punk scene , whether we were the biggest success in the world or the biggest failure ... The only thing I could do was get on my bike and go forward . " After signing with Reprise , the band went to work on recording its major label debut , Dookie .
Recorded in three weeks , and released in February 1994 , Dookie became a commercial success , helped by extensive MTV airplay for the videos of the songs " Longview " , " Basket Case " , and " When I Come Around " , all of which reached the number one position on the Modern Rock Tracks charts . At a performance on September 9 , 1994 at Hatch Memorial Shell in Boston , mayhem broke out during the band 's set ( cut short to seven songs ) and by the end of the rampage , 100 people were injured and 45 arrested . The band also joined the lineups of both the Lollapalooza festival and Woodstock ' 94 , where the group started an infamous mud fight . During the concert , a security guard mistook bassist Mike Dirnt for a stage @-@ invading fan and punched out some of his teeth . Viewed by millions by pay @-@ per @-@ view television , the Woodstock 1994 performance further aided Green Day 's growing publicity and recognition , and helped push its album to eventual diamond status . In 1995 , Dookie won the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Album and the band was nominated for nine MTV Video Music Awards including Video of the Year .
In 1995 , a new single for the Angus soundtrack was released , entitled " J.A.R. " . The single debuted at number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart . The song was followed by the band 's fourth studio album , Insomniac , which was released in the fall of 1995 . Insomniac was a much darker and heavier response to the band 's newfound popularity , compared to the more melodic Dookie . The album opened to a warm critical reception , earning 4 out of 5 stars from Rolling Stone , which said " In punk , the good stuff actually unfolds and gains meaning as you listen without sacrificing any of its electric , haywire immediacy . And Green Day are as good as this stuff gets . " The singles released from Insomniac were " Geek Stink Breath " , " Stuck with Me " , " Brain Stew / Jaded " , and " Walking Contradiction " .
Though the album did not approach the success of Dookie , it sold two million copies in the United States . In addition , the album won the band award nominations for Favorite Artist , Favorite Hard Rock Artist , and Favorite Alternative Artist at the 1996 American Music Awards , and the video for " Walking Contradiction " got the band a Grammy nomination for Best Video , Short Form , in addition to a Best Special Effects nomination at the MTV Video Music Awards . After that , the band abruptly cancelled a European tour , citing exhaustion .
= = = Middle years and decline in commercial success ( 1997 – 2002 ) = = =
After a brief hiatus in 1996 , Green Day began to work on a new album in 1997 . From the outset , both the band and Cavallo agreed that the album had to be different from its previous albums . The result was Nimrod , an experimental deviation from the band 's standard pop @-@ punk brand of music . The new album was released in October 1997 . It provided a variety of music , from pop @-@ punk , surf rock , and ska , to an acoustic ballad . Nimrod entered the charts at number 10 . The success of " Good Riddance ( Time of Your Life ) " won the band an MTV Video Award for Best Alternative Video . The song was also used in the second " clip show " episode of Seinfeld and on two episodes of ER .
The other singles released from Nimrod were " Nice Guys Finish Last " , " Hitchin ' a Ride " and " Redundant " . The band made a guest appearance in an episode of King of the Hill entitled " The Man Who Shot Cane Skretteberg " , which aired in 1997 . In late 1997 and most of 1998 , Green Day embarked on a tour in support of Nimrod . In 1999 , guitarist Jason White began supporting the band during concerts as rhythm guitarist .
In 2000 , Green Day released its sixth studio album Warning . In support of the album , the band participated in the Warped Tour in 2000 . The band also had an independent tour to support the album in 2001 . Critics ' reviews of the album were varied . AllMusic gave it 4 @.@ 5 / 5 saying " Warning may not be an innovative record per se , but it 's tremendously satisfying . " Rolling Stone was more critical , giving it 3 / 5 , and saying " Warning ... invites the question : Who wants to listen to songs of faith , hope and social commentary from what used to be snot @-@ core 's biggest @-@ selling band ? " Though it produced the hit " Minority " and a smaller hit with " Warning " , some observers were coming to the conclusion that the band was losing relevance , and a decline in popularity followed . While all of Green Day 's previous albums had reached a status of at least double platinum , Warning was only certified platinum .
At the 2001 California Music Awards , Green Day won all eight of the awards for which the group was nominated . The group won the awards for Outstanding Album ( Warning ) , Outstanding Punk Rock / Ska Album ( Warning ) , Outstanding Group , Outstanding Male Vocalist , Outstanding Bassist , Outstanding Drummer , Outstanding Songwriter , and Outstanding Artist .
The release of two compilation albums , International Superhits ! and Shenanigans , followed Warning . International Superhits and its companion collection of music videos , International Supervideos ! . Shenanigans contained some of the band 's b @-@ sides , including " Espionage " , which was featured in the film Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance .
In the spring of 2002 , Green Day co @-@ headlined the Pop Disaster Tour with Blink @-@ 182 , which was documented on the DVD Riding in Vans with Boys .
= = = American Idiot and renewed success ( 2003 – 2006 ) = = =
In the summer of 2003 , the band went into a studio to write and record new material for a new album , tentatively titled Cigarettes and Valentines . After completing 20 tracks , the master recordings were stolen from the studio . Instead of re @-@ recording the stolen tracks , the band decided to abandon the entire project and start over , considering the taken material to be unrepresentative of the band 's best work . It was then revealed that a band called The Network was signed to Armstrong 's record label Adeline Records with little fanfare and information . After the mysterious band released an album called Money Money 2020 , it was rumored that The Network was a Green Day side project , due to the similarities in the bands ' sounds . However , these rumors were never addressed by the band or Adeline Records , except for a statement on the Adeline website discussing an ongoing dispute between the two bands .
Green Day collaborated with Iggy Pop on two tracks for his album Skull Ring in November 2003 . On February 1 , 2004 , a new song , a cover of " I Fought the Law " made its debut on a commercial for iTunes during NFL Super Bowl XXXVIII . American Idiot ( 2004 ) , debuted at number one on the Billboard charts , the band 's first album to reach number one , backed by the success of the album 's first single , " American Idiot " . The album was labeled as a punk rock opera which follows the journey of the fictitious " Jesus of Suburbia " . The album depicts modern American life under the control of an idiot ruler who let people be misinformed by the media and a " redneck agenda " . It gives different angles on an everyman , modern icons , and leaders . Released two months before U.S. President George W. Bush was reelected , the album became protest art . American Idiot won the 2005 Grammy for Best Rock Album . The band also won a total of seven out of eight awards for which the group was nominated , including the Viewer 's Choice Award at the MTV Video Music Awards in 2005 .
Through 2005 , the band toured in support of the album with nearly 150 dates , which was the longest tour in the band 's career , visiting Japan , Australia , South America and the United Kingdom . While touring for American Idiot , the group filmed and recorded the two concerts at the Milton Keynes National Bowl in England , which was voted " The Best Show On Earth " in a Kerrang ! Magazine Poll . These recordings were released as a live CD and DVD called Bullet in a Bible on November 15 , 2005 . This CD / DVD featured songs from American Idiot as well as songs from all its previous albums , except Kerplunk and 1 @,@ 039 / Smoothed Out Slappy Hours . The DVD featured behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the band , and showed how the band prepared to put on the show . The final shows of its 2005 world tour were in Sydney and Melbourne in Australia , on December 14 and 17 , respectively .
On August 1 , 2005 Green Day announced that it had rescinded the master rights to its pre @-@ Dookie material from Lookout ! Records , citing a continuing breach of contract regarding unpaid royalties , a complaint shared with other Lookout ! bands . On January 10 , 2006 , the band was awarded a People 's Choice Award as favorite musical group or band .
= = = 21st Century Breakdown and American Idiots stage adaptation ( 2007 – 2010 ) = = =
Green Day engaged in a number of other smaller projects in the time following the success of American Idiot . The group released an album under the name Foxboro Hot Tubs entitled Stop Drop and Roll ! ! ! In 2008 , the Foxboro Hot Tubs went on a mini @-@ tour to promote the record , hitting tiny Bay Area venues including the Stork Club in Oakland and Toot 's Tavern in Crockett , California .
In an interview with Carson Daly , Garbage lead singer Shirley Manson revealed that Butch Vig would be producing Green Day 's forthcoming album . The span of nearly five years between American Idiot and 21st Century Breakdown was the longest gap between studio albums in Green Day 's career . The band had been working on new material since January 2006 . By October 2007 , Armstrong had 45 songs written , but the band showed no further signs of progress until October 2008 , when two videos showing the band recording in the studio with producer Butch Vig were posted on YouTube . The writing and recording process , spanning three years and four recording studios , was finally finished in April 2009 .
21st Century Breakdown , was released on May 15 , 2009 . The album received a mainly positive reception from critics , getting an average rating between 3 and 4 stars . After the release , the album reached number one in fourteen countries , being certified gold or platinum in each . 21st Century Breakdown achieved Green Day 's best chart performance to date . The band started playing shows in California in April and early May . These were the group 's first live shows in about three years . Green Day went on a world tour that started in North America in July 2009 and continuing around the world throughout the rest of 2009 and early 2010 .
Wal @-@ Mart refused to carry the album as it contains a Parental Advisory sticker and requested that Green Day release a censored edition . The band members did not wish to change any lyrics on the album and responded by stating , " There 's nothing dirty about our record ... They want artists to censor their records in order to be carried in there . We just said no . We 've never done it before . You feel like you 're in 1953 or something . "
In 2009 , the band met with award @-@ winning director Michael Mayer and many cast and crew members of the Tony Award @-@ winning musical Spring Awakening to create a stage version of the album American Idiot . American Idiot opened in the Berkeley Repertory Theatre during the end of 2009 . The show features an expanded story of the original album , with new characters such as Will , Extraordinary Girl , and Favorite Son . On April 20 , 2010 , American Idiot opened on Broadway , and Green Day released the soundtrack to the musical , featuring a new song by Green Day entitled " When It 's Time " . In June 2010 the iTunes released " When It 's Time " as a single .
During the Spike TV Video Game Awards 2009 , it was announced that Green Day was set to have its own Rock Band video game titled Green Day : Rock Band , as a follow @-@ up to the last band specific Rock Band game , The Beatles : Rock Band . The game features the full albums of Dookie , American Idiot , and 21st Century Breakdown as well as select songs from the rest of Green Day 's discography .
During the second leg of the 21st Century Breakdown World Tour the band members stated that they were writing new material . In an interview with Kerrang ! magazine , Armstrong spoke about the possible new album : " We did some demos in Berlin , some in Stockholm , some just outside of Glasgow and some in Amsterdam . We wanted get [ the songs ] down in some early form . " The band members also stated that the group was recording a live album of the tour , featuring the previously unreleased song " Cigarettes and Valentines " . In October 2010 , Dirnt was interviewed by Radio W , mentioning that the group had completed the writing process of the ninth studio album . In the interview , Dirnt also mentioned that a new live album would " most likely " be released . The live CD / DVD and CD / Blu @-@ ray entitled Awesome as Fuck was released on March 22 , 2011 .
= = = ¡ Uno ! ¡ Dos ! ¡ Tré ! ( 2011 – 2014 ) = = =
During the end of 2011 , the band played several secret shows ( under the name Foxboro Hot Tubs ) whose setlists consisted almost entirely of previously unheard songs . Green Day entered the studio and began recording new material in February 2012 , later announcing a trilogy of albums titled ¡ Uno ! , ¡ Dos ! , and ¡ Tré ! which would be released in the fall of 2012 . The trilogy marked longtime touring guitarist Jason White 's induction as the fourth member of the band . That summer Green Day played several festivals and promotional shows including the Rock en Seine festival in France , the Rock am See festival in Germany , and the Reading Festival in the United Kingdom .
¡ Uno ! , ¡ Dos ! , and ¡ Tré ! were released on September 21 , November 9 , and December 7 , 2012 , respectively and were met with generally positive reviews . On January 22 , 2013 , the band announced that ¡ Cuatro ! , a documentary about the making of ¡ Uno ! , ¡ Dos ! and ¡ Tré ! , would premiere on January 26 in Aspen , Colorado as part of the X Games FILM showcase , and would be released on DVD April 9 , 2013 . Another documentary was announced called Broadway Idiot which focuses on the creation on the American Idiot musical and Armstrong 's run as playing the character of St. Jimmy . On March 10 , 2013 , Green Day began its 99 Revolutions Tour to support the trilogy . In June , Green Day broke Emirates Stadium attendance record with 60 @,@ 000 tickets sold . The band played Dookie from start to finish on several dates on the tour 's European leg , including during the Reading Festival 2013 headline show .
Demolicious , a compilation album that contains alternate versions and demos of songs from ¡ Uno ! , ¡ Dos ! and ¡ Tré ! recorded during the studio sessions of these albums , was released on April 19 , 2014 , for Record Store Day . It also contains a previously unreleased song called " State of Shock " and an acoustic version of " Stay the Night " , from ¡ Uno ! .
= = = Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and twelfth studio album ( 2015 – present ) = = =
Green Day performed its first concert in a year on April 16 , 2015 . The group first played a set as Sweet Children with John Kiffmeyer , followed by a set as Green Day . On April 18 , 2015 , Green Day were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Fall Out Boy .
On April 24 , 2015 , Rob Cavallo revealed Green Day are recording a twelfth studio album . Cavallo claims to have heard " five new songs that Billie has written and demoed " , and that the fans should be " sure that when they do return , the music will be amazing . "
On December 24 , 2015 , Green Day released a Christmas song , " Xmas Time of the Year " .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Green Day 's sound is often compared to first wave punk rock bands such as the Ramones , The Clash , Sex Pistols , The Jam , and the Buzzcocks . Stylistically , the group is characterized as punk rock , pop punk and alternative rock . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described Green Day as " punk revivalists who recharged the energy of speedy , catchy three @-@ chord punk @-@ pop songs . " While Armstrong is the primary songwriter , he looks to the other band members for organizational help . Billie Joe Armstrong has mentioned that some of his biggest influences are seminal alternative rock bands Hüsker Dü and The Replacements , and that their influence is particularly noted in the band 's chord changes in songs . Green Day has covered Hüsker Dü 's " Don 't Want to Know If You Are Lonely " as a b @-@ side to the " Warning " single , and the character " Mr. Whirly " in the group 's song " Misery " is a reference to the Replacements song of the same name . Among other influences , Green Day have also cited The Kinks , The Who and power pop pioneers Cheap Trick . English rock musician Noel Gallagher of Oasis complained about the band semi @-@ jokingly , claiming that the band had ripped off his song " Wonderwall " with its song " Boulevard of Broken Dreams " .
= = Related projects = =
Since 1991 , members of the band have branched out past Green Day , starting other projects with various musicians . Notable projects related to Green Day include Billie Joe Armstrong 's Pinhead Gunpowder with Jason White , The Frustrators with Mike Dirnt , and The Network , a collaboration between Green Day and members of the band , Devo in which all members play under fake stage names . Green Day has also released an album titled Stop Drop and Roll ! ! ! on May 20 , 2008 , under the name Foxboro Hot Tubs , which the band uses to book secret shows . In late December 2011 , Armstrong formed a new side band called The Boo along with his wife Adrienne and their two sons .
In September 2006 , Green Day collaborated with U2 and producer Rick Rubin to record a cover of the song " The Saints Are Coming " , originally recorded by The Skids , with an accompanying video . The song was recorded to benefit Music Rising , an organization to help raise money for musicians ' instruments lost during Hurricane Katrina , and to bring awareness on the eve of the one @-@ year anniversary of the disaster . In December 2006 , Green Day and NRDC opened a web site in partnership to raise awareness on America 's dependency on oil .
Green Day released a cover of the John Lennon song " Working Class Hero " , which was featured on the album Instant Karma : The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur . The band performed the song on the season finale of American Idol . The song was nominated for a Grammy Award in 2008 but lost to The White Stripes ' " Icky Thump " . That summer , the band appeared in a cameo role in The Simpsons Movie , where the band performs the show 's theme song ; Green Day 's version was released as a single on July 23 , 2007 .
In 2009 , the band collaborated with theater director Michael Mayer to adapt the group 's rock opera American Idiot into a one @-@ act stage musical that premiered at the Berkeley Rep on September 15 , 2009 . The show then moved to Broadway on April 20 , 2010 . The reviews of American Idiot : The Musical have been positive to mixed . Charles Isherwood of The New York Times wrote an enthusiastic review for the Broadway production . He called the show " a pulsating portrait of wasted youth that invokes all the standard genre conventions ... only to transcend them through the power of its music and the artistry of its execution , the show is as invigorating and ultimately as moving as anything I ’ ve seen on Broadway this season . Or maybe for a few seasons past . " Jed Gottlieb of the Boston Herald enjoyed the premise of the show but found that " the music and message suffer in a setting where the audience is politely , soberly seated " .
Michael Kuchiwara of the Associated Press found the show to be " visually striking [ and ] musically adventurous " , but noted that " the show has the barest wisp of a story and minimal character development " . Paul Kolnik in USA Today enjoyed the contradiction that Green Day 's " massively popular , starkly disenchanted album ... would be the feel @-@ good musical of the season " . Time magazine 's Richard Zoglin opined that the score " is as pure a specimen of contemporary punk rock as Broadway has yet encountered , [ yet ] there 's enough variety . ... Where the show fall short is as a fully developed narrative . " He concluded that " American Idiot , despite its earnest huffing and puffing , remains little more than an annotated rock concert . ... Still , [ it ] deserves at least two cheers – for its irresistible musical energy and for opening fresh vistas for that odd couple , rock and Broadway . " Peter Travers from Rolling Stone , in his review of American Idiot , wrote " Though American Idiot carries echoes of such rock musicals as Tommy , Hair , Rent and Spring Awakening , it cuts its own path to the heart . You won ’ t know what hit you . American Idiot knows no limits — it 's a global knockout . " The musical has been nominated for three Tony Awards , including Best Musical and Best Scenic Design . It was also nominated for a number of Drama Desk Awards and Outer Critics Circle Awards .
In October 2009 , a Green Day art project was exhibited at StolenSpace Gallery in London . The exhibition showed artworks created for each of the songs on 21st Century Breakdown , was supported by the band , and led by the group 's manager Pat Magnarella . He explained in an interview that " [ Artists are ] basically like rock bands . Most are creating their art , but don 't know how to promote it . " For Billie Joe Armstrong , " Many of the artists ... show their work on the street , and we feel a strong connection to that type of creative expression . "
On April 13 , 2011 , a film version of American Idiot was confirmed . Michael Mayer , director of the Broadway musical , will be directing the film . It will be produced by Green Day , Pat Magnarella ( Green Day 's manager who also produced Bullet in a Bible , Awesome as Fuck , and Heart Like a Hand Grenade ) , Playtone ( Tom Hanks and Gary Goetzman ) and Tom Hulce .
On January 23 , 2013 , it was announced that a documentary showing Armstrong 's journey from punk rock to Broadway was to be released . Called Broadway Idiot and showing a lot of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes of the American Idiot musical production , the movie was directed by Doug Hamilton , veteran television journalist for CBS News ' 60 Minutes and PBS documentaries such as Nova , Frontline and American Masters . A trailer was released on January 30 , 2013 . The documentary premiered at the South by Southwest Film Festival on March 15 , 2013 .
= = Controversy = =
The band has generated controversy over whether the band 's musical style and major @-@ label status constitutes " true punk " . In reaction to both the style of music and the background of the band , John Lydon , former front man of the 1970s punk band the Sex Pistols commented :
So there we are fending off all that and it pisses me off that years later a wank outfit like Green Day hop in and nick all that and attach it to themselves . They didn 't earn their wings to do that and if they were true punk they wouldn 't look anything like they do .
Armstrong himself has discussed the group 's status of being a punk band on a major record label , saying " Sometimes I think we 've become totally redundant because we 're this big band now ; we 've made a lot of money – we 're not punk rock any more . But then I think about it and just say , ' You can take us out of a punk rock environment , but you can 't take the punk rock out of us . ' "
On September 21 , 2012 , while Green Day was performing at the iHeartRadio music festival , Armstrong stopped while performing " Basket Case " , because he believed the group 's time was being shortened , possibly in order to extend R & B artist Usher 's performance . Angered , Armstrong began ranting while a screen in the rear of the audience was labeled " 1 Minutes Left " , saying " You 're not gonna give me one fucking minute ? You 've gotta be fucking kidding me ! " . He also told the crowd he was not Justin Bieber and labeled the festival as a " joke " . When the screen went blank , Armstrong smashed his guitar , while bassist Mike Dirnt smashed his bass . Armstrong then gave the finger , and declared that Green Day would be back before throwing his microphone down and walking off the stage . Two days later , the band 's representative apologized for the incident on the group 's behalf stating that " Green Day would like everyone to know that their set was not cut short by Clear Channel and to apologize to those they offended at the iHeartRadio Festival in Las Vegas " also adding that Armstrong will be headed to rehab , for abuse of alcohol and prescription pills . However , Dirnt would later say in an interview with Rolling Stone that he agreed with what Armstrong meant by his rant .
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Discography = =
39 / Smooth ( 1990 )
Kerplunk ( 1992 )
Dookie ( 1994 )
Insomniac ( 1995 )
Nimrod ( 1997 )
Warning ( 2000 )
American Idiot ( 2004 )
21st Century Breakdown ( 2009 )
¡ Uno ! ( 2012 )
¡ Dos ! ( 2012 )
¡ Tré ! ( 2012 )
= Great North of Scotland Railway =
The Great North of Scotland Railway ( GNSR / GNoSR ) was one of the two smallest of the five major Scottish railway companies prior to the 1923 Grouping , operating in the north @-@ east of the country . Formed in 1845 , it carried its first passengers the 39 miles ( 63 km ) from Kittybrewster , in Aberdeen , to Huntly on 20 September 1854 . By 1867 it owned 226 1 ⁄ 4 route miles ( 364 @.@ 1 km ) of line and operated over a further 61 miles ( 98 km ) .
The early expansion was followed by a period of forced economy , but in the 1880s the railway was refurbished , express services began to run and by the end of that decade there was a suburban service in Aberdeen . The railway operated its main line between Aberdeen and Keith and two routes west to Elgin , connections could be made at both Keith and Elgin for Highland Railway services to Inverness . There were other junctions with the Highland Railway at Boat of Garten and Portessie , and at Aberdeen connections for journeys south over the Caledonian and North British Railways . Its eventual area encompassed the three Scottish counties of Aberdeenshire , Banffshire and Moray , with short lengths of line in Inverness @-@ shire and Kincardineshire .
Fish from the North Sea ports and whisky from the distilleries of Speyside became important goods traffic . The Royal Family used the Deeside Line for travel to and from Balmoral Castle and when they were in residence a daily special ' Messenger Train ' ran from Aberdeen ; for most of the railway 's life this was its only Sunday service . The company ran three hotels , and a network of feeder bus services was developed in the early 20th century . In 1923 , it became part of the London and North Eastern Railway as its Northern Scottish area , passing on 333 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 536 @.@ 7 km ) of line and 122 steam locomotives , most of them 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 tender locomotives . Although the railway had several branches , its remoteness has resulted in only its main line remaining today as part of the Aberdeen to Inverness Line .
= = History = =
= = = Half way to Inverness , 1845 – 1858 = = =
= = = = Establishment and construction = = = =
In 1845 the Great North of Scotland Railway was formed to build a railway from Aberdeen to Inverness . The proposed 108 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 174 @.@ 2 km ) route , which needed few major engineering works , followed the River Don to Inverurie , via Huntly and Keith to a crossing of the River Spey , and then to Elgin and along the coast via Nairn to Inverness . Branch lines to Banff , Portsoy , Garmouth and Burghead would total 30 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 49 @.@ 1 km ) . At the same time the Perth & Inverness Railway proposed a direct route over the Grampian Mountains to Perth , and the Aberdeen , Banff & Elgin Railway suggested a route that followed the coast to better serve the Banffshire and Morayshire fishing ports . Three private bills were presented to Parliament seeking permission to build a railway , but the Aberdeen , Banff & Elgin failed to raise funds , and the Perth & Inverness Railway was rejected because the railway would be at altitudes that approached 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) and needed steep gradients . The Great North of Scotland Railway Act received Royal Assent on 26 June 1846 .
In the aftermath of the railway mania railway companies became an unpopular investment and the necessary finance could not be raised . The company suggested at a meeting in November 1849 that whereas £ 650 @,@ 000 was needed for a double @-@ track railway from Aberdeen to Inverness , only £ 375 @,@ 000 would be needed for a single @-@ track railway from Kittybrewster , 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from Aberdeen , to Keith , half way to Inverness . The meeting recommended that the bridges and works be built wide enough for a second track when this was needed . Construction eventually began in November 1852 , albeit to Huntly , 12 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) short of Keith , with William Cubitt as engineer . The severe winter the following year delayed work . Between Inverurie and Aberdeen the line took over the Aberdeenshire Canal , the purchase of which delayed construction as it was necessary to settle the claims of each shareholder individually .
= = = = Opening = = = =
After an inspection by the Board of Trade , the railway opened to goods on 12 September 1854 and approval for the carriage of passengers was given two days later . The railway was officially opened on 19 September , and two locomotives hauling twenty @-@ five carriages carrying 400 passengers left Kittybrewster at 11 am . The number of passengers had grown to about 650 by the time the train arrived to a celebration at Huntly at 1 : 12 pm . Public services began the following day .
There were stations at :
Kittybrewster
Buxburn ( Bucksburn after 1897 )
Dyce
Kinaldie ( open after 1 December )
Kintore
Inverury ( Inverurie after 1866 )
Pitcaple
Oyne
Buchanstone ( open after 1 December )
Insch
Wardhouse ( open after 1 December )
Kennethmont
Gartly
Huntly
The railway was single track with passing loops at the termini and at Kintore , Inverurie and Insch ; the loop at Kittybrewster was clear of the platform to allow the locomotive to run round the carriages and push them into the station . A daily goods train took up to 3 hours 40 minutes for the 39 miles ( 63 km ) , the goods to Aberdeen also carried passengers and mail and spared cattle a two @-@ day drive to market . Initially there were three passenger services a day taking two hours , fares being 1 3 ⁄ 4 old pence ( d ) a mile for first class and 1 1 ⁄ 4d for third ; on one train a day in each direction it was possible to travel for the statutory fare of 1d a mile . Although cheaper than travelling by coach , these fares and the charges for the transport of goods were considered high but not reduced for thirty years .
The railway opened short of rolling stock as only half of the twelve locomotives and twenty @-@ four of forty passenger carriages ordered had arrived . The carriage builders , Brown , Marshall & Co of Birmingham , stated that based on their experience they had expected the line to open at least two months late . The third day after opening to passengers , on 23 September , there was a collision between two trains at Kittybrewster that resulted in the death of a passenger and several serious injuries . The inquiry found that the driver , attempting to make up time after a late start , had over @-@ run previous stations and been approaching the terminus with excessive speed . The driver attempted to select reverse gear to slow the train but had failed to hold on to the lever , which slipped into forward , propelling the train into carriages waiting at the platform . The report also criticised the station staff , who should not have allowed the carriages to be waiting at the station . The layout at Kittybrewster was altered after the accident .
= = = = Waterloo , Keith and Inverness = = = =
The Aberdeen Railway ( AR ) opened from the south to Ferryhill , south of Aberdeen , in April 1850 . It had been previously arranged that the Aberdeen and Great North would amalgamate , but this was annulled that year and the Aberdeen was seeking alliances with railways to the south . In 1854 the AR opened its Guild Street terminus in Aberdeen and the Great North sought and obtained powers for a 1 3 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 8 km ) branch that followed the Aberdeenshire Canal from Kittybrewster to a terminus at Waterloo by the docks . The line was opened to goods traffic on 24 September 1855 and passengers on 1 April 1856 . Kittybrewster station was rebuilt with through platforms and the offices moved to Waterloo station from premises at 75 Union Street . The stations were 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 800 m ) apart and a goods line was built though the docks linking the two railways , worked by horses as steam locomotives were prohibited .
The Inverness & Nairn Railway was authorised in 1854 to build a railway from Inverness to Nairn . The Great North , still seeking to reach Inverness , had objected but withdrew after running rights over the railway were promised . The 15 @-@ mile ( 24 km ) line was opened on 6 November 1855 , and Inverness & Elgin Junction Railway was formed to extend this line to Elgin . The Great North objected again , this time citing the expense of crossing the Spey , but withdrew after it was suggested that the cost of a bridge would be shared . The new company changed its name to Inverness & Aberdeen Junction Railway , but no final undertaking on running rights was made .
The 12 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) extension of the Great North to Keith was opened on 10 October 1856 , with two intermediate stations at Rothiemay and Grange . Initially five services a day ran between Aberdeen and Keith , taking between 2 hours 40 minutes and 3 hours 5 minutes , although the number of services was later reduced to four . The route between Nairn and Keith authorised on 21 July 1856 required less earthwork , reducing cost , but had steeper gradients than had originally been proposed , and the Great North contributed £ 40 @,@ 000 towards a bridge over the Spey . The line reached Dalvey ( near Forres ) in 1857 , and Keith on 18 August 1858 . Three services a day ran the 108 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 174 @.@ 6 km ) between Aberdeen and Inverness , increasing to five a day east of Keith , and the journey to Inverness took between 5 hours and 55 minutes and 6 hours 30 minutes . The Great North did not insist on running rights west of Keith , but through carriages were probably provided from the start .
= = = Expansion , 1854 – 1866 = = =
= = = = Formartine and Buchan Railway = = = =
Permission to build a line to serve the fishing ports at Peterhead and Fraserburgh was received in 1846 , but this lapsed during the financial collapse that had followed . Two rival bills were presented in 1856 , one by the Formartine and Buchan Railway and backed by the Great North , and another by the Aberdeen , Peterhead & Fraserburgh Railway . Both companies failed to obtain permission for two years , but in 1858 the Formartine and Buchan Railway was successful . A 29 @-@ mile ( 47 km ) long railway from Dyce to Old Deer ( renamed Mintlaw in 1867 ) opened on 18 July 1861 and the main line between Kittybrewster and Dyce was doubled . The branch was extended the 9 miles ( 14 km ) to a station at Peterhead the following year and a 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) long branch north from Maud to Fraserburgh station opened on 24 April 1865 . Three or four services a day ran between Aberdeen , Fraserburgh and Peterhead , with the trains dividing at Maud ; travel times were between 2 1 ⁄ 2 and 2 3 ⁄ 4 hours . The railway was absorbed by the Great North of Scotland Railway on 1 August 1866 .
= = = = Alford Valley Railway = = = =
The Alford Valley Railway left the main line at Kintore for Alford . The railway was authorised in 1856 with the backing of the Great North ; most of the company 's directors were also on the board of the Great North . The line was steeply graded over a summit at Tillyfourie , at between 1 in 70 and 1 in 75 . The line opened in 1859 with a service of four trains a day calling at Kemnay , Monymusk and Whitehouse . In 1862 the Great North guaranteed the company 's debts and it was subsequently absorbed by the Great North of Scotland Railway on 1 August 1866 .
= = = = Inverury and Old Meldrum Junction Railway = = = =
The branch from Inverurie , backed by local residents with funding from the Great North , was authorised on 15 June 1855 . The official opening took place on 26 June 1856 with public services starting on 1 July . Journeys took from 18 to 20 minutes to cover the 5 3 ⁄ 4 miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) to Old Meldrum with a stop at Lethenty ; a further station opened in 1866 at Fingask . In June 1858 the line was leased to the Great North for a rental of £ 650 per year . The railway was absorbed by the Great North of Scotland Railway on 1 August 1866 .
= = = = Banff , Macduff and Turriff Railways = = = =
Plans to reach fishing ports at Macduff and Banff from Inverurie were proposed when the Great North was first suggested , but failed because of the lack of financial support . A different route , from Milton Inveramsay , allowed for a shorter route with easier gradients . Unable to raise sufficient money for a line to the coast , a shorter 18 @-@ mile ( 29 km ) line to Turriff was built . The Great North invested in the railway , and directors sat on the board of the Junction Railway . The new line , together with a junction station at Inveramsay , opened on 5 September 1857 . A separate company , the Banff , Macduff and Turriff Extension Railway , built an extension to a station called Banff and Macduff . The line was operated by the Great North from 4 June 1860 , and served an inconvenient terminus high on a hill 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) from Macduff and 1 ⁄ 4 mile ( 400 m ) from the bridge across the River Deveron to Banff . Four trains a day ran from Inveramsay , taking between 1 hour 30 minutes and 1 hour 50 minutes , with connections with services to Aberdeen . Both railways were absorbed by the Great North of Scotland Railway on 1 August 1866 , and the line was extended 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 800 m ) to a new Macduff station in 1872 .
= = = = Banff , Portsoy and Strathisla Railway = = = =
The railway was authorised in 1857 from Grange , on the Great North main line , 16 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 26 @.@ 2 km ) to Banff , with a 3 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 2 km ) branch from Tillynaught to Portsoy . The chairman of the company , Thomas Bruce , was also deputy chairman of the Inverness & Aberdeen Junction Railway , with the other directors being made up of local men ; most of the investments were raised locally and in small amounts . Most of the line was built with gradients up to 1 in 70 , but the half @-@ mile of 1 in 30 goods line to the harbour at Portsoy was restricted to one locomotive and four wagons . The railway opened on 30 July 1859 , with public services starting on 2 August following a derailment on the opening day . Services connected with the Great North at Grange . With the railway struggling to pay the interest on its debt , in 1863 the Great North took over running the services and the line renamed the Banffshire Railway . The Great North provided three trains a day between Grange and Banff that connected at Tillynaught for Portsoy , and two trains a day along the coast between Banff and Portsoy . Permission for a 14 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 22 @.@ 9 km ) extension from Portsoy to Portgordon was given , but the necessary investment could not be found . Amalgamation with the Great North was authorised in 1866 , but financial problems delayed this until 12 August 1867 , and the Portgordon extension was abandoned .
= = = = Keith and Dufftown Railway = = = =
The Great North sought to have its own route west of Keith , with Grantown @-@ on @-@ Spey as an objective , where it hoped to meet any possible line between Perth and Inverness . To this end , it invested in the Keith and Dufftown Railway ; this company was incorporated on 27 July 1857 , but lack of money slowed progress . Powers for a longer , but cheaper , route between the two towns were secured on 25 May 1860 . The revised route included steeper gradients than those planned in 1857 ; the maximum gradient was now 1 in 60 instead of 1 in 70 . There was a viaduct over the Fiddich of two spans , and there were three intermediate stations : Earlsmill ( renamed Keith Town in 1897 ) , Botriphnie ( renamed Auchindachy in 1862 ) and Drummuir . When the line opened on 21 February 1862 , the trains were worked by the Great North under an agreement dating from the formation of the company . The railway was absorbed by the Great North of Scotland Railway on 1 August 1866 .
= = = = Strathspey Railway = = = =
With promises of substantial goods traffic of iron and timber and from the local whisky distilleries , extension of the line to Dufftown into Strathspey was sought and obtained on 17 May 1861 . The Sprathspey Railway was sponsored by the Keith & Dufftown and Great North of Scotland Railways , who appointed directors to the board , and the Great North undertook to run the services . The 32 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 52 @.@ 3 km ) line first headed north to meet an extension of the Morayshire Railway at Strathspey Junction ( called Craigellachie from 1864 ) , before following the River Spey to Abernethy . The Act also permitted a branch to the proposed Inverness & Perth Junction Railway at Grantown @-@ on @-@ Spey . The gradients were not severe , but the route required the Spey and its tributaries to be crossed many times , with three bridges built over the river itself . The line was placed in cuttings greater than 50 feet ( 15 m ) deep , and there was one 68 @-@ yard ( 62 m ) long tunnel . The line was opened on 1 July 1863 to Abernethy ( later called Nethy Bridge ) . The line between Dufftown and Craigellachie became the main line and services continued over the Morayshire Railway , opening up a route between Keith and Elgin independent of the Inverness & Aberdeen Junction Railway ( IAJR ) . The IAJR kept most of the through traffic as its line was more direct , only 18 miles ( 29 km ) instead of 27 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 44 @.@ 3 km ) via the Great North route . The Great North ran four trains a day from Elgin to Keith via Craigellachie , with through carriages or connections for three trains for Aberdeen at Keith . Connections at Elgin were poor because travel over the two routes took a different length of time .
The line from Craigellachie became a branch with three trains a day calling at all stations at an average speed of about 16 miles per hour ( 26 km / h ) . The link to Grantown @-@ on @-@ Spey was not built , but on 1 August 1866 services were extended to meet the IAJR ( now the Highland Railway ) at Boat of Garten . The railways met 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Boat and conflict arose over the manning of the signalbox at the junction , with the Highland refusing to make any contribution . For a while between March and June 1868 Great North services terminated at Nethy Bridge , after which separate tracks side by side were provided for both companies to Boat . Prompt connections were available with the Great North at Craigellachie , but there was usually a long wait for connections with the Highland at Boat . The railway 's was absorbed by the Great North of Scotland Railway on 1 August 1866 , and the line 's main source of income came from the local distilleries .
= = = = Morayshire Railway = = = =
A 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) double @-@ track railway had been proposed from Lossiemouth to Craigellachie in 1841 and necessary permissions granted in 1846 , the route having changed to take advantage of the proposed Great North of Scotland Railway between Elgin and Orton . The financial situation delayed construction , but work eventually started on the section from Lossiemouth to Elgin in 1851 . The 5 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) line opened on 10 August 1852 with a special train from Elgin to festivities in Lossiemouth . Public services started the next day with five services a day , each taking 15 minutes with two request stops . First and second class accommodation was provided at 1 1 ⁄ 2d and 1d a mile . However , it was the Inverness & Aberdeen Junction Railway ( IAJR ) who was to build the line from Elgin to Orton ; permission to build a branch from this line to Rothes was granted to the Morayshire on 14 July 1856 . The IAJR built its own station at Elgin , linked to the Morayshire 's station by a junction to the east . The IAJR opened on 18 August 1858 and the Morayshire Railway started running services on 23 August .
Initially the Morayshire ran trains over the IAJR , but its lightweight locomotives struggled with the gradients and proved unreliable , and after six weeks carriages were attached and detached from IAJR trains at Elgin and Orton . Conflict arose over through ticketing , and the directors of the Morayshire responded with plans to build its own line between the two stations . The Great North sponsored the new line and offered to provide services after the lines had been physically connected . Permission was granted on 3 July 1860 , goods were carried from 30 December 1861 and passengers from 1 January 1862 , reducing the travel time from 55 minutes to 45 minutes . The Morayshire station at Elgin was enlarged in anticipation of Great North services , albeit in wood .
In 1861 permission was granted to the Morayshire Railway to cross the Spey and join with the Strathspey Railway at Craigellachie . The Morayshire extension and the Strathspey both opened on 1 July 1863 and the Great North provided a service of four trains a day over the line , which gave an alternative route between Keith and Elgin . On 30 July 1866 permission was given to the Morayshire and Great North to amalgamate with agreement , and the loss @-@ making services between Orton and Rothes were withdrawn without notice the following day . It would be August 1881 before the Morayshire became fully part of the Great North .
= = = = Aberdeen joint station = = = =
The wooden station building at Waterloo was a 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 800 m ) from the Aberdeen and Deeside 's Guild Street station and passengers were conveyed between the termini by omnibus , paid for in the through fare and with forty five minutes being allowed for the transfer . The Great North refused to hold its trains to connect with those arriving at Guild Street and insisted that tickets were purchased at least five minutes before the train was due to depart . The mail train would be held until the Post Office van had arrived and the mail was on board , but the station locked at the advertised departure time to prevent connecting passengers further delaying the train . This inconvenienced passengers , as was pointed out to the general manager during a parliamentary committee meeting by a Member of Parliament who had missed a connection , although his family and luggage had been sent on . The Great North promoted onward traffic by sea and approached the Aberdeen Steam Navigation Company to see if rates could be reduced for through traffic and through ticketing by rail was not available until 1859 , when the Great North joined the Railway Clearing House .
A joint line through the Denburn Valley to link the Great North to the south had been planned , and the Great North had approached the railways using the Guild Street station in 1853 and 1857 but were unhappy with the assistance that had been offered . Permission was granted in 1861 to the Inverness & Perth Junction Railway to build a line from Forres , on the Inverness & Aberdeen Junction Railway , direct to Perth . The Great North protested , and won the right for a booking office in Inverness . The line opened in 1863 and in 1865 the Inverness & Perth Junction and Inverness & Aberdeen Junction merged to become the Highland Railway . The Aberdeen Railway , which had now been absorbed by the Scottish North Eastern Railway ( SNER ) , approached the Great North , concerned that the new line had bypassed Aberdeen , but no agreement was reached .
The Limpet Mill Scheme was a line presented in an 1862 bill by the nominally independent Scottish Northern Junction Railway , but supported by the SNER . This proposed a 22 @-@ mile ( 35 km ) long railway between Limpet Mill , to the north of Stonehaven on the SNER , to the Great North at Kintore . A junction with the Deeside Railway was also planned , over which the SNER unsuccessfully tried to obtain running rights . Unpopular , this was given permission by parliament , but the Great North succeeded in inserting a clause that this would be suspended if it obtained an Act by 1 September 1863 . The Great North proposed a route , known locally as the Circumbendibus , that was longer but cheaper than the direct route through the Denburn Valley . Despite local opposition , the route was approved by parliament in 1863 , but was revoked the following year when the SNER obtained permission for a railway through the Denburn Valley . The Great North contributed the £ 125 @,@ 000 that its Circumbendibus line would have cost and the SNER contributed £ 70 @,@ 000 out of the £ 90 @,@ 000 it had been prepared to advance the Limpet Mill Scheme . The SNER built the double @-@ track railway , culverting the Denburn and digging two short tunnels . The joint station opened on 4 November 1867 and consisted of three through tracks , one with a long platform , together with two bay platforms for terminating trains at either end . Two lines to the west were provided for goods traffic , and the stations at Waterloo and Guild Street closed to passengers and became goods terminals . The line to the north of the station passed to the Great North and the 269 @-@ yard ( 246 m ) long Hutcheon Street tunnel became its longest .
= = = = Deeside Railway = = = =
A railway to serve Deeside was authorised on 16 July 1846 , but it was decided to wait for the Aberdeen Railway to open first . The company survived after the railway mania as the Aberdeen Railway bought a large number of shares . Interest in the line was restored after Prince Albert purchased Balmoral Castle , to which the Royal Family made their first visit in 1848 , and the Aberdeen Railway was able to sell its shares . Investors were still hard to find , but a 16 3 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 27 @.@ 0 km ) line as far as Banchory was ceremonially opened on 7 September 1853 ; public services began the following day with three trains a day that took about an hour . First class accommodation was available for 1 1 ⁄ 2d a mile , reduced to 1d a mile for third class . Initially services were operated by the Aberdeen Railway to its terminus at Ferryhill , and the Deeside Railway used a horse to shunt wagons at Banchory . In 1854 the Deeside introduced its own rolling stock and ran through to the Aberdeen 's Guild Street station which opened the same year .
A new company , the Aboyne Extension , was formed to reach Aboyne . Instead of building two bridges across the Dee , as had been proposed in 1846 , the railway instead took a cheaper but 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) longer route through Lumphanan , and services were extended over the new line on 2 December 1859 . The Aboyne & Braemar Railway was formed to build a line from Aboyne the 28 miles ( 45 km ) to Braemar . The line was to follow the Dee before crossing it 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from Braemar , but the plans were modified to terminate the line at Bridge of Gairn with the passenger terminus 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) short at Ballater . This 12 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) route opened to Ballater on 17 October 1866 , and the line to Bridge of Gairn remained unfinished . By 1855 there five services a day over the 43 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 69 @.@ 6 km ) long line , taking between 1 hour 50 minutes and 2 1 ⁄ 2 hours .
The Royal Family used the line from 1853 to travel to Balmoral Castle ; in September 1866 the British Royal Train used Ballater station nearly a month before public services reached the station . At first Queen Victoria visited once a year , this becoming twice a year after Albert died in 1861 . The number of visits returned to one a year after Edward VII became king in 1901 . From 8 October 1865 a daily ' Messenger Train ' ran when the Royal Family was at Balmoral . First class accommodation was available on these trains ; accompanying servants were charged third class fares . In the late 1850s and early 1860s the Great North and the Scottish North Eastern Railway ( SNER ) were in conflict over the joint station in Aberdeen . Frustrated with lack of progress , the SNER proposed a new line that crossed the Deeside Railway . Whilst in discussions with the SNER about a link from this new line to the Deeside , a lease for the Deeside Railway was offered to the Great North , which was rapidly accepted . The Deeside board accepted the lease by a majority vote on 13 May 1862 , and it was approved by Parliament on 30 July 1866 . The Aboyne & Braemar remained independent , although services were operated by the Great North .
= = = = Amalgamation = = = =
After opening to Keith in 1854 the Great North of Scotland Railway operated over 54 miles ( 87 km ) of line . Ten years later this had almost quadrupled but more than three @-@ quarters was over leased or subsidiary railways . Eventual amalgamation with many of these railways had been prompted from the start . The necessary authority was sought and on 30 July 1866 the Great North of Scotland Railway ( Amalgamation ) Act received Royal Assent , this Act also permitting the Great North to | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
that it was advertised as the United States ' first " all @-@ electric town . " President Ronald Reagan , then an executive with General Electric , attended Hall Park 's grand opening ceremonies in 1962 where he was named the town 's honorary first mayor .
The University of Oklahoma and the area surrounding it are home to many historically significant neighborhoods . The university itself has a unique Gothic @-@ inspired architecture known as " Cherokee Gothic , " so named by architect Frank Lloyd Wright . Churches and houses in the surrounding neighborhoods can be described as neo @-@ Gothic or Queen Anne in style . Norman has two city @-@ designated historic preservation districts in the area : the Miller Historic District , bounded by Symmes St. , Classen Ave . , and Miller Ave . ; and the Chautauqua Historic District , bounded by Symmes St. , Brooks St. , Chautauqua Ave . , and Lahoma Ave . Both of these residential neighborhoods contain houses designed from a mixture of architectural styles dating from 1903 to 1935 , with the majority of the Miller neighborhood being of the Bungalow or American Craftsman style homes . Any external changes or repairs to homes in these areas must be approved by the Norman Historic Preservation Commission .
The area immediately north of the university is known as Campus Corner and contains a mixture of businesses , bars , and restaurants . The neighborhoods to the east of the campus are home to many students , both in residential housing and high @-@ rise condos / apartments .
Norman enjoys many tree @-@ lined landscapes , participating in the ReLeaf Norman and Tree City USA programs .
= = Education = =
= = = Higher education = = =
= = = = Colleges and universities = = = =
The University of Oklahoma is the largest university in the state of Oklahoma , with approximately 30 @,@ 000 students enrolled . The university was founded in 1890 , prior to Oklahoma statehood . The university includes both Norman and Oklahoma City campuses with the main campus located in Norman . In 2007 , The Princeton Review named the University of Oklahoma one of its " Best Value " colleges . The school is ranked first per capita among public universities in enrollment of National Merit Scholars and has seen 28 Rhodes Scholars graduate since the program 's inception in 1902 . PC Magazine and the Princeton Review rated it one of the " 20 Most Wired Colleges " in both 2006 and 2008 , while the Carnegie Foundation classifies it as a research university with " high research activity . "
The school is well known for its athletic programs , having won many awards including seven NCAA Division I National Football Championships .
= = = = CareerTech = = = =
The city of Norman is served by the Moore Norman Technology Center . The school was established in 1972 and has been awarded the Oklahoma Association of Technology Center 's Gold Star School Award on multiple occasions . The Franklin Road Campus consists of six buildings totaling 323 @,@ 500 square feet ( 30 @,@ 100 m2 ) of classroom , meeting , and office space . The school has a full @-@ time staff of 207 .
= = = Primary and secondary schools = = =
= = = = Public schools = = = =
Public school districts in Oklahoma are independent of other local governments . Several districts overlap the municipal boundaries of the City of Norman .
Norman Public Schools is the largest district serving Norman ; there are 15 elementary schools , four middle schools , and two high schools in the district . More than 17 @,@ 000 students are enrolled in the district , making it one of the largest in the state .
Noble Public Schools is a school district that serves southeastern portions of Norman , the adjoining cities of Noble and Slaughterville , and parts of Cleveland County . It consists of two elementary schools , an intermediate school , a middle school , and a high school .
Little Axe Public Schools serves the eastern area of Norman . It consists of an elementary , junior , and high school .
Other school districts with territory within the city are the Robin Hill Public School District and the Moore Public School District .
= = = = Private schools = = = =
Several private schools also serve the area :
All Saints Catholic School – pre @-@ kindergarten through 8th grade
Blue Eagle Christian Academy – kindergarten through 10th grade
Community Christian School – kindergarten through 12th grade
Norman Christian Academy – pre @-@ kindergarten through 7th grade
Robinson Street Academy – kindergarten through 12th grade
Rose Rock School – pre @-@ kindergarten through kindergarten
Terra Verde Discovery School – kindergarten through 2nd grade
Trinity Lutheran School – pre @-@ kindergarten through 6th grade
Veritas Classical Christian Academy – pre @-@ kindergarten through 12th grade
= = = Libraries = = =
Norman is served by the Norman Public Library , which is part of the Pioneer Library System spanning many of the southern suburbs of Oklahoma City . The library has an inter @-@ library agreement with the Metropolitan Library System of Oklahoma City . This allows patrons of the Norman Public Library to check out books from any library in the Pioneer Library System or in the Metropolitan Library System . Books can be reserved and shipped to a local library free of charge . In addition to books , the library maintains a collection of periodicals , videos , audio books , and research materials .
The Bizzell Memorial Library at the University of Oklahoma is the largest library in the state of Oklahoma , containing more than five million volumes . In addition to books , the library maintains over 17 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m ) in length of manuscripts and archives , 1 @.@ 6 million photographs , and more than 1 @.@ 5 million maps . The library also houses more than 50 books printed before the year 1500 .
= = Culture = =
= = = Museums and theater = = =
Norman enjoys many cultural attractions that are funded by the university . The Fred Jones Jr . Museum of Art made national and international news in 2000 when it was given the Weitzenhoffer Collection , the largest collection of French Impressionist art ever given to an American university . The collection includes works by Mary Cassatt , Claude Monet , Vincent van Gogh , Paul Gauguin , Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir , and Camille Pissarro .
The Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History is a museum containing over 50 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 000 m2 ) of exhibits ranging from archaeology , paleontology , ethnology , herpetology , ornithology , and Native American studies . Its exhibits are intended to immerse visitors in the state 's long history . The museum features many complete collections of dinosaur fossils and is also noted for its Paleozoic collection , considered to be one of the largest and most important in existence .
The Moore @-@ Lindsay House is a Queen Anne @-@ style home built prior to 1900 by prominent Norman home builder William Moore ; it was purchased by the city of Norman in 1973 and today serves as the city and Cleveland County 's historical museum . Located at 508 N. Peters , the Moore @-@ Lindsay House 's architecture is representative of Norman during the Victorian era . The Cleveland County Historical Society maintains a collection of over 5 @,@ 000 rare books , documents , and other artifacts in its archives located inside the house .
Catlett Music Center at the University of Oklahoma features many orchestral and jazz performances and the Weitzenhoffer Family College of Fine Arts ' Schools of Dance , Drama , and Musical Theatre offer many student programs throughout the year .
The city is also home to many privately funded galleries and performance sites .
= = = Parks and recreation = = =
Norman 's Parks and Recreation Department facilitates 55 neighborhood and community parks , three recreation centers , a golf course and driving range , three disc golf courses , a complete swim complex with waterslides , a wading pool , 32 tennis courts , and three special services centers ( that offer cultural arts and senior citizen activities ) . Griffin Community Park Sports Complex includes 16 soccer fields , 14 baseball / softball fields , and four football fields .
= = = Media = = =
The Norman Transcript is the most widely circulated Norman @-@ based newspaper in the city . It is a daily newspaper covering events in Cleveland and McClain counties . It is the oldest continuous business in Norman and was founded shortly after the Land Run of April 1889 on July 13 , 1889 .
The Oklahoma Daily is a student @-@ run newspaper at the University of Oklahoma . It was first published in 1897 , several years after the university 's founding . The paper has received numerous awards for journalism excellence including the Associated Collegiate Press ' Pacemaker Award .
KGOU is a full @-@ service public radio station licensed to the University of Oklahoma . The station serves Norman and the greater Oklahoma City metropolitan area with a news / talk / jazz format , using programs from National Public Radio , Public Radio International , and others .
Norman TV is a government @-@ access television station airing on Cox Communications cable television channel 20 . It broadcasts programming provided by the City of Norman , including video from city council meetings .
= = = Sports = = =
The University of Oklahoma sponsors many collegiate sporting events in Norman . The school is well known for its football program , having won seven NCAA Division I National Football Championships . In addition , it has the best winning percentage of any Division I FBS team since the introduction of the AP Poll in 1936 and has played in four BCS National Championship Games since 1998 .
During football season , the Oklahoma Sooners football program contributes significantly to Norman 's economy . During game day weekends , Norman sees an influx out of town traffic from all over the country with over 80 @,@ 000 people routinely attending football games . Norman 's local businesses , especially areas around campus and Campus Corner , benefit greatly from the game day traffic alone . The program ranks in the top 10 of ESPN 's top college football money @-@ makers with home games generating revenues at approximately $ 59 million and game day operating expenses at about $ 6 @.@ 1 million .
In 1951 and 1994 its baseball team won the NCAA national championship , and the women 's softball team won the national championship in 2000 . The gymnastics teams have won four national championships since 2001 .
Other university men 's sports include : basketball , cross country , golf , gymnastics , football , Ultimate Frisbee , tennis , track and field , and wrestling . Women 's sports include : basketball , cross country , golf , gymnastics , football , Ultimate Frisbee , rowing , soccer , softball , tennis , track and field , and volleyball .
The Golf Coaches Association of America ( GCAA ) , a non @-@ profit professional association of men 's collegiate golf coaches , is located in Norman .
= = = Community events = = =
Norman hosts many free festivals and community events that occur throughout the year .
The Norman Medieval Fair is a celebration of medieval @-@ themed games , art , and culture , with highlights of jousting , human chessmatch combats & other combat shows , and several musical & dance acts . The event is typically held during the last weekend of March or first weekend of April in Reaves Park , near the University . It has been held annually in Norman since 1976 and was originally a forum for the English Department at the University of Oklahoma . It is the largest weekend event held in the state of Oklahoma , with over 325 @,@ 000 people in attendance in 2006 and growing yearly . Events Media Network has named Medieval Fair one of the top 100 events in the United States .
Norman Music Festival is an annual weekend music festival held in April in downtown Norman . Established in 2008 , the event had over 26 @,@ 000 people in attendance during the 2009 festival . Originally a one @-@ day event , the festival has quickly grown so large that it is now an all @-@ weekend concert series . The festival highlights both local musicians and internationally acclaimed artists and features many forms and styles of music .
Groovefest is a music festival hosted annually at Andrews Park . On the last Sunday in September , the music festival is held to help raise awareness about human rights . The event was established in 1986 by the University of Oklahoma chapter of Amnesty International .
The Chocolate Festival , the only fundraiser of the year for the city 's Firehouse Arts Center , was ranked # 3 for food festivals across America by the Food Network . This festival offers various chocolate tasting sessions , chocolate art competitions and exhibits , chocolate dessert competitions and more . It has been an annual tradition since 1983 .
Jazz in June is a music festival held the last full weekend in June at various venues across Norman . The festival features both jazz and blues musical performances as well as jazz educational clinics taught by professional musicians appearing in the festival and post @-@ concert jam sessions at local venues which bring headliners and local artists together . Jazz in June , one of the major cultural events in the state as well as the City of Norman , attracts a combined concert audience of 50 @,@ 000 drawn from throughout the state , region and nation . Another 100 @,@ 000 or more enjoy these same performances through post @-@ festival broadcasts on KGOU Public Radio as well as other public radio stations throughout the state , region and nation .
May Fair is an arts festival held every year during the first weekend in May at Andrews Park . It features top area performers , fine art , crafts , and food .
Summer Breeze Concert Series is a series of concerts held from Spring to Fall at various park venues across Norman . The series is sponsored by the Performing Arts Studio .
Midsummer Nights ' Fair is a nighttime arts festival held during two evenings in June . The fair features art , music , and food and is held outside the Firehouse Art Center located in Lions Park .
The Norman Mardi Gras parade is a celebration of Mardi Gras occurring on the Saturday closest to Fat Tuesday . The parade is held in downtown Norman and features themed costumes and floats .
The Main Street Christmas Holiday Parade is a celebration of Christmas and the holiday season held every December in downtown Norman . The parade features holiday @-@ themed costumes and floats .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Health systems = = =
Norman Regional Health System is a multi @-@ campus system that provides medical services in Norman and throughout south central Oklahoma . Its Porter Avenue campus , located north of downtown Norman , is a 337 @-@ bed general hospital providing a wide range of services including acute care . In October 2009 , the Norman Regional HealthPlex campus opened in west Norman . It provides a 152 @-@ bed state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art facility specializing in cardiology , cardiovascular services , as well as women 's and children 's services .
= = = Transportation = = =
= = = = Airports = = = =
Scheduled air transport , major commercial air transportation is available at Will Rogers World Airport in Oklahoma City , located approximately 20 miles ( 30 km ) northwest of Norman . The airport serves more than 3 @.@ 78 million passengers per year .
Norman is served locally by Max Westheimer Airport , a general aviation airport run by the University of Oklahoma . The airport is one of only two airports in the Oklahoma City metropolitan area designated as a reliever airport to Will Rogers World Airport . Max Westheimer Airport is capable of handling aircraft up through and including executive class jet aircraft .
= = = = Buses = = = =
The Cleveland Area Rapid Transit , operated by the University of Oklahoma , provides bus service throughout the 191 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 490 km2 ) Norman area . CART also provides service to the Social Security Administration offices in Moore , OK , as well as to Oklahoma City 's Metro Transit hub in downtown Oklahoma City . Metro Transit maintains a fleet of buses and trolleys serving the greater Oklahoma City area , including Will Rogers World Airport .
In 2008 , CART became the 39th public transportation system in the United States to be featured on Google Transit , a website that allows transportation users to electronically plan their travel routes . In 2010 , CART buses were modified to include a GPS tracking system that allows riders to see the location of buses and their predicted arrival times via the CART and Google websites . CART buses transport more than 1 @.@ 3 million travelers annually .
= = = = Rail = = = =
Inter @-@ city passenger train service is available via Amtrak at Norman Depot . Amtrak 's Heartland Flyer provides daily round trip service to downtown Oklahoma City and Fort Worth , Texas .
Although Norman currently has no light rail or commuter rail service , there is growing interest in incorporating such services into the city 's future transportation plans as part of the Oklahoma City metro area 's regional transit system .
= = = = Roads and highways = = = =
The predominant form of transportation in Norman is roads and highways with 80 @.@ 0 % of all residents driving alone to work , 9 @.@ 0 % carpooling , and just 1 @.@ 3 % taking public transportation . As of 2007 , Interstate 35 alone was handling over 99 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . Other major highways include State Highway 9 , a portion of which serves 28 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , and U.S. Highway 77 , which serves more than 25 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . The busiest roads in Norman are Berry Road ( 29 @,@ 700 vehicles per day ) , 12th Avenue Northwest ( 28 @,@ 000 vehicles per day ) , and Alameda Street ( 26 @,@ 400 vehicles per day ) .
Norman is served by two major federal highways :
Interstate 35
U.S. Highway 77
Norman is served by two major Oklahoma state highways :
State Highway 9
State Highway 77H
= = = Utilities = = =
Electric utility companies servicing Norman include Oklahoma Gas & Electric , which is headquartered in Oklahoma City , and Oklahoma Electric Cooperative ( a utility cooperative ) . Natural gas is provided by Oklahoma Natural Gas . The city 's Utility Department offers water , wastewater , and recycling services to parts of the city as well as solid waste pickup citywide .
Telephone networks , broadband internet , and cable television service are available from several companies including Cox Communications and AT & T.
= = = = Drinking water controversy = = = =
In a study published in 2007 , the National Institutes of Health deemed hexavalent chromium VI ( chromium @-@ 6 ) to be a likely carcinogen in lab animals when consumed in large quantities in drinking water . Prior to the NIH study , a World Health Organization study found that chromium @-@ 6 was a likely cause of lung cancer when inhaled by humans . In 2010 , test results released from a California non @-@ profit group known as the Environmental Working Group showed that Norman 's tap water has a chromium @-@ 6 concentration level of 12 @.@ 90 parts per billion ( ppb ) , which was the highest level detected among 35 U.S. cities sampled in the study . The group is studying chromium @-@ 6 levels in water supplies in an attempt to prove a causal link between the element 's ingestion and cancer in humans , and as a result improve the country 's water standards .
The United States Environmental Protection Agency does not currently require testing for or set limits on chromium @-@ 6 levels in American cities ' water supplies ( but it does require total chromium @-@ 3 and chromium @-@ 6 levels not exceed 100 ppb ) . The EPA has recently completed studies of the element on lab animals and was expected to make a determination on chromium @-@ 6 maximum allowed levels in June 2012 ; however , the current status of assessment milestones and completion dates is now listed as " TBD " on the EPA website . The official total chromium @-@ 3 / chromium @-@ 6 level present in Norman 's drinking water has ranged from 20 to 80 ppb . It has been proposed that the source of the chromium @-@ 6 is the Garber @-@ Wellington Aquifer , which is known to have elevated levels of heavy metals .
The issue of chromium @-@ 6 levels gained national attention with the 2000 film release of Erin Brockovich , which detailed a California woman 's legal fight against Pacific Gas and Electric Company for allegedly contaminating her hometown with excessive levels of the element .
In the past the Norman water supply has also been criticized for the presence of excessive levels of arsenic . The city is attempting to combat this problem by building new wells and removing older ones .
= = Notable people = =
= International Phonetic Alphabet =
The International Phonetic Alphabet ( unofficially — though commonly — abbreviated IPA ) is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet . It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of oral language . The IPA is used by lexicographers , foreign language students and teachers , linguists , speech @-@ language pathologists , singers , actors , constructed language creators , and translators .
The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of oral language : phones , phonemes , intonation , and the separation of words and syllables . To represent additional qualities of speech , such as tooth gnashing , lisping , and sounds made with a cleft palate , an extended set of symbols called the Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet may be used .
IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two basic types , letters and diacritics . For example , the sound of the English letter 〈 t 〉 may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter , [ t ] , or with a letter plus diacritics , [ t ̺ ʰ ] , depending on how precise one wishes to be . Often , slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription ; thus , / t / is less specific than , and could refer to , either [ t ̺ ʰ ] or [ t ] , depending on the context and language .
Occasionally letters or diacritics are added , removed , or modified by the International Phonetic Association . As of the most recent change in 2005 , there are 107 letters , 52 diacritics , and four prosodic marks in the IPA . These are shown in the current IPA chart , posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA .
= = History = =
In 1886 , a group of French and British language teachers , led by the French linguist Paul Passy , formed what would come to be known from 1897 onwards as the International Phonetic Association ( in French , l ’ Association phonétique internationale ) . Their original alphabet was based on a spelling reform for English known as the Romic alphabet , but in order to make it usable for other languages , the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language . For example , the sound [ ʃ ] ( the sh in shoe ) was originally represented with the letter 〈 c 〉 in English , but with the digraph 〈 ch 〉 in French . However , in 1888 , the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages , thus providing the base for all future revisions . The idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy . It was developed by A.J. Ellis , Henry Sweet , Daniel Jones , and Passy .
Since its creation , the IPA has undergone a number of revisions . After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932 , the IPA remained unchanged until the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989 . A minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid @-@ central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives . The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap . Apart from the addition and removal of symbols , changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces .
Extensions to the IPA for speech pathology were created in 1990 and officially adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994 .
= = Description = =
The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound ( speech segment ) , although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex . This means that :
It does not normally use combinations of letters to represent single sounds , the way English does with 〈 sh 〉 , 〈 th 〉 and 〈 ng 〉 , or single letters to represent multiple sounds the way 〈 x 〉 represents / ks / or / ɡz / in English .
There are no letters that have context @-@ dependent sound values , as do " hard " and " soft " 〈 c 〉 or 〈 g 〉 in several European languages .
Finally , the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them , a property known as " selectiveness " .
Among the symbols of the IPA , 107 letters represent consonants and vowels , 31 diacritics are used to modify these , and 19 additional signs indicate suprasegmental qualities such as length , tone , stress , and intonation . These are organized into a chart ; the chart displayed here is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA .
= = = Letter forms = = =
The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet . For this reason , most letters are either Latin or Greek , or modifications thereof . Some letters are neither : for example , the letter denoting the glottal stop , 〈 ʔ 〉 , has the form of a dotless question mark , and derives originally from an apostrophe . A few letters , such as that of the voiced pharyngeal fricative , 〈 ʕ 〉 , were inspired by other writing systems ( in this case , the Arabic letter ﻉ ‘ ain ) .
Despite its preference for harmonizing with the Latin script , the International Phonetic Association has occasionally admitted other letters . For example , before 1989 , the IPA letters for click consonants were 〈 ʘ 〉 , 〈 ʇ 〉 , 〈 ʗ 〉 , and 〈 ʖ 〉 , all of which were derived either from existing IPA letters , or from Latin and Greek letters . However , except for 〈 ʘ 〉 , none of these letters were widely used among Khoisanists or Bantuists , and as a result they were replaced by the more widespread symbols 〈 ʘ 〉 , 〈 ǀ 〉 , 〈 ǃ 〉 , 〈 ǂ 〉 , and 〈 ǁ 〉 at the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989 .
Although the IPA diacritics are fully featural , there is little systemicity in the letter forms . A retroflex articulation is consistently indicated with a right @-@ swinging tail , as in 〈 ɖ ʂ ɳ 〉 , and implosion by a top hook , 〈 ɓ ɗ ɠ 〉 , but other pseudo @-@ featural elements are due to haphazard derivation and coincidence . For example , all nasal consonants but uvular 〈 ɴ 〉 are based on the form 〈 n 〉 : 〈 m ɱ n ɲ ɳ ŋ 〉 . However , the similarity between 〈 m 〉 and 〈 n 〉 is a historical accident , 〈 ɲ 〉 and 〈 ŋ 〉 are derived from ligatures of gn and ng , and 〈 ɱ 〉 is an ad hoc imitation of 〈 ŋ 〉 .
Some of the new letters were ordinary Latin letters turned 180 degrees , such as ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɥ ɯ ɹ ʇ ʌ ʍ ʎ ( turned a c e f h m r t v w y ) . This was easily done in the era of mechanical typesetting , and had the advantage of not requiring the casting of special type for IPA symbols .
= = = = Capital letters ( wildcards , archiphonemes and voice quality symbols ) = = = =
Full capital letters are not used as IPA symbols . They are , however , often used for archiphonemes and for natural classes of phonemes ( that is , as wildcards ) . Such usage is not part of the IPA or even standardized , and may be ambiguous between authors , but it is commonly used in conjunction with the IPA . ( The extIPA chart , for example , uses one or two wildcards in its illustrations . ) Capital letters are also basic to the Voice Quality Symbols sometimes used in conjunction with the IPA .
As wildcards , C for { consonant } and V for { vowel } are ubiquitous . Other common capital @-@ letter symbols are T for { tone } , N for { nasal } , F for { fricative } ( also S for { voiceless fricative } and Z for { voiced fricative } ) , G for { glide } or for { semivowel / liquid } , P for { plosive } ( stop ) ( also T for { voiceless stop } and D for { voiced stop } ) , S for { sibilant } , L for { liquid } ( or R for { rhotic } and L for { lateral } ) , # or Ʞ for { click } , A for { low vowel } , U for { rounded vowel } and B , D , J or Ɉ , K , Q , Φ , H for { labial } , { alveolar } , { post @-@ alveolar } or { palatal } , { velar } , { uvular } , { pharyngeal } and { glottal } , respectively , and X for anything . For example , the possible syllable shapes of Mandarin can be abstracted as ranging from V ( atonic vowel ) to CVNᵀ ( consonant @-@ vowel @-@ nasal syllable with tone ) . The letters can be modified with IPA diacritics , for e.g. Cʼ for { ejective } , Ƈ for { implosive } , N ͡ C or ᴺC for { prenasalized consonant } , Ṽ for { nasal vowel } , S ̬ for { voiced sibilant } , N ̥ for { voiceless nasal } , P ͡ F or PF for { affricate } and D ̪ for { dental consonant } . In speech pathology , they may represent indeterminate sounds , and superscripted when weakly articulated : ᴰ a weak indeterminate alveolar , ᴷ a weak indeterminate velar , etc .
Typical examples of archiphonemic use of capital letters are I for the Turkish harmonic vowel set { i y ɯ u } and D for the conflated flapped middle consonant of American English writer and rider .
V , F and C have different meanings as Voice Quality Symbols , where they stand for ' voice ' , ' falsetto ' and ' creak ' . They may take diacritics that indicate what kind of voice quality an utterance has , and may be used to extract a suprasegmental feature that occurs on all susceptible segments in a stretch of IPA . For instance , the transcription of Scots Gaelic [ kʷʰuˣʷt ̪ ʷs ̟ ʷ ] ' cat ' and [ kʷʰʉˣʷt ͜ ʃʷ ] ' cats ' ( Islay dialect ) can be made more economical by extracting the suprasegmental labialization of the words : Vʷ [ kʰuˣt ̪ s ̟ ] and Vʷ [ kʰʉˣt ͜ ʃ ] .
= = = Typography and iconicity = = =
The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet , using as few non @-@ Latin forms as possible . The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most consonant letters taken from the Latin alphabet would correspond to " international usage " . Hence , the letters 〈 b 〉 , 〈 d 〉 , 〈 f 〉 , ( hard ) 〈 ɡ 〉 , ( non @-@ silent ) 〈 h 〉 , ( unaspirated ) 〈 k 〉 , 〈 l 〉 , 〈 m 〉 , 〈 n 〉 , ( unaspirated ) 〈 p 〉 , ( voiceless ) 〈 s 〉 , ( unaspirated ) 〈 t 〉 , 〈 v 〉 , 〈 w 〉 , and 〈 z 〉 have the values used in English ; and the vowel letters from the Latin alphabet ( 〈 a 〉 , 〈 e 〉 , 〈 i 〉 , 〈 o 〉 , 〈 u 〉 ) correspond to the ( long ) sound values of Latin : [ i ] is like the vowel in machine , [ u ] is as in rule , etc . Other letters may differ from English , but are used with these values in other European languages , such as 〈 j 〉 , 〈 r 〉 , and 〈 y 〉 .
This inventory was extended by using small @-@ capital and cursive forms , diacritics and rotation . There are also several symbols derived or taken from the Greek alphabet , though the sound values may differ . For example , 〈 ʋ 〉 is a vowel in Greek , but an only indirectly related consonant in the IPA . For most of these , subtly different glyph shapes have been devised for the IPA , namely 〈 ɑ 〉 , 〈 ꞵ 〉 , 〈 ɣ 〉 , 〈 ɛ 〉 , 〈 ɸ 〉 , 〈 ꭓ 〉 , and 〈 ʋ 〉 , which are encoded in Unicode separately from their parent Greek letters , though one of them – 〈 θ 〉 – is not , while Greek 〈 β 〉 and 〈 χ 〉 are generally used for 〈 ꞵ 〉 and 〈 ꭓ 〉 .
The sound values of modified Latin letters can often be derived from those of the original letters . For example , letters with a rightward @-@ facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex consonants ; and small capital letters usually represent uvular consonants . Apart from the fact that certain kinds of modification to the shape of a letter generally correspond to certain kinds of modification to the sound represented , there is no way to deduce the sound represented by a symbol from its shape ( as for example in Visible Speech ) nor even any systematic relation between signs and the sounds they represent ( as in Hangul ) .
Beyond the letters themselves , there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription . Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetic values or secondary articulations . There are also special symbols for suprasegmental features such as stress and tone that are often employed .
= = = Types of transcription = = =
There are two principal types of brackets used to set off IPA transcriptions :
[ square brackets ] are used with phonetic notations , possibly including details of the pronunciation that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed , but which the author nonetheless wishes to document .
/ slashes / are used for phonemic notations , which note only features that are distinctive in the language , without any extraneous detail .
For example , while the / p / sounds of pin and spin are pronounced slightly differently in English ( and this difference would be meaningful in some languages ) , the difference is not meaningful in English . Thus phonemically the words are / pɪn / and / spɪn / , with the same / p / phoneme . However , to capture the difference between them ( the allophones of / p / ) , they can be transcribed phonetically as [ pʰɪn ] and [ spɪn ] .
Other conventions are less commonly seen :
Double slashes / / ... / / , pipes | ... | , double pipes | | ... | | , or braces { ... } may be used around a word to denote its underlying structure , more abstract even than that of phonemes . See morphophonology for examples .
Double square brackets ⟦ ... ⟧ are used for extra @-@ precise transcription . They indicate that a letter has its cardinal IPA value . For example , ⟦ a ⟧ is a low front vowel , rather than the perhaps slightly different value ( such as low central ) that " [ a ] " may be used to transcribe in a particular language . Thus two vowels transcribed for easy legibility as 〈 [ e ] 〉 and 〈 [ ɛ ] 〉 may be clarified as actually being ⟦ e ̝ ⟧ and ⟦ e ⟧ ; 〈 [ ð ] 〉 may be more precisely ⟦ ð ̠ ̞ ˠ ⟧ .
Angle brackets are used to clarify that the letters represent the original orthography of the language , or sometimes an exact transliteration of a non @-@ Latin script , not the IPA ; or , within the IPA , that the letters themselves are indicated , not the sound values that they carry . For example , 〈 pin 〉 and 〈 spin 〉 would be seen for those words , which do not contain the ee sound [ i ] of the IPA letter 〈 i 〉 . Italics are perhaps more commonly used for this purpose when full words are being written ( as pin , spin above ) , but may not be sufficiently clear for individual letters and digraphs .
{ Braces } are used for prosodic notation . See Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for examples in that system .
( Parentheses ) are used for indistinguishable utterances . They are also seen for silent articulation ( mouthing ) , where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip @-@ reading , and with periods to indicate silent pauses , for example ( ... ) .
Double parentheses indicate obscured or unintelligible sound , as in ( ( 2 syll . ) ) or ⸨ 2 syll . ⸩ , two audible but unidentifiable syllables .
= = = Handwritten forms = = =
IPA letters have handwritten forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes ; they are occasionally seen in publications when the printer did not have fonts that supported IPA , and the IPA was therefore filled in by hand .
= = Modifying the IPA chart = =
The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association . After each modification , the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in the form of a chart . ( See History of the IPA . ) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA . The alveolo @-@ palatal and epiglottal consonants , for example , are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory ( two additional columns would be required , one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between the pharyngeal and glottal columns ) , and the lateral flap would require an additional row for that single consonant , so they are listed instead under the catchall block of " other symbols " . The indefinitely large number of tone letters would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page , and only a few examples are shown .
The procedure for modifying the alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the Journal of the IPA . ( See , for example , August 2008 on a low central vowel and August 2011 on central approximants . ) Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal ( as in August 2009 on the low central vowel ) . A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA – which is elected by the membership – for further discussion and a formal vote .
Only changes to the alphabet or chart that have been approved by the Council can be considered part of the official IPA . Nonetheless , many users of the alphabet , including the leadership of the Association itself , make personal changes or additions in their own practice , either for convenience in working on a particular language ( see " Illustrations of the IPA " for individual languages in the Handbook , which for example may use 〈 c 〉 for [ tʃ ] ) , or because they object to some aspect of the official version .
= = Usage = =
Although the IPA offers over 160 symbols for transcribing speech , only a relatively small subset of these will be used to transcribe any one language . It is possible to transcribe speech with various levels of precision . A precise phonetic transcription , in which sounds are described in a great deal of detail , is known as a narrow transcription . A coarser transcription which ignores some of this detail is called a broad transcription . Both are relative terms , and both are generally enclosed in square brackets . Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details , or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand , and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions , but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language .
For example , the English word little may be transcribed broadly using the IPA as [ ˈlɪtəl ] , and this broad ( imprecise ) transcription is a more or less accurate description of many pronunciations . A narrower transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details : [ ˈɫɪɾɫ ] in General American , [ ˈlɪʔo ] in Cockney , or [ ˈɫɪːɫ ] in Southern US English .
It is customary to use simpler letters , without many diacritics , in phonemic transcriptions . The choice of IPA letters may reflect the theoretical claims of the author , or merely be a convenience for typesetting . For instance , in English , either the vowel of pick or the vowel of peak may be transcribed as / i / ( for the pairs / pik , piːk / or / pɪk , pik / ) , and neither is identical to the vowel of the French word pique which is also generally transcribed / i / . That is , letters between slashes do not have absolute values , something true of broader phonetic approximations as well . A narrow transcription may , however , be used to distinguish them : [ pʰɪk ] , [ pʰiːk ] , [ pikʲ ] .
= = = Linguists = = =
Although IPA is popular for transcription by linguists , American linguists often alternate use of the IPA with Americanist phonetic notation or use the IPA together with some nonstandard symbols , for reasons including reducing the error rate on reading handwritten transcriptions or avoiding perceived awkwardness of IPA in some situations . The exact practice may vary somewhat between languages and even individual researchers , so authors are generally encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices .
= = = Language study = = =
Some language study programs use the IPA to teach pronunciation . For example , in Russia ( and earlier in the Soviet Union ) and mainland China , textbooks for children and adults for studying English and French consistently use the IPA . English teachers and textbooks in Taiwan tend to use the Kenyon and Knott system , a slight typographical variant of the IPA .
= = = Dictionaries = = =
= = = = English = = = =
Many British dictionaries , including the Oxford English Dictionary and some learner 's dictionaries such as the Oxford Advanced Learner 's Dictionary and the Cambridge Advanced Learner 's Dictionary , now use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words . However , most American ( and some British ) volumes use one of a variety of pronunciation respelling systems , intended to be more comfortable for readers of English . For example , the respelling systems in many American dictionaries ( such as Merriam @-@ Webster ) use 〈 y 〉 for IPA [ j ] and 〈 sh 〉 for IPA [ ʃ ] , reflecting common representations of those sounds in written English , using only letters of the English Roman alphabet and variations of them . ( In IPA , [ y ] represents the sound of the French 〈 u 〉 ( as in tu ) , and [ sh ] represents the pair of sounds in grasshopper . )
= = = = Other languages = = = =
The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English . Monolingual dictionaries of languages with generally phonemic orthographies generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words , and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations . Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the Hebrew script for transcription of foreign words . Monolingual Hebrew dictionaries use pronunciation respelling for words with unusual spelling ; for example , the Even @-@ Shoshan Dictionary respells תָּכְנִית as תּוֹכְנִית because this word uses kamatz katan . Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA , but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words ; for example , Ozhegov 's dictionary adds нэ ́ in brackets for the French word пенсне ( pince @-@ nez ) to indicate that the е does not iotate the н .
The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries , but there are exceptions here too . Mass @-@ market bilingual Czech dictionaries , for instance , tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the Czech language .
= = = Standard orthographies and case variants = = =
IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages , notably via the Africa Alphabet in many sub @-@ Saharan languages such as Hausa , Fula , Akan , Gbe languages , Manding languages , Lingala , etc . This has created the need for capital variants . For example , Kabiyè of northern Togo has Ɖ ɖ , Ŋ ŋ , Ɣ ɣ , Ɔ ɔ , Ɛ ɛ , Ʋ ʋ . These , and others , are supported by Unicode , but appear in Latin ranges other than the IPA extensions .
In the IPA itself , however , only lower @-@ case letters are used . The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk 〈 * 〉 may be prefixed to indicate that a word is a proper name , but this convention has not been included in recent editions .
= = = Classical singing = = =
IPA has widespread use among classical singers for preparation , especially among English @-@ speaking singers who are expected to sing in a variety of foreign languages . Opera librettos are authoritatively transcribed in IPA , such as Nico Castel 's volumes and Timothy Cheek 's book Singing in Czech . Opera singers ' ability to read IPA was used by the site Visual Thesaurus , which employed several opera singers " to make recordings for the 150 @,@ 000 words and phrases in VT 's lexical database . ... for their vocal stamina , attention to the details of enunciation , and most of all , knowledge of IPA . "
= = Letters = =
The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories : pulmonic consonants , non @-@ pulmonic consonants , and vowels .
Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless ( tenuis ) and voiced sounds , with these then grouped in columns from front ( labial ) sounds on the left to back ( glottal ) sounds on the right . In official publications by the IPA , two columns are omitted to save space , with the letters listed among ' other symbols ' , and with the remaining consonants arranged in rows from full closure ( occlusives : stops and nasals ) , to brief closure ( vibrants : trills and taps ) , to partial closure ( fricatives ) and minimal closure ( approximants ) , again with a row left out to save space . In the table below , a slightly different arrangement is made : All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic @-@ consonant table , and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common lenition pathway of stop → fricative → approximant , as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant ; affricates may be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells . Shaded cells are judged to be implausible .
Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs — of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds — with these pairs also arranged from front on the left to back on the right , and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom . No vowel letters are omitted from the chart , though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the ' other symbols ' .
Each character is assigned a number , to prevent confusion between similar letters ( such as ɵ and θ , ɤ and ɣ , or ʃ and ʄ ) in such situations as the printing of manuscripts . The categories of sounds are assigned different ranges of numbers .
= = = Consonants = = =
= = = = Pulmonic consonants = = = =
A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis ( the space between the vocal cords ) or oral cavity ( the mouth ) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs . Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA , as well as in human language . All consonants in the English language fall into this category .
The pulmonic consonant table , which includes most consonants , is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation , meaning how the consonant is produced , and columns that designate place of articulation , meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced . The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation .
Notes
In rows where some letters appear in pairs ( the obstruents ) , the letter to the right represents a voiced consonant ( except breathy @-@ voiced [ ɦ ] ) . However , [ ʔ ] cannot be voiced , and the voicing of [ ʡ ] is ambiguous . In the other rows ( the sonorants ) , the single letter represents a voiced consonant .
Although there is a single letter for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives , when dealing with a particular language , the letters may be treated as specifically dental , alveolar , or post @-@ alveolar , as appropriate for that language , without diacritics .
Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible .
The letters [ ʁ , ʕ , ʢ ] represent either voiced fricatives or approximants .
In many languages , such as English , [ h ] and [ ɦ ] are not actually glottal , fricatives , or approximants . Rather , they are bare phonation .
It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives [ ʃ ʒ ] , [ ɕ ʑ ] , and [ ʂ ʐ ] .
Some listed phones are not known to exist as phonemes in any language .
= = = = Affricates and co @-@ articulated consonants = = = =
Co @-@ articulated consonants are sounds that involve two simultaneous places of articulation ( are pronounced using two parts of the vocal tract ) . In English , the [ w ] in " went " is a coarticulated consonant , being pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue . Similar sounds are [ ʍ ] and [ ɥ ] .
Affricates and doubly articulated stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar , either above or below the letters . The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures , though this is no longer official IPA usage , because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way . Alternatively , a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates , for example tˢ for t ͡ s , paralleling kˣ ~ k ͡ x . The letters for the palatal plosives c and ɟ , are often used as a convenience for t ͡ ʃ and d ͡ ʒ or similar affricates , even in official IPA publications , so they must be interpreted with care .
Note
On browsers that use Arial Unicode MS to display IPA characters , the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font : ts ͡ , tʃ ͡ , tɕ ͡ , dz ͡ , dʒ ͡ , dʑ ͡ , tɬ ͡ , kp ͡ , ɡb ͡ , ŋm ͡ .
[ ɧ ] is described as a " simultaneous [ ʃ ] and [ x ] " . However , this analysis is disputed . ( See voiceless palatal @-@ velar fricative for discussion . )
Multiple tie bars can be used : 〈 a ͡ b ͡ c 〉 or 〈 a ͜ b ͜ c 〉 . For instance , if a prenasalized stop is transcribed 〈 m ͡ b 〉 , and a doubly articulated stop 〈 ɡ ͡ b 〉 , then a prenasalized doubly articulated stop would be 〈 ŋ ͡ m ͡ ɡ ͡ b 〉
= = = = Non @-@ pulmonic consonants = = = =
Non @-@ pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs . These include clicks ( found in the Khoisan languages of Africa ) , implosives ( found in languages such as Sindhi , Saraiki , Swahili and Vietnamese ) , and ejectives ( found in many Amerindian and Caucasian languages ) .
Notes
Clicks have traditionally been described as double articulation of a forward ' release ' and a rear ' accompaniment ' , with the click letters representing only the release . Therefore , all clicks require two letters for proper notation : 〈 k ͡ ǂ , ɡ ͡ ǂ , ŋ ͡ ǂ , q ͡ ǂ , ɢ ͡ ǂ , ɴ ͡ ǂ 〉 etc . , or 〈 ǂ ͡ k , ǂ ͡ ɡ , ǂ ͡ ŋ , ǂ ͡ q , ǂ ͡ ɢ , ǂ ͡ ɴ 〉 . When the dorsal articulation is omitted , a [ k ] may usually be assumed . However , recent research disputes the concept of ' accompaniment ' and the idea that clicks are doubly articulated , with the rear occlusion instead simply being part of the airstream mechanims . In these approaches , the click letter represents both articulations , with the different letters representing different click ' types ' , there is no velar @-@ uvular distinction , and the accompanying letter represents the manner , phonation , or airstream contour of the click : 〈 ǂ , ᶢǂ , ᵑǂ 〉 etc .
Letters for the voiceless implosives 〈 ƥ , ƭ , ƈ , ƙ , ʠ 〉 are no longer supported by the IPA , though they remain in Unicode . Instead , the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic : 〈 ɓ ̥ , ʛ ̥ 〉 , etc ..
Although not confirmed as contrastive in any language , and therefore not explicitly recognized by the IPA , a letter for the retroflex implosive , 〈 ᶑ 〉 , has been assigned an IPA number .
The ejective diacritic often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in glottalized but pulmonic sonorants , such as [ mˀ ] , [ lˀ ] , [ wˀ ] , [ aˀ ] . These may also be transcribed as creaky [ m ̰ ] , [ l ̰ ] , [ w ̰ ] , [ a ̰ ] .
= = = Vowels = = =
The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center . Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA . The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue .
The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by vowel height . Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom , and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top . For example , [ ɑ ] ( the first vowel in father ) is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position . However , [ i ] ( the vowel in " meet " ) is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth .
In a similar fashion , the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by vowel backness . Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth ( such as [ ɛ ] , the vowel in " met " ) are to the left in the chart , while those in which it is moved to the back ( such as [ ʌ ] , the vowel in " but " ) are placed to the right in the chart .
In places where vowels are paired , the right represents a rounded vowel ( in which the lips are rounded ) while the left is its unrounded counterpart .
= = = = Diphthongs = = = =
Diphthongs are typically specified with a non @-@ syllabic diacritic , as in 〈 uɪ ̯ 〉 or 〈 u ̯ ɪ 〉 , or with a superscript for the on- or off @-@ glide , as in 〈 uᶦ 〉 or 〈 ᵘɪ 〉 . Sometimes a tie bar is used , especially if it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on @-@ glide , an off @-@ glide or is variable : 〈 u ͡ ɪ 〉 .
Notes
〈 a 〉 officially represents a front vowel , but there is little distinction between front and central open vowels , and 〈 a 〉 is frequently used for an open central vowel . However , if disambiguation is required , the retraction diacritic or the centralized diacritic may be added to indicate an open central vowel , as in 〈 a ̠ 〉 or 〈 ä 〉 .
= = Diacritics and prosodic notation = =
Diacritics are used for phonetic detail . They are added to IPA letters to indicate a modification or specification of that letter 's normal pronunciation .
By being made superscript , any IPA letter may function as a diacritic , conferring elements of its articulation to the base letter . ( See secondary articulation for a list of superscript IPA letters supported by Unicode . ) Those superscript letters listed below are specifically provided for by the IPA ; others include 〈 tˢ 〉 ( [ t ] with fricative release ) , 〈 ᵗs 〉 ( [ s ] with affricate onset ) , 〈 ⁿd 〉 ( prenasalized [ d ] ) , 〈 bʱ 〉 ( [ b ] with breathy voice ) , 〈 mˀ 〉 ( glottalized [ m ] ) , 〈 sᶴ 〉 ( [ s ] with a flavor of [ ʃ ] ) , 〈 oᶷ 〉 ( [ o ] with diphthongization ) , 〈 ɯᵝ 〉 ( compressed [ ɯ ] ) . Superscript diacritics placed after a letter are ambiguous between simultaneous modification of the sound and phonetic detail at the end of the sound . For example , labialized 〈 kʷ 〉 may mean either simultaneous [ k ] and [ w ] or else [ k ] with a labialized release . Superscript diacritics placed before a letter , on the other hand , normally indicate a modification of the onset of the sound ( 〈 mˀ 〉 glottalized [ m ] , 〈 ˀm 〉 [ m ] with a glottal onset ) .
Notes
^ a With aspirated voiced consonants , the aspiration is usually also voiced ( voiced aspirated – but see aspirated voiced ) . Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice over simple aspiration , such as 〈 b ̤ 〉 . Some linguists restrict this diacritic to sonorants , and transcribe obstruents as 〈 bʱ 〉 .
^ b The overstruck tilde is not recommended where it would be typographically unclear . It is also deprecated in Unicode , with precomposed letters preferred . ( See pharyngealization for available combinations . )
Subdiacritics ( diacritics normally placed below a letter ) may be moved above a letter to avoid conflict with a descender , as in voiceless 〈 ŋ ̊ 〉 . The raising and lowering diacritics have optional forms 〈 ˔ 〉 , 〈 ˕ 〉 that avoid descenders .
The state of the glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics . A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis phonation are :
Additional diacritics are provided by the Extensions to the IPA for speech pathology .
= = = Suprasegmentals = = =
These symbols describe the features of a language above the level of individual consonants and vowels , such as prosody , tone , length , and stress , which often operate on syllables , words , or phrases : that is , elements such as the intensity , pitch , and gemination of the sounds of a language , as well as the rhythm and intonation of speech . Although most of these symbols indicate distinctions that are phonemic at the word level , symbols also exist for intonation on a level greater than that of the word . Various ligatures of tone letters are used in the IPA Handbook despite not being found on the simplified official IPA chart .
Finer distinctions of tone may be indicated by combining the tone diacritics and tone letters shown above , though not all IPA fonts support this . The four additional rising and falling tones supported by diacritics are high / mid rising ɔ ᷄ , ɔ ˧ ˥ , low rising ɔ ᷅ , ɔ ˩ ˧ , high falling ɔ ᷇ , ɔ ˥ ˧ , and low / mid falling ɔ ᷆ , ɔ ˧ ˩ . That is , tone diacritics only support contour tones across three levels ( high , mid , low ) , despite supporting five levels for register tones . For other contour tones , tone letters must be used : ɔ ˨ ˦ , ɔ ˥ ˦ , etc . For more complex ( peaking and dipping ) tones , though it is theoretically possible to combine the three tone diacritics in any permutation , in practice only generic peaking ɔ ᷈ and dipping ɔ ᷉ combinations are used . For finer detail , tone letters are again required ( ɔ ˧ ˥ ˧ , ɔ ˩ ˨ ˩ , ɔ ˦ ˩ ˧ , ɔ ˨ ˩ ˦ , etc . ) The correspondence between tone diacritics and tone letters is therefore only approximate .
A work @-@ around for diacritics sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone , and the author wishes to avoid the poorly legible diacritics ɔ ᷄ , ɔ ᷅ , ɔ ᷇ , ɔ ᷆ but does not wish to completely abandon the IPA , is to restrict generic rising ɔ ̌ and falling ɔ ̂ to the higher @-@ pitched of the rising and falling tones , say ɔ ˥ ˧ and ɔ ˧ ˥ , and to use the old ( retired ) IPA subscript diacritics ɔ ̗ and ɔ ̖ for the lower @-@ pitched rising and falling tones , say ɔ ˩ ˧ and ɔ ˧ ˩ . When a language has four or six level tones , the two mid tones are sometimes transcribed as high @-@ mid ɔ ̍ ( non @-@ standard ) and low @-@ mid ɔ ̄ .
A stress mark typically appears before the stressed syllable , and thus marks the syllable break as well as stress . Where the syllable onset is a geminate consonant , e.g. in Italian , the consonant is commonly split by the stress mark , which means that the length sign is not used for gemination . ( Thus 〈 avˈvɔlse 〉 not * 〈 aˈvvɔlse 〉 , * 〈 aˈvːɔlse 〉 , or * 〈 avˈːɔlse 〉 . ) However , occasionally the stress mark is placed immediately before the stressed vowel , after any syllable onset ( 〈 avvˈɔlse 〉 or 〈 avːˈɔlse 〉 ) . In such transcriptions , the stress mark does not function as a mark of the syllable boundary .
Tone letters generally appear after each syllable , for a language with syllable tone ( 〈 a ˧ vɔ ˥ ˩ 〉 ) , or after the phonological word , for a language with word tone ( 〈 avɔ ˧ ˥ ˩ 〉 ) . However , in older versions of the IPA , ad hoc tone marks were placed before the syllable , the same position as used to mark stress , and this convention is still sometimes seen ( 〈 ˧ a ˥ ˩ vɔ 〉 , 〈 ˧ ˥ ˩ avɔ 〉 ) .
= = = Comparative degree = = =
IPA diacritics may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of the feature indicated . This is a productive process , but apart from extra @-@ high and extra @-@ low tones 〈 ə ̋ , ə ̏ 〉 being marked by doubled high- and low @-@ tone diacritics , and the major prosodic break 〈 ‖ 〉 being marked as a double minor break 〈 | 〉 , it is not specifically regulated by the IPA . ( Note that transcription marks are similar : double slashes indicate extra ( morpho ) -phonemic , double square brackets especially precise , and double parentheses especially unintelligible . )
For example , the stress mark may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of stress such prosodic stress in English . An example in French , with a single stress mark for normal prosodic stress at the end of each prosodic unit ( marked as a minor prosodic break ) , and a double stress mark for contrastive / emphatic stress : [ ˈˈɑ ̃ ːˈtre | məˈsjø | | ˈˈvwala maˈdam | | ] Entrez monsieur , voilà madame . Similarly , a doubled secondary stress mark 〈 ˌˌ 〉 is commonly used for tertiary stress .
Length is commonly extended by repeating the length mark , as in English shhh ! [ ʃːːː ] , or for " overlong " segments in Estonian :
vere / vere / ' blood [ gen.sg. ] ' , veere / veːre / ' edge [ gen.sg. ] ' , veere / veːːre / ' roll [ imp . 2nd sg . ] '
lina / linɑ / ' sheet ' , linna / linːɑ / ' town [ gen. sg . ] ' , linna / linːːɑ / ' town [ ine. sg . ] '
( Normally additional degrees of length are handled by the extra @-@ short or half @-@ long diacritics , but in the Estonian examples , the first two cases are analyzed as simply short and long . )
Occasionally other diacritics are doubled :
Rhoticity in Badaga / be / " mouth " , / be ˞ / " bangle " , and / be ˞ ˞ / " crop " .
Aspiration , for example contrasting Korean mild aspiration [ kʰ ] with strong aspiration [ kʰʰ ] .
Nasalization , as in Palantla Chinantec / ẽ / vs / e ͌ / .
Weak vs strong ejectives , [ kʼ ] , [ k ” ]
Especially lowered , e.g. [ t ̞ ̞ ] for / t / as a weak fricative in some pronunciations of register .
Especially retracted ( at least on a vowel ) , e.g. [ ø ̠ ̠ ] , though , depending on the font , on a consonant this could be confused with alveolar or alveolarized notation from the extIPA .
The transcription of strident and harsh voice as extra @-@ creaky / a ᷽ / may be motivated by the similarities of these phonations .
= = Obsolete and nonstandard symbols = =
The IPA once had parallel symbols from alternative proposals , but in most cases eventually settled on one for each sound . The rejected symbols are now considered obsolete . An example is the vowel letter 〈 ɷ 〉 , rejected in favor of 〈 ʊ 〉 . Letters for affricates and sounds with inherent secondary articulation have also been mostly rejected , with the idea that such features should be indicated with tie bars or diacritics : 〈 ƍ 〉 for [ zʷ ] is one . In addition , the rare voiceless implosives , 〈 ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ 〉 , have been dropped and are now usually written 〈 ɓ ̥ ɗ ̥ ʄ ̊ ɠ ̊ ʛ ̥ 〉 . A retired set of click letters , 〈 ʇ , ʗ , ʖ 〉 , is still sometimes seen , as the official pipe letters 〈 ǀ , ǃ , ǁ 〉 may cause problems with legibility , especially when used with brackets ( [ ] or / / ) , the letter 〈 l 〉 , or the prosodic marks 〈 | , ‖ 〉 ( for this reason , some publications which use the current IPA pipe letters disallow IPA brackets ) .
Individual non @-@ IPA letters may find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA . This is especially common with :
Affricates , such as the Americanist barred lambda 〈 ƛ 〉 for [ t ͜ ɬ ] or 〈 č 〉 for [ t ͡ ʃ ] . Some authors find the tie bars displeasing but the lack of tie bars confusing ( i.e. 〈 č 〉 for / t ͡ ʃ / as distinct from / tʃ / ) , while others simply prefer to have one letter for each segmental phoneme in a language .
Digits for tonal phonemes that have conventional numbers in a local tradition , such as the four tones of Chinese . This may be more convenient for comparison between languages and dialects than a phonetic transcription because tones often vary more than segmental phonemes do .
Digits for tone levels , though the lack of standardization can cause confusion ( with e.g. " 1 " for high tone in some languages but for low tone in others ) .
Iconic extensions of standard IPA letters that can be readily understood , such as retroflex 〈 ᶑ 〉 and 〈 ꞎ 〉 .
In addition , there are typewriter substitutions for when IPA support is not available , such as capital 〈 I , E , U , O , A 〉 for [ ɪ , ɛ , ʊ , ɔ , ɑ ] .
= = IPA extensions = =
The " Extensions to the IPA " , often abbreviated as " extIPA " and sometimes called " Extended IPA " , are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe disordered speech . At the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989 , a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions , which were based on the previous work of the PRDS ( Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech ) Group in the early 1980s . The extensions were first published in 1990 , then modified , and published again in 1994 in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association , when they were officially adopted by the ICPLA . While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech , linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of unique sounds within standard communication , such as hushing , gnashing teeth , and smacking lips . The extensions have also been used to record certain peculiarities in an individual 's voice , such as nasalized voicing .
The Extensions to the IPA do not include symbols used for voice quality ( VoQS ) , such as whispering .
= = Segments without letters = =
The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises . Some ad hoc letters have appeared in the literature for the retroflex lateral flap , the voiceless lateral fricatives , the epiglottal trill , and the labiodental plosives . ( See the grey letters in the PDF chart . ) Diacritics can supply much of the remainder . If a sound cannot be transcribed , an asterisk 〈 * 〉 may be used , either as a letter or as a diacritic ( as in 〈 k * 〉 sometimes seen for the Korean ' fortis ' velar ) .
= = = Consonants = = =
Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values . The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives , [ β ̞ ] and [ ð ̞ ] respectively . Similarly , voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants , [ ɭ ˔ ʎ ̝ ʟ ̝ ] . A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap . It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic , [ ⱱ ̟ ] .
Similarly , a labiodental trill would be written [ ʙ ̪ ] ( bilabial trill and the dental sign ) , and labiodental stops [ p ̪ b ̪ ] rather than with the ad hoc letters sometimes found in the literature . Other taps can be written as extra @-@ short plosives or laterals , e.g. [ ɟ ̆ ɢ ̆ / ʀ ̆ ʟ ̆ ] , though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter . A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted [ r ̠ ] , just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are . The remaining consonants , the uvular laterals ( ʟ ̠ etc . ) and the palatal trill , while not strictly impossible , are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world 's languages .
= = = Vowels = = =
The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising , lowering , fronting , backing , centering , and mid @-@ centering . For example , the unrounded equivalent of [ ʊ ] can be transcribed as mid @-@ centered [ ɯ ̽ ] , and the rounded equivalent of [ æ ] as raised [ ɶ ̝ ] or lowered [ œ ̞ ] . True mid vowels are lowered [ e ̞ ø ̞ ɘ ̞ ɵ ̞ ɤ ̞ o ̞ ] or raised [ ɛ ̝ œ ̝ ɜ ̝ ɞ ̝ ʌ ̝ ɔ ̝ ] , while centered [ ɪ ̈ ʊ ̈ ] and [ ä ] ( or , less commonly , [ ɑ ̈ ] ) are near @-@ close and open central vowels , respectively . The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected roundedness , which would require a dedicated diacritic , such as 〈 ʏʷ 〉 and 〈 uᵝ 〉 ( or 〈 ɪʷ 〉 and 〈 ɯᵝ 〉 ) .
= = Symbol names = =
An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent , since there is not necessarily a one @-@ to @-@ one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription , making articulatory descriptions such as ' mid front rounded vowel ' or ' voiced velar stop ' unreliable . While the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association states that no official names exist for its symbols , it admits the presence of one or two common names for each . The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard . In some cases , the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree . For example , IPA calls ɛ " epsilon " , but Unicode calls it " small letter open E " .
The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters . Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets , such as [ ʕ ] , may have a variety of names , sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol or on the sound that it represents . In Unicode , some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA ; the others use the letters from the Greek section .
For diacritics , there are two methods of naming . For traditional diacritics , the IPA notes the name in a well known language ; for example , é is acute , based on the name of the diacritic in English and French . Non @-@ traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble , so d ̪ is called bridge .
Pullum and Ladusaw list a variety of names in use for IPA symbols , both current and retired , in addition to names of many other non @-@ IPA phonetic symbols . Their collection is extensive enough that the Unicode Consortium used it in the development of Unicode .
= = Fonts = =
IPA font support is increasing , and is now included in several fonts such as the Times New Roman versions that come with various recent computer operating systems . Diacritics are not always properly rendered , however . IPA fonts that are freely available online include Gentium , several from the SIL ( such as Charis SIL , and Doulos SIL ) , DejaVu Sans , and TITUS Cyberbit , which are all freely available ; as well as commercial typefaces such as Brill , available from Brill Publishers , and Lucida Sans Unicode and Arial Unicode MS , shipping with various Microsoft products . These all include several ranges of characters in addition to the IPA . Modern Web browsers generally do not need any configuration to display these symbols , provided that a font capable of doing so is available to the operating system .
= = ASCII and keyboard transliterations = =
Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters . Notable systems include Kirshenbaum , Arpabet , SAMPA , and X @-@ SAMPA . The usage of mapping systems in on @-@ line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods , allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts .
= Linda November =
Linda Ellen November ( born October 16 , 1944 ) is an American singer who has sung tens of thousands of commercial jingles . She was the voice of the singing cat in the Meow Mix commercials , sang the jingle " Galaxy Glue " in the 1981 film The Incredible Shrinking Woman , the " Coke and a Smile " jingle in the classic Mean Joe Greene Super Bowl commercial , and has won many Clio Awards for her work on television and radio . Her voice can also be heard on many pop songs , as she was a regular backup singer for artists such as Frankie Valli , Burt Bacharach , Engelbert Humperdinck , and Neil Diamond . In the 1970s , she was one of the main singers in the disco group Wing and a Prayer Fife and Drum Corps , which charted with the Top 40 hit " Baby Face " in 1976 . In the 1980s and 1990s she was a regular performer in Atlantic City at The Grand and Harrah 's , with her husband , composer and arranger Artie Schroeck . As of 2011 , she works as a piano accompanist in Las Vegas , Nevada .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years ( 1940s – 1960s ) = = =
November was born in Brooklyn , the older of two children to Eleanore and Julius November . Her father was an attorney to clients such as boxer Floyd Patterson , and her younger brother Philip became an attorney as well . She started her career in music as a concert pianist , playing piano from the age of five . However , she lost interest in the piano as a teenager and turned to singing instead , helped by the fact that she learned she had perfect pitch . She attended Thomas Jefferson High School , then The High School of Music & Art , and then from the age of 15 began studying voice with Beverly Johnson at Juilliard . She developed a strong soprano voice , described by The Dallas Morning News as " high , strong , and unwontedly pure " .
At the age of 16 , she got a lucky break because of a visit to a podiatrist . The doctor had an office at Broadway and 42nd Street , in what had been a fashionable Knickerbocker Hotel suite in the early 1900s , the New York residence of opera singer Enrico Caruso ( 1873 – 1921 ) . So the doctor would often entertain visitors who were there to see the Caruso memorabilia . While she herself was at the office , November met another patient who had contacts in the music industry , and she sang an impromptu audition . The patient was impressed , and put her in touch with one of his contacts , manager Gus Schirmer ( of the Schirmer Music publishing family ) , who was looking for " pretty sopranos " for his summer musicals . Schirmer introduced her to Broadway composer Richard Rodgers , who became her mentor , and through Schirmer , November also auditioned for other producers such as Lawrence Kasha . She obtained work as a performer in the 1963 summer musical season in Dallas , Texas , but despite many auditions , could never land a job in Broadway theatre ( according to November , this was because she never had the exact look that a particular show was looking for ) . Then Schirmer got her a job singing at an industrial musical for Ford Motor Company , where she met many other successful musicians , singers , and composers such as Ray Charles . He began incorporating her into sessions with the Ray Charles Singers , a group of performers with a rotating membership that would sing in close harmonies , often on productions with singer and television personality Perry Como , or as backup singers for other recordings . This launched November 's career as a studio singer , as she worked on a contract basis for many different productions . From 1962 to 1967 November would rotate in and out as part of the Ray Charles Singers , sometimes seen on Perry Como 's Kraft Music Hall variety program . She can also be heard as a backup singer on some Frank Sinatra recordings , such as the soprano voice in the background of the 1967 song , " The World We Knew " .
= = = Jingle singer ( 1960s – 1990s ) = = =
Over the course of her 32 years as a jingle singer , November sang approximately 22 @,@ 000 jingles which were played on the television and radio . In the 1970s , it was estimated that 75 % of the jingles that could be heard on the airways were sung by no more than 30 people , and November was known as the " Jingle Queen " . In several unusual jingles , she had to sing with different voices . She once sang as a person underwater , and for Chicken of the Sea , a brand of tuna , she sang like a chicken underwater . Her most notable commercial was in an ad campaign for Meow Mix , where she was the voice ( " Meow meow meow meow ... " ) of a singing cat . The idea came from Ron Travisano at the advertising agency of Della Femina Travisano and Partners , who had the account with Ralston Purina in 1976 . Travisano put together film footage with editor Jay Gold , looping images of a cat to make it look like it was singing . Working from the film , Tom McFaul of the jingle house Lucas / McFaul composed music to fit , and Linda November sang the meowing melody . The campaign was a major success , spawned 81 other different commercials , and hundreds of thousands of dollars in residuals . Linda November was also one of the singers for Coca @-@ Cola 's " Have a Coke and a Smile " campaign , heard most famously on the 1979 Mean Joe Greene commercial , considered one of the top Super Bowl commercials of all time .
= = = Other projects ( 1970s – present ) = = =
In the 1970s , along with providing her voice for commercials , November also recorded pop songs on the radio . She , Tony Orlando , and Toni Wine sang " Candida " , in a group surreptitiously entitled " Dawn " . Tony Orlando was a recording industry executive at the time , for a competing label , April @-@ Blackwood . So to avoid a conflict , the group was entitled " Dawn " without Orlando 's name . However , the song became a major hit , along with its followup " Knock Three Times " ( also featuring backup by November and Toni Wine ) . To go on tour , Orlando then asked two other session singers , Telma Hopkins and Joyce Vincent Wilson , to become the official backup singers , in their own " Dawn " group , so they could tour as Tony Orlando and Dawn , though the voices on the songs of the original album were still of November and Toni Wine , not Hopkins and Vincent . A few years later , November was again on the charts as part of the group Wing and a Prayer Fife and Drum Corps , an assemblage of studio musicians put together by Harold Wheeler . They released two albums , with their biggest hit being a disco version of the 1926 song " Baby Face " . It reached # 14 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in late 1976 , and # 12 in the UK .
In the 1980s and 1990s , November could often be found singing in Atlantic City , such as at Gatsby 's at The Grand , and then starting in 1990 , at the Harrah 's Atrium Lounge , with Artie Schroeck . They had met in the 1960s while working on Frankie Valli recordings , but had both been married to other people at the time . In 1988 they became a couple , and on January 17 , 1997 , they married . Linda November then retired from her career as a jingle singer , and she and Schroeck directed a production saluting quirky band leader Spike Jones , " The New City Slickers Present a Tribute to Spike Jones " .
In 2001 , November and her husband moved to Las Vegas . As of 2011 , she continues to work there as a piano and keyboard accompanist , performing the occasional show with Schroeck .
= = Awards = =
1972 , " Most Valuable Studio Player " , NARAS , New York Chapter
1974 , Taystee Bread ( Best Radio , Clio Award , 1974 )
1976 , Lady Long Legs ( Best Radio , Clio Award , 1976 )
1978 , United States Army ( Best Television / Cinema , Clio Award , 1978 )
1979 , " Mean Joe Greene " commercial for Coca @-@ Cola ( Best Television / Cinema , Clio Award , 1980 )
= = Notable works = =
Linda November has sung tens of thousands of jingles , with her most notable one being the Meow Mix Theme ( " Meow meow meow meow . . . . " ) in 1976 for Meow Mix cat food . She has also worked in many other parts of the industry as a backup singer , and contributed many solo efforts , such as singing the lullaby in the 1971 animated film , The World of Hans Christian Andersen , the main theme " I 'm Comin ' Home " in the 1973 film The Devil in Miss Jones , and the " Galaxy Glue " jingle in the 1981 film The Incredible Shrinking Woman .
= = = Jingles = = =
Drinks
Coca @-@ Cola , 1979 , " Coke and a smile " ( see also Mean Joe Greene ad )
Coca @-@ Cola , " I ’ d like to teach the world to sing "
Diet Coke " Just for the joy of it "
Diet Pepsi , " Now you see it , now you don 't , Diet Pepsi , 1 small calorie , now you see it , now you don 't "
Miller beer , " You 've got the time , we 've got the beer "
Budweiser , " When you say Bud , you 've said it all "
Foods
Burger King , " Have It Your Way "
Chef Boyardee , " Boy oh Boyardee , boy oh boyardee "
Chicken of the Sea
Doublemint , " Single most favorite double in the world is double good doublemint gum "
Kraft Foods , " America spells cheese K @-@ R @-@ A @-@ F @-@ T "
" M & M is a world of fun , a world of chocolate joy "
McDonald 's , " You Deserve a Break Today " , " Two all @-@ beef patties , special sauce , lettuce , cheese ... "
" Nabisco "
Hellmann 's and Best Foods , " Bring out the Hellmann 's , bring out the best "
" Snickers , Satisfies you "
" Wrigley 's Spearmint Gum gum gum "
Transportation
Buick , " Wouldn 't you really rather have a Buick ? "
Chevrolet , " The heartbeat of America "
Ford Motor Company , " Have you driven a Ford lately ? "
Greyhound Lines , " Go Greyhound , and leave the driving to us "
Other products
AT & T , " Reach out and touch someone "
Exxon , " Running smooth and silent "
General Electric , “ We bring good things to life ”
Prudential Financial , " Get a piece of the rock "
Windex , " Shine Windex Shine , Windex lets you bring all the sun in "
= = = Notable songs as backup singer = = =
1964 , with The Ray Charles Singers , " Love Me with All Your Heart "
1967 , with Frank Sinatra , " The World We Knew "
1968 , with Valerie Simpson and Dionne Warwick , " Do You Know the Way to San Jose "
1969 , with B. J. Thomas , " Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head "
1970 , with Tony Orlando , ( " Candida " , " Knock Three Times " )
1971 ( uncredited ) , with Barbra Streisand , " Stoney End "
1975 , with Jimi Hendrix ( posthumously ) ( Crash Landing )
1976 , with Gloria Gaynor , ( " I 've Got You Under My Skin " ) , on the I 've Got You album ( arranged by Meco Monardo )
1976 , with Engelbert Humperdinck ( " After the Lovin ' " )
1976 , as part of the Wing and a Prayer Fife and Drum Corps , " Baby Face "
= Quatermass 2 =
Quatermass 2 ( US title : Enemy From Space ) is a 1957 black @-@ and @-@ white British science fiction horror film from Hammer Film Productions , produced by Anthony Hinds , directed by Val Guest , and starring Brian Donlevy , John Longden , Sid James , Bryan Forbes , William Franklyn and Vera Day . Quatermass 2 is a sequel to Hammer 's earlier film The Quatermass Xperiment ( 1955 ) . Like its predecessor , it is based on the BBC Television serial Quatermass II written by Nigel Kneale . Brian Donlevy reprises his role as the eponymous Professor Bernard Quatermass , making him the only actor to twice play the character on the silver screen .
The story concerns Quatermass 's investigation of reports of hundreds of meteorites landing only in the Winnerden Flats area of the UK . His inquiries lead him to a huge industrial complex , strikingly similar to his own plans for a Moon colony . This top @-@ secret facility is in fact the centre of a conspiracy involving the alien infiltration of the highest echelons of the British Government . Quatermass and his allies must now do whatever is necessary to defeat the alien threat before it is too late .
= = Plot = =
As Professor Bernard Quatermass ( Brian Donlevy ) struggles to gain government support for his Moon colonisation project , his interest becomes focused on reports of hundreds of meteorites landing in Winnerden Flats . Travelling there with Marsh , his colleague ( Bryan Forbes ) , Quatermass finds a huge complex under construction , based on his lunar colony plans . Marsh finds an undamaged meteorite is shaped like a small stone rocket . It then cracks open , releasing a gas , leaving him with an odd V @-@ shaped mark on his face . Black @-@ clad guards from the complex arrive , armed with machine guns and sporting similar V @-@ shaped marks , and take Marsh away , knocking down Quatermass and ordering him to leave .
Trying to discover what happened to Marsh , Quatermass contacts Inspector Lomax ( John Longden ) , who had previously assisted him ( see The Quatermass Xperiment ) . Lomax puts him in touch with Vincent Broadhead ( Tom Chatto ) , a Member of Parliament , who has been trying to uncover the veil of secrecy surrounding Winnerden Flats . Quatermass joins Broadhead on an official tour of the complex , which he is told has been built to manufacture artificial food . Slipping away from the visiting party , Broadhead attempts to get inside one of the large domes that dominate the skyline . Quatermass later finds him dying , covered in a poisonous black slime .
Shot at by guards as he exits , Quatermass rushes to Inspector Lomax , explaining that he believes that the complex is indeed making food but not for human consumption . Its purpose is to provide a suitable living environment for small alien creatures being housed inside the huge domes . Lomax attempts to alert his superiors , but when he meets the Commissioner of Police , he notices that he , too , is sporting the V @-@ shaped mark ; the aliens have taken control of the government .
Quatermass and Lomax then turn to journalist Jimmy Hall ( Sid James ) , who is skeptical of their story but asks to visit Winnerden Flats . At the local community centre , they receive a hostile reception from locals employed to do heavy construction and other work at the complex . The mood changes , however , when one of the meteorite @-@ missiles crashes through the building roof , injuring barmaid Sheila ( Vera Day ) . Armed guards arrive and gun down Hall after he telephones the press . The villagers form a mob that marches on the complex . Rushing the gates , Quatermass , Lomax , and the villagers barricade themselves in the pressure control room .
Realising that earth 's atmosphere must be poisonous to the aliens , Quatermass sabotages their life support system , pumping oxygen into the large domes . Simultaneously , Quatermass ' assistant , Brand ( William Franklyn ) , sacrifices his life by launching a Quatermass rocket at an asteroid believed to be the invasion 's staging point . The individual creatures combine their small bodies to create huge 150 @-@ foot tall creatures that soon burst from the domes . The rocket destroys the asteroid with a nuclear explosion . Their base gone and now fully exposed to earth 's atmosphere , the giant masses of combined creatures collapse and die . The V @-@ shaped marks disappear from those affected , leaving them with no memory of having been under alien control . As they head back to the village , Lomax wonders aloud how he 'll make a believable report on all that 's happened . More pointedly , Quatermass questions just how final will that report be ...
= = Production = =
The first Quatermass film had been a major success for Hammer and , eager for a sequel , they purchased the rights to Nigel Kneale 's follow @-@ up before the BBC had even begun transmission of the new serial . For this adaptation , Nigel Kneale himself was allowed to write the first draft of the screenplay , although subsequent drafts were worked on by director Val Guest . The plot is a condensed but largely faithful retelling of the original television serial . The main difference between the two versions is at the climax : in the television version Quatermass blasts off in a rocket to confront the aliens in outer space , whereas in the film the rocket is fired , unmanned , to destroy the aliens ' asteroid base . Returning director Val Guest once again employed many cinema vérité techniques to present the fantastic elements of the plot with the greatest degree of realism . Nigel Kneale was critical of the final film , mainly on account of the return of Brian Donlevy in the lead role . Kneale was unhappy with Donlevy 's interpretation of the character and also claimed the actor 's performance was marred by his alcoholism , a claim denied by Val Guest .
Although Quatermass 2 was financially successful , its box office performance was eclipsed by the massive success of another Hammer film , The Curse of Frankenstein , which was to be the first of their many Gothic horror films . As a result it would be ten years before Hammer adapted the next Quatermass serial for the cinema with Quatermass and the Pit in 1967 . Quatermass 2 was , however , the first film for which Hammer pre @-@ sold the distribution rights in the United States , a financial model that would quickly become the norm for subsequent Hammer productions .
= = = Origins = = =
= = = Writing = = =
Nigel Kneale had been unhappy with Hammer 's adaptation of The Quatermass Experiment , partly because he received no extra remuneration from the sale of the film rights and partly because of the changes made in the film to his original television script . In the wake of his dissatisfaction , Kneale exerted pressure on the BBC to allow him to be more involved in the sale of the rights to his work . Despite being in the final months of his BBC contract , Kneale was allowed to collaborate with Hammer on the adaptation of Quatermass II . The first draft of the screenplay was written by Kneale with input from producer Anthony Hinds . Subsequent drafts were worked on by director Val Guest , as he had done before on The Quatermass Xperiment . Guest recalled of Kneale 's script that there was “ lots of philosophising and very down @-@ to @-@ earth thinking but it was too long , it would not have held screenwise . So , again , I had to tailor it and sharpen it and hopefully not ruin it ” . The script was submitted to the British Board of Film Censors ( BBFC ) in April 1956 . BBFC reader Audrey Field commented , “ There should be the customary general caution that the sky is not the limit , either in sights or sounds ” . The BBFC 's main objection was to a scene in which a guard from the Winnerden Flats complex murders a family having a picnic . This scene was omitted from the final film , although it is present in the original television presentation .
As with The Quatermass Xperiment , the screenplay for Quatermass 2 condenses many of the events of the original . The most significant change is at the climax : in the television version Quatermass and his assistant , Pugh , use Quatermass 's rocket to travel to the asteroid to take on the aliens on their home turf whereas in the film the rocket is fired , unmanned , at the asteroid to destroy it . Several characters from the television version do not appear in the film , most notably Quatermass 's daughter , Paula , and his assistant , Leo Pugh . Conversely , the character of Inspector Lomax reappears in the film version , having previously been in The Quatermass Xperiment , but does not appear in the television version . The character of Sheila the barmaid also appears only in the film version .
= = = Casting = = =
Brian Donlevy as Professor Bernard Quatermass : Donlevy reprised his role as the eponymous professor , much to the despair of Nigel Kneale , who had heavily criticised his interpretation of the role in The Quatermass Xperiment . As had been the case on The Quatermass Xperiment , Donlevy 's alcoholism presented challenges for the production . Nigel Kneale recalled visiting the set one day : “ He [ Donlevy ] was so full of whiskey he could hardly stand up . He staggered over to the set and looked dazedly around . They held up an idiot board with his lines on and he said , “ What 's this movie called ? ” and they said , “ Well , it 's called Quatermass 2 ” . He said , “ I 've got to say all that ? There 's too much talk . Cut down some of the talk ” . He tried to read it and he had to have go after go after go , so crippled with drink he hardly knew who he was ” . Val Guest has denied Kneale 's claims , saying “ So many stories have been concocted since , about how he was a paralytic [ drunk ] . It 's absolute balls , because he was not paralytic . He wasn 't stone cold sober either , but he was a pro and he knew his lines ” . Guest also recalled , “ By after lunch he would come to me and say “ Give me a breakdown of the story so far . Where have I just been before this scene ? ” We used to feed him black coffee all morning but then we discovered he was lacing it . But he was a very professional actor and very easy to work with ” .
John Longden as Inspector Lomax : The role of Lomax had originally been played by Jack Warner in The Quatermass Xperiment . When Warner proved unavailable for the sequel , the role was recast and the part given to John Longden . Longden had been a major star of British silent films and had also appeared in several early Alfred Hitchcock films including Blackmail ( 1929 ) , Elstree Calling ( 1930 ) and The Skin Game ( 1931 ) . Nigel Kneale greatly preferred Longden 's authoritative take on the character to Jack Warner 's more comedic " breezy sergeant " in the first film .
Sid James ( credited as " Sydney James " ) as Jimmy Hall : At the time , James was known as a character actor , specialising mainly in " tough guy " roles , with credits in films such as No Orchids for Miss Blandish ( 1948 ) , The Lavender Hill Mob ( 1951 ) and Hell Drivers ( 1957 ) . James plays the character of Jimmy Hall in a much more comedic manner than Roger Delgado 's interpretation of the equivalent journalist character Hugh Conrad in the television version ; Guest cast James in order to " lighten the story a bit " . He later went on to enjoy widespread fame in many comedy roles including Hancock 's Half Hour ( 1956 – 60 ) , the Carry On series of films , and sitcoms such as George and the Dragon ( 1966 ) , Two in Clover ( 1969 – 70 ) and Bless This House ( 1971 – 76 ) .
Bryan Forbes as Marsh : Forbes had appeared in a number of supporting roles in films , including The Small Back Room ( 1949 ) , An Inspector Calls ( 1954 ) and The Colditz Story ( 1955 ) . However he later became better known as a director , with films such as Whistle Down the Wind ( 1961 ) , The L @-@ Shaped Room ( 1962 ) and The Stepford Wives ( 1975 ) among his best @-@ known credits . Forbes later recalled of the film : “ I was one of the people attacked by the alien pods . This pod exploded and I ended up with what was supposed to be a terrible alien growth on my face . Come lunchtime and we all went off to the pub . Of course , I couldn 't take this stuff off , the makeup was too complex ; the landlord refused to serve me . ”
William Franklyn as Brand : Franklyn later became well known for his voiceovers for a series of advertisements for Schweppes tonic water . In 2004 he took over from the late Peter Jones as the Voice of the Book in the radio version of The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy . He died in 2006 .
Vera Day as Sheila : Vera Day was first spotted by Val Guest in the musical Wish You Were Here at the London Hippodrome . He subsequently cast her in Dance , Little Lady ( 1955 ) and then Quatermass 2 . She later appeared in Guest 's Up the Creek ( 1958 ) .
Other actors appearing in the film include Charles Lloyd @-@ Pack , Tom Chatto , John Van Eyssen , Percy Herbert and Michael Ripper .
= = = Filming = = =
Val Guest , who had directed The Quatermass Xperiment , returned for Quatermass 2 . Guest once again sought to create a film that felt as real as possible , using many cinema vérité techniques such as hand @-@ held cameras . He was assisted in this respect by the moody , overcast cinematography of director of photography Gerald Gibbs , who also made extensive use of day for night photography for the film 's climactic scenes . Guest planned each day ’ s shooting carefully , creating meticulous storyboards detailing all the shots he wanted to make that day .
Filming took place between 28 May and 13 July 1956 . The film 's budget , at £ 92 @,@ 000 , was much larger than that of The Quatermass Xperiment . The bigger budget was achieved by the advance sale of the distribution rights in the United States to United Artists . United Artists contributed some £ 64 @,@ 000 towards the production of the film , as well as Brian Donlevy 's $ 25 @,@ 000 fee and his airfare to London from the US . The larger budget allowed for greater use of location filming in the making of the film than had been possible for its predecessor . The key location used was the oil refinery at Shell Haven in Stanford @-@ le @-@ Hope , Essex , on the Thames Estuary , which represented the secret Winnerden Flats complex . This was exactly the same location as used in the BBC television production of the story . Despite its size , the plant was run by a relatively small number of personnel , which made Guest 's job of making the plant appear eerily deserted easier . Guest was also surprised at how relaxed the plant 's management were about allowing him to stage the climactic gun battle at such a potentially flammable location . Focus puller Harry Oakes recalled , however , that a Newman @-@ Sinclair clockwork camera had to be used for some scenes because of the danger posed by sparks from electrical equipment . The scenes of Vincent Broadhead emerging from one of the domes covered in the noxious black slime were particularly difficult to realise , necessitating many retakes . Tom Chatto , playing Broadhead , whose wife was a leading casting director , joked after the scene was finally completed , " Remind me to talk to my wife about casting me in this " . The Shell Haven location was further enhanced by the use of matte paintings created by special effects designer Les Bowie to add the giant domes within which the aliens were incubated .
Other locations used included the real @-@ life new town of Hemel Hempstead , Hertfordshire , which was under construction at the time and doubled for the fictional new town of Winnerden Flats . Other scenes were shot in London including Trafalgar Square , where the police agreed to hold up the traffic for just two minutes to allow Guest to take shots of trucks ferrying equipment through London to Winnerden Flats , and in the foyer of the House of Lords for the scene where Quatermass first meets Vincent Broadhead . The climactic scenes of the hurricane caused by the explosion of the Winnerden Flats complex were shot on the South Downs near Brighton . A minor mishap occurred during the filming of this scene when the wind machines blew Brian Donlevy 's toupée off his head and the crew had to chase after it . As well as shooting on location , Guest and his crew made use of Stages 2 and 5 of the New Elstree Studios , the first Hammer production to shoot there . This was production designer Bernard Robinson 's first film for Hammer ; he went on to become their regular set designer , working on many Hammer films .
= = Reception = =
Quatermass 2 received its first public screening at a trade show on 22 March 1957 ; its official première was held two days later at the London Pavilion on 24 May 1957 . It went on general release , with supporting feature And God Created Woman , on 17 June 1957 . The film received an ‘ X ’ Certificate from the BBFC . It was released in the US under the title Enemy From Space .
Quatermass 2 received mixed reviews . Campbell Dixon in The Daily Telegraph found the film “ all good grisly fun , if this is the sort of thing you enjoy ” . The reviewer in The Times remarked that “ the writer of the original story , Mr Nigel Kneale , and the director , Mr Val Guest , between them keep things moving at the right speed , without digressions . The film has an air of respect for the issues touched on , and this impression is confirmed by the acting generally ” . On the other hand , Jympson Harman of the London Evening News wrote : “ Science @-@ fiction hokum can be convincing , exciting or just plain laughable . Quatermass II [ sic ] fails on all these scores , I am afraid ” . Similarly , the reviewer in the Daily Herald felt “ The whole thing is daft and full of stilted dialogue . [ ... ] At the end a detective says : “ How am I going to make a report on all this ? ” I felt the same way ” .
= = Legacy = =
Although commercially successful , Quatermass 2 ’ s release was largely overshadowed by the box @-@ office record @-@ breaking performance of Hammer 's The Curse of Frankenstein , which was also released in May 1957 . Upon this success , Hammer made its priority the production of Gothic horror films . For this reason , although Nigel Kneale had written a new Quatermass serial for the BBC , Quatermass and the Pit ( broadcast December 1958 to January 1959 ) , Hammer did not acquire the rights until 1961 and the film version did not appear until 1967 . Quatermass 2 is notable , however , for being the first film Hammer pre @-@ sold to a major US distributor , in this case United Artists . This new finance and distribution deal would become the norm for subsequent Hammer films and led to them eventually winding down their own distribution arm , Exclusive Films , in the mid @-@ 1960s .
Critical opinion of Quatermass 2 in the years since its release remains divided . Writing in Science Fiction in the Cinema , John Baxter found the film “ a faithful but ponderous adaptation of Kneale 's TV sequel . There are effective sequences , director Guest and cameraman Gerald Gibbs shooting with light lancing up through the shadows in a manner reminiscent of Jacques Tourneur 's Night ( or Curse ) of the Demon . Otherwise the film is indifferent ” . Similarly , John Brosnan , in his book The Primal Screen , wrote that “ Quatermass 2 isn 't as good as the first one , despite a bigger budget . Again the theme is possession ( all four Quatermass stories are variations on the same theme ) with Kneale again cleverly mixing sf with the supernatural . The alien invasion may be sf but it is presented with the trappings of traditional horror , such as the V @-@ shaped " mark of the devil " that all possessed people display ” . On the other hand , Bill Warren , in Keep Watching The Skies ! , found Quatermass 2 to be “ one of the best science fiction films of the 1950s . It is not notably better than [ The Quatermass Xperiment ] , but the story idea is more involving , the production is livelier and there are more events in the unfolding of the story ” . Kim Newman in 1986 praised the film as " extraordinary " and , comparing it to Invasion of the Body Snatchers ( 1956 ) , Newman notes that while Don Siegel ’ s film is " a general allegory " about dehumanisation and conformity , Quatermass 2 is “ a specific attack on the Conservative Government of the time , down to the inclusion of several characters obviously based on real political figures ” .
The League of Gentlemen 's Mark Gatiss mentions on the DVD commentary for the First Series that a scene where two workmen , who have been abducted by Tubs and Edward , escape , covered in tar , was inspired by the scene in which Vincent Broadhead is covered in " Synthetic Food " from one of the labelled storage tanks .
= = Video releases = =
Quatermass 2 was released on Region 2 DVD in 2003 by DD Video . It contained a number of extra features including commentary by director Val Guest and writer Nigel Kneale , as well as an interview with Val Guest and a trailer for Enemy From Space , as the film is known in the US . The film was first released in the US on Region 1 DVD by Anchor Bay Entertainment and is mastered from an archival print that shows every image with razor @-@ sharp clarity and richness ; it contains the same extra features as on the Region 2 UK release . The film had been previously released on both VHS cassette and LaserDisc .
= = In other media = =
The film was adapted into a 15 @-@ page comic strip for the August 1978 issue of the magazine Hammer 's Halls of Horror ( volume 2 , # 23 , published by Top Sellers Limited ) . It was drawn by David Lloyd from a script by Steve Parkhouse . The strip was titled Enemy from Space ( Quatermass II ) .
= 2013 Chicago Bears season =
The 2013 Chicago Bears season was the franchise 's 94th season in the National Football League . The season was the first year under head coach Marc Trestman , as Lovie Smith was fired on December 31 , 2012 . The team played at Soldier Field for the 11th season since its reconstruction in 2001 . The Bears failed to qualify for the playoffs with an 8 – 8 record , the sixth time in seven years since the Super Bowl XLI loss in 2006 .
The Bears started the regular season by winning their first three games before losing in weeks four and five to the Detroit Lions and New Orleans Saints , respectively . The following game after winning against the New York Giants , quarterback Jay Cutler suffered a groin injury against the Washington Redskins , as the Bears entered the bye week at 4 – 3 . With Cutler out , Josh McCown stepped in against the Green Bay Packers in week nine , leading the Bears to victory . Cutler returned in the next game against the Lions , but injured his ankle in the loss , and McCown filled in for the next four games ; during the four @-@ game span under McCown , the Bears went 2 – 2 , while McCown excelled , throwing thirteen touchdowns and one interception . As a result , when Cutler returned in week fourteen against the Cleveland Browns , controversy arose over who should be the starter . After winning against Cleveland , the Lions lost the following day , allowing the Bears to clinch the NFC North in week sixteen with Packers and Lions losses grouped with a victory over the Philadelphia Eagles . However , the Bears lost 54 – 11 , and in week seventeen against the Packers , the Bears were eliminated from playoff contention with a 33 – 28 loss .
= = Offseason = =
= = = Organizational changes = = =
On December 31 , 2012 , nine @-@ year head coach Lovie Smith was fired . After Smith 's firing , the Bears requested interviews with thirteen coaches , twelve from the NFL and Montreal Alouettes ( of the Canadian Football League ) head coach Marc Trestman . The hunt later narrowed down to Trestman , Seattle Seahawks offensive coordinator Darrell Bevell and Indianapolis Colts offensive coordinator Bruce Arians . Ultimately , Trestman was hired on January 15 .
After Trestman 's hiring , he hired New Orleans Saints ' offensive line coach Aaron Kromer as offensive coordinator , and the Dallas Cowboys later reported that Joe DeCamillis , who had been among the Bears ' 13 head coaching candidates , would join the Bears as the team 's assistant head coach / special teams coordinator . Trestman also hired Andy Bischoff and Michael Sinclair as tight ends and defensive line coaches , respectively ; both coaches had worked with Trestman in Montreal . Alouettes offensive coordinator Pat Meyer also joined the Bears as offensive line coach , along with Purdue defensive coordinator and colleague of Trestman , Tim Tibesar , as linebackers coach . Former Alouettes coaches Brendan Nugent and Carson Walch were hired as offensive quality control assistants .
On January 15 , special teams coordinator Dave Toub announced that he is leaving the Bears for the Kansas City Chiefs . Two days later , it was announced that defensive coordinator Rod Marinelli would not return to the team . Eight assistants were also dismissed : quarterbacks coach Jeremy Bates , running backs coach Tim Spencer , wide receivers coach Darryl Drake , tight ends coach Mike DeBord , offensive line coach Tim Holt , linebackers coach Bob Babich , defensive backs coach Gill Byrd , and offensive coordinator Mike Tice . To replace Bates and Spencer , Chicago hired Matt Cavanaugh and Skip Peete as quarterbacks and running backs coach , respectively . To take Marinelli 's place , the Bears hired Jacksonville Jaguars ' defensive coordinator Mel Tucker . On February 21 , Trestman 's staff was completed after the Bears hired Alabama coach Mike Groh as wide receivers coach .
On January 19 , Bears director of physical development Rusty Jones announced his retirement after 28 years in the NFL . He was eventually replaced by Mike Clark . On January 28 , Chicago hired former Bears safety Chris Harris as defensive quality control , with Sean Desai serving the same position , along with Dwayne Stukes as assistant special teams coordinator .
On May 3 , Bears pro scouting director Chris Ballard , who had been hired by general manager Phil Emery , left the team for the Chiefs , and was replaced by assistant director of college scouting Kevin Turks . Regional scout James Kirkland was also let go . On May 6 , executive director and Southeastern Conference overseer Ted Monago joined the St. Louis Rams . On the same day , Kevin Turks and Dwayne Joseph were promoted to director of pro personnel and assistant director of pro personnel , respectively ; Chiefs area scout Ryan Kessenich was also hired as a scout . Chicago also hired Jay Muraco as scout of the East Coast and Andre Odom as a scouting assistant . The Bears also promoted Breck Ackley to South Central area scout and Sam Summerville to scout the Southeast area and David Williams to player personnel and scout . On May 16 , the Bears promoted Southeast area scout Mark Sadowski to senior national scout .
= = = Roster changes = = =
The Bears entered free agency with 16 unrestricted free agents .
= = = = Acquisitions = = = =
The first addition of 2013 by the Bears was defensive end Cheta Ozougwu on January 2 , followed by Brittan Golden two days later . On January 7 , quarterback Matt Blanchard and receiver Terrence Toliver were signed ; the next three days involved the signings of Patrick Trahan , Brody Eldridge , Fendi Onobun and Lawrence Wilson , respectively . On January 28 and 29 , Cyhl Quarles and Tom Nelson were signed , respectively . The lone acquisition of February occurred on February 11 with cornerback LeQuan Lewis .
NFL free agency opened on March 12 , with the Bears signing New York Giants tight end Martellus Bennett and New Orleans Saints offensive lineman Jermon Bushrod on that day . From March 20 to 24 , the Bears signed at least one player per day , starting with Turk McBride . Steve Maneri ( March 21 ) , D. J. Williams ( March 22 ) , Tom Zbikowski ( March 23 ) , and James Anderson ( March 24 ) . Offensive lineman Matt Slauson was signed on March 29 . On April 9 , Andre Fluellen , Kyle Moore and Taylor Boggs were signed . Offensive lineman Eben Britton was signed on April 16 , followed by kicker Austin Signor three days later . The only signing in May was undrafted rookie Maurice Jones on May 12 . On June 10 , the Bears signed Devin Aromashodu , Jerrell Jackson and Tony Fiammetta , followed by Sedrick Ellis the next day .
= = = = Departures = = = =
The first departure of the team was receiver Johnny Knox on February 12 , who had suffered a serious injury in 2011 and missed the entire 2012 season . On March 13 , tight ends Kellen Davis and Matt Spaeth were waived . The single departure of April occurred on April 2 , with the release of defensive lineman Matt Toeaina . On June 9 , offensive lineman and the team 's first @-@ round draft pick in 2011 Gabe Carimi was traded to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers for a sixth @-@ rounder in the 2014 draft . The following day , Evan Rodriguez , Dale Moss and Demetrius Fields were waived .
Eleven of the Bears ' UFAs did not return , nine of whom joining other teams , starting with linebacker Geno Hayes ' signing with the Jacksonville Jaguars on March 13 . The Bears lost another linebacker in Nick Roach on March 15 , when he joined the Oakland Raiders , and another defensive player was lost when cornerback D. J. Moore was signed by the Carolina Panthers four days later . On March 20 , eight @-@ time Pro Bowler and 13 @-@ year linebacker Brian Urlacher was not retained for the 2013 season . Six days later , Jason Campbell was signed by the Cleveland Browns , and the next day , Lance Louis joined the Miami Dolphins .
= = = 2013 draft class = = =
The Bears entered the draft with needs at positions including offensive lineman , linebacker , defensive lineman and cornerback . In the first round , with the twentieth pick , the Bears selected Oregon offensive tackle Kyle Long . Long , the son of Pro Football Hall of Famer Howie Long and younger brother of St. Louis Rams ' defensive end Chris Long , played in only 21 games while starting 15 with Oregon . In the second round , with the fiftieth pick , the Bears selected Jon Bostic , a linebacker from Florida , who recorded 68 tackles with the nation 's fifth @-@ ranked defense in 2012 . Two rounds later , the Bears used their 117th overall pick on Rutgers linebacker Khaseem Greene , who holds the NCAA record for career forced fumbles with 15 . In the fifth round , the Bears traded down ten spots with the Atlanta Falcons to draft Louisiana Tech offensive tackle Jordan Mills , marking the first time the team selected two offensive linemen in the same draft since 2002 . In the sixth round , Chicago selected Georgia Bulldogs defensive end Cornelius Washington , who led linebackers in the bench press at the NFL Combine with 36 repetitions at 225 pounds . Using a seventh @-@ rounder acquired in the trade with Atlanta , the Bears drafted wide receiver Marquess Wilson , who left the Washington State football team , citing abuse from head coach Mike Leach despite setting team records with 82 receptions for 1 @,@ 388 yards and 12 touchdowns in 2011 , followed by 52 receptions for 813 yards and five touchdowns in 2012 .
The Bears draft class received average grades , with questions from some graders questioning the selections of Long and Bostic , including Jason Cole of Yahoo ! Sports , who gave the class a grade of " C + " . Yahoo ! Sports writer Billy Grayson ESPN draft analyst Mel Kiper , Jr. stated that he " wasn 't in love with the value " of Long 's talent , classifying the draft class as a " C + " , while Sports Illustrated writer Chris Burke asked why Chicago selected Bostic over Kansas State linebacker Arthur Brown . However , Burke praised Washington 's selection as a potential steal , giving a grade of " B- " . Thad Novak of the International Business Times gave Long the lowest grade of the players drafted by Chicago with a " C- " , considering him a " raw " player ; Mills was awarded a " C + " , due to not blocking against many top defenders in college . Washington and Wilson were given a " B- " and " B + " , respectively , the former despite being a linebacker , could adjust into the Bears ' 4 @-@ 3 defense . Linebackers Bostic and Greene were given an " A " and " A + " , the latter being considered a steal that could add depth to the linebacking corps . Vinny Iyer of Sporting News gave the class a " C " , stated Long should start as a guard before switching to tackle , which would be filled by Mills ; Iyer also considered Bostic a " textbook replacement " for Brian Urlacher , while Greene can replace Nick Roach as a strong @-@ side linebacker . After the 2013 season , Kiper improved the Bears ' class to a " B " .
All six players drafted agreed to four @-@ year contracts . Mills and Washington were the first players to sign on May 1 , followed by Greene and Wilson the following day . Bostic was the next player to sign , agreeing to a contract on May 9 , and Long was the final player to sign , signing his contract on May 17 .
Notes
The team traded its third @-@ round selection along with a 2012 third @-@ round selection to the Miami Dolphins in exchange for wide receiver Brandon Marshall .
The team traded its seventh @-@ round selection to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in exchange for defensive tackle Brian Price .
= = = Undrafted free agents = = =
After the draft 's conclusion , the Bears announced that they had come to terms with ten undrafted free agents : LSU running back and center Michael Ford and P. J. Lonergan , respectively , Rutgers receiver Mark Harrison , Oklahoma cornerback and punter Demontre Hurst and Tress Way , respectively , Iowa State receiver Josh Lenz , Montana State linebacker Zach Minter , Memphis receiver Marcus Rucker , Georgia Southern defensive tackle Brent Russell , and NC State cornerback C. J. Wilson .
= = = Offseason activities = = =
On April 2 , the Bears began a voluntary offseason program , and because they had a new head coach , the Bears were given a two @-@ week earlier start than teams that did not hire a new head coach . For the first two weeks of the program , the only activities allowed were strength and conditioning and rehabilitation , and only strength and conditioning coaches are allowed to be on the field with the players . On the third week , a voluntary minicamp was held , and all coaches were permitted to work . From April 16 – 18 , the Bears held two @-@ hour non @-@ contact drills , and held ten organized team activities ( OTAs ) during May 13 – June 6 , followed by a mandatory minicamp from June 11 – 13 .
The Bears started the first of ten OTAs on May 13 . Rookie Kyle Long did not attend due to the University of Oregon having final examinations running through June 14 . Gabe Carimi was the lone eligible player to not attend the workouts on the first day , as he stated that he was training in Arizona . Despite being expected to attend the team 's mandatory minicamp , on June 9 , Carimi was traded to the Buccaneers for an unconditional sixth @-@ round draft pick in the 2014 draft . Long returned to workouts on June 17 .
On the first day of the mandatory minicamp , offensive coordinator Aaron Kromer did not attend the on @-@ field segment due to hip surgery . A. J. Lindeman and Willie Carter tried out with the team during the day . Brandon Marshall and Alshon Jeffery skipped the next day 's workout , due to a hip surgery and a hamstring injury suffered during the previous week 's OTAs , respectively . Lindeman would be signed during the day , while Maurice Jones would be released .
= = = = Rookie minicamp = = = =
The Bears opened rookie minicamp at the Walter Payton Center on March 10 , and concluded on May 12 . A total of 59 players participated , which includes the six draft picks , nine of the ten undrafted free agents ( Mark Harrison was going to be signed , but failed his physical as he was recovering from a broken fifth metatarsal ) , kicker Austin Signor , ten veteran players , and 33 tryout players . Following minicamp , on May 13 , the Bears signed receiver Demetrius Fields , defensive tackles Corvey Irvin and Christian Tupou , and cornerback Maurice Jones , while releasing Dom DeCicco and LeQuan Lewis .
= = = = Training Camp = = = =
Training Camp took place from July 25 to August 14 at Olivet Nazarene University in Bourbonnais , Illinois for the twelfth consecutive year . The team used the newly built Student Life Recreation Center as a weight room , indoor walk @-@ through and personnel meeting building . On August 12 , the Bears and ONU agreed to extend the camp through 2022 . Practice with full pads on was held on July 28 .
On the first day of Training Camp , Sedrick Ellis did not report , and eventually announced his retirement . On June 29 , newcomer Turk McBride suffered a ruptured Achilles tendon , and was out for the season ; McBride would be released two days later . During the day , Jermon Bushrod suffered a mild calf sprain , and was replaced by Jonathan Scott during practices . On the same day , Cheta Ozougwu did not practice due to a hamstring strain . However , Scott eventually injured his calf , so Eben Britton and Cory Brandon took first team reps . Anderson ( knee ) , D. J. Williams ( calf ) and Corey Wootton ( hip ) also were forced to miss practice .
The team hosted the annual Family Fest at Soldier Field on August 3 in front of a crowd of 29 @,@ 000 . At the event , Kelvin Hayden tore his left hamstring , and was ruled out for remainder of the season . Hayden would be placed on injured reserve on August 10 .
The first acquisition of Training Camp occurred on the first day , with Jamaal Anderson being signed to replace Ellis . After McBride 's release , Josh Williams was signed . On August 2 , Austin Signor was released , and Andrew Starks was signed . The next day , the Bears signed Leonard Pope , and released Brody Eldridge .
= = Preseason = =
= = = Transactions = = =
= = = Schedule = = =
The Bears ' preseason opponents and schedule was announced on April 4 . Chicago would open the preseason on the road against the Carolina Panthers , followed by an ESPN @-@ televised game against the San Diego Chargers . The Bears would then visit the Oakland Raiders , for whom head coach Marc Trestman , offensive coordinator / offensive line coach Aaron Kromer and running backs coach Skip Peete worked for during its run to Super Bowl XXXVII , before ending the preseason against frequent preseason opponent Cleveland Browns , the tenth consecutive meeting between the two teams .
= = = Game summaries = = =
Against the Panthers , the Bears ' defense forced three turnovers in the first half , which included a 51 @-@ yard interception return for touchdown by Jon Bostic , followed by Zack Bowman intercepting Derek Anderson and Sherrick McManis forcing Kenjon Barner to fumble ; the Bears recorded a total of four takeaways in the game . However , the offense allowed seven sacks and had three turnovers , one of which was a fumble by Armando Allen . Panthers cornerback Josh Norman had two interceptions , one of which set up the first score of the game via Cam Newton 's three @-@ yard touchdown pass to Brandon LaFell early in the game . Bostic 's pick @-@ six tied up the game , followed by Robbie Gould 's 35 @-@ yard field goal in the second quarter . With 18 seconds left in the first half , Carolina scored again on Kenjon Barner 's 5 @-@ yard touchdown run ; the Panthers scored the lone points of the third quarter after Norman intercepted Matt Blanchard , scoring on the 60 @-@ yard return . Though the Bears retaliated after Blanchard threw a 58 @-@ yard pass to Marquess Wilson to Carolina 's 4 @-@ yard line , followed by Michael Ford 's touchdown run , Graham Gano 's 50 @-@ yard field goal was the final score of the game , as the Panthers triumphed 24 – 17 .
Playing San Diego , Chicago opened with touchdowns by Brandon Marshall and Matt Forte , and led 20 – 0 late in the second quarter . The defense forced four turnovers in the first half off Chris Conte 's interception , Major Wright 's fumble recovery , Blake Costanzo recovering a muffed punt , and Corvey Irvin 's recovery of a blocked punt . The Chargers began to rally , scoring on Fozzy Whittaker 's rushing touchdown in the second quarter , followed by two more touchdowns in the third quarter , which Chicago countered with Michael Ford 's 100 @-@ yard kickoff return to San Diego 's 4 @-@ yard line . Afterwards , Michael Bush ran for a 3 @-@ yard touchdown , and while San Diego managed to score two more touchdowns , but the Bears held on to win 33 – 28 .
Against Oakland , the Bears scored 23 unanswered points in the first half , along with outgaining the Raiders 222 yards to 34 with a little over 10 minutes remaining in the first half . The Bears scored first off Forte 's 32 @-@ yard touchdown , followed by Bush scoring two rushing touchdowns of ten and one yard each , and the first half ended with a 27 – 3 lead for Chicago . Meanwhile , the defense forced four turnovers off Tim Jennings and Isaiah Frey intercepting Matt Flynn and C. J. Wilson and Jerry Franklin intercepting Matt McGloin . As for Oakland , Terrelle Pryor replaced Flynn in the second half , and led the Raiders to two touchdowns and a field goal to narrow the gap to 27 – 20 . The Bears retaliated with Michael Ford scoring a 15 @-@ yard touchdown , and the Raiders responded with McGloin 's 5 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jaime Olawale , but failed the two @-@ point conversion , and the Bears sealed the game with Franklin 's interception to win 34 – 26 .
In Cleveland , the Bears started strong after Demontre Hurst intercepted Brian Hoyer 's pass , which led to Robbie Gould 's field goal , followed by Jordan Palmer 's touchdown pass to Joseph Anderson , which Cleveland retaliated with James Michael @-@ Johnson intercepting Trent Edwards and scoring . Late in the game , the Bears led 16 – 9 , and Sherrick McManis intercepted Hoyer , who made up for the pick by throwing a touchdown pass to Dan Gronkowski . Later , Armonty Bryant forced Harvey Unga to fumble , which was recovered by Cleveland 's L. J. Foyt , which led to Spencer Lanning kicking the go @-@ ahead field goal to put the Browns up 18 – 16 . With a little over a minute left in the game , Gould missed a 57 @-@ yarder wide left , giving Cleveland the win .
= = Regular season = =
= = = Transactions = = =
= = = Schedule = = =
The Bears ' schedule was released on April 18 , 2013 . Aside from the six games against their NFC North rivals , the Bears had the AFC North and NFC East on the schedule , along with two intraconference games against opponents with the same division placing as the Bears in the previous season . As a result , the Bears were assigned the St. Louis Rams and New Orleans Saints . NFL.com ranked the Bears ' schedule as the sixteenth @-@ strongest in the lead , with all opponents having a combined 2012 record of 128 – 127 – 1 , and a winning percentage total of .502 .
= = = Game summaries = = =
= = = = Week 1 : vs. Cincinnati Bengals = = = =
The Bears kicked off the regular season at home against the Cincinnati Bengals . The game was the teams ' first meeting since 2009 , in which the Bengals won 45 – 10 . Since 2001 , the Bears dropped two of three games to the Bengals , winning 24 – 0 in 2001 , while losing 24 – 7 in 2005 and 45 – 10 in 2009 . The two teams entered with defenses that ranked in the top six in 2012 , but the Bears were ranked 16th in scoring at 23 @.@ 4 points per game and 28th overall on offense , while the Bengals had an average score of 24 @.@ 4 PPG and were 22nd in total offense . Among the Bears ' strategies that should be utilized include trying to protect Jay Cutler , as six of the Bengals ' linemen had combined for 129 career sacks . The Bears ' offensive line allowed 44 sacks in 2012 , and as a result , changed the line by adding veterans Jermon Bushrod and Matt Slauson to supplement Roberto Garza on the left , while rookies Kyle Long and Jordan Mills joined Garza on the right side , marking the first time the Bears offensive line featured two rookies since Jim Covert and Rob Fada in 1983 . The Bears ' defense had to apply pressure to Andy Dalton , whose quick release led to four play @-@ action touchdown passes to A. J. Green in 2013 , the third most in the NFL . Bears ' radio announcer Jeff Joniak wrote , " Marc Trestman owns the element of surprise , a true asset in Week 1 . There is not much tape on Trestman for the Bengals to game plan from . It 's old tape with very different personnel from a different time and place in the NFL . Trestman will try to use this asset to his advantage and a quick strike early in the game will jack up the crowd , and give the team a foundation to build on . " The Bears captains team captains for the season , starting with the Bengals game , were Cutler and Roberto Garza on offense , Lance Briggs and Julius Peppers on defense and Patrick Mannelly on special teams . 2013 was Mannelly 's sixth consecutive season as captain , the fifth season for Cutler , third for Garza , fourth for Peppers and first for Briggs .
Chicago struck first with Charles Tillman intercepting Dalton , which was followed with Cutler 's eight @-@ yard touchdown pass to Martellus Bennett , which the Bengals responded with a two @-@ yard touchdown pass to Green . On the Bengals ' first drive of the second quarter , Green was stripped by Tim Jennings , but the fumble went out of bounds . However , Dalton would be intercepted again by Tillman , his career @-@ high second pick of the game , but the Bears failed to capitalize , and the Bengals scored again on Dalton 's 45 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Greene . The Bears ' Robbie Gould connected on a team record 58 @-@ yard field goal to close out the first half . In the second half , the Bengals scored again , after Tillman was penalized for pass interference , via BenJarvus Green @-@ Ellis ' 5 @-@ yard touchdown run , which the Bears retaliated with Matt Forté 's one @-@ yard touchdown run . In the fourth quarter , Cutler was intercepted by Vontaze Burfict , but the Bears got the ball back after Jennings forced Mohamed Sanu to fumble . On the next drive , the Bears converted a fourth down and Cutler threw the go ahead and eventual game @-@ winning 19 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Brandon Marshall with 8 : 06 remaining . The Bengals failed to score on the next drive with 6 : 38 left , and the Bears clinched the game after Rey Maualuga was called for a personal foul after Michael Bush was stopped on third down . The Bears were able to run out the clock due to Cincinnati mis @-@ using | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Louis scored first on Austin 's 65 @-@ yard run , and would reclaim the ball after James Laurinitis stripped Matt Forté , leading to Stacy 's one @-@ yard touchdown run . The Bears would then score on McCown 's seven @-@ yard touchdown pass to Bennett , but the Rams ended the quarter with a 21 – 7 lead after Clemens ' six @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jared Cook . In the second quarter , McCown threw an incomplete pass , which appeared to be a fumble , and after Rams cornerback Trumaine Johnson picked up the ball , Bears fullback Tony Fiammetta pulled him to the ground by the facemask . Kyle Long would then be involved in an incident with Rams defensive lineman William Hayes , which led to Long kicking Hayes , causing Long 's brother Chris Long to restrain Kyle , who would then be penalized for a personal foul . McCown and Fiammetta would also be penalized , for intentional grounding and facemasking , respectively . Halfway through the quarter , Chicago scored after McCown threw a three @-@ yard pass to Marshall , but Greg Zuerlein would score on a 29 @-@ yard field goal to give the Rams a 24 – 14 lead at halftime . The lone score of the third quarter was Zuerlein 's 40 @-@ yard kick . Early in the fourth quarter , Hester recorded a 62 @-@ yard punt return for a touchdown , which was overruled by Craig Steltz 's holding penalty. the Bears reached the Rams ' one @-@ yard line , but required eight plays : Michael Bush 's run went for no gain ; McCown 's pass to Jeffery was incomplete , but a holding penalty on Brandon McGee gave the Bears a first down ; Bush lost two yards on the following run ; McCown 's touchdown pass to Bennett was nullified by Jermon Bushrod 's holding penalty ; McCown 's 13 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Forté was also nullified , after Forté failed to break the plane , instead placing the Bears back on the one @-@ yard line ; McCown was then sacked by Michael Brockers , but Brockers was penalized for roughing the passer ; Bush failed to gain a yard on the next play ; the Bears finally scored on the drive on Bush 's one @-@ yard run . On the Rams ' ensuing drive , Benny Cunningham gained 27 yards , while the offense gained 48 yards from Clemens ' 19 and 29 yards passes to Chris Givens and Cook , respectively . Four plays later , Cunningham scored on a nine @-@ yard run , while Isaiah Pead scored on the two @-@ point conversion . Devin Hester would fumble on the following kickoff , but recovered at the Bears ' ten @-@ yard line . After the Bears ' offense reached their own 39 @-@ yard line , Quinn stripped McCown , and scored on the following fumble return . The game marked the third time the Bears allowed 40 points during the season for the first time since 1964 .
McCown set the team record for most completions with 36 , two greater than Jim Miller 's and Brian Griese 's 34 set on November 14 , 1999 and September 30 , 2007 , respectively . Forté recorded 77 yards in the game , adding to 6 @,@ 178 career rushing yards , surpassing Neal Anderson to become the second @-@ highest rushing leader in team history . The Bears ' defense recorded the second @-@ worst defensive output in 2013 , with a negative @-@ 11 @.@ 4 , making the team 's defense the second @-@ worst in the NFL .
= = = = Week 13 : at Minnesota Vikings = = = =
In week thirteen , the Bears visited the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome to play the Vikings , whom the Bears trailed 50 – 53 – 2 in the all @-@ time series . Josh McCown was given the start for the third straight week , with an expectation that Jay Cutler would return the following week . McCown entered the game having a 65 @.@ 5 completion percentage for 1 @,@ 106 yards , seven touchdowns , an interception , and a 100 @.@ 8 passer rating . As a result , McCown had an advantage over the Vikings ' pass defense , which ranked 29th in the league with 282 passing yards allowed , while also allowing quarterbacks to record a 65 completion percentage , 40 attempts per game , and a 97 @.@ 7 passer rating . Also , the Vikings allowed 31 @.@ 5 points per game , the worst in the NFL , while recording only 14 turnovers . However , the Bears ' defense was a weakness , ranking last in rushing yards allowed per game ( 145 @.@ 2 ) , total yards ( 1 @,@ 597 ) and first @-@ downs allowed ( 89 ) ; the defense was 31st in the NFL in yards per carry ( 4 @.@ 9 ) , first @-@ down percentage ( 27 @.@ 1 ) and 20 @-@ plus yard runs ( 12 ) . Additionally , the defense allowed running backs in the previous five games to rush for 999 yards , average 5 @.@ 8 yards per carry , and 197 yards per game . Adrian Peterson ran for an average of 108 yards per game in his career against the Bears , including 120 @.@ 6 in the last three meetings between the two . Minnesota 's rushing game also ran for a year @-@ best 232 yards in the previous week . Cutler , Lance Briggs , Major Wright , Anthony Walters , James Brown , Jonathan Scott , and Cornelius Washington were inactive for the Bears .
In the first quarter , McCown had a pass intercepted by Chad Greenway , but an offsides penalty on Robert Blanton nullified the play ; the drive would end with the only score of the first quarter via Robbie Gould 's 30 @-@ yard field goal . In the second quarter , Cordarrelle Patterson 's 33 @-@ yard touchdown run gave the Vikings the lead ; Gould would subsequently kick a 40 @-@ yard field goal . Before the half ended , Christian Ponder suffered from symptoms of a concussion and left . On the Bears ' first drive of the second half , McCown threw an 80 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery . After the Vikings responded with Blair Walsh 's 32 @-@ yard field goal , Jeffery caught a 46 @-@ yard touchdown pass over Viking cornerback Chris Cook to give Chicago the lead 20 – 10 ; Cook would eventually be ejected from the game for shoving side judge Laird Hayes . On Minnesota 's first possession of the final quarter , Matt Cassel threw an eight @-@ yard touchdown to Greg Jennings , and on Chicago 's next drive , McCown 's flip pass for Kyle Long was deflected and stripped by Audie Cole , with Marvin Mitchell recovering . Despite starting the drive in the Bears ' red zone and reaching the six @-@ yard line , Cassel 's pass for Rhett Ellison was tipped and intercepted by Khaseem Greene . After the Bears punted , Cassel fumbled on the first play , but recovered . Afterwards , the Vikings drove from their own six @-@ yard line to the Bears ' 12 , where Walsh tied the game with a 30 @-@ yard field goal , making the score 20 – 20 . On the final play of regulation , Gould 's attempted 66 @-@ yard field goal fell short . In overtime , the Bears ' opening drive ended after McCown was sacked by Jared Allen and fumbled , with Jermon Bushrod recovering , prompting the Bears to punt . On the Vikings ' first drive of the period , Walsh 's 39 @-@ yard field goal was overruled by Ellison 's facemasking penalty ; Walsh would miss the eventual 57 @-@ yarder . The Bears would reach the Vikings ' 29 @-@ yard line , and on second down , Gould missed the 47 @-@ yard kick wide right . The Vikings would reach Chicago 's 16 @-@ yard line , allowing Walsh to kick the game @-@ winning 34 @-@ yard field goal .
Marc Trestman received criticism for calling Gould to attempt the 47 @-@ yard field goal on second down , with the Chicago Sun @-@ Times calling the choice " an indefensible case of playing scared . " Trestman responded by stating he did not want to lose a fumble or suffer a penalty . Jeffery set the team record for the most receiving yards in one game with 249 , surpassing his previous record set against the Saints in week 5 .
= = = = Week 14 : vs. Dallas Cowboys = = = =
The Bears announced on May 24 , 2013 , that they would retire former tight end and head coach Mike Ditka 's number 89 jersey at the Bears @-@ Cowboys halftime ceremony . The number was the last to be retired by the organization , with team chairman George McCaskey stating , " If there is going to be a last one , there is no more appropriate one than 89 . " During the ceremony , players from the 1985 Bears congratulated Ditka through messages on the videoboard . Ditka concluded his speech by saying , " Thank you , thank you , thank you . Go Bears ! "
The two teams had split their meetings 2 – 2 since 2004 , Dallas winning in 2004 and 2007 , and Chicago winning in 2010 and 2012 . Among the players the Bears had to contain is Cowboys running back DeMarco Murray , who averaged 5 yards per carry . The Bears had the worst @-@ ranked rushing defense in the league with 153 @.@ 6 yards allowed per game , but the Cowboys ranked last in rushing attempts with 249 . ESPN Chicago 's Michael C. Wright writes that the Bears could use its sixth @-@ ranked passing offense to attack the Cowboys ' 31st @-@ ranked passing defense , which has allowed 294 @.@ 9 yards per game . The Cowboys ' defense also allowed a league @-@ worst 422 yards per game .
Dallas opened the game with a 12 @-@ play , 75 @-@ yard drive ending with Tony Romo 's 2 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Dez Bryant . The Bears scored the final touchdown of the first quarter on Josh McCown 's 4 @-@ yard pass to Earl Bennett , the result of a 78 @-@ yard drive . With 8 : 58 left in the first half , McCown scored on a 7 @-@ yard run to take the lead 14 – 7 , which the Cowboys answered with Romo 's 10 @-@ yard pass to Jason Witten . After Robbie Gould kicked a 27 @-@ yard field goal , the Bears scored again after McCown threw a 25 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery , who caught the ball over B. W. Webb in the back of the endzone with 0 : 17 left in the half . On the first drive of the third quarter , Gould kicked a 34 @-@ yard field goal , which was bolstered by Matt Forté 's 5 @-@ yard touchdown catch and Brandon Marshall scoring on a 2 @-@ point conversion to increase the score to 35 – 14 . In the fourth quarter , Michael Bush scored on a 17 @-@ yard touchdown reception , and the Cowboys responded with a 9 @-@ yard touchdown catch by Cole Beasley . Gould eventually kicked a 23 @-@ yarder , while the Cowboys scored Joseph Randle 's 1 @-@ yard run with six seconds to go . On the ensuing onside kick , the ball was recovered by Marshall , and McCown ran the clock out to seal the 45 – 28 win .
= = = = Week 15 : at Cleveland Browns = = = =
Jay Cutler made his return to action against the 4 – 9 Cleveland Browns , a move that was criticized by fans . In November , a poll conducted by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times revealed that fans favored Josh McCown with 66 @.@ 87 percent , with Cutler earning 29 @.@ 31 percent . On December 9 , ESPN analyst Skip Bayless tweeted , " As much as I 've supported Vanderbilt 's own Jay Cutler , I must admit Josh McCown runs this offense like he owns it . " Bleacher Report 's Dilan Ames stated that although Cutler is the better quarterback , his injury tendencies and inability to play a full season since 2009 had affected him , along with the statistics comparison between the two quarterbacks : Cutler has recorded 1 @,@ 908 yards , 13 touchdowns and eight interceptions , while McCown has thrown for 1 @,@ 809 yards , 13 touchdowns and one interception . However , Brandon Marshall defended Cutler 's status as the starter , stating :
McCown also acknowledged his backup position on the team , and told the Chicago Tribune , " The way that I serve my team is to play when the starter is not healthy . Jay is our starting quarterback , there is no doubt about that . "
Seven CBS Sports analysts predicted a Bears victory , with Pete Prisco being the only one to favor the Browns . Jeff Joniak stated that the Bears had to attack the Browns ' 3 – 4 defense , who ranked third in yards per pass attempt allowed at 5 @.@ 32 , with their fifth @-@ ranked passing offense . Chicago 's wide receiver duo of Marshall and Alshon Jeffery should also be utilized , as Joe Haden and Buster Skrine are at a size mismatch ( Marshall is 5 inches and 40 pounds larger than Haden , while Jeffery is 6 inches and 30 pounds heavier than Skrine ) . Browns offensive coordinator Ray Horton commented , " This team , Chicago , is a lot like Detroit in that they have weapons at every position . Brandon Marshall and Alshon Jeffery have the most catches in the league . They have the most combined yards in the league . They are both , in our mind , No. 1 receivers . They present a challenge that you can ’ t double everybody . You can ’ t roll up to one guy because the other guy ’ s open . " On defense , the Bears had to contain Josh Gordon and Jordan Cameron . Gordon ranks second in yards after catch , while leading all receivers with 71 for an average of 19 @.@ 7 yards . Cameron leads all tight ends with 23 third down catches . The Bears ' worst @-@ ranked run defense also has to defend against the Browns , which had the third @-@ fewest rushing attempts in the league with 290 with an average of 3 @.@ 78 yards , which is one of the bottom six in the league .
The Bears ' opening drive ended at Cleveland 's 14 @-@ yard line when Cutler had his pass tipped in the endzone by T. J. Ward and intercepted by Tashaun Gipson . The Browns then scored on Billy Cundiff 's 35 @-@ yard field goal , which was tied by Robbie Gould kicking a 23 @-@ yarder . Eventually , the Bears reached the Browns ' 24 @-@ yard line on another drive , and after a penalty on Alshon Jeffery forced the Bears to kick a 46 @-@ yard field goal , the score was nullified by Corey Wootton 's holding penalty , forcing Chicago to punt . With 8 : 01 in the first half , Cutler was again intercepted by Gipson , who returned the pick 44 yards for a touchdown and the 10 – 3 lead . With 24 seconds remaining in the half , Cutler connected on a 5 @-@ yard touchdown pass with Marshall to close the half at 10 – 10 . Cutler ended the first half with 13 of 19 passes completed for 168 yards , a touchdown and two interceptions . Early in the third quarter , Jason Campbell 's pass for Greg Little was intercepted by Zack Bowman and returned 43 yards for the score . Cleveland 's Edwin Baker eventually scored his first career NFL touchdown on a 2 @-@ yard run , and the Browns added to the score when Billy Winn punched the ball from Martellus Bennett , and Ward returned the fumble 52 yards for the 24 – 17 advantage . Eventually , Cutler guided the Bears from their own 5 @-@ yard line , culminating in a 45 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jeffery after Gipson made an ill @-@ timed leap and Julian Posey being unable to interrupt the play with 10 : 59 remaining . With 5 : 41 left in the game , Cutler threw a 5 @-@ yard pass to Earl Bennett to take the 31 – 24 lead , which was extended by Michael Bush on a 40 @-@ yard touchdown run . Cutler 's touchdown pass to Bennett was the twenty @-@ ninth passing touchdown of the season , which ties the team record set in 1947 and 1995 . With 1 : 03 to go , Campbell threw a 43 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Josh Gordon , but the Bears recovered the ensuing onside kick to seal the victory , 38 – 31 . The win marked the third time since 1970 that the Bears won all four games against an AFC division , and the first since 1986 .
The following night , the Bears would jump to first place of the NFC North after the Lions were defeated by the Ravens . The Bears had the opportunity to clinch the division in week sixteen by defeating the Philadelphia Eagles , in addition to losses by the Packers and Lions .
= = = = Week 16 : at Philadelphia Eagles = = = =
Chicago entered week sixteen with a chance to clinch the NFC North in the event that the Packers and Lions lost . The Packers and Lions eventually lost to the Steelers and Giants , respectively , putting the Bears in position to win the division by defeating the Eagles . The last game between the Bears and Eagles was in 2011 , when the Bears won 30 – 24 ; the Bears also lead the all @-@ time series 30 – 12 – 1 , though the Eagles had won six of the last ten meetings . However , the Bears had won four of five meetings between the two teams in the last six years , but all by less than six points . One of the Bears ' keys to victory is to prevent LeSean McCoy from dominating ; the Bears had the worst run defense in the league , while McCoy leads the league in rushing . Chicago 's defense also must contain the Eagles ' fast @-@ scoring offense : the Eagles had the lowest average time of possession per drive at 2 : 24 , while the league average is 3 : 27 . Philadelphia also is the only team in the league to score in fewer than seven plays per drive . In the passing game , Chicago had the fourth @-@ best passing offense , while the Eagles were 26th in pass defense . However , the Eagles are ranked sixth in rushing defense .
The Bears fell behind early in the first quarter when Nick Foles threw a 5 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Riley Cooper with 9 : 54 to go , followed by Devin Hester getting the ball stripped on the ensuing kickoff and Cary Williams recovering the loose ball . LeSean McCoy eventually scored on a 1 @-@ yard run with 7 : 44 in the first , and Philadelphia added to the scoring with Foles throwing a 10 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Brent Celek . After Alex Henery kicked a 49 @-@ yard field goal , the Bears scored their first points of the game with Robbie Gould 's 50 @-@ yard field goal on the last play of the first half . In the second half , the Eagles scored off a safety after Cedric Thornton tackled Matt Forté . Philadelphia scored again after McCoy recorded another rushing touchdown . The Bears scored their first touchdown after Jay Cutler threw a 6 @-@ yard pass to Brandon Marshall , followed by a two @-@ point conversion off Cutler 's pass to Earl Bennett . With 11 : 19 remaining , Chris Polk scored on a 10 @-@ yard run to increase the score to 40 – 11 , added by Brandon Boykin intercepting Cutler and scoring on a 54 @-@ yard return . Afterwards , Josh McCown filled in for Cutler . The Eagles scored again after Bryce Brown ran 65 yards for the touchdown to make the final score 54 – 11 , the biggest blowout since a 47 – 0 loss to the Houston Oilers in 1977 and the second @-@ most points allowed in team history , behind a 55 – 20 loss to Detroit in 1997 .
The Bears failed to score 18 points for the first time in 2013 , while allowing a season @-@ high five sacks . Chicago also allowed two 100 @-@ yard rushers in the same game for the first time since 1976 against the Denver Broncos , with Norris Weese ( 120 yards ) and Ottis Anderson ( 116 yards ) guiding the Broncos to 28 – 14 win . After the game , Marc Trestman stated , " We are a team that was ready to play this game and we played a terrible football game for lack of a better word . I 'm not going to use any word other than that . We were terrible in all three phases . We didn 't play well in any phase of football . "
= = = = Week 17 : vs. Green Bay Packers = = = =
In the season @-@ ender against the Packers for the NFC North title , Aaron Rodgers made his return to action for the first time since week 9 against the Bears , who intend to sweep the Packers for the first time since 2007 . The Packers had fallen to 2 – 5 – 1 without Rodgers , and entered the game with a 7 – 7 – 1 record . However , Green Bay did not have Clay Matthews in the lineup , which ESPN wrote could provide an advantage for Jay Cutler , who had a 1 – 8 record against the Packers . The Packers had won seven of the last nine games between the rivals , while winning 21 – 13 in 2012 's game at Soldier Field ; Green Bay had won the last three games at Soldier Field . Rodgers ' absence had improved the Packers ' rushing offense , which ranked seventh with 131 @.@ 7 yards per game , which played against the Bears ' worst @-@ ranked rush defense , having allowed 161 @.@ 5 rushing yards per game , 25 @.@ 6 yards greater than the 31st @-@ ranked team . Also , the Bears had allowed 5 @.@ 4 rushing yards per carry , the worst in the league since the 1961 Vikings . For the Bears ' offense , the team had to utilize Matt Forté against a Packers defense that allowed 4 @.@ 61 yards per run . Quarterbacks against the Packers had a 95 @.@ 5 passer rating , recording 7 @.@ 70 yards per pass , and a 1 @.@ 9 interception percentage . However , the offensive line had to protect Cutler against the pass rush , with Green Bay ranked eighth in the NFL with 43 sacks , with 25 of them from blitzes . The game marked the first time since the NFL realigned with eight divisions in 2002 that the NFC North did not feature a division champion with at least ten wins . The Packers were the favorite by − 3 .
After the Bears punted on the opening drive , the Packers reached Chicago 's five @-@ yard line , but Rodgers was intercepted by Chris Conte . Chicago scored on the following possession with Forté 's four @-@ yard run . In the second quarter , Rodgers was intercepted by Tim Jennings . After the Packers scored on Mason Crosby 's 33 @-@ yard field goal , Devin Hester fumbled on the kickoff , but recovered ; the Bears would be forced to punt . After Green Bay reached Chicago 's 17 @-@ yard line , Rodgers was hit by Julius Peppers , with the ball leaving his hand as his arm went forward ; the players did not attempt to recover the ball , as if it was an incompletion , but the referees did not consider the play dead . Jarrett Boykin subsequently picked up the ball , and scored on the play . On the Bears ' next drive , Cutler 's pass to Alshon Jeffery was stripped by Tramon Williams , and was recovered by Morgan Burnett . Crosby scored the final score of the first half with a 27 @-@ yard field goal . In the third quarter , the Bears regained the lead with Forté 's five @-@ yard touchdown run . Both teams exchanged scores on the next two drives of the game , with the Packers scoring on Rodgers ' seven @-@ yard touchdown throw to Randall Cobb , followed by Forté 's one @-@ yard touchdown run , ending the quarter with the Bears leading 21 – 20 . On the first play of the final quarter , Cutler threw a five @-@ yard touchdown pass to Brandon Marshall , which the Packers retaliated with Eddie Lacy 's six @-@ yard touchdown run . After the Bears punted , the Packers reached the Bears ' 48 @-@ yard line with 48 seconds left . Defensive coordinator Mel Tucker called a blitz , but Conte failed to apply man @-@ to @-@ man coverage , allowing Cobb to score the game @-@ winning touchdown . However , the Packers failed the two @-@ point conversion , making the score 33 – 28 . The Bears received the ball with 38 seconds left , and reached the Packers ' 45 @-@ yard line , where Cutler 's Hail Mary pass for Marshall was intercepted by Sam Shields as time expired .
The season marked the sixth time in the previous seven years the Bears missed the playoffs . Despite forcing two turnovers , the Bears defense allowed the Packers to record 473 yards , convert 9 of 18 third down plays , a 35 : 09 time of possession and run 76 plays in comparison to Chicago 's 49 .
= = = Standings = = =
= = = = Division = = = =
= = = = Conference = = = =
= = Statistics = =
Statistically , the Bears offense greatly improved from its 2012 counterpart . The 2013 offense ended the year with the second @-@ best scoring offense with 445 points , behind the Denver Broncos ; the previous year ranked 16th at 375 total points and 23 @.@ 4 PPG . The 2012 team also was ranked 29th in passing yards with 2999 , while the following year improved to fifth with 4281 yards . The offense also broke team records in total yards ( 6 @,@ 109 ) , passing yards ( 4 @,@ 450 ) , passing touchdowns ( 32 ) , first downs ( 344 ) and passer rating ( 96 @.@ 9 ) , while falling short of the 1985 team 's record of points scored in a season by 11 , ending with 445 . However , the defense struggled mightily throughout the season , ranking 30th in the NFL , with injuries ending the seasons of five players : defensive tackles Henry Melton and Nick Collins , cornerbacks Kelvin Hayden and Charles Tillman , and linebacker D. J. Williams . After having the fifth @-@ ranked defense in the league in 2012 , the team allowed franchise @-@ records in yards allowed with 6 @,@ 313 , rushing yards allowed ( 2 @,@ 583 ) and points with 478 in 2013 ( also ranking 29th in the NFL in points allowed per game with 29 @.@ 9 ) , while allowing a league @-@ worst 5 @.@ 35 rushing yards per carry ; the Bears were the only team in the NFL to allow five yards per carry during the year . In third @-@ down stops , the Bears ranked 25th . Additionally , the defense tied the Jacksonville Jaguars for the fewest sacks in the league with 31 . Regarding the defense , Chicago Tribune writer Steve Rosenbloom wrote , " Under Angelo and Smith , the Bears couldn 't win enough games where they needed only three offensive touchdowns . Under Emery and Trestman , the Bears couldn 't win enough games where they needed to hold opponents to only three offensive touchdowns . "
= = = Position reviews = = =
Together , quarterbacks Jay Cutler and Josh McCown broke team records in touchdown passes , passing yards , completion percentage and passer rating with 32 , 4 @,@ 450 , 64 @.@ 4 and 96 @.@ 9 , respectively . Individually , in eleven games , Cutler completed 63 @.@ 1 percent of his passes for 2 @,@ 621 yards with 19 touchdowns , 12 interceptions and a career @-@ high 89 @.@ 2 passer rating . In the other five games , McCown completed 66 @.@ 8 percent of passes for 1 @,@ 829 yards , 13 touchdowns , an interception and a 109 passer rating , which ranked third in the NFL behind Denver 's Peyton Manning and Philadelphia 's Nick Foles . Running back Matt Forte had 1 @,@ 339 rushing yards , a career @-@ high , while wide receivers Brandon Marshall and Alshon Jeffery had 1 @,@ 200 receiving yards each , as the Bears became the first team to accomplish the feat since the 2002 Buffalo Bills . Marshall was also ranked the best receiver by Pro Football Focus with a score of 37 @.@ 8 , 13 @.@ 1 higher than Green Bay 's Jordy Nelson . The offensive line was also drastically changed from its 2012 counterpart , allowing the fourth @-@ lowest sacks in the league with 30 , compared to allowing the eighth @-@ most in 2012 with 44 .
On special teams , Robbie Gould tied his team record for the highest field goal percentage with 89 @.@ 7 by converting 26 of 29 field goals . Gould also became the second player in franchise history to reach 1 @,@ 000 career points during the season . However , punter Adam Podlesh ranked 33rd in the league in gross average punting yards with 40 @.@ 6 . In comparison with his 2012 stats , Podlesh was 18th in the league in net punting average with 39 @.@ 4 yards , 34 punts landing inside the 20 @-@ yard line with 6 touchbacks . In 2013 , he dropped to 29th in the former category with 37 @.@ 9 yards , 27 punts inside the 20 and four fewer touchbacks . The punting corps also ranked last in the league in gross punting with 40 yards . In the return game , Devin Hester led the league in kickoff return yards with 1 @,@ 442 and was fifth in kickoff return average with 27 @.@ 7 yards . Linebacker Blake Costanzo led all Bears gunners with 17 tackles . Cornerback Sherrick McManis ranked second with 15 , followed by safety Craig Steltz ( 14 ) , receiver Eric Weems ( 13 ) and safety Anthony Walters ( 10 ) . Ultimately , the Bears ' special teams ranked 23rd in the NFL , leading the league in kickoff coverage after allowing 18 @.@ 7 yards per return .
= = Awards and records = =
= = = Awards = = =
On December 27 , Brandon Marshall and Matt Forte were named to the 2014 Pro Bowl , the fewest number of Bears sent since 2009 , when two were also sent , and the first time a Bears defensive player was not invited since 2004 . On January 14 , 2014 , Marshall and Forte were named to the Pro Football Writers Association 's All @-@ NFC Team . On January 3 , 2014 , the Associated Press released its annual All @-@ Pro team , with no Bears named . On January 9 , 2014 , Alshon Jeffery was named to the Pro Bowl after an injury to Calvin Johnson . Jeffery was later named the PFWA 's Most Improved Player on January 17 . On January 20 , Tim Jennings and Kyle Long were named to the Pro Bowl , replacing Richard Sherman of the Seattle Seahawks , who advanced to Super Bowl XLVIII and Mike Iupati suffered an injury , respectively . Long 's invitation marked the first time a Bears rookie was invited since special teamer Johnny Knox in 2009 , and the first offensive rookie since Gale Sayers in 1965 . The four offensive Pro Bowlers are the most sent by the Bears since 1985 , when Jim McMahon , Walter Payton , Jay Hilgenberg and Jim Covert were invited to the game . Forte , Marshall and Jeffery 's invitations also marked the first time since 1985 the Bears sent multiple skill position players , and the most sent by the team since 1963 with Bill Wade , Joe Marconi and Mike Ditka . Forte , Marshall and Jeffery were eventually drafted in the fantasy draft by Team Rice , while Long and Jennings were assigned to Team Sanders . In the 22 – 21 victory for Team Rice , Forte ran for 31 yards on six attempts while catching three passes for 24 yards . Jeffery and Marshall recorded two and one catch for 22 and 21 yards , respectively . For Team Sanders , Jennings recorded three tackles , while Long assisted in shoving Cam Newton into the endzone .
On January 8 , 2014 , Long was named to the Pro Football Focus All @-@ Rookie Team . On January 15 , Gil Brandt named Long to the NFL.com All @-@ Rookie Team . On January 24 , Josh McCown and Matt Slauson were named to the USA Today All @-@ Joe Team , which honors players who have never been invited to a Pro Bowl . Prior to the 3rd Annual NFL Honors , Matt Forte was nominated for FedEx Ground Player of the Year against Philadelphia 's LeSean McCoy and Kansas City 's Jamaal Charles , but lost to McCoy . During the show , Charles Tillman was awarded the Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year Award for his charitable work in the Chicago area .
= = = = Weekly awards = = = =
In week two against the Vikings , Devin Hester was named NFC Special Teams Player of the Week on September 18 .
In week nine against the Packers , Shea McClellin recorded three sacks , and was named NFC Defensive Player of the Week on November 6 .
After scoring five touchdowns in week fourteen against the Cowboys , the most by a Bears quarterback since Jack Concannon in 1972 , Josh McCown was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Week on December 11 .
= = = Records = = =
= = = = Team = = = =
= = = = = Season = = = = =
The Bears offense broke four team records in 2013 : the most total yards with 6 @,@ 109 , the most passing yards with 4 @,@ 450 , the most passing touchdowns with 32 , and the most first downs with 344 .
The defense set three franchise records during the season , which included allowing the most yards in team history with 6 @,@ 313 , along with the most rushing yards allowed with 2 @,@ 583 , and the most points allowed with 478 .
= = = = Individual = = = =
= = = = = Game = = = = =
In week one against the Bengals , Robbie Gould kicked and made the longest field goal attempt in franchise and Soldier Field history with a 58 @-@ yard attempt made in week one against the Bengals .
In week two , Devin Hester set a franchise record for the most kick return yards in a game with 249 kickoff return yards against the Vikings . The previous record of 225 yards was also held by Hester .
In week thirteen against Minnesota , Alshon Jeffery broke the franchise record for the most receiving yards in a game .
= = Staff = =
= = Final roster = =
= Narrows Bridge ( Perth ) =
The Narrows Bridge is a freeway crossing of the Swan River in Perth , Western Australia .
Made up of two road bridges and a railway bridge located over a section of water known as The Narrows , located between Mill Point and Point Lewis , it connects the Mitchell and Kwinana Freeways , linking the city 's northern and southern suburbs . The original road bridge was opened in 1959 and was the largest precast prestressed concrete bridge in the world . Construction of the northern interchange for this bridge necessitated the reclamation of a large amount of land from the river .
The bridge formed part of the Kwinana Freeway which originally ran for only 2 @.@ 4 miles ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) . Over the following decades , the freeway system was expanded to the north and south , greatly increasing the volume of traffic using the bridge . As a result , in 2001 , a duplicate traffic bridge was opened to the west of the original bridge , and in 2005 , the railway bridge was constructed in the gap between the two traffic bridges . Passenger trains first traversed the Narrows in 2007 with the opening of the Mandurah railway line .
= = First road bridge : 1959 = =
The close distance between Mill Point and Point Lewis at the foot of Mount Eliza meant the site was suggested as a suitable location for a bridge as early as 1849 . A bridge was proposed for the site in 1899 , but its expected cost of £ 13 @,@ 000 was deemed too high . Preliminary planning for a bridge at the site finally began in 1947 , but was suspended so that a replacement , The Causeway , could be built at Heirisson Island , at the city 's eastern end . The new Causeway bridges were opened in 1952 , and by 1954 traffic using them to enter the city had doubled , renewing calls for a bridge at The Narrows .
Site investigations for the bridge began in August 1954 . The bridge was proposed for The Narrows site by the Town Planning Commission under the chairmanship of Harold Boas . The chosen site drew public protest on the basis that the bridge would spoil the view to and from the city . Also , residents of the wealthy Mill Point area were angry that they would have a major highway running beside their houses . The site also necessitated the reclamation of 60 acres ( 24 ha ) of land from Mounts Bay for the bridge approach and interchange . This land reclamation , which started in October 1954 , saw the addition of 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 3 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m3 ) of sand , much of which was dredged from Melville Water .
The State started saving for the new bridge in September 1954 , and the construction of the bridge was approved by the Hawke state Labor government in November 1954 , before the Hepburn @-@ Stephenson metropolitan roads plan had been finalised , such was the urgency of a new traffic link . The construction of the bridge was subsequently endorsed in the 1955 Hepburn – Stephenson plan , which later developed into the Metropolitan Region Scheme .
The river bed at the site of the proposed bridge was not ideal for bridge building , with soft mud extending down up to 80 feet ( 24 m ) , with sand beds below that going a further 40 feet ( 12 m ) down . Ernie Godfrey , a bridge engineer with the Main Roads Department , travelled overseas to inspect bridges in similar geological locations and to source a designer for the proposed bridge . The design contract for the bridge was won by British engineering firm Maunsell & Co .
Construction on the road system began in 1956 , and the contract for construction of the bridge was signed by Commissioner of Main Roads J. Digby Leach on 16 March 1957 . The bridge was built by Danish firm Christiani and Nielsen in conjunction with Western Australian engineering firm J. O. Clough & Son . Leif Ott Nilsen oversaw construction on behalf of Christiani and Nielsen . The first timber pile for the temporary staging for the construction was driven at noon on 8 June 1957 . The first permanent pile for the bridge was driven home on 18 August 1957 . Work on the bridge 's precast concrete beams began in September 1957 , and the first of these was lifted into place by the 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) gantry crane in February 1958 . The last river pile was driven home in November 1958 , and the final concrete beam was lowered into position in June 1959 .
During construction on 10 February 1959 , John Tonkin , then the Deputy Premier and Minister for Works , announced that the new bridge was to be named the Golden West Bridge . However , Golden West was also the name for a popular soft drink ; the proposal encountered scorn from commentators and was quietly dropped .
The bridge cost £ 1 @.@ 5 million , as part of a wider road system costing £ 3 @.@ 5 million . Construction on the bridge took 2 years and 5 months . It was officially opened by Governor Charles Gairdner on 13 November 1959 . He unveiled a plaque on the bridge together with Premier Sir David Brand , Commissioner of Main Roads J. Digby Leach and Works Minister Wild . Gairdner was also the first person to drive across the new bridge . It was hoped at this stage that the debt raised to pay for the bridge would be repaid by the Government within 12 months .
The bridge formed part of the new Kwinana Freeway , which originally ran 2 @.@ 4 miles ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) from the Narrows to Canning Highway . This was described as the " most modern highway " in Western Australia , with a speed limit of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) . The bridge was also the largest precast prestressed concrete bridge in the world at the time of its opening .
= = = Design = = =
The bridge was jointly designed by engineering firm G. Maunsell & Partners and architects William Halford & Partners . The prestressed concrete design was relatively new for Western Australia , where road bridges had traditionally been built from timber frameworks . The bridge is arched along its length , with a vertical curve of up to 4 % grade .
The unusually soft soil conditions at the site forced the use 160 " Gambia piles " for the bridge 's foundations , named after the country in which they were first used . The 31 @-@ inch ( 79 cm ) diameter piles have steel shells and conical noses . The hollow piles were driven by a drop hammer falling within them , then when they had sufficient resistance to driving , they were filled with reinforced concrete .
The piles support two river piers , two shore piers and two abutments . The bridge 's support columns on the piers were designed in a triangular form , larger at the top than at the bottom , each carrying two of the bridge 's beams , so as to not completely obstruct the view through the bridge 's piers . These columns support the bridge 's five spans : a central span of 320 feet ( 98 m ) , two flanking spans of 230 feet ( 70 m ) each and two smaller spans of 160 feet ( 49 m ) at each end passing over roadways . The bridge has eight parallel lines of beams . Each line of beams consists of two cantilever spans 370 feet ( 110 m ) long suspended between the shore and river piers , a central suspended span 140 feet ( 43 m ) long between the two river piers , and two 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) spans suspended over roadways at either end . Suspended between the beams of the bridge were 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of 30 @-@ inch ( 76 cm ) water mains pipes and 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 800 m ) of 10 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 27 cm ) gas and drainage pipes .
Footpaths 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) wide on either side of the bridge were formed by concrete cast in situ and cantilevered out from the adjacent beams . These footpaths were separated from the roadway and the bridge 's edge by lightweight aluminium balustrades and safety fences installed by Bristile . The street lights were integrated into the safety fence .
The deck of the bridge was formed by pre @-@ casting individual concrete units on the southern river shore , then hoisting them into place on temporary timber staging in the river . The units were then structurally joined by strands of high @-@ tensile wire and stretched with a hydraulic jack . These pre @-@ stressing strands were anchored in reinforced concrete blocks at the ends of the spans . The new bridge had a traffic capacity of 6 @,@ 000 cars per hour in each direction , over a total of six traffic lanes .
= = = Post @-@ completion history = = =
Strengthening works were carried out on the bridge by Structural Systems Ltd in 1996 . Also in 1996 , decorative night lighting was installed on each side of the bridge . The bridge was entered on the state 's heritage register on 8 January 1999 , and was named a national engineering landmark by the Institution of Engineers , Australia , in November 1999 .
The opening of the southern regions of Perth to easier central business district access changed the nature of the metropolitan area , prompting dramatic population growth south of the river . This led to increased traffic on the bridge , causing regular traffic jams in peak hour . Over the years , governments suggested various ideas to reduce the traffic using the bridge , including introducing congestion pricing similar to that used in Singapore , charging vehicles to enter the central business district during peak periods . The government also encouraged voluntary car sharing . These efforts were largely unsuccessful , and by the 1990s , the bridge had become the city 's worst traffic bottleneck , despite the addition of an extra traffic lane , bringing the total number of lanes to seven .
= = Second road bridge : 2001 = =
Plans for a second Narrows Bridge were mooted during the 1970s , but did not eventuate . By 1998 , the original bridge was carrying 155 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , with an average of 2 @,@ 700 cars per lane between 7 : 30 am and 8 : 30 am , and was thought to be the busiest section of freeway in the country . This quantity of traffic far outstripped the expected capacity of the bridge when it opened in 1959 . The solution to the traffic problem most favoured by road planners in 1998 was to widen the existing bridge by building a smaller second traffic bridge just west from it and joining their decks to form a contiguous roadway . This would increase the number of traffic lanes from seven to 10 . The widening was expected to cost $ 50 million .
A plan to widen the Narrows Bridge was announced on 13 April 1998 by the Court Liberal State Government . The $ 70 million plan would involve the addition of four extra traffic lanes , and was part of a $ 230 million package upgrading and extending the southern end of the Kwinana Freeway . Alannah McTiernan , then the Opposition Transport spokesperson , attacked the plan , saying that the government should instead build a railway to Rockingham .
Instead of widening the existing structure , Transport Minister Eric Charlton on 15 July 1998 approved the construction of a separate second road bridge alongside the original Narrows Bridge ; this solution would cost $ 15 million less , due to new building techniques , and would be less disruptive to traffic on the existing bridge . The construction of a separate bridge was also deemed necessary because the foundations of any new structure might settle in the soft river bed at a different rate to the existing bridge . Under the plan , there would be six lanes on each bridge , including a bus lane on each . The new bridge would run parallel to the original bridge and be separated from it by a gap of 6 metres ( 20 ft ) , and was designed to look largely the same as the original .
Main Roads called for tenders for the bridge widening in July 1998 , and on 7 March 1999 it was announced that the building contract had been awarded to Leighton Contractors . The negotiated contract price was reduced to $ 49 million owing to the construction method proposed by Leighton . The designers were Connell Wagner .
The bridge was constructed by the incremental launching technique , with 28 @-@ metre ( 92 ft ) segments pre @-@ cast on both shores and pushed out into place as the construction progressed . The bridge was divided into two strips lengthways , with the eastern half launched separately from the western half , and the two decks were later joined at the bridge 's centre line . The first of twelve segments was launched in February 2000 .
As it was being launched , the bridge rested on temporary piles ; only after the structure was fully launched were these piles removed and the bridge allowed to rest on its permanent supports . The construction required the driving of around 250 steel piles ; the first was driven on 10 August 1999 .
Construction of the second bridge was interrupted several times by strikes , as well as by an algal bloom in the Swan River . The bridge was finally opened to traffic on 26 February 2001 , and officially opened by new Transport Minister Alannah McTiernan ( a strident critic of the project ) on 30 May 2001 . The bridge had originally been planned to be opened in August 2000 , and was expected to carry 80 @,@ 000 cars per day . The new traffic bridge carried six lanes of traffic , including one bus lane , and the original bridge was modified at this time to carry six traffic lanes , as designed .
= = Railway bridge : 2005 = =
During the construction of the second road bridge , the construction of a railway through Perth 's southern suburbs to Rockingham and Mandurah became a political issue . The incumbent Liberal State Government proposed building a railway from Kenwick to connect to the Kwinana Freeway , running in the centre of the freeway for only part of its journey . The Labor opposition instead wanted to build the railway across the Narrows Bridge and down most of the length of the freeway .
After the Labor party won the 2001 state election , they reversed the previous government 's position and started planning for the installation of railway tracks across the Narrows Bridge . The construction of a third bridge was needed due to the lack of previous planning provisions when the second bridge was constructed . Leighton Constructions won the contract to build the freeway stage of the railway line and set about constructing a narrow southbound railway bridge in the 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) gap between the existing road bridges . The designers of " Package E " of the Southern Suburbs Railway ( which included the Narrows Rail Bridge ) were GHD , Coffey Geosciences and Wyche Consulting . The eastern side of the existing northbound ( 2001 ) bridge was also strengthened to accommodate the northbound railway track . Construction was due to start in July 2005 and completion was expected by December 2005 . The first passengers traversed the Narrows on 23 December 2007 with the opening of the Mandurah Railway Line .
The railway bridge deck was made from nine steel girders each weighing up to 99 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 219 @,@ 000 lb ) and up to 54 metres ( 177 ft ) long . These girders were built in Kwinana , brought to the site by road and lowered into position with a crane .
= Mississippi Highway 792 =
Mississippi Highway 792 ( MS 792 ) is a road in eastern Mississippi . It starts at U.S. Route 45 ( US 45 ) , and travels east . Near halfway of the route , SR 792 turns south and continues to its eastern terminus at MS 388 . The highway was designated in 1998 , and no major changes have been made since .
= = Route description = =
MS 792 is located in southern Lowndes and northern Noxubee counties . In 2012 , Mississippi Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) calculated as many as 1 @,@ 800 vehicles traveling west of Trinity Road and Weyerhaeuser Road , and as few as 540 vehicles traveling south of Bluitt Road . It is not included as a part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation . The route is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 , and is maintained by the Mississippi Department of Transportation .
MS 792 starts at a T @-@ intersection with US 45 , near the Black Prairie wildlife management area . It travels east along Carson Road , going through a small group of trees and farmland . At Gun Club Road , the landscape changes completely into farmland . Near 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) later , Carson Road intersects Weyerhaeuser Road , that leads to cellulose fiber mills . MS 792 later turns southeastward at Old Macon Road , and crosses over a river . South of Plum Grove Road , the route shifts slightly to the west . Old Macon Road enters Noxubee County , while crossing over a small creek . MS 792 continues south for a few more miles , before ending at MS 388 .
= = History = =
The route was constructed by 1998 , connecting from US 45 to MS 388 . At the point where MS 792 turns south in Lowndes county , it is following the original alignment of U.S. highway 45 . This was the alignment for u.s. 45 from 1926 until 1938 , when the current 45 was completed . MS 792 was fully paved , and no significant changes have happened on the route since .
= = Major intersections = =
= Bregowine =
Bregowine ( or Bregwine or Bregwin ; died August 764 ) was a medieval Archbishop of Canterbury . Little is known of his origins or his activities as archbishop , although a number of stories were told about his possible origins after the Norman conquest in 1066 . There are no records of him prior to his becoming archbishop . He possibly owed his elevation to the Kentish monarch . The records after his elevation to Canterbury are mainly about disputes over land , but knowledge of his time in office is hampered by the destruction of many of the contemporary records . After his death , he was considered a saint and a life about him was written in the 12th century .
= = Life = =
Various stories have been told about Bregowine 's origins , including that he was a nobleman and a continental Saxon who converted to Christianity and came to Canterbury because of the saintly reputation of Theodore of Tarsus . Others say that he owed his elevation to King Æthelbert II of Kent , but all these stories rest on works that were written after the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . There are no contemporary records of Bregowine before he was archbishop . It does not appear , however , that he was of Mercian origins like his predecessors Tatwin and Nothhelm .
Whatever his upbringing , Bregowine was consecrated as archbishop on 27 September 761 . His election took place in a brief period when Kent was free of Mercian dominance between 756 and 764 , so the story that he owed his election to Æthelbert does fit with the time frame . He wrote letters to Archbishop Lul of Mainz which still exist , and which discuss an earlier meeting between the two men . Other activities as archbishop are recorded in surviving charters . One records that he protested at the loss of a church at Cookham that was confiscated by King Cynewulf of Wessex sometime after 760 . Another surviving charter from Dunwald , a thegn of King Æthelbert , concerning land in Canterbury , records that Bregowine consented to the gift of land . Unfortunately , many of the early charters of the diocese of Canterbury are lost , which restricts knowledge of Bregowine 's activities as archbishop .
Bregowine died in 764 and was originally buried in the baptistry in Canterbury , but his remains were moved to the choir of Canterbury Cathedral in 1123 . This followed an attempt in around 1121 to remove his remains to another monastery , which came to nothing . The remains were placed by the altar of St Gregory in the south transept , after having been briefly placed in the north transept . Bregowine was later considered a saint , with a feast day of 26 August , although Florence of Worcester , a 12th @-@ century writer , recorded his death date as 24 August . Other sources record the death date as 25 August . His life was later written by Eadmer in the 12th century .
= Homer vs. the Eighteenth Amendment =
" Homer vs. the Eighteenth Amendment " is the eighteenth episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 16 , 1997 . Prohibition is enacted in Springfield and Homer helps fight it by illegally supplying alcohol to the town . It was written by John Swartzwelder , and directed by Bob Anderson . Dave Thomas guest stars as Rex Banner and Joe Mantegna returns as Fat Tony .
= = Plot = =
A prohibitionist movement emerges in Springfield after Bart is accidentally intoxicated during a St. Patrick 's Day celebration . The municipal government discovers alcohol has actually been banned for two centuries , and moves to enforce the law , prompting Moe to disguise his bar as a pet shop . With the town becoming impatient with the police 's incompetence , Chief Wiggum is replaced by Rex Banner , an officer of the U.S. Treasury Department .
In the meantime , Homer figures out a way to keep Moe 's bar operating , by becoming a bootlegger . One night , he and Bart sneak out to the city dump to reclaim the beer that was disposed of when the Prohibition law was enacted . He then sets up shop in his basement pouring the beer into the finger holes of bowling balls . Using an intricate set of pipes under the Bowl @-@ A @-@ Rama , he bowls the balls into Moe 's . Upon discovering it , Marge actually finds it a very good idea ( since Homer is actually using his intellectual faculties and that he 's making enough money to support the family ) , though Lisa doesn 't , prompting Homer , Marge , and Bart to send her to her room . The media realizes someone 's allowing Springfield 's underground alcohol trade to flourish , and they give the still @-@ unknown Homer the nickname " Beer Baron " . Rex Banner fails to catch the Baron and resorts to stopping people in the street to demand if they are the Beer Baron ; he even arrests Ned Flanders who pleads guilty to drinking only root beer .
When his supply of liquor runs out , Homer begins to distill his own homemade liquor . However , his stills start to explode . He is then confronted by a desperate ex @-@ Chief Wiggum . In an attempt to rekindle Wiggum 's career , Homer allows the former Police Chief to turn him in . The punishment that awaits him is expulsion from the town ( and presumably death ) by an archaic catapult , showing how anachronistic the law really was . Marge tells everyone that this law and punishment make no sense and it 's meaningless to punish Homer , especially for their freedom to drink . Rex Banner steps up to lecture the town on the reasons why the law must be upheld . While he lectures the assembled Springfield citizens , Wiggum has him catapulted and gets his job back . The town clerk then finds out that the Prohibition law was actually repealed a year after it was put in place , and so Homer is released . Within five minutes Fat Tony is only too happy to oblige when Mayor Quimby asks him to flood the town with alcohol once more , and Springfield salutes its qualities as Homer announces , " To alcohol ! The cause of ... and solution to ... all of life 's problems . "
= = Production = =
The main plot of the episode is based on the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , in which alcohol was banned in the United States . As The Simpsons has many episodes that have stories and jokes related to alcohol , the writers thought it was strange that they had never done an episode related to Prohibition , and that the idea seemed " perfect . " The episode features a vast amount of Irish stereotyping at the St. Patrick 's Day celebration . This was a reference to when Conan O 'Brien was a writer for the show and was of Irish descent , and his use of Irish stereotypes . Various writers were very concerned about Bart getting drunk . This was why he drank the beer through a horn , to show that it was only accidental . This was a toned down version of what was in John Swartzwelder 's original script . Originally Chief Wiggum 's first line was " They 're either drunk or on the cocaine " , but it was deemed too old @-@ fashioned . The discovery of " more lines on the parchment " was a simple deus ex machina to get Homer freed and to end the episode .
When Homer first enters Moe 's " Pet Shop " the man that tips his hat to him outside was a background character used in the early seasons . The riot at the beginning of the episode was taken from footage from the end of the season 6 episode " Lisa on Ice " and updated . The line " To alcohol ! The cause of ... and solution to ... all of life 's problems , " was originally the act break line at the end of act two , but was moved to the very end of the episode .
= = Censorship = =
During the riot , a scene where an Irish mob blow @-@ up a British chip shop named " John Bull 's Fish & Chips " was censored on British television . The episode first aired while the conflict in Northern Ireland known as The Troubles was ongoing and four years after the Shankill Road bombing in which ten people were killed by a Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) bomb which exploded prematurely in a chip shop .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode parodies the series The Untouchables , with the character of Rex Banner based on Robert Stack 's portrayal of Eliot Ness , and the voice of the narrator being based on that of Walter Winchell . Barney leaving flowers outside the Duff brewery is , according to show runner Josh Weinstein , a reference to people leaving flowers at the grave sites of various Hollywood figures , with him specifically citing Rudolph Valentino and Marilyn Monroe as examples of this trend . It may also be a direct reference to the Poe Toaster . The shot of the diner is a reference to Edward Hopper 's Nighthawks painting . A sign in Moe 's Bar says " No Irish Need Apply " a reference to Anti @-@ Irish sentiment . One of the persons on the float " The Drunken Irish Novelists of Springfield " bears a resemblance to Irish writer James Joyce .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homer vs. the Eighteenth Amendment " finished 39th in ratings for the week of March 10 – 26 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 9 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " A nice episode in which Homer actually devises a clever plan to keep the beer flowing . " The Toronto Star described the episode as one of Bob Anderson 's " classics . " The Daily Telegraph also characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes . " Robert Canning gave the episode 9 @.@ 8 / 10 calling it his favorite episode of the series .
Homer 's line " To alcohol ! The cause of ... and solution to ... all of life 's problems " was described by Josh Weinstein as " one of the best , most truthful Simpsons statements ever . " In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly included it in their list of " 24 Endlessly Quotable TV Quips " .
= The Last of the Masters =
The Last of the Masters ( also known as Protection Agency ) is a science fiction novelette by Philip K. Dick . The original manuscript of the story was received by the Scott Meredith Literary Agency on July 15 , 1953 , and the story was published by the Hanro Corporation in the final issue of Orbit Science Fiction in 1954 . It has since been reprinted in several Philip K. Dick story collections , beginning with The Golden Man in 1980 .
" The Last of the Masters " depicts a society 200 years after a global anarchist revolution has toppled the national governments of the world ( the exact year is unstated ) . Civilization has stagnated due to the loss of scientific knowledge and industry during the now @-@ legendary revolt . Elsewhere , the last state , governing a highly centralized and efficient society , conceals itself from the Anarchist League , a global militia preventing the recreation of any government . When three agents of the League are sent to investigate rumors of the microstate 's existence , the government arranges for them to be killed , leading to the death of one and the capture of another . Tensions rapidly escalate after the agents of the state realize that the third has escaped . Assuming he will report the state 's existence , the government mobilizes for total war . In actuality , the surviving anarchist elects to attempt his comrades ' rescue and assassinate the head of state : the last surviving " government robot " .
The primary theme of the story is the conflict between anarchism and statism , the political and ethical dimensions of which are explored through the characters ' dialogue . Though the attention the story received was limited prior to the author 's death in 1982 , it has since seen greater circulation in Philip K. Dick story collections , and has been reviewed and analyzed for its postmodern critique of technology and its political implications .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = The last government = = =
The title character , Bors , a 200 @-@ year @-@ old " government integration robot " — and the last in existence — awakens after a routine maintenance check to learn that his motor system is in a state of decline . An artificially intelligent machine who displays a degree of emotion and even psychological complexity , he is informed by Fowler , a personal mechanic , that his body has begun to break down due to age . His legs no longer work , his motor system will be irreparable in a matter of months , and full paralysis will take place in under a year .
Of his entire body , only five " synapse coils " have not yet begun to degrade . These memory units are irreplaceable due to the lack of skilled technicians and rare components needed to recreate them . Within them , he stores the last records of advanced science and technology , which he uses to guide his society at high efficiency as a benevolent dictator , operating according to utilitarian principles . Though he wields hegemonic control over his society , he views his dictatorship as the last bastion of humanity 's scientific progress , and views himself as a guardian who oversees and protects that progress . This causes him to privately despair that he — and the knowledge only he possesses — will soon die . He also becomes increasingly paranoid , fearing to trust a loyal assistant , Peter Green , and confiding only in Fowler , his personal mechanic .
Hidden in a remote mountain valley , Bors commands the world 's last government . The microstate is tightly centralized around him , and he manages it bureaucratically for optimum efficiency in all sectors of the economy and military . The effect is " an accurate and detailed reproduction of a society two centuries gone . " Bors is immediately established as an utterly necessary figure in his society and is quickly escorted back into service as the leader of the government by Fowler . A personal assistant as well as mechanic to Bors , Fowler maintains a pretension of loyalty to the robot , but privately recognizes that his society is stagnant and that its leader is becoming mentally unbalanced . Pessimistic , he expresses cynicism regarding the subservient role humans in his society play to Bors . He is contrasted with Peter Green , a genuinely loyal assistant to the robot , who is among the few humans trusted to oversee his body while it is unconscious for repair . Though loyal to his leader , Green nonetheless draws Bors ' distrust as the robot 's paranoia steadily grows .
= = = The Anarchist League = = =
Elsewhere , three members of the " Anarchist League " are on a mission to investigate rumors of a government in existence near a remote mountain valley . The League is a global organization dedicated to seeking out and eradicating governments . Established at some unknown point during or after the global revolt , the League is organized around " League camps " which dot the landscape . Members of the League are easily recognized by their " ironite staffs " : metallic walking sticks which they are trained in using as weapons . These tools are a symbol of the League — " the walking Anarchists who patrolled the world on foot , the world 's protection agency . "
The three member team is composed of Edward Tolby , his daughter , Silvia Tolby ( of unspecified age , but vaguely described as an adolescent or young adult ) , and their mutual friend , Robert Penn . While en route to the valley , the team arrives in a small rural town by the name of Fairfax . Fairfax is littered with ancient , decaying gadgets ; the last remnants of the era of governments and high tech society , which none of the locals know how to fix or reproduce . Excited by the strangers , the locals ask about the League . Tolby answers their questions in turn , ending with an explanation of the timeline of events which led up to the great revolt . The event is summarized as having begun with revolts in Europe which overthrow the national governments . After France exists for a month free of government , millions join the by then explicitly anarchist movement to disarm the nuclear powers . At each toppled government center , millions of records are burned and government integration robots are destroyed . These events result in the setting of the story ; a world full of anachronistic high @-@ technology , interspersed in a pre @-@ industrialized , agrarian culture .
= = = Conflict and resolution = = =
While retelling the story of the anarchist revolution , Tolby attracts the attention of a local who invites the trio of anarchists to her home , but who is in secret a government spy ordered to kill them . The ensuing assassination plot is bungled , as the spy dies in the process , but succeeds in killing Penn . Silvia is also badly injured and left unconscious . Her father survives the tragedy largely unscathed , however , and awakens as a patrol of military scouts arrives . The scouts panic after a brief counterattack by Tolby and retreat with Silvia captive . After re @-@ arming himself , Tolby sets out to mount her rescue .
Bors is alerted to the situation and overreacts upon learning that one of the three anarchists has escaped . Fearing that the agent will alert the world to their existence , he initiates plans for a war economy and decides to question Silvia in her hospital room . Their dialogue reveals the story of his escape during the collapse of governments and the establishment of the microstate . He was damaged and in transport for repairs when the anarchist revolution began 200 years prior , allowing him to survive in hiding . Enraged by his calm indifference to the prospect of war , Silvia attacks him and attempts her escape , but is restrained by guards .
Tolby infiltrates the mountain valley , sneaking past the rapidly mobilizing army of the state . After killing and outmaneuvering inexperienced soldiers , he arrives at the government center and encounters Fowler . Fowler alludes to his desire to end the government and spurs Tolby onward . Ultimately , Tolby confronts and kills Bors , sending the building into confusion as the citizens react with hysteria and grief . The condition is implied to spread outward from the city to troops in the hills , resulting in mass desertion . No longer resisted by guards , Tolby reunites with Silvia . The story concludes as Fowler secretly salvages three remaining synapse coils from Bors ' remains , " just in case the times change " .
= = Publication history = =
The exact date Philip K. Dick wrote " The Last of the Masters " is unknown , but the original manuscript of the novelette was received by the Scott Meredith Literary Agency on July 15 , 1953 . 25 years old at the time , Dick was in the habit of submitting a new story to the agency weekly . Just prior to receiving " Last of the Masters " , the agency received " The Turning Wheel " on July 8 , and following the former , the agency received " The Father @-@ thing " on July 21 . " The Last of the Masters " was published over a year later , in the 1954 November / December issue of Orbit Science Fiction no.5. The issue was the last in a science fiction anthology series edited by Donald A. Wollheim . Orbit Science Fiction advertised " The Last of the Masters " on its cover and included Dick among an advertised list of prominent contributing authors , among them August Derleth , Gordon R. Dickson , and Chad Oliver . The novelette was republished in 1958 for the Australian market by Jubilee Publications Pty . , in Space Station 42 and Other Stories , a part of the Satellite Series .
The novelette was not published again until the 1980 release of The Golden Man , the sixth collection of classic stories by Dick . This collection also included the only commentary Dick ever wrote regarding the story . Thereafter , " The Last of the Masters " was included in six more print collections — most of which have seen multiple print runs — and two audiobooks .
= = = Publication list = = =
" The Last of the Masters " has been included in the following publications , listed by publication type :
Pulp magazines
Orbit Science Fiction vol.1 no.5. New York , NY : Hanro Corporation . November – December 1954 .
Space Station 42 and Other Stories . Sydney , NSW : Jubilee Publications Pty . March 1958 .
Philip K. Dick collections
Hardcovers
The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick , Vol . III , The Father @-@ Thing . Lancaster , PA : Underwood @-@ Miller . 1987 . ISBN 0 @-@ 88733 @-@ 053 @-@ 3 .
Paperbacks
The Golden Man . New York , NY : Berkley Books . 1980 . ISBN 0 @-@ 425 @-@ 04288 @-@ X.
Robots , Androids , and Mechanical Oddities . Carbondale , IL : Southern Illinois University Press . 1984 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8093 @-@ 1159 @-@ 3 .
The Father @-@ Thing . London , England : Victor Gollancz Ltd . 1989 . ISBN 0 @-@ 575 @-@ 04616 @-@ 3 .
Second Variety . New York , NY : Citadel Twilight . 1991 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8065 @-@ 1226 @-@ 1 .
The Philip K. Dick Reader . New York , NY : Citadel Twilight . 1997 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8065 @-@ 1856 @-@ 1 .
The Early Work of Philip K. Dick , Volume Two : Breakfast at Twilight & Other Stories . Prime Books . November 2009 . ISBN 1 @-@ 60701 @-@ 203 @-@ 0 .
Audio collections
The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick , Vol . I. Blackstone Audio Ing . November 30 , 2008 . ISBN 1 @-@ 4332 @-@ 2825 @-@ 4 . Read by William Hughes . ( cassette / CD / MP3 )
The Selected Stories of Philip K. Dick , Vol . I. Blackstone Audio Ing . November 30 , 2008 . ISBN 1 @-@ 4332 @-@ 2822 @-@ X. Read by William Hughes . ( iTunes )
= = = Copyright status = = =
= = = = United States = = = =
The Last Of The Masters is in the public domain in the United States because it was published in the United States between January 1 , 1950 and December 31 , 1963 , but copyright was not renewed with the U.S. Copyright Office within a year period beginning on December 31 of the 27th year of the copyright and running through December 31 of the following year . When renewal registration was not made within the statutory time limit , copyright effectively expired at the end of its first term and protection was lost permanently . Copyright protection for Orbit Science Fiction No.5 and its contents was created under registration number B00000497234 .
After the author 's death , a nonexistent story with the same title was included under the new renewal registration number RE0000190631 . This created the appearance that " The Last Of The Masters " was still under copyright protection . This incorrect first publication date has been cited in several Dick anthologies ( e.g. , The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick & The Selected Stories of Philip K. Dick ) ; these publications falsely list the original publication of the story to have been in Imaginative Tales in November 1955 .
= = Reception = =
While " The Last of the Masters " was little noticed in the years immediately following its publication , it was reviewed after its 1980 publication in The Golden Man collection . Fellow science fiction writer Thomas M. Disch reviewed Dick 's The Golden Man collection among other works in " Fluff and Fizzles " , an essay dated to 1979 , but published in a 1980 edition of The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction . While celebrating several stories in the collection , and proclaiming to readers the " categorical imperative " of buying a copy , he nonetheless derided most of its contents as " turkeys " , citing specifically " The Last of the Masters " as an example . Referring to the story as " a hyperkinetic foray into hairy @-@ chested @-@ style hugger @-@ mugger " , Disch also mocked its " action @-@ packed denouement " involving Edward Tolby as an example of " bogus machismo " .
In her 1982 review of the Golden Man collection , Hazel Pierce lauded the sophistication of the story , summarizing the theme of " The Last of the Masters " as an examination of " the paradoxical cast of human existence . "
= = Thematic analysis = =
= = = Technological critique = = =
In his 1980 commentary on the story , Dick also suggested that his reasoning for making Bors sympathetic was a result of a form of trust he advanced towards robots , as opposed to androids . " Perhaps " , he suggested , " it 's because a robot does not try to deceive you as to what it is " . One of the themes that runs throughout all of Dick 's fiction is the " power of empathy " and he uses it as the " key element defining the authentic human being " . For example , when Silvia meets the robot that runs the government , she exclaims " My God , you have no understanding of us . You run all this , and you 're incapable of empathy . You 're nothing but a mechanical computer . "
Christopher Palmer , of La Trobe University , has written on the postmodern literary themes of Dick 's early short stories , analyzing stories in which " breakdown and ignorance " are the result of social upheaval . Palmer proposed that Dick often created post @-@ apocalyptic scenarios of ruined worlds which held high tech gadgets in an attempt to present a view of postmodern materialism . Common to many of Dick 's short stories were settings in which the outgrowth of modernity is a world where that which is natural is in ruin , and what is artificial is reshaped through science into a fantastically high tech form . Palmer presented " The Last of the Masters " as an example of this , as well as " The Variable Man " and The Penultimate Truth , two other post @-@ apocalyptic works by Dick . Palmer contended that these shared themes were " ... not simply the expression of dystopian malaise , or of Luddism treacherously taking up residence in popular SF ... It points to a coherent interpretation of industrialism and post @-@ industrialism . "
Suggesting that many of the philosophical and political underpinnings of the author 's short stories stemmed from his views on domestic life , Palmer 's focus turned to Dick 's common use of sterility as a metaphor . In " The Gun " , " Second Variety " , The Penultimate Truth , and " The Last of the Masters " , people and sometimes the earth itself have been driven to sterility . As Palmer noted of " The Last of the Masters " , Bors can be interpreted as a symbol of infertility : " It is not clear why he does not replicate himself , or educate his human servants : it is simply a given that he is sterile . The old , technologically advanced , highly organized civilization is a civilization of production , but now under Bors it can do no more than maintain itself . " Following an inspection of other short stories with similar references to sterility , Palmer asserts that Dick 's work presented a social and existential protest . Palmer interpreted Dick 's social critique to be that if the act of creation validates existence , and genuinely expresses a form of individuality , then the process of reproduction is alienating , oppressive , and retards an individual 's liberty . As Palmer explains , " ... this process disempowers consumers , and even technocrats , by making them dependent on a process of which they have become entirely ignorant . " Existentially , Palmer interpreted Dick to further mean that reproduction violated the author 's concept of what made an object unique and valuable : " A thing can 't be a real thing unless it is in some sense an individual thing . "
In writing a biography on the author , Brian Stableford placed several of Dick 's short stories in a context that established their relationship to the author 's personal hardships . " ... it always seemed to him [ Philip K. Dick ] that his career was a catalogue of undeserved disappointments and the record of his published work a travesty of his true ambitions . " The personal problems which Dick struggled throughout his life provided fuel for several of the anxiety driven themes for his short stories . In Dick 's early work , Stableford highlighted recurring themes in those most popular . These included paranoid suspicions ; the dangerous hostility of " seemingly innocent entities " ; and " the mechanization of the environment and the computerization of political decision @-@ making " . Stories in which androids and robots are a danger to the protagonist include " Autofac " , " Colony " , and Vulcan 's Hammer . However , " The Last of the Masters " , Stableford contends , was an exception to Dick 's common dystopic portrayals of technology , given Stableford 's interpretation of Bors as an altruist , who was " benign " in its role .
= = = Political interpretations = = =
In his 1980 commentary , Philip K. Dick pointed out the moral ambiguity of the story , laying out its political implications : " Should we have a leader or should we think for ourselves ? Obviously the latter , in principle . But – sometimes there lies a gulf between what is theoretically right and that which is practical . " This quote became part of a larger political analysis of Dick 's work in How Much Does Chaos Scare You ? by Aaron Barlow , Associate Professor of English at New York City College of Technology . In analyzing Dick 's short fiction , Barlow presented their themes against the backdrop of post @-@ September 11 , 2001 America . In particular , Barlow compared many of the philosophical underpinnings of Neoconservatism , and its rise to prominence during the George W. Bush administration , to the philosophy of Philip K. Dick . " To [ Dick ] , " writes Barlow , " the elites were both alien and dangerous . To him , the focus of vision and of political debate should never be on the rulers , but on the little person , the shopkeeper , the mechanic . " In his dissection of Dick 's work , Barlow compared several stories in which normal humans lose some form of liberty in their society to an elite group . Examples presented include " Autofac " , " Null @-@ O " , and " Some Kinds of Life " . From these stories , Barlow drew three themes important to Dick 's anti @-@ government writings : first , that humanity is often doomed by institutions of power created by the humans themselves ; second , that paranoia is a natural aspect of governance , as " [ n ] o elite can ever completely trust the people it governs , " and this distrust leaves a governed people in perpetual danger ; and third , that the belief that individuality must be sacrificed — either for the sake of social stability or survival — is a constant threat . " To Dick , " Barlow adds , " there are few attitudes more dangerous than this . " Each of these themes would be revisited in " The Last of the Masters " .
Continuing his analysis , Barlow addressed " The Last of the Masters " , contrasting it with an earlier work by Dick , " The Defenders " . In " The Defenders " , humanity has been duped by a noble lie — provided by their robot soldiers — into believing in a war which is not actually taking place . In the latter story , Barlow asserts that Dick surprisingly agreed with such neoconservative theorists as Leo Strauss in the efficacy of the deception . " Here , the [ robots ] have saved mankind ... The ' noble lie ' has served its purpose . " However , Barlow concedes , " [ b ] ut this is an extremely early story and Dick had not yet clarified his own world view ... " Comparing this story to " The Last of the Masters " , Barlow took note of Dick 's commentary from The Golden Man collection ( " ... sometimes there lies a gulf between what is theoretically right and that which is practical . " ) and concluded that the story represented Dick 's understanding of " the problems at the other extreme ... " in politics . Where most of Dick 's stories presented government in skeptical terms to warn the reader of potential abuse , " The Last of the Master " presented an argument for the utility of government .
Barlow dissected the Anarchist League and " the contradictory nature of their organization " which patrolled a " poor and dirty " world , and juxtaposed this with the " opulent organization of the ( state ) " . In particular , he highlighted dialogue by the robot master , Bors , as illustrating the importance of his leadership to the success of the micro @-@ state . In the story , a conversation with a mechanic leads the robot to state , " You know I 'm the only one who can keep all this together . I 'm the only one who knows how to maintain a planned society , not a disorderly chaos ! If it weren 't for me , all this would collapse , and you 'd have dust and ruins and weeds . The whole outside would come rushing in to take over ! " Barlow concluded that while the story ended in triumph for the anarchists , the story did not go so far as to validate their society . " Dick does not vindicate them , " writes Barlow , " keeping it clear that the robot had certainly accomplished something in that valley , though it had eventually gone too far . "
= = = Spiritual allegory = = =
In a commentary made for the 1980 anthology , The Golden Man , Philip K. Dick briefly touched on several themes of the story , including the Christian allegory of the " suffering servant " , manifested in the character of Bors . This was touched upon in the Dick biography Divine Invasions , by memoirist and biographer Lawrence Sutin . Drawing on Dick 's commentary , Sutin sees Bors as part of a religious pattern in Dick 's stories as a " Christ @-@ like robot " , and likens the robot to characters in other stories by Dick who suffer from illness .
= Me , Myself and I ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Me , Myself and I " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé . It was written by Beyoncé , Scott Storch and Robert Waller for her debut solo album Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) . The recording was produced by Storch with guitars performed by musician Aaron Fishbein . Beyoncé decided that she wanted a deeper and more personal song for the third single ; the song was sent by Columbia Records to US radio on October 19 , 2003 . " Me , Myself and I " is an R & B song about dealing with a philandering boyfriend and learning from the consequences .
" Me , Myself and I " was generally well received by music critics , who complimented the smooth and assertive vocals of Beyoncé and called it a 1980s throwback from Dangerously in Love . The Grammy Award @-@ nominated song earned Beyoncé , Storch and Waller an American Society of Composers , Authors , and Publishers Pop Music Award . " Me , Myself and I " peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , and became Beyoncé 's fourth consecutive US top five single . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The single reached the top 20 in Australia , the UK and in some European countries .
Directed by Johan Renck , the accompanying music video follows the plot of the song 's theme and the events in the video are played in reverse . " Me , Myself and I " was part of Beyoncé 's set list on the Verizon Ladies First Tour , the Dangerously in Love Tour , The Beyoncé Experience , the I Am ... Tour and the Formation World Tour .
= = Background and release = =
After the release of her former group Destiny 's Child 's 2001 album Survivor , Beyoncé worked on her debut solo album , Dangerously in Love . She stated that it was more personal than her previous records because she only had to write for herself . She contacted various musical collaborators , including Storch and Waller . The musical style of " Me , Myself and I " is different from the style of her previous singles ; Beyoncé decided that she wanted a deeper and more personal song for the next single . Following the release of the song , Beyoncé told Corey Moss of MTV News , " [ ' Me , Myself and I ' ] is really powerful . It talks about women basically listening to their inner voice and knowing that they will never disappoint themselves . "
" Me , Myself and I " was the third single released from Dangerously in Love , which followed " Crazy in Love " and " Baby Boy " . It was sent to United States Rhythmic contemporary and Urban contemporary radio on October 19 , 2003 . A CD single was released on October 21 , 2003 in the US , which contained Junior 's dance radio mix of " Krazy in Luv " as its B @-@ side . It officially impacted U.S. Top 40 / Mainstream radio on November 12 , 2003 . On December 16 , 2003 , a 12 @-@ inch single was released in the US . The single was released in selected European countries in January 2004 , including Austria , Belgium , Ireland , the Netherlands , Sweden , and Switzerland .
" Me , Myself and I " was first released in the United Kingdom as a maxi single on January 6 , 2004 . A week later , it was released as a double CD single ; the first disc included a radio edit of the song and " Dangerously in Love 2 " ( 2003 ) , and the second one contained two remixes of " Me , Myself and I " . In 2004 , the single was also released in the UK on a CD that included videos of live performances of " Naughty Girl " and " Work it Out " . In Canada , a CD single was released on December 30 , 2003 , featuring the album version and two remixes of the track . A CD single was released in Australia on January 16 , 2004 , which included the radio edit and three remixes of the track . The song was also released as a maxi single on January 19 , 2003 and later as a three @-@ track single in Germany .
= = Composition = =
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing , " Me , Myself and I " is an R & B song performed in a moderately slow manner . It is written in the key of D ♭ major ; the tempo is set to eighty @-@ four beats per minute , in common time . The chord follows the E ♭ m9 @-@ Fm7 @-@ G ♭ Maj7 keys , appearing every other bar , and the song has a string arrangement . According to Ryan Schreiber of Pitchfork Media , the song 's instrumentation consists of a blending of funk keyboards , a slippery bass and minimal , programmed R & B percussion instruments .
" Me , Myself and I " is " ... replete with strong woman lyrics about holding one 's head up high after a traumatic break @-@ up . " The lyrics are constructed in the common verse @-@ chorus form , each written in two stanzas . The song includes an intro and a bridge that appears between the second and final choruses . In an interview with Corey Moss of MTV News , Beyoncé explained the lyrical content of the song :
... [ Me , Myself and I ] basically talks about a girl who the guy 's not right for her and he 's cheating and whatever . And usually women feel stupid and silly and they blame themselves ' cause you have all the signs most of the time , but you love the guy so you don 't want to see them go . And in this song , it 's kind of like a celebration of the breakup ...
According to Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly , " Me , Myself and I " is similar to " Say My Name " ( 2000 ) , in terms of " ... its specificity and earnestness ... " and the way Beyoncé defends " ... her chastity [ a ] gainst some greedy boy ... . " This was echoed by James Poletti of Yahoo ! Music who wrote that the song hints at what is to come as the warbling begins to move into overdrive on " ... a faintly sickly , if admirably slick , ode to that old Destiny 's Child staple ... " , independence and self @-@ belief in the face of a cheating man .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song received generally positive response from music critics . Mark Anthony Neal of PopMatters said : " Beyoncé sounds assured " in her singing of the song and " ... lacking any of the ' shrill overboard ' that describes some of the ' melisma fits ' ... that marked earlier vocal efforts . " Ryan Schreiber of Pitchfork Media noted the song as the " most notable 80s throwback " of the album , as its " augmented chords " call to mind Patti Austin and James Ingram 's 1983 single " Baby Come to Me " and Michael Jackson 's 1983 single " Human Nature " , or a decelerated version of " Baby Be Mine " , from Jackson 's 1982 album , Thriller . Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly said : Me , Myself , and I rides Storch 's signature gangsta guitar , mellowed for Beyoncé 's lovesick lament ... While reviewing Beyoncé second studio album , B 'Day in 2006 , Andy Kellman of Allmusic remarked that there are no songs with the " ... smooth elegance of ' Me , Myself and I ' " . Spence D. , writing for IGN Music considered " Me , Myself and I " as a typical sounding R & B ballad with a familiar theme , and in which Beyoncé sings with passion .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 2005 American Society of Composers , Authors , and Publishers Pop Music Awards , Beyoncé received the Songwriter of the Year award , sharing it with Storch and Waller . It was recognized as Most Performed Song in 2005 , alongside Beyoncé 's " Baby Boy " and " Naughty Girl " . Beyoncé 's live version of " Me , Myself and I " from The Beyoncé Experience Live ! gained a nomination for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance at the 2009 Grammy Awards .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Me , Myself and I " failed to equal the chart @-@ topping performances of " Crazy in Love " and " Baby Boy " . However , like " Baby Boy " and " Naughty Girl " , " Me , Myself and I " attained more immediate and commercial success than its predecessors . After its release , the album ascended the US Billboard 200 chart and was certified as multi @-@ platinum . On November 16 , 2003 , the single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 78 , while " Baby Boy " was still at number one . 14 weeks after its debut , the single peaked at number four for two weeks , becoming the third consecutive top five release from Dangerously in Love and Beyoncé 's fourth consecutive top five hit . " Me , Myself and I " remained on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for 24 weeks . On January 30 , 2009 , the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . By October 6 , 2010 . " Me , Myself and I " had sold 119 @,@ 000 CD copies in the US .
The single was less successful internationally , peaking below the top 10 . It reached number 11 in Australia and the UK , and the top 20 in the New Zealand and the Netherlands . It stayed in the UK Top 100 for seven weeks , and was the second shortest presence on a singles chart , after her 2009 duet with Lady Gaga on the extended remix version of " Video Phone " .
= = Music video = =
Following her first two videos with Jake Nava , Beyoncé hired Johan Renck to direct the music video for " Me , Myself and I " . While premiering the video MTV 's Total Request Live on December 10 , 2003 , Beyoncé described the video 's conception ,
When some of the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage was used in a BET Access Granted special , some of the scenes that Beyoncé was shown shooting did not appear in the finished video . Beyoncé said that the video did not turn out the way she wanted it to be and she had to reshoot most of it . In post @-@ production , she decided that it would be more artistic to play the events in reverse .
The footage follows the plot of the song 's theme , in which Beyoncé deals with a cheating boyfriend . From the aftermath of the affair , Beyoncé discards her old possessions that reminds her of her boyfriend . The events in the video are played in reverse . Beyoncé said that this music video was the hardest video she had ever made . Philadelphia 's Patrick DeMarco described the video as " sexy " . In 2004 , the video was nominated for Best R & B Video at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards . In May 2010 , an alternative version of the video was released ; this does not show the events in reverse and includes some of the scenes that were not included in the first version .
= = Live performances = =
During the Verizon Ladies First Tour which also featured Alicia Keys , Missy Elliott and Tamia , Beyoncé performed " Me , Myself and I " in New York to an audience of over 20 @,@ 000 . Before singing , she told the audience that she was going to sing about " a relationship horror story " . She pulled a pair of red panties out of her purse , saying that these were not hers but belonged to her cheating boyfriend 's mistress . During the performance , Beyoncé held out the microphone for the audience 's response , which was " is all I got in the end " . She shouted that she wanted to hear everybody from front to back , and continued singing , then told the audience that she wrote the song for " each and every one of y 'all ! " .
" Me , Myself and I " was also included on the set list of Beyoncé 's Dangerously in Love World Tour that began in late 2003 . During the tour , Beyoncé appeared suspended from the ceiling of the arena , and was lowered onto a red lounger . The song was performed as part of Beyoncé 's The Beyoncé Experience in Los Angeles and her I Am ... Tour . On August 5 , 2007 , Beyoncé performed the song at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan . Before the song , Beyoncé told the audience that it was very special to her and that she was going to perform a slower version . She was accompanied by her all @-@ female band . Jon Pareles of The New York Times complimented the performance , stating : " Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes ( most of them silvery ) , from miniskirts to formal dresses , flesh @-@ toned bodysuit to bikini to negligee . " Shaheem Reid of MTV News also praised the performance , and wrote : " ... For all the dancing she did , Beyoncé got an equally big — if not more resounding — response for displaying her undeniable vocal ability on the ballads like " Me , Myself and I " . "
In Los Angeles , Beyoncé gave a full @-@ length performance of " Me , Myself and I " without backup dancers and with limited live instrumentation . Beyoncé wore a green belly dancing costume . When Beyoncé performed the song in Sunrise , Florida on June 29 , 2009 , she wore a leotard . As she sang , animated graphics of turntables , faders and other club equipment were projected behind the dancers and musicians . Beyoncé was accompanied by two drummers , two keyboardists , a percussionist , a horn section , three imposing backup vocalists called the Mamas , and lead guitarist Bibi McGill . " Me , Myself and I " was included on Beyoncé 's album The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 )
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Norwegian Public Safety Radio =
The Norwegian Public Safety Radio ( Norwegian : Nødnett ) is a public safety network system based on Terrestrial Trunked Radio ( TETRA ) which is being implemented by the Directorate for Emergency Communication ( Norwegian : Direktoratet for nødkommunikasjon ) throughout Norway . The system will primarily be used for internal communication for the police , fire departments and paramedics , and will later be taken into use for search and rescue , border control , the civil defense , the military and other public agencies . Planning of the system started in 1995 and in 2006 the contract was awarded to Nokia Siemens Networks . As Nokia Siemens Networks was unable to complete the contract , it was passed on to Motorola Solutions .
The system is replacing nearly 300 local and regional systems which are independent for the fire , police and healthcare agencies . The Norwegian Public Safety Radio allows functionality such as authentication , encryption , higher reliability and additional functionality . The network is budgeted to cost 3 @.@ 6 billion Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . Investments are being paid for by the government , but users have to pay for operating costs . In 2009 the first part of the system was taken into use , with all three agencies in Oslo , Akershus , Østfold and Southern Buskerud having taken it into use as of August 2010 , two years after schedule . There have been shortcomings of indoor coverage which has caused some agencies to retain use of the old systems
= = Background and choice of technology = =
Formerly , Norway had three separate systems for telecommunications within the police , fire departments and paramedics , all based on analog radio . The old system had two main downsides : it was not encrypted , and it prohibited communication between agencies . This was particularly problematic in larger disasters and accidents , and in instances where criminals listened to the police radio during police actions . The Norwegian Data Inspectorate has also instructed the agencies to encrypt their communications for reasons of privacy . This would either have to be done through an expensive upgrade to the existing systems , or through the construction of a new , digital network .
Another issue is using standardized technology for communication with other country 's agencies . Norway is a member of the Schengen Agreement , which requires trans @-@ border communication between law enforcement agencies . There were 27 different networks for the police , one for each police district . In Oslo , Akershus and Østfold , the police had also been using Enhanced Digital Access Communication System since 1994 . There were 230 municipal fire department radio systems , and a manual mobile phone system for the health sector . The health network was built by the county municipalities between 1990 and 1995 and covers all parts of the health service , including paramedics , ambulance services , midwives and medical doctors . The various systems had different levels of coverage . In addition , Global System for Mobile Communication ( GSM ) and Nordic Mobile Telephone ( NMT450 ) telephones were being used where encrypted communication was necessary .
Keeping the old systems and converting them to encrypted systems was also considered . This would cost NOK 500 million to install , but could not be guaranteed to work satisfactorily . In particular , encryption would delay communications , which would be a problem for paramedic communications . It was also uncertain if the level of encryption would be sufficient to allow the network to be considered closed and allow personal information to be transmitted .
The government considered using a similar procurement solution to that in Denmark , where the spectrum was licensed to private enterprise , and the agencies purchase services from private telecommunications companies , based on conventional GSM technology . However , in Denmark this had not given the desired results , with only Metropolitan Copenhagen being covered . Instead , the Norwegian Government chose to establish a government agency to build and operate the network . Use of the GSM and NMT450 network was insufficient because of lack of capacity in the conventional network in case of larger amounts of communication , lack of ability of group conversations , lack of priority systems and long dial @-@ up times .
Using conventional GSM systems was rejected also because GSM lacks many of the functionalities of TETRA , such as group conversations , dispatcher centers , and direct communication . In addition , Global System for Mobile Communication – Railway ( GSM @-@ R ) was considered , but rejected because of the lack of trans @-@ border functionality and the need for more base stations , and thus higher investment costs , and longer start @-@ up time for calls . The technology was considered because the Norwegian National Rail Administration was at the time building a GSM @-@ R network to cover the entire Norwegian railway network . Another reason that TETRA was preferred was that at the time of decision there were five manufacturers of TETRA equipment and only two for GSM @-@ R. TETRA also allows a fall @-@ back system , where a base station can allow communication between users within the range of the base station , even if the central parts of the network should break down .
In a parliamentary hearing in 2002 both DNK director Tor Helge Lyngstøl and Minister of Justice , Odd Einar Dørum , stated that the choice of TETRA would provide sufficient data capacity . In a parliamentary decision in 2004 it was decided to opt for the open European Telecommunications Standards Institute ( ETSI ) as a data transmission standard , which is used by all other police TETRA systems in Europe , but this was later changed by the directorate to the proprietary TETRA Enhanced Data Service ( TEDS ) owned by Motorola . The latter would limit the number of supplies and would increase the investment costs .
In 2000 , the annual cost of agency communication was NOK 175 million , while this had increased to NOK 260 million in 2004 . The increase was largely caused by the increase in use of mobile telephones . The costs of the fire department networks was paid for by the municipalities , the health network paid for by the municipalities and the regional health authorities , and the police networks by the respective police districts .
= = Implementation = =
Work with the system started in 1995 , when the Norwegian Board of Health Supervision took initiative for a new mobile telecommunications platform . The issue was coordinated by the Ministry of Justice , and the issue was first discussed politically in 1997 , and in 1998 a project group was created . In 2000 , a pilot project was established in Greater Trondheim , which included all three agencies . The trial was successful and terminated in June 2003 . Later that year , the Parliament of Norway made the principal decision to establish the network . Quality control of the project was concluded in June 2004 , and construction was estimated at NOK 3 @.@ 6 billion . The investment costs would be covered by the Ministry of Justice , while the user agencies would have to pay for the operating and maintenance costs of the network .
The procurement process was initially led by the Ministry of Justice and the Police , in cooperation with the Ministry of Health and Care Services , the National Police Directorate , the Directorate for Health and Social Affairs and the Directorate for Civil Defence and Emergency Planning . The public tender was launched in May 2005 , and on 22 December 2006 the contract was signed with Nokia Siemens Networks . The project is the largest single information technology contract ever awarded in Norway . The Directorate for Emergency Communication was established on 1 April 2007 .
Original plans called for the system to be built between 2007 and 2011 . Implementation was planned in six phases , numbered zero through five . Between phases zero and one , an evaluation of the process was planned . The first phase covers the smallest geographic area , but the largest population .
By June 2007 , the project was delayed by half a year . One of the major delays in the project has been the development of the software for the health sector 's communication centers — which consist of emergency wards , casualty wards , emergency dispatch centers and aircraft coordination centers . The system is being developed by Frequentis in Austria , who have stated that they did not receive sufficient specifications . In December 2009 , the state granted NOK 110 million extra for development of the system . Health workers will therefore be taking the network into use in May 2010 , after the police and fire departments in Follo and Østfold . Representatives for the Police Directorate have criticized the implementation model and stated that in most other countries , the system was implemented first just for the police and afterwards taken into use by the fire and paramedic agencies . For instance , Østfold Police District had installed a new center in February 2008 , but had to wait 21 months to take it into use while waiting for Public Safety Radio .
The Police Directorate sees the use of the encrypted communication as the system 's greatest benefit , and has stated that it sees no reason for the implementation to stop while it is being evaluated , and that there is no alternative to implementing it nationally . The system was first taken into use in Østfold and Follo in December 2009 , and by Oslo in March 2010 . In Oslo , the police chose to close the analog network down before the TETRA system had been installed in all vehicles , and instead give all officers hand @-@ held devices , to speed up the closing of the old network , which is regarded as a security hazard . Traditionally , journalists have learned about events by listening to the police radios . The police have appointed press officers who will inform the press about newsworthy incidents . The alarm center for the fire departments in Østfold and Follo took the system into use in June 2010 .
In August 2010 , the emergency health communication centers in Østfold and the casualty ward at Fredrikstad Hospital took the Norwegian Public Safety Radio into use . This was followed by the emergency rooms in Halden and Aremark , in Rakkestad and Sarpsborg , and in Oslo . For the health sector , phase zero involves 40 communication centers , of which 20 are emergency rooms , 16 are casualty wards at hospitals , one is an air ambulance coordination center and three are emergency health communication centers , in addition to radios in the 150 ambulances that serve in the region . The official opening of the network took place on 17 August 2010 . In October 2010 , Arne Johannesen , the leader of the Norwegian Police Federation , stated that he wanted to place the building of the radio network on hold and instead use the funding for a new information technology system for the police force , named D # 2 .
DNK carried out tests with the system in 2010 for firefighters using self @-@ contained breathing apparatus in structure fires , and found the system to be sufficient . Similar test were carried out by Oslo Fire Department later that year , and they found that the radio system was insufficient for their needs . Oslo Fire Department concluded that the DNK tests were only successful because of the use of additional directional gateway / repeater @-@ radio equipment . Because of this firefighters in Oslo continue to use the old ultra @-@ high frequency radios during indoor fires . Both the Norwegian Police Security Service 's bodyguard service and the service for protection of the royal family have opted to not use the new radio system , citing poor coverage indoors and while lying on the ground , even in downtown Oslo . The services have stated that this does not allow for interoperability with other agencies , which is a drawback in case of major incidents . Also the joint rescue coordination centers , the Norwegian Air Ambulance and the 330 Squadron which operates Westland Sea King search and rescue helicopters have opted out of using the system because of poor coverage . During the 2011 Norway attacks at Utøya , located in northern Buskerud , police officers from surrounding police districts were not able to communicate with local police because the area did not have coverage for the TETRA system .
= = Organization = =
The network is owned by the Directorate for Emergency Communication , which is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice . The ministry signed an agreement with Nokia Siemens Networks to install the system . Nokia Siemens Networks also have the responsibility for operating and maintaining the system for 20 years . Nokia Siemens Networks has subcontracted control room systems to Frequentis , BaneTele for transmission , Relacom for operation and maintenance , and ibruk for training . The directorate is led by Tor Helge Lyngstøl and has its offices in Nydalen in Oslo .
The cost of constructing the network will be covered by the ministry . The costs of operating and maintaining the network will be covered by the users , who will also have to purchase their own terminals . Payment to the directorate is by an annual subscription fee per terminal , based on the terminal 's use . For a terminal only used for stand @-@ by , the annual subscription cost will be NOK 1 @,@ 500 per year , while that for a terminal in a control room will be NOK 40 @,@ 000 . As the cost of running the network is fixed independently of the amount of traffic , there is no cost for using the network . As additional users start implementing the system , the costs per subscriber will be reduced .
= = Network = =
The Terrestrial Trunked Radio network has three components : the core net , which is a centralized computer center based on an Internet Protocol structure ; the transmission net , which connects the core net , the radio net and other connection points with high @-@ capacity lines ; and the radio net , which consists of base stations with antennas in masts , on buildings and in some tunnels . The network is controlled from a center in Oslo , which is operated by Nokia Siemens Network . In case a base station no longer can communicate with the core net , the base station can still relay communication within its range . Should the base station fall out or operations occur in areas without coverage , the terminals can communicate directly with each other .
All communication from mobile terminals to the base stations is encrypted with a key known only to the base station and the terminal . For group conversations , two keys are used , one from the terminal to the base station , and one from the base station to all users . In addition , there are 32 fixed keys used for terminal @-@ to @-@ terminal communication should the base station fall out . In addition , the police can use a user @-@ to @-@ user encryption where the communication is encrypted all the way through the network from the one user to the other .
The system will ensure 100 % coverage of populated and surrounding areas , which exceeds any of the existing GSM networks . This includes good coverage indoors , to aid fire fighters , as well as full coverage of the coastline and coverage up to 2 @,@ 500 meters ( 8 @,@ 000 ft ) height for aircraft . It will give full coverage along all national and county roads . The system also allows interoperability towards the maritime radio . The system also allows for transmission of digital information at a speed of 28 @.@ 8 kb / s . As the system is rolled out , central parts will receive TETRA2 , which includes the TETRA Enhanced Data Services , which allows for transmission speeds of 163 kbit / s .
There has been raised criticism against several fundamental shortcomings in the network system . The most fundamental is the lack of indoor coverage . This has in part been reversed by increasing the signal strength in urban areas and installing repeaters at for instance medical clinics , Oslo Courthouse and Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . Another major shortcoming is that the system does not support any transmission of data . For instance police scanning of fingerprints , sending of blueprints to firefighters and paramedics sending video from an accident for analysis by physicians have been mentioned as technology which could be used if only the radio system allowed for transmission of data . Other shortcomings are that the location of base stations are publicly know , allowing for easy sabotage , and increased investment costs because of the choice of the proprietary TEDS instead of the open ETSI system .
= = Terminals = =
The system has two types of receivers : radio terminals , which can either be hand @-@ held or mounted in vehicles , and desktop equipment for control centers . The system will include 40 @,@ 000 radios throughout the country . Compared to the analog network , the digital radio equipment will be smaller and have options for additional equipment such as hands free , and allow special radios for motorcycles , snowmobiles , boats , undercover activities and smoke diving . Communication can either be performed as one @-@ to @-@ one conversations , group calls for predefined or ad @-@ hoc groups , with radios able to be part of several groups , or as walkie talkies in areas without network coverage . The digital transmission reduced background noise and allows monitoring terminal identity to prohibit unauthorized use . All radios are equipped with an emergency button that will give priority in the network .
Control room terminals will have new functionality including identification of all users and radio terminal positioning , radio and telephone inquiries made on the same equipment , use of either loudspeakers or head sets , and allowing operators to listen to each other 's conversations . Operators have access to telephone books and speed dials , touch screen operations of voice and data traffic , monitoring of other talk groups , simultaneous calls to several talk groups and access to voice logs .
= Platte Canyon High School hostage crisis =
The Platte Canyon High School hostage crisis was an incident of a hostage taking and shooting that occurred at Platte Canyon High School in Bailey , Colorado , on September 27 , 2006 . The gunman , 53 @-@ year @-@ old Duane Roger Morrison , took six female students hostage and sexually assaulted them , later releasing four . When police broke open the classroom 's door with explosives , Morrison opened fire with a semiautomatic pistol before shooting hostage Emily Keyes in the head . The other remaining hostages escaped unharmed , and paramedics confirmed that Morrison had committed suicide shortly before police were able to enter the classroom . Keyes was pronounced dead at 4 : 32 p.m. MDT ( 23 : 32 UTC ) at Saint Anthony 's Hospital in Denver , Colorado after undergoing emergency surgery .
= = Details = =
= = = Entry and hostage @-@ taking = = =
Note : All times are in Mountain Daylight Time , UTC @-@ 6
At about 11 : 40 a.m. , Morrison entered the school carrying a .40 S & W caliber Glock 22 pistol , a Smith & Wesson .357 @-@ caliber revolver ( which wasn 't used during the incident ) , and a backpack , which he claimed contained " three pounds of C @-@ 4 " . A search of the backpack later recovered duct tape , handcuffs , knives , a stun gun , rope , scissors , massage oil , sex toys , and numerous rounds of ammunition , but no explosives .
A sixteen @-@ year @-@ old student named Katrina Keller reportedly saw Morrison entering the school before the time specified by police . She stated that she had been walking past a vacant classroom and saw a man inside wearing a hooded sweatshirt , apparently angry . Keller did not report the incident to the school office . Other students reported that they witnessed Morrison sitting in a yellow Jeep in the school parking lot at around 10 : 45 a.m. , almost an hour before he entered the school . Morrison was believed to have been living in the car , camping out near Bailey . Videos taken from security cameras outside show that Morrison was in his Jeep for at least 20 minutes , mingling with students as classes changed , 35 minutes before the siege began . Earlier , Morrison had spoken to a male high school student that day and " asked about the identity of a list of female students . "
Morrison entered a classroom on the second floor , room 206 , where teacher Sandra Smith taught Honors English . When Smith asked him what he was doing in the classroom , he pulled out his handgun and ordered her , all of the male students , and several female students to leave . He then fired one shot into the air after Smith tried to speak to him again . After Smith and the male students left the classroom , Morrison instructed the seven remaining students to stand facing the chalkboard . He later released one student at approximately 12 : 15 p.m. , before law enforcement arrived at the scene .
Park County sheriff Fred Wegener ( whose son was in the school building at the time of the incident ) informed the media that all seven girls were molested , though he did not know " how much or to what degree . " Lynna Long , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old sophomore and one of the seven hostages , stated that Morrison lined the girls up facing a chalkboard and then sexually assaulted all of them ; Long stated that she knew that the other hostages were being molested because of " the rustling of clothes and elastic being snapped and zippers being opened and closed . " During the sexual assaults , Morrison reportedly held his gun to the hostages ' heads and threatened to kill them if they did not cooperate . According to the first hostage released , Morrison would systematically take individual hostages from the blackboard and further into the interior of the classroom before sexually assaulting them .
= = = Negotiations and evacuations = = =
A " code white " alert was sounded over the intercom and students were instructed to remain in their classrooms . Negotiations with Morrison began with the goal of allowing the six remaining hostages in the room to be released . Initially , he directly spoke to deputies in the hallway while holding one of the hostages at gunpoint , but later spoke via telephone and used the student hostages as relayers between the negotiators and himself , as he did not want to speak directly with officials . After four of the six girls were released between the hours of 12 : 35 p.m. and 1 : 45 p.m. , negotiators heightened the intensity of their indirect discussions with Morrison . During this time , 16 @-@ year @-@ old junior Emily Keyes , one of the two remaining hostages , managed to send her family a brief text message stating , " I love u guys " in response to a text message ( " R U OK ? " ) her father , John @-@ Michael Keyes , had sent using his cell phone after receiving word that an incident was occurring at the high school . When Keyes ' father sent the message " Where are you ? " , he received no response .
A total of 800 students from both Platte Canyon High School and the nearby Fitzsimmons Middle School were rapidly evacuated . Morrison 's demands were unknown , although police confirmed that his primary concern was a request for the police to back away . All students , except the hostages , were safely evacuated by 12 : 10 p.m. and by 3 : 00 p.m. all had been taken to Deer Creek Elementary School . Parents were able to gain little information from authorities , who remained silent regarding the issue while the crisis continued .
= = = Shooting = = =
By the time the four student hostages were released , a bomb squad , SWAT team from Jefferson County , and agents from the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives were sent to the scene . Ambulances parked in the end zone of the high school 's football field . A 4 @-@ mile ( 6 km ) stretch of U.S. Route 285 was closed . At approximately 3 : 32 p.m. , negotiations began to stall . Morrison later explicitly stated that he would stop negotiating at 4 : 00 p.m.
Wegener said that police had chosen to storm the second @-@ floor classroom after the man ended negotiations , stating that " something would happen at 4 p.m. " SWAT team members witnessed Morrison assaulting the girls , and Wegener made the decision to save the hostages by force , stating later , " My decision was either wait — [ and have the ] possibility of having two dead hostages or act and try to save what I feared he would do to them . ... Because I 'd want whoever was in my position to do the same thing , and that is to save lives . "
The police burst through the door at approximately 3 : 45 p.m. and encountered Morrison and the hostages behind a barricade of desks at a far wall . After using the hostages as human shields against the Jefferson County SWAT team , Morrison shot at the policemen , and then at Emily Keyes , who was trying to run . Morrison shot and critically wounded himself soon thereafter , simultaneously being shot by police , and died at the scene at 3 : 57 p.m. Keyes was taken by helicopter to a hospital in Denver , where she was pronounced dead at 4 : 32 p.m. The other hostage survived with no physical injuries . Investigators found no sign of explosives in the man 's backpack , but three additional firearms were recovered outside the school campus : a Colt AR @-@ 15 assault rifle found in a clearing adjacent to a river about a mile north of the school , a Browning bolt @-@ action rifle found north of the campus near U.S. Route 285 , and a Smith & Wesson .44 @-@ caliber revolver found south of the school near a hiking trail .
The coroner of Park County , Sharon Morris , confirmed that the body of Morrison ( which had four bullet wounds , three non @-@ fatal from police and one fatal shot from his own gun ) was still in the second @-@ floor classroom as of 6 : 00 p.m. An autopsy report later revealed that Morrison suffered two gunshot wounds to the head ( including the fatal one fired from his gun ) , two additional in the right shoulder , and a graze wound to his right hand , while Emily Keyes died of a single gunshot wound to the right side of her head . District officials stated that both the high school and Fitzsimmons Middle School would be closed for September 28 and September 29 ; a counseling center set up at a local church would open at 7 : 00 a.m. for students .
= = The perpetrator = =
Duane Roger Morrison ( July 23 , 1953 – September 27 , 2006 ) was eventually identified as the perpetrator of the incident . He was unemployed at the time of the hostage crisis , and had no known connection to Platte Canyon High School or any of the hostages . Initial reports of the gunman described him as a bearded 35 @-@ year @-@ old man with a camouflage backpack and a black hooded sweatshirt . Morrison had been imprisoned in 1973 for larceny and possession of marijuana , and was arrested on a separate occasion for obstructing police in Littleton , Colorado . Police announced that a suicide letter written by Morrison to a family member was being analyzed by the FBI . Morrison 's family gave the letter to police , who then submitted the document to the FBI Behavioral Unit in Quantico , Virginia . In the 14 @-@ page letter , Morrison claimed that he was mentally and physically abused by his father as a child , and had suicidal thoughts since he was 21 years old .
On August 15 , 2006 , about one month prior to the shooting , he pleaded guilty to harassment after leaving a voice message to a local Harley @-@ Davidson dealership on November 22 , 2004 , after receiving a promotional catalog in his mail ; the message contained profanities and a threat to visit their headquarters with an assault rifle . Prior to that , he phoned a similar threatening call . An investigation found that Morrison had purchased a motorcycle from the dealership , but became " extremely dissatisfied " after not receiving certain aftermarket accessories and services promised in his contract , and the dealership reportedly never made any attempt to resolve the dispute . His suicide letter later mentioned the purchase , in which he vaguely claimed that " the matter wasn 't over " . On May 31 , 2005 , Morrison filed a report claiming that fifteen of his firearms were stolen from his residence , and later gained $ 10 @,@ 000 from a fictitious insurance claim initiated after the stolen firearms report . Four of the firearms mentioned in his report were among those recovered on or around the school campus ; the whereabouts of the remaining 11 firearms currently remain unknown .
= = Aftermath = =
Platte Canyon High School reopened a week after the shooting on October 5 . Memorials had been erected along the highway leading to the school that carried messages such as " Be Strong " and " Random Acts of Kindness " . A number of students prayed in front of the school before the day began and students were given donated teddy bears as they left . Fifty counselors were present during the day for students . Superintendent Dr. James Walpole noted that of 460 high school students , only 10 were absent .
The service for Emily Keyes was held on September 30 , the day that Governor Bill Owens later declared " Emily Keyes Day " . About 5 @,@ 000 motorcyclists took part in the " Columbine to Canyon Ride " , which occurred in memory of the victims of both the Columbine and Platte Canyon shootings . The procession of motorcycles was so long that the first to get to Platte Canyon High School arrived as the final motorcyclists departed from Columbine High School , two riding alongside each other .
The efforts initiated toward increased school security had come to a standstill several years after the Columbine High School massacre as federal and state funding toward safety was cut in favor of higher test scores . Although an increase in communication with law enforcement was evident in the Platte Canyon High School shooting , Del Elliot of the University of Colorado noted that " [ the vast majority of school districts ] are so totally absorbed with CSAP and academic requirements that they aren 't spending a lot of time and resources on this issue " .
By October 11 , investigators had conducted 124 interviews and had found 174 pieces of evidence related to the case . They were also investigating the West Nickel Mines School shooting in Pennsylvania , which had occurred five days after the shooting in Bailey . As a result of the September 27 incident , Platte Canyon High School increased its security , leaving only one school entrance unlocked . It plans to install more security cameras . Park County Sheriff Fred Wegener proposed having a guard there during the school day , but he stated that that particular suggestion was outside the current budget .
= Zach Auguste =
Zachary Elias " Zach " Auguste ( born July 8 , 1993 ) is an American basketball player who currently plays for the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association . Born in Cambridge , Massachusetts , Auguste started playing high school basketball for Marlborough . In 2011 he moved to university preparatory New Hampton School , where he was nominated for the 2012 McDonald 's Game . After graduating from New Hampton , Auguste enrolled in the University of Notre Dame to play for the Fighting Irish . Spending his freshman and sophomore seasons mainly as a reserve player , Auguste rose to prominence during his junior season in 2014 – 15 , when the team won the ACC Tournament title and went to the NCAA Elite Eight .
= = High school career = =
Auguste played at Marlborough High School for three seasons , growing 3 inches in each of these seasons . As a junior in 2009 – 10 , Auguste averaged 22 points and received All @-@ Star accolades from the Mid @-@ Wachusett ( Central Massachusetts ) league and local newspapers the Telegram & Gazette and The MetroWest Daily News . He scored a total 631 points throughout his career at Marlborough .
He moved to university preparatory New Hampton School after that season , reclassifying to the class of 2012 . He cited his desire to get academically and physically ready for college as the main factors behind that decision . After adapting to the higher competition level , he improved dramatically in time , putting on 28 pounds and developing his post game to transition from a perimeter player to a forward . He finished with an average of 15 points and 8 rebounds for his senior season . Nominated for the 2012 McDonald 's All @-@ American Boys Game , he didn 't make the final selection .
Soon after joining New Hampton , he was noticed by Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) conference Notre Dame 's assistant coach Anthony Solomon , however he later cut the school from his selection list , which included Division I schools West Virginia , Georgia Tech , Florida and Marquette . Despite this , Solomon 's steadfast attempts to recruit the player , widely ranked a 4 @-@ star recruit , convinced Auguste to visit the campus ; he committed to Notre Dame on the spot in September 2011 .
= = College career = =
He made his debut for Notre Dame in a November 12 , 2012 victory against Monmouth , contributing 4 points and 3 rebounds in 3 minutes . After two ankle sprains during pre @-@ season practice , Auguste had difficulty breaking into the already established team . Finding himself behind Jack Cooley and Garrick Sherman in the rotation , he averaged 10 @.@ 7 minutes per game in 25 games . Notable were games against Kennesaw State ( 12 points and 7 rebounds in 12 minutes ) and Marquette ( a season @-@ high 15 points with 5 rebounds and 3 steals in 21 minutes ) , for a freshman season average of 3 @.@ 7 points and 2 @.@ 7 rebounds .
For the 2013 – 14 season , Auguste was expected to play a larger role after Cooley graduated and coach Mike Brey cited him as a major player . Though he did start 13 games out of 30 , he stayed third choice with Sherman and Tom Knight preferred . He recorded his first college double @-@ double against Clemson having 14 points and 12 rebounds , followed by no @-@ shows . He finished his sophomore season with 6 @.@ 7 points and 4 @.@ 3 rebounds in nearly 17 minutes per game on average .
Tabbed as a starter during the preseason , Auguste , as one of the team 's few post options , established himself as a starter during his junior season with good performances early in the season , albeit against weaker opposition . A memorable December 13 , 2014 game against Florida State , in which he scored a career @-@ high 26 points , started what coach Brey described as a run of key contributions from the forward , with Auguste quickly recouping from his bad performances . In January 2015 , Auguste was sidelined by Notre Dame due to academic issues , with the length of the suspension undisclosed . It would ultimately only last three days , with the unknown reason later described as minor by the player . Auguste was seen as a major contributor to the Irish 's 2015 ACC Tournament title contributing 16 points and 13 rebounds in the final against North Carolina ( for an average of more than 11 points and 9 rebounds in the whole tournament ) .
In the Round of 64 of the following 2015 NCAA Tournament , Auguste scored 25 points against Northeastern , including two under @-@ pressure free @-@ throws in the final minute of a 69 @-@ 65 close @-@ fought win . In the next round tie against Butler , he committed a double dribble that conceded possession with two seconds left on the clock in a tied 55 @-@ 55 game . Butler did not score , and in overtime Auguste blocked a shot before grabbing a rebound - a team @-@ leading 13th - as Notre Dame won to reach the Sweet 16 . A comfortable win over Wichita State followed ( 15 points , 6 rebounds and 1 block for Auguste in 26 minutes ) and Notre Dame qualified to the Elite Eight for the first time since 1979 . Auguste , described as " Notre Dame 's only true post player " , was predicted to play an important role in the game against undefeated Kentucky , who - in Karl @-@ Anthony Towns and Willie Cauley @-@ Stein - had some of the biggest forwards of the tournament . He had 20 points and nine rebounds in the game , while mostly defended by Towns . In defense against the same player , he could not stop him from scoring 25 points in a to @-@ the @-@ wire 66 @-@ 68 loss to the favorites . Auguste finished the tournament with 16 @.@ 8 points and 8 @.@ 3 rebounds per game , with 12 @.@ 9 points and 6 @.@ 5 rebounds in around 24 minutes for the whole 2014 @-@ 15 season .
Auguste was elected captain by his teammates for his senior season . He was also voted to the Preseason All @-@ ACC second team . Seven games into the 2015 @-@ 16 season , Auguste tallied his fifth double @-@ double of the season , tying the total of his first three seasons . He was named as one of ten finalists for the Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar Award , also earning third team all @-@ ACC honors for the season .
= = = NCAA Division I statistics = = =
Source :
= = Professional career = =
After going undrafted in the 2016 NBA Draft , Auguste signed a contract with the Los Angeles Lakers , to play in the 2016 NBA Summer League .
= = Personal = =
Auguste was born in Cambridge , Massachusetts , to Jean Bazile Auguste and Lea Tzimoulis . His father , a former semi @-@ professional soccer player , is from Haiti . His mother is of Greek heritage through her grandfather Louis , who immigrated to the U.S. from Agia Sotira , Greece in 1949 . In addition to being part @-@ Greek , his mother is of predominately @-@ American heritage . Auguste has stated that he speaks Greek and Haitian Creole fluently in addition to his native English also .
= Sejm of Congress Poland =
The Sejm of Congress Poland ( Polish : Sejm Królestwa Polskiego ) was the parliament in the 19th century Kingdom of Poland , colloquially known as Congress Poland . It existed from 1815 to 1831 . In the history of the Polish parliament , it succeeded the Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw .
= = History = =
After the Congress of Vienna , a small Kingdom of Poland , known as Congress Poland , was recreated , with its king being the Tsar of Russia , Alexander I. Alexander I , an enlightened autocrat , decided to use Congress Poland as an experiment to see if Russian autocratic rule could be mixed with an elective legislative system , and rule Poland as a constitutional monarchy . At that time many hoped that this experiment would be a success and pave way to a liberalization in Russia ; in the end it proved to be a failure .
Tsar Alexander left the administration to his younger brother , Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia , to serve as viceroy . Constantine , with the help of Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev , " Russified " Congress Poland and oversaw secret police investigations of student groups in contravention of the Constitution . Alexander visited the Sejm in 1820 and received such condemnation from the deputies ( members of the Sejm 's lower house ) that he reversed his stance of the Sejm as a liberalization experiment although he was still bound by the Congress of Vienna not to liquidate Russia 's partition of Poland entirely . By 1825 , Alexander I was sufficiently dissatisfied with the Sejm that he decided to bar some of the most vocal opposition deputies from it .
Although the Sejm was supposed to meet every 2 years , only four sessions were called by the Tsar as it became the scene of increased clashes between liberal deputies and conservative government officials . With regards to the years the Sejm met , Bardach gives the dates of 1818 , 1820 , 1823 and 1830 ; Jędruch offers a similar list , however lists 1825 instead of 1823 .
Nicholas , an opponent of Alexander 's liberalization efforts , acceded the throne as Tsar Nicholas I upon Alexander 's death in December of 1825 . Idealistic Russian military officers resisted Nicholas 's takeover in the Decembrist revolt . Some Polish liberals were accused of being connected to the Decembrist plot and were brought before the Sejm for trial in 1828 . Despite heavy political pressure from Moscow , the Sejm Tribunal only found them guilty of belonging to the National Patriotic Society formed by Walerian Łukasiński ( a misdemeanor ) rather than treason . The decision was met with cheers in Poland but infuriated Tsar Nicholas .
In the 1830 session | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
radius test and I think there was a third even larger radius after that . It meant if you found one guy and shot him in the head and then didn 't fire again , the timer would reset " . Windows throughout the game were programmed so that enemies cannot see through them while the player can . Though decidedly unrealistic , this was an intentional feature made to encourage the player to use windows to covertly spy on enemies . Rather than trying to release the game in tandem with the movie , the Stamper brothers made sure to give the developers as much time as they needed . It was developed through two and a half years , the first year of which was spent developing the engine and producing art assets . The game 's multiplayer mode was added late in the development process ; Martin Hollis described it as " a complete afterthought " . According to David Doak , the majority of the work on the multiplayer mode was done by Steve Ellis , who " sat in a room with all the code written for a single @-@ player game and turned GoldenEye into a multiplayer game . "
GoldenEye 007 was released on 25 August 1997 , nearly two years after the film . The game 's cartridge size was 96 Mb ( 12 MB ) . Additionally , every cartridge of the game contains a fully functional ZX Spectrum emulator with ten Rare developed games . This function was originally made as an experimental side project by Rare staff and was deactivated in the final build of the game , but has since been unlocked through fan @-@ developed patches . In addition to the Nintendo 64 game , a racing version was in development for the Virtual Boy , but was ultimately cancelled before release .
= = Reception = =
Despite an unsuccessful showing at E3 1997 and low expectations among the gaming media , GoldenEye 007 turned out to be both a critical and a commercial success . It received very high critical praise and sold more than eight million units worldwide , making it the third best selling Nintendo 64 game , behind Super Mario 64 and Mario Kart 64 . According to a paper published on the website of the Entertainment Software Association , the game grossed $ 250 million worldwide . Video game journalists have praised GoldenEye 007 for proving that it is possible to create a " fun " first @-@ person shooter experience on a console in both single @-@ player and multiplayer modes ; when the game was released , the first @-@ person shooter was primarily a genre for PC gamers . Journalists noted that the game " opened the genre to a completely new market " and that it was " the first big console [ first @-@ person shooter ] that truly got it right . " Additionally , the game 's use of realistic gameplay , which contrasted with the approaches taken by Doom @-@ clones , and introduction of multiplayer deathmatch on a console are often credited for having revolutionised the genre .
Graphically , the game was praised for its varied and detailed environments ; well @-@ animated characters ; realistic effects such as glass transparencies , bullet holes and lingering smoke ; and for generally maintaining a solid frame rate . The zoomable sniper rifle was praised as one of the game 's most impressive and entertaining features , Edge describing it as a " novel twist " and Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot noting its ability to alleviate the game 's distance fog . GoldenEye 007 has subsequently become credited alongside Shiny Entertainment 's MDK for pioneering and popularising the now @-@ standard inclusion of scoped sniper rifles in video games . The game 's audio was also well @-@ received : the music was praised for its inclusion of the " James Bond Theme " and " addictive " tunes based on the GoldenEye film 's score . The sound effects were said to be detailed , although some reviewers criticised the omission of character speech . Some later levels begin in lifts and feature transitions from elevator music to full soundtracks , which Gerstmann cited as examples of the music 's ability to add ambience to the game , and as an illustration of the game 's attention to detail .
The gameplay was praised for its depth . IGN 's Doug Perry called GoldenEye 007 an immersive game , which " blends smart strategy gameplay with fast @-@ action gunmanship " . Similarly , Greg Sewart of Gaming Age pointed out that players also have " a bit of freedom as to what they want to do in any given situation , and what order the directives are completed in " . Reviewers also enjoyed the wide variety of weapons and the multi @-@ objective @-@ based missions , stating that they make the game stay " fresh by never having you do the same thing twice " . The controls were praised for their precision and were said to be more intuitive than Acclaim 's earlier well @-@ received Nintendo 64 first @-@ person shooter Turok : Dinosaur Hunter . The game 's use of context @-@ sensitive hit locations on the enemies added a realism that was previously unseen in video games , even though the Quake computer mod Team Fortress already featured locational damage such as headshots . Colin of Game Revolution called the gameplay realistic , setting GoldenEye " apart from the pack " , but also criticised the campaign for being badly paced . He noted that GoldenEye 007 " takes it for granted that you have already seen the movie " . He also added that players may get stuck due to the game 's lack of orientation .
At the time , the multiplayer mode was considered the best multiplayer game on the system , " edging Mario Kart 64 by a hair " according to IGN . Edge called it addictive and praised the originality of some of the scenarios such as You Only Live Twice . The magazine also stated that it set the standard for multiplayer console combat until it was surpassed by the release of Halo : Combat Evolved in 2001 . Retrospective commentary on GoldenEye 007 in the years following its release included an October 2011 review by Mark Reece from NintendoLife . Reece gave the game a rating of eight out of ten , commenting that although the game 's multiplayer mode stands up well , its graphics , audio and " fiddly " aiming system are dated . He noted that GoldenEye 007 's approach to difficulty settings provides considerable replay value , but is a system rarely used in modern first @-@ person shooters . On the game 's original release , Edge awarded it a score of nine out of ten , but in 2013 , with the benefit of hindsight , the magazine concluded that it should have received its highest score .
= = = Accolades = = =
GoldenEye 007 has collected numerous awards , including the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment " Games Award " in 1998 , and four awards from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences : " Console Action Game of the Year " , " Console Game of the Year " , " Interactive Title of the Year " and " Outstanding Achievement in Software Engineering " . Rare was also recognised for its work on the game and won the BAFTA award for " Best UK Developer " . In 2011 , the game was selected as one of 80 titles from the past 40 years to be placed in the Art of Video Games exhibit in the Smithsonian American Art Museum . With its eight million copies sold , GoldenEye 007 was also one of the most significant titles that helped the Nintendo 64 to remain competitive with rival Sony 's PlayStation , even though it eventually lost much of its market share .
GoldenEye 007 is frequently cited as one of the greatest video games of all time . Rowan Kaiser of 1UP.com , who placed the game 53rd on " The 60 Most Influential Games of All Time " , pointed out that the game " paved the way for the later popularity of Halo , Call of Duty , and more " . Similarly , GamePro , placing it ninth in " The 52 Most Important Video Games of All Time " , called it the console killer @-@ app of the 1990s and the best game ever licensed from a film . In 2011 , IGN journalists placed the multiplayer mode at 17th in their list of the " Top 100 Video Game Moments " , and in 2010 Nintendo Power listed GoldenEye 007 as one of the greatest multiplayer experiences in Nintendo history , stating that it is remembered as one of the finest examples of a first @-@ person shooter .
In a 2000 poll , readers of Computer and Video Games voted GoldenEye 007 into first place in a list of " the hundred greatest video games " , and it was ranked fifth in a poll the following year . In 2001 , the game ranked 16th in Game Informer 's list of the " Top 100 Games of All Time " . In 2004 , readers of Retro Gamer voted GoldenEye as the 33rd top retro game , with the editors calling it " the game that sold a million N64s " and " easily the best Bond game to date . " In 2005 , a " Best Games of All @-@ Time " contest at GameFAQs placed GoldenEye 007 at seventh , and in a list made by IGN in 2005 , the game was ranked 29th , while the Reader 's Choice placed it at seventh . Video game review site ScrewAttack rated GoldenEye 007 number one in three separate top ten lists : a 2008 list of the " Top 10 FPS Games Ever " , a 2009 list of the " Top 10 Movie @-@ Based Games " , and a 2010 list of the " Top 10 Local @-@ Multiplayer Console Games " . Edge has featured GoldenEye 007 prominently in three " greatest game " lists : it placed third in a staff @-@ voted poll in 2000 ; 17th in a staff , reader , and gaming industry @-@ voted poll in 2007 ; and it was also included as one of the publication 's top ten shooters in 2003 .
= = Legacy = =
GoldenEye 007 led Rare to begin development of a spiritual successor titled Perfect Dark , also for the Nintendo 64 . Using a modified version of the GoldenEye 007 game engine , Perfect Dark made its debut at E3 1998 , and was released in 2000 to critical acclaim . Although the game features a setting and storyline unrelated to James Bond , it shares many gameplay features with GoldenEye 007 , including a similar control scheme , mission objectives that vary with the difficulty setting , and cheat options unlockable through quick level completions . The game led to the development of the Perfect Dark franchise .
A number of the GoldenEye 007 team left Rare soon after development on Perfect Dark commenced , beginning with Martin Hollis in 1998 , who after working on the GameCube at Nintendo of America formed his own company Zoonami in 2000 . Other members formed Free Radical Design , and by 2004 , four of the team of nine who originally worked on GoldenEye 007 were employed there . Free Radical Design developed the TimeSplitters series of first @-@ person shooters for the PlayStation 2 , GameCube and Xbox . These games contain several references to GoldenEye 007 , including the design of the health @-@ HUD , the nature of the aiming system , and the dam setting of the opening level of TimeSplitters 2 .
In 1999 , the James Bond game licence was acquired by Electronic Arts , which published games based upon the then @-@ recent James Bond films , Tomorrow Never Dies and The World Is Not Enough , as well as entirely original ones , including 007 : Nightfire , 007 : Everything or Nothing and GoldenEye : Rogue Agent . Although some received positive reviews from critics , none of them reached the critical or commercial success of GoldenEye 007 . In 2006 , the licence was acquired by Activision . The company would then publish additional James Bond games , including 007 : Quantum of Solace , James Bond 007 : Blood Stone , and a reimagining of the Nintendo 64 game , also titled GoldenEye 007 . The reimagining features Daniel Craig as the playable character , modern first @-@ person shooter conventions , entirely new level @-@ layouts , and an online component . It was originally released for the Wii and Nintendo DS in 2010 and re @-@ released as GoldenEye 007 : Reloaded for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 the following year .
An Xbox Live Arcade port of GoldenEye 007 was in development at Rare for several months , and in 2006 Nintendo of America president Reggie Fils @-@ Aime commented that Nintendo was " exploring all the rights issues " involved in bringing GoldenEye 007 to the Wii Virtual Console . However , due to legal issues involving the numerous licence holders with rights to the game and to the Bond intellectual property , the game has still not been released on either format . In 2010 , an independent development team released GoldenEye : Source , a multiplayer only total conversion mod developed using Valve 's Source engine .
= Dual Spires =
" Dual Spires " is the 12th episode of the fifth season of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Psych , and the 75th episode overall . The episode was directed by Matt Shakman and written by Bill Callahan and series star James Roday . It originally aired December 1 , 2010 .
The episode is a homage to the cult television series Twin Peaks and features seven cast members of the series , including Sherilyn Fenn , Sheryl Lee , Dana Ashbrook , Robyn Lively , Lenny Von Dohlen , Catherine E. Coulson , and Ray Wise . After receiving an e @-@ mail inviting them to a cinnamon festival , Shawn Spencer ( Roday ) and Burton " Gus " Guster ( Dulé Hill ) travel to the quirky small town of Dual Spires . Once there , they are caught up in the mysterious drowning death of teenager Paula Merral .
" Dual Spires " received generally positive reviews from critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it drew 3 @.@ 543 million viewers , with a 2 @.@ 2 / 4 share among all households and a 1 @.@ 3 / 4 share among those aged 18 – 49 .
= = Plot = =
After receiving a flier by email inviting them to a cinnamon festival , private detectives Shawn Spencer ( James Roday ) and Burton " Gus " Guster ( Dulé Hill ) travel to the quirky small town of Dual Spires . Shawn and Gus eat cinnamon pie at the Sawmill Diner , an establishment owned by Robert " Bob " Barker ( Dana Ashbrook ) and his wife Michelle ( Robyn Lively ) and built on a sawmill that burned down in 1958 , killing eight people . Soon , the body of Bob and Michelle 's niece , Paula Merral , is found by a lake .
Sheriff Andrew Jackson ( Lenny Von Dohlen ) rules the death an accident , but Shawn receives the Dewey Decimal Classification number of a book , Reincarnation and Rebirth , the title of which parallels the revelation that Paula had supposedly drowned in Santa Barbara , California seven years earlier , though her body was never found . Bob reveals that Michelle 's unstable sister Lucy left Dual Spires , taking with her Paula , whom Michelle and Bob had all but raised . When Paula sent them a letter detailing the drug use and child abuse , they helped Paula fake her death so she could leave Lucy . Detectives Juliet O 'Hara ( Maggie Lawson ) and Carlton Lassiter ( Timothy Omundson ) reopen the case and leave to issue a warrant for Bob 's arrest .
Shawn and Gus continue the investigation and , finding an entry in Paula 's diary about meetings with " J " , are led to partially blind photographer Jack Smith ( Ryan McDonald ) . Jack reveals a photograph of Sheriff Jackson 's son Randy ( Scott Lyster ) , taken just before Jack was attacked during a walk with Paula . Randy reveals that after he attacked Jack , Paula confronted him about his ex @-@ girlfriend , who Shawn deduces is librarian Maudette Hornsby ( Sherilyn Fenn ) . However , Hornsby is found hanged at the library , and Sheriff Jackson and Dr. Donna " Doc " Gooden ( Sheryl Lee ) rule that Maudette killed Paula out of jealousy and committed suicide to keep the town from knowing about the affair . Shawn , however , deduces that Maudette was the one that led them to the festival and left clues for them to decode .
Suddenly , Shawn and Gus are locked in the library and it is lit on fire , but they are rescued by Father Peter Westley ( Ray Wise ) . Bob , who is revealed to be Paula 's biological father , explains that after World War I , his great @-@ grandfather established the town with two other soldiers , intending to create a secluded utopia . After the sawmill fire in 1958 , the town began to look at all outsiders as a threat . When Doc Gooden and Sheriff Jackson enter and hold him at gunpoint , Shawn deduces that they are the leaders of the other two founding families . Due to Gooden 's infertility and Jackson 's terminal cancer , Randy was the only known direct descendant and therefore the sole future leader . To stop Randy from leaving town with a paranoid Paula , the sheriff and doctor drowned her . After Lassiter and O 'Hara arrive and arrest Gooden and Jackson , the group celebrates at the diner , only to be repulsed by a number of oddities referencing Twin Peaks .
= = Production = =
" Dual Spires " was the fourth episode directed by Matt Shakman , the sixth to be written by producer Bill Callahan , and sixth to be written by series star James Roday , respectively . It originally aired in the United States on December 1 , 2010 , on USA Network as the 12th episode of Psych 's fifth season and the 75th episode overall . It was an extended episode , at 67 minutes including commercials or 50 without .
According to trivia on the " Dual Spires enhanced " video at the Psych website , a Twin Peaks tribute episode had been in the works since season one . Maggie Lawson was the one who suggested the episode 's title , a play on that of the original series . The episode aired 20 years to the day after the 17th episode of Twin Peaks , which answered the question of who killed Laura Palmer , after which , Mike Hale of The New York Times wrote , " there was really no reason to keep watching . " The episode features seven Twin Peaks cast members as guest stars . Sherilyn Fenn , who is best known for portraying Audrey Horne , guest stars as Maudette Hornsby . Sheryl Lee , who played Laura Palmer and Maddy Ferguson , guest stars as Dr. Donna " Doc " Gooden , Dual Spires ' psychiatrist , pediatrician , optometrist , gastrologist , podiatrist , dermatologist , orthodontist , forensic scientist , veterinarian , lawyer , and accountant . Dana Ashbrook , who played Bobby Briggs , guest stars as Robert " Bob " Barker . Robyn Lively , who played Lana Budding Milford , guest stars as Michelle Barker . Lenny Von Dohlen , who played Harold Smith , guest stars as Sheriff Andrew Jackson . Catherine E. Coulson , who played the Log Lady , Margaret Lanterman , cameos as a woman carrying wood . Finally , Ray Wise , who played Leland Palmer , reprises his Psych role as Father Peter Westley . Michael Ontkean , who played Sheriff Harry S. Truman , and Mädchen Amick , who played diner waitress Shelly Johnson , were also approached to appear in the episode . Twin Peaks co @-@ creator David Lynch was originally going to guest star in a speaking role as Mayor Douglas Fir , but Lynch was not asked due to Roday 's concern over what Lynch would think of the episode . Other guest stars include Scott Lyster as Randy Jackson and Ryan McDonald as Jack Smith .
Additionally , Julee Cruise , who recorded the theme for Twin Peaks , recorded a slower , extended version of the Psych theme song , " I Know You Know " by series creator Steve Franks 's band The Friendly Indians . The imagery that accompanies it is an almost shot @-@ for @-@ shot recreation of the Twin Peaks opening sequence , with a white horse that resembles the one in Sarah Palmer 's vision before the attack on Maddy Ferguson . Later , during a bicycle chase scene , " Baby Did a Bad Bad Thing " by Chris Isaak is heard . Isaak portrayed Special Agent Chester Desmond in Twin Peaks : Fire Walk with Me .
= = Cultural references = =
= = = Allusions to Twin Peaks = = =
" Dual Spires " is presented as an homage to Twin Peaks , and CNN writer Katie McLaughlin noted several allusions the episode makes to the series . In the beginning of the episode , there is a chocolate bunny on Shawn 's desk . In Twin Peaks , Special Agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) delivered the famous line " Diane , I 'm holding in my hands a small box of chocolate bunnies . " Gus then asks , " Since when is the sound of opening and closing shades so disruptive that it needs to be alleviated ? " The character Nadine Hurley in Twin Peaks attempted to patent her silent drape runner invention . Someone from a website by the name of UnderTheNail.com sends Shawn and Gus an e @-@ mail that says , " Who killed Paula Merral ? " Twin Peaks famed the catchphrase " Who Killed Laura Palmer ? " The killer also purposely placed clues in his victims ' fingernail beds . The victim 's name itself is an anagram of " Laura Palmer " .
Dr. Donna Gooden acts as , among other things , the town 's veterinarian and medical examiner . On Twin Peaks , Laura 's best friend was named Donna , and Donna 's father , Dr. Hayward , was also the town doctor and medical examiner . While drinking a Cherry Coke , Maudette states , " Isn 't cherry the best ? " Sherilyn Fenn , the actress who portrays Maudette , famously tied a cherry stem into a knot with her tongue in Twin Peaks . Later , Ray Wise suddenly has white hair , just as his Twin Peaks character Leland Palmer 's hair turned white overnight in one episode . Dual Spires is famous for its cinnamon pie and apple cider , as Twin Peaks was famous for cherry pie and " damn fine " coffee . The mayor of Dual Spires is named Douglas Fir , and the town of Twin Peaks was filled with Douglas @-@ fir trees . The local paper in Dual Spires is " The Great Northern , " while Twin Peaks had a hotel called the Great Northern . In both series , there are stacks of donuts at the police station . In both Dual Spires and Twin Peaks , a sawmill was the source of the town 's livelihood and burned down in a case of arson . Paula Merral is found wrapped in plastic by the lake , just as in Twin Peaks Laura Palmer 's body was found " dead , wrapped in plastic " on a rocky beach . The Barkers have a framed prom photo of their niece wearing a tiara prominently displayed , and a similar photo of Laura Palmer remains the iconic Twin Peaks image . Leo the cinnamon owl was the festival mascot , whereas the character of Leo Johnson was suspected of Laura Palmer 's murder in Twin Peaks . Owls were a major part of Peaks as well . The pet bird in Dr. Gooden 's waiting room was the same type of bird that bit Laura 's shoulder in Twin Peaks . There is similar camera work and sound effect focus on a ceiling fan whipping around at the top of the stairs at Sheriff Jackson 's house ; this happened often in Twin Peaks . The sheriff 's house also looks similar to the Palmers ' house . Paula secretly dated the sheriff 's son and shared " secret special lover earrings " with him , and in Twin Peaks , Laura and the nephew of one of the townsmen each had half of a golden heart necklace . A local teenage boy wears a jeweled crown . In Peaks , Audrey Horne 's older brother wore a Native American headdress . In both series , the sheriff 's deputy is a Native American who is very in tune with nature . Sheriff Andrew Jackson 's name references the seventh president of the United States , just as the name of the sheriff of Twin Peaks , Harry Truman , references the 33rd . Shawn and Gus find a book written by Earl Wyndam ; in Peaks , Windom Earle was a psychopathic ex @-@ FBI agent .
The " Dual Spires enhanced " video at the Psych website lists further references to Twin Peaks . Shawn 's name for Gus in this episode is " Lodge Blackmunn " , a direct reference to the Black and White Lodge . Leo the Cinnamon Owl is a reference to Killer BOB , who possessed Leland Palmer and often took the form of an owl . The sheriff 's deputy is Deputy Frost , named after Twin Peaks co @-@ creator Mark Frost . The doctors of both Dual Spires and Twin Peaks have coconuts in their offices . Both Paula 's and Laura 's diaries described meetings with " J " . Sheriff Jackson tells Bob he needs to be strong for his wife . Dr Hayward says the same thing to Leland Palmer in Twin Peaks . Upon entering the town Gus mentions that the residents are looking at him as if he were the first black man they had ever seen . There are very few black men in Twin Peaks . When they enter the Sawmill Diner Bob Barker says " Top of the morning to you . " In the first season of Twin Peaks , Pete Martell corrected Josie Packard on the saying . Maudette wears an orchid in her hair ; Harold grew orchids in Twin Peaks . In the library Shawn asks if they can " poke around " but he and Gus immediately say " peek " in correction . Thus " peek " , as in Twin Peaks , is spoken twice . A man wearing a hat in the Sawmill Diner gives Shawn and Gus a thumbs up . The older room service attendant did the same thing to Agent Cooper in Twin Peaks . A record player is featured prominently in both the Barker and Palmer homes . The Roadhouse was also a location in Twin Peaks . Both Maudette and Audrey Horne love to dance . Paula 's friend Jack is completely blind in one eye , referencing Twin Peaks ' brothel named " One Eyed Jacks " . In the library Shawn and Gus find a book entitled " Putt Your Way to a Better Future . " After Leland Palmer killed Maddy Ferguson he was seen putting golf balls around in his living room . When Randy is using the table saw it resembles the sawmill scene from the extended opening credits of Twin Peaks . When Maudette is placed in the body bag it is bent in such a way that it resembles a smile , like the smiling bag clue Agent Cooper found . On Maudette 's desk beside her computer is a roll of green tape like the kind used by Leland Palmer to tie up Jacques Renault . In the cabin Bob Barker lights a match and holds it up like Leland Palmer did when describing BOB to Agent Cooper . Bob Barker wears a gold ring on his pinky , something Agent Cooper did in Twin Peaks . In the cabin the walls are red with red drapes as an allusion to the " Red Room " in Agent Cooper 's dream .
The " enhanced " video states that there are 724 references to Twin Peaks in the episode 's closing scene . Among them , Jack Smith wears an eye patch and a red suit and dances funny , referencing not only the aforementioned " One Eyes Jacks " brothel and Nadine Hurley , but a dream sequence in Peaks , where a character known as the Man from Another Place wore a similar suit and danced in a bizarre fashion . In the final scene Carlton is seen holding his hand up and stating " that is a damn fine cup of cider " . In the Twin Peaks pilot Agent Cooper holds his hand the same way and states " that is a damn fine cup of coffee . " Additionally , Carlton is later holding a cup of coffee on its side , displaying that the coffee is now solid in a fashion mimicking the same action by Agent Cooper in the final episode . A seven @-@ foot tall man ( John DeSantis ) wearing a bow tie looks much like the giant from Agent Cooper 's dream . Randy is seen at the end barking out the window like Bobby Briggs did to James Hurley in the holding cells . Bob Barker is seen dancing with a picture just as Leland Palmer did in Twin Peaks . The episode 's end credits are accompanied by soap opera @-@ type music and a shot of Paula 's prom picture ; Twin Peaks 's credits did exactly the same thing with Laura 's photo . The music is also very similar to the theme .
= = = Other references = = =
There are several other references in the episode . Upon seeing an African American for the first time , a child asks Gus if he is Frederick Douglass . When Shawn makes the observation that Dual Spires has " Bob Barker , Doc Gooden , and Randy Jackson , all living in the same inlet town with no cars , cell phones , or internet " , Gus replies that they should pitch the concept to Mark Burnett . Shawn and Gus later ride a tandem bicycle in what Shawn likens to a racially reversed Driving Miss Daisy . Randy reveals that the town gathers every week to watch Everwood . Shawn tells Maudette that they are having a Betty Boop Night at the Roadhouse .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Dual Spires " drew 3 @.@ 543 million viewers , with a 2 @.@ 2 / 4 share among all households , meaning that in the United States the episode was tuned into by roughly 2 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households and 4 percent of households watching television . The episode had a 1 @.@ 3 / 4 share among those aged 18 – 49 .
The episode received positive reviews from critics familiar with Twin Peaks . Jonah Krakow of IGN gave the episode a score of 9 out of 10 , writing that it was " enjoyable enough on its own merits that I don 't have to apologize for gushing over every single subtle nod to Twin Peaks . " Although CNN 's Katie McLaughlin was initially worried , her fears were quickly alleviated . McLaughlin stated that Psych did a " damn fine " tribute episode , and that she had fun finding all of the Twin Peaks references . Simon Abrams of The A.V. Club gave the episode a rating of C- on a scale of A + to F. Commenting on reports that the episode has been in the works since the series ' first season , Abrams wrote , " [ it ] speaks to how patently unnecessary " Dual Spires " is conceptually but also how potentially endearing it could be , too . " JT Vaughn of Zap2it , however , gave the episode an A + rating , writing , " It was just an absolutely brilliant episode , one which paid a loving homage to a classic television show while also being a damn fine episode in itself . Psych has been in great form since it returned , and long may it continue . " In contrast , Starpulse writer Brittany Frederick , who was unfamiliar with Twin Peaks , enjoyed " Dual Spires " less than other episodes .
= Zyklon B =
Zyklon B ( German pronunciation : [ tsykloːn ˈbeː ] ; anglicized / ˈzaɪklɒn ˈbiː / or translated Cyclone B ) was the trade name of a cyanide @-@ based pesticide invented in Germany in the early 1920s . It consisted of hydrogen cyanide ( prussic acid ) , a cautionary eye irritant , and one of several adsorbents such as diatomaceous earth . The product is infamous for its use by Nazi Germany during the Holocaust to murder a million people in gas chambers installed at Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau , Majdanek , and other extermination camps .
Hydrogen cyanide , a poisonous gas that interferes with cellular respiration , was first used as a pesticide in California in the 1880s . Research at Degesch of Germany led to the development of Zyklon ( later known as Zyklon A ) , a pesticide which released hydrogen cyanide upon exposure to water and heat . It was banned after a similar product was used by Germany as a chemical weapon in World War I. In 1922 , Degesch was purchased by Degussa , where a team of chemists that included Walter Heerdt and Bruno Tesch developed a method of packaging hydrogen cyanide in sealed canisters along with a cautionary eye irritant and adsorbent stabilizers . The new product was also named Zyklon , but it became known as Zyklon B to distinguish it from the earlier version . Uses included delousing clothing and disinfecting ships , warehouses , and trains .
In early 1942 , Zyklon B emerged as the preferred killing tool of Nazi Germany for use in extermination camps during the Holocaust . Around a million people were killed using this method , mostly at Auschwitz . Tesch was executed in 1946 for knowingly selling the product to the SS for use on humans . Hydrogen cyanide is now rarely used as a pesticide , but still has industrial applications . Firms in several countries continue to produce Zyklon B under alternative brand names , including Detia @-@ Degesch , the successor to Degesch , who renamed the product to Cyanosil in 1974 .
= = Mechanism = =
Hydrogen cyanide is a poisonous gas that interferes with cellular respiration . Cyanide prevents the cell from producing adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) by binding to one of the proteins involved in the electron transport chain . This protein , cytochrome c oxidase , contains several subunits and has ligands containing iron groups . The cyanide component of Zyklon B can bind at one of these iron groups , heme a3 , forming a more stabilized compound through metal @-@ to @-@ ligand pi bonding . As a result of this new iron @-@ cyanide complex , the electrons that would situate themselves on the heme a3 group can no longer do so . Instead , these electrons destabilize the compound ; thus , the heme group no longer accepts them . Consequently , electron transport is halted , and cells can no longer produce the energy needed to synthesize ATP . In a human weighing 68 kilograms ( 150 lb ) , death occurs within two minutes of inhaling 70 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 0025 oz ) of hydrogen cyanide .
= = History = =
Hydrogen cyanide , discovered in the late 18th century , was used in the 1880s for the fumigation of citrus trees in California . Its use spread to other countries for the fumigation of silos , goods wagons , ships , and mills . Its light weight and rapid dispersal meant its application had to take place under tents or in enclosed areas . Research by Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry led to the founding in 1919 of Deutsche Gesellschaft für Schädlingsbekämpfung mbH ( Degesch ) , a state @-@ controlled consortium formed to investigate military use of the chemical . Chemists at Degesch added a cautionary eye irritant to a less volatile cyanide compound which reacted with water in the presence of heat to become hydrogen cyanide . The new product was marketed as the pesticide Zyklon ( cyclone ) . As a similar formula had been used as a weapon by the Germans during World War I , Zyklon was soon banned .
Deutsche Gold- und Silber @-@ Scheideanstalt ( German Gold and Silver Refinery ; Degussa ) became sole owners of Degesch in 1922 . There , beginning in 1922 , Walter Heerdt , Bruno Tesch , and others worked on packaging hydrogen cyanide in sealed canisters along with a cautionary eye irritant and adsorbent stabilizers such as diatomaceous earth . The new product was also labelled as Zyklon , but it became known as Zyklon B to distinguish it from the earlier version . Heerdt was named the inventor of Zyklon B in the Degesch patent application ( number DE 438818 ) dated 20 June 1922 . The German Patent Office awarded the patent on 27 December 1926 .
= = Corporate structure and marketing = =
In 1930 , Degussa ceded 42 @.@ 5 per cent ownership of Degesch to IG Farben and 15 per cent to Th . Goldschmidt AG , in exchange for the right to market pesticide products of those two companies through Degesch . Degussa retained managerial control .
While Degesch owned the rights to the brand name Zyklon and the patent on the packaging system , the chemical formula was owned by Degussa . Schlempe GmbH , which was 52 per cent owned by Degussa , owned the rights to a process to extract hydrogen cyanide from waste products of sugar beet processing . This process was performed under license by two companies , Dessauer Werke and Kaliwerke Kolin , who also combined the resulting hydrogen cyanide with stabilizer from IG Farben and a cautionary agent from Schering AG to form the final product , which was packaged using equipment , labels , and canisters provided by Degesch . The finished goods were sent to Degesch , who forwarded the product to two companies that acted as distributors : Heerdt @-@ Linger GmbH ( Heli ) of Frankfurt and Tesch & Stabenow ( Testa ) of Hamburg . Their territory was split along the Elbe river , with Heli handling clients to the west and south , and Testa those to the east . Degesch owned 51 per cent of the shares of Heli , and until 1942 owned 55 per cent of Testa .
Prior to World War II Degesch derived most of its Zyklon B profits from overseas sales , particularly in the United States , where it was produced under license by Roessler & Hasslacher prior to 1931 and by American Cyanamid from 1931 to 1943 . From 1929 , the United States Public Health Service used Zyklon B to disinfect freight trains and clothes of Mexican immigrants entering the United States . Uses in Germany included delousing clothing ( often using a portable sealed chamber invented by Degesch in the 1930s ) and disinfecting ships , warehouses , and trains . By 1943 , sales of Zyklon B accounted for 65 per cent of Degesch 's sales revenue and 70 per cent of its gross profits .
= = Use in the Holocaust = =
In early 1942 , Zyklon B emerged as the preferred killing tool of Nazi Germany for use in extermination camps during the Holocaust . The chemical claimed the lives of roughly one million people in gas chambers installed in extermination camps at Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau , Majdanek , and elsewhere . Most of the victims were Jews , and by far the majority killed using this method died at Auschwitz . Zyklon B was supplied to concentration camps at Mauthausen , Dachau , and Buchenwald by the distributor Heli , and to Auschwitz and Majdanek by Testa . Camps also occasionally bought Zyklon B directly from the manufacturers . Of the 729 metric tons of Zyklon B sold in Germany in 1942 – 44 , 56 metric tons ( about 8 per cent of domestic sales ) were sold to concentration camps . Auschwitz received 23 @.@ 8 tons , of which 6 tons were used for fumigation . The remainder was used in the gas chambers or lost to spoilage ( the product had a shelf life of only three months ) . Testa conducted fumigations for the Wehrmacht and supplied them with Zyklon B. They also offered courses to the SS in the safe handling and use of the material for fumigation purposes . In April 1941 , the German agriculture and interior ministries designated the SS as an authorized applier of the chemical , and thus they were able to use it without any further training or governmental oversight .
Rudolf Höss , commandant of Auschwitz , said that the use of Zyklon @-@ B to kill prisoners came about on the initiative of one of his subordinates , SS @-@ Hauptsturmführer ( captain ) Karl Fritzsch , who used the substance to kill some Russian POWs in late August 1941 in the basement of Block 11 in the main camp . The experiment was repeated on more Russian POWs , with Höss watching , in September . Block 11 proved unsuitable for mass killings , as the basement was difficult to air out afterwards and the crematorium ( Crematorium I , which operated until July 1942 ) was some distance away . The site of the killings was moved to Crematorium I , where more than 700 victims could be killed at once . By the middle of 1942 , the operation was moved to Auschwitz II – Birkenau , a nearby satellite camp which had been under construction since October 1941 .
The first gas chamber at Auschwitz II – Birkenau was the " red house " ( called Bunker 1 by SS staff ) , a brick cottage converted to a gassing facility by tearing out the inside and bricking up the windows . It was operational by March 1942 . A second brick cottage , the " white house " or Bunker 2 , was converted some weeks later . According to Höss , Bunker 1 held 800 victims and Bunker 2 held 1 @,@ 200 victims . These structures were in use for mass killings until early 1943 . At that point , the Nazis decided to greatly increase the gassing capacity of Birkenau . Crematorium II , originally designed as a mortuary , with morgues in the basement and ground @-@ level incinerators , was converted into a killing factory by installing gas @-@ tight doors , vents for the Zyklon B to be dropped into the chamber , and ventilation equipment to remove the gas afterwards . Crematorium III was built using the same design . Crematoria IV and V , designed from the start as gassing centers , were also constructed that spring . By June 1943 , all four crematoria were operational . Most of the victims were killed using these four structures .
The Nazis began shipping large numbers of Jews from all over Europe to Auschwitz in the middle of 1942 . Those who were not selected for work crews were immediately gassed . The group selected to die , about three @-@ quarters of the total , included almost all children , women with small children , all the elderly , and all those who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be completely fit . The victims were told they were to undergo delousing and a shower . They were stripped of their belongings and herded into the gas chamber .
The Zyklon B was delivered by ambulance to the crematoria by a special SS bureau known as the Hygienic Institute . The actual delivery of the gas to the victims was always handled by the SS , on the order of the supervising SS doctor . After the doors were shut , SS men dumped in the Zyklon B pellets through vents in the roof or holes in the side of the chamber . The victims were dead within 20 minutes . Johann Kremer , an SS doctor who oversaw gassings , testified that the " shouting and screaming of the victims could be heard through the opening and it was clear that they fought for their lives " .
Sonderkommandos ( special work crews forced to work at the gas chambers ) wearing gas masks then dragged the bodies from the chamber . The victims ' glasses , artificial limbs , jewelry , and hair were removed , and any dental work was extracted so the gold could be melted down . If the gas chamber was crowded , which they typically were , the corpses were found half @-@ squatting , their skin discolored pink with red and green spots , with some found foaming at their mouths , or bleeding from their ears . The corpses were burned in the nearby incinerators , and the ashes were buried , thrown in the river , or used as fertilizer . With the Soviet Red Army approaching through Poland , the last mass gassing at Auschwitz took place on 30 October 1944 . In November 1944 , Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler , head of the SS , ordered gassing operations to cease across the Reich .
= = Legacy = =
After World War II ended in 1945 , Bruno Tesch and Karl Weinbacher of Tesch & Stabenow were tried in a British military court and executed for knowingly providing Zyklon B to the SS for use on humans . Gerhard Peters , who served as principal operating officer of Degesch and Heli and also held posts in the Nazi government , served two years eight months in prison as an accessory before being released due to amendments to the penal code .
Use of hydrogen cyanide as a pesticide or cleaner has been banned or restricted in some countries . Most hydrogen cyanide is used in industrial processes , made by companies in Germany , Japan , the Netherlands and the US . Degesch resumed production of Zyklon B after the war . The product was sold as Cyanosil in Germany and Zyklon in other countries . It was still produced as of 2000 . Degussa sold Degesch to Detia @-@ Freyberg GmbH in 1986 . The company is now called Detia @-@ Degesch . A fumigation product similar to Zyklon B is also in production by Lučební závody Draslovka of the Czech Republic , under the trade name Uragan D2 . Uragan means " hurricane " or " cyclone " in Czech .
Subsequent use of the word " Zyklon " in trade names has prompted angry reactions in English @-@ speaking countries . The name " Zyklon " on portable roller coasters made since 1965 by Pinfari provoked protests among Jewish groups in the U.S. in 1993 , 1999 , and 2011 . In 2002 , British sportswear and football equipment supplier Umbro issued an apology and stopped using the name " Zyklon " , which had appeared since 1999 on the box for one of its trainers , after receiving complaints from the Simon Wiesenthal Center and the Beth Shalom Holocaust Centre . Also in 2002 , Siemens withdrew its application for an American trademark of the word " Zyklon " , which their subsidiary BSH Bosch und Siemens Hausgeräte had proposed to use for a new line of home appliances in the United States . ( The firm was already using the name in Germany for one of their vacuum cleaners . ) Protests were lodged by the Simon Wiesenthal Center after the trademark application was reported to BBC News Online by one of their readers . French company IPC 's product names used " Cyclone " for degreasers and suffix " B " for biodegradable : " Cyclone B " was renamed " Cyclone Cap Vert " ( " green cap " ) in 2013 after protests from Jewish groups . A rabbi said the name was " horrible ignorance at best , and a Guinness record in evil and cynicism if the company did know the history of the name of its product . "
Holocaust deniers claim that Zyklon B gas was not used in the gas chambers , relying for evidence on the research of Fred A. Leuchter , who found low levels of Prussian blue in samples of the gas chamber walls and ceilings . Leuchter attributed its presence to general delousing of the buildings . Leuchter 's negative control , a sample of gasket material taken from a different camp building , had no cyanide residue . In 1999 , James Roth , the chemist who had analyzed Leuchter 's samples , stated that the test was flawed because the material that was sent for testing included large chunks , and the chemical would only be within 10 microns of the surface . The surface that had been exposed to the chemical was not identified , and the large size of the specimens meant that any chemical present was diluted by an undeterminable amount . In 1994 , the Institute for Forensic Research in Kraków re @-@ examined Leuchter 's claim , stating that formation of Prussian blue by exposure of bricks to cyanide is not a highly probable reaction . Using microdiffusion techniques , they tested 22 samples from the gas chambers and delousing chambers ( as positive controls ) and living quarters ( as negative controls ) . They found cyanide residue in both the delousing chambers and the gas chambers but none in the living quarters .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= Washington State Route 140 =
State Route 140 ( SR 140 ) was a state highway located in Clark and Skamania counties in southwestern Washington . The highway began and ended at SR 14 in Washougal and Prindle , respectively , and followed the Washougal River and Canyon Creek . The roadway first appeared as Canyon Creek Road in a 1911 map and was designated Secondary State Highway 8B ( SSH 8B ) in 1937 . SSH 8B was a spur route of Primary State Highway 8 ( PSH 8 ) , which became SR 12 in the 1964 highway renumbering . SR 120 replaced SSH 8B in the same renumbering and SR 12 was renumbered in 1967 to SR 14 after U.S. Route 12 was extended into Washington . SR 120 was also renumbered to SR 140 , which was decommissioned in 1992 .
= = Route description = =
State Route 140 ( SR 140 ) originated as 15th Street at an intersection with SR 14 in Washougal , located about 1 @.@ 47 miles ( 2 @.@ 37 km ) east of the eastern terminus of SR 500 on the shoreline of the Columbia River . 15th Street traveled north through Downtown , crossing the Vancouver – White Salmon rail route of the BNSF Railway and intersecting the former alignment of SR 14 , E Street , before turning northeastward onto 17th Street . The highway crossed the Washougal River out of Washougal in a large forest and became the Washougal River Road . The roadway paralleled the river northeast and later east into the forests and mountains of Skamania County until the river turned north . SR 140 , renamed Canyon Creek Road , turned southeast and encountered a series of sharp turns until terminating at SR 14 in Prindle .
= = History = =
SR 140 began as Canyon Creek Road and first appeared on a map in 1911 . The first numbered highway on the road was Secondary State Highway 8B ( SSH 8B ) , established in 1937 . The roadway traveled along the Washougal River and Canyon Creek between Primary State Highway 8 ( PSH 8 ) , co @-@ signed as U.S. Route 830 ( US 830 ) , between Washougal and Prindle . SSH 8B remained unchanged until the 1964 highway renumbering , when the route was renumbered as State Route 120 and PSH 8 became State Route 12 . After US 12 was extended west across Washington in 1967 , SR 12 became SR 14 and SR 120 became SR 140 . In 1968 , US 830 was deleted and SR 14 was realigned south onto a newer alignment . In 1992 , SR 140 was removed from the state highway system .
= = Major intersections = =
= Battle of El Herri =
The Battle of El Herri ( also known as Elhri ) was fought between France and the Berber Zaian Confederation on 13 November 1914 . It took place at the small settlement of El Herri , near Khénifra in the French protectorate in Morocco . The battle was part of the Zaian War , in which the confederation of tribes sought to oppose continued French expansion into the interior of Morocco . Having captured the strategic town of Khénifra earlier in the year , the French , under General Hubert Lyautey , entered negotiations with Mouha ou Hammou Zayani , who led the Zaian . Lyautey thought that peace could be achieved and ordered Lieutenant @-@ Colonel René Laverdure , who commanded the garrison in Khénifra , to not launch any offensives .
Laverdure became frustrated with the lack of action and , on 13 November , led almost his entire garrison in an attack on the Zaian encampment at El Herri . The attack initially went well , with his artillery and cavalry clearing the tribesmen from the camp , looting the Zaian tents and capturing two of Hammou 's wives . However , the French encountered a significant Zaian force during its withdrawal to Khénifra . This force engaged the French with harassing fire , forcing them to move only under the cover of their artillery . Laverdure then ordered his wounded back to Khénifra with a guard of a company of infantry , which were joined by large numbers of other troops who broke ranks to join the column . Whilst making a river crossing , Laverdure 's rear guard and artillery were overrun and annihilated . Laverdure 's remaining troops then formed square and fought a desperate last stand against several thousand tribesmen before they were also overrun and killed .
The French losses were significant , some 623 men ( including Laverdure ) were killed and 176 wounded . The Zaian lost around 182 men killed . The column of wounded reached Khénifra just ahead of pursuing Zaian forces and the town came under siege . Lyautey was dismayed at Laverdure 's actions and was briefly of the opinion that he had cost him the war . However , a relief force reached Khénifra within a few days and the situation stabilised . The Zaian War lasted until 1921 when negotiations secured the submission of much of the confederation to French rule and a military offensive pushed the remainder into the High Atlas mountains .
= = Background = =
France 's protectorate of Morocco was established after French intervention in the Agadir Crisis of 1911 . Resident General Louis @-@ Hubert Lyautey served as the head of government and one of his main aims was to secure the " Taza corridor " in the Middle Atlas mountains linking Tunis to the Moroccan Atlantic coast . He was opposed by the Berber tribes in the area , amongst them the Zaian confederation led by Mouha ou Hammou Zayani . Hammou had opposed the French intervention since 1877 and led between 4 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 200 tents ( the tribal unit of measurement ) of people .
French attempts to persuade Hammou to submit had failed and in May 1914 Lyautey authorised General Paul Prosper Henrys to take command of all French troops in the area and launch an attack on Taza and Khénifra , vital parts of the corridor . Despite some fierce engagements with the Zaian in the Khénifra area , Henrys secured the two towns by the middle of June and inflicted substantial losses on the tribes . As part of the defence of the area , Henrys established three Groupes Mobile , mobile columns of troops who could react quickly to threats . A Groupe Mobile was established at Khénifra under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel René Laverdure , another to the west under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Henri Claudel and a third to the east under Colonel Noël Garnier @-@ Duplessix . July saw increasing attacks on Laverdure 's command and the outbreak of the First World War which significantly reduced the number of French forces based in Morocco . Lyautey was determined to hold Khénifra to use as a bridgehead for further expansion of French territory and referred to it as a bastion against the " hostile Berber masses " upon which the " maintenance of [ his ] occupation " depended .
Successfully repulsing additional attacks on Khénifra , Henrys thought he had the upper hand , having proven that the reduced French forces could resist the tribesmen . The Zaian were now contained within a triangle formed by the Oum er Rbia , the Serrou river and the Atlas mountains and were already in dispute with neighbouring tribes over the best wintering land .
= = Battle = =
= = = Laverdure 's attack = = =
Laverdure had been in Khénifra for five months when Hammou set up camp at El Herri , a small village 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) away , for the winter . Hammou had been promised peace talks and had just lost control over five tribes who began negotiations for submission to French rule . Henrys believed that Zaian resistance was near its end and that the war would soon be over . Lyautey wished to keep the situation calm and twice refused Laverdure permission to attack the camp at El Herri , for fear that it would affect the peace talks and that Laverdure had insufficient forces available for the assault . He was instead ordered to keep to the French bank of the Oum er Rbia and had permission only to send troops out for convoy protection , wood gathering and road building .
However Laverdure decided to disobey his orders to remain in Khénifra and marched on El Herri with almost the entire garrison . He was said to be frustrated with the lack of action on the front and may have been persuaded by a Makhzen soldier eager to avenge a personal affront he had received from Hammou . Laverdure 's column consisted of six infantry companies of Algerian and Senegalese Tirailleurs , a party of irregular Goumiers , two batteries of 65mm and 75mm ( the famous Soixante @-@ Quinze ) cannon and a squadron of Spahi cavalry : numbering 43 officers and 1 @,@ 187 men in total . This amounted to less than half the troops he had had in September when he was first denied permission to launch an attack . Laverdure marched at 2 @.@ 30 am on the morning of 13 November 1914 without informing his superiors , only leaving behind a note saying he was going to " annihilate " Hammou 's camp .
Laverdure 's column reached El Herri at dawn and found the encampment of 100 tents . Most of the Zaian men were out of camp at the time , leaving behind the non @-@ combatants , and Laverdure achieved complete surprise . The first that many of the Zaian knew of the attack was when his artillery shells began exploding amongst the tents . This was followed up by a cavalry charge which cleared the camp but was halted by a group of tribesmen who had rallied on a hilltop to the south and inflicted " numerous losses " on the horsemen . Laverdure had to send in his infantry to remove these Zaians , before looting the encampment . Hammou escaped in time but two of his wives were captured before the French headed back to Khénifra at around 8 @.@ 30 am , leaving the looting to tribesmen of the Aït Ichkern , formerly Hammou 's allies who assumed he was now beaten .
= = = Zaian counterattack = = =
The return to Khénifra was initially hampered by attacks by small groups of tribesmen who were successfully beaten , but not before they discovered the relatively small number of troops in the French column . Word was passed to others in the area and soon a force , estimated at 5 @,@ 000 strong by the French , was assembled . These men consisted of almost the entire Zaian tribe and elements of the Mrabtin , Aït Harkat , Aït Ischak and Aït Ichkern ( the latter , seeing the French falling back , had changed allegiance once more ) . Zaian tactics were to harass the flanks and rear of the column and to occupy any high ground available for sniping attacks . The French found they could not move in safety without heavy covering fire from the artillery , which was reduced in effectiveness by the dispersal of the Zaian tribesmen and their use of cover . Hammou 's nephew , Moha ou Akka , led a force of several thousand tribesmen around the French to cut off their route to Khénifra .
At this point Laverdure ordered one company of his Senegalese infantry to leave the column with a convoy of wounded soldiers which he sent back to Khénifra . However many of his other troops , seeing the Senegalese leaving , broke ranks and followed in panic . Laverdure attempted to continue his withdrawal but , just having crossed the Chbouka river , his rearguard was surrounded and attacked repeatedly from all sides , being quickly overrun . The gun batteries soon suffered the same fate , their crews also being killed . The Zaian assembled on the ridges surrounding the remaining French troops , who had formed a defensive square , before launching a final attack with " several thousand " men . This attack lasted just a few minutes and , after a desperate struggle , the square was broken and the remainder of the column was wiped out . The Zaian chased down and killed any of the survivors who attempted to hide in the scrub .
The wounded and their escort struggled into Khénifra at about noon , narrowly outpacing the Zaian who had stopped to loot the bodies of the French dead . These men , numbering 171 men and five officers wounded and 426 men and five officers able bodied , were the only French survivors of the battle . A total of 623 Frenchmen had died , along with around 182 of the Zaian . French losses amounted to 218 Algerian or Tunisian Tirailleurs , 210 French soldiers and 33 French officers , 125 Senegalese Tirailleurs and 37 Moroccan Goums killed . The French officers suffered the highest casualty rate of any group with 90 % of them being killed or wounded ( including Laverdure who died in the final attack ) ; four of the five unwounded officers belonged to the cavalry . Around 65 % of the entire force had been killed or wounded and the French were forced to abandon 4 machine guns , 630 small arms , 62 horses , 56 mules , all of their artillery and camping equipment and much of their personal belongings on the battlefield . Hammou took much of this with him when he escaped to the mountains of the Middle Atlas .
= = Aftermath = =
The disaster left Captain Pierre Kroll as the senior officer of the remnants of the Khénifra garrison , some three companies of tirailleurs ( one of which was an ad hoc unit made up from the partially equipped and shaken survivors of the battle ) . Having secured the defences he immediately telegraphed Lyautey and Henrys to inform them of events , the first they had heard of Laverdure 's foray . Lyautey was briefly of the opinion that the event would cause the loss of the whole of Morocco . The next morning Zaian horsemen appeared on the hilltops to the south and east of the city . Khénifra soon came under constant siege from the tribes .
Henrys left Fez for Meknes from which he telegraphed Lyautey promising to " strike hard and fast " so that the " Laverdure disaster " did not threaten the French position in Morocco . He said that " everyone , everywhere must be aware of the fact that our forces are numerous , that strong columns are already on their way to Khenifra , and that the repression will be swift " . Henrys dispatched Garnier @-@ Duplessix 's Groupe Mobile to Khénifra from El Graar and ordered Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Joseph Dérigoin to form another Groupe at Ito for mobile support . Garnier @-@ Duplessix was forced to fight his way through groups of Zaian tribesmen and did not reach the town until 16 November . Henrys joined Dérigoin and entered the town himself two days later , encountering no resistance on the way . Another part of the Khénifra relief force was the 6th battalion of the 2nd French Foreign Legion who marched from Mrirt and saw action at El Hammam and along the Oum er Rbia . By the end of the month the French garrison had swelled to 7 @,@ 000 troops , an all @-@ time high . Henrys , Garnier @-@ Duplessix and Kroll were all promoted shortly after the battle in recognition of their actions to prevent the loss of Khénifra .
As a show of force Henrys led excursions from Khénifra to El Herri on 19 and 20 November . He observed many campfires and some groups of tribesmen but on the whole the Zaian , who had moved their main camps away from the area , kept their distance . Henrys observed the field of battle and ordered the burial of the French dead , finding many stripped of their clothing and some mutilated or decapitated by post @-@ mortem dagger wounds . Laverdure 's body and those of six of his officers were missing , having been removed by Hammou for use as trophies but were later exchanged for Hammou 's captured wives . The Zaian leader displayed these trophies and captured weapons to nearby tribes to encourage them to support him , a tactic that proved particularly successful with the tribes to the north . Although French forces subsequently fought several successful actions against the Zaian and recovered the captured weapons , El Herri showed that they could be beaten . The battle , along with the siding of the Ottoman Empire with the Central Powers in the First World War and slow French progress on the Western Front , led to increasing numbers of recruits for Hammou .
The Zaian war continued for many years after El Herri with Henrys changing tactics from negotiation and bribery to " submit or starve " . Subsequent victories in the Middle Atlas restored the French image of superiority in force and led to increasing submissions and the withdrawal of the Zaian deeper into the mountains . By 1917 the French had managed to establish a military road straight through the Middle Atlas , limiting the free movement of the Zaian . The end of the war came through political rather than military means with Hammou 's sons submitting , on his advice , to the French in June 1920 . Their submission persuaded 3 @,@ 000 tents of Zaian to follow and within six weeks just 2 @,@ 500 tents remained opposed to French rule . Hammou was killed in Spring 1921 by a Berber war party led by Hassan and soon after a combined French and Berber attack on Bekrit defeated the last remaining Zaian force , ending the seven @-@ year @-@ long war . After the war , French expansion in the area continued and they brought almost the entire Middle Atlas under their control by June 1922 .
= = Reasons for French defeat = =
Though they held him in high regard , Lyautey and Henrys blamed Laverdure for the defeat , with the latter describing the Lieutenant @-@ Colonel 's march from Khénifra as a " poorly prepared and poorly executed " " act of indiscipline " . Laverdure was thought to have underestimated the ability of the Berbers to operate offensively in mountainous terrain against his column . His motive for the " inexcusable imprudence " of disobeying orders is thought to have been for personal glory and to bring the war to an early conclusion . One of the survivors of the battle , Jean Pichon , said that Laverdure was " haunted by the obsessive temptation " of defeating Hammou . Lyautey stated , in a letter to Minister of War Alexandre Millerand , that Laverdure , had he not died on the field , would have deserved " the most severe punishment " at the hands of a military tribunal .
It is thought that Laverdure 's actions may have been influenced by a school of thought , advocated by General Charles Mangin , that bold movements would intimidate the North African tribes into submission . This school of thought was critical of Lyautey 's campaign of negotiation backed up by the threat of military power , arguing that it cost too many casualties and that a bolder commander should be appointed instead . Mangin 's opinions had many advocates among the French officers of the colonial forces in Morocco , keen to end the war quickly and transfer to the Western Front , were praised by newspapers , books and journal articles in France and had the support of part of the Chamber of Deputies . Lyautey believed that he had to constantly battle against this school of thought and could not hope to defeat the men who followed it as they were " self @-@ satisfied with its infallibility and convinced of the pitiful inferiority of those who do not submit to it blindly " .
= = Legacy = =
The battle was a shock to the French who had not expected the tribes to get the better of a well armed column . Lyautey himself said that " in our entire colonial history there has never been a case of the destruction of such an important force , of the loss of [ almost ] all its officers ... , of the disappearance of so much materiel and booty of war " . The battle has been described variously as the worst ever defeat of French forces in Morocco , the worst in North Africa and one of the worst in the French colonies . The heavy losses suffered at El Herri overshadowed the planning of French military policy for Morocco during the First World War .
Today the battle is celebrated by the Moroccan press as a historic event in Moroccan history , alongside other instances of resistance against French and Spanish occupation . An obelisk was erected near to the battlefield in 1991 and was unveiled by two Moroccan ministers , Moulay Ahmad Alawi and Muhammad El @-@ Ansar , listing the names of the 182 Moroccan dead . Hammou is recorded on the obelisk as being a " proud champion " of " national resistance " . The monument 's Arabic text contains some mistakes , recording the French dead at 700 in number ( Henrys recorded 623 ) and giving the year of the battle as 1912 .
= Robert White ( Virginia physician ) =
Robert White ( 1688 – 1752 ) was an early American physician , military officer , pioneer , and planter in the Colony of Virginia .
White was born in Scotland , the son of John White , a physician practicing in Paisley , Renfrewshire . He studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh , and later served as a surgeon with the rank of captain in the Royal Navy of the Kingdom of Great Britain . He relocated to the Thirteen Colonies between 1720 and 1730 , first to Delaware , then Pennsylvania , and finally as a " pioneer settler " in present @-@ day Frederick County , Virginia between 1732 and 1735 . White was one of two physicians practicing in Frederick County , and conducted his practice from his residence near Great North Mountain . White was part of a larger wave of Scottish physicians who settled in Virginia prior to the American Revolutionary War .
White was the progenitor of the White political family of Virginia and West Virginia . He was the father of Alexander White ( 1738 – 1804 ) , United States House Representative , and the grandfather of Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) and United States House Representative Francis White ( 1761 – 1826 ) .
= = Early life and education = =
Robert White was born in Scotland in 1688 . He was the son of John White , a physician practicing in Paisley , Renfrewshire who died in 1742 . White 's lineage was of both Scottish and English origins , descending from Covenanters , a Scottish Presbyterian movement during the 17th century . He studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh in Edinburgh , Scotland , and graduated with a Doctor of Medicine degree from the institution .
= = Royal Navy service = =
Following the completion of his education , White served as a surgeon with the rank of captain in the Royal Navy of the Kingdom of Great Britain . While it is not known for certain why White resigned his commission , White family tradition held that he left the Royal Navy after he engaged in a duel with another officer .
= = Arrival in America = =
White was the first member of his family to travel to and reside in America . Between 1720 and 1730 , White arrived in the British Colonies where he visited his uncle William Hoge ( an ancestor of United States House of Representatives member John Blair Hoge ) residing in Delaware Colony . White fell in love with Hoge 's eldest daughter Margaret and he married her in Delaware Colony . White 's marriage to Margaret was likely the cause of his resignation from the Royal Navy . He and Margaret , along with her father William Hoge , relocated near York , Pennsylvania where White erected a residence he named " White Hall " after his family 's ancestral home in Scotland .
= = Settlement in Virginia = =
From York , White relocated between 1732 and 1735 as a " pioneer settler " to a stream along Great North Mountain near Winchester in Orange County , Virginia ( later included as part of Frederick County following its 1738 creation ) , where he established a plantation . During this move to Virginia , White was accompanied by his elderly father @-@ in @-@ law William Hoge , who settled three miles south of Winchester on Opequon Creek . White was one of the earlier pioneer settlers of Frederick County . White and Hoge , along with other families , established the Opequon Meeting House , the oldest Presbyterian congregation formed west of the Blue Ridge Mountains .
White " staked out " his farm between 1732 and 1735 consisting of 375 acres ( 152 ha ) along Hogue Creek , south of the present @-@ day unincorporated community of Hayfield , Virginia along U.S. Route 50 . White 's land tract was surveyed by John Mauzy on April 22 , 1751 , and he was issued a formal land grant from Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron on November 15 , 1754 . Mauzy 's survey stated that White had been residing on the land tract since at least 1751 . White established his permanent residence on this land grant , which became the ancestral home of the White family of Virginia and West Virginia .
White was one of two physicians practicing in Frederick County along with Daniel Hart ( died about 1748 ) . White practiced from his residence near Great North Mountain , and one of his more notable patients was Colonel James Wood , founder of Winchester , Virginia . White 's son Alexander married Wood 's daughter , Elizabeth Wood . White was part a larger wave of Scottish physicians who settled in Virginia prior to the American Revolutionary War . White 's alma mater , the University of Edinburgh , was a leading center of medical education and research , and the school trained more physicians than were needed in Scotland . Unlike White , the majority of Scottish physicians practiced in the main centers of population in the colonial port cities .
= = Later life and death = =
White died in 1752 at the age of 64 and was interred in the eastern corner of the Old Opequon Cemetery at the Opequon Presbyterian Church in Kernstown , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of Winchester . By 1855 , a tree was located at White 's burial site in the eastern corner of the cemetery , and the same tree remained at his burial site in 1891 . White was survived by his three sons , Robert , Alexander , and John , and his wife . His son , Dr. Robert White , Jr . , inherited the White family farm following White 's death .
= = Marriage and children = =
White married Margaret Hoge , the eldest daughter of his uncle William Hoge and his wife , Barbara Hume . White and his wife , Margaret , had at least eight children together :
= Wonderbra =
The Wonderbra is a type of push @-@ up underwire brassiere that gained worldwide prominence in the 1990s . Although the Wonderbra name was first trademarked in the U.S. in 1955 , the brand was developed in Canada . Moses ( Moe ) Nadler , founder and majority owner of the Canadian Lady Corset Company , licensed the trademark for the Canadian market in 1939 . By the 1960s the Canadian Lady brand had become known in Canada as " Wonderbra , the company . " In 1961 the company introduced the Model 1300 plunge push @-@ up bra . This bra became one of the best @-@ selling Canadian styles and is virtually identical to today 's Wonderbra .
In 1968 , Canadian Lady changed its name to Canadian Lady @-@ Canadelle Inc . , was sold to Consolidated Foods ( now Sara Lee Corporation ) , and later became Canadelle Inc . During the 1970s Wonderbra was repositioned as the company 's fashionable and sexy brand , and became the Canadian market leader .
In 1991 , the push @-@ up Wonderbra became a sensation in the UK , although it had been sold there since 1964 under license by the Gossard division of Courtaulds Textiles . Sara Lee Corporation did not renew Gossard 's license and redesigned the push @-@ up style for the reintroduction of the Wonderbra to the U.S. market in 1994 .
Since 1994 , the Wonderbra has expanded from the single push @-@ up design into a full @-@ range lingerie fashion label in most of the world . In most countries , the brand emphasizes sex @-@ appeal . In its native Canada , however , the brand promotes the functional qualities of its products — a departure from the strategy that made Wonderbra the top @-@ seller in the 1970s .
= = Original " Wonder @-@ Bra " design = =
Before the Second World War broke out , elastic materials were rationed and unavailable for clothing . Israel Pilot designed an improved cup with a diagonal slash , shoulder strap attachment . This innovation on existing bra design provided more comfort and freedom of movement for the wearer . He also coined the name " Wonder @-@ Bra " in 1935 .
Israel Pilot 's patent US 2245413 , granted in 1941 , allowed for greater shoulder strap elasticity by cutting the fabric so that the weave has the greatest stretch ( cutting on the " bias " ) . The photographs show the original patent sketches and close @-@ ups of a bra made in the U.S. by D 'Amour . The model is wearing a rare 1950s version of this original Wonder @-@ Bra design .
= = History = =
In 1939 , Moe Nadler founded the Canadian Lady Corset Company . He created a small sewing shop in the heart of Montreal to make a well fitting , good quality bra in the mid @-@ priced range ( from $ 1 @.@ 00 to $ 1 @.@ 50 retail ) . As part of this effort , he traveled to New York City and met with Israel Pilot and licensed the Wonder @-@ Bra trademark and diagonal slash patent . In Canada , the trademark lost the hyphen , and became " WonderBra , " and " Wonderbra " at the U.S. reintroduction .
During the wartime years , Canadian apparel manufacturers were subject to quotas on materials . Elastics were unavailable , affecting the comfort and design of women 's underwear . The diagonal slash offered a better fitting brassiere without elastics , and became a competitive advantage .
From 1939 - 1955 , Canadian Lady marketed several lines of intimate apparel including girdles , panties , slips , swimsuits , and brassieres under the Wonderbra brand . The Company also created sub @-@ brands to target different socioeconomic and lifestyle segments of the consumer market . In contrast , the U.S. market for Wonder @-@ Bra stagnated while the brand was owned by Israel Pilot 's companies . In 1952 , Canadian Lady launched Petal Burst with anticipation of tough negotiations with D 'Amour — Israel Pilot 's U.S. company — around the expiration of the patent in 1955 . This new line also adapted to a new fashion trend towards a pointed bust , inspired by Christian Dior 's " New Look " . The Petal Burst by Wonderbra line was successful and delivered 50 % of bra sales by 1957 .
The post @-@ patent negotiations were led by Moe Nadler . D 'Amour no longer had leverage with a patent , but still demanded that Canadian Lady stop using the designs , and return the pattern templates . Moe Nadler ignored this demand and instead successfully acquired the Canadian , European , and Asian rights to the Wonderbra trademarks . This allowed the company to move forward into the 1960s with the brand intact . By the mid @-@ 1960s Canadian Lady was exporting and licensing the Wonderbra line to Western Europe , Australia , South Africa , Israel and the West Indies . In the 1970s , Canadelle acquired the remaining worldwide rights to the trademark , and licensed Giltex ( a Canadian pantyhose manufacturer acquired by Sara Lee in the 1980s ) to use the Wonderbra brand on hosiery in Canada .
= = = Development of the push @-@ up bra = = =
In the late 1950s Moe Nadler started traveling to Europe to find new styles to bring to the Canadian market . In 1960 , Wonderbra introduced a lacy , half push @-@ up bra described in Europe as Pigeonnant ( meaning " pigeon @-@ breasted " in French ) . In 1961 Nadler directed Louise Poirier to develop a deeply plunged , laced push @-@ up design , numbered the 1300 . Canadian Lady licensed these models , among others , to Gossard in 1964 . It was this Wonderbra Model 1300 design that became first a UK success in the early 1990s , a European sensation in 1993 , and then the " One and Only Wonderbra " that was finally launched in the U.S. in 1994 .
= = = Canadian product , 1964 to 1980 = = =
In the late 1950s and early 1960s , the majority of women were still wearing highly structured undergarments . Girdles were considered the ladylike norm and represented close to 40 % of industry sales by volume . The 1960s also brought to Canadian Lady the challenges of feminism , fashions and the sexual revolution . The feminist movement — cultured by thought leaders like Betty Friedan and Germaine Greer — questioned the mores that defined women 's roles and appearance . Changes in fashion trends , such as pantyhose and the rise of the miniskirt , rendered the girdle unattractive and obsolete to a generation of women . While the intimate apparel industry fretted about bra @-@ burning as a precursor to the decline of all foundation garment sales , women reserved their animosity for their girdles . The Canadian sales data for foundation undergarments , from 1960 to 1971 , vividly demonstrates the shift in tastes .
It was against this backdrop that the Canadian Lady Corset Company had to act . In 1964 , Moe Nadler died and his son , Larry Nadler inherited control of the company . Larry Nadler was a Harvard @-@ trained MBA and brought modern marketing strategies to the industry . He commissioned market research that identified women 's feelings about intimate apparel . Women did not hate their bras . Rather , they saw bras as a means to feel and look beautiful , to be fashionable and sexy , and to attract men . While women sometimes went bra @-@ less , they were making a fashion choice and not a political statement . Canadian Lady 's management knew that girdles were out , but bras would remain an essential part of women 's wardrobes . So during the 1960s , while competitors were cutting back on their bra marketing and diversifying into other products , Canadian Lady aggressively pursued bra market share .
Later , Larry Nadler identified an age based bifurcation in the market . Younger women ( aged 15 to 20 ) regarded their bras as an enhancement to their sexuality but were not interested in a heavily structured garment . Nadler learned that women wanted " less bra , " not " no bra . " In 1974 , they introduced a new line of brassieres for teens called Dici ( by Wonderbra ) , and invented new hot fabric molding technologies to shape the cup . These bras were seamless and simply designed with less support than the typical bra of the period . The company designed special packaging in the shape of a die ( with holes ) .
= = = Brand development = = =
In 1966 , Canadian Lady made several important changes to their advertising strategy . They introduced television advertising and changed the emphasis from the product to the brand . Ads attempted to build consumer awareness of the single brand name : Wonderbra . Market research showed that women did not want girdles advertised on television — girdles were seen as armor against sex , while bras provided a means of attraction .
Instead of being hidden " unmentionables " , Wonderbras became more visible icons of female sex @-@ appeal . The company also used pricing to promote Wonderbra as a luxury product with the highest price of any mass @-@ merchandised brand . This strategy also provided greater profits in a very competitive industry . The goal was to have women see their Wonderbras as a cosmetic — a beauty enhancer — rather than a functional garment . Playtex , the leading brand at the time , promoted the ease of care and durability of their girdles and brassieres .
Beginning in 1967 , the advertising focused exclusively on Wonderbra brand brassieres . In 1968 , Nadler hired Goodis Advertising to develop the new campaign . The Wonderbra ads were based on fashion and emotional appeal . In various ads , the man would appear as fashion photographer ( in a fashion shoot ) or fashion buyer ( at a fashion show ) . The storyline suggested an attraction or budding romance between the man and the women . The voice @-@ over and jingle featured a man 's voice and the commercial showed an actual woman 's torso naked except for a bra . All other television ads before this era showed brassieres on a manikin or a dressmaker 's dummy to promote the functional features of the product . Every Wonderbra advertisement contained versions of the musical theme , " We care about the shape you 're in . Wonderful , wonderful , Wonderbra " . The 1979 television campaign included a commercial directed by Richard Avedon which won a Silver award for television advertisements shown in Canada .
The Dici by Wonderbra television advertisements started in 1974 . The brand was positioned to young women as a more natural alternative to the heavily @-@ structured bras worn by their mothers . The animated ads featured the iconic die @-@ shaped packaging . A bra exited the box like a bird , then metamorphosed into a seagull and flew away . The tagline reinforced a spirit of freedom and nature : " Let it be Dici . Dici or nothing . "
= = = Popularity in Canada = = =
From 1972 to 1977 , the company doubled its wholesale revenue from $ 12 @.@ 6 million to $ 24 @.@ 9 million . By 1979 Canadelle dominated with 30 % of the Canadian market and $ 27 million in sales . Playtex ( later acquired by Sara Lee ) was second . By 1980 , Wonderbra 's sales were over $ 30 million wholesale ( $ 76 million in 2006 dollars ) in a country with only 10 @.@ 3 million women and girls older than 13 .
= = Worldwide reintroduction , 1991 to 1994 = =
Around 1991 , Gossard was selling the Wonderbra lines under licenses that were to expire in January 1994 . At the time , the plunge style was a good seller in the UK market . Gossard planned to renew their license and had an option to do so under the existing agreement . Instead of simply renewing the agreement , Gossard executives decided to negotiate better terms with Sara Lee .
Soon after the negotiations started , something unexpected happened . In 1992 , the plunge style became a hit with British women and sales took off . Between 1991 and 1993 , UK sales of that Wonderbra style quadrupled to $ 28 million , accounting for 12 @.@ 5 % of the $ 225 million UK branded bra market . Several factors might have contributed to this boom including " an article in British Vogue on the return of the padded bra , a Vivienne Westwood @-@ inspired fad for corsetry and that Gaultier driven yearning for underwear as outerwear " . With this surge in sales , Sara Lee decided not to renew the license with Gossard .
In 1994 in the UK , the ( Sara Lee ) Wonderbra achieved a high profile for its racy Hello Boys campaign . The most famous campaign poster presented model Eva Herzigová in a Wonderbra gazing down at her breasts with the caption " Hello Boys " , ambiguously addressing either male admirers or her breasts . Urban myth attributed a number of car accidents to ( male ) drivers being distracted by the advertisements . The influential poster was featured in an exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and it was voted in at number 10 in a " Poster of the Century " contest .
The Playtex Division of Sara Lee was given the responsibility of introducing " The Wonderbra " style to the United States . Although the model was already being manufactured in Montreal by Canadelle , Playtex executives decided to take a year to redesign the bra for the U.S. market . They scheduled a late 1994 national launch for the bra . During this period , Gossard introduced to Americans their Ultrabra , with a design similar to the push @-@ up Wonderbra model . Other competitors quickly followed while Playtex retooled the design . Victoria 's Secret launched television advertisements to maintain visibility for the Miracle Bra which the company launched in 1993 .
The U.S. Wonderbra rollout included events with Eva Herzigová in New York 's Times Square . The advertisements were toned down in comparison to the earlier UK campaign . The U.S. print and billboard advertising showed models wearing only the Wonderbra . Underneath read slogans such as " who cares if it 's a bad hair day " and " look me in the eyes and tell me that you love me . " The $ 25 Million campaign worked in conjunction to the ongoing media interest in the bra . Although Playtex promoted the authenticity of their " One and Only Wonderbra " , the rapid introduction of competitive products meant that the overall U.S. market benefited from a 43 % increase in push @-@ up bra sales by the end of 1994 .
Following the 1994 relaunch , the U.S. Wonderbra has expanded from the single push @-@ up bra design to a broader lingerie line . The brand remains popular around the world as a product , and a part of the cultural lexicon .
= = Recent developments = =
In 2006 , Sara Lee sold its intimate apparel brands . The Wonderbra trademark is the property of Canadelle Limited Partnership of Canada , which is a wholly owned subsidiary of HanesBrands Inc . HanesBrands Inc. owns the license to sell and distribute apparel products under the Wonderbra trademark in all countries except the member states of the European Union , several other European nations and South Africa ; in these other markets , an affiliate of Sun Capital Partners owns the license under the Dim Branded Apparel group which is headquartered in Paris .
On January 3 , 2007 , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC @-@ TV ) broadcast the results of their internet poll , in which Canadian respondents ranked the Wonderbra 5th out of the top 50 " Greatest Canadian Inventions " ( after Insulin , the light bulb and the telephone , but ahead of the pacemaker ) .
In a March 2008 survey of 3 @,@ 000 UK women , the Wonderbra was reported as the greatest fashion innovation in history . According to one magazine article , survey respondents were nearly unanimous in giving push @-@ up bras the number one position .
In 2009 , WonderBra Canada celebrated the 70th anniversary of the brand 's Canadian introduction .
= = Spokesmodels = =
During the 1994 reintroduction , it was thought that an international group of women models as spokespersons - they were called " spokesmodels " – would enhance marketing . The brand continues to use this tactic .
US Campaigns
" One and Only Wonderbra " ( May 9 , 1994 – ) Eva Herzigova , Czech
( 1995 – ) Madison Michele , US
( 1997 – ) Sarah O 'Hare , Australian
" Three Degrees of Wonder " ( 2000 – ) Magdalena Wróbel , Polish
( 2003 – ) Nadja Auermann , German
Wonderbra 10th Anniversary ( 2004 – ) Maja Latinović , Serbian
UK Campaigns
" Hello Boys " ( 1994 – ) Eva Herzigova , Czech
" Necklines – come on down ! " ( 2002 – 2006 ) Inna Zobova , Russian
" Who says a woman can 't get pleasure from something soft ? " Sophie Anderton , British
( 1998 – 2000 ) Adriana Sklenaříková ,
( 2008 – present ) Dita Von Teese , American
South America Campaigns
" Necklines – come on down ! " ( 2002 – 2006 ) Inna Zobova , Russian
Europe Campaigns
" Hello Boys " ( 1994 – ) Eva Herzigova , Czech
( 1996 ) Patrizia Deitos , Italy
( 1998 – 2000 ) Adriana Sklenaříková ,
" Necklines – come on down ! " ( 2002 – 2006 ) Inna Zobova , Russian
= 20 euro note =
The twenty euro note ( € 20 ) is the third @-@ lowest value euro banknote and has been used since the introduction of the euro ( in its cash form ) in 2002 . The note is used in the 23 countries which have it as their sole currency ( with 22 legally adopting it ) ; with a population of about 332 million .
It is the third @-@ smallest note , measuring 133 x 72 mm with a blue colour scheme . The twenty euro banknotes depict bridges and arches / doorways in Gothic architecture ( between the 13th and 14th century CE ) .
The twenty euro note contains several complex security features such as watermarks , invisible ink , holograms and microprinting that document its authenticity . In October 2011 , there were approximately 2 @,@ 755 @,@ 346 @,@ 800 twenty euro banknotes in circulation around the eurozone .
The full design of the Europa series 20 euro banknote was revealed on 24 February 2015 and launched on 25 November 2015 .
= = History = =
The euro was founded on 1 January 1999 , when it became the currency of over 300 million people in Europe . For the first three years of its existence it was an invisible currency , only used in accountancy . Euro cash was not introduced until 1 January 2002 , when it replaced the national banknotes and coins of the countries in eurozone 12 , such as the Belgian franc and the Greek drachma .
Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007 , Cyprus and Malta in 2008 , Slovakia in 2009 , Estonia in 2011 and Latvia joined on 1 January 2014 .
= = = The changeover period = = =
The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months , going from 1 January 2002 until 28 February 2002 . The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state . The earliest date was in Germany , where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001 , though the exchange period lasted for two months more . Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender , they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from ten years to forever .
= = = Changes = = =
Notes printed before November 2003 bear the signature of the first president of the European Central Bank , Wim Duisenberg , who was replaced on 1 November 2003 by Jean @-@ Claude Trichet , whose signature appears on issues from November 2003 to March 2012 . Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the third president of the European Central Bank , incumbent Mario Draghi .
Until now there has been only one complete series of euro notes ; however a new series , similar to the current one , is being released . The European Central Bank will , in due time , announce when banknotes from the first series lose legal tender status .
As of June 2012 , current issues do not reflect the expansion of the European Union to 27 member states as Cyprus is not depicted on current notes as the map does not extend far enough east and Malta is also missing as it does not meet the current series ' minimum size for depiction . Since the European Central Bank plans to redesign the notes every seven or eight years after each issue , a second series of banknotes is already in preparation . New production and anti @-@ counterfeiting techniques will be employed on the new notes , but the design will be of the same theme and colours identical of the current series ; bridges and arches . However , they would still be recognisable as a new series .
= = Design = =
The twenty euro note is the third smallest euro note at 133 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) × 72 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) with a blue colour scheme . All bank notes depict bridges and arches / doorways in a different historical European style ; the twenty euro note shows the gothic era ( between the 13th and 14th century CE ) . Although Robert Kalina 's original designs were intended to show real monuments , for political reasons the bridge and art are merely hypothetical examples of the architectural era .
Like all euro notes , it contains the denomination , the EU flag , the signature of the president of the ECB and the initials of said bank in different EU languages , a depiction of EU territories overseas , the stars from the EU flag and thirteen security features as listed below .
The ECB released a game on 5 February 2015 to discover some of the new security features embedded in the new € 20 note . The most significant new anti @-@ counterfeit measure is a transparent window , containing a hologram which shows a portrait of Europa and the number 20 . The Europa series design of the 20 euro note was officially revealed on 24 February 2015 .
= = = Security features ( First Series ) = = =
As a lower value note , the security features of the twenty euro note are not as high as the other denominations , however , it is protected by :
A hologram , tilt the note and one should see the hologram image change between the value and a window or doorway , but in the background , one should see rainbow @-@ coloured concentric circles of micro @-@ letters moving from the centre to the edges of the patch .
A EURion constellation , special printing processes give the euro notes their unique feel .
A glossy stripe , tilt the note and a glossy stripe showing the value numeral and the euro symbol will appear .
Watermarks , it appears when the banknote is against the light .
Raised printing , special methods of printing makes the ink feel raised or thicker in the main image , the lettering and the value numerals on the front of the banknotes . To feel the raised print , run your finger over it or scratch it gently with your fingernail .
Ultraviolet ink , Under ultraviolet light , the paper itself should not glow , fibres embedded in the paper should appear , and should be coloured red , blue and green , the European Union flag looks green and has orange stars , the ECB President signature turns green , the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map , a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow .
Microprinting , On numerous areas of the banknotes you can see microprinting , for example , inside the " EYPΩ " ( EURO in Greek characters ) on the front . You will need a magnifying glass to see it . The tiny text is sharp , and not blurred .
A security thread , The security thread is embedded in the banknote paper . Hold the banknote against the light - the thread will appear as a dark stripe . The word " EURO " and the value can be seen in tiny letters on the stripe .
Perforations , Hold the banknote against the light . You should see perforations in the hologram which will form the € symbol . You should also see small numbers showing the value .
A matted surface , the note paper is made out of pure cotton , which feels crisp and firm , but not limp or waxy .
Barcodes ,
A serial number .
= = = Security Features ( Europa Series ) = = =
Watermark : When the note is held under a normal light source , a portrait of Europa and an electrotype denomination appear on either side .
Portrait Window : When the note is held against the light , the window in the hologram becomes transparent and reveals a portrait of Europa , which is visible on both sides of the note .
Portrait Hologram : When the note is tilted , the hologram - the silver @-@ coloured stripe on the right of the note - reveals a portrait of Europa as well as the " € " symbol , the main image and the value of the banknote .
Emerald Number : When the note is tilted , the number " 20 " on the bottom left corner of the note displays an effect of the light that moves up and down . The number " 20 " also changes colour from emerald green to deep blue .
Security Thread : When the note is held to the light , the security thread appears as a dark line . The " € " symbol and the value of the note can be seen in tiny white lettering in the stripe .
Microprinting : Some areas of the banknote feature a series of tiny letters . The microprinting can be read with a magnifying glass . The letters are sharp , not blurred .
= = Circulation = =
As of May 2013 , there are approximately 2 @,@ 845 @,@ 461 @,@ 000 € 20 banknotes in circulation around the Eurozone . That is approximately € 56 @,@ 909 @,@ 220 @,@ 700 worth of € 20 banknotes ( as of May 2013 ) . The European Central Bank is closely monitoring the circulation and stock of the euro coins and banknotes . It is a task of the Eurosystem to ensure an efficient and smooth supply of euro notes and to maintain their integrity throughout the eurozone .
= = Legal information = =
Legally , both the European Central Bank and the central banks of the eurozone countries have the right to issue the seven different euro banknotes . In practice , only the national central banks of the zone physically issue and withdraw euro banknotes . The European Central Bank does not have a cash office and is not involved in any cash operations .
= = Tracking = =
There are several communities of people at European level , most of which is EuroBillTracker , that , as a hobby , it keeps track of the euro banknotes that pass through their hands , to keep track and know where they travel or have travelled . The aim is to record as many notes as possible to know details about its spread , like from where and to where they travel in general , follow it up , like where a ticket has been seen in particular , and generate statistics and rankings , for example , in which countries there are more tickets . EuroBillTracker has registered over 155 million notes as of May 2016 , worth more than € 2 @.@ 897 billion .
= Megamaser =
A megamaser is a type of astrophysical maser , which is a naturally occurring source of stimulated spectral line emission . Megamasers are distinguished from astrophysical masers by their large isotropic luminosity . Megamasers have typical luminosities of 103 solar luminosities ( L ☉ ) , which is 100 million times brighter than masers in the Milky Way , hence the prefix mega . Likewise , the term kilomaser is used to describe masers outside the Milky Way that have luminosities of order L ☉ , or thousands of times stronger than the average maser in the Milky Way , gigamaser is used to describe masers billions of times stronger than the average maser in the Milky Way , and extragalactic maser encompasses all masers found outside the Milky Way . Most known extragalactic masers are megamasers , and the majority of megamasers are hydroxyl ( OH ) megamasers , meaning the spectral line being amplified is one due to a transition in the hydroxyl molecule . There are known megamasers for three other molecules : water ( H2O ) , formaldehyde ( H2CO ) , and methine ( CH ) .
Water megamasers were the first type of megamaser discovered . The first water megamaser was found in 1979 in NGC 4945 , a galaxy in the nearby Centaurus A / M83 Group . The first hydroxyl megamaser was found in 1982 in Arp 220 , which is the nearest ultraluminous infrared galaxy to the Milky Way . All subsequent OH megamasers that have been discovered are also in luminous infrared galaxies , and there are a small number of OH kilomasers hosted in galaxies with lower infrared luminosities . Most luminous infrared galaxies have recently merged or interacted with another galaxy , and are undergoing a burst of star formation . Many of the characteristics of the emission in hydroxyl megamasers are distinct from that of hydroxyl masers within the Milky Way , including the amplification of background radiation and the ratio of hydroxyl lines at different frequencies . The population inversion in hydroxyl molecules is produced by far infrared radiation that results from absorption and re @-@ emission of light from forming stars by surrounding interstellar dust . Zeeman splitting of hydroxyl megamaser lines may be used to measure magnetic fields in the masing regions , and this application represents the first detection of Zeeman splitting in a galaxy other than the Milky Way .
Water megamasers and kilomasers are found primarily associated with active galactic nuclei , while galactic and weaker extragalactic water masers are found in star forming regions . Despite different environments , the circumstances that produce extragalactic water masers do not seem to be very different from those that produce galactic water masers . Observations of water megamasers have been used to make accurate measurements of distances to galaxies in order to provide constraints on the Hubble constant .
= = Background = =
= = = Masers = = =
The word maser derives from the acronym MASER , which stands for " Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation " . The maser is a predecessor to lasers , which operate at optical wavelengths , and is named by the replacement of " microwave " with " light " . Given a system of atoms or molecules , each with different energy states , an atom or molecule may absorb a photon and move to a higher energy level , or the photon may stimulate emission of another photon of the same energy and cause a transition to a lower energy level . Producing a maser requires population inversion , which is when a system has more members in a higher energy level relative to a lower energy level . In such a situation , more photons will be produced by stimulated emission than will be absorbed . Such a system is not in thermal equilibrium , and as such requires special conditions to occur . Specifically , it must have some energy source that can pump the atoms or molecules to the excited state . Once population inversion occurs , a photon with a photon energy corresponding to the energy difference between two states can then produce stimulated emission of another photon of the same energy . The atom or molecule will drop to the lower energy level , and there will be two photons of the same energy , where before there was only one . The repetition of this process is what leads to amplification , and since all of the photons are the same energy , the light produced is monochromatic .
= = = Astrophysical masers = = =
Masers and lasers built on Earth and masers that occur in space both require population inversion in order to operate , but the conditions under which population inversion occurs are very different in the two cases . Masers in laboratories have systems with high densities , which limits the transitions that may be used for masing , and requires using a resonant cavity in order to bounce light back and forth many times . Astrophysical masers are at low densities , and naturally have very long path lengths . At low densities , being out of thermal equilibrium is more easily achieved because thermal equilibrium is maintained by collisions , meaning population inversion can occur . Long path lengths provide photons traveling through the medium many opportunities to stimulate emission , and produce amplification of a background source of radiation . These factors accumulate to " make interstellar space a natural environment for maser operation . " Astrophysical masers may be pumped either radiatively or collisionally . In radiative pumping , infrared photons with higher energies than the maser transition photons preferentially excite atoms and molecules to the upper state in the maser in order to produce population inversion . In collisional pumping , this population inversion is instead produced by collisions that excite molecules to energy levels above that of the upper maser level , and then the molecule decays to the upper maser level by emitting photons .
= = History = =
In 1965 , twelve years after the first maser was built in a laboratory , a hydroxyl ( OH ) maser was discovered in the plane of the Milky Way . Masers of other molecules were discovered in the Milky Way in the following years , including water ( H2O ) , silicon monoxide ( SiO ) , and methanol ( CH3OH ) . The typical isotropic luminosity for these galactic masers is 10 − 6 – 10 − 3 L ☉ . The first evidence for extragalactic masing was detection of the hydroxyl molecule in NGC 253 in 1973 , and was roughly ten times more luminous than galactic masers .
In 1982 , the first megamaser was discovered in the ultraluminous infrared galaxy Arp 220 . The luminosity of the source , assuming it emits | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
He divided the genus into two sections , placing A. cuneata in A. sect . Stenolaema because its perianth tube is straight and not swollen above the middle . This arrangement still stands today , though A. sect . Stenolaema is now renamed to the autonym A. sect . Adenanthos .
A phenetic analysis of the genus undertaken by Nelson in 1975 yielded results in which A. cuneatus was grouped with A. stictus . This pairing was then neighbour to a larger group that included A. forrestii , A. eyrei , A. cacomorphus , A. ileticos , and several hybrid and unusual forms of A. cuneatus . Nelson 's analysis supported Bentham 's sections , and so they were retained when Nelson published a taxonomic revision of the genus in 1978 . He further subdivided A. sect . Adenanthos into two subsections , with A. cuneata placed into A. subsect . Adenanthos for reasons including the length of its perianth , but Nelson discarded his own subsections in his 1995 treatment of Adenanthos , for the Flora of Australia series of monographs . By this time , the ICBN had issued a ruling that all genera ending in -anthos must be treated as having masculine gender ; thus the specific epithet became cuneatus .
The placement of A. cuneatus in Nelson 's arrangement of Adenanthos may be summarised as follows :
Adenanthos
A. sect . Eurylaema ( 4 species )
A. sect . Adenanthos
A. drummondii
A. dobagii
A. apiculatus
A. linearis
A. pungens ( 2 subspecies )
A. gracilipes
A. venosus
A. dobsonii
A. glabrescens ( 2 subspecies )
A. ellipticus
A. cuneatus
A. stictus
A. ileticos
A. forrestii
A. eyrei
A. cacomorphus
A. flavidiflorus
A. argyreus
A. macropodianus
A. terminalis
A. sericeus ( 2 subspecies )
A. × cunninghamii
A. oreophilus
A. cygnorum ( 2 subspecies )
A. meisneri
A. velutinus
A. filifolius
A. labillardierei
A. acanthophyllus
= = = Hybrids = = =
Adenanthos cuneatus apparently forms hybrids with other Adenanthos species quite readily , as four putative natural hybrids have been reported :
A. × cunninghamii ( Albany Woollybush ) , a hybrid between A. cuneatus and A. sericeus , was first collected in 1827 , and published as A. cunninghamii in 1845 . Other than some dubious collections in the 1830s and 1840s , no further sightings are known to have been made until 1973 , when Nelson rediscovered it . At the time it was regarded as a distinct species , but by 1995 it was thought to be a hybrid , and this was confirmed by genetic analysis in 2002 . In appearance it is very similar to A. sericeus , but its leaf segments are flat rather than cylindrical .
A single plant discovered by Nelson near Israelite Bay , where both putative parents are found , is regarded as a hybrid between A. cuneatus and A. dobsonii . Leaves are mostly triangular like those of A. cuneatus , but whereas A. cuneatus leaves are mostly five @-@ lobed , the putative hybrid usually has three lobes , with the occasional leaf being entire like those of A. dobsonii ( though A. cuneatis itself occasionally bears entire leaves ) . Leaves of the putative hybrid lack the thick indumentum of A. cuneatus , being bright green with a sparse indumentum like that of A. dobsonii . Flower colour is like that of A. cuneatus but the style lacks an indumentum , like A. dobsonii .
Two plants found near Twilight Cove are regarded as hybrids between A. cuneatus and A. forrestii , the only two Adenanthos species to occur in the area . One was discovered by Nelson in 1972 , the other by Alex George in 1974 . They are about 5 km apart , and differ somewhat . The leaves are triangular and flat like those of A. cuneatus , but the leaves of mature shoots are very long and narrow , and the leaves of younger shoots are deeply lobed .
In his 1995 revision , Nelson refers to putative hybrids with A. dobsonii and A. apiculatus , citing the 1978 paper in which he published putative hybrids with A. dobsonii and A. forrestii . It is unclear whether the reference to A. apiculatus is an error or a fourth putative hybrid .
= = = Common names = = =
This species has several common names , some highly localised . Two names allude to its consumption by horses ; bridle bush , a name used east of Esperance , refers to the fact that horses favour it as fodder ; and sweat bush , used around Hopetoun , derived from the claim that horses break out in sweat after consuming young growth . The common name of flame bush derives from the brilliant red new growth . It is also known as coastal jugflower . Nelson also records the use of the names Templetonia and native temp , but ridicules them as obvious errors .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The most widely distributed Adenanthos species of the south coast , A. cuneatus is common and locally abundant between King George Sound and Israelite Bay , along the coast and up to 40 km ( 25 mi ) inland , with isolated populations extending west to Walpole and the Stirling Range , and as far east of Israelite Bay as Twilight Cove .
This species is restricted to siliceous sandplain soils and will not grow in calcareous soils such as the limestone plains of the Nullarbor , or even siliceous dunes with limestone at little depth . This restriction explains the disjunctions east of Israelite Bay : the species occurs only in those few locations where the existence of cliff @-@ top dunes of deep siliceous sand provide suitable habitat . Provided the soil is siliceous and fairly dry , A. cuneatus tolerates a range of edaphic conditions : it grows in both lateritic sand and sands of marine origin , and it tolerates pH levels ranging from 3 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 6 .
Consistent with these edaphic preferences , A. cuneatus is a frequent and characteristic member of the kwongan heathlands commonly found on the sandplains of Southwest Australia . The climate in its range is mediterranean , with annual rainfall from 275 to 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 10 @.@ 8 to 39 @.@ 4 in ) .
= = Ecology = =
Colletid bees of the genus Leioproctus visit Adenanthos cuneatus flowers . A 1978 field study conducted around Albany found the honey possum ( Tarsipes rostratus ) occasionally visited Adenanthos cuneatus , while the western spinebill much preferred the species to other flowers . A 1980 field study at Cheyne beach showed that the New Holland honeyeater and white @-@ cheeked honeyeater pollinate it A 1985 – 86 field study in the Fitzgerald River National Park found that the nectar @-@ feeding honey possum occasionally eats it . The silvereye ( Zosterops lateralis ) feeds on nectar from the flowers , and has also been observed taking dew @-@ drops from leaves early in the morning .
Adenanthos cuneatus is known to be susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback , but reports on the degree of susceptibility vary from low to high . A study of Banksia attenuata woodland 400 km ( 249 mi ) southeast of Perth across 16 years , and following a wave of P. cinnamomi infestation , showed that A. cuneatus populations were not significantly reduced in diseased areas . Phosphite ( used to combat dieback ) has some toxic effects in A. cuneatus , with some necrosis of leaf tips , but the shrub uptakes little of the compound when compared with other shrubs . Specimens in coastal dune vegetation showed some sensitivity to the fungus Armillaria luteobubalina , with between a quarter and a half of plants exposed succumbing to the pathogen .
= = Cultivation = =
Adenanthos cuneatus was taken to Great Britain in 1824 , and has been grown in cultivation in Australia and the western United States . Its attractive bronzed or reddish foliage is its main horticultural feature , along with its ability to attract birds to the garden . It requires a well @-@ drained position to do well , but will grow in full sun or semi @-@ shade , and tolerates both sand and gravelly soils . George Lullfitz , a Western Australian nurseryman , recommends growing it as a rambling ground cover in front of other shrubs , or in a rockery .
The following cultivars exist :
A. " Coral Drift " is a compact form in cultivation since at least the 1990s . It is 50 – 70 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 – 27 @.@ 6 in ) tall and 1 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) wide . The grey foliage has pinkish purple new growth .
A. " Coral Carpet " is a prostrate form which peaks at around 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) high and spreads to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) across . The new foliage is a pinkish purple . A chance seedling from ' Coral Drift ' , it was originally developed by George Lullfitz of Lullfitz Nursery in Wanneroo . It became available to the public in 2005 , and has been registered successfully under Plant Breeders ' Rights .
= Hatoful Boyfriend =
Hatoful Boyfriend : A School of Hope and White Wings ( Japanese : はーとふる彼氏 〜 希望の学園と白い翼 〜 , Hepburn : Hātofuru kareshi ~ kibō no gakuen to shiroi tsubasa ~ ) is a Japanese dōjin soft otome visual novel released in 2011 for Microsoft Windows and OS X. It was developed by manga artist Hato Moa 's dōjin circle PigeoNation Inc . , and is the successor of a Flash game of the same name she created for April Fools ' Day in 2011 . A free demo version of Hatoful made with the FamousWriter engine was released later that year , followed by a full commercial version released on 30 October 2011 at COMITIA 98 , and an English version released in February 2012 . An international remake by developer Mediatonic and publisher Devolver Digital , dubbed Hatoful Boyfriend HD in Japan , was released on 4 September 2014 for Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux and for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita on 21 July 2015 in North America , and on 22 July 2015 in Europe , respectively . A port for iOS was released on 25 May 2016 .
Hatoful Boyfriend received generally positive reception ; reviewers praised the game 's replay value as well as its writing and characterization , while repetitive gameplay and the accessibility of the game 's Bad Boys Love mode received a more mixed response . A sequel , Hatoful Boyfriend : Holiday Star , was released on 29 December 2011 , with an English version being released on Christmas Day the following year . In addition to the main games in the series , Hatoful Boyfriend has made transitions into other media : a monthly webcomic was serialized in the anthology Manga Life WIN + , several supplementary materials and official dōjin works have been released , and four drama CDs based on the series have been made . An episodic web series began in 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Hatoful Boyfriend is an interactive text @-@ based visual novel that follows a branching plot line , with the player 's decisions determining which of the game 's multiple endings they receive . The title is a pun on the wasei @-@ eigo word hātofuru ( ハートフル , " heartful " , also " hurtful " ) , and the Japanese word hato ( 鳩 , " pigeon " , " dove " ) , as the game features pigeons and other birds as major characters . The game is set in a version of Earth populated by sapient , anthropomorphic birds , and its main story follows the player character and protagonist — the only human attending St. PigeoNation 's Institute , an elite school for birds — as she finds love among her avian acquaintances .
Bad Boys Love , a hidden alternate story mode , opens with the discovery of the protagonist 's corpse , after which the player follows her best friend Ryouta Kawara as he investigates the circumstances of her death and unravels darker conspiracies surrounding the school .
Gameplay in Hatoful Boyfriend is similar to most other visual novels for the PC , with the controls limited to the mouse and the only interactions being clicking to forward the game 's narrative or to choose between multiple plot choices . The keyboard can also be used instead of the mouse , with the ' enter ' key serving the same purpose as clicking . The save button can be employed at any point during the game , which also features several pages of save slots , allowing gameplay to be easily picked up from prior to a choice the player made . An arrow button in the upper right corner also allows the player to skip dialogue and interactions they have already experienced .
The player assumes control of the protagonist , a teenage human girl . As the game follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , at various points during gameplay the player is allowed to make choices that determine which character 's romance route the player will encounter . On weekdays , the player can also choose which classes to attend , which changes one of the protagonist 's three stats depending on the activity chosen . Having certain stat values are required to obtain the good endings for each love interest and to otherwise advance along certain routes . There are thirteen ( fourteen in the 2014 remake ) endings in total : one ending for each of the main love interests , three extended endings for three of the love interests based on stat values , one ending for the gaiden @-@ esque Torimi Café storyline , and one ending attained if the player fails to romance any character .
When routes are completed , documents are unlocked that provide insights into the game 's overarching storyline . These documents can be viewed at any time in the game 's archive feature , which is accessed from the title screen . After obtaining the four specific endings required to trigger it , the player is given a new prompt to either " fulfill the promise " or live " a normal life " upon starting a new game . Choosing to live a normal life will result in a normal playthrough , while choosing to fulfill the promise locks the player into the true route or scenario Bad Boys Love , or BBL ( also known as Hurtful Boyfriend ) , which explores the full extent of the underlying plot alluded to by the documents and various points of foreshadowing in the dating simulation portion of the game . If the player chooses to fulfill the promise , aside from several dream sequences , gameplay at first appears to continue normally until the in @-@ game date is 2 September . The player 's perspective then switches from the protagonist to the protagonist 's best friend , and the events of the scenario begin regardless of any other choices made by the player up to that point . If the player obtains all other possible endings prior to starting Bad Boys Love , an extended epilogue plays after the game 's credits upon completion of the scenario . In a departure from the generally lighthearted romantic routes , Bad Boys Love is presented as a murder mystery psychological thriller , and is significantly longer than any other route in Hatoful Boyfriend , making up most of the game 's actual length .
There are several changes to gameplay and the way text is displayed during Bad Boys Love in the original version of the game : saving is disabled except at certain points in the story , the function to skip dialogue and interactions is removed , and plot @-@ important dialogue and narrative are highlighted with colored text ; usually yellow , though text of particularly critical importance is highlighted in red . In the 2014 remake however , the option to save is available at all times , the skip function is retained , and text is no longer highlighted . In both versions , the game 's interface and controls change from that of a standard visual novel to similar to that of a ' 90s @-@ era turn @-@ based role @-@ playing game during certain segments of the narrative .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Hatoful Boyfriend is set in an alternate version of Earth in which sapient , anthropomorphic birds have seemingly taken the place of humans in society for reasons that are hinted at , but not fully explained in the dating simulation portion of the game . In Bad Boys Love , it is revealed that Hatoful is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic , dystopian future — in which a pandemic of a deadly , mutated strain of the H5N1 virus , or bird flu , nearly wipes out mankind in the year 2068 . The release of a counter @-@ virus , cultivated to destroy the virus ' avian carriers in a desperate attempt to stop the spread of the disease , ends up backfiring as birds who resisted the counter @-@ virus instead developed human @-@ level intelligence . War soon breaks out between the newly uplifted birds and the remnants of humanity , resulting in birds emerging as the planet 's new dominant lifeforms as humans continued to succumb to the disease . Following several terrorist attacks by a human insurgency , all remaining humans have been forced to live in the wilderness away from civilization in a form of apartheid @-@ like segregation .
The game 's story takes place primarily at St. PigeoNation 's Institute ( 聖ピジョネイション学園 , Sei Pijoneishon Gakuen ) — a bird @-@ only high school located in the fictional Japanese town of Littledove Hachiman City ( 小鳩八幡市 , Kobato Hachiman @-@ shi ) — long after open warfare between humans and birds has ended . Society has adjusted to the avian conquest , though with minor bird @-@ related cultural changes — for example , while some holidays such as Christmas and Tanabata are celebrated much as they are in the present day , a major event in the game is Legumentine 's Day , an amalgamation of the traditions of Valentine 's Day and Setsubun . In a more grim case , the terms war dove and war hawk have been re @-@ purposed as labels for two opposing political factions divided over the ongoing mutual hostility between birds and the human minority : the altruistic Dove Party , who advocate for cooperation and peace between the two groups , and the militant Hawk Party , whose goal is to exterminate humanity altogether . By the time Hatoful Boyfriend 's narrative begins , the Dove Party , the Hawk Party , and their respective schools of thought dominate much of the world 's politics .
= = = Characters = = =
The primary playable character in Hatoful Boyfriend is the human protagonist , a boisterous hunter @-@ gatherer who lives in a cave in the wilderness . Her eight potential love interests in the original version of the game , who together form the rest of the main cast , are Ryouta Kawara , a rock dove and the protagonist 's sickly but hardworking childhood friend ; Sakuya Le Bel Shirogane , a fantail pigeon and snobbish French aristocrat ; Sakuya 's older half @-@ brother Yuuya Sakazaki , a popular and flirtatious but strangely secretive fantail pigeon ; Nageki Fujishiro , a quiet , bookish mourning dove who never seems to leave the library ; San Oko , an athletic , hyperactive fantail pigeon who is obsessed with pudding ; Anghel Higure , an eccentric Luzon bleeding @-@ heart who behaves as if he were in some kind of fantasy role @-@ playing game ; Kazuaki Nanaki , a kind but narcoleptic button quail and the protagonist 's homeroom teacher ; and Shuu Iwamine , a creepy , antisocial chukar partridge who serves as the school 's doctor . Azami Koshiba , a no @-@ nonsense Java sparrow and takoyaki saleswoman , became a possible love interest in the 2014 remake .
While most of the characters are normally represented in @-@ game with pictures of birds , if the player toggles on the ICPSS ( Intra @-@ Cerebral Playback Synchro System ) feature at the start of the game , or NS3 ( 脳内再生シンクロシステム , Nōnai Saisei Shinkuro Shisutemu ) in Japan , each of the possible love interests is shown with a version of what they would look like as a human when first introduced . Although the ICPSS feature also lists voice credits for each of the main love interests in the original version of the game , the game itself is unvoiced ; however most of the voice actors who were credited later signed on to actually voice their respective characters in the drama CDs based on the series .
= = = Story = = =
The events of Hatoful Boyfriend begin in the year 2188 , when the protagonist , a teenage human girl invited to attend the prestigious bird @-@ only St. PigeoNation 's Institute , starts her second year of high school . After a hectic and surreal freshman year of attendance at St. PigeoNation 's , the protagonist has grown accustomed to the confusion of being the only human in a school full of birds , and is looking forward to her sophomore year . The story of the dating simulation portion of the game follows the protagonist , and the inter @-@ species love and hijinks — of both the mundane high school and quasi @-@ anthropomorphic bird @-@ specific varieties — that ensue as she draws the attention of and attempts to romance one of a number of eligible birds she comes in contact with over the course of the year .
= = = = Bad Boys Love = = = =
Should the player choose to fulfill the promise , the protagonist begins her sophomore year at St. PigeoNation 's largely as normal , but with one exception — she begins to have recurring dreams of her younger self and Ryouta , and her parents lying dead in front of an unfamiliar house . A mysterious man approaches them , promising to grant any wish that they make . On 2 September , she decides to check on Ryouta , who had gone to the infirmary earlier that day ; the next morning , she fails to show up for class . Kazuaki asks Ryouta to retrieve their class ' box of print handouts , and upon retrieving it , blood is discovered leaking from a corner of the box . Ryouta opens the lid , and it is revealed that the box contains the protagonist 's severed head . A siren sounds and there is an order to evacuate to the gymnasium , where Ryouta overhears other students mention that more pieces of a human corpse were found in the other print boxes . Doubting the headmaster 's explanation of a natural disaster occurring , Sakuya and Ryouta resolve to figure out the identity of the protagonist 's killer and leave the gymnasium , discovering a large metal dome surrounding the school . Upon returning to their classroom and finding the box empty , Yuuya explains that the protagonist 's body had been gathered in the chemistry lab , where Shuu performs an autopsy concluding that the protagonist died of asphyxiation caused by illness or poison with the dismemberment occurring afterwards .
Assisted by the school janitor Mister One , and pursued by a grotesque scarecrow @-@ like being named Labor 9 who suddenly appears on the school grounds , Ryouta and Sakuya begin investigating the dome and the murder . They visit the lab and compare alibis ; Shuu , who Ryouta distrusts , asks if Ryouta has forgotten anything important , to which he replies that he hasn 't . Upon investigating the headmaster 's office , they discover the headmaster had likewise been poisoned to death , what they saw earlier being merely pre @-@ recorded footage ; they also find a computer and a pair of documents , one titled The Human Representative and a torn , unreadable one titled Operation Hatoful . The Human Representative reveals that if the protagonist , a symbol of humanity , were to die , the campus would be sealed off and the birds inside handed over to humans as sacrifices — something confirmed when the computer is used to open a small hatch in the dome and students are shot dead as they attempt to flee — when the dome is lifted twelve hours after her death is reported .
In trying to find a way to escape before the dome rises , Ryouta and Sakuya uncover records in the library mentioning a medical center that was shut down due to a fire , and that the ghostly Nageki , who Ryouta previously encountered , died in that fire . Sakuya deduces that an unused building on campus was the medical center and after investigating , they find its basement blocked off . They also encounter Anghel , who recalls the protagonist going into the infirmary the day before , contradicting Yuuya and Shuu 's shared alibi . As Ryouta searches the infirmary for clues , he finds medical records for himself , the protagonist , Nageki , and Sakuya , but is knocked out immediately after . When he regains consciousness , he discovers the protagonist 's bloody student ID — now with concrete evidence , Ryouta prepares to confront the doctor and Yuuya , only to find that Sakuya had left to do so alone . Ryouta returns to the infirmary as Yuuya shields Sakuya from Shuu 's attempts to kill him ; the doctor tells Ryouta that he will be waiting for him in the medical center 's basement before escaping with Labor 9 . Yuuya apologizes , affirming that while neither he nor Shuu killed the protagonist , they were the ones who dismembered her , and asks to speak to Sakuya alone . He reveals that they are full @-@ blooded siblings , with Shuu using knowledge of Sakuya 's true heritage to blackmail Yuuya into assisting him . Yuuya dies , Shuu 's scalpel having been laced with the same neurotoxin that killed the headmaster , leaving Sakuya in a state of shock .
Ryouta , searching for a way into the medical center basement , seeks out Nageki in the library to ask him about his death . Upon discovering documents revealing that Operation Hatoful was a Hawk Party project into developing biological weapons for use against humans using the school as an experimental facility — with a focus on a strain of H5N1 almost immediately lethal to humans dubbed the Charon virus — Nageki recalls that the fire was caused by his committing suicide by self @-@ immolation after months of forced experimentation in order to destroy and remove any trace of the virus , which was isolated in his body , and that researchers often went in through the chemistry preparation room . Ryouta , Kazuaki , and Anghel make their way into the medical center 's basement through the chemistry lab and encounter Labor 9 , electrocuting it using a stun gun given to Ryouta earlier by Mister One . They confront Shuu , who imprisons Kazuaki and Anghel , leaving them to die of poison gas before leading Ryouta away . Meanwhile , San comforts Sakuya , and the two of them arrive to break Anghel and Kazuaki out of the prison .
Alone with Shuu , Ryouta finally remembers what he had forgotten due to the traumatic nature of the events : he recognizes the doctor as a man who promised to grant his wish for peace between birds and humans after he and the protagonist witnessed a human terrorist incident at a bird orphanage in which the protagonist 's parents , crisis negotiators , were killed , and that the protagonist died when she visited him in the infirmary . It is revealed that she died by Charon virus after coming in contact with Ryouta , as Shuu had induced the virus into Ryouta 's body though grafts from Nageki 's remains for the purpose of using him to exterminate humanity — since there can be no more fighting between two factions if one is wiped out , this would grant Ryouta 's wish . Shuu then remarks that Labor 9 was powered by the protagonist 's now irreversibly damaged brain . A broken Ryouta submits to Shuu 's offer of becoming a living weapon of mass destruction after these revelations , and a struggle ensues during which the protagonist 's spirit intervenes . Ryouta then asks Shuu why he decided to grant his wish , to which it is implied that Shuu 's affection towards Ryouta 's deceased father , Ryuuji , was greater than Shuu himself would like to admit , and that he was motivated by Ryuuji 's dying request : to do something for his son .
Shuu admits defeat and offers to lead them out of the school through a safe passage , but Kazuaki pulls out a gun and shoots him as the group prepares to escape . Shuu then recalls that Nageki 's only relative — his adoptive brother — was , like Kazuaki , a quail . The terrorist incident occurred at Kazuaki and Nageki 's orphanage and left them as the only survivors ; witnessing Nageki 's subsequent suicide drove Kazuaki insane , leading him to fake his own death , assume a new identity , and join the school 's faculty to take revenge against Shuu , the head of Operation Hatoful . Ryouta , channeling Nageki , eases Kazuaki 's guilt and convinces him to move on .
They reunite with the other characters and exit the school along with the other students and faculty brought there by Mister One ; however Ryouta , now thoroughly infected by the Charon virus , elects to stay behind in cryonic storage until a cure is found . The scenario ends with Sakuya vowing to come back for Ryouta , and Ryouta offering to recap the day 's events to the protagonist 's spirit as the door to the storage facility closes . If the extended epilogue is unlocked , it is revealed that Yuuya survived being poisoned long enough to receive an antidote , and the game 's closing lines imply that with Shuu 's cooperation , a cure for the Charon virus has been developed .
= = Development = =
Hatoful Boyfriend is the first game developed by manga artist and writer Hato Moa — author of the series Vairocana and a former Dengeki Comic Grand Prix honoree — under her dōjin circle PigeoNation Inc . As she had no experience with game development prior to Hatoful , Hato initially wanted to start with a visual novel , as she believed it was an easier game type for amateur developers to make ; the format also allowed visuals to easily accompany her stories , something that she , as a manga artist , was accustomed to and viewed as being necessary in her work . She first came up with the concept for Hatoful as a 2011 April Fools ' Day joke : despite her lack of familiarity with the genre , she initially intended to create a parody of otome game stereotypes . Birds in particular were used as a theme due to Hato 's fondness for pigeons ; however , this was also partially due to Hato 's prioritization of writing over illustrating , as the use of bird photographs instead of hand @-@ drawn sprites allowed her more freedom to focus on the script . The first incarnation of the game was created over the course of half a day and posted as a browser game made with Adobe Flash ; but due to strong word of mouth from social media it was taken down after immense traffic caused the web server it was hosted on to crash on two separate occasions . Following the unexpected popularity of the Flash game , development began on a longer visual novel using the FamousWriter game engine .
Most of the technical aspects of development — game direction , scripting , and programming — were handled by Hato alone , with fellow artist Damurushi assisting with some minor aspects of the script and art direction . Despite this , most of the roughly seven @-@ month period Hato spent developing Hatoful from a one @-@ off April Fools ' gag to the finished product was dedicated to the construction of the narrative . Hato 's approach towards the game 's writing was " to create something that seems ridiculous and crazy at first glance , but that once you look into the world , you would fall into the depth " ; however , resolving the darker elements of the plot , particularly the Bad Boys Love scenario , with facts established in the quickly conceived and largely comedic pilot proved to be difficult for her , with inconsistencies in the overall timeline becoming a major concern . During the writing process , Hato admitted that she was critical of the scenarios she had written and constantly doubted whether the final product " turned out well " , later remarking in a postscript written for the game 's official guidebook :
Most of the background images and photography used for the characters ' sprites in the original games and associated media are taken from royalty @-@ free sources or fan submissions , though in some cases pictures of birds and backgrounds used are Hato 's own artwork or photography — the character San Oko is depicted by and based on her real life pet bird Okosan , and several of the sprites featured in Hatoful Boyfriend were derived from pictures she had taken of birds kept at the Kobe Animal Kingdom or the Torimi Café , also located in Kobe . All of the music tracks and sound effects used in Hatoful are also similarly taken from royalty @-@ free sources .
= = = Naming and allusions = = =
The title of the game is a pun ; the wasei @-@ eigo word hātofuru ( ハートフル ) means " heartful " , however it is also phonetically identical to the Japanese pronunciation of the English word " hurtful " . This is referenced in an alternate name for the Bad Boys Love route , Hurtful Boyfriend , as well as in the subtitle for the full release of the original game , Hatoful Boyfriend : Hurtful Complete Edition . The official English transliteration of the title also incorporates the Japanese word hato ( 鳩 ) , which means " pigeon " or " dove " . Similarly , the names of several characters are puns on the Japanese names of their respective species of bird : for example , Ryouta Kawara is a rock dove , or kawarabato ( 河原鳩 ) ; Nageki Fujishiro is a mourning dove , or nagekibato ( ナゲキバト ) ; Shuu Iwamine is a chukar partridge , or iwashako ( 岩鷓鴣 ) ; and Kazuaki Nanaki is a button quail , or himeuzura ( ヒメウズラ ) — the character hime ( 姫 ) being present in his last name , Nanaki ( 七姫 ) .
Several locations and personalities featured in the game directly correspond to real life venues and people — for example , blogger Brian Pigeon is mentioned as one of the Hatoful world 's most influential writers , and the aforementioned Torimi Café , featured in @-@ game as a location where the protagonist can work during summer vacation , is an actual bird @-@ themed café located in Kobe . Likewise , some aspects of Hatoful 's narrative reference real world events , media , or people : the deadly H5N1 pandemic forming the basis of the game 's post @-@ apocalyptic setting was inspired by historical outbreaks of disease , most prominently the 1918 flu pandemic ; depictions of Hitchcock 's Winter , the in @-@ universe war between humans and birds , bear several similarities to Alfred Hitchcock 's film The Birds ; and Operation Carneades — the codename given to the human countermeasure against H5N1 that instead granted intelligence to birds in the Hatoful universe — was named after Greek philosopher Carneades and one of his thought experiments , the Plank of Carneades .
= = = Release history = = =
Hatoful Boyfriend 's first release in its current visual novel format was a freeware demo released as a downloadable application on 31 July 2011 . The demo version contains basic routes for seven of the love interests , and also functions as a benchmark for players to assess if the full game will run on their computer before purchasing it . The first commercial variant of the game , Hatoful Boyfriend : Plus , introducing Anghel as a love interest , was released on 14 August 2011 . Plus , a precursor of the full game used as a debugging site for new content and additional scenes intended for the final release , was discontinued on 28 October 2011 when it was patched with the finalized full version . The completed full game itself , Hatoful Boyfriend : Hurtful Complete Edition , was released at COMITIA 98 on 30 October 2011 , and includes all content in previous versions of the game as well as the Torimi Café and Bad Boys Love scenarios . In Japan , Plus and Hurtful Complete Edition were initially available only as physical CD @-@ ROMs ; a downloadable version of the full game in Japanese was eventually released three years later on 13 April 2014 , where the Hurtful Complete Edition was renamed to simply Full version . Due to limitations of the FamousWriter game engine , the demo , Plus , and Hurtful Complete Edition versions of Hatoful Boyfriend are only supported on computers running Windows XP or OS X 10 @.@ 1 @-@ 10 @.@ 5 , but are playable — though unsupported — on computers running Windows Vista , Windows 7 , or OS X 10 @.@ 6 with Rosetta .
= = = = 2014 remake = = = =
Plans to remake the original game in high @-@ definition first began to form when Ed Fear , a writer and creative producer at game developer Mediatonic , contacted Hato Moa about the possibility of translating any projects she was involved in to English . According to the remake 's creative director Jeff Tanton , the decision was made to remake the game following several e @-@ mail conversations between Fear and Hato , with Fear 's positive experience with the Japanese version of the game and the incompatibility of FamousWriter @-@ made games with newer operating systems — which had rendered the original game effectively unplayable on newer PCs — being major factors in the decision . An international remake of Hatoful developed by Mediatonic and published by Devolver Digital made using the Unity game engine — allowing the game to be fully compatible with computers that run Windows Vista , Windows 7 or OS X 10 @.@ 6 , and playable for the first time on those that run Linux or OS X 10 @.@ 7 or newer — was first revealed to be in development on 6 June 2014 , with a formal announcement coming shortly afterwards at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014 .
The remake , known as Hatoful Boyfriend HD in Japan , was originally slated for release via Steam on 21 August 2014 ; however release was later postponed to 4 September 2014 to allow for final adjustments to the Japanese version . The remake includes a new route for Azami , full screen capability , and redrawn backgrounds . A collector 's edition of the remake titled Hatoful Boyfriend Summer of Dove Collector 's Edition was released for pre @-@ order along with the normal edition , and bundles together the remake , the original Hatoful Boyfriend : Hurtful Complete Edition , a digital version of the game 's soundtrack , a new comic illustrated by Hato , exclusive wallpapers of Okosan , and a St. PigeoNation 's Class of 2014 yearbook . The remake was also included in the Humble Bundle pack for Valentine 's Day 2015 , which exclusively featured dating sim games , along with a Hatoful Boyfriend pillowcase for the highest price point option . A port of the remake for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita was released on 21 July 2015 . And one to for iOS on 25 May 2016 .
= = = English localization = = =
On 22 November 2011 , freelance translator Nazerine released a fan translation patch of the free demo version of the game . The initial project involved Nazerine translating , writing , and revising the game text , while another person hacked the game so that the translated text displayed properly on the game screen . This English patch launched the first wave of western interest in the game , with several video game publications reporting on it due to the game 's unusual concept . The success of this translation attracted the attention of Hato Moa herself , who then offered Nazerine the opportunity to translate the full game — and later its sequel , Holiday Star — for an official English release . The translation process of the full game was also a solo effort by Nazerine ; however , Hato removed the need for hacking by directly supervising the translation , adjusting images in the game for English sentences . As the demo 's English patch was made before Nazerine had access to the full version of the game , several lines of dialogue were translated differently to reflect context revealed in Bad Boys Love ; for example , third @-@ person pronouns from Kazuaki Nanaki 's route implying that he had a female lover in the fan translation were replaced with gender @-@ neutral ones in the official translation . Few dramatic changes were made , though several jokes were added in Nazerine 's translations of the game that were not present in the original Japanese text . The official English version of the game was released for download on 15 February 2012 . The 2014 remake has also been confirmed to have used Nazerine 's translation .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Books and publications = = =
Several official dōjin works and supplemental materials illustrated by Hato Moa and Damurushi have been released alongside the games . An official guidebook with extra information regarding the game 's setting and characters was released at 29 December 2011 at Comiket 81 . The second edition of the guidebook , re @-@ branded as a " fanbook " ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 7580 @-@ 1280 @-@ 5 ) , and Absolute ZERO , an anthology about the fantasy universe perceived by Anghel Higure , were both released on 11 August 2012 at Comiket 82 ; an English version of Absolute ZERO was later released for Amazon Kindle on 27 August 2014 . Kazuaki @-@ kun 's Book ( 一明くんの本 , Kazuaki @-@ kun no Hon ) , featuring an alternate universe retelling of events discussed in Holiday Star , was released in Japanese at COMIC CITY SPARK 7 on 7 October 2012 , and on 23 December 2013 for Kindle in English . Focus on the Hawks ! ( フォーカス ・ ホークス , Fōkasu Hōkusu ) , an anthology featuring the Hawk Party researchers , was released in Japanese at Comiket 84 on 12 August 2013 , and on 29 May 2014 for Kindle in English . Watari Bādo Kimama ni TORIARUKI Katte ni Sutema Kōbe Kachōen ( 渡りバード 気ままにTORIARUKI 勝手にステマ神戸花鳥園 ) , a side story featuring the Kobe Animal Kingdom and written as part of a fundraising event for the venue , was released on 1 February 2014 . Sabishii Uzura ( さびしいウズラ ) , a collection of haiku poems written from the perspective of the original Kazuaki Nanaki , was released on 15 August 2014 at Comiket 86 .
= = = Webcomic = = =
A webcomic based on the series , written and illustrated by Hato Moa , was serialized in publisher Takeshobo 's webcomic anthology Manga Life WIN + from 8 June 2012 until the anthology 's discontinuation , containing sixteen chapters . Each chapter is composed of several four @-@ panel comic strips , followed by a short story in which the characters are depicted in their human forms . The first twelve chapters have since been collected in one tankōbon volume ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 8124 @-@ 8387 @-@ 9 ) , which was released on 10 August 2013 . The volume also contains a feature where the series ' characters answered questions sent in by fans . A subsequent dōjin anthology containing chapters thirteen to sixteen plus a bonus ten @-@ page comic , Hatoful Boyfriend Overload ! Overflow ! EX ( はーとふる彼氏 はみでた ! もれでた ! EX , Hātofuru Kareshi Hamideta ! Moredeta ! EX ) , was released on 30 December 2013 at Comiket 85 in Japanese , and on Kindle in English .
= = = Drama CDs = = =
Four drama CDs by Frontier Works based on the series have been released . The first CD , titled Prologue ( プロローグ , Purorōgu ) had a preliminary release on 29 December 2011 at Comiket 81 , and was released for general distribution on 25 January 2012 . The second CD , titled Primal Feather , was released on 25 April 2012 , followed by a third CD , titled Summer Vacation , on 10 August 2012 at Comiket 82 , which had a general release on 12 September 2012 . A fourth CD with a Legumentine 's Day theme , titled Hatomame Sweet Blend ( 鳩豆スウィートブレンド , Hatomame Suwīto Burendo ) , was released on 14 February 2013 .
= = = Web radio = = =
An internet radio show for the series titled Habatake ! Sei Pijoneishon Gakuen Housōbu ! ( はばたけ ! 聖ピジョネイション学園放送部 ! ) was broadcast from 24 December 2011 to 25 January 2012 on the Animate TV website , with the voice cast from the drama CDs reprising their respective roles . The show was hosted by Shintarō Asanuma , who played Ryouta Kawara in the drama CDs , and Hirofumi Nojima , who played Kazuaki Nanaki . Each episode consisted of four segments : Hatoota ( はとおた ) , a normal talk corner , Hatalk ( ハトーク , Hatōku ) , in which various questions regarding life as birds were answered , Koi no Denshobato ( 恋の伝書鳩 ) , in which lines from the game were read , and The How and Why of St. PigeoNation 's ! ( なぜ ？ なに ？ 質問箱 , Naze ? Nani ? Shitsumonbako ) , a question and answer corner where the voice actors answered any questions from viewers in @-@ character .
= = = Web series = = =
A trailer for the web series was released in Japanese on 20 October 2013 , with an English @-@ language translation of the trailer being released on 23 May 2014 . The first episode , titled Tamesareru Ketsui ! Saraba Sei Pijoneishon ( Zenpen ) ( 試される決意 ！ さらば聖ピジョネイション ＜ 前編 ＞ ) , was released on 19 May 2014 . The series is released in visual novel format on the Adobe AIR platform , and takes place in a different universe than the game series .
= = = Plush production line = = =
On 3 November 2015 , Erick Scarecrow of Esc @-@ Toy Ltd. launched an official Kickstarter campaign , together with Hato Moa and Devolver Digital , asking for $ 25 @.@ 000 to create a production line of three characters from the Hatoful Boyfriend universe , namely , Shuu , Ryouta and Okosan . During the campaign , all stretch goals were reached , the last ending at $ 75 @.@ 000 , adding seven more characters to the production line . The campaign ended on 6 December 2015 , with a total of $ 145 @.@ 015 pledged .
= = Reception = =
As a dōjin soft title , Hatoful Boyfriend was created on a limited budget and had even more limited promotion ; however , due to strong word of mouth on Twitter and other social media Hatoful has enjoyed a degree of commercial success , especially when compared against its minimal production costs — with Mado no Mori reporting that the game was a " popular title " whose physical CD @-@ ROM copies " consistently sold out at dōjin markets and wherever it became available for purchase " , and 4Gamer.net noting that the game disk was difficult to purchase due to overwhelming demand . Outside Japan , where it is only available by download , the English release of the game is dōjin soft distributor DLsite English 's best @-@ selling title with 7 @,@ 000 separate purchases as of 2014 .
Hatoful Boyfriend has received generally favorable reception , with reviewers focusing on the surprising depth of the game 's writing and storyline . In a weekly game spotlight , Kouichi Kirishima from Mado no Mori recommends the game to " not just pigeon @-@ lovers , but anyone who enjoys visual novels " , remarking that the game is " at times surprisingly serious and emotionally involved " . On the other side of the Pacific , Julian Murdoch comments in a Gamers With Jobs analysis of the game that the scenarios featured in Hatoful are " elaborate and multifaceted " , and that Hato Moa herself " isn ’ t just a storyteller , she ’ s actually a good storyteller " . Hatoful Boyfriend was also named the best PC game of 2012 by GameCola ; Paul Franzen explains the game 's inclusion among higher budget and more technically sophisticated titles as being due to the strength of its storytelling and pathos , stating that " Hatoful Boyfriend isn 't just a weird game about heathen human @-@ animal relationships [ ... ] there ’ s an actual , serious , emotional game here , too " . In an article discussing the E3 announcement of the 2014 remake , Carly Smith for The Escapist remarks that Hatoful Boyfriend is " absolutely hilarious " , but recommends that players " start the game for a laugh , but stick with it for a ride you wouldn 't have expected by looking at the cover " .
Reviewers also praised the game 's varied scenarios and replayability . Dora from Jay Is Games praised the game , saying that " with a huge amount of replay value , creativity to burn , and some of the most shocking plot lines you could ever hope to encounter , Hatoful Boyfriend is a fascinating and surprising text adventure well worth checking out " , though she also observes that " the delayed payoff and the abruptness of some of the endings combined with the oddball concept may not appeal to every fan of the visual novel genre " . Alexa Ray Corriea 's Polygon review of the remake gave it an 8 out of 10 , concluding that the " witty dialogue and absolutely bonkers scenarios are genuinely fun to discover , and the handful of different storylines make repeated playthroughs worthwhile " . Some critics however expressed concerns over the presence of some repetitive aspects of gameplay — noted as being especially apparent when attempting multiple playthroughs — as well as the accessibility of the game 's Bad Boys Love scenario to casual players : in his review of the remake for PC Gamer , Julian Murdoch states that " I suspect few will have the patience to ride the fast forward button and suss out the romantic proclivities of each cast member to get to the extended ending — really a second half — of the game " .
Much attention was drawn to Hatoful Boyfriend 's surreal concept in both its native Japan as well as overseas . Mentions of the game 's " bird romance " spread through Japanese social media , leading several news agencies and publications to report on Hatoful and the " newness " of its premise . As translations began to make the game accessible to an English speaking audience , western media reacted similarly : Alec Meer for Rock , Paper , Shotgun commented on Hatoful 's premise , citing it as being " reason enough to play it " ; also for Rock , Paper , Shotgun , Craig Pearson stated that the game " could only be better if it was a secret game from Valve and Bioware " . One of the main spurs to the game 's popularity was a playthrough recorded by Angie Gallant on the Quarter to Three forums . In a retrospect , Jeffrey Matulef for Eurogamer remarks that Hatoful Boyfriend 's " outlandish premise caught on and the English speaking world demanded it not be left out of this surreal creation " , while Robert Fenner of RPGFan compared it favorably to Hiroki Azuma 's writings on database consumption , praising the game as a " fierce deconstruction as well as a tender celebration of dating sims " . Several Japanese commentators have also noted the game 's overseas success , especially following the E3 announcement of the remake by British developer Mediatonic and American publisher Devolver Digital .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel titled Hatoful Boyfriend : Holiday Star ( Japanese : はーとふる彼氏 HolidayStar , Hepburn : Hātofuru kareshi HolidayStar ) , was released in Japan in 29 December 2011 , with an official English patch being released a year later on Christmas Day . The game is an episodic followup set around the holiday season and takes place in a separate universe from the first game , in which the events of Bad Boys Love do not occur . The sequel , developed largely alongside the first game , makes reference to and explores several unresolved plot elements brought up in the first game 's Bad Boys Love scenario that could not be fully addressed in its main narrative . Unlike the first game , Holiday Star is a mostly linear visual novel rather than an otome game , with more standalone scenarios and fewer branching plotlines . On 4 June 2015 , it was announced that Mediatonic , the developer responsible for the 2014 remake of the original game , was also developing a remake of Holiday Star , again to be published by Devolver Digital . The remake of the sequel is slated for release in Winter 2015 . On 8 December 2015 , it was announced that the remake of Hatoful Boyfriend : Holiday Star would be released on 15 December 2015 for Microsoft Windows , OS X and Linux , and on 22 December 2015 for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita .
= Pitfour estate =
The Pitfour estate , in the Buchan area of north @-@ east Scotland , was an ancient barony encompassing most of the extensive Longside Parish , stretching from St Fergus to New Pitsligo . It was purchased in 1700 by James Ferguson of Badifurrow , who became the first Laird of Pitfour .
The estate was substantially renovated by Ferguson and the following two generations of his family . At the height of its development in the 18th and 19th centuries the 50 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 130 km2 ) property had several extravagant features including a two @-@ mile racecourse , an artificial lake and an observatory . The original mansion house was extended before being rebuilt . The surrounding parklands were landscaped , major renovations were undertaken , and follies such as a small replica Temple of Theseus were constructed , in which George Ferguson , the fifth laird , was thought to keep alligators in a cold bath .
The first three lairds transformed the estate into a valuable asset . Lord Pitfour , the second laird , purchased additional lands including Deer Abbey and Inverugie Castle . Pitfour 's son , James Ferguson , who became the third laird , continued to improve and expand the estate by adding the lake and bridges , and establishing planned villages . The third laird died a bachelor with no children , so the estate passed to the elderly George Ferguson , who was only in possession of the property for a few months . George was already a wealthy man , owning lands in Trinidad and Tobago , but despite not directly improving the Pitfour estate he added considerable value to the inheritance passed to his illegitimate son . The extravagant lifestyles of the fifth and sixth lairds led to the sequestration of the estate , which was sold off piecemeal to pay their debts .
What remained of the estate was sold after the First World War . The mansion house was demolished in about 1926 , and its stone used to build council houses in Aberdeen . In more recent times some of the remaining buildings , including the temple , the bridges and the stables , have been classified as at high risk by Historic Scotland because their condition has become poor . The chapel was fully renovated and converted to a private residence in 2003 ; the observatory was purchased and restored by Banff & Buchan District Council ( now Aberdeenshire Council ) and can be accessed by the public . The racecourse has been forested since 1926 , and the lake is used by members of a private fishing club .
= = Early history = =
The Pitfour estate in Mintlaw extended from St Fergus to New Pitsligo and encompassed most of the extensive Longside Parish . The meaning of Pitfour is given in the 1895 records of the Clan Fergusson as " cold croft " , but the historian John Milne breaks the name into two parts and indicates the meaning as Pit being place and feoir or feur being grass . The Pitfour estate is shown on old maps as Petfouir or Petfour . It was formerly one of Scotland 's largest and best @-@ appointed estates and was referred to as " The Blenheim of Buchan " , " The Blenheim of the North " and " The Ascot of the North " by the architectural historian Charles McKean .
Scant early records exist of the lands but Alexander Stewart ( Alexandro Senescalli ) , the natural son of King Robert II of Scotland , was given the Pitfour lands together with those of Lunan by his father in 1383 . However , writing in 1887 Cadenhead states the lands were sold to Stewart by Ricardus Mouet , also known as Richard Lownan . During the next three centuries the lands had several different owners . Transactions show it passed to a burgess of Aberdeen in 1477 from Egidia Stewart ; Walter Innes of Invermarkie gained feudal superiority to all Pitfour lands in 1493 ; and in 1506 the land was purchased by Thomas Innes , who died the following year . His son , John , inherited the property . It remained in the possession of the Innes family until at least 1581 , when it was owned by James Innes and his wife Agnes Urquhart . Between 1581 and 1667 the lands were bought by George Morrison . His son William inherited the property in 1700 , and immediately sold the estate to James Ferguson , who became the first Laird of Pitfour .
The lands purchased by Ferguson were recorded in 1667 in a charter granted by Charles II and were stated as encompassing " the lands and Barony of Toux and Pitfour in the Parish of Old Deer and Sheriffdom of Aberdeen including the towns and lands of Mintlaw , Longmuir , Dumpston in the Parish of Longside , and County of Aberdeen . " Several other lands , including " the Barony of Aden with the Tower , Fortaliss , Mains and Manor Place therof and pertinents of the same called Fortry , Rora Mill thereof , Croft Brewerie , Inverquhomrie and Yockieshill " were individually listed . State papers from the reign of Queen Anne in the 18th century record the lands in favour of James Ferguson .
= = Lairds and subsequent development = =
1st laird
James Ferguson — known as the Sheriff , reflecting the post he held , recognised by the Society of Advocates — bought the Pitfour estate after selling the lands of Badifurrow . He had inherited Badifurrow after demanding that his uncle Robert Ferguson should appear in court if he wished to contest the inheritance . Robert , nicknamed the Plotter , was in hiding to avoid charges of treachery , and after his non @-@ appearance in court James Ferguson 's inheritance was confirmed in mid @-@ June 1700 . At that time the estate contained only a small country house .
2nd laird
James was laird until his death in 1734 , after which the estate passed to his eldest son , also called James , who was born at Pitfour soon after it was purchased . A solicitor like his father , he was promoted to the bench in 1764 and became Lord Pitfour . He continued to expand and improve the estate until his death in 1777 , and set up the planned village of Fetterangus in 1752 .
Lord Pitfour purchased the lands of the last Earl Marischal , George Keith , which were adjacent to Pitfour , in 1766 . They were considered the Earl Marischal 's most significant property and had been forfeited when the Earl Marischal fell out of favour . He had bought it back from the York Buildings Company for £ 31 @,@ 000 , but Pitfour only paid £ 15 @,@ 000 for it . The 8 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 square kilometres ) of land included Deer Abbey and Inverugie Castle , but consisted predominantly of peat bogs , woods and uncultivated land . This addition made the Pitfour estate the largest in the area , at more than 30 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 square kilometres ) stretching from Buchanhaven to Maud along the course of the River Ugie .
3rd laird
The third laird , also named James , inherited the estate in 1777 ; he was usually referred to as the Member to differentiate him from previous generations . Like his forebears , he was an advocate but also became a Member of Parliament . He too continued to expand and improve the estate ; he constructed a lake and a canal , and built the new mansion . He also expanded and altered Longside at the start of the 1800s , founded Mintlaw in 1813 , assisted in the extension of New Deer and extended Buchanhaven .
The Member died unmarried , childless and intestate in 1820 . In normal circumstances his brother Patrick would have been his heir , but he died in battle in October 1780 .
4th laird
In 1820 the estate was inherited by the Member 's younger brother , George Ferguson , who was by then in his seventies . He was known as the Governor , reflecting his appointment as Lieutenant Governor of Tobago . He was laird from September 1820 , but died in December that year . The Governor had spent most of his life in Trinidad and Tobago , where he was a principal landowner , and had inherited the Castara Estate on Tobago from Patrick . George was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Tobago in 1779 , and after a battle with the French in 1781 surrendered the island to the French on 2 June . The Governor returned to Britain , although the terms of the surrender meant he still owned the Castara estate and all the slaves who worked on it . George had illegitimate children with an unknown woman . He continued to buy estates in the Caribbean and returned there in 1793 , staying until 1810 .
5th laird
The estate started to deteriorate after it was inherited by the Governor 's illegitimate son George Ferguson , known as the Admiral because of his naval career . He was already heavily in debt when he became the fifth laird in 1821 , but he still enjoyed a lavish lifestyle and undertook much extravagant construction on the estate , including the erection of follies . To cover his substantial gambling debts , he began to sell parcels of estate land , and upon inheriting Pitfour he began selling furniture , books , farm equipment and other items , realising more than £ 9 @,@ 000 .
6th laird
After the Admiral 's death in March 1867 , the estate passed to his son , George Arthur Ferguson , the sixth and final laird . He served in the Grenadier Guards and eventually became a captain . He married Nina Maria Hood , the eldest daughter of Alexander Nelson Hood , 1st Viscount Bridport , in February 1861 . Later that year Captain Ferguson was posted to Canada , where he was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and where his first two sons , Arthur and Francis William , were born . His eldest son , Arthur , became Inspector of Constabulary for Scotland . Returning to Britain in 1864 , the family had a nomadic lifestyle , but the sixth laird and his wife were extravagant and habitual gamblers . In June 1909 , a trust deed was registered , and what remained of the estate was put on the market . After large parts of the land had been sold under the ownership of the sixth laird the estate was listed by Bateman in 1883 as being just over 23 @,@ 000 acres ( 93 square kilometres ) with an income of £ 19 @,@ 938 ; at the height of its development the estate had occupied 50 square miles ( 130 square kilometres ) , and was valued at £ 30 million .
The last laird died in 1924 and is buried in Luton .
Following its 20th @-@ century decline the estate changed hands several times until local farmer Hamish Watson purchased it in December 2010 . The local historian Alex Buchan summed up the demise of the estate : " They thought the estate was here to provide them with money , to gamble , to travel , to simply fritter away and very quickly , within a couple of decades , they had wasted the whole lot . " He added , " Eccentricity amounted to just squandering money . "
= = Mansion house = =
The original small country house was first altered during the early 18th century . In 1809 the Sheriff 's grandson James Ferguson , the third laird , employed the architect John Smith to design new accommodation . The resulting three @-@ storey house , 98 feet ( 30 metres ) square and 33 feet ( 10 metres ) high , is reputed to have had 365 windows . When the fourth laird , George ( the Governor ) , died in 1820 , the estate was worth £ 300 @,@ 000 with almost £ 35 @,@ 000 of moveable assets . George Ferguson , the fifth laird ( the Admiral ) added a large , glazed gallery when he inherited the house . The Admiral had a lavish lifestyle and despite having a healthy income incurred heavy debts .
When the Admiral died after 46 years of managing the estate it was mortgaged for £ 250 @,@ 000 , despite the sale of a number of the lands originally included in it . The house fell into disrepair under the ownership of George Arthur , the sixth and final laird , who had inherited his father 's lifestyle . The entire estate was put on the market in September 1909 but remained unsold until after the First World War ; the house and what remained of the estate were finally purchased by a speculator , Edgar Fairweather , from London in 1926 . Fairweather bought several other Scottish estates , including those nearby at Auchmeddan and Strichen ; he habitually reduced the estates into smaller holdings that he then sold on or rented out . The house was sold to an Aberdeen building company and was demolished sometime between 1927 and 1930 . After demolition , the mansion 's veranda was installed at the front of Kinloch Farmhouse in St Fergus . Other remains from the mansion have been discovered at the farmhouse , including a crest above the conservatory door and tiles inscribed with the Ferguson of Pitfour family crest . The stone from the mansion was transported to Aberdeen and used in the construction of council houses .
= = Chapels = =
The Fergusons were Episcopalian , and in 1766 , the second laird , Lord Pitfour had a small Qualified Chapel built on the estate at Waulkmill . It was a large , plain building that could accommodate up to 500 people . Saplinbrae , a house that was initially used as a coaching inn after it was built under instruction from Lord Pitfour in 1756 , was used as the minister 's manse for the first chapel .
A more modern chapel was built in 1850 after the Admiral had an argument with the Reverend Arthur Ranken , the minister at Old Deer . This was a small , private chapel for the use of the Pitfour estate . It was built in the Gothic style from rubble but was recast in 1871 . A 60 @-@ foot ( 18 @-@ metre ) tower with a battlemented top is at its western end . The chapel fell into disrepair , and by the 1980s it was a roofless ruin .
In 1990 Historic Scotland said that Kinloch Farmhouse , in St Fergus featured a bench and chair salvaged from the Pitfour Chapel . In 2003 , the second chapel was renovated and converted to a private residence . The chapel restoration won a " Highly commended " award for craftsmanship from Aberdeenshire Council in 2010 ; the council said the craftsmanship " allowed for the retention of the ecclesiastical spirit and integrity to remain prevalent both internally and externally . " It was also " Highly Commended " in the conservation category .
= = Stables and riding school = =
The stables were built in 1820 , during the early part of the Admiral 's ownership of the estate , based on a design by John Smith ; the buildings are sited to the rear of the mansion house . Built in a horseshoe @-@ shape , neo @-@ classical design , the two @-@ storey building was constructed in pinned rubble with granite dressings ; grey granite was used for the parapet and quoins . The main buildings were originally harled . A corrugated asbestos hipped roof was at some point substituted for the original slate roof . It features a columned rotunda above a timber clock tower , which has a finial and domed copper roof . The pedimented centrepiece of the symmetrical front elevation is a segmental arch and has three panels set back between columns . Each side is bordered by wings of three bays with single @-@ bay pavilions .
The stables are connected to an adjoining two @-@ storey house . They provided accommodation for ten horses and included four loose boxes , a harness room and a coachman 's house ; six bedrooms above were for servants . Two coach houses were later used as garages . The stables building was marketed in 1997 for approximately £ 70 @,@ 000 . Charles McKean describes the stables as " straddling the skyline like a palace " . The stables are listed by Historic Scotland as being at very high risk , and were described in 1997 sale literature as unused and dilapidated .
An indoor riding school slightly to the north @-@ west of the stables measured 98 feet ( 30 metres ) by 49 feet ( 15 metres ) . It was used to entertain guests when the facilities at the mansion house were not large enough . More than two hundred local farmers and other landowners celebrated the wedding of George Arthur , the sixth laird , in the riding school in 1861 . In 1883 it was again used to entertain ; on that occasion it was decorated with flags and Chinese lanterns , and pine flooring was laid . Later , it was used as indoor tennis courts before being demolished .
= = Canal and lake = =
James Ferguson , the third laird , owned the estate during the Industrial Revolution in Britain . He began work on a canal between Pitfour and Peterhead in 1797 , despite fierce opposition from adjoining landowners . The canal was proposed to cover about ten miles following the course of the River Ugie . Pitfour 's canal is sometimes called the St Fergus and River Ugie Canal . Ferguson had thought about building the canal since 1793 , but it was never completed because of " difficulties in effecting the necessary arrangements with neighbouring heritors . " Objections were raised by the Merchant Maiden Hospital , which owned the land on the south side of the Ugie . Despite being advised to take out an interdict to prevent the work , in January 1797 the hospital thought its case was not strong enough . The hospital applied for an interdict four months later however , when two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the canal had been dug to the point where the north and south Ugie joined ; it was granted in July 1797 .
A few years after starting work on the canal , Ferguson had a lake built on flat land to the front of the mansion house . The landscape gardener William S. Gilpin was carrying out work on the adjacent Strichen estate at about the same time , and it is assumed he helped with the work at Pitfour . The lake extends to almost 50 acres ( 20 hectares ) and is 174 feet ( 53 metres ) above sea level . Designed in the same style as the lake in Windsor Great Park , the lake was stocked with trout , both rainbow and brown ; there were three bridges and four islands . The siting of the lake meant the driveway had to be moved , and ornate bridges were constructed to cross the water . Built from granite , the northern bridge has three arches with ashlar starlings , the southern bridge has a single arch and the third , smaller bridge crosses a large stream that drains into the lake .
The neighbouring Russell family of Aden were concerned their land would be flooded when the lake was built , and their animosity was fully demonstrated when a bridge had to be jointly constructed by the two landowners over the River Ugie . It was wide enough for carriages on the Pitfour side but too narrow on the Russell 's half .
= = Theseus temple = =
Alongside the lake was a six @-@ bay Greek Doric temple , a small replica styled after the Temple of Theseus . Its exact date of construction is unknown ; it may have been built during the time of James Ferguson , the third laird , or under the instruction of George Ferguson , the fifth laird . The local historian Alex Buchan attributes it to James , the third laird ; according to Historic Scotland , it was built " probably circa 1835 " . Like the mansion house , the temple is credited to the architect John Smith . Measuring 8 metres ( 26 ft ) by 16 metres ( 52 ft ) , it has six columns at both ends and thirteen columns down each side . It had a flat roof with an ornate wooden entablature and contained a cold @-@ water bath in which George , the fifth laird was believed to have kept alligators . As of 2013 the temple is in a ruinous state ; it has been held up by scaffolding since 1992 and is listed by Historic Scotland as being in critical condition .
= = Racecourse and observatory = =
George Ferguson ( the Admiral ) had a racecourse about 2 @.@ 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ) long and 52 feet ( 16 metres ) wide built near White Cow Woods , an area which is quite flat . This led to the estate being called the " Ascot of the North " .
In 1845 the Admiral had an observatory built , again designed by the architect John Smith . It is an octagonal tower with a crenellated parapet and is symmetrical in design . The observatory stands at the top of a hill 396 feet ( 121 m ) above sea level . The tower is 50 feet ( 15 m ) high and is more than half a mile ( 1 kilometre ) from the racecourse . It has three storeys with square windows on the upper floor , and was fully renovated by Banff & Buchan District Council ( now Aberdeenshire Council ) in 1983 .
= = Twentieth century = =
Sales of country estates became common around the 1920s . The annual tax payable had spiralled and was twenty times greater than in 1870 resulting in the break @-@ up of many larger land @-@ holdings . Pitfour was no exception and the dispersal of the estate continued piecemeal after the sequestration of George Arthur , the sixth laird . The main estate policies including the lake and other land were purchased by Bernard Drake in November 1926 when he bought Saplinbrae , the former minister 's house . Drake was a partner in the electrical engineering company , Drake and Gorham .
Sixty years later , in 1986 the BBC Domesday Project does not give any ownership details but indicates many of the buildings are in poor condition . Other surviving structures are used for storage by a farmer who also " manages the land " .
= = Recent times = =
At the end of 2012 Aberdeenshire Council gave the go @-@ ahead for the present owner 's planned restoration work on the temple and bridges , which he hoped would enhance existing facilities at nearby Drinnies Wood surrounding the Observatory , White Cow Woods and Aden Country Park . The lake is used regularly by local fishermen , and a fishing club with about 120 members was established in 2011 . The rest of the estate is seldom used by local residents , many of whom are completely unaware of it .
= Svetlana Kuznetsova =
Svetlana Aleksandrovna Kuznetsova ( Russian : Светла ́ на Алекса ́ ндровна Кузнецо ́ ва ; IPA : [ svʲɪtˈlanə ɐlʲɪkˈsandrəvnə kʊznʲɪˈtsovə ] ; born 27 June 1985 ) is a Russian professional tennis player . Kuznetsova has appeared in four Grand Slam singles finals , winning two , and has also appeared in seven doubles finals , winning twice . As a doubles player , Kuznetsova has reached the finals of each Grand Slam at least once , winning the Australian Open twice . She has qualified five times for the round @-@ robin stage of the WTA Tour Championships but has never reached the semifinals .
Born to an athletic family , Kuznetsova moved at the age of seven to Spain to attend the Sanchez @-@ Casal Academy . In 2001 she first took part on a WTA tournament , the Madrid Open , and a year later won her first WTA title at the Nordea Nordic Light Open in Helsinki , Finland . Her first appearance in a Grand Slam was at the 2002 Australian Open and her first Grand Slam title came at the 2004 US Open , making her the third Russian woman to win a Grand Slam title , after Anastasia Myskina and Maria Sharapova . Kuznetsova 's second Grand Slam title was the 2009 French Open , defeating compatriot Dinara Safina in the final in straight sets . At the 2006 French Open and the 2007 US Open singles tournament she was the runner @-@ up , both times to Belgian player Justine Henin . As a result , Kuznetsova obtained a career @-@ high No. 2 WTA ranking , holding that position for 24 weeks in 2007 and 2008 .
Apart from singles tournaments , Kuznetsova was also successful in doubles . With Arantxa Sánchez Vicario she won her first five WTA doubles titles . After a series of disappointing results with her she paired with Martina Navratilova , Elena Likhovtseva , Alicia Molik , and Amélie Mauresmo . Pairing with Likhovtseva she climbed to No. 3 WTA in doubles in 2004 , holding that position for 8 weeks , which remains her career @-@ high . She won the Australian Open twice in doubles , in 2005 alongside Alicia Molik and in 2012 partnering Vera Zvonareva . Kuznetsova also played various times mixed doubles at Grand Slams , most prominently in 2003 , but never went beyond the quarterfinals . In 2010 she fell from the top @-@ 10 singles rankings for the first time since 2006 and had not regained that position until July 2016 . Kuznetsova has won a total of 16 WTA and 1 ITF singles titles and 16 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
WTA doubles titles to date .
= = Early life = =
Svetlana Aleksandrovna Kuznetsova was born in Leningrad . Her father , Aleksandr Kuznetsov , has coached five Olympic and world cycling champions . Kuznetsova 's mother , Galina Tsareva , is a six @-@ time world champion and holder of 20 world records in cycling , and her brother , Nikolay Kuznetsov , was a silver medalist at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta and coach of the Russian cycling team Lokomotiv . Kuznetsova never showed inspiration for cycling , but rather tennis . She later stated in an interview that she liked watching tennis from an early age , preferring men 's over women 's tennis . " I had posters in my room of MaliVai Washington , Marcelo Ríos , and ( Yevgeny ) Kafelnikov . It 's very weird but this is who I liked . Later I was a big fan of ( Marat ) Safin . " , she said . Kuznetsova began to play tennis at the age of seven , and moved to Spain six years later to receive better training and coaching . While there , she became fluent in Spanish .
= = Career = =
= = = 2000 : ITF Junior Career = = =
Kuznetsova debuted in her first International Tennis Federation ( ITF ) tournament in Mallorca on 31 January . In the first round , she defeated Katia Altilia from Italy in two straight sets , 6 – 0 , 6 – 4 . However , she lost in the quarter final to Oana – Elena Golimbioschi . Her next appearance was in Talence in April . She defeated Aurore Desertin in the first round , but lost in the second round to Berengere Karpenschif , both from France . In Minsk , Belarus , in a tournament using the short sets scoring system , she reached the quarter final , after defeating the unranked Vera Zvonareva in the first round in four sets , and Daria Panova in three sets in the second round . In the quarter final , she lost to 574th ranked Elena Voropaeva in four sets , after losing two tie breaks in the two earlier sets . However , Kuznetsova was ranked in the top 900 , receiving her first ranking of 889 during the week ending 20 November 2000 . She moved to Mallorca again and joined the Mallorca 3 tournament . Kuznetsova lost in the first round to Dinara Safina after winning the first set . Her last tournament of the year was again in Mallorca , but now played in a minimum of four sets . In the Round of 32 , she defeated Silvia Disderi . However , she fell to 8th seeded Mihaela Moldovan in the last round . She ended the season ranked 889 .
= = = 2001 – 2002 : First WTA titles = = =
Kuznetsova began playing in tournaments on the ITF Circuit in 2000 , winning her first title on the circuit in April 2001 . Her first appearances in the main draws of tournaments on the main WTA Tour were at the Madrid Open in May of that year and at the Waikoloa Championships in Waikoloa , Hawaii in September , losing in the second round on both occasions . She finished the year 2001 ranked 259 .
Kuznetsova made her debut in the main draw of a Grand Slam at the 2002 Australian Open , where , as a qualifier , she reached the second round before losing to 16th seed Iroda Tulyaganova . However , she previously lost in the qualifying rounds of both the 2001 French Open and 2001 Wimbledon .
As a qualifier at the clay @-@ court Nordea Nordic Light Open in Helsinki , Finland in August , Kuznetsova won her first WTA singles title , defeating world No. 24 Patty Schnyder in the quarterfinals for her first win over a top 40 player , before defeating Denisa Chládková in the final . Kuznetsova entered the top 100 for the first time as a result of that victory . Kuznetsova qualified for the US Open , defeating 19th seed Anne Kremer in the first round for her first win over a top 20 player , before losing in the third round to 13th seed Silvia Farina Elia . In September , Kuznetsova won her second title at the hard court Commonwealth Bank Tennis Classic in Bali , Indonesia , defeating former Grand Slam champions Arantxa Sánchez Vicario and Conchita Martínez . Also during 2002 , she teamed up with Sánchez Vicario to win the first WTA doubles titles of her career , in Sopot , Poland , Helsinki and Kōtō , Japan . Kuznetsova finished the 2002 season as world No. 43 in singles .
= = = 2003 : First Grand Slam quarterfinal = = =
Kuznetsova began her season at the Brisbane International . She received a wild card , but fell in the first round in the singles to Elena Bovina . In the doubles competition , she paired with Martina Navratilova , with whom she would play throughout the year ( except on the Pacific Life Open , partnering with Slovak Janette Husárová ) , and won against Nathalie Dechy and Émilie Loit in straight sets . In the Australian Open , she lost to second seed Venus Williams in the first round . With Navratilova , they lost against ninth seed Daniela Hantuchová and Chanda Rubin in the third round . She paired with Australian Jeff Coetzee but lost to Mark Knowles and Elena Likhovtseva in two tight sets in the first round . In the singles event of the Dubai Tennis Championships in February , Kuznetsova won the first round against 6th seeded Francesca Schiavone , but was beaten by Dinara Safina in the second round . In the doubles event she and Navratilova were beaten by eventual runners @-@ up María Vento @-@ Kabchi and Angelique Widjaja . She did not reach the quarterfinals of any tournament during the first half of the year . Kuznetsova 's win over world No. 11 Anastasia Myskina in the second round of the Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells , California was her highest up to that date .
In the first round of the French Open , Kuznetsova lost to Meghann Shaughnessy . She was also unsuccessful with Jared Palmer in the mixed doubles , losing to Nadia Petrova and Paul Haarhuis in the round of 16 . Kuznetsova paired with Navratilova in the doubles match , but lost to Kim Clijsters and Ai Sugiyama in three sets in the quarter final . Kuznetsova participated at Wimbledon , where in the fourth round , she defeated wildcard Maria Sharapova to reach her first Grand Slam quarterfinal , losing to third seed Justine Henin . At the doubles , they were again defeated by Clijsters and Sugiyama . Kuznetsova paired with Australian Todd Woodbridge in the mixed doubles , but lost against Leoš Friedl and Liezel Huber in the quarter final . She then made her first semifinal appearance of the year at the Acura Classic in San Diego , before losing to Henin . At the US Open singles tournament , Kuznetsova lost in the third round to top seed Kim Clijsters . However , in the doubles competition , she again partnered with Navratilova and reached the first Grand Slam final of her career but were beaten by Paola Suárez and Virginia Ruano Pascual in two straight sets . She entered the Sparkassen Cup in Leipzig , losing to fifth seeded Daniela Hantuchová in the first round . Kuznetsova and Navratilova won the doubles title against Elena Likhovtseva and Nadia Petrova . In the doubles competition at the Ladies Kremlin Cup , they reached the semifinals before losing to Russian couple and runners @-@ up Anastasia Myskina and Vera Zvonareva . Her last appearance of the year was at the WTA Tour Championships doubles competition in Los Angeles . In her first Tour Championships participation she and Navratilova lost in the first round to eventual champions Virginia Ruano Pascual and Paola Suárez . She finished the 2003 season as world No. 36 .
= = = 2004 : First Grand Slam title ( winning US Open ) = = =
Kuznetsova reached the third round of the singles competition at the Australian Open before losing to top seed Justine Henin . She reached her second Grand Slam doubles final with new partner Elena Likhovtseva before losing to Virginia Ruano Pascual and Paola Suárez . Several weeks later , playing singles at Dubai , Kuznetsova defeated former world No. 1 Venus Williams in the quarterfinals before defeating world No. 8 Ai Sugiyama in the semifinals for her first win over a top 10 player . Kuznetsova lost the final to world No. 1 Henin . The following week , Kuznetsova defeated Henin for the first time in the semifinals of the Qatar Total Open in Doha , before losing in the final to compatriot Myskina in three sets , pushing her into the top 20 for the first time . In April , Kuznetsova reached her third singles final of the year at the start of the clay @-@ court season at the J & S Cup in Warsaw , losing to Venus Williams in the final . Kuznetsova climbed to No. 11 by the time of the French Open . There , she reached the fourth round before losing to eventual champion Myskina , after holding a match point in the third set . In doubles Kuznetsova and Likhovtseva reached the final , losing to Suarez and Ruano Pascual . Following the French Open , Kuznetsova climbed to career @-@ highs of world No. 9 in the singles rankings , her first time in the top ten , and on 7 June 2004 , world No. 3 in the doubles rankings . Kuznetsova won her third title at the Hastings Direct International Championships in Eastbourne , defeating Hantuchová in the final in three sets . At Wimbledon , Kuznetsova suffered a first @-@ round loss to 118th – ranked Virginie Razzano . She fell to No. 4 in the doubles on 26 July , losing in the LA Women 's Tennis Championships to 113th ranked Gisela Dulko and Patricia Tarabini .
Representing Russia at the Olympics in August , Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals before losing to silver @-@ medallist Amélie Mauresmo . She went into the US Open seeded ninth . There , she defeated 14th seed Petrova in the quarterfinals , and in her first Grand Slam semifinal , defeated fifth seed and former champion Davenport , ending the American 's 22 @-@ match winning streak . In the final , Kuznetsova defeated sixth seed Dementieva . Kuznetsova was the first female Russian to win the US Open and the third to win a Grand Slam singles title , following the successes of Myskina and Maria Sharapova earlier in the year . Meanwhile , Kuznetsova teamed with Likhovtseva to reach the final of the doubles tournament before losing there to Suarez and Ruano Pascual , marking Kuznetsova 's fourth consecutive defeat by the pair in Grand Slams . Kuznetsova , however , climbed again to No. 3 on 13 September , after her loss in Los Angeles in early July . Kuznetsova continued her success by winning the Commonwealth Bank Tennis Classic in Bali , Indonesia defeating Marlene Weingärtner in the final . In the doubles she reached with Arantxa @-@ Sánchez Vicario the final , losing to Anastasia Myskina and Ai Sugiyama . This improved her singles ranking to a new high of world No. 5 , but worsen her doubles ranking to No. 4 on 20 September . The following week , at the China Open in Beijing , Kuznetsova defeated Wimbledon champion Sharapova in the semifinals to extend her winning streak to 14 matches . However , she lost in the final to Serena Williams . Making her debut at the season @-@ ending WTA Championships in Los Angeles , Kuznetsova lost two of three matches in the preliminary round @-@ robin stage and exited before the semifinals . Kuznetsova finished the season as world No. 5 .
= = = 2005 : Out of the top 10 = = =
Kuznetsova began the year by reaching the quarterfinals of the Australian Open , losing to fourth seed Sharapova in three sets . Kuznetsova teamed with Australian Alicia Molik to win her first Grand Slam doubles title , defeating Davenport and Corina Morariu . In the first round she received a bye at the Toray Pan Pacific Open and was defeated by runner @-@ up Lindsay Davenport in the semifinal . Kuznetsova did not reach any finals during the spring hard @-@ court season , with defeats including one to No. 97 Sania Mirza in the first round at Dubai . She received a first @-@ round bye at the Pacific Life Open and reached the quarterfinal before losing to Elena Dementieva . She joined the next event , the NASDAQ @-@ 100 Open in Miami , and progressed to the 4th round after receiving a bye in the 1st round . There she was defeated by Ana Ivanovic .
She made her first final of the year at the J & S Cup in Warsaw , defeating former world No. 1 Clijsters in the semis . In the final , Kuznetsova lost to Henin . At the French Open , Kuznetsova lost again to eventual champion Henin in a tightly contested fourth round match , having wasted a match point in the third set . At Wimbledon , Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals for the second time before losing to top seed Davenport . She teamed up with Mauresmo to reach her sixth Grand Slam doubles final but suffered a heavy defeat by Cara Black and Liezel Huber .
At the US Open , she lost to No. 97 Ekaterina Bychkova in the first round , becoming the first female defending US Open champion to lose in the first round . This defeat dropped her out of the top ten . She defeated Zvonareva in the quarterfinal of the Kremlin Cup but was beaten by Francesca Schiavone in the semifinal . At the $ 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 Zurich Open Kuznetsova lost in the first round to the unseeded Nathalie Dechy . She finished the year ranked world No. 18 .
= = = 2006 : Return to form = = =
Kuznetsova started her season at the Australian Open and reached the fourth round before losing there to top seed Davenport . Several weeks later , Kuznetsova rebounded at Dubai , defeating world No. 2 Mauresmo in the quarterfinals for her first win over a top ten player since 2004 . She lost to Henin in the semifinals . In March , Kuznetsova defeated former world No. 1 Martina Hingis in the third round of the NASDAQ @-@ 100 Open in Miami , before going on to defeat world No. 1 Mauresmo in the semifinals . In the final , she defeated Sharapova to win the first Tier I title of her career and her first singles title in 18 months . This win returned her to the top ten .
Kuznetsova reached her second final of the year at the clay @-@ court J & S Cup in Warsaw , defeating Venus Williams en route . In the final , she lost to world No. 2 Clijsters , marking third consecutive runner @-@ up finish . At the French Open , Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals for the first time , where she defeated 14th seed Dinara Safina . In the semifinals , she defeated 17 @-@ year @-@ old Czech Nicole Vaidišová after saving a match point . In her second Grand Slam final , Kuznetsova lost to Henin . Kuznetsova reached only the third round at Wimbledon , losing to 27th seed Li Na .
At the US Open Kuznetsova lost in the fourth round to 19th seed Jelena Janković . In September , she won her second title of the year at the $ 225 @,@ 000 Commonwealth Bank Tennis Classic in Bali as 1st seeded – for the first time in her career – defeating Davenport in the semifinals and Marion Bartoli in the final . The following week , she won the China Open in Beijing , after defeating world No. 1 Mauresmo in the final .
Competing at the season @-@ ending WTA Tour Championships , played in Madrid , for the second time Kuznetsova again failed to advance past the preliminary round @-@ robin stage , winning just one of her three matches . She finished the season as world No. 4 .
= = = 2007 : Continued success , world No. 2 = = =
Kuznetsova began the year by losing in the fourth round of the Australian Open to 16th seed Israeli Shahar Pe 'er . She rebounded to reach her first final of the year in February at the Qatar Total Open in Doha , losing to world No. 1 Henin in two sets . She was seed 1st and made the final of the Tier I Pacific Life Open at Indian Wells , but lost to Hantuchová in straight sets . Reaching the final improved her ranking to third during the week ending 18 March , a career high .
Kuznetsova continued on form during the clay @-@ courts season . At the J & S Cup in Warsaw , she defeated Venus Williams for the first time in her career in the quarterfinals before losing to Alona Bondarenko in the semifinals . She made the final of another Tier I tournament , at the Qatar Telecom German Open in Berlin , after defeating world No. 1 Henin for only the second time in the semifinals . In the final , the 1st seeded Kuznetsova lost to 12th seeded Ana Ivanovic . The following week , Kuznetsova reached the final of the Tier I Internazionali BNL d 'Italia in Rome , losing to 3rd seed Janković . As the third seed at the French Open , Kuznetsova advanced to the quarterfinals without dropping a set but lost there to runner @-@ up Ivanovic . Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals of Wimbledon for the third time in July in which she lost to eventual champion Venus Williams .
In August , the 1st @-@ seeded Kuznetsova won her first title of the year at the Pilot Pen Tennis tournament in New Haven , after three of her opponents retired due to injury or illness , including her finals opponent Ágnes Szávay . At the US Open , Kuznetsova defeated sixth seed Anna Chakvetadze in the semifinals to advance to her third Grand Slam final . She lost to Henin in straight sets . As a result of this run , Kuznetsova reached world No. 2 during the week ending 9 September .
At the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Stuttgart , Germany , Kuznetsova recorded her first career win over Serena Williams before losing in the semifinals to Tatiana Golovin . The following week she was seeded 1st in the Kremlin Cup in Moscow , but lost to Serena Williams in the semifinals . Kuznetsova completed the year by competing at the year @-@ ending Championships in Madrid , but once again failed to progress beyond the preliminary round @-@ robin stage , losing all three matches . She finished the season as world No. 2 and as the highest @-@ ranked Russian player for the first time .
= = = 2008 : Steady ranking = = =
Kuznetsova began the season by reaching the final at the Medibank International in Sydney , losing to world No. 1 Henin in the final set . At the Australian Open , Kuznetsova was seeded second , but fell in the third round to 29th seed Agnieszka Radwańska . After her defeat at the Qatar Open to 15th seeded Sybille Bammer , she fell after 15 weeks to No. 3 on 25 February . Kuznetsova made her second final of the season in Dubai , defeating former world No. 1 Mauresmo in the quarterfinals and world No. 4 Janković in the semifinals . In the final Kuznetsova lost to Elena Dementieva . At the Tier I Pacific Life Open in March , Kuznetsova defeated Radwańska in the quarterfinals before defeating Australian Open champion Sharapova in the semifinals . In the final , Kuznetsova lost to top @-@ seeded Ivanović . This marked her eighth defeat in her nine most recent final appearances . At the Tier I Sony Ericsson Open the next fortnight , Kuznetsova defeated Venus Williams in the quarterfinals but then lost to her sister Serena in the semifinals .
Kuznetsova 's form dipped following the conclusion of the spring hard @-@ court season , as she won just three of five matches on clay leading up to the French Open . She advanced to the semifinals without dropping a set , but then lost to Safina . At Wimbledon , Kuznetsova lost in the fourth round to Agnieszka Radwańska , after leading by a break in the third and final set .
In the summer , she competed at the Beijing Olympics , losing to local favorite Li Na in the first round . Seeded third in the US Open , she fell to Katarina Srebotnik in the third round in three sets . After the latter loss , she dropped out of the top five in the world rankings for the first time in two years . The following week , Kuznetsova made her first final since March at the Tier I Toray Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo , defeating world No. 2 Janković in the quarterfinals before going losing to Safina in the final . The following week , Kuznetsova reached the final at the China Open in Beijing , but lost to Janković . This marked Kuznetsova 's 10th defeat in her last 11 finals .
She mirrored her earlier performance at the season @-@ ending WTA Tour Championships in Doha , Qatar , losing all three of her matches . Kuznetsova finished the year ranked No. 8 , the only woman in the top ten not to have won a title that year .
= = = 2009 : French Open title = = =
At the Australian Open , Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals for the second time in her career , but lost to eventual champion Serena Williams , after being within two points of winning the match in the second set . After that , Kuznetsova did not win another match for nearly two months . She broke her losing streak at the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami , reaching the semifinals , losing to Victoria Azarenka .
At the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Stuttgart , Kuznetsova defeated world No. 3 Dementieva in the semifinals to reach her first final that year . She defeated world No. 1 Safina to win her first singles title since August 2007 . The following week , Kuznetsova also reached the final at the Premier 5 Internazionali BNL d 'Italia in Rome , having defeated No. 4 Janković en route . She lost the championship to Safina . In the quarterfinals of the French Open Kuznetsova defeated Serena Williams in three sets before defeating Samantha Stosur to reach her fourth Grand Slam final . There she defeated top seed Safina to win her second Grand Slam title . At Wimbledon , Kuznetsova fell in the third round to unseeded German Sabine Lisicki .
She pulled out of the LA Women 's Tennis Championships , citing a foot injury . Her next event was the Cincinnati Open , where she fell to Clijsters in the third round . She then played in the Rogers Cup and lost to Samantha Stosur in the second round . She received a wild card entrance to the Pilot Pen Tennis tournament in New Haven , but lost in the quarterfinals to Mauresmo . This became her last tournament as 1st seeded . At the US Open she won in straight set wins over Goerges , Sevastova , and Peer , but lost against Caroline Wozniacki in the fourth round . At the Toray Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo , seeded fifth , she lost to Andrea Petkovic .
A week later , she played at China Open as the sixth seed . She advanced to the final beating Petrova in the semifinal and won against Agnieszka Radwańska in the final . Soon after , she played at the WTA Tour Championships in Doha , Qatar . She entered the Maroon group along with Dementieva , Serena Williams and Venus Williams . She lost both her matches against the Williams sisters . She defeated Dementieva , breaking her 8 – match losing streak at the Championships . Kuznetsova ended the year ranked No. 3 .
= = = 2010 – 2011 : Struggles with form = = =
Kuznetsova began the year at the Medibank International Sydney . She defeated Alisa Kleybanova in the first round before falling to Dominika Cibulková in the second round . Kuznetsova was seeded 3rd for the Australian Open . She advanced to the 4th round , losing to 19th seeded Petrova . Following the tournament , Kuznetsova 's ranking dropped to world No. 4 . Kuznetsova was seeded second for the Dubai Tennis Championships but fell in a third round upset to qualifier and No. 99 ranked Regina Kulikova . At the Billie Jean King Cup exhibition , Kuznetsova lost her match to Williams . For the first as the top seed , due to Serena Williams and Safina 's withdrawal at the BNP Paribas Open , she was upset by Carla Suárez Navarro in the second round after receiving a first round bye . Kuznetsova was seeded , for the sixth and last time to date , first at the Sony Ericsson Open and after receiving a bye in the first round , managed to prevent another upset by defeating Peng Shuai in the second round . She then defeated 27th seed Ágnes Szávay to book a fourth round encounter with Marion Bartoli , losing to the French No. 1 in the quarterfinal .
Kuznetsova was the defending champion at the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Stuttgart , but fell to Li Na in the second round , after defeating Srebotnik . At the Internazionali BNL d 'Italia , where she had reached the final the year before , she lost in the second round to Maria Kirilenko , after receiving a first round bye . As the defending champion at the French Open , Kuznetsova was the 6th seed . She defeated Sorana Cîrstea and Andrea Petkovic in the early rounds . In the third round she lost to 30th seeded Kirilenko . Kuznetsova advanced to the quarterfinals of the Aegon International in Eastbourne , losing to Ekaterina Makarova . Kuznetsova was seeded 19th at the Wimbledon . She defeated Akgul Amanmuradova in the first round , before falling to Anastasia Rodionova in the second round .
Kuznetsova rallied by winning the Mercury Insurance Open in San Diego . She defeated Yanina Wickmayer , Sara Errani , Coco Vandeweghe , and Flavia Pennetta en route to the final which she won in three sets against Agnieszka Radwańska . She then played at the Cincinnati Open suffering an early exit to Sharapova in the first round . At the Rogers Cup , Kuznetsova made it to the semifinals before falling to Caroline Wozniacki in two sets . Kuznetsova was seeded 11th at the US Open . She defeated Kimiko Date @-@ Krumm , Anastasija Sevastova , and 23rd seed Kirilenko before falling in the fourth round to unseeded Cibulková . Kuznetsova was the 10th seed at the Toray Pan Pacific Open , but lost to Petkovic in the second round .
As the defending champion , Kuznetsova exited in the first round of the Premier tournament China Open to Roberta Vinci . She finished the year ranked world No. 27 , her lowest since 2003 .
Kuznetsova 's first tournament of 2011 was the ASB Classic Open in Auckland , New Zealand where she was the third seed . She fell to Peng Shuai in the second round , although initially up a set . She then headed to Sydney for the Medibank International Sydney where she lost in the quarterfinals to eight @-@ seeded Li . Kuznetsova was seeded 23rd at the Australian Open where she lost in the fourth round to Francesca Schiavone , squandering six match points in the final set . The match was the longest recorded women 's Grand Slam match in the Open Era , with a final scoreline of 6 – 4 , 1 – 6 , 16 – 14 , and the second @-@ longest women 's match in the Open Era . Her next tournament was the Dubai Tennis Championships . The 16th seed set up a date in the final with Caroline Wozniacki by beating Flavia Pennetta in the semifinal . Kuznetsova was defeated by the top @-@ seed . In doubles , she teamed up with Vera Zvonareva , but pulled out before the semifinal against Liezel Huber and María José Martínez Sánchez due to a right elbow injury of Zvonareva . She lost in the Qatar Ladies Open tournament against Shahar Pe 'er in the first round . Kuznetsova received a bye in the first round at the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells , but was defeated by wildcard Christina McHale in two tie @-@ breaks in the second round . At the doubles event , Kuznetsova teamed up with Vera Zvonareva . They received a wildcard in the first round , but were defeated by fourth seed King and Shvedova . In the singles tournament of the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami , Kuznetsova was 11th @-@ seeded and lost in the third round to Peng Shuai in straight sets . In the doubles tournament , again with Zvonareva and receiving a wildcard entry , they exited in the second round against María José Martínez Sánchez and Anabel Medina Garrigues .
Kuznetsova was seeded second at the 2011 Andalucia Tennis Experience after receiving a wildcard . She succeeded to move to the semifinal where she lost against qualifier Irina @-@ Camelia Begu . She failed to reach the second round in both the Madrid Open and Internationali BNL d 'Italia , losing to Dominika Cibulková and Gréta Arn respectively . In Madrid she partnered with Zvonareva and received a wildcard . They moved into the second round , but lost against King and Shvedova . Kuznetsova was seeded 13th at the French Open singles event where she lost against Marion Bartoli in the quarterfinal , her first in a Grand Slam tournament since 2009 . At the doubles event she paired with Zvonareva and defeated unseeded Klaudia Jans and Alicja Rosolska from Poland . They lost against third seeds King and Shvedova . She lost against Dominika Cibulková in the quarterfinal of the UNICEF Open . At the Wimbledon singles tournament she defeated Zhang Shuai and Alexandra Dulgheru , but lost against Yanina Wickmayer .
Kuznetsova was the defending champion at the Mercury Insurance Open , but withdrew due to a groin strain . She recovered quickly from the injury and entered the Rogers Cup , but lost to Simona Halep in the first round . As 14th @-@ seed , she made it to the third round of the Western & Southern Open and was beaten by eventual champion Maria Sharapova . Kuznetsova reached the fourth round of the US Open in which she lost to top @-@ seeded Wozniacki .
= = = 2012 : Injuries and out of Top 50 = = =
Kuznetsova began her season at the ASB Classic in Auckland , where she reached the semifinal , losing in three sets to Chinese Zheng Jie . At the Australian Open , she was defeated in the third round of the singles event by German Sabine Lisicki . In contrast , she partnered with Vera Zvonareva as in the previous season and won her second Grand Slam doubles title against the Italian duo Errani and Vinci , defeating them in a three sets final . It was her best doubles result since 2009 . It was the first time since 2008 that an unseeded pair won the Australian Open doubles title .
Kuznetsova was seeded 26th at the 2012 French Open . She upset world No. 3 Agnieszka Radwańska in the third round , but subsequently lost in the fourth round to eventual runner @-@ up Sara Errani .
Kuznetsova then suffered a first round loss at Wimbledon , falling to Yanina Wickmayer in straight sets . It was the first time she lost in the first round of any Grand Slam since the 2005 U.S. Open where she was the defending champion . She withdrew from the 2012 US Open , ending a streak of 40 consecutive Grand Slam appearances dating back to 2002 .
= = = 2013 : Comeback from injury , return to form = = =
Kuznetsova began her comeback at the 2013 Apia International Sydney , where she had to qualify to enter the main draw . In the second round , she upset former world No. 1 Caroline Wozniacki in three sets for her first win in a main draw of any tournament since the previous year 's French Open .
Kuznetsova entered the Australian Open unseeded , but she was able to reach the quarter @-@ finals for the third time , after defeating Wozniacki for the second time this year , in the fourth round . She subsequently lost in the quarter @-@ finals to world No. 1 , defending and eventual champion Victoria Azarenka in two sets . She next played at the Qatar Total Open and defeated ninth seed Marion Bartoli in the second round , before losing in the third to Samantha Stosur .
Kuznetsova then entered Indian Wells as an unseeded player . She matched her 2012 performance by reaching the third round , defeating former champion Jelena Janković in the second round before losing to Marion Bartoli in the third . At Miami , Kuznetsova was again unseeded , but she managed to reach the third round , losing to Ana Ivanovic in straight sets .
At the French Open , Kuznetsova reached her second consecutive Grand Slam quarter @-@ final , where she lost to world No. 1 and eventual champion Serena Williams in three sets . The second set which Kuznetsova won was the only one dropped by Williams during the tournament . She had defeated 22nd @-@ seed and compatriot Ekaterina Makarova and German sixth seed Angelique Kerber en route .
= = = 2014 : Steady ranking , first WTA title since 2010 = = =
Kuznetsova began the year with a loss to Varvara Lepchenko in the first round at Sydney . At the first round of PTT Pattaya Open , Kuznetsova defeated Zhang Shuai to record her 500th career victory . This immediately followed a first round loss to Elina Svitolina at the Australian Open . Kuznetsova lost to Petra Kvitová in three sets in the third round at the 2014 BNP Paribas Open . At the Sony Open Tennis , Kuznetsova was upset in her first match by 17 @-@ year @-@ old Croat Donna Vekić in straight sets after receiving a first round bye .
Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals at the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Stuttgart , where she was defeated by eventual finalist Ivanović . In the following competition , the 7th @-@ seed Russian was finalist at the Portugal Open , losing to Carla Suárez Navarro in tough three sets . This was her first single final in more than three years .
In Roland Garros , Kuznetsova repeated her success in the previous year , climbing to the quarterfinals , before that defeating 5th @-@ seed and Wimbledon champion Petra Kvitová in the third round . The injured Kuznetsova was helpless against finalist Simona Halep , who defeated her in straight sets .
Kuznetsova was upset in the first round of the 2014 Wimbledon Championships by Portugal 's Michelle Larcher de Brito in three sets .
Winning her first WTA title in almost four years , Kuznetsova outlasted Kurumi Nara to claim the 2014 Citi Open . Seeded sixth in the tournament , the Russian broke unseeded Nara in the final game to win her fourteenth career title .
= = = 2015 : First Premier Mandatory final since Beijing 2009 = = =
Kuznetsova failed to win a match in Auckland and Sydney , losing to qualifier Lucie Hradecká and Madison Keys in the first rounds respectively . She lost her opening match again at Melbourne , losing to Caroline Garcia .
Kuznetsova scored her first win of the year at the Fed Cup , where she defeated world No. 8 Agnieszka Radwańska . However , Kuznetsova 's hard court season was disappointing , with her biggest win against 15th @-@ ranked Angelique Kerber in Miami .
She started the clay season at the International tournament Prague Open , where she lost to 98th @-@ ranked Shuai Zhang , but renewed herself at the Madrid Open , where she reached her 35th final . Kuznetsova had wins over Ekaterina Makarova , Garbiñe Muguruza , Sam Stosur and Lucie Šafářová , and then defeated Maria Sharapova in two sets . She lost to Petra Kvitová in the final in straight sets . Kuznetsova reached the 2nd round of Roland Garros , losing there to long @-@ time rival Francesca Schiavone in three tricky sets , 6 – 7 ( 9 – 11 ) , 7 – 5 , 10 – 8 . It was the third @-@ longest women 's match in the history of the French Open , lasting 3 hours and 50 minutes . This loss resulted to her exit from the top 20 , losing ten ranking positions .
Kuznetsova played a steady grass season , with a Win – Loss of 6 – 3 , the second @-@ best result judged by wins in her career on grass . She reached the second round of Wimbledon for the first time since 2011 . Kuznetsova withdrew from most of the North America tournaments , including the Rogers Cup and Cincinnati , due to a left leg injury . At the US Open , she lost in the first round to Kristina Mladenovic . Kuznetsova renewed herself in Guangzhou , reaching the quarterfinals . She eventually received her first trophy this season at the Kremlin Cup with a straight sets victory over Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova in the final , becoming the 15th title in her career .
= = = 2016 : Miami Open final , Return to the Top 10 = = =
Svetlana repeated her season start . In Auckland she reached the second round where she was knocked out by Tamira Paszek . She then triumphed in Sydney , defeating top @-@ seeded Halep in the semifinals in three tight sets , and qualifier Mónica Puig from Puerto Rico in the finals in two sets .
At the Australian Open , seeded No. 23 , she reached the second round , where she lost surprisingly to returning Kateryna Bondarenko from Ukraine .
Seeded 8th at the Dubai Tennis Championships , Kuznetsova suffered a shocking demolition by Julia Görges in the first round . Kuznetsova then traveled to Doha for the Qatar Total Open . She was seeded 12th and was drawn to face Julia Görges in the first round for consecutive tournaments . However , this time Svetlana won in straight sets but lost out to Jeļena Ostapenko in the second round .
At the BNP Paribas Open , Svetlana was seeded 16th and received a bye into the second round . However , she suffered a loss to Coco Vandeweghe . Kuznetsova then reached her 2nd Miami Open final of her career . There she beat Carina Witthöft , Caroline Garcia , Serena Williams , Ekaterina Makarova and Timea Bacsinszky , all , except Bacsinszky , in three tight sets . The last time Kuznetsova defeated a World No. 1 player was at the 2009 Roland Garros final . She also stopped the American 's 20 @-@ match winning streak . However , Kuznetsova missed her chance to return to the Top 10 for the first time since 2009 when she lost to Victoria Azarenka in the final .
Kuznetsova reached the quarterfinals of the Italian Open , where she suffered a clear loss by Serena Williams . As a result , she jumped four ranking positions , to No.15. On 15 April , Kuznetsova replaced Sharapova from the top position among Russian players , the first time since 2011 .
The Russian reached the fourth round in singles at the 2016 French Open , losing to eventual champion Garbiñe Muguruza . In doubles , she partnered with Margarita Gasparyan to reach the semifinals . This became her best Grand Slam doubles result since 2012 Australian Open , and her best French Open doubles result since 2004 .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = Kuznetsova vs. Henin = = =
Belgian tennis legend Justine Henin was one of Kuznetsova 's leading rivals during the middle portion of her career . Of the 19 matches that they played , Kuznetsova earned three victories , including their final one . Henin won their first meeting in the 2003 Wimbledon Quarterfinal when Kuznetsova , just 17 , lost in straight sets . Kuznetsova earned her first win over the Belgian at the semifinals of the 2004 Total Qatar Open , where she went on to lose in the final to Anastasia Myskina . This result projected the Russian into the world 's top 20 players for the first time . Arguably their finest match followed in the fourth round of the 2005 French Open , where Henin saved two match points en route to a three set victory . Henin went on to win the tournament that and the following two years , beating Kuznetsova in the 2006 final . Henin additionally defeated Kuznetsova in the finals of the 2007 US Open grand slam tournament in straight sets . Kuznetsova beat Henin for the second time in the finals of the 2007 Qatar Telecom German Open tournament in Berlin in three sets , becoming the second @-@ to @-@ last person to do so in 2007 . The Belgian went on a seven @-@ month , 32 @-@ match winning streak after Wimbledon , having lifted the French Open directly beforehand . Henin unexpectedly retired in 2008 , but returned to the tour briefly in 2010 , only to suffer an elbow tear at Wimbledon . Justine Henin made one final comeback following her injury at the 2011 Australian Open , where Kuznetsova defeated her in a dramatic match in the third round . Due to the recurring nature of her elbow injury , Henin retired immediately following her match with Kuznetsova , making the Russian the final person to play against and defeat her .
= = = Kuznetsova vs. Radwańska = = =
Kuznetsova and Agnieszka Radwańska have played each other fifteen times since 2007 , with Kuznetsova leading the head @-@ to @-@ head 11 – 4 . Their first meeting was at Wimbledon in 2007 with Kuznetsova winning in straight sets . Kuznetsova won their first three meetings , but in the four meetings that eventuated in 2008 , Kuznetsova lost three of them , including in the third round of the Australian Open and in the fourth round of Wimbledon . Additionally , she also lost against her at the year @-@ end championships later in the year , after Radwańska replaced an injured Ana Ivanovic . Kuznetsova subsequently dominated Radwańska in future meetings , winning the last six meetings between the pair , the most recent being an upset victory at the 2012 French Open , until Radwańska stopped the rot at the 2014 Mutua Madrid Open , saving a match point in the process . Prior to 2014 , Kuznetsova 's two most recent titles came by defeating Radwańska in the championship match , first at Beijing in 2009 and then at San Diego in 2010 . In 2015 , Kuznetsova defeated Radwańska again in the opening match of Fed Cup tie between Russia and Poland .
= = = Kuznetsova vs. Ivanovic = = =
Kuznetsova and Ana Ivanovic have played each other fourteen times since 2005 , with Ivanovic leading the head @-@ to @-@ head 11 – 3 . Ivanovic dominated their meetings on a regular basis ; she won the pair 's first encounter at the 2005 Miami tournament in what was the Serb 's first ever appearance in the main draw of a Tier I tournament in which she was not required to qualify . Kuznetsova , however , won their meeting in Sydney in 2006 ; it was the Russian 's only victory against Ivanovic outside of the Fed Cup . They have met in two finals , both going Ivanovic 's way : first in Berlin in 2007 and at Indian Wells in 2008 , the latter of which they played as the top two seeds . Additionally , at the 2007 WTA Tour Championships , Kuznetsova lost to Ivanovic in three sets on the Serb 's 20th birthday . Kuznetsova has only beaten Ivanovic twice since 2006 , both in Fed Cup matches ( 2010 and 2012 ) . Their most recent meeting was in the third round of the 2015 China Open with Kuznetsova losing in three sets .
= = Fed Cup participation = =
Kuznetsova joined team Russia in 2004 in the doubles and singles competition . Her teammates were Myskina and Zvonareva in singles and Likhovtseva in doubles . They competed against Australia in the first round in the Luzhniki Stadium in an indoor carpet court . Kuznetsova defeated Molik and Molik / Rennae Stubbs . The end result was 4 – 1 for Russia ; Myskina lost to Molik . In the quarterfinal they faced Argentina in Buenos Aires . Kuznetsova lost to Gisela Dulko . In the doubles she defeated Dulko and partner Patricia Tarabini . The final score was the same as in the first round , 4 – 1 . In the semifinal they faced Austria . Again in Moscow , Kuznetsova defeated Yvonne Meusburger , Daniela Kix and Meusburger and Patricia Wartusch all in straight sets . The final score was a straight 5 – 0 . In the final they faced France only three days after the semifinal . Kuznetsova beat Dechy , but lost to Tatiana Golovin . Russia won the final 3 – 2 for its first Fed Cup victory .
Kuznetsova did not participate in the next two years . She rejoined in 2007 and defeated Spain 's Lourdes Domínguez Lino and Anabel Medina Garrigues in the quarterfinal . She was elected in the final that year . There , she won against Mara Santangelo and Schiavone from Italy . Russia again won that year 's Cup .
The next year she again participated . Playing against the United States she defeated 282nd @-@ ranked Ahsha Rolle in the semifinal . In contrast , Kuznetsova lost the doubles competition with partner Elena Vesnina , beaten by Liezel Huber and Vania King . In the end , Russia defeated the US 3 – 2 . In the final , Russia defeated Spain as it had the prior year . Kuznetsova won against Carla Suárez Navarro and Garrigues . Team Russia won the 2008 Fed Cup with 4 – 0 .
In 2009 Kuznetsova joined the group again . She played against China in the quarterfinal and won in the singles over opponent Yan Zi , and in the doubles , together with Dementieva , over Sun Tiantian and Yan Zi , after losing the first set . Russia won against China in a straight 5 – 0 final scoreline . Russia lost to Italy in the semifinal . Kuznetsova was the only winner , defeating Pennetta .
At the 2010 Fed Cup , Russia defeated Serbia in the quarterfinal 3 – 2 . There , Kuznetsova won two of three matches , beating Ivanović , and Ivanović and Janković in doubles , with partner Kleybanova . She lost to Janković .
Kuznetsova joined the Russian team in 2011 . In the first round they faced France on 5 and 6 February . In the first round , Kuznetsova was defeated by Alizé Cornet , but defeated Virginie Razzano a day later . She teamed up with Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova and defeated Cornet / Julie Coin in the doubles . Russia became just the fourth nation to come back from 0 – 2 down in a Fed Cup tie since the best @-@ of @-@ five @-@ match format was introduced to the World Group in 1995 . Russia defeated Italy in the semifinal in 5 – 0 . There , Svetlana Kuznetsova defeated Roberta Vinci . Russia succeeded , the first time since 2008 , in a final in the Fed Cup . Russia , however , lost against Czech Republic in 3 – 2 .
The first round of the 2012 Fed Cup saw three wins in the single competition , two of which were made by Kuznetsova , the first against Silvia Soler Espinosa , the second against Carla Suárez Navarro . The pair Kuznetsova / Petrova retired in their last match due to Kuznetsova 's fatigue , but Russia still won in 3 – 2 . Team Russia lost against the Serbian team in the semifinal , 2 – 3 . Although winning the first match against Ana Ivanovic in three sets , Kuznetsova was later defeated by Jelena Janković in two straight sets .
After a two @-@ years break in the Fed Cup , Kuznetsova participated at the 2015 Fed Cup , where team Russia played against Poland in the Round Robin . With her win over Agnieszka Radwańska in three sets , Kuznetsova beat a top @-@ 10 player in the Fed Cup for the first time . In the semifinals against Germany she played two rubbers , one was won against Julia Görges , another against Andrea Petkovic . With her win over Görges , Kuznetsova became the second @-@ best Russian Fed Cup player by total wins , with 27 won rubbers ; the absolute leader is Larisa Savchenko , with 40 won rubbers . Kuznetsova was not called in the final .
Kuznetsova at the 2016 Fed Cup lost in four hours against Richèl Hogenkamp in the first day , becoming the longest Fed Cup singles match in the history .
= = Coaches = =
Kuznetsova received training at the Sanchez @-@ Casal Academy in Barcelona , Spain from the age of 14 and was coached under direction of club president Emilio Sánchez and Sergio Casal . Her major coaching relationship was with Stefan Ortega who was a regular guest in her player 's box and helped advance her game .
After a series of poor finals ' results Kuznetsova ended her relationship with the Sanchez @-@ Casal academy in 2009 and moved to Moscow on the advice of Roger Federer to start training with experienced Russian coach Olga Morozova . They ended their relationship after the BNP Paribas Open in March 2009 , after which Kuznetsova was without a coach . As of May 2009 her coach was former Russian tennis player and Fed Cup coach Larisa Neiland . She was coached for a short period by Loïc Courteau after trying unsuccessfully to convince Mauresmo to coach her . Her next coach was for a short time the former Spanish tennis player Carlos Cuadrado , until he was replaced with her former coach Neiland . After the loss in the Italian Open , Kuznetsova has switched to Morozova , then to Amos Mansdorf and finally in May 2012 to Argentine Hernán Gumy , former coach of Marat Safin . She said in an interview , that she likes working with him and understands with him well . With his help she won three matches in straight sets at the 2012 French Open , including claiming the scalp of then @-@ world No. 3 Agnieszka Radwańska .
After a poor late 2012 season , Kuznetsova has switched between Gumy and Carlos Martínez ; sometimes both serve as coaches .
= = Playing style = =
Svetlana Kuznetsova plays right @-@ handed and has a two @-@ handed backhand . She is an all @-@ round player . She has been described as technically the most complete player on tour . She is noted for her great speed on court and her strong forehand with much topspin . She is capable of producing effective volley winners providing an agile touch . According to Richard Pagliaro of ESPN , " Kuznetsova can alter the spin , speed and height of her shots and owns the variety that plays well on clay " but since her recent failures , " consistency has eluded her , and she 's prone to flakiness and frustration under pressure . " Jeff Cooper of about.com meant her greatest strengths were the " outstandingly powerful and accurate forehand . Strong topspin on forehand and backhand . Solid serve . Great speed " and outlined her basic style as " power baseliner " with " no major weakness " . She is known for her unpredictability and inconsistency .
= = Endorsements and popular culture = =
Kuznetsova extended her long standing endorsement agreements with the sport brand Fila on 13 January 2012 . She debuted with the new apparel at the 2012 Australian Open alongside fellow Fila player Kim Clijsters . According to chairman Gene Yoon , " Both players are longtime members of the Fila family and have played an important role in Fila 's rich history in tennis . "
However that contract was not extended beyond 2012 and subsequently , shortly before the start of the 2013 Australian Open , Kuznetsova signed a new apparel endorsement deal with Chinese sports apparel brand Qiaodan .
Svetlana Kuznetsova appeared in video games Top Spin 3 , Virtua Tennis 2009 and Virtua Tennis 4 as a playable character .
= = Career statistics = =
Current through 2016 Wimbledon Championships
= = = Grand Slam finals = = =
= = = = Singles : 4 ( 2 – 2 ) = = = =
= = = = Doubles : 7 ( 2 – 5 ) = = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
2002
WTA Awards – Most Impressive Newcomer ( won )
2005
Laureus World Newcomer of the Year ( nominated )
Best Female Tennis Player ESPY Award ( nominated )
2006
WTA Awards – Diamond Aces ( won )
2009
Order of Merit for the Fatherland , 2nd class
Best Female Tennis Player ESPY Award ( nominated )
= = Records = =
These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis .
= Do @-@ Over =
" Do @-@ Over " is the first episode of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the thirty @-@ seventh episode overall . It was written by the series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress , Tina Fey and directed by series producer Don Scardino . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on October 30 , 2008 . Guest stars in this episode include Will Arnett , Marceline Hugot , and Megan Mullally .
Liz Lemon ( played by Fey ) is being evaluated by Bev ( Mullally ) as a part of the adoption process while Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) returns from his job in Washington D.C. and tries to retake his position from Devon Banks ( Arnett ) at General Electric . Meanwhile , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) grows angry with Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) for not compensating her for voice acting work on his successful adult video game .
" Do @-@ Over " has received generally positive reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million households during its original broadcast , becoming 30 Rock 's highest @-@ rated episode , until the December 2008 episode " Christmas Special " . " Do @-@ Over " was nominated for an Art Directors Guild Production Design Award for " Single @-@ Camera Television Series " .
= = Plot = =
As Liz Lemon is returning to studio 6H , the TGS with Tracy Jordan studio , she meets Jack Donaghy returning from Washington . Jack tells her that he intends to get his old job back and Liz tells him of her upcoming adoption evaluation . When he confronts Devon Banks in his office , Devon offers Jack a position in the mail room , laughing , but Jack accepts . Jack later tells Liz of his plan to work his way back to his old job through honest means , though Kathy Geiss ( Marceline Hugot ) shows a sexual interest in Jack he could leverage into a quicker promotion . When he discovers that Devon is planning to shut down GE , Jack , with Liz 's help , convinces Kathy to hire him as her business adviser . Devon , realizing that he has been beaten , decides on a new path to securing his financial future : hurling himself in front of a series of moving cars so that he can sue the drivers .
Tracy Jordan 's pornographic video game , Gorgasm : The Legend of Dong Slayer , has been very successfully released since it was developed in the previous episode " Cooter " . He shows off a large royalty check and Jenna Maroney grows angry that she has not been compensated for her voice acting work in the game . Liz convinces him to make it up to her , and everyone else who helped him with the video game , by buying them presents . However , while everyone else receives extravagant gifts such as Frank getting gold @-@ plated nunchucks and Pete getting a chinchilla fur coat , Jenna only gets a coupon for free hugs and decides to sue Tracy .
Following a home evaluation , Bev from the adoption agency comes to work with Liz where she checks the safety of the studio and interviews the TGS cast and crew including Jenna , Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , and Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) . The workplace evaluation goes badly , with many of the interviews reflecting badly on Liz or the safety of the studio for a child . However , before Bev files her report she sustains a head injury and forgets that she has done the evaluation . Liz gets the crew to help her " do over " the evaluation , hoping for a better result .
= = Production = =
" Do @-@ Over " was written by series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey , making it her thirteenth writing credit . The episode was directed by series producer Don Scardino , making it his fourteenth for the series . " Do @-@ Over " originally aired in the United States on October 30 , 2008 , on NBC as the season premiere episode of the show 's third season and the 37th overall episode of the series .
In September 2008 , it was announced that actress Megan Mullally would guest star on 30 Rock . In this episode of 30 Rock , Mullally played Bev , a woman evaluating Liz Lemon as part of the adoption process . Actress Marceline Hugot made her fifth appearance as the character Kathy Geiss , the daughter of Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) , in the series . Comedy actor Will Arnett reprised his role as Devon Banks for the fourth time .
Four filmed scenes from " Do @-@ Over " were cut out from the airing . Instead , the scenes were featured on 30 Rock 's season three DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature . In the first scene , Jack Donaghy plans to seduce Kathy so that he can get his old job back . The next scene , after Jack tells Liz he plans on reclaiming his former job back , Liz asks him how he will be able to get inside the 30 Rock building , as he does not have his employee ID card . Jack tells her you can do anything if you walk with confidence , which he does , and is permitted inside . Liz tries to do the same , but the guard asks her for ID , which she shows . In the third scene , Liz and Bev talk to NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) . Kenneth is fascinated with the adoption process , and says that his own mother worked two jobs as an animal control person for the state and selling meats door @-@ to @-@ door . The final scene , Liz introduces Bev to Tracy in the " do over " .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Do @-@ Over " was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million households in its original American broadcast , and became the highest @-@ rated episode of the series , until the December 11 , 2008 , episode of 30 Rock " Christmas Special " . It earned a 4 @.@ 1 rating / 10 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . " Do @-@ Over " was nominated for an Art Directors Guild Production Design Award for " Single @-@ Camera Television Series " .
IGN contributor Robert Canning reviewed the episode , saying it " [ set ] the bar for the rest of the season " and was " filled to capacity with comedy . " Jeremy Medina of Paste magazine commented that " Do @-@ Over " was " sort of like the first day of school after summer vacation : sort of awkward at times , but fast and buoyant and warmly familiar all the same . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad wrote " ... this episode manages to do what the show has always done , mix crazy , almost surreal humor with a genuine ( not manufactured ) heart . " TV Guide contributor Matt Mitovich enjoyed " Do @-@ Over " , and enjoyed Jack 's story of trying to reclaim his job , along with Jack and Liz pretending to be a couple in front of Kathy . The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin opined that premiere episodes " tend to be 30 Rock 's Achilles Heel . But the show comes roaring out of the gate with ' Do @-@ Over ' , a show that definitively breaks the premiere jinx . " He said that the " frenetic farcical plotting " of Megan Mullally 's character — in which she endured a disastrous trip to the 30 Rock studios , bumped her head , and lost her memory — " felt a little sitcommy but the laughs kept coming " . In conclusion , Rabin gave this episode an A- grade rating .
Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger felt that the element 's towards Jack getting his old job back were " fairly labored " , but noted that Liz 's adoption plot was " more solid from start to finish " . He was complimentary towards the Kathy Geiss character , observing that her actions in the episode were " all frighteningly funny " , and enjoyed Mullally 's guest spot . In conclusion , Sepinwall said that this was not the best from the 30 Rock staff , but " they had some things they felt obligated to deal with , and there was more than enough comedy genius that I can 't really complain . "
= Rosalie Slaughter Morton =
Rosalie Slaughter Morton , M.D. ( October 28 , 1876 – May 5 , 1968 ) , born Rosalie Slaughter , was an American physician and surgeon . Besides running her own medical practices , she co @-@ founded the American Women 's Hospitals Service , worked as a medic during the First World War , and was the first chairperson of the Public Health Education Committee . Morton was one of the first female members of faculty at the Polyclinic Hospital of New York , and the first at the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University .
Born in Lynchburg , Virginia , Morton studied at the Woman 's Medical College of Pennsylvania despite her family 's expectation that she would only aim to find a husband who could provide for her . She went on to further study and research across Europe and Asia before returning to the United States to open her own medical practices .
Morton received a number of awards during her career , including the Joan of Arc medal , and a park in Belgrade is named in her honor . In 1937 she published an autobiography - A Woman Surgeon : The Life and Work of Rosalie Slaughter Morton - to positive reception , and in 1940 released a second book titled A Doctor 's Holiday in Iran .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Rosalie Slaughter was born in 1876 in Lynchburg , Virginia to Mary Harker and John Favel Slaughter . She had five brothers and one sister ( three other siblings died in childhood ) , and was educated in Lynchburg before travelling to a finishing school in Baltimore . From here she chose to follow in the steps of her grandfather and two older brothers by becoming a doctor , joining the Woman 's Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1893 . In her autobiography Morton remarked that her upbringing and education had " been designed ... to make me a capable wife — not to imbue me with a desire for a career , " noting that her father had left her no money – expecting her to find a husband who could provide for her – and that many in her family did not want her to pursue a career in medicine .
= = = Later life = = =
Slaughter married George B. Morton Jr . , an attorney who had previously studied medicine , in 1905 at St. Paul 's Church , Lynchburg . In 1910 it was reported that she was filing for divorce , and he died in 1912 of an aneurism . In the early 1930s Morton suffered a bout of pneumonia , prompting her to move to Winter Park , Florida , where she died in 1968 .
= = Career = =
After graduating from college in Pennsylvania with two of the three honors available to her , Morton was appointed as resident physician at the Alumnae Hospital and Dispensary , where she worked until 1899 . She then began further studies in Europe , travelling to Berlin , Vienna , Paris , and London . During this time Morton took courses , observed surgeries , and wrote a number of scientific papers including several comparing the health of women and men . Following the advice of her instructor in London , Victor Horsley , she then travelled to the British Government Laboratory in Mumbai for six months to work on prophylactics against the bubonic plague as well as a period in Sri Lanka .
Having finished her studies , Morton returned to the United States in 1902 and opened a medical practice specialising in gynecology in Washington D.C. After marrying George Morton Jr . , she opened a new medical practice in New York , where he was an attorney . In 1909 the American Medical Association created a Public Health Education Committee with the aim of educating the public on subjects including health , hygiene , child care , and other medical topics ; they made Morton its first chairperson . Morton was appointed as a clinical assistant and instructor at the Polyclinic Hospital of New York ( where she was one of the first female faculty members ) , and later became a professor of gynecology . During this time she lectured at a number of other universities including a summer at the University of Vermont .
After the breakout of the First World War , Morton travelled to Labrador to work in the Mission Hospitals there , before being made a special commissioner of the Red Cross to take supplies from Paris to the Macedonian Front and work at the field hospitals in Macedonia . After returning to New York Morton , alongside Mary M. Crawford , led the American Women 's Hospitals Service from 1917 after it was founded by the Medical Women 's National Association with the aim of establishing American hospitals in Europe . After her request to send one thousand medical women who had volunteered for foreign service was opposed by the General Medical Board in Washington , she raised over $ 300 @,@ 000 in 10 days through a national fundraising drive to send them . At the recommendation of William C. Gorgas , Morton was made chairman of the committee of women physicians on the United States Council of National Defense , where she represented over 7000 female doctors .
Morton continued running her New York practice while attempting to aid young people in Yugoslavia and Serbia who had been disrupted during the war into education . In March 1919 she established the international Serbian Committee , through which she facilitated the placing of dozens of young Serbian people in American places of education .
After moving to Florida in the early 1930s Morton established a small clinical practice where she carried out research into arthritis and endocrinology .
= = = Awards = = =
By 1937 Morton had been awarded 9 decorations by home and foreign Governments . During her career Morton 's awards included the Cross of Czar Nicholas II , the Joan of Arc medal , and the Conspicuous Service Cross , and in 1934 she was presented a special award by the American Medical Association for her work establishing the American Women 's Hospitals . A tree was planted in Central Park in her honor , commemorating her " distinguished patriotic service " , and both a street and park in Belgrade are named after her .
= = Books = =
Morton wrote an autobiography titled A Woman Surgeon : The Life and Work of Rosalie Slaughter Morton which was published in 1937 by Frederick A. Stokes . The book was reviewed well , with praise given to both the writing and the breadth of experiences chronicled in it .
Writing for The Pittsburgh Press , Harry Hansen described Morton 's autobiography as an " excellent book on a woman 's accomplishments " commending both the descriptions of medical topics as well as political ones . In The Brooklyn Daily Eagle , George Currie wrote that " at no time is her book boring " , calling it an important book for documenting the contributions of " a woman crusader " . The Salt Lake Tribune described the book as " informative , thrilling and colorful " , and The Sydney Morning Herald called it " particularly interesting " . In their review , the Indiana Gazette rated the book as one of the best medical autobiographies of recent times .
After finishing her autobiography , Morton travelled to Iran , and in 1940 published a book on the country and her time there titled A Doctor 's Holiday in Iran .
= Daymond Langkow =
Daymond Randolph Langkow ( born September 27 , 1976 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre He was the fifth overall selection of the Tampa Bay Lightning at the 1995 NHL Entry Draft . He played junior hockey with the Tri @-@ City Americans in the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) and is their franchise record holder for career goals at 159 . He won the Bob Clarke Trophy in 1995 as the WHL scoring leader with 140 points , and competed with the Canadian junior team at the 1996 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships where he won a gold medal .
Langkow made his NHL debut in 1995 with the Lightning , and also played for the Philadelphia Flyers , Phoenix Coyotes and Calgary Flames . He has scored 30 goals twice in his career , both with the Flames , and scored more than 50 points in eight consecutive seasons between 1999 and 2008 . He was a nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy in 1997 and has played over 1 @,@ 000 games in the NHL . His older brother , Scott , was also a professional hockey player .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Langkow was selected by the Tri @-@ City Americans in the second round of the 1991 Western Hockey League ( WHL ) Bantam Draft . He completed the 1991 – 92 season with the Edmonton Pats of the Alberta Midget Hockey League , scoring 81 points in 35 games while appearing in one game with the Americans as a 15 @-@ year @-@ old . He joined Tri @-@ City full @-@ time in 1992 – 93 , scoring 22 goals and 64 points in 64 games and improved to 40 goals and 83 points in 1993 – 94 . Langkow averaged nearly two points per game in 1994 – 95 , scoring 140 points in 72 games . He was named the recipient of the Bob Clarke Trophy as the top scorer in the WHL , and was named to the WHL West and Canadian Hockey League First All @-@ Star Teams . He finished as the runner @-@ up to Marty Murray for the Four Broncos Memorial Trophy as the WHL 's most valuable player .
The Tampa Bay Lightning selected Langkow fifth overall in the 1995 NHL Entry Draft . On the eve of the 1995 – 96 season , the Lightning signed him to a three @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 4 million contract . He made his National Hockey League ( NHL ) debut on October 7 , 1995 against the Calgary Flames . Langkow appeared in four games with the Lightning before he was returned to Tri @-@ City . He scored 91 points in 48 games with the Americans and was named to the WHL 's West Second All @-@ Star Team . As of 2012 , he remains the Americans ' franchise record holder for most career goals with 159 . Langkow represented Canada at the 1996 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships where he won a gold medal .
= = = Tampa , Philadelphia and Phoenix = = =
Langkow rejoined the Lightning for the 1996 – 97 NHL season and scored 15 goals and 28 points in his rookie season . He scored his first NHL goal on November 19 , 1996 against the Los Angeles Kings , and was named the NHL 's rookie of the month for February 1997 . He fell to 22 points in 1997 – 98 and ended the season in a dispute with the Lightning when he refused a demotion to the Adirondack Red Wings of the American Hockey League . The Lightning suspended him indefinitely , but told the media they were not interested in trading him . He missed seven games and lost $ 63 @,@ 000 in salary before the Lightning relented and recalled him to finish the season in Tampa . Langkow was assigned to the Cleveland Lumberjacks of the International Hockey League to begin the 1998 – 99 season amidst trade rumours but was recalled after four games . He was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers along with Mikael Renberg on December 12 , 1998 in exchange for Chris Gratton and Mike Sillinger .
While he was considered a throw @-@ in for the Flyers who made the trade to re @-@ acquire Renberg , Langkow flourished in Philadelphia . He finished the season with 14 goals combined between Tampa and Philadelphia , and his development as a playmaking centre earned him the Pelle Lindbergh Memorial from his teammates as the Flyers ' most improved player . They re @-@ signed Langkow to a two @-@ year contract extension following the season . He set new personal highs in goals and assists in 1999 – 2000 , finishing with 50 points and helping the Flyers reach the Eastern Conference Final in the 2000 Stanley Cup Playoffs . Despite missing 11 @-@ games with two broken feet , Langkow improved to 54 points in the 2000 – 01 season .
The acquisition of Jeremy Roenick and Jiri Dopita by the Flyers in the summer of 2001 left Langkow , a restricted free agent , as the odd man out in Philadelphia . He was dealt to the Phoenix Coyotes in exchange for a second round draft pick in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft ( Dan Sprang ) and a first round pick in 2003 ( Jeff Carter ) . Unable to agree on a contract , Langkow and the Coyotes went to arbitration where he was awarded a two @-@ year contract worth $ 4 @.@ 2 million . He made an immediate impact with Phoenix , scoring his first career hat trick in a 5 – 2 victory over the Washington Capitals in the Coyotes ' home opener . He finished the 2001 – 02 season as the team leader with 62 points . He fell back to 52 points in 2002 – 03 , but scored his 100th career goal in his 500th career game on December 30 , 2002 , a 4 – 3 overtime victory against the Edmonton Oilers . He finished second in team scoring with 52 points , and served as an alternate captain for the Coyotes during the 2003 – 04 season .
= = = Calgary = = =
The Coyotes signed Langkow to a one @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 95 million contract in August 2004 , but dealt him to the Calgary Flames less than two weeks later for Oleg Saprykin and Denis Gauthier . The season , and the contract , were wiped out by the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout ; Langkow did not play anywhere during the lost season . The Flames signed Langkow to a new contract prior to the 2005 – 06 season amidst high expectations as he was placed on the top line with Jarome Iginla . He finished the season second on the Flames in both goals ( 25 ) and points ( 59 ) and recorded his sixth consecutive season with 50 + points .
Langkow emerged as a top scorer for the Flames in 2006 – 07 , becoming the team 's offensive leader while Iginla was sidelined for several weeks by a mid @-@ season knee injury . He reached the 30 @-@ goal mark ( 33 ) for the first time in his career , finished with a career high 77 points and was the Flames nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and sportsmanship . His teammates and coaches also praised his defensive ability , suggesting that he deserved a nomination for the Frank J. Selke Trophy as the NHL 's top defensive forward . Langkow remained a top two @-@ way forward for the Flames in 2007 – 08 , recording his second consecutive 30 @-@ goal season and finishing third on the team with 65 points . The Flames re @-@ signed him to a four @-@ year , $ 18 @-@ million contract extension though the 2011 – 12 NHL season .
Langkow scored only 49 points in 2008 – 09 and missed ten games as result of a hand injury . It was the first time in nine seasons that he failed to reach the 50 @-@ point mark . He suffered another hand injury in the 2009 Stanley Cup Playoffs , though he still played all six games against the Chicago Blackhawks . He played his 1,000th game , against the Lightning , on February 6 , 2010 , one night after teammate Jarome Iginla reached the same mark . His offensive numbers continued to decline , as he finished the year with 14 goals and 37 points , his lowest totals in a decade .
He missed the final ten games of the season after he was struck in the back of the neck by a slapshot during a game in Minnesota . The injury resulted in spinal cord damage that kept Langkow out of the lineup for the first 78 games of the 2010 – 11 NHL season . His efforts to return to the Flames lineup suffered a setback in late October , after which a Flames official stated it was a " 50 / 50 proposition " on whether he would ever play another NHL game .
Following several months of rehabilitation , Langkow was cleared for light skating by a neck specialist , allowing him to begin practicing with his Flames teammates at the end of February 2011 , though he was still considered 2 – 3 months away from being able to continue his career . He joined the Flames for full practices a couple weeks later , and by mid March – nearly one year to the day of his injury – Langkow expressed hope that he would be able to return to action prior to the end of the season . That hope became reality late in the year as he was activated off injured reserve by the Flames , who announced he would return to the lineup for an April 1 game against the St. Louis Blues , 376 days and 88 games after he suffered the injury .
For his efforts at coming back from injury , Langkow was a finalist for the 2011 Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy that was ultimately won by Ian Laperriere .
= = = Phoenix = = =
The Phoenix Coyotes re @-@ acquired Langkow on August 29 , 2011 , in exchange for forward Lee Stempniak During the 2011 – 12 season , Langkow missed seven games in November after his mother died suddenly at the age of 54 . On July July 7 , 2013 , Langkow announced his retirement .
= = Personal = =
Langkow is the second child of Randy and Vivian Langkow and grew up in Vegreville , Alberta . His parents divorced when he was ten years old . His father is a plumber in Edmonton , while his mother managed a restaurant in British Columbia prior to her November 2011 death .
Langkow and his wife Stephanie have four children , and expressed a desire to put down roots in the city of Calgary as a reason for his decision to sign a long @-@ term contract extension with the Flames in 2008 rather than test free agency .
Langkow 's older brother , Scott was a goaltender who played 20 NHL games for the Winnipeg Jets , Phoenix Coyotes and Atlanta Thrashers .
He also has a younger cousin , Chris Langkow , who is a former ECHL All @-@ Star and a Kelly Cup champion with the Alaska Aces , whom he frequently mentors and often gives advice .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Collared brown lemur =
The collared brown lemur ( Eulemur collaris ) , also known as the red @-@ collared brown lemur or red @-@ collared lemur , is a medium @-@ sized strepsirrhine primate and one of twelve species of brown lemur in the family Lemuridae . It is only found in south @-@ eastern Madagascar . Like most species of lemur , it is arboreal , moving quadrupedally and occasionally leaping from tree to tree . Like other brown lemurs , it lives in social groups , primarily eats fruit , is active both day and night , exhibits sexual dichromatism , and does not demonstrate female dominance . The species is listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) and is threatened primarily by habitat loss .
= = Taxonomy = =
Together with the twelve other true lemurs ( genus Eulemur ) , the collared brown lemur ( E. collaris ) is a type of lemur belonging to the family Lemuridae . Collectively , lemurs ( infraorder Lemuriformes ) are classified as strepsirrhine primates . Originally listed as a subspecies of the common brown lemur ( E. fulvus ) , the collared brown lemur was promoted to full species status in 2001 by biological anthropologist Colin Groves .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
An adult collared brown lemur can reach a head @-@ body length of 39 and 40 cm ( 15 and 16 in ) and have a tail length of 50 and 55 cm ( 20 and 22 in ) for an overall length of 89 and 95 cm ( 35 and 37 in ) . It has an average body weight of 2 @.@ 25 and 2 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 5 lb ) , making it a medium @-@ sized lemur . The only form of sexual dimorphism exhibited by the collared brown lemur is dichromatism . The following table illustrates the coloration differences between the sexes :
In the wild , the collared brown lemur 's range does not overlap with other brown lemurs , so it is rarely confused with other species . However , in captivity it can be easily confused with the gray @-@ headed lemur ( Eulemur cinereiceps ) due to similar coloration . The male collared brown lemur can be distinguished by their cream @-@ colored or rufous beards , whereas the male gray @-@ headed lemur has a white beard . Females of these two species are nearly indistinguishable , even though genetic analyses support full species status for both taxa .
= = Ecology = =
Found in tropical moist lowland and montane forests in southeastern Madagascar , the collared brown lemur occurs west to the forests of Kalambatritra and in the south from Tôlanaro north to the Mananara River . The Mananara River is the boundary between the ranges of the collared brown lemur and the Gray @-@ headed Lemur to the north . The collared brown lemur can be seen in the Mandena Conservation Zone , Saint Luce Private Reserve , and Andohahela National Park .
In its environment , the collared brown lemur acts as a seed disperser , and is especially critical for the dispersal of large @-@ seeded fruiting trees within its range . However , there is no evidence that these relationships are coevolutionary and instead these lemurs may be the last remaining seed dispersers for these tree species following the extinction of larger frugivorous birds and subfossil lemurs .
= = Behavior = =
Very little is known about this species . It is thought to primarily eat fruit , like most other true lemurs . It is also cathemeral ( active both day and night throughout the year ) , a trait seen in some other members of its genus . Research has suggested that metabolic dietary @-@ related needs are the leading factor behind this behavior , although the specific hours of this activity pattern can shift based on lunar luminosity and seasonal changes in the photoperiod ( day length ) . Previous studies had ruled out effects of predators on the expression of this trait , and instead pointed to fruit availability and fiber intake as more important factors .
The collared brown lemur tends to live in social groups that are multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female , with groups ranging in size from three to seven . Population densities are estimated at 14 individuals / km2 , and it appears to be common within its range . Females give birth to one offspring between October and December , and male involvement with the young has been observed . Female dominance , a common behavioral trait in many lemur species but uncommon in most true lemurs , has not been observed in this species .
Brown lemurs at Berenty ( hybrid E. fulvus x collaris ) show linear hierarchy , adult female dominance , and the presence of conciliatory behavior after aggressions . Additionally , stress levels ( measured via self @-@ directed behaviors ) decrease at the increase of the hierarchical position of individuals within the social group and reconciliation is able to bring stress down to the baseline levels .
= = Conservation status = =
The collared brown lemur was listed as Vulnerable ( VU A2cd ) in the 2008 IUCN Red List assessment . Its greatest threat is habitat loss from slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture and charcoal production . It is also hunted for food and captured for the local pet trade . Populations of the collared brown lemur have been successfully sustained in captivity as a safeguard against their extinction .
A small group of collared brown lemurs was introduced in the 1980s into the Berenty Private Reserve and has since hybridized with introduced red @-@ fronted lemurs .
= Oceania ( song ) =
" Oceania " is a song recorded by Icelandic singer Björk for her sixth studio album Medúlla . It was written and produced by Björk , with additional writing by Sjón and production by Mark Bell . The song was written by the singer specially for the 2004 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony , after a request by the International Olympic Committee . " Oceania " was released as a promotional single in 2004 , by One Little Indian Records . The song was written at the ocean 's point of view , from which the singer believes all life emerged , and details the human 's evolution , whilst accompanied by a choir . " Oceania " was generally well received by music critics , who believed it was the best track from Medúlla , although some thought it was not the best choice for a promotional release .
The accompanying music video for the song , directed by Lynn Fox , features Björk as " Mother Oceania " , whilst being jewel @-@ encrusted in dark watery depths , with a colourful sunset and swirling floral creatures above her . A remix of the song , featuring additional lyrics and vocals by Kelis on her point of view of the continents , was featured as a B @-@ side to the " Who Is It " single . A piano version also appeared on the DVD single , and was assisted in its creation by Nico Muhly . The song was premiered during Björk 's performance on the Summer Olympics ceremony , and was later included on the setlist of the Volta Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) . At the 47th Grammy Awards in 2005 , it was nominated in the category of Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . Cover versions of " Oceania " were done six times , while it was sampled once .
= = Background and composition = =
The International Olympic Committee commissioned a song by Björk specially for the 2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony . The singer revealed that the committee asked her to do a kind of " Ebony and Ivory " or " We Are the World " type of song , which are " smashing tunes " according to her , but she thought , " ' Maybe there 's another angle to this ' . When I tried to write an Olympic lyric , though , it was full of sports socks and ribbons . I ended up pissing myself laughing " . Then , she called Sjón , an Icelandic poet who had previously collaborated with her on songs such as " Bachelorette " from her fourth studio album Homogenic ( 1997 ) . When she said to him that they would need something " suitably epic " for the Olympics , the poet even took a short course about Greek mythology at Reykjavík University . " Oceania " was the last song recorded for Medúlla . Björk said about the song : " I am incredibly honoured to have been asked to write a song and sing it at the Olympics . The song is written from the point of view of the ocean that surrounds all the land and watches over the humans to see how they are doing after millions of years of evolution . It sees no borders , different races or religion which has always been at the core of these [ games ] " .
During an interview with British radio station XFM , Björk explained its recording process , saying work on " Oceania " was kept being delayed because she wanted to do it especially for the Olympics . During the last day of mixing , she thought she needed " sirenes " , like in Greek mythology . She called up an English choir to record these sounds . The singer had done an arrangement for piano on the computer that was impossible for a piano to play , and she got them to sing it . Then , she also called up beatboxer Shlomo , who was recommended to her as " the new bright hope of the hip hop scene " . He went to record the next day and Björk asked him to do a techno tango beat , which he did . Recalling her work on the song until her last day of mixing , she commented , " That was the most fun part , in the end . Sometimes it 's good for you to work with a gun against your head and just go for it , because you can sometimes sit too long with ideas . Sometimes adrenaline is a good thing . "
The song was written at the ocean 's point of view , detailing the human 's evolution . According to Jason Killingsworth from Paste magazine , it calls listeners ' attention to " Mother Oceania " from which the singer believes all life emerged , whilst she sings : " You have done well for yourselves / Since you left my wet embrace / And crawled ashore [ … ] " . The song anchors the midsection of Medúlla , " jubilantly punctuated with bubbling synth and propelled by the rolling , spitfire cadence of Rahzel 's beatbox " , according to the reviewer . The last line from the song , " Your sweat is salty / And I am why / Your sweat is salty / And I am why " , is about how " we were all little jellyfish or whatever before we made it on to land " , according to the singer . Elthan Brown from New York magazine considered these lyrics as " frank sensuality " . " Oceania " also features The London Choir . Entertainment Weekly 's writer Chris Willman commented that " the computer @-@ enhanced choir behind Björk [ suggests ] a cosmic harem of pleased dolphins . Here she imagines herself as the sea itself , proud of all the belegged creatures she 's spit out onto land over the last hundred million years . It 's the nearest evolutionists have come to having their own gospel tune " .
= = Remixes = =
A remix version of " Oceania " featuring additional lyrics and vocals by American singer Kelis was recorded . She explained they were set to perform on Fashion Rocks concert in London the previous year , and their dressing rooms were right next to each other . Björk had an album by Canadian singer Peaches that was skipping , then Kelis gave her the copy of the album she had . They started talking and eventually hung out and exchanged numbers after the show , and later Björk contacted Kelis to work together , which she agreed . Then , Kelis recorded her vocals at Electric Lady Studios in New York City , and wrote her own words in the song , from the point of view of the continents . Originally not intended to be commercially released , the remix leaked after being played on BBC Radio 1 's The Breezeblock , but was then included on the " Who Is It " single as a B @-@ side . According to The Guardian , " it 's a brilliant fusing together of two distinct voices , Kelis handling the breathy first verse , as layers of her chopped @-@ up vocals form the rhythm track , while Björk at first comes across as restrained , allowing Kelis ' ad @-@ libs to soar before unleashing a song @-@ stopping , wordless roar that heralds the song 's dramatic final coda " .
A piano version also appeared on the DVD single , which was assisted in its creation by Nico Muhly . During an interview he stated , " When Björk asked me to play piano on Oceania , she sent me the music , and it was as complicated and layered as any piece of classical music I 've played . I spent a few days figuring out how to make her vision of ' dueling lounge @-@ lizard pianists ' physically possible , and in the session , we ran through those quickly . Then , she experimented with different ways to space the progression of chords that runs through the piece - I suggested big , Brahmsy blocks - as well as the ending , for which we tried diaphanous , Debussy @-@ like arpeggios " . Björk decided to stick with the album 's vocal concept and use electronically tweaked choral voices . Before some last @-@ minute polishing by Mark Bell , this version of " Oceania " was the last track to be worked for Medúlla .
= = Critical reception = =
" Oceania " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Jennifer Vineyard from MTV News called the song " one of those polarizing songs , with its Ethel Merman @-@ like synchronized vocal sweeps that do suggest the aquatic , in a 1950s sort of way " . Entertainment Weekly 's Chris Willman labeled the track as a " strikingly beautiful " song . Alex Ross , reporter writing for The New Yorker stated that with " Oceania " , Björk " confirmed her status as the ultimate musical cosmopolitan " , acquainted with Karlheinz Stockhausen and the Wu @-@ Tang Clan . Matthew Gasteier from Prefix magazine called the track " the best song on the album " , whilst complimenting " its swooping chorus [ which ] recalls the migration of birds or the time @-@ elapsed drifting of icebergs , a swirl of beauty and power crashing down onto and then rising above the mix . It culminates in the near screech that leads into the sexy @-@ spooky coda " . According to Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club , in a positive review , " the electronic flourish strays from her organic vocal focus , but Björk summons the same kind of tingle with choral language " in the song , " which finds The London Choir reacting to what sounds like a thrilling slow @-@ motion circus act " .
" Oceania " was " spoilt by some overenthusiastic vocal whoopings " , according to David Hooper from BBC Music . The Guardian 's writer David Peschek said that when the singer sings in the song , " choral swoops [ explodes ] like fireworks behind her " . AllMusic 's Heather Phares noted that the song , along with Medúlla 's lead single " Who Is It " , " have an alien quality that is all the stranger considering that nearly all of their source material is human ( except for the odd keyboard or two ) " . Dominique Leone of Pitchfork thought " Oceania " was hardly the most obvious choice for a promotional single release , despite its " bizarre , swooping soprano lines and cyclical chord progression outlined by a chorus of Wyatt vocal samples " . Jeremy D. Larson from Time magazine provided a mixed review to the song , stating that it was the best Olympic theme song , but during the Olympics performance , " when she sang ' Every pearl is a lynx is a girl ' we think you could hear the world collectively sigh , ' Where 's Celine Dion ? ' " . In 2005 , the song was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 47th Grammy Awards but lost out to Norah Jones ' " Sunrise " .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Oceania " was directed by Lynn Fox , and was premiered on August 13 , 2004 through Björk 's official site . According to Lynn Fox , Björk gave the team the initial sketch of the track in January 2004 . Whilst they were doing scribbles for it , they had several phone conversations with the singer and emailed her images to keep her up to date with the progress of the work . For " Oceania " , initial animations took six weeks , then had couple of days preparing for the shoot in Iceland and a few more days after to put all the shots together . Like in the song , in the music video Björk is depicted as " Mother Oceania " . The video opens with the surface of a body of water appearing yellowish and bright . Camera pans down to darker , deeper waters . Björk appears out of the dark background , singing and covered with sparkling jewels . As the second verse begins , images of sea anemones , representing the continents ( her children ) are thrown from Björk 's hands .
During the third verse they swim around and away from their mother , carried by the currents , which move in time with the song . In the bridge section , new sea flowers , with brilliant colors , emerge from the background , in contrast to the muted and darker colors of previous scenes . As the fifth verse continues , the camera pans back up to the much lighter surface , not seen since the beginning of the video . All sorts of marine life are swimming about the surface . Shortly after the sixth verse begins , Bjork is shown in deep , dark water . Several seconds later , the lighter surface of the water is shown without her . When she begins to sing " Your sweat is salty " , a somewhat rapid alternation of images ensues : the light surface is shown for one second , followed by Björk singing in the deep water ; these scenes alternate until she stops singing during the coda . Björk 's vocal repetition ceases at the same time the visual alternation stops . The surface scene recedes , and Björk in the deep water comes to the fore , slowing . At the end of the video , she stands and smiles .
= = Live performances = =
At the 2004 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony , where Björk premiered the song , she wore a very large dress which unfolded during her performance of " Oceania " to eventually occupy the entire stadium , and showed a map of the world in sign of union . Additionally , Björk wore " bluish @-@ purple glittery eye shadow across her lids . Her dark hair dangled in tiny twists that framed her pixieish , freckled face " . Immediately after the performance at the Olympics opening ceremony , the song was downloaded more than 11 @,@ 000 times on the iTunes Store . Jake Coyle from Today commented that her dress was " reminiscent in its uniqueness to the infamous swan dress she wore to the Oscars in 2001 " . According to Jeremy D. Larson from Time , if it weren 't for the fireworks at the end of the song , he was legitimately unsure if people in the audience would have cheered . Dominique Leone of Pitchfork was surprised by the committee 's choice of bringing Björk to perform at the ceremony , and stated : " They could have had anyone-- say , a reassuring Celine Dion or a physically ideal Beyoncé-- but they chose a prickly , decidedly uncomfortable Icelandic woman . On aesthetic grounds , I can 't argue with their choice , but I continue to wonder about Björk 's significance " . " Oceania " was also performed during the Volta Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) .
= = Samples and covers = =
The song was sampled by E @-@ 40 in the track " Spend the Night " featuring Laroo , The DB 'z , Droop @-@ E and B @-@ Slimm on his 2010 Revenue Retrievin ' : Night Shift album . SPIRITWO and singer Yael Claire covered " Oceania " with a Middle Eastern theme for the 2012 London Olympic games . Aspirant singer Srbuhi Hovhannisyan also covered the song on The Voice of Armenia in 2014 . " Oceania " covers also appear on the albums by Beliss , Harmen Fraanje Quintet , Murphy 's Law and Serena Fortebraccio .
= = Track listing = =
UK Promo CD
" Oceania " – 3 : 24
" Oceania " ( Remix featuring Kelis ) – 2 : 55
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Medúlla liner notes .
Björk – performer , songwriter , programmer
Sjón – songwriter
Mark Bell – producer , programmer
The London Choir – performer
Nico Muhly – piano
Shlomo – beats
Robert Wyatt – vocal samples
Valgeir Sigurðsson – programmer
Mark " Spike " Stent – mixing
= Effects of Hurricane Floyd in New York =
The effects of Hurricane Floyd in New York included two deaths and millions of dollars in damage . Hurricane Floyd , once a large and powerful Category 4 hurricane , made landfall in North Carolina and moved northward along the East Coast , making landfall on Long Island as a tropical storm . The threat of the hurricane prompted schools in New York City to close for the first time since 1996 , and 20 shelters were opened . Floyd produced flooding rainfall and gusty winds throughout the state , from the southern Hudson Valley to the Lake Champlain area . The flood waters damaged multiple roads and forced residents to evacuate from certain locations . Strong winds left as many as 100 @,@ 000 people without power and brought down a high number of trees due to the saturated ground . In the aftermath of the storm , 15 counties in eastern New York were declared eligible for state or federal assistance .
= = Background and preparations = =
Floyd 's origins are traced back to a westward @-@ moving tropical wave that developed into a tropical depression on September 7 , 1999 , while centered 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . The system moved west @-@ northwestward , and intensified into a tropical storm on September 8 . Continuing to intensify , Floyd attained hurricane strength on September 10 . The hurricane ultimately peaked as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale as it struck the Bahamas . The storm turned northwestward and soon northward , brushing the coast of Florida and the southeast United States . On September 16 , Floyd made landfall as a Category 2 hurricane in North Carolina , and moved northeastward along the Eastern Seaboard . It passed through the Mid @-@ Atlantic States as it deteriorated into a tropical storm , and lost its tropical identity over southern Maine .
In advance of the storm , starting on September 15 , tropical cyclone watches and warnings were issued for much of the Eastern Seaboard , including portions of New York . These warnings were discontinued by September 19 . New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani urged private businesses to close early and ordered non @-@ emergency city workers to return home between 12 pm and 3 pm on September 17 . For the first time since 1996 , in an " almost unprecedented " decision , schools in the city were closed due to the hurricane 's threat . On September 16 , 20 shelters were opened , able to accommodate as many as 70 @,@ 000 people . Lawrence Reuter , president of New York City Transit , reported that in an effort to prevent flooding , storm drains were cleared and other precautions were taken . People were urged to remove loose objects that could be blown around by high winds . By September 16 , city officials had distributed 50 @,@ 000 brochures on preparing for the storm . Suffolk County Executive Robert J. Gaffney advised residents of Fire Island to evacuate before the storm made leaving by ferry impossible , and in Long Beach , officials readied emergency vehicles . Also , 4 @,@ 000 sandbags were given out there in anticipation of high storm tides .
= = Impact = =
Tropical Storm Floyd made landfall on western Long Island as it moved northward . The heaviest rainfall associated with the storm was concentrated in the southeastern section of the state . Several meteorological elements worked to enhance the moisture from the cyclone . Rainfall totals exceeding 6 in ( 150 mm ) were common , with as much as 12 in ( 300 mm ) reported locally in the Catskills . At Cairo , 12 @.@ 21 in ( 310 mm ) of rain fell . The precipitation , combined with that of Hurricane Dennis earlier in the month , helped to alleviate persistent drought conditions . Floyd also produced gusty winds , reaching 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) at Stewart International Airport , worsened by a pressure gradient between the storm and an area of high pressure over the Ohio Valley .
Floyd 's rainfall resulted in deadly and extensive flooding that killed two people in New York . Heavy flooding was reported along numerous creeks , including the Esopus , Catskill , and Schoharie . In the Albany area , the Normanskill rose to extremely high levels , and the resultant flood waters damaged nearby buildings . The Coeymans Creek in Selkirk overflowed and forced 20 families to leave their homes . The main rivers typically remained within their banks . Many roads , including U.S. Route 20 in Guilderland , were flooded or washed out , and seven families had to be evacuated along NY 32 in Menands . Further south , the Saw Mill and Bronx rivers both overflowed , and caused urban flooding . A dam on a mill pond broke near Lake Placid , leading to flooding along the Chubb River .
The strong winds , combined with saturated ground from the rainfall , brought down trees in widespread areas of the Hudson Valley and Capital District . Many of the trees would not have otherwise fallen in drier conditions . Some of the downed trees fell on structures . In a narrow swath in the Wolf Pond Valley of Warren County , where wind gusts are estimated to have reached 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , hundreds of trees were blown down . At the storm 's worst , power outages affected over 100 @,@ 000 people region @-@ wide , and some individuals remained without power for a week . At the Albany International Airport , the storm forced the cancellation of flights , and throughout the region schools were closed . Several boats sustained damage along the shore of Lake Champlain . Throughout Orange , Putnam , Rockland , and Westchester counties , initial cost estimates were $ 14 @.@ 6 million , although that figure represents only a portion of the actual monetary damage . The storm also caused about $ 2 million in property damage in Essex County .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , three New York counties were declared eligible for individual assistance , eight for individual and public assistance , and four for public assistance . The initial deadline to apply for state or federal assistance was set for November 17 , although it was extended a month due to a steady flow of applications . Three disaster recovery centers were opened to provide information to residents affected by the storm . The three centers , located in Rockland , Putnam , and Westchester counties , closed in late October .
= Jack Stivetts =
John Elmer " Jack " Stivetts ( March 31 , 1868 – April 18 , 1930 ) , was a professional baseball pitcher who played 11 seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) spanning from 1889 to 1899 . He played in the American Association ( AA ) with the St. Louis Browns , and in the National League ( NL ) with the Boston Beaneaters and Cleveland Spiders . " Happy Jack " ( nicknamed due to his pleasant demeanor ) was born to German immigrants and raised in Ashland , Pennsylvania . He initially followed his father into the coal mining industry before playing professional baseball . After playing two and half seasons in minor league baseball , he was signed by the Browns . Over the next few seasons , he was regarded as one of the best pitchers in baseball .
He led the AA in earned run average ( ERA ) in his first MLB season , and then in strikeouts two seasons later . In the years spanning from 1890 through 1896 , he posted 20 or more victories in a season six times ; two in which he won more than 30 . In 1892 , he won a career @-@ high 35 games , and on August 6 , he threw a no @-@ hitter . During his seven seasons with the Beaneaters , he was part of four NL championships , and pitched alongside future Hall of Fame members John Clarkson and Kid Nichols . He was among the best hitting pitchers of his era , and was often used at other positions when he was not pitching . His season total of seven home runs in 1890 stood as the record for pitchers until 1931 . He compiled a .298 lifetime batting average , hit 35 home runs , and delivered 357 runs batted in ( RBIs ) .
In his last season in the major leagues , he played for the Spiders , widely considered to be one of the worst teams in MLB history . After his baseball career , he returned to his hometown of Ashland . He worked for the area coal mines as a brewery wagon driver and carpenter , and died there at 62 years of age .
= = Early life = =
John Elmer Stivetts was born on March 31 , 1868 in Ashland , Pennsylvania . His father , Adam , a coal worker , and mother , Amelia ( née Cooper ) , were both German immigrants . He was raised in a family of Lutherans , receiving his baptism one month after his birth , and his confirmation on April 2 , 1882 at the age of 14 from Christ 's United Lutheran Church in Ashland . He attended public schools for eight years , before following his father in the coal trade . He married Margaret Ann " Maggie " Thomas in June 1896 , and together they had one son , John , and five daughters , Ida , Mary , Leona , Margaret , and Gladys .
In June 1897 , at the age of 19 , Stivetts began his professional baseball career with the Ashland representative of the Central Pennsylvania League . He compiled a 9 – 5 win – loss record ( W – L ) that season with a 1 @.@ 35 ERA . He returned to the Ashland team in 1888 , though he later joined the Allentown Peanuts of the Central League . He began the 1889 season with the York representative of the Middle States League . It was there when an umpire named Tim Hurst noticed Stivetts ' talent ; who then recommended him to Charles Comiskey , the manager of the St. Louis Browns of the AA . Comiskey was impressed by the velocity of Stivetts ' pitches , and offered him a contract . The Philadelphia Athletics soon made an offer of their own , but he accepted the Browns ' salary offer of $ 275 a month , with a $ 200 signing bonus .
= = Career = =
= = = St. Louis = = =
= = = = 1889 season = = = =
When Stivetts joined the Browns , he became their third starting pitcher in the rotation behind Silver King and Ice Box Chamberlain . He made his major league debut on June 26 , 1889 against the Cincinnati Reds . He pitched a complete game and struck out nine batters , but lost the game by the score of 6 – 1 behind several errors made by his teammates . His performance was noted in the press to have " made a good impression . "
In his 26 games pitched that season , he had a W – L record of 12 – 7 and had a league @-@ leading 2 @.@ 25 ERA while St. Louis finished two games behind the Brooklyn Bridegrooms for the AA championship . He started 20 games , completed 18 , struck out 143 , and pitched 1912 ⁄ 3 innings . It was reported on November 13 , 1889 that he had re @-@ signed with the Browns for the 1890 season .
= = = = 1890 season = = = =
During the off @-@ season , an up @-@ start league was created , the Players ' League ( PL ) , which drew many players away from teams from both the AA and NL teams . The Browns lost a few of their best players as well , including Comiskey , their player @-@ manager , and King , the team 's top pitcher . Chamberlain re @-@ signed with the team , but he was sold to the Columbus Solons after pitching in just five games . These movements left Stivetts and Toad Ramsey as the franchise 's top two starters , with rookie Billy Hart cast as the occasional relief starter .
The Browns opened the regular season on April 18 with a four @-@ game series on the road versus the Louisville Colonels , and Stivetts started games two and four . In game two , he recorded 13 strikeouts , but lost the game 5 – 3 on a tenth @-@ inning , two run double by Tim Shinnick . In game four on April 21 , Stivetts was again credited with the loss by allowing 17 runs to score , seven of which were earned . He fared better in his third start however , allowing just one run as the Browns defeated the Solons by a 14 – 1 score . He struck out 12 batters , including the first seven he faced , and hit the first home run of his career .
On June 10 , against Fred Smith and the Toledo Maumees , he hit two home runs in one game , the first of three times in his career he accomplished the feat . The first was a two @-@ run home run in the fifth inning , and the second came with his team down by three runs in the bottom half of ninth inning and the bases loaded . It was the first , and only , grand slam of his career , and the second " ultimate grand slam " in history . In a game versus the Brooklyn Gladiators on July 6 , manager Chris von der Ahe removed the Browns ' starting pitcher Ramsey in the third inning and replaced him with Stivetts . Though the crowd momentarily interrupted the game in protest , the move proved successful . Stivetts hit a home run in the fifth inning to give the Browns a 3 runs to 1 advantage , leading the team to an eventual 7 – 2 victory . The home run was his sixth of the season , and he added another on August 9 for number seven : his final season total . His seven home runs in a season by a pitcher was neither broken nor tied until 1931 , when Wes Ferrell hit nine for the Cleveland Indians . St. Louis finished in third @-@ place among the nine AA teams , 12 games behind the Colonels . Stivetts had a W – L record of 27 – 21 , a 3 @.@ 52 ERA , and 289 strikeouts in 4191 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , along with three shutouts .
= = = = 1891 season = = = =
On January 25 , 1891 , it was reported that he had re @-@ signed with the Browns for the up @-@ coming season . The season opened April 8 , and the Browns faced the Cincinnati Kelly 's Killers at home . Stivetts was the team 's opening day starting pitcher . The game ended in the bottom of ninth inning when the umpire , former player and St. Louis native Bill Gleason , determined that Cincinnati was intentionally allowing St. Louis to score in an effort to delay the game . St. Louis was awarded the forfeit when Cincinnati refused to play . AA president , Louis Kramer , declared the forfeit illegal a short time later , and the game was re @-@ played on April 12 . St. Louis won the re @-@ match behind the pitching of Stivetts . This was Gleason 's second and last career game as an umpire . Over the course of the season , Stivetts was the Browns ' ace , pitching mostly every second or third game the team played . When not pitching , or when he occasionally played in right field , the Browns used Joe Neale , Willie McGill , and future Hall of Fame executive Clark Griffith as part of the starting rotation . On May 30 , Stivetts started both games of a doubleheader in a home series versus the Philadelphia Athletics . Due to large leads by the Browns , he was pulled from each game ; lasting two innings in the first and six in the second .
Stivetts won each of his next three starts , hitting a home run in the third game , on June 6 , against the Boston Reds . He hit two more in a game on August 6 , against Gus Weyhing of the Athletics , the second two @-@ homer game of his career . He connected for another off of Weyhing in a game on September 16 , during a four @-@ run ninth inning that gave the Browns a 10 – 7 victory . This was his seventh home run of the season , fourth as a pitcher , adding to three that he hit while playing right field . Again , he was among the best pitchers in the AA , and among the league leaders in many pitching categories . His 259 strikeouts led the league , while his 33 victories were third , and his 2 @.@ 86 ERA ranked fifth . St. Louis completed the season second in the AA among the nine teams , 8 @.@ 5 games behind the champion Reds .
= = = Boston = = =
= = = = 1892 season = = = =
Though Stivetts initially denied it , it was reported on September 28 , 1891 that he signed with the Boston Beaneaters of the National League ( NL ) for the 1892 season . Stivetts joined a pitching rotation that already included future Baseball Hall of Fame members John Clarkson and Kid Nichols , as well as veteran Harry Staley . With Boston 's solid pitching staff , and their potent mix of position players consisting of future Hall of Fame members and established veterans , the team was expected to compete for a second consecutive NL championship . When analyzing the 12 National League teams , New York Giants captain , Buck Ewing , remarked about Boston 's roster , " I think Clarkson has seen his better days . Jack Stivetts will strengthen them wonderfully . He is one of the best pitchers in the country to @-@ day . " In Stivetts ' first start of the season on April 23 , his pitching was described as " wild " , as he issued six bases on balls . He prevailed , however , and Boston won by the score of 11 – 7 . Four days later , he was victorious again , and Boston 's W – L record stood at 10 – 1 after their first 11 games . On June 23 , he hit his first home run of the season , along with a double , in a 13 – 6 victory over the Baltimore Orioles . The Pittsburg Dispatch reported on July 1 that Stivetts was leading Boston hitters in batting at that point in the season .
With Stivetts now established , Clarkson became expendable and was released from the team on June 30 , leaving Boston with a solid three @-@ man pitching rotation for the remainder of the season . On August 6 , 1892 , Stivetts pitched a no @-@ hitter against the Brooklyn Bridegrooms , an 11 – 0 victory . Later , on September 5 , he started , completed , and defeated Louisville in both games of a doubleheader . The following day , the press credited the victories to his ability to work well with runners on the bases . The regular season for the Beaneaters closed on October 15 with a doubleheader against the Washington Senators . Stivetts pitched the second game , and delivered a complete game shutout , his third shutout of the season , and his 35th victory . Although he finished within the top @-@ ten in several pitching statistical categories , his strikeout total dropped to 180 in 1892 . His 3 @.@ 9 strikeouts per 9 innings pitched ( K / 9 ) was significantly lower from the 5 @.@ 3 the previous season .
The AA had dissolved following the 1891 season , with several teams merging with the NL , re @-@ establishing itself as the lone " major league " . The NL devised a post @-@ season series to determine a champion between the two half @-@ season victors . This series pitted the Beaneaters ( the first @-@ half champions ) against the Cleveland Spiders ( the second @-@ half champions ) . The first game occurred on October 17 ; Stivetts started for Boston , and future Hall of Famer Cy Young pitched for Cleveland . The pitching duel lasted eleven scoreless innings before the game was brought to end by darkness . After Boston won game two behind Staley on October 18 , Stivetts started and gained the victory in the game on October 19 . The Beaneaters were declared the NL champion after winning five straight after the opening tie game ; Stivetts gained victories in three . This playoff scheme was abandoned after the season .
= = = = 1893 season = = = =
On January 21 , 1893 , it was reported that Stivetts re @-@ signed with Boston for the up @-@ coming season . In March , Stivetts ' name was tied to an " imminent " trade between Boston and Brooklyn that involved pitcher Tom Lovett transferring to Boston . Ultimately , the deal did not transpire , however , and each pitcher reported to their respective teams . Several rule changes were implemented before the 1893 season that intended to even the competitive balance between the pitchers and hitters . One lengthened the distance between the pitching mound and home plate from 50 feet to 60 feet 6 inches , and another required pitchers were to pitch from a rubber slab instead of being allowed to take a running start before they delivered the ball to the batter .
Stivetts struggled with the new distance initially ; his first four starts of the season were largely ineffective . On April 29 , with the weather cold and rainy , he issued bases on balls to ten New York Giants batters , and surrendered 15 runs . The next two starts were against Baltimore and he allowed seven runs to score the first game despite gaining the victory , and another 16 runs in a loss in the second game . Another ten runs scored on May 10 , in a loss versus the Washington Senators .
His troubles adjusting to the new rules , and his athletic conditioning during June and July , prompted the team to sign Hank Gastraight for added pitching strength . He struck out just 61 batters in 2832 ⁄ 3 for a 1 @.@ 6 K / 9 , and his ERA increased from 3 @.@ 03 in 1892 to 4 @.@ 41 . Despite this , he helped Boston claim their third consecutive NL championship with a 20 – 12 W – L record .
= = = = 1894 season = = = =
With the previous season 's inconsistencies behind him , Stivetts was re @-@ signed and was the team 's starting pitcher for Boston 's season @-@ opening game on April 19 ; a 13 – 2 victory versus the Bridegrooms of Brooklyn . He then lost his next eight starts , however , before beginning a ten @-@ game winning streak that lasted into mid @-@ July . On August 21 , he started and gained complete game victories in both ends of a doubleheader versus the Cincinnati Reds . Two days later , on August 23 , he pitched Boston to a 12 – 10 victory against the Spiders . That same day in Ashland , his father was killed in a coal mining accident when a load of coal fell on top on him .
Boston finished in third place among the 12 NL teams in 1894 , and Stivetts won 26 games , though most of his numbers in important statistical categories failed to improve or became worse . His ERA rose to 4 @.@ 90 , and his K / 9 moved up slightly to 2 @.@ 0 when he struck out 76 in 338 innings pitched . He issued 127 bases on balls , and surrendered a league @-@ leading 27 home runs . His biggest success in 1894 was his skill as a hitter . Beginning on July 5 , Boston played a three @-@ game series against Cleveland . While alternating game to game from pitching and playing in right field , Stivetts hit one home run in each game , the last one coming in the sixth inning off of Cy Young , completing the sweep . He hit a career @-@ high season total of eight home runs . He also achieved career @-@ highs with 64 RBIs , seven triples , and 55 runs scored , while batting .328 in 68 games played .
= = = = 1895 season = = = =
In early November , due to the threat that a new American Association was near formation , the National League clubs were quick to sign their players without much negotiating . Many of the players ' salary demands were met , including Stivetts ' . In March , shortly before the 1895 season began , Stivetts claimed he was in " excellent phycial condition " , and that he was " many pounds lighter than he was at this period last year . " The season opener was on April 19 against Brooklyn , and Stivetts got the start over Nichols for the second consecutive season . Despite being down early in the game , Boston won the game 11 – 6 behind a seven @-@ run seventh inning . Stivetts scored thrice and gathered two hits in the game , including a double .
During the 1893 season , Stivetts involved himself in a dispute between two catholic players , Tommy Tucker and Hugh Duffy , and their manager Frank Selee . The resulting rift occasionally caused strife among team members . Factions formed , with Duffy , Tucker , and Tommy McCarthy on one side ; Herman Long , Bobby Lowe , and Stivetts on the other . These disagreements , in part , led to an incident in a Louisville , Kentucky hotel dining room between Stivetts and McCarthy . In response to something Stivetts had said , McCarthy retaliated by punching him once in the face and then calmly left the restaurant .
His W – L record slid to 17 – 17 , while his ERA improved slightly to 4 @.@ 64 in 291 innings pitched , as Boston fell to fifth place , 16 @.@ 5 games behind the NL champions from Baltimore . His hitting suffered as well ; his batting average dropped to a career @-@ low .190 , and he failed to hit a home run for the first time since his rookie season . Shortly after Boston completed its schedule , Stivetts re @-@ signed for the 1896 season .
= = = = 1896 season = = = =
During the off @-@ season , trade talks were conducted , but not completed , between the Beaneaters and the Philadelphia Quakers . The deal likely involved Stivetts and Tucker , two players involved in Boston 's religious quarrel from the previous season . As the season progressed , the press noted that his season had begun better than the previous season . Stivetts claimed that it was his weight loss ( now just over 200 lbs ) , that was the main reason why he had been more of an asset to the team than in past years .
Though he lost his first start of season , he rebounded to win six starts in succession from April 25 though May 20 , including a 7 – 0 shutout victory on May 8 versus Louisville . On June 12 , he pitched Boston to a 15 – 3 victory over the Reds at home , and connected for two home runs against Chauncey Fisher . This was the third , and last , time he hit two home runs in a single game . He hit three home runs total for the season and improved his batting average to .347 in 222 at bats . He increased his win total to 22 , and his 4 @.@ 10 ERA was the lowest since 1892 .
On October 3 , it was reported that he was retained by Boston under the reserve clause . When interviewed during the off @-@ season , Stivetts claimed that he would like to quit pitching and play first , that is if a team would give him the opportunity . Selee , Boston 's manager , disagreed and claimed that the team needed Stivetts in the pitching rotation instead . It was also likely that he would have received less salary playing at first .
= = = = 1897 season = = = =
Boston re @-@ signed Stivetts for $ 2 @,@ 100 despite the view of some in the press who believed Boston would continue to sink in the standings if they didn 't rid themselves of him and the team 's manager . Shortly after Stivetts ' first start of the season , a 10 – 5 loss on April 23 in Baltimore , Selee commented that Stivetts will not be pitching much into the future , saying that " he is growing rather stiff , and will not let himself out as he did when he was at his best , some years ago . " His weight was now at 217 lbs , so as the team departed on May 10 for a western road trip , Selee sent him back to Ashland to get back into proper game condition . Although he was told not to report back to the team until his weight was below 200 lbs , he had re @-@ joined the team and played right field in the second game of a doubleheader on May 15 . His place in the rotation fell behind Nichols , Fred Klobedanz , and Ted Lewis . He made a relief appearance on May 18 , before having to take some time off for a sore arm . His next start occurred on May 31 , when Boston defeated St. Louis by a 25 – 5 score . He earned his second consecutive victory on June 11 , a 12 – 4 win over Louisville .
While he only pitched 129 1 / 3 innings in 18 games during the season , he fared well , and helped Boston re @-@ claim the NL championship , with an 11 – 4 W – L record , and 3 @.@ 41 ERA . As a hitter , he continued to flourish , with a .367 batting average , hit a career @-@ high nine triples , and added two more home runs . At the conclusion of the regular season , Boston faced the second place Orioles in a post @-@ season series , the Temple Cup . Created after the 1893 season by Pittsburgh Pirates owner William Chase Temple , the winner of the best @-@ of @-@ seven game seried was awarded possession of a silver ornate cup , and 65 % of the proceeds to be distributed to the players . Boston players were fatigued by their championship run , especially their games against second @-@ place Baltimore , and now were facing the Orioles again , in the Temple Cup . Because of the fatigue , and an agreed upon even @-@ split of the proceeds , the series was played without much enthusiasm from either team . Boston won game one , but then lost the next four games , giving Baltimore the cup . Stivetts pitched in game four , losing 12 – 11 to Jerry Nops . Due to McCarthy 's sloppy play in center field throughout the series , he was benched in the final game in favor of Stivetts . After four seasons , the series lacked popular support and was discontinued .
= = = = 1898 season = = = =
Stivetts was again reserved by Boston , and later re @-@ signed for $ 2000 . Due to the Beaneaters ' solid , four @-@ man starting pitching rotation of Nichols , Klobedanz , Lewis , and rookie Vic Willis , his role with the team was expected to be as an extra outfielder . Stivetts claimed that he had never felt better in his life and his outlook on the up @-@ coming season was positive .
In a game versus the Reds on June 9 , the score was tied 5 – 5 in the bottom of the ninth inning when Stivetts connected for a pinch @-@ hit , walk @-@ off solo home run . This was his second career walk off home run , his third as a pinch hitter , and the last home run of his career . It was reported on July 22 that a deal had been agreed upon to trade Stivetts to the St. Louis Browns of the NL for Kid Carsey and cash . The deal was contingent upon the acceptance of Stivetts . In early August , the Boston manager Selee sent Stivetts home , commenting that the team did not have use of his services any longer . Tim Hurst , now managing St. Louis , planned on using Stivetts in center field . Stivetts refused to accept the move to St. Louis , and a sale was officially conducted on August 14 that sent him to St. Louis for $ 2000 and an unnamed player . True to his word , Stivetts did not report , or play a single game for St. Louis that season . Due to his objection to being sold to St. Louis , he claimed that he would remain in Ashland and return to coal mining .
= = = St. Louis / Cleveland = = =
= = = = 1899 season = = = =
During the off @-@ season , the owners of the Cleveland Spiders purchased the St. Louis Browns from Chris von der Ahe . They changed the team name to Perfectos , and inherited their players . In early 1899 , Stivetts claimed interest in playing for the St. Louis franchise if his salary were equal to what he was paid with Boston . The new owners , to maximize their assets , transferred all the best players to St. Louis , while sending the rest , including Stivetts , to Cleveland . The Spiders released Stivetts on June 13 , and he subsequently retired from playing baseball . In 18 games for the Spiders , Stivetts had a .205 batting average and a 0 – 4 W – L record . He was claimed by St. Paul of the Western League a few days later , but did not play a game for the team . In his 11 @-@ season career , Stivetts won 203 games against 132 losses , a 3 @.@ 74 ERA , and 1223 strikeouts in 28872 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . In addition to his 35 career home runs as a hitter , he collected 593 hits in 1992 at bats for a .298 batting average , and had 357 RBIs .
= | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
= Post @-@ baseball / Legacy = =
After his retirement from professional baseball , he worked for the coal industry in various capacities . He was listed as a carpenter in both the 1910 and 1920 Federal Census . He operated a brewery wagon for a coal company in his hometown of Ashland . In April 1912 , he was working as a carpenter for the Black Ridge mine in Conyngham , Pennsylvania . He occasionally played on small clubs around the Ashland area , and in May 1902 , he survived a bout of smallpox . By 1930 , he was no longer working . He died on April 18 , 1930 , at the age of 62 in Ashland , and is interred at Brock Cemetery .
He was described by sportswriters of the time as one of the fastest pitchers in the league , comparable to Amos Rusie and Ted Breitenstein . Kid Nichols remarked in 1902 that Stivetts ' speed was as fast as Rusie , and could have extended his career much longer had he taken better care of his body . Baseball writer O. P. Caylor wrote that Stivetts ' issues were entirely his own , blaming his hard @-@ drinking lifestyle and his inability to remain in good condition .
= Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia =
Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia precludes the Commonwealth of Australia ( i.e. , the federal parliament ) from making laws for establishing any religion , imposing any religious observance , or prohibiting the free exercise of any religion . Section 116 also provides that no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth . The product of a compromise in the pre @-@ Federation constitutional conventions , Section 116 is based on similar provisions in the United States Constitution . However , Section 116 is more narrowly drafted than its US counterpart , and does not preclude the states of Australia from making such laws .
Section 116 has been interpreted narrowly by the High Court of Australia : while the definition of " religion " adopted by the court is broad and flexible , the scope of the protection of religions is circumscribed . The result of the court 's approach has been that no court has ever ruled a law to be in contravention of Section 116 , and the provision has played only a minor role in Australian constitutional history . Among the laws that the High Court has ruled not to be in contravention of Section 116 are laws that provided government funding to religious schools , that authorised the dissolution of a branch of the Jehovah 's Witnesses , and that enabled the forcible removal of Indigenous Australian children from their families .
Federal Governments have twice proposed the amendment of Section 116 , principally to apply its provisions to laws made by the states . On each occasion — in 1944 and 1988 — the proposal failed in a referendum .
= = Text of the provision and location in the Constitution = =
Section 116 states :
The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion , or for imposing any religious observance , or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion , and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth .
Section 116 has four limbs . The first three limbs prohibit the Commonwealth from making certain laws : laws " for establishing any religion " ; laws " for imposing any religious observance " ; and laws " for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion " . The fourth limb proscribes the imposition of religious tests to qualify for any Commonwealth office or public trust . Only the " establishing religion " and " prohibiting free exercise " limbs have been the subject of cases before the High Court .
The section sits in Chapter V of the Constitution , which deals with the states of Australia . However , Section 116 does not apply to the states . Each state has its own constitution , and only Tasmania 's has a provision similar to Section 116 . Commentators attribute the erroneous location of Section 116 to a drafting oversight caused by the weariness of the committee charged with finalising the draft Constitution .
= = Origins = =
The Constitution was the product of a series of constitutional conventions in the 1890s . The issues of religious freedom and secularism were not prominent in the convention debates , which focused on the economic and legislative powers of the proposed Commonwealth parliament . The first draft of Section 116 , approved by the Melbourne Convention of 1891 , would have prohibited the states from passing laws prohibiting the free exercise of religion . The Commonwealth was not mentioned because it was assumed that the Commonwealth parliament would have no power to make such laws . At the Melbourne Convention of 1897 , Victorian delegate H. B. Higgins expressed concern about this assumption and moved to expand the provision to cover the Commonwealth as well as the states . The amendment was initially defeated , but Higgins later succeeded in having the eventual version of Section 116 adopted by the convention in a 25 – 16 vote . Higgins feared opposition to the provision from convention delegates concerned that the provision would impede the states ' legislative powers , so the version passed by the convention did not mention the states .
The proposed inclusion of Section 116 in the Constitution was the subject of some dissent in the 1897 Melbourne Convention and the final convention in 1898 . Protestant churches in New South Wales argued that the Constitution should state that divine providence is the " ultimate source of law " , while convention delegates John Quick and Patrick Glynn moved to have God explicitly recognised in the Constitution . The Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church campaigned for a strict separation of church and state , being concerned that the Commonwealth might prohibit its members from working on Sundays . Both sides to some extent achieved their objectives : Section 116 was approved by the final convention , while Glynn successfully moved for the symbolic mention of " Almighty God " in the preamble to the British statute that was to contain the Constitution . The Constitution was then approved by popular referendums in each of the six colonies and took effect on 1 January 1901 ( the colonies thus became the states of Australia ) .
Section 116 reflects two provisions of the United States Constitution : the First Amendment , which prohibits the making of laws for the establishment of religion and guarantees the free exercise of religion ; and Article VI , Section 3 , which prohibits the imposition of religious tests for public offices . Academic Clifford L. Pannam , writing in 1963 , called Section 116 a " fairly blatant piece of transcription " of its US counterparts . However , in practice , Section 116 has been interpreted more narrowly than the US provisions .
= = Judicial consideration = =
The High Court 's consideration of Section 116 has generally been limited to three areas : the definition of " religion " ; the meaning of " law for establishing any religion " ; and the meaning of " law for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion " . The two other elements of the provision — the clauses prohibiting the Commonwealth from imposing of religious observance and from prescribing religious tests for public offices — have not been the subject of any cases before the court . The court has never ruled a legislative provision to be in contravention of Section 116 . As a result of the court 's narrow and literal interpretation of Section 116 , the provision has played a minor role in Australian constitutional history .
= = = Meaning of " religion " = = =
A threshold test considered by courts applying Section 116 is whether a belief seeking constitutional protection is a " religion " . The leading authority on the question is the 1983 judgment of the High Court in Church of the New Faith v Commissioner for Pay @-@ Roll Tax ( Vic ) . The court found that Scientology was a religion , despite some justices commenting that its practices were " impenetrably obscure " . In reaching this finding , the court argued that the definition of religion needed to be flexible but should recognise the need to be sceptical of disingenous claims of religious practice . Justices Anthony Mason and Gerard Brennan held :
... the criteria of religion [ are ] twofold : first , belief in a supernatural , Being , Thing or Principle ; and second , the acceptance of canons of conduct in order to give effect to that belief .
Justices Ronald Wilson and William Deane were less prescriptive , setting out five " indicia " of a religion : a belief in the supernatural ; a belief in ideas relating to " man 's nature and place in the universe " ; the adherence to particular standards , codes of conduct or practices by those who hold the ideas ; the existence of an identifiable group of believers , even if not a formal organisation ; and the opinion of the believers that what they believe in constitutes a religion .
= = = " Establishing any religion " = = =
The courts have taken a narrow approach to the interpretation of the prohibition against " establishing any religion " , deriving from the 1981 case of Attorney @-@ General ( Vic ) ( Ex rel Black ) v Commonwealth ( the DOGS case ) , in which the High Court held that Commonwealth funding of religious schools did not contravene Section 116 . Chief Justice Garfield Barwick held that a law would only contravene the provision if establishing a religion was its " express and single purpose " , while Justice Harry Gibbs argued that the section only prohibits the establishment of an official state religion . Each justice in the majority contrasted Section 116 with its equivalent in the US Constitution to find that Section 116 is narrower . The court noted that the US Constitution prohibits laws respecting " establishment of religion " generally , whereas the prohibition in Section 116 is against the establishment of " any religion " : this meant that Section 116 did not encompass laws that benefit religions generally ; it only proscribed laws that established a particular religion . The approach of the High Court to the establishment limb of Section 116 thus largely reflects the views expressed by Constitutional scholars John Quick and Robert Garran in 1901 , that establishment means " the erection and recognition of a State Church , or the concession of special favours , titles , and advantages to one church which are denied to others . "
= = = " Prohibiting the free exercise of any religion " = = =
The protection of the free exercise of religion was also interpreted narrowly in early High Court judgments . In 1912 , the court in Krygger v Williams held that a person could not object to compulsory military service on the ground of religious belief . The court considered that Section 116 would only protect religious observance from government interference ; it would not permit a person to be excused from a legal obligation merely because the obligation conflicted with his or her religious beliefs . In a 1929 case , Higgins , then a Justice of the High Court , suggested ( as obiter dictum ) that a person could lawfully object to compulsory voting on the grounds of religious belief . However , in 1943 , the court continued the narrow approach it took in Krygger v Williams , upholding war @-@ time regulations that caused the Adelaide branch of the Jehovah 's Witnesses to be dissolved and have its property acquired by the Commonwealth government . The government had declared the branch to be an organisation whose activities were " prejudicial to the defence of the Commonwealth " : one of the branch 's professed beliefs was that the government was an " organ of Satan " . Chief Justice John Latham held that the Constitution permitted the court to " reconcile religious freedom with ordered government " .
In a 1997 case known as the Stolen Generations Case , the court upheld an ordinance issued in 1918 that enabled the forcible removal of Indigenous Australian children from their families . The court reasoned that the purpose of the ordinance was not to prohibit the free exercise of religion even though the ordinance may have had that effect . Peter Edge , an academic specialising in religion and the law , thus concludes that Section 116 will only " prevent legislation that has a prohibited purpose , rather than a prohibited effect " . Delivering her judgment , Justice Mary Gaudron denied that the provision confers rights upon individuals , commenting that it :
... does no more than effect a restriction or limitation on the legislative power of the Commonwealth . It is not , ' in form , a constitutional guarantee of the rights of individuals ' ... It makes no sense to speak of a constitutional right to religious freedom in a context in which the Constitution clearly postulates that the States may enact laws in derogation of that right .
= = Commentary = =
When the Constitution took effect in 1901 , Quick and Garran argued that Section 116 was redundant as the Commonwealth had not been given the legislative power under Section 51 to establish a religion or prohibit its free exercise . In 1963 , Pannam wrote that the provision was regarded " by all as having little practical value " . Pannam considered the provision would only become significant if the High Court held that it applied to laws made by governments of the territories .
Contemporary constitutional scholar George Williams criticises the court 's literal interpretation of the provision and others in the Constitution , saying the court has " transformed the Constitution into a wasteland of civil liberties " . Williams argues that as an " express guarantee of personal freedom " , the provision should be interpreted broadly and promote " individual liberty over the arbitrary exercise of legislative and executive power " . Academics Gonzalo Villalta Puig and Steven Tudor have called for the court to broaden Section 116 by finding in it an implied right to the freedom of thought and conscience . In their view most Australians correctly " believe that the Constitution protects the right to freedom of thought and conscience just like it protects other civil and political freedoms " , and that the court should give effect to that belief . They argue there is precedent for the court finding implied constitutional rights , such as the 1992 case of Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth , where the court found that the Constitution guaranteed the freedom of political communication .
In defence of Section 116 and the High Court 's interpretation of it , Joshua Puls argues that the provision is appropriately limited , suggesting that a rigid " wall of separation " between religion and the state is undesirable , and that the stronger Constitutional protection of religion in the United States has become overly politicised . Fellow academics Jennifer Clarke , Patrick Keyzer and James Stellios argue that the court 's narrow interpretation of the provision is consistent with the intention of the Constitution 's drafters , who never intended for it to be a protection of individual rights , while Kevin Booker and Arthur Glass say the provision has " symbolic value " . Booker and Glass defend the court 's interpretation of the provision and other Constitutional rights , saying " the High Court can only work with the constitutional provisions before it " .
= = Referendums = =
Federal governments have twice proposed referendums to expand the scope of Section 116 : in 1944 and in 1988 . In 1944 , John Curtin 's Labor government put a package of measures , known as the " Fourteen Powers referendum " , to the Australian public . The purpose of the package was mainly to widen the Commonwealth 's legislative powers for the purposes of post @-@ war reconstruction . The widening of powers would sunset after five years . One of the measures in the package was to extend Section 116 so that it prohibited the states , not merely the Commonwealth , from making the laws proscribed by the section . The package 's 14 measures — which included diverse matters such as powers to provide family allowances and legislate for " national health " — were bound together in a single question . H. V. Evatt , the Labor Attorney @-@ General , argued that freedom of religion was " fundamental to the whole idea of democracy " and that the suppression of civil rights by dictatorships in Europe demonstrated the need for Australia to have a strong Constitutional guarantee of the freedom . The conservative Coalition , then in opposition and led by Robert Menzies , campaigned against the package . Arthur Fadden , leader of the Country Party ( the junior member of the Coalition ) , claimed a " yes " vote would permit the government to implement a " policy of socialisation " . The package was rejected : the national " yes " vote was less than 46 per cent , and there was majority support for the package only in South Australia and Western Australia . One reason for the rejection was the bundling of multiple controversial proposals into one question : voters could not vote in favour of the measures they supported and against those they opposed , giving them reason to vote against the entire package .
A similar proposal to amend Section 116 was put to the Australian people in a referendum in 1988 . The referendum contained four questions , the last of which sought to amend Section 116 and other constitutional " rights and freedoms " . Again , the proposal was initiated by a Labor government ( under Bob Hawke ) ; again , the proposal was opposed by the Coalition ; and again , multiple controversial proposals were bound into one question , being " to alter the Constitution to extend the right to trial by jury , to extend freedom of religion , and to ensure fair terms for persons whose property is acquired by any government . " The proposal in respect of Section 116 was to extend its operation to the states , and expand the protection to cover any government act ( not just legislation ) that established a religion or prohibited its free exercise . Some church officials objected to the proposal , fearing that funding of religious schools by the states could become unlawful . The question failed to pass , being opposed by a majority of voters in each of the states . The 70 to 30 per cent nationwide vote against the proposal was the largest margin by which a proposal to amend the Constitution had ever been defeated at a referendum . Williams attributes the failure of the proposal mainly to the absence of bipartisan support for it , highlighting the " determined and effective " opposition of senior Coalition politician Peter Reith . Williams also points to the " notorious reluctance " of Australians to support Constitutional referendums : of the 44 proposals to amend the Constitution , only eight have succeeded .
= = = Cited academic texts = = =
= Appalachian Trail =
The Appalachian National Scenic Trail , generally known as the Appalachian Trail or simply the A.T. , is a marked hiking trail in the eastern United States extending between Springer Mountain in Georgia and Mount Katahdin in Maine . The trail is about 2 @,@ 200 miles ( 3 @,@ 500 km ) long , though the precise length changes over time as parts are modified or rerouted . The trail passes through the states of Georgia , North Carolina , Tennessee , Virginia , West Virginia , Maryland , Pennsylvania , New Jersey , New York , Connecticut , Massachusetts , Vermont , New Hampshire , and Maine .
The Appalachian Trail was completed in 1937 after more than a decade of work , although improvements and changes continue . It is maintained by 31 trail clubs and multiple partnerships , and managed by the National Park Service , United States Forest Service , and the nonprofit Appalachian Trail Conservancy . The majority of the trail is in forest or wild lands , although some portions traverse towns , roads and farms . The trail conservancy claims that the Appalachian Trail is the longest hiking @-@ only trail in the world .
At least 2 million people are said to do at least one day @-@ hike on the trail each year . Thru @-@ hikers attempt to hike it in its entirety in a single season — more than 2 @,@ 700 people thru @-@ hiked the trail in 2014 — and some hike from one end to the other , then turn around and thru @-@ hike the trail the other way , known as a " yo @-@ yo " . Many books , memoirs , web sites , and fan organizations are dedicated to these pursuits .
An extension known as the International Appalachian Trail continues northeast , crossing Maine and cutting through Canada to Newfoundland , with sections continuing in Greenland , through Europe , and into Morocco . Other separate extensions continue the southern end of the Appalachian range in Alabama and continue south into Florida , creating what is known as the Eastern Continental Trail .
The Appalachian Trail , the Continental Divide Trail , and the Pacific Crest Trail form what is known as the Triple Crown of long – distance hiking in the United States .
= = History = =
The trail was conceived by Benton MacKaye , a forester who wrote his original plan — called “ An Appalachian Trail , A Project in Regional Planning ” — shortly after the death of his wife in 1921 . MacKaye 's idea detailed a grand trail that would connect a series of farms and wilderness work / study camps for city @-@ dwellers . In 1922 , at the suggestion of Major William A. Welch , director of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission , his idea was publicized by Raymond H. Torrey with a story in the New York Evening Post under a full @-@ page banner headline reading " A Great Trail from Maine to Georgia ! " The idea was quickly adopted by the new Palisades Interstate Park Trail Conference as their main project .
On October 7 , 1923 , the first section of the trail , from Bear Mountain west through Harriman State Park to Arden , New York , was opened . MacKaye then called for a two @-@ day Appalachian Trail conference to be held in March 1925 in Washington , D.C. This meeting inspired the formation of the Appalachian Trail Conference ( now called the Appalachian Trail Conservancy ) .
A retired judge named Arthur Perkins and his younger associate Myron Avery took up the cause . In 1929 , Perkins , who was also a member of the Connecticut Forest and Park Association and its Blue Blazed Trails committee , found Ned Anderson , a farmer in Sherman , Connecticut , who took on the task of mapping and blazing the Connecticut leg of the trail ( 1929 – 1933 ) . It ran from Dog Tail Corners in Webatuck , New York , which borders Kent , Connecticut , at Ashley Falls , 50 miles ( 80 km ) through the northwest corner of the state , up to Bear Mountain at the Massachusetts border . ( A portion of the Connecticut trail has since been rerouted ( 1979 – 1983 ) to be more scenic , adhering less to highways and more to wilderness , and includes a Ned K. Anderson Memorial Bridge . )
Anderson 's efforts helped spark renewed interest in the trail , and Avery ( who led the charge after Perkins ’ death in 1932 ) was able to bring other states on board . Upon taking over the ATC , Avery adopted the more practical goal of building a simple hiking trail . He and MacKaye clashed over the ATC 's response to a major commercial development along the trail 's path ; MacKaye left the organization , while Avery was willing to simply reroute the trail . Avery reigned as Chairman of the ATC from 1932 to 1952 ( he died that same year ) .
Avery became the first to walk the trail end @-@ to @-@ end , though not as a thru @-@ hike , in 1936 . In August 1937 , the trail was completed to Sugarloaf Mountain in Maine , and the ATC shifted its focus toward protecting the trail lands and mapping the trail for hikers .
In 1948 , Earl Shaffer of York , Pennsylvania , brought a great deal of attention to the project by completing the first documented thru @-@ hike . Shaffer later completed the first north @-@ to @-@ south thru @-@ hike , making him the first to do so in each direction . In 1998 , Shaffer , nearly 80 years old , again hiked the entirety of the trail , making him the oldest person to complete a thru @-@ hike .
In 1994 , a story appeared in the Appalachian Trailway News describing a 121 @-@ day Maine to Georgia thru @-@ hike in 1936 by six Boy Scouts from the Bronx . Although the story has been accepted by some members of ALDHA , a great deal of doubt has also been expressed and this earlier thru @-@ hike has never been verified . Shaffer 's 1948 journey is still generally recognized as the first A.T. thru @-@ hike .
In the 1960s , the ATC made progress toward protecting the trail from development , thanks to efforts of politicians and officials . The National Trails System Act of 1968 designated the Pacific Crest Trail and Appalachian Trail as the first national scenic trails and paved the way for a series of National Scenic Trails within the National Park and National Forest systems . Trail volunteers worked with the National Park Service to map a permanent route for the trail , and by 1971 a permanent route had been marked ( though minor changes continue to this day ) . By the close of the 20th century , the Park Service had completed the purchase of all but a few miles of the trail 's span .
= = Extensions = =
The International Appalachian Trail is a 1 @,@ 900 @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 100 km ) extension running northeast from Maine into New Brunswick and Quebec 's Gaspé Peninsula , where it ends at Forillon National Park . It is a separate trail and not an official extension of the Appalachian Trail . Other branches are designated in parts of Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and along the western shore of Newfoundland , to the northern end of the Appalachian Mountain range , where it enters the Atlantic Ocean , near L 'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site . The route has since been extended to Greenland , Europe , and Morocco .
Although the Appalachian Trail ends in Georgia , the Appalachian Mountains continue south to Flagg Mountain in Alabama . In 2008 , the Pinhoti National Recreation Trail in Alabama and Georgia , which terminates at Flagg Mountain , was connected to the southern terminus of the Appalachian Trail via the Benton MacKaye Trail . Promoters of the Southern extension refer to MacKaye 's statement at the 1925 conference that the Georgia to New Hampshire trail should , in the future , extend to Katahdin , and " then to Birmingham , Alabama " . As of March 2015 , The Pinhoti Trail terminates at the base of Flagg Mountain , near Weogufka in Coosa County , 50 miles ( 80 km ) east of Birmingham . In 2010 , the Alabama state legislature formed the Alabama Appalachian Mountain Trail Commission to provide state resources for trail improvements , although officially designating Pinhoti as part of the Appalachian Trail would require an act of the United States Congress .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The Appalachian Trail is home to thousands of species of plants and animals , including 2 @,@ 000 rare , threatened , endangered , and sensitive plant and animal species .
= = = Animals = = =
The American black bear ( Ursus americanus ) , among the largest animals along the Appalachian Trail , rarely confronts people . The black bear is the largest omnivore that may be encountered on the trail , and it inhabits all regions of the Appalachians . Bear sightings on the trail are uncommon , except in certain sections , especially Shenandoah National Park and portions of New Jersey , New York , Connecticut , and Massachusetts sections , where bear populations have increased steadily since 1980 ; confrontations are rarer still . Other hazards include venomous snakes , including the Eastern timber rattlesnake and copperhead , which are common along the trail . Both snakes are generally found in drier , rockier sections of the trail ; the copperhead 's range extends north to around the New Jersey – New York state line , while rattlesnakes are commonly found along the trail in Connecticut and have been reported , although rarely , as far north as New Hampshire . Other large mammals commonly sighted include deer ; elk , reintroduced in the Smoky Mountains ; and moose , which may be found in the vicinity of Massachusetts and northward .
For most hikers , the most persistent pests along the trail are ticks , mosquitos , and black flies along with the mice that inhabit shelters .
= = = Plants = = =
Plant life along the trail is varied . The trail passes through several different biomes from south to north , and the climate changes significantly , particularly dependent upon elevation . In the south , lowland forests consist mainly of second @-@ growth ; nearly the entire trail has been logged at one time or another . There are , however , a few old growth locations along the trail , such as Sages Ravine straddling the Massachusetts @-@ Connecticut border and atop higher peaks along the trail on either side of the same border , the Hopper ( a glacial cirque westward of the trail as it traverses Mt . Greylock in Massachusetts ) , and " The Hermitage " , near Gulf Hagas in Maine . In the south , the forest is dominated by hardwoods , including oak and tulip trees , also known as yellow poplar . Farther north , tulip trees are gradually replaced by maples and birches . Oaks begin to disappear in Massachusetts . By Vermont , the lowland forest is made up of maples , birch and beech , which provide spectacular foliage displays for hikers in September and October . While the vast majority of lowland forest south of the White Mountains is hardwood , many areas have some coniferous trees as well , and in Maine , these often grow at low elevations .
There is a drastic change between the lowland and subalpine , evergreen forest , as well as another , higher break , at tree line , above which only hardy alpine plants grow . The sub @-@ alpine region is far more prevalent along the trail than true alpine conditions . While it mainly exists in the north , a few mountains in the south have subalpine environments , which are typically coated in an ecosystem known as the Southern Appalachian spruce @-@ fir forest . Southern ranges and mountains where sub @-@ alpine environments occur include the Great Smoky Mountains , where sub @-@ alpine environments only begin around 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) in elevation , Roan Highlands on the North Carolina @-@ Tennessee border , where sub @-@ alpine growth descends below 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) , and Mount Rogers and the Grayson Highlands in Virginia , where there is some alpine growth above 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) . Appalachian balds are also found in the Southern highlands , and are believed to occur due to fires or grazing in recent centuries , or in some cases due to thin , sandy soils . Several balds are sprouting trees , and on some , the National Forest service actually mows the grasses periodically in order to keep the balds free of trees .
= = Topography = =
No sub @-@ alpine regions exist between Mount Rogers in Virginia and Mount Greylock in Massachusetts , mainly because the trail stays below 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) from Shenandoah National Park in Virginia to Mount Greylock . Mount Greylock , however , has a large subalpine region , the only such forest in Massachusetts , extending down to 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) , which in the south would be far from the sub @-@ alpine cutoff . This is especially low because Greylock is exposed to prevailing westerly winds , as the summits along its ridgeline rise approximately 200 to 650 feet ( 61 to 198 m ) higher than any other peak in Massachusetts . Farther north , several peaks in Vermont reach into the sub @-@ alpine zone , the bottom of which steadily descends as one proceeds northward , so that by the White Mountains in New Hampshire , it often occurs well below 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) . At Mount Moosilauke , which summits at 4 @,@ 802 feet ( 1 @,@ 464 m ) , the first alpine environment on the trail is reached , where only thin , sporadic flora is interspersed with bare rocks . Between the two regions is the krummholz region , where stunted trees grow with their branches oriented away from the winter 's prevailing northwest wind , thus giving the appearance of flags ( they are often called " flag trees " ) . This region resembles lowland terrain hundreds of miles north in Canada . It also contains many endangered and threatened species . The trail has been rerouted over New Hampshire 's Presidential Range so the Appalachian Mountain Club can protect certain plant life . The alpine cutoff in the Whites is generally between 4 @,@ 200 and 4 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 and 1 @,@ 500 m ) . Mountains traversed by the A.T. above treeline include Mount Moosilauke , several miles along the Franconia Range and along the Presidential Range . In the Presidentials , the trail climbs as high as 6 @,@ 288 feet ( 1 @,@ 917 m ) on Mount Washington and spends about 13 miles ( 21 km ) continuously above treeline , in the largest alpine environment in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains .
The segments of the trail through Pennsylvania are so rocky that hikers refer to the region as " Rocksylvania " . These small rocks — the result of erosion that has worn away the dirt along the trails — can be tough to walk on for extended periods of time without proper hard @-@ soled shoes .
In Maine , the trail extends into even harsher environments , and sub @-@ alpine and alpine growth descends to lower elevations . Alpine growth in the state ranges from around 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) in the Mahoosuc Range to below 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) in parts of the Hundred @-@ Mile Wilderness , where nearly every area higher than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) is evergreen forest . These forests include more species of evergreen , as well . In addition to the white pine , spruce and hemlock prevalent further south , Maine has many cedar trees along the trail . Near the northern terminus , there are even some tamarack ( larch ) , a coniferous , pine @-@ needled deciduous tree , which provides displays of yellow in the late fall after the birches and maples have gone bare . The hemlocks in Maine are also notable , as the woolly adelgid , which has ravaged populations further south , has not come into the state yet , and may be unable to make it so far north due to the cold climate .
Maine also has several alpine regions . In addition to several areas of the Mahoosuc Range , the Baldpates and Old Blue in southern Maine have alpine characteristics despite elevations below 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) . Saddleback Mountain and Mount Bigelow , further north , each only extend a bit above 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , but have long alpine areas , with no tree growth on the summits and unobstructed views on clear days . From Mount Bigelow , the trail extends for 150 miles ( 240 km ) with only a small area of alpine growth around 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) on the summit of White Cap Mountain . Mount Katahdin , the second largest alpine environment in the eastern United States , has several square miles of alpine area on the flat " table land " summit as well as the cliffs and aretes leading up to it . Treeline on Mount Katahdin is only around 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . This elevation in Massachusetts would barely be a sub @-@ alpine region , and , south of Virginia , consists of lowland forest . This illustrates the drastic change in climate over 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) .
Despite the alpine environments well below 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) in New Hampshire and Maine , some higher places farther south are not alpine . Examples include Wayah Bald in North Carolina 5 @,@ 342 feet ( 1 @,@ 628 m ) and Clingmans Dome in Great Smoky Mountains National Park 6 @,@ 643 feet ( 2 @,@ 025 m ) .
= = Hiking the trail = =
The Appalachian Trail is much more frequently hiked south to north ( that is , Georgia to Maine ) than vice versa . Hikers typically begin in March or April and finish in late summer or early to late fall of that particular year . Bicycles are prohibited from the trail except for the sections which follow the C & O Canal in Maryland and the Virginia Creeper Trail in Virginia . Horses and pack animals are prohibited except horses on the C & O Canal and in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park . Several short segments of the trail , in towns and scenic natural areas , were built to ADA accessibly standards for wheelchair use .
= = = Navigation = = =
Throughout its length , the AT is marked by 2 by 6 inches ( 5 by 15 cm ) white paint blazes . Side trails to shelters , viewpoints and parking areas use similarly shaped blue blazes . In past years , some sections of the trail also used metal diamond markers with the AT logo , few of which survive .
= = = Lodging and camping = = =
Most hikers carry a lightweight tent , tent hammock or tarp . The trail has more than 250 shelters and campsites available for hikers . The shelters , sometimes called lean @-@ tos ( in Maine , Massachusetts , and Connecticut ) , huts ( in Shenandoah National Park ) , or Adirondack shelters , are generally open , three @-@ walled structures with a wooden floor , although some shelters are much more complex in structure . Shelters are usually spaced a day 's hike or less apart , most often near a water source ( which may be dry ) and with a privy . They generally have spaces for tent sites in the vicinity as the shelters may be full . The Appalachian Mountain Club ( AMC ) operates a system of eight huts along 56 miles ( 90 km ) of New Hampshire 's White Mountains . These huts are significantly larger than standard trail shelters and offer full @-@ service lodging and meals during the summer months . The Fontana Dam Shelter in North Carolina is more commonly referred to as the Fontana Hilton because of amenities ( e.g. flush toilets ) and its proximity to an all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat buffet and post office . Several AMC huts have an extended self @-@ service season during the fall , with two extending self @-@ service seasons through the winter and spring . The Potomac Appalachian Trail Club maintains trail cabins , shelters , and huts throughout the Shenandoah region of Virginia .
Shelters are generally maintained by local volunteers . Almost all shelters have one or more pre @-@ hung food hangers ( generally consisting of a short nylon cord with an upside @-@ down tuna can suspended halfway down its length ) where hikers can hang their food bags to keep them out of the reach of rodents . In hiker lingo , these are sometimes called " mouse trapezes . "
In addition to official shelters , many people offer their homes , places of business , or inns to accommodate AT hikers . One example is the Little Lyford Pond camps maintained by the Appalachian Mountain Club . Inns are more common in sections of the trail that coincide with national parks , most notably Virginia 's Shenandoah National Park .
= = = Trail towns = = =
The trail crosses many roads , thus providing ample opportunity for hikers to hitchhike into town for food and other supplies . Many trail towns are accustomed to hikers passing through , and thus many have hotels and hiker @-@ oriented accommodations . Some of the most well @-@ known trail towns are Hot Springs , North Carolina ; Erwin , Tennessee ; Damascus , Virginia ; Harpers Ferry , West Virginia ; Duncannon , Pennsylvania ; Port Clinton , Pennsylvania ; Hanover , New Hampshire ; and Monson , Maine . In the areas of the trail closer to trail towns , many hikers have experienced what is sometimes called " trail magic , " or assistance from strangers through kind actions , gifts , and other forms of encouragement . Trail magic is sometimes done anonymously . In other instances , persons have provided food and cooked for hikers at a campsite .
= = = Hazards = = =
The Appalachian Trail is relatively safe . Most injuries or incidents are consistent with comparable outdoor activities . Most hazards are related to weather conditions , human error , plants , animals , diseases , and fellow humans encountered along the trail .
Many animals live around the trail , with bears , snakes , and wild boars posing the greatest threat to human safety . Several rodent- and bug @-@ borne illnesses are also a potential hazard . In scattered instances , foxes , raccoons , and other small animals may bite hikers , posing risk of rabies and other diseases . There has been one reported case ( in 1993 ) of hantavirus ( HPS ) , a rare but dangerous rodent @-@ borne disease affecting the lungs . The afflicted hiker recovered and hiked the trail the following year . The section of the trail that runs through the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England states has a very high population of deer ticks carrying Lyme and other tick @-@ borne diseases , and corresponds to the highest density of reported Lyme Disease in the country .
Poison ivy is common the length of the trail , and more plentiful in the South .
The weather is another major consideration of hikers on the trail . Hiking season of the trail generally starts in mid @-@ to @-@ late spring , when conditions are much more favorable in the South . However , this time may also be characterized by extreme heat , sometimes in excess of 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Under such conditions , hydration is imperative . Light clothing and sunscreens are a must at high elevations and areas without foliage , even in relatively cool weather . Farther north and at higher elevations , the weather can be cold , characterized by low temperatures , strong winds , hail or snow storms and reduced visibility . Prolonged rain , though not typically life @-@ threatening , can undermine stamina and ruin supplies . In March 2015 , a hiker was killed on the trail in Maryland when a large tree blew over and fell onto him .
Violent crime , including murder , has occurred on the trail in a few instances . Most have been crimes by non @-@ hikers who crossed paths relatively randomly with the AT hiker @-@ victims . The official website of the Appalachian Trail Conservancy points out that the number of violent crimes is extremely low when compared against the number of people ( 3 to 4 million ) who hike on the trail every year .
The first reported homicide on the trail was in 1974 in Georgia . In 1981 , the issue of violence on the Appalachian Trail received national attention when Robert Mountford , Jr. and Laura Susan Ramsay , both social workers in Ellsworth , Maine , were murdered by Randall Lee Smith . Another homicide occurred in May 1996 , when two women were abducted , bound and murdered near the trail in Shenandoah National Park . The primary suspect was later discovered harassing a female bicycler in the vicinity , but charges against him were dropped , and the case remains unsolved .
Human error can lead to casualties as well . In July 2013 , 66 @-@ year @-@ old lone hiker Geraldine Largay disappeared on the trail in Maine . She got very lost and survived 26 days before dying . Her remains were found 2 years later in October 2015 . In October 2015 , a hiker visiting from England was killed on the trail by falling while taking photos at the Annapolis Rocks overlook in Maryland .
= = = Trail completion = = =
Trail hikers who attempt to complete the entire trail in a single season are called " thru @-@ hikers " ; those who traverse the trail during a series of separate trips are known as " section @-@ hikers " . Rugged terrain , weather extremes , illness , injury , and the time and effort required make thru @-@ hiking difficult to accomplish . Per 2014 estimates around 2700 hikers attempted to thru @-@ hike the trail .
Historically , only about 10 % to 15 % of those who make the attempt report to the Appalachian Trail Conservancy that they completed it . However , since 2001 , the number of people starting out in Georgia to do a thru @-@ hike ( or at least registering to do so ) has dropped considerably , yet the number of people reporting that they have completed a thru @-@ hike has remained approximately the same . This has resulted in an apparent increase in the completion rate to 29 % ( as of 2006 ) .
A thru @-@ hike generally requires five to seven months , although some have done it in three months , and several trail runners have completed the trail in less time . Trail runners typically tackle the AT with automobile support teams , without backpacks , and without camping in the woods .
The current speed record for a supported thru @-@ hike of the AT was set by Scott Jurek in 2015 , at 46 days , 8 hours , and 7 minutes . Jurek made the trip northbound , from late May to mid @-@ July , breaking the previous ( 2011 ) record by Jennifer Pharr Davis by just 3 hours . The current speed record for a self @-@ supported ( meaning no vehicle or crew support , implying carrying a heavy backpack ) thru @-@ hike was set by Heather " Anish " Anderson . She completed the trail , southbound , on September 24 , 2015 , in 54 days 7 hours and 48 minutes . She broke the previous ( 2013 ) record by Matthew Kirk by 4 days and 2 hours .
Thru @-@ hikers are classified into many informal groups . " Purists " are hikers who stick to the official AT trail , follow the white blazes , except for side trips to shelters and camp sites . " Blue Blazers " cut miles from the full route by taking side trails marked by blue blazes . The generally pejorative name " Yellow Blazers , " a reference to yellow road stripes , is given to those who hitchhike to move either down or up the trail .
Most thru @-@ hikers walk northward from Georgia to Maine , and generally start out in early spring and follow the warm weather as it moves north . These " north @-@ bounders " are also called NOBO ( NOrthBOund ) or GAME ( Georgia ( GA ) -to @-@ Maine ( ME ) ) , while those heading in the opposite direction are termed " south @-@ bounders " ( also SOBO or MEGA ) .
Part of hiker subculture includes making colorful entries in logbooks at trail shelters , signed using pseudonyms called " trail names " .
The Appalachian Trail Conservancy gives the name " 2000 Miler " to anyone who completes the entire trail . The ATC 's recognition policy for " 2000 Milers " gives equal recognition to thru @-@ hikers and section @-@ hikers , operates on the honor system , and recognizes blue @-@ blazed trails or officially required roadwalks as substitutes for the official , white @-@ blazed route during an emergency such as a flood , forest fire , or impending storm on an exposed , high @-@ elevation stretch . As of 2010 , more than 11 @,@ 000 people had reported completing the entire trail . About three @-@ quarters of these are thru @-@ hikers .
The Appalachian Trail , the Continental Divide Trail , and the Pacific Crest Trail form what is known as the Triple Crown of long @-@ distance hiking in the United States . In 2001 , Brian Robinson became the first one to complete all three trails in a year . In 2015 , Heather Anderson ( trail name " Anish " ) became the first woman to hold the unsupported record on the Appalachian Trail and the Pacific Crest Trail simultaneously .
= = Route = =
The trail is currently protected along more than 99 % of its course by federal or state ownership of the land or by right @-@ of @-@ way . The trail is maintained by a variety of citizen organizations , environmental advocacy groups , governmental agencies and individuals . Annually , more than 4 @,@ 000 volunteers contribute over 175 @,@ 000 hours of effort on the Appalachian Trail , an effort coordinated largely by the Appalachian Trail Conservancy ( ATC ) organization . In total , the AT passes through eight national forests and two national parks .
In the course of its journey , the trail follows the ridge line of the Appalachian Mountains , crossing many of its highest peaks , and running , with only a few exceptions , almost continuously through wilderness . The trail used to traverse many hundreds of miles of private property ; currently 99 % of the trail is on public land .
= = = Georgia = = =
Georgia has 75 miles ( 121 km ) of the trail , including the southern terminus at Springer Mountain at an elevation of 3 @,@ 782 feet ( 1 @,@ 153 m ) . At 4 @,@ 461 feet ( 1 @,@ 360 m ) , Blood Mountain is the highest point on the trail in Georgia . The AT and approach trail , along with many miles of blue blazed side trails , are managed and maintained by the Georgia Appalachian Trail Club . See also : Georgia Peaks on the Appalachian Trail .
= = = North Carolina = = =
North Carolina has 88 miles ( 142 km ) of the trail , not including more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) along the Tennessee Border . Altitude ranges from 1 @,@ 725 to 5 @,@ 498 feet ( 526 to 1 @,@ 676 m ) . The trail enters from Georgia at Bly Gap , ascending peaks such as Standing Indian Mountain , Mt . Albert , and Wayah Bald . It then goes by Nantahala Outdoor Center at the Nantahala River Gorge and the Nantahala River crossing . Up to this point , the trail is maintained by the Nantahala Hiking Club . Beyond this point , it is maintained by the Smoky Mountains Hiking Club . 30 miles ( 48 km ) further north , Fontana Dam marks the entrance to Great Smoky Mountains National Park .
= = = Tennessee = = =
Tennessee has 71 miles ( 114 km ) of the trail , not including more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) along or near the North Carolina Border . The section that runs just below the summit of Clingmans Dome in Great Smoky Mountains National Park is along the North Carolina and Tennessee border and is the highest point on the trail at 6 @,@ 643 feet ( 2 @,@ 025 m ) . The Smoky Mountains Hiking Club ( Knoxville , TN ) maintains the trail throughout the Great Smoky Mountains National Park to Davenport Gap . North of Davenport Gap , the Carolina Mountain Club ( Asheville , NC ) maintains the trail to Spivey Gap . Then the remaining Tennessee section is maintained by the Tennessee Eastman Hiking & Canoeing Club ( Kingsport , TN ) .
= = = Virginia = = =
Virginia has 550 miles ( 890 km ) of the trail , by far the longest of any state , including about 20 miles ( 32 km ) along the West Virginia border . With the climate , and the timing of northbound hikers , this section is wet and challenging because of the spring thaw and heavy spring rainfall . Substantial portions closely parallel the Blue Ridge Parkway and , in Shenandoah National Park , Skyline Drive . Parts of the trail near the Blue Ridge Parkway and the Skyline Drive are often considered the best for beginner hikers . In the southwestern portion of the state , the trail goes within one half mile of the highest point in Virginia , Mount Rogers , which is a short side @-@ hike from the AT .
= = = West Virginia = = =
West Virginia has 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of the trail , not including about 20 miles ( 32 km ) along the Virginia border . Here the trail passes through the town of Harpers Ferry , headquarters of the Appalachian Trail Conservancy . Harpers Ferry is what many consider to be the mental midpoint of the entire A.T. , although the actual midpoint is further north in southern Pennsylvania . ( The exact midpoint moves due to trail rerouting . )
= = = Maryland = = =
Maryland has 41 miles ( 66 km ) of the trail , with elevations ranging from 230 to 1 @,@ 880 feet ( 70 to 573 m ) . Most of the trail runs along the ridgeline of South Mountain in South Mountain State Park . Hikers are required to stay at designated shelters and campsites . The trail runs through the eastern edge of Greenbrier State Park . This can serve as a luxurious stop point for a hot shower and a visit to the camp store . The trail runs along the C & O Canal Towpath route for 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) . Hikers will also pass High Rock , which offers spectacular views and is a popular hang @-@ gliding site . The section ends at Pen Mar Park , which sits on the border of Maryland and Pennsylvania .
= = = Pennsylvania = = =
Pennsylvania has 229 @.@ 6 miles ( 369 @.@ 5 km ) of the trail . The trail extends from the Pennsylvania – Maryland line at Pen Mar , a tiny town straddling the state line , to the Delaware Water Gap , at the Pennsylvania – New Jersey border . The Susquehanna River is generally considered the dividing line between the northern and southern sections of the Pennsylvania AT . South of the Susquehanna , the trail passes through Pine Grove Furnace State Park . The Pennsylvania section of the trail north of the Susquehanna , from Duncannon until the Delaware Water Gap , is noted for its eroded and rocky terrain which can slow hiking .
= = = New Jersey = = =
New Jersey is home to 72 @.@ 2 miles ( 116 @.@ 2 km ) of the trail . The trail enters New Jersey from the south on a pedestrian walkway along the Interstate 80 bridge over the Delaware River , ascends from the Delaware Water Gap to the top of Kittatinny Mountain in Worthington State Forest , passes Sunfish Pond ( right ) , continues north through the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area and Stokes State Forest and eventually reaches High Point State Park , the highest peak in New Jersey ( a side trail is required to reach the actual peak ) . It then turns in a southeastern direction along the New York border for about 30 miles ( 48 km ) , passing over long sections of boardwalk bridges over marshy land , then entering Wawayanda State Park and then the Abram S. Hewitt State Forest just before entering New York near Greenwood Lake . In New Jersey the New York - New Jersey Trail Conference maintains and updates the Appalachian Trail .
Black bear activity along the trail in New Jersey increased rapidly starting in 2001 . Hence , metal bear @-@ proof trash boxes are in place at all New Jersey shelters .
= = = New York = = =
New York 's 88 @.@ 4 miles ( 142 @.@ 3 km ) of trail contain very little elevation change compared to other states . From south to north , the trail summits many small mountains under 1 @,@ 400 feet ( 430 m ) in elevation , its highest point in New York being Prospect Rock at 1 @,@ 433 feet ( 437 m ) , and only 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) from the border with New Jersey . The trail continues north , climbing near Fitzgerald Falls , passing through Sterling Forest , and then entering Harriman State Park and Bear Mountain State Park . The lowest point on the entire Appalachian Trail is in the Bear Mountain Zoo 124 feet ( 38 m ) . It crosses the Hudson River on the Bear Mountain Bridge . It then passes through Fahnestock State Park , and continues northeast and crosses the Metro @-@ North Railroad 's Harlem Line . This track crossing is the site of the only train station along the trail 's length . It enters Connecticut via the Pawling Nature Reserve . The section of the trail that passes through Harriman and Bear Mountain State Parks is the oldest section of the trail , completed in 1923 . A portion of this section was paved by 700 volunteers with 800 granite @-@ slab steps followed by over a mile of walkway supported by stone crib walls with boulders lining the path . The project took four years , cost roughly $ 1 million , and was officially opened in June 2010 . The project was done by the New York – New Jersey Trail Conference . The New York – New Jersey Trail Conference maintains and updates the Appalachian Trail in New York .
= = = Connecticut = = =
Connecticut 's 52 miles ( 84 km ) of trail lie almost entirely along the ridges to the west above the Housatonic River valley .
The state line is also the western boundary of a 480 acres ( 190 ha ) Connecticut reservation inhabited by Schaghticoke Indians . Inside it , the AT roughly parallels its northern boundary , crossing back outside it after 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) . The trail proceeds northward through the Housatonic River valley and hills to its west , veering northwesterly and , at Salisbury , ascending the southern Taconic mountains , at Lion 's Head affording a view northeasterly towards Mt . Greylock and other points in Massachusetts , and at Bear Mountain , reaching over 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) in elevation for the first time since Pennsylvania and yielding views across the Hudson River valley to the Catskills and across the broad expanse of the Housatonic valley and the Berkshire and Litchfield Hills to the east . Just north of Bear , the trail , as it crosses into Massachusetts , descends into Sages Ravine , a deep gorge in the eastern Taconic ridgeline which is home to a fragile old growth forest . As the trail crosses the brook in the ravine , it leaves the area maintained by the Connecticut section of the Appalachian Mountain Club .
= = = Massachusetts = = =
Massachusetts has 90 miles ( 140 km ) of trail . The entire section of trail is in western Massachusetts ' Berkshire County . It summits the highest peak in the southern Taconic Range , Mount Everett ( 2 @,@ 604 feet ( 794 m ) ) , then descends to the Housatonic River valley and skirts the town of Great Barrington . The trail passes through the towns of Dalton and Cheshire , and summits the highest point in the state at 3 @,@ 491 feet ( 1 @,@ 064 m ) , Mount Greylock . It then quickly descends to the valley within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of North Adams and Williamstown , before ascending again to the Vermont state line . The trail throughout Massachusetts is maintained by the Berkshire Chapter of the Appalachian Mountain Club .
= = = Vermont = = =
Vermont has 150 miles ( 240 km ) of the trail . Upon entering Vermont , the trail coincides with the southernmost sections of the generally north / south @-@ oriented Long Trail . It follows the ridge of the southern Green Mountains , summitting such notable peaks as Stratton Mountain , Glastenbury Mountain , and Killington Peak . After parting ways with the Long Trail at Maine Junction , the AT turns in a more eastward direction , crossing the White River , passing through Norwich , and entering Hanover , New Hampshire , as it crosses the Connecticut River . The Green Mountain Club maintains the AT from the Massachusetts state border to Route 12 . The Dartmouth Outing Club maintains the trail from VT Route 12 to the New Hampshire state line .
= = = New Hampshire = = =
New Hampshire has 161 miles ( 259 km ) of the trail . The New Hampshire AT is nearly all within the White Mountain National Forest . For northbound thru @-@ hikers , it is the beginning of the main challenges that go beyond enduring distance and time : in New Hampshire and Maine , rough or steep ground are more frequent and alpine conditions are found near summits and along ridges . The trail reaches 17 of the 48 four @-@ thousand footers of New Hampshire , including 6 @,@ 288 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 917 m ) Mount Washington , the highest point of the AT north of Tennessee . The Dartmouth Outing Club maintains the AT from the Vermont border past Mount Moosilauke to Kinsman Notch , northwest of Woodstock , New Hampshire , Randolph Mountain Club maintains 2 @.@ 2 miles from Osgood Trail near Madison Hut to Edmands Col , with the AMC maintaining the remaining miles through the state . The weather includes strong winds and fog .
= = = Maine = = =
Maine has 281 miles ( 452 km ) of the trail . The northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail is on Mount Katahdin 's Baxter Peak in Baxter State Park .
In some parts of the trail in Maine , such as Mahoosuc Notch , even the strongest hikers may only average 1 mile per hour ( 1 @.@ 6 km / h ) . There are other parts in which hikers must hold on to tree limbs and roots to climb and descend , which are especially dangerous and hazardous in wet weather conditions .
The western section includes a mile @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) stretch of boulders , some of which hikers must pass under , at Mahoosuc Notch , sometimes called the trail 's hardest mile . Although there are dozens of river and stream fords on the Maine section of the trail , the Kennebec River is the only one on the trail that requires a boat crossing . The most isolated portion of the Appalachian Trail , known as the " Hundred @-@ Mile Wilderness " , occurs in Maine . It heads east @-@ northeast from the town of Monson and ends outside Baxter State Park just south of Abol Bridge .
Park management strongly discourages thru @-@ hiking within the park before May 15 or after October 15 .
The AMC maintains the AT from the New Hampshire border to Grafton Notch , with the Maine Appalachian Trail Club responsible for maintaining the remaining miles to Mt . Katahdin . The international extension , called the International Appalachian Trail begins at Mt . Katahdin .
= = Major intersections = =
Listed from south to north .
Southern terminus : Springer Mountain , Georgia
U.S. Route 76 in northeast Georgia
U.S. Route 64 near Nantahala River , North Carolina
U.S. Route 19 / U.S. Route 74 near Fontana Lake , North Carolina
U.S. Route 441 at North Carolina / Tennessee border
Interstate 40 at North Carolina / Tennessee border
U.S. Route 25 / U.S. Route 70 in Hot Springs , North Carolina
Interstate 26 / U.S. Route 23 at North Carolina / Tennessee border
U.S. Route 19W at North Carolina / Tennessee border
U.S. Route 19E near Roan Mountain , Tennessee
U.S. Route 321 at Watauga Lake , Tennessee
U.S. Route 421 near South Holston Lake , Tennessee
U.S. Route 58 in Damascus , Virginia
Interstate 81 near Marion , Virginia
Interstate 77 / U.S. Route 52 near Wytheville , Virginia
U.S. Route 460 in Pearisburg , Virginia
Interstate 81 near Roanoke , Virginia
U.S. Route 501 at James River , Virginia
U.S. Route 60 near Buena Vista , Virginia
Interstate 64 near Waynesboro , Virginia
U.S. Route 250 near Waynesboro , Virginia
U.S. Route 33 in Shenandoah National Park
U.S. Route 211 near Luray , Virginia
U.S. Route 522 near Front Royal , Virginia
Interstate 66 in Front Royal , Virginia
U.S. Route 17 / U.S. Route 50 near Waterloo , Virginia
U.S. Route 340 in Harpers Ferry , West Virginia
U.S. Route 340 in Sandy Hook , Maryland
Interstate 70 / U.S. Route 40 near Hagerstown , Maryland
U.S. Route 30 near Fayetteville , Pennsylvania
Interstate 76 in Middlesex Township , Pennsylvania
U.S. Route 11 in Middlesex Township , Pennsylvania
Interstate 81 in Middlesex Township , Pennsylvania
U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 in Duncannon , Pennsylvania
U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 in Duncannon , Pennsylvania
Interstate 81 near Fort Indiantown Gap , Pennsylvania
Interstate 476 near Slatington , Pennsylvania
Interstate 80 at Pennsylvania / New Jersey border
U.S. Route 206 near Frankford , New Jersey
Interstate 87 near Harriman , New York
U.S. Route 6 / U.S. Route 9W / U.S. Route 202 near Fort Montgomery , New York
U.S. Route 9 near Garrison , New York
Taconic State Parkway near Shenandoah , New York
Interstate 84 near Whaley Lake , New York
U.S. Route 7 near Falls Village , Connecticut
U.S. Route 44 near Salisbury , Connecticut
U.S. Route 7 near Great Barrington , Massachusetts
Interstate 90 near Lee , Massachusetts
U.S. Route 20 near Lee , Massachusetts
U.S. Route 4 near Rutland , Vermont
Interstate 89 near West Hartford , Vermont
U.S. Route 5 in Norwich , Vermont
Interstate 91 in Norwich , Vermont
Interstate 93 / U.S. Route 3 near Franconia , New Hampshire
U.S. Route 302 in White Mountain National Forest
U.S. Route 2 near Gorham , New Hampshire
U.S. Route 201 in Caratunk , Maine
Northern terminus : Mt . Katahdin , Maine
= = Use in research = =
The Appalachian Trail has been a resource for researchers in a variety of disciplines . Portions of the trail in Tennessee were used on a study on trail maintenance for the trail 's " uniform environmental conditions and design attributes and substantial gradient in visitor use . " Beginning in 2007 , various citizen groups , including the Appalachian Trail Conservancy and the American Hiking Society , began a study to monitor environmental changes that have resulted from higher ozone levels , acid rain , smog , and other air quality factors . Such research has been supported by the National Park Service , U.S. Forest Service , Cornell University , the National Geographic Society , and Aveda Corporation .
Behavioral studies have also been conducted on hikers themselves . A 2007 study on hikers found that most persons hike the trail " for fun and enjoyment of life and for warm relationships with others " and that " environmental awareness , physical challenge , camaraderie , exercise , and solitude " were chief results among hikers . Since the highest single demographic of thru @-@ hikers are males between the ages of 18 – 29 , one informal study sought to find the correlation between this group and male college drop @-@ outs .
= Battle of Prokhorovka =
The Battle of Prokhorovka was fought on 12 July 1943 near Prokhorovka , 87 kilometres ( 54 mi ) southeast of Kursk , in the Soviet Union , during the Second World War . Taking place on the Eastern Front , the fighting was part of the wider Battle of Kursk , and occurred when the 5th Guards Tank Army of the Soviet Red Army attacked the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps of the German Wehrmacht in one of the largest tank battles in military history .
In April 1943 , the German high command began preparing for Operation Citadel , with the aim of enveloping and destroying the Soviet forces in the Kursk salient . The Soviet high command , Stavka , learned of the German intentions and prepared a series of defensive lines along the routes of the planned German offensive . The Soviets also massed several armies deep behind their defences as a reserve . This group , the Steppe Front , was to be used to launch their own counteroffensives once the German strength had dissipated . The 5th Guards Tank Army was the primary offensive formation of the Steppe Front . On 5 July 1943 the Germans launched their offensive . On the southern side of the salient , the German 4th Panzer Army , with Army Detachment Kempf on its eastern flank , attacked the Soviet defences of the Voronezh Front .
A week into the German offensive the Soviets counterattacked . On the southern side of the salient near Prokhorovka the 5th Guards Tank Army engaged the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps of the 4th Panzer Army , resulting in a large clash of armour . The 5th Guards Tank Army was decimated in the attack , but succeeded in preventing the Germans from capturing Prokhorovka and breaking through the third defensive belt to achieve operational freedom . The German offensive was later cancelled and their forces were withdrawn . The Red Army went on a general offensive and seized the strategic initiative on the Eastern Front , which it was to hold for the rest of the war .
= = Background = =
As the spring rasputitsa ( mud ) season came to an end in 1943 , both the German and Soviet commands considered their plans for future operations . The Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and some senior Soviet officers wanted to seize the initiative first and attack the German forces inside the Soviet Union , but they were convinced by a number of key commanders , including the Deputy Supreme Commander Georgiy Zhukov , to assume a defensive posture instead . This would allow the Germans to weaken themselves in attacking prepared positions , after which the Soviet forces would be able to reposture and go on the offensive . A similar strategy discussion occurred on the German side , with Field Marshal Erich von Manstein arguing for a mobile defence that would give up terrain and allow the Soviets to advance , while the Germans launched a series of sharp counterattacks against their flanks to inflict heavy attrition . But for political reasons Adolf Hitler insisted that the German forces go on the offensive , choosing the Kursk salient for the attack . On 15 April 1943 he authorised preparations for Unternehmen Zitadelle ( " Operation Citadel " ) .
The German offensive plan envisioned an assault at the base of the Kursk salient from both the north and south , with the intent of enveloping and destroying the Soviet forces in the salient . The two spearheads were to meet near Kursk . From the south , the XLVIII Panzer Corps and General Paul Hausser 's II SS @-@ Panzer Corps , forming the left and right wings of the 4th Panzer Army commanded by Colonel General Hermann Hoth , would drive northward . The III Panzer Corps of Army Detachment Kempf was to protect Hoth 's right flank from counterattack by the Soviet strategic reserves known to be located east of the salient . The 4th Panzer Army and Army Detachment Kempf were under Army Group South , commanded by Manstein . Air support over the southern portion of the offensive was provided by Colonel General Otto Deßloch 's Luftflotte 4 , whose major air formation , the VIII Fliegerkorps , was commanded by General Hans Seidemann .
Multiple delays by the Germans allowed the Soviets a great deal of time to prepare their defences . Employing defence in depth , they constructed a series of defensive lines to wear down the attacking panzer formations . Three belts made up of extensive minefields , anti @-@ tank ditches , and anti @-@ tank gun emplacements were created , with an additional three belts that were mostly unoccupied and less fortified backing the first three . The Voronezh Front , commanded by General Nikolai Vatutin , defended the southern face of the salient . The Steppe Front , commanded by Colonel General Ivan Konev , formed the strategic reserve . It was to be held back until the time was right for the Soviet counteroffensive . This formation included Lieutenant General Alexei Zhadov 's 5th Guards Army and Lieutenant General Pavel Rotmistrov 's 5th Guards Tank Army .
= = = German advance leading up to Prokhorovka = = =
The Germans launched their attack on the morning of 5 July 1943 and met heavy resistance . There were far more Soviet anti @-@ tank guns , minefields , anti @-@ tank ditches than had been anticipated , making a breakthrough more difficult to achieve . Furthermore , from the outset they were subjected to frequent counterattacks from Soviet tank units . Despite this , by the end of 5 July the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps had advanced through the first defensive belt and reached the second , although the plan was to breach the first two belts and reach the third on the first day . Nonetheless , the panzer corps ' penetration caused great concern among Soviet commanders , compelling Vatutin to commit almost all of Voronezh Front 's operational reserves by the end of the first day .
To the southeast , III Panzer Corps met with stiff resistance as well and had great difficulty creating and maintaining a bridgehead across the Northern Donets River . They eventually succeeded by the morning of 6 July , but the delay in their advance kept them from protecting the east flank of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps .
Late on 6 July , the 5th Guards Tank and the 5th Guards Armies of the Steppe Front began moving up from their reserve position , travelling at night to avoid detection . The 5th Guards Tank Army covered the 390 kilometres ( 240 mi ) over three nights , and arrived at the Prokhorovka area on the night of 9 July , and the 5th Guards Army 's 33rd Guards Rifle Corps arrived at the settlement on the night of 10 July .
Slow progress by the XLVIII Panzer Corps , caused Hoth to shift elements of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps on 8 July to aid the XLVIII Panzer Corp 's drive toward Oboyan and Kursk . On the same day , the Soviets counterattacked the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps with several tank corps . These attacks did not destroy the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps as hoped , but slowed its progress . By the end of 8 July , II SS @-@ Panzer Corps had advanced about 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) and broken through the first and second defensive belts .
On the following day , 9 July , a meeting of the German commanders of the forces on the northern side of the Kursk salient concluded that a breakthrough in the northern side of salient was unlikely . Nevertheless , they decided to continue their offensive to maintain pressure and inflict casualties , thereby tying down the Soviet forces there . The success of Operation Citadel now depended on a breakthrough being achieved by 4th Panzer Army and Army Detachment Kempf . On the evening of 9 July , the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps was ordered to shift its own forward progress , from due north to the northeast toward the settlement Prokhorovka . Hoth had formulated this move , and had discussed it with Manstein since early May , as he expected large Soviet armoured reserve forces to arrive from the east , and he did not want his corps to be caught crossing the Psel when they arrived . The plan originally envisioned elements of XLVIII Panzer Corps and III Panzer Corps joining in the attack toward Prokhorovka , but this could not be realised . The Soviet command , however , interpreted the change in direction to be a response to the heavy resistance the Germans had faced driving toward Oboyan , and believed the change indicated the German panzer forces were weakening .
Soviet intelligence reports issued from 8 to 9 July reported that defensive works were being constructed by German infantry on the flanks of the 4th Panzer Army , and that German armoured formations were not present in these locations , despite the fact that Soviet armoured formations were situated opposite these flanks . Voronezh Front headquarters supposed the Germans must be reaching their limit , and on 10 July decided to set its counteroffensive to coincide with the Soviet counteroffensive in the northern side of the Kursk salient .
Starting on the morning of 10 July , the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps began its attack toward Prokhorovka . Its 3rd SS Panzergrenadier Division Totenkopf attacked across the Psel River and secured a bridgehead . The 1st SS Panzergrenadier Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler captured Komsomolets State Farm and Hill 241 @.@ 6 . The 2nd SS Panzergrenadier Division Das Reich defended the panzer corps ' flank from Soviet armoured counterattacks .
The II SS @-@ Panzer Corps continued its attack toward Prokhorovka on 11 July . The advance of Leibstandarte was checked by the 2nd Tank Corps , which had been reinforced by the 9th Guards Airborne Division and 301st Anti @-@ tank Artillery Regiment , both from the 33rd Guards Rifle Corps . Totenkopf was resisted by the 31st Tank Corps , the 33rd Guards Rifle Corps ' 95th Guards Rifle Division , and 11th Motorized Rifle Brigade of the 10th Tank Corps . To the south of Leibstandarte , the 2nd Guards Tank Corps and the 48th Rifle Corps ' 183rd Rifle Division opposed the advance of Das Reich .
By day 's end on 11 July Leibstandarte had advanced deep into the Soviet third defensive belt . They had moved up the Psel corridor , cleared Soviet resistance at the Oktyabrsky ( " October " ) State Farm ( Russian : Совхоз Октябрьский ) , crossed a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) -deep antitank ditch at the base of Hill 252 @.@ 2 and seized the hill itself after a brief but bloody battle , leaving them only 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Prokhorovka . To its north the panzergrenadiers of Totenkopf achieved a bridgehead across the Psel and tanks had been brought across , but they had yet to take Hill 226 @.@ 6 and there was a 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) gap between Totenkopf and Leibstandarte . To the south Das Reich had also met stiff resistance and lagged behind some 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to the south . With its advance Leibstandarte ' s flanks were exposed both to the north and the south , placing them under sporadic counterattacks from the 95th Guards Rifle Division and the remnants of 2nd Tank Corps .
Late on 11 July the 5th Guards Tank Army prepared for its forthcoming counterattack . Leibstandarte 's advance had disrupted Rotmistrov 's preparations , as the assembly areas he intended to use for the tank army 's 18th and 29th Tank Corps were in German hands by the end of the day , forcing him to hastily revise his plans and select new positions . The late arrival of the 5th Guard Tank Army was impactful in two major ways . The tank unit commanders did not have an opportunity to reconnoiter the terrain they would be traveling across . Equally , if not more importantly , the supporting artillery was unable to site and spot their fire . Thus the artillery fire which the tankers depended upon to sweep their path of advance and suppress German anti @-@ tank gunners was not adequately present .
= = Planning = =
= = = German plans for 12 July = = =
Late on the evening of 11 July , General Paul Hausser , the commander of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps , issued orders for a classic battle manoeuvre for the following day 's advance on Prokhorovka . It was known that the Soviets had dug in many anti @-@ tank guns on the west slopes of Prokhorovka , making a direct attack by Leibstandarte very difficult . The plan was for Totenkopf to capture Hill 226 @.@ 6 , and advance northeast along the Psel River to the Kartashёvka @-@ Prokhorovka road , and then strike southeast into the flank and rear of Soviet forces at Prokhorovka . Leibstandarte was ordered to nudge forward and secure Storozhevoe and Lamki just outside Prokhorovka , then it and Das Reich were to wait until Totenkopf 's attack had disrupted the Soviet positions , after which Leibstandarte was to attack the main Soviet defences on the west slope of Prokhorovka . To Leibstandarte 's right , elements of Das Reich were also to advance eastward to the high ground south of Prokhorovka , then turn south away from Prokhorovka to roll up the Soviet defences opposing the III Panzer Corps ' advance and force a gap . The VIII Fliegerkorps was to make its main effort in support of the advance of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps , with the XLVIII Panzer Corps to the west assigned limited air resources .
Unbeknownst to Hausser , on the night of 11 July Rotmistrov had moved his 5th Guards Tank Army to an assembly area just south of Prokhorovka in preparation for a massive armoured attack the following day . Throughout the night , German frontline troops could hear Soviet tank engines as the 18th and 29th Tank Corps moved into their assembly areas . A battalion from Leibstandarte ' s 2nd SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment situated on the reverse slope of Hill 252 @.@ 2 had been listening to the engines of the Soviet tanks and were uneasy about the impending attack it implied .
= = = Soviet plans for 12 July = = =
The 5th Guards Army and 5th Guards Tank Army of the Steppe Front had been brought up from reserve and reassigned to the Voronezh Front on 8 and 11 July respectively . On 11 July Vatutin ordered the armies of the Voronezh Front to go over onto the offensive on the following day . This counterattack was planned to coincide with the Soviet offensive on the northern side of the Kursk Salient , Operation Kutuzov . Vatutin ordered Rotmistrov to destroy the German forces near Prokhorovka with his 5th Guards Tank Army , without allowing the Germans to withdraw southward .
For the battle , Rotmistrov ordered his tanks to move forward at high speed to engage the German armour in order to nullify the advantages the Tiger tanks had in the range and firepower of their 88 mm guns . He believed the more manoeuvrable T @-@ 34 would be able to quickly close in and obtain effective flanking shots against the German heavy tanks . In fact , Soviet intelligence had greatly overestimated the numbers of Ferdinands and Tigers possessed by the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps . In actuality there were no Ferdinands with the 4th Panzer Army or Army Group South , as they were all deployed on the northern side of the Kursk salient with the 9th Army . Soviet tank @-@ crews frequently mistook the versions of Panzer IV tanks that were armed with the KwK 40 anti @-@ tank gun , which also had extra armour added to their turret , for Tigers ; therefore Soviet reports tended to overestimate the number of Tigers employed by the Germans during the Battle of Kursk .
Soviet air support in the southern part of the salient was provided by the 2nd Air Army and the 17th Air Army , commanded by Lieutenant General Stepan Krasovsky and Lieutenant General Vladimir Sudets , respectively . However , the bulk of the air support was committed in support of Soviet units attacking XLVIII Panzer Corps to the west of Prokhorovka and the III Panzer Corps to the southeast , and only limited numbers of aircraft were available to support 5th Guards Tank Army 's attack .
Rotmistrov 's plans for a counterattack were threatened by events to the south . III Panzer Corps managed to cross the Northern Donets at Rzhavets on the night of 11 July , and were about 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) southeast of Prokhorovka , and advancing northwards . This threat jeopardised Rotmistrov 's entire plan by threatening the rear of the 5th Guards Tank Army . Early on 12 July , Vatutin ordered Rotmistrov to send reinforcements to the Soviet 7th Guards and 69th Armies facing the III Panzer Corps . He organised a task force under the command of his deputy , Major General Kuzma Trufanov , which consisted of the 26th Guards Tank Brigade from the 2nd Guards Tank Corps , the 11th and 12th Guards Mechanized Brigades from the 5th Guards Mechanized Corps , and the 53rd Guards Tank Regiment of the 5th Guards Tank Army . Other units of the Voronezh Front also joined the group on its way south . In doing so Rotmistrov committed over half of his army 's reserves before the Battle of Prokhorovka had begun .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Disposition of German forces = = =
The German forces involved in the Battle of Prokhorovka were from the three Waffen @-@ SS divisions of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps : Leibstandarte , Das Reich , and Totenkopf . On the evening of 11 July , the serviceable armour strength of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps was 294 tanks and assault guns , which included 15 Tigers . The armoured strength of Leibstandarte , Das Reich , and Totenkopf were 77 , 95 , and 122 tanks and assault guns respectively . Ten of the Tigers were to the north of the Psel River with Totenkopf , four were with Leibstandarte , and Das Reich had just one .
Leibstandarte had advanced the most deeply toward Prokhorovka and was situated in the centre of the German position . A railway line , with a 30 @-@ feet high railbed , divided the area of Leibstandarte division north and south . The bulk of the division was positioned to the north of the rail line , including the division 's 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment and 2nd SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment , as well as its reconnaissance , artillery and command units . To the south of the rail line was Leibstandarte 's 1st SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment , along with the division 's 1st SS @-@ Panzerjäger battalion . Das Reich was positioned to the southeast of Leibstandarte , and it protected the southern flank of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps . Totenkopf was positioned to the northwest of Leibstandarte . The division 's 3rd SS @-@ Panzer Regiment had largely crossed over the Psel in preparation for the assault . Leibstandarte placed its lightly armed 1st SS @-@ Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion in the 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) gap between it and Totenkopf to provide some flank protection . The unit was later buttressed by the division 's four remaining Tigers , commanded by SS @-@ Second Lieutenant Michael Wittmann .
= = = Disposition of Soviet forces = = =
The main Soviet armoured formation involved in the battle was the 5th Guards Tank Army , which controlled five corps by 12 July : the 2nd Guards , 2nd , 5th Guards Mechanized , 18th and 29th Tank Corps . All together they fielded 793 tanks and 37 to 57 self @-@ propelled guns for a total of approximately 840 armoured fighting vehicles . About two @-@ thirds of these tanks were T @-@ 34s , while the remainder were T @-@ 70 light tanks , with some 31 to 35 Churchill heavy tanks as well . Not all of the 5th Guards Tank Army was present in the Prokhorovka area during the battle , as part of the formation had been sent south to check the advance of the III Panzer Corps . The Soviet armour of the 5th Guards Tank Army – including the newly attached 2nd Guards Tank Corps and 2nd Tank Corps , as well as the 5th Guards Mechanized Corps held in reserve – that faced the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps on 12 July was about 616 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns . In addition , five artillery regiments , one artillery brigade , and one anti @-@ aircraft artillery division were attached to the 5th Guards Tank Army for the assault .
The main attack of the 5th Guards Tank Army was conducted against Leibstandarte by its fresh 29th and 18th Tank Corps that had been brought up from the Soviet strategic reserve . These two Soviet tank formations together provided the greatest number of tanks in the attack , with the 18th Tank Corps fielding 190 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns , and the 29th Tank Corps fielding 212 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns . Infantry support to the 18th and 29th Tank Corps was provided by the 9th Guards Airborne Division . A portion of the 18th Tank Corps was directed against the eastern flank of Totenkopf 's 6th SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment Eicke . On the southeastern wing of the 5th Guards Tank Army , Rotmistrov deployed the 120 surviving tanks of the 2nd Guards Tank Corps ; later on 12 July during the battle , the tank corp 's 26th Guards Tank Brigade with its estimated 40 tanks were sent south to face the III Panzer Corps . The 2nd Guards Tank Corps , supported by the remnants of the 2nd Tank Corps , was to attack Das Reich . Their infantry support was provided by the 183rd Rifle Division . The western flank of the 5th Guards Tank Army , which faced Totenkopf , was defended by the 33rd Guards Rifle Corps ' 42nd and 95th Guards Rifle Divisions , which were supported by the remnants of the 31st Tank Corps and the heavily depleted 23rd Guards Rifle Corps ' 52nd Guards Rifle Division . The forces of the 5th Guards Mechanized Corps that were not sent south were held as reserve northwest of Prokhorovka , and they numbered about 113 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns .
Vatutin directed Soviet air assets to make their primary effort in attempting to check the III Panzer Corps ' drive northward , and in supporting the attack against the XLVIII Panzer Corps . Missions were flown in support of the attack of the 5th Guards Tank Army as well , but to a limited extent . The 2nd Air Army had some 472 aircraft operational on 12 July , while the 17th Air Army had 300 operational aircraft .
= = Battle = =
At 05 : 45 on 12 July , Leibstandarte 's headquarters started receiving reports of the sound of many tank engines as the Soviet tanks moved into their assembly areas for the attack . At around 06 : 50 , elements of Leibstandarte 's 1st SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment nudged forward and drove the Soviet infantry out of Storozhevoe , while elements of the division 's 2nd SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment fanned out from the October State Farm . The Soviets began a preparatory artillery barrage at around 08 : 00 , and as the last shells fell at 08 : 30 , Rotmistrov radioed the code words " Stal ! Stal ! Stal ! " ( " Steel , Steel , Steel ! " ) – the order to commence the attack . With that the Soviet armour of the 5th Guards Tank Army began their advance .
= = = Ground engagement = = =
In total , about 500 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns of the 5th Guards Tank Army attacked the positions of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps on 12 July , doing so in two massive waves , with 430 tanks in the first echelon and 70 more in the second .
Down from the slopes in front of Prokhorovka , the massed Soviet armour charged with five tank brigades of the 18th and 29th Tank Corps , firing as they came at Leibstandarte 's positions . As the Soviet tanks rolled down the slopes , they carried the men of the 9th Guards Airborne Division on their hulls . The troops of Leibstandarte were not slated to go into action until later in the day . Exhausted from the previous week 's fighting , many were just starting their day at the outset of the attack and were largely taken by surprise . As the Soviet armour appeared , German outposts all across the corp 's frontage began firing purple warning flares signaling a tank attack . Obersturmbannführer Rudolf von Ribbentrop , commander of a panzer company under the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment , stated that he knew at once a major attack was underway . He ordered his company of seven Panzer IVs to follow him over a bridge across an anti @-@ tank ditch . Crossing the bridge they fanned out on the lower slope of Hill 252 @.@ 2 . On the crest of the hill , Sturmbannführer Joachim Peiper 's 3rd Panzergrenadier Battalion of the 2nd SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment were being overrun . As Ribbentrop 's tanks spread out , he and the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment were suddenly confronted by Soviet tanks of the 29th Tank Corp 's 31st and 32nd Tank Brigades : " About 150 – 200 meters in front of me appeared fifteen , then thirty , then forty tanks . Finally there were too many of them to count . " The Soviet armour , firing on the move , charged down the western slopes of Hill 252 @.@ 2 into the panzer company , and a hotly contested tank battle ensued . Four of the Panzer IVs under Ribbentrop were destroyed by the time their position was overrun . The three surviving tanks rode along with the advancing Soviet armour unnoticed , and they reported that they destroyed 14 Soviet tanks from close range . Rotmistrov 's tactic to close at high speed disrupted the control and co @-@ ordination of the Soviet tank formations and also greatly reduced their accuracy . In a three @-@ hour battle , the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment engaged the attacking Soviet tanks and repulsed them , reporting that they destroyed about 62 Soviet tanks . Later that afternoon , tanks from the 31st Tank Brigade and the 53rd Motorized Brigade overran elements of the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion and reached Komsomolets State Farm , threatening Leibstandarte 's lines of communication and the division command post , located at Hill 241 @.@ 6 . The Soviet tanks attacked the division 's 1st SS @-@ Panzer Artillery Regiment , killing a number of the crews before they themselves were destroyed by direct fire and anti @-@ tank teams .
Wittman 's group of four Tigers supported the reconnaissance group in its effort to protect Leibstandarte 's left flank , and faced the 18th Tank Corps ' advancing 181st Tank Brigade . In a three @-@ hour battle the Tigers engaged the Soviet tanks at ranges from 1000 meters down to point @-@ blank , inflicting heavy losses on the Soviet tankers and successfully repelling their attack . Later , elements of the 170th Tank Brigade engaged the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment , which was already fighting the 31st and 32nd Tank Brigades . Despite losing its commander and about 30 tanks in the fight , by early afternoon the 170th Tank Brigade had forced the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Regiment back to the October State Farm and reached the position of the 1st SS @-@ Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion . At around 18 : 00 , the 170th and 181st Tank Brigades penetrated the German line connecting Totenkopf and Leibstandarte . Assault guns and panzers supporting Totenkopf 's Eicke regiment repelled the Soviet attack and re @-@ established the line , forcing the Soviet tanks to withdraw to the village of Andreevka .
The advance of Soviet armour down Hill | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. The 29th Tank Corps followed up with a counterattack and penetrated German lines , reaching Komsomolets State Farm before being beaten back by direct fire from German artillery . That afternoon , Totenkopf was ordered to abandon their positions northwest of Prokhorovka and return to more defendable positions around Hill 226 @.@ 6 . Soviet attempts to sever the narrow salient were unsuccessful , and Totenkopf completed its withdrawal by nightfall .
= = = German decision = = =
On 13 July Hitler summoned Manstein and the commander of Army Group Center Field Marshal Günther von Kluge to his headquarters , the Wolfsschanze in East Prussia . The Allied invasion of Sicily on the night of 9 – 10 July , combined with the Soviet counteroffensive of Operation Kutuzov against the flank and rear of General Walter Model 's 9th Army in the northern side of the Kursk salient on 12 July , and the violent attacks by strong Soviet forces at Prokhorovka the same day had caused Hitler to stop the offensive and shift forces to the Mediterranean theatre . He ordered his generals to terminate Operation Citadel .
Kluge welcomed the decision , as he was already in the process of withdrawing units of the 9th Army from the northern side of the Kursk salient to deal with Soviet attacks on his flank . But Manstein was greatly disappointed . He argued that his forces were now on the verge of achieving a major breakthrough in the southern side of the salient . As he saw it , with his III Panzer Corps about to link up with the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps at Prokhorovka , and with the XXIV Panzer Corps available as his operational reserve , they would be halting the offensive just at the moment when victory was in hand . With an eye toward the west , Hitler was unwilling to continue the offensive . Manstein persisted , proposing that his forces should at least destroy the Soviet reserves in the southern Kursk salient before Citadel was finally terminated , so the Soviet fighting capacity in the sector would be depleted for the rest of the summer . Hitler agreed to continue offensive operations in the southern salient until Manstein 's goal was achieved .
= = = Operation Roland = = =
Manstein hastily put together the plans for Operation Roland , realizing that he only had a few days to conduct the operation before he lost the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps . The plan called for Das Reich to attack east and south and link up with III Panzer Corps , which would attack to the northwest . Totenkopf and Leibstandarte were to anchor the western and northern flanks of Das Reich , respectively . Once the link was achieved and the Soviet forces encircled , the Soviet defence would be crippled and Prokhorovka would likely fall shortly thereafter to the combined forces of the two panzer corps . The goal of the operation was to destroy the Soviet armoured reserves massed in the southern sector of the Kursk salient , and thereby check Soviet offensive capacity for the rest of the summer .
The orders for Operation Roland were issued in the closing hours of 13 July 1943 . However , after Hitler 's meeting with Manstein , Hitler countermanded the XXIV Panzer Corps ' deployment to the Kursk salient , sending them on 14 July to support the 1st Panzer Army to the south . The assault began at 04 : 00 on 14 July . Following a brief artillery barrage , the 4th SS @-@ Panzergrenadier Regiment Der Führer of Das Reich struck out for the high ground south @-@ west of Pravorot , evicting the remnants of the 2nd Guards Tank Corps from the village of Belenikhino following violent house @-@ to @-@ house and hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Das Reich 's 2nd SS @-@ Panzer Regiment fought off a series of counterattacks and forced the Soviets to withdraw eastward to a new line . Zhukov ordered the 10th Guards Mechanized Brigade of the 5th Guards Mechanized Corps to reinforce the line . The 7th Panzer Division of the III Panzer Corps made contact with Das Reich , but Trufanov , commanding the Soviet forces in the gap , was aware of the threat and conducted a fighting withdrawal . The link @-@ up failed to trap the Soviet forces , though they abandoned a substantial number of their anti @-@ tank guns . Operation Roland failed to produce a decisive result for the Germans , and Totenkopf began withdrawing from its positions north of the Psel , following orders issued late on 15 July , as the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps assumed a defensive stance along its entire front .
On 17 July the Soviet Southwestern and Southern Fronts launched a major offensive across the Mius and Donets Rivers against the southern wing of Army Group South , pressing upon the 6th and 1st Panzer Armies . In the early afternoon of 17 July , Operation Roland was terminated with an order for the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps to begin withdrawing from the Prokhorovka sector back to Belgorod . The 4th Panzer Army and Army Detachment Kempf anticipated the order and began executing it as early as the evening of 16 July . Leibstandarte 's tanks were distributed between Das Reich and Totenkopf , and the division was hastily redeployed to Italy , while Das Reich and Totenkopf were dispatched south to meet the new Soviet offensives .
= = Casualties and losses = =
Losses are difficult to establish for either combatant . Tank losses attributed to the Germans vary , in part due to the Wehrmacht 's methodology for counting and reporting equipment losses . Only equipment that could not be repaired or that had to be abandoned were counted as losses , but damaged equipment that could be recovered and repaired were simply listed as such . Likewise , reliable figures for tank and personnel casualties for the Soviets in the Battle of Prokhorovka are difficult to establish .
= = = German = = =
The II SS @-@ Panzer Corps reported 842 men killed , wounded , or missing for 12 July . Since the Germans controlled the Prokhorovka battlefield until 17 July , they were able to recover most of their disabled armoured vehicles . German historian Karl Frieser attributed three to five permanent tank losses to the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps for 12 July , while a study by the US Army ’ s Center for Strategy and Force Evaluation attributed six permanent tank losses , not counting Panzer I and Panzer II light tanks or German assault guns .
Archival data of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps shows that the corps had 294 operable tanks and assault guns on the evening of 11 July , and 251 on the evening of 13 July . Allowing for the possibility that some repaired tanks were returned to service on 13 July , these numbers indicate that at least 43 tanks and assault guns became inoperable during the battle of Prokhorovka , which includes all ten Tigers belonging to Totenkopf and one belonging to Leibstandarte . However , all of the inoperable Tiger tanks were repairable , and none were write @-@ offs . An estimated total of between 60 and 80 tanks and assault guns of the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps were damaged or destroyed in combat on 12 July . By the end of 16 July , the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps had 292 serviceable tanks and assault guns , almost the same number it had at the beginning of the battle on 12 July . On 12 July , Schlachtgeschwader 1 of the VIII Fliegerkorps and its attached squadron of Stukas reported eleven aircraft damaged , of which six were total write @-@ offs , all by Soviet anti @-@ aircraft artillery .
= = = Soviet = = =
A document prepared on 17 July 1943 by the 5th Guards Tank Army headquarters summarised the combat losses incurred by the formation from 12 to 16 July inclusive for all of its five corps , as well as smaller units directly subordinated to the army headquarters . The document reported the following irrecoverable losses : 222 T @-@ 34s , 89 T @-@ 70s , 12 Churchill tanks , 8 SU @-@ 122s , 3 SU @-@ 76s , and 240 support vehicles . The document reported damaged vehicles still under repair as 143 T @-@ 34s , 56 T @-@ 70s , 7 Churchill tanks , 3 SU @-@ 122s , and 3 SU @-@ 76s , with no figures for support vehicles . The document reported personnel casualties as 2 @,@ 940 killed in action , 3 @,@ 510 wounded in action , and 1 @,@ 157 missing in action . This totals 334 irrevocable losses in tanks and self @-@ propelled guns , with another 212 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns under repair , and 7 @,@ 607 casualties .
Soviet personnel losses at Prokhorovka for 12 July were estimated by the historian Christer Bergström to have been as high as 5 @,@ 500 men . For equipment damaged or destroyed , David Glantz and Jonathan House estimate that the whole 5th Guards Tank Army lost at least 400 tanks in its attacks on 12 July . The Soviet historians Grigoriy Koltunov and Boris Soloviev estimate about 300 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns of 5th Guards Tank Army were damaged or destroyed on 12 July . The study by the US Army ’ s Center for Strategy and Force Evaluation reports that the 2nd Guards , 18th and 29th Tanks Corps altogether permanently lost 144 tanks on 12 July , not including self @-@ propelled guns . George Nipe estimates that between 600 and 650 tanks of the 5th Guards Tank Army were damaged or destroyed while fighting the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps on 12 July .
= = Outcome = =
Debate exists over the significance and outcome of the battle . The Germans destroyed many Soviet tanks and temporarily degraded the striking power of the 5th Guards Tank Army , but they were unable to take Prokhorovka or break through into open ground . For the Soviets , the massive armoured attack of 12 July failed to destroy the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps or throw it onto the defensive , but succeeded in exhausting the Germans and eventually contributed to checking their advance . Thus , neither the 5th Guards Tank Army nor the II SS @-@ Panzer Corps accomplished their objectives for the day . While the battle is generally considered a tactical success for the Germans due to the high numbers of Soviet tanks destroyed , ultimately there was no German breakthrough at Prokhorovka , and with the end of Operation Citadel the strategic initiative permanently swung over to the Red Army .
= The Sting ( The Office ) =
" The Sting " is the fifth episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office and the shows 131st episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on October 21 , 2010 . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Mindy Kaling and directed by Randall Einhorn . " The Sting " guest stars Timothy Olyphant as Danny Cordray .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , a Dunder Mifflin client is stolen by a rival salesman named Danny Cordray ( Olyphant ) , and Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) , and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) decide to set up a sting in order to uncover his sales secret . Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) starts a band when he learns that one of his old college friends has a successful music career .
" The Sting " is the first episode of the series to feature Olyphant ; he would later return for short scenes in several other episodes during the seventh season . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics , many of whom felt that — while the main plot was not realistic — it was very humorous . " The Sting " was viewed by 6 @.@ 87 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 4 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , marking a slight drop in the ratings when compared to the previous week . Despite this , the episode ranked second in its timeslot was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night that it aired .
= = Plot = =
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) are sent on assignment to make a sales pitch to a client , and are eager to land the sale . However , Danny Cordray ( Timothy Olyphant ) , a rival paper salesman from the very small Osprey company who steals more potential sales away from Dunder Mifflin than anyone , has also arrived for a sales pitch . Dwight also reveals that Danny had a romantic history with Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) four years previously . Jim and Dwight call in Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) , who is ecstatic at getting a chance to make a sale , to come and try to save them . The company ends up taking Danny 's offer , even after Michael promises at @-@ cost paper sales and weekend delivery . The trio leaves the client 's office and head back home , defeated .
During a brainstorm session , Michael , Jim , and Dwight decide to set up a sting operation to observe Danny 's sales techniques . They set up Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) as the CEO of the fictional company Solartech in Dwight 's office , fitted with security cameras , and watch from another room . Danny is then sent in to try to make a sale . All starts well until Meredith attempts to seduce him . Dwight and Jim send in Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) and Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) to save the sting . When Meredith strong @-@ arms both of them , Michael rushes in to call the whole thing off . Danny becomes infuriated and walks off . Michael catches up to him and offers him a job , pointing out that with Sabre 's better pricing , he could make more sales as a traveling salesman for them . He accepts the offer , and Michael introduces him as the new salesman to the office . The rest of the sales staff act disrespectful towards him , worrying that Danny will take their clients . Michael tells them how well sales numbers will go up with Danny as a part of the branch , and that he is not going to rescind Danny 's job offer just because it makes the other salespeople uncomfortable . Before Dwight leaves for the day , he viciously insults Danny about his alleged mistreatment of Pam and client @-@ stealing past , then immediately welcomes him to the company .
Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) starts a band after reading about how well one of his friends is doing in the music business . He manages to get Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) to join him in writing a song , with Andy singing an anti @-@ war song from the perspective of a little girl in falsetto . The song is poorly received by the rest of the office , and Andy returns to the drawing board . Seeing that Andy is dejected , Kevin and Darryl offer to stay and jam with him for a little extra time , and the trio come up with a lively song called " Bullfrog In Love " .
= = Production = =
" The Sting " was directed by Randall Einhorn and written by Mindy Kaling , who also plays Kelly Kapoor in the show . It was the first episode to feature Timothy Olyphant in a guest appearance as Danny Cordray , a rival paper salesman . Olyphant would return for the season 's Halloween special , " Costume Contest " , and would appear in a deleted scene for Carell 's penultimate episode , " Michael 's Last Dundies " . Olyphant enjoyed his stint on the show , later telling IGN that filming both " The Sting " and his scenes for other episodes was " a blast " and " a kick to do " because The Office is " such a fun show , the nature of the whole thing . The way they do it is just so fun and easy . "
The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Jim and Danny discussing Danny 's success at selling his father 's restaurant for a large amount of money , Michael expressing his delight at helping Jim and Dwight despite the fact that he is " an old man " , Michael mistaking Danny for a male model , extended scenes of Andy 's band , extra footage of Meredith flirting with Danny , Michael remembering that Danny was once a backpack model , and Danny saying that the only reason he will be working at Dunder Mifflin is because " they offered [ him ] a stupid amount of money " .
= = Cultural references = =
In the cold opening , Oscar shows the office his new bicycle , which Dwight notes is a Lance Armstrong model . Kelly is offended , because she is " team Sheryl Crow " , a reference to the two 's engagement and break up . The potential customer that Jim and Dwight are trying to woo shares the same name with famous athlete Steve Nash , and Jim has to explain to Dwight that the famous Nash is a point guard for the Phoenix Suns basketball team . Michael compares the plot to learn Danny 's secret to the 1973 film The Sting , which starred Paul Newman and Robert Redford . Kelly notes that Danny reminds her of actor Josh Duhamel . The reason for Andy forming a band is that he discovers that his friend and rival Brocolli Rob ( later played in the series by Stephen Colbert ) collaborated with Trey Anastasio , the lead singer and songwriter from the jam band Phish , and wrote a song together . This plot device would later be mentioned in the ninth season episode " Here Comes Treble " . Andy 's band would become a minor story arc , and would reappear in the eight season episode " Pam 's Replacement " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on October 21 , 2010 , " The Sting " was viewed by an estimated 6 @.@ 87 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 4 rating / 9 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 4 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode 's rating dropped 11 percent from the previous episode to its lowest ever fall telecast at the time . The episode ranked second in its timeslot , after an episode of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) series Grey 's Anatomy , and was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club rated the episode with an " A " grade . He felt the episode was the " highlight " of the season . McNutt applauded the fact that Michael was portrayed in a way that was neither " too dumb or too ignorant " and that he was able to have the final moment where he showed that he was a skilled salesman . Despite noting that the sting was not realistic , he further enjoyed that Michael , Dwight , and Jim were allowed to react to the situation rather than becoming part of it . Jason Hughes of AOL 's TV Squad gave the episode a positive review and praised the use of Meredith , calling her " hilarious and so spot @-@ on " . Furthermore , he , like McNutt , enjoyed that Michael was portrayed as competent in the end . Hughes also enjoyed the B @-@ story and wrote that " it was a sweet moment when Darryl told Andy he didn 't have to pay him any more to jam with them " .
Entertainment Weekly 's Margaret Lyons wrote that , while " its out @-@ and @-@ out silliness wasn 't in the supertraditional Office style " , she " totally dug it " . Furthermore , she praised Kaling 's writing , saying " Leave it to Mindy Kaling to deliver the best episode of The Office in a long , long time . " Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave the episode a mixed review . He felt the episode " was a complete cartoon " and also stated " It bore very little resemblance to what the show once was " . Despite this he also stated , that " on its own completely absurd level , it worked " because it was very humorous ; Sepinwall noted that he " found [ himself ] laughing a surprising amount of the time , even more than at previous episodes this season that felt more Office @-@ like " .
Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste magazine awarded the episode an 8 @.@ 2 rating out of 10 , noting that " The Office is at its best when it has one foot planted in reality and the other drifting off into the absurd . " She also enjoyed that the show illustrated Michael 's actual talents as a salesmen . Furthermore , Stiernberg felt that Andy 's subplot helped balance the " silliness " of Michael 's main plot . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and praised Olyphant 's acting , writing that he " just killed it " during his appearance . He also called the entry " a big step up from last week " , largely due to its entertaining main plot and its " pleasant " B @-@ story .
= John F. Tierney =
John F. Tierney ( born September 18 , 1951 ) is an American politician who served as a U.S. Representative from Massachusetts from January 3 , 1997 , to January 3 , 2015 . He is a Democrat who represented the state 's 6th district , which includes the state 's North Shore and Cape Ann . Born and raised in Salem , Massachusetts , Tierney graduated from Salem State College and Suffolk University Law School . He worked in private law and served on the Salem Chamber of Commerce ( 1976 – 97 ) . Tierney first ran for the House of Representatives in 1994 against Republican incumbent Peter G. Torkildsen , losing by a small margin ; but he defeated Torkildsen in the subsequent election and was sworn in as a U.S. representative in 1997 .
A liberal member of Congress , Tierney voted along with other Democratic Representatives from Massachusetts . He sat on the House Committee on Education and Labor , where his priorities included green energy and increased college access . He co @-@ authored several pieces of legislation , including the Green Jobs Act of 2007 and the College Affordability and Accountability Act of 2008 . He is the former chairman of the Subcommittee on National Security and Foreign Affairs , where he helped establish the Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan . From 1996 to 2012 , Tierney won re @-@ election in each election cycle . He faced a tougher challenge after his wife Patrice was convicted of felony tax fraud in 2010 . In 2014 , he lost the Democratic nomination to Seth Moulton , who went on to win the seat in the general election .
= = Early life , education , and career = =
John F. Tierney was born September 18 , 1951 , in Salem , Massachusetts . His mother , Doris H. ( née Gelineau ) Tierney , was a Salem native who worked a split shift at the New England Telephone Company , where she remained for 42 years . His father , Albert R. Tierney , was a bookkeeper for Nabisco and a local fuel company . Tierney was one of three children , along with his brother Michael A. and sister Catherine . His father was of Irish descent and his mother was of half French @-@ Canadian and half Irish ancestry . He moved with his family to his grandmother 's home when he was five years old . He began working at the Kernwood Country Club in Salem as a caddy when he was 8 and soon adopted a paper route . He later attended Salem High School . When he was young , Tierney campaigned for his uncle , a Peabody ward councilor , and he ascribes his political interest in part to this experience .
Tierney attended Salem State College , majoring in political science . While in college he performed work study , while also stocking shelves at a grocery store , working in sales at a clothing store , and performing deliveries . For three years he was President of his class , and his final year he served as President of the Salem State Student Government Association ( SGA ) . As SGA President Tierney responded to racial incidents on campus by organizing a school @-@ wide meeting leading to several days of discussion . He graduated in 1973 , and returned in 2009 to give a commencement address , receiving an honorary degree .
While working as a law office clerk and a State House janitor , Tierney attended Suffolk University Law School . Tierney graduated with a Juris Doctor in 1976 , and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar . Tierney worked as a solo practitioner until 1981 , when he became a partner at the North Shore community law firm Tierney , Kalis , & Lucas . Tierney remained at the firm until taking office in 1997 . Tierney served on the Salem Chamber of Commerce from 1976 to 1997 , becoming the organization 's president in 1995 .
= = U.S. House of Representatives = =
= = = Elections = = =
Tierney first ran for Congress in 1994 against one @-@ term Republican incumbent Peter G. Torkildsen , having won a competitive Democratic primary with a plurality of 33 @.@ 8 percent . He ran on a platform promoting a stronger federal focus on drug abuse , federal aid to promote after @-@ school programs , consideration of means testing for Social Security , and single @-@ payer health care . A primary issue in the campaign was crime : Tierney criticized Torkildsen for his vote against a 1994 crime bill , and advocated stronger gun control , while Torkildsen criticized Tierney 's positions on gun control and drug legalization . Tierney was defeated in the general election by 4 % . Tierney successfully ran for Congress in 1996 , defeating Torkildsen by a narrow margin and increasing his margin in a 1998 rematch . Over the next five elections , Tierney won with over 60 % of the vote . In 2010 he faced a challenge from Republican candidate Bill Hudak , after his wife Patrice was convicted of felony tax fraud ; he won with 57 % of the vote .
In his 2012 race for re @-@ election , Tierney faced former State Senator and 2010 nominee for Lieutenant Governor , Richard Tisei . Tisei , who is openly gay , was endorsed by the Log Cabin Republicans ( LCR ) . Rep. Barney Frank endorsed Tierney . Tierney was also endorsed by The Rainbow Times , a Boston @-@ based LGBT newspaper . Tierney won reelection on November 6 , 2012 , with 48 % of the vote to Tisei 's 47 % .
= = = Tenure = = =
Tierney , described as " an unwavering liberal " by CQ 's Politics in America , has consistently high approval ratings from Democratic and liberal interest groups such as Americans for Democratic Action , and low approval ratings from conservative groups such as the American Conservative Union . His votes have been closely aligned with the other Democratic representatives from his state . Described as " a favorite of the House Democratic leadership , " he maintains a close relationship with former House Speaker Nancy Pelosi ; her daughter Christine Pelosi served as his chief of staff from 2001 to 2005 . Tierney was speculated as a candidate to succeed United States Senator Ted Kennedy in a special election after Kennedy 's death in 2009 , but he decided not to run . In 2010 Washington paper The Hill published a speculation that Tierney , with a $ 1 @.@ 3 million war chest , was a likely candidate to run against Kennedy 's successor Scott Brown in the 2012 election . Tierney later stated that he would not contest the Senate seat and would instead seek a ninth term as Congressman .
= = = = Domestic policy = = = =
Tierney and Rep. Hilda Solis coauthored the Green Jobs Act of 2007 , which allocated $ 125 million to green jobs training . The bill was incorporated into the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 and signed into law . Tierney was initially opposed to the Troubled Asset Relief Program proposal of 2008 , although he ultimately voted for the bill , saying , " The state of panic in the markets compels Congress to act . "
The House included several of his proposals in the Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 , one which prevented states from cutting education funding as federal aid increased , and one which forgave federal loans for students who went into some public service professions . Throughout his career , Tierney has repeatedly introduced a bill called " Clean Money , Clean Elections " , which would create a national , publicly financed clean elections system . With little support in Congress , the proposal has been unsuccessful .
Tierney is a supporter of universal health care . In early 2010 , Tierney came under fire from some in his district for his support of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act .
On March 6 , 2013 Tierney and several House Democrats walked out on a Committee on Education and the Workforce vote , accusing Republican counterparts on the committee of not negotiating “ in a bipartisan manner . ” Tierney has introduced a version of Elizabeth Warren 's " Bank on Student Loans Fairness Act " into the House , which would reduce federally subsidized education loans to 0 @.@ 75 % , the rate paid by banks .
A February 2012 Washington Post report revealed that 33 members of Congress helped direct more than $ 300 million in earmarks to public projects in close proximity to commercial and residential real estate owned by the lawmakers or their family members . According to the investigation , Tierney has helped direct about $ 3 @.@ 5 million toward a 950 @-@ space parking garage and commuter rail station in Salem , Mass . The facility will be located roughly 1 / 4 mile from a commercial building Tierney co @-@ owns .
= = = = Foreign policy = = = =
Tierney was a member of the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform and chairman of the Subcommittee on National Security and Foreign Affairs during the 110th and 111th Congresses . Tierney introduced the 2007 House legislation that created the Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan to study government contracting related to the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War . The same year Tierney chaired a congressional hearing over conditions at Walter Reed Army Medical Center . The center had been criticized in the press for its dilapidated conditions and inadequate care , as well as for prioritizing a " VIP ward " for non @-@ soldiers . The House approved Tierney 's amendment to direct $ 75 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to secular school construction in Pakistan to compete against Islamic madrassas .
Tierney is a critic of U.S. investment in missile defense , and has called for large budget cuts to the Missile Defense Agency . He introduced an amendment to redirect $ 966 million in funding from missile defense systems to other military initiatives . The proposal , opposed by Armed Services Committee leaders as " going too far " , was rejected in a House vote .
= = 2014 election campaign = =
Tierney ran for re @-@ election against four challengers for the Democratic nomination . With 27 percent of precincts reporting , Tierney trailed Seth Moulton 51 percent to 40 percent and conceded .
= = Personal life = =
Tierney dated Patrice M. ( Eremian ) Chew of Marblehead throughout his 1996 campaign . They married in a small ceremony in April 1997 and now live in Salem , where Patrice works as a jewelry designer . Tierney has three stepchildren from his wife 's first marriage . In June 2000 , Tierney 's stepson John Chew was arrested when about 25 grams ( 0 @.@ 9 oz ) of cocaine and $ 1 @,@ 000 in cash were found in his Marblehead apartment .
= = = Wife 's tax fraud conviction = = =
In August 2010 , Tierney 's wife Patrice 's brothers Robert and Daniel Eremian were indicted in federal court for operating an illegal internet gambling business . Robert had allegedly , with Daniel 's help , operated the business out of St. John 's , Antigua and Barbuda , and funneled a portion of the profits into a Bank of America account in Massachusetts . In October 2010 , Patrice was charged in U.S. District Court with four counts of " aiding and abetting the filing of false tax returns " by Robert . John Tierney issued a statement announcing his wife 's intention to plead guilty , stating that Patrice accepted " full responsibility for being ' willfully blind ' to what her brother was doing . " Patrice pleaded guilty on October 6 , 2010 , and on January 13 , 2011 , was sentenced to 30 days in prison followed by five months of house arrest . The conviction bolstered the campaign of Bill Hudak , Tierney 's Republican opponent in the November 2010 election , but Tierney was re @-@ elected . In June 2012 , a federal judge ordered Daniel Eremian to forfeit $ 7 @.@ 7 million in assets for his role in the illegal offshore sports betting scheme . Following his sentencing , Daniel Eremian told reporters that the congressman " knew everything that was going on " , a charge which Tierney rebutted .
= = Electoral history = =
= Italian cruiser Elba =
Elba was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . She was the fifth of six Regioni @-@ class ships , all of which were named for regions of Italy , with the exception of Elba , which was named for the island . Elba was built by the Regio Cantieri di Castellammare di Stabia ; her keel was laid in September 1890 , she was launched in August 1893 , and she was commissioned in February 1896 . The ship was equipped with a main armament of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , and she could steam at a speed of nearly 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Elba spent much of her career abroad . She participated in the blockade of Venezuela during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 and was present in East Asia during the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 – 05 . In February 1904 , her crew witnessed the Battle of Chemulpo Bay between Japanese and Russian warships ; after the battle ended in Russian defeat , Elba and British and French cruisers picked up survivors . She took part in the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 12 but saw no action , being used primarily to blockade Turkish ports in the Red Sea . In 1914 , Elba was converted into the first seaplane tender of the Regia Marina , with equipment to handle three seaplanes . This service did not last long , however , as she was too small and too old . Decommissioned by 1916 , the old warship was sold for scrap in January 1920 and broken up .
= = Design = =
Elba was slightly larger than her sister ships . She was 88 @.@ 2 meters ( 289 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 72 m ( 41 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 86 m ( 15 @.@ 9 ft ) . She displaced up to 3 @,@ 110 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 060 long tons ; 3 @,@ 430 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion engines , with steam supplied by four cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . On her speed trials , she reached a maximum of 17 @.@ 9 knots ( 33 @.@ 2 km / h ; 20 @.@ 6 mph ) at 7 @,@ 471 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 571 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 213 – 278 . Also unlike her sisters , she had a copper @-@ sheathed hull , which reduced fouling during lengthy periods between dockyard maintenance .
Elba was armed with a main battery of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns mounted singly , with two side by side forward and two side by side aft . Six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns were placed between them , with three on each broadside . Light armament included ten 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns , six 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and a pair of machine guns . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Elba was protected by a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick deck , and her conning tower had 50 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Elba was laid down at the Regio Cantieri di Castellammare di Stabia in the eponymous city on 22 September 1890 . Her completed hull was launched on 12 August 1893 , and fitting @-@ out work proceeded at a leisurely pace . Elba was finally ready for service on 27 February 1896 . Elba was stationed in East Asian waters in 1899 , along with the armored cruiser Marco Polo and the old sail cruiser Amerigo Vespucci . In 1901 she was replaced by her sister Lombardia and returned to Italy . Elba was sent to Venezuelan waters in 1902 during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 , when an international force of British , German , and Italian warships blockaded Venezuela over the country 's refusal to pay foreign debts . Elba was joined by the protected cruiser Giovanni Bausan and the armored cruiser Carlo Alberto .
Elba was present , along with the British cruiser HMS Talbot , the French cruiser Pascal , and the United States ' gunboat USS Vicksburg during the Battle of Chemulpo Bay on 9 February 1904 during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Elba , Talbot , and Pascal cleared for action in the event that the Japanese warships opened fire on them . After the battle ended in a Russian defeat , the three cruisers sent boats to pick up the survivors from the sinking cruiser Varyag and gunboat Korietz . Elba took off a total of 6 officers and 172 enlisted men from the two vessels , out of a total of 27 officers and 654 enlisted saved from the ships . Elba thereafter went to Seoul to protect the Italian embassy there . On 24 February , the cruiser Piemonte arrived to relieve Elba . The latter ship departed the following morning for Hong Kong , where she would deposit the Russian sailors . It was not until 10 March , however , that a French mail ship was available for Elba to discharge her passengers for their return trip to Europe .
Starting in October 1907 , Elba was modified to handle an observation balloon . The balloon was linked to the ship via a telephone line , and was used to spot naval mines . During the annual fleet maneuvers in 1908 , Elba and her balloon were used to keep watch on the harbor entrance of Augusta , Sicily , which proved to be effective in alerting defenders to attacking warships . By the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Elba had been stationed in Italy 's East African colonies , Eritrea and Somaliland . In January 1912 , she and her sister Liguria escorted a pair of mail steamships to the Red Sea , where they were used to enforce the blockade of several Ottoman ports . Elba remained in the region for the remainder of the war , assisting in the blockade effort . Ottoman naval forces had already been defeated at the Battle of Kunfuda Bay , so there was no chance for Elba to see action . The Ottomans eventually agreed to surrender in October , ending the war .
Elba operated the observation balloon through 1913 . The following year , she was modified to serve as a depot ship for three seaplanes , and she entered service in this new role on 4 June 1914 . During this period she operated Nieuport IV seaplanes . She was the first dedicated seaplane tender of the Italian navy , though seaplanes had already been operated aboard several battleships and cruisers . Elba was nevertheless too small and too old for her intended role , and she was retired in 1916 . She remained in the Italian inventory until 4 January 1920 , when she was sold for scrap .
= The Hawking Excitation =
" The Hawking Excitation " is the 21st episode of the fifth season of The Big Bang Theory that first aired on CBS on April 5 , 2012 . It is the 108th episode overall . After learning that Stephen Hawking is coming to lecture at Caltech , Howard ( Simon Helberg ) is hired to maintain his wheelchair equipment . When Sheldon ( Jim Parsons ) discovers this , he is desperate to meet Hawking . Howard says he can , but only if he completes a humiliating series of tasks .
The final scene of the episode features a short cameo appearance by cosmologist Stephen Hawking . Hawking was revealed to appear on the show in March 2012 ; he was the third high @-@ profile guest star in season 5 . The episode had 13 @.@ 29 million viewers in America and garnered mixed reviews .
= = Plot = =
Raj ( Kunal Nayyar ) and Leonard ( Johnny Galecki ) are at lunch with Howard when he gets an e @-@ mail from Stephen Hawking 's office ; Hawking is coming to lecture at Caltech and needs an engineer to help maintain his wheelchair equipment . Sheldon is a big fan of Hawking , so Howard considers bringing Sheldon along to meet Hawking . Sheldon then arrives and says that he has revolutionized understanding of the Higgs boson particle ; he explains it to Raj and Leonard but ignores Howard , thinking he wouldn 't understand .
Howard , feeling insulted , refuses to introduce Sheldon to Hawking even after Sheldon pleads . The next day , Howard talks about his work with Hawking to frustrate Sheldon . After Sheldon begs , Howard agrees to give Sheldon 's paper on the Higgs boson to Hawking on the condition that Sheldon performs several tasks for him .
The first task is to polish Howard 's belt buckles . Howard tends to stand too close to the urinal and urine often splashes back onto the buckles . Sheldon is given a black light and several dozen belt buckles to clean . Sheldon performs the task flawlessly . For his second task , Sheldon is forced to wear a French maid costume that Howard originally bought for his girlfriend Bernadette ( Melissa Rauch ) . Sheldon is seen in the cafeteria at Caltech with everyone staring at him .
When Penny ( Kaley Cuoco ) goes to do her laundry , she finds Sheldon washing Howard 's panties . Sheldon explains that he is being punished for being , according to Howard , a " condescending jerk " , and asks Penny if she thinks he is condescending . Penny agrees with Howard .
Howard shows Bernadette a picture of Sheldon wearing the French maid costume . She thinks Howard is being too cruel and says that Sheldon is unaware of how mean he is . Howard agrees to stop making Sheldon perform tasks . Howard 's mother interrupts to remind Bernadette that they made plans to go dress shopping ; Bernadette says that she cannot make it , but that Sheldon will accompany her instead . Sheldon is forced to go shopping with Mrs. Wolowitz .
Sheldon 's final task is to give Howard a compliment about his work : he says that Howard is good at his job , although Sheldon does not consider his work to be " worth doing " . Howard reveals that he gave Hawking the paper three days ago . Sheldon finally gets to meet Hawking in person . When they meet , Hawking points out an arithmetic error in Sheldon 's paper that makes the whole paper incorrect : at this , a shocked Sheldon faints .
= = Production = =
Stephen Hawking has been mentioned several times on the show , including in the Pilot . Hawking has appeared on comedy television shows previously : he did the voice @-@ over for cartoon versions of himself in Futurama , and in four episodes of The Simpsons .
On March 9 , 2012 , Bill Prady announced that a " super @-@ secret , super @-@ cool guest star " would appear on the show . On March 12 , 2012 , CBS announced that Hawking would be guest starring on the show on April 5 . Photos of Hawking 's appearance were published by The Hollywood Reporter on April 2 .
Hawking had been asked to appear on the show previously but was too ill to do so . Bill Prady stated that Stephen Hawking was always their " dream guest star " for the show , but that Hawking appearing was " a long shot of astronomical proportions " . Hawking is a fan of The Big Bang Theory and requested to watch a rehearsal of the episode after filming his scene . Simon Helberg , who plays Howard , does an impression of Hawking 's voice in the episode ; he felt slightly uncomfortable mimicking Hawking , but Hawking seemed to enjoy the impression .
Hawking is the third high @-@ profile guest star to appear in season 5 , after Mike Massimino and Leonard Nimoy . Hawking later appeared in the season 6 episode " The Extract Obliteration " , the season 7 episode " The Relationship Diremption " and the season 8 episode " The Troll Manifestation " , but in these episodes only his voice is heard . Hawking was shown in a pre @-@ recorded video segment at the Big Bang Theory panel at Comic @-@ Con 2013 . He apologized for not being there in person and sang the show 's theme tune .
Following " The Hawking Excitation " , there was a three @-@ week break before the next episode , " The Stag Convergence " , aired .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On the night of its first broadcast on CBS on April 5 , 2012 , the episode was watched by 13 @.@ 29 million U.S. households and received a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 2 / 14 among viewers aged between 18 and 49 ( meaning that 4 @.@ 2 % of 18 – 49 years olds watched the episode ) . It aired at 8 p.m. alongside American Idol on Fox , Missing on ABC , NBC 's Community and a repeat episode of The Vampire Diaries on The CW . The episode was the third most watched program that night , and second most watched on CBS .
In Canada , the episode received 3 @.@ 18 million viewers , making it the most watched episode that week . In the UK , the episode aired on May 17 , 2012 and 1 @.@ 83 million households watched it on E4 . It garnered 0 @.@ 34 million viewers on E4 + 1 , so was watched by 2 @.@ 17 million viewers overall . On E4 , it was the most watched show that week while on E4 + 1 , it ranked third . In Australia , the episode aired on April 24 , 2013 and had 1 @.@ 87 million viewers . It was the second most watched show on television that night .
= = = Reviews = = =
Overall , the episode received mixed reviews . Carla Day from TV Fanatic gave the episode a very positive review , describing it as " Possibly , the best episode . Ever . " and giving it the maximum possible editor rating ( 5 @.@ 0 ) . Oliver Sava of the The A.V. Club gave the episode a B – . Sava complimented Hawking 's line , " it was quite a boner " , calling it " the big pay @-@ off of the story " and enjoyed the scene with Bernadette . However , Sava also said the " personal slave " storyline was a " classic sitcom plot " and noted that it was " the second episode in a row with no Amy " .
R. L. Shaffer of IGN rated it 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 and wrote that the episode " played like filler " but was " a very good filler episode " . Shaffer described the final scene with Hawking as " fun " and " effective " , although claimed some of the subplots " were only so @-@ so " . Robin Pierson of The TV Critic rated the episode 36 out of 100 , stating that " the craft has gone from the stories and jokes in favour of the most basic stories and punch lines . " Pierson thought Helberg " did a nice job showing vulnerability " as Howard , but that the episode overall was " one utterly predictable , unimaginative joke after another . "
Simon Helberg complimented Stephen Hawking on his comedic timing via Twitter . The Huffington Post said that " none of [ Hawking 's guest appearances ] felt quite as right as when he appeared as himself on " The Big Bang Theory " . "
= HMS Achilles ( 1905 ) =
HMS Achilles was a Warrior @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . She served with the 2nd Cruiser Squadron for most of the First World War . The ship did not participate in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , but did sink the German raider Leopard in 1917 . Achilles became a training ship in 1918 and was sold for scrap in 1921 .
= = General description = =
Achilles displaced 13 @,@ 550 long tons ( 13 @,@ 770 t ) as built and 14 @,@ 500 long tons ( 14 @,@ 700 t ) fully loaded . The ship had an overall length of 505 feet 4 inches ( 154 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She was powered by four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 23 @,@ 650 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 640 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 @.@ 3 knots ( 43 @.@ 2 km / h ; 26 @.@ 8 mph ) . The engines were powered by 19 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 050 long tons ( 2 @,@ 080 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 7 @,@ 960 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 740 km ; 9 @,@ 160 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Her main armament consisted of six BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) Mark X guns in single Mk V turrets distributed in two centerline turrets ( one each fore and one aft ) and four turrets disposed in the corners about the funnels . Her secondary armament of four BL 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 191 mm ) Mark II or Mark V guns in single Mk II turrets was carried amidships , between the wing 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns . Twenty @-@ six Vickers QF 3 @-@ pounders were fitted , ten on turret roofs and eight each on the forward and aft superstructures . The last four ships of the Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruisers had a secondary armament of turreted 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns rather than the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns in open barbettes of the first two ships ; these latter four were sometimes referred to as the Warrior class . Because of the extra topweight of the turrets in comparison to their half @-@ sisters their stability was reduced which made them very good seaboats and steady gun platforms because they did not roll as much . The ship also mounted three submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , one of which was mounted in the stern .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
A single Hotchkiss QF 6 @-@ pounder anti @-@ aircraft gun on a high @-@ angle Mark Ic mounting was mounted on the quarterdeck in 1915 . It had a maximum depression of 8 ° and a maximum elevation of 60 ° . The gun fired a 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 765 ft / s ( 538 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute . They had a maximum ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , but an effective range of only 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . Achilles 's foremast was converted to a tripod mast to support the weight of a fire @-@ control director after the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , but when the director was actually fitted is not known .
= = Service = =
Achilles was ordered as part of the 1903 – 04 naval construction programme as the third of four armoured cruisers . She was laid down on 22 February 1904 at Elswick by Armstrong Whitworth . The ship was launched on 17 June 1905 and completed on 22 April 1907 at the cost of £ 1 @,@ 191 @,@ 103 . Like her sister ships , she joined the 5th Cruiser Squadron in 1907 , and made a port visit to Russia in 1908 . The ship was later transferred to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron in 1909 . Achilles , accompanied by her sister Cochrane , and three other armoured cruisers were sent to reinforce the defences of the Shetland Islands on 2 August 1914 , days before the start of the First World War . She , and her squadron , was assigned to the Grand Fleet after the beginning of the war .
Achilles missed the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 because she was refitting . On the evening of 18 August , the Grand Fleet put to sea in response to a deciphered message that the High Seas Fleet , minus the II Battle Squadron , would be leaving harbour that night . The Germans planned to bombard the port of Sunderland on 19 August , with extensive reconnaissance provided by airships and submarines . The Germans broke off their planned attack to pursue a lone British battle squadron reported by an airship , which was in fact the Harwich Force under Commodore Tyrwhitt . Realising their mistake , the Germans then set course for home . During the Grand Fleet 's sortie , Achilles spotted a U @-@ boat . During another sortie by the High Seas Fleet on 18 October 1916 , Achilles and three other armoured cruisers were ordered to patrol the northern end of the North Sea , between the approaches to Pentland Firth and Hardangerfjord in Norway , but they saw no German ships .
On 16 March 1917 , Achilles and the armed boarding steamer Dundee were patrolling north of the Shetland Islands when they encountered the disguised German auxiliary cruiser Leopard . The latter ship heaved to when commanded , but manoeuvred to prevent Dundee from boarding her and then fired two torpedoes which missed . Dundee retaliated by raking Leopard 's stern , badly damaging the German ship and then Achilles opened fire herself . The German ship sank an hour later with no survivors . Achilles was transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in August 1917 for convoy escort duties , but returned to Britain for a refit between February and December 1918 . Upon completion of this refit Achilles became a stoker 's training ship at Chatham . The ship was sold for scrap on 9 May 1921 .
= HMS Hesperus ( H57 ) =
HMS Hesperus was an H @-@ class destroyer that had originally been ordered by the Brazilian Navy with the name Juruena in the late 1930s , but was bought by the Royal Navy after the beginning of World War II in September 1939 and later renamed . She was damaged by German aircraft during the Norwegian Campaign in May 1940 and was assigned to convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine patrols after her repairs were completed . The ship was assigned to the Western Approaches Command for convoy escort duties in late 1940 . She was briefly assigned to Force H in 1941 , but her anti @-@ aircraft armament was deemed too weak and she was transferred to the Newfoundland Escort Force the next month for escort duties in the North Atlantic . Hesperus was transferred to the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force in late 1941 and continued to escort convoys in the North Atlantic for the next three years . She was converted to an escort destroyer in early 1943 after suffering damage from one of her two ramming attacks that sank German submarines . The ship sank two other submarines during the war by more conventional means . After the end of the war , Hesperus escorted the ships carrying the Norwegian government in exile back to Norway and served as a target ship through mid @-@ 1946 . She was scrapped beginning in mid @-@ 1947 .
= = Description = =
Hesperus displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hesperus carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 152 officers and enlisted men .
The vessel was designed for four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear , but ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hesperus had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were originally fitted , but this was increased to three sets of rails and eight throwers while fitting @-@ out . The ship 's load of depth charges was increased from 20 to 110 as well .
Hesperus was completed without a director @-@ control tower ( DCT ) so the three remaining 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch low @-@ angle guns fired in local control using ranges provided by a rangefinder . She was fitted with an ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Hesperus had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun while under repair in May – June 1940 . The ship received a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast and a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar during her mid @-@ 1941 refit . While under repair at Immingham , she received her DCT . During her early 1942 refit at Falmouth , Cornwall , the ship 's short @-@ range AA armament was augmented by two Oerlikon 20 mm guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge . In addition , her recently installed DCT and rangefinder above the bridge were replaced by a Type 271 target indication radar . Whilst under repair in early 1943 , the ship was converted to an escort destroyer . ' A ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and the .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts were replaced by a pair of Oerlikons . Additional depth charge stowage replaced the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun and Hesperus received the one @-@ ton Mk X depth charge and four Mk IV depth @-@ charge throwers during the same refit . Hesperus was also fitted with the Foxer acoustic decoy to protect her against German acoustically guided torpedoes .
= = History = =
She was originally ordered as Juruena on 16 December 1937 by the Brazilian Navy . The ship was laid down by John I. Thornycroft and Company at Woolston , Hampshire on 6 July 1938 and launched by Senhora Heitora Gallienz on 1 August 1939 . The ship was purchased by the British on 5 September 1939 after the beginning of World War II . Renamed HMS Hearty , the ship was commissioned on 22 January 1940 under command of former Fleet Air Arm pilot Commander Donald Macintyre . Hearty was renamed Hesperus on 27 February , after the Hesperus of mythology , to avoid confusion with the destroyer Hardy .
The six Brazilian H @-@ class or Havant @-@ class destroyers initially formed the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet assigned to anti @-@ submarine protection of Scapa Flow . Upon the German occupation of Denmark , Hesperus and her sister Havant were assigned to cover the British occupation of the Faroe Islands in mid @-@ April . During the Norwegian Campaign , Hesperus transported elements of the Scots Guards to Mo i Rana on 15 May and was damaged by near misses from Junkers Ju @-@ 87 dive @-@ bombers that same day . The ship was sent to Dundee for repairs that lasted a month . Upon their completion , the ship was assigned to convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine patrol duties .
In November 1940 , the 9th Destroyer Flotilla was transferred to the Western Approaches Command and re @-@ designated the 9th Escort Group . During a tropical storm in January 1941 , the platform on which ' B ' gun was mounted was lifted until the gun pressed against the bridge . After repairs , she resumed her convoy escort duties until April when she was assigned to Force H in Gibraltar whilst Macintyre transferred to the destroyer Walker in March . Hesperus escorted ships during Operations Tiger and Tracer in May and June . Hesperus was transferred out of Force H as her anti @-@ aircraft capability was believed by Admiral James Somerville to be too weak for operations in the Mediterranean . She received a brief refit in Liverpool and was transferred to the Newfoundland Escort Force on 7 July .
In August 1941 , Hesperus was one of the destroyers that escorted the battleship Prince of Wales carrying Prime Minister Winston Churchill to the Atlantic Charter meeting with President Franklin D. Roosevelt at Placentia Bay . The ship was structurally damaged by heavy weather and was temporarily repaired by a repair ship in Iceland and then was given permanent repairs at Immingham . Upon their completion Hesperus rejoined the 9th Escort Group before she was attached to Force H in December for convoy duties at Gibraltar .
Together with her sister Harvester , Hesperus sank the German submarine U @-@ 208 on 7 December 1941 in the Atlantic west of Gibraltar . On 15 January 1942 , whilst defending Convoy HG 78 , the ship 's radar detected U @-@ 93 on the surface and the captain , Lieutenant Commander A. A. Tait , ordered Hesperus to ram . Although a glancing hit , the collision was so violent that it flung the U @-@ boat 's captain and first lieutenant from the submarine 's conning tower into the motorboat stowed on the destroyer 's deck . By dropping depth charges at their shallowest setting and hitting the submarine multiple times with 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch shells , the submarine 's crew was persuaded to abandon ship . Hesperus rescued 40 of the submarine 's crew , but was unable to board the submarine before it sank . The impact flooded part of the forward hull , buckled her starboard hull plating and bent the tips of her starboard propeller . She received temporary repairs at Gibraltar and then was given permanent repairs in Falmouth between 9 February and April .
In March 1942 , the remaining five Havant @-@ class destroyers were designated leaders of Escort Groups B @-@ 1 through B @-@ 5 . Commander Tait was transferred to Harvester ; and Commander A.F.St.G. Orpen assumed command of Hesperus and B @-@ 2 Escort Group when Hesperus completed repairs in April . Commander Macintyre returned to the ship when Orpen was promoted to captain in June . Whilst escorting Convoy HX 219 near Rockall on 26 December , Hesperus and the destroyer Vanessa sank the German submarine U @-@ 357 by ramming . This time , the ship 's bottom was ripped open for nearly a quarter of her length and she needed three months of repairs in Liverpool .
The ship rejoined her group on 17 March and sank U @-@ 191 with her Hedgehog on 23 April 1943 whilst escorting Convoy ONS 4 . Almost three weeks later , she sank U @-@ 186 whilst defending convoy SC 129 on 12 May 1943 . Hesperus remained on convoy escort duties until she was refitted between January and 29 March 1944 . Commander G.V. Legassick assumed command of Hesperus in March 1944 and the group escorted convoys between Gibraltar and the United Kingdom . In July 1944 , the ship transported the remains of Captain Frederic John Walker for burial at sea . Later that year , she was transferred to the 19th Escort Group . In January 1945 , Commander R.A. Currie assumed command of Hesperus as commander of the 14th Escort Group , based in Plymouth . On 30 April 1945 , the ship , together with her sister Havelock , attacked the wreck of U @-@ 246 northwest of the island of Anglesey thinking that it was U @-@ 242 which had been spotted by a Short Sunderland flying boat earlier that day .
Two weeks later , Hesperus and the 14th Escort Group escorted a group of surrendered German U @-@ boats from Loch Alsh to Lough Foyle . On 27 May , the ship and her sister Havelock escorted the exiled Norwegian government back to Oslo and remained there until 1 June . Ten days later , she began service as an aircraft target , a role that lasted for the next year . Hesperus was approved for scrapping on 18 February 1946 and was placed in Category C reserve in May . She was towed to Grangemouth for scrapping , but that did not begin until 17 May 1947 . Hesperus 's ensign was preserved in Yeovil Parish Church .
= Bold Orion =
The Bold Orion missile , also known as Weapons System 199B ( WS @-@ 199B ) , was a prototype air @-@ launched ballistic missile ( ALBM ) developed by Martin Aircraft during the 1950s . Developed in both one- and two @-@ stage designs , the missile was moderately successful in testing , and helped pave the way for development of the GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt ALBM . In addition , the Bold Orion was used in early anti @-@ satellite weapons testing , performing the first interception of a satellite by a missile .
= = Design and development = =
The Bold Orion missile was developed as part of Weapons System 199 , initiated by the United States Air Force ( USAF ) in response to the U.S. Navy 's Polaris program , with funding authorised by the United States Congress in 1957 . The purpose of WS @-@ 199 was the development of technology that would be used in new strategic weapons for the USAF 's Strategic Air Command , not to deliver operational weapons ; a primary emphasis was on proving the feasibility of an air @-@ launched ballistic missile .
The designation WS @-@ 199B was assigned to the project that , under a contract awarded in 1958 to Martin Aircraft , would become the Bold Orion missile . The design of Bold Orion was simple , using parts developed for other missile systems to reduce the cost and development time of the project . The initial Bold Orion configuration was a single @-@ stage vehicle , using a Thiokol TX @-@ 20 Sergeant solid @-@ fuel rocket . Following initial testing , the Bold Orion configuration was altered to become a two @-@ stage vehicle , an Allegany Ballistics Laboratory Altair upper stage being added to the missile .
= = Operational history = =
Having been given top priority by the Air Force , the first flight test of the Bold Orion missile was conducted on May 26 , 1958 , from a Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojet carrier aircraft , which launched the Bold Orion vehicle at the apex of a high @-@ speed , high @-@ angle climb . The zoom climb tactic , combined with the thrust from the rocket motor of the missile itself , allowed the missile to achieve its maximum range , or , alternatively , to reach space .
A twelve @-@ flight test series of the Bold Orion vehicle was conducted ; however , despite suffering only one outright failure , the initial flight tests of the single @-@ stage rocket proved less successful than hoped . Authorisation was received to modify the Bold Orion to become a two @-@ stage vehicle ; in addition to the modifications improving the missile 's reliability , they increased the range of Bold Orion to over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) . Four of the final six test firings were of the two @-@ stage vehicle ; these were considered completely successful , and established that the ALBM was a viable weapon .
= = = ASAT test = = =
The final test launch of Bold Orion , conducted on October 13 , 1959 , was a test of the vehicle 's capabilities in the anti @-@ satellite role . Launched from an altitude of 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) from its B @-@ 47 mothership , the missile successfully intercepted the Explorer 6 satellite , passing its target at a range of less than 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) at an altitude of 156 miles ( 251 km ) . Had the missile been fitted with a nuclear warhead , the satellite would have been destroyed .
The Bold Orion ASAT test was the first interception of a satellite by any method , proving that anti @-@ satellite missiles were feasible . However this test , along with an earlier , unsuccessful test of the High Virgo missile in the anti @-@ satellite role , had political repercussions ; the Eisenhower administration sought to establish space as a neutral ground for everyone 's usage , and the " indication of hostile intent " the tests were seen to give was frowned upon , with anti @-@ satellite weapons development being curtailed shortly thereafter .
= = = Legacy = = =
The results of the Bold Orion project , along with those from the testing of the High Virgo missile , also developed under WS @-@ 199 , provided data and knowledge that assisted the Air Force in forming the requirements for the follow @-@ on WS @-@ 138A , which would produce the GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt missile .
= = Launch history = =
= Vasa ( ship ) =
Vasa ( or Wasa ) is a Swedish warship built between 1626 and 1628 . The ship foundered and sank after sailing about 1 @,@ 300 m ( 1 @,@ 400 yd ) into her maiden voyage on 10 August 1628 . She fell into obscurity after most of her valuable bronze cannons were salvaged in the 17th century until she was located again in the late 1950s in a busy shipping lane just outside the Stockholm harbor . Salvaged with a largely intact hull in 1961 , she was housed in a temporary museum called Wasavarvet ( " The Wasa Shipyard " ) until 1988 and then moved to the Vasa Museum in Stockholm . The ship is one of Sweden 's most popular tourist attractions and has been seen by over 29 million visitors since 1961 . Since her recovery , Vasa has become a widely recognized symbol of the Swedish " great power period " and is today a de facto standard in the media and among Swedes for evaluating the historical importance of shipwrecks .
The ship was built on the orders of the King of Sweden Gustavus Adolphus as part of the military expansion he initiated in a war with Poland @-@ Lithuania ( 1621 – 1629 ) . She was constructed at the navy yard in Stockholm under a contract with private entrepreneurs in 1626 – 1627 and armed primarily with bronze cannons cast in Stockholm specifically for the ship . Richly decorated as a symbol of the king 's ambitions for Sweden and himself , upon completion she was one of the most powerfully armed vessels in the world . However , Vasa was dangerously unstable and top @-@ heavy with too much weight in the upper structure of the hull . Despite this lack of stability she was ordered to sea and foundered only a few minutes after encountering a wind stronger than a breeze .
The order to sail was the result of a combination of factors . The king , who was leading the army in Poland at the time of her maiden voyage , was impatient to see her take up her station as flagship of the reserve squadron at Älvsnabben in the Stockholm Archipelago . At the same time the king 's subordinates lacked the political courage to openly discuss the ship 's structural problems or to have the maiden voyage postponed . An inquiry was organized by the Swedish Privy Council to find those responsible for the disaster , but in the end no one was punished for the fiasco .
During the 1961 recovery , thousands of artifacts and the remains of at least 15 people were found in and around the Vasa 's hull by marine archaeologists . Among the many items found were clothing , weapons , cannons , tools , coins , cutlery , food , drink and six of the ten sails . The artifacts and the ship herself have provided scholars with invaluable insights into details of naval warfare , shipbuilding techniques and everyday life in early 17th @-@ century Sweden .
= = Historical background = =
During the 17th century , Sweden went from being a sparsely populated , poor , and peripheral northern European kingdom of little influence to one of the major powers in continental politics . Between 1611 and 1718 it was the dominant power in the Baltic , eventually gaining territory that encompassed the Baltic on all sides . This rise to prominence in international affairs and increase in military prowess , called stormaktstiden ( " age of greatness " or " great power period " ) , was made possible by a succession of able monarchs and the establishment of a powerful centralized government , supporting a highly efficient military organization . Swedish historians have described this as one of the more extreme examples of an early modern state using almost all of its available resources to wage war ; the small northern kingdom transformed itself into a fiscal @-@ military state and one of the most militarized states in history .
Gustavus Adolphus ( 1594 – 1632 ) has been considered one of the most successful Swedish kings in terms of success in warfare . When Vasa was built , he had been in power for more than a decade . Sweden was embroiled in a war with Poland @-@ Lithuania , and looked apprehensively at the development of the Thirty Years ' War in present @-@ day Germany . The war had been raging since 1618 and from a Protestant perspective it was not successful . The king 's plans for a Polish campaign and for securing Sweden 's interests required a strong naval presence in the Baltic .
The navy suffered several severe setbacks during the 1620s . In 1625 , a squadron cruising in the Bay of Riga was caught in a storm and ten ships ran aground and were wrecked . In the Battle of Oliwa in 1627 , a Swedish squadron was outmaneuvered and defeated by a Polish force and two large ships were lost . Tigern ( " The Tiger " ) , which was the Swedish admiral 's flagship , was captured by the Poles , and Solen ( " The Sun " ) was blown up by her own crew when she was boarded and near capture . In 1628 , three more large ships were lost in less than a month ; Admiral Klas Fleming 's flagship Kristina was wrecked in a storm in the Gulf of Danzig , Riksnyckeln ( " Key of the Realm " ) ran aground at Viksten in the southern archipelago of Stockholm and Vasa foundered on her maiden voyage . Gustavus Adolphus was engaged in naval warfare on several fronts , which further exacerbated the difficulties of the navy . In addition to battling the Polish navy , the Swedes were indirectly threatened by Imperial forces that had invaded Jutland . The Swedish king had little sympathy for the Danish king , Christian IV , and Denmark and Sweden had been bitter enemies for well over a century . However , Sweden feared a Catholic conquest of Copenhagen and Zealand . This would have granted the Catholic powers control over the strategic passages between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea , which would be disastrous for Swedish interests . As it turned out , the Imperial occupation of Denmark ended before Swedish intervention was necessary , and a squadron assigned to assist Denmark was retasked to help lift the Imperial siege of Stralsund .
Until the early 17th century , the Swedish navy was composed primarily of small to medium @-@ sized ships with a single gundeck , normally armed with 12 @-@ pounder and smaller cannons ; these ships were cheaper than larger ships and were well @-@ suited for escort and patrol . They also suited the prevailing tactical thinking within the navy , which emphasized boarding as the decisive moment in a naval battle rather than gunnery . The king , who was a keen artillerist , saw the potential of ships as gun platforms , and large , heavily armed ships made a more dramatic statement in the political theater of naval power . Beginning with Vasa , he ordered a series of ships with two full gundecks , outfitted with much heavier guns . Five such ships were built after Vasa ( Äpplet , Kronan , Scepter and Göta Ark ) before the Privy Council cancelled the orders for the others after the king 's death in 1632 . These ships , especially Kronan and Scepter , were much more successful and served as flagships in the Swedish navy until the 1660s . The second of the so @-@ called regalskepp ( usually translated as " royal ships " ) , Äpplet ( " The Apple " ; the Swedish term for the globus cruciger ) , was built simultaneously with Vasa . The only significant difference between the design of Vasa and her sister ship was an increase in width of about a meter ( 3 @.@ 1 ft ) .
= = Construction = =
In the early 1620s , work at the Stockholm navy yard was led by a pair of Dutch @-@ born entrepreneurs , Antonius Monier and master shipwright Henrik Hybertsson , who was usually referred to as " Master Henrik " . When a new contract for operation of the navy yard was negotiated in the winter of 1624 – 1625 , Monier withdrew and Master Henrik took on a young merchant from Amsterdam , Arendt de Groote , as partner . On 16 January 1625 , Henrik and Arendt signed a contract to build four ships , two larger with a keel length of 128 feet ( 38 m ) and two smaller , with dimensions to match the earlier ship Gustavus .
Master Henrik and Arendt de Groote began buying the raw materials needed for the first ships in 1625 , purchasing timber from individual estates in Sweden as well as buying rough @-@ sawn planking in Riga , Königsberg ( modern Kaliningrad ) , and Amsterdam . As they prepared to begin the first of the new ships in the autumn of 1625 , Henrik corresponded with the king through the Vice Admiral Fleming about which ship to build first . The loss of ten ships in the Bay of Riga led the king to propose building two ships of a new , medium size as a quick compromise , and he sent a specification for this , a ship which would be 120 feet ( 35 @.@ 6 m ) long on the keel . Henrik declined , since he had already cut the timber for a large and a small ship . He laid the keel for a larger ship in late February or early March 1626 . Master Henrik never saw Vasa completed ; he fell ill in late 1625 , and by the summer of 1626 he had handed over supervision of the work in the yard to another Dutch shipwright , Henrik " Hein " Jacobsson . He died in the spring of 1627 , probably about the same time as the ship was launched .
After launching , work continued on finishing the upper deck , the sterncastle , the beakhead and the rigging . Sweden had still not developed a sizeable sailcloth industry , and material had to be ordered from abroad . In the contract for the maintenance of rigging , French sailcloth was specified , but the cloth for the sails of Vasa most likely came from Holland . The sails were made mostly of hemp and partly of flax . The rigging was made entirely of hemp imported from Latvia through Riga . The king visited the shipyard in January 1628 and made what was probably his only visit aboard the ship .
In the summer of 1628 , the captain responsible for supervising construction of the ship , Söfring Hansson , arranged for the ship 's stability to be demonstrated for the Vice Admiral responsible for procurement , Klas Fleming , who had recently arrived in Stockholm from Prussia . Thirty men ran back and forth across the upper deck to start the ship rolling , but the admiral stopped the test after they had made only three trips , as he feared the ship would capsize . According to testimony by the ship 's master , Göran Mattson , Fleming remarked that he wished the king were at home . Gustavus Adolphus had been sending a steady stream of letters insisting that the ship put to sea as soon as possible .
There has been much speculation about whether Vasa was lengthened during construction and whether an additional gun deck was added late during the build . Little evidence suggests that Vasa was substantially modified after the keel was laid . Ships contemporary to Vasa that were elongated were cut in half and new timbers spliced between the existing sections , making the addition readily identifiable , but no such addition can be identified in the hull , nor is there any evidence for any late additions of a second gundeck . The king ordered 72 24 @-@ pound cannons for the ship on 5 August 1626 , and this was too many to fit on a single gun deck . Since the king 's order was issued less than five months after construction started , it would have come early enough for the second deck to be included in the design . The French Galion du Guise , the ship used as a model for Vasa , according to Arendt de Groote , also had two gun decks . Laser measurements of Vasa 's structure conducted in 2007 – 2011 confirmed that no major changes were implemented during construction , but that the center of gravity was too high .
Vasa was an early example of a warship with two full gun decks , and was built when the theoretical principles of shipbuilding were still poorly understood . There is no evidence that Henrik Hybertsson had ever built a ship like it before , and two gundecks is a much more complicated compromise in seaworthiness and firepower than a single gundeck . Safety margins at the time were also far below anything that would be acceptable today . Combined with the fact that 17th @-@ century warships were built with intentionally high superstructures ( to be used as firing platforms ) , this made Vasa a risky undertaking .
= = = Armament = = =
Vasa was built during a time of transition in naval tactics , from an era when boarding was still one of the primary ways of fighting enemy ships to an era of the strictly organized ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line and a focus on victory through superior gunnery . Vasa was armed with powerful guns and built with a high stern , which would act as a firing platform in boarding actions for some of the 300 soldiers she was supposed to carry , but the high @-@ sided hull and narrow upper deck were not optimized for boarding . She was neither the largest ship ever built , nor the one carrying the greatest number of guns . What made her arguably the most powerful warship of the time was the combined weight of shot that could be fired from the cannon of one side : 588 pounds ( 267 kg ) , excluding stormstycken , guns used for firing anti @-@ personnel ammunition instead of solid shot . This was the largest concentration of artillery in a single warship in the Baltic at the time , perhaps in all of northern Europe , and it was not until the 1630s that a ship with more firepower was built . This large amount of naval artillery was placed on a ship that was quite small relative to the armament carried . By comparison , USS Constitution , a famous Napoleonic era frigate built 169 years after Vasa , had roughly the same firepower , but was over 700 tonnes heavier .
The Constitution , however , belonged to a later era of naval warfare that employed the line of battle @-@ tactic , where ships fought in single file ( or line ahead ) while the group as a whole attempted to present the batteries of one side toward the enemy . The guns would be aimed in the same direction and fire could be concentrated on a single target . In the 17th century , tactics involving organized formations of large fleets had still not been developed . Rather , ships would fight individually or in small improvised groups , and focused on boarding . Vasa , though possessing a formidable battery , was built with these tactics in mind , and therefore lacked a unified broadside with guns that were all aimed in roughly the same direction . Rather , the guns were intended to be fired independently and were arranged according to the curvature of the hull , meaning that the ship would be bristled with artillery in all directions , covering virtually all angles .
Naval gunnery in the 17th century was still in its infancy . Guns were expensive and had a much longer lifespan than any warship . Guns with a lifetime of over a century were not unheard of , while most warships would be used for only 15 to 20 years . In Sweden and many other European countries , a ship would normally not " own " its guns , but would be issued armament from the armory for every campaign season . Ships were therefore usually fitted with guns of very diverse age and size . What allowed Vasa to carry so much firepower was not merely that an unusually large number of guns were crammed into a relatively small ship , but also that the 46 main 24 @-@ pounder guns were of a new and standardized lightweight design , cast in a single series at the state gun foundry in Stockholm , under the direction of the Swiss @-@ born founder Medardus Gessus . Two additional 24 @-@ pounders , of a heavier and older design , were mounted in the bows , the so @-@ called bow chasers . Four more heavy guns were intended for the stern , but the cannon foundry could not cast guns as fast as the navy yard could build ships , and Vasa waited nearly a year after construction was finished for its armament . When the ship sailed in August 1628 , eight of the planned armament of 72 guns had still not been delivered . All cannons during this time had to be made from individually made moulds that could not be reused , but Vasa 's guns had such uniform precision in their manufacturing that their primary dimensions varied by only a few millimeters , and their bores were almost exactly 146 mm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) . The remaining armament of Vasa consisted of eight 3 @-@ pounders , six large caliber stormstycken ( similar to what the English called howitzers ) for use during boarding actions , and two 1 @-@ pound falconets . Also included on board were 894 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 970 lb ) of gunpowder and over 1000 shot of various types for the guns .
= = = Ornamentation = = =
As was the custom with warships at the time , Vasa was decorated with sculptures intended to glorify the authority , wisdom and martial prowess of the monarch and also to deride , taunt and intimidate the enemy . The sculptures made up a considerable part of the effort and cost of building the ship . The symbolism used in decorating the ship was mostly based on the Renaissance idealization of Roman and Greek antiquity , which had been imported from Italy through German and Dutch artists . Imagery borrowed from Mediterranean antiquity dominates the motifs , but also include figures from the Old Testament and even a few from ancient Egypt . Many of the figures are in Dutch grotesque style , depicting fantastic and frightening creatures , including mermaids , wild men , sea monsters and tritons . The decoration inside the ship is much sparser and is largely confined to the steerage and the great cabin , at the after end of the upper gundeck .
Residues of paint have been found on many sculptures and on other parts of the ship . The entire ornamentation was once painted in vivid colors . The sides of the beakhead ( the protruding structure below the bowsprit ) , the bulwarks ( the protective railing around the weather deck ) , the roofs of the quarter galleries , and the background of the transom ( the | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
line than needed . In addition , the deck beams and their supporting timbers are over @-@ dimensioned and too closely spaced for the loads they carry , so they contribute too much weight to the already tall and heavy upper works .
The use of different measuring systems on either side of the vessel caused its mass to be distributed asymmetrically , heavier to port . During construction both Swedish feet and Amsterdam feet were in use by different teams .
Although the mathematical tools for calculating or predicting stability were still more than a century in the future , and 17th @-@ century scientific ideas about how ships behaved in water were deeply flawed , the people associated with building and sailing ships for the Swedish navy were very much aware of the forces at work and their relationships to each other . In the last part of the inquest held after the sinking , a group of master shipwrights and senior naval officers were asked for their opinions about why the ship sank . Their discussion and conclusions show very clearly that they knew what had happened , and their verdict was summed up very clearly by one of the captains , who said that the ship did not have enough " belly " to carry the heavy upperworks .
Ship design was not yet a science , but was an empirical process based on experience rather than calculation . Balancing the military need for firepower against the maritime need for seaworthiness resulted in some compromises that would not pass modern standards for stability . A ship with two gundecks was an even more demanding proposition , as the lower tier of gunports had to be uncomfortably close to the water , and there was an unavoidably large amount of weight being carried above the waterline . One of the solutions which became common was graduated armament , in which the guns of the upper decks were progressively lighter . Such an armament , with 24 @-@ pounders on the lower gundeck and 12 @-@ pounders on the upper gundeck , was considered for Vasa in 1627 , but eventually the armament plan reverted to the king 's original desire of 24 @-@ pounders on both decks . Vasa 's sister ship , Äpplet , had her upper gundeck 24 @-@ pounders changed for 12 @-@ pounders early in her career , probably in attempt to improve her stability .
Vasa might not have sunk on 10 August 1628 , if the ship had been sailed with the gunports closed . Ships with multiple tiers of gunports normally had to sail with the lowest tier closed , since the pressure of wind in the sails would usually push the hull over until the lower gunport sills were under water . For this reason , the gunport lids are made with a double lip which is designed to seal well enough to keep out most of the water . Captain Söfring Hansson had ordered the lower gundeck ports closed once the ship began to take on water , but by then it was too late . If he had done it before he sailed , Vasa might not have sunk on that day .
= = Conservation = =
Although Vasa was in surprisingly good condition after 333 years at the bottom of the sea , it would have quickly deteriorated if the hull had been simply allowed to dry . The large bulk of Vasa , over 600 cubic meters ( 21 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of oak timber , constituted an unprecedented conservation problem . After some debate on how to best preserve the ship , conservation was carried out by impregnation with polyethylene glycol ( PEG ) , a method that has since become the standard treatment for large , waterlogged wooden objects , such as the 16th @-@ century English ship Mary Rose . Vasa was sprayed with PEG for 17 years , followed by a long period of slow drying , which is not yet entirely complete .
The reason that Vasa was so well @-@ preserved was not just that the shipworm that normally devours wooden ships was absent but also that the water of Stockholms ström was heavily polluted until the late 20th century . The highly toxic and hostile environment meant that even the toughest microorganisms that break down wood had difficulty surviving . This , along with the fact that Vasa had been newly built when she sank , contributed to her conservation . Unfortunately , the properties of the water also had a negative effect . Chemicals present in the water around Vasa had penetrated the wood , and the timber was full of the corrosion products from the bolts and other iron objects which had disappeared . Once the ship was exposed to the air , reactions began inside the timber that produced acidic compounds . In the late 1990s , spots of white and yellow residue were noticed on Vasa and some of the associated artifacts . These turned out to be sulfate @-@ containing salts that had formed on the surface of the wood when sulfides reacted with atmospheric oxygen . The salts on the surface of Vasa and objects found in and around it are not a threat themselves ( even if the discoloring may be distracting ) , but if they are from inside the wood , they may expand and crack the timber from inside . As of 2002 , the amount of sulfuric acid in Vasa 's hull was estimated to be more than 2 tonnes , and more is continually being created . Enough sulfides are present in the ship to produce another 5 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) of acid at a rate of about 100 kilograms ( 220 lb ) per year ; this might eventually destroy the ship almost entirely .
While most of the scientific community considers that the destructive substance responsible for Vasa 's long @-@ term decay is sulfuric acid , Ulla Westermark , professor of wood technology at Luleå University of Technology , has proposed another mechanism with her colleague Börje Stenberg . Experiments done by Japanese researchers show that treating wood with PEG in an acidic environment can generate formic acid and eventually liquify the wood . Vasa was exposed to acidic water for more than three centuries , and therefore has a relatively low pH . Samples taken from the ship indicate that formic acid is present , and that it could be one of the multiple causes of a suddenly accelerated rate of decomposition .
The museum is constantly monitoring the ship for damage caused by decay or warping of the wood . Ongoing research seeks the best way to preserve the ship for future generations and to analyze the existing material as closely as possible . A current problem is that the old oak of which the ship is built has lost a substantial amount of its original strength and the cradle that supports the ship does not match up very well with the distribution of weight and stress in the hull . " The amount of movement in the hull is worrying . If nothing is done , the ship will most likely capsize again " , states Magnus Olofson from the Vasa Museum . An effort to secure Vasa for the future is under way , in cooperation with the Royal Institute of Technology and other institutions around the globe .
To deal with the problem of the inevitable deterioration of the ship , the main hall of the Vasa Museum is kept at a temperature of 18 – 20 ° C ( 64 – 68 ° F ) and a humidity level of 53 % . To slow the destruction by acidic compounds , different methods have been tried . Small objects have been sealed in plastic containers filled with an inert atmosphere of nitrogen gas , for halting further reactions between sulfides and oxygen . The ship itself has been treated with cloth saturated in a basic liquid to neutralize the low pH , but this is only a temporary solution as acid is continuously produced . The original bolts rusted away after the ship sank but were replaced with modern ones that were galvanized and covered with epoxy resin . Despite this , the new bolts have also started to rust and are releasing iron into the wood , which accelerates the deterioration . These bolts are currently being replaced with bolts made of stainless steel .
= = Legacy = =
Vasa has become a popular and widely recognized symbol for a historical narrative about the Swedish stormaktstiden ( " the Great Power @-@ period " ) in the 17th century , and about the early development of a European nation state . Within the disciplines of history and maritime archaeology the wrecks of large warships from the 16th , 17th and 18th centuries have received particularly widespread attention as perceived symbols of a past greatness of the state of Sweden . Among these wrecks , Vasa is the single most well @-@ known example , and has also become recognized internationally , not least through a deliberate use of the ship as a symbol for marketing Sweden abroad . The name Vasa has in Sweden become synonymous with sunken vessels that are considered to be of great historical importance , and these are usually described , explained and valued in relation to Vasa itself . The Swedish maritime archaeologist Carl @-@ Olof Cederlund , who has been active in the various Vasa @-@ projects , has described the phenomenon as regalskepps @-@ syndromet , " the royal ship syndrome " ( after the term used in the 17th century for the largest warships in the Swedish navy ) . He associates the " syndrome " to a nationalist aspect of the history of ideas and traditional perceptions about hero @-@ kings and glory through war . The focus of this historical theory lies on the " great periods " in " our [ Swedish ] history " and shares many similarities with the nationalist views of the Viking era in the Nordic countries and the praising of Greek and Roman Antiquity in the Western world in general . Cederlund has stressed the ritualized aspects of the widely publicized salvage in 1961 and has compared the modern Vasa Museum with " a temple in the Classical sense of the word " . The placement of the museum on Djurgården , traditional crown property , and its focus on " the King 's ship " has led him to suggest a description of it as " The Temple of the Royal Ship " .
= = = Literature and popular culture = = =
Vasa has been the subject of hundreds of books , articles and papers on topics ranging from marine archaeology to culinary history . Three children 's books about Vasa have been written in Swedish and later translated into English , German , Danish , and Norwegian : The Vasa Saga by Bertil Almqvist , The Vasa Sets Sail by Mats Wahl ( illustrated by Sven Nordqvist ) , and The Vasa Piglet by Björn Bergenholtz .
Vasa 's unique status has drawn considerable attention and captured the imagination of more than two generations of scholars , tourists , model builders , and authors . Though historically unfounded , the popular perception of the building of the ship as a botched and disorganized affair ( dubbed " the Vasa @-@ syndrome " ) has been used by many authors of management literature as an educational example of how not to organize a successful business .
The Vasa Museum has co @-@ sponsored two versions of a documentary about the history and recovery of the ship , both by documentary filmmaker Anders Wahlgren . The second version is currently shown in the museum and has been released on VHS and DVD with narration in 16 languages . In late 2011 , a third Vasa @-@ film premiered on Swedish television , with a longer running time and a considerably larger budget ( with over 7 @.@ 5 million kronor provided by SVT ) . An educational computer game , now in its second generation , has been made and is used in the museum and on its website to explain the fundamentals of 17th century ship construction and stability . Several mass @-@ produced model kits and countless custom @-@ built models of the ship have been made . In 1991 , a 308 @-@ tonne pastiche reproduction of the ship was built in Tokyo to serve as a 650 @-@ passenger sightseeing ship . Vasa has inspired many works of art , including a gilded Disney @-@ themed parody of the pilaster sculptures on the ship 's quarter galleries . Being a popular tourist attraction , Vasa is used as a motif for various souvenir products such as T @-@ shirts , mugs , refrigerator magnets , and posters . Commercially produced replicas — such as drinking glasses , plates , spoons , and even a backgammon game — have been made from many of the objects belonging to the crew or officers found on the ship .
= Next ( Desperate Housewives ) =
" Next " is the second season premiere episode of the American comedy @-@ drama series Desperate Housewives , and the 24th episode overall . It was originally broadcast in the United States on September 25 , 2005 , on ABC . It was written by Jenna Bans and Kevin Murphy and was directed by Larry Shaw .
In the episode , Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) recovers from having been held hostage while Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) attempts to salvage her marriage to her incarcerated husband , Carlos ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) . Meanwhile , Bree ( Marcia Cross ) deals with her mother @-@ in @-@ law following her husband 's death and Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) goes back to work . The episode also introduces the mystery storyline revolving around Betty Applewhite ( Alfre Woodard ) and her family .
According to Nielsen ratings , " Next " was watched by 28 @.@ 4 million viewers , making it the most watched season premiere on ABC in nine years . The episode also ranks as the second @-@ most watched in series history , behind the first season finale in May 2005 . The episode received general positive reviews , with Cross earning universal praise for her performance . Critics enjoyed Woodard 's acting as well as her character 's storyline .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Desperate Housewives focuses on the residents living in the suburban neighborhood of Wisteria Lane . In previous episodes , Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) learns that he is the biological father of Zach Young ( Cody Kasch ) , whose adopted parents , Mary Alice ( Brenda Strong ) and Paul ( Mark Moses ) , killed Mike 's previous girlfriend and Zach 's biological mother years earlier . Mike kidnapped Paul and left him stranded in the desert while Zach holds Mike 's current girlfriend , Susan Mayer ( Teri Hatcher ) hostage as part of his plan to kill Mike . Tom Scavo ( Doug Savant ) quit his job and decided to become a stay @-@ at @-@ home father , forcing his wife , Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) to reenter the work force . Gabrielle Solis 's ( Eva Longoria ) affair with her teenage gardener , John Rowland ( Jesse Metcalfe ) , is exposed just as she discovers she is pregnant and her husband , Carlos ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) , is sentenced to time in prison . Bree Van de Kamp ( Marcia Cross ) learned that her husband , Rex ( Steven Culp ) , died while awaiting surgery . Also , Betty Applewhite ( Alfre Woodard ) and her son , Matthew ( Mehcad Brooks ) , moved to Wisteria Lane .
= = = Episode = = =
Mike arrives home to find Zach holding Susan hostage . Before Zach has the opportunity to kill Mike , Susan wrestles the gun away from him and Zach runs away . Later , Susan discovers that Mike does not want to press charges against Zach , who is still missing . When she questions him , Mike confesses that Zach is his biological son . Susan tearfully congratulates Mike , but tells him that she cannot keep dating him if he continues to search for Zach , given Zach 's history with her daughter Julie .
Rex 's mother , Phyllis Van de Kamp ( Shirley Knight ) , comes to town for Rex 's funeral . She and Bree clash heads throughout her visit , especially when Phyllis claims that Bree made Rex miserable during his last years , prompting Bree to disinvite her from the funeral . Eventually , Bree reconsiders ; however , during the service , Bree discovers that Rex is being buried in his high school tie , which Phyllis insisted but Bree expressly forbade . Bree changes Rex 's tie in the middle of the funeral .
With Carlos in prison , John assumes that he and Gabrielle will continue their relationship , but Gabrielle is livid after John told Carlos about their affair . Meanwhile , Carlos demands a paternity test if he and Gabrielle are to work on their marriage . Unwilling to actually take a test , Gabrielle obtains another patient 's results and passes them off to Carlos as her own . Nevertheless , Carlos tells her that he still is not unsatisfied .
Lynette interviews for a job in an advertisement firm . Her interviewer , an irritable woman named Nina Fletcher ( Joely Fisher ) , is skeptical of Lynette 's competence after learning that she has four children , but asks her to come back for a final interview with her boss anyway . After Tom throws out his back , Lynette is forced to bring Penny , her toddler , to the second interview . Despite these unusual circumstances , Lynette manages to impress Nina 's boss , Ed Ferrara ( Currie Graham ) , who hires her on the spot .
As Betty , a former concert pianist , continues to get settled in the neighborhood , she agrees to play at Rex 's funeral . Later , she and Matthew bring a tray of food to a chained prisoner in their basement .
= = Production = =
" Next " was written by Jenna Bans and Kevin Murphy and directed by Larry Shaw . While developing storylines for the second season , series creator Marc Cherry stated , " I want to keep finding new ways to talk about issues that relate to everyday women , " explaining that the show needs to focus on " small , real , everyday issues " in order to keep the audience interested . Cherry cited the Lynette storyline as an example of this strategy : " Lynette will have a job next season ( returning to her advertising roots ) , so I want to address how difficult it is to go to work all day and then come home and be expected to also take care of your house . " Huffman recognized that her character 's storylines needed a change of pace , but hoped that Lynette 's domestic life would still play an integral role this season . " My hope is to not get lost in the corporate world ; that it 's still a home and family / husband and children story , " she explained . " But how many times can you go , ' Kids , clear your plates ! ' " The episode also introduced Joely Fisher as Lynette 's new boss , Nina Fletcher . Fisher describes her character as " nasty , " elaborating : " Lynette suddenly has to come up against this tiger lady who never stops reminding Lynette that she 's childless by choice . Even though Nina is not a housewife , she is desperate in her own way . " Due to the death of his character , Steven Culp did not return to the series for the second season . For the open casket scene in " Next " , producers created a life mask of the actor . Savant was promoted to series regular after appearing as a recurring guest star throughout the first season .
The episode is the first to feature Alfre Woodard and Mehcad Brooks as series regulars after they were introduced in the final two episodes of the first season . Woodard played Betty Applewhite , a " deeply religious , overbearing single mother " while Mehcad portrayed her son , Matthew . In regards to the characters and their mystery storyline , Cherry stated : " They come on the street ; they seem like nice people — but they 've got a secret . And it 's pretty gothic . It 's real and human and awful all at the same time . " Woodard commented that her character " never means harm ... Let 's just say she has flaws . She had to make some really tough decisions quick and if the law ever catches up with her , she 'll have to serve time ... But they 'll never catch her . " The final scene in which Betty and Matthew bring food to the prisoner in their basement was originally intended for the first season finale but saved for " Next " instead .
While the Applewhites are regarded as the first major black characters on the series , Cherry stated that the role of Betty was originally offered to two white film actresses , both of whom turned it down due to financial and time commitment issues . He clarified : " There 's nothing strategically black about her character . Her color is incidental . " Woodard had never seen the show before accepting the role . Desperate Housewives producers sent her fifteen episodes of the show , which she divided amongst various family members . After they compared storylines , Woodard recalled that she became " instantly hooked " on the series . Woodard reported experiencing heavy media attention after accepting the role . Both Brooks and his brother , Billy , auditioned for the role of Matthew . The final decision came down to both brothers as well as two other actors . According to Cherry , Brooks was cast because he exuded a " dangerous " element , as well as " a combination of this wholesome , sweet quality and a dark , brooding quality . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
According to Nielsen ratings , " Next " was watched by 28 @.@ 4 million viewers . It held a 12 @.@ 1 rating / 26 share on its original broadcast , indicating a 36 percent increase since the series premiere one year earlier and helping ABC earn its largest Sunday night audience in 10 years . Additionally , it was ABC 's most watched season premiere in nine years . The episode was the second @-@ most watched program of the week , behind only CSI on CBS . It was the most watched program among viewers 18 to 49 years of age . The episode is the second @-@ most watched episode of the series , following the first season finale in May 2005 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Variety 's Brian Lowry gave the episode a positive review . He opined that the Lynette storyline looked " extremely promising " and enjoyed the addition of Joely Fisher to the cast as Lynette 's " tight @-@ assed new boss . " He identified the Bree storyline as " the real water @-@ cooler sequence " and complimented Marcia Cross ' performance . However , Lowry criticized the Gabrielle and Susan storylines , opining that they are " exhibiting signs of wear and tear . " Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly noted that the episode had " a particularly sleepy opening 20 minutes " while its exciting plot points all occurred in the second half of the episode . He praised the scene in which Bree changes the tie on Rex 's corpse and called Cross ' performance throughout the episode " pitch @-@ perfect . " Slezak also complimented Huffman 's performance , but wondered if Fisher was " a steely enough an actress to go Manolo @-@ a @-@ Manolo with Huffman every week . " Though he criticized the repetitive nature of the Susan and Gabrielle storylines , Slezak thought that the Applewhite mystery would help reduce the show 's chances of falling into a sophomore slump . He praised Woodward 's acting as well as her character 's storyline , opining , " there 's something so inherently warm and maternal in Woodard 's performance , such apple @-@ pie wholesomeness , that it makes her touches of menace all the more chilling . "
Gael Fashingbauer Cooper of MSNBC complimented that Applewhite storyline , writing : " Forget Lynette 's career stress , Gabrielle 's baby daddy drama , and even Bree 's new widowhood : This story has legs , and apparently arms . " She found it strange that the Bree , Andrew , and Danielle characters showed little emotion in regards to Rex 's death . Additionally , she noted that the Lynette and Gabrielle storylines provided comic relief while Susan , a character " so often saddled with the comic relief of the show , had a sad and serious premiere . " Sarah Gilbert of TV Squad gave the episode a positive review , stating the episode delivered " lots of juicy resolution , several power suits , and ( you guessed it ) lots of tears and shouting . " The Futon Critic selected " Next " as the 42nd best television episode of 2005 , writing , " Say what you will about the show 's rocky sophomore season but one can 't deny how strongly it started , " and citing the tie @-@ changing scene as the episode 's most memorable moment .
In 2005 , Bans and Murphy were nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Episodic Comedy writing , but lost to Jenji Kohan , who penned the pilot episode of the Showtime series Weeds .
= Clannad ( visual novel ) =
Clannad ( クラナド , Kuranado ) is a Japanese visual novel developed by Key and released on April 28 , 2004 for Windows PCs . While both of Key 's first two previous works , Kanon and Air , had been released first as adult games and then censored for the younger market , Clannad was released with a rating for all ages . It was later ported to the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation Portable , Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita consoles . An English version for Windows was released on Steam by Sekai Project in 2015 .
The story follows the life of Tomoya Okazaki . In the first story arc , called School Life , he is a high school delinquent who meets many people in his last year at school , including five girls , and helps resolve their individual problems . The second story arc , called After Story , follows his life as an adult after graduating from school . The gameplay of Clannad follows a branching plot line which offers a number of alternate scenarios with dialogue choices and courses of interaction , focusing on the player character 's interactions with various non @-@ player characters .
The game was ranked as the best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards . Key went on to produce an adult spin @-@ off titled Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life in November 2005 , which expanded on the scenario of Tomoyo Sakagami , one of the five heroines from Clannad .
Clannad has made several transitions to other media . There have been four manga adaptations published by ASCII Media Works , Flex Comix , Fujimi Shobo and Jive . Comic anthologies , light novels and art books have also been published , as have audio dramas and several albums of music . An animated film by Toei Animation was released in September 2007 , followed by two TV anime series including two original video animation ( OVA ) episodes by Kyoto Animation produced between 2007 and 2009 . Both anime series and their accompanying OVAs are licensed by Sentai Filmworks and were released in North America in 2009 . The animated adaptations have received high sales figures in Japan as well as critical acclaim abroad .
= = Gameplay = =
Clannad is a drama and romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Tomoya Okazaki . Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story 's narrative and dialogue . Clannad follows a branching plot line with multiple endings ; depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .
There are six main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , five which are initially available . Throughout gameplay , the player is given multiple options to choose from , and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player must replay the game multiple times and make different choices to change the plot progression .
When first playing the game , the scenarios for all five heroines and additional smaller scenarios are available in what is called the School Life story arc . When the player completes a character 's scenario , he or she receives an orb of light . When eight of these lights are obtained , the game 's second story arc , called After Story , is made available . One of the lights disappears during School Life , but reappears in After Story . To view the true ending of Clannad , all 13 lights must be obtained . Originally , the lights were meant to be items that players could use in the game , but since this increased the game 's complexity , and detracted from the storyline , the function of the lights was simplified and made less intrusive .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and themes = = =
The first half of the story takes place primarily at Hikarizaka Private High School , a fictional school located in Japan . Outside of the school , frequented locations include the bakery run by Nagisa 's parents , and the dormitory where Youhei Sunohara lives . Throughout the story , glimpses into an Illusionary World are shown . This world is devoid of all life except for a young girl , though she later makes a body out of junk pieces through which the player can interact with her . The remaining half of the story takes place in the same city , after the conclusion of the first half . While the town 's name was never directly mentioned , one can infer that the town 's name is Hikarizaka based on the many companies and establishments that share this name .
There are recurring themes that appear throughout the story . The main theme is the value of having a family , as the title of the series implies because the main scenario writer Jun Maeda mistakenly thought the name of the Irish band Clannad meant " clan " or " family " in Irish . Of the six main characters , Tomoya , Nagisa , and Kotomi have no siblings , though their parents are major factors in their stories . Nagisa 's story was written to incorporate what Maeda described as a " perfect family " with a focus on mental consciousness . In Nagisa 's story , there is a recurring appearance of " The Big Dango Family " ( だんご大家族 , Dango Daikazoku ) ( a fictional group mascot for children ) that Nagisa is fond of . Tomoya 's and Nagisa 's characters were written in a style to exemplify a " growth to adulthood " by the end of the story . Fuko 's and Kyou 's stories have their sisters playing an integral part , and Tomoyo 's story is influenced by her entire family . A minor motif of Irish words continues with the opening theme of the game , " Mag Mell " , which means roughly " plain of joy " and is connected with Irish mythology . The arrange album , a short music CD that contained remixed versions of songs in the game , that was bundled with the original game release was titled Mabinogi , which was a collection of prose stories from medieval Welsh manuscripts .
= = = Main characters = = =
The player assumes the role of Tomoya Okazaki , the protagonist of Clannad . Tomoya has been labeled a delinquent ; at the beginning of the story , he even expresses hatred toward the city he has lived in all his life where Clannad is set . He is very straightforward in his comments to others and will not hesitate to speak his mind , even if he comes off as rude during such times . Despite this , Tomoya is very loyal to his friends , and has been known to dedicate himself for those around him in need of help or support . He generally has a selfless personality and does not ask much from others in return for what he does for them .
Tomoya meets Nagisa Furukawa , the main heroine of Clannad , at the onset of the story . Nagisa is a soft @-@ spoken girl who has very low self @-@ esteem and self @-@ confidence which causes her to rely on those around her for support . She has developed the strange habit of muttering the names of favorite foods that she plans to eat as a way to motivate herself , such as anpan . Kyou Fujibayashi , another of Clannad 's heroines , is a bad @-@ mouthed and aggressive girl well known as a good cook among her friends and family . When angry she does not hesitate to throw a dictionary at people that she often carries around for such purposes . Despite this attitude , she also has a more subdued side , especially towards her younger fraternal twin sister Ryou Fujibayashi .
Tomoya meets a genius girl named Kotomi Ichinose , one day in the school library . She is ranked in the top 10 throughout the whole country in standardized exam results of every subject — she always goes to library to read extra materials , especially books in foreign languages . Kotomi is a very quiet girl with poor social skills and it is quite difficult to communicate with her ; Kotomi can even completely ignore someone when reading , even if they make loud disturbances around her . Clannad 's fourth heroine is a second @-@ year student named Tomoyo Sakagami who transfers into Tomoya 's school . Tomoyo , like Kyou , can be extremely aggressive , and Tomoyo is a very strong fighter , preferring to use kicking over punching , and is very athletic . Although Tomoya is older than her , Tomoyo does not show him respect as a senior student . Tomoyo appears in Key 's fifth game , Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life , as the main heroine .
The last heroine in Clannad is a first @-@ year student named Fuko Ibuki who has a distant attitude towards others and , before she met Tomoya , was generally seen alone by herself making wood carvings of starfish with a small knife to give to others as presents . Fuko is extremely enthralled by starfish , or things that are star @-@ shaped , and will often go into short euphoric bouts where her awareness of her surroundings is completely overtaken .
= = = Story = = =
Clannad 's story revolves around Tomoya Okazaki , a third year high school student who dislikes his life . Tomoya 's mother ( Atsuko ) died when Tomoya was young , leaving his father ( Naoyuki ) to raise him . After the accident , Tomoya 's father turned to alcohol and gambling , and had frequent fights with his son . One day , Naoyuki , while arguing with his son , slammed Tomoya against the window , dislocating Tomoya 's shoulder . This injury prevents Tomoya from playing on the basketball team , and causes him to distance himself from others . Ever since then , his father has treated Tomoya nicely , but distantly , as if Tomoya and he were strangers rather than a family . This hurts Tomoya more than his previous relationship with his father , and the awkwardness of returning home leads Tomoya constantly to stay out all night . Thus his delinquent life begins . Tomoya 's good friend Youhei Sunohara , who was thrown out of the soccer club over a dispute with his seniors , is also a delinquent and often hangs out in his dorm room with Tomoya doing nothing much .
The story opens on Monday April 14 , 2003 at the beginning of the school year , when Tomoya meets Nagisa Furukawa , a soft @-@ spoken girl who is one year older than he is but is repeating her last year in high school due to being sick much of the previous year . Her goal is to join the drama club which she was unable to do due to her sickness , but they find that the drama club was disbanded after the few remaining members graduated . Since Tomoya has a lot of time to kill , he helps Nagisa in reforming the drama club . During this period , Tomoya meets and hangs out with several other girls whom he gets to know well and help with their individual problems .
= = = = After Story = = = =
In the second part of the story , which starts immediately after the end of the first part but extends into the next seven years , Tomoya and Nagisa start living together , and eventually get married . Tomoya has to endure several hardships that the family has been suffering from , especially Nagisa 's illness . Just after Nagisa gives birth to their daughter Ushio , she dies , which causes Tomoya to become severely depressed . He is barely able to function , let alone look after an infant . As a result , Nagisa 's parents , Akio and Sanae , take care of their granddaughter . Five years later , Tomoya meets with Shino Okazaki , his paternal grandmother . Shino tells Tomoya of his father 's traumatic past , which is eerily similar to Tomoya 's current situation . Afterwards , Tomoya resolves to raise Ushio and acknowledges Naoyuki as his father . Shortly after Tomoya overcomes his depression , Ushio is stricken with the same disease that Nagisa had . Tomoya , Sanae and Akio struggle to save her — Tomoya even quits his job — but all of their efforts turn out to be in vain . In the coming winter , wanting to do anything for his daughter , Tomoya takes her on a trip , but she dies shortly after .
Tomoya 's psychology is developed in his dreams of a bleak world , called the Illusionary World ( 幻想世界 , Gensō Sekai ) , where small orbs of light float around . In the first few dreams , he sees a world devoid of all life , except for one girl . Each time he dreams , he finds out more about the world . Tomoya discovers that the girl has a special ability to fuse junk together to create new things , which she uses to create a body for him . Over time , Tomoya comes to the conclusion that only the two of them are " alive " . To pass time , Tomoya and the girl try to build another doll with more junk they find , but as it has no soul , it fails to come to life . Remembering the distant world where he came from , Tomoya convinces the girl to build a ship so that the two can escape the approaching winter and continue to live a happy life . Eventually , winter sets in , and the girl becomes cold to the point where she cannot move any more . The girl tells Tomoya that he has another chance to go back and make things right . To do so , he must collect certain " lights " ( symbols of happiness ) similar to those floating around in the Illusionary World . If all the " lights " are collected throughout both story parts , a chance to save Nagisa from dying will become available , as well as the true ending , where she survives and lives with Tomoya and Ushio .
= = Development = =
The executive producer for Clannad was Takahiro Baba from VisualArt 's , the publishing company which controls Key . Jun Maeda , who was one of three main scenario writers with Kai , and Yūichi Suzumoto , led the planning for Clannad and wrote the majority of the scenarios . Scenario assistance was provided by Tōya Okano . Itaru Hinoue headed the art direction , and also worked on the character design . Miracle Mikipon , Mochisuke , Na @-@ Ga , and Shinory supplemented the computer graphics . Torino provided the background art . The game 's music was composed by Maeda , Shinji Orito , and Magome Togoshi .
For Key 's second visual novel Air , Maeda admitted he felt he was able to write what he wanted to for the game 's scenario , but he later discovered that Air was difficult for players to receive and experience . Due to this , Maeda felt that for Key 's next work Clannad , he had a sense of duty to make the game easier to receive for as many users as possible . In any case , he wanted to make it an entertaining game , and started planning on Clannad almost immediately after Air 's completion . From the start of Clannad 's planning , Maeda did not want to write a story like in Air , but instead wanted to focus on writing a deep connection between the ' people and the town ' , and ' humanity ' . Maeda noted that he exceeded his writing ability when writing most of the scenarios in Clannad , and equates Clannad 's writing process as a " wall that I will never be able to get over again . " While at the beginning Maeda felt he was prepared , the entire game 's story started to increase to a level Maeda never predicted , and Suzumoto noted that it approximately doubled in size from the original projected length . Suzumoto attributed the increase due to the lengthening structure of the game 's base scenario which caused the ' branch ' scenarios to increase as well .
There were more concerns about Clannad being similar to Air . When Nagisa 's scenario was being written , there were some disputes concerning the length of her scenario , and thus putting too much focus on the main heroine . Some were concerned that having a single prominent character with a unique storyline would be too much like how Air was structured with the overall focus on Misuzu Kamio . Takahiro Baba , the company president of VisualArt 's , is even noted as suggesting to minimize the differences between the other characters ' scenarios , but this was ultimately ignored since Maeda thought the game 's evaluation by players would not decrease on account of the scenarios being vastly different , and thought the end result was a good one . Maeda was concerned that the After Story arc , mainly a continuation of Nagisa 's scenario , would eclipse the entire game 's scenario , much like what happened with Air according to Maeda . In order to prevent the same thing happening in Clannad , Maeda focused on making the first half of the story , the School Life arc , just as enjoyable by making it long and heart @-@ breaking . Clannad is Key 's second longest work , as reported by Yūto Tonokawa where he stated that Clannad is about 4 @,@ 000 words fewer than Key 's 2008 game Little Busters ! Ecstasy .
= = = Release history = = =
Key announced in 2001 a release date of 2002 for Clannad and , after several postponements , Clannad was released on April 28 , 2004 as a limited edition version , playable on a Windows PC as a DVD . The limited edition came bundled with the remix album Mabinogi remixing background music tracks featured in the visual novel . The regular edition was released on August 6 , 2004 ; While Clannad originally had no voice acting , Key released a version for Windows titled Clannad Full Voice on February 29 , 2008 with full voice acting ( except for Tomoya ) . Clannad Full Voice contained one new CG , and had updated support for Windows Vista PCs . Clannad Full Voice was re @-@ released by Key under the name Clannad on July 31 , 2009 in a box set containing five other Key visual novels called Key 10th Memorial Box . An updated version compatible for Windows 7 PCs titled Clannad Memorial Edition was released on May 28 , 2010 .
Clannad was released for Windows on Steam by Sekai Project in English on November 23 , 2015 . In November 2014 , Sekai Project used the crowdfunding website Kickstarter to raise funds to produce the English translation of Clannad . After less than 24 hours , the project reached its goal of US $ 140 @,@ 000 . When the Kickstarter campaign reached its US $ 320 @,@ 000 stretch goal , Sekai Project announced that they would also be translating and releasing the Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de side stories for Windows . Overall , the Kickstarter campaign raised US $ 541 @,@ 161 , exceeding all of its stretch goals . Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was released on Steam on June 2 , 2016 .
The first consumer console port of the game was released for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) on February 23 , 2006 by Interchannel . The PS2 version was re @-@ released as a " Best " version on July 30 , 2009 . The PS2 version was bundled in a " Key 3 @-@ Part Work Premium Box " package together with the PS2 versions of Kanon and Air released on July 30 , 2009 . An Xbox 360 version was released on August 28 , 2008 also by Prototype . A PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) version was released by Prototype on April 21 , 2011 . A downloadable version of the PS3 release via the PlayStation Store was released by Prototype on February 14 , 2013 .
A version produced by NTT DoCoMo playable on FOMA mobile phones was released by Prototype through VisualArt 's Motto in late 2007 . Prototype later released a version playable on SoftBank 3G phones in January 2008 . A version playable on Android devices was released on September 18 , 2012 . A PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) version of the game was released in Japan on May 29 , 2008 by Prototype , which included the additions from the Windows full voice version . The limited edition release of the PSP and Xbox 360 versions came bundled with a " digest " edition of the drama CD series released by Prototype containing five separate stories each ; the CD bundled with the PSP release is different from the CD bundled with the Xbox 360 version . Prototype also released a port of the game for the PlayStation Vita on August 14 , 2014 to mark the 10 @-@ year anniversary of the game .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Books and publications = = =
A magazine @-@ sized 39 @-@ page book called pre @-@ Clannad was published by SoftBank Creative on April 15 , 2004 . The book contained images from the visual novel , and short explanations of the characters , along with production sketches and concept drawings . A 160 @-@ page visual fan book was published by Enterbrain on October 12 , 2004 which contained detailed story explanations , computer graphics , sheet music for the opening and ending themes , and interviews from the creators . Near the end of the book contains original illustrations of Clannad characters from various artists , three additional chapters of the Official Another Story , and production sketches .
A set of 14 illustrated short stories which added to Clannad 's story were serialized between the September 2004 and October 2005 issues of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine . Titled Official Another Story Clannad : Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de ( Official Another Story Clannad 光見守る坂道で , Official Another Story Clannad : On the Hillside Path that Light Watches Over ) , there were 13 regular chapters and one extra bonus chapter . The installments were written by Key 's scenario staff and each story was accompanied by illustrations by Japanese artist GotoP . Two more stories were included when they were collected into a 103 @-@ page bound volume released on November 25 , 2005 .
Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was later re @-@ released via SoftBank 3G and FOMA mobile phones produced by Prototype through VisualArt 's Motto starting in January 2008 . One chapter was released weekly with the SoftBank 3G releases three weeks behind the version for FOMA phones . Prototype again re @-@ released the short story collection , this time on the PSP in two volumes , each containing eight chapters and including the original art by GotoP . The first volume was released on June 3 , 2010 and the second followed on July 15 , 2010 ; the re @-@ release is described by the developers as a " visual sound novel " . Prototype released the short story collection as downloadable content on July 6 , 2011 for the PS3 version of Clannad . Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was released in two volumes on Android devices : the first volume on November 30 , 2011 , and volume two on April 11 , 2012 .
Two Clannad anthology character novels were written by several authors and published by Jive in September and December 2004 . The first volume of a short story anthology compilation series written by Hiro Akizuki and Mutsuki Misaki titled Clannad . ( くらなど 。 ) was released in November 2008 published by Harvest ; the third volume was released in October 2009 . Three volumes of a short story compilation series by several authors titled Clannad SSS were published by Harvest between June and August 2009 . Harvest published a novel titled Clannad Mystery File in August 2010 and another novel titled Clannad : Magic Hour in December 2010 .
= = = Manga = = =
The first manga illustrated by Juri Misaki titled Clannad Official Comic was serialized in Jive 's manga magazine Comic Rush between the May 2005 and April 2009 issues . Jive published eight tankōbon volumes between November 7 , 2005 and March 7 , 2009 . The second manga , titled Official Another Story Clannad : Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de and illustrated by Rino Fujii , was serialized between June 21 , 2007 and August 21 , 2008 in Flex Comix 's Comi Digi + magazine , and contained 11 chapters . The story for the second manga was adapted from the Clannad short story collection of the same name . The first volume for Official Another Story Clannad was released by Broccoli on February 21 , 2008 in a limited and regular edition , each with their own cover . The limited edition comes bundled with a small black notebook with the school emblem of Tomoya 's school on the cover . In order to commemorate the sale , an autograph session with the manga 's illustrator signing copies was held on March 2 , 2008 at Gamers in Nagoya , Japan . The second and final volume , again in limited and regular editions , was released on December 20 , 2008 .
A third Clannad manga illustrated by Shaa began serialization in the August 2007 issue of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine , published on June 30 , 2007 . The manga ended serialization in Dengeki G 's Magazine in the July 2009 issue , and was serialized in Dengeki G 's Festival ! Comic between October 26 , 2009 and April 28 , 2014 . ASCII Media Works published five volumes for Shaa 's Clannad manga under their Dengeki Comics imprint between February 27 , 2008 and July 26 , 2014 . A fourth manga , titled Clannad : Tomoyo Dearest and illustrated by Yukiko Sumiyoshi , was serialized between February 20 and August 20 , 2008 in Fujimi Shobo 's Dragon Age Pure magazine . The story centers on Tomoyo 's arc from the Clannad visual novel . A single volume for Clannad : Tomoyo Dearest was released on October 9 , 2008 .
There have also been four sets of manga anthologies produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists . The first volume of the earliest anthology series , released by Ohzora under the title Clannad , was released in June 2004 under their Twin Heart Comics imprint . Volumes for this series continued to be released until April 2005 with the fifth volume . The second anthology was released in a single volume by Jive on January 25 , 2005 titled Clannad Comic Anthology : Another Symphony . The third anthology series was released in two volumes by Ichijinsha on June 25 , 2004 and July 24 , 2004 under their DNA Media Comics ; a third special volume was released much later on December 25 , 2007 . The first volume of the last anthology series , a collection of four @-@ panel comic strips released by Enterbrain under the title Magi @-@ Cu 4 @-@ koma Clannad , was released on February 25 , 2008 under their MC Comics imprint ; the tenth volume in the series was released on August 26 , 2009 . Each of the anthology series are written and drawn by an average of 20 people per volume .
= = = Drama CDs = = =
There are two separate sets of drama CDs based on the Clannad series . The first set , produced by Frontier Works , contains five CDs each focusing on a different heroine in Clannad 's story ranging from Nagisa , to Kotomi , Fuko , Kyou , and Tomoyo . The first volume was released in Japan on April 25 , 2007 as a limited edition with an extra track added . The second through fifth volumes followed in one month increments between May 25 , 2007 and August 24 , 2007 . The second set , produced by Prototype , contains four CDs ; the first was released on July 25 , 2007 . Volumes two through four were released in one month intervals after that , with the last being released on October 24 , 2007 . Each CD is based on the stories from the Official Another Story Clannad : Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de collection . The artist GotoP , who provided the illustrations for the short stories , also illustrates the drama CD covers . The drama CDs , with text and visuals , are available as downloadable content via Xbox Live and the PlayStation Store when playing the Xbox 360 and PS3 versions of Clannad , respectively .
= = = Film = = =
Toei Animation ( the same team who worked on the original Kanon anime and Air film ) announced at the Tokyo Anime Fair on March 23 , 2006 that an animated film would be produced . The Clannad film was released on September 15 , 2007 , directed by the same director of the Air film , Osamu Dezaki , and the screenplay was written by Makoto Nakamura . The film is a reinterpretation of the Clannad storyline which centers on the story arc of the female lead Nagisa Furukawa . The film was released on DVD in three editions : the Collector 's Edition , the Special Edition , and the Regular Edition on March 7 , 2008 . Sentai Filmworks released an English @-@ subbed and dubbed version of the film in March 2011 .
= = = Anime series = = =
On March 15 , 2007 , the Japanese television station BS @-@ i announced a Clannad anime series via a short 30 @-@ second teaser trailer that was featured at the end of the final episode of the second Kanon anime series . Clannad is produced by Kyoto Animation and directed by Tatsuya Ishihara , who also worked on other adaptations of Key 's visual novels Air , and Kanon . The anime aired between October 4 , 2007 and March 27 , 2008 , containing 23 aired episodes out of a planned 24 ; the broadcast time was first announced on August 11 , 2007 at the TBS festival Anime Festa , which is also when the first episode was showcased . The anime series was released in a set of eight DVD compilations released between December 19 , 2007 and July 16 , 2008 by Pony Canyon , with each compilation containing three episodes . Of the 24 episodes , 23 were aired on television with the first 22 being regular episodes , followed by an additional extra episode . The last episode was released as an original video animation ( OVA ) on the eighth DVD on July 16 , 2008 and is set in an alternate universe from the anime series where Tomoya and Tomoyo are dating , which is based on Tomoyo 's scenario in the game . The OVA episode was previewed on May 31 , 2008 for an audience of four @-@ hundred people picked via a mail @-@ in postcard campaign . A Blu @-@ ray Disc ( BD ) box set of Clannad was released on April 30 , 2010 .
After the ending of the 23rd episode of the first Clannad anime series , a 15 @-@ second teaser trailer aired promoting a second season titled Clannad After Story . The anime is again animated by Kyoto Animation , and animates the After Story arc from the visual novel , which is a continuation of Nagisa 's story , into 24 episodes . The same staff and cast from the first anime were used and the series broadcast in Japan between October 3 , 2008 and March 26 , 2009 . Of the 24 episodes , 22 are regular episodes , the 23rd is an extra episode , and the last episode is a summary episode showcasing highlights from the series . The episodes were released on eight DVD compilation volumes between December 3 , 2008 and July 1 , 2009 . The eighth DVD volume came with an additional OVA episode set in an alternate universe from the anime series where Tomoya and Kyou are dating . The OVA episode was previewed on May 24 , 2009 to a limited number of people . A BD box set of Clannad After Story was released on April 20 , 2011 in Japan with English subtitles .
The license holding company Sentai Filmworks licensed the Clannad anime series , and ADV Films localized and distributed the television series and the OVA starting with the first half season box set consisting of 12 episodes with English subtitles , Japanese audio , and no English language track , which was released on March 3 , 2009 . The second half season box set containing the remaining episodes was released on May 5 , 2009 . Sentai Filmworks licensed the Clannad After Story anime series ; Section23 Films localized and distributed both the television series and OVA starting with the first half season box set with English subtitles released on October 20 , 2009 . The second half box set was released on December 8 , 2009 . Sentai Filmworks re @-@ released Clannad in a complete collection set on June 15 , 2010 , which featured an English dub , produced at Seraphim Digital . The English dub premiered on March 25 , 2010 on the Anime Network . Sentai Filmworks re @-@ released Clannad After Story with an English dub on April 19 , 2011 , and re @-@ released Clannad on BD in November 2011 .
The opening theme for the first season is " ' Mag Mell ' ( cuckool mix 2007 ) " by Eufonius , a remix of the song " ' Mag Mell ' ( cockool mix ) " , featured on the third disc of the game 's original soundtrack , which is itself a remix of the game 's opening theme " Mag Mell " ( メグメル , Megu Meru ) . The first season 's ending theme is " Dango Daikazoku " ( だんご大家族 , The Big Dango Family ) by Chata . It carries the same tune as " Chiisana Tenohira " ( 小さなてのひら , Small Palms ) , the ending theme from the After Story arc of the game . The second season 's opening theme is " Toki o Kizamu Uta " ( 時を刻む唄 , A Song to Pass the Time ) which uses the same tune as the background music track " Onaji Takami e " ( 同じ高みへ , To the Same Heights ) from the game 's soundtrack . The ending theme is " Torch " , and both the opening and ending themes are sung by Lia . The rest of the soundtrack for both anime series is sampled from several albums released for the Clannad visual novel including the Clannad Original Soundtrack , Mabinogi , -Memento- , Sorarado , and Sorarado Append . The cover art for Sorarado Append is also visible as the last shot in the ending video animation of the first season .
= = = Internet radio shows = = =
An Internet radio show to promote the Clannad anime series called Nagisa to Sanae no Omae ni Rainbow ( 渚と早苗のおまえにレインボー ) was broadcast between October 5 , 2007 and October 3 , 2008 , containing 52 episodes . The show , produced by Onsen and Animate TV , was hosted by Mai Nakahara , who played Nagisa Furukawa in the anime , and Kikuko Inoue , who played Sanae Furukawa , and was streamed online every Friday . Several voice actors from the anime adaptation appeared on the show as guests who included Ryō Hirohashi ( as Kyou ) , Atsuko Enomoto ( as Yukine ) , Akemi Kanda ( as Ryou ) , Yuichi Nakamura ( as Tomoya ) , and Daisuke Sakaguchi ( as Youhei ) . A two @-@ disc CD compilation containing the show 's first 13 broadcasts was produced on June 18 , 2008 . The second two @-@ disc CD compilation containing the 14th through 26th broadcasts was released on October 15 , 2008 , and a third CD volume followed on November 19 , 2008 . A fourth and final volume was released on February 18 , 2009 containing the rest of the broadcasts .
A second Internet radio show to promote the Clannad After Story anime series called Nagisa to Sanae to Akio no Omae ni Hyper Rainbow ( 渚と早苗と秋生のおまえにハイパーレインボー ) was broadcast between October 10 , 2008 and April 10 , 2009 , containing 26 episodes . The show was also produced by Onsen and Animate TV , and was streamed online every Friday . The show had three hosts including the previous two plus Ryōtarō Okiayu who plays Akio Furukawa in the anime series . Two two @-@ disc CD compilations were released containing the second radio shows broadcasts , the first released on February 18 , 2009 , followed by the second on May 29 , 2009 .
= = Music = =
The Clannad visual novel has four pieces of theme music : one opening theme , two ending themes , and an insert song . The opening theme is " Mag Mell " ( メグメル , Megu Meru ) by Eufonius . The two ending themes are " -Kage Futatsu- " ( -影二つ- , -Two Shadows- ) and " Chiisana Tenohira " ( 小さなてのひら , Small Palms ) sung by Riya of Eufonius ; the latter is used as the ending theme in the After Story arc . The insert song " Ana " is sung by Lia . Six of the characters have background music leitmotifs — the five heroines , and Yukine Miyazawa . Nagisa 's theme is the self @-@ titled " Nagisa " ( 渚 ) ; Kyou 's theme is " Sore wa Kaze no Yōni " ( それは風のように , That 's Like the Wind ) ; Kotomi 's theme is " Étude Pour les Petites Supercordes " ; Tomoyo 's theme is " Kanojo no Honki " ( 彼女の本気 , Her Determination ) ; Fuko 's theme is " Hurry , Starfish " ( は 〜 りぃすたーふぃしゅ , Ha ~ rī Sutāfisshu ) ; lastly , Yukine 's theme is " Shiryōshitsu no Ochakai " ( 資料室のお茶会 , Tea Party in the Reference Room ) .
An image song album titled Sorarado was released in December 2003 featuring songs sung by Riya . A remix album , Mabinogi , came bundled with the original release of Clannad in April 2004 . The game 's original soundtrack was released in August 2004 containing three discs containing 56 tracks . A follow @-@ up to Sorarado was released in December 2004 called Sorarado Append ; the songs were again sung by Riya . A remix album titled -Memento- was also released in December 2004 and contained two discs . A piano arrangement album was released in December 2005 called Piano no Mori , which contained five tracks from Clannad and five from Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life . Each of the albums released for the visual novel version were released on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label .
A maxi single by Eufonius was released in July 2007 for the Clannad film called " Mag Mell ( frequency ⇒ e Ver . ) " . The single contained a remix version of the game 's opening theme , and instrumental track of that remix , and an original track . An image album titled Yakusoku was released in August 2007 featuring a song sung by Lia , an instrumental version of that song , and two background music tracks used in the film . The film 's original soundtrack was released in November 2007 . The albums released for the film were produced by Frontier Works . A single was released in October 2007 for the first anime series called " Mag Mell / Dango Daikazoku " which contained the anime 's opening and ending themes in original , short , and instrumental versions plus a remix version of " Shōjo no Gensō " ( 少女の幻想 , The Girl 's Fantasy ) , a track featured in Sorarado sung by Riya . A single for the second season anime series was released in November 2008 called " Toki o Kizamu Uta / Torch " , and contains the anime 's opening and ending themes sung by Lia . A remix album containing piano arrangement versions of the second anime series ' opening and ending themes was released in December 2008 called " Toki o Kizamu Uta / Torch " Piano Arrange Disc . The anime series ' two singles and one album are released on Key Sounds Label .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , poll results for the 50 best bishōjo games were released . Out of 249 titles , Clannad ranked first at 114 votes ; in comparison , the second place title , Fate / stay night , got 78 votes . The PlayStation 2 release in 2006 was reviewed by the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu , which gave it an overall score of 26 / 40 ( out of the four individual review scores of 7 , 7 , 6 , and 6 ) . In 2008 , Clannad was voted No. 2 in the Dengeki poll of the most emotional games of all time . In 2011 , Clannad was voted No. 4 in Famitsu 's poll of the most tear @-@ inducing games of all time . In 2014 , Sony Computer Entertainment conducted a poll with over 10 @,@ 000 Japanese fans , where Clannad was voted No. 18 on the " Most Moving Games Over Books and Movies " list .
Multiplayer.it reviewed the Windows version and scored it 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 . They referred to it as " one of the best visual novels ever made " , praising the " rich " dialogues and storytelling , " deep " branching narrative , and " lifelike " characterization , referring to the cast as some of the best " characters ever seen " in " the world of video games . " RPGFan gave it an overall score of 83 % , including 88 % for story , 86 % gameplay , 74 % control , 72 % graphics , and 82 % sound . The review praised the large number of dialogue choices which " lets you feel involved in how the tale plays out " , " many genuinely funny moments , " and " emotionally touching " stories , particularly the After Story arc where Clannad " truly excels " with " heart @-@ wrenching " and " emotionally @-@ charged " storytelling , but criticized it for not having enough visuals and for having some " less interesting " side @-@ story paths in the School Life arc which require completion to unlock the After Story arc .
For the anime television adaptations , the first season of Clannad received reviews ranging from positive to mixed , while the second season Clannad After Story received wide critical acclaim . The THEM Anime Reviews website gave the entire series a score of 4 out of 5 stars , with reviewer Tim Jones describing the first season as " the most fleshed @-@ out and real Key animated adaption to date , " and reviewer Stig Høgset stating that the second season After Story " will play up the tragedies and the drama considerably , quite possibly tearing out your heart in the process . This is where time truly starts to fly by , lending the show some real weight in the emotional departments . "
Theron Martin of Anime News Network gave the first season a ' B + ' rating , criticizing its extensive use of moe elements , but considered it appealing entertainment for a " fan base who revels in this kind of thing . " His review for the second season After Story was much more positive , giving it an ' A- ' rating . He praised the second half of the season as " the best @-@ written quarter of Clannad , " stating that it " effectively builds up and delivers its emotional appeal , reinforces the series ' central theme ( i.e. the importance of family ) , and peaks visually , " and concluding that " only the most cynical of souls will avoid shedding at least a few tears at certain points . " On the DVD Talk website , the reviewer Todd Douglass Jr. gave Clannad After Story a " Highly Recommended " rating , stating that " the range of emotions Clannad takes you through is quite daunting . It 's charming , cute , hilarious , mysterious , and tragic all at the same time . Few shows are as memorable , and few are this good for this long . " He concludes that the storytelling is " heartfelt " and " memorable in so many ways , " and that " few shows rise to the levels this one does . "
= = = Sales = = =
Across the national ranking of bishōjo games in amount sold in Japan , the Clannad limited edition Windows release premiered at number one twice since its release , and the third ranking brought the Windows release down to 46 out of 50 . The first two weeks of June 2004 held the final ranking for the original release at 40 out of 50 . The Clannad regular edition Windows release premiered at number 26 in the rankings . The next two rankings for the regular edition were at 37 and 41 . According to sales information taken from the Japanese Amazon website , the original Windows version of Clannad sold 100 @,@ 560 copies in 2004 . Clannad Full Voice ranked twice in terms of highest selling PC games nationally in Japan , achieving sales rankings of 7 and 20 in February and March 2008 , respectively . For the week of April 18 , 2011 , the PlayStation 3 port of Clannad sold 7 @,@ 466 units . As of April 18 , 2011 , the console versions of Clannad had sold over 113 @,@ 000 copies . The two @-@ volume PSP editions of Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de sold 28 @,@ 984 copies by the end of 2010 . The English release of the Windows version debuted on the Steam charts at number three , above Call of Duty : Black Ops III and Grand Theft Auto V , and just below Fallout 4 and Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive .
The two anime series and film DVDs have shown consistent high sales figures . The first anime limited edition DVD ranked third for the week of December 19 and December 25 , 2007 . The second through fifth limited edition DVDs all ranked first during their first week of sales , while the sixth limited edition DVD volume was ranked fourth for the week of May 21 and May 27 , 2008 . The seventh and eighth limited edition DVD volumes both ranked first during their first week of sales . The third limited edition DVD ranked sixth for the most anime DVDs sold between December 2007 and November 2008 . A Blu @-@ ray Disc box set of Clannad ranked third for the week of April 26 and May 2 , 2010 , and ranked again at 13 the following week . The special edition film DVD first ranked at number three during its first week of sales , and dropped down to number 10 the following week .
The first limited edition DVD for Clannad After Story ranked second during its first week of sales selling 17 @,@ 521 units . The second through fourth limited edition DVDs for Clannad After Story ranked first during their first week of sales each selling over 16 @,@ 000 units each . The fifth through seventh limited edition DVDs for Clannad After Story ranked first during their first week of sales selling over 14 @,@ 000 units each . The eighth limited edition DVD for Clannad After Story ranked second during its first week of sales selling over 19 @,@ 800 units . The sixth limited edition DVD volume ranked again the week of May 11 and May 17 , 2009 at number three for anime DVDs . The seventh limited edition DVD volume ranked again the week of June 8 and June 14 , 2009 at number six for anime DVDs . The eighth limited edition DVD volume ranked again the week of July 6 and July 12 , 2009 at number five for anime DVDs .
= = = Legacy = = =
Gamania Entertainment hosted a collaboration event with Clannad and their two massively multiplayer online games ( MMOGs ) Hiten Online and Holy Beast Online . Between March 26 and June 26 , 2008 , the two games offered costumes characters could wear which looked like the winter school uniforms from Clannad , along with offering Kyou 's pet boar Botan for players to adopt . Players of either game who had a character over level 20 could enter a lottery where 500 people were chosen to win Clannad @-@ related goods which included virtual and real @-@ world items such as file folders , " netcash " cards , sports towels , tapestries , and various items used during gameplay .
ASCII Media Works and Vridge produced the PlayStation 2 visual novel Nogizaka Haruka no Himitsu : Cosplay Hajimemashita ( 乃木坂春香の秘密 こすぷれ 、 はじめました ♥ , lit . Haruka Nogizaka 's Secret : Cosplaying Has Begun ) based on the light novel series Nogizaka Haruka no Himitsu . Released in September 2008 , the game features the series ' characters cosplaying in various costumes either depicting characters from five popular light novel series published by ASCII Media Works , or three Clannad heroines . Haruka Nogizaka can cosplay as Kotomi Ichinose , Mika Nogizaka can cosplay as Nagisa Furukawa ( albeit with long hair ) , and Shiina Amamiya can cosplay as Tomoyo Sakagami . The player can also view exclusive CGs in the game if one of the girls is taken out to various places while cosplaying as one of the aforementioned five light novel series characters , or as the Clannad heroines . For example , if Mika is cosplaying as Nagisa , a CG of her eating dango can become viewable . When cosplaying as one of these tie @-@ in characters , the voice of the girl cosplaying changes to the voice actress of the character they are cosplaying ; for example , if Shiina cosplays as Tomoyo , she is voiced by Tomoyo 's voice actress Houko Kuwashima .
A 3D virtual world called Ai Sp @ ce was developed by the video game developer Headlock where users can interact with bishōjo game heroines from Clannad , Shuffle ! , and Da Capo II . Released in October 2008 , the world recreates each game franchise on its own virtual island which are linked with a central Akihabara Island where users can interact , bridging the gap between the separate franchises . Users are able to create a customizable avatar to represent themselves in the game , along with choosing one game heroine to live with , which is referred to as a character doll , or chara @-@ doll for short . The user and chara @-@ doll reside together on one of the three in @-@ game " islands " depending on which franchise the heroine is from , which includes a house with furniture and clothes that can be purchased . The chara @-@ dolls can also be customizable in that they can develop a unique personality for each user .
= Sandra Schmirler =
Sandra Marie Schmirler , SOM ( June 11 , 1963 – March 2 , 2000 ) was a Canadian curler who captured three Canadian Curling Championships ( Scott Tournament of Hearts ) and three World Curling Championships . Schmirler also skipped ( captained ) her Canadian team to a gold medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics , the first year women 's curling was a medal sport . At tournaments where she was not competing , Schmirler sometimes worked as a commentator for CBC Sports , which popularized her nickname " Schmirler the Curler " and claimed she was the only person who had a name that rhymed with the sport she played . She died in 2000 at 36 of cancer , leaving a legacy that extended outside of curling . Schmirler was honoured posthumously with an induction into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame and was awarded the World Curling Freytag Award , which later led to her induction into the World Curling Federation Hall of Fame .
= = Curling career = =
While attending Biggar Composite School in Biggar , Saskatchewan , Canada , Schmirler started curling in Grade 7 as part of the school 's physical education program . She grew up an athlete , playing volleyball , badminton , and softball . She was also an avid speed swimmer . She continued to curl on the local scene , participating in the Biggar Curling Club ladies ' league in Grade 9 . Playing as third on her high school team , she won a provincial championship in Grade 12 , when her team went undefeated throughout the season . She continued to curl after graduating from high school , while attending the University of Saskatchewan . While in university , Schmirler made her first appearance in Saskatchewan 's provincial playdowns in 1983 . After graduating university , Schmirler moved to Regina to take a job at the North West Leisure Centre . She continued to curl , and was given the nickname " Schmirler the Curler " by a supervisor at the facility . In 1987 , as a member of Kathy Fahlman 's rink , Schmirler won her first provincial championship , sending her to her first national championship , where she and her team finished in fourth place with a 7 – 5 win @-@ loss record .
Prior to the 1988 – 89 curling season , Schmirler and Jan Betker found themselves curling with different teammates , attempting to put together a stable squad . After a disappointing season , Schmirler decided to skip for the 1990 – 91 season , with Betker playing third . They recruited Joan Inglis ( McCusker ) to play second , and McCusker recommended Marcia Gudereit as a lead . This rink won the provincials in their first year together and finished in fourth place at the Scott Tournament of Hearts . In 1993 , the Schmirler rink again won the provincial title to move on to the Tournament of Hearts . Her rink defeated Maureen Bonar in the finals , giving Saskatchewan its first national women 's curling championship since Marj Mitchell 's win in 1980 . The rink moved on to the World Championship and defeated Janet Clews @-@ Strayer from Germany in the final that year , winning Canada its sixth world women 's title . The next season , she and her rink competed at the Tournament of Hearts as defending champions . The team finished first in the round robin , and defeated Connie Laliberte in the final to clinch a second consecutive Canadian championship . She and her team then represented Canada at the World Women 's Curling Championship , where they finished first in the round robin . She then advanced to the playoffs , and won the semifinal against Josefine Einsle of Germany and the final against Christine Cannon of Scotland . With her win in the final , she and her team clinched their second world championships , equalling their run from the previous season . At the time , no other Canadian rink ( men or women ) had won consecutive world championships . Schmirler returned to the Tournament of Hearts the next year as the defending champion . She and her team finished with an 8 – 3 win @-@ loss record and advanced to the playoffs as the second seed . She lost her next two games , however , and failed to advance to the final , losing a chance to win a third consecutive title . In 1997 , Schmirler and her rink returned to the Tournament of Hearts , where they finished with a 9 – 2 win @-@ loss record in the round robin . They advanced to the playoffs , and defeated Alison Goring of Ontario twice en route to winning her third Canadian championship . They then went to the World Championships , where they again finished first in the round robin and advanced to the playoffs , defeating Helena Blach Lavrsen of Denmark in the semifinals and Andrea Schöpp of Germany in the final to win a third world title . After each of these three seasons , her rink was named " Team of the Year " by Sask Sport .
In the 1998 Winter Olympics , curling became a medal sport for the first time . Olympic trials were held in November 1997 to select Canada 's representatives at the Olympics . The Schmirler rink finished first in the round robin , and defeated Shannon Kleibrink in the final with a score of 9 – 6 , behind strong shot making from Schmirler and McCusker . Schmirler made a difficult in @-@ off to win and clinch the berth to the Olympics . The 1998 Winter Olympics were held in Nagano , Japan . The Schmirler rink was among the favourites for gold , but there was a strong field in the event . After finishing the round robin in first place with six wins and one loss , Canada played their semifinal game against Great Britain 's Kirsty Hay . The game was tied after regulation play and went to an extra end , where Schmirler barely made a draw with her last rock to win the game . In the final against Denmark 's Helena Blach Lavrsen , Schmirler secured a win in nine ends , winning Canada the gold medal . After winning the gold medal , Sandra appeared on the front page of the New York Times . After the Olympics , the Schmirler rink was named ' Team of the Year ' by the Canadian Press . The team were also inducted into the Canadian Curling Hall of Fame in 1999 . After returning from the Olympics , Schmirler and her rink had to compete almost immediately in the Scott Tournament of Hearts as Team Canada . Schmirler and her team made the playoffs , and won the 3 vs. 4 playoff game before dropping the semifinal to Anne Merklinger . After losing in the semis , Schmirler joined CBC as a colour commentator for the final match .
= = = Teams = = =
= = = Career statistics = = =
Notes
^ Shot percentage . Round robin only , except for career total .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family and education = = =
Schmirler was born to parents Shirley and Art Schmirler . She was born with a club foot , which required her to wear a cast for two months . She had two older sisters , Carol and Beverley . She attended high school in Biggar , and moved to Saskatoon to attend university . She started out towards a degree in computer science , but transferred after her first year to work for a degree in physical education . She convocated with a Bachelor of Science in Physical Education in 1985 .
In 1993 , teammate Marcia Gudereit introduced Schmirler to Shannon England . On June 22 , 1996 , they were married . In 1997 , Schmirler was pregnant with their first child . When this information was revealed to reporters at the Scott Tournament of Hearts , they jokingly dubbed her " Schmirler the Hurler " . On September 15 , 1997 , their daughter Sara Marion was born . In April 1999 , Sandra 's father Art Schmirler died from esophageal cancer . On June 30 , 1999 , the couple 's second daughter , Jenna Shirley , was born .
= = = Illness and death = = =
After Jenna 's birth , Schmirler experienced many health problems . She had suffered from back pain , which was thought to be pregnancy related , and following Jenna 's birth , she began to suffer from stomach pains . Tests showed that a cancerous node the size of a fist had developed behind her heart . As her condition worsened , she underwent surgery on September 6 , 1999 . During surgery , a dead piece of the tumour broke off and released a blood clot into her lung . Her heart stopped beating , and only emergency heart massage kept her alive . Almost a month after being diagnosed with cancer , doctors finally provided a specific diagnosis – metastatic adenocarcinoma , with an unknown primary site . Because no one could pin down where the cancer came from , Sandra referred to it as " the cancer from Mars . " In addition to chemotherapy and radiation , Schmirler explored orthomolecular medicine through the Canadian Cancer Research Group . This form of alternative medicine involves large doses of vitamins and nutrients .
In 2000 , Schmirler worked as colour commentator for CBC during Canada 's national junior curling championships . During her illness , Schmirler had been largely removed from the public eye . While in Moncton for the championships , Schmirler held a press conference to update her situation . In speaking publicly about her ordeal for the first time , Schmirler spared few details about what she had gone through , while also expressing her hope for the future : " There were three goals I had coming out of this thing , and the first one was to look after my family . And the second one ... because I curl so much , I 've never taken a hot vacation , so I 'm going to put my feet in the sand in a warm place . And the last one was to actually be here today , and I thank CBC , I thank Lawrence ( Kimber ) , and Joan Mead . "
After returning from Moncton , Schmirler felt physically well , but suffered a setback when a CAT scan revealed spots around her lungs . The decision was made not to proceed with further chemotherapy , but she continued with the orthomolecular therapy . She had been scheduled to work the 2000 Scott Tournament of Hearts , but was unable to do so . She faxed a statement from the hospital , which was read by TSN 's Vic Rauter . " I 'm still fighting hard and I still hope to make it to the Brier , not playing but talking . For Saskatchewan , I was hoping to be in your green shoes ( at the Scott ) . But keep things in perspective . There are other things in life besides curling , which I have found . But I hope to be on the curling trail again next year . And I 'll see you all in Sudbury ( the next Scott site ) in 2001 . Your curling friend , Sandra . " However , the optimism in her statement belied the seriousness of her condition . She had been moved to palliative care . She died in her sleep at the Pasqua Hospital Palliative Care Unit on the morning of March 2 , 2000 at age 36 . She was survived by her husband and her two daughters .
Her death caused reactions not just within Saskatchewan and the curling community , but also across the country . Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien said in a statement : " All Canadians have been touched by the untimely death of Sandra Schmirler . Most of us came to know her through her exploits as a champion curler and as an exemplary sports ambassador for Canada . But what really set her apart was her bright , engaging personality and her incredible zest for life , qualities that were so clearly in evidence as she fought so valiantly against her illness . She will be sorely missed . " In honour of Schmirler , flags at provincial office buildings in Saskatchewan were lowered to half @-@ staff .
TSN offered to broadcast her funeral live and to make the signal available to any other stations at no charge . Her husband , Shannon England , agreed to the broadcast on the condition that the family would not be shown during the service . CBC also broadcast the service , marking the first time a Canadian athlete 's funeral had been televised live on two networks . The Brier was just getting underway and games in the afternoon draw were delayed to allow curlers and fans to watch the funeral , which was broadcast on screens at the rink . Regina 's Agridome and Schmirler 's home Caledonian Curling Club also opened to show the funeral . Nine hundred people attended the service at the Regina Funeral Home , thousands watched at satellite locations around the province , and hundreds of thousands watched on television . The funeral was conducted by the Rev. Don Wells , and Sandra was eulogized by Brian McCusker , teammate Joan McCusker 's husband .
= = Awards and honours = =
In addition to the titles captured by her team on the ice , Schmirler has been recognized in several different ways off the ice as well . In 2000 , Schmirler was awarded the Saskatchewan Order of Merit , becoming the first posthumous recipient . Along with the other members of her rink , she had been previously awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Regina . In the fall of 2000 , Schmirler was inducted into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame . Schmirler and her team were inducted into the Saskatchewan Sports Hall of Fame on two separate occasions , once in 1997 for winning three World Curling Championships and once in 2001 for winning the gold medal at the Olympics . At the annual Scotties Tournament of Hearts , the top player in the playoff round is awarded the Sandra Schmirler Most Valuable Player Award .
After her death , the city of Regina honoured Schmirler in several ways . The South East Leisure Centre where she used to work was renamed the " Sandra Schmirler Leisure Centre , " and the road leading up to the Callie Curling Club , where her team curled out of , was renamed " Sandra Schmirler Way . " Schmirler 's hometown of Biggar also honoured her memory with the construction of " The Sandra Schmirler Olympic Gold Park . "
Scott Paper created the Sandra Schmirler Foundation in January 2001 , with the assistance of the Canadian Curling Association and Scott Paper Limited . The foundation raises funds to help care for babies in crisis through direct donations to benefit neonatal care across Canada . In the charity 's first four years of existence donations were made to the Children 's Miracle Network , Canadian Cystic Fybrosis Foundation and Canadian Ronald McDonald Houses . After altering the charity 's mission to focus on neonatal care , donations have been made directly to hospitals in Halifax , Regina , London , Lethbridge , Hamilton and Victoria .
On January 7 , 2009 , Sandra was named the winner of the 2009 World Curling Freytag Award ( later incorporated into the WCF Hall of Fame ) . The award , named after American Elmer Freytag , who founded the World Curling Federation , honours curlers for championship play , sportsmanship , character and extraordinary achievement . Her husband and daughters accepted the award on her behalf at the 2009 World Men 's Curling Championship .
= Columbia , Missouri =
Columbia / kəˈlʌmbiə / is a city in and the county seat of Boone County , Missouri , United States . Founded in 1820 as the county seat and home to the University of Missouri , it had a 2015 estimated population of 119 @,@ 108 , and it is the principal city of the Columbia Metropolitan Area , the state 's fourth most populous metropolitan area . As a midwestern college town , the city has a reputation for progressive politics , public art , and powerful journalism . The tripartite establishment of Stephens College ( 1833 ) , the University of Missouri ( 1839 ) , and Columbia College ( 1851 ) has long made the city a center of education , culture , and athletic competition . These three schools surround Downtown Columbia on the east , south , and north ; at the center is the Avenue of the Columns , which connects Francis Quadrangle and Jesse Hall to the Boone County Courthouse and the City Hall . Originally an agricultural town , the cultivation of the mind is Columbia 's chief economic concern today . Never a major center of manufacturing , the city also depends on healthcare , insurance , and technology businesses . Several companies , such as Shelter Insurance , Carfax , and Slackers CDs and Games , were founded in the city . Cultural institutions include the State Historical Society of Missouri , the Museum of Art and Archaeology , and the annual True / False Film Festival . The Missouri Tigers , the state 's only major athletic program , play football at Faurot Field and basketball at Mizzou Arena as members of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) .
The city is built upon the forested hills and rolling prairies of Mid @-@ Missouri , near the Missouri River valley , where the Ozark Mountains begin to transform into plains and savanna ; limestone forms bluffs and glades while rain carves caves and springs which water the Hinkson , Roche Perche , and Petite Bonne Femme creeks . Surrounding the city , Rock Bridge Memorial State Park , Mark Twain National Forest , and Big Muddy National Fish and Wildlife Refuge all form a greenbelt preserving sensitive and rare environments . The first humans were nomadic hunters who entered the area at least twelve thousand years ago . Later , woodland tribes lived in villages along waterways and built mounds in high places . The Osage and Missouria nations were expelled by the exploration of French traders and the rapid settlement of American pioneers . The latter arrived by the Boone 's Lick Trail and hailed from the slave @-@ owning culture of the Upland South , especially Virginia , Kentucky , and Tennessee , giving Boonslick the name " Little Dixie " during the American Civil War . German , Irish , and other European immigrants soon joined . The modern populace is unusually diverse , over eight percent foreign @-@ born . While White and Black remain the largest ethnicities , Asians are now the third @-@ largest group . Today 's Columbians are remarkably highly educated and culturally midwestern , though traces of their Southern past remain . The city has been called the " Athens of Missouri " or a reference to its classic beauty and educational emphasis , but is more commonly called " CoMo " .
= = History = =
The Columbia area was once part of the Mississippian culture and home to the Mound Builders . When European explorers arrived , the area was populated by the Osage and Missouri Indians . In 1678 , La Salle claimed all of Missouri for France . The Lewis and Clark Expedition passed by the area on the Missouri River in early June 1804 . In 1806 , two sons of Daniel Boone established a salt lick 40 miles ( 64 km ) northwest of Columbia. giving the area its early name : Boonslick . The Boone 's Lick Trail wound from St. Charles to the lick in present @-@ day Howard County . In 1818 , a group of settlers , incorporated under the Smithton Land Company , purchased over 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 km2 ) and established the village of Smithton less than a mile from current day downtown Columbia . In 1821 , the settlers moved , because of lack of water , across the Flat Branch to the plateau between the Flat Branch and Hinkson creeks in what is now the downtown district . They renamed the settlement Columbia — a poetic personification of the United States .
The roots of Columbia 's three economic foundations — education , medicine , and insurance — can be traced back to incorporation in 1821 . Original plans for the town set aside land for a state university . In 1833 , Columbia Baptist Female College opened , which later became Stephens College . Columbia College ( distinct from today 's ) , later to become the University of Missouri , was founded in 1839 . When the state legislature decided to establish a state university , Columbia raised three times as much money as any other competing city and James S. Rollins donated the land that is today the Francis Quadrangle . Soon other educational institutions were founded in Columbia such as Christian Female College , the first college for women west of the Mississippi , which later became the current Columbia College . The city benefited from being a stagecoach stop of the Santa Fe and Oregon trails , and later from the Missouri @-@ Kansas @-@ Texas Railroad . In 1822 the first hospital was set up by William Jewell . In 1830 , the first newspaper began ; in 1832 , the first theater in the state was opened ; and in 1835 , the state 's first agricultural fair was held . By 1839 , the population ( 13 @,@ 000 ) and wealth of Boone County was exceeded in Missouri only by that of St. Louis County , which at that time included the City of St. Louis .
Columbia 's infrastructure was relatively untouched by the Civil War . Missouri , as a slave state , had Southern sympathies , but remained in the Union . The majority of the city was pro @-@ Union , however , the surrounding agricultural areas of Boone County and the rest of central Missouri were decidedly pro @-@ Confederate . Because of this , the University of Missouri became a base from which Union troops operated . No battles were fought within the city because the presence of Union troops dissuaded Confederate guerrillas from attacking , though several major battles occurred nearby at Boonville and Centralia . After the Civil War , race relations in Columbia followed the Southern pattern ; a black man , George Burke , was lynched in 1889 .
In 1963 , Columbia become home to the headquarters of both the University of Missouri System , which today serves over 71 @,@ 000 students , and the Columbia College system , which today serves about 25 @,@ 000 students . The insurance industry also became important to the local economy as several companies established headquarters in Columbia , including Shelter Insurance , Missouri Employers Mutual , and Columbia Insurance Group . State Farm Insurance has a regional office in Columbia . In addition , the now defunct Silvey Insurance was once a large local employer . Columbia became a transportation crossroads when U.S. Route 63 and U.S. Route 40 ( which became present @-@ day Interstate 70 ) were routed through the city . Soon after the city opened the Columbia Regional Airport . The latter 20th century saw tremendous growth , and by 2000 the population was nearly 85 @,@ 000 in the city proper .
In early 2006 , Columbia embarked on a plan to manage the continued growth as the city passed 100 @,@ 000 population . The city continues to grow , especially east around the newly opened Battle High School . The downtown district has maintained its status as a cultural center and is undergoing significant development in both residential and commercial sectors . The University of Missouri , which has tremendous economic impact on the city , experienced record enrollment in 2006 and is undertaking significant construction .
= = Geography = =
Columbia , located in northern mid @-@ Missouri , is 120 miles ( 190 km ) away from both St. Louis and Kansas City , and 29 miles ( 47 km ) north of the state capital Jefferson City . The city is near the Missouri River between the Ozark Plateau and the Northern Plains . Trees are mainly oak , maple , and hickory ; common understory trees include eastern redbud , serviceberry , and flowering dogwood . Riparian areas are forested with mainly American sycamore . Much of the residential area of the city is planted with large native shade trees . In Autumn , the changing color of the trees is notable . Most species here are typical of the Eastern Woodland .
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 63 @.@ 5 square miles ( 164 @.@ 46 km2 ) , of which , 63 @.@ 08 square miles ( 163 @.@ 38 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 42 square miles ( 1 @.@ 09 km2 ) is water .
= = = Topography = = =
The city generally slopes from the highest point in the Northeast to the lowest point in the Southwest towards the Missouri River . Prominent tributaries of the river are Perche Creek , Hinkson Creek , and Flat Branch Creek . Along these and other creeks in the area can be found large valleys , cliffs , and cave systems such as that in Rock Bridge State Park just south of the city . These creeks are largely responsible for numerous stream valleys giving Columbia hilly terrain similar to the Ozarks while also having prairie flatland typical of northern Missouri . Columbia also operates several greenbelts with trails and parks throughout town .
= = = Animal life = = =
Large mammals found in the city includes urbanized coyotes and numerous whitetail deer . Eastern gray squirrel , and other rodents are abundant , as well as cottontail rabbits and the nocturnal opossum and raccoon . Large bird species are abundant in parks and include the Canada goose , mallard duck , as well as shorebirds , including the great egret and great blue heron . Turkeys are also common in wooded areas and can occasionally be seen on the MKT recreation trail . Populations of bald eagles are found by the Missouri River . The city is on the Mississippi Flyway , used by migrating birds , and has a large variety of small bird species , common to the eastern U.S. The Eurasian tree sparrow , an introduced species , is limited in North America to the counties surrounding St. Louis . Columbia has large areas of forested and open land and many of these areas are home to wildlife .
Frogs are commonly found in the springtime , especially after extensive wet periods . Common species include the American toad and species of chorus frogs , commonly called " spring peepers " that are found in nearly every pond . Some years have outbreaks of cicadas or ladybugs . Mosquitos and houseflies are common insect nuisances ; because of this , windows are nearly universally fitted with screens , and " screened @-@ in " porches are common in homes of the area .
= = = Climate = = =
Columbia has a climate marked by sharp seasonal contrasts in temperature , falling between a humid continental and humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Dfa / Cfa , respectively ) , and is located in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 6a . The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 29 @.@ 7 ° F ( − 1 @.@ 3 ° C ) in January to 77 @.@ 3 ° F ( 25 @.@ 2 ° C ) in July , while the high reaches or exceeds 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) on an average 32 days per year , 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) on 2 @.@ 0 days , while 4 @.@ 0 nights of sub @-@ 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) lows can be expected . Precipitation tends to be greatest and most frequent in the latter half of spring , when severe weather is also most common . Snow averages 18 @.@ 0 inches ( 46 cm ) per season , mostly from December to March , with occasional November accumulation and falls in April being rarer ; historically seasonal snow accumulation has ranged from 3 @.@ 4 in ( 8 @.@ 6 cm ) in 2005 – 06 to 54 @.@ 9 in ( 139 cm ) in 1977 – 78 . Extreme temperatures have ranged from − 26 ° F ( − 32 ° C ) on February 12 , 1899 to 113 ° F ( 45 ° C ) on July 12 and 14 , 1954 . Readings of − 10 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) or 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) are uncommon , the last occurrences being January 7 , 2014 and July 31 , 2012 .
= = Cityscape = =
Columbia 's most commonly recognizable architectural attributes reside downtown and within the university campuses . Widely used icons of the city are the University of Missouri 's Jesse Hall and the neo @-@ gothic Memorial Union . The David R. Francis Quadrangle is an example of Thomas Jefferson 's academic village concept . There are four historic districts listed on the National Register of Historic Places within the city : Downtown Columbia , East Campus Neighborhood , Francis Quadrangle , and North Ninth Street Historic District . The downtown skyline is relatively low and is dominated by the 10 @-@ story Tiger Hotel , and the 15 @-@ story Paquin Tower .
Downtown Columbia is an area of approximately one square mile surrounded by the University of Missouri on the south , Stephens College to the east and Columbia College on the north . The area serves as Columbia 's financial and business district and is the topic of a large initiative to draw tourism , which includes plans to capitalize on the area 's historic architecture , and Bohemian characteristics .
The city 's historic residential core lies in a ring around downtown , extending especially to the west along Broadway , and south into the East Campus neighborhoods . The city government recognizes 63 neighborhood associations . The city 's most dense commercial areas are primarily located along Interstate 70 , U.S. Route 63 , Stadium Boulevard , Grindstone Parkway , and the downtown area .
= = Demographics = =
= = = 2010 census = = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 108 @,@ 500 people , 43 @,@ 065 households , and 21 @,@ 418 families residing in the city . The population density was 1 @,@ 720 @.@ 0 inhabitants per square mile ( 664 @.@ 1 / km2 ) . There were 46 @,@ 758 housing units at an average density of 741 @.@ 2 per square mile ( 286 @.@ 2 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 79 @.@ 0 % White , 11 @.@ 3 % African American , 0 @.@ 3 % Native American , 5 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 1 @.@ 1 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 1 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3 @.@ 4 % of the population .
There were 43 @,@ 065 households of which 26 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 35 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 10 @.@ 6 % had a female householder with no husband present , 3 @.@ 5 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 50 @.@ 3 % were non @-@ families . 32 @.@ 0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 6 @.@ 6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 32 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 94 .
In the city the population was spread out with 18 @.@ 8 % of residents under the age of 18 ; 27 @.@ 3 % between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 26 @.@ 7 % from 25 to 44 ; 18 @.@ 6 % from 45 to 64 ; and 8 @.@ 5 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age in the city was 26 @.@ 8 years . The gender makeup of the city was 48 @.@ 3 % male and 51 @.@ 7 % female .
= = = 2000 census = = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 84 @,@ 531 people , 33 @,@ 689 households , and 17 @,@ 282 families residing in the city . The population density was 1 @,@ 592 @.@ 8 people per square mile ( 615 @.@ 0 / km ² ) . There were 35 @,@ 916 housing units at an average density of 676 @.@ 8 per square mile ( 261 @.@ 3 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 81 @.@ 54 % White , 10 @.@ 85 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 39 % Native American , 4 @.@ 30 % Asian , 0 @.@ 04 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 81 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 07 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2 @.@ 05 % of the population .
There were 33 @,@ 689 households out of which 26 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 38 @.@ 2 % were married couples living together , 10 @.@ 3 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 48 @.@ 7 % were non @-@ families . 33 @.@ 1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 6 @.@ 5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 26 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 92 .
In the city the population was spread out with 19 @.@ 7 % under the age of 18 , 26 @.@ 7 % from 18 to 24 , 28 @.@ 7 % from 25 to 44 , 16 @.@ 2 % from 45 to 64 , and 8 @.@ 6 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 27 years . For every 100 females , there were 91 @.@ 8 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 89 @.@ 1 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 33 @,@ 729 , and the median income for a family was $ 52 @,@ 288 . Males had a median income of $ 34 @,@ 710 versus $ 26 @,@ 694 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 19 @,@ 507 . About 9 @.@ 4 % of families and 19 @.@ 2 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 14 @.@ 8 % of those under age 18 and 5 @.@ 2 % of those age 65 or over .
= = Economy = =
Columbia 's economy is historically dominated by education , healthcare , and the insurance industry . Jobs in government are also common , either in Columbia or a half @-@ hour south in Jefferson City . Commutes into the city are also common and in 2000 , the city had a day time population of 106 @,@ 487 . The Columbia Regional Airport and the Missouri River Port of Rocheport connect the region with trade and transportation . The University of Missouri is by far the city 's largest employer .
The economy of Columbia 's metro area is slightly larger than that of the Bahamas . With a Gross Metropolitan Product of $ 5 @.@ 84 billion in 2004 , Columbia 's economy makes up 2 @.@ 9 % of the Gross State Product of Missouri . Insurance corporations headquartered in Columbia include Shelter Insurance , and the Columbia Insurance Group . Other organizations include MFA Incorporated , the Missouri State High School Activities Association , and MFA Oil . Companies such as Socket , Datastorm Technologies , Inc . ( no longer existent ) , Slackers CDs and Games , Carfax , and MBS Textbook Exchange were founded in Columbia .
= = = Top employers = = =
According to Columbia 's 2012 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report , the top employers in the city are :
= = Culture = =
The Missouri Theatre Center for the Arts and Jesse Auditorium are Columbia 's largest fine arts venues . Ragtag Cinema annually hosts the well @-@ known True / False Film Festival . In 2008 , filmmaker Todd Sklar completed Box Elder , which was filmed entirely in and around Columbia and the University of Missouri . The University of Missouri 's Museum of Art and Archaeology displays 14 @,@ 000 works of art and archaeological objects in five galleries for no charge to the public . Libraries include the Columbia Public Library , the University of Missouri Libraries , with over three million volumes in Ellis Library , and the State Historical Society of Missouri . The " We Always Swing " Jazz Series and the Roots N Blues N BBQ Festival bring some of the country 's finest Jazz and Blues to Columbia and Central Missouri . One of the last remaining traditional arcades in the country , Gunther 's Games , is a popular destination for gamers .
Columbia has a flourishing and progressive music scene thanks in large part to many acts that come out of the University . The indie band White Rabbits was formed while the members were students at the University of Missouri before moving to Brooklyn to record and gain a higher profile . Musical artists from Columbia have been compiled by Painfully Midwestern Records with the ComoMusic Anthology series , and the " Das Kompilation " release . Although the hip genre continues to give Columbia some music recognition , it is their progressive psychedelic @-@ heavy metal music scene that has garnered some attention lately . There are also local punk and hip @-@ hop scenes that are gaining momentum locally . Country music singer @-@ songwriter Brett James is also a native of Columbia . The song " Whiskey Bottle , " by Uncle Tupelo , is rumored to be about the city of Columbia as it makes specific reference to a sign which used to be displayed on a Columbia tackle shop sign which read , " Liquor , Guns , and Ammo . " The sign is now displayed at the downtown location of Shakespeare 's Pizza .
= = = Sports = = =
The University of Missouri 's sports teams , the Missouri Tigers , play a significant role in the city 's sports culture . Faurot Field at Memorial Stadium capacity 71 @,@ 168 , is host to both home football games and concerts . The Hearnes Center and Mizzou Arena are two other large sport and event venues , the latter being the home arena for Mizzou 's basketball team . Taylor Stadium is host to their baseball team and was the regional host for the 2007 NCAA Baseball Championship . Columbia College has several men and women collegiate sports teams as well . In 2007 , Columbia hosted the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics Volleyball National Championship , which the Lady Cougars participated in .
Columbia also hosts the Show @-@ Me State Games , a non @-@ profit program of the Missouri Governor 's Council on Physical Fitness and Health . They are the largest state games in the United States . These games consist of 26 — 28 @,@ 000 Missouri amateur athletes ( 35 @,@ 000 total ) of all ages and ability levels who compete in the Olympic @-@ style sports festival during July and August every year . It recently made ESPN 's list of " 101 Things All Sports Fans Must Experience Before They Die " .
Situated midway between St. Louis and Kansas City , Columbians will often have allegiances to the professional sports teams housed there , such as the St. Louis Cardinals , the Kansas City Royals , the Kansas City Chiefs , and the St. Louis Blues .
The NRA Bianchi Cup is held in Columbia every year . It is among the most lucrative of all the shooting sports championships .
= = = Media = = =
The city has two daily newspapers : the Columbia Missourian in the morning and the Columbia Daily Tribune in the afternoon . The Missourian is directed by professional editors and staffed by Missouri School of Journalism students who do reporting , design , copy editing , information graphics , photography and multimedia . The Missourian is associated with the Spanish @-@ English bilingual publication Adelante ! and Vox magazine . With a daily circulation of nearly 20 @,@ 000 , the Daily Tribune is the most widely read newspaper in central Missouri . The University of Missouri has the independent but official student newspaper called The Maneater , which is printed bi @-@ weekly . The now @-@ defunct Prysms Weekly was also published in Columbia . In Fall 2009 , KCOU News launched full operations out of KCOU 88.1FM on the MU Campus . The entirely student @-@ run news organization airs a daily newscast , " The Pulse " , weekdays from 4 : 30 to 5 : 30 p.m.
The city has 14 radio stations and 4 television channels .
= = Government and politics = =
The City of Columbia 's current government was established by a home rule charter adopted by voters on November 11 , 1974 , which established a Council @-@ manager government that invested power in the City Council . The City Council is made up of seven members – six elected by each of Columbia 's six wards , plus an at @-@ large council member , the Mayor , who is elected by all city voters . The mayor currently receives a $ 9 @,@ 000 annual stipend and the six remaining council members receive a $ 6 @,@ 000 annual stipend . They are elected to staggered three @-@ year terms . The Mayor , in addition to being a voting member of the City Council , is recognized as the head of city government for ceremonial purposes . Chief executive authority is invested in a city manager , who oversees the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of government .
Columbia is the county seat of Boone County , and the county court and government center are located there . The City is located in Missouri 's 4th congressional district . The 19th Missouri State Senate district covers all of Boone County . There are five Missouri House of Representatives districts ( 9 , 21 , 23 , 24 , 25 ) in the city . Columbia is home to a plethora of attorneys and serves as a legal hub and testing grounds for many new laws and grassroot efforts . The principal law enforcement agency is the Columbia Police Department , with the Columbia Fire Department providing fire protection . The University of Missouri Police Department patrols areas on and around the MU campus and has jurisdiction throughout the city and Boone County . The Public Service Joint Communications Center coordinates efforts between the two organizations as well as the Boone County Fire Protection District which operates Urban Search and Rescue Missouri Task Force 1 .
The population generally supports progressive causes such as the extensive city recycling programs and the decriminalization of cannabis both for medical and recreational use at the municipal level ( though the scope of latter of the two cannabis ordinances has since been restricted ) . The city is also one of only four in the state to offer medical benefits to same @-@ sex partners of city employees . The new health plan also extends health benefits to unmarried heterosexual domestic partners of city employees . On October 10 , 2006 , the City Council approved an ordinance to prohibit smoking in public places , including restaurants and bars . The ordinance was passed with protest , and several amendments to the ordinance reflect this . Today 's Columbians are unusually highly educated ; over half of citizens possess at least a bachelor 's degree , while over a quarter hold a graduate degree , making it the thirteenth most highly educated municipality in the United States .
= = Education = =
Columbia and much of the surrounding area lies within The Columbia Public School District . The district enrolls over 17 @,@ 000 students and had a revenue of nearly $ 200 million for the 2007 – 2008 school year . It is above the state average in attendance percentage and in graduation rate . The city operates four public high schools which cover grades 9 – 12 : David H. Hickman High School , Rock Bridge High School , Muriel Battle High School , and Frederick Douglass High School . Rock Bridge is one of two Missouri high schools to receive a silver medal by U.S. News | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
to retreat north to the Azeri held city of Agdam . The airport 's runway was found to have been intentionally destroyed , rendering it temporarily useless . The attacking forces then went on to pursue those fleeing through the corridor and opened fire upon them , killing scores of civilians . Facing charges of an intentional massacre of civilians by international groups , Armenian government officials denied the occurrence of a massacre and asserted an objective of silencing the artillery coming from Khojaly .
An exact body count was never ascertained but conservative estimates have placed the number to 485 . The official death toll according to Azerbaijani authorities for casualties suffered during the events of 25 – 26 February is 613 civilians , of them 106 women and 83 children . On 3 March 1992 , the Boston Globe reported over 1 @,@ 000 people had been slain over four years of conflict . It quoted the mayor of Khojaly , Elmar Mamedov , as also saying 200 more were missing , 300 were held hostage and 200 injured in the fighting . A report published in 1992 by the human rights organization Helsinki Watch however stated that their inquiry found that the Azerbaijani OMON and " the militia , still in uniform and some still carrying their guns , were interspersed with the masses of civilians " which may have been the reason why Armenian troops fired upon them .
Under pressure from the APF due to the mismanagement of the defense of Khojaly and the safety of its inhabitants , Mutallibov was forced to submit his resignation to the National Assembly of Azerbaijan .
= = = Capture of Shusha = = =
When Armenians launched one of the first offensives , at Stepanakert on 13 February 1988 , many Azerbaijanis fled to the stronghold of Shusha . On 28 March , Azerbaijani troops deployed to attack Stepanakert , attacked enemy positions above the village Kirkidzhan from the village of Dzhangasan . During the afternoon of the next day , Azerbaijani units took up positions in close proximity to the city , but were quickly repulsed by the Armenians .
In the ensuing months after the capture of Khojaly , Azeri commanders holding out in the region 's last bastion of Shusha began a large @-@ scale artillery bombardment with GRAD rocket launchers against Stepanakert . By April , the shelling had forced many of the 50 @,@ 000 people living in Stepanakert to seek refuge in underground bunkers and basements . Facing ground incursions near the city 's outlying areas , military leaders in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh organized an offensive to take the town .
On 8 May a force of several hundred Armenian troops accompanied by tanks and helicopters attacked the Azeri citadel of Shusha . Fierce fighting took place in the town 's streets and several hundred men were killed on both sides . Although the Armenians were outnumbered and outgunned by the Azeri army , they managed to capture the town and force the Azeris to retreat on 9 May .
The capture of Shusha resonated loudly in neighboring Turkey . Its relations with Armenia had grown better after it had declared its independence from the Soviet Union ; however , they gradually worsened as a result of Armenia 's gains in the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh region . Turkey 's prime minister Suleyman Demirel said that he was under intense pressure by his people to have his country intervene and aid Azerbaijan . Demirel , however , was opposed to such an intervention , saying that Turkey 's entrance into the war would trigger an even greater Muslim @-@ Christian conflict ( Turks are overwhelmingly Muslims ) .
Turkey never did send troops to Azerbaijan but did contribute substantial military aid and advisers . In May 1992 , the military commander of the CIS forces , Marshal Yevgeny Shaposhnikov , issued a warning to Western nations , especially the United States , to not interfere with the conflict in the Caucasus , stating it would " place us [ the Commonwealth ] on the verge of a third world war and that cannot be allowed . "
A Chechen contingent , led by Shamil Basayev , was one of the units to participate in the conflict . According to Azeri Colonel Azer Rustamov , in 1992 , " hundreds of Chechen volunteers rendered us invaluable help in these battles led by Shamil Basayev and Salman Raduev . " Basayev was said to be one of the last fighters to leave Shusha . According to Russian news reports Basayev later said during his career , he and his battalion had only lost once and that defeat came in Karabakh in fighting against the " Dashnak battalion . " He later said he pulled his forces out of the conflict because the war seemed to be more for nationalism than for religion . Basayev received direct military training from the Russian GRU during the War in Abkhazia ( 1992 – 1993 ) since the Abkhaz were backed by Russia . Other Chechens also were trained by the GRU in warfare . Many of these Chechens who fought for the Russians in Abkhazia against Georgia had fought for Azerbaijan against Armenia in the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh war .
= = = Sealing Lachin = = =
The loss of Shusha led the Azeri parliament to lay the blame on Yaqub Mammadov , then acting President of Azerbaijan , which removed him from power and cleared Mutalibov of any responsibility after the loss of Khojaly , reinstating him as President on 15 May 1992 . Many Azeris saw this act as a coup in addition to the cancellation of the parliamentary elections slated in June of that year . The Azeri parliament at that time was made up of former leaders from the country 's communist regime and the losses of Khojaly and Shusha only aggrandized their desires for free elections .
To contribute to the turmoil , an offensive was launched by Armenian forces on 18 May to take the city of Lachin in the narrow corridor separating Armenia and Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . The city itself was poorly guarded and , within the next day , Armenian forces took control of the town and cleared any remaining Azeris to open the road that linked the region to Armenia . The taking of the city then allowed an overland route to be connected with Armenia itself with supply convoys beginning to trek up the mountainous region of Lachin to Karabakh .
The loss of Lachin was the final blow to Mutalibov 's regime . Demonstrations were held despite Mutalibov 's ban and an armed coup was staged by Popular Front activists . Fighting between government forces and Popular Front supporters escalated as the political opposition seized the parliament building in Baku as well as the airport and presidential office . On 16 June 1992 Abulfaz Elchibey was elected leader of Azerbaijan with many political leaders from the Azerbaijan Popular Front Party were elected into the parliament . The instigators characterized Mutalibov as an undedicated and weak leader in the war in Karabakh . Elchibey was staunchly against receiving any help from the Russians , instead favoring closer ties to Turkey .
The fighting also spilled into nearby Nakhchivan , which was shelled by Armenian troops in May 1992 .
= = Escalation = =
= = = Operation Goranboy = = =
Operation Goranboy was a large @-@ scale Azerbaijani offensive in the summer of 1992 aimed at taking control over the entire Nagorno @-@ Karabakh and putting a decisive end to the resistance . This offensive is regarded as the only successful breakthrough by the Azeri Army and marks the peak of Azerbaraijani success in the entirety of the six @-@ year @-@ long conflict . It also marks the beginning of a new , more intense , phase of the war . Over 8 @,@ 000 Azeri troops and four additional battalions , at least 90 tanks and 70 Infantry fighting vehicles , as well as Mi @-@ 24 attack @-@ helicopters were used in this operation .
On 12 June 1992 , the Azerbaijani military launched a large @-@ scale diversionary attack in the direction of the Askeran region at the center of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . Two groups , numbering 4 @,@ 000 men , attacked the positions to the north and south of Askeran . As a result of fierce fighting the Azeris managed to establish control over some settlements in the Askeran region : Nakhichevanik , Arachadzor , Pirdzhamal , Dahraz and Agbulak .
On 13 June 1992 , Azerbaijan launched its main offensive against the region of Goranboy , located north of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , which was defended by just two small and poorly @-@ equipped Armenian voluntary detachments . This three @-@ day offensive was code @-@ named Operation Goranboy and commanded by Suret Huseynov . After fifteen hours of fierce fighting against Azerbaijani forces , the two Armenian detachments were forced to retreat . Azerbaijan managed to capture several dozen villages in the Goranboy region originally held by the Armenian forces , and the entire Armenian civilian population of this region fled . On 4 July 1992 , the Azeris captured the largest town in the region , Mardakert .
The scale of the Azeri offensive prompted the Armenian government to threaten Azerbaijan that it would directly intervene and assist the separatists fighting in Karabakh . The assault forced Armenian forces to retreat south toward Stepanakert where Karabakh commanders contemplated destroying a vital hydroelectric dam in the Martakert region if the offensive was not halted . An estimated 30 @,@ 000 Armenian refugees were also forced to flee to the capital as the assaulting forces had taken nearly half of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh .
On 18 June 1992 , a state of Emergency was announced throughout the NKR . On 15 August , the Committee for State Defense of the NKR was created , headed by Robert Kocharyan and later by Serzh Sargsyan . Partial mobilization was called for , which covered sergeants and privates in the NKR , NKR men available for military service aged 18 – 40 , officers up to the age of 50 and women with previous military training . The newly conscripted now numbered 15 @,@ 000 men . Military reforms swiftly took place consolidating many of the separate fighting Armenian volunteer detachments into a single NKR Defense Army .
The Azeri thrust ground to a halt when the armor was driven off by helicopter gunships . It was claimed that many of the crew members of the armored units in the Azeri launched assault were Russians from the 104th Guards Airborne Division , based out of Ganja and , ironically enough , so were the units that eventually stopped them . According to an Armenian government official , they were able to persuade Russian military units to bombard and effectively halt the advance within a few days . Russia also supplied arms to the Armenians . This allowed the Armenian government to make up its losses and reorganize a counteroffensive to restore the original lines of the front . Given the reorganization of the NKR Defense Army , the tide of Azeri advances was finally stemmed . By the autumn of 1992 , the Azerbaijani army was exhausted and had suffered heavy losses . Faced with imminent defeat , Suret Huseynov moved what was left of his army out of Aghdara and back to Ganja , where it could recuperate and restock on ammunition and armaments found at the 104th Guards Airborne Division 's base . In February – March of the following year , the NKR Defense Army helped turn the tide into an unprecedented wave of advances .
= = = Subsequent attempts to mediate peace = = =
New efforts at peace talks were initiated by Iranian President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani in the first half of 1992 , after the events in Khojaly and the resignation of Azeri President Ayaz Mutallibov . Iranian diplomats conducted shuttle diplomacy and were able to bring the new president of Azerbaijan Yaqub Mammadov and President of Armenia Levon Ter @-@ Petrosian to Tehran for bilateral talks on 7 May 1992 . The Tehran Communiqué was signed by Mammadov , Ter @-@ Petrosian , and Rafsanjani following the agreement of the parties to international legal norms , stability of borders and to deal with the refugee crisis . However , the peace efforts were disrupted on the next day when Armenian troops captured the town of Shusha and completely failed following the capture of the town Lachin on 18 May .
In the summer of 1992 , the CSCE ( later to become the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe ) , created the Minsk Group in Helsinki which comprised eleven nations and was co @-@ chaired by France , Russia , and the United States with the purpose of mediating a peace deal with Armenia and Azerbaijan . However , in their annual summit in 1992 , the organization failed to address and solve the many new problems that had arisen since the Soviet Union collapsed , much less the Karabakh conflict . The war in Yugoslavia , Moldova 's war with the breakaway republic of Transnistria , the secessionist movement in Chechnya , and Georgia 's renewed disputes with Russia , Abkhazia , and Ossetia were all top agenda issues that involved various ethnic groups fighting each other .
The CSCE proposed the use of NATO and CIS peacekeepers to monitor ceasefires and protect shipments of humanitarian aid being sent to displaced refugees . Several ceasefires were put into effect after the June offensive but the implementation of a European peacekeeping force , endorsed by Armenia , never came to fruition . The idea of sending 100 international observers to Karabakh was once raised but talks broke down completely between Armenian and Azeri leaders in July . Russia was especially opposed to allowing a multinational peacekeeping force from NATO to entering the Caucasus , seeing it as a move that encroached on its " backyard " .
= = = Mardakert and Martuni Offensives = = =
In late June , a new , smaller Azeri offensive was planned , this time against the town of Martuni in the southeastern half of Karabakh . The attack force consisted of several dozen tanks and armored fighting vehicles along with a complement of several infantry companies massing along the Machkalashen and Jardar fronts near Martuni and Krasnyy Bazar . Martuni 's regimental commander , Monte Melkonian , referred now by his men as " Avo " , although lacking heavy armor , managed to stave off repeated attempts by the Azeri forces .
In late August 1992 , Nagorno @-@ Karabakh 's government found itself in a disorderly state and its members resigned on 17 August . Power was subsequently assumed by a council called the State Defense Committee and chaired by Robert Kocharyan , which stated it would temporarily govern the enclave until the conflict ended . At the same time , Azerbaijan also launched attacks by fixed @-@ wing aircraft , often bombing civilian targets . Kocharyan condemned what he believed were intentional attempts to kill civilians by the Azeris and also Russia 's alleged passive and unconcerned attitude toward allowing its army 's weapons stockpiles to be sold or transferred to Azerbaijan .
= = = Winter thaw = = =
As winter approached , both sides largely abstained from launching full @-@ scale offensives so as to preserve resources , such as gas and electricity , for domestic use . Despite the opening of an economic highway to the residents living in Karabakh , both Armenia and the enclave suffered a great deal due to the economic blockades imposed by Azerbaijan . While not completely shut off , material aid sent through Turkey arrived sporadically .
Experiencing both food shortages and power shortages , after the shutting down of the Metsamor nuclear power plant , Armenia 's economic outlook appeared bleak : in Georgia , a new bout of civil wars against separatists in Abkhazia and Ossetia began , and supply convoys were raided and the only oil pipeline leading from Russia to Armenia repeatedly destroyed . Similar to the winter of 1991 – 1992 , the 1992 – 1993 winter was especially cold , as many families throughout Armenia and Karabakh were left without heating and hot water .
Grain had become difficult to procure . The Armenian Diaspora raised money and donated supplies to Armenia . In December , two shipments of 33 @,@ 000 tons of grain and 150 tons of infant formula arrived from the United States via the Black Sea port of Batumi , Georgia . In February 1993 , the European Community sent 4 @.@ 5 million ECUs to Armenia . Armenia 's southern neighbor Iran also helped Armenia economically by providing power and electricity . Elchibey 's acrimonious stance toward Iran and his remarks to unify with Iran 's Azeri minority alienated relations between the two countries .
Azeris displaced as internal and international refugees were forced to live in makeshift camps provided by both the Azerbaijan government and Iran . The International Red Cross also distributed blankets to the Azeris and noted that by December , enough food was being allocated for the refugees . Azerbaijan also struggled to rehabilitate its petroleum industry , the country 's chief export . Its oil refineries were not generating at full capacity and production quotas fell well short of estimates . In 1965 , the oil fields in Baku were producing 21 @.@ 5 million tons of oil annually ; by 1988 , that number had dropped down to almost 3 @.@ 3 million . Outdated Soviet refinery equipment and a reluctance by Western oil companies to invest in a war region where pipelines would routinely be destroyed prevented Azerbaijan from fully exploiting its oil wealth .
= = Summer 1993 = =
= = = Conflicts = = =
Despite the grueling winter , the new year was viewed enthusiastically by both sides . Azerbaijan 's President Elchibey expressed optimism toward bringing an agreeable solution to the conflict with Armenia 's Ter @-@ Petrosyan . Glimmers of such hope , however , quickly began to fade in January 1993 , despite the calls for a new ceasefire by Boris Yeltsin and George H. W. Bush , as hostilities in the region brewed up once more . Armenian forces began a new bout of offensives that overran villages in northern Karabakh that had been held by the Azeris since the previous autumn .
Frustration over these military defeats took a toll on the domestic front in Azerbaijan . Azerbaijan 's military had grown more desperate and defense minister Gaziev and Huseynov 's brigade turned to Russian help , a move which ran against Elchibey 's policies and were construed as insubordination . Political infighting and arguments on where to shift military units between the country 's ministry of the interior İsgandar Hamidov and Gaziev led to the latter 's resignation on 20 February . Armenia was similarly wracked by political turmoil and growing Armenian dissension against President Ter @-@ Petrosyan .
= = = Kelbajar = = =
Situated west of northern Karabakh , outside the official boundaries of the region , was the rayon of Kelbajar , which bordered Armenia . With a population of about 60 @,@ 000 , the several dozen villages were made up of Azeris and Kurds . In March 1993 , the Armenian @-@ held areas near the Sarsang reservoir in Mardakert were reported to have been coming under attack by the Azeris . After successfully defending the Martuni region , Melkonian 's fighters were tasked to move to capture the region of Kelbajar , where the incursions and artillery shelling were said to have been coming from .
Scant military opposition by the Azeris allowed Melkonian 's fighters to gain a foothold in the region and along the way capture several abandoned armored vehicles and tanks . At 2 : 45 pm , on 2 April , Armenian forces from two directions advanced toward Kelbajar in an attack that struck Azerbaijani armor and troops entrenched near the Ganje @-@ Kelbjar intersection . Azerbaijani forces were unable to halt the advances made by Armenian armor and were wiped out completely . The second attack toward Kelbajar also quickly overran the defenders . By 3 April , Armenian forces were in possession of Kelbajar . President Elchibey imposed a state of emergency for a period of two months and introduced universal conscription .
On 30 April , the United Nations Security Council ( UNSC ) passed Resolution 822 , co @-@ sponsored by Turkey and Pakistan , demanding the immediate cessation of all hostilities and the withdrawal of all occupying forces from Kelbajar . Human Rights Watch concluded that during the Kelbajar offensive Armenian forces committed numerous violations of the rules of war , including the forcible exodus of a civilian population , indiscriminate fire , and taking of hostages .
The political repercussions were also felt in Azerbaijan when Huseynov embarked on his " march to Baku . " Frustrated with what he felt was Elchibey 's incompetence and demoted from his rank of colonel , his brigade advanced in early June from its base in Ganje toward Baku with the explicit aim of unseating the president . Elchibey stepped down from office on 18 June and power was assumed by then parliamentary member Heydar Aliyev . On 1 July , Huseynov was appointed prime minister of Azerbaijan . As acting president , Aliyev disbanded 33 voluntary battalions of the Popular Front , which he deemed politically unreliable . Aliyev became the President of Azerbaijan on 10 October 1993 .
= = = Agdam , Fizuli , Jabrail and Zangilan = = =
While the people of Azerbaijan were adjusting to the new political landscape , many Armenians were mourning Melkonian , who was killed earlier on 12 June in a skirmish with Azerbaijani light armor and infantry near the town of Merzuli and given a state funeral in Yerevan . The Armenian side made use of the political crisis in Baku , which had left the Karabakh front almost undefended by the Azerbaijani forces . The following four months of political instability in Azerbaijan led to the loss of control over five districts , as well as the north of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . Azerbaijani military forces were unable to put up much resistance in the face of Armenian advances and abandoned most of their positions without so much as putting up a fight . In late June , they were driven out from Martakert , losing their final foothold of the enclave . By July , Armenian forces were preparing to attack and capture the region of Agdam , another rayon that fell outside of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , claiming that they were attempting to widen a barrier that would keep towns and villages and their positions out of the range of Azerbaijani artillery .
On 4 July artillery bombardment commenced against Agdam by Armenian forces , destroying many parts of the town . Soldiers , along with civilians , began to evacuate Agdam . Facing military collapse , Aliev attempted to mediate with the de facto Karabakh government and Minsk Group officials . In mid @-@ August , Armenians massed a force to take the Azerbaijani @-@ held regions of Fizuli and Jebrail , south of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh proper .
In light of the Armenians ' advance into Azerbaijan , Turkey 's prime minister Tansu Çiller , warned the Armenian government not to attack Nakhichevan and demanded that Armenians pull out of Azerbaijan 's territories . Thousands of Turkish troops were sent to the border between Turkey and Armenia in early September . Russian Federation forces in Armenia in turn countered their movements and thus warded off the possible Turkish participation in the conflict .
By early September , Azerbaijani forces were nearly in complete disarray . Many of the heavy weapons they had received and bought from the Russians had been taken out of action or abandoned during the battles . Since the June 1992 offensive , Armenian forces had captured dozens of tanks , light armor , and artillery from Azerbaijan . For example , according to Monte Melkonian in a television interview in March 1993 , his forces in Martuni alone had captured or destroyed a total of 55 T @-@ 72s , 24 BMP @-@ 2s , 15 APCs and 25 pieces of heavy artillery since the June 1992 Goranboy offensive . " Most of our arms , " he stated , " [ were ] captured from Azerbaijan . " Serzh Sargsyan , the then military leader of the Karabakh armed forces , tallied a total of 156 tanks captured through the course of the war . By the summer of 1993 , Armenian forces had captured so much equipment that many of them were praising Elchibey , since he was , in effect , arming both sides .
Further signs of Azerbaijan 's desperation included the recruitment by Aliyev of 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 500 Afghan and Arab mujahadeen fighters from Afghanistan . Although the Azerbaijani government denied this claim , correspondence and photographs captured by Armenian forces indicated otherwise . A United States @-@ based petroleum company , MEGA OIL , also hired several American military trainers as a prerequisite for Azerbaijan to grant it drilling rights at its oil fields .
= = Aerial warfare = =
The aerial warfare in Karabakh involved primarily fighter jets and attack helicopters . The primary transport helicopters of the war were the Mi @-@ 8 and its cousin , the Mi @-@ 17 and were used extensively by both sides . Armenia 's active air force consisted of only two Su @-@ 25 ground support bombers , one of which was lost due to friendly fire . There were also several Su @-@ 22s and Su @-@ 17s ; however , these aging craft took a backseat for the duration of the war . In total , throughout the war Armenians brought down 28 Azerbaijani warplanes and 19 military helicopters .
Azerbaijan 's air force was composed of forty @-@ five combat aircraft which were often piloted by experienced Russian and Ukrainian mercenaries from the former Soviet military . They flew mission sorties over Karabakh with such sophisticated jets as the MiG @-@ 25 and Sukhoi Su @-@ 24 and with older @-@ generation Soviet fighter bombers , such as the MiG @-@ 21 . They were reported to have been paid a monthly salary of over 5 @,@ 000 rubles and flew bombing campaigns from air force bases in Azerbaijan often targeting Stepanakert .
These pilots , like the men from the Soviet interior forces in the onset of the conflict , were also poor and took the jobs as a means of supporting their families . Several were shot down over the city by Armenian forces and according to one of the pilots ' commanders , with assistance provided by the Russians . Many of these pilots faced the threat of execution by Armenian forces if they were shot down . The setup of the defense system severely hampered Azerbaijan 's ability to carry out and launch more air strikes . The most widely used helicopter gunship by both the Armenians and Azeris was the Soviet @-@ made Mil Mi @-@ 24 Krokodil .
= = = Armenian and Azerbaijani aircraft equipment = = =
Below is a table listing the number of aircraft that were used by Armenia and Azerbaijan during the war .
= = 1993 – 1994 attack waves = =
In October 1993 , Aliev was formally elected president and promised to bring social order to the country in addition to recapturing the lost regions . In October , Azerbaijan joined the CIS . The winter season was marked with similar conditions as in the previous year , both sides scavenging for wood and harvesting foodstuffs months in advance . Two subsequent UNSC resolutions on the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh conflict were passed , ( 874 and 884 ) , in October and November and , although reemphasizing the same points as the previous two , they acknowledged Nagorno @-@ Karabakh as a party to the conflict .
In early January , Azerbaijani forces and Afghan guerrillas recaptured part of the Fizuli district , including the railway junction of Horadiz on the Iranian border , but failed to recapture the town of Fizuli itself . On 10 January 1994 an offensive was launched by Azerbaijan toward the region of Martakert in an attempt to recapture the northern section of the enclave . The offensive managed to advance and take back several parts of Karabakh in the north and to the south but soon petered out . In response , the Republic of Armenia began sending conscripts and regular Army and Interior Ministry troops to stop the Azerbaijani advance in Karabakh . To bolster the ranks of its army , the Armenian government issued a decree that instituted a three @-@ month call @-@ up for men up to age forty @-@ five and resorted to press @-@ gang raids to enlist recruits . Several active @-@ duty Armenian Army soldiers were captured by the Azerbaijani forces .
Azerbaijan 's offensives grew more desperate as boys as young as 16 , with little to no training , were recruited and sent to take part in ineffective human wave attacks ( a tactic often compared to the one employed by Iran during the Iran – Iraq War ) . The two offensives that took place in the winter cost Azerbaijan as many as 5 @,@ 000 lives ( at the loss of several hundred Armenians ) . The main Azeri offensive was aimed at recapturing the Kelbajar district , which would thus threaten the Lachin corridor . The attack initially met little resistance and was successful in capturing the vital Omar Pass . However , as the Armenian forces reacted , the bloodiest clashes of the war ensued and the Azeri forces were soundly defeated . In a single episode of that time 's clashes , Azerbaijan lost about fifteen hundred of its soldiers after the failed offensive in Kelbajar . Several Azeri brigades were isolated when the Armenians recaptured the Omar Pass , surrounded , then destroyed .
While the political leadership changed hands several times in Azerbaijan , most Armenian soldiers in Karabakh claimed that the Azeri youth , and Azeris themselves , were demoralized and lacked a sense of purpose and commitment to fighting the war . Russian professor Georgiy I. Mirsky lent credence to this view in his 1997 book , On Ruins of Empire , stating that " Karabakh does not matter to Azerbaijanis as much as it does to Armenians . Probably , this is why young volunteers from Armenia proper have been much more eager to fight and die for Karabakh than the Azerbaijanis have . " This view received further validation in a report filed by a journalist from the New York Times visiting the region , who noted that " In Stepanakert , it is impossible to find an able @-@ bodied man – whether volunteer from Armenia or local resident – out of uniform . [ Whereas in ] Azerbaijan , draft @-@ age men hang out in cafes . " Andrei Sakharov famously remarked on this at the outset of the conflict : " For Azerbaijan the issue of Karabakh is a matter of ambition , for the Armenians of Karabakh , it is a matter of life or death . "
= = = 1994 ceasefire = = =
After six years of intense fighting , both sides were ready for a ceasefire . Azerbaijan , with its manpower exhausted and aware that Armenian forces had an unimpeded path to march on to Baku , counted on a new ceasefire proposal from either the CSCE or Russia . As the final battles of the conflict took place near Shahumyan , in a series of brief engagements in Gulustan , Armenian and Azerbaijani diplomats met in the early part of 1994 to hammer out the details of the ceasefire . On May 5 , with Russia acting as a mediator , all parties agreed to cease hostilities and vowed to observe a ceasefire that would go into effect at 12 : 01 AM on May 12 . The agreement was signed by the respective defense ministers of the three principle warring parties ( Armenia , Azerbaijan , and the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic ) . In Azerbaijan , many welcomed the end of hostilities . Sporadic fighting continued in some parts of the region but all sides vowed to abide by the terms of the ceasefire .
= = Media coverage = =
Valuable footage of the conflict was provided by a number of journalists from both sides , including Vardan Hovhannisyan , who won the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival 's prize for best new documentary filmmaker for his A Story of People in War and Peace , and Chingiz Mustafayev , who was posthumously awarded the title of National Hero of Azerbaijan . Armenian @-@ Russian journalist Dmitri Pisarenko who spent a year at the front line and filmed many of the battles later wrote that both Armenian and Azerbaijani journalists were preoccupied with echoing the official stands of their respective governments and that " objectiveness was being sacrificed for ideology . " Armenian military commanders were eager to give interviews following Azerbaijani offensives when they were able to criticise the other side for launching heavy artillery attacks that the " small @-@ numbered but proud Armenians " had to fight off . Yet they were reluctant to speak out when Armenian troops seized a village outside Nagorno @-@ Karabakh in order to avoid justifying such acts . Therefore , Armenian journalists felt the need to be creative enough to portray the event as " an Armenian counter @-@ offensive " or as " a necessary military operation . "
Bulgarian journalist Tsvetana Paskaleva is noted for her coverage of Operation Ring . Some foreign journalists previously concerned with emphasizing the Soviet conceding in the Cold War , gradually shifted towards presenting the USSR as a country swamped by a wave of ethnic conflicts , the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh conflict being one of them .
Foreign reporters often referenced religious factors in the conflict , i.e. the fact that Armenians were predominantly Christian , and outside coverage of the conflict is often skewed by allegiances .
= = Post @-@ ceasefire violence and mediation = =
Today , the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh conflict remains one of several frozen conflicts in the former Soviet Union , alongside Georgia 's breakaway regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and Moldova 's troubles with Transnistria . Karabakh remains under the jurisdiction of the government of the unrecognized but de facto independent Republic of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , which maintains its own uniformed military , the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Defense Army .
Contrary to media reports that nearly always mentioned the religions of the Armenians and Azeris religious aspects never gained significance as an additional casus belli , and the Karabakh conflict has remained primarily an issue of territory and the human rights of Armenians in Karabakh . Since 1995 , the co @-@ chairs of the OSCE Minsk Group has been mediating with the governments of Armenia and Azerbaijan to settle for a new solution . Numerous proposals have been made which have primarily been based on both sides making several concessions . One such proposal stipulated that as Armenian forces withdrew from the seven regions surrounding Karabakh , Azerbaijan would share some of its economic assets including profits from an oil pipeline that would go from Baku through Armenia to Turkey . Other proposals also included that Azerbaijan would provide the broadest form of autonomy to Karabakh next to granting it full independence . Armenia has also been pressured by being excluded from major economic projects throughout the region , including the Baku @-@ Tbilisi @-@ Ceyhan pipeline and Kars @-@ Tbilisi @-@ Baku railway .
According to Armenia 's former president , Levon Ter @-@ Petrosyan , by giving certain Karabakh territories to Azerbaijan , the Karabakh conflict would have been resolved in 1997 . A peace agreement could have been concluded and a status for Nagorno @-@ Karabakh would have been determined . Ter @-@ Petrosyan noted years later that the Karabakh leadership approach was maximalist and " they thought they could get more . " Most autonomy proposals have been rejected , however , by the Armenians , who consider it as a matter that is not negotiable . Likewise , Azerbaijan has also refused to let the matter subside and regularly threatens to resume hostilities . On 30 March 1998 , Robert Kocharyan was elected president and continued to reject calls for making a deal to resolve the conflict . In 2001 , Kocharyan and Aliyev met in Key West , Florida for peace talks sponsored by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe . While several Western diplomats expressed optimism , failure to prepare the populations of either country for compromise reportedly thwarted hopes for a peaceful resolution .
Refugees displaced from the fighting amount to nearly one million people . An estimated 400 @,@ 000 Armenians living in Azerbaijan fled to Armenia or Russia and a further 30 @,@ 000 came from Karabakh . Many of those who left Karabakh returned after the war ended . An estimated 800 @,@ 000 Azeris were displaced from the fighting including those from both Armenia and Karabakh . Various other ethnic groups living in Karabakh were also forced to live in refugee camps built by both the Azeri and Iranian governments . Although Azerbaijan has repeatedly claimed that 20 % of its territory has fallen under Armenian control and other sources have given figures as high 40 % , the actual percentage , taking into account the exclave of Nakhichevan , is estimated to be closer to 13 @.@ 62 % or 14 % ( the number comes down to 9 % if Nagorno @-@ Karabakh itself is excluded ) .
The Nagorno @-@ Karabakh war has given rise to strong anti @-@ Armenianism in Azerbaijan and anti @-@ Azerbaijani sentiment in Armenia . The ramifications of the war were said to have played a part in the February 2004 murder of Armenian Lieutenant Gurgen Markaryan who was hacked to death with an axe by his Azerbaijani counterpart , Ramil Safarov at a NATO training seminar in Budapest , Hungary . Upon his extradition in 2012 Safarov was pardoned by president Aliyev and greeted as a hero in Azerbaijan .
Azerbaijani enmity against anything Armenian led to the destruction of thousands of medieval Armenian gravestones , known as khachkars , at a massive cemetery in Julfa , Nakhichevan . This destruction was temporarily halted when first revealed in 1998 , but then continued on to completion in 2005 . Azerbaijan has likened Armenia 's control of the region to the Nazi occupation of the Soviet Union during World War II .
= = Current situation = =
In the years since the end of the war , a number of organizations have passed resolutions regarding the conflict . On 25 January 2005 , for example , PACE adopted a controversial non @-@ binding resolution , Resolution 1416 , which criticized the " large @-@ scale ethnic expulsion and the creation of mono @-@ ethnic areas " and declared that Armenian forces were occupying Azerbaijan lands . On 14 May 2008 thirty @-@ nine countries from the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 62 / 243 which called for " the immediate , complete and unconditional withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of the Republic of Azerbaijan . " Almost one hundred countries , however , abstained from voting while seven countries , including the three co @-@ chairs of the Minsk Group , Russia , the United States , and France , voted against it .
During the summit of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference ( OIC ) and the session of its Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs , member states adopted OIC Resolution № 10 / 11 and OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution № 10 / 37 , on 14 March 2008 and 18 – 20 May 2010 , respectively . Both resolutions condemned alleged aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan and called for immediate implementation of UN Security Council Resolutions 822 , 853 , 874 and 884 . As a response , Armenian leaders have stated Azerbaijan was " exploiting Islam to muster greater international support . "
In 2008 , the Moscow Defense Brief opined that because of the rapid growth of Azeri defense expenditures – which is driving the strong rearmament of the Azeri armed forces – the military balance appeared to be now shifting in Azerbaijan 's favor : " ... The overall trend is clearly in Azerbaijan 's favor , and it seems that Armenia will not be able to sustain an arms race with Azerbaijan 's oil @-@ fueled economy . And this could lead to the destabilization of the frozen conflict between these two states , " the journal wrote . Other analysts have made more cautious observations , noting that administrative and military deficiencies are obviously found in the Azerbaijani military and that the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Defense Army maintains a " constant state of readiness ... "
= = = Clashes = = =
In early 2008 , tensions between Armenia , the NKR Karabakh and Azerbaijan grew . On the diplomatic front , President Ilham Aliyev repeated statements that Azerbaijan would resort to force , if necessary , to take the territories back ; concurrently , shooting incidents along the line of contact increased . On 5 March 2008 a significant breach of the ceasefire occurred in Mardakert , when up to sixteen soldiers were killed . Both sides accused the other of starting the battle . Moreover , the use of artillery in the skirmishes marked a significant departure from previous clashes , which usually involved only sniper or machine gun fire . Deadly skirmishes took place during the summer of 2010 as well .
Tensions escalated again in July – August 2014 with ceasefire breaches by Azerbaijan taking place and the President of Azerbaijan , Aliyev , threatening Armenia with war .
Rather than receding , the tension in the area increased in April 2016 with the 2016 Armenian @-@ Azerbaijani clashes when the worst clashes since the 1994 ceasefire erupted . The Armenian Defense Ministry alleged that Azerbaijan launched an offensive to seize territory in the region . Azerbaijan reported that 12 of its soldiers were killed in action and that a Mil Mi @-@ 24 helicopter and tank were also destroyed . Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan stated that 18 Armenian soldiers were killed and 35 were wounded .
= = Misconduct = =
Emerging from the collapse of the Soviet Union as nascent states and due to the near @-@ immediate fighting , it was not until mid @-@ 1993 that Armenia and Azerbaijan became signatories of international law agreements , including the Geneva Conventions . Allegations from all three governments ( including Nagorno @-@ Karabakh 's ) regularly accused the other side of committing atrocities which were at times confirmed by third party media sources or human rights organizations . Khojaly Massacre , for example , was confirmed by both Human Rights Watch and Memorial . Maraghar Massacre was testified by British @-@ based organization Christian Solidarity International and by the Vice @-@ Speaker of the British Parliament 's House of Lords Caroline Cox in 1992 . Azerbaijan was condemned by HRW for its use of aerial bombing in densely populated civilian areas and both sides were criticized for indiscriminate fire , hostage @-@ taking and the forcible displacement of civilians .
The lack of international laws for either side to abide by virtually sanctioned activity in the war to what would be considered war crimes . Looting and mutilation ( body parts such as ears , brought back from the front as treasured war souvenirs ) of dead soldiers were commonly reported and even boasted about among soldiers . Another practice that took form , not by soldiers but by regular civilians during the war , was the bartering of prisoners between Armenians and Azerbaijanis . Often , when contact was lost between family members and a soldier or a militiaman serving at the front , they took it upon themselves to organize an exchange by personally capturing a soldier from the battle lines and holding them in the confines of their own homes . New York Times journalist Yo 'av Karny noted this practice was as " old as the people occupying [ the ] land . "
After the war ended , both sides accused their opponents of continuing to hold captives ; Azerbaijan claimed Armenia was continuing to hold nearly 5 @,@ 000 Azerbaijani prisoners while Armenians claimed Azerbaijan was holding 600 prisoners . The non @-@ profit group , Helsinki Initiative 92 , investigated two prisons in Shusha and Stepanakert after the war ended , but concluded there were no prisoners @-@ of @-@ war there . A similar investigation arrived at the same conclusion while searching for Armenians allegedly laboring in Azerbaijan 's quarries .
= = Cultural legacy = =
The conflict has come to be represented in different forms of media in Armenia and Azerbaijan . In June 2006 , the film Chakatagir ( Destiny ) premiered in Yerevan and Stepanakert . The film stars and is written by Gor Vardanyan and is a fictionalized account of the events revolving around Operation Ring . It cost $ 3 @.@ 8 million to make , the most expensive film ever made in the country , and was the first film made about the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . In the summer of 2012 , Azerbaijanis in Azerbaijan released a video game entitled İşğal Altında : Şuşa ( Under Occupation : Shusha ) , a free first person shooter that allows the player to assume the role of an Azerbaijani soldier who takes part in the 1992 battle of Shusha . Commentators have noted that the game " is not for the faint of heart : there 's lots of killing and computer @-@ generated gore . To a great extent , it 's a celebration of violence : to advance , players must handle a variety of tasks , including shooting lots of Armenian enemies , rescuing a wounded Azerbaijani soldier , retrieving a document and blowing up a building in the town of Shusha . " Another opus followed , İşğal Altında : Ağdam , which was released in 2013 . This episode is very similar to the previous one , but this time it takes place in Agdam .
= = = Historical overviews = = =
Cheterian , Vicken ( 2011 ) . War and Peace in the Caucasus : Russia 's Troubled Frontier . New York : Columbia University Press . ISBN 9780231700658 .
Cox , Caroline and John Eibner ( 1993 ) . Ethnic Cleansing in Progress : War in Nagorno Karabakh . Zürich ; Washington : Institute for Religious Minorities in the Islamic World .
Croissant , Michael P. ( 1998 ) . The Armenia @-@ Azerbaijan Conflict : Causes and Implications . Westport , Connecticut : Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 9780275962418 .
Curtis , Glenn E ( 1995 ) . Armenia , Azerbaijan and Georgia Country Studies . Washington D.C. : Federal Research Division Library of Congress .
de Waal , Thomas ( 2003 ) . Black Garden : Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War . New York : New York University Press . ISBN 9780814719459 .
Freire , Maria Raquel ( 2003 ) . Conflict and Security in the Former Soviet Union : The Role of the OSCE . Burlington , VT : Ashgate .
Griffin , Nicholas ( 2004 ) . Caucasus : A Journey to the Land Between Christianity and Islam . Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
Karny , Yo 'av ( 2000 ) . Highlanders : A Journey to the Caucasus in Quest of Memory . New York : Douglas & McIntyre .
Libaridian , Gerard ( 1988 ) . The Karabagh file : Documents and facts on the region of Mountainous Karabagh , 1918 – 1988 . Cambridge , Mass : Zoryan Institute ; 1st ed .
Human Rights Watch ( 1994 ) . Azerbaijan : Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh ( PDF ) . New York . ISBN 1 @-@ 56432 @-@ 142 @-@ 8 .
= = = Specific issues and time periods = = =
Charalampidis , Ioannis ( 2013 ) . Sponsored To Kill : Mercenaries and Terrorist Networks in Azerbaijan ( PDF ) . Moscow : " MIA " Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 5 @-@ 9986 @-@ 0115 @-@ 6 .
André Widmer ( 2013 ) . The Forgotten Conflict - Two Decades after the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh war . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 033 @-@ 03809 @-@ 7 .
Chrysanthopolous , Leonidas T ( 2002 ) . Caucasus Chronicles : Nation @-@ building and Diplomacy in Armenia , 1993 – 1994 . Princeton : Gomidas Institute .
Goltz , Thomas ( 1998 ) . Azerbaijan Diary : A Rogue Reporter 's Adventures in an Oil @-@ Rich , War @-@ Torn , Post @-@ Soviet Republic . New York : M.E. Sharpe ISBN 0 @-@ 7656 @-@ 0244 @-@ X
Hakobyan , Tatul ( 2008 ) . Կանաչ ու Սև : Արցախյան օրագիր [ Green and Black : An Artsakh Diary ] ( in Armenian ) . Yerevan @-@ Stepanakert .
Kaufman , Stuart ( 2001 . ) . Modern Hatreds : The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War . New York : Cornell Studies in Security Affairs .
Hovannisian , Richard G. " The Armeno @-@ Azerbaijani Conflict Over Mountainous Karabagh . " Armenian Review , XXIV , Summer 1971 .
Hovannisian , Richard G. " Mountainous Karabagh in 1920 : An Unresolved Contest . " Armenian Review , XLVI , 1993 , 1996 .
Malkasian , Mark ( 1996 ) . Gha @-@ Ra @-@ Bagh ! : The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia . Wayne State University Press .
Rost , Yuri ( 1990 ) . The Armenian Tragedy : An Eye @-@ Witness Account of Human Conflict and Natural Disaster in Armenia and Azerbaijan . New York : St. Martin 's Press
Shahmuratian , Samvel ( ed . ) ( 1990 ) . The Sumgait Tragedy : Pogroms Against Armenians in Soviet Azerbaijan . New York : Zoryan Institute .
Taarnby , Michael ( 2008 ) . The Mujahedin in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh : A Case Study in the Evolution of Global Jihad . Real Instituto Elcano .
= = = Biographies = = =
Melkonian , Markar ( 2005 ) . My Brother 's Road : An American 's Fateful Journey to Armenia . London : I. B. Tauris . ISBN 1 @-@ 85043 @-@ 635 @-@ 5 .
= Abu Nidal =
Sabri Khalil al @-@ Banna ( May 1937 – 16 August 2002 ) , known as Abu Nidal , was the founder of Fatah – The Revolutionary Council , a militant Palestinian splinter group more commonly known as the Abu Nidal Organization ( ANO ) . At the height of its power in the 1970s and 1980s , the ANO was widely regarded as the most ruthless of the Palestinian groups .
Abu Nidal ( " father of struggle " ) formed the ANO in October 1974 after a split from Yasser Arafat 's Fatah faction within the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) . Acting as a freelance contractor , Abu Nidal is believed to have ordered attacks in 20 countries , killing over 300 and injuring over 650 . The group 's operations included the Rome and Vienna airport attacks on 27 December 1985 , when gunmen opened fire on passengers in simultaneous shootings at El Al ticket counters , killing 20 . Patrick Seale , Abu Nidal 's biographer , wrote of the shootings that their " random cruelty marked them as typical Abu Nidal operations . "
Abu Nidal died after a shooting in his Baghdad apartment in August 2002 . Palestinian sources believed he was killed on the orders of Saddam Hussein , while Iraqi officials insisted he had committed suicide during an interrogation . " He was the patriot turned psychopath , " David Hirst wrote in the Guardian on the news of his death . " He served only himself , only the warped personal drives that pushed him into hideous crime . He was the ultimate mercenary . "
= = Early life = =
= = = Family , early education = = =
Abu Nidal was born in May 1937 in Jaffa , on the Mediterranean coast of what was then the British Mandate of Palestine . His father , Hajj Khalil al @-@ Banna , owned 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) of orange groves situated between Jaffa and Majdal , today Ashkelon in Israel . The family lived in luxury in a three @-@ storey stone house near the beach , later used as an Israeli military court . Muhammad Khalil al @-@ Banna , Abu Nidal 's brother , told Yossi Melman :
My father ... was the richest man in Palestine . He marketed about ten percent of all the citrus crops sent from Palestine to Europe – especially to England and Germany . He owned a summer house in Marseilles , France , and another house in İskenderun , then in Syria and afterwards Turkey , and a number of houses in Palestine itself . Most of the time we lived in Jaffa . Our house had about twenty rooms , and we children would go down to swim in the sea . We also had stables with Arabian horses , and one of our homes in Ashkelon even had a large swimming pool . I think we must have been the only family in Palestine with a private swimming pool .
Khalil al @-@ Banna 's wealth allowed him to take several wives . According to Abu Nidal in an interview with Der Spiegel , his father had 13 wives , 17 sons and eight daughters . Melman writes that Abu Nidal 's mother was the eighth wife ; she had been one of the family 's maids , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Alawite girl . The family disapproved of the marriage , according to Patrick Seale , and as a result Abu Nidal , Khalil 's 12th child , was apparently looked down on by his older siblings , although in later life the relationships were repaired .
In 1944 or 1945 his father sent him to Collège des Frères , a French mission school in Jaffa , which he attended for one year . The father died in 1945 when Abu Nidal was seven years old , and the family turned his mother out of the house . His brothers took him out of the mission school and enrolled him instead in a prestigious , private Muslim school in Jerusalem , now known as Umariya Elementary School . He attended for about two years .
= = = 1948 Palestine War = = =
On 29 November 1947 , the United Nations resolved to partition Palestine into an Arab and Jewish state . Fighting broke out immediately , and the disruption of the citrus @-@ fruit business hit the family 's income . In Jaffa there were food shortages , truck bombs and an Irgun mortar bombardment . Melman writes that the al @-@ Banna family had had good relations with the Jewish community , but it was war and the relationships did not help them . Abu Nidal 's brother told Melman :
My father was a close friend of Avraham Shapira , one of the founders of Hashomer , the Jewish self @-@ defense organization . He would visit [ Shapira ] in his home in Petah Tikva , or Shapira riding his horse would visit our home in Jaffa . I also remember how we visited Dr. Weizmann [ later first president of Israel ] in his home in Rehovot .
Just before Jaffa was conquered by Israeli troops in April 1948 , the family fled to their house near Majdal , but the Jewish militias arrived there too , and they had to flee again . This time they went to the Bureij refugee camp in the Gaza Strip , then under Egyptian control . Melman writes that the family spent nine months living in tents , dependent on UNRWA for an allowance of oil , rice and potatoes . The experience had a powerful effect on Abu Nidal .
= = = Move to Nablus and Saudi Arabia = = =
The al @-@ Banna family 's commercial experience , and the money they had managed to take with them , meant they could set themselves up in business again , Melman writes . Their orange groves , however , had gone , now part of the new state of Israel , which had declared its independence on 14 May 1948 . The family moved to Nablus in the West Bank , then under Jordanian control . Abu Nidal graduated from high school there in 1955 , and joined the Arab nationalist Ba 'ath party . He began a degree course in engineering at Cairo University , but left without a degree after two years .
In 1960 he made his way to Saudi Arabia , where he set himself up as a painter and electrician , and worked as a casual laborer for Aramco . He remained close to his mother ; his brother told Melman that Abu Nidal would return to Nablus from Saudi Arabia every year to visit her . It was during one of those visits in 1962 that he met his wife , whose family had also fled from Jaffa . The couple had a son and two daughters .
= = = Personality = = =
Abu Nidal was often in poor health , according to Seale , and tended to dress in zip @-@ up jackets and old trousers , drinking whisky every night in his later years . He became , writes Seale , a " master of disguises and subterfuge , trusting no one , lonely and self @-@ protective , [ living ] like a mole , hidden away from public view . " Acquaintances said that he was capable of hard work and had a good financial brain . Salah Khalaf ( Abu Iyad ) , the deputy chief of Fatah who was assassinated by the ANO in 1991 , knew him well in the late 1960s when he took Abu Nidal under his wing . He told Seale :
He had been recommended to me as a man of energy and enthusiasm , but he seemed shy when we met . It was only on further acquaintance that I noticed other traits . He was extremely good company , with a sharp tongue and an inclination to dismiss most of humanity as spies and traitors . I rather liked that ! I discovered he was very ambitious , perhaps more than his abilities warranted , and also very excitable . He sometimes worked himself up into such a state that he lost all powers of reasoning .
Seale suggests that Abu Nidal 's childhood explained his personality , described as chaotic by Abu Iyad and as psychopathic by Issam Sartawi , the late Palestinian heart surgeon . His siblings ' scorn , the loss of his father and his mother 's removal from the family home when he was seven , then the loss of his home and status in the conflict with Israel , created a mental world of plots and counterplots , reflected in his tyrannical leadership of the ANO . Members ' wives ( it was an all @-@ male group ) were not allowed to befriend each another , and Abu Nidal 's wife was expected to live in isolation without friends .
= = Political life = =
= = = Impex , Black September = = =
In Saudi Arabia Abu Nidal helped found a small group of young Palestinians who called themselves the Palestine Secret Organization . The activism cost him his job and home : Aramco fired him , and the Saudi government imprisoned then expelled him .
He returned to Nablus with his wife and family , and joined Yasser Arafat 's Fatah faction of the PLO . Working as an odd @-@ job man , he was committed to Palestinian politics but not particularly active , until Israel won the 1967 Six @-@ Day War , capturing the Golan Heights , the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . Melman writes that " the entrance of the Israel Defense Forces tanks into Nablus was a traumatic experience for him . The conquest aroused him to action . "
He moved to Amman , Jordan , setting up a trading company called Impex . Fatah asked him to choose a nom de guerre , and he chose Abu Nidal ( " father of struggle " ) after his son , Nidal . ( It is customary in the Arab world for men to call themselves " father of " ( Abu ) , followed by their first son 's name . ) He was described by those who knew him at the time as a well @-@ organized leader , not a guerrilla ; during fighting between the Palestinian fedayeen and King Hussein 's troops , he stayed in his office .
Impex acted as a front for Fatah , serving as a meeting place and conduit for funds . This became a hallmark of Abu Nidal 's career . Companies controlled by the ANO made him a rich man by engaging in legitimate business deals , while acting as cover for arms deals and mercenary activities .
Abu Iyad appointed Abu Nidal in 1968 as the Fatah representative in Khartoum , Sudan , then ( at Abu Nidal 's insistence ) to the same position in Baghdad in July 1970 , two months before Black September , when over 10 days of fighting King Hussein 's army drove the Palestinian fedayeen out of Jordan , with the loss of thousands of lives . Seale writes that Abu Nidal 's absence from Jordan during this period , when it was clear that King Hussein was about to act against the Palestinians , raised suspicion within the movement that Abu Nidal was interested only in saving himself .
= = = First operation = = =
Shortly after Black September , Abu Nidal began accusing the PLO of cowardice over his Voice of Palestine radio station in Iraq for having agreed to a ceasefire with Hussein . During Fatah 's Third Congress in Damascus in 1971 , Abu Nidal joined Palestinian activist and writer Naji Allush and Abu Daoud ( leader of the Black September Organization responsible for the 1972 Munich Massacre ) , calling for greater democracy within Fatah and revenge against King Hussein .
In February 1973 Abu Daoud was arrested in Jordan for an attempt on King Hussein 's life . This led to Abu Nidal 's first operation , using the name Al @-@ Iqab ( " the Punishment " ) ; on 5 September 1973 five gunmen entered the Saudi embassy in Paris , took 15 hostages and threatened to blow up the building if Abu Daoud was not released . The gunmen flew two days later to Kuwait on a Syrian Airways flight , still holding five hostages , then to Riyadh , threatening to throw the hostages out of the aircraft . They surrendered and released the hostages on 8 September . Abu Daoud was released from prison two weeks later ; Seale writes that the Kuwaiti government paid King Hussein $ 12 million for his release .
On the day of the attack , 56 heads of state were meeting in Algiers for the 4th conference of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement . According to Seale , the Saudi Embassy operation had been commissioned by Iraq 's president , Ahmed Hasan al @-@ Bakr , as a distraction because he was jealous that Algeria was hosting the conference . Seale writes one of the hostage @-@ takers admitted that he had been told to fly the hostages around until the conference was over .
Abu Nidal had carried out the operation without the permission of Fatah . Abu Iyad ( Arafat 's deputy ) and Mahmoud Abbas ( later President of the Palestinian Authority ) , flew to Iraq to reason with Abu Nidal that hostage @-@ taking harmed the movement . Abu Iyad told Seale that an Iraqi official at the meeting said : " Why are you attacking Abu Nidal ? The operation was ours ! We asked him to mount it for us . " Abbas was furious and left the meeting with the other PLO delegates . From that point on , Seale writes , the PLO regarded Abu Nidal as under the control of the Iraqi government .
= = = Expulsion from Fatah = = =
Two months later , in November 1973 ( just after the Yom Kippur War in October ) , the ANO hijacked KLM Flight 861 , this time using the name Arab Nationalist Youth Organization . Fatah had been discussing convening a peace conference in Geneva ; the hijacking was intended to warn them not to go ahead with it . In response , in March or July 1974 , Arafat expelled Abu Nidal from Fatah .
In October 1974 Abu Nidal formed the ANO , calling it Fatah : The Revolutionary Council . In November that year a Fatah court sentenced him to death in absentia for the attempted assassination of Mahmoud Abbas . Seale writes that it is unlikely that Abu Nidal had intended to kill Abbas , and just as unlikely that Fatah wanted to kill Abu Nidal . He was invited to Beirut to discuss the death sentence , and was allowed to leave again , but it was clear that he had become persona non grata . As a result , the Iraqis gave him Fatah 's assets in Iraq , including a training camp , farm , newspaper , radio station , passports , overseas scholarships and $ 15 million worth of Chinese weapons . He also received Iraq 's regular aid to the PLO : around $ 150 @,@ 000 a month and a lump sum of $ 3 – 5 million .
= = ANO = =
= = = Nature of the organization = = =
In addition to Fatah : The Revolutionary Council , the ANO called itself the Palestinian National Liberation Movement , Black June ( for actions against Syria ) , Black September ( for actions against Jordan ) , the Revolutionary Arab Brigades , the Revolutionary Organization of Socialist Muslims , the Egyptian Revolution , Revolutionary Egypt , Al @-@ Asifa ( " the Storm , " a name also used by Fatah ) , Al @-@ Iqab ( " the Punishment " ) , and the Arab Nationalist Youth Organization .
The group had up to 500 members , chosen from young men in the Palestinian refugee camps and in Lebanon , who were promised good pay and help looking after their families . They would be sent to training camps in whichever country was hosting the ANO at the time ( Syria , Iraq or Libya ) , then organized into small cells . Once in , As`ad AbuKhalil and Michael Fischbach write , they were not allowed to leave again . The group assumed complete control over the membership . One member who spoke to Patrick Seale was told before being sent overseas : " If we say , ' Drink alcohol ' " , do so . If we say , ' Get married , ' find a woman and marry her . If we say , ' Don 't have children , ' you must obey . If we say , ' Go and kill King Hussein , ' you must be ready to sacrifice yourself ! "
Seale writes that recruits were asked to write out their life stories , including names and addresses of family and friends , then sign a paper saying they agreed to execution if discovered to have intelligence connections . If suspected , they would be asked to rewrite the whole story , without discrepancies . The ANO 's newspaper Filastin al @-@ Thawra regularly announced the execution of traitors.Seale himself writes that Abu Nidal was admitted his organization was deeply penetrated by Israeli agents . The theory that he himself was one such agent is deemed to be far @-@ fetched , but Israel may have had an interest in undermining Palestinian groups disposed to the idea of making compromises .
= = = Committee for Revolutionary Justice = = =
There were reports of purges throughout the 1970s and 1980s . Around 600 ANO members were killed in Lebanon and Libya , including 171 in one night in November 1987 , when they were lined up , shot and thrown into a mass grave . Dozens were kidnapped in Syria and killed in the Badawi refugee camp . Most of the decisions to kill , Abu Daoud told Seale , were taken by Abu Nidal " in the middle of the night , after he [ had ] knocked back a whole bottle of whiskey . " The purges led to the defection from the ANO in 1989 of Atif Abu Bakr , head of the ANO 's political directorate , who returned to Fatah .
Members were routinely tortured by the " Committee for Revolutionary Justice " until they confessed to disloyalty . Seale writes that reports of torture included hanging a man naked , whipping him until he was unconscious , reviving him with cold water , then rubbing salt or chili powder into his wounds . A naked prisoner would be forced into a car tyre with his legs and backside in the air , then whipped , wounded , salted and revived with cold water . A member 's testicles might be fried in oil , or melted plastic dripped onto his skin . Between interrogations , prisoners would be tied up in tiny cells . If the cells were full , Seale writes , they might be buried with a pipe in their mouths for air and water ; if Abu Nidal wanted them dead , a bullet would be fired down the pipe instead .
= = = Intelligence Directorate = = =
The Intelligence Directorate was formed in 1985 to oversee special operations . It had four subcommittees : the Committee for Special Missions , the Foreign Intelligence Committee , the Counterespionage Committee and the Lebanon Committee . Led by Abd al @-@ Rahman Isa , the longest @-@ serving member of the ANO – Seale writes that Isa was unshaven and shabby , but charming and persuasive – the directorate maintained 30 – 40 people overseas who looked after the ANO 's arms caches in various countries . It trained staff , arranged passports and visas , and reviewed security at airports and seaports . Members were not allowed to visit each other at home , and no one outside the directorate was supposed to know who was a member .
Isa was demoted in 1987 , because Abu Nidal believed he had become too close to other figures within the ANO . Always keen to punish members by humiliating them , Abu Nidal insisted he remain in the Intelligence Directorate , forcing him to work for his previous subordinates , who according to Seale were told to treat him with contempt .
= = = Committee for Special Missions = = =
The job of the Committee for Special Missions was to choose targets . It had started life as the Military Committee , headed by Naji Abu al @-@ Fawaris , who had led the attack on Heinz Nittel , head of the Israel @-@ Austria Friendship League , who was shot and killed in 1981 . In 1982 the committee changed its name to the Committee for Special Missions , headed by Dr. Ghassan al @-@ Ali , who had been born in the West Bank and educated in England , where he obtained a BA and MA in chemistry and married a British woman ( later divorced ) . A former ANO member told Seale that Ali favoured " the most extreme and reckless operations . "
= = Operations and relationships = =
= = = Shlomo Argov = = =
On 3 June 1982 , ANO operative Hussein Ghassan Said shot Shlomo Argov , the Israeli ambassador to Britain , once in the head as he left the Dorchester Hotel in London . Said was accompanied by Nawaf al @-@ Rosan , an Iraqi intelligence officer , and Marwan al @-@ Banna , Abu Nidal 's cousin . Argov survived , but spent three months in a coma and the rest of his life disabled , until his death in February 2003 . The PLO quickly denied responsibility for the attack .
Ariel Sharon , then Israel 's defence minister , responded three days later by invading Lebanon , where the PLO was based , a reaction that Seale argues Abu Nidal had intended . The Israeli government had been preparing to invade and Abu Nidal provided a pretext . Der Spiegel put it to him in October 1985 that the assassination of Argov , when he knew Israel wanted to attack the PLO in Lebanon , made him appear to be working for the Israelis , in the view of Yasser Arafat . He replied :
What Arafat says about me doesn 't bother me . Not only he , but also a whole list of Arab and world politicians claim that I am an agent of the Zionists or the CIA . Others state that I am a mercenary of the French secret service and of the Soviet KGB . The latest rumor is that I am an agent of Khomeini . During a certain period they said we were spies for the Iraqi regime . Now they say that we are Syrian agents . ... Many psychologists and sociologists in the Soviet bloc tried to investigate this man Abu Nidal . They wanted to find a weak point in his character . The result was zero .
= = = Rome and Vienna = = =
Abu Nidal 's most infamous operation was the 1985 attack on the Rome and Vienna airports . On 27 December , at 08 : 15 GMT , four gunmen opened fire on the El Al ticket counter at the Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport in Rome , killing 16 and wounding 99 . In Vienna International Airport a few minutes later , three men threw hand grenades at passengers waiting to check into a flight to Tel Aviv , killing four and wounding 39 . According to Seale , the gunmen had been told the people in civilian clothes at the check @-@ in counter were Israeli pilots returning from a training mission .
Austria and Italy had both been involved in trying to arrange peace talks . Sources close to Abu Nidal told Seale that Libyan intelligence had supplied the weapons . The damage to the PLO was enormous , according to Abu Iyad , Arafat 's deputy . Most people in the West and even many Arabs could not distinguish between the ANO and Fatah , he said . " When such horrible things take place , ordinary people are left thinking that all Palestinians are criminals . "
= = = United States bombing of Libya = = =
On 15 April 1986 , the US launched bombing raids from British bases against Tripoli and Benghazi , killing around 100 , in retaliation for the bombing of a Berlin nightclub used by US service personnel . The dead were reported to include Hanna Gaddafi , the adoptive daughter of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi ; two of his other children were injured .
British journalist Alec Collett , who had been kidnapped in Beirut in March , was hanged after the airstrikes , reportedly by ANO operatives ; his remains were found in the Beqaa Valley in November 2009 . The bodies of two British teachers , Leigh Douglas and Philip Padfield , and an American , Peter Kilburn , were found in a village near Beirut on 17 April 1986 ; the Arab Fedayeen Cells , a name linked to Abu Nidal , claimed responsibility . British journalist John McCarthy was kidnapped the same day .
= = = Hindawi affair = = =
On 17 April 1986 – the day the bodies of the teachers were found and McCarthy was kidnapped – Ann Marie Murphy , a pregnant Irish chambermaid , was discovered in Heathrow airport with a Semtex bomb in the false bottom of one of her bags . She had been about to board an El Al flight from New York to Tel Aviv via London . The bag had been packed by her Jordanian fiancé Nizar Hindawi , who had said he would join her in Israel where they were to be married .
According to Melman , Abu Nidal had recommended Hindawi to Syrian intelligence . Seale writes that the bomb had been manufactured by Abu Nidal 's technical committee , who had delivered it to Syrian air force intelligence . It was sent to London in a diplomatic bag and given to Hindawi . According to Seale , it was widely believed that the attack was in response to Israel having forced down a jet , two months earlier , carrying Syrian officials to Damascus , which Israel had supposed was carrying senior Palestinians .
= = = Pan Am Flight 73 = = =
On 5 September 1986 , four ANO gunmen hijacked Pan Am Flight 73 at Karachi Airport on its way from Mumbai to New York , holding 389 passengers and crew for 16 hours in the plane on the tarmac before detonating grenades inside the cabin . Neerja Bhanot , the flight 's senior purser , was able to open an emergency door , and most passengers escaped ; 20 died , including Bhanot , and 120 were wounded . The London Times reported in March 2004 that Libya had been behind the hijacking .
= = = Relationship with Gaddafi = = =
Abu Nidal began to move his organization out of Syria to Libya in the summer of 1986 , arriving there in March 1987 . In June that year the Syrian government expelled him , in part because of the Hindawi affair and Pan Am Flight 73 hijacking .
He repeatedly took credit during this period for operations in which he had no involvement , including the 1984 Brighton hotel bombing , 1985 Bradford City stadium fire , and 1986 assassination of Zafir al @-@ Masri , the mayor of Nablus ( killed by the PFLP , according to Seale ) . He also implied that he had been behind the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster by publishing a congratulatory note in the ANO magazine , writes Seale .
Abu Nidal and Libya 's leader , Muammar Gaddafi , allegedly became great friends , each holding what Marie Colvin and Sonya Murad called a " dangerous combination of an inferiority complex mixed with the belief that he was a man of great destiny . " The relationship gave Abu Nidal a sponsor and Gaddafi a mercenary . Seale reports that Libya brought out the worst in Abu Nidal . He would not allow even the most senior ANO members to socialize with each other ; all meetings had to be reported to him . All passports had to be handed over . No one was allowed to travel without his permission . Ordinary members were not allowed to have telephones ; senior members were allowed to make local calls only . His members knew nothing about his daily life , including where he lived . If he wanted to entertain , Seale writes , he would take over the home of another member .
According to Abu Bakr , speaking to Al Hayatt in 2002 , Abu Nidal said he was behind the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 , which exploded over Lockerbie , Scotland , on 21 December 1988 ; a former head of security for Libyan Arab Airlines was later convicted . Abu Nidal reportedly said of Lockerbie , according to Seale : " We do have some involvement in this matter , but if anyone so much as mentions it , I will kill him with my own hands ! " Seale writes that the ANO appeared to have no connection to it ; one of Abu Nidal 's associates told him , " If an American soldier tripped in some corner of the globe , Abu Nidal would instantly claim it as his own work . "
= = = Banking with BCCI = = =
In the late 1980s British intelligence learned that the ANO held accounts with the Bank of Credit and Commerce International ( BCCI ) in London . BCCI was closed in July 1991 by banking regulators in six countries after evidence emerged of widespread fraud . Abu Nidal himself was said to have visited London using the name Shakar Farhan ; a BCCI branch manager , who passed information about the ANO accounts to MI5 , reportedly drove him around several stores in London without realizing who he was . Abu Nidal was using a company called SAS International Trading and Investments in Warsaw as cover for arms deals . The company 's transactions included the purchase of riot guns , ostensibly for Syria , then when the British refused an export licence to Syria , for an African state ; in fact half the shipment went to the police in East Germany and half to Abu Nidal .
= = = Assassination of Abu Iyad = = =
On 14 January 1991 in Tunis , the night before U.S. forces moved into Kuwait , the ANO assassinated Abu Iyad , head of PLO intelligence , along with Abu al @-@ Hol , Fatah 's chief of security , and Fakhri al @-@ Umari , another Fatah aide ; all three men were shot in Abu Iyad 's home . The killer , Hamza Abu Zaid , confessed that an ANO operative had hired him . When he shot Abu Iyad , he reportedly shouted , " Let Atif Abu Bakr help you now ! " , a reference to the senior ANO member who had left the group in 1989 , and whom Abu Nidal believed had been planted within the ANO by Abu Iyad as a spy . Abu Iyad had known that Abu Nidal nursed a hatred of him , in part because he had kept Abu Nidal out of the PLO . But the real reason for the hatred , Abu Iyad told Seale , was that he had protected Abu Nidal in his early years within the movement . Given his personality , Abu Nidal could not acknowledge that debt . Seale writes that the murder " must therefore be seen as a final settlement of old scores . "
= = Death = =
After Libyan intelligence operatives were charged with the Lockerbie bombing , Gaddafi tried to distance himself from terrorism . Abu Nidal was expelled from Libya in 1999 , and in 2002 he returned to Iraq ; the Iraqi government later said he had entered the country using a fake Yemeni passport and false name .
On 19 August 2002 , the Palestinian newspaper al @-@ Ayyam reported that Abu Nidal had died three days earlier of multiple gunshot wounds at his home in Baghdad , a house the newspaper said was owned by the Mukhabarat , the Iraqi secret service . Two days later Iraq 's chief of intelligence , Taher Jalil Habbush , handed out photographs of Abu Nidal 's body to journalists , along with a medical report that said he had died after a bullet entered his mouth and exited through his skull . Habbush said Iraqi officials had arrived at Abu Nidal 's home to arrest him on suspicion of conspiring with foreign governments . After saying he needed a change of clothes , he went into his bedroom and shot himself in the mouth , according to Habbush . He died eight hours later in hospital .
Jane 's reported in 2002 that Iraqi intelligence had found classified documents in his home about a U.S. attack on Iraq . When they raided the house , fighting broke out between Abu Nidal 's men and Iraqi intelligence . In the midst of this , Abu Nidal rushed into his bedroom and was killed ; Palestinian sources told Jane 's that he had been shot several times . Jane 's suggested Saddam Hussein had him killed because he feared Abu Nidal would act against him in the event of an American invasion .
In 2008 Robert Fisk obtained a report written in September 2002 , for Saddam Hussein 's " presidency intelligence office , " by Iraq 's " Special Intelligence Unit M4 . " The report said that the Iraqis had been interrogating Abu Nidal in his home as a suspected spy for Kuwait and Egypt , and indirectly for the United States . It said he had been asked by the Kuwaitis to find links between Iraq and Al @-@ Qaeda . Just before being moved to a more secure location , Abu Nidal asked to be allowed to change his clothing , went into his bedroom and shot himself , the report said . He was buried on 29 August 2002 in al @-@ Karakh 's Islamic cemetery in Baghdad , in a grave marked M7 .
= Manoj Bajpayee =
Manoj Bajpayee ( born 23 April 1969 ) , also credited as Manoj Bajpai , is an Indian film actor who predominantly works in Hindi cinema and has also done some Telugu and Tamil language films . He is the recipient of two National Film Awards and two Filmfare Awards .
Born in Belwa , a small village in Narkatiaganj , Bihar , Bajpayee aspired to become an actor since childhood . He relocated to Delhi at the age of seventeen , and applied for National School of Drama , only to be rejected for three times . He continued to do theatre while studying in the college . Bajpayee made his feature film debut with the one @-@ minute role in Drohkaal ( 1994 ) , and a minor role of a dacoit in Shekhar Kapur 's Bandit Queen ( 1994 ) . After few unnoticed roles , he played gangster Bhiku Mhatre in Ram Gopal Varma 's 1998 crime drama Satya , which proved to be a breakthrough . Bajpayee received the National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor and Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor for the film . He then acted in films like Kaun ( 1999 ) , and Shool ( 1999 ) . For the latter , he won another Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor . Bajpayee further played the role of a prince with two wives in Zubeidaa ( 2001 ) , a serial killer in Aks ( 2001 ) and a hitchhiker @-@ turned @-@ psychopath killer in Road ( 2002 ) .
Bajpayee won the Special Jury National Award for Pinjar ( 2003 ) . This was followed by a series of brief , unnoticed roles in films that failed to propel his career forward . He then played a greedy politician in the political thriller Raajneeti ( 2010 ) , which was well received . In 2012 , Bajpayee essayed the role of Sardar Khan in Gangs of Wasseypur . His next roles were of a naxalite in Chakravyuh ( 2012 ) , and a CBI officer in Special 26 ( 2013 ) . In 2016 , he portrayed professor Ramchandra Siras , in Hansal Mehta 's biographical drama Aligarh .
= = Life = =
Bajpayee was born on 23 April 1969 in a small village called Belwa near the town Narkatiaganj in West Champaran , Bihar . He is the second child among his five other siblings , and was named after actor Manoj Kumar . One of his younger sisters Poonam Dubey , is a fashion designer in the film industry . His father was a farmer and mother was a housewife . As a son of a farmer , Bajpayee would do farming during their vacation . Since childhood , he wanted to become an actor . His father had difficulty collecting money for their education . He studied in a " hut school " till fourth standard , and later did his basic education from a school in Bettiah . He completed his class 12th from Maharani Janaki College in Bettiah . He moved to New Delhi at the age of seventeen and went to Satyawati , then to Ramjas College , Delhi University . Bajpayee had heard about National School of Drama from actors like Om Puri , Naseeruddin Shah , where he applied . He was rejected three times and wanted to commit suicide afterwards . He then did director and acting coach Barry John 's workshop after actor Raghubir Yadav 's suggestion . Impressed by Bajpayee 's acting , John hired him to assist him in his teaching . After that he applied at the National School of Drama for the fourth time , they offered him a teaching position at the school instead .
Bajpayee was married to a girl from Delhi , but got divorced during his struggle period .
He met actress Neha , who is also known as Shabana Raza , right after her debut film Kareeb ( 1998 ) . The couple married in 2006 , and have a daughter .
= = Career = =
= = = Debut and breakthrough ( 1994 – 2001 ) = = =
Following his one @-@ minute role in Govind Nihalani 's Dro | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
10 – 4 victory over the Cardinals . He won the first NL Player of the Week Award of the 2005 season on April 10 after accumulating 15 RBI in the first week of the season . On May 12 , he had four hits in a 7 – 5 loss to Cincinnati . He hit a three @-@ run game @-@ winning home run on May 22 in a 7 – 2 victory over the Baltimore Orioles . He won another Player of the Week Award that day after he batted .500 with two home runs and eight RBI during the week , becoming the first Phillies player to win the award twice in a season since Hayes won it twice in 1986 . On June 5 , his solo home run against Mike Koplove was the game @-@ winner in a 7 – 6 victory over Arizona . Four days later , he hit two home runs and had four RBI in a 10 – 8 victory over the Texas Rangers . On June 11 , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run in a 7 – 5 victory over the Milwaukee Brewers . He hit two home runs and had five RBI in a 13 – 7 victory over Florida on July 14 . On July 30 , he had four hits and two RBI in an 8 – 7 victory over Colorado . On August 9 , he had four RBI , including a go @-@ ahead three @-@ run home run against Steve Schmoll in an 8 – 4 victory over the Dodgers . His three @-@ run home run against Jake Peavy on August 12 provided all of the Phillies ' runs in a 3 – 2 victory over San Diego . He had four RBI on September 9 in a 12 – 5 victory over the Marlins . Two days later , he had four RBI again ( including a three @-@ run home run against Ismael Valdez ) in an 11 – 1 victory over Florida .
Burrell finished the season batting .281 with 32 home runs in 154 games , and he set career highs in walks ( 99 ) and RBI ( 117 ) . His 32 home runs led the Phillies , and his 117 RBI were second only to Andruw Jones ' 128 ( Pujols also had 117 ) . On defense , however , he tied for the lead among all major league left fielders in errors , with seven , and the lowest fielding percentage among them , at .972 . Burrell finished seventh in voting for the NL MVP award , and he was the co @-@ winner of the Mike Schmidt MVP Award ( along with Chase Utley ) .
= = = = 2006 = = = =
In April 2006 , Burrell batted .300 with seven home runs . From April 14 to 27 , he had 13 RBI in 11 games . However , he batted .249 for the rest of the season , and in June Philles ' manager Charlie Manuel began benching him occasionally ( often in favor of David Dellucci ) . On May 1 , Burrell hit a game @-@ winning solo home run in an 8 – 5 victory over Florida . On May 7 , he had three RBI , including a two @-@ run home run against Matt Morris as the Phillies defeated the Giants , 9 – 5 . On June 9 , he had three RBI , including a two @-@ run home run against Gary Majewski , but the Phillies lost , 9 – 8 , to the Washington Nationals . The next day , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run in a 6 – 2 victory over the Nationals . On June 15 , he hit two home runs and had three RBI against Steve Trachsel , but the Phillies lost to the Mets , 5 – 4 . He had four hits and four RBI in a 14 – 6 victory over the Giants on July 15 . On August 22 , his RBI double in the sixth inning was the game @-@ winning RBI in a 6 – 3 victory over the Cubs . His first inning grand slam against Roger Clemens on September 15 provided all of the Phillies ' runs in a 4 – 3 victory over Houston . On September 20 , his fielder 's choice was the game @-@ winning RBI in a 6 – 2 victory over the Cubs . He hit two home runs , had four RBI , and set a career high with four runs scored on September 29 in a 14 – 2 victory over Florida . In 144 games , Burrell finished the season batting .258 with 29 home runs and 95 RBI .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Burrell became the Phillies ' longest tenured player in 2007 with the departure of Lieberthal via free agency . He hit only one home run in April but had a .292 batting average . On April 6 , he homered and had four RBI ( including the game @-@ winner ) in an 8 – 2 victory over Florida . He began to slump after April , batting .157 over the next two months . Once again , Manuel began benching him , using Greg Dobbs , Jayson Werth , or Michael Bourn in left field . On May 11 , Burrell hit two home runs and had five RBI in a 7 – 2 victory over the Cubs . Werth was injured at the end of June , however , and Burrell reclaimed his starting job by batting .435 in July , with six home runs and 22 RBI . From July 1 through the end of the season , he batted .300 with 22 home runs and 65 RBI , starting the final 75 games of the season for the Phillies in left field . On July 14 , he had four RBI in a 10 – 4 victory over St. Louis . Three days later , Burrell hit his 200th career home run in a 15 – 3 victory over the Dodgers . He had a 14 @-@ game hitting streak from July 22 to August 5 , tying his career high . On August 17 , in an 11 – 8 victory over the Pirates , Burrell got his 1,000th career hit , a two @-@ run home run . At the end of August , the Phillies faced the Mets , whom they trailed in the NL East by six games , for a four @-@ game series . In the first game of the series , on August 27 , Burrell hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run in a 9 – 2 victory . Two days later , in the third game of the series , he hit a solo home run and had a sacrifice fly ( the game @-@ winning RBI ) against Óliver Pérez in a 3 – 2 victory . He hit two home runs in the fourth and final game of the series as the Phillies won 11 – 10 to sweep the Mets . On September 21 , his two @-@ run home run against Shawn Hill provided the game @-@ winning RBI in a 6 – 3 victory over Washington . Burrell finished the 2007 regular season batting .256 with 30 home runs , 97 RBI , and 114 walks ( a career high ) in 155 games . Burrell , Ryan Howard , and Jimmy Rollins became the second trio of Phillies with 30 or more home runs ( and the first since 1929 ) . On defense , he led major league outfielders in errors , with 10 , and his .948 fielding percentage was the lowest among left fielders .
In 2007 , the Phillies won the NL East and reached the playoffs for the first time since 1993 and the first time in Burrell 's career . Burrell hit a home run against Jeff Francis in the first game of the NL Division Series ( NLDS ) but had only one other hit in the series as the Phillies were swept by the Colorado Rockies .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Burrell batted .326 in April 2008 , with 8 home runs and 24 RBI . He hit two home runs on April 7 ( including the game @-@ winner ) against Bronson Arroyo in a 5 – 3 victory over Cincinnati . On April 24 , his two @-@ run double against David Riske provided the game @-@ winning RBI in the Phillies ' 3 – 1 victory over Milwaukee . With the double , Burrell got his 23rd and 24th RBI of the month , breaking Hayes ' team record for most RBI in April ( 22 ) . After batting .227 in May ( with five home runs ) , Burrell batted .256 with six home runs in June . His walk @-@ off two @-@ run home run with two outs in the tenth inning gave the Phillies a 6 – 5 victory over San Francisco on May 2 . On May 22 , Burrell hit a game @-@ winning pinch @-@ hit home run in a 7 – 5 victory over Houston . On June 3 , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run in a 3 – 2 victory over Cincinnati . He followed up his performance in June by hitting .304 in July with seven home runs , but he slumped over the final two months , batting .191 with seven home runs . He hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run on July 13 in a 6 – 3 victory over Arizona . On August 15 , his home run helped the Phillies defeat the Padres 1 – 0 . Two days later , he hit a game @-@ winning home run in a 2 – 1 victory over the Padres . He had five RBI ( including a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Clayton Kershaw ) in a 9 – 2 victory over the Dodgers on August 23 . Burrell finished the season batting .250 with 33 home runs ( tied for ninth in the NL ) , 86 RBI , and 102 walks ( third in the NL ) in 157 games , and the Phillies won the NL East for the second straight year .
In Game 4 ( the final game ) of the NLDS against the Brewers , Burrell hit two home runs ( a three @-@ run game @-@ winning home run against Jeff Suppan and a solo home run against Guillermo Mota ) in a 6 – 2 victory that gave the Phillies their first playoff series victory since 1993 . Four days later , in the first game of the NL Championship Series , he hit a game @-@ winning solo home run in a 3 – 2 victory over the Dodgers . After going hitless in his first 14 at @-@ bats in the World Series , Burrell doubled against J. P. Howell of the Tampa Bay Rays on October 29 in Game 5 ( the final game of the series ) . Burrell was then replaced by pinch @-@ runner Eric Bruntlett , who scored the game 's winning run in the 4 – 3 victory as the Phillies won their first World Series since 1980 . After the series , Burrell was chosen to lead the Phillies ' World Series parade .
Burrell filed for free agency on November 6 . On December 16 , the Phillies signed left fielder Raúl Ibañez to a three @-@ year contract , ending Burrell 's tenure in Philadelphia . Burrell 's 104 double plays grounded into were the seventh @-@ most in Phillies history , and his 1 @,@ 273 strikeouts were second only to Schmidt . However , Burrell was fifth in walks ( 785 ) , eighth in RBI ( 827 ) , and fourth in home runs ( 251 ) as a Phillie . His eight straight seasons with at least 20 home runs were topped only by Schmidt .
= = = Tampa Bay Rays = = =
On January 5 , 2009 , the Tampa Bay Rays signed Burrell to a two @-@ year , $ 16 million contract . They planned to use him as their designated hitter . Burrell got a standing ovation when he returned to Philadelphia for an exhibition series on April 3 and 4 . On April 9 , Burrell flew to Philadelphia to join the Phillies as they received their World Series rings in a pregame ceremony . After the ceremony , he flew back to Boston for the Rays ' game against the Boston Red Sox . On May 17 , Burrell was placed on the disabled list ( retroactive to May 12 ) with a neck strain . He was activated from the DL on June 11 . On June 24 , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run and had three RBI in a 7 – 1 victory over the Phillies . On July 7 , he hit a walk @-@ off two @-@ run home run in the 11th inning of a 3 – 1 victory over the Toronto Blue Jays . On September 2 , he had a game @-@ winning RBI single in an 8 – 5 victory over Boston . He had four RBI against Jason Berken ( including a three @-@ run home run ) on September 15 in a 10 – 5 loss to Baltimore . Burrell slumped throughout the 2009 season , and he finished the year batting .221 in 122 games . He set or tied career @-@ lows in hits ( 91 ) , home runs ( 14 ) , RBI ( 64 ) , and walks ( 57 ) .
Burrell hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run in the 12th inning of a 3 – 1 victory over Boston on April 17 , 2010 . On April 27 , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run in an 8 – 6 victory over the Oakland Athletics . In his first 24 games of the season , Burrell batted .202 with two home runs and 13 RBI . On May 15 , he was designated for assignment and replaced on the Rays ' roster by Hank Blalock . Four days later , he became a free agent after clearing waivers .
= = = San Francisco Giants = = =
On May 29 , 2010 , the San Francisco Giants signed Burrell to a minor league contract and assigned him to the triple @-@ A Fresno Grizzlies of the Pacific Coast League . After batting .313 with one home run and six RBI in five games , he was called up to the Giants on June 4 to replace John Bowker , who was optioned to Fresno . The next day , he took over from Aubrey Huff ( who moved over to right field ) as the Giants ' left fielder . On July 31 , with the Giants trailing 1 – 0 to the Dodgers in the eighth inning , Burrell hit a two @-@ run home run to give the Giants a 2 – 1 victory . On August 6 , he hit a game @-@ winning sacrifice fly in the 11th inning of a 3 – 2 victory over Atlanta . Three days later , the Giants faced the Chicago Cubs for a four @-@ game series . In the first game of the series , Burrell hit a walk @-@ off sacrifice fly in the 11th inning of a 4 – 3 victory . In the third game , he had three RBI ( including a game @-@ winning home run in the eighth inning against Justin Berg ) in a 5 – 4 victory . In the finale , Burrell hit two home runs ( including a grand slam ) and had five RBI in an 8 – 7 victory . On August 17 , Burrell returned to Philadelphia for his first regular season game there as a member of the opposing team , and he received a standing ovation . He hit a home run in his first at bat of the game , but the Giants lost , 9 – 3 . With the Giants in 2010 , Burrell batted .266 with 289 at @-@ bats , 18 home runs , and 51 RBI in 96 games as the Giants won the NL West and advanced to the playoffs for the first time since 2003 . Burrell 's 2010 totals were 373 at @-@ bats , 94 hits , 20 home runs , and 64 RBI in 120 games .
In Game 2 of the NLDS against Atlanta on October 8 , Burrell hit a three @-@ run home run in a 5 – 4 loss . On October 16 , in Game 1 of the NLCS against the Phillies , he had an RBI double against Roy Halladay . Nate Schierholtz then pinch @-@ ran for him , scoring the winning run in the Giants ' 4 – 3 victory . In the World Series , Burrell struck out eleven times in thirteen at @-@ bats , had no hits , and was benched for Game 4 . However , the Giants won the World Series in five games , and Burrell received his second championship ring .
On November 1 , Burrell filed for free agency . A month later , on December 3 , he signed a one @-@ year , $ 1 million contract to return to the Giants in 2011 . In his first 20 games of 2011 , Burrell batted .270 with five home runs and eight RBI . On April 18 , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run in an 8 – 1 victory over Colorado . After batting .172 with one RBI over his next 12 games , he was replaced as the Giants ' left fielder by Cody Ross , who was replaced as the Giants ' right fielder by Schierholtz . On May 4 , Burrell had a game @-@ winning RBI single in a 2 – 0 victory over the Mets . In the first game of a doubleheader against the Cubs on June 28 , Burrell had a home run and three RBI in a 13 – 7 victory . He had a game @-@ winning RBI single on July 7 in a 2 – 1 victory over San Diego . On July 15 , Burrell was placed on the disabled list with a potentially career @-@ ending foot injury . He returned from the DL on August 31 , but he was not able to start regularly upon returning . For the final game of the year ( a 6 – 3 loss to Colorado on September 28 ) , Burrell started in left field after asking Giants ' manager Bruce Bochy to put him in the lineup since it was potentially his final game . He finished the year batting .230 with career @-@ lows in games ( 92 ) , at bats ( 183 ) , hits ( 42 ) , home runs ( seven ) , and RBI ( 21 ) . On October 30 , he filed for free agency .
Burrell signed a one @-@ day contract with the Philadelphia Phillies on May 19 , 2012 , so he could officially retire as a Phillie . It was announced on February 28 , 2015 that Burrell will be inducted onto the Phillies Wall of Fame . He was subsequently inducted on Friday , July 31 . He stated , " I always knew that the fans were behind me , even through the tough times . When David ( Montgomery ) called and told me I had been voted in by the fans , it was overwhelming . " He was the 37th inductee to the Wall of Fame .
= = = " Met Killer " = = =
Burrell showed a penchant for hitting home runs against the New York Mets . In 2007 , Burrell hit four home runs in a four @-@ game series sweep against the Mets in late August . In total , he hit 42 home runs against the Mets through the 2011 season , his highest total against any team , which ranked fifth all @-@ time in home runs hit against the franchise at the time of his departure from Philadelphia ( he has since fallen to sixth , having been passed by Chipper Jones . ) Batting .264 at the Phillies ' home parks against a .228 mark at Shea Stadium , Burrell nonetheless enjoyed playing in New York , citing the atmosphere and memorable home runs against Mets pitchers , including two in back @-@ to @-@ back games against then @-@ closer Armando Benítez .
= = Personal life = =
Burrell was previously married but has been divorced since 2009 . As of 2015 , he is a special assignment scout for the Giants , based in Scottsdale , Arizona .
Pat had an English Bulldog named Elvis who was featured in the Phillies 2008 World Series Parade . Elvis died in September , 2014 .
= PRR 4800 =
PRR 4800 , nicknamed " Old Rivets " , is a GG1 @-@ class electric locomotive located at the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania , outside of Strasburg , Pennsylvania in the United States . It is the prototype GG1 and was originally numbered 4899 . Built by General Electric in 1934 , the locomotive competed against a prototype , the R1 , built by rival company Westinghouse . 4800 was kept in service by the Pennsylvania Railroad and its successors , Penn Central and Conrail , until 1979 . It was sold the next year to a local chapter of the National Railway Historical Society . 4800 was dedicated in 1982 at the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania and was designated a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark in 1983 .
= = Construction and testing = =
In 1933 , the Pennsylvania Railroad decided to replace the P5 , and instructed General Electric and Westinghouse to design an electric locomotive that was more powerful than the P5 , capable of speeds of 100 miles per hour ( 161 km / h ) , have a lighter axle load and to be double @-@ ended with a cab in the center of the carbody . Westinghouse designed the R1 # 4800 , and General Electric submitted the GG1 , then numbered 4899 .
The frames , running gear and riveted body for the prototype GG1 were built by Baldwin Locomotive Works . The partially built locomotive was then shipped to the General Electric factory in Erie , Pennsylvania for the installation of its electrical components . Twelve traction motors , two on each of the GG1 's six powered axles , produced 4 @,@ 620 horsepower ( 3 @,@ 450 kW ) that was transmitted to the 57 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 400 mm ) driving wheels by a quill drive . Unlike other GG1s , access steps were installed at each end of the locomotive to ease maintenance of the pantographs ; the pantographs were mechanically linked to a safety plate that blocked access to the steps when the pantographs were raised . The finished locomotive was 79 feet 6 inches ( 24 @.@ 23 m ) long and 16 feet ( 5 m ) tall , with both of its pantographs lowered .
GG1 4899 was extensively tested against the R1 from August to November 1934 ; both locomotives were substituted on regular passenger service between New York City and Philadelphia . Both locomotives were found to be capable of rapid acceleration with short @-@ term power outputs of up to 10 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . The GG1 , however , did not exert as much lateral force on the rails as the R1 , because it was articulated , which allowed for a smaller turning radius than the rigid R1 . The Pennsylvania chose the GG1 over the R1 and immediately ordered another 57 locomotives . As the number scheme used by the Pennsylvania prevented the first locomotive in the class from being 4899 , the R1 and GG1 prototypes , essentially , swapped numbers . The Pennsylvania also enlisted the assistance of Raymond Loewy to refine the aesthetics of the GG1s . Loewy recommended that all subsequent models of the class should have a welded body rather than the riveted body on the prototype . This led to the nickname " Old Rivets " being given to 4800 .
= = Operation and preservation = =
On January 28 , 1935 , 4800 inaugurated electric passenger service between Washington , D.C. and Philadelphia by pulling a charter train for railroad and government officials ; 4800 set a speed record of 102 miles per hour ( 164 km / h ) outside of Landover , Maryland on the return trip . Regular passenger service began on February 10 , 1935 . 4800 remained in regular passenger service with the Pennsylvania , until it joined production GG1s 4801 – 4857 in the pool of 90 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 140 km / h ) geared freight locomotives . It had its steam generator removed in June 1960 , about a year after hauling a National Railway Historical Society @-@ charted excursion to commemorate its 25th birthday .
4800 continued to haul freight for the Pennsylvania and its successors Penn Central and Conrail . In 1976 , Conrail gave 4800 a red , white and blue paint scheme to commemorate the United States Bicentennial . It was also the only GG1 to wear Conrail blue paint ; all the other Conrail GG1s remained in black . 4800 was eventually retired by Conrail in October 1979 after the locomotive 's main transformer failed , which was deemed too expensive to repair .
4800 was sold by Conrail in 1980 to the Lancaster @-@ chapter of the National Railway Historical Society for the scrap @-@ value price of $ 30 @,@ 000 . The locomotive was given a cosmetic restoration back to its 1935 appearance by the nearby Strasburg Rail Road and volunteers . 4800 was dedicated and put on display at the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania on November 20 , 1982 . It was designated a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers ( ASME ) on April 23 , 1983 .
In 2012 , PRR 4800 was inducted into the North America Railway Hall of Fame for its contribution to the railway industry .
= Belgrave Ninnis =
Inspector @-@ General Belgrave Ninnis CVO ( 1 September 1837 – 18 June 1922 ) was a Royal Navy surgeon , surveyor , Arctic explorer , and leading Freemason , from London . He graduated as a Doctor of Medicine from the University of St Andrews in 1861 , and the same year entered the navy as an Assistant Surgeon . From 1864 to 1866 , Ninnis served as part of a surveying expedition to the Northern Territory of South Australia , helping to chart the area to the west of the Adelaide River and returning biological specimens to Adelaide for study . In 1867 Ninnis was appointed to Greenwich Hospital ( later the Royal Naval College , Greenwich ) , and in 1875 he joined the British Arctic Expedition under Captain Sir George Nares , serving as Staff @-@ Surgeon on HMS Discovery . When disease spread among the expedition 's dogs , Ninnis was charged with investigating the cause ; his findings later formed the basis of a published work . At the conclusion of the expedition in 1876 he received the Arctic Medal for his service , and was promoted to Fleet @-@ Surgeon .
In his later career Ninnis served both on ships and in hospitals . He received Sir Gilbert Blane 's Gold Medal in 1879 , was promoted to Deputy Inspector @-@ General in 1883 , was appointed Principal Medical Officer at Melville Naval Hospital in 1892 , and was selected as a Knight of Grace of the Venerable Order of Saint John in 1895 . Upon his retirement in 1897 he was promoted to Inspector @-@ General , and in 1900 and 1902 served as President of the Section of the Navy , Army , and Ambulance of the British Medical Association . He was made a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) in 1912 . Ninnis was initiated into the Freemasons 1872 , was a founder of several Lodges , and in 1901 became a Past Grand Deacon of England . He was the father of Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis , an explorer who was lost down a crevasse during the 1911 – 14 Australasian Antarctic Expedition .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Ninnis graduated from the University of St Andrews as a Doctor of Medicine on 2 January 1861 , and became a Member of the Royal College of Surgeons — MCRS ; a professional qualification — in April of the same year . On 1 August , he entered the Royal Navy Medical Service , as an Assistant Surgeon , and was appointed to HMS Pantaloon . In October 1862 Ninnis was transferred to the navy 's flagship HMS Victory , then moored in Portsmouth . He was posted aboard HMS Curacoa , assigned to the Australian Station , in 1863 .
In 1864 , he was selected to serve as naturalist on a survey expedition to the Northern Territory of South Australia , aboard HMS Beatrice . The expedition , under Boyle Travers Finniss , was charged with surveying the coast in the area of the Adelaide River , with the aim of selecting a site for a future territory capital . Together with W. P. Auld , Ninnis was the first to survey the area to the west of the river , around what is now Darwin . In his role as naturalist , Ninnis collected specimens of reptiles and birds , which he presented to the South Australian Institute ( later the South Australian Museum ) , and timber , which was donated to the Adelaide Botanic Garden . Ninnis later reported to the Adelaide Philosophical Society on geological findings ; " the coast at the Northern Territory , " he said , " was generally composed of red and grey sandstone , with small quantities of quartz . "
Writing in the South Australian Register , George William Francis , director of the Botanic Garden , said that the 32 species of timber Ninnis had collected settled " that important question , is there timber around [ the proposed capital ] or not ? " Noting that the member of the expedition originally intended to return biological specimens to Adelaide had failed to do so , Francis wrote that " we are very much indebted to this gentleman [ Ninnis ] who has thus supplied us at a time when we have failed in obtaining information through the appointed channel . " Upon the conclusion of the expedition in 1866 , Ninnis received the thanks of the Parliament of South Australia for his work . His research on the expedition later formed the basis of a published work , Remarks on the Natural History , Meteorology , and Native Population of Northern Australia .
= = = British Arctic Expedition = = =
Upon his return to Britain , Ninnis qualified in January 1867 for the title of Surgeon in the Royal Navy by passing examinations at the Royal College of Surgeons ; the following month he was appointed to the Royal Hospital in Greenwich , where he remained until 1869 . On 21 December 1874 he was promoted to Staff @-@ Surgeon Second Class . In May 1875 he was appointed to HMS Discovery , one of two ships — the other HMS Alert — which comprised the British Arctic Expedition , led by Captain Sir George Nares . The expedition aimed to be the first to reach the North Pole , pushing north through Smith Sound , between Ellesmere Island and Greenland . The two ships made slow progress up the sound , repeatedly halted by dense pack ice . During August of the first year , the expedition 's Greenland Dogs began to show signs of disease ; the dogs experienced fits and " madness " , owing , it was assumed , " to close confinement , wet decks , and want of natural exercise . " Ninnis and Fleet @-@ Surgeon Thomas Colon of the Alert were charged with investigating the disease . Ninnis ' report to Nares noted the disease 's similarity to rabies , " but there is no instance recorded in Greenland of human beings who have been bitten having suffered from hydrophobia [ a symptom of advanced rabies ] , and the recovery of the animals in some instances is entirely opposed to the recorded experience of true rabies . "
On 26 August the two ships parted ; Alert continued to push north while Discovery waited in reserve . Ninnis ' biological work then extended to horticulture . He collected wheat seeds left in the area by the Polaris expedition four years previously , and planted them — together with mustard , cress and pea seeds — between the decks of the Discovery . In May of the second year they were transplanted to the shore , under glass . According to Robert Johnston , in his 1877 summary of the expedition , " This experiment succeeded very well ; but , evidently , such an attempt at fancy gardening , under difficulties , could not be relied on to supply the wants of an entire ship 's crew . "
The expedition returned to England in October 1876 , having failed to reach the pole . The gains it had made had not been without cost ; three men had died from scurvy alone . One of these deaths had occurred on a sledging party from Alert , the remaining two on Discovery , from which there had been no major sledging . A Committee of Inquiry investigating the expedition determined a lack of fresh lime juice had triggered the outbreak . Even so , fresh meat , of which there was a plentiful supply near Discovery , could have staved off the disease . Publicly , Nares defended his surgeons , Ninnis included :
Much as the attack of scurvy which visited us is to be regretted , it proved how valuable were the services of Fleet @-@ Surgeon Thomas Colan , M.D. , and Staff @-@ Surgeon Belgrave Ninnis , M.D. , who were so ably assisted by Surgeons Edward Lawton Moss , M.D. , and Richard William Coppinger , M.D. These officers are each of great talent and high character ... Any reward that it is in the power of their lordships to bestow on these gentlemen could not be given to more careful or zealous officers .
For his work on the expedition , Ninnis was awarded the Arctic Medal , and promoted to Fleet @-@ Surgeon . He later published a report , Diseases Incidental to the Eskimo Dogs of Smith 's Sound : Diagnosis and Treatment , on his findings during the expedition .
= = = Later career = = =
Ninnis spent the remainder of his career working on ships and in hospitals . His surgical notes from at least part of this time survive ; in November 1880 , for example , while serving aboard HMS Garnet , he recorded a failed attempt to revive a drowning victim , James Farley : " Brandy injected into the rectum and strychnine at the epigastrium [ the area immediately below the heart ] , brandy and ammonia to wet his mouth . " In 1879 he was awarded Sir Gilbert Blane 's Gold Medal , an honour reserved for Royal Navy medical officers . In 1883 he received his final active promotion , to Deputy Inspector @-@ General . He was appointed Principal Medical Officer at Melville Naval Hospital , Chatham in 1892 , and three years later was selected as a Knight of Grace to the Venerable Order of Saint John . He retired on 1 September 1897 , with an honorary promotion to Inspector @-@ General .
He continued to be active after his retirement from the Navy , twice serving — in 1900 and 1902 — as President of the Section of the Navy , Army , and Ambulance of the British Medical Association . In July 1900 , serving in this capacity , he delivered an introductory address at the annual meeting of the association . In the address , while arguing that light and fresh air were important for the treatment of wounded sailors , noted that they could " only be obtained in sufficient quantity above the water @-@ line , and to place the sick quarters above the water @-@ line , amidst the hurly @-@ burly of a sea fight , traversed by projectiles and wrecked by exploding shells , is of course out of the question , even supposing that sufficient space could be spared . " Instead , he argued for dedicated hospital ships , which " during an action ... would keep out of range but sufficiently close to collect the wounded when the fight was over , and sailing under the regulations of the Geneva Convention would be free from molestation or capture . " A related article by Ninnis , " The Treatment of Wounded at Sea " , was published in the Philadelphia Medical Journal in August 1900 , and he expanded on the idea of hospital ships in a 1905 paper to the British Medical Association .
Ninnis presented another paper at the 1908 annual meeting of the association , entitled " The Position of St. John Ambulance Brigade as Regards Mobilization " , in his capacity as Chief Commissioner St. John Ambulance Brigade . On 14 June 1912 , at St James 's Palace , he was made a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) by King George V.
Ninnis died in Streatham on 18 June 1922 , aged 84 . He was a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and the Society of Antiquaries , and a member of the Army and Navy Club , the Royal Navy Medical Club , and the Folklore Society . In addition to the works previously mentioned , he was the author of a published work entitled Statistical and Nosological Report , with Remarks on the Sanitary Condition of the Welsh Colony of Chubut , South America .
= = Freemasons = =
Ninnis was initiated into the Freemasons in 1872 . In 1901 he became a Past Grand Deacon of England , having previously been a Grand Standard Bearer of England . He was a Founder of the Quadratic Lodge , Hampton Court ; the Æsculapius Lodge , London ; the Navy Lodge , London ; and the Belgrave Chapter , London . He was a Past Master ( a former Worshipful Master , the senior officer of a Masonic Lodge ) of the Quadratic Lodge ; the Æsculapius Lodge ; the Prince of Wales Lodge ; the Phoenix Lodge , Jamaica ; and the Pentangle Lodge , Kent . He was a member of the Orders of Knights Templar and the Knights of Malta . Ninnis was a Life Governor of the Royal Masonic Benevolent Institution , a Vice President of the Royal Masonic School for Boys , and a Vice Patron of the Royal Masonic School for Girls .
= = Family = =
Belgrave Ninnis was the fourth son of Paul Ninnis , originally of Cornwall . He was married to Ada Jane Sutton , with whom he had three sons and one daughter . One son , Walter Melville Ninnis , died , aged 17 months , of pneumonia , on 12 September 1886 .
Ninnis was the father of Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis , a Lieutenant in the Royal Fusiliers and Antarctic explorer . B. E. S. Ninnis accompanied the 1911 – 14 Australasian Antarctic Expedition , under Douglas Mawson , as a dog handler . Along with Mawson and Xavier Mertz , he formed the Far Eastern Party , using sledge dogs to explore the area around the expedition 's base in Adélie Land . On 14 December 1912 , B. E. S. Ninnis died when the sledge he was walking beside broke through the snow lid of a crevasse . When news of his death reached Australia in March 1913 , several Australian newspapers — including The Advertiser , the Western Argus and The Sydney Morning Herald — ran biographies of Belgrave Ninnis , noting his surveying work in the Northern Territory and Arctic exploration . When Mawson returned to Australia a year later , a telegram was sent on behalf of the Australian people to Ninnis senior , condoling him on his " great loss , but congratulating you on your son 's imperishable fame . " Ninnis replied the following day , " Grateful thanks to yourself and people of Australia for sympathetic message . "
= Millennium ( season 3 ) =
The third season of the serial crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium commenced airing in the United States on October 2 , 1998 , and concluded on May 21 , 1999 after airing twenty @-@ two episodes . It tells the story of retired FBI Agent Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) . Black had previously worked for a private investigative organization , the Millennium Group , but left after the Group unleashed a virus that resulted in the death of Black 's wife . Now working for the Federal Bureau of Investigation with agent Emma Hollis ( Klea Scott ) , Black seeks to discredit and expose the Group for their sinister motives .
The season saw the introduction of a new lead character in Hollis . Scott faced difficulty in securing the role , as Fox executives had desired a white actress for the part instead ; Scott 's agent fought for her to be given an audition , which proved successful . The season also brought in two new executive producers — Michael Duggan and Chip Johannessen , who had previously written episodes in earlier seasons .
Episodes from the third season have seen generally positive reviews from critics , as has the season as a whole . Stars Henriksen and Brittany Tiplady were nominated for several acting awards for their work on the season — a Golden Globe Award nod for Henriksen and two Young Artist Award nominations for Tiplady . In addition , series cinematographer Robert McLachlan was nominated for two American Society of Cinematographers awards during the season . Ultimately none of these nominations proved successful .
= = Production = =
When ending the second season , the producers and crew thought it would be the last ; Fox executives admitted that the decision to renew the series was " down to the wire " . However , to their surprise Millennium was renewed for a third season . Many of the cliffhanger plot threads from the season finale were written off as the hallucinations of Frank Black . When creating the third season , the writers wanted to go back to the standalone storytelling format used in the first season ; to do so they had Frank join the FBI and receive a new " skeptical " partner with whom he could work .
This led to the introduction of Klea Scott as Emma Hollis . Originally , the producers were looking for a white actress to play the part . Scott 's agent campaigned for her and guaranteed the series ' producers that if she was not considered for the role , he would never send another actor to the casting director of the show . Scott won the role , but producer Chip Johannessen recalled that " she wasn 't what the network were looking , they wanted Heather Locklear or something to come . That was kind of how that went down " . Fox backed down , and Scott got the role .
The season saw the introduction of Johannessen and Michael Duggan as executive producers ; both had previously worked as writers on earlier seasons of the series . The pair worked with series creator Chris Carter , who acknowledged that they had taken heed of past criticism of the series when writing new episodes , wanting to avoid the previous " serial @-@ killer @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " moniker the show had earned . To this end , the season ended with a seven @-@ episode story arc intended to reduce the series ' conflicts down to struggle between two men , rather than larger factions or groups — Black representing the viewer 's point of view and Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) representing the ideals of the Millennium Group , with both convinced their beliefs are the correct ones and wanting to bring the other to their side . Ultimately , the season did not attract enough viewers , and the series was cancelled by the network .
= = Cast = =
= = = Starring = = =
Lance Henriksen as Frank Black
Klea Scott as Emma Hollis
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = = Also starring = = = =
Brittany Tiplady as Jordan Black
= = = = Guest starring = = = =
Terry O 'Quinn as Peter Watts
Peter Outerbridge as Barry Baldwin
Stephen E. Miller as Andy McClaren
= = Reception = =
= = = Accolades = = =
The third season earned several awards and nominations for those associated with the series . Henriksen was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Drama , losing out to Dylan McDermott 's portrayal of Bobby Donnell in The Practice . Tiplady was nominated twice for the Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Comedy / Drama – Supporting Young Actress Age Ten or Under ; she was beaten out by Scarlett Pomers for Star Trek : Voyager in 1999 , and Mae Middleton for Any Day Now in 2000 . Cinematographer Robert McLachlan was twice nominated for the American Society of Cinematographers award for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in a Regular Series , in 1999 for " Skull and Bones " , and in 2000 for " Matryoshka " . Both times McLachlan lost the award to Bill Roe , for The X @-@ Files ' " Drive " in 1999 , and " Agua Mala " in 2000 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Writing for Slant magazine , Keith Uhlich gave the season an overall rating of four stars out of five . Uhlich described the season as " a divisive run of episodes that , for many viewers , blasphemously rewrites what came before " , but favourably compared it to the fiction works of Jorge Luis Borges . Uhlich felt that the episodes in the season were " challenging " and celebrated the abilities of the individual to forge a life for themselves . DVD Talk 's Randy Miller also awarded the season an overall four out of five stars , finding that although its concern about the then @-@ coming millennium made it very much a product of its time , it did not seem to have suffered from this and held up well in retrospect . Miller considered Henriksen 's portrayal of Frank Black to have been " masterful " ; however , he felt that the retcon of its second season finale alienated viewers and led to its dwindling popularity .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated several episodes across the season highly , awarding five stars out of five to " Borrowed Time " , " Collateral Damage " , " Darwin 's Eye " and the series finale " Goodbye to All That " . However , several episodes also fared poorly in their opinion , including " Closure " , " ... Thirteen Years Later " and " Forcing the End " , all of which the pair rated only one star out of five . Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen described the season as suffering from several problems , specifically mentioning " its lack of a center , its hamfisted morbidity , the ongoing blahtastrophe that is [ Emma Hollis ] " .
= = Episodes = =
= Cyclone Favio =
Cyclone Favio was the first known tropical cyclone that passed south of Madagascar to strike Africa as an intense tropical cyclone . Early on February 11 , 2007 , a zone of disturbed weather formed east of Madagascar . Four days later , Favio was named as intensified to a moderate tropical storm while moving southwest . On February 18 , the storm was upgraded into a severe tropical storm . Then , it turned west in the general direction of Mozambique . Continuing to intensify , Favio was upgraded to a tropical cyclone early on February 19 . Subsequently , the storm began to undergo rapid deepening ; the small storm reached intense tropical cyclone status the next day before peaking in intensity . However , the cyclone had weakened somewhat prior to making landfall on February 22 in the Inhambane Province in Mozambique . It rapidly weakened over land and dissipated the next day .
While strengthening , Favio brought heavy rains to southern Madagascar . After making landfall , Intense Tropical Cyclone Favio brought widespread damage to Vilanculos in Mozambique , where the cyclone killed four people and injured at least 70 in the town . About 80 % of the town was destroyed . Overall , a total of ten people were killed by the storm and nearly 100 others were injured , and combined with an earlier flood , the storm caused $ 71 million ( 2007 US $ ] ] ) in damage . Around 130 @,@ 000 homes suffered damage and 130 schools were leveled by the tropical cyclone . Across the nation , a total of 33 @,@ 000 people were left homeless during the system . Cyclone Favio destroyed 277 @,@ 000 ha ( 684 @,@ 480 acres ) of crops . In Zimbabwe , 400 electricity poles were downed . During the aftermath of the storm , a number of agencies provided assistance to victims of Cyclone Favio in Mozambique . One agency donated $ 626 @,@ 500 , helping transport 50 @,@ 000 mosquito nets to the devastated area . A total of 5 @,@ 500 bars of soap , 1 @,@ 600 buckets , 50 baths , and over 180 latrines were distributed to the victims of the devastated area . In all , the government was praised for how well they handled the disaster .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Favio originated from a zone of disturbed weather that was first classified by the Météo @-@ France office on Réunion ( MFR ) at 1200 UTC February 11 , 2007 . Twelve hours later , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued their first advisory on the system . Midday on February 12 , MFR upgraded the system into a tropical disturbance and noted that its rating at that time on the Dvorak technique was 2 @.@ 0 .
According to the JTWC , an area of convection developed 340 mi ( 545 km ) south @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia . Initially , however , the convection was not very concentrated near the center . However , sea surface temperatures in the area were somewhat warm so gradual intensification was predicted and the storm was projected to become a severe tropical storm within 48 hours . Situated in an environment of low wind shear and good outflow , thunderstorm activity soon increased and thus started to consolidate around the storm 's atmospheric circulation . Continuing to encounter more favorable conditions , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) on February 14 . Meanwhile , MFR upgraded the system into a tropical depression . Eighteen hours later , the system was named Favio by the Meteorological Services of Mauritius as the system ; according to MFR , had intensified into a moderate tropical storm .
Moving very steadily southwest , the storm gradually intensified . Early on February 15 , the JTWC announced that that system had intensified into a tropical storm . After intensifying slightly ( based on JTWC data ) that evening , the storm briefly weakened overnight , only to re @-@ intensify the next morning . On February 16 , Favio turned southwest in response to a large subtropical ridge . Despite low wind shear , Favio remained a moderate tropical storm for several days ; however , on February 18 , MFR announced that Favio had intensified into a severe tropical storm . Subsequently , the storm turned west as the ridge merged with another one centered over South Africa . Two days later , the agency then upgraded the system into cyclone status . At 0000 UTC that day , on February 19 , the JTWC upgraded the system into a Category 1 hurricane @-@ equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) though not much additional intensification was predicted .
Upon becoming a hurricane , thunderstorm activity began to develop around an eye . Favio turned west @-@ northwest , traversing the Mozambique Channel while beginning to deepen . At 0000 UTC February 20 , the JTWC declared that Favio had intensified into a Category 2 hurricane @-@ equivalent on the SSHWS . Several hours later , Favio was then upgraded into an intense tropical cyclone by MFR as the system developed a very small eye . Simultaneously , Cyclone Favio was upgraded into a Category 3 hurricane on the SSHWS via the JTWC . During the afternoon hours of February 20 , the JTWC reported that Favio had developed winds equivalent to Category 4 intensity . That evening , MFR noted that Cyclone Favio had peaked in intensity , with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , becoming the most intense tropical cyclone south of the 25th parallel over the Mozambique Channel since the satellite era began . Six hours later , the JTWC announced that Favio had peaked in intensity , with 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) winds . This made Favio equal to a mid @-@ level Category 4 hurricane . At the time of its peak , Favio had developed a well @-@ defined eye .
Shortly after its peak , Cyclone Favio began to weaken ; the core of the storm started to become disrupted on the northwestern quadrant . The JTWC expected Favio to continue to weaken , and dissipate within 48 hours over land . The eye disappeared off of satellite imagery , though by early February 22 , this feature had re @-@ developed . That afternoon , the storm was estimated to have made landfall in southern Mozambique . At that time , the JTWC reported winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , a Category 1 system on the SSHWS . On the other hand , MFR estimated winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) ( an intense tropical cyclone ) . Upon making landfall , it did so on the seventh anniversary of the last intense tropical cyclone , Eline , to strike Mozambique . Favio was also the first tropical cyclone to hit the country since Cyclone Japhet did during the 2002 – 03 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season . By early February 23 , winds had dropped below hurricane @-@ force according to the JTWC , while the storm dissipated later that day . Around that time , MFR stopped monitoring the system as well .
= = Preparations = =
Prior to the arrival of Favio , flooding swept over Mozambique weeks earlier , forcing 163 @,@ 000 persons to seek shelter . The floods started in late December 2006 when the Cahora Bassa Dam overflowed its banks . The floods escalated in February 2007 when the Zambezi River broke its banks , flooding the surrounding areas in Mozambique . A total of 80 @,@ 600 people were evacuated from their homes in the Tete , Manica , Sofala and Zambezia provinces on February 14 . Twenty @-@ nine people were confirmed dead due to the pre @-@ Favio flood .
While at peak intensity , the storm threatened Mozambique and forcing authorities to put the country on high alert . The British Foreign Office also issued a travel warning to Britons who were planning visits along the Bazaruto Archipelago . Additionally , the South African disaster management team was on full alert in the eastern portion of Mpumalanga . In addition , thousands of volunteers were placed on stand by .
Some residents of Vilankulo attempted to flee the area carrying belongings and children as the government urged residents to seek shelter on higher ground further inland before the storm hit . They evacuated many of the people who remained , taking them to tent camps . Officials said that Favio could also bring heavy rains to Zambia , Malawi and Zimbabwe . Authorities in the latter issued a flood warning . Because of the topography of the region , meteorologists noted the potential for flooding in Zimabawe .
= = Impact = =
= = = Madagascar = = =
While intensifying , Cyclone Favio brushed the southern tip of Madagascar while bringing heavy rains to the nation . Along the southeastern portion of the nation , road access was reduced . Favio disrupted relief operations to 582 @,@ 000 people , who were struggling to cope with a drought in the southern portion of the nation . Moreover , the cyclone disrupted relief efforts during an aftermath of flood that killed three persons and displaced 33 @,@ 000 people throughout the country . Overall , the cyclone was one of several storms to affect the nation during the season .
= = = Mozambique = = =
About 130 @,@ 000 homes suffered damage and 130 schools were leveled by the intense tropical cyclone in Mozambique . In all , a total of ten people were killed by the storm and nearly 100 others were injured . Combined with an earlier flood , Favio caused $ 71 million ( 2007 USD ) in infrastructural damage . About 64 @,@ 000 people moved to tents during the storm , and 33 @,@ 000 people were displaced during the storm . Cyclone Favio destroyed 277 @,@ 000 ha ( 684 @,@ 480 acres ) of crops , primarily in Vilanculos , Inhassoro , Govuro , and Masinga districts in Inhambane Province . Overall , 160 @,@ 000 people were affected by the storm .
Favio damaged the court in the resort town of Vilanculos in Southern Mozambique . Uprooted trees caused by the cyclone also blocked roads , cutting off access for rescuers to some homes . Power was also cut off to the city . The cyclone killed four people and injured at least 70 in the town , and thousands of homes were destroyed along with the hospital , where a total of 120 patients were evacuated . Additionally , 600 prisoners escaped when the local jail was demolished . About 80 % of the town was destroyed . A total of 73 @,@ 000 people were affected by the cyclone in Vilanculos .
Elsewhere , the storm damaged trees and blew off rooftops in Pontagea , a highly populated suburb in the port city of Beira . Cyclone Favio was responsible for widespread damage in Tofo Beach , where the storm uprooted palm trees and destroyed electric services . Elsewhere , an airplane was crushed in an airport .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In Zimbabwe , the Bvumba Mountains received heavy winds and rain . Throughout the country , damage was minimal and was mostly due to the uprooting of trees and not nearly as bad as Cyclone Leon – Eline , which devastated the nation seven years prior . However , electricity supplies were severely damaged . In one location , 400 wooden electricity poles were knocked down . Alongside moist air from the Intertropical Convergence Zone , Favio produced significant rains across much of Malawi , peaking at 121 @.@ 7 mm ( 5 in ) in Mimosa . Furthermore , the remnants of the low struck southern Tanzania . Cyclone Favio also destroyed 56 houses in Hai .
= = Aftermath = =
During the aftermath of the storm , South Africa offered helicopters to Mozambique to deliver food to shelters and to help Mozambican officials assess the situation aerially . The disaster management minister of South Africa flew in to Mozambique to survey the damage . Due to the concern for potential disease epidemics including those of malaria and cholera , health officials raised public awareness through theaters and radio . A joint coalition of the United States Agency for International Development and the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance provided $ 626 @,@ 500 , enabling transportation of 50 @,@ 000 mosquito nets to the devastated area . Oxfam International distributed 18 @,@ 000 L ( 4 @,@ 800 US gal ) of clean water per day for 15 @,@ 000 displaced people in the Caia and Marromeu districts and housed 8 @,@ 000 residents in Chupanga , where they also distributed 5 @,@ 500 bars of soap , more than 3 @,@ 000 mosquito nets , and 1 @,@ 600 buckets . The agency also built 50 baths and over 180 latrines . In Calia , Oxfam also distributed 1 @,@ 400 nets . Marromeu was also supplied 900 mosquito nets via Calia . The agency also agreed to provide drinking water to the victims of Favio for four months .
The nation 's president flew in to the destructed area , lifting survivors ' spirits . Within 48 hours following Intense Tropical Cyclone Favio , roofs were being repaired , and power lines were gradually being restored . Hundreds of local red cross staff and volunteers were utilized ; they worked around the clock to assist survivors . Thirty @-@ one recovery centers opened , hosting 400 first aid volunteers . According to a South African website , the government was praised for how well and quickly they handled the crisis . Key food items ( rice , beans , corn meal , cooking oil , soap , and sugar ) were distributed to the affected areas . On March 5 , a plan was launched to provide victims for a total of $ 71 million worth of aid , of which $ 773 @,@ 000 was expected to be directed towards the health . Meanwhile , water levels began to recede throughout the affected region . Moreover , a total of 28 @,@ 000 lb ( 12 @,@ 700 kg ) of aid were distributed through the central part of the nation , and provided clean water for 6 @,@ 000 people . About 200 tents were provided for victims whose roofs of their homes were blown off . Furthermore , concerns rose about the potential outbreak of diseases like HIV . Within three months after the cyclone , 85 % of homes had used the aid they were given .
= Scott Laird =
Scott Benjamin Laird ( born 15 May 1988 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Scunthorpe United as a defender .
Laird began his football career as a trainee at Plymouth Argyle , progressing through the club 's centre of excellence . He spent a total of eight years on the club 's books , but only managed to make one first – team appearance for the club . In 2006 , he was loaned out to Tiverton Town , playing a total of 20 games for the club , scoring four times . He was later loaned to Torquay United in September 2007 , making two appearances for the side . Another loan spell followed , this time to Stevenage in late 2007 . Laird impressed under manager Peter Taylor and signed on a permanent basis at the start of February 2008 for an undisclosed fee .
He has been a first – team regular since his move , and was the club 's Player of the Year for the 2009 – 10 season , a season in which the Hertfordshire side won promotion to the Football League for the first time in their history . His success as a Stevenage player continued the following season , as he played an integral role in the club 's 2010 – 11 campaign , helping Stevenage earn promotion to League One . He left Stevenage when his contract expired in 2012 , and joined Preston North End . Laird has also represented Scotland at youth level , captaining the Scotland U16 team . However , Laird was called up for the England C side in April 2009 , starting in a game against the Belgium U21 team .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Laird began his football career as a trainee at Plymouth Argyle 's centre of excellence . He made the hour journey to Plymouth from his Bridgwater home to train with the club every Tuesday and Thursday . Laird attracted interest from Scottish side Rangers in 2003 , with the SPL club enquiring about the player after his performances for Scotland in the Victory Shield . No move materialised , and he continued to progress through the youth system at Home Park , and was offered a professional contract at the age of 17 by manager Tony Pulis in February 2006 . During his time as an apprentice , Laird lived in a hotel " just for apprentices " with Luke Summerfield , Reuben Reid , and Chris Zebroski , and described the experience as a " great way to grow into football " .
The following season , Laird joined Tiverton Town of the Southern Football League on an initial one @-@ month loan in September 2006 . He made his debut for the club in Tiverton 's 2 – 1 victory against Wealdstone , and played in the following game against Cheshunt . The loan was extended for a further five months , and Laird scored his first goal for the club in a 4 – 1 defeat at Hemel Hempstead Town on 5 April 2007 . Two days later , he scored twice in Tiverton 's 3 – 1 home win against Cirencester Town , netting both of his goals in the space of four minutes to give Tiverton a two @-@ goal lead . A week later , he scored again , netting the opening goal of the game as Tiverton lost 4 – 1 to King 's Lynn . Laird played a total of 21 games for the club , 17 in the league , scoring four times from a central midfield role . Laird returned to Plymouth ahead of the 2007 – 08 season , and was subsequently handed his Plymouth debut in a 2 – 1 victory over Wycombe Wanderers in the League Cup , playing the whole match and assisting Plymouth 's second goal . However , he did not appear in the first – team for Plymouth again and was loaned out to nearby Conference National side Torquay United a month later . Laird made his Torquay debut in a 5 – 2 victory against Kidderminster Harriers at Aggborough , and also featured in a 3 – 2 victory over Weymouth . Although his loan at Torquay was extended in November , he did not make any more first – team appearances for the club , and so played just twice for Torquay United during his two @-@ month loan spell .
= = = Stevenage = = =
A month after returning to his parent club , Laird was loaned out to another Conference National team in the form of Stevenage on 31 December 2007 . He made his Stevenage debut a day later in a 2 – 1 win over Rushden & Diamonds . Laird impressed under manager Peter Taylor and signed on a permanent basis at the start of February , for an undisclosed fee . He featured regularly at left – back during the second half of the 2007 – 08 season , and scored his first goal for Stevenage in a 4 – 1 victory away at Histon – a 35 @-@ yard strike into the top right hand corner of the net . The following season , under the new management of Graham Westley , Laird featured regularly again , playing 51 games in total for the Hertfordshire side , scoring three times in total . Laird scored his first goal of the 2008 – 09 season in Stevenage 's first win of the season ; a 3 – 1 victory away to Barrow in August 2008 . His second goal of the campaign came in an FA Cup tie against Horsham , while his third goal of the season came in Stevenage 's last regular Conference National fixture of the season in a 2 – 1 defeat away to Mansfield Town . Laird was also a key part in the side 's successful FA Trophy campaign , featuring in six matches . However , he missed the final at Wembley Stadium as a result of being sent – off in the defeat to Cambridge United in the Conference National play @-@ off semi @-@ final . In his absence , Stevenage beat York City 2 – 0 in the FA Trophy final .
Laird continue to impress at full @-@ back for Stevenage in the first half of the 2009 – 10 season . He scored his first goal of the season in a 2 – 0 victory over Histon at Bridge Road in August 2009 ; the ground he coincidentally scored his first ever Stevenage goal in 2008 . In September 2009 , Laird scored a highly significant goal when his 85th @-@ minute strike ensured Stevenage beat local rivals Luton Town 1 – 0 at Kenilworth Road in the first ever league meeting between the two clubs . He scored a similar looking goal in a 4 – 0 win over Barrow , before also scoring the winning goal in a victory over Oxford United ; stroking home a second half penalty to score the only goal of the game . Laird 's fifth goal of the season followed shortly after , when he converted another penalty in a 2 – 0 win against Forest Green Rovers . He scored another goal from the penalty spot ten days later in a 1 – 0 win over Gateshead . Laird made 53 appearances during Stevenage 's promotion @-@ winning campaign , more than any other player for the club during the season , scoring a total of six goals . He was also voted as Stevenage 's Player of the Year at the end of the season , as voted for by Supporters Association members and season ticket holders at the club . Laird signed a new two – year contract with the Hertfordshire club in May 2010 . He was voted as the 2009 – 10 Young Player of the Year at the National Game Awards . At the Football Conference 's Annual Presentation Dinner , Laird was also named in the Team of the Year , alongside fellow Stevenage defenders Ronnie Henry and Mark Roberts .
Ahead of the 2010 – 11 season , Laird scored in Stevenage 's pre @-@ season friendly victory over Histon . He started in the club 's first ever Football League fixture , a 2 – 2 home draw with Macclesfield Town . In September 2010 , in games against Cheltenham Town and Torquay United respectively , Laird was used as a left midfielder , as opposed to playing in his usual left @-@ back position . He reverted to the left @-@ back spot in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 win over Lincoln City at Sincil Bank . He scored his first goal of the 2010 – 11 season from the penalty spot , in a 2 – 1 win over Burton Albion in October 2010 . A week later , he missed the chance to double his goal tally for the season , missing a second @-@ half penalty in a 0 – 0 draw against Morecambe . Coincidentally , Laird 's second goal of the season came in the reverse fixture against Morecambe in January 2011 ; he scored from close range following John Mousinho 's cross to give Stevenage the lead . Just three days later , Laird scored his third goal of the season , netting with a curling effort from 25 yards out to give Stevenage their third goal of a 3 – 0 win against Rotherham United . Laird was initially credited with scoring an 87th @-@ minute winner in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 away win at Crewe Alexandra on 19 February 2011 , but the goal was eventually given to team @-@ mate Byron Harrison . At the age of 22 , Laird captained Stevenage for the first time in their 1 – 0 loss to Hereford United on 8 March 2011 . In the club 's following match , against Wycombe Wanderers at Adams Park , Laird was sent @-@ off for two bookable offences , although Stevenage held on to win the match 1 – 0 . Laird 's fourth goal of the campaign came in Stevenage 's 3 – 3 draw against Bury on 7 May 2011 , as he opened the scoring with a strike from 25 yards out . He played a total of 54 games during the 2010 – 11 season , scoring four goals . This included three appearances in the 2010 – 11 League Two play @-@ offs following Stevenage 's sixth @-@ placed finish . Following a 3 – 0 aggregate victory over Accrington Stanley , Stevenage earned promotion to League One after a 1 – 0 win against Torquay United at Old Trafford on 28 May 2011 , with Laird playing the whole game .
Laird played in Stevenage 's first ever League One fixture on 6 August 2011 , playing the whole match in a 0 – 0 home draw against Exeter City . He was a crucial player in the club 's first win of the season , assisting Chris Beardsley in the 91st minute as Stevenage beat Bournemouth 3 – 1 at Dean Court . Laird 's first goal of the campaign came four days later , on 20 August , scoring with a header from Robin Shroot 's corner to ensure Stevenage came from two goals down to draw against Hartlepool United . He also scored against Huddersfield Town on 8 October , scoring with a first time finish to briefly restore parity in an eventual 2 – 1 loss . Laird 's impressive start to the 2011 – 12 season resulted in a " number of Championship clubs " tracking the player . Laird scored the winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory against Sheffield United on 5 November , converting from the penalty spot with eight minutes remaining . A week later , on 12 November , he scored the only goal of the game as Stevenage defeated Hartlepool United 1 – 0 in the FA Cup . Laird 's fifth goal of the campaign came on 26 December , scoring Stevenage 's fourth goal in a 6 – 1 away victory at Colchester United , calmly scoring from close range following a well @-@ worked free @-@ kick . He was on the scoresheet once again in Stevenage 's 4 – 2 home win against Milton Keynes Dons in January 2012 , heading in Luke Freeman 's cross to ensure Stevenage overcame an early deficit to take the lead . The left @-@ back scored his seventh goal of the campaign in manager Gary Smith 's first league game in @-@ charge , a 1 – 0 away victory at Sheffield Wednesday . He scored further goals in draws against Chesterfield and Sheffield United respectively , taking his goal tally to nine for the season . Laird finished as the club 's second highest goalscorer for the campaign , as Stevenage missed out on a third successive promotion following a play @-@ off semi @-@ final defeat . At the end of the season , it was announced that Laird had rejected an improved contract offer and would be leaving the club on a free transfer when his contract expired . Laird made 230 appearances during his four years with the club , scoring 23 goals .
= = = Preston North End = = =
In May 2012 , Laird signed for League One side Preston North End on a free transfer . The move reunited him with manager Graham Westley , who had previously managed Laird at Stevenage . He made his Preston debut in the club 's first game of the 2012 – 13 season , playing the whole match in 2 – 0 home win over Huddersfield Town in the League Cup . Laird scored his first goals for the club in a 5 – 0 win against Hartlepool United at Deepdale in September 2012 , netting twice within the space of three second @-@ half minutes . His third goal of the season came in a 3 – 1 away victory at Doncaster Rovers on 2 October 2012 , heading in Joel Byrom 's cross to restore Preston 's lead in the match . He added to his goal tally a month later , " acrobatically volleying in Chris Robertson 's knockdown " in a 1 – 1 home draw with Brentford . In the club 's next match , a home game against Notts County on 20 November 2012 , Laird suffered a broken leg following a challenge from Jamal Campbell @-@ Ryce . It was later revealed that Laird had broken his left tibia and would miss the remainder of the season . During his recovery , Laird stated that Campbell @-@ Ryce rang him on a weekly basis — " I knew him previously and he 's rung me every week to make sure I 'm alright . I 'm not one to hold grudges anyway and he 's been fine . I accept his apology " . Laird scored four times in 24 games during his first season with the club .
On 17 December 2013 , Laird extended his contract with Preston for a further twelve months , thus keeping him at the club until the summer of 2015 .
= = International career = =
Despite being born in England , Laird represented Scotland at youth level , captaining the Scotland U16 team all the way up to U20 's level . He played in all three of Scotland 's games in the Victory Shield in 2003 , scoring twice , with Scotland finishing as joint winners of the tournament alongside England .
Laird was called up by Paul Fairclough for the England C side in April 2009 , and subsequently started in England 's 1 – 0 defeat to Belgium U21 the following month .
= = Personal life = =
Laird was born in Taunton , Somerset , and grew up in Bridgwater . He supported Rangers as a boy , and states that Brian Laudrup was a player he always aspired to play like . Laird also supports Ipswich Town . He says that Guti is the best player he has ever played against . Laird 's grandmother gives him a one pound coin every time he scores a goal , something that she has done ever since he started playing football .
Laird 's father , Craig , was appointed as manager of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in May 2010 , having previously managed Southern League Division One South and West outfit Bridgwater Town .
Laird has three brothers , Craig , Jamie and Callum . Craig Laird is currently playing soccer at the University of Tampa in the United States and has also represented England at schoolboy level . [ 1 ] Jamie Laird was last at Hereford .
= = Honours = =
Stevenage
FA Trophy ( 1 ) : 2008 – 09
Conference National ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
League Two play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
Preston
League One play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2014 – 15
Individual
Stevenage Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
Conference National Team of the Year ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
= = Career statistics = =
As of 20 November 2012 .
= Virgil Brennan =
Virgil Paul Brennan , DFC , DFM ( 6 March 1920 – 13 June 1943 ) was an Australian aviator and flying ace of the Second World War . Enlisting in the Royal Australian Air Force in November 1940 , he briefly served in the European Theatre before transferring to Malta . Over the next five months , Brennan was officially credited with the destruction of 10 Axis aircraft from a total of twenty @-@ four operational sorties . Reposted to England , he was assigned as a flying instructor and collaborated in the writing of Spitfires over Malta , a book about his experiences on the island . Returning to Australia during 1943 , Brennan was killed in a flying accident at Garbutt , Queensland , in June that year .
= = Early life = =
Brennan was born in Warwick , Queensland , on 6 March 1920 to Edgar James Brennan , a solicitor , and his wife Katherine ( née O 'Sullivan ) . He was educated at the Christian Brothers ' School in Warwick , before moving on to Downlands College at Toowoomba and later Brisbane State High School . After leaving school , Brennan studied part @-@ time at the University of Queensland , while simultaneously being employed as a law clerk in Brisbane .
= = Second World War = =
On 8 November 1940 , Brennan enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force for service during the Second World War . Accepted for pilot training , he received his initial flight instruction in Australia . He later embarked for Canada , where he completed his flight training before being posted to the United Kingdom in August 1941 , where he was appointed to an Operational Training Unit . On graduating from this course , he was allotted to No. 64 Squadron RAF . During this time , he was advanced to temporary flight sergeant on 4 January 1942 , prior to receiving a posting to the Mediterranean Theatre the following month .
= = = Malta = = =
On arrival in the Mediterranean , Brennan was posted to No. 249 Squadron RAF . On 7 March 1942 , Brennan was one of fifteen pilots sent to the island of Malta . Flying Supermarine Spitfires , the party took off from the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle ; they were to spend the next few months in the defence of the island . As the Axis forces commenced a major aerial assault on Malta later that month , the Allied fighter pilots on the island were forced to " contend with fatigue and inadequate rations while battling the enemy 's superior forces " . On 17 March , Brennan claimed his first aerial victory when he shot down a Messerschmitt 109 .
On 20 April 1942 , Brennan added a further two aircraft to his tally when he destroyed a Messerschmitt 109 , before bringing down a Junkers 88 later that day . Praised as " a most determined and courageous pilot " , Brennan was subsequently recommended for the Distinguished Flying Medal . The announcement and accompanying citation for the award was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 22 May 1942 , reading :
Air Ministry , 22nd May , 1942 .
ROYAL AIR FORCE .
The KING has been graciously pleased to approve the following awards in recognition of gallantry displayed in flying operations against the enemy : —
Distinguished Flying Medal .
Aus . 404692 Sergeant Virgil Paul BRENNAN , Royal Australian Air Force , No. 249 Squadron .
This airman is a most determined and courageous pilot . An exceptional shot , he always presses home his attacks with vigour . In 2 combats , he has destroyed at least 4 enemy aircraft and damaged others .
Brennan scored further aerial victories on 10 May . The following day , German Luftwaffe General Albert Kesselring ordered a contingent of 20 Stukas and 10 Junkers Ju 88s with a small escort of fighter aircraft to bomb Grand Harbour , Malta . A formation of 50 Royal Air Force aircraft — 37 Spitfires and 13 Hawker Hurricanes — were dispatched to intercept the group ; Brennan was piloting one of the Spitfires . Attacking one of the Stukas , Brennan later recorded that the aircraft " disintegrated , with huge chunks flying off in every direction " . During the battle , a total of 14 German aircraft were shot down , for the loss of 2 Spitfires . In an engagement the next day , Brennan was wounded in his left arm . He was commissioned as a pilot officer later that month .
By the conclusion of his combat tour in July 1942 , Brennan had flown a total of twenty @-@ two operational sorties and was credited with destroying 10 Axis aircraft over Malta , with one probably destroyed and a further 6 damaged . For his efforts in the destruction of Axis aircraft during this period , Brennan was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . The notification of the decoration was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 6 October 1942 .
= = = Later war service and death = = =
Embarking from Malta during July 1942 , Brennan returned to the United Kingdom and was posted to No. 52 Operational Training Unit as an instructor with the rank of acting flight lieutenant . During this period , Brennan and fellow No. 249 Squadron pilot , Pilot Officer Ray Hesselyn , collaborated with journalist Henry Bateson on writing Spitfires over Malta , a novel relating the experiences of Brennan and Hesselyn during their time on Malta . On 17 April 1943 , Brennan was repatriated from the United Kingdom and returned to Australia .
Arriving back in Australia , Brennan was posted to the newly raised No. 79 Squadron , based at Laverton , Victoria , on 1 May 1943 . Later that month , the squadron was ordered to deploy to Goodenough Island , near New Guinea . During this time , Brennan related his previous combat experiences to fellow pilots , however his commanding officer , Squadron Leader Alan Rawlinson , noted that Brennan appeared " strained and tired " . An advance party of the squadron was moved up to Goodenough Island that month , while the pilots followed during June .
On 13 June 1943 , the pilots of No. 79 Squadron continued on their journey north , arriving at Garbutt airfield in Queensland . At approximately 14 : 00 , Brennan landed his Spitfire in the wake turbulence of the aircraft ahead of himself and touched down on the left side of the runway . Brennan was informed that he was cutting in on the path of the Spitfire following him , which was to land on the right side of the runway . Brennan landed his aircraft short , and at the conclusion of his landing run turned across the path of the second Spitfire . In the ensuing collision , Brennan sustained severe injuries and was rushed to hospital ; he died before arrival . Described as one with " an easy @-@ going nature , an engaging sense of humour and ... loyal to his friends " , Brennan was buried in Townsville War Cemetery .
= M @-@ 130 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 130 was the designation of a former state trunkline highway in the southeastern corner of the US state of Michigan . It ran from a junction with US Highway 23 / M @-@ 50 ( US 23 / M @-@ 50 ) northward across the River Raisin and then turned southeasterly along North Custer Road on the north side of the river to Monroe . The highway designation was commissioned in 1929 and used until 1955 . M @-@ 130 had a spur route that was created in 1938 and lasted until the main highway was removed from the state highway system . Both highways are now under local control .
= = Route description = =
Beginning at a junction with US 23 / M @-@ 50 between Ida and Maybee , M @-@ 130 traveled northeasterly along Ida – Maybee Road across the Raisin River before turning southeast on North Custer Road . M @-@ 130 ran along the northern banks of the river passing through primarily agricultural areas . The rural surroundings dominated much of the route until it began to encroach on the outskirts of Monroe . The highway terminated at US 24 in Monroe .
= = History = =
M @-@ 130 was commissioned in 1929 . At the time , US 23 followed Ida – Maybee Road , and M @-@ 130 followed North Custer Road from there to an intersection with US 24 / US 25 ( Telegraph Road ) in Monroe . Later the next year , M @-@ 130 was extended southward from its western terminus when US 23 was rerouted to follow M @-@ 50 . The highway was returned to local control in late 1955 or early 1956 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Monroe County .
= = Spur route = =
Spur M @-@ 130 was a spur route of M @-@ 130 which ran about 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) along North Custer Road between Ida – Maybee and Muehleisen roads . Like the mainline M @-@ 130 , the spur ran parallel to the River Raisin on the north banks of the river across from M @-@ 50 . It was implemented in the middle of 1938 , and returned to local control at the same time the main highway in late 1955 or early 1956 .
= Hygrophoropsis =
Hygrophoropsis is a genus of gilled fungi in the family Hygrophoropsidaceae . It was circumscribed in 1888 to contain the type species , H. aurantiaca , a widespread fungus that , based on its appearance , has been affiliated with Cantharellus , Clitocybe , and Paxillus . Modern molecular phylogenetic analysis shows that the genus belongs to the suborder Coniophorineae of the order Boletales .
There are 16 accepted species of Hygrophoropsis , found in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . Hygrophoropsis is a saprophytic genus that causes brown rot in the wood it colonises . The fruit bodies grow on the ground in woodlands , on moss , peat , and on woodchips . They are convex to infundibuliform ( funnel @-@ shaped ) and have decurrent , forked brightly colored gills . The spores are dextrinoid , meaning that they stain reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent . Because H. aurantiaca has orange gills , it has been mistaken for a chanterelle , and hence it has been called a false chanterelle .
= = Taxonomy = =
Hygrophoropsis was originally circumscribed in 1888 by German mycologist Joseph Schröter as a subgenus of Cantharellus . It contained a single species , the widespread H. aurantiaca , commonly known as the false chanterelle . German naturalist Bernhard Studer @-@ Steinhäuslin concluded in 1900 that the fungus was more appropriately placed in the genus Clitocybe , based on its white spores , decurrent gills , and lack of a ring on the stipe . This classification was adopted in the early writings of influential mycologist Rolf Singer , who in 1943 proposed that Hygrophoropsis should be a subgenus of Clitocybe .
French naturalist Emile Martin @-@ Sans elevated Hygrophoropsis to the status of genus in his 1929 publication L 'Empoisonnement par les champignons et particulièrement les intoxications dues aux Agaricacées du groupe des Clitocybe et du groupe des Cortinarius , while attributing authorship to his countryman René Maire . According to Martin @-@ Sans , he concurred with Maire 's assessment of Hygrophoropsis , suggesting that it represented a form intermediate between Cantharellus and Clitocybe , and was thus worthy of generic rank . The name Hygrophoropsis refers to a likeness ( Greek : ὄψις , opsis ) to the genus Hygrophorus .
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca has been confused with the true chanterelles ( genus Cantharellus ) because of overall similarities in appearance . A combination of characters — including forked gills , frequently off @-@ centre stipe placement , and dextrinoid spores — suggested to others a relationship with Paxillus . These characteristics prompted Singer to classify the genus Hygrophoropsis in the Paxillaceae in 1946 , although others placed it in the Tricholomataceae , a family that has been described as a wastebasket taxon . Singer initially included only two species , both with dextrinoid spores — H. aurantiaca and H. tapinia . He justified the placement of Hygrophoropsis in the Paxillaceae largely on fruit body morphology and spore size : " The discovery of a second species , H. tapinia , with smaller spores and an external appearance frankly suggesting Paxillus curtisii but never met with in Clitocybe , makes the affinity between Hygrophoropsis and Paxillus an established fact . " In 1975 , he added H. olida , a species with inamyloid but cyanophilous spores , whose characteristics otherwise aligned with the type species .
Hygrophoropsis is now the type genus of the family Hygrophoropsidaceae , circumscribed by Robert Kühner in 1980 to contain it and the genus Omphalotus . Singer considered this family to be " transient between Tricholomatales and Boletales " . Molecular phylogenetic analysis confirmed its affinity lay in the order Boletales in 1997 , though later research showed that it is not closely related to Paxillus or other gilled boletes . Instead , it is most closely related to the genus Leucogyrophana . Hygrophoropsis and Leucogyrophana are sister to Coniophora , near the base of the cladogram representing the Boletales .
The presence of several pigments in the type species , including variegatic acid , variegatorubin , and several other derivatives of pulvinic acid , suggests a chemotaxic relationship with the Boletaceae , Coniophoraceae , and Paxillaceae — families of Boletales with members that have similar compounds .
= = Description = =
Hygrophoropsis species have fruit bodies with concave caps that often have wavy margins and rolled @-@ in edges . The texture of the cap surface ranges from somewhat tomentose to velvety . Typical fruit body colors are orange , brownish @-@ yellow ( fulvous ) or paler , buff , and cream . The gills have a decurrent attachment to the stipe . They are narrow with blunt edges , often multiply forked , and readily detachable from the stipe . The flesh is soft and generally the same colour as the fruit body surface , or lighter . The taste and odour of the flesh is usually nondescript , or similar to cultivated mushrooms . In contrast , H. rufa can have a distinct ozone @-@ like smell , reportedly reminiscent of the orchid Oncidium ornithorhynchum or a photocopier .
The spore print colour ranges from whitish to cream . Microscopically , Hygrophoropsis lacks cystidia and has spores that are dextrinoid , meaning that they stain reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae . With respect to overall appearance , Hygrophoropsis species closely resemble those in genus Cantharellula ; the latter genus , however , has amyloid rather than dextrinoid spores .
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
Collectively , Hygrophoropsis is a widespread genus , found in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres . Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca is the most widely distributed species , found on several continents . The other species are not well @-@ known and have more limited ranges . Fruit bodies grow on the ground in woodlands , on moss , and peat , and on woodchips . Hygrophoropsis is a saprophytic genus , and causes brown rot in the wood it colonises . Some species may be facultatively mycorrhizal .
Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca secretes large amounts of oxalic acid — a reducing agent and relatively strong acid — into the soil around its woody substrate . This chemical stimulates weathering of the humus layer of forest soil , as the organic matter in soil breaks down into smaller molecules . This influences the solubility and turnover of nutrients ( particularly phosphorus and nitrogen ) , which in turn affects their availability for use by forest trees .
= = Species = =
A 2008 estimate in the Dictionary of the Fungi placed five species in the genus . As of November 2015 , Index Fungorum accepts 16 species in Hygrophoropsis :
Hygrophorus pallidus , recorded by Charles Horton Peck in 1902 , is considered by mycologist Thomas Kuyper to be not validly published and " better regarded as a nomen confusum " , a taxonomic opinion corroborated by Geoffrey Kibby . Now considered the type species for the genus Aphroditeola , A. olida was formerly classified in Hygrophoropsis , but it lacks dextrinoid basidiospores , and phylogenetically it is classified in the Agaricales . Other species formerly placed in Hygrophoropsis but since transferred to other genera include : H. stevensonii ( Berk . & Broome ) Corner 1966 ( now Gerronema stevensonii ) ; H. albida ( Fr . ) Maire 1933 ( now Gerronema albidum ) ; H. umbonata ( J.F.Gmel. ) Kühner & Romagn . 1953 ( now Cantharellula umbonata ) ; and H. umbriceps ( Cooke ) McNabb 1969 ( now Cantharellus umbriceps ) .
= Air Norway =
Air Norway AS is a virtual , regional airline with its head office in the town of Brekstad , the administrative centre of the municipality of Ørland , in Sør @-@ Trøndelag county , Norway . It operates seven round trips a week from its hub at Ørland Airport to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , and a single , weekly round trip from Oslo to Aalborg Airport , Denmark , using a wet leased Fairchild Metro aircraft from North Flying . The airline was established in 2003 . Following the bankruptcy of Coast Air in January 2008 , the airline stepped in and was serving Fagernes Airport , Leirin with two daily flights to Oslo , and one daily flight to Trondheim , but these were terminated in 2009 .
= = Operations = =
The airline is owned 40 % by Nordic Air , 40 % by the Municipality of Ørland and 20 % by North Flying . All operations are flown by North Flying , who operate a 19 @-@ seat Fairchild Metro 23 in Air Norway livery . The municipality subsidizes the route with NOK 1 million per year . The company has a managing director in a 20 % position , plus one person who coordinates booking on an hourly basis . In 2008 , the airline had a revenue of NOK 16 million and made NOK 800 @,@ 000 in profit . Ørland Airport is the civilian section of the military Ørland Main Air Station . Traditionally , the main customer group for Air Norway has been military personnel .
= = Destinations = =
The airline operates seven weekly round trips from Ørland to Oslo , with weekday flights leaving Ørland at 7 : 40 and returning from Oslo at 18 : 00 . No flights are made on Saturdays , but there are two round trips to Oslo on Friday , and to Ørland on Sunday . A single , weekly round trip is made to Aalborg from Oslo , leaving on Friday evening and returning Sunday afternoon .
= = History = =
Air Norway was founded in 2003 by Gunnar Hagsveen . Scheduled services from Ørland to Oslo commenced on 23 May 2003 . The company had originally planned to also operate aircraft between Ørland and Bodø Airport , to two main air stations of the Norwegian Air Force , but these plans were abandoned . Just after the route commenced , the owner became seriously ill , and marketing and sales efforts were neglected , causing a less @-@ than @-@ predicted cabin load . Hagsveen died on 26 December , and his heirs encouraged local businesses to purchase shares in the company . Air Norway commenced weekly flights from Oslo to Aalborg Airport in Denmark from 31 January 2004 . In February 2004 , the company received a loan for NOK 650 @,@ 000 from the municipality to operate pay off other debt . At the same time , the airline was sold to Sven Rosenvinge .
By 2005 , the airline was still losing money . On 21 February , the Municipality of Ørland bought shares for NOK 1 million , while North Flying bought the remaining half of the company . Mayor Hallgeir Grøntvedt ( Center Party ) stated that while it was a risky investment for a municipality with limited budget , the airline was of great strategic importance for Ørland and Fosen . When the European Union introduced new security rules for airports from 1 January 2005 , Ørland Airport was exempt , because of the small size of the aircraft . By April , the airport had received notice that 100 % security control would still have to be introduced , costing the municipality NOK 465 @,@ 000 per year . At the same time , Air Norway was still losing money , and applied to the municipality to not be charged landing fees at the airport . When this was granted , it saved the company NOK 540 @,@ 000 per year . In July , Air Norway transported its 10,000th passenger and signed a new contract with the Air Force , which was responsible for more than half the ridership . In November , the administration of the airline was moved from Drammen to Ørland and Fosen Næringshage . Snorre Hvitsand was then hired as managing director .
In 2006 , the company experienced a 40 % passenger growth , and from 6 September , Air Norway also introduced services on Wednesday . The same year , the municipality started a NOK 1 @.@ 8 million upgrade to the airport . When it opened on 3 September 2007 , it became an international airport and allowed transit for passengers to Aalborg , plus increased security and a general renovation of the terminal building from 1978 .
Following the bankruptcy of Coast Air in January 2008 , Air Norway and North Flying were awarded an interim contract to operate the route from Fagernes to Oslo , with subsidies from the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications . At the same time , the airline started a route from Fagernes to Trondheim Airport , Værnes . In March , they won the public service obligation ( PSO ) contract , granting them the route until 31 March 2009 . During the first half of 2008 , ridership at Fagernes Airport was reduced by 27 @.@ 3 % , compared with the first half of the previous year . From 1 April 2009 , the Fagernes PSO contract was lost to DOT LT , and Air Norway terminated those routes .
In 2009 , Air Norway lost 1 @,@ 300 passengers after the Norwegian Air Force decided to not permit their employees to travel from Ørland , but instead have to take cheaper flights from Trondheim , located about a two @-@ hour drive away . The reduction in ridership , along with a strengthening of the Danish krone in relation to the Norwegian , caused Air Norway to lose NOK 100 @,@ 000 by August 2009 . The mayor of Ørland stated at that he was working to make the route receive state grants as a PSO . In February 2010 , the municipality granted NOK 62 @,@ 500 for Air Norway to run a television commercial during the semi @-@ final of Melodi Grand Prix .
= Bath Abbey =
The Abbey Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul , Bath , commonly known as Bath Abbey , is an Anglican parish church and a former Benedictine monastery in Bath , Somerset , England . Founded in the 7th century , Bath Abbey was reorganised in the 10th century and rebuilt in the 12th and 16th centuries ; major restoration work was carried out by Sir George Gilbert Scott in the 1860s . It is one of the largest examples of Perpendicular Gothic architecture in the West Country .
The church is cruciform in plan , and is able to seat 1200 . An active place of worship , with hundreds of congregation members and hundreds of thousands of visitors each year , it is used for religious services , secular civic ceremonies , concerts and lectures . The choir performs in the abbey and elsewhere . There is a heritage museum in the vaults .
The abbey is a Grade I listed building , particularly noted for its fan vaulting . It contains war memorials for the local population and monuments to several notable people , in the form of wall and floor plaques and commemorative stained glass . The church has two organs and a peal of ten bells . The west front includes sculptures of angels climbing to heaven on two stone ladders .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
In 675 Osric , King of the Hwicce , granted the Abbess Berta 100 hides near Bath for the establishment of a convent . This religious house became a monastery under the patronage of the Bishop of Worcester . King Offa of Mercia successfully wrested " that most famous monastery at Bath " from the bishop in 781 . William of Malmesbury tells that Offa rebuilt the monastic church , which may have occupied the site of an earlier pagan temple , to such a standard that King Eadwig was moved to describe it as being " marvellously built " ; little is known about the architecture of this first building on the site . Monasticism in England had declined by that time , but Eadwig 's brother Edgar ( who was crowned " King of the English " at the abbey in 973 ) began its revival on his accession to the throne in 959 . He encouraged monks to adopt the Rule of Saint Benedict , which was introduced at Bath under Abbot Ælfheah ( St. Alphege ) .
= = = Norman Conquest to the Dissolution = = =
Bath was ravaged in the | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
ville .
Route 54 continues east into Selbyville as Cemetery Road and crosses the Snow Hill Line of the Maryland and Delaware Railroad . The highway turns south into Main Street to pass through the central business district . After intersecting the southern terminus of DE 17 ( Bethany Road ) , Route 54 turns east onto Lighthouse Road . In the hamlet of Bunting , the highway intersects DE 54 Alt . ( Bunting Road ) , an alternate route from Selbyville to Bethany Beach . Route 54 begins to pass beach @-@ related suburban development as the highway intersects the east end of DE 20 ( Zion Church Road ) . Past this intersection , the route gains a center left @-@ turn lane and continues past more development . As the highway approaches Fenwick Island , it becomes two lanes again and crosses two tidal ponds on an elevated causeway before it crosses The Ditch between Assawoman Bay to the south and Little Assawoman Bay to the north . After passing to the north of the Fenwick Island Light , Route 54 reaches its eastern terminus at DE 1 ( Coastal Highway ) in Fenwick Island , one block west of the Atlantic Ocean and one block north of Ocean City on the other side of the state line .
Route 54 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 14 @,@ 866 vehicles at the Old Stage Road intersection in Delmar to a low of 1 @,@ 464 vehicles at the Parker Road intersection west of Selbyville . None of Route 54 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now Route 54 in Delaware existed as an unpaved county road . The portion of the current route along Millsboro Highway was proposed as a state highway by 1925 . This segment of state highway was completed by 1931 , along with the portions from south of Columbia to a point along the state line to the east of Delmar and between Selbyville and Williamsville . A portion of the route along the state line east of Delmar was paved as a county road . On July 1 , 1935 , the county @-@ maintained portions of the road in Delaware were taken over by the state . By 1936 , the roadway was paved between Williamsville and Fenwick Island . A portion of road to the west of Selbyville was paved by 1939 . By 1942 , the remainder of the road in Delaware between the Maryland border and south of Columbia and Gumboro and Selbyville were paved .
The first non @-@ concurrent portions of Route 54 to be numbered were in Maryland in 1939 , when MD 467 was marked on the portion around Mardela Springs and MD 455 was marked on the portion around Delmar , which extended from where Waller Road fully enters Maryland east to Brittingham Road . The portion of road between Brittingham Road and MD 353 was county @-@ maintained . MD 455 was extended east from Brittingham Road to DE 26 in 1958 . In 1968 , DE 32 was assigned to the entire highway within Delaware ; the Maryland sections were still marked as MD 467 and MD 455 . The whole highway was marked as Route 54 in 1969 . In addition to the concurrencies with DE 26 and DE 30 , Route 54 has been concurrent with DE 20 . DE 20 was extended east of Dagsboro to terminate in Fenwick Island along with Route 54 by 1994 . DE 20 's eastern terminus was rolled back to its present location in 2005 . In September 2001 , construction began to build an elevated causeway for Route 54 to the west of Fenwick Island in order to prevent flooding from high tides and storms . The project involved building the new causeway to the north of the original alignment , using pre @-@ cast concrete segments . The project , which cost over $ 15 million , was slated to be finished in August 2003 . In 2010 , a $ 10 million project began to add a center left @-@ turn lane along with bike lanes and sidewalks to the portion of Route 54 between DE 20 and Mallard Lakes , a section of road that was targeted for safety improvements due to rapid development ; this project was completed in 2012 .
= = Major intersections = =
DE 54 officially has a length of 38 @.@ 59 mi ( 62 @.@ 10 km ) and MD 54 officially has a length of 19 @.@ 79 mi ( 31 @.@ 85 km ) . Both of these figures include a 16 @.@ 54 mi ( 26 @.@ 62 km ) overlap between the first and last crossings of the state line .
= = Bannered routes = =
Delaware Route 54 Alternate ( DE 54 Alt . ) is an alternate route of DE 54 between Bunting and DE 26 in Bethany Beach . The alternate route heads northeast from DE 54 on two @-@ lane undivided Johnson Road , passing through a mix of farmland and woodland . Upon crossing DE 20 , DE 54 Alt. continues north along Bayard Road through more rural areas , passing through the community of Bayard . The route turns east onto Double Bridges Road and continues northeast through forested areas along with a few residential subdivisions . DE 54 Alt. turns east onto Kent Avenue and crosses the Assawoman Canal , where it curves north and passes residential development before ending at DE 26 at Bethany Beach . DE 54 Alt. was designated by 2006 .
Major intersections
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= Receptor antagonist =
A receptor antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or drug that blocks or dampens agonist @-@ mediated responses rather than provoking a biological response itself upon binding to a receptor . They are sometimes called blockers ; examples include alpha blockers , beta blockers , and calcium channel blockers . In pharmacology , antagonists have affinity but no efficacy for their cognate receptors , and binding will disrupt the interaction and inhibit the function of an agonist or inverse agonist at receptors . Antagonists mediate their effects by binding to the active orthosteric ( = right place ) site or to allosteric ( = other place ) sites on receptors , or they may interact at unique binding sites not normally involved in the biological regulation of the receptor 's activity . Antagonist activity may be reversible or irreversible depending on the longevity of the antagonist – receptor complex , which , in turn , depends on the nature of antagonist – receptor binding . The majority of drug antagonists achieve their potency by competing with endogenous ligands or substrates at structurally defined binding sites on receptors .
= = Receptors = =
Biochemical receptors are large protein molecules that can be activated by the binding of a ligand ( such as a hormone or drug ) . Receptors can be membrane @-@ bound , occurring on the cell membrane , or intracellular , such as on the nucleus or mitochondrion . Binding occurs as a result of noncovalent interaction between the receptor and its ligand , at locations called the binding site on the receptor . A receptor may contain one or more binding sites for different ligands . Binding to the active site on the receptor regulates receptor activation directly . The activity of receptors can also be regulated by the binding of a ligand to other sites on the receptor , as in allosteric binding sites . Antagonists mediate their effects through receptor interactions by preventing agonist @-@ induced responses . This may be accomplished by binding to the active site or the allosteric site . In addition , antagonists may interact at unique binding sites not normally involved in the biological regulation of the receptor 's activity to exert their effects .
The term antagonist was originally coined to describe different profiles of drug effects . The biochemical definition of a receptor antagonist was introduced by Ariens and Stephenson in the 1950s . The current accepted definition of receptor antagonist is based on the receptor occupancy model . It narrows the definition of antagonism to consider only those compounds with opposing activities at a single receptor . Agonists were thought to turn " on " a single cellular response by binding to the receptor , thus initiating a biochemical mechanism for change within a cell . Antagonists were thought to turn " off " that response by ' blocking ' the receptor from the agonist . This definition also remains in use for physiological antagonists , substances that have opposing physiological actions , but act at different receptors . For example , histamine lowers arterial pressure through vasodilation at the histamine H1 receptor , while adrenaline raises arterial pressure through vasoconstriction mediated by alpha @-@ adrenergic receptor activation .
Our understanding of the mechanism of drug @-@ induced receptor activation and receptor theory and the biochemical definition of a receptor antagonist continues to evolve . The two @-@ state model of receptor activation has given way to multistate models with intermediate conformational states . The discovery of functional selectivity and that ligand @-@ specific receptor conformations occur and can affect interaction of receptors with different second messenger systems may mean that drugs can be designed to activate some of the downstream functions of a receptor but not others . This means efficacy may actually depend on where that receptor is expressed , altering the view that efficacy at a receptor is receptor @-@ independent property of a drug .
= = Pharmacodynamics = =
= = = Efficacy and potency = = =
By definition , antagonists display no efficacy to activate the receptors they bind . Antagonists do not maintain the ability to activate a receptor . Once bound , however , antagonists inhibit the function of agonists , inverse agonists , and partial agonists . In functional antagonist assays , a dose @-@ response curve measures the effect of the ability of a range of concentrations of antagonists to reverse the activity of an agonist . The potency of an antagonist is usually defined by its EC50 value . This can be calculated for a given antagonist by determining the concentration of antagonist needed to elicit half inhibition of the maximum biological response of an agonist . Elucidating an EC50 value is useful for comparing the potency of drugs with similar efficacies , however the dose @-@ response curves produced by both drug antagonists must be similar . The lower the EC50 the greater the potency of the antagonist , and the lower the concentration of drug that is required to inhibit the maximum biological response . Lower concentrations of drugs may be associated with fewer side @-@ effects .
= = = Affinity = = =
The affinity of an antagonist for its binding site ( Ki ) , i.e. its ability to bind to a receptor , will determine the duration of inhibition of agonist activity . The affinity of an antagonist can be determined experimentally using Schild regression or for competitive antagonists in radioligand binding studies using the Cheng @-@ Prusoff equation . Schild regression can be used to determine the nature of antagonism as beginning either competitive or non @-@ competitive and Ki determination is independent of the affinity , efficacy or concentration of the agonist used . However , it is important that equilibrium has been reached . The effects of receptor desensitization on reaching equilibrium must also be taken into account . The affinity constant of antagonists exhibiting two or more effects , such as in competitive neuromuscular @-@ blocking agents that also block ion channels as well as antagonising agonist binding , cannot be analyzed using Schild regression . Schild regression involves comparing the change in the dose ratio , the ratio of the EC50 of an agonist alone compared to the EC50 in the presence of a competitive antagonist as determined on a dose response curve . Altering the amount of antagonist used in the assay can alter the dose ratio . In Schild regression , a plot is made of the log ( dose ratio @-@ 1 ) versus the log concentration of antagonist for a range of antagonist concentrations . The affinity or Ki is where the line cuts the x @-@ axis on the regression plot . Whereas , with Schild regression , antagonist concentration is varied in experiments used to derive Ki values from the Cheng @-@ Prusoff equation , agonist concentrations are varied . Affinity for competitive agonists and antagonists is related by the Cheng @-@ Prusoff factor used to calculate the Ki ( affinity constant for an antagonist ) from the shift in IC50 that occurs during competitive inhibition . The Cheng @-@ Prusoff factor takes into account the effect of altering agonist concentration and agonist affinity for the receptor on inhibition produced by competitive antagonists .
= = Types = =
= = = Competitive = = =
Competitive antagonists ( also known as surmountable antagonists ) reversibly bind to receptors at the same binding site ( active site ) as the endogenous ligand or agonist , but without activating the receptor . Agonists and antagonists " compete " for the same binding site on the receptor . Once bound , an antagonist will block agonist binding . The level of activity of the receptor will be determined by the relative affinity of each molecule for the site and their relative concentrations . High concentrations of a competitive agonist will increase the proportion of receptors that the agonist occupies , higher concentrations of the antagonist will be required to obtain the same degree of binding site occupancy . In functional assays using competitive antagonists , a parallel rightward shifts of agonist dose – response curves with no alteration of the maximal response is observed .
The interleukin @-@ 1 receptor antagonist , IL @-@ 1Ra is an example of a competitive antagonist . The effects of a competitive antagonist may be overcome by increasing the concentration of agonist . Often ( though not always ) these antagonists possess a very similar chemical structure to that of the agonist .
= = = Non @-@ competitive = = =
The term " non @-@ competitive antagonism " ( sometimes called non @-@ surmountable antagonists ) can be used to describe two distinct phenomena : one in which the antagonist binds to the active site of the receptor , and one in which the antagonist binds to an allosteric site of the receptor . While the mechanism of antagonism is different in both of these phenomena , they are both called " non @-@ competitive " because the end @-@ results of each are functionally very similar . Unlike competitive antagonists , which affect the amount of agonist necessary to achieve a maximal response but do not affect the magnitude of that maximal response , non @-@ competitive antagonists reduce the magnitude of the maximum response that can be attained by any amount of agonist . This property earns them the name " non @-@ competitive " because their effects cannot be negated , no matter how much agonist is present . In functional assays of non @-@ competitive antagonists , depression of the maximal response of agonist dose @-@ response curves , and in some cases , rightward shifts , is produced . The rightward shift will occur as a result of a receptor reserve ( also known as spare receptors , see in pharmacodynamics ) and inhibition of the agonist response will only occur when this reserve is depleted .
An antagonist that binds to the active site of a receptor is said to be " non @-@ competitive " if the bond between the active site and the antagonist is irreversible or nearly so . This usage of the term " non @-@ competitive " may not be ideal , however , since the term " irreversible competitive antagonism " may also be used to describe the same phenomenon without the potential for confusion with the second meaning of " non @-@ competitive antagonism " discussed below .
The second form of " non @-@ competitive antagonists " act at an allosteric site . These antagonists bind to a distinctly separate binding site from the agonist , exerting their action to that receptor via the other binding site . They do not compete with agonists for binding at the active site . The bound antagonists may prevent conformational changes in the receptor required for receptor activation after the agonist binds . Cyclothiazide has been shown to act as a reversible non @-@ competitive antagonist of mGluR1 receptor .
= = = Uncompetitive = = =
Uncompetitive antagonists differ from non @-@ competitive antagonists in that they require receptor activation by an agonist before they can bind to a separate allosteric binding site . This type of antagonism produces a kinetic profile in which " the same amount of antagonist blocks higher concentrations of agonist better than lower concentrations of agonist " . Memantine , used in the treatment of Alzheimer 's disease , is an uncompetitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor .
= = = Silent antagonists = = =
Silent antagonists are competitive receptor antagonists that have zero intrinsic activity for activating a receptor . They are true antagonists , so to speak . The term was created to distinguish fully inactive antagonists from weak partial agonists or inverse agonists .
= = = Partial agonists = = =
Partial agonists are defined as drugs that , at a given receptor , might differ in the amplitude of the functional response that they elicit after maximal receptor occupancy . Although they are agonists , partial agonists can act as a competitive antagonist in the presence of a full agonist , as it competes with the full agonist for receptor occupancy , thereby producing a net decrease in the receptor activation as compared to that observed with the full agonist alone . Clinically , their usefulness is derived from their ability to enhance deficient systems while simultaneously blocking excessive activity . Exposing a receptor to a high level of a partial agonist will ensure that it has a constant , weak level of activity , whether its normal agonist is present at high or low levels . In addition , it has been suggested that partial agonism prevents the adaptive regulatory mechanisms that frequently develop after repeated exposure to potent full agonists or antagonists . Buprenorphine , a partial agonist of the μ @-@ opioid receptor , binds with weak morphine @-@ like activity and is used clinically as an analgesic in pain management and as an alternative to methadone in the treatment of opioid dependence .
= = = Inverse agonists = = =
An inverse agonist can have effects similar to those of an antagonist , but causes a distinct set of downstream biological responses . Constitutively active receptors that exhibit intrinsic or basal activity can have inverse agonists , which not only block the effects of binding agonists like a classical antagonist but also inhibit the basal activity of the receptor . Many drugs previously classified as antagonists are now beginning to be reclassified as inverse agonists because of the discovery of constitutive active receptors . Antihistamines , originally classified as antagonists of histamine H1 receptors have been reclassified as inverse agonists .
= = Reversibility = =
Many antagonists are reversible antagonists that , like most agonists , will bind and unbind a receptor at rates determined by receptor @-@ ligand kinetics .
Irreversible antagonists covalently bind to the receptor target and , in general , cannot be removed ; inactivating the receptor for the duration of the antagonist effects is determined by the rate of receptor turnover , the rate of synthesis of new receptors . Phenoxybenzamine is an example of an irreversible alpha blocker — it permanently binds to α adrenergic receptors , preventing adrenaline and noradrenaline from binding . Inactivation of receptors normally results in a depression of the maximal response of agonist dose @-@ response curves and a right shift in the curve occurs where there is a receptor reserve similar to non @-@ competitive antagonists . A washout step in the assay will usually distinguish between non @-@ competitive and irreversible antagonist drugs , as effects of non @-@ competitive antagonists are reversible and activity of agonist will be restored .
Irreversible competitive antagonists also involve competition between the agonist and antagonist of the receptor , but the rate of covalent bonding differs and depends on affinity and reactivity of the antagonist . For some antagonist , there may be a distinct period during which they behave competitively ( regardless of basal efficiacy ) , and freely associate to and dissociate from the receptor , determined by receptor @-@ ligand kinetics . But , once irreversible bonding has taken place , the receptor is deactivated and degraded . As for non @-@ competitive antagonists and irreversible antagonists in functional assays with irreversible competitive antagonist drugs , there may be a shift in the log concentration – effect curve to the right , but , in general , both a decrease in slope and a reduced maximum are obtained .
= Aayirathil Oruvan ( 2010 film ) =
Aayirathil Oruvan ( English : One Man in a Thousand ) is a 2010 Indian Tamil adventure film wriiten and directed by Selvaraghavan in his fifth feature film . Produced by R. Ravindran , it features music composed by G. V. Prakash Kumar , cinematography by Ramji and editing by Kola Bhaskar . The film stars Karthi , Reemma Sen and Andrea Jeremiah in the lead roles with Parthiepan playing a pivotal role .
The film begins with an episode in 1279 AD , when the successor of the last great Chola Emperor , pending invasion , sends his people to a mystery location , to survive the threat . The story resumes with an archaeologist , a coolie and a member of the army going in search of the archaeologist 's father to the ruined city that was the place the exiled Chola Prince retreated to . An expedition is promptly arranged , and on the course they stumble on the lost Chola civilization and its king and find unexplained links between them and the culture . The shocking events and the problems that arise forms the crux of the story .
Aayirathil Oruvan languished in development hell due to slow progress of the shoot and the extensive pre- and post @-@ production works , evading release dates ranging one year . Shooting began in July 2007 , and took place in various locations with 2 @,@ 000 extras in areas including Chalakudy , Kerala and Jaisalmer , Rajasthan amongst other regions throughout India . Uncut , the film runs for over 220 minutes , but the theatrical release was heavily cut at 183 minutes . The film released coinciding with the festival of Thai Pongal on 14 January 2010 , with a Telugu dubbing version , titled Yuganikki Okkadu , following six weeks later . Upon release , the film received mixed reviews whilst proceeding to become a successful venture commercially .
= = Plot = =
In 1279 A.D. , the downfall of the Chola dynasty seems imminent as the Pandyas drive the Chola people out of their kingdom in southern India . To escape them and save the life of his successor the Chola emperor sends his son along with the Chola people to a secret territory . The refugees take along an idol sacred to the Pandyas , angering them . To capture the escaped Cholas and the stolen idol , the Pandyas extend their invasion to unexplored territories but cannot find them .
Centuries later , in 2009 , Indian archaeologists continue searching for the existence of the lost Chola group based on clues left by the ancient Pandyan warriors . All archaeologists who attempted to search for the secret land have disappeared . Archaeologist Chandramouli is the most recent person to have gone missing .
The Indian government organizes a search expedition led by officer Anitha to find Chandramouli and the Chola empire ; she is assisted by the Indian army led by Ravisekharan . They recruit archaeologist Lavanya , the estranged daughter of Chandramouli , because her insight is essential for the success of the expedition . She hands over crucial documents on the Chola dynasty , prepared by her father , with instructions on the route to reach the destination .
Along with the army , Anitha employs a group of porters headed by Muthu , to transport the baggage during the journey . The crew embark on their voyage leading them to an island , Min @-@ gua , near Vietnam . They face seven traps set by the Cholas : sea creatures , cannibals , warriors , snakes , hunger , quicksand and a village . Many porters and army men are killed by these traps .
Muthu , Anitha and Lavanya get separated from the others . They reach the ruins of a village where they are subjected to black magic and nearly go mad before reaching the secret hideout of the Chola . The three find an ethnic isolated primitive Tamil group , ruled by a Chola king . The king and his people are in hiding , awaiting the arrival of the fabled messenger who will bring glory and prosperity back to their land and lead them back to Thanjavur , their motherland . The king and the priest consult the gods for omens and order Muthu , Anitha and Lavanya to be burnt alive as sacrifices .
Anitha tells the king that she is the messenger sent from the homeland . Muthu and Lavanya are enslaved while Anitha is given a chance to prove herself . She tries to seduce and convince the Chola king to march towards the homeland in two days so he can be crowned properly as a king . He suspects her bona fides since none of her actions match those described by the king 's ancestors . The ancestors wrote that the messenger will be preceded by hail and following his ill @-@ treatment will eventually help the tribe .
Meanwhile , Anitha drugs the priest and poisons the water sources . She catches a glimpse of the Pandyas ' sacred idol and leaves , finally exposing her identity as a descendant of the Pandya Dynasty . For generations , her race has been trying to find the whereabouts of the Chola prince and his people . The central minister , who sponsors the expedition , is also shown to be a Pandyan . The Chola king is shattered for having believed in Anitha . Ravishekaran who has escaped the traps and is the sole survivor gets backup and a larger army after getting an information from a hypnotized follower of Anitha from the Chola kingdom . The king discovers that Muthu is the true messenger who would save the Cholas from the clutches of Anitha and the army . The priest gives all of his magical powers , like invisibility and invulnerability to Muthu and dies .
The Cholas fight bravely , but eventually lose to technology and are taken prisoners . Their women are molested and raped by the army . The king is killed and the men drown in the seas with the kings body . Muthu is able to escape and save the Chola prince . The seed of the Chola dynasty is brought back to their motherland by the messenger as prophesied .
= = Cast = =
Karthi Sivakumar as Muthu , a chief coolie working at Chennai Port , leading a very low class life alongside his fellow workers . Muthu , a die @-@ hard MGR fan , is taken on the journey and is one of the final trio who are taken into the Chola kingdom .
Reemma Sen as Anitha Pandiyan , an intelligence officer who gathers a team to investigate the disappearance of Chandramouli . Anitha is strong @-@ minded , ruthless and determined . However she nurtures a soft feeling for Muthu during the course of the journey . The film became Reemma Sen 's first attempt at parallel cinema following a series of roles in commercial projects , and her portrayal was highly appreciated by film critics .
Andrea Jeremiah as Lavanya Chandramouli , the estanged daughter of Chandramouli , who also embarks on the journey to find her father . An archaeologist by profession , Lavanya becomes the quiet tactical leader of the journey through her knowledge of the culture and the history of the Chola dynasty . Andrea Jeremiah , like Karthi , appears in her second major role for the film , also singing parts of two songs which appear in the soundtrack . During the making of the film news websites linked Andrea with the director , Selvaraghavan , albeit to the pair 's displeasure .
R. Parthiepan as Chola King , successor and last of the Chola dynasty after escaping an attack from the Pandyas . The city that the Cholas lived in perished , resulting in the city becoming haunted with Parthiepan , the head of the people . The images for the Chola King , not dated or named in the film , were kept under wraps prior to the movie 's release . Parthiepan signed for the role after much speculation that Dhanush would be selected , and his performance won plaudits from critics .
Pratap Pothan as Chandramouli , an archaeologist who went missing during a search for the Chola kingdom , prompting a manhunt . Chandramouli earlier walked out on his daughter , Lavanya , and is later found trapped in the Chola kingdom .
Azhagam Perumal as Ravisekharan , who leads the army brigade in the search for Chandramouli . Known for his exploitative and violent ways , Ravisekharan develops a mutual foe in Muthu and his fellow workers .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After the reception to his 2006 gangster film , Pudhupettai , Selvaraghavan took a sabbatical to plan future projects and set up a production company , White Elephants , whose first project Idhu Maalai Nerathu Mayakkam started in November 2006 . The film was co @-@ produced by new producer R. Ravindran , and the first schedule began with Karthi Sivakumar , whose first film , Paruthiveeran , was awaiting release , and Sandhya . The film was stalled in early 2007 due to cinematographer Arvind Krishna 's decision to leave White Elephants and the project was eventually shelved . In July 2007 , Selvaraghavan announced a new film with a new team of Karthi and Reemma Sen in the cast , with Ramji replacing regular Arvind Krishna as the cinematographer . Erum Ali , wife of actor Abbas , became the team 's head costume designer , whilst , Selvaraghavan 's sister @-@ in @-@ law and Rajinikanth 's daughter , Aishwarya Dhanush , was signed on as an associate director . The film was named after a popular M. G. Ramachandran film , Aayirathil Oruvan . The producer was announced to be R. Ravindran whilst Yuvan Shankar Raja was appointed as music director following five previous successful soundtracks in Selvaraghavan films . Despite early indications that the director 's brother Dhanush was going to play a guest role , it became evident that the role was subsequently given to R. Parthiepan . Andrea Jeremiah was also signed for a role in the film in October 2007 , in her second film after Pachaikili Muthucharam and director @-@ actor Azhagam Perumal followed suit in November 2007 .
Nearly six months after filming began , Yuvan Shankar Raja left the project , because he could not spend as much time on this film as Selvaraghavan wanted . Subsequently , the role of the music director was handed to G. V. Prakash Kumar , for whom Aayirathil Oruvan became his biggest project to date . Rambo Rajkumar , the film 's stunt director , died in April 2009 and was posthumously praised for his action choreography . The film 's music released two months later to much appraisal in a well @-@ held audio release function . Soon after the filming finished , the lead actors moved onto other projects as did Selvaraghavan whilst post @-@ production continued . In August 2009 , Selvaraghavan divorced his wife , Sonia Agarwal with his close proximity to Andrea being a speculated cause . During the period , G. V. Prakash Kumar and Selva also worked on the music in Mumbai whilst re @-@ recording was also held in Austria and London . Towards the end of the year , the film began to announce release date of Christmas which was later further delayed to coincide with the Pongal festival . A date clash occurred with Karthi 's Paiyaa , with an eventual hearing leading to the Karthi 's latter film being delayed . Throughout December 2009 , release work began with a trailer and promotional songs being released on 13 December with Kamal Haasan and Surya Sivakumar attending as special guests . The film was subsequently censored before the end of the year by the Central Board of Film Certification and settled with an adult rating , after Selvaraghavan refused to get rid of gory scenes . On 31 December , it was announced that the film was sold worldwide for 350 million rupees for theatrical , television and other rights .
= = = Filming = = =
After extensive development and pre @-@ production which took four months for scripting , the film started the first schedule in the forests of Chalakudy in Kerala with Karthi , Reemma Sen and Andrea during October 2007 . The project developed a reputation for its gruelling shoots , a novel concept in Tamil films , at an early stage of production . Thirty @-@ five days into the shoot , Selvaraghavan gave a statement that the film was forty percent over and the film should release by May 2008 whilst also mentioning that rains in Kerala led to the budget going over expectations two months into the project . In January 2008 , the unit moved to Jaisalmer in Rajasthan to shoot in the deserts in the region , however they were delayed again by unseasonal rains . Missing its original release date , the film 's progress carried on through 2008 , with shooting occurring towards the end of the year inside sets at Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad . In the studios , choreographer Shivshankar composed a classical dance for Reemma Sen and Parthiepan , and the sequence was shot over twenty days . Shooting carried on in sets for three more months with second half scenes being recorded . Shoots in all regions were tough and demanding for the crew as the film featured more than three thousand junior artistes from a variety of unions across India , with the language barrier becoming a problem . The project , eighteen months into shoot , soon began to face questions about its progress , with the producer , Ravindran , having to complain to the Tamil Film Producers Council that Karthi was trying to change his look for his next film , Paiyaa , following the long period he had spent with Aayirathil Oruvan . In February 2009 , filming was completed after 263 days of shooting ; therefore the producers signaled for a summer release but it was postponed by six months .
When inquired by the media in regard to the long periods of shoot , whilst in production , the lead actor expressed that they were also unaware of how long the film 's shoot was going to carry on . Reemma Sen originally signed for forty days whilst Andrea signed for three months , without knowing that the film would eventually take 263 days of filming . Furthermore , Parthiepan claimed to have been signed for forty days , whilst his segment lasted up to 140 days .
= = Release = =
The satellite rights of the film were secured by Sun TV for ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) .
= = = Box office = = =
Released in 600 screens worldwide , Aayirathil Oruvan was declared a " superhit " in Telugu and a " hit " in Tamil . It took the biggest opening by a considerable distance earning ₹ 7 million ( equivalent to ₹ 11 million or US $ 160 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) on its opening weekend in Chennai . In the United Kingdom , the film opened across 7 screens and grossed £ 29 @,@ 517 ( $ 44 @,@ 868 ) in the opening week . The film , distributed by Ayngaran International opened at 22nd place . The film grossed $ 340 @,@ 082 in the second week in Malaysia , after opening in seventh . Similarly , the Telugu version of the film which released on 5 February , Yuganiki Okkadu , took a strong opening . The Telugu version released across 93 screens across Andhra Pradesh and grossed ₹ 17 @.@ 8 million ( equivalent to ₹ 28 million or US $ 420 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) on its opening weekend , and ₹ 100 million ( equivalent to ₹ 160 million or US $ 2 @.@ 3 million in 2016 ) in its lifetime .
= = = Reception = = =
Upon release , the film remarkably gained mixed reviews . Sify , cited that the film represented " something new in the placid world of Tamil cinema " adding that it " broke away from the shackles of the stereotypes " . Selvaraghavan also was praised by the reviewer with claims that " the director transports us to a whole new world and at the end of it all , we are dumb stuck by the visuals , the packaging and the new way of storytelling " . Rediff.com gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 claiming that viewers should " steel your stomach before [ you ] watch it " and " regardless of the minor discrepancies , AO is definitely a movie to watch " . In contrast , Behindwoods.com gave the film 0 @.@ 5 out of 5 describing the film as " wildly crass " , dismissing that " the underdeveloped script lacks everything – starting from strong plot twists to captive locations to graphics to credibility , above all " .
= = = Critical Acclaim = = =
Though the film did bad business in the box office and gained negative reviews from critics , it garnered critical acclaim by viewers years after its release . By the next few years , it had a cult fan base . People started to appreciate the fact that it was the first Tamil movie to show Chola Dynasty 's history in motion picture . Even though the movie had not @-@ so @-@ nice graphics , it was started to be applauded for its epic storyline , screenplay and message . For the late acclaim , it was also compared to the Kamal Hassan classic Anbe Sivam .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film was launched in 2007 with Selvaraghavan 's regular music director , Yuvan Shankar Raja , following five successive successful albums together . However , Yuvan Shankar Raja was ousted from the project in March 2008 due to ' differences of opinion ' . Subsequently , G. V. Prakash Kumar was signed on for his biggest project to date and work for the soundtrack began again from scratch . The number Adada , composed by Yuvan Shankar was removed from the album after his departure , and was replaced by the similarly sounding Un Mela Aasadhan , composed by Prakash Kumar .
The soundtrack to Aayirathil Oruvan was released on 14 June 2009 at a University Auditorium in Chennai , in a critically praised event . Prominent film personalities across the South Indian film industry attended the launch , which became one of the first films to play live music at the audio launch . The launch featured live performances from G. V. Prakash Kumar and Andrea Jeremiah for several songs , as well as songs from Selvaraghavan 's brother , Dhanush , and his wife , Aishwarya Dhanush . Furthermore , the night featured a fashion show from Erum Ali , a Kalari performance , Chenda Melam by women from Kerala , a classical dance performance by actress Poorna and choreographed by Sivashankar .
The album features ten tunes ; six songs , two alternate versions and another two theme songs . The album featured vocals from singers Karthik , Vijay Yesudas , Bombay Jayashri , Nithyasree Mahadevan and P. B. Sreenivas , who made a comeback to playback singing with his song . Moreover , husband @-@ wife personality , Dhanush and Aishwarya Dhanush , sung for the album along with the composer , Prakash Kumar and lead actress , Andrea Jeremiah . Lyrics for the songs were written by Vairamuthu , Veturi Sundararama Murthy , Selvaraghavan and Andrea Jeremiah . For a song set in the thirteenth century , research was carried out to find instruments used during that period . A Yaazh , a melodic instrument used in the Sangam Period , and a horn , a brass instrument made from animal horns from Bhutan , were used . The soundtrack garnered critical acclaim and was considered Prakash Kumar 's finest work to date . Furthermore , shortly after the music release , an album success meet was held .
In the film , only five songs from the album are used in their entirety . Moreover , one song in the film , not included in the soundtrack , is the original version of Adho Andha Paravai Pola from the 1965 film Aayirathil Oruvan , which was bought from the original copyright holders of the song in December 2007 . The film 's picturisation of the three exploring the ruins of the fallen kingdom in the song , were praised .
= = Accolades = =
= Moustache ( dog ) =
Moustache , sometimes abbreviated to Mous , ( September 1799 – 11 March 1812 ) was a French poodle who is reputed to have played a part in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . His story is recounted in many publications but may be partly fictionalised . Moustache is said to have been born in Falaise , Normandy , France in 1799 and to have joined a grenadier regiment at Caen . He followed the regiment through the Italian Campaign of the Revolutionary Wars and is said to have alerted the regiment to a surprise night attack by Austrian forces . He is reported to have been present at the Battle of Marengo , during which he lost an ear , and with a cuirassier regiment at the Battle of Austerlitz .
At Austerlitz Moustache was apparently responsible for the discovery of an Austrian spy , and the recovery of the regiment 's standard from the Austrians . As a result of wounds taken at Austerlitz Moustache had a leg amputated and was reportedly rewarded with a medal by Marshal Jean Lannes . He is later said to have followed a unit of dragoons to Spain where he fought in several actions of the Peninsular War . Seeing action in the Sierra Morena and later , with a gunboat unit , at the Battle of Badajoz , where he was killed by a cannonball . Moustache was interred beneath a gravestone on the battlefield but his memorial is said to have been smashed and his bones burned after the war .
= = Historical sources = =
One of the earliest written accounts of Moustache 's life is that written by Arna Cano and published in The Kaleidoscope magazine of Liverpool in January 1826 . This , published twenty years after the dog 's death , may be partially fictionalised . A similar story is recounted in a detailed French @-@ language account written by Alain de Fivas and published in 1864 . Moustache is mentioned in at least eleven English , French and German publications . The story presented here is drawn largely from the Cano and de Fivas accounts and notes any disagreement with the other accounts .
= = Early life = =
Moustache , a black poodle , was born in Falaise in Normandy , France in approximately September 1799 . At the age of six months Cano states that he was sent to Caen to live with a grocer and whilst there encountered a group of grenadiers on parade . He goes on to say that Moustache followed behind the regiment , which had no other dogs , as it left the town and , on the approval of the drum major , was allowed to accompany the unit on campaign . The regiment was headed to Italy as part of the Italian Campaign fought by France against Austria during the French Revolutionary Wars .
Though Moustache was not a trained military dog , he apparently took to military life well , comfortably crossing the Great St Bernard Pass through the Alps with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte 's army in spring 1800 . It is during this stage that one of Moustache 's most famous actions is reputed to have taken place . Whilst the regiment was encamped near Belbo the Austrians are said to have mounted a surprise night attack on the camp in stormy weather conditions . It is claimed that Moustache noticed the approaching Austrian troops and barked to alert the grenadiers , who stood to , and repulsed the attack .
Other sources place this event as occurring in Alexandria , Egypt during the Egyptian campaign against the Ottoman Empire . This variant may have been inspired by Napoleon 's letter to General Auguste de Marmont just prior to the 1799 Battle of Abukir when Marmont was in Alexandria . It urged Marmont to provide an attack warning system by securing " a large quantity of dogs which can be made use of by posting them in front of your fortifications " . After this event , the Colonel of the grenadier regiment is said to have formally placed Moustache on the roll as a grenadier and gave him a collar bearing the regiment 's name . Additionally , he ordered that Moustache receive the field rations entitled to a grenadier and that he be combed by the unit 's barber once per week .
= = Austrian campaigns = =
= = = Battle of Marengo = = =
Both Cano and de Fivas say that whilst en route to Spinetta Marengo Moustache took part in a small engagement between a company of his regiment and some Austrians . He was standing at the front of the company when he received a bayonet wound to his left shoulder . Moustache spent several days recovering in the hospital of the regimental surgeon . Though he was not fully recovered from the wound , still having a limp , Moustache is said to have taken to the field with the regiment on 14 June 1800 at the Battle of Marengo . During the battle he persistently barked at the Austrian forces and was only dissuaded from attacking them by their fixed bayonets .
Moustache did engage in close combat with one opponent - a pointer owned by an Austrian corporal that approached the French lines . De Fivas says that Moustache quickly pounced on the larger , stronger dog and fought with him for some time before a musket shot killed the pointer . Cano states that Moustache was also wounded by the shot , losing an ear . Moustache deserted the grenadiers shortly after the French victory at Marengo , apparently because one of them attempted to chain him to a sentry box , and instead joined a company of mounted cuirassiers .
= = = Battle of Austerlitz = = =
According to de Fivas , Moustache was responsible for the discovery of an Austrian spy in the French camp just prior to the Battle of Austerlitz . The dog is alleged to have leapt to his feet and barked at the Austrian to alert French soldiers . Some sources state that this event occurred around the time of the earlier battles of Marengo or Abukir .
Moustache 's greatest achievement is said to have taken place at Austerlitz . De Fivas states that Moustache went into battle with the cuirassiers and was present when the regimental standard bearer was surrounded by Austrian soldiers . The standard bearer apparently killed three Austrians before he was himself cut down , wrapping the flag around him as he fell to prevent its capture . It is at this point that de Fivas alleges that Moustache confronted the five or six remaining Austrians and was about to be bayoneted when the group was hit by a blast of artillery grapeshot . Moustache , wounded in the leg , is reputed to have torn the flag off the body of the standard bearer and returned it to the French camp .
In recognition of this action Marshal Jean Lannes is reported to have ordered that Moustache 's old collar be replaced with a copper medal on a piece of red ribbon . De Fivas states that this medal was engraved with the words " II perdit une jambe à la bataille d 'Austerlitz , et sauva le drapeau de son régiment " on the front , and " Moustache , chien français : qu 'il soit partout respecté et chéri comme un brave " on the reverse , which translates to " He lost a leg at the Battle of Austerlitz and saved the regimental flag " and " Moustache , A French dog : Everywhere respected and cherished as a hero " respectively . At least one other source says instead that the medal was silver and had a tricolore collar .
Moustache later had to have his wounded leg amputated . Other rewards he is said to have received for this event include an order being issued that whichever regiment he presented himself at would have to feed him the rations of a serving soldier and that he was placed on the regimental books and was to receive the pay and rations of a soldier . A further legend says that Moustache was presented to Napoleon himself and demonstrated to have performed a trick whereby he would cock his leg whenever France 's enemies were mentioned .
= = = Battle of Essling = = =
At the Battle of Essling , Moustache was supposed to have found a mate . Upon joining the front lines , a fellow Poodle was spotted amongst the enemy . During the course of the battle , the two met and the female Poodle accompanied Moustache back to the French camp . This relationship lasted about a year and together the pair produced puppies which were looked after by the women of the camp .
= = Spanish campaign = =
Moustache is said to have left the cuirassiers after he was struck by a cavalryman with the flat of his sword . De Fivas says that he attached himself to a unit of dragoons which he followed to Spain , taking part in two campaigns with them during which he would walk ahead of their column and bark warnings whenever he heard a noise . During a battle in the Sierra Morena mountain range in southern Spain Moustache is alleged to have led back to camp the horses of dragoons killed on the battlefield . Shortly after this he is said to have been secretly taken by a Colonel who wished to own him . After spending seventeen days in captivity the dog apparently escaped by an open window and joined with a gunboat crew . Afterwards he participated in the Battle of Badajoz where he was struck by a cannonball and killed on 11 March 1812 , at the age of twelve years .
Moustache was reputedly buried on the battlefield alongside his medal and ribbon with a gravestone engraved with the words " Ici repose le brave Moustache " ( " Here lies the brave Moustache " ) . Though he was wounded many times in his life it is said that all of his wounds were to his front . After the allied victory over the French in the Peninsular War , it is alleged that the Spanish destroyed his gravestone and the Inquisition ordered his bones to be dug up and burned .
= = = Specific = = =
= Russian battleship Navarin =
Navarin ( Russian : Наварин ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the late 1880s and early 1890s . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet and spent the early part of her career deployed in the Mediterranean and in the Far East . She participated in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 before returning to the Baltic Fleet in 1901 . Several months after the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in February 1904 , she was assigned to the 2nd Pacific Squadron to relieve the Russian forces blockaded in Port Arthur . During the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 , she was sunk by Japanese destroyers which spread twenty @-@ four linked mines across her path during the night . Navarin struck two of these mines and capsized with the loss of most of her crew .
= = Design and description = =
Navarin was a low @-@ freeboard turret ship modeled on the British Trafalgar @-@ class battleships . The original requirement had been for a much smaller ship , but the Navy changed its mind and required a larger ship capable of operating " in all European seas and [ even be ] able by its coal capacity to reach the Far East . " Changes were made to the design after the ship was ordered that included the replacement of the main armament by more powerful guns of the same caliber and the increase in the secondary armament from six guns to eight .
The ship was 347 feet 6 inches ( 105 @.@ 9 m ) long at the waterline and 351 feet ( 107 @.@ 0 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 67 feet ( 20 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 27 feet 7 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She displaced 10 @,@ 206 long tons ( 10 @,@ 370 t ) , almost 800 long tons ( 810 t ) more than her designed displacement of 9 @,@ 476 long tons ( 9 @,@ 628 t ) . Navarin 's crew consisted of 24 officers and 417 enlisted men .
She had two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft . They had a total designed output of 9 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 700 kW ) using steam provided by 12 cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers at a pressure of 9 @.@ 4 atm ( 952 kPa ; 138 psi ) . The four boiler rooms were arranged in two pairs abreast , each of which had its own funnel . This unusual arrangement gave the ship her odd nickname of Factory ( Zavod ) . Trials of the first batch of boilers in May 1891 showed that they could not maintain the designed steam pressure due to flaws in their construction . The Navy demanded that the Franco @-@ Russian Works replace them with new boilers at its own expense , but tests of the new boilers in August 1893 showed that their production of steam was inadequate . The factory asked for a year 's time to rectify the problems which the Navy granted since the construction of the ship was behind schedule anyway . On her final set of sea trials in November 1895 she reached a top speed of 15 @.@ 85 knots ( 29 @.@ 35 km / h ; 18 @.@ 24 mph ) . Navarin carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 200 t ) of coal at full load that provided a range of 3 @,@ 050 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 650 km ; 3 @,@ 510 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship 's main armament consisted of two pairs of 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Obukhov Model 1886 35 @-@ caliber guns mounted in hydraulically powered twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft . The forward turret had a firing arc of 243 ° while the rear turret could traverse 214 ° . The guns had a rate of fire of two minutes 22 seconds between rounds . They fired a 731 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 331 @.@ 7 kg ) " light " shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 090 ft / s ( 640 m / s ) to a range of 6 @,@ 600 yards ( 6 @,@ 000 m ) at an elevation of 6 ° . 80 rounds per gun were carried . All eight 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Pattern 1877 35 @-@ caliber guns of the secondary armament were mounted in casemates in the superstructure . Their " light " shells weighed 91 @.@ 5 lb ( 41 @.@ 5 kg ) and had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 329 ft / s ( 710 m / s ) . They had a maximum range of 8 @,@ 170 yards ( 7 @,@ 470 m ) when fired at an elevation of 12 ° . Each gun was provided with 200 rounds of ammunition .
The anti @-@ torpedo boat armament included fourteen 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns were carried in the superstructure . They fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 476 ft / s ( 450 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 2 @,@ 020 yards ( 1 @,@ 850 m ) . A total of eight 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns were mounted in the fighting top , the other four guns may have been used to arm the ship 's boats . They fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 450 ft / s ( 440 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 3 @,@ 038 yards ( 2 @,@ 778 m ) .
Navarin carried six above water 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , one each in the bow and stern and two pairs of broadside tubes . The ship carried a total of 12 torpedoes . The Type L torpedo carried a 141 @-@ pound ( 64 kg ) warhead of TNT . It had two speed settings which gave it a maximum range of 980 yards ( 900 m ) at 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) or 660 yards ( 600 m ) at 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) .
The ship used compound armor for all armored vertical surfaces except for the gun turrets which were made from nickel steel . The maximum thickness of the waterline armor belt was 16 inches ( 406 mm ) which reduced to 12 – 14 inches ( 305 – 356 mm ) abreast the magazines . It covered 228 feet ( 69 @.@ 5 m ) of the ship 's length and was 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high , and tapered down to a thickness of 8 inches ( 203 mm ) at the bottom edge . The upper 18 inches ( 457 @.@ 2 mm ) of the belt was intended to be above the waterline , but the ship was significantly overweight and much of the belt was submerged . The belt terminated in 14 – 16 @-@ inch ( 356 – 406 mm ) transverse bulkheads .
The lower casemate was above the belt , 218 feet ( 66 @.@ 4 m ) long and 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high , and was intended to protect the bases of the turrets . It had 16 @-@ inch sides and was closed off by 16 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft . The upper casemate protected the six @-@ inch guns and was 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick on all sides . The sides of the turrets were 16 inches ( 406 mm ) thick and the conning tower 's sides were 12 inches ( 305 mm ) in thickness . The armor deck was 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick over the lower casemate , but 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick forward and aft of the main armor belt to the bow and stern .
= = Construction and career = =
Navarin , named after the Battle of Navarino , was ordered on 24 April 1889 from the Franco @-@ Russian Works and construction began on 13 July 1889 at their Saint Petersburg shipyard . The ship was laid down on 31 May 1890 and launched on 20 October 1891 . She was transferred to Kronstadt in 1893 for fitting out , but did not enter service until June 1896 at a cost of over nine million rubles . Construction was seriously delayed by problems with the boilers and late deliveries of armor plates , the gun mountings , and other components , compounded by inefficiencies in building . One example of such was that the Russian armor plate company lacked the capacity to make gun port armor for the gun turrets of the required thickness , but the builder somehow lost track of this fact and had to place a rush order with the French company of St. Chamond .
Navarin was assigned to the Baltic fleet and began a cruise to the Mediterranean Sea in August 1896 . She visited the Greek port of Piraeus on 1 October . Together with the battleship Sissoi Veliky , the ship was ordered to the Far East in early 1898 and arrived at Port Arthur on 28 March . She took part in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion two years later . Navarin and Sissoi Veliky , together with a number of cruisers , sailed for the Baltic on 25 December 1901 and arrived at the port of Libau in early May 1902 . She began a refit the following September that was interrupted by the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in February 1904 . During this refit , Navarin received 4 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) Barr & Stroud rangefinders , telescopic gun sights and Telefunken radio equipment . Her light armament was increased by four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns that displaced an equal number of 47 @-@ millimeter guns on top of the superstructure ; one of the displaced guns was mounted on each of the turret roofs .
On 15 October 1904 , she set sail for Port Arthur from Libau along with the other vessels of the Second Pacific Squadron , under the command of Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky . When his ships reached the port of Tangier , Morocco , on 28 October , Rozhestvensky split his forces and ordered his older ships , including Navarin and Sissoi Veliky , to proceed through the Mediterranean and the Suez Canal to rendezvous with him in Madagascar as previously planned . Under the command of Rear Admiral Dmitry von Fölkersam , they departed that night and reached Souda Bay , Crete , a week later and Port Said , Egypt two weeks after that . The two forces reunited at the island of Nosy Be on 9 January 1905 where they remained for two months while Rozhestvensky finalized his coaling arrangements . The squadron sailed for Camranh Bay , French Indochina , on 16 March and reached it almost a month later to await the obsolete ships of the 3rd Pacific Squadron , commanded by Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov . The latter ships reached Camranh Bay on 9 May and the combined force sailed for Vladivostok on 14 May .
Rozhestvensky reorganized his ships into three divisions ; the first consisted of the four new Borodino @-@ class battleships commanded by himself , von Fölkersam commanded the second division of the battleships Oslyabya , Navarin , Sissoi Veliky and the armored cruiser Admiral Nakhimov , and Nebogatov retained his ships as the third division . Von Fölkersam , ill with cancer , died on 26 May and Rozhestvensky decided not to inform the fleet in order to keep morale up . The captain of Oslyabya became the commander of the 2nd Division while Nebogatov had no idea that he was now the squadron 's defacto second @-@ in @-@ command .
Very little is known of Navarin 's actions during the Battle of Tsushima on 27 – 28 May as there were very few survivors from the ship and visibility was poor for most of the battle . The ship was apparently not heavily engaged during the early part of the battle , but was badly damaged later in the day when she was third from last in the Russian line of battle . She was hit four times by large @-@ caliber shells on the waterline that caused major flooding aft . Her quarterdeck was awash up to her rear 12 @-@ inch turret by 2100 and the ship was forced to stop for repairs . Around that time she was attacked by Japanese torpedo boats that may have made one or two torpedo hits . Navarin managed to get underway again and damaged one torpedo boat badly enough that she sank later that night . Around 0200 on 28 May , the ship was attacked again by the Fourth Destroyer Division which dropped six strings of mines ahead of her . These consisted of four mines linked together with cables so that hitting any part of the string would draw the mines onto the ship . Two of these mines struck Navarin , which quickly capsized and sank . Some 70 men were able to abandon ship before she sank , but only three were alive when they were found 16 hours later . One man was rescued by a Japanese torpedo boat while the other two were rescued by a British merchant ship . The rest of her crew of 674 officers and enlisted men were lost . The rescued men had said that when they called out for help , they were fired on by Japanese torpedo boats .
= Mu Arae =
Mu Arae ( abbreviated μ Arae , μ Ara ) , often designated HD 160691 , also named Cervantes , is a main sequence G @-@ type star approximately 50 light @-@ years away from the Sun in the constellation of Ara . The star has a planetary system with four known extrasolar planets ( designated Mu Arae b , c , d and e ; later named Quijote , Dulcinea , Rocinante and Sancho , respectively ) , three of them with masses comparable to that of Jupiter . The system 's innermost planet was the first ' hot Neptune ' or ' super @-@ Earth ' to be discovered .
= = Nomenclature = =
Mu Arae is the Bayer designation . HD 160691 is the entry in the Henry Draper Catalogue .
The established convention for extrasolar planets is that the planets receive designations consisting of the star 's name followed by lower @-@ case Roman letters starting from " b " , in order of discovery . This system was used by a team led by Krzysztof Goździewski . On the other hand , a team led by Francesco Pepe proposed a modification of the designation system , where the planets are designated in order of characterization . Since the parameters of the outermost planet were poorly constrained before the introduction of the 4 @-@ planet model of the system , this results in a different order of designations for the planets in the Mu Arae system . Both systems agree on the designation of the 640 @-@ day planet as " b " . The old system designates the 9 @-@ day planet as " d " , the 310 @-@ day planet as " e " and the outer planet as " c " . Since the International Astronomical Union has not defined an official system for designations of extrasolar planets , the issue of which convention is ' correct ' remains open , however subsequent scientific publications about this system appear to have adopted the Pepe et al. system , as has the system 's entry in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia .
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning names were Cervantes for this star and Quijote , Dulcinea , Rocinante and Sancho , for its planets ( b , c , d , and e , respectively ; the IAU used the Pepe et al system ) .
The winning names were those submitted by the Planetario de Pamplona , Spain . Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra ( 1547 @-@ 1616 ) was a famous Spanish writer and author of El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha . The planets are named after characters of that novel : Quijote was the lead character ; Dulcinea his love interest ; Rocinante his horse , and Sancho his squire .
= = Stellar characteristics = =
According to measurements made by the Hipparcos astrometric satellite , Mu Arae exhibits a parallax of 64 @.@ 47 milliarcseconds as the Earth moves around the Sun . When combined with the known distance from the Earth to the Sun , this means the star is located at a distance of 50 @.@ 6 light years ( 15 @.@ 51 parsecs ) . Seen from Earth it has an apparent magnitude of + 5 @.@ 12 and is visible to the naked eye .
Asteroseismic analysis of the star reveals it is approximately 10 % more massive than the Sun and significantly older , at around 6 @.@ 34 billion years . The radius of the star is 36 % greater than that of the Sun and it is 90 % more luminous . The star contains twice the abundance of iron relative to hydrogen of our Sun and is therefore described as metal @-@ rich . Mu Arae is also more enriched than the Sun in the element helium .
Mu Arae has a listed spectral type of G3IV – V. The G3 part means the star is similar to our Sun ( a G2V star ) . The star may be entering the subgiant stage of its evolution as it starts to run out of hydrogen in its core . This is reflected in its uncertain luminosity class , between IV ( the subgiants ) and V ( main sequence dwarf star stars like the Sun ) .
= = Planetary system = =
= = = Discovery = = =
In 2001 , an extrasolar planet was announced by the Anglo @-@ Australian Planet Search team , together with the planet orbiting Epsilon Reticuli . The planet , designated Mu Arae b , was thought to be in a highly eccentric orbit of around 743 days . The discovery was made by analysing variations in the star 's radial velocity ( measured by observing the Doppler shift of the star 's spectral lines ) as a result of being pulled around by the planet 's gravity . Further observations revealed the presence of a second object in the system ( now designated as Mu Arae e ) , which was published in 2004 . At the time , the parameters of this planet were poorly constrained and it was thought to be in an orbit of around 8 @.@ 2 years with a high eccentricity . Later in 2004 , a small inner planet designated Mu Arae c was announced with a mass comparable to that of Uranus in a 9 @-@ day orbit . This was the first of the class of planets known as " hot Neptunes " to be discovered . The discovery was made by making high @-@ precision radial velocity measurements with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher ( HARPS ) spectrograph .
In 2006 , two teams , one led by Krzysztof Goździewski and the other by Francesco Pepe independently announced four @-@ planet models for the radial velocity measurements of the star , with a new planet ( Mu Arae d ) in a near @-@ circular orbit lasting approximately 311 days . The new model gives revised parameters for the previously known planets , with lower eccentricity orbits than in the previous model and including a more robust characterization of the orbit of Mu Arae e . The discovery of the fourth planet made Mu Arae the second known four @-@ planet extrasolar system , after 55 Cancri .
= = = System architecture and habitability = = =
The Mu Arae system consists of an inner Uranus @-@ mass planet in a tight 9 @-@ day orbit and three massive planets , probably gas giants , on wide , near @-@ circular orbits , which contrasts with the high @-@ eccentricity orbits typically observed for long @-@ period extrasolar planets . The Uranus @-@ mass planet may be a chthonian planet , the core of a gas giant which has had its outer layers stripped away by stellar radiation . Alternatively it may have formed in the inner regions of the Mu Arae system as a rocky " super @-@ Earth " . The inner gas giants " d " and " b " are located close to the 2 : 1 orbital resonance which causes them to undergo strong interactions . The best @-@ fit solution to the system is actually unstable : simulations suggest the system is destroyed after 78 million years , which is significantly shorter than the estimated age of the star system . More stable solutions , including ones in which the two planets are actually in the resonance ( similar to the situation in the Gliese 876 system ) can be found which give only a slightly worse fit to the data . Searches for circumstellar discs show no evidence for a debris disc similar to the Kuiper belt around Mu Arae . If Mu Arae does have a Kuiper belt , it is too faint to be detected with current instruments .
The gas giant planet " b " is located in the liquid water habitable zone of Mu Arae . This would prevent an Earth @-@ like planet from forming in the habitable zone , however large moons of the gas giant could potentially support liquid water . On the other hand , it is unclear whether such massive moons could actually form around a gas giant planet , thanks to an apparent scaling law between the mass of the planet and its satellite system . In addition , measurements of the star 's ultraviolet flux suggest that any potentially habitable planets or moons may not receive enough ultraviolet to trigger the formation of biomolecules . Planet " d " would receive a similar amount of ultraviolet to the Earth and thus lies in the ultraviolet habitable zone , however , it would be too hot for any moons to support surface liquid water .
= Silkie =
The Silkie ( sometimes spelled Silky ) is a breed of chicken named for its atypically fluffy plumage , which is said to feel like silk , and satin . The breed has several other unusual qualities , such as black skin and bones , blue earlobes , and five toes on each foot , whereas most chickens only have four . They are often exhibited in poultry shows , and appear in various colors . In addition to their distinctive physical characteristics , Silkies are well known for their calm , friendly temperament . It is among the most docile of poultry . Hens are also exceptionally broody , and care for young well . Though they are fair layers themselves , laying only about three eggs a week , they are commonly used to hatch eggs from other breeds and bird species due to their broody nature .
= = History = =
It is unknown exactly where or when fowl with their singular combination of attributes first appeared , but the most well documented point of origin is ancient China ( hence another occasionally encountered name for the bird , Chinese silk chicken ) . Other places in Southeast Asia have been named as possibilities , such as India and Java . The earliest surviving written account of Silkies comes from Marco Polo , who wrote of a " furry chicken " in the 13th century during his travels in Asia . In 1598 , Ulisse Aldrovandi , a writer and naturalist at the University of Bologna , Italy , published a comprehensive treatise on chickens which is still read and admired today . In it , he spoke on " wool @-@ bearing chickens " and ones " clothed with hair like that of a black cat " .
Silkies most likely made their way to the West via the Silk Route and maritime trade . The breed was recognized officially in North America with acceptance into the Standard of Perfection in 1874 . Once Silkies became more common in the West , many myths were perpetuated about them . Early Dutch breeders told buyers they were the offspring of chickens and rabbits , while sideshows promoted them as having actual mammalian fur .
In the 21st century , Silkies are one of the most popular and ubiquitous ornamental breeds of chicken . They are often kept as ornamental fowl or pet chickens by backyard keepers , and are also commonly used to incubate and raise the offspring of other chickens and waterfowl like ducks and geese and game birds such as quail and pheasants .
= = Characteristics = =
Silkies are considered a bantam breed in some countries , but this varies according to region and many breed standards class them officially as large fowl ; the bantam Silkie is actually a separate variety most of the time . Almost all North American strains of the breed are bantam @-@ sized , but in Europe the standard @-@ sized is the original version . However , even standard Silkies are relatively small chickens , with the males weighing only four pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) , and females weighing three pounds ( 1 @.@ 36 kg ) . The American Standard of Perfection calls for males that are 36 ounces ( 1 kg ) , and females that are 32 ounces ( 910 grams ) .
Silkie plumage was once unique among chicken breeds , however in recent years silkie feathering has been developed in several breeds , mostly notably the Chabo , where it is now standardised in Britain and the Netherlands . It has been compared to silk , and to fur . The overall result is a soft , fluffy appearance . Their feathers lack functioning barbicels , and are thus similar to down on other birds . This characteristic leaves Silkies unable to fly .
Silkies appear in two distinct varieties : bearded and non @-@ bearded . Bearded Silkies have an extra muff of feathers under the beak area that covers the earlobes . They also are separated according to color . Colors of Silkie recognized for competitive showing include black , blue , buff , grey , partridge , and white . Alternative hues , such as cuckoo , lavender , red , and splash also exist . The standards of perfection call for all Silkies to have a small walnut @-@ colored comb , dark wattles , and turquoise @-@ blue earlobes . In addition to these defining characteristics , Silkies have five toes on each foot . Other breeds which exhibit this rare trait include the Dorking , Faverolles , and Sultan .
All Silkies have black skin , bones and grayish @-@ black meat ; their Chinese language name is wu gu ji ( 烏骨雞 ) , meaning ' black @-@ boned chicken ' . Melanism which extends beyond the skin into an animal 's connective tissue is a rare trait , and in chickens it is caused by fibromelanosis , which is a rare mutation believed to have begun in Asia . The Silkie and several other breeds descended from Asian stock possess the mutation . Disregarding color , the breed does not generally produce as much as the more common meat breeds of chicken .
Silkies lay a fair number of eggs , of a cream color , but production is often interrupted due to their extreme tendency to go broody ; a hen will produce 100 eggs in an ideal year . Their capacity for incubation , which has been selectively bred out of most fowl bred especially for egg production , is often exploited by poultry keepers by allowing Silkies to raise the offspring of other birds . In addition to being good mothers , Silkies are universally renowned for their calm , friendly temperament . They do well in confinement , and interact very well with children . This docility can cause Silkies to be bullied by more active or aggressive birds when kept in mixed flocks .
= = = Bantams = = =
In the American Standard of Perfection , the standard male weight for the bantam Silkie is 1 kg ( 36 oz ) and for the female , 907 g ( 32 oz ) . The Australian Poultry Standard and British Poultry Standard call for Silkie bantams much smaller ; in the Australian , the standard weights are 680 g ( 25 oz ) for males and 570 g ( 20 oz ) for females . The British standard weight for bantam Silkies is 600 g ( 22 oz ) for males , and 500 g for females ( 18 oz ) .
= = = Polydactyly = = =
Silkies are also known for their polydactyly , usually manifesting as an additional 1 @-@ 2 digits in the foot . The genetic cause of this extra digit formation has been shown to be a SNP in a regulator of the SHH gene , called the ZPA Regulatory Sequence ( ZRS ) . This causes ectopic SHH expression in the anterior of the developing limb bud , leading to increased tissue growth and digits . Interestingly , while the feet of the Silkie display polydactyly , the wings have the standard tridactyly ( three digit ) arrangement . The Japanese Silkie initially develops additional digits in the wing as an embryo , but these are lost prior to hatching . The genetic cause behind Silkie polydactyly differs from those that cause polydactyly in the Dorking chicken breed , which is due to ectopic FGF4 expression in the AER , with ectopic SHH a secondary effect .
= = In cuisine = =
The black meat of a Silkie is generally considered an unusual attribute in European and American cuisines . In contrast , several Asian cuisines consider Silkie meat a gourmet food . Chinese cuisine especially values the breed , but it is also a common ingredient in some Japanese , Cambodian , Vietnamese and Korean dishes . Areas where Chinese cuisine has been a strong influence , such as Malaysia , may also cook Silkie . As early as the 7th century , traditional Chinese medicine has held that chicken soup made with Silkie meat is a curative food . The usual methods of cooking include using Silkie to make broth , braising , and in curries . Traditional Chinese soup made with Silkie also uses ingredients such as wolfberries , Dioscorea polystachya ( mountain yam ) , orange peel , and fresh ginger . A few fusion restaurants in metropolitan areas of the West have also cooked it as a part of traditional American or French cuisine , such as in confit .
= Bulk carrier =
A bulk carrier , bulk freighter , or bulker is a merchant ship specially designed to transport unpackaged bulk cargo , such as grains , coal , ore , and cement in its cargo holds . Since the first specialized bulk carrier was built in 1852 , economic forces have fuelled the development of these ships , causing them to grow in size and sophistication . Today 's bulkers are specially designed to maximize capacity , safety , efficiency , and durability .
Today , bulkers make up 15 % - 17 % of the world 's merchant fleets and range in size from single @-@ hold mini @-@ bulkers to mammoth ore ships able to carry 400 @,@ 000 metric tons of deadweight ( DWT ) . A number of specialized designs exist : some can unload their own cargo , some depend on port facilities for unloading , and some even package the cargo as it is loaded . Over half of all bulkers have Greek , Japanese , or Chinese owners and more than a quarter are registered in Panama . South Korea is the largest single builder of bulkers , and 82 % of these ships were built in Asia .
A bulk carrier 's crew participates in the loading and unloading of cargo , navigating the ship , and keeping its machinery and equipment properly maintained . Loading and unloading the cargo is difficult , dangerous , and can take up to 120 hours on larger ships . Crews can range in size from three people on the smallest ships to over 30 on the largest .
Bulk cargo can be very dense , corrosive , or abrasive . This can present safety problems : cargo shifting , spontaneous combustion , and cargo saturation can threaten a ship . The use of ships that are old and have corrosion problems has been linked to a spate of bulker sinkings in the 1990s , as have the bulker 's large hatchways , important for efficient cargo handling . New international regulations have since been introduced to improve ship design and inspection , and to streamline the process of abandoning ship .
= = Definition = =
There are various ways to define the term bulk carrier . As of 1999 , the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea defines a bulk carrier as " a ship constructed with a single deck , top side tanks and hopper side tanks in cargo spaces and intended to primarily carry dry cargo in bulk ; an ore carrier ; or a combination carrier . " However , most classification societies use a broader definition where a bulker is any ship that carries dry unpackaged goods . Multipurpose cargo ships can carry bulk cargo , but can also carry other cargoes and are not specifically designed for bulk carriage . The term " dry bulk carrier " is used to distinguish bulkers from bulk liquid carriers such as oil , chemical , or liquefied petroleum gas carriers . Very small bulkers are almost indistinguishable from general cargo ships , and they are often classified based more on the ship 's use than its design .
A number of abbreviations are used to describe bulkers . " OBO " describes a bulker which carries a combination of ore , bulk , and oil , and " O / O " is used for combination oil and ore carriers . The terms " VLOC , " " VLBC , " " ULOC , " and " ULBC " for very large and ultra large ore and bulk carriers were adapted from the supertanker designations very large crude carrier and ultra large crude carrier .
= = History = =
Before specialized bulk carriers existed , shippers had two methods to move bulk goods by ship . In the first method , longshoremen loaded the cargo into sacks , stacked the sacks onto pallets , and put the pallets into the cargo hold with a crane . The second method required the shipper to charter an entire ship and spend time and money to build plywood bins into the holds . Then , to guide the cargo through the small hatches , wooden feeders and shifting boards had to be constructed . These methods were slow and labor @-@ intensive . As with the container ship , the problem of efficient loading and unloading has driven the evolution of the bulk carrier .
Specialized bulk carriers began to appear as steam @-@ powered ships became more popular . The first steam ship recognized as a bulk carrier was the British coal carrier SS John Bowes in 1852 . She featured a metal hull , a steam engine , and a ballasting system which used seawater instead of sandbags . These features helped her succeed in the competitive British coal market . The first self @-@ unloader was the lake freighter Hennepin in 1902 on the Great Lakes . This greatly decreased the unloading time of bulkers by using conveyor belt to move the cargo . The first bulkers with diesel propulsion began to appear in 1911 .
Before World War II , the international shipping demand for bulk products was low — about 25 million tons for metal ores — and most of this trade was coastal . However , on the Great Lakes , bulkers hauled vast amounts of ore from the northern mines to the steel mills . In 1929 , 73 million tons of iron ore was transported on the Lakes , and an almost equal amount of coal , limestone , and other products were also moved . Two defining characteristics of bulkers were already emerging : the double bottom , which was adopted in 1890 , and the triangular structure of the ballast tanks , which was introduced in 1905 . After World War II , an international bulk trade began to develop among industrialized nations , particularly between the European countries , the United States and Japan . Due to the economics of this trade , ocean bulkers became larger and more specialized . In this period , Great Lakes freighters increased in size , to maximize economies of scale , and self @-@ unloaders became more common to cut turnaround time . The thousand @-@ footers of the Great Lakes fleets , built in the 1970s , were among the longest ships afloat and in 1979 , a record 214 million ton of bulk cargo were moved on the Great Lakes .
= = Categories = =
= = = Size categories = = =
Bulkers are segregated into six major size categories : small , handysize , handymax , panamax , capesize , and very large . Very large bulk and ore carriers fall into the capesize category but are often considered separately .
= = = = Categories as per Regions = = = =
Categories occur in regional trade , such as Kamsarmax , Seawaymax , Setouchmax , Dunkirkmax , and Newcastlemax also appear in regional trade .
" Kamsarmax " : Maximum length overall 229 meters refers to a new type of ships , larger than panamax , that are suitable for berthing at the Port of Kamsar ( Republic of Guinea ) , where the major loading terminal of bauxite is restricted to vessels not more than 229 meters .
" Newcastlemax " : Maximum beam 50 meters , and maximum length overall of 300 meters Refers to the largest vessel able to enter the port of Newcastle , Australia at about 185 @,@ 000 DWT
" Setouchmax " : About 203 @,@ 000 DWT , being the largest vessels able to navigate the Setouch Sea , Japan
" Seawaymax " : LOA 226 m max / 7 @.@ 92 m draft . Refers to the largest vessel that can pass through the canal locks of the St Lawrence Seaway ( Great lakes , Canada )
" Malaccamax " : LOA 330 m / 20 m draft / 300 @,@ 000 DWT , Refers to the largest vessel that can pass through the Straits of Malacca .
" Dunkirkmax " : Maximum allowable beam = 45 m / LOA 289 m. max ( 175 @,@ 000 DWT approx ) for the eastern harbour lock in the Port of Dunkirk ( France )
Mini @-@ bulkers are prevalent in the category of small vessels with a capacity of under 10 @,@ 000 DWT . Mini @-@ bulkers carry from 500 to 2 @,@ 500 tons , have a single hold , and are designed for river transport . They are often built to be able to pass under bridges and have small crews of three to eight people .
Handysize and Handymax ships are general purpose in nature . These two segments represent 71 % of all bulk carriers over 10 @,@ 000 DWT and also have the highest rate of growth . This is partly due to new regulations coming into effect which put greater constraints on the building of larger vessels . Handymax ships are typically 150 – 200 m in length and 52 @,@ 000 – 58 @,@ 000 DWT with five cargo holds and four cranes . These ships are also general purpose in nature .
The size of a Panamax vessel is limited by the Panama canal 's lock chambers , which can accommodate ships with a beam of up to 32 @.@ 31 m , a length overall of up to 294 @.@ 13 m , and a draft of up to 12 @.@ 04 m .
Capesize ships are too large to traverse the Panama canal and must round Cape Horn to travel between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans . Earlier , capesize ships could not traverse the Suez and needed to go around the Cape of Good Hope . Recent deepening of the Suez canal to 66 ft ( 20 m ) permits most capesize ships to pass through it .
Capesize bulkers are specialized : 93 % of their cargo is iron ore and coal . Some ships on the Great Lakes Waterway exceed Panamax dimensions but they are limited to use on the Great Lakes as they cannot pass through the smaller St. Lawrence Seaway to the ocean . Very large ore carriers and very large bulk carriers are a subset of the capesize category reserved for vessels over 200 @,@ 000 DWT . Carriers of this size are almost always designed to carry iron ore .
= = = General types = = =
= = Fleet characteristics = =
The world 's bulk transport has reached immense proportions : in 2005 , 1 @.@ 7 billion metric tons of coal , iron ore , grain , bauxite , and phosphate was transported by ship . Today , the world 's bulker fleet includes 6 @,@ 225 ships of over 10 @,@ 000 DWT , and represent 40 % of all ships in terms of tonnage and 39 @.@ 4 % in terms of vessels . Including smaller ships , bulkers have a total combined capacity of almost 346 million DWT . Combined carriers are a very small portion of the fleet , representing less than 3 % of this capacity . The lake freighters of the Great Lakes , with 98 ships of 3 @.@ 2 million total DWT , despite forming a small fraction of the total fleet by tonnage and only operating 10 months a year , carried a tenth of the world 's bulk cargo because of the short trip distance and fast turnarounds .
As of 2005 , the average bulker was just over 13 years old . About 41 % of all bulkers were less than ten years old , 33 % were over twenty years old , and the remaining 26 % were between ten and twenty years of age . All of the 98 bulkers registered in the Great Lakes trade are over 20 years old and the oldest still sailing in 2009 was 106 years old .
= = = Flag states = = =
As of 2005 , the United States Maritime Administration counted 6 @,@ 225 bulkers of 10 @,@ 000 DWT or greater worldwide . More bulkers are registered in Panama , with 1 @,@ 703 ships , than any four other flag states combined . In terms of the number of bulk carriers registered , the top five flag states also include Hong Kong with 492 ships , Malta ( 435 ) , Cyprus ( 373 ) , and China ( 371 ) . Panama also dominates bulker registration in terms of deadweight tonnage . Positions two through five are held by Hong Kong , Greece , Malta , and Cyprus .
= = = Largest fleets = = =
Greece , Japan , and China are the top three owners of bulk carriers , with 1 @,@ 326 , 1 @,@ 041 , and 979 vessels respectively . These three nations account for over 53 % of the world 's fleet .
Several companies have large private bulker fleets . The multinational company Gearbulk Holding Ltd. has over 70 bulkers . The Fednav Group in Canada operates a fleet of over 80 bulkers , including two designed to work in Arctic ice . Croatia 's Atlantska Plovidba d.d. has a fleet of 14 bulkers . The H. Vogemann Group in Hamburg , Germany operates a fleet of 19 bulkers . Portline in Portugal , owns 10 bulkers . Dampskibsselskabet Torm in Denmark and Elcano in Spain also own notable bulker fleets . Other companies specialize in mini @-@ bulker operations : England 's Stephenson Clarke Shipping Limited owns a fleet of eight mini @-@ bulkers and five small Handysize bulkers , and Cornships Management and Agency Inc. in Turkey owns a fleet of seven mini @-@ bulkers .
= = = Builders = = =
Asian companies dominate the construction of bulk carriers . Of the world 's 6 @,@ 225 bulkers , almost 62 % were built in Japan by shipyards such as Oshima Shipbuilding and Sanoyas Hishino Meisho . South Korea , with notable shipyards Daewoo and Hyundai Heavy Industries , ranked second among builders , with 643 ships . The People 's Republic of China , with large shipyards such as Dalian , Chengxi , and Shanghai Waigaoqiao , ranked third , with 509 ships . Taiwan , with shipyards such as China Shipbuilding Corporation , ranked fourth , accounting for 129 ships . Shipyards in these top four countries built over 82 % of the bulkers afloat .
= = = Freight charges = = =
Several factors affect the cost to move a bulk cargo by ship . The bulk freight market is very volatile , and it fluctuates , along with the type of cargo , the ship 's size , and the route traveled all affect the final price . Moving a capesize load of coal from South America to Europe cost anywhere from $ 15 to $ 25 per ton in 2005 . Hauling a panamax @-@ sized load of aggregate materials from the Gulf of Mexico to Japan that year could cost as little as $ 40 per ton to as much as $ 70 per ton .
Some shippers choose instead to charter a ship , paying a daily rate instead of a set price per ton . In 2005 , the average daily rate for a Handymax ship varied between $ 18 @,@ 000 – $ 30 @,@ 000 . A Panamax ship could be chartered for $ 20 @,@ 000 – $ 50 @,@ 000 per day , and a Capesize for $ 40 @,@ 000 – $ 70 @,@ 000 per day .
= = = Ship breaking = = =
Generally , ships are removed from the fleet go through a process known as ship breaking or scrapping . Ship @-@ owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship 's empty weight ( called light ton displacement or LDT ) and prices in the scrap metal market . In 1998 , almost 700 ships were scrapped in places like Alang , India and Chittagong , Bangladesh . This is often done by ' beaching ' the ship on open sand , then cutting it apart by hand with gas torches , a dangerous operation that results in injuries and fatalities , as well as exposure to toxic materials such as asbestos , lead , and various chemicals . Half a million deadweight tons of worth of bulk carriers were scrapped in 2004 , accounting for 4 @.@ 7 % of the year 's scrapping . That year , bulkers fetched particularly high scrap prices , between $ 340 and $ 350 per LDT .
= = Operation = =
= = = Crew = = =
The crew on a bulker typically consists of 20 to 30 people , though smaller ships can be handled by 8 . The crew includes the captain or master , the deck department , the engineering department , and the steward 's department . The practice of taking passengers aboard cargo ships , once almost universal , is very rare today and almost non @-@ existent on bulkers .
During the 1990s , bulkers were involved in an alarming number of shipwrecks . This led ship @-@ owners to commission a study seeking to explain the effect of various factors on the crew 's effectiveness and competence . The study showed that crew performance aboard bulk carriers was the lowest of all groups studied . Among bulker crews , the best performance was found aboard younger and larger ships . Crews on better @-@ maintained ships performed better , as did crews on ships where fewer languages were spoken .
Fewer deck officers are employed on bulkers than on similarly sized ships of other types . A mini @-@ bulker carries two to three deck officers , while larger Handysize and Capesize bulkers carry four . Liquid natural gas tankers of the same size have an additional deck officer and unlicensed mariner .
= = = Voyages = = =
A bulker 's voyages are determined by market forces ; routes and cargoes often vary . A ship may engage in the grain trade during the harvest season and later move on to carry other cargoes or work on a different route . Aboard a coastal carrier in the tramp trade , the crew will often not know the next port of call until the cargo is fully loaded .
Because bulk cargo is so difficult to discharge , bulkers spend more time in port than other ships . A study of mini @-@ bulkers found that it takes , on average , twice as much time to unload a ship as it does to load it . A mini @-@ bulker spends 55 hours at a time in port , compared to 35 hours for a lumber carrier of similar size . This time in port increases to 74 hours for Handymax and 120 hours for Panamax vessels . Compared with the 12 @-@ hour turnarounds common for container ships , 15 @-@ hour turnarounds for car carriers , and 26 @-@ hour turnarounds for large tankers , bulker crews have more opportunities to spend time ashore .
= = = Loading and unloading = = =
Loading and unloading a bulker is time @-@ consuming and dangerous . The process is planned by the ship 's chief mate under the direct and continued supervision of ship 's captain . International regulations require that the captain and terminal master agree on a detailed plan before operations begin . Deck officers and stevedores oversee the operations . Occasionally loading errors are made that cause a ship to capsize or break in half at the pier .
The loading method used depends on both the cargo and the equipment available on the ship and on the dock . In the least advanced ports , cargo can be loaded with shovels or bags poured from the hatch cover . This system is being replaced with faster , less labor @-@ intensive methods . Double @-@ articulation cranes , which can load at a rate of 1 @,@ 000 tons per hour , represent a widely used method , and the use of shore @-@ based gantry cranes , reaching 2 @,@ 000 tons per hour , is growing . A crane 's discharge rate is limited by the bucket 's capacity ( from 6 to 40 tons ) and by the speed at which the crane can take a load , deposit it at the terminal , and to return to take the next . For modern gantry cranes , the total time of the grab @-@ deposit @-@ return cycle is about 50 seconds .
Conveyor belts offer a very efficient method of loading , with standard loading rates varying between 100 and 700 tons per hour , although the most advanced ports can offer rates of 16 @,@ 000 tons per hour . Start @-@ up and shutdown procedures with conveyor belts , though , are complicated and require time to carry out . Self @-@ discharging ships use conveyor belts with load rates of around 1 @,@ 000 tons per hour .
Once the cargo is discharged , the crew begins to clean the holds . This is particularly important if the next cargo is of a different type . The immense size of cargo holds and the tendency of cargoes to be physically irritating add to the difficulty of cleaning the holds . When the holds are clean , the process of loading begins .
It is crucial to keep the cargo level during loading in order to maintain stability . As the hold is filled , machines such as excavators and bulldozers are often used to keep the cargo in check . Leveling is particularly important when the hold is only partly full , since cargo is more likely to shift . Extra precautions are taken , such as adding longitudinal divisions and securing wood atop the cargo . If a hold is full , a technique called tomming is used , which involves digging out a 6 feet ( 2 m ) hole below the hatch cover and filling it with bagged cargo or weights .
= = Architecture = =
A bulk carrier 's design is largely defined by the cargo it will carry . The cargo 's density , also known as its stowage factor , is the key factor . Densities for common bulk cargoes vary from 0 @.@ 6 tons per cubic meter for light grains to 3 tons per cubic meter for iron ore .
The overall cargo weight is the limiting factor in the design of an ore carrier , since the cargo is so dense . Coal carriers , on the other hand , are limited by overall volume , since most bulkers can be completely filled with coal before reaching their maximum draft .
For a given tonnage , the second factor which governs the ship 's dimensions is the size of the ports and waterways it will travel to . For example , a vessel that will pass the Panama Canal will be limited in its beam and draft . For most designs , the ratio of length @-@ to @-@ width ranges between 5 and 7 , with an average of 6 @.@ 2 . The ratio of length @-@ to @-@ height will be between 11 and 12 .
= = = Machinery = = =
The engine room on a bulker is usually near the stern , under the superstructure . Larger bulkers , from Handymax up , usually have a single two @-@ stroke low @-@ speed crosshead diesel engine directly coupled to a fixed @-@ pitch propeller . Electricity is produced by auxiliary generators and / or an alternator coupled to the propeller shaft . On the smaller bulkers , one or two four @-@ stroke diesels are used to turn either a fixed or controllable @-@ pitch propeller via a reduction gearbox , which may also incorporate an output for an alternator . The average design ship speed for bulkers of Handysize and above is 13 @.@ 5 – 15 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 – 27 @.@ 8 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 – 17 @.@ 3 mph ) . The propeller speed is relatively low , at about 90 revolutions per minute , although it depends on the size of the propeller .
As a result of the 1973 oil crisis , the 1979 energy crisis , and the resulting rise in oil prices , experimental designs using coal to fuel ships were tested in the late 1970s and early 1980s . The Australian National Lines ( ANL ) constructed two 74 @,@ 700 @-@ ton coal @-@ burner ships called the River Boyne and River Embely. along with two constructed by TNT called TNT Capricornia and TNT Capentaria and renamed Fitzroy River and Endeavor River . These ships were financially effective for the duration of their lives , and their steam engines were able to generate a shaft @-@ power of 19 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 14 @,@ 000 kW ) . This strategy gave an interesting advantage to carriers of bauxite and similar fuel cargoes , but suffered from poor engine yield compared to higher maintenance cost and efficient modern diesels , maintenance problems due to the supply of ungraded coal , and high initial costs .
= = = Hatches = = =
A hatch or hatchway is the opening at the top of a cargo hold . The mechanical devices which allow hatches to be opened and closed are called hatch covers . In general , hatch covers are between 45 % and 60 % of the ship 's breadth , or beam , and 57 % to 67 % of the length of the holds . To efficiently load and unload cargo , hatches must be large , but large hatches present structural problems . Hull stress is concentrated around the edges of the hatches , and these areas must be reinforced . Often , hatch areas are reinforced by locally increasing the scantlings or by adding structural members called stiffeners . Both of these options have the undesired effect of adding weight to the ship .
As recently as the 1950s , hatches had wooden covers that would be broken apart and rebuilt by hand , rather than opened and closed . Newer vessels have hydraulic @-@ operated metal hatch covers that can often be operated by one person . Hatch covers can slide forwards , backwards , or to the side , lift up or fold up . It is essential that the hatch covers be watertight : unsealed hatches lead to accidental cargo hold flooding , which has caused many bulkers to sink .
Regulations regarding hatch covers have evolved since the investigation following the loss of the MV Derbyshire . The Load Line Conference of 1966 imposed a requirement that hatch covers be able to withstand load of 1 @.@ 74 tons / m2 due to sea water , and a minimum scantling of 6 mm for the tops of the hatch covers . The International Association of Classification Societies then increased this strength standard by creating its Unified Requirement S21 in 1998 . This standard requires that the pressure due to sea water be calculated as a function of freeboard and speed , especially for hatch covers located on the forward portion of the ship .
= = = Hull = = =
Bulkers are designed to be easy to build and to store cargo efficiently . To facilitate construction , bulkers are built with a single hull curvature . Also , while a bulbous bow allows a ship to move more efficiently through the water , designers lean towards simple vertical bows on larger ships . Full hulls , with large block coefficients , are almost universal , and as a result , bulkers are inherently slow . This is offset by their efficiency . Comparing a ship 's carrying capacity in terms of deadweight tonnage to its weight when empty is one way to measure its efficiency . A small Handymax ship can carry five times its weight . In larger designs , this efficiency is even more pronounced : Capesize vessels can carry more than eight times their weight .
Bulkers have a cross @-@ section typical of most merchant ships . The upper and lower corners of the hold are used as ballast tanks , as is the double bottom area . The corner tanks are reinforced and serve another purpose besides controlling the ship 's trim . Designers choose the angle of the corner tanks to be less than that of the angle of repose of the anticipated cargoes . This greatly reduces side @-@ to @-@ side movement , or " shifting , " of cargo which can endanger the ship .
The double bottoms are also subject to design constraints . The primary concern is that they be high enough to allow the passage of pipes and cables . These areas must also be roomy enough to allow people safe access to perform surveys and maintenance . On the other hand , concerns of excess weight and wasted volume keep the double bottoms very tight spaces .
Bulker hulls are made of steel , usually mild steel . Some manufacturers have preferred high @-@ tensile steel recently in order to reduce the tare weight . However , the use of high @-@ tensile steel for longitudinal and transverse reinforcements can reduce the hull 's rigidity and resistance to corrosion . Forged steel is used for some ship parts , such as the propeller shaft support . Transverse partitions are made of corrugated iron , reinforced at the bottom and at connections . The construction of bulker hulls using a concrete @-@ steel sandwich has been investigated .
Double hulls have become popular in the past ten years . Designing a vessel with double sides adds primarily to its breadth , since bulkers are already required to have double bottoms . One of the advantages of the double hull is to make room to place all the structural elements in the sides , removing them from the holds . This increases the volume of the holds , and simplifies their structure which helps in loading , unloading , and cleaning . Double sides also improve a ship 's capacity for ballasting , which is useful when carrying light goods : the ship may have to increase its draft for stability or seakeeping reasons , which is done by adding ballast water .
A recent design , called Hy @-@ Con , seeks to combine the strengths of single @-@ hull and double @-@ hull construction . Short for Hybrid Configuration , this design doubles the forward @-@ most and rear @-@ most holds and leaves the others single @-@ hulled . This approach increases the ship 's solidity at key points , while reducing the overall tare weight .
Since the adoption of double hull has been more of an economic than a purely architectural decision , some argue that double @-@ sided ships receive less comprehensive surveys and suffer more from hidden corrosion . In spite of opposition , double hulls became a requirement for Panamax and Capesize vessels in 2005 .
Freighters are in continual danger of " breaking their backs " and thus longitudinal strength is a primary architectural concern . A naval architect uses the correlation between longitudinal strength and a set of hull thicknesses called scantlings to manage problems of longitudinal strength and stresses . A ship 's hull is composed of individual parts called members . The set of dimensions of these members is called the ship 's scantlings . Naval architects calculate the stresses a ship can be expected to be subjected to , add in safety factors , and then can calculate the required scantlings .
These analyses are conducted when traveling empty , loading and unloading , when partially and fully loaded , and under conditions of temporary overloading . Places subject to the largest stresses are studied carefully , such as hold @-@ bottoms , hatch @-@ covers , bulkheads between holds , and the bottoms of ballast tanks . Great Lakes bulkers also must be designed to withstand springing , or developing resonance with the waves , which can cause fatigue fractures .
Since 1 April 2006 , the International Association of Classification Societies has adopted the Common Structural Rules . The rules apply to bulkers more than 90 meters in length and require that scantlings ' calculations take into account items such as the effect of corrosion , the harsh conditions often found in the North Atlantic , and dynamic stresses during loading . The rules also establish margins for corrosion , from 0 @.@ 5 to 0 @.@ 9 mm .
= = Safety = =
The 1980s and 1990s were a very unsafe time for bulk carriers . Many bulkers sank during this time , 99 were lost between 1990 and 1997 alone . Most of these sinkings were sudden and quick , making it impossible for the crew to escape : more than 650 sailors were lost during this same period . Due partly to the sinking of the MV Derbyshire , a series of international safety resolutions regarding bulkers were adopted during the 1990s .
= = = Stability problems = = =
Cargo shifting poses a great danger for bulkers . The problem is even more pronounced with grain cargoes , since grain settles during a voyage and creates extra space between the top of the cargo and the top of the hold . Cargo is then free to move from one side of the ship to the other as the ship rolls . This can cause the ship to list , which , in turn , causes more cargo to shift . This kind of chain reaction can capsize a bulker very quickly .
The 1960 SOLAS Convention sought to control this sort of problem . These regulations required the upper ballast tanks designed in a manner to prevent shifting . They also required cargoes to be leveled , or trimmed , using excavators in the holds . The practice of trimming reduces the amount of the cargo 's surface area in contact with air which has a useful side @-@ effect : reducing the chances of spontaneous combustion in cargoes such as coal , iron , and metal shavings .
Another sort of risk that can affect dry cargoes , is absorption of ambient moisture . When very fine concretes and aggregates mix with water , the mud created at the bottom of the hold shifts easily and can produce a free surface effect . The only way to control these risks is by good ventilation practices and careful monitoring for the presence of water .
= = = Structural problems = = =
In 1990 alone , 20 bulk carriers sank , taking with them 94 crewmen . In 1991 , 24 bulkers sank , killing 154 . This level of loss focused attention on the safety aspects of bulk carriers , and a great deal was learned . The American Bureau of Shipping concluded that the losses were " directly traceable to failure of the cargo hold structure " and Lloyd 's Register of Shipping added that the hull sides could not withstand " the combination of local corrosion , fatigue cracking and operational damage . "
The accident studies showed a clear pattern :
Sea water enters the forward hatch , due to a large wave , a poor seal , corrosion , etc .
The extra water weight in hold number one compromises the partition to hold number two ,
Water enters hold number two and alters the trim so much that more water enters the holds
With two holds rapidly filling with water , the bow submerges and the ship quickly sinks , leaving little time for the crew to react .
Previous practices had required ships to withstand the flooding of a single forward hold , but did not guard against situations where two holds would flood . The case where two after ( rear ) holds are flooded is no better , because the engine room is quickly flooded , leaving the ship without propulsion . If two holds in the middle of the ship are flooded , the stress on the hull can become so great that the ship snaps in two .
Other contributing factors were identified :
Most shipwrecks involved ships over 20 years in age . A glut of ships of this age occurred in the 1980s , caused by an overestimate of the growth of international trade . Rather than replace them prematurely , shipping companies were compelled on cost grounds to keep their aging vessels in service .
Corrosion , due to a lack of maintenance , affected the seals of the hatch covers and the strength of the bulkheads which separate holds . The corrosion is difficult to detect due to the immense size of the surfaces involved .
Advanced methods of loading were not foreseen when the ships were designed . While the new processes are more efficient , loading is more difficult to control ( it can take over an hour just to halt the operation ) , occasionally resulting in overloading the ship . These unexpected shocks , over time , can damage the hull 's structural integrity .
Recent use of high @-@ tensile steel allows building a structure with less material and weight while retaining similar strength . However , because it is thinner than regular steel , HT steel can corrode more easily , plus it can develop metal fatigue in choppy seas .
According to Lloyd 's Register , a principal cause of sinkings was the attitude of ship @-@ owners , who sent ships with known problems to sea .
The new rules adopted in the 1997 annexes to the SOLAS convention focused on problems such as reinforcing bulkheads and the longitudinal frame , more stringent inspections ( with a particular focus on corrosion ) and routine in @-@ port inspections . The 1997 additions also required bulkers with restrictions ( for instance , forbidden from carrying certain types of cargoes ) to mark their hulls with large , easy @-@ to @-@ see triangles .
= = = Crew safety = = =
Since December 2004 , Panamax and Capesize bulkers have been required to carry free @-@ fall lifeboats located on the stern , behind the deckhouse . This arrangement allows the crew to abandon ship quickly in case of a catastrophic emergency . One argument against the use of free @-@ fall lifeboats is that the evacuees require " some degree of physical mobility , even fitness " to enter and launch the boat . Also , injuries have occurred during launches , for example , in the case of incorrectly secured safety belts .
In December 2002 , Chapter XII of the SOLAS convention was amended to require the installation of high @-@ level water alarms and monitoring systems on all bulkers . This safety measure quickly alerts watch standers on the bridge and in the engine room in case of flooding in the holds . In cases of catastrophic flooding , these detectors could speed the process of abandoning ship .
= Citadel of Damascus =
The Citadel of Damascus ( Arabic : قلعة دمشق : Qala 'at Dimashq ) is a large medieval fortified palace and citadel in Damascus , Syria . It is part of the Ancient City of Damascus , which was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979 .
The location of the current citadel was first fortified in 1076 by the Turkman warlord Atsiz bin Uvak , although it is possible but not proven that a citadel stood on this place in the Hellenistic and Roman periods . After the assassination of Atsiz bin Uvak , the project was finished by the Seljuq ruler Tutush I. The emirs of the subsequent Burid and Zengid dynasties carried out modifications and added new structures to it . During this period , the citadel and the city were besieged several times by Crusader and Muslim armies . In 1174 , the citadel was captured by Saladin , the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt , who made it his residence and had the defences and residential buildings modified .
Saladin 's brother Al @-@ Adil rebuilt the citadel completely between 1203 and 1216 in response to the development of the counterweight trebuchet . After his death , power struggles broke out between the other Ayyubid princes and although Damascus switched hands several times , the citadel was taken by force only once , in 1239 . The citadel remained in Ayyubid hands until the Mongols under their general Kitbuqa captured Damascus in 1260 , thereby ending Ayyubid rule in Syria . After an unsuccessful revolt broke out in the citadel , the Mongols had most of it dismantled . After the defeat of the Mongols in 1260 by the Mamluks , who had succeeded the Ayyubids as rulers of Egypt , Damascus came under Mamluk rule . Except for brief periods in 1300 and 1401 , when the Mongols conquered Damascus , the Mamluks controlled the citadel until 1516 . In that year , Syria fell into the hands of the Ottoman Empire . Damascus surrendered without a fight and from the 17th century onward the citadel functioned as barracks for the Jannisaries — Ottoman infantry units . The citadel started to fall into disrepair in the 19th century and its last military use was in 1925 , when French soldiers shelled the old city from the citadel in response to the Great Syrian Revolt against the French Mandate of Syria . The citadel continued to serve as a barracks and prison until 1986 , when excavations and restorations started . As of 2011 , excavation and restoration efforts are still ongoing .
The citadel is located in the northwest corner of the city walls , between the Bab al @-@ Faradis and the Bab al @-@ Jabiyah . The citadel consists of a more or less rectangular curtain wall enclosing an area of 230 by 150 metres ( 750 by 490 ft ) . The walls were originally protected by 14 massive towers , but today only 12 remain . The citadel has gates on its northern , western and eastern flanks . The current citadel dates primarily to the Ayyubid period while incorporating parts of the older Seljuq fortress . Extensive repairs in response to sieges and earthquakes were carried out in the Mamluk and Ottoman periods .
= = Before the citadel = =
It is uncertain whether a building stood on the site of the citadel before the 11th century AD . The Ghouta , the wider area in which Damascus is located , has been occupied since at least 9000 BC , but there is no evidence for settlement within the area that is today enclosed by the city walls before the 1st millennium BC . The area occupied by the later citadel was most likely outside this first settlement . The presence of a citadel during the Hellenistic period is uncertain . Damascus certainly had a citadel during the Roman period , but whether it was located on the site of the present citadel is uncertain and subject to scholarly debate .
= = Old citadel = =
= = = Construction of the old citadel = = =
In 1076 , Damascus was conquered by the Turkman warlord Atsiz bin Uvak , who established himself as the ruler of the city and began the construction of the citadel . He then tried to invade the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt but was defeated in 1077 . The Fatimids subsequently built on their victory over Atsiz and besieged Damascus in 1077 and again in 1078 , but both attempts to take the city were unsuccessful . The siege of 1078 was eventually lifted by Tutush I , brother of the Seljuq sultan Malik Shah I , to whom Atsiz had appealed for help . After the Fatimid besiegers had left , Tutush I took over the city and , distrusting Atsiz , had him assassinated in 1078 . The construction of the citadel was finished under Tutush I.
= = = From Seljuqs to Zengids = = =
After the death of Tutush I in 1095 , Syria was divided between his sons Abu Nasr Shams al @-@ Muluk Duqaq and Fakhr al @-@ Mulk Radwan . Duqaq took control of Damascus while Radwan established himself as ruler of Aleppo . During Duqaq 's reign ( 1095 – 1104 ) , additional work was carried out on the citadel . In 1096 , Radwan besieged the citadel but failed to capture it .
During the rule of the Burid dynasty ( 1104 – 1154 ) , work was carried out on the citadel in response to multiple attacks on Damascus by Crusader and Muslim armies . In 1126 , a Crusader army approached Damascus , but their advance was stopped 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from the city . A second attempt by Crusaders in 1129 advanced to within 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) of the city before they had to retreat . Zengi , the atabeg of Aleppo and Mosul , attacked Damascus in 1135 and again in 1140 . Zengi 's second attack was thwarted because Damascus forged a coalition with the Crusader states to the south , arguing that if Damascus were conquered , these states would fall as well . Crusader armies attacked Damascus a third time in 1148 during the Second Crusade . This siege of Damascus ended within a week when an army led by Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi , ruler of Aleppo and the son of Zengi , threatened the besieging Crusaders , forcing them to withdraw . After unsuccessful attacks in 1150 and 1151 , Nur ad @-@ Din finally captured Damascus in 1154 . The citadel was only surrendered to Nur ad @-@ Din after Mujir ad @-@ Din Abaq , the last | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
castle compound . The existing castle buildings were insufficient to house all the administrative institutions ; a temporary building inside the castle was built for the Court of Common Pleas at the beginning of the period , and rebuilt on a larger scale during 1319 – 20 . The Exchequer took over Clifford 's Tower . Other buildings around the city had to be commandeered to absorb the overflow from the castle itself . As a result of the extended use of the castle for these purposes , the law courts at York Castle began to compete with those in London , a pattern that lasted into the 1360s . The castle eventually acquired its own mint in 1344 , when Edward III decided to create a permanent mint in York Castle to produce gold and silver coins to serve the needs of the north of England . European coiners were brought to York to establish the facility .
Henry III extended the castle 's role as a jail for holding a wide range of prisoners . The sheriff was responsible for the jail at this time , and his deputy usually took the role of a full @-@ time jailer . Up to three hundred and ten prisoners were held in the castle at any one time . The conditions in which prisoners were held were " appalling " , and led to the widespread loss of life amongst detainees . Prison escapes were relatively common , and many of them , such as the break @-@ out by 28 prisoners in 1298 , were successful . When the Military Order of the Knights Templar was dissolved in England in 1307 , York Castle was used to hold many of the arrested knights . The castle mills , as former Templar property , returned to royal control at the same time . Edward II also used the castle as a jail in his campaign against his rebellious barons in 1322 , and after the battle of Boroughbridge many of the defeated rebel leaders were executed at York Castle .
By the end of the 14th century , the castle bailey was primarily occupied by the local county administration . It was used extensively as a jail , with prisoners being kept in the various towers around the bailey . The old castle @-@ guard system for securing the castle had changed into a system whereby the crown used rents from local royal lands to hire local guards for the castle . Increasingly , royalty preferred to stay at the Franciscan friary , between the Castle and King 's Staith on the Ouse , while their staff resided at St Mary 's Abbey and St Andrew 's Priory in the Fishergate area .
= = = 15th and 16th centuries = = =
In the 15th century , York Castle , along with Nottingham Castle , was considered a key security asset in the north of England , but investment even in these castles diminished . Repairs to York Castle grew infrequent from 1400 onwards , and it fell into increasing disrepair . Richard III recognised the issue and in 1483 had some of the most decrepit structures removed , but he died at the battle of Bosworth before replacement work could commence . By the reign of Henry VIII , the antiquary John Leland reported that the castle was in considerable disrepair ; nonetheless the water defences remained intact , unlike those of many other castles of the period . As a result of the deterioration , Henry had to be advised that the king 's councillors no longer had any official residence in which to stay and work when they were in York . The castle mint was shut down after the death of Edward VI in 1553 , and the castle mills were given to a local charitable hospital in 1464 . The hospital was then closed during the Reformation , and the mills passed into private ownership once again .
The castle continued to be used as a jail , increasingly for local felons , and a location for political executions . By the 16th century it had become traditional to execute traitors by hanging them from the top of Clifford 's Tower , rather than killing them at Micklegate Bar , the usual previous location for capital punishment in York . In 1536 , for example , the political leader Robert Aske was executed at York Castle on the orders of Henry VIII , following the failure of Aske 's Pilgrimage of Grace protest against the Dissolution of the Monasteries . For most of the period the sheriffs of Yorkshire remained in control of the castle , although there were some notable exceptions such as the appointment of the royal favourite Sir Robert Ryther by Edward IV in 1478 . At the end of the 16th century , however , the Clifford family ( Earls of Cumberland ) , became the hereditary constables of the castle , and Clifford 's Tower took its name from the family at around this time .
The deterioration of the castle continued into the reign of Elizabeth I , who was advised that it no longer had any military utility . Robert Redhead , the tower keeper , became infamous at the time for taking parts of the castle to pieces and selling off the stonework for his own profit . Despite numerous attempts by local city and crown officials to halt this , Redhead continued to cause considerable damage before being forced to stop . Proposals were made to pull down Clifford 's Tower altogether in 1596 , but were turned down because of the strength of local feeling .
= = = 17th century = = =
Maintaining the castle was becoming increasingly expensive , and in 1614 King James sold the lease on Clifford 's Tower and the surrounding land to John Babington and Edmund Duffield , a pair of property speculators . In turn , Babington and Duffield sold Clifford 's Tower to a York merchant family . In 1642 , however , the English Civil War broke out between the rival factions of the Royalists and Parliament . Forces loyal to Charles I , under the command of Henry Clifford , garrisoned York Castle and the surrounding city in 1643 . York effectively became the " northern capital " for the Royalist cause . Clifford repaired the castle and strengthened the walls to permit them to support cannon , placing his arms alongside those of the king above the entrance . Clifford 's Tower 's gatehouse was substantially remodelled , losing its original medieval appearance . Baile Hill , on the other side of the river , became a gun emplacement . The castle mint was reopened to supply the king 's forces with coins .
The war turned against the Royalist factions , and on 23 April 1644 Parliamentary forces commenced the siege of York . A Scottish army under Alexander Leslie came from the south , while a Parliamentary force under Ferdinando Fairfax came from the east . Six weeks later , Edward Montagu brought a third contingent to York , bringing the number of forces besieging the city to over 30 @,@ 000 men . William Cavendish commanded the city during the siege , while Colonel Sir Francis Cobb was appointed the governor of the castle . Despite bombardment , attempts to undermine the walls and attacks on the gates , the city held out through May and June . Prince Rupert , sent to relieve York , approached with reinforcements , and through clever manoeuvring was able to force the besiegers to withdraw , lifting the siege on 1 July . The next day , Parliamentary forces defeated Rupert at the Battle of Marston Moor , six miles west of York , making the surrender of York and the castle inevitable . On 14 July the city and castle surrendered to the Parliamentary forces , who permitted the Royalists to march out with full honours .
Parliament then appointed Thomas Dickenson , the local mayor , as the governor of Clifford 's Tower . Control of the castle rested with the post of mayor until the Restoration . Efforts were made to separate the structures of Clifford 's Tower , which Parliament used as a garrison , from the buildings of the bailey , which continued to be used as a prison . Oliver Cromwell visited Clifford 's Tower in 1650 , and received a salute from the guns stationed on top of it . The cost of the garrison was levied on the city of York .
After the Restoration of Charles II , the pre @-@ war owners of the property laid claim to Clifford 's Tower , eventually being granted ownership . A garrison continued to be stationed there , however , which prevented the owners from actually occupying or using the property . Repairs were made to the tower , and it became a magazine for storing gunpowder and shot . Attempts were made to restore the condition of the moat , which had become badly silted . Some political prisoners continued to be held at the castle during the Restoration period , including George Fox , the founder of the Society of Friends .
The county facilities in the bailey were expanded during these years , with improvements to the Grand Jury House and the Common Hall , but by the 1680s the role of the military garrison at York Castle was being called into question . Sir Christopher Musgrave produced a report for the Crown in 1682 ; he argued that it would cost at least £ 30 @,@ 000 to turn the castle into a modern fortification , producing a proposal for the six bastions that such a star fort would require . This work was never carried out . Meanwhile , the garrison and the castle had become extremely unpopular with the people of York , who disliked both the cost and the imposition of external authority .
On St George 's Day in 1684 at around 10 pm , an explosion in the magazine destroyed the interior of Clifford 's Tower entirely . The official explanation was that the celebratory salute from the guns on the roof had set fire to parts of the woodwork , which later ignited the magazine . Most historians , however , believe the explosion was not accidental . At the time , it was common in the city to toast the potential demolition of the " Minced Pie " , as the castle was known to locals ; suspiciously , some members of the garrison had moved their personal belongings to safety just before the explosion , and no @-@ one from the garrison was injured by the event . The heat of the fire turned the limestone of the tower to its current , slightly pink , colour . The now @-@ ruined tower was returned fully to private ownership , eventually forming part of the lands of the neighbouring house and gardens belonging to Samuel Waud .
= = = 18th century = = =
By 1701 , the conditions of the county jail had become scandalous and the decision was taken to redevelop the area occupied by the old bailey . A local tax helped to fund the development , and the king agreed for the ruins of St Mary 's Abbey to be cannibalised for building stone . Three new buildings were erected to the south of Clifford 's Tower . A new county jail , built between 1701 and 1705 by William Wakefield , was placed on the south side , closely resembling the fashionable work of John Vanbrugh . The local architect John Carr then built the Assize Courts on the site of the old Jury House between 1773 and 1777 on the west side , and oversaw the replacement of the Sessions House and Common Hall by the Female Prison between 1780 and 1783 on the east side . The Female Prison and county jail were later combined to become the Debtors ' Prison . Both of Carr 's buildings were designed in a distinctive neoclassical style ; the Assize Court building was particularly praised at the time as being " a superb building of the Ionic order " . The castle courtyard was grassed over to form a circle in 1777 and became known as the " Eye of the Ridings " because it was used for the election of members of parliament for York .
Visits by the prison reformer John Howard as part of the research for his book The State of the Prisons found these prisons flawed , but in relatively good condition compared to others at the time . The Debtors ' Prison as a whole was an " honour to the county " of York , with " airy and healthy " rooms , but the felons ' wing of the prison attracted some criticism . The felons ' wing was " too small " and had " no water " for the inmates ; felons were forced to sleep on piles of straw on the floor . Indeed , conditions were so bad in the felons ' wing that nine prisoners suffocated in one night during 1739 .
Just outside the main walls , the castle mills had become increasingly ineffective from the 16th century onwards because of a reduction in the flow of the rivers driving the water @-@ wheels . As a result , in 1778 they were rebuilt with a new steam engine to drive the machinery ; this steam engine caused considerable discomfort to the prisoners affected by the smoke and noise .
= = = 19th and 20th centuries = = =
Criticism of the castle prison increased at the end of the 18th century . The facilities were felt to be inadequate and the crowds of spectators who gathered outside the prison to see inmates being taken into York for execution unseemly . Attempts were made to improve the way executions were carried out from 1803 onwards : the former castle courtyard , the Eye of the Ridings , was used for this purpose instead , although crowds still gathered outside the bailey to watch the slow deaths of the prisoners . By 1813 the execution process had been sped up by the introduction of the " short drop " method of hanging , allowing the unusually rapid execution of fourteen Luddite agitators at the castle in 1814 . Overcrowding in the jail was now also a problem , with up to 114 prisoners being held at any one time ; occasionally , around forty prisoners awaiting trial had to be kept in the jail yard for lack of space elsewhere .
The suitability of the prison was finally brought to a head at the 1821 assizes in York , when an official complaint was made and an investigation begun . The decision was taken to purchase Clifford 's Tower and the Waud house , with the aim of demolishing them both to make room for a new , more modern prison . Sydney Smith , the famous wit , writer and vicar of Foston @-@ le @-@ Clay , successfully led a campaign to save Clifford 's Tower , emphasising the historic importance of the location for the surrounding city . An alternative proposal , put forward by architect Robert Wallace , would have seen the conversion of Clifford 's Tower back into a habitable building to form the hub of a radial prison design , but this was turned down .
In 1825 , Clifford 's Tower and the Waud house were purchased by the county of Yorkshire at the cost of £ 8 @,@ 800 ( £ 665 @,@ 000 at 2009 prices ) . The new prison buildings , designed by architects P. F. Robinson and G. T. Andrews , were constructed in a Tudor Gothic style , including a gatehouse 35 feet ( 11 metres ) high and a radial prison block , protected by a long , high stone wall . The prison , considered to be the strongest such building in England , was built entirely of stone to be both secure and fireproof . Dark grey gritstone was used in the construction to produce a forbidding appearance , although the prison itself was considered healthy and well ventilated . Clifford 's Tower played no part in the formal design of the prison , although the talus , or sloping edge of the motte , was cut away and replaced by a retaining wall to allow more space for the new prison building . The backyard of the Female Prison , concealed from public view by the new wall , was used for hangings from 1868 onwards . The Prison Act , 1877 , reformed the English prison system , and York Castle gaol was passed into the control of central government the following year . It was used as the county prison until 1900 , when the remaining prisoners were transferred to Wakefield Prison , and from then onwards the facility was used as a military prison instead .
By the early 19th century , dredging and other improvements to the river Foss had made it possible to import flour into York by river , reducing the economic significance of the castle mills . In 1856 , the castle mills were finally demolished as part of a further sequence of improvements to this part of the river . The King 's Pool that formed part of the castle 's water defences was drained . With the construction of several new bridges near the castle , the site became " surrounded by roads instead of moats " .
In 1890 the Prison Commissioners agreed to declare Clifford 's Tower a national monument and to conserve it as a historic location . In 1902 Clifford 's Tower was given to Yorkshire County Council , together with a grant of £ 3 @,@ 000 ( £ 242 @,@ 000 at 2009 prices ) arranged by Lord Wenlock for conservation and repairs . The removal of the talus and the damage to the castle stonework in the 16th century had put excessive pressure on the supporting motte , causing a recurrence of the 14th century subsidence . Sir Basil Mott , a leading Victorian engineer , installed concrete underpinnings to stabilise the structure beneath the gatehouse . By the early 20th century , Clifford 's Tower was regularly open to visitors , and in 1915 it was passed to the Office of Works as a national monument .
= = Today = =
York Prison finally closed in 1929 , and the Tudor Gothic Victorian prison buildings were demolished in 1935 . The Assize Courts building now houses the York Crown Court , while the former Debtors ' Prison and Female Prison , together with a modern entrance area , are now the Castle Museum . The circular grassed area between these buildings that was once known as the " Eyes of the Ridings " is now known as Castle Green , or the " Eye of York " . Clifford 's Tower is the most prominent surviving part of the original medieval fortification , although the stone steps up the side of the motte are modern . Fragments of the bailey wall , parts of the south gatehouse and one of the corner towers also survive .
The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled monument . The site , managed by English Heritage , is open to the public . Until the 1970s , the pogrom of 1190 was often underplayed by official histories of the castle ; early official guides to the castle made no reference to it . In 1978 , however , the first memorial tablet to the victims was laid at the base of Clifford 's Tower , and in 1990 the 800th anniversary of the killings was commemorated at the tower . Recently , commercial interests have sought to introduce retail development to the area surrounding it . Citizens , visitors , academics , environmentalists , local businesspeople and Jewish groups have opposed the development with some success , winning a lengthy and bitter public inquiry in 2003 .
= Jarlshof =
Jarlshof ( / ˈjɑːrlzhɒf / YARLZ @-@ hoff ) is the best known prehistoric archaeological site in Shetland , Scotland . It lies near the southern tip of the Shetland Mainland and has been described as " one of the most remarkable archaeological sites ever excavated in the British Isles " . It contains remains dating from 2500 BC up to the 17th century AD .
The Bronze Age settlers left evidence of several small oval houses with thick stone walls and various artefacts including a decorated bone object . The Iron Age ruins include several different types of structure including a broch and a defensive wall around the site . The Pictish period provides various works of art including a painted pebble and a symbol stone . The Viking age ruins make up the largest such site visible anywhere in Britain and include a longhouse ; excavations provided numerous tools and a detailed insight into life in Shetland at this time . The most visible structures on the site are the walls of the Scottish period fortified manor house , which inspired the name " Jarlshof " that first appears in an 1821 novel by Walter Scott .
The site is in the care of Historic Scotland and is open from April to September . In 2010 " The Crucible of Iron Age Shetland " including Mousa , Old Scatness and Jarlshof was added to those seeking to be on the " tentative list " of World Heritage Sites .
= = Location and etymology = =
Jarlshof lies near the southern tip of the Shetland Mainland , close to the settlements of Sumburgh and Grutness and to the south end of Sumburgh Airport . The site overlooks an arm of the sea called the West Voe of Sumburgh and the nearby freshwater springs and building materials available on the beach will have added to the location 's attraction as a settlement . The south Mainland also provides a favourable location for arable cultivation in a Shetland context and there is a high density of prehistoric settlement in the surrounding area . Jarlshof is only one mile from Scatness where the remains of another broch and other ruins of a similar longevity were discovered in 1975 . There is a small visitor centre at Jarlshof with displays and a collection of artefacts .
The name Jarlshof meaning " Earl 's Mansion " is a coinage of Walter Scott , who visited the site in 1814 and based it on the Scottish period name of " the laird 's house " . It was more than a century later before excavations proved that there had actually been Viking Age settlement on the site , although there is no evidence that a Norse jarl ever lived there .
= = History = =
The remains at Jarlshof represent thousands of years of human occupation , and can be seen as a microcosm of Shetland history . Other than the Old House of Sumburgh ( see below ) the site remained largely hidden until a storm in the late 19th century washed away part of the shore , and revealed evidence of these ancient buildings . Formal archaeological excavation started in 1925 and Jarlshof was one of two broch sites which were the first to be excavated using modern scientific techniques between 1949 – 52 . Although the deposits within the broch had been badly disturbed by earlier attempts , this work revealed a complex sequence of construction from different periods . Buildings on the site include the remains of a Bronze Age smithy , an Iron Age broch and roundhouses , a complex of Pictish wheelhouses , a Viking longhouse , and a mediaeval farmhouse . No further excavations have been undertaken since the early 1950s and no radiocarbon dating has been attempted .
= = = Neolithic = = =
The earliest finds are pottery from the Neolithic era , although the main settlement dates from the Bronze Age ( see below ) . A site nearby has been dated to 3200 BC .
= = = Bronze Age = = =
The Bronze Age in Scotland lasted from approximately 2000 BC to 800 BC . The oldest known remains on the Jarlshof site date from this period , although there is evidence of inhabitation as far back as 2500 BC . The remains of several small oval houses with thick stone walls date to the late Bronze Age and the structures show some similarity to Skara Brae on Mainland , Orkney , but are smaller and of a later date . These buildings may have been partly subterranean at the earliest period of inhabitation , a technique that provided both structural stability and insulation .
There is also evidence of a cattle stall with a waste channel leading to a tank in a courtyard and a whale vertebra set into a wall that may have been used as a tethering post . Broken moulds from the smithy indicate that axes , knives , swords and pins were produced there and a bronze dagger was found at the site . The objects indicate the smith was trained in the Irish style of working . Bone pins and awls also survive and an extraordinary bone " plaque " . This latter object is 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) long , has three holes bored into the ends and is decorated with various linear patterns . Its function is unknown . The Bronze Age structures are overlain with sterile sand , suggesting a break in occupation prior to the next phase of building .
= = = Iron Age and Pictish period = = =
The inhabitants of the Iron Age built part of their settlement on top of the Bronze Age one . The structures include a complex roundhouse , replaced at a later stage by an " aisled roundhouse " . Neither have been dated although artefacts found at this level include querns that suggest the latter may have been constructed prior to 200 BC .
It is in this period that the broch was built . Part of the structure has been lost to coastal erosion , and modern sea defences have been erected . The tower was probably originally 13 metres ( 40 feet ) or more high and as with many broch sites the position would have commanded fine views of the surrounding seas . During this period archaeological sites in Shetland usually exhibit defensive fortifications of some kind , and Jarlshof is no exception . An outer defensive wall associated with the broch contained a substantial ( although rather poorly constructed ) house and byre at one time . This wall was utilised at a later stage to build a large roundhouse in the lee of the broch .
The earliest part of the wheelhouse complex has been dated to 200 BC , although other parts were built later , post @-@ dating the 1st century BC – 2nd century AD profusion of these structures in the Western Isles by several centuries . Construction used the stones of the broch itself and two of the four main structures are amongst the best examples of their type . Three successive periods of construction were undertaken , and the best preserved retains a significant proportion of the stone part of its roof and displays a series of corbelled bays . One structure was built as a circular building and the radial piers were inserted afterwards . This may have been an earlier , less stable design . In one case the piers are alternately rectangular and V @-@ shaped , in another all are to the latter design , again suggesting a developing style . Unlike many wheelhouses elsewhere in Scotland that are built into the earth , the Jarlshof structures seem to have been built from ground level upwards .
Amongst the artefacts dated to the later Pictish period is a bone pin with a rounded head probably used as a hair or dress pin . It has been dated to AD 500 – 800 . " Painted pebbles " are associated with more than two dozen Pictish sites and one such stone was unearthed at Jarlshof . This rectangular slate fragment had a cross painted onto it and two small " S " shaped scrolls suggesting an association with Christian beliefs . One of only two Pictish symbol stones found in Shetland was found here , exhibiting a double disc shape and a Z @-@ rod . Pottery finds include buff ware from the period after AD 10 , including bowls with flat rims . The quality of the pots appears to decline in the period prior to Viking settlement , becoming thinner @-@ walled and generally more crude in design .
= = = Norse period = = =
Remains from this era used to cover most of the site , and it is believed the Norse inhabited the site continuously from the ninth to the 14th centuries . Excavations in the 1930s by Alex Curle found the first confirmed Norse longhouse in the British Isles and later digs in the 1950s found evidence of fishing and farming activities . Sheep , cattle , pigs and ponies were kept , Atlantic cod , saithe and ling were eaten , and whale and seal bones have also been found along with the remains of a single dog . Chicken bones are rare in the Norse levels .
There are seven Norse @-@ era houses at Jarlshof , although no more than two were in use at one time . There were several outbuildings , including a small square structure with a large hearth that may have been a sauna and which was later replaced by two separate outhouses . The largest house from this period is a 20 metres ( 66 ft ) by 5 metres ( 16 ft ) rectangular chamber with opposing doors , timber benches along the long sides , and a hearth in the centre . Unlike the earlier structures that had conical thatched roofs , those of the Norse buildings had ridged timber frames . At a later period this large structure was also used to shelter domesticated animals ( at which stage it had a paved centre and animal stalls along the sides ) and later still may have become an outbuilding . The door to the byre puzzled archaeologists as it appeared to be too narrow to admit a cow . The mystery was solved when a byre door was excavated at Easting on Unst which had a narrow base similar to Jarlshof 's but which widened out to become cow @-@ shaped . Another outbuilding has been interpreted as a corn @-@ drying room . Later houses were built at 90 degrees to the longhouse and these are of a type and size that is similar to croft houses that were common in Shetland until the mid @-@ 19th century .
One hundred and fifty loom weights were found suggesting wool was an important aspect of Norse @-@ era life . Line weights from the later Norse period and associated evidence from elsewhere in Shetland indicates that deep @-@ water fishing was also a regular undertaking . The Jarlshof site also produced ample evidence of the use of iron tools such as shears , scissors , sickles , and a fish @-@ hook and knife . The ore was locally obtained bog iron . Hazel , birch and willow grew in the area at this time but the pine and oak must have been driftwood or imported timber .
Drawings scratched on slate have been found of dragon @-@ prowed ships , portraits of an old man and of a young , bearded man and of a four @-@ legged animal . The drawings were found in the Viking levels but are Pictish in style and may either pre @-@ date the arrival of the Norse or indicate a continuity of art and culture from one period to the next . Similarly , although the rectangular shape of the Norse @-@ era buildings are quite unlike the earlier rounded Pictish style , the basement courses of the two periods are constructed in the same way . The Viking @-@ style loom weights , spindle whorls and other vessels were found with stone discs and other objects of a Pictish design . A bronze – gilt harness mounting made in Ireland in the 8th or 9th centuries has also been found and many items from this period are in the Shetland Museum . Jarlshof contains the most extensive remains of a Viking site visible anywhere in Britain .
= = = Old House of Sumburgh = = =
The castle , now known as Jarlshof House , was built during the Scottish period . Originally a medieval stone farmhouse , it was converted into a fortified house during the 16th century , by Robert Stewart , 1st Earl of Orkney after Scotland annexed Shetland . The building was named " New Hall " at this time . It was further modernised in the early 17th century by his son Patrick Stewart , 2nd Earl of Orkney who renamed it the " Old House of Sumburgh " but it was abandoned in the late 17th century . The structure was also formerly known as " The laird 's house " and " Stewart Mansion " .
= = Cultural references = =
Walter Scott set part of his 1821 novel The Pirate in the Old House of Sumburgh during the 17th century , which he named Jarlshof .
" Man , however , had in former days considered this as a remote or unlikely event ; for a Norwegian chief of other times , or , as other accounts said , and as the name of Jarlshof seemed to imply an ancient Earl of the Orkneys had elected this neck of land as the place for establishing a mansion @-@ house . It has been long entirely deserted , and the vestiges only can be discerned with difficulty ; for the loose sand , borne on the temptestuous gales of those stormy regions , has overblown , and almost buried , the ruins of the buildings ; but in the end of the seventeenth century , a part of the Earl 's mansion was still entire and habitable . It was a rude building of rough stone , with nothing about it to gratify the eye , or to excite the imagination ; a large old @-@ fashioned narrow house , with a very steep roof , covered with flags composed of grey sandstone , would perhaps convey the best of idea of the place to a modern reader . The windows were few , very small in size , and distributed up and down the building with utter contempt of regularity . Against the main structure had rested , in former times , certain smaller compartments of the mansion @-@ house , containing offices , or subordinate apartments , necessary for the Earl 's retainers and menials . But these had become ruinous ; and the rafters had been taken down for fire @-@ wood , or for other purposes ; the walls had given way in many places ; and , to complete the devastation , the sand had already drifted amongst the ruins , and filled up what had been once the chambers the contained , to the depth of two or three feet .
" Amid this desolation , the inhabitants of Jarlshof had contrived , by constant labour and attention , to keep in order a few roods of land , which had been enclosed as a garden , and which , sheltered by the walls of the house itself , from the relentless sea @-@ blast , produced such vegetables as the climate could bring forth , or rather as the sea @-@ gale would permit to grow ; for these islands experience even less of the rigour of cold than is encountered on the mainland of Scotland ; but , unsheltered by a wall of some sort of other , it is scarce possible to raise even the most ordinary culinary vegetables ; and as for shrubs or trees , they are entirely out of the question , such is the force of the sweeping sea @-@ blast . "
= Poedjangga Baroe =
Poedjangga Baroe ( pronounced [ puˈdʒaŋɡa baˈru ] ; Perfected spelling : Pujangga Baru , also known by the intermediate spelling Pudjangga Baru ) was an Indonesian avant @-@ garde literary magazine published from July 1933 to February 1942 . It was founded by Armijn Pane , Amir Hamzah , and Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana .
From the turn of the 20th century , the native people of the Dutch East Indies began to hold a greater degree of nationalism , evidenced in part by the establishment of several nationalist publications . Armijn , Hamzah , and Alisjahbana , three writers from Sumatra , laid the foundation for their magazine in September 1932 . They sent letters to forty contributors to the literary section of the newspaper Pandji Poestaka requesting submissions , as well as support from ten sultanates . When a deal with Dutch @-@ owned publishing house Kolff & Co. fell through , the founders agreed to self @-@ publish . The resulting magazine , Poedjangga Baroe , was first published in July 1933 . During its publishing run , the magazine took a wider scope and saw greater involvement from politically inclined persons . After the Japanese occupation of the Indies in 1942 , the magazine ceased publication . Another magazine under the Pudjangga Baru banner was published from 1948 until 1954 .
Ideologically , Poedjangga Baroe supported a modern , united nation with one language , Indonesian . However , the different cultural and political views of its contributors led the publication to have undefined leanings . To maintain a neutral political position , the magazine published writings that covered numerous aspects of the political spectrum . In cultural discourse , the magazine published disagreeing polemics over the proper balance of Westernization and tradition necessary for the country 's development .
During its nine @-@ year initial publication run , Poedjangga Baroe published ninety issues , including over three hundred pieces of poetry , five plays , three poetry anthologies , a novel , numerous essays , and several short stories . The publication , which never had more than 150 paying subscribers , received mixed responses . Young writers praised it for reflecting the period , while Malay traditionalists decried its perceived corruption of the Malay language . Although most of its published works are now forgotten , the shared themes and styles from 1933 to 1942 have led critics to deem the period the " Poedjangga Baroe generation " of Indonesian literature .
= = Title = =
The title Poedjangga Baru literally translates to " New Writer " . However , the term " Poedjangga " ( after the 1972 spelling reform , spelled " pujangga " ) has further connotations . The Old Javanese word " bhujangga " , from which " pujangga " is derived , is rooted in a Sanskrit word associated with religious learning . As such , the title implies noble intentions .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
At the beginning of the twentieth century , the different ethnic groups of the Dutch East Indies – modern day Indonesia – began to feel a sense of national unity , as eventually formulated in the 1928 Youth Pledge . These native groups founded political parties to further their goals and represent their political ideologies , including the Indonesian Communist Party and Indonesian National Party .
This sense of unity was represented in new media . Dutch @-@ language magazines for educated native youth , such as the Jong Java ( 1915 ) and Jong Sumatranen Bond ( 1917 ) , advocated a modern national identity without the traditional feudal system . Nationalist views were advocated through magazines for adults , including Pandji Poestaka ( first published 1930 ) and Timboel ( first published 1932 ) ; these were short @-@ lived publications and only included literature as a supplement . There were also unsuccessful attempts to found Malay @-@ language literary publications , such as Malaya ( announced in 1921 ) .
= = = Founding = = =
Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana , editor of " Memadjoekan Sastera " ( " Advancing Literature " , the literary section of Pandji Poestaka ) since its creation in March 1932 , met Armijn Pane when the latter began submitting poems . A vocal activist for literary renewal , in a September 1932 letter Alisjahbana called for new literary critics ( letterkundigen ) and asked Armijn to invite poet Amir Hamzah to help them form a group . After a long period of exchanging letters , they decided to publish a magazine together . The magazine , later given the name Poedjangga Baroe , was meant to advocate modernity and nationalism through literature , which had never been done in the Indies . The founders , all originating from Sumatra , also noted a lack of interaction between the increasing number of poets and writers . To avoid the creative limitations of the Dutch East Indies ' state @-@ owned publisher Balai Pustaka , they agreed that the magazine should be independent .
To gain support for Poedjangga Baroe , in October 1932 Hamzah was tasked with writing letters to solicit submissions ; a total of fifty letters were sent to noted writers , including forty sent to contributors to " Memadjoekan Sastera " . In January 1933 , Armijn went to meet Alisjahbana and Hamzah in Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) . The three discussed Armijn 's proposed budget and stated goal of promoting a national language . After the meeting , Armijn sent follow @-@ up letters to the previously contacted writers and reached an agreement with Dutch publishing house Kolff & Co .
In February 1933 , the group issued a prospectus that contained publication data and guaranteed that the magazine would have no fewer than sixty @-@ four pages per issue . Other writers , including Armijn 's elder brother Sanusi Pane and poet Muhammad Yamin , were called to serve on the editorial board . Worried that there would not be enough subscribers to support the magazine and hoping to ensure a good reception from traditional groups , the founders sent letters to leaders of ten sultanates in the archipelago asking that they subscribe to the magazine ; however , only Syarif Muhammad Alkadrie , the sultan of Pontianak , agreed to subscribe .
= = = Publication = = =
In the prospectus , Poedjangga Baroe 's founders stated their intention to publish in May 1933 . However , the initial publication was later delayed until July for two reasons . Firstly , Armijn intended to move to Batavia to help with the magazine and needed time to do so . Secondly , a conflict arose between the founders and Kolff & Co. about printing costs , eventually leading the founders to opt for self @-@ publication . This first edition included a foreword by educators Ki Hadjar Dewantara and Hoessein Djajadiningrat , eleven poems from solicited writers , and two essays , one by Armijn and one by Alisjahbana . The magazine continued to be primarily written in Indonesian ; indeed , the magazine was the first written mainly in Indonesian and with exclusively Indonesian editors .
The nascent magazine , under the editorial control of Armijn and Alisjahbana , was initially poorly received by political parties and actors ; they considered the magazine , which was generally non @-@ political , liable to weaken the nationalist movement by diverting it into less important areas . To guarantee better support , people who were not writers or literary critics were accepted onto the editorial board . The first , Sumadang , was accepted in 1935 . Other politicians involved during the end of the 1930s included Amir Sjarifuddin , Mohamad Sjah , and Sugiarti . During this period the magazine began to have a wider scope .
= = = Closure = = =
Poedjangga Baroe was closed with the fall of the Dutch East Indies government after the Japanese invaded the Indies in February 1942 ; the last issue published covered the period of December 1941 to February 1942 . The editors wrote in that issue that they intended to continue publication as long as feasible ; this did not happen , although later writers used a similar style . Until its closing , the original run of Poedjangga Baroe published about ninety issues .
After the Japanese surrender and towards the end of the Indonesian National Revolution , a second series was published under the same title by Alisjabahna with new contributors , including Chairil Anwar , Achdiat Karta Mihardja , and Asrul Sani . The first edition of this new series , dated March 1948 but released in May , included a heated condemnation of the Indonesian leadership for perceived unwillingness to deal with the suffering which occurred during the occupation . This new publication , which Jassin described as unoriginal , ceased in 1954 . It was later replaced by Konfrontasi , led by Alisjahbana , which published bi @-@ monthly from 1954 until 1962 .
Poedjangga Baroe 's paid subscribers were always fewer than 150 . According to historian Heather Sutherland , this low circulation was rooted in several cultural factors . Firstly , the native populace at the time had limited literacy and education . Secondly , native intellectuals mainly spoke Dutch during formal discourse , while others kept to local languages ; this led to comprehension issues for the Indonesian @-@ language Poedjangga Baroe .
Throughout its publication , Poedjangga Baroe had more than 125 employees or contributors . Most were of Sumatran origin , with a high school or greater education in Westernized schools , and a good command of Dutch . They were modernists , and most were around the age of twenty five when they first contributed . According to Armijn , they were united by a view of life and not a shared literary style .
= = Contents = =
Poedjangga Baroe 's original stated mission , to advocate a new style of literature and language that reflected the Indonesian National Awakening , lasted until April 1934 . The scope was slowly extended to culture , art , and social issues in 1935 . After 1936 , the mission statement was that the magazine was intended to be a " guide to the new , dynamic enthusiasm to form a new culture , Indonesian culture " . According to Sutherland , however , the writers dealt mainly with the needs and opinions of modernist , pro @-@ Westernization intellectuals ; discussions of the socio @-@ political needs of the masses were few .
According to the 1933 press release , from the beginning Poedjangga Baroe was meant to include various types of literary works , including fictional prose , poetry ( in both modern and traditional forms ) , non @-@ fiction literary reviews and critiques , research , and opinion pieces on language and literature . The original run of Poedjangga Baroe published more than 300 poems and , in special editions , several poetry anthologies ; although prose was less prominent , Poedjangga Baroe published five dramas , one novel , and several short stories . Along with individual scholarly articles , the magazine also published special editions dedicated to collections of essays on the Indonesian emancipation figure Kartini and the Bengali literary figure Rabindranath Tagore ; the latter was published on the occasion of Tagore 's death .
= = Views = =
= = = Politics = = =
Writers for Poedjangga Baroe did not share a united political view and the magazine ostensibly stayed politically neutral . This stance was adopted to ensure the magazine did not fall afoul of the colonial government 's censors and to protect contributors employed by the government . However , writings falling under various parts the political spectrum were published , including works by cultural nationalists , a sonnet dedicated to Marxist theorist Rosa Luxemburg , and notes on fascism .
= = = Culture = = =
Although Poedjangga Baroe 's writers were united by nationalism , they had different views on traditional culture . Some , such as Armijn and Alisjahbana , considered an understanding of Western culture and history key to development . Others , such Sanusi , emphasized the need for Eastern values , though they accepted some aspects of Western culture . Writers for Poedjangga Baroe did not share religious views . Main contributors , including the founders , came from religious backgrounds ranging from near @-@ secularism to orthodox Islam . Stemming from these conflicting cultural views , between September 1935 and June 1939 , numerous polemics were published in the magazine , discussing the best course of action for Indonesian cultural development .
= = = Language = = =
As opposed to the Balai Pustaka , which published works in regional languages and Dutch , Poedjangga Baroe was almost exclusively in Indonesian and worked to promote the language 's growth . Indonesian , declared to be the language of unity in the 1928 Youth Pledge , was further extolled by Armijn as having been long in development . This was expanded by Alisjabana , who wrote that the language had seen greater growth and deviation from old Malay since the advent of the Dutch Ethical Policy and foundation of Dutch schools for native Indonesians ( Hollandsch @-@ Inlandsche School ) ; the entirety of the November 1933 issue was dedicated to Alisjahbana 's writings on the language . Poedjangga Baroe held the first seminar on the Indonesian language in Surakarta in June 1938 ; the seminar featured papers by Sjarifuddin , Alisjahbana , Djamaluddin Adinegoro , Sukarjo Wirjopranoto , and Sanusi .
= = Styles and themes = =
Contributors to Poedjangga Baroe were influenced by the Tachtigers , a Dutch literary movement from the 1880s . Sutherland suggests that the romantic theme prevalent in their works was adapted by the authors to escape the changing realities of Indonesian society . As opposed to earlier works published by Balai Pustaka such as Marah Rusli 's Sitti Nurbaya ( 1922 ) , which emphasized regional cultural values , prose published in Poedjangga Baroe focused on national identity , and writers included areas that they had never visited . Old themes , such as forced marriage , were abandoned . According to Sutherland , most contributors to Poedjangga Baroe kept a sense of ambivalence towards the Dutch colonial government as well as traditional culture as a central theme in their works . Although they rejected Dutch control of the archipelago , these nationalist writers embraced Western culture ; Sutherland writes that some of the most staunchly nationalist writers were also the most westernized .
Keith Foulcher , an Australian professor of Indonesian literature and language , writes that the poems published in Poedjangga Baroe were structurally based in reimaginings of traditional forms with an emphasis on aesthetic diction ; thematically , he writes , the poems tended to deal with either lofty goals or a deep sense of loneliness in the midst of natural beauty . According to literary documentarian H.B. Jassin , the poems , though they adapted Western forms and Indonesian diction , retained Malay rhythms .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The release of Poedjangga Baroe was well received by young writers and intellectuals , who saw it as a way to express themselves and their nationalist ideas . Traditionalists , however , complained about Poedjangga Baroe 's modernization of Malay ; Marah Sutan , chairman of the Malay @-@ language Teachers Board , stated that it betrayed the " purity of High Malay and its traditional poetic forms " . Traditionalists also decried the introduction of loanwords to Malay from regional and foreign languages to increase the Indonesian lexicon and the deviation from traditional pantuns and syairs . Other Malay figures against the publication included Agus Salim , S.M. Latif , and Sutan Mohamad Zain .
The Indonesian literature published between 1933 and 1942 is sometimes described as from the " Poedjangga Baroe generation " , a reference to the publication 's dominance . Translator and literary critic Burton Raffel described the magazine as a " midwife to a literary revolution " , noting that the political revolution in the 1940s was likely influenced by the magazine . However , the aesthetic qualities of works published in Poedjangga Baroe have received mixed reception in the years after the magazine stopped publication . Indonesian poet and literary critic Muhammad Balfas argued in 1976 that most poetry published in Poedjangga Baroe suffered from over @-@ sentimentality and flowery rhetoric , which he blamed on the writers being influenced by the Tachtigers . Many of the works have since been forgotten .
Leftist literary critic Bakri Siregar condemned Poedjangga Baroe 's neutral political stance , arguing that its inability to objectively understand the needs of the people made it unfit to truly reflect the struggle for independence .
= = Major works = =
Several major works , including numerous poetry collections , five plays , and one novel , were first published in Poedjangga Baroe . The following is a list of those publications .
= = = Novels = = =
Belenggu ( Shackles ) by Armijn Pane , published in three parts from April and July 1940
= = = Plays = = =
" Ken Arok dan Ken Dedes " ( " Ken Arok and Ken Dedes " ) by Muhammad Yamin , published in January 1934
" Lukisan Masa " ( " Sketch of the Ages " ) by Armijn Pane , published in May 1937
" Kertajaya " by Sanusi Pane , published in three parts from October through December 1938
" Njai Lenggang Kentjana " by Armijn Pane , published in May 1939
" Manusia Baru " ( " New Person " ) by Sanusi Pane , published in November 1940
= = = Poetry anthologies = = =
Tebaran Mega ( Spread of the Clouds ) by Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana , published in May 1936
Nyanyi Sunyi ( Silent Song ) by Amir Hamzah , published in October 1937
Buah Rindu ( Fruit of Longing ) by Amir Hamzah , published in June 1941
= Greg LeMond =
Gregory James " Greg " LeMond ( born June 26 , 1961 ) is an American former professional road racing cyclist who won the Road Race World Championship twice ( 1983 and 1989 ) and the Tour de France three times ( 1986 , 1989 and 1990 ) . He is also an entrepreneur and anti @-@ doping advocate . LeMond was born in Lakewood , California , and raised in ranch country on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountain range , near Reno . He is married and has three children with his wife Kathy , with whom he supports a variety of charitable causes and organizations .
In 1986 , LeMond became the first non @-@ European professional cyclist to win the Tour de France , and he remains the only official winner from the United States . LeMond was accidentally shot with multiple pellets while hunting in 1987 and missed the next two Tours . He returned to the 1989 Tour , completing an improbable comeback by winning in dramatic fashion on the race 's final stage . He successfully defended his title the following year , claiming his third and final Tour victory in 1990 , which made LeMond one of only seven riders who have won three or more Tours . He retired from competition in December 1994 . He was inducted into the United States Bicycling Hall of Fame in 1996 .
LeMond was the first American to win the elite Road World Championship , the first professional cyclist to sign a million @-@ dollar contract , and the first cyclist to appear on the cover of Sports Illustrated when the magazine named him as its Sportsman of the Year in 1989 . During his career , LeMond championed several technological advancements in pro cycling , including the introduction of aerodynamic " triathlon " handlebars and carbon fiber bicycle frames , which he later marketed through his company LeMond Bicycles . His other business interests have included restaurants , real estate , and consumer fitness equipment .
LeMond is a vocal opponent of performance @-@ enhancing drug use , and at times his commercial ventures have suffered for his anti @-@ doping stance — as in 2001 , when he first accused Lance Armstrong of doping and sparked a conflict that led eventually to the dissolution of his Lemond Bikes brand in 2008 , which was licensed by Armstrong 's primary sponsor Trek Bicycles . As the lone American winner of cycling 's most prestigious race , LeMond has not enjoyed the public stature that might be expected of such a figure , but he continues to campaign publicly against doping and ineffective leadership by the UCI , the International Federation for Cycling . In December 2012 , LeMond even articulated a willingness to replace the UCI president on an interim basis if called to do so . In December 2013 , the LeMond brand was revived , manufactured in partnership with TIME Sport International .
= = Early life and amateur career = =
Greg LeMond was born in Lakewood , California , and raised in Washoe Valley which is ranch country on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountain range , two miles north of Carson City and 18 miles south of Reno . His parents are Bob LeMond and Bertha ( d . 2006 ) , and he has two sisters , Kathy and Karen . He attended Earl Wooster High School in Reno , NV . Greg frequently rode his bike to high school , sometimes cutting class to get home early . He would then ride a loop west over Mt . Rose , south along Lake Tahoe , then east on Hwy 28 to Carson City . Then Greg would follow Carson Street over the hill to Washoe Valley and his home .
LeMond 's introduction to cycling came in 1975 thanks to freestyle skiing pioneer Wayne Wong , who recommended the bike as an ideal off @-@ season training aid . LeMond started competing in 1976 , and after dominating the Intermediate category ( 13 – 15 ) and winning the first 11 races he entered , he received permission to ride against older , more seasoned competitors in the Junior ( 16 – 19 ) category .
In 1977 , while still only 15 , LeMond finished second in the Tour of Fresno to John Howard , then United States 's top road cyclist and the 1971 Pan American Games champion . LeMond caught the attention of Eddie Borysewicz , the US Cycling Federation 's national team coach , who described LeMond as " a diamond , a clear diamond . " LeMond represented the United States at the 1978 Junior World Championships in Washington , D.C. , where he finished ninth in the road race , and again in the 1979 Junior World Championships in Argentina , where he won gold , silver and bronze medals — the highlight being his victory in the road race . At age 18 , LeMond was selected for the 1980 U.S. Olympic cycling team , the youngest ever to make the U.S. team ; however , the U.S. boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow prevented him from competing there .
Borysewicz , whom LeMond described as his " first real coach , " wanted to retain his protégé through the next Olympic cycle and discouraged him from turning pro , but LeMond was determined . Nevertheless , while he was the reigning Junior World Road Champion in 1980 , LeMond received no professional offers , and so in the spring 1980 , he joined the U.S. National cycling team for a 6 @-@ week European racing campaign . There , he finished third overall in the Circuit des Ardennes before winning the 1980 Circuit de la Sarthe stage race in France , thereby becoming the first American and youngest rider of any nationality " in the history of the sport to win a major pro @-@ am cycling event [ in Europe ] . " That victory , and the subsequent press coverage , raised LeMond 's profile in Europe and he was scouted at his next event ( the Ruban Granitier Breton stage race ) by French cycling coach and Renault @-@ Elf @-@ Gitane directeur sportif Cyrille Guimard . Guimard said he was impressed with LeMond 's spirit , and told him , " You have the fire to be a great champion , " before offering him a professional contract for 1981 with Renault . After he returned to the United States , LeMond won the 1980 Nevada City Classic , considered to be one of the most historic and challenging professional cycling races in United States . Despite eventually receiving several other offers to turn professional besides Guimard 's , LeMond did not consider them seriously , and he signed with Renault in Paris on the day the 1980 Tour de France finished .
= = Professional career = =
LeMond was a standout amateur rider " of superlative quality " and " exceptionally gifted , " who quickly established himself as one of the most talented cyclists on the professional circuit . Respected cycling journalist John Wilcockson , who reported the Tour de France for more than 40 years , described LeMond as a rider who was fuoriclasse .
= = = 1981 – 1983 : Early years = = =
LeMond 's first professional victory came three months into his 1981 debut when he won a stage of the French Tour de l 'Oise . He followed with a win in the Coors Classic in the United States , finishing ahead of Sergei Sukhoruchenkov , the 1980 Olympic road champion . The major step forward in 1981 occurred in the Dauphiné Libéré stage race where LeMond placed third . The achievement is the more remarkable because he rode the race in support of team leader Bernard Hinault . LeMond missed standing on the podium with race winner Hinault , as Pascal Simon had finished ahead of him . Two weeks later Simon was assessed a 10 @-@ minute penalty when it was discovered he had been doping . LeMond considered the race to have been a " major steppingstone " in his career . Said LeMond : " It showed me that I had the kind of climbing ability that you need to win the top European stage races . " LeMond won a total of five races in his rookie season of 1981 .
LeMond broke his collarbone on April 11 , 1982 while racing the cycling classic Liège – Bastogne – Liège . The injury forced LeMond to ride a reduced schedule before entering the World Championships , which were in Goodwood , England that year . In the men 's road race competition LeMond broke for the line but was out @-@ sprinted by Italian Giuseppe Saronni . Following the race LeMond 's American teammate Jacques Boyer accused LeMond of chasing him down in the final 800 meters . Saronni was very strong at the end of the race and flew past Boyer and LeMond , winning by 5 seconds over LeMond , with another 5 seconds back to Kelly . Boyer placed tenth . Bronze medalist Sean Kelly , a favorite to win the race , was with Saronni when he caught LeMond with about 200 meters to go , but he could not hold his wheel . Said Kelly : " I don 't think that Boyer was fading ... He got quite a good gap . Nobody wanted to go after him ... Yes , LeMond chased down Boyer . Boyer was the only man up the road . "
LeMond was supported by his teammate George Mount , who observed , " What 's LeMond going to do ? Throw his bike down in front of everybody because Boyer is such a good buddy of everyone ? ... Hell no — he 's going to start sprinting because it 's less than 200 meters to go and the sprint 's already been going for a couple hundred meters . LeMond made a good move and a good sprint ... Boyer was not going to win that race . The best he could have got was fifth or sixth place . "
LeMond did not apologize . The U.S. team was not set up as the European teams , and did not have an independent race to determine the national champion . Instead the highest finisher at the World 's was considered the national champion . LeMond had argued for the team to compete as the European teams did , but team management and Boyer voted against him . Thus unlike the other teams at the world championship , the US riders were competing against each other . Aged 21 , LeMond was the first American pro to win a medal at the World 's since Frank Kramer took silver in 1912 . Said LeMond : " I 'm racing for Renault and I 'm racing for myself . It 's a business and it 's my living . To me , that second place was almost as good as winning , especially at my age . "
Two weeks later , on September 20 , 1982 , LeMond won the mountainous 12 @-@ day , 837 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 347 km ) Tour de l 'Avenir by a world @-@ record 10 minutes , 18 seconds . The victory , and the time advantage LeMond held at the end , stunned Europe and provided broad confirmation that LeMond was indeed fuoriclasse .
The following year , 1983 , LeMond won the World Championship outright , becoming the first American rider to do so . LeMond 's cycling talent — his overall strength , climbing ability , ability to ride a fast time trial and his capacity to recover quickly — all suggested LeMond would be an excellent prospect for the most demanding Grand Tours .
= = = 1984 – 1986 : Grand Tours = = =
LeMond rode his first Tour de France in 1984 , finishing third in support of team leader Laurent Fignon , and winning the white jersey of the young rider classification . The following year he was brought across to La Vie Claire to ride in support of team captain Bernard Hinault who had regained his form and was attempting to win his fifth Tour . French businessman and team owner Bernard Tapie signed LeMond with a $ 1 million contract over three years . In the race Hinault led through the early mountain stages , but suffered a crash and came into difficulty . At this point it was clear that LeMond was an elite rider capable of winning the Tour in his own right . LeMond possessed a natural talent for riding the Grand Tours , and got stronger over the course of a three @-@ week race . The injured Hinault was vulnerable , and his competitors knew it . Stage 17 included three major climbs in the Pyrenees . On the second , the Col du Tourmalet , LeMond followed Stephen Roche in an attack , but was not given permission to help build on the gap over the field . The managers of his La Vie Claire team ordered the 24 @-@ year @-@ old LeMond not to ride with Roche , but to sit on his wheel , a tactic to use the rider in front as cover for wind resistance so the following rider uses less energy . The pace Roche could put out by himself eventually slowed , and other riders came up to join the two men . Hinault recovered as well , though he did not regain the lead group . At the end of the stage LeMond was frustrated to the point of tears . He later revealed that team management and his own coach Paul Köchli had misled him as to how far back Hinault had dropped during the crucial Stage 17 mountain stage . Hinault won the 1985 Tour , with LeMond finishing second , 1 : 42 behind . LeMond had ridden as the dutiful lieutenant , and his support enabled Hinault to win his fifth Tour . In repayment for his sacrifice Hinault promised to help LeMond win the Tour the following year .
For the 1986 Tour , LeMond was a co @-@ leader of the La Vie Claire team alongside Hinault . Hinault 's support seemed less certain the closer the race approached . An unspoken condition was that his help would be contingent upon LeMond demonstrating that he was clearly the better rider . Hinault was in superb form , and had the chance to win an unprecedented sixth Tour . Hinault chose to let the Stage 9 individual time trial be the decider for which rider would receive the full support of team La Vie Claire . Hinault won the Stage 9 time trial , finishing 44 seconds in front of LeMond . LeMond had bad luck during the stage , having suffered a punctured tire requiring a wheel change , and later in the stage a bicycle change was required when he broke a wheel . He was frustrated with the outcome and the impact it would have on how the team would function for the remainder of the race . In Stage 12 , the first mountain stage of the race in the Pyrenees , Hinault attacked the lead group and built up an overall lead . By the end of Stage 12 , Hinault had a five @-@ minute lead over LeMond and the other top riders . He claimed he was trying to draw out LeMond 's rivals , but none of these attacks were planned with LeMond . He was clearly willing to ride aggressively and take advantage of the opportunities presented . LeMond was never placed in difficulty , except by his own teammate . The following day Hinault broke away again early but was caught and then dropped by LeMond on the final climb of Stage 13 , allowing LeMond to gain back four and a half minutes . The next three stages brought the Tour to the Alps . On Stage 17 LeMond and Urs Zimmermann dropped Hinault from the leading group , and the end of the day saw LeMond pulling on the yellow jersey of race leader , the first time it had ever been worn by a rider from the United States . The following day in the Alps saw Hinault attack again early on the first climb , but he was pulled back . Attempting an escape on the descent , he was unable to separate himself from LeMond . The La Vie Claire team leaders were both excellent descenders . As they ascended up the next col they continued to pull away from the field , and maintained the gap as they reached the base of the final climb , the vaunted Alpe d 'Huez . They pressed on through the crowd , ascending the twenty @-@ one switchbacks of Alpe d 'Huez and reaching the summit together . LeMond put an arm around Hinault and gave him a smile and the stage win in a show of unity , but the infighting was not over . Hinault attacked again on Stage 19 and had to be brought back by teammates Andy Hampsten and Steve Bauer . Commenting on the team situation prior to the final individual time trial at Stage 20 , LeMond offered the following with a wry smile : " He 's attacked me from the beginning of the Tour De France . He 's never helped me once , and I don 't feel confident at all with him . "
LeMond had to keep his eye on his teammate and rival throughout the race . Hinault rode aggressively and repeatedly attacked , and the division created in the La Vie Claire team was unmistakable . LeMond would keep the yellow jersey to the end of the race and win his first Tour , but he felt betrayed by Hinault and the La Vie Claire team leadership . LeMond later stated the 1986 Tour was the most difficult and stressful race of his career .
= = = 1987 – 1988 : Shooting accident and recovery = = =
LeMond had planned to defend his title in the 1987 Tour de France with La Vie Claire , but he was unable to participate . Earlier that year , while riding in the Tirreno – Adriatico spring tune @-@ up race , LeMond fell and fractured his left wrist . He returned to the United States to recover from the injury . The week before returning to Europe , he went turkey hunting on a ranch co @-@ owned by his father in Lincoln , California – in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada . LeMond was with Rodney Barber and Patrick Blades , his uncle and brother @-@ in @-@ law . The trio had become separated when Blades , who heard movement behind him , turned and fired through a bush . The movement had come from LeMond , who was hit in his back and right side with a devastating blast of approximately 60 No. 2 @-@ sized pellets . LeMond 's injuries were life @-@ threatening , but fortunately , a police helicopter was already airborne near the scene and transported LeMond on a 15 @-@ minute air medical flight to the Medical Center at University of California @-@ Davis . LeMond was taken for emergency surgery . He had suffered a pneumothorax to his right lung and extensive bleeding , having lost some 65 percent of his blood volume . A physician informed LeMond later that he had been within 20 minutes of bleeding to death . The operation saved his life , but four months later he developed a small bowel obstruction due to adhesions that had formed following the shooting . He underwent another surgery to relieve the obstruction and take down the adhesions . Concerned that his team would drop him if they knew the shooting accident required a second surgery , LeMond asked the surgeons to remove his appendix at the same time . He then informed his team that he had had his appendix removed , but the rest of the story was left somewhat vague . The events effectively ended his 1987 season , and in October he announced he would return to serious competition the following February , with the Dutch PDM team .
With 35 shotgun pellets still in his body , including three in the lining of his heart and five more embedded in his liver , LeMond attempted to return to racing in 1988 . His comeback was hampered by over @-@ training which resulted in tendonitis in his right shin requiring surgery . He missed the Tour for the second year running . Tensions in the relationship between LeMond and PDM were aggravated when LeMond discovered that doping was going on at the PDM squad . The result was that LeMond moved from PDM , one of the strongest teams in the peloton , to ADR , a team based in Belgium . The team was co @-@ sponsored by Coors Light for American races . The deal was completed on New Year 's Eve , just hours before LeMond would have been legally obligated to ride another season for the Dutch team . Joining the Belgian ADR squad allowed LeMond to continue to compete , but with teammates like Johan Museeuw who were better suited to riding Classics than Grand Tours .
= = = 1989 : Return to elite level = = =
After struggling in the 1989 Paris – Nice early @-@ season race and failing to improve his condition , LeMond informed his wife Kathy that he intended to retire from professional cycling after the 1989 Tour de France . He had some flashes of form in the two @-@ day Critérium International , sharing an escape with Fignon , Indurain , Mottet , Roche and Madiot and finishing 5th overall . He started the 1989 Giro d 'Italia in May as preparation for the Tour to follow , but struggled in the mountains and was not in contention for any of the leaders ' jerseys before the final 53 km ( 33 mi ) individual time trial into Florence . LeMond placed a surpising second there , more than a minute ahead of overall winner Laurent Fignon . Some of his improvement he attributed to an anti @-@ anemia treatment he received twice during the race .
Coming into the 1989 Tour de France LeMond was not considered a contender for the general classification ( GC ) . His own most optimistic hope was to finish his final Tour in the top 20 . Without the weight of expectation and other pressures of being a Tour favorite , LeMond surprised observers with a strong ride in the 7 @.@ 8 km ( 4 @.@ 8 mi ) prologue in Luxembourg , finishing fourth out of 198 riders . Buoyed by the result , LeMond continued to ride well over the opening flat stages , winning the 73 km ( 45 mi ) stage 5 individual time trial , and gaining the yellow jersey of race leader for the first time in three years . LeMond seemed to ride himself into better condition during the first week 's flat stages , and he was coming into peak form by the time the Tour reached the mountains . LeMond remained at the front of the race in the Pyrénées , but lost the lead to his former teammate and rival Laurent Fignon on stage 10 in Superbagnères . Five days later LeMond reclaimed yellow in the Alps , after the 39 km ( 24 mi ) stage 15 mountain time trial from Gap to Orcières @-@ Merlette . The see @-@ saw battle continued , and when Fignon attacked on the upper slopes of Alpe d 'Huez LeMond was unable to go with him , placing the yellow jersey back on the shoulders of Fignon . Fignon held a 50 @-@ second advantage over LeMond going into the 21st and final stage , a rare 24 @.@ 5 km ( 15 @.@ 2 mi ) individual time trial from Versailles to the Champs @-@ Élysées in Paris .
Fignon had won the Tour twice before , in 1983 and 1984 , and was a very capable time trialist . It seemed improbable that LeMond could take 50 seconds off Fignon over the short course . This would require LeMond to gain two seconds per kilometer against one of the fastest chrono @-@ specialists in the world . LeMond had done wind tunnel testing in the off season and perfected his riding position . He rode the time trial with a rear disc wheel , a cut @-@ down Giro aero helmet and the same Scott clip @-@ on aero bars which had helped him to the Stage 5 time trial win . Holding his time trialing position LeMond was able to generate less aerodynamic drag than Fignon , who used a pair of disc wheels but chose to go helmetless and did not use the aero bars that are now commonplace in time trials . Instructing his support car not to give him his split times , LeMond rode flat @-@ out and finished at a record pace to beat Fignon by 8 seconds and claim his second Tour de France victory . As LeMond embraced his wife and rejoiced on the Champs @-@ Élysées , Fignon collapsed onto the tarmac , then sat in shock and wept .
The final margin of victory of eight seconds was the closest in the Tour 's history . LeMond 's 54 @.@ 545 km / h ( 33 @.@ 893 mph ) average speed for the stage 21 time trial was , at that time , the fastest in Tour history . Since then the 1994 and 2015 prologues and David Zabriskie 's 2005 time trial performance have been faster . The press immediately labeled LeMond 's come @-@ from @-@ behind triumph as , " the most astonishing victory in Tour de France history , " and while LeMond admitted that it felt almost " too good to be true , " he personally rated it as " much more satisfying " than his first overall Tour win in 1986 .
LeMond 's return to the pinnacle of cycling was confirmed on August 27 , when he won the 259 km ( 161 mi ) World Championships road race in Chambéry , France , defeating Fignon again and edging Dimitri Konyshev and Sean Kelly on the line . Fignon attacked repeatedly on the wet , treacherous final climb , but LeMond and a select group caught his rival and then LeMond made the perfect sprint to take the title . Fignon finished 6th . LeMond was only the fifth person in history to win both the Tour de France and the World Championship in the same year . In December , Sports Illustrated magazine named LeMond its 1989 " Sportsman of the Year " , the first time a cyclist received the honor .
= = = 1990 : A third tour win = = =
LeMond parlayed the success of his 1989 season into the then @-@ richest contract in the sport 's history , signing a $ 5 @.@ 5 million deal for three years with Z @-@ Tomasso of France . He entered the 1990 Tour de France as defending champion and a pre @-@ race favorite after leaving ADR to join the much stronger Z @-@ Tomasso team . At " Z " his team mates included Robert Millar , Eric Boyer and Ronan Pensec , all of whom already had finishes in the top six of the Tour de France . This unified roster of strong riders appeared capable of supporting LeMond in the mountains and controlling the race on the flats .
The squad 's tactical plan was upset on the first day , when a breakaway that included LeMond 's teammate Ronan Pensec , but no major favorites , arrived ten minutes ahead of the field . LeMond was prevented from challenging for the lead until the yellow jersey left the shoulders of teammate Ronan Pensec . LeMond closed in on race leader Claudio Chiappucci , finally overtaking him in the final individual time trial on stage 20 , where he finished over two minutes ahead of the unheralded Italian . LeMond at last had the yellow jersey , wearing it the following day as the Tour rode into Paris . LeMond had the distinction of winning the 1990 Tour without taking any of the individual stages . He remains the last rider to win the Tour while wearing the world champion jersey . Over the course of the 1990 Tour the perceived strength of the Z team was confirmed , as they led the team classification through most of the race , adding the team title to LeMond 's yellow jersey .
In September , LeMond attempted to defend his title at the 1990 UCI Road World Championships , but finished fourth , eight seconds behind the winner , his former teammate Rudy Dhaenens of Belgium .
= = = 1991 – 1994 : Change in the peloton and retirement = = =
LeMond felt confident before the 1991 Tour de France . He was the defending champion , trained well and had a solid team to support him . LeMond was among the leaders going into the Stage 8 individual time trial , and he finished second to the Spaniard Miguel Indurain . LeMond felt he was riding extremely well , and though his TT @-@ effort had propelled him into the yellow jersey , losing eight seconds to Indurain shook his confidence . He held the yellow jersey for the next four days until Stage 12 , a challenging 192 km ( 119 mi ) mountain stage . LeMond experienced difficulty on the first climb and he cracked on the Col de Tourmalet , losing significant time to Claudio Chiappucci , and eventual winner Indurain . He continued to race , but was unable to seriously challenge for the lead thereafter , finishing the 1991 Tour seventh overall .
In 1992 , LeMond won the Tour DuPont . It would be the last major win of his career . In the 1992 Tour de France he quit the race in the mountains , on the same day that his compatriot and former domestique Andy Hampsten won atop Alpe d 'Huez . While LeMond claimed a serious saddle sore caused him to abandon , he had earlier stated , " My climbing is not like usual . I 've climbed much better in the past Tours . This year I 'm just not feeling my usual self . "
LeMond did extensive endurance training on the road the following winter , but his performances the following spring failed to improve . LeMond had to abandon the 1993 Giro d 'Italia two days before the final stage after difficult racing left him third @-@ from @-@ last on GC . He was too exhausted to enter the 1993 Tour de France . Following the 1993 season LeMond hired renowned Dutch physiologist Adrie van Diemen to advise him on a new technique to monitor training and measure performance . The ( SRM ) power @-@ based training would make use of the watt as a guide to power output . In November 1993 LeMond confided to Sam Abt that power output in watts would become the key metric . The watt has gained wide acceptance as the best measure of a cyclist 's training performance .
The following year LeMond began the 1994 Tour de France but found he was unable to race effectively . He had to abandon after the first week before the race had reached the difficult mountain stages . That December he announced his retirement . At the time the reasons for LeMond 's increasing difficulties were not entirely known . At a loss , he speculated that a condition known as mitochondrial myopathy might be responsible for the difficulty he was having performing against the current riders . In 2007 , however , LeMond speculated that he might not have had the condition after all , and suggested that lead toxicity from the shotgun pellets still embedded in his body might have been responsible , the effects of which were increased by heavy training .
Since 2010 LeMond acknowledged that the increasing prevalence of doping contributed to his lack of competitiveness . Said LeMond : " Something had changed in cycling . The speeds were faster and riders that I had easily out performed were now dropping me . At the time , the team I was on , Team Z , became more and more demanding , more and more concerned ... " He stated he had been told in 1994 that he would need to blood dope in order to win again . LeMond did not focus solely on doping for his difficulties . He frankly admitted to Abt in 1999 : " I figure I had three months that went right for me after the hunting accident , " three months in which he won the two Tours and a world road race championship . " The rest were just pure suffering , struggling , fatigue , always tired . "
In a wide @-@ ranging interview with American novelist Bryan Malessa in 1998 , LeMond was asked if his career had not been interrupted by the hunting accident , how did he feel he would compare to five time Tour winners such as Bernard Hinault and Miguel Indurain . LeMond responded : " Of course you can 't rewrite racing history , but I 'm confident that I would have won five Tours . "
Two years after his retirement LeMond was inducted into the United States Bicycling Hall of Fame | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, garnered praise for all three performers . The musical performances were generally well @-@ received , and the " Anything Goes " / " Anything You Can Do " mash @-@ up featuring Pearce was widely acclaimed . Five covers were released as singles , three of which charted on the Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 21 million American viewers and garnered a 4 @.@ 0 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 age group . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down significantly from the previous episode , " New York " .
= = Plot = =
It is a new year at McKinley High . New Directions glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) and guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) are now sharing an apartment and a bed . Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , coach of the Cheerios cheerleading squad , is running for Congress but doing badly in the polls . Glee club member Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) is now a senior , while fellow members Tina Cohen @-@ Chang ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) and Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) are juniors . Club co @-@ captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) , a senior , has no idea what to do about his future . Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) has a new boyfriend ( LaMarcus Tinker ) ; her former boyfriend Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) moved to another state . Three New Directions members have left : Sam , Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , who also broke up with Puck ( Mark Salling ) , and Sam 's ex @-@ girlfriend Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) , who has completely reinvented herself with pink hair , a nose ring and a tattoo ; she has taken up smoking , and has made friends with a group of outcast girls called the Skanks . She refuses to rejoin either the Cheerios or New Directions .
To recruit new talent , Will places several purple pianos around the school and encourages the club to sing whenever they see one . When Mike and Tina play on one in a hallway , Sue interrupts them by snapping the piano strings with wire cutters , and is praised for doing so by an arts @-@ hating teacher ( Barbara Tarbuck ) , who promises to vote for her . An inspired Sue goes on television and vows that , if elected , she will cut all funding for school arts programs until all students read at or above grade level . She makes Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) and Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) cheerleading co @-@ captains , to their mutual disgust , and gets their pledge to help her sabotage the glee club . After New Directions performs " We Got the Beat " in the cafeteria , Becky starts a food fight that targets the club . Following lunch , Sugar Motta ( Vanessa Lengies ) auditions , but cannot sing in tune . An agonized Will eventually rejects Sugar , but gains a new recruit when Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) convinces his boyfriend Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) to transfer from Dalton Academy .
Kurt and Rachel see Emma about their plans to attend college in New York City . She suggests they consider a top school for the dramatic arts there , and the two of them attend an Ohio " mixer " for students interested in applying . They have rehearsed " Ding @-@ Dong ! The Witch Is Dead " , and expect to overawe the other attendees with the performance , but are instead intimidated by their performance of an " Anything Goes " and " Anything You Can Do " mash @-@ up led by Harmony ( Lindsay Pearce ) . Although badly shaken , they vow to persevere .
Blaine sings " It 's Not Unusual " to a large crowd in the school courtyard while a growing number of Cheerios , directed by Santana , join in as back @-@ up dancers . As the number is ending , the Cheerios circle the purple piano , and they each sprinkle it with lighter fluid . Quinn flicks her lit cigarette onto the piano , and it bursts into flames . Will tells Santana that because of her sabotage she is banned from New Directions . Rachel breaks up the resulting pity party by singing the opening to " You Can 't Stop the Beat " , and they all perform the song in the auditorium , while Quinn secretly watches from above .
= = Production = =
The first day of filming for the episode was August 9 , 2011 , though some cast members were called the day before to begin recording musical numbers . Murphy realized that The Glee Project runner @-@ up Lindsay Pearce would be ideal for an already @-@ written role in the episode , but the filming needed to take place before the project 's finale was broadcast on August 21 , 2011 , upon which it would be revealed that she had won a two @-@ episode prize . They " kept delaying " the shoot , and " snuck [ her ] into a soundstage to make sure no one recognized her . " In aid of this secrecy , her name was omitted from the Fox press release for the episode . Once Murphy had cast Pearce , he made the musical number she was to appear in bigger . According to Lea Michele , the filming of the first episode ended on August 19 , 2011 .
Returning recurring characters that appear in the episode include ex @-@ glee club member Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) , and television anchors Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) and Andrea Carmichael ( Earlene Davis ) . Three new recurring characters were introduced : football player Shane ( LaMarcus Tinker ) , who is the new boyfriend of Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) , Sugar Motta ( Lengies ) and Pearce as Harmony . Effective with this episode , former recurring guest stars Harry Shum , Jr. as Mike Chang and Darren Criss as Blaine Anderson join the main cast , while Jessalyn Gilsig and Mike O 'Malley , who play Will 's wife Terri Schuester and Kurt 's father Burt Hummel respectively , are no longer given starring credits . Gilsig was in the main cast for the first two seasons , and her change had been previously reported . O 'Malley 's had not , but he is listed in the Fox press release for the second episode as being a guest star , his credit in the first season . Barbara Tarbuck guest starred as Nancy Bletheim , a geometry teacher at McKinley .
At the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International on July 24 , 2011 , series creator Brad Falchuk said that in the first episode of the third season , " The opening sequence is everybody saying what they want to do when they grow up , so you see everyone 's anxieties . " He also stated , " Come the first episode back , you see who the seniors and juniors are . "
The episode features seven musical cover versions . Two are in the form of a mash @-@ up of " Anything Goes " from the Cole Porter musical Anything Goes and " Anything You Can Do " from Irving Berlin 's Annie Get Your Gun , with the lead sung by Pearce . The other five are " You Can 't Stop the Beat " from the musical Hairspray and " We Got the Beat " by The Go @-@ Gos , both performed by New Directions ; " Ding @-@ Dong ! The Witch Is Dead " from the film The Wizard of Oz ( as performed by Barbra Streisand and Harold Arlen from Streisand 's Duets album ) , sung by Michele and Colfer ; the Tom Jones song " It 's Not Unusual " featuring Criss ; and " Big Spender " from the musical Sweet Charity , performed by Lengies . All songs , except for " Big Spender , " were released as singles , available for digital download .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Purple Piano Project " was first broadcast on September 20 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It garnered a 4 @.@ 0 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received 9 @.@ 21 million American viewers during its initial airing . It was beaten in its timeslot by the NCIS premiere on CBS , which garnered a 4 @.@ 3 / 12 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and also by the premiere of the new show New Girl that followed Glee on Fox , which brought in a 4 @.@ 8 / 12 rating / share and 10 @.@ 27 million viewers . The Glee numbers were down by over 25 % from the season two opener , " Audition " , which was watched by 12 @.@ 45 million American viewers and received a 5 @.@ 6 / 16 rating / share , and down nearly as much from the season two finale , " New York " , which attracted 11 @.@ 80 million viewers and a 4 @.@ 6 / 11 rating / share . However , with DVR numbers , the episode viewership increased to a total of 12 @.@ 21 million viewers and a 5 @.@ 3 18 @-@ 49 rating .
In the UK , " The Purple Piano Project " premiered on digital subscription channel Sky1 with an overnight average of 639 @,@ 000 viewers ( 2 @.@ 8 % ) , down by nearly 50 % compared to the overnight rating of the season two finale , " New York " , which aired on E4 . Final ratings brought Glee up to 1 @.@ 17 million viewers . It was the ninth @-@ most watched show on cable for the week , down 55 % from " New York " and 61 % from " Audition " , both of which were the top @-@ ranked cable shows in their respective weeks of broadcast . The episode 's Australian broadcast attained 760 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the twelfth most @-@ watched program of the day , although viewership was down almost 30 % from the 987 @,@ 000 viewers of " New York " . In Canada , 2 @.@ 10 million viewers watched the episode , where it was the most @-@ viewed show in its timeslot and outperformed its closest competitor by 183 % in the 18 – 49 demographic . It was the tenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down three slots but up 16 % from the 1 @.@ 77 million who watched " New York " .
= = = Social media = = =
The night the episode debuted , several topics related to the show appeared in the top ten trending topics on Twitter . At one point , Glee cast member Kevin McHale tweeted " 5 TT 's ! Woo woo ! " , indicating that five of the top ten slots were filled by Glee @-@ related topics . The Hollywood Reporter , in their story on the online reaction to the show , said that there were four of ten topics claimed by the debut rather than five : " # gleek " , " Kurt and Rachel " , " Sue Sylvester " and " Warblers " .
Twitter was also used to advertise the show . To highlight the beginning of the third season and its move to a new channel , Sky was the first company to use Twitter 's geographically targeted ad capability in the UK with a " promoted trend " that was displayed on September 22 , 2011 , the day that Glee debuted on Sky1 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" The Purple Piano Project " was given mixed to positive reviews by critics . Jenna Mullins of E ! Online called it " a perfect season @-@ starter of an episode " . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon appreciated that it tackled some of the show 's biggest problems , such as the surfeit of central characters and their previously un @-@ addressed ages . He was particularly pleased that the episode focussed on typical high school life , rather than the adult characters or more serious issues . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle approved of the " clear trajectory " set out for the characters , and noted that he looked forward to seeing their various storylines develop . Though AOLTV 's Crystal Bell worried that clarfiying the teenagers ' ages could result in the younger characters being overlooked in future episodes , she was glad that the premiere saw the show return to its roots : " underdogs , show tunes and Sue Sylvester " . A similar sentiment was expressed by Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times , who was hopeful that renewed focus on the core characters would lead to " a great year " . The Huffington Post 's Amy Lee observed that " Glee has a tendency to oscillate between sappy and nasty , sometimes without any warning " , and then noted that " The Purple Piano Project " was more tonally balanced than the majority of the second season . Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times deemed the episode " admirably straightforward " , unmarred by the sentimentality and inconsistencies which plagued previous episodes . His praised was tempered , however , and he wrote , " I wouldn 't go so far as to call the episode good , it was oddly lifeless and the stakes seemed almost nonexistent at times . It has the feel of a show rediscovering itself , but , all things considered , Ryan Murphy and Co. handled the task relatively well . "
James Poniewozik of Time took a more negative stance . He wrote that " The Purple Piano Project " " was not a particularly good episode of Glee " , one which was hindered by the vast number of central characters , " but it did at least suggest where the third season of the show could find its strong core stories , and also ... the numerous ways in which it could get sidetracked into tangential ridiculousness . " The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff graded the episode " D + " . He summarised it as " a handful of okay performances , one or two pretty good lines , and then a whole bunch of awful " . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman praised the episode 's humor and plot development , but commented that it " didn 't hit any of the emotional notes Glee is capable of . " Robert Canning of IGN rated it an " okay " 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 . He too found " there were still quite a few laughs to be had " , but felt the episode suffered from its repetitiveness , as Sue 's hatred of the glee club and New Directions ' recruitment problems have been thoroughly explored before . The Dallas Morning News 's Samantha Urban noted that Murphy failed to deliver on his promise to increase Mercedes and Tina 's roles , and couldn 't accept that Sue would be allowed to promote her congressional campaign on her local news commentary spot , but overall was " pretty impressed " with what she called " a solid episode of Glee that made [ her ] feel cautiously optimistic about the season ahead . " Lisa Respers France of CNN summed up the episode in a single word : " Meh . "
The plot which involved Rachel and Kurt attracted uniformly favorable reviews . Fallon called it " one of the episode 's strongest subplots " , and Salon.com 's Matt Zoller Seitz deemed it the episode 's " most successful and affecting . " Bell named Rachel and Kurt as her favorite Glee pairing , and Futterman wrote that their " friendship has grown from something catty into something genuine and relatable and their interactions are likely the most authentic for any aspiring musical theater performers among Glee 's viewers . " Within his generally negative review of the episode , VanDerWerff noted that the NYADA mixer scene " features some of the best work Chris Colfer and Lea Michele have contributed to the show . " In contrast , the adult storylines were generally poorly received . Zoller Seitz branded Will and Emma 's relationship boring , and Abby West of Entertainment Weekly disliked the fact the season began with them in an established relationship : " I feel like I missed a huge leap for Emma and we need to have it acknowledged . " Fallon disparaged Will as being " insufferable " , and attributed this to " Morrison 's wooden characterization , the stilted writing [ and ] the flat purpose that the character serves on the show " . Sue 's storyline was described as nonsensical by VanDerWerff , who wrote that she " has decided to take her crusade against the glee club to a congressional district @-@ wide audience , because , well , she was the most popular character in season one , and she will be again , via blunt force , if necessary . " Reiter , however , found Sue to be " in perfect form in this episode , neither too mean nor too misty " , and enjoyed her storyline .
The introduction of Harmony and Sugar garnered critical praise . VanDerWerff wrote that the former " may be the best new character ever " , TVLine 's Michael Slezak said she was " brillantly brought to life " by Pearce , and Fallon felt that her arrival boded well for the introductions of the other finalists from The Glee Project . He said that " she brought , which the best new characters do , fresh and exciting aspects in the show 's established leads . Zoller Seitz described Sugar as " an entitled little snot " , but a " great character " nonetheless , and one he hoped to see more of . West praised Lengies ' performance and opined that with Sue otherwise occupied , " it 'll be great to have another person as a thorn in the Glee club 's side . " Not everyone was thrilled with Sugar 's advent , however ; VanDerWerff called the character " awful " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The episode 's musical numbers were generally well received . Hankinson appreciated that they " felt to proper scale " , with a realism which the previous season 's " over @-@ the @-@ top " performances lacked . Though Benigno criticized the song selection for being too focused on Broadway tracks , which he felt limited its appeal for younger viewers , Urban called the choices " outstanding " and VanDerWerff commented that the wide range represented progress from season two . He noted that there were no performances he disliked , but found some " shockingly poorly motivated for dramatic purposes " . Canning enjoyed the songs both vocally and visually : " Everything was upbeat , familiar and fun . The dancing was entertaining and most of the performances were group numbers , which added plenty of visual flair . "
" We Got the Beat " garnered praise for Brittany and Mike 's dancing from Lee , though she described the vocals as AutoTuned , a comment echoed by Futterman , who was nevertheless glad that Brittany and Rachel " match [ ed ] the rawness of Santana 's voice " . Slezak and Benigno were pleased that Morris and Rivera received lead vocals , but while the former commended the number as a great musical start to the season and awarded it an " A " grade , the latter found it hard to differentiate between the Glee cover and the original , observed that it failed to advance the plot , and graded it " C " . Respers France was entirely unimpressed with the routine . For her , Sugar 's scene following it was one of the episode 's few highlights , although she described Sugar as having " a horrible voice " .
Rachel and Kurt 's duet of " Ding @-@ Dong ! The Witch Is Dead " made Billboard 's Rae Votta long for them to share more material . It encapsulated everything Futterman wanted in a duet between the two ; she observed " it 's effortless , charming , full of power musical theater vocals and Rachel gets to channel Barbra Streisand " . Lee , however , felt the number was an odd choice to demonstrate their talent , and although Slezak graded it a " B " , he contrasted it negatively with their previous duets . West opined that the song was too insubstantial and gave it a " B – " . Its highest grade , an " A – " , came from Benigno . He noted its lack of significance to the plot and wished that the vocal split had not been so strongly in Michele 's favor , but called it " a fun , infectious number . "
Criss 's performance of " It 's Not Unusual " attracted comparisons to comical renditions of the number in The Fresh Prince of Bel Air , but earned an " A " from West regardless . Fallon said the routine was " embarrassingly enjoyable " and lauded Criss 's screen presence , and Benigno called it a " wonderful performance " , but felt it was hampered by the simplicity of the arrangement and gave it a " B + " . Futterman and Slezak both generally like Blaine as a lead vocalist , but felt the song was not his best : Futterman wrote that " some of the belting felt strained and the energy a little forced " , and Slezak awarded the song a " B – " .
The " Anything Goes " / " Anything You Can Do " mash @-@ up was widely acclaimed . Respers France named Pearce 's performance the best moment of the episode , and found that the character positively reminded her of " Glee of old " . The song was also a favorite of Lee 's , who wrote that the intensity of the actress was perfectly matched to the character 's disposition . West , Slezak and Benigno gave the performance an " A " ; the former called it an " outstanding rendition " which " felt like it belonged on a big stage or in a big @-@ screen musical " , and the latter two praised her vocal talent , which Benigno deemed unequalled on Glee . Futterman and Bell found Harmony a credible rival to Rachel vocally , and eagerly anticipated future competition between them . Urban called Pearce 's performance merely " serviceable " . Though she felt her acting was a weak point , she compared her favorably to season two guest star Charice and praised her vocals . Criticism came from New York 's Lindy West , who did not understand Rachel 's humiliation , as New Directions " sing way more elaborate and equally competent arrangements four to five times an episode " . She elaborated , " This is a thing that drives me crazy about Glee . As a viewer , there 's no knowing whether a performance was ' good ' like ' Anything Goes , ' or ' bad ' like ' We 've Got the Beat , ' until Rachel starts crying or some cheerleader starts throwing spaghetti . "
" You Can 't Stop the Beat " was called a " perfect ending to a perfect season premiere " by Mullins . Futterman described it as a " standard Glee episode finale , full of inspiration and importance for the future , and catchy as all hell . " Slezak enjoyed Rachel 's slow opening verse , said the full performance " felt a lot like the shiny , happy Glee of yore " and gave it an " A – " as did Benigno , who also found it a typical final number but was less enthused by the familiarity . Votta 's only disappointment with the rendition was that the televised version did not include the " adorable duet " between Kurt and Artie that is present on the single .
= = = Chart history = = =
Three of the five cover versions released as singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " It 's Not Unusual " at number sixty @-@ five with 40 @,@ 000 in sales , " You Can 't Stop The Beat " at number sixty @-@ seven , and " We 've Got the Beat " at number eighty @-@ three . On the Canadian Hot 100 , " You Can 't Stop The Beat " charted highest at number sixty @-@ five , with " It 's Not Unusual " at number seventy @-@ five , and " We 've Got the Beat " at number eighty @-@ three . Neither " Ding @-@ Dong ! The Witch Is Dead " nor the " Anything Goes " / " Anything You Can Do " mash @-@ up charted on the Hot 100 in either country , though in the US each track sold 21 @,@ 000 downloads , and were in second and third place respectively on the Hot 100 " Bubbling Under " chart . Total US sales for the five cover versions were 149 @,@ 000 , compared to 409 @,@ 000 in sales for the five singles from the season two opener , " Audition " , in their first week ; for that episode , all five singles made the Hot 100 , and charted between numbers twenty @-@ one and fifty @-@ one .
= Hamersley , Western Australia =
Hamersley is a residential suburb 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 miles ) north @-@ northwest of the central business district of Perth , the capital of Western Australia , and six kilometres ( 4 mi ) from the Indian Ocean . The suburb adjoins two major arterial roads — Mitchell Freeway to the west and Reid Highway to the south — and is within the City of Stirling local government area . It was built during the late 1960s and 1970s as part of the Government of Western Australia 's response to rapidly increasing land prices across the metropolitan area .
Before development , Hamersley was a remote district covered in jarrah , marri , banksia and other vegetation typical of the Swan Coastal Plain , with small areas cleared for small @-@ scale agriculture such as market gardening and poultry farming . By 1974 , six years after the first subdivision , Hamersley was home to the district 's first community hall , an annual parade and fair which were broadcast on Perth TV and radio , an active progress association , and its own newspaper , the Hamersley Gazette , a forerunner to today 's Stirling Times . Rapid growth further north removed the focus from Hamersley , which was completed in 1981 and has remained relatively stable since then .
Significant reserves of remnant bushland remain in parts of the suburb . The largest of these is an exclusion zone around the 180 metres ( 590 feet ) high ABC radio tower in the suburb 's southeast , which broadcasts AM stations to the Perth metropolitan area . The guyed tower was built in 1939 and is a landmark in the region , although it has become a local political issue over the past decade .
= = Geography = =
Hamersley is in the northern suburbs of Perth , Western Australia , within the City of Stirling , and 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 miles ) from the Indian Ocean . Its borders are the Mitchell Freeway to the west , Reid Highway and the Balcatta industrial area to the south , Wanneroo Road to the east , and Beach Road and the City of Joondalup to the north . The suburb is divided into western and eastern portions by Erindale Road . Hamersley was one of the first Perth suburbs to be guided by the principles of cul @-@ de @-@ sac design , and many of its minor streets are joined by parks and pathways .
Hamersley covers 3 @.@ 267 square kilometres ( 807 acres ) and averages 29 metres ( 95 feet ) above sea level , although portions of the loop formed by Rannoch Circle in the eastern portion are 50 – 55 metres ( 164 – 180 ft ) above sea level . A real estate magazine remarked in 1994 that " homes around the Rannoch circle enjoy some spectacular views to the city and the hills " , and that " a few lucky householders ... could even catch ocean glimpses , despite being more than six kilometres from the water . "
The restricted @-@ access bushland reserve surrounding the ABC radio tower in the suburb 's southeast covers 14 @.@ 4 % ( 0 @.@ 47 km2 or 120 acres ) of its area , while parks and areas of natural bushland are spread throughout . The largest of these are Aintree @-@ Eglinton Reserve , a 3 @.@ 38 hectares ( 8 @.@ 4 acres ) grassed reserve next to the community centre complex , and Rannoch @-@ Tay @-@ Earn Reserve , a 4 @.@ 83 hectares ( 11 @.@ 9 acres ) reserve containing large areas of native bushland interspersed with grassed and paved walkways . A biodiversity site north of the community centre is recognised by the City of Stirling 's Green Plan 2 .
Streets in western Hamersley are generally named after English towns , while eastern Hamersley uses the names of Scottish Highland and Perthshire towns and lochs . There are exceptions – the origins of Vickers Street precinct street names are unknown , while streets in the south @-@ western corner are named after the " Bentley Boys " , a group of British racing drivers from the 1920s and 1930s , and their car designer Walter Owen Bentley .
= = = Natural history = = =
Hamersley 's soil is an infertile yellow @-@ brown sand composed of fine to coarse quartz grains , with Tamala Limestone beneath . Locally known as Karrakatta Sand , it is almost certainly the leached remnants of coastal sand deposited by eolian processes in the late Pleistocene period , between 11 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 years ago . Below the sand are Paleozoic rocks of the Perth Basin . The sand contains an unconfined aquifer with large supplies of low @-@ salinity potable groundwater which is recharged by rainfall .
As with other infertile areas of the Swan Coastal Plain , Hamersley would have supported open forests of Eucalyptus marginata ( Jarrah ) with Corymbia calophylla ( Marri ) or Eucalyptus gomphocephala ( Tuart ) , and an understorey of Banksia attenuata ( Candlestick Banksia ) , B. menziesii ( Firewood Banksia ) , B. grandis ( Bull Banksia ) , Allocasuarina fraseriana ( Western Sheoak ) and Agonis flexuosa ( Swan River Peppermint ) . The main shrub species would have been Jacksonia sternbergiana ( Stinkwood ) , J. furcellata ( Grey Stinkwood ) , Acacia cyclops ( Coastal Wattle ) , Acacia saligna ( Orange Wattle ) , Hibbertia species , Allocasuarina humilis ( Dwarf Sheoak ) , Calothamnus quadrifidus ( One @-@ sided Bottlebrush ) and Grevillea thelemanniana ( Spider Net Grevillea ) . Biodiversity surveys in 2006 have also identified a relatively rare species , Jacksonia sericea ( Waldjumi ) , in two eastern Hamersley reserves .
= = History = =
= = = Name = = =
Hamersley was named after the Hamersley family who arrived in the Swan River Colony in 1837 and established themselves at Guildford . There is no evidence they ever visited modern Hamersley , but in 1869 they built a summer home in what is now North Beach , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 miles ) to the west , and bought considerable holdings in the area over the following years .
The name first came into use to describe the north @-@ western section of the Perth Road District in 1906 . Hamersley Ward was a large area of land covering what is now Hamersley , Carine , Watermans Bay , North Beach , Gwelup and parts of Balcatta , Karrinyup and Trigg . The Hamersley townsite , consisting of Hamersley Ward , was gazetted in 1945 . As a result , many facilities in North Beach , including a primary school , a golf course , several sporting clubs and residents ' and seniors ' associations , were called Hamersley . After the Hamersley Development Scheme started in 1968 , confusion as to exactly what Hamersley referred to led to conflict between established organisations in North Beach and emerging ones in Hamersley – the Hamersley Gazette noted in 1973 that " North Beach people have the prior claim but ours is more officially accepted " .
The suburb was gazetted as a locality by the City of Stirling on 24 October 1975 , although it had existed as a postal locality since 1971 .
= = = Early history = = =
Before European settlement , Hamersley was part of a larger area of land that was occupied by the Mooro people , an Indigenous Australian people who traversed the lakes and wetlands running parallel to the coast between what is now Perth and Yanchep .
Soon after the establishment of the Swan River Colony , colonial authorities divided up the land into grants which were given to settlers who had brought capital and to the new settlement . Southern Hamersley became part of Location K , a 2 @,@ 585 hectares ( 6 @,@ 390 acres ) strip of land extending 19 kilometres ( 12 miles ) west from Caversham on the Swan River to Big Carine Swamp , which was granted to Robert Ansell Partridge in September 1829 . The western part of this , first surveyed by P.L.S. Chauncy in 1843 , remained fairly inaccessible , and the only development in the area was the construction of the Daviot Park cottage on Old Balcatta Road 500 metres ( 0 @.@ 31 miles ) southwest of Hamersley . By the late 1930s , portions in the far west and south @-@ east of the suburb had been cleared for small @-@ scale agriculture such as market gardening , and in 1939 the Department of the Interior constructed a 180 metres ( 590 feet ) tower and other facilities for ABC AM and shortwave radio broadcasts on Wanneroo Road .
Northern Hamersley , meanwhile , became part of Swan Location 1315 , which extended north to Lake Goollelal and west to the coast and was granted in the 1890s to the Midland Railway Company after being surveyed by Crossland & Co. in 1892 , and by N. Lymburner in 1894 . It appears that no development occurred in northern Hamersley , other than the construction of Beach and Carine Roads in 1900 , and the State Housing Commission resumed the land in November 1950 . In 1962 , a lucerne grower with a property on Duffy Road , Carine applied to use the northern half of the suburb as a sheep run . The Shire President , Herbert R. Robinson , refused to grant permission , saying that " land might soon be needed for housing " . The West Australian reported in 1967 that the area was still " virtually untouched bushland " .
= = = Hamersley Development Scheme = = =
In the late 1960s , concern about the growth of land prices in the Perth metropolitan area , which for several years had exceeded the consumer price index , led to the Premier of Western Australia , David Brand , convening an inter @-@ departmental committee to study the problem . One of the committee 's recommendations to Cabinet was to release 300 hectares of land owned by the State Housing Commission in Hamersley , Warwick and Greenwood which was on a much larger area that had been designated as " deferred urban " land under the Metropolitan Region Scheme in 1963 . On 13 December 1967 , the Metropolitan Region Planning Authority decided to rezone as urban all land bounded by Hepburn Avenue , Marmion Avenue , North Perimeter Highway and Wanneroo Road , on the condition that subdivision would be approved when " Town Planning ( Development ) Scheme ( s ) have been approved with the general object of serving the best possible development at the least cost to the community " .
The Shires of Perth and Wanneroo combined to prepare Town Planning Scheme No.26 ( Hamersley Development Scheme ) , and by early March 1968 , the scheme , which included provisions for water supply , sewerage , drainage , road construction and undergrounding of power mains , was presented to both councils for consideration . A time limit of 3 ½ years for developers to construct homes on released land was built into the scheme in an effort to prevent land speculation , which the inter @-@ departmental committee believed was a key factor in spiralling prices in Perth . By July , however , negotiations between the councils broke down , and the Shire of Perth ( now City of Stirling ) decided to administer its own part of the scheme independently . The scheme was divided into nine sections , with what is now the suburb of Hamersley being the first stage .
In April 1968 the R & I Bank , a government @-@ owned bank , was granted permission to subdivide a small area in northern Ardleigh Crescent in the suburb 's west . The first auction of 80 lots on Saturday , 14 December 1968 was anticipated on the front page of The West Australian , with Premier Brand advising intending buyers to be cautious about their bids . At the auction , 76 lots were sold at an average price of $ 4 @,@ 784 , compared to $ 6 @,@ 700 at a recent R & I Bank sale in the nearby suburb of Karrinyup , with newspapers agreeing that the Premier 's warning had been heeded by bidders .
The western portion of Hamersley grew steadily over the following months and years , with segments being released , auctioned and developed by the R & I Bank , T & S Plunkett Homes and Parkland Housing . The Hamersley Development Scheme , however , was doomed almost before it started . Disagreements over issues such as undergrounding of power and the time limit clauses between the Town Planning Board and the Shire of Perth had caused delays in the scheme 's approval . In July 1970 , the Shire Planner reported that " there is little point in proceeding with the Scheme , especially in view of the large areas already subdivided " , and recommended the council agree " that for all practical purposes , Town Planning Scheme No. 26 @.@ is defunct " . By the February 1971 state election , over 1 @,@ 000 eligible voters lived in the district .
= = = Suburban development = = =
In June 1970 , the Metropolitan Region Planning Authority released land in the southwestern corner of Hamersley , which had previously been held in reserve under the Metropolitan Region Scheme for a large freeway interchange between the future Mitchell Freeway ( then known as Stephenson Freeway ) and Reid Highway ( North Perimeter Freeway ) . The result of these changes was to allow the construction of Walter Way , Dutton Crescent and connecting streets , which were named after racing drivers from the 1920s and 1930s .
Between 1971 and 1973 , reserves , public recreation areas and drainage sites were set aside in western Hamersley , and facilities were erected in quick succession – the 1st Hamersley Scout Group in 1973 , the colonial @-@ style Holy Cross Anglican Church in 1974 , and a community hall at Aintree Street in 1975 . Residents in the region were at this time on the fringe of Perth 's suburban area , relying on partly built main roads , distant shopping centres and overstretched local facilities for several years after the suburb 's construction . A locally produced fortnightly newspaper , the Hamersley Gazette , started in early 1973 by Peter Flanigan , from his home in Manton Court , covering the suburbs of Carine , Hamersley , Warwick and Greenwood , with the open aim of helping to form community associations and campaign for better facilities . A July 1973 article , for example , lamented that " work on Erindale Road appears to have come to a standstill ... great piles of dirt and unmade road surfaces bear testimony to the fact that something is going on , or should be going on , but this one is taking a very long time . "
However , there were also celebrations – the paper reported in detail on the annual Glendale Spring Fair , held between 1973 and 1976 by the Glendale P & C Association on the second Saturday in November . It included activities for children , marching bands provided by The Salvation Army and the Australian 10th Light Horse Regiment , and a parade along Glendale Avenue and Beach Road at 10 : 30 am Intended originally as a fundraiser for the school , the Gazette reported that it was " a sort of glorified féte that rapidly outgrew its origins " , with live coverage of the parade on ABC radio and on television station TVW @-@ 7 and personalities such as Jeff Newman in attendance . The fair , however , became the victim of a dispute over naming rights between the Glendale P & C , community groups and commercial sponsors . Other events included the grand opening of Warwick Grove Shopping Centre on 13 November 1974 , the greening of Aintree @-@ Eglinton Reserve and the activities of the Hamersley Progress Association . The paper was acquired in February 1977 by Bill Marwick of the Wanneroo Times , and evolved into the Stirling Times in 1980 .
Meanwhile , work was only starting in eastern Hamersley . In 1973 Project Homes acquired a poultry farm and agricultural holding , and completed the construction of Vickers Street and adjoining roads , with Don Place becoming a display village . In 1974 the City of Stirling agreed , after complex negotiations , to sell 4 @.@ 2 hectares of land comprising Carine Road and Allen Street to the State Housing Commission and to War Service Homes in order to " facilitate a satisfactory subdivisional design of adjoining land held by the State Housing Commission " in the eastern portion of the suburb . All that remains of these two early roads are paved pathways within the Rannoch @-@ Tay @-@ Earn Reserve , which was gazetted in 1976 . By July 1975 , 200 defence service homes were under construction on land immediately to the east of Erindale Road , to be made available to veterans from March 1976 . The rest of eastern Hamersley was built over the next few years , and by 1981 development was essentially complete . The community hall was redeveloped into a full @-@ fledged community centre , which officially opened in 1990 .
Despite Hamersley 's stability in the years since 1981 and its relatively low crime rate , it has periodically drawn the attention of the Perth media . In July 2000 , a man bludgeoned his former girlfriend , mother @-@ of @-@ two Deborah Boyd , to death in a rented home in Brabant Way . He was subsequently sentenced to strict @-@ security life imprisonment . On 23 January 2006 , a large scrub fire caused the closure of Reid Highway and delays in rail line services during the afternoon rush hour .
= = Demographics = =
At the ABS 2011 census , Hamersley had a population of 4 @,@ 982 people . This was an increase of 17 people from the 2006 census , a decline of 246 people from the 2001 census , and a decline of 605 people from the 1996 census .
Hamersley residents had a median age of 39 , compared to the Perth average of 36 . The median household income in Hamersley was around the average for the region and for Perth — $ 1 @,@ 489 per week compared with $ 1 @,@ 518 and $ 1 @,@ 459 per week respectively . The 2011 Census figures put Hamersley 's unemployment rate at 0 @.@ 9 % below the Perth average . Industry sectors in which Hamersley residents worked ( 2011 ) were comparable with those in Perth generally , with the largest proportions working in construction ( 11 @.@ 9 % ) , health care ( 11 @.@ 4 % ) , education and training ( 9 @.@ 5 % ) , retail trade ( 9 @.@ 2 % ) and professional occupations ( 8 @.@ 9 % ) .
According to the City of Stirling , most of Hamersley 's 2 @,@ 084 dwellings are brick homes with an average lot size of 750 m ² . At the 2011 census , the median monthly housing loan repayments in Hamersley were about $ 1755 — somewhat lower than both the region and Perth generally ( $ 2000 ) . However , 41 @.@ 0 % of Hamersley 's dwellings were fully owned , compared to 29 @.@ 3 % across the whole of Perth . In the year to March 2016 , Hamersley 's median house price was $ 565 @,@ 000 versus $ 540 @,@ 000 for the whole of Perth .
The population of Hamersley is predominantly Australian @-@ born , with some 69 @.@ 8 % of its residents being born in Australia as at the 2011 census . The second most prevalent birthplace was the United Kingdom at 9 @.@ 3 % , followed by New Zealand at 3 @.@ 6 % . 6 @.@ 4 % of Hamersley 's population reported one or both parents of Italian birth , with the strongest concentration in the Vickers Street district ( 13 @.@ 4 % ) . Other significant minorities included those of Chinese ( 2 @.@ 2 % ) , Macedonian ( 1 @.@ 9 % ) , Indian ( 1 @.@ 6 % ) heritage .
The most popular religious affiliations in descending order in the 2011 census were Roman Catholic , no religion , Anglican , Uniting , Orthodox and " Christian nfd " . Holy Cross Hamersley is located on Glendale Ave , and is an Anglican church in the evangelical tradition . All Saints Catholic Church is in neighbouring Warwick and the local Uniting Churches are in Carine and Greenwood .
= = Amenities and facilities = =
Hamersley is a residential suburb , relying on the Warwick Grove shopping centre on its northern boundary for commercial services , and is 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 miles ) by road from Karrinyup Shopping Centre . A light industrial area is to the south in Balcatta which includes a large Bunnings Warehouse on Erindale Road approximately 200 metres ( 660 ft ) south of Hamersley .
Aintree @-@ Eglinton Reserve , a grassed area covering 3 @.@ 38 hectares ( 8 @.@ 4 acres ) , contains a cricket pitch , several practice runs and night lights for Australian rules football , which are utilised by local amateur and junior clubs . Within the reserve is the Hamersley Community Recreation Centre , first built in the 1970s as a community hall and opened in its present form on 22 April 1990 . The centre is a small village area consisting of a central pergola crossed with walking paths , flanked by four buildings : a sports hall with basketball courts and kiosk , an arts and crafts building , a community hall and function building hosting discos and other social events , and a purpose @-@ built children 's centre . Near the centre are the 1st Hamersley Scout Group , a child health centre and the Holy Cross Anglican Church , a colonial @-@ style building built in 1974 and consecrated on 14 December 1980 to serve the newly formed Balcatta @-@ Hamersley Parish .
Numerous small parks are throughout all parts of Hamersley , usually joining the ends of several cul @-@ de @-@ sacs and in some cases containing wooden benches or children 's play equipment . The Rannoch @-@ Tay @-@ Earn reserve in eastern Hamersley also contains two barbecues . The introduction of a barbecue and new playground equipment to the reserve first came in the late 1990s . 2008 – 2009 has seen the introduction of a new barbecue area due west of the playground with more introductions to the reserve to come .
The southeastern corner contains the ABC 50 kW radio tower which transmits ABC AM radio in Perth , including ABC Local Radio ( 6WF ) , Radio National and ABC NewsRadio . Several other towers , including a 20 kW and 10 kW tower , are also at the site . Some residents argue that electromagnetic interference from the towers is adversely affecting their television and telephone reception , with the issue taken up in Federal parliament by local MPs . An inquiry was held by ACMA in November 2010 into the situation , which found that apart from some disturbance to ABC2 signals , TV and radio signals in the area were of acceptable strength and quality .
= = Education = =
Hamersley contains two state primary schools , each of which includes facilities for pre @-@ primary students , and a teaching resource centre . Hamersley is within the catchment area for Warwick Senior High School for students from Years 8 to 12 .
Hamersley 's first school , Glendale Primary School in Glendale Avenue , opened in 1971 in the western portion of the suburb . The school and neighbouring kindergarten quickly became overcrowded as their catchment area initially extended to Hepburn Avenue , taking in Warwick and Greenwood to its north . As schools were built in those suburbs in 1974 – 1976 , congestion eased considerably . The school and kindergarten were also used as a hall and meeting place by residents and groups until the recreation centre opened in April 1975 . In 2016 , the school provided for 248 primary students between Year 1 and Year 6 , and 28 pre @-@ primary students .
From 1976 onward , the eastern portion of the suburb developed , and East Hamersley Primary School , in Doon Way , opened in February 1979 . In 2006 , the school provided for 109 primary , 30 pre @-@ primary and 29 kindergarten students . Computer studies and Indonesian language are required subjects for students from Years 3 to 6 . In the 1990s , the West Coast Resource Centre , a specialist borrowing library for teachers of kindergarten , pre @-@ primary and primary classes , was built on the East Hamersley site by the Department of Education ( now Education and Training ) to serve schools in the northern suburbs .
= = Transport = =
Cars are the preferred mode of transport in the suburb . At the 2011 census , the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that 68 @.@ 8 % of Hamersley 's residents were drivers or passengers of cars in their commute to work , a figure only slightly lower than the north metropolitan average of 71 @.@ 3 % . Other private modes of transport included motorcycling ( 0 @.@ 7 % ) , cycling ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) and walking ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) . The low number of walking commuters compared to the north metropolitan average of 1 @.@ 5 % and the Perth Statistical Region average of 1 @.@ 81 % is most likely due to the limited number of workplaces within walking distance .
Hamersley is situated at the intersection of several key arterial roads and highways . It is connected to North Beach ( 7 km ) , Scarborough ( 10 km ) and Perth Airport ( 22 km ) via Reid Highway , to the Perth CBD ( 15 km ) and to Joondalup ( 17 km ) via Reid Highway and Mitchell Freeway , and to the Balcatta industrial area and Karrinyup Shopping Centre ( 7 km ) by Erindale Road . Traffic within Hamersley is distributed by a number of backbone streets , of which the main ones are Eglinton Crescent , Belvedere Road , Rannoch Circle , Blissett Way and Vickers Street .
However , the controlled access highways on Hamersley 's southern and western boundaries physically isolate the suburb from its neighbours and limit southbound exits to just two , Erindale Road and Wanneroo Road . This results in considerable rush hour congestion on the stretch of Erindale Road between Eglinton Crescent and Reid Highway . In 2004 , Main Roads Western Australia provided a grant of $ 48 @,@ 000 to the City of Stirling under its Black Spot Programme to improve the traffic flow in this area .
= = = Public transport = = =
Public transport in Hamersley is generally in the form of Transperth buses operated by Swan Transit from the Warwick railway station at its northwestern corner , linking via the Joondalup railway line to the Perth CBD .
At the 2011 census , the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that 13 @.@ 9 % of Hamersley 's residents used public transport to get to work . This was a sizable jump from 8 @.@ 5 % in the 2006 census , and was higher than the north @-@ western metropolitan average of 13 @.@ 1 % . Public transport usage was highest ( 16 @.@ 8 % ) in the section of Hamersley closest to the train station , and lowest ( 8 @.@ 3 % ) in the Vickers Street section to the southeast , where many residents live more than 10 minutes ' walk from the nearest bus stop .
Currently , the only service in the suburb is the 387 daytime service between Warwick and Perth via Balcatta Road , which travels along Eglinton Crescent . Eastern Hamersley does not have a direct service , other than those along Erindale and Wanneroo Roads . However , service along Wanneroo Road is very limited outside standard weekday hours .
Originally , Hamersley was served by a shuttle service to Wanneroo Road , Nollamara , to connect with other routes to the Perth CBD . In September 1973 , the Metropolitan Transport Trust introduced the 358 and 359 services , which linked Greenwood to Perth via Eglinton Crescent and Glendale Avenue / Aintree Street respectively , travelling along Blissett Way , then becoming limited @-@ stops Wanneroo Road services . An after @-@ hours service , the 369 , was also introduced . In 1987 , following the construction of the Warwick Transfer Station and the Mitchell Freeway , services along Glendale Avenue and through East Hamersley ceased , with two new routes – the 347 and the Freeway @-@ bound 387 – being created to serve Eglinton Crescent .
On 21 March 1993 , the Joondalup railway line came into operation as part of the Northern Suburbs Transit System , resulting in the creation of the 449 and 457 services to replace the 387 service . The 449 operated only during the morning and evening rush @-@ hour , while the 457 operated after @-@ hours and at weekends . These services operated virtually unchanged until 6 November 2011 , when the 347 was replaced with the present @-@ day 387 , and the 457 and weekday evening services were withdrawn . On 31 January 2016 , the 449 was also withdrawn , leaving Hamersley without weekend bus services .
= = Politics = =
Hamersley has consistently favoured the centre @-@ right Liberal Party at both federal and state elections throughout its history . However , in the 2001 and 2005 state elections and at the 1983 federal election , Hamersley booths recorded a majority for the centre @-@ left Australian Labor Party ( ALP ) . Hamersley has also shown a higher preference than the regional average for progressive minor parties such as the Australian Greens and Australian Democrats . Hamersley is both socially and geographically between the safe Liberal suburbs west of the Mitchell Freeway such as Carine , Duncraig and North Beach , and the safe Labor suburbs east of Wanneroo Road such as Balga and Girrawheen .
At federal level , Hamersley is within the Division of Stirling , a marginal seat which historically has alternated between the Liberal Party and the Australian Labor Party . It has been held since 2004 by Michael Keenan of the Liberal Party . At polling place and subdivision level , Hamersley has supported the Liberal Party at every election since its first in 1972 , the only exception being the 1983 election . In the 2001 election , the booth at East Hamersley Primary School was only won by the Liberal Party with a 0 @.@ 3 % two @-@ party @-@ preferred majority . Hamersley was in the Division of Cowan for elections held between 1984 and 1996 .
In the Western Australian Legislative Assembly , Hamersley is split between the electorates of Girrawheen and Balcatta , ordinarily both safe seats for the Australian Labor Party . At polling place level , Hamersley supported the Liberal Party at every election since its first in 1971 until the 1996 election . In both the 2001 and 2005 elections , polling places in Hamersley , as with those in many northern Perth suburbs , switched to the Australian Labor Party at state level . However , at the 2008 and 2013 elections , the suburb returned a majority for the Liberals .
At local level , Hamersley is represented within the City of Stirling by the two councillors of the Hamersley Ward , which covers the suburbs of Carine , Hamersley , Gwelup and northern Balcatta . At present , Samantha Jenkinson , whose term expires in October 2017 , and Andrew Guilfoyle , whose term expires in October 2015 , represent Hamersley Ward .
In the early 1970s , the Hamersley Progress Association was formed to represent the views of Hamersley residents to all levels of government . It was , however , fairly short @-@ lived . In 1999 , the Hamersley Reference Group was formed to advise then @-@ Federal Member for Stirling Jann McFarlane MHR on issues related to the ABC radio transmission towers and their effect on local residents . It was renamed to Radio Interference Group – Hamersley Towers after it moved to complete community management , and lobbies the government and makes submissions to public inquiries on behalf of the community on the issue .
Polling place statistics are presented below combining the votes from the Glendale and East Hamersley polling places in the federal and state elections as indicated .
Federal results
State results
= Marge on the Lam =
" Marge on the Lam " is the sixth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 4 , 1993 . When Marge invites her neighbor Ruth Powers to attend the ballet with her , the two become friends and begin to go out , making Homer jealous as he wants Marge to spend time with him . Ruth and Marge agree to remain friends but not go out together after a large police pursuit with Chief Wiggum . It was written by Bill Canterbury and directed by Mark Kirkland . Phil Hartman , Pamela Reed and George Fenneman guest star .
= = Plot = =
After donating money to public television , Marge receives complimentary ballet tickets . She asks Homer to accompany her , and much to Marge 's surprise he agrees , confusing ballet with a circus . On the day of the ballet , however , he inadvertently gets his arm stuck in a vending machine while trying to steal a can of soda from it and then gets his other arm stuck in a candy machine , and so is unable to attend the ballet as a result . In disbelief about Homer 's story , Marge invites her neighbor , Ruth Powers to attend with her . They both enjoy themselves and arrange to go out again the next night . Marge and Ruth 's friendship annoys Homer , who feels Marge should be spending time with him instead . However , ignoring Homer 's protests , Marge and Ruth visit bars and clubs in Springfield , and Ruth later shows Marge how to use a pistol .
Homer , attempting to prove to himself he can have a good time without Marge , leaves Bart , Lisa and Maggie under the supervision of Lionel Hutz and goes out by himself . Finding Moe 's Tavern more depressing than usual , Homer visits the hilltop where he and Marge used to come to on dates before they got married . Ironically , Marge has also taken Ruth there to finish the night , but they leave just before Homer arrives . Chief Wiggum finds Homer depressed and offers him a ride home , which Homer accepts . As Ruth and Marge are driving home , Chief Wiggum , with Homer as a passenger in his patrol car , spots Ruth 's car and claims that one tail light is slightly smaller than the other . He decides to pull them over . Reluctant to stop , Ruth reveals to Marge that the car she 's driving actually belongs to her ex @-@ husband , and that she had stolen it as revenge for stiffing her on child support ( although Marge points out that Ruth could 've just reported him to child services ) . Ruth leads the police on a high @-@ speed chase rather than turning herself in . Homer realizes it is Marge in the car , and believes she is leaving him after discovering that she can have a better time without him . Ruth successfully evades Wiggum by turning off her headlights , which leads him to believe her car is a ghost car .
After seeing Marge and Ruth again while cooking breakfast on his car engine , Wiggum continues his chase of the two , aided by other Springfield Police vehicles . After noticing a cliff ahead , Homer believes that Marge and Ruth are attempting suicide because of him and , using a megaphone , apologizes to Marge for all the mistakes he has made in their marriage and urges them not to drive into the chasm . Ruth , who had not noticed the chasm , slams on the brakes and stops in time ; however , Homer and Wiggum fail to stop and fly over the edge of the cliff only to crash into a landfill . The episodes ends with a description of the fates of each of the characters involved in the episode .
= = Production = =
Dan Castellaneta actually used a bullhorn to record his part when Homer was talking on one . The sunset shown when Marge and Ruth are at the café was airbrushed in , although the episode was done before computer animation was put into practice .
= = Cultural references = =
Much of the plot , including Ruth 's blue convertible and Homer and Wiggum 's fall over the chasm , is a parody of the Ridley Scott film Thelma & Louise . Crystal Buzz Cola is a reference to the fad drink Crystal Pepsi , and when Homer reaches into the vending machine , a can of Fresca is seen in a skeletal hand . The comedian who performs at the telethon who the Simpson family does not find funny is a parody of Garrison Keillor . Ruth mistakenly inserts Lesley Gore 's song " Sunshine , Lollipops and Rainbows " into her car stereo before beginning her and Marge 's wild night out ; later , Chief Wiggum plays the song on his police cruiser 's stereo as " appropriate " car chase music . After extracting the wrong tape , Ruth pops in " Welcome to the Jungle " by Guns N ' Roses . The scene when Homer is in Moe 's Tavern is emulated from Thelma & Louise . Quimby dancing in a night club is in reference to the Kennedys . When Marge gets hit on in the bar , the guy who does not talk is a caricature of show runner David Mirkin . The old man that comes out when Marge is shooting his cans is a parody of Walter Brennan . The episode 's closing sequence is a reference to Dragnet . George Fenneman recorded the ending in the same fashion as he did on Dragnet .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Marge on the Lam " finished 32nd in ratings for the week of November 1 – 7 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 12 @.@ 2 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Beverly Hills , 90210 .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said " Marge getting to let her hair down is always a treat , and in Ruth Powers she seems to have a real friend . A pity we don 't see more of her " . The A.V. Club named Homer 's line " Stupid TV ! Be more funny ! " as one of the quotes from The Simpsons that can be used in everyday situations . On their 2000 album And Then Nothing Turned Itself Inside Out , indie rock band Yo La Tengo has a song entitled " Let 's Save Tony Orlando 's House " ; the song is named after a telethon in Troy McClure 's fictional CV seen in this episode .
= Zaireeka =
Zaireeka is the eighth studio album by the alternative rock band The Flaming Lips . Released on October 28 , 1997 , the experimental rock album consists of four Compact Discs . Each of its eight songs consists of four stereo tracks , one from each CD . The album was designed so that when played simultaneously on four separate audio systems , the four CDs would produce a harmonic or juxtaposed sound . The discs can also be played in different combinations , omitting one , two or three discs . The album 's title is a portmanteau of two words : Zaire , chosen as a symbol of anarchy after Wayne Coyne heard a radio news story about the political instability of the African nation , and eureka ( literally : " I have found it " ) , an expression of joyous discovery .
Zaireeka was the first album made by the band since the departure of guitarist Ronald Jones . It acted as a preview of the music and style that would surface on the next album , The Soft Bulletin ( 1999 ) and is the predecessor to the band 's more conventional surround sound releases .
= = Background = =
Adverse circumstances led to the production of Zaireeka . The departure of guitarist Ronald Jones compelled the band to change fundamentally . In addition , the limited success of the previous album , Clouds Taste Metallic , threatened their status at Warner Bros. Records . They eventually found that drummer Steven Drozd could compensate for the loss of Jones by becoming a multi @-@ instrumentalist . However , live shows proved to be more challenging and in order to maintain activity and output , Wayne Coyne conceived an experimental show .
= = = The Parking Lot Experiments = = =
During 1996 and 1997 , The Flaming Lips ran a series of events known as " The Parking Lot Experiments " . The concept was inspired by an incident in Coyne 's youth , where he noticed that car radios in the parking lot at a concert were playing the same songs at the same time , Wayne Coyne created 40 cassette tapes to be played in synchronization . The band invited people to bring their cars to parking lots , where they would be given one of the tapes and then instructed when to start them . The music was " a strange , fluid 20 minute sound composition " .
= = = Production = = =
Production of the album was preceded by two unfortunate events , which were recounted in " The Spiderbite Song " from The Soft Bulletin . Michael Ivins was involved in a car crash , and Steven Drozd 's hand became severely infected . Drozd initially claimed that his hand had been bitten by a spider , although later he admitted the infected abscess was caused by injection of heroin .
The Flaming Lips began work on Zaireeka in April 1997 in the then @-@ new Tarbox Road Studios . Initially , the band was frustrated while making the album . Even after diverting half of the budget for the next album into Zaireeka , there were no tangible results . The band experienced difficulty writing songs for the album . Finally , Coyne exclaimed " Look , we don 't have to be friends ... but we have to make this record ! " While this philosophy aided progress , the band only began to complete songs when they learned to write for the medium as opposed to trying to split normal songs across four CDs .
The group wrote several songs that were unsuccessful in the four @-@ CD format . These songs , including " Race for the Prize " , were reserved for the next album , which would eventually become The Soft Bulletin .
= = = Release = = =
Warner Bros. Records was initially apprehensive about releasing Zaireeka , so manager Scott Booker carefully researched the costs of releasing a box set . Booker discovered that Zaireeka could be released so that once 12 @,@ 000 copies had been sold , the label would break even . ( Advance orders for the album came to 14 @,@ 000 copies . ) Booker pitched the album to Warner Bros. Records president Steven Baker .
Eventually , the two factions reached an agreement in which the album would be released , although Zaireeka would not count towards the seven albums the band was contracted to deliver to Warner Bros. For an advance of $ 200 @,@ 000 , the band would make both Zaireeka and The Soft Bulletin . In addition , Booker mentioned that by allowing the media to proclaim how " weird " the band was with Zaireeka , they would be more prepared to treat The Soft Bulletin as a serious album . Zaireeka was released in October , 1997 . As of 2006 , 28 @,@ 000 copies have been sold .
= = = Logistics of listening = = =
The speakers being used may be physically positioned in many different configurations ( e.g. at different heights or even in entirely different rooms ) . Some listeners may even choose to disable the left or right speaker of one or more systems . Synchronization errors between the audio systems may cause effects such as reverb or echo being heard on one disc before the original sound is produced from another . Further , the type and quality of each audio system affects the relationship between the four CDs .
= = = The Boom Box Experiments = = =
After completion of Zaireeka , The Flaming Lips tried an unconventional method to tour the album . " The Boom Box Experiments " , like " The Parking Lot Experiments " , involved tapes being played at the same time . However , these shows were held in conventional rock venues , and the band supplied their own boom boxes . Coyne and Drozd conducted two " choirs " of people controlling the boom boxes , giving them instructions for actions like turning the volume up or down , while Ivins controlled the mixer .
Songs played in The Boom Box Experiments include :
" The Big Ol ' Bug Is the New Baby Now "
" A Winter 's Day Car Accident Melody "
" Altruism , or That 's the Crotch Calling the Devil Black "
" Heralding in a Better Ego "
" Realizing the Speed of Life "
" Schizophrenic Sunrise , or The Loudest Blade of Grass "
" Should We Keep the Severed Head Awake ? ? " ( used in both the Parking Lot and Boom Box experiments . Part of it was included on " Sleeping on the Roof " on The Soft Bulletin . )
= = = Aftermath and legacy = = =
With Zaireeka , The Flaming Lips had overcome the loss of Ronald Jones and proved they could still work as a band . The situation at Warner Bros. Records was still dire , including a risk of being dropped from the label . However , songs had already been written for the next album , The Soft Bulletin , which would be both a critical hit for the band and their breakthrough into mainstream success . Following the release of Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots in 2002 , The Flaming Lips would return to the concept of surround sound with a DVD @-@ Audio special @-@ edition of that album in 2003 .
Zaireeka is viewed by the band as nothing more than an experimental release . " It was , and still is , intended to be listened to by other artists , musicians and producers , " Coyne would later state in the liner notes for The Soft Bulletin 5 @.@ 1 , adding that they " never expected the less involved members of our audience to care about it . "
= = Songs = =
Zaireeka opens with " Okay I 'll Admit That I Really Don 't Understand " , a mantra of sorts about the admitted lack of comprehension regarding one 's situation . The second track , " Riding to Work in the Year 2025 ( Your Invisible Now ) " [ sic ] tells a science @-@ fiction story about a man who pretends to be a secret agent in the future and imagines his own psychological demise from the stress " of being the most important secret agent in the world " . " Thirty @-@ Five Thousand Feet of Despair " , the third song , is the tragic story of an airplane pilot who ( somehow ) hangs himself mid @-@ flight . The next song , " A Machine in India " , is about the " dull and depressing , mild insanity " that the speaker 's partner slips into during her menstrual cycle . Next , " The Train Runs over the Camel but Is Derailed by the Gnat " , is a speech by a man who is on the verge of discovery , but ends up " talking himself into circles " . Track six , " How Will We Know ? ( Futuristic Crashendos ) " , is based on an urban legend that being exposed to high and low frequencies can cause a person to experience premonitions , and thus contains its infamously extensive frequencies that caused the band to place a warning on the album cover and inside the booklet . The seventh song , " March of the Rotten Vegetables " , is " music for a cartoon about a group of demented vegetables " . The eighth and final song , " The Big Ol ' Bug Is the New Baby Now " , contains a spoken @-@ word story about Coyne 's dogs ; the track ends the album with loud barking from each disc . On the 10th anniversary of Zaireeka , Wayne Coyne himself made and distributed an additional 5th disc to go along with the set . A limited amount of copies were made , and were handed out at the 10th anniversary listening party for the album . The disc , which looks identical to the other four discs with an exception of the disc being numbered 10 , contains what was originally discs 5 through 10 .
= = Critical reception = =
Critical reaction to Zaireeka was polarized . Josh Kun of Rolling Stone wrote that the album 's " wall @-@ of @-@ surround @-@ sound approach melds droning @-@ rock dissonance with warped , off @-@ kilter pop melodies , producing a totally immersing post @-@ Pet Sounds audio séance . " Jason Alkeny of AllMusic stated that the album would only really be accessible to hardcore Flaming Lips fans , but that " they 're in for the musical experience of a lifetime " .
Critics who disliked the album cited what they viewed as a ridiculous concept . Salon remarked in its review that " Musically [ ... ] their 1995 album Clouds Taste Metallic offers the same psychotic results without all the technological hassle . And conceptually ? The same thing , just all at once : stupid , stupid , stupid , stupid . " Jason Josephes from Pitchfork awarded the album a score of 0 @.@ 0 out of 10 ; in a scathing review , Josephes criticized the album for being inaccessible , asking " Do I want to buy three more CD players with which to enjoy Zaireeka or , say , eat ? " and derided the band 's fans . Further , in October 2009 , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Pitchfork , Mark Richardson , wrote a book titled Zaireeka for the 33 1 / 3 book series , published by Continuum International Publishing , now owned by Bloomsbury Publishing . In it , Richardson chronicles the creation of the album , praises it from multiple angles , and discusses the impact the album has had on music since its release . The album was included in Pitchfork 's 2010 list of " ten unusual CD @-@ era gimmicks " .
= = Other formats = =
Wayne Coyne confirmed that Zaireeka will eventually be released on DVD format in the vein of the surround @-@ sound special editions of Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots , The Soft Bulletin , and At War with the Mystics .
In the UK , the " Race for the Prize " and " Waitin ' for a Superman " CD singles were released in 2 @-@ disc sets .
Each disc of the two sets contained a different version of " Riding to Work in the Year 2025 ( Your Invisible Now ) " and " Thirty @-@ Five Thousand Feet of Despair " . This marked the first time material from the album would be released in the four @-@ disc format in Europe . The " Waitin ' for a Superman " Maxi @-@ CD , as released in the US , contains stereo mixes of the two songs .
The album was reissued on vinyl for Record Store Day 2013 .
= = Track listing = =
All four discs have identical track listings .
All songs written and composed by The Flaming Lips .
= = Credits = =
The Flaming Lips
Wayne Coyne – vocals , guitar
Steven Drozd – vocals , drums , guitar , keyboards , orchestration
Michael Ivins – vocals , bass guitar
Technical personnel
Scott Booker – production
Dave Fridmann – engineering , mastering , mixing , production
George Salisbury – layout design
= Tropical Storm Barry ( 2007 ) =
Tropical Storm Barry was a rapidly forming tropical cyclone that made landfall on Florida , United States , in early June 2007 . The second named storm of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , Barry developed from a trough of low pressure in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico on June 1 . It tracked rapidly northeastward , reaching peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) before weakening and making landfall near Tampa Bay as a tropical depression . Barry quickly lost tropical characteristics after wind shear removed much of the convection , and early on June 3 it completed the transition into an extratropical cyclone . The extratropical remnants tracked up the East Coast of the United States , and were absorbed by a larger extratropical cyclone on June 5 .
The precursor trough produced heavy rainfall across the western Caribbean Sea , which on Cuba unofficially reached over 7 @.@ 8 inches ( 200 mm ) . Outer rainbands in Pinar del Río Province injured three people and damaged 55 houses . In Florida , Barry dropped a moderate amount of precipitation across the drought @-@ ridden state ; rainfall peaked at 6 @.@ 99 inches ( 178 mm ) . The rain caused some flooding and wet roads , which led to two indirect traffic fatalities . Rough seas killed one Florida surfer in Pinellas County . In Florida and Georgia , the precipitation assisted firefighters in combating severe wildfires . Overall damage from the storm was minor .
= = Meteorological history = =
By late on May 29 , a weak trough over the Yucatán Peninsula produced a small area of convection over the Yucatán Channel . Convection increased in association with the trough , and the next day a broad envelop of cyclonic turning developed within the system . By May 30 , the moisture from the trough extended from Nicaragua through the southeastern Gulf of Mexico , with the greatest area of convection near Cuba . A westward moving tropical wave spawned a broad area of low pressure on May 30 , and by May 31 a circulation developed within the system to the southeast of Cozumel , Mexico . The low moved north @-@ northeastward , and gradually became better organized despite high amounts of vertical wind shear . The deep convection became more concentrated near the center , and it is estimated the system developed into a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on June 1 just to the northwest of the western tip of Cuba . Operationally , it was not classified until eleven hours later .
The depression developed a large area of squalls , and organized enough to warrant a Hurricane Hunters flight into the area . The plane reported flight level winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) and a pressure of 1000 mbar near the increasingly well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation . Initially it maintained characteristics of both a tropical and subtropical cyclone , although deep convection continued to organize near the center ; based on the observations , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on Tropical Storm Barry at 2100 UTC on June 1 while the storm was centered about 235 miles ( 375 km ) west of Key West , Florida . Embedded within the southwesterly flow ahead of an approaching mid @-@ level trough , it tracked quickly northward , and early on June 2 attained peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) .
Shortly after reaching peak intensity , strong wind shear removed most of the deep convection ; the cloud pattern consisted of an exposed yet well @-@ defined center surrounded by a curved convective band extending from Cuba along the eastern Gulf of Mexico . The center became elongated and weakened as it accelerated northeastward , and at 1400 UTC on June 2 Barry made landfall near Tampa , Florida , as a weakening tropical depression . As it continued inland , it rapidly lost tropical characteristics , and later that day the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories on Barry while it was located over northeastern Florida . The extratropical remnants strengthened as the system continued northeastward , and on June 3 it moved ashore along South Carolina . Spiral bands developed to the north of the system as it moved up the coast , and a large plume of moisture extended well ahead of the low @-@ level circulation . Late on June 4 , the extratropical remnant entered New England , and late on June 5 the remnants of Barry were absorbed by a larger extratropical cyclone near the border between the U.S. state of Maine and the Canadian province of Quebec .
= = Preparations = =
Coinciding with its classification as a tropical storm , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning for the west coast of Florida from Bonita Beach through Keaton Beach , with a tropical storm watch declared from Keaton Beach northward to Saint Marks . An inland tropical storm warning was also issued for non @-@ coastal and non @-@ tidal areas of Charlotte , Citrus , DeSoto , Hardee , Hernando , Highlands , Lee , Levy , Manatee , Pasco , Pinellas , Polk , Sarasota , and Sumter counties . The passage of the storm resulted in an increased threat for rip currents , with officials recommending that swimmers stay out of the water until the storm leaves the area . A tornado watch was also posted for the southern portion of the state , though was dropped after the storm weakened .
After becoming an extratropical cyclone , local National Weather Service offices issued flood watches for portions of South Carolina , much of eastern North Carolina , southeastern Virginia , and southeastern Maryland . Later , flood and flash flood watches were issued for southeast Pennsylvania , northern Delaware , northern New Jersey , east @-@ central New York , and southern New England . Wind and lake wind advisories were posted in parts of Georgia .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
In El Salvador , the precursor trough produced about 2 @.@ 76 inches ( 70 mm ) of rainfall in about ten hours .
The precursor system dropped heavy rainfall across western Cuba , peaking at 12 @.@ 0 inches ( 305 mm ) in Sancti Spíritus Province . Several other locations recorded over 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of precipitation , which caused flooding along rivers and low @-@ lying areas . The city of Guane was isolated after flooding cut off communications . In total , more than 2 @,@ 000 people were evacuated due to the threat for flooding . Additionally , the precursor disturbance spawned four tornadoes in Pinar del Río Province ; the tornadoes injured three people and damaged fifty @-@ five houses , of which four collapsed .
= = = United States = = =
= = = = Florida = = = =
Barry dropped moderate to heavy rainfall across Florida , peaking at 6 @.@ 99 inches ( 178 mm ) at Palm Beach International Airport ; several other locations reported over 3 inches ( 75 mm ) . The rainfall alleviated persistent drought conditions and assisted in combating severe wildfires across the state . In Brevard County , the rainfall closed a portion of Eau Gallie Boulevard after a large sinkhole developed . Several other roads across the area were flooded , and on Interstate 95 near Lake Worth , a sinkhole closed two lanes of traffic . Wet roads caused several traffic accidents across the state ; in both Brevard and Volusia counties , a motorist was killed from an accident . On Interstate 4 , a tractor trailer led to disruptions near Orlando after it crashed into a guardrail .
The storm produced heavy surf along the western coastline , as well as a storm tide of 4 @.@ 78 feet ( 1 @.@ 46 m ) at Clearwater Beach . The wave action caused minor beach erosion , with 50 – 60 feet ( 15 – 18 m ) of sand washed away at Bradenton Beach . The increased ocean action caused minor flooding along several roads in the Tampa Bay area , which trapped some automobile travelers . At Indian Shores , a woman died after sustaining injuries from the rough surf .
High winds across the state included a report of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) near the state 's southeastern coastline . The winds downed some trees and resulted in power outages , and one person in Carrolwood was injured after a tree fell onto a house . The storm spawned several tornadoes in the southern portion of the state , some of which damaged fences and power lines . One possible tornado in Goulds left about 2 @,@ 000 people without power after it knocked down a power line . Another tornado near Miami damaged a few homes and trees .
= = = = Elsewhere = = = =
Rainfall in Georgia peaked at 8 inches ( 203 mm ) in Mount Vernon . The precipitation assisted firefighters in combating wildfires in the southern portion of the state , which gave thousands of workers a brief respite after they had fought the fires daily for over a month . The rainfall caused some minor flooding , and in Savannah a few minor traffic accidents occurred . Gusty winds blew down trees and power lines , and along the coast , rough surf was reported . Heavy rainfall from the storm spread across much of the East Coast of the United States . State totals peaked at 6 @.@ 12 inches ( 155 mm ) near Hardeeville , South Carolina , 3 @.@ 73 inches ( 95 mm ) in Fuquay @-@ Varina , North Carolina , and 3 @.@ 75 inches ( 95 mm ) near Pennington Gap , Virginia . High winds also occurred in South Carolina .
The extratropical remnants of Barry produced gusty winds along the Atlantic coastline which peaked at 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) near Charleston , South Carolina . Around 200 houses in Craven County , North Carolina , were without power after winds downed a power line . In North Carolina , adverse conditions from the storm delayed an elimination baseball game between the East Carolina University and Western Carolina University teams . In southeastern Virginia , the remnants of Barry caused over 60 traffic accidents , which resulted in 10 injuries . Rough seas off of Cape Fear left a sailboat containing three people requiring rescue from the Coast Guard . Rainfall extended into the Mid @-@ Atlantic states through New England , with 4 @.@ 50 inches ( 113 mm ) reported at Absecon , New Jersey , 3 @.@ 91 inches ( 99 mm ) recorded near Central Park , New York , and 3 @.@ 19 inches ( 81 mm ) at Taunton , Massachusetts . The remnants of Tropical Storm Barry contributed to heavy rainfall and flooding in the Finger Lakes region of New York State . Roads and several driveways were washed out . Flash flooding was also reported in southeast New York , and high wind gusts caused sporadic tree damage . In New Jersey , northeast onshore flow associated with the remnants of Barry produced high tides and minor coastal flooding .
= 1946 Cleveland Browns season =
The 1946 Cleveland Browns season was the team 's first in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . The Browns , coached by Paul Brown , ended the year with a record of 12 – 2 , winning the AAFC 's Western Division . Led by quarterback Otto Graham , fullback Marion Motley and ends Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie , the team won the first AAFC championship game against the New York Yankees .
The Browns were founded by Arthur B. McBride , a Cleveland taxi @-@ cab tycoon , as a charter franchise in the new AAFC . McBride in 1945 hired Brown , a successful coach at the high school and college levels . Brown , who was serving in the U.S. Navy during World War II , began to assemble a roster as the team prepared to begin play in 1946 . After beating the Brooklyn Dodgers in an exhibition game , Cleveland opened the regular season against the Miami Seahawks at Cleveland Stadium on September 6 , winning 44 – 0 . The Browns proceeded to win six more games before losing for the first time in October against the San Francisco 49ers at home by a score of 34 – 20 . Cleveland lost a second game in a row against the Los Angeles Dons the following week , but rebounded to win the final five games of the season , including a 66 – 14 victory over the Dodgers . Cleveland finished with the league 's best record and a spot in the championship game against the Yankees . The Browns won the game 14 – 9 .
Lavelli led the AAFC in receiving with 843 yards and 8 touchdowns , while placekicker Lou Groza led the league in points scored , with 84 . Graham had the league 's best passing average , with 10 @.@ 5 yards per attempt . His quarterback rating of 112 @.@ 1 was the highest in professional football history until Joe Montana surpassed it in 1989 . Cleveland played all of its home games in Cleveland Stadium . The 1946 Browns set a professional football record with 67 defensive takeaways ; the record still stands as of 2016 .
= = Founding of the Browns in the AAFC = =
In 1944 Arch Ward , the influential sports editor of the Chicago Tribune , started a new professional football league called the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . Ward , who had gained fame for starting all @-@ star games for baseball and college football , lined up deep @-@ pocketed owners including Arthur B. " Mickey " McBride , a Cleveland businessman who grew up in Chicago and knew Ward from his involvement in the newspaper business .
McBride developed a passion for football attending games at Notre Dame , where his son went to college . In the early 1940s he tried to buy the NFL 's Cleveland Rams , owned by millionaire supermarket heir Dan Reeves , but was rebuffed . Having been awarded the Cleveland franchise in the AAFC , McBride asked Cleveland Plain Dealer sportswriter John Dietrich for head coaching suggestions . Dietrich recommended Paul Brown , the 36 @-@ year @-@ old Ohio State Buckeyes coach . After consulting with Ward , McBride followed Dietrich 's advice in early 1945 , naming Brown head coach and giving him an ownership stake in the team and full control over player personnel . Brown , who had built an impressive record as coach of a Massillon , Ohio high school team and brought the Buckeyes their first national championship , at the time was serving in the U.S. Navy and coached the football team at Great Lakes Naval Station near Chicago .
The name of the team was at first left up to Brown , who rejected calls for it to be christened the Browns . McBride then held a contest to name the team in May 1945 ; " Cleveland Panthers " was the most popular choice , but Brown rejected it because it was the name of an earlier failed football team . " That old Panthers team failed , " Brown said . " I want no part of that name . " In August , McBride gave in to popular demand and named the team the Browns , despite Paul Brown 's objections .
= = Building a roster = =
As the war wound down with Germany 's surrender in May 1945 , the team parlayed Brown 's ties to college football and the military to build its roster . The first signing was Otto Graham , a former star quarterback at Northwestern University who was then serving in the Navy . The Browns later signed kicker and offensive tackle Lou Groza and wide receivers Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie . Fullback Marion Motley and nose tackle Bill Willis , two of the earliest African @-@ Americans to play professional football , also joined the team in 1946 . Cleveland 's first training camp took place at Bowling Green University in northwestern Ohio . Brown 's reputation for winning notwithstanding , joining the team was a risk ; the Browns and the AAFC were nascent entities and faced tough competition from the NFL . " I just went up there to see what would happen , " center Frank Gatski said many years later .
Almost all of the players Brown signed were war veterans . Gatski hitchhiked to Bowling Green from West Virginia in a military uniform . Once at training camp , the players faced intense competition for spots on the final roster . Rookies who had their college careers cut short by the war faced off against veteran players from NFL teams including the Chicago Cardinals and Chicago Bears . " It was a tough , dog @-@ eat @-@ dog situation , and you really had to hustle , " Groza said later . Almost all of the men Brown signed had played for or against his teams at Ohio State and Great Lakes .
Five former Rams players also jumped to the Browns in 1946 : center Mike Scarry , tackle Chet Adams and backs Gaylon Smith , Tommy Colella and Don Greenwood . Their move gave rise to a legal battle with the Rams , who left Cleveland for Los Angeles shortly after winning the 1945 NFL championship rather than compete with the Browns . Reeves , the Rams ' owner , filed an injunction against Adams in federal court after he signed with the Browns , claiming the tackle unlawfully broke his contract to play for the Rams . Adams argued he had no obligation under his contract to play for the Rams because the team had changed to the Los Angeles Rams following the move . At the end of August 1946 , federal judge Emerich Freed denied the Rams ' injunction , allowing Adams to play for the Browns . The judge rejected the Rams ' contention that Adams had signed to play for Reeves , not a specific team . He ruled the Cleveland Rams had ceased to exist , and that Adams therefore was not bound to fulfill a contract with the Los Angeles Rams .
In addition to the players , Brown hired a number of assistant coaches . John Brickels , an Ohio native , was brought in early on to sign players while Brown was still in the Navy . He later served as a backfield coach . Another hire was Blanton Collier , a high school coach for 16 years who had been an assistant to Brown at Great Lakes . Collier succeeded Brown in 1963 as the team 's head coach . Fritz Heisler was brought in as a guard coach and stayed with the Browns until the 1970s .
= = Roster and coaching staff = =
= = Preseason = =
The Browns ' first and only preseason game took place at the Rubber Bowl in Akron , Ohio against the Brooklyn Dodgers . Cleveland won the game 35 – 20 . Brooklyn opened the scoring with a touchdown in the first quarter and another on the first play of the second quarter . Both touchdowns followed interceptions thrown by Otto Graham . Substituting for Graham , Cliff Lewis threw a short touchdown pass to Fred Evans near the end of the second quarter to give the Browns their first points . Cleveland scored again in the second half after John Rokisky picked up a fumble by Brooklyn halfback Glen Dobbs and ran it 55 yards for a touchdown , giving the Browns the lead . Graham threw a short pass to Mac Speedie for another touchdown in the third quarter , and added a 20 @-@ yard pass to George Young in the fourth quarter to widen the lead . In the same quarter , Evans intercepted a Dobbs pass and ran 83 yards for his second touchdown . Brooklyn had a touchdown near the end of the game to make the final score 35 – 20 . Cleveland won the game despite trailing the Dodgers in rushing yards , 93 to 63 . After the win , the Browns prepared to face the Miami Seahawks in their first regular @-@ season game the following Friday .
= = Schedule = =
= = Game summaries = =
= = = Week 1 : vs. Miami Seahawks = = =
The Browns ' first game , against the Miami Seahawks , took place on a warm late @-@ summer evening in September . The crowd was the second @-@ largest ever for a professional football game . The game was well @-@ attended in part because of team owner Arthur B. McBride 's promotion of the new team , but also because the Browns ' two black players helped draw a large African @-@ American crowd . Miami 's team , drawn mainly from the Southern United States , was overmatched by Cleveland . The score was 27 – 0 at halftime and the final was 44 – 0 . Browns end Mac Speedie scored the team 's first points on a 19 @-@ yard touchdown pass from quarterback Cliff Lewis . Otto Graham came in at quarterback in the second quarter and threw a touchdown to Dante Lavelli . Placekicker Lou Groza kicked three field goals , and the Browns had two defensive touchdowns . Miami never advanced past the Browns ' 39 @-@ yard line .
= = = Week 2 : vs. Chicago Rockets = = =
In their second game , the Browns faced the Chicago Rockets at Soldier Field before a crowd of 51 @,@ 962 people , an attendance record for a professional football game in Chicago . It was the first of many games during which Cleveland 's two black players , Marion Motley and Bill Willis , endured racially charged verbal and physical abuse . Some of their white teammates , including Lou Rymkus , retaliated by dealing their own cheap shots . Motley opened the scoring with a 20 @-@ yard run for a touchdown , the first in his career . Lou Groza added two field goals in the third quarter , and halfback Don Greenwood ran for a 41 @-@ yard touchdown to make the final score 20 – 6 . Chicago 's only points came on a touchdown run by Billy Hillenbrand on the first play of the fourth quarter . Motley later said that racism on the field stopped after opponents saw how well he and Willis played : " They found out that while they were calling us niggers and alligator bait , I was running for touchdowns and Willis was knocking the shit out of them . So they stopped calling us names and started trying to catch up with us . "
= = = Week 3 : vs. Buffalo Bisons = = =
The Browns next played the Buffalo Bisons in Buffalo , New York . Just over 30 @,@ 000 people watched the game ; while this was a lower total than the Browns ' previous two games , it set a professional football attendance record in Buffalo . Playing in 80 @-@ degree heat , Browns quarterback Otto Graham threw two touchdowns in the first quarter to John Yonakor and Marion Motley . Cleveland scored for a third time in the first quarter when Cliff Lewis , substituting for Graham , pitched a lateral to Gaylon Smith , who ran it in for a touchdown . After neither team scored in the second and third quarters , the Browns added a fourth touchdown on Chet Adams ' fumble return . Al Dekdebrun , Buffalo 's second @-@ string quarterback , fumbled at the Bisons ' 34 @-@ yard line and Adams picked it up and ran for a touchdown . The Bisons were held scoreless despite having more first downs than the Browns . The team played without its primary rushing threat , Steve Juzwik , who was sidelined with a pulled leg muscle .
= = = Week 4 : vs. New York Yankees = = =
Cleveland got off to a strong start against the New York Yankees , scoring two touchdowns in the first nine minutes . Interceptions by Don Greenwood and center Mike Scarry set up the scores . The Yankees came back with a touchdown of their own later in the first quarter after recovering a Graham fumble at Cleveland 's 14 @-@ yard line . Neither team scored in the second and third quarters , but the Browns added to their lead in the fourth . Lou Groza kicked a field goal and Edgar " Special Delivery " Jones ran up the middle for a 43 @-@ yard touchdown with less than three minutes left in the game . The final score was 24 – 7 ; it was the Yankees ' first loss | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
irk to yell at the referee . While sitting out , Brendon spots Erik and Paula engaging in meaningless and casual flirtation in the bleachers , which Brendon interprets as another possible relationship .
= = Production = =
" Get Away From My Mom " was the first episode of Home Movies , which was created by Brendon Small and Loren Bouchard . The episode , as with the four subsequent episodes , demonstrated a writing style known as " retroscripting , " in which the cast completely improvised their lines . Main cast members Small , H. Jon Benjamin , Paula Poundstone and Melissa Bardin Galsky wrote the episodes , while Bouchard also contributed to certain dialogue material . The episode marked the first animated television production without a script .
Bouchard directed this first episode and the entire series . Along with the rest of the first season , the episode was animated using " squigglevision , " a technique pioneered by the show 's executive producer , Tom Snyder . The animation style consists of eight frames of looped " zigzagged " lines that stimulate the character 's mouth movement . This style was used to produce the series on its incredibly low budget and allow for the actors to improvise . The style was eventually changed during the second season to Flash animation , which was believed to be a more conventional style .
To make the young characters sound like children , instead of adults , recordings of the actors ' performances were electronically altered . Galsky was cast to play Melissa despite having no prior experience in voice acting . Galsky considers Bouchard the biggest benefactor to her career based on that decision . After recording sessions for " Get Away From My Mom " concluded , Small ( who voices Brendon ) and Benjamin ( who plays McGuirk ) went out to drink beers before going to see a concert . According to Small , the experience contributed to their understanding of the unique dynamic between the characters .
" Get Away From My Mom " is available on the DVD " Home Movies : The Complete First Season , " which was released on November 16 , 2004 . A bonus feature on the DVD enables an audio commentary track , recorded by Small , Bouchard , and Benjamin , to play over the episode . Though generally intended to be humorous and entertaining , the track also details actual information on the episode 's production .
= = Reception = =
" Get Away From My Mom " was originally broadcast on April 26 , 1999 on UPN at 8 p.m. The episode received a 1 @.@ 4 / 2 Nielsen rating , positioning it at 133 in total viewership for 1999 's May sweeps . This marked the lowest rated telecast the network had ever aired in its timeslot at the time .
The episode received generally mixed reviews from television critics . Writing for The Cincinnati Enquirer , John Kiesewetter criticized the show 's use of improvised dialogue : " The uneven plot and sophomoric bodily function jokes sound like these people were making it up as they went along . And they were . " Rob Owen , television critic for the Post @-@ Gazette , paralleled Kiesewetter and said that the episode was a " pitfall " of the improvisation process : " The half @-@ hour seems like a collection of scenes rather than a cohesive episode . " Owen called it " so lackadaisical , it 's hard to imagine UPN 's most recently announced target audience - young males - having any patience for the program . The entertainment value is low " , but did note that McGuirk 's scenes in the episode were " the closest to ha @-@ ha funny the show gets . "
Conversely , John Levesque called the show a " keeper " in his review for the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer and applauded the series subtle , improvised style . Chicago Sun @-@ Times journalist Phil Rosenthal commended the episode . In his review , he wrote , " Rather than big laughs , it 's more likely to elicit the grin of bemused recognition . It 's not about sight gags or clever puns . It 's not about parodying the sitcom form . This sweet ass series [ ... ] is not always subtle - unless a child showing another how to have fun with a runny nose is intellectual - but it nicely plays off the inherent absurdities and weirdness of everyday modern life . " Dennis Landmann of DVD Freak wrote that the episode " sets up the tone quite well , for it develops the aspirations of Brendon becoming a filmmaker , " and praised the confrontational scenes that occur between McGuirk and Brendon .
= Epsilon Aurigae =
Epsilon Aurigae ( ε Aur , ε Aurigae ) is the Bayer designation for a star in the northern constellation of Auriga . It is traditionally known as Almaaz , Haldus , or Al Anz . Epsilon Aurigae is an unusual eclipsing binary system comprising an F0 supergiant and a companion which is generally accepted to be a huge dark disk orbiting an unknown object , possibly a binary system of two small B @-@ type stars . About every 27 years , Epsilon Aurigae 's brightness drops from an apparent visual magnitude of + 2 @.@ 92 to + 3 @.@ 83 . This dimming lasts 640 – 730 days . In addition to this eclipse , the system also has a low amplitude pulsation with a non @-@ consistent period of around 66 days . The distance to the system is still a subject of debate , but modern estimates place it approximately 2 @,@ 000 light years from Earth .
Epsilon Aurigae was first suspected to be a variable star when German astronomer Johann Heinrich Fritsch observed it in 1821 . Later observations by Eduard Heis and Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander reinforced Fritsch 's initial suspicions and attracted attention to the star . Hans Ludendorff , however , was the first to study it in great detail . His work revealed that the system was an eclipsing binary variable , a star that dims when its partner obscures its light .
Epsilon Aurigae 's eclipsing companion has been subject to much debate since the object does not emit as much light as is expected for an object its size . As of 2008 , the most popularly accepted model for this companion object is a binary star system surrounded by a massive , opaque disk of dust ; theories speculating that the object is a large , semitransparent star or a black hole have since been discarded .
= = Observational history = =
Although the star is easily visible to the naked eye , Johann Fritsch 's 1821 observations suggest he was the first to notice that the system was a variable . Eventually , from 1842 to 1848 , German mathematician Eduard Heis and Prussian astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander began observing it once every few years . Both Heis ' and Argelander 's data revealed that the star had become significantly dimmer by 1847 , attracting the full attention of both men at that point . Epsilon Aurigae had brightened significantly , and had returned to " normal " by the following September . As it attracted more attention , more and more data was compiled . The observational data revealed that Epsilon Aurigae did not just vary over a long period , but also experienced short @-@ term variations in brightness as well . Later eclipses took place between 1874 and 1875 and , nearly thirty years later , between 1901 and 1902 .
Hans Ludendorff , who had also been observing Epsilon Aurigae , was the first to conduct a detailed study of the star . In 1904 , he published in Astronomische Nachrichten an article titled Untersuchungen über den Lichtwechsel von ε Aurigae ( Investigations of the Light Changes of Epsilon Aurigae ) , where he suggested the star was an Algol variable and an eclipsing binary .
Epsilon Aurigae was targeted for observation by International Year of Astronomy observers from 2009 to 2011 , the three years that overlapped its most recent eclipse .
= = = Spitzer observations , 2009 = = =
At the January 2010 meeting of the American Astronomical Society , Donald Hoard of NASA 's Spitzer Science Center at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena reported that observations from NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope along with earlier observations point to the primary being a post @-@ asymptotic giant branch star with about 2 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 3 times the mass of the Sun periodically eclipsed by just a single B class star inside a disk . This was accomplished by pointing Spitzer at the star using the corner of four of Spitzer 's pixels , instead of directly at one , to effectively reduce the telescope 's sensitivity and preventing the star from overloading it , then using exposures of one @-@ hundredth of a second , the shortest duration images that can be obtained by Spitzer . The data supports the presence of the companion star 's disk , and establish the particle sizes as being like gravel rather than like fine dust .
= = Nature of the system = =
The nature of the Epsilon Aurigae system has always been unclear . It has long been known to consist of at least two components which undergo periodic eclipses with an unusual flat @-@ bottomed dimming every 27 years . Early explanations with exceptionally large diffuse stars , black holes , and odd doughnut @-@ shaped discs are no longer accepted . There are now two main explanations that can account for the known observed characteristics : a high mass model where the primary is a yellow supergiant of around 15 M ☉ ; and a low mass model where the primary is about 2 M ☉ and a less luminous evolved star .
Variations on the high mass model have always been popular , since the primary star is to all appearances a large supergiant star . Spectroscopically it is early F or late A with luminosity class Ia or Iab . Distance estimates consistently lead to luminosities expected for a bright supergiant . One exception is the Hipparcos parallax measurement , but the margin of error is as large as the value itself and so the derived distance is likely to be anything from 355 @-@ 4167pc . The main problem with this model is the nature of the secondary , which is required to have a mass about the same as the primary , at odds with observations where it appears as a B @-@ type main sequence star . The secondary may be a close binary involving two lower @-@ mass main sequence stars , or a more complex system .
The low mass model , recently popularised by the Citizen Sky project , proposes that the primary is an evolved asymptotic giant branch star of 2 – 4 M ☉ . This relies on distance and luminosity estimates lower than most observations . The star would be an unusually large and bright giant star for the given mass , possibly as the result of very high mass loss . To match the observed eclipse and orbital data , the secondary is a fairly normal B main sequence star of about 6 M ☉ embedded in a thick disc seen nearly edge on .
The orbit itself is now fairly well determined , inclined at over 87 degrees to us . The primary and the disk are nearly thirty AU apart , ( in the high mass model ) which is approximately the distance of the planet Neptune from the Sun .
= = = Visible component = = =
The visible component , Epsilon Aurigae A , is a semiregular pulsating post @-@ asymptotic giant branch star belonging to the spectral class F0 . This F @-@ type star has around 135 to 190 times the diameter of the Sun , and is 70 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 times as luminous . ( Reliable sources vary considerably in their estimates of both quantities . ) If the star were in the position of the Sun , it would envelop Mercury and possibly Venus . F @-@ type stars like Epsilon Aurigae tend to glow white and display strong ionized calcium absorption lines and weak hydrogen absorption lines ; being a class above the Sun ( which is a G @-@ type star ) , F @-@ type stars are typically hotter than sunlike stars . Other F @-@ type stars include Procyon 's primary star , the brightest star in the Canis Minor constellation ; and Canopus , the second brightest star in the night sky and the brightest star in the Carina constellation .
= = = Eclipsing component = = =
The eclipsing component emits a negligible amount of light , and is not visible to the naked eye . A heated region , however , has been discovered in the center of the object . The exact form of Epsilon Aurigae 's eclipsing component is not known . Hypotheses concerning the nature of this second object have been proposed , three of which have garnered attention from the scientific community .
The first hypothesis , set forth in 1937 by astronomers Gerard Kuiper , Otto Struve , and Bengt Strömgren , suggested that Epsilon Aurigae was a binary star system containing an F2 supergiant and an extremely cool " semitransparent " star that would completely eclipse its companion . However , the eclipsing star would scatter light emitted by its eclipsed companion resulting in the observed decrease in magnitude . The scattered light would be detected on Earth as a star visible to the naked eye , although this light would be significantly dimmed . However , astronomer Su @-@ Shu Huang published a paper in 1965 that outlined the defects of the Kuiper @-@ Struve @-@ Strömgren model , and proposed that the companion is a large disk system , edge @-@ on from the perspective of Earth . Robert Wilson , in 1971 , proposed that a " central opening " lay in the disk , a possible reason for the system 's sudden brightening mid @-@ way through the eclipse . In 2005 , the system was observed in the ultraviolet by the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer ( FUSE ) ; as the star system was not emitting energy at rates characteristic of objects such as the neutron star binary system Circinus X @-@ 1 or black hole binary system Cygnus X @-@ 1 , the object occupying the center of the disk is not expected to be anything of the sort ; in contrast , a new hypothesis has suggested that the central object is actually a B5 @-@ type star .
= = Observation = =
The star is easily found because of its brightness and apparent proximity to the star Capella . It is the apex of the isosceles triangle forming the ' nose ' of the constellation Auriga . The star is bright enough to be seen from most urban locations with moderate amounts of light pollution . Visual variable star observers make an estimate of its brightness by comparing its brightness with nearby stars with a known brightness value .
= = Citizen Sky = =
The National Science Foundation has awarded the AAVSO a three @-@ year grant to fund a citizen science project built around the 2009 @-@ 2011 eclipse . The project , called Citizen Sky , is organizing and training participants to observe the eclipse and report their data to a central database . In addition , participants will help validate and analyze the data while testing their own theories and publishing original research articles in a peer @-@ reviewed astronomical journal .
= = Etymology = =
" Epsilon Aurigae " is the system 's Bayer designation ( invented by German astronomer Johann Bayer in his 1603 atlas , Uranometria ) . The star is also known colloquially as Almaaz , Haldus or Al Anz . Both Almaaz and Al Anz derive from the Arabic اَلْمَاعَزْ al @-@ mācz ( ( billy ) goat ) , corresponding to the name of the star Capella ( Latin for " nanny goat " ) .
In Chinese , 柱 ( Zhù ) , meaning Pillars , refers to an asterism consisting of ε Aurigae , ζ Aurigae , η Aurigae , υ Aurigae , ν Aurigae , τ Aurigae , χ Aurigae and 26 Aurigae . Consequently , ε Aurigae itself is known as 柱一 ( Zhù yī , " First Star of Pillars " ) .
= = Gallery = =
= Tomb Raider : The Angel of Darkness =
Tomb Raider : The Angel of Darkness is the sixth video game in the Tomb Raider series , acting as a direct sequel to Tomb Raider Chronicles and The Last Revelation . It was developed by Core Design and published by Eidos Interactive . The game was originally released in 2003 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 2 and Mac OS X and was the first Tomb Raider title to be released for the PlayStation 2 console . The storyline follows Lara Croft as she attempts to clear herself of murdering her former mentor Werner Von Croy while investigating the activities of a black magic cult .
The game 's development began three years before release . The intention was to create a different game from previous entries in the franchise which could compete better with newer action games , and to fully exploit the potential of the next generation of gaming platforms . The production was fraught with difficulties , and the game ended up being delayed twice . When released , the game sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , but was widely criticised for its poor controls and multiple bugs . In the aftermath of the game 's release , a potential trilogy was scrapped and development of the franchise was transferred to Crystal Dynamics for the next entry in the series , Tomb Raider : Legend .
= = Gameplay = =
Tomb Raider : The Angel of Darkness , like previous Tomb Raider games , is a third @-@ person action @-@ adventure puzzle game . Players control the main series protagonist Lara Croft through the majority of the game . The majority of Lara 's basic moves are carried over from the previous instalment , such as walking , jumping , climbing , swinging on ropes and standard gunplay . Her new moves include a small hop , army @-@ crawling , hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and a " super @-@ jump " that can be performed while running . Lara can also sneak up on enemies and perform stealth attacks , flatten herself against walls and peer round corners . Lara 's ability to sprint , present in the three previous entries in the series , is only available when the player opens a cabinet containing gas masks in the ' Galleries Under Siege ' level . Her weapons arsenal is also modified from previous games , featuring new weapons such as a K2 Impactor stun gun and upgraded versions of weapons like the shotgun .
Unlike previous games in the series , Lara has a stamina meter which depletes while she is performing bouts of climbing : if the bar empties before reaching her destination , she falls . The rate at which the meter decrease slows if the player performs special actions that increase Lara 's strength . These actions are also necessary to progress in many of the levels . The game incorporates elements similar to a role @-@ playing game , whereby Lara can talk with various NPCs found throughout the environments and chose what kinds of answers to give : early in the game , these answers will directly affect her progress through the story . The game also features a second playable character , Kurtis Trent . Initially appearing to be an antagonist , the player assumes control of him late in the game . He features mainly identical moves to Lara , and his sections of the game are more based around combat .
= = Plot = =
Angel of Darkness follows on from events in Tomb Raider : The Last Revelation and Tomb Raider Chronicles , where Lara Croft was presumed dead . An unspecified time later , Lara arrives in Paris at the request of her former mentor , Werner Von Croy . The city , and Von Croy , are gripped with fear over a serial killer the press have dubbed the " Monstrum " . The Monstrum steals body parts and leaves distinctive signs made with the victim ’ s blood in its wake . During a confrontation with Von Croy at his apartment , a flurry of activity occurs and Lara is knocked unconscious . When she wakes , Von Croy has been murdered by the Monstrum , and Lara is the prime suspect . Fleeing the crime scene with police in pursuit , Lara tracks down Von Croy 's friend Margot Carvier , who agrees to give Lara Von Croy 's old notebook , which he had left with her for safekeeping . From Carvier , Lara discovers that Von Croy had been contracted by a client named Eckhardt to track down medieval icons called the Obscura Paintings . The next day , it is revealed Carvier has also been murdered by the Monstrum .
Shortly before his death , Von Croy had been in contact with a French businessman and underworld figure , Louis Bouchard . Lara must track down Bouchard through the almost @-@ deserted backstreets of Paris , discovering that Bouchard is now in hiding after several of his associates were killed by the Monstrum . When she does locate him , Bouchard reveals Von Croy had contacted him for assistance in breaking into an archaeological dig beneath the Musée du Louvre . Lara gains access to the Louvre through its storm drains , and is able to uncover more information connecting the archaeological dig to the Obscura Paintings . The paintings concern the Nephilim , a hybrid creature descended from angels and humans , which once lived in Turkey . A single dormant Nephilim now remains , the Cubiculum Nephili or " Sleeper " . The five Obscura Paintings , when connected , form a talisman called the Sanglyph that can be used to revive the Sleeper . To prevent this , an ancient society called the Lux Veritatis stole one of the paintings and hid it in a guarded vault beneath the Louvre . Lara must descend into the Lux Veritatis stronghold beneath the Louvre to retrieve it . While attempting to escape with the painting , Lara is disarmed by Kurtis Trent , the last of the Lux Veritatis , who wields a magical Chirugai blade . Kurtis steals the painting , but both he and Lara are knocked unconscious before they can flee .
Upon regaining consciousness , Lara is met by Bouchard , who informs her there has been a Monstrum killing in Prague . Bouchard then betrays Lara , attempting to have her killed , but Lara survives and makes her way to the Czech Republic . Outside the Monstrum crime scene , Lara meets a Czech journalist named Luddick , who fills her in on Eckhardt , an immortal black alchemist who leads a mysterious local organisation called the Cabal , and whom Luddick believes is the Monstrum . Lara also encounters a captive Bouchard near the crime scene , who reveals Eckhardt 's full plan for reviving the Nephilim . Soon after , Lara rediscovers Bouchard dead . With Luddick 's assistance , Lara infiltrates the Cabal 's headquarters , the Strahov , and in the process accidentally frees the Proto @-@ Nephilim , the Cabal 's unsuccessful attempt to breed a new Nephilim species . Meanwhile , Lara witnesses Eckhardt murder Luddick . She again encounters Kurtis , who locks her in a compartment while he kills the Proto @-@ Nephilim using his two Periapt Shards , daggers capable of killing immortal beings . Lara and Kurtis team up to stop Eckhardt assembling the Sanglyph , with Lara retrieving the final Obscura Painting buried deep beneath the Strahov . However , Lara must surrender this painting to save Kurtis , after he is captured by Eckhardt . Kurtis gives Lara his Periapt shards , but she will need a third lost shard to defeat Eckhardt , which Eckhardt has hidden in his laboratory . While Lara flees to track this shard down , Kurtis attempts to hold off an attack from Boaz , the horribly mutated remains of a fallen Cabal member . Kurtis succeeds in killing her , but is severely wounded in the process .
After retrieving the final Periapt shard , Lara discovers Eckardt in the midst of attempting to revive the Sleeper , using the Sanglyph and body parts stolen from the Monstrum 's victims . She is able to stab him with two shards , but before she can deliver the final blow , she is interrupted by Eckhardt 's right @-@ hand man , Karel . Karel kills Eckhardt with the final shard , revealing that he is a Nephilim himself , and had used Eckhardt to ensure the survival of his species . He had also manipulated Lara , in the guise of Bouchard , Luddick and Kurtis , to retrieve the Obscura Paintings . He offers Lara immortality if she will help him complete the task , but Lara experiences a flashback to Von Croy ’ s murder , and sees that Karel , in Eckhardt 's form , was the Monstrum . She refuses , retrieves the Sanglyph from Eckhardt 's body , and plants it on the Sleeper , overloading it with energy and causing it to explode , taking Karel with it . In the aftermath , Lara discovers Kurtis ' Chirugai blade , which directs her towards Boaz 's chamber . Smiling , she heads inside .
= = Development = =
The Angel of Darkness started development three years prior to its release under the working title Tomb Raider next generation . As part of the preparation for the game , the company conducted market research , and decided to create a new setting and story for the main character . One of the main drives behind the game was fully utilising the new platform 's potential and reinventing the character of Lara Croft , including rebuilding her character model and allowing her to perform melee combat . It was the first game in the series to be made for the PlayStation 2 platform : the previous entry in the series , Tomb Raider : Chronicles , had pushed the PlayStation to its technical limits , contributing to lower review scores and sales than previous titles in the series . Core Design separated into two teams , with a new team working on Angel of Darkness and series regulars on Tomb Raider : Chronicles . After the completion of Tomb Raider : Chronicles , lead programmer Richard Morton came over and found that the new team had gone off the rails , scrapping the entire project once already and completing only the game 's basic story . The developers later admitted to being overambitious . Jonell Elliott returned as the voice of Lara Croft . This would be the last time she provided the voice , with Keeley Hawes taking over for Tomb Raider : Legend .
Among the goals of the team for Angel of Darkness were to create more complicated puzzles and make the character of Lara Croft , together with the tone of the game , darker and more hard @-@ edged . They also wished to compete with some of the newer action @-@ adventure games on the market , which were providing heavy competition , and include gameplay ideas from Shenmue and the Metal Gear series . Many character movements were drawn from and based directly on movements made by real people , similar to later motion capture techniques , and the world design drew from various artists and elements of films from the likes of Luc Besson and David Fincher . Murti Schofield , who had previously worked with Core Design , was brought in to write the story and script . As part of writing the background for the organisations involved in the story , he researched historical secret societies and artefacts , and accurate translations of Latin text incorporated into the game . Schofield created the character Kurtis Trent upon a request for someone who could become the focus of a spin @-@ off franchise . Core spent two years trying to reshape the franchise as well as writing a back story in the form of a book separated into multiple chapters , with Angel of Darkness being the first of those chapters .
The Angel of Darkness was unveiled under its official name in March 2002 , with a fuller demonstration appearing at E3 that year . Problems with the game were sensed at an early stage , as Heath @-@ Smith forgot himself and began swearing at the game while trying to demonstrate the opening level at a buyer 's conference . A release date was announced for November 2002 , but the game got delayed into spring 2003 . Eidos believed The Angel of Darkness would benefit from additional marketing support from Lara Croft Tomb Raider : The Cradle of Life , the sequel to the original 2001 movie . Despite the delays , the company pushed Core Design to release the game in time for the marketing support . In order to meet the deadline , areas of the game containing key narrative elements had to be cut ; one of the losses was the explanation of how the character survived the events of The Last Revelation . Among other concepts that needed to be cut were two further locations , character animations , sound bites , and unique gameplay elements involving Kurtis . Some completed environmental assets also ended up being cut by mistake . Some of those elements were also deliberately left out by the team , who wished to bring them into future games . The team at Core Design later said that they felt Eidos forced them to get the game out before it was ready . The game was also reportedly submitted eight times to Sony before its release . The game went gold on 18 June 2003 , two days before its original release date , although there was some confusion as the game had reportedly gone gold on 2 June . The game was finally released in the summer of 2003 , alongside The Cradle of Life .
= = Music = =
The music for Tomb Raider : Angel of Darkness was composed by Peter Connelly and Martin Iveson . The soundtrack , compared to earlier entries in the franchise , was far more orchestral . It was also one of the few areas of the game 's development that did not suffer setbacks or similar problems . The score was recorded live by the London Symphony Orchestra at Abbey Road Studios , London , in 2002 . It was orchestrated by Peter Wraight and conducted by David Snell . The Europe @-@ exclusive ' Collector 's Edition ' of the game included eight tracks from the game 's soundtrack on the bonus documentary DVD . These tracks were later release as a stand @-@ alone Audio CD .
= = Reception = =
Tomb Raider : The Angel of Darkness received strong initial sales , mostly driven by an aggressive advertising campaign . The game reached 6th place in the UK Top 20 sales charts , but dropped to 13th by the following week . It eventually went on to sell 2 @.@ 5 million copies . The game received mixed to negative reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 , the game received an average score of 52 and 49 for the PlayStation 2 and Windows version , respectively . Reviewers praised the game 's storyline , graphics , sound , and environments , while they criticised its large number of bugs and system requirements and its poor controls , combat system , and camera movement . Gaming magazines Game Informer and PlayStation Official Magazine gave it 5 @.@ 5 / 10 and 8 / 10 respectively .
The game 's story received positive reviews . IGN 's Douglas C. Perry praised its " compelling storyline " and " set of intriguing bit characters " , while Gamespot 's Greg Kasavin praised the story as " interesting " , expressing surprise that it did not earn a higher ESRB rating . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed called it " a cut above most gaming fodder , and an area Core has paid an enormous amount of attention to . " Game Revolution 's A. A. White was less positive , stating that while the game 's darker story was an improvement compared to its predecessors , it never " [ managed ] to build to a captivating crescendo " , while the reviewer for GamesRadar called it " bountiful but confusing and ultimately of GCSE @-@ standard creative writing . " The music and sound were also highly praised . Perry called it " beautifully scored game , plush with dramatic mood and feeling " , with minimal sound effects adding " a sense of variety and even peculiarity " , Reed called it " excellently atmospheric throughout , and easily the best yet in the series . " while Kavasin praised the game for " excellent ambient effects , a perfectly suited musical score , and first @-@ rate voice acting . "
The reaction to the graphics were mixed to positive . Perry cited multiple examples of good level design , smooth character models , surface textures and lightning , while feeling more mixed about Lara 's unrealistic figure and hardened appearance . White cited the graphics as an improvement , but was unimpressed by Lara 's character model and noted multiple frame @-@ rate dips that seemed " almost like playing the game in slow motion . " The GamesRadar review called the graphics " a measured improvement on [ Tomb Raider : Chronicles ] , but not a clean break from the [ previous ] Croft titles . " Karavin called the detailing in textures and models " impressive " , but cited several points where the game suffered from severe framerate dips . Reed praised the game 's graphical polish , with " almost every multi @-@ tiered location crammed with detail and careful incidentals " , but critiqued the frequent loading screens and stylised or low detail for environments and characters .
The gameplay was heavily criticised . Perry said that those aspects of the game " pale in comparison to 90 % of the PlayStation 2 's adventure or action @-@ adventure games , and they actually hurt the rest of the game 's best qualities " , but that the new moves worked smoothly apart from the stealth actions . White criticised the new layout 's negative effect on gameplay and the poor enemy AI , and Kasavin called the experience " frustrating , difficult , and tedious " , though stating that such moments stood out because many areas of the game were " thrilling " . Reed found the controls dated and the stealth mechanics and strength upgrade system unnecessary , while the GamesRadar reviewer cited both the gameplay and control layout as dated , citing the difficulty of effectively controlling Lara at multiple points in the game because of these issues . The camera was also criticised , with White , Perry , Reed , Kasavin and the GamesRadar reviewer all citing it as awkward to control and sometimes wayward or confusing during its scripted movements . In 2010 , GameTrailers placed the game 5th in their " Top 10 Worst Sequels " list .
The Angel of Darkness caused multiple problems for the Tomb Raider franchise . Paramount Pictures faulted The Cradle of Life 's relatively inadequate box office performance on the poor critical reception , and backlash the video game received from its fans . The head of Core Design , Jeremy Heath @-@ Smith , resigned after the release of the game , and plans for a sequel called The Lost Dominion , part of a proposed trilogy created using the game 's engine , were scrapped . Following the poor performance of both the game and the second movie , Eidos Interactive took the production of Tomb Raider games away from Core Design and assigned them to Crystal Dynamics , noted as the developers of the Legacy of Kain series . In later years , Angel of Darkness has become noted for utilising or experimenting with multiple gameplay features that later became commonplace , such as the RPG elements , stamina metre and mixing atmospheric features from different video game genres .
= Hellyeah =
Hellyeah is an American heavy metal supergroup , consisting of Mudvayne vocalist Chad Gray , former Nothingface guitarist Tom Maxwell , bass player Kyle Sanders , guitarist Christian Brady and former Pantera and Damageplan drummer Vinnie Paul . The idea to form a supergroup originated in 2000 on the Tattoo the Earth tour , although plans were constantly put on hold due to scheduling conflicts . The summer of 2006 allowed the band to take the project seriously and record its first album . Recorded at Chasin ' Jason studio in Dimebag Darrell 's backyard , a self @-@ titled album was completed in roughly one month . Released on April 10 , 2007 , the album entered the Billboard 200 at number 9 , selling 45 @,@ 000 copies . AllMusic reviewer William Ruhlmann stated the album is " a competent example of its genre " awarding the album three and a half stars .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early days = = =
Hellyeah 's beginnings can be traced back to 2000 on the Tattoo the Earth tour featuring Mudvayne , Nothingface , Slayer , Slipknot and Sevendust . Nothingface guitarist Tom Maxwell became friends with Mudvayne vocalist Chad Gray , and they talked about the possibility of forming a supergroup . The following year , Nothingface toured with Mudvayne and talks to form the supergroup continued , although were constantly put on hold due to scheduling conflicts . At this time , Gray and Maxwell had brainstormed five band names .
Mudvayne guitarist Greg Tribbett approached Maxwell " out of the blue " and wanted to join the band . Nothingface drummer Tommy Sickles originally helmed the drum kit for the band 's demo , however , things did not work out and the search for a new drummer began . The band knew former Pantera and Damageplan drummer Vinnie Paul , and tried to persuade him to join the band as their drummer . Originally , Paul was not sure if he would return to music after the death of his brother , Dimebag Darrell and an 18 @-@ month hiatus : " It was one of those things that I didn 't think I 'd be apart of this ever again without him , and after about a year and a half had gone by , these guys called me up , Chad [ Gray ] and Tom [ Maxwell ] , they were like , ' We 're thinking about putting this band together , would you be into it ? ' First couple of times , I told them , ' No , I don 't think I 'm ready to do this yet . ' And they just were real persistent , they kept calling me . And one night , I had been drinking some red wine and listening to some KISS on 12 " vinyl record and I said , ' You know what , lets take a shot at this , lets see what happens . ' "
The band 's persistence paid off and Paul joined the project . Paul commented about joining the project : " Everybody had their head in the right place and that let 's @-@ tear @-@ the @-@ world @-@ a @-@ new @-@ ass attitude " .
In their previous bands , there had only been one guitarist , so having two was a new experience for all members . Paul felt two guitarists brought back the " old school Iron Maiden thing where they play two parts and give you a grinding rhythm part with a badass melody on top " . In 2006 , Mudvayne did not have any plans to tour and were taking most of the summer and fall off , while Nothingface was preparing to record their next album . The time over the summer allowed the band to pursue the project which had been talked about for years .
Gray flew into Baltimore to Nothingface 's home studio to discuss the project further . The song " Waging War " was written in two days , followed by Maxwell tracking it the next day , and Gray completing vocals . During the summer of 2006 , schedules were clear , which allowed members to take the time to record a studio album . The album was recorded at Paul 's backyard studio , Chasin ' Jason in Arlington , Texas . Filled with photos of his late brother Dimebag , Paul found it tough entering the studio where the last albums by Damageplan and Pantera , and the collaboration Rebel Meets Rebel were recorded , but felt " the dark cloud that was there went away " , due to everyone 's positive energy . Maxwell and Tribbett were the primary writers of the album , and Paul was there to " steer them in the right direction " , with Gray adding his opinion on musical arrangements .
Paul built the members a cabana style house on his pool deck with air conditioning , a TV , and beds so the members felt comfortable while recording . Paul produced the record and Gray felt Paul " facilitated the whole thing " . The album was completed in roughly a month , with three recording sessions . The band worked on the record for eight days and returned home for a break . A 14 @-@ day session , followed the break and then another 10 days in the studio . Gray asserts the breaks in between recording sessions were to " re charge the batteries " , and " get a fresh head " . As the line @-@ up was complete , the band started to brainstorm names . When a member thought of a name they would write it on a piece of paper and put it in an amp box outside the studio . Someone wrote " Hellyeah " , and the band thought it was a perfect choice . Paul says it 's " very affirmative and full of attitude . When your buddy asks if you want to get a beer tonight , you don 't just say ' yes , ' you say , " Hell yeah ! " . Gray attributes the name to " late teens , keggers and chicks and AC / DC and Metallica " .
= = = Hellyeah ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = =
Revolver Magazine was one of the first print publications to feature the band in March 2007 . The self @-@ titled track , " Hellyeah " , started gaining satellite radio airplay in February 2007 , and the first single " You Wouldn 't Know " hit American radio airwaves the same month . " You Wouldn 't Know " peaked at number 5 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks , and 35 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks . The album 's second single , " Alcohaulin ' Ass " peaked at number 7 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks . The band 's self @-@ titled album , Hellyeah was released on April 10 , 2007 via Epic Records . The album debuted at No. 9 on the Billboard 200 album charts , with sales of just under 45 @,@ 000 . The album peaked on the Top Hard Rock albums at number 15 , and number 3 on the Top Rock Albums . As of October 18 , 2007 , the album has sold 204 @,@ 000 copies .
Hellyeah received generally positive reviews . William Ruhlmann of Allmusic awarded the album three and a half stars out of five , commenting ; " Their album is a competent example of its genre , in which Tribbett and Maxwell combine to create crushing riffs over the pummeling rhythm section of Paul , while Gray howls typically enraged , expletive @-@ littered lyrics to songs " . However , Ruhlmann believes Hellyeah is not a notable variation from members ' previous bands . Blabbermouth.net reviewer Don Kaye awarded the album 7 out of 10 , praising the track " Matter of Time " for its slashing main riff , and " One Thing " as it " marches to the finish line with a rumbling , crunching wall of guitars worthy of Dimebag himself " . Kaye thought that Hellyeah 's first studio effort was not equal to any of its members ' main output . KNAC contributor Andrew Depedro stated " it 's a set of good songs recorded by 5 accomplished musicians from diverse backgrounds not letting their pasts define them and those songs in one form or another speak to you in different ways " .
Bassist Montano was asked to leave Hellyeah after the album 's release party , where he assaulted guitarist Tom Maxwell and made numerous gun threats while heavily intoxicated . The band 's publicist stated his departure was due to " personal reasons on both sides " The band considered Damageplan bassist Bob Zilla as Paul thought ; " It was kind hard to go ahead and commit to this band without Bob being part of it " . Zilla was invited to audition and got the gig immediately .
Hellyeah embarked on their first tour on May 2007 titled Fire it Up , made an appearance at the Download Festival , and underwent Australian tour in July 2007 . The Family Values Tour with Korn and Evanescence , saw the band start touring in late July , which also consisted playing with Alter Bridge in San Antonio before passing through thirty cities before ending in Washington , D.C. A DVD titled Below the Belt was released on November 13 , 2007 , and featured a documentary , music videos , performance footage from the making of the album , first studio sessions , coverage of the band 's world tour , and personal interviews . It was produced by members of the band and Ryan Ziemba .
= = = Stampede ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
Hellyeah headlined a tour in the spring of 2010 with : Seether , Five Finger Death Punch , Drowning Pool , and Lacuna Coil . The first date was May 11 , 2010 in Madison , WI . They were also confirmed to play the main stage at Download Festival 2010 . In 2009 , the band revealed that they were in the studio recording a new album , later revealed to be titled Stampede .
For Stampede , the members went to drummer Vinnie Paul 's Texas home studio , for a recording process draped in a relaxed , pressure @-@ free atmosphere , surrounded by the obligatory cocktails , good eats and familial brotherhood . “ We were doing it at my house solely . We ate , drank and BBQed together , which made the brotherhood that happened , come through in the music , " Paul said . The band members lived in bungalows on the grounds and turned Paul 's house into a studio . Drums were recorded downstairs and guitars were recorded upstairs , with video screens in each room so the members could see one another while tracking . The methods may have been unorthodox , but the result was nothing short of magical . " It ’ s a broad , diverse album that covers rock , heavy metal and Southern rock ground . That is the main thing that I like about it : it ’ s not so focused on one thing , " Paul said . The high ceilings at the Paul home allowed for the creation of a big , booming sound . They also were able to work at their own natural pace . " We slept there , so if one of us just came up with an idea , we could jump on it , " guitarist Tom Maxwell said .
" Cowboy Way " , a song from the new album , was released for a free download via the band 's website on April 21 , 2010 . The music video for " Cowboy Way " premiered on May 20 , 2010 . The first single , " Hell of a Time " , was released on June 1 , 2010 . The music video for " Hell of a Time " premiered on June 16 , 2010 . [ 1 ] The song , " The Debt That All Men Pay " premiered on ultimateguitar.com on June 22 , 2010 . Stampede was released on July 13 , 2010 via Epic Records and sold 28 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , debuting at No. 8 on the Billboard 200 , making it the band 's highest charting album to date .
The group was recently confirmed to be playing the Rock Star Energy Drink Uproar Festival along with other headliners Disturbed , Avenged Sevenfold , Stone Sour and Halestorm .
= = = Band of Brothers ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = =
Hellyeah finished recording a new album , titled Band of Brothers , and were extremely satisfied with the production of the record ; which was produced by Jeremy Parker , who has produced albums for Godsmack and Evanescence , and was recorded in the home of drummer Vinnie Paul 's studio in Arlington , Texas ; VP 's Upstairs Studio . The direction of the album was heavier and more metal @-@ oriented than its predecessors , fusing the different influences of the band members ( Pantera , Mudvayne , Damageplan , Nothingface ) together for a more metal approach . Band of Brothers was released everywhere on July 17 , 2012 via Eleven Seven Music , the band 's new record label home after leaving Epic Records . The digital single " War In Me " was released on iTunes on April 3 , 2012 . Debut single " Band of Brothers " was released in early May with a music video and will be released on iTunes . On May 8 , 2012 , the band 's second single off their 3rd album of the same name , " Band of Brothers " was released .
They played the Download Festival on Sunday 16 June 2013 and played at Graspop Metal Meeting on Sunday 30 June 2013 .
In July 2013 , they were on tour on the Gigantour 2013 .
= = = Lineup changes and Blood for Blood ( 2013 – 2015 ) = = =
In late 2013 , the band posted updates to their Facebook page , detailing that they were in the process of writing and recording their next album . A few short clips were posted by the band showing some of the guitar work underway .
On February 13 , 2014 , the band announced the tracklist and title of their album to be Blood for Blood , released on June 10 . It was also announced that guitarist Greg Tribbett and bassist Bob Kakaha have departed the band , and were shortly replaced by Christian Brady ( Magna @-@ Fi / Überschall ) on guitar and ( Skrew / Bloodsimple / MonstrO ) bassist Kyle Sanders . Hellyeah and Adrenaline Mob have announced a few tour dates together . On June 3 , the full album was available for streaming via YouTube .
On April 13 , 2015 , Hellyeah released the official video for the album 's third single , " Hush " . The song was also used to promote the " No More " campaign against domestic violence . The song supported the from ' Blood for Blood ' album .
Slayer was chosen to headline the 2015 Rockstar Energy Mayhem Festival . The bands HELLYEAH , King Diamond , The Devil Wears Prada , Thy Art Is Murder , Whitechapel , Jungle Rot , Sister Sin , Sworn In , Shattered Sun , Feed Her To The Sharks , Code Orange & Kissing Candice will also be participating in the Rockstar Tour . The festival is slated for 26 stops to run from June 26th through August 2nd .
= = = Unden ! able ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On February 23 , 2016 , the band released a new song called " Human " from their fifth studio album .
On April 8 , 2016 , the band announced their fifth studio album to be titled Unden ! able , released June 3 , 2016 . Tom Maxwell has stated that included on the album will be " a lot of stuff they never tried before " , calling it " moody , dark and crushing " .
= = Style = =
Paul described the band 's sound as " a familiar groove , with a new sound " . Blabbermouth.net reviewer Done Kaye commented " with little of the complexity of Mudvayne or angularity of Nothingface and much more of the full @-@ on , pedal @-@ to @-@ the @-@ metal style of Vinnie Paul 's previous work " . However , Kaye said the songs " Star " and " Thank You " border on musical cliché . Andrew Depedro of KNAC.com stated " ' Alcohaulin ' Ass ' showcases Gray 's hidden talent as an outlaw country and western @-@ type crooner in the intro " , although he thought the band 's lyrics were repetitive . Hellyeah has been categorized as groove metal .
= = Members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Hellyeah ( 2007 )
Stampede ( 2010 )
Band of Brothers ( 2012 )
Blood for Blood ( 2014 )
Unden ! able ( 2016 )
= = Awards = =
Loudwire Music Awards
= Weapons of Class Destruction =
" Weapons of Class Destruction " is the eighteenth episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars . Written by Jed Seidel and directed by John Kretchmer , the episode premiered on UPN on April 12 , 2005 .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica investigates the persistent bomb threats at her school . Meanwhile , Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) begins dating Alicia Fennel ( Erica Gimpel ) , and Veronica 's relationship with Logan ( Jason Dohring ) progresses .
" Weapons of Class Destruction " introduces the romantic relationship between Veronica and Logan , a romance that would continue on @-@ and @-@ off throughout the series and its subsequent film adaptation . Series creator Rob Thomas did not originally envision this relationship , but he changed his mind when he saw the chemistry between the two actors and characters . The episode received positive reviews , with discussion focusing on Veronica and Logan 's first kiss . The episode has been frequently cited as one of the best in the series .
= = Synopsis = =
Veronica is kissing Leo D 'Amato ( Max Greenfield ) outside her house . After Veronica goes back into her house , Keith announces that he has begun dating Wallace 's ( Percy Daggs III ) mother , Alicia , making things awkward between Veronica and Wallace . Veronica notices a sign outside which says " Killthemall.com " . In class , there is a fire drill , and Duncan ( Teddy Dunn ) says that it is the third one this week . Veronica talks to Principal Clemmons about the fire drill issue , but he doesn 't give anything up to her . Later , she notices police officers with service dogs going through the building . Veronica , posing as the superintendent , calls Principal Clemmons , who reveals that the school has experienced several bomb threats . She prints the story in the school newspaper , causing chaos at school the next day . Principal Clemmons calls her in again and tells her to stop printing stories . Veronica and Wallace talk to each other while Keith and Alicia watch a movie . Alicia tries to convince Wallace to accept their relationship to no avail . After talking to Mac ( Tina Majorino ) , another student , Pete ( Michael McMillian ) approaches Veronica to say that he saw two students , Ben ( Jonathan Taylor Thomas ) and Norris ( Theo Rossi ) with exploding tennis balls . Wallace places the two students under more suspicion when he tells Veronica about them , and Veronica sees a mysterious timer .
Duncan and Meg ( Alona Tal ) approach Veronica , and she tells Meg the general overview of a case where someone has been evading capture and all the tactics they used to do so before Duncan suddenly leaves . Wallace gives Veronica the student file on one of the two students , but his high school records are clean after bullying in junior high . The other student doesn 't have a file . Veronica talks to Duncan , who says he knows about her investigation . Duncan scoffs at her findings before he realizes that she suspects him in the murder , reacting with extreme rage before dashing out of the room . Ben and Norris talk about guns and bombs , leading Veronica to track Ben , eventually seeing him buying fertilizer and taking out a rifle . Ben gets into the car and orders her to drive to the Camelot motel . There , Logan appears and beats him up before it is revealed that the " suspect " is actually an ATF agent . Ben says that he is investigating Norris , but needs her help : Norris has a crush on Veronica , and Ben asks her to get close to him . As she leaves the motel , Veronica and Logan kiss unexpectedly .
Veronica gets an invitation to Norris 's house , but she doesn 't find any weapons . Veronica calls Mac to help her break into the WiFi before she sees Pete in front of the house . The ATF searches Norris 's vehicle and finds fertilizer and a rifle , despite Veronica 's convictions that he is not the perpetrator . However , Veronica recognizes them as being the same ones Ben was loading into his car earlier . Veronica calls Pete , and she tells him that she knows he falsely implicated Norris ( with the help of the ATF agent ) because of terrible bullying in junior high . Meg tells Veronica that Duncan has disappeared after removing $ 10 @,@ 000 from the bank . The story involving Norris is published in the newspaper , and , although it leads to all charges against Norris being dropped , it also results in the new journalism teacher 's ( Joey Lauren Adams ) termination .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jed Seidel and directed by John Kretchmer . This episode mark 's Seidel 's fifth and final writing credit for the series , after " Meet John Smith " , " The Girl Next Door " , " Silence of the Lamb " , and " Mars vs. Mars " . In addition , this episode is the second directing credit for Kretchmer , after " Silence of the Lamb . "
The episode also explains the departure of journalism teacher Mallory Dent ( Sydney Tamiia Poitier ) , who made her last appearance in " The Girl Next Door " , also introducing Dent 's replacement , Geena Stafford , who is subsequently fired in the same episode . The episode introduces a romantic relationship between Veronica and Logan through their first kiss . Originally , Veronica and Logan were not intended to be a couple . At PaleyFest 2014 , series creator Rob Thomas stated that " The truth is , we never had any intention at all for Logan to end up with Veronica . [ Dohring ] was hired to be the obligatory psychotic jackass . In the writers ' room , sitting around watching dailies , we would all gather around , and it was like , ' We want to watch that . We want to watch those two onscreen together . ' " However , Dohring and Bell found out the plan for the two characters around the filming of " Return of the Kane " or " The Girl Next Door " .
On the reveal , Dohring said in an interview : " I ’ m actually glad , Rob told us about episode six or seven that we would get together . We were like , ‘ No way ! ’ But there was something going on there . We could feel it as actors . It was damn cool – these characters had some kind of connection . So we had to start to soften it up a little bit and break the ice somewhat [ between the characters ] . I ’ m glad he gave us that heads up . " Lead actress Kristen Bell expressed surprise over the initial decision by saying , " I love working with Jason and he 's such a great actor to work opposite , but sometimes , I feel it 's really just weird luck . Somehow people get magic dust sprinkled on them and you don 't know why . You look like you have boatloads of chemistry with someone else . " On the kiss itself , Dohring noted , " It was so funny , as an actor , to kiss this girl . I was all nervous beforehand . But you have to just let it go for the scene . It was so fun to watch [ later when it aired ] , " adding that " a lot of that emotion was real for me . " The song " Momentary Thing " by band Something Happens plays during Veronica and Logan 's first kiss .
Series creator Rob Thomas , was not content with the kiss scene , writing that it was not how he envisioned it . " I wasn 't actually pleased with the first Veronica / Logan kiss . Now , I may have been wrong on this front , but it wasn 't what I imagined , or really what I think was described in the script . The line of description called for Logan to " devour " Veronica . I wanted it to be — I don 't know if sexual is the right word , but — hungry , or a release , or mixed with some self @-@ loathing and confusion . Instead , it came off as singularly romantic . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , the episode received 2 @.@ 30 million viewers , ranking 114th of 120 in the weekly rankings .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received primarily positive reviews , with critical attention mostly going to Veronica and Logan 's relationship . Price Peterson of TV.com gave the episode a positive review , noting that " [ o ] bviously the most notable aspect of this episode was the Logan @-@ Veronica hookup . Again , it seemed really sudden , but in the sense that they are both mercurial teenagers it seemed right , particularly when they didn 't know how to handle themselves afterward . " Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B + " , writing that " [ Veronica ] kisses Logan ! You heard me ! How could you not , with all the exclamation points ! "
Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , gave a mixed review . While calling the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " predictable " , the reviewer also called Keith and Alicia 's new relationship " perhaps the most fun " part of the episode . In addition , Kaiser commented on Veronica and Logan 's relationship . " I 'm not entirely sold on the relationship , either from a character point of view or a quality point of view . Obviously it 's just a kiss in the heat of the moment … but it doesn 't seem to have much motivation beyond [ that ] . " IGN placed the episode 2nd in its list of the top ten Veronica Mars episodes , second to only " Leave It to Beaver " . The publication praised the new Logan @-@ Veronica dynamic and said " The few episodes just before this one showed the softer , vulnerable side of Logan and just when you wonder if he 's really so bad , he saves the day and an innocent peck turned into a passionate embrace . "
E ! reacted to the scene by writing , " We seemed to experience the same whirlwind of emotions they did : The hesitance , the shock , the elation , the weirdness of how right it felt , and then , of course , the inevitable ' Oh crap , what did we just do and what does this mean ? ' awkwardness of it all . They , and the show , would never be the same . In the best way possible . " Buzzfeed ranked the episode as the 4th best Veronica Mars episode , behind " A Trip to the Dentist " , " Leave It to Beaver " , and " Not Pictured . " TV Line ranked the episode 6th on a similar list . Give Me My Remote ranked " Weapons of Class Destruction " as the fifth best episode of Veronica Mars , particularly noting the kiss scene between Logan and Veronica . " Veronica kisses Logan in a scene that was full of so much chemistry that it gave me chills . The episode ends with Veronica figuring out that Ben was setting Norris up , but , honestly , who was really paying attention at that point ? Veronica and Logan had finally realized that their chemistry was undeniable ! "
Kimberly Roots , writing for TV Line , responded to the kiss scene by stating , " What got me – and still gets me – about this kiss is how much fire it has . This isn ’ t a drunken , convenient hook @-@ up . This isn ’ t a let ’ s @-@ see @-@ how @-@ this @-@ goes peck . This is two people acting on years of something unacknowledged between them . We get a long moment of LoVe in action before they break apart and realize what just happened . " Entertainment Weekly called " Weapons of Class Destruction " one of the " 10 essential episodes of Veronica Mars " .
= Ímar =
Ímar ( Old Norse : Ívarr ; died c . 873 ) was a Viking leader in Ireland and Scotland in the mid @-@ late ninth century who founded the Uí Ímair dynasty , and whose descendants would go on to dominate the Irish Sea region for several centuries . He was the son of the king of Lochlann , identified in the non @-@ contemporary Fragmentary Annals of Ireland as Gofraid . The Fragmentary Annals name Auisle and Amlaíb Conung as his brothers . Another Viking leader , Halfdan Ragnarsson , is considered by some scholars to be another brother . The Irish Annals title Amlaíb , Ímar and Auisle " kings of the foreigners " . Modern scholars use the title " kings of Dublin " after the Viking settlement which formed the base of their power . Some scholars consider Ímar to be identical to Ivar the Boneless , a Viking commander of the Great Heathen Army named in contemporary English sources who also appears in the Icelandic sagas as a son of the legendary Viking Ragnar Lodbrok .
During the late 850s and early 860s Ímar was involved in a protracted conflict with Máel Sechnaill , overking of the Southern Uí Néill and the most powerful ruler in Ireland . The cause of the conflict is uncertain , but it may have been sparked by competition for control of Munster and its resources . Ímar allied successively with Cerball , King of Ossory and Áed Findliath , overking of the Northern Uí Néill against Máel Sechnaill . Máel Sechnaill died in 862 and his lands were split , effectively ending the conflict . Following this Ímar and his kin warred with several Irish leaders in an attempt to expand their kingdom 's influence . Ímar disappears from the historical record in Ireland between the years 864 and 870 ; this is consistent with Ímar being identical to Ivar the Boneless - Ivar was active in England between these two dates and he is not mentioned by English sources after 870 . In 870 the annals record that Dumbarton Rock , the chief fortress of the Kingdom of Strathclyde , was successfully captured by Ímar and Amlaíb following a four month long siege .
Ímar died in 873 and is given the title " King of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain " in contemporary annals . The Fragmentary Annals record that Ímar 's father also died that year , and it is believed that at that time their combined territory encompassed Dublin , the Isle of Man , the Western Isles , Orkney , and large parts of the northern and western Scottish coast including Argyll , Caithness and Sutherland .
= = Background = =
Norse contact with Scotland predates the first written records in the 8th century , although the nature and frequency of these contacts is unknown . Excavations on the island of Unst in Shetland indicate that Scandinavian settlers had reached there perhaps as early as the mid @-@ 7th century and from 793 onwards repeated raids by Vikings on the British Isles are recorded . " All the islands of Britain " were devastated in 794 with Iona being sacked in 802 and 806 . The Frankish Annales Bertiniani may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides by Vikings in 847 . Scholarly interpretations of the period " have led to widely divergent reconstructions of Viking Age Scotland " , especially in the early period , and Barrett has identified several competing theories , none of which he regards as proven . Ó Corráin notes : " when and how the Vikings conquered and occupied the Isles is unknown , perhaps unknowable " .
The earliest recorded Viking raids in Ireland occurred in 795 . Over time , these raids increased in intensity , and they overwintered in Ireland for the first time in 840 – 841 . In 841 a longphort was constructed at Áth Cliath ( Irish for hurdled ford ) , a site which would later develop into the city of Dublin . Longphorts were also established at other sites around Ireland , some of which developed into larger Viking settlements over time . The Viking population in Ireland was boosted in 851 with the arrival of a large group known as " dark foreigners " – a contentious term used to refer to the newly arrived Vikings , as opposed to the " fair foreigners " , i.e. the Viking population which was resident in arrival prior to this influx . A kingdom in Viking Scotland was established by the mid ninth @-@ century , and it exerted control over some of the Vikings in Ireland . By 853 a separate kingdom of Dublin had been set up which claimed control over all the Vikings in Ireland .
The main historical sources for this period are the Norse sagas and the Irish annals . Some of the annals , such as the Annals of Ulster are believed to be contemporary accounts , whereas the sagas were written down at dates much later than the events they describe and are considered far less reliable . A few of the annals such as the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland and the Annals of the Four Masters were also complied at later dates , in part from more contemporary material and in part from fragments of sagas . According to Downham : " apart from these additions [ of saga fragments ] , Irish chronicles are considered by scholars to be largely accurate records , albeit partisan in their presentation of events " .
= = Biography = =
= = = Arrival in Ireland = = =
Ímar is first mentioned in contemporary Irish annals in 857 , four years after his brother Amlaíb Conung is recorded as arriving in Ireland . The later Fragmentary Annals of Ireland suggest Ímar may have come to Ireland shortly after his brother :
Ímar and Amlaíb were joined in Ireland by another brother , Auisle , sometime before 863 . From this date onwards the three brothers are described as " kings of the foreigners " by the annals , but in modern texts they are usually labelled as kings of Dublin , after the Viking settlement which was the base of their power . Lochlann , originally Laithlinn or Lothlend , the land where Ímar 's father was king , is often identified with Norway , but it is not universally accepted that it had such a meaning in early times . Several historians have proposed instead that in early times , and certainly as late as the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 , Lochlann refers to the Norse and Norse @-@ Gael lands in the Hebrides , the Isle of Man , the Northern Isles and parts of mainland Scotland . Whatever the original sense , by the twelfth century , when Magnus Barefoot undertook his expedition to the West , it had come to mean Norway .
= = = War with Máel Sechnaill = = =
The first mention of Ímar in Irish annals in 857 concerns a war fought between Ímar and Amlaíb Conung against Máel Sechnaill , overking of the Southern Uí Néill , and a group of Vikings sometimes known as the Norse @-@ Irish . Máel Sechnaill was the most powerful king in Ireland at the time and his lands lay close to the Viking settlement of Dublin . The fighting began in the previous year : " Great warfare between the heathens and Mael Sechnaill , supported by Norse @-@ Irish " is reported by the Annals of Ulster .
The fighting was focused on Munster ; Máel Sechnaill sought to increase his influence over the kings there . He took hostages from the province in 854 , 856 and 858 , and the power of the over @-@ kings had been weakened in 856 by a Viking raid on the royal centre at Lough Cend , when Gormán son of Lonán , a relative of Munster 's over @-@ king , was killed alongside a great many others . This weakness likely drew the gaze of both Máel Sechnaill and the Vikings , and their competition for Munster 's resources may have been the cause of the war . Early battles seem to have gone the way of the Vikings : Ímar and Amlaíb " inflicted a rout on Caitill the Fair and his Norse @-@ Irish in the lands of Munster " . Although there is no certain evidence to suggest that this Caitill is the same person as the Ketill Flatnose of later sagas , Anderson and Crawford have suggested that they are the same person .
In 858 Ímar , allied with Cerball , King of Ossory , routed a force of Norse @-@ Irish at Araid Tíre ( east of Lough Derg and the Shannon in modern @-@ day County Tipperary ) . Ossory was a small kingdom wedged between the larger realms of Munster and Leinster . At the beginning of his reign in the 840s , Cerball 's allegiance was pledged to the over @-@ king of Munster , but as that kingdom grew weaker Ossory 's strategic location allowed opportunities for his advancement . Cerball had previously fought against the Vikings , but he allied with them to challenge the supremacy of Máel Sechnaill and his Norse @-@ Irish allies . The following year Amlaíb , Ímar and Cerball conducted a raid on Máel Sechnaill 's heartlands in Meath , and in consequence a royal conference was held at Rathugh ( modern @-@ day County Westmeath ) . Following this meeting Cerball shed his allegiance to the Vikings and formally submitted to Máel Sechnaill in order to " make peace and amity between the men of Ireland " .
With their ally turned against them , Ímar and Amlaíb sought a new alliance with Áed Findliath , overking of the Northern Uí Néill , and rival of Máel Sechnaill . In 860 Máel Sechnaill and Cerball led a large army of men from Munster , Leinster , Connacht and the Southern Uí Néill into the lands of Áed Findliath near Armagh . While the southern forces were encamped there , Áed launched a night attack , killing some of the southern men , but his forces took many casualties and were forced to retreat . In retaliation for this invasion Amlaíb and Áed led raids into Meath in 861 and 862 , but they were driven off both times . According to the Fragmentary Annals this alliance had been cemented by a political marriage :
In later years , alliance between the Northern Uí Néill and the Vikings of Dublin became a regular occurrence : the Northern and Southern Uí Néill were frequent competitors for supremacy in Ireland , and the uneasy neighbourhood between Dublin and the Southern Uí Néill made the Vikings natural allies for the Northerners .
= = = Later life = = =
Máel Sechnaill died in 862 , and his territory in Meath was split between two rulers , Lorcán mac Cathail and Conchobar mac Donnchada . Ímar and Amlaíb , now joined in Ireland by their younger brother Auisle , sought to make use of this change to extend their influence in the lands of the Southern Uí Néill . In 863 the three brothers raided Brega in alliance with Lorcán , and the following year Amlaíb drowned Conchobar at Clonard Abbey . Muirecán mac Diarmata , overking of the Uí Dúnchada , was killed by Vikings in 863 , probably by Ímar and his kin trying to expand into Leinster .
Beginning around 864 the three brothers halted their campaigns of conquest in Ireland , and instead campaigned in Britain . Ímar disappears from the Irish Annals in 864 , and does not reappear until 870 . Downham concludes he is identical to Ivar the Boneless , a Viking leader who was active in England during this period as a commander of the Great Heathen Army . According to O Croinin " Ímar has been identified with Ívarr Beinlausi ( the boneless ) , son of Ragnar Lodbrok , but the matter is controversial " .
The reappearance of Ímar in Irish annals in 870 is marked by a raid undertaken by him and Amlaíb . They laid siege to Dumbarton Rock , the chief fortress of the Kingdom of Strathclyde , and captured it following a four @-@ month siege . The pair returned to Dublin in 871 with 200 ships and they " brought with them in captivity a great prey of Angles , Britons and Picts " . According to the Fragmentary Annals Amlaíb returned to Lochlann that year to aid their father in a war , leaving Ímar to rule alone ( Auisle had died in 867 ) . The Pictish Chronicle claims Amlaíb died around 874 during a protracted campaign against Constantine I in Scotland . The Fragmentary Annals record the death of Ímar 's father , Gofraid , in 873 . The final mention of Ímar in contemporary annals is also in 873 when his death is reported . In these reports he is titled " king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain " . According to Ó Corrain the evidence suggests that by his death Ímar 's kingdom ( including the territory formerly ruled by his father ) included Man , the Western Isles , Argyll , Caithness , Sutherland , Orkney , and parts of the coastline of Ross and Cromarty and Inverness .
= = Origins = =
= = = Ivar the Boneless = = =
In 865 the Great Heathen Army landed in England and one of its leaders is identified by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as " Ingvar " . Later Norse tradition records Ingvar under the name of Ivar the Boneless , and calls him a son of the legendary Ragnar Lodbrok . It is generally accepted that Ivar the Boneless and Ingvar are one and the same , though the epithet " the Boneless " is not recorded until the twelfth century and its origins are obscure . Moreover , some suppose Ivar the Boneless to be identical to Ímar , though there is no scholarly consensus one way or another . Woolf supports the connection between these two " Ivars " and writes of the Great Heathen Army that invaded East Anglia in 865 that " it is now generally agreed that they arrived in Britain directly from Ireland where Ívarr , the senior partner by 865 , had been active for at least a decade " . Ó Corrain argues that the " evidence in favour of the identification of Ímar and Inguar consists of three points : the identity of the names , the absence of any mention of Ímar in the Irish annals between 864 and the Irish account of the siege of Dumbarton in 870 , and the subsequent close connections between the dynasties of Dublin and York " . Forte , Oram , and Pedersen note that Ivar is not mentioned in any English source after 870 , when Ímar reappears in the Irish annals .
Ó Corrain also offers argument against the identification of Ímar and Ingvar / Ivar : " To take but one example , if Ivarr of Dublin is identical with Inguar , how are we to give any credence to Smyth 's reconstruction of Brompton ( p . 229 ) which shows Ivarr in East Anglia in | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Asda opened a supermarket next to the Middleton District Centre ; this should provide over 300 jobs . The District Centre itself has several traders but had failed to develop .
= = Landmarks = =
Middleton Park , once the private estate of the lords of the manor of Middleton , is owned by Wade 's Charity and leased to Leeds City Council for a peppercorn rent . It has been one of Leeds many public parks since 1919 covering an area of nearly a square mile , 630 acres ( 2 @.@ 5 km2 ) , of which 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) are of ancient woodland . There is a small lake , recreational areas and a golf course . The reclaimed site of Middleton Broom Pit was incorporated into the park . Two areas of the park , comprising ancient waggonways which are now surfaced footpaths , earthworks and remains of underground workings and shaft mounds , have been designated a scheduled ancient monument .
The Middleton Railway , a preserved heritage steam railway , operates from headquarters and museum at Moor Road Hunslet to Park Halt . It is operated by volunteers . From Middleton , Park Halt is accessed by a footpath that was originally a waggonway . The railway celebrated its 200th anniversary of steam haulage in 2012 .
On Town Street , a row of brick @-@ built cottages with stone slate roofs , known as Top of the town was built in the mid 18th century . The 19th @-@ century St Mary 's Church , with its contemporary lych gate and flanking walls are all Grade II listed buildings . In the churchyard is a war memorial erected in 1920 . To the west of the war memorial is a gatehouse which stood at an old entrance to the hall grounds . The distinctive white concrete water tower at the high point of the hill is at the south west corner of the park on Town Street .
= = Transport = =
To serve the growing population of the council estate , the Middleton Light Railway , an electric tramway , was built in 1925 by Leeds Corporation . The tramway from Leeds ran parallel to the colliery line to Hunslet Moor staithes and then headed south through Middleton Woods to a terminus on the Ring Road . The tramway was made into a circular route in 1949 when it was extended to Belle Isle Road and Balm Road in Hunslet . The tramway closed in 1959 . Its route through the park is now a footpath .
The original plans for the Leeds Supertram included a line to Middleton , but they were amended to save on costs and the later plans stipulated a terminus at Stourton . The scheme was axed when government funding was withdrawn .
Public transport in Middleton is coordinated by the West Yorkshire Passenger Transport Authority . Middleton is served by several bus routes operated by First Leeds and Arriva , with buses to Leeds city centre , Wakefield , Roundhay , Morley and the White Rose Centre .
= = Education = =
Teachers were employed in the village in 1811 and a Sunday school , built by the Brandlings , providing education in reading and writing , was established by 1833 and used for worship before the church was built . The 1833 school was the premises of a national school in 1845 . It became Middleton St Mary 's C of E School and moved to a new site in 1972 .
Other schools in Middleton are Middleton Primary School , in the centre of the housing estate which opened in the 1920s , St Philip 's Catholic Primary and Nursery School which opened in 1941 , and Westwood Primary School .
In the Middleton Park ward in 2012 , at the Foundation Stage ( 3 to 5 years ) , 51 @.@ 6 % of children have a good level of achievement and by the end of Key Stage 2 ( 11 years ) 69 @.@ 6 % of pupils achieved Level 4 or better . By the age of 16 , 32 @.@ 8 % of pupils achieved five or more A @-@ C grades including English and Maths in GCSEs , far less than the Leeds average of 53 @.@ 4 % . In secondary education , 16 @.@ 5 % of pupils are persistent absentees missing 15 % or more sessions during the school year and 12 @.@ 4 % of 16- to 18 @-@ year @-@ olds are not in employment , education or training .
= = Religion = =
Middleton was a chapelry of the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Rothwell . In 1497 a chantry chapel was endowed by Gilbert Leygh and dedicated to St Mary the Virgin , it was closed at the time of the Reformation though the building is extant and now a private residence .
R.H. Brandling of Middleton Lodge gave land on Town Street on which to build a church and parsonage in 1845 . St Mary 's Church was built in 1846 to designs by R. D. Chantrell , who also designed Leeds Parish Church . The church and its lych gate are designated Grade II listed buildings . The church originally had a tall spire which was taken down because of mining subsidence in 1939 . There is a tradition that local miners gave either a week 's wages or a week 's work towards the cost of its construction .
Out of the parish , two more parishes were created as the population increased after the Middleton council estate was built . In 1921 the church acquired a site on the Middleton housing estate on which to build . In 1925 a mission church was built off Middleton Park Avenue . The Church of St Cross was built in 1933 and became a parish church in 1935 with about two thirds of the Middleton housing estate in its boundaries . In the 1930s the Belle Isle housing estate was begun . The Church of St John and St Barnabus was built in Belle Isle in 1939 but not consecrated until 1947 because of the war . This church became a parish church .
Local Methodists reputedly met in a house on Town Street until a chapel was built in the 1860s . Middleton Methodist Chapel was built in 1896 replacing one built 30 years earlier by the Wesleyans . It was designed by Howdill and Howdill and built in brick . It has a tower to the north west and large west window . The interior survives largely unaltered and has a barrel @-@ vaulted ceiling . There is a Baptist church on Middleton Park Avenue . St Philip 's Roman Catholic Church , a modern building , is situated on St Philip 's Avenue .
= = Sport = =
A municipal golf club opened in 1933 at Middleton Lodge with an 18 @-@ hole course in the park . Middleton Leisure Centre offers a range of sporting and fitness activities .
Middleton Park FC offers football coaching and has community teams for all age groups , from 18 months old to adults . Rugby Union is played by Leeds Corinthians , who have a ground and clubhouse by the Middleton District Centre . Crown Green Bowling is represented by two clubs , one in Middleton Park with two greens and the other in Acre Close was originally the Middleton Tenants Bowling Club that changed its name to the Community Bowling Club when the old Tenants Hall was demolished in 2010 and a new one built .
= Battle of Beirut ( 1912 ) =
The Battle of Beirut was a naval battle off the coast of Beirut during the Italo @-@ Turkish War . Italian fears that the Ottoman naval forces at Beirut could be used to threaten the approach to the Suez canal led the Italian military to order the destruction of the Ottoman naval presence in the area . On 24 February 1912 two Italian armoured cruisers attacked and sank an Ottoman casemate corvette and six lighters , retired , then returned and sank an Ottoman torpedo boat .
As a result of the battle all Ottoman naval forces in the region were annihilated , thus ensuring the approaches to the Suez Canal were open to the Italians . Besides the naval losses , the city of Beirut itself suffered significant damage from the Italian warships .
= = Background = =
During the Italo @-@ Turkish War , the Italian military feared that Ottoman naval forces in the Mediterranean would stage raid on the Italian supply and troopships headed for Italian East Africa . In order to prevent such a raid , Rear Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel was ordered to clear the harbor of Beirut of what Ottoman naval vessels he might find there . Revel 's force consisted of two armoured cruisers : Giuseppe Garibaldi and Francesco Ferruccio . Both cruisers were of the Giuseppe Garibaldi class and armed with two 10 inch guns in turrets , ten 6 inch guns , six 4 @.@ 7 inch guns , ten 6 @-@ pounders , ten 1 @-@ pounders , 2 Maxim machine guns , and five torpedo tubes .
In contrast the Ottoman forces consisted of the casemate corvette Avnillah and the torpedo boat Angora . The Angora was a relatively new vessel completed in 1906 and armed with two 37 mm cannons as well as two 14 inch torpedo tubes with a pair of torpedoes per tube . In contrast the Avnillah was an antiquated ironclad corvette built in 1869 . After a reconstruction was completed in 1907 she was armed with four 3 @-@ inch guns and eight six pounders . In addition to her cannon she was also armed with a single 14 inch torpedo tube . Thus the Ottoman force was entirely outgunned by the Italians , giving them a severe disadvantage in the looming battle .
= = Battle = =
The two Italian cruisers approached the harbor and fired a blank shot at the Ottoman vessels lying there . Upon sighting the Italian ships , the Ottoman commander on the Avnillah sent out a launch under a flag of truce to communicate with the enemy . While negotiating , the Ottoman commander ordered the Angora to position itself near the harbor 's mole . At 07 : 30 , Admiral Revel ordered the Ottoman launch to return with an ultimatum addressed to the Wāli of Beirut informing him to surrender his two warships by 09 : 00 . The message was received by the Wali at 08 : 30 . The Wali was in the process of issuing an order of surrender but this was not received by the Italians by the deadline . Accordingly , at 09 : 00 , the Italians began their attack on the Ottoman ships in the harbor .
At a distance of 6 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 yards ) , the Italians opened fire upon the Ottoman corvette . The Ottomans returned fire ineffectively until 09 : 35 when the Italian gunfire set the Avnillah afire . Receiving heavy damage and outgunned , the corvette struck her colours and the crew abandoned ship . At this point the Garibaldi sailed in close and engaged the Angora at 600 metres ( 660 yards ) with gunfire but failed to damage it . The Garibaldi then attempted to finish off the Avnillah by firing a torpedo at her . However , the torpedo deviated from its trajectory and hit several lighters moored nearby , sinking six of them . Undeterred , the Italian cruiser fired a second torpedo that struck the Ottoman corvette amidships . By 11 : 00 the corvette was sunk in shallow water and the pair of cruisers withdrew to the north . The action was not over however ; at 13 : 45 , the Italian cruisers returned and once more engaged the Ottoman forces . The only warship left in the harbor was the torpedo boat Angora so the Ferruccio moved in close and engaged it with gunfire for three minutes before it joined the Avni @-@ Illah at the bottom of Beirut 's harbor . Once the fighting had ended the two Italian cruisers sailed off in a westward direction .
= = Aftermath = =
The Ottoman naval presence at Beirut was completely annihilated , removing the only Turkish naval threat to Italian transports in the area and giving the Italians complete naval dominance of the southern Mediterranean Sea for the rest of the war . Casualties on the Ottoman side were heavy . Both Ottoman warships were sunk , with the Avnillah alone taking 58 killed and 108 wounded . In contrast the Italian ships not only took no casualties , but no direct hits from the Ottoman warships as well . The damage was not restricted to the Ottoman naval vessels present at Beirut , as the city took heavy damage as well . Stray shots from the cruisers decimated the city . Fires broke out as a direct result of the stray gunfire , destroying several banks and part of the city 's customs house as well as other buildings . Combined from the fires and shelling , 66 civilians were killed in the city along with hundreds of others wounded .
As retribution for the Italian actions at Beirut , four days after the battle the central Ottoman government ordered the Wilyets of Beirut , Aleppo , and Damascus to expel all Italian citizens from their jurisdictions , resulting in the deportation of over 60 @,@ 000 Italians from the region . Despite the retaliatory expulsion of Italian citizens from the area , the battle gave the Italian forces complete naval superiority in the approaches to the Suez Canal and Italian forces in Eritrea could now be reinforced without hesitation , eliminating much of the Ottoman threat to the region . Thus the battle was both a strategic and tactical Italian victory .
= Arnaud Tsamere =
Arnaud Tsedri ( born 11 March 1975 ) , better known by the stage name Arnaud Tsamere ( French : [ aʁno tsamɛʁ ] ) , is a French comedian , actor , television presenter and sports journalist . Born in Bordeaux and raised in the Yvelines , he joined the Déclic Théâtre group after quitting his sales job . There , he acted in plays and participated in improvisation events . He wrote his first one @-@ man show , Réflexions profondes sur pas mal de trucs , in 2002 with Arnaud Joyet , and his second , Chose Promise , in 2007 with Joyet and François Rollin . His third , Confidences sur pas mal de trucs plus ou moins confidentiels , has been performed since 2014 . He has attended numerous comedy festivals and is currently a member of the Ligue Majeure d 'Improvisation .
Tsamere 's television career began when he presented the weather forecast on Canal + . From 2010 , he became well known for appearing on France 2 's sketch comedy show On n 'demande qu 'à en rire — and its short @-@ lived spin @-@ off the ONDAR Show — after he was discovered by Laurent Ruquier ; he often performed sketches with Jérémy Ferrari . He also plays Captain Sport Extrême in the comedy science fiction programme Hero Corp. In 2014 , he hosted TMC 's Canapé Quiz ; he has also appeared on various French talk , sports and game shows . Tsamere has acted in several films , including the short Being Homer Simpson with Philippe Peythieu and Véronique Augereau , and Fonzy , a 2013 adaptation of Starbuck .
= = Early life = =
Tsamere 's paternal grandparents are from Guipavas , and his father is Breton . He was born in Bordeaux , but grew up in Versailles , Rocquencourt and Trappes , in the Yvelines department . His father was a general in the French Air Force who was awarded the Legion of Honour , and his mother a housewife , whom he has described as " the best in her domain " . He has two brothers . He describes himself as having had a " strict upbringing " .
Speaking about his early life and its relation to his surreal comic style , Tsamere said :
I grew up in a very comfortable environment . I wanted for nothing ; serious things never happened to me in life . I have never been a victim of injustice , so I have nothing to protest . I don 't have any particular origins which would be interesting to talk about . ... So , I do absurd stuff because I don 't want to talk about other things .
After getting his baccalauréat , he studied law at university , where he discovered an improvisational match in his first year and " fell in love " with the performance . In 1998 , he obtained a master 's degree in business law and later got a job working in export sales . However , he realised that he " could no longer live without the stage " , and on the advice of his friend Arnaud Joyet and Déclic Théâtre co @-@ founder Alain Degois , quit his job and launched his career as a comedian .
= = Career = =
= = = Theatre and improvisation = = =
After quitting his previous job , Tsamere took part in the Déclic Théâtre improvisation group under its co @-@ founder Alain " Papy " Degois , who he said " pushed me , gave me confidence , coddled me [ and ] got me to act in plays and improvisation matches " . Between 2003 and 2005 , he played the baron Christian de Neuvillette in an adaptation of Cyrano de Bergerac at the Château de Gizeux with the theatre group La Pastière , to which he was introduced by Degois .
He began writing his first one @-@ man show in 2002 with his friend Arnaud Joyet , inspired by a videotape of comedian François Rollin . The show , entitled Réflexions profondes sur pas mal de trucs ( Profound reflections on quite a few things ) , played on theatrical " flops " , a form of humour that Tsamere said " can seem easy [ but ] is not when you really start to work on it " . It was performed at the Blancs Manteaux theatre from April 2005 to January 2006 .
Tsamere met Rollin at the Dinard Comedy Festival , and he joined Tsamere and Joyet to write a second show , Chose Promise ( Promised Thing ) . Written in 2007 , it stars Tsamere as an economics teacher named Patrice Valenton , performing as part of a promise made to a friend who died in a car accident . He chose to perform as a character under Rollin 's suggestion , so that he could depict failure under the guise of somebody who is not a comedian . Regarding the show 's theme of death , he said " It 's a bit strange , but it has the virtue of attracting the public 's attention " . Tsamere 's performance was well received by critics ; Le Parisien called the show a " masterpiece of the genre " . Chose Promise was released on DVD on 6 March 2013 after being recorded at the Théâtre Sébastopol in Lille . Tsamere has done three tours of the show , and its final two performances were at the Olympia in February 2014 .
Tsamere 's third show , Confidences sur pas mal de trucs plus ou moins confidentiels ( Secrets about quite a few more or less confidential things ) , also written with Rollin and Joyet , was performed on tour throughout France from November 2014 , and at Le Splendid from January 2015 . Tsamere has said it is based on the principal that " society laughs too much " , and will involve him talking about himself .
On 25 June 2012 at the Européen theatre , Tsamere performed alongside the On n 'demande qu 'à en rire jury member Éric Métayer in Métamère en impro . He performed La tournée du trio with his On n 'demande qu 'à en rire colleague Jérémy Ferrari , and Baptiste Lecaplain ; after a tour of 12 performances in Zéniths , they did several special performances in February 2014 . Tsamere has attended comedy festivals such as the Montreux Comedy Festival , where he performed with Ferrari , and the Avignon Festival . He is now part of the Ligue Majeure d 'Improvisation .
= = = Television and radio = = =
In 2005 , with the help of Frédéric Testot , whom he met at a Puy @-@ Saint @-@ Vincent comedy festival , Tsamere got the job of presenting the weather forecast in Le Grand Journal on Canal + . He also appeared in Canal + ' s SAV des émissions , presented by Testot and Omar Sy . After quitting the weather in June 2006 , he hosted La longue nuit du pénis on the same channel that September . It was a night dedicated to the penis , which Tsamere has described as " nothing pornographic or erotic . It was a series of serious documentaries . " He says he was asked after Frédérique Bel refused , because he was " probably the only one liable to accept " .
In 2007 Tsamere met Simon Astier during the recording of the M6 show Off Prime . He was given the role of Captain Sport Extrême in Astier 's comedy science fiction programme , Hero Corp , which is broadcast on France 4 . He only appeared in one episode of the first series , but more frequently in the second . Speaking about the differences between himself and his character , Tsamere said " He is a misogynist , beastly , an adventurer , unattached ... I am just the opposite " . He also said " I 've loved this character . I love playing crackpots . "
In 2010 he participated in the sketch comedy talent show On n 'demande qu 'à en rire , created and presented by Laurent Ruquier and broadcast on France 2 . Ruquier asked him to do so after he saw Tsamere in Monique est demandée caisse 12 and Le Comique . He has described it as " the missing piece of the puzzle " that allowed him to become well known . He already knew all of the original participants , except for Nicole Ferroni , whom he discovered at a comedy festival in Puy @-@ Saint @-@ Vincent in January 2011 . He is friends with Jérémy Ferrari , with whom he has performed sketches on the show . The two share a well @-@ known on @-@ stage rivalry .
Based on puns involving crime and food , his sketch " L 'avocat de la salade , la frite et la saucisse " was the first in the programme to achieve 99 out of 100 points . After participating in the show for two years and totalling 64 appearances , Tsamere announced in 2012 that he did not plan to return for its third season . However , he came back the next year after the cancellation of the ONDAR Show , and described his stage fright before his first performance after his return . When the show returned for its fourth season , he acted as patron ( parrain ) during the first week , and could save and work with eliminated candidates .
In September 2011 , Tsamere appeared with On n 'demande qu 'à en rire colleague Jérémy Ferrari in two editions of Ruquier 's late @-@ night talk show On n 'est pas couché — however , in what would have been their third week , they decided to quit the show as they thought that " our duo was not the right formula to succeed Jonathan [ Lambert , their predecessor ] " , as well as to concentrate on their " solo projects " . From October 2012 to January 2013 , Tsamere took part in the ONDAR Show , a spin @-@ off of On n 'demande qu 'à en rire in which its best comedians performed without judges in a format similar to American entertainment . However , the show was unpopular with critics — Le Nouvel Observateur 's Xavier Rousseau called it a " failed show " that " dashed hopes " — and the ONDAR Show was cancelled after 13 episodes due to low viewing figures .
In 2013 , Tsamere joined the team of beIN Sports ' programme Lunch Time , which was hosted by Darren Tulett . In February 2014 , it was announced that Tsamere would host the TMC game show Canapé Quiz , an adaptation of the American Hollywood Game Night . The show featured two teams , each composed of three celebrities and one member of the public , competing in a series of games . Three weeks later , TMC announced that Canapé Quiz had been cancelled and new episodes were to be moved to a later timeslot because of low viewing figures — 10 days after its launch , it failed to pass 100 @,@ 000 viewers . Discussing the show 's audience in an interview on Europe 1 , Tsamere stated that he did not care about the viewing figures , and also mentioned that he had received positive feedback about the show on Twitter , which he called " quite a revealing thing " . He also stressed that he has fun when filming Canapé Quiz . From 13 July 2015 , Tsamere will present the game show Une famille en or ( the French version of Family Feud and Family Fortunes ) when it returns on TMC ; it was previously presented by Christophe Dechavanne from 2007 to 2014 on TF1 . Tsamere said " It 's the challenge of taking the reins of a cult programme that interested me " .
He has also appeared on various game shows , including Mot de passe and Fort Boyard ( French versions of Million Dollar Password and The Crystal Maze respectively ) , as well as the chat show La nuit nous appartient on NRJ 12 . In 2012 , he performed on Rire & Chansons , a comedy and musical radio station .
= = = Film = = =
In 2011 , Tsamere 's first film role was Séverin in Charles Nemes ' Au bistro du coin . In the same year , he appeared in Pascale Pouzadoux 's La Croisière , and in the short films Le Métro ( directed by Dianeïa Schaefer ) and Deal ( Wilfried Méance ) . Tsamere played the character of Vincent in Arnaud Demanche 's short film Being Homer Simpson , in which he appeared alongside Philippe Peythieu and Véronique Augereau , the voice actors of Homer and Marge respectively in the French dub of the animated series The Simpsons . He also starred alongside José Garcia in Fonzy , a remake of the film Starbuck , in which he plays Maître Chasseigne . It was released on 30 October 2013 .
= = = Sports journalism = = =
Tsamere has written several columns about sport for the newspaper Le Monde , on topics such as golfer Tiger Woods , the cyclists Chris Froome and Lance Armstrong in the Tour de France , and the French football league Ligue 1 . In July 2015 , an article he wrote entitled " And then along came Sky and ruined everything " , which accused Froome of doping , was cited by BBC News 's Paris correspondent Hugh Schofield as an example of the hostility of the French press towards the cyclist .
= = Style and influences = =
Tsamere 's style can be described as absurd humour , which according to him " has no hold on current events , politics or religion " . He is a specialist in improvisation . He is known for his " slow burn " technique ( a term coined by On n 'demande qu 'à en rire jury member Jean @-@ Luc Moreau ) , in which he talks about a subject before moving on to another and repeatedly interrupting himself to return to the initial subject . His humour is popular with television audiences , and has boosted On n 'demande qu 'à en rire 's viewing figures .
On his website , Tsamere provides a link to that of François Rollin , as well as to that of English comedian Ricky Gervais , whom he calls " my absolute master " . Other role models of his are the brothers Simon and Alexandre Astier — he says of them and Gervais that he " could watch them perform anything " . He has stated that his favourite director is Tim Burton , linking this to his surreal style .
= = Personal life = =
Tsamere 's partner is the racing driver and television presenter Margot Laffite ( daughter of Jacques Laffite ) ; their first child was born on 4 February 2015 .
Tsamere is a cycling enthusiast and a fan of association football ; he called the latter " My first great love to which I have remained faithful for so many years " . He is a user of Twitter and describes himself as " a bit of a geek " , but says that he never retweets fans . He uses an iPad , which he says has allowed him to read more : he " love [ s ] new technology like a kid " . Tsamere quit smoking in June 2012 , saying that tobacco " disgusted " him ; he uses an electronic cigarette .
He enjoys romantic comedy films , of which his favourites are Pretty Woman and Notting Hill . Tsamere 's favourite television programme is the Belgian documentary series Strip @-@ Tease , and he describes himself as " a real TV addict " . He also likes Grey 's Anatomy , and Hero Corp , in which he appears — he says he is " not ashamed " to watch himself . He has read Une Vie by Guy de Maupassant , which he described as " so beautiful " , and the biography of Apple Inc. founder Steve Jobs , which he said is " the story of an incredible life " .
= = Credits = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Short films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = = Non @-@ fictional appearances = = = =
= = = Radio = = =
2011 – : On va s 'gêner on Europe 1 ( regular commentator )
2012 : Rire & Chansons
= = = Theatre = = =
= = = General = = =
Tsamere , Arnaud ( interviewee ) ( 8 April 2013 ) . Arnaud Tsamere : maître de l 'absurde [ Arnaud Tsamere : master of the absurd ] . L 'Internaute ( Online video ) ( in French ) . Retrieved 16 August 2013 .
= = = Specific = = =
= Malagasy cuisine =
Malagasy cuisine encompasses the many diverse culinary traditions of the Indian Ocean island of Madagascar . Foods eaten in Madagascar reflect the influence of Southeast Asian , African , Indian , Chinese and European migrants that have settled on the island since it was first populated by seafarers from Borneo between 100 CE and 500 CE . Rice , the cornerstone of the Malagasy diet , was cultivated alongside tubers and other Southeast Asian staples by these earliest settlers . Their diet was supplemented by foraging and hunting wild game , which contributed to the extinction of the island 's bird and mammal megafauna . These food sources were later complemented by beef in the form of zebu introduced into Madagascar by East African migrants arriving around 1 @,@ 000 CE . Trade with Arab and Indian merchants and European transatlantic traders further enriched the island 's culinary traditions by introducing a wealth of new fruits , vegetables and seasonings .
Throughout almost the entire island , the contemporary cuisine of Madagascar typically consists of a base of rice served with an accompaniment ; in the official dialect of the Malagasy language , the rice is termed vary ( [ ˈvarʲ ] ) , and the accompaniment , laoka ( [ ˈlokə ̥ ] ) . The many varieties of laoka may be vegetarian or include animal proteins , and typically feature a sauce flavored with such ingredients as ginger , onion , garlic , tomato , vanilla , salt , curry powder , or , less commonly , other spices or herbs . In parts of the arid south and west , pastoral families may replace rice with maize , cassava , or curds made from fermented zebu milk . A wide variety of sweet and savory fritters as well as other street foods are available across the island , as are diverse tropical and temperate @-@ climate fruits . Locally produced beverages include fruit juices , coffee , herbal teas and teas , and alcoholic drinks such as rum , wine and beer .
The range of dishes eaten in Madagascar in the 21st century offers insight into the island 's unique history and the diversity of the peoples who inhabit it today . The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simple , traditional preparations introduced by the earliest settlers , to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island 's 19th @-@ century monarchs . Although the classic Malagasy meal of rice and its accompaniment remains predominant , over the past 100 years other food types and combinations have been popularized by French colonists and immigrants from China and India . Consequently , Malagasy cuisine is traditional while also assimilating newly emergent cultural influences .
= = History = =
= = = Prior to 1650 = = =
Austronesian seafarers are believed to have been the first humans to settle on the island , arriving between 100 and 500 CE . In their outrigger canoes they carried food staples from home including rice , plantains , taro , and water yam . Sugarcane , ginger , sweet potatoes , pigs and chickens were also probably brought to Madagascar by these first settlers , along with coconut and banana . The first concentrated population of human settlers emerged along the southeastern coast of the island , although the first landfall may have been made on the northern coast . Upon arrival , early settlers practiced tavy ( swidden , " slash @-@ and @-@ burn " agriculture ) to clear the virgin coastal rainforests for the cultivation of crops . They also gathered honey , fruits , bird and crocodile eggs , mushrooms , edible seeds and roots , and brewed alcoholic beverages from honey and sugar cane juice .
Game was regularly hunted and trapped in the forests , including frogs , snakes , lizards , hedgehogs and tenrecs , tortoises , wild boars , insects , larvae , birds and lemurs . The first settlers encountered Madagascar 's wealth of megafauna , including giant lemurs , elephant birds , giant fossa and the Malagasy hippopotamus . Early Malagasy communities may have eaten the eggs and — less commonly — the meat of Aepyornis maximus , the world 's largest bird , which remained widespread throughout Madagascar as recently as the 17th century . While several theories have been proposed to explain the decline and eventual extinction of Malagasy megafauna , clear evidence suggests that hunting by humans and destruction of habitats through slash @-@ and @-@ burn agricultural practices were key factors . Although it has been illegal to hunt or trade any of the remaining species of lemur since 1964 , these endangered animals continue to be hunted for immediate local consumption in rural areas or to supply the demand for exotic bush meat at some urban restaurants .
As more virgin forest was lost to tavy , communities increasingly planted and cultivated permanent plots of land . By 600 CE , groups of these early settlers had moved inland and begun clearing the forests of the central highlands . Rice was originally dry planted or cultivated in marshy lowland areas , which produced low yields . Irrigated rice paddies were adopted in the highlands around 1600 , first in Betsileo country in the southern highlands , then later in the northern highlands of Imerina . By the time terraced paddies emerged in central Madagascar over the next century , the area 's original forest cover had largely vanished . In its place were scattered villages ringed with nearby rice paddies and crop fields a day 's walk away , surrounded by vast plains of sterile grasses .
Zebu , a form of humped cattle , were introduced to the island around 1000 CE by settlers from east Africa , who also brought sorghum , goats , possibly Bambara groundnut , and other food sources . Because these cattle represented a form of wealth in east African and consequently Malagasy culture , they were eaten only rarely , typically after their ritual sacrifice at events of spiritual import such as funerals . Fresh zebu milk and curds instead constituted a major part of the pastoralists ' diet . Zebu were kept in large herds in the south and west , but as individual herd members escaped and reproduced , a sizable population of wild zebu established itself in the highlands . Merina oral history tells that highland people were unaware that zebu were edible prior to the reign of King Ralambo ( ruled 1575 – 1612 ) , who is credited with the discovery , although archaeological evidence suggests that zebu were occasionally hunted and consumed in the highlands prior to Ralambo 's time . It is more likely that these wild herds were first domesticated and kept in pens during this period , which corresponds with the emergence of complex , structured polities in the highlands .
Foods were commonly prepared by boiling in water ( at first using green bamboo as a vessel , and later clay or iron pots ) , roasting over a fire or grilling over hot stones or coals . Fermentation was also used to create curds from milk , develop the flavor of certain dried or fresh tubers or produce alcoholic beverages from honey , sugar cane juice or other local plants . The techniques of sun curing ( drying ) , smoking and salting were used to preserve various foods for transport , trade or future consumption . Many foods prepared in these ways , such as a smoked dried beef called kitoza ( [ kiˈtuzə ̥ ] ) and salted dried fish , are still eaten in a similar form in modern @-@ day Madagascar .
By the 16th century , centralized kingdoms had emerged on the west coast among the Sakalava and in the Central highlands among the Merina . The Merina sovereigns celebrated the new year with an ancient Merina ceremony called the Royal Bath ( fandroana ) . For this ceremony , a beef confit called jaka ( [ ˈdzakə ̥ ] ) was prepared by placing beef in a decorative clay jar and sealing it with suet , then conserving it in an underground pit for a year . The jaka would be shared with friends at the following year 's festival . As a dessert , revelers would eat rice boiled in milk and drizzled with honey , a preparation known as tatao ( [ taˈtau ̯ ] ) . According to oral history , King Ralambo was the originator of these culinary traditions in Imerina . Ralambo 's father , King Andriamanelo , is credited with introducing the marriage tradition of the vodiondry ( [ vudiˈuɳɖʳʲ ] ) or " rump of the sheep , " wherein the most favored cut of meat — the hindquarters — was offered by the groom to the parents of the bride @-@ to @-@ be at an engagement ceremony . In contemporary Malagasy society the terminology persists but families are more likely to offer symbolic coins in place of an offering of food .
= = = 1650 – 1800 = = =
The advent of the trans @-@ Atlantic slave trade increased maritime trade at Malagasy ports , including food products . In 1696 , a trading vessel en route to the American colonies reportedly took a stock of local Malagasy rice to Charleston , South Carolina , where the grain formed the basis of the plantation industry . Trading ships brought crops from the Americas — such as sweet potato , tomato , maize , peanuts , tobacco and lima beans — to Madagascar in the 16th and 17th centuries ; cassava arrived after 1735 from a French colony at nearby Réunion Island . These products were first cultivated in coastal areas nearest to their ports of arrival , but soon spread throughout the island ; within 100 years of their introduction they were widespread throughout the central highlands . Similarly , pineapple and citrus fruits such as lemons , limes , oranges , consumed by sailors to ward off scurvy on long cross @-@ Atlantic trips , were introduced at coastal Malagasy ports . Local cultivation began soon afterward .
The prickly pear cactus or raketa ( [ raˈketə ̥ ] ) , also known in southern Madagascar as sakafon @-@ drano ( [ saˈkafuˈɳɖʳanʷ ] ) or " water food " , was brought from the New World to the French settlement at Fort Dauphin in 1769 by Frenchman Count Dolisie de Maudave . The plant spread throughout the southern part of the island , where it became a fundamental food crop for Mahafaly and Bara pastoralists . Consuming six or so of the fruits of this plant preempted the need to drink water , and once the spines had been removed , the cladodes of the plant would nourish and hydrate the zebu cattle they tended . The introduction of this plant enabled the southern pastoralists to become more sedentary and efficient herders , thus boosting population density and cattle count in the region .
= = = 1800 – 1896 = = =
The 18th century in the central highlands was characterized by increasing population density and consequent famines , aggravated by warring among the principalities of Imerina . At the turn of the 19th century , King Andrianampoinimerina ( 1787 – 1810 ) successfully united these fractious Merina groups under his rule , then used slaves and forced labor — exacted in lieu of taxes for those without means to offer material payment — to systematically work the irrigated rice fields around Antananarivo . In this way , he ensured regular grain surpluses that were sufficient to consistently feed the entire population and export products for trade with other regions of the island . Marketplaces were established across the island to serve as central trading points for designated commodities such as smoked and dried seafood and meats , dried maize , salt , dried cassava and various fruits . Rice cakes , including mofo gasy ( [ ˈmufʷˈɡasʲ ] ) and menakely ( [ menə ̥ ˈkelʲ ] ) , were also sold by market vendors . By this period , coastal cuisine had likewise evolved : early 19th century voyagers reported eating dishes on Île Sainte @-@ Marie prepared with curry powder ( including a spiced rice resembling biryani ) and drinking coffee and tea . Andrianampoinimerina 's son , Radama I , succeeded in uniting nearly the entire island under his rule , and established the Kingdom of Madagascar . A line of Merina monarchs would continue to govern the island until its colonization by the French in 1896 .
Under the Kingdom of Madagascar , plantations were established for the production of crops exported to foreign markets such as England and France . Cloves were imported and planted in 1803 , and coconuts — which had been relatively sparse on the island — were cultivated on plantations for the production of oil . Similarly , coffee had been grown on family plots of four to five trees until the early 19th century , when more intensive cultivation for export began . Vanilla , later to become one of Madagascar 's premiere export crops , was introduced by French entrepreneurs in 1840 and planted in eastern coastal rainforests . The technique of hand pollination , critical to higher vanilla yields , was introduced 30 years later . Nonetheless , vanilla remained a marginal crop until the end of the monarchy .
During Merina royal festivals , the hanim @-@ pito loha ( [ amˈpitʷˈlu ] ) were eaten . These were seven dishes said to be the most desirable in the realm . Among these dishes were voanjobory ( [ vwandzˈburʲ ] , Bambara groundnut ) , amalona ( [ aˈmalnə ̥ ] , eel ) , vorivorinkena ( [ vurvurˈkenə ̥ ] , beef tripe ) , ravitoto ( [ ravˈtutʷ ] , grated cassava leaves ) and vorontsiloza ( [ vurntsʲˈluzə ̥ ] , turkey ) , each cooked with pork and usually ginger , garlic , onion and tomato ; romazava ( [ rumaˈzavə ̥ ] , a stew of beef and greens ) and varanga ( [ vaˈraŋɡə ̥ ] , shredded roast beef ) completed the list . Colonization of Madagascar by the French meant the end of the Malagasy monarchy and its elaborate feasts , but the traditions of this elegant cuisine were preserved in the home , where these dishes are eaten regularly . They are also served in many restaurants throughout the island .
= = = 1896 – 1960 = = =
French colonial rule began in 1896 and introduced a number of innovations to local cuisines . Certain new food names derived from the French language — then the dominant language of the state — became widespread . Baguettes were popularized among cosmopolitan urbanites , as were a variety of French pastries and desserts such as cream horns , mille @-@ feuille , croissants and chocolat chaud ( hot chocolate ) . The French also introduced foie gras , now produced locally , and popularized a dish known in the highlands as composé : a cold macaroni salad mixed with blanched vegetables based on the French macédoine de légumes . The French established plantations for the cultivation of a variety of cash crops , including not only those already exploited in the 19th century , but new foreign fruits , vegetables and livestock , with varying degrees of success . Tea , coffee , vanilla , coconut oil and spices became successful exports . Coconut became a regular ingredient in coastal cuisine , and vanilla began to be used in sauces for poultry and seafood dishes .
Although a handful of Chinese settlers had arrived in Madagascar towards the end of the reign of Queen Ranavalona III , the first major influx of Chinese migrants followed an announcement by General Joseph Gallieni , first governor general of the colony of Madagascar , requesting 3 @,@ 000 Chinese laborers to construct a northern rail line between Antananarivo and Toamasina . Chinese migrants introduced a number of dishes that have become part of urban popular cuisine in regions with large Chinese communities , including riz cantonais ( Chinese fried rice ) , soupe chinoise ( Chinese @-@ style noodle soup ) , misao ( fried noodles ) , pao ( hum bao ) and nems ( fried egg rolls ) .
By the 1880s , a community of roughly 200 Indian traders had been established at Mahajanga , a port on the north @-@ west coast of Madagascar , near Bembatoka Bay at the mouth of the Betsiboka River . Thirty years later the population of Indians in Madagascar had increased to over 4 @,@ 000 , concentrated along the trading ports of the northwestern coast . These early Indian communities popularized curries and biryanis throughout the region . Khimo in particular , a dish based on the Indian keema , became a specialty of Mahajanga . Indian samosas ( sambos ) soon became a popular street food in most parts of Madagascar , where they may also be known by the name tsaky telozoro ( [ ˈtsakʲteluˈzurʷ ] , " three @-@ cornered snack " ) .
While French innovations enriched the cuisine in many ways , not every innovation was favorable . Since the French introduction of the prickly pear cactus in the 18th century , the lifestyle of southern pastoralists became increasingly reliant on the plant to ensure food and water for their zebu as well as fruit and water for themselves during the dry season between July and December . However , in 1925 , a French colonist wishing to eradicate the cactus on his property in the southwestern town of Toliara introduced the cochineal , an insect known to be a parasite of the plant . Within five years , nearly all the prickly pear cactus of southern Madagascar had been completely wiped out , sparking a massive famine from 1930 – 1931 . Although these ethnic groups have since adapted in various ways , the famine period is commonly remembered as the time when their traditional lifestyle was ended by the arrival of foreigners on their land .
= = Contemporary cuisine = =
Since Madagascar gained independence from French colonial rule in 1960 , Malagasy cuisine has reflected the island 's diverse cultures and historic influences . Throughout the country , rice is considered the preeminent food and constitutes the main staple of the diet in all but the most arid regions of the south and west . Accompanying dishes served with rice vary regionally according to availability of ingredients and local cultural norms . Outside the home , Malagasy cuisine is served at simple roadside stalls ( gargottes ) or sit @-@ down eateries ( hotely ) . Snacks and rice @-@ based meals may also be purchased from ambulatory street vendors . Upscale restaurants offer a wider variety of foreign cuisine and Malagasy dishes bearing French and other outside influences in preparation technique , ingredients and presentation alike .
= = = Rice ( vary ) = = =
Rice ( vary ) is the cornerstone of the Malagasy diet and is typically consumed at every meal . The verb " to eat a meal " in the Malagasy language is commonly mihinam @-@ bary – literally , to eat rice . Rice may be prepared with varying amounts of water to produce a fluffy dry rice ( vary maina , [ ˌvarʲ ˈmajnə ̥ ] ) eaten with some kind of accompaniment ( laoka ) in sauce . It may also be prepared with extra water to produce a soupy rice porridge called vary sosoa ( [ ˌvarʲ suˈsu ] ) which is typically eaten for breakfast or prepared for the sick . Vary sosoa may be accompanied with a dry laoka such as kitoza , smoked strips of zebu meat . A popular variation , vary amin 'anana ( [ ˈvarʲ ˌjamʲˈnananə ̥ ] ) , is a traditional porridge made with rice , meat and chopped greens . During a highland famadihana ( reburial ceremony ) , a special kind of rice called vary be menaka ( [ ˈvarʲ beˈmenakə ̥ ] , " rice with much fat " ) is rice served with fatty chunks of beef or preferably , highly fatty chunks of pork .
= = = Accompaniment ( laoka ) = = =
The accompaniment served with rice is called laoka in the highlands dialect , the official version of the Malagasy language . Laoka are most often served in some kind of sauce : in the highlands , this sauce is generally tomato @-@ based , while in coastal areas coconut milk is often added during cooking . In the arid southern and western interior where herding zebu is traditional , fresh or curdled zebu milk is often incorporated into vegetable dishes . Laoka are diverse and may include such ingredients as Bambara groundnuts with pork , beef or fish ; trondro gasy , ( [ ˌtʂundʐʷ ˈɡasʲ ] , various freshwater fish ) ; shredded cassava leaves with peanuts , beef or pork ; henan 'omby ( [ henˈnumbʲ ] , beef ) or akoho ( [ aˈkuː ] , chicken ) sauteed with ginger and garlic or simmered in its own juices ( a preparation called ritra [ ˈritʂə ̥ ] ) ; various types of seafood , which are more readily available along the coasts or in large urban centers ; and many more . A variety of local greens such as anamamy ( [ anaˈmamʲ ] , Morelle greens ) , anamafaitra ( Malagasy pronunciation : [ anaˈmafai ̯ ʈʳ ] , Martin greens ) and particularly anamalao ( Malagasy pronunciation : [ anamaˈlau ̯ ] , paracress ) — distinguished by the mildly analgesic effect the boiled leaves and flowers produce — are commonly sold alongside anandrano ( Malagasy pronunciation : [ ananˈɖʳanʷ ] , watercress ) and anatsonga ( Malagasy pronunciation : [ anaˈtsuŋɡə ̥ ] , bok choy ) . In the arid south and west , such as among the Bara or Tandroy peoples , staples include sweet potato , yams , taro root and especially cassava , millet and maize , generally boiled in water and occasionally served in whole milk or flavored with crushed peanuts .
Garlic , onions , ginger , tomatoes , mild curry , and salt are the most common ingredients used to flavor dishes , and in coastal areas other ingredients such as coconut milk , vanilla , cloves or turmeric may also be used . A variety of condiments are served on the side and mixed into the rice or laoka according to each individual 's taste rather than mixing them in as the food is being cooked . The most common and basic condiment , sakay ( [ saˈkai ̯ ] ) , is a spicy condiment made from red or green chili pepper . Indian @-@ style condiments made of pickled mango , lemon , and other fruits ( known as achards or lasary [ laˈsarʲ ] ) , are a coastal specialty ; in the highlands , lasary often refers to a salad of green beans , cabbage , carrots and onion in a vinaigrette sauce , popular as a side dish or as the filling of a baguette sandwich .
Ro ( [ ru ] , a broth ) may be served as the main laoka or in addition to it to flavor and moisten the rice . Ro @-@ mangazafy ( [ rumaŋɡaˈzafʲ ] ) is a rich and flavorful broth made with beef , tomato and garlic that often accompanies a dry laoka . By contrast , Romatsatso ( [ rumaˈtsatsʷ ] ) is a light and relatively flavorless broth made with onion , tomato and anamamy greens served with meat or fatty poultry . Ron @-@ akoho ( [ runaˈku ] ) , a broth made with chicken and ginger , is a home remedy for the common cold , while rompatsa ( [ rumˈpatsə ̥ ] ) — a broth made with tiny dried shrimp and beef , to which sweet potato leaves and potato are often added — is traditionally eaten by new mothers to support lactation . The national dish is the broth called romazava , which in its simplest form is made of beef with anamalao , anantsonga or anamamy , although ingredients such as tomato , onion and ginger are commonly added to create more complex and flavorful versions . Romazava is distinguished by its inclusion of anamalao flowers , which produce a mild analgesic effect when the broth is consumed .
= = = Street foods = = =
A variety of cakes and fritters collectively known as mofo ( [ ˈmuf ] , meaning " bread " ) are available from kiosks in towns and cities across Madagascar . The most common is mofo gasy , meaning " Malagasy bread " , which is made from a batter of sweetened rice flour poured into greased circular molds and cooked over charcoal . Mofo gasy is a popular breakfast food and is often eaten with coffee , also sold at kiosks . In coastal areas this mofo is made with coconut milk and is known as mokary ( [ muˈkarʲ ] ) . Other sweet mofo include a deep @-@ fried doughnut called menakely and a fried dough ball called mofo baolina ( [ ˌmuf ˈbolː ] ) , as well as a variety of fruit fritters , with pineapple and bananas among the most common fruits used . Savory mofo include ramanonaka ( [ ˌramaˈnunakə ̥ ] ) , a mofo gasy salted and fried in lard , and a fritter flavored with chopped greens , onions , tomatoes and chilies called mofo sakay ( [ ˌmuf saˈkai ̯ ] , meaning " spicy bread " ) .
In marketplaces and gas stations one may find vendors selling koba akondro ( [ kubaˈkundʐʷ ] ) , a sweet made by wrapping a batter of ground peanuts , mashed bananas , honey and corn flour in banana leaves and steaming or boiling the small cakes until the batter has set . Peanut brittle , dried bananas , balls of tamarind paste rolled in colored sugar , deep @-@ fried wonton @-@ type dough strings called kaka pizon ( [ kaka pizõ ] , meaning " pigeon droppings " ) also eaten in neighboring Reunion Island , and home @-@ made yogurts , are all commonly sold on the street . In rural areas , steamed cassava or sweet potatoes are eaten , occasionally with fresh or sweetened condensed milk .
= = = Desserts = = =
Traditionally , fresh fruit may be eaten after a meal as a dessert . Fresh sugarcane may also be chewed as a treat . A great variety of temperate and tropical fruits are grown locally and may be enjoyed fresh or sprinkled with sugar . Temperate fruits found in Madagascar include but are not limited to apples , lemons , pumpkins , watermelon , oranges , cherries and strawberries . Among the many tropical fruits commonly eaten in Madagascar are coconut , tamarind , mango , pineapple , avocado , passion fruit , and loquats , locally called pibasy ( [ piˈbasʲ ] ) . Guava , longans , lychees , persimmon and " pok @-@ pok " ( also called voanantsindrana [ vunˈtsinɖʳanə ̥ ] ) , a fruit similar to a physalis , are common , while on the west coast the fruit of the baobab tree is eaten during the brief period when it becomes available near the end of the rainy season .
Madagascar is known for its high @-@ quality cocoa and vanilla , much of which are exported . In the coastal areas of Madagascar or in upscale inland restaurants , vanilla may be used to prepare savory sauces for poultry .
Koban @-@ dravina ( [ ˌkubanˈɖʳavʲnə ̥ ] ) or koba ( [ ˈkubə ̥ ] ) is a Malagasy specialty made by grinding together peanuts and brown sugar , then enveloping the mixture in a sweetened rice flour paste to produce a cylindrical bundle . The bundle is wrapped in banana leaves and boiled for 24 to 48 hours or longer until the sugar becomes caramelized and the peanuts have softened . The resulting cake is served in thin slices . Bonbon coco is a popular candy made from shredded coconut cooked with caramelized sugar and formed into chewy balls or patties . A firm , cake @-@ like coconut milk pudding known as godro @-@ godro ( [ ɡuɖʳˈɡuɖʳʷ ] ) is a popular dessert also found in Comoros . French pastries and cakes are very popular across the island and may be purchased at the many pâtisseries found in towns and cities throughout Madagascar .
= = = Beverages = = =
Ranon 'ampango ( [ ˌranʷnamˈpaŋɡʷ ] ) and ranovola ( [ ranʷˈvulə ̥ ] ) , are the most common and traditional beverages in Madagascar . Both are names for a drink made by adding hot water to the toasted rice left sticking to the interior of its cooking pot . This drink is a sanitary and tasty alternative to fresh water .
In addition , a variety of other drinks are produced locally . Coffee is grown in the eastern part of the island and has become a standard breakfast drink , served black or with sweetened condensed milk at street @-@ side kiosks . Black tea , occasionally flavored with vanilla , and herbal teas — particularly lemongrass and lemon bush ( ravin 'oliva [ ˌravʲnoˈlivə ̥ ] ) — are popular . Juices are made from guava , passion fruit , pineapple , tamarind , baobab and other fruit . Fresh milk , however , is a luxury , and locally produced yogurts , ice creams or sweetened condensed milk mixed with hot water are the most common dairy sources of calcium . Cola and orange soft drinks are produced locally , as is Bonbon Anglais , a local sweet lemon soda . Coca @-@ Cola products are popular and widely consumed throughout the island .
Numerous alcoholic beverages are produced for local consumption and limited export . The local pilsner , Three Horses Beer , is popular and ubiquitous . Wine is produced in the southern highlands around Fianarantsoa , and rum ( toaka gasy [ ˌtokə ̥ ˈɡasʲ ] ) is widely produced and can be either drunk neat , flavored with exotic fruits and spices to produce rhum arrangé , or blended with coconut milk to make a punch coco cocktail . The most traditional form of rum , called betsabetsa [ ˌbetsəˈbetsə ̥ ] , is made from fermented sugarcane juice . Rum serves a ritual purpose in many parts of Madagascar , where it is traditional to throw the first capful of a newly opened bottle of rum into the northeast corner of the room as an offering and gesture of respect to the ancestors . At social gatherings it is common for alcoholic beverages to be accompanied with savory , fried snacks known collectively as tsakitsaky , commonly including pan @-@ fried peanuts , potato chips , nems , sambos and kaka pizon .
= Lōʻihi Seamount =
Lōʻihi Seamount ( also known as Loihi ) is an active submarine volcano located about 35 km ( 22 mi ) off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaiʻi . The top of the seamount is about 975 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) below sea level . This seamount lies on the flank of Mauna Loa , the largest shield volcano on Earth . Lōʻihi , meaning " long " in Hawaiian , is the newest volcano in the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain , a string of volcanoes that stretches over 5 @,@ 800 km ( 3 @,@ 600 mi ) northwest of Lōʻihi . Unlike most active volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean that make up the active plate margins on the Pacific Ring of Fire , Lōʻihi and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain are hotspot volcanoes and formed well away from the nearest plate boundary . Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the Hawaiʻi hotspot , and as the youngest volcano in the chain , Lōʻihi is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine preshield stage of development .
Lōʻihi began forming around 400 @,@ 000 years ago and is expected to begin emerging above sea level about 10 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 years from now . At its summit , Lōʻihi Seamount stands more than 3 @,@ 000 m ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) above the seafloor , making it taller than Mount St. Helens was before its catastrophic 1980 eruption . A diverse microbial community resides around Lōʻihi 's many hydrothermal vents .
In the summer of 1996 , a swarm of 4 @,@ 070 earthquakes was recorded at Lōʻihi . This series included more earthquakes than any other swarm in Hawaiian recorded history . The swarm altered 10 to 13 square kilometres ( 4 to 5 sq mi ) of the seamount 's summit ; one section , Pele 's Vents , collapsed entirely upon itself and formed the renamed Pele 's Pit . The volcano has remained relatively active since the 1996 swarm and is monitored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . The Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory ( HUGO ) provided real @-@ time data on Lōʻihi between 1997 and 2002 . Lōʻihi last erupted in 1996 , before the earthquake swarm of that summer .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Geology = = =
Lōʻihi is a seamount , or underwater volcano , on the flank of Mauna Loa , the Earth 's largest shield volcano . It is the newest volcano created by the Hawaiʻi hotspot in the extensive Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain . The distance between the summit of the older Mauna Loa and the summit of Lōʻihi is about 80 km ( 50 mi ) , which is , coincidentally , also the approximate diameter of the Hawaiʻi hotspot . Lōʻihi consists of a summit area with three pit craters , an 11 km ( 7 mi ) long rift zone extending north from the summit , and a 19 km ( 12 mi ) long rift zone extending south @-@ southeast from the summit .
The summit 's pit craters are named West Pit , East Pit , and Pele 's Pit . Pele 's Pit is the youngest of this group and is located at the southern part of the summit . The walls of Pele 's Pit stand 200 m ( 700 ft ) high and were formed in July 1996 when its predecessor , Pele 's Vent , a hydrothermal field near Lōʻihi 's summit , collapsed into a large depression . The thick crater walls of Pele 's Pit — averaging 20 m ( 70 ft ) in width , unusually thick for Hawaiian volcanic craters — suggest its craters have filled with lava multiple times in the past .
Lōʻihi 's north – south trending rift zones create a distinctive elongated shape , from which the volcano 's Hawaiian name , meaning " long " , derives . The north rift zone consists of a longer western portion and a shorter eastern rift zone . Observations show that both the north and south rift zones lack sediment cover , indicating recent activity . A bulge in the western part of the north rift zone contains three 60 – 80 m ( 200 – 260 ft ) cone @-@ shaped prominences .
Until 1970 , Lōʻihi was thought to be an inactive volcano that had been transported to its current location by sea @-@ floor spreading . The seafloor under Hawaiʻi is 80 – 100 million years old and was created at the East Pacific Rise , an oceanic spreading center where new sea floor forms from magma that erupts from the mantle . New oceanic crust moves away from the spreading center . Over a period of 80 – 100 million years , the sea floor under Hawaiʻi moved from the East Pacific Rise to its present location 6 @,@ 000 km ( 4 @,@ 000 mi ) west , carrying ancient seamounts with it . When scientists investigated a series of earthquakes off Hawaiʻi in 1970 , they discovered that Lōʻihi was an active member of the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain .
Lōʻihi is built on the seafloor with a slope of about five degrees . Its northern base on the flank of Mauna Loa is 1 @,@ 900 m ( 6 @,@ 200 ft ) below sea level , but its southern base is a more substantial 4 @,@ 755 m ( 15 @,@ 600 ft ) below the surface . Thus , the summit is 931 m ( 3 @,@ 054 ft ) above the seafloor as measured from the base of its north flank , but 3 @,@ 786 m ( 12 @,@ 421 ft ) high when measured from the base of its southern flank .
Lōʻihi is following the pattern of development that is characteristic of all Hawaiʻian volcanoes . Geochemical evidence from Lōʻihi lavas indicates that Lōʻihi is in transition between the preshield and shield volcano stage , providing valuable clues to the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes . In the preshield stage , Hawaiian volcanoes have steeper sides and a lower level of activity , producing an alkali basalt lava . Continued volcanism is expected to eventually create an island at Lōʻihi . Lōʻihi experiences frequent landslides ; the growth of the volcano has destabilized its slopes , and extensive areas of debris inhabit the steep southeastern face . Similar deposits from other Hawaiian volcanoes indicate that landslide debris is an important product of the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes . Lōʻihi is predicted to rise above the surface in 10 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 years .
= = = Age and growth = = =
Radiometric dating was used to determine the age of rock samples from Lōʻihi . The Hawaii Center for Volcanology tested samples recovered by various expeditions , notably the 1978 expedition , which provided 17 dredge samples . Most of the samples were found to be of recent origin ; the oldest dated rock is around 300 @,@ 000 years old . Following the 1996 event , some young breccia was also collected . Based on the samples , scientists estimate Lōʻihi is about 400 @,@ 000 years old . The rock accumulates at an average rate of 3 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) per year near the base , and 7 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) near the summit . If the data model from other volcanoes such as Kīlauea holds true for Lōʻihi , 40 % of the volcano 's mass formed within the last 100 @,@ 000 years . Assuming a linear growth rate , Lōʻihi is 250 @,@ 000 years old . However , as with all hotspot volcanoes , Lōʻihi 's level of activity has increased with time ; therefore , it would take at least 400 @,@ 000 years for such a volcano to reach Lōʻihi 's mass . As Hawaiian volcanoes drift northwest at a rate of about 10 cm ( 4 in ) a year , Lōʻihi was 40 km ( 25 mi ) southeast of its current position at the time of its initial eruption .
= = Activity = =
Lōʻihi is a young and fairly active volcano , although less active than nearby Kīlauea . In the past few decades , several earthquake swarms have been attributed to Lōʻihi , the largest of which are summarized in the table below . The volcano 's activity is now known to predate scientific record keeping of its activity , which commenced in 1959 . Most earthquake swarms at Lōʻihi have lasted less than two days ; the two exceptions are the 1991 – 92 earthquake , lasting several months , and the 1996 event , which was shorter but much more pronounced . Both of the earthquakes followed a pattern of activity that began on the flank and migrated to the summit . The 1996 event was directly observed by an autonomous ocean bottom observatory ( OBO ) , allowing scientists to calculate the depth of the earthquakes as 6 km ( 4 mi ) to 8 km ( 5 mi ) below the summit , approximating to the position of Lōʻihi 's extremely shallow magma chamber . This is evidence that Lōʻihi 's seismicity is volcanic in origin .
The low @-@ level seismic activity documented on Lōʻihi since 1959 has shown that between two and ten earthquakes per month are traceable to the summit . Earthquake swarm data have been used to analyze how well Lōʻihi 's rocks propagate seismic waves and to investigate the relationship between earthquakes and eruptions . This low level activity is periodically punctuated by large swarms of earthquakes , each swarm comprising up to hundreds of earthquakes . The majority of the earthquakes are not distributed close to the summit , though they follow a north – south trend . Rather , most of the earthquakes occur in the southwest portion of Lōʻihi . The largest recorded swarms took place on Lōʻihi in 1971 , 1972 , 1975 , 1991 – 92 and 1996 . The nearest seismic station is around 30 km ( 20 mi ) from Lōʻihi , on the south coast of Hawaiʻi . Seismic events that have a magnitude under 2 are recorded often , but their location cannot be determined precisely as it can for larger events . In fact , HUGO ( Hawaiʻi Undersea Geological Observatory ) , positioned on Lōʻihi 's flank , detected ten times as many earthquakes as were recorded by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory ( HVO ) seismic network .
= = = 1996 earthquake swarm = = =
The largest amount of activity recorded for the Lōʻihi seamount was a swarm of 4 @,@ 070 earthquakes between July 16 and August 9 , 1996 . This series of earthquakes was the largest recorded for any Hawaiian volcano to date in both amount and intensity . Most of the earthquakes had moment magnitudes of less than 3 @.@ 0 . " Several hundred " had a magnitude greater than 3 @.@ 0 , including more than 40 greater than 4 @.@ 0 and a 5 @.@ 0 tremor .
The final two weeks of the earthquake swarm were observed by a quick response cruise launched in August 1996 . The National Science Foundation funded an expedition by University of Hawaiʻi scientists , led by Frederick Duennebier , that began investigating the swarm and its origin in August 1996 . The scientists ' assessment laid the groundwork for many of the expeditions that followed . Follow @-@ up expeditions to Lōʻihi took place , including a series of manned @-@ submersible dives in August and September . These were supplemented by a great deal of shore @-@ based research . Fresh rock collected during the expedition revealed that an eruption occurred before the earthquake swarm .
Submersible dives in August were followed by NOAA @-@ funded research in September and October 1996 . These more detailed studies showed the southern portion of Lōʻihi 's summit had collapsed , a result of a swarm of earthquakes and the rapid withdrawal of magma from the volcano . A crater 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) across and 300 m ( 1 @,@ 000 ft ) deep formed out of the rubble . The event involved the movement of 100 million cubic meters of volcanic material . A region of 10 to 13 km2 ( 4 to 5 sq mi ) of the summit was altered and populated by bus @-@ sized pillow lava blocks , precariously perched along the outer rim of the newly formed crater . " Pele 's Vents , " an area on the southern side , previously considered stable , collapsed completely into a giant pit , renamed " Pele 's Pit " . Strong currents make submersible diving hazardous in the region .
The researchers were continually met by clouds of sulfide and sulfate . The sudden collapse of Pele 's Vents caused a large discharge of hydrothermal material . The presence of certain indicator minerals in the mixture suggested temperatures exceeded 250 ° C , a record for an underwater volcano . The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers , the hydrothermal vent plumes located along mid @-@ ocean ridges . Samples from mounds built by discharges from the hydrothermal plumes resembled white smokers .
The studies demonstrated that the most volcanically and hydrothermally active area was along the southern rift . Dives on the less active northern rim indicated that the terrain was more stable there , and high lava columns were still standing upright . A new hydrothermal vent field ( Naha Vents ) was located in the upper @-@ south rift zone , at a depth of 1 @,@ 325 m ( 4 @,@ 350 ft ) .
= = = Recent activity = = =
Lōʻihi has remained largely quiet since the 1996 event ; no activity was recorded from 2002 to 2004 . The seamount showed signs of life again in 2005 by generating an earthquake bigger than any previously recorded there . USGS @-@ ANSS ( Advanced National Seismic System ) reported two earthquakes , magnitudes 5 @.@ 1 and 5 @.@ 4 , on May 13 and July 17 . Both originated from a depth of 44 km ( 27 mi ) . On April 23 , a magnitude 4 @.@ 3 earthquake was recorded at a depth of approximately 33 km ( 21 mi ) . Between December 7 , 2005 , and January 18 , 2006 , a swarm of around 100 earthquakes occurred , the largest measuring 4 on the Moment magnitude scale and 12 km ( 7 mi ) to 28 km ( 17 mi ) deep . Another earthquake measuring 4 @.@ 7 was later recorded approximately midway between Lōʻihi and Pāhala ( on the south coast of the island of Hawaiʻi ) .
= = Exploration = =
= = = Early work = = =
Lōʻihi Seamount 's first depiction on a map was on Survey Chart 4115 , a bathymetric rendering of part of Hawaiʻi compiled by the US Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1940 . At the time , the seamount was non @-@ notable , being one of many in the region . A large earthquake swarm first brought attention to it in 1952 . That same year , geologist Gordon A. MacDonald hypothesized that the seamount was actually an active submarine shield volcano , similar to the two active Hawaiian volcanoes , Mauna Loa and Kīlauea . Macdonald 's hypothesis placed the seamount as the newest volcano in the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain , created by the Hawaiʻi hotspot . However , because the earthquakes were oriented east – west ( the direction of the volcanic fault ) and there was no volcanic tremor in seismometers distant from the seamount , Macdonald attributed the earthquake to faulting rather than a volcanic eruption .
Geologists suspected the seamount could be an active undersea volcano , but without evidence the idea remained speculative . The volcano was largely ignored after the 1952 event , and was often mislabeled as an " older volcanic feature " in subsequent charts . Geologist Kenneth O. Emery is credited with naming the seamount in 1955 , describing the long and narrow shape of the volcano as Loihi . The Hawaiian word lōʻihi means " long " . In 1978 , an expedition studied intense , repeated seismic activity known as earthquake swarms in and around the Lōʻihi area . Rather than finding an old , extinct seamount , data collected revealed Lōʻihi to be a young , possibly active volcano . Observations showed the volcano to be encrusted with young and old lava flows . Fluids erupting from active hydrothermal vents were also found .
In 1978 , a US Geological Survey research ship collected dredge samples and photographed Lōʻihi 's summit with the goal of studying whether Lōʻihi is active . Analysis of the photos and testing of pillow lava rock samples appeared to show that the material was " fresh " , yielding more evidence that Lōʻihi is still active . An expedition from October 1980 to January 1981 collected further dredge samples and photographs , providing additional confirmation . Studies indicated that the eruptions came from the southern part of the rift crater . This area is closest to the Hawaiʻi hotspot , which supplies Lōʻihi with magma . Following a 1986 seismic event , a network of five ocean bottom observatories ( OBOs ) were deployed on Lōʻihi for a month . Lōʻihi 's frequent seismicity makes it an ideal candidate for seismic study through OBOs . In 1987 , the submersible DSV Alvin was used to survey Lōʻihi . Another autonomous observatory was positioned on Lōʻihi in 1991 to track earthquake swarms .
= = = 1996 to present = = =
The bulk of information about Lōʻihi comes from dives made in response to the 1996 eruption . In a dive conducted almost immediately after seismic activity was reported , visibility was greatly reduced by high concentrations of displaced minerals and large floating mats of bacteria in the water . The bacteria that feed on the dissolved nutrients had already begun colonizing the new hydrothermal vents at Pele 's Pit ( formed from the collapse of the old ones ) , and may be indicators of the kinds of material ejected from the newly formed vents . They were carefully sampled for further analysis in a laboratory . An OBO briefly sat on the summit before a more permanent probe could be installed .
Repeated multibeam bathymetric mapping was used to measure the changes in the summit following the 1996 collapse . Hydrothermal plume surveys confirmed changes in the energy , and dissolved minerals emanating from Lōʻihi . Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory , HURL 's 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) submersible Pisces V allowed scientists to sample the vent waters , microorganisms and hydrothermal mineral deposits .
In 1997 , scientists from the University of Hawaiʻi installed an ocean bottom observatory ( OBO ) on the summit of Lōʻihi Seamount . The submarine observatory was nicknamed HUGO , ( Hawaiʻi Undersea Geological Observatory ) . HUGO was connected to the shore , 34 km ( 21 mi ) away , by a fiber optic cable . It gave scientists real @-@ time seismic , chemical and visual data about the state of Lōʻihi , which had by then become an international laboratory for the study of undersea volcanism . The cable that provided HUGO with power and communications broke in October 1998 , effectively shutting it down . On January 19 of the following year , HUGO was visited by Pisces V. The observatory functioned for four years before it went dead again in 2002 .
Since 2006 , the Fe @-@ Oxidizing Microbial Observatory ( FeMO ) , funded by the National Science Foundation and Microbial Observatory Program , has led cruises to Lōʻihi investigate its microbiology every October . The first cruise , on the ship R / V Melville and exploiting the submersible JASON2 , lasted from September 22 to October 9 . These cruises study the large number of Fe @-@ oxidizing bacteria that have colonized Lōʻihi . Lōʻihi 's extensive vent system is characterized by a high concentration of CO2 and Iron , while being low in sulfide . These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron @-@ oxidizing bacteria , called FeOB , to thrive in .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Hydrothermal vent geochemistry = = =
Lōʻihi 's mid @-@ Pacific location and its well @-@ sustained hydrothermal system contribute to a rich oasis for a microbial ecosystem . Areas of extensive hydrothermal venting are found on Lōʻihi 's crater floor and north slope , and along the summit of Lōʻihi itself . Active hydrothermal vents were first discovered at Lōʻihi in the late 1980s . These vents are remarkably similar to those found at the mid @-@ ocean ridges , with similar composition and thermal differences . The two most prominent vent fields are at the summit : Pele 's Pit ( formally Pele 's Vents ) and Kapo 's Vents . They are named after the Hawaiian deity Pele and her sister Kapo . These vents were considered " low temperature vents " because their waters were only about 30 ° C. The volcanic eruption of 1996 and the creation of Pele 's Pit changed this , and initiated high temperature venting ; exit temperatures were measured at 77 ° C in 1996 .
= = = Microorganisms = = =
The vents lie 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) to 1 @,@ 325 m ( 4 @,@ 347 ft ) below the surface , and range in temperature from 10 to over 200 ° C. The vent fluids are characterized by a high concentration of CO
2 ( up to 17 mM ) and Fe ( Iron ) , but low in sulfide . Low oxygen and pH levels are important factors in supporting the high amounts of Fe ( iron ) , one of the hallmark features of Lōʻihi . These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron @-@ oxidizing bacteria , called FeOB , to thrive in . An example of these species is Mariprofundus ferrooxydans , sole member of the class Zetaproteobacteria . The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers , that are a habitat of archaea extremophiles . Dissolution and oxidation of the mineral observed over the next two years suggests the sulfate is not easily preserved .
A diverse community of microbial mats surround the vents and virtually cover Pele 's Pit . The Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory ( HURL ) , NOAA 's Research Center for Hawaiʻi and the Western Pacific , monitors and researches the hydrothermal systems and studies the local community . The National Science Foundation ( NSF ) funded an extremophile sampling expedition to Lōʻihi in 1999 . Microbial mats surrounded the 160 ° C vents , and included a novel jelly @-@ like organism . Samples were collected for study at NSF 's Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center ( MarBEC ) . In 2001 , Pisces V collected samples of the organisms and brought them to the surface for study .
NOAA 's National Undersea Research Center and NSF 's Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center are cooperating to sample and research the local bacteria and archaea extremophiles . The fourth FeMO ( Fe @-@ Oxidizing Microbial Observatory ) cruise occurred during October 2009 .
= = = Macroorganisms = = =
Marine life inhabiting the waters around Lōʻihi is not as diverse as life at other , less active seamounts . Fish found living near Lōʻihi include the Celebes monkfish ( Sladenia remiger ) , and members of the Cutthroat eel family , Synaphobranchidae . Invertebrates identified in the area include two species endemic to the hydrothermal vents , a bresiliid shrimp ( Opaepele loihi ) of the family Alvinocarididae ( described in 1995 ) , and a tube or pogonophoran worm . Dives conducted after the 1996 earthquake swarms were unable to find either the shrimp or the worm , and it is not known if there are lasting effects on these species .
From 1982 to 1992 , researchers in Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory submersibles photographed the fish of Lōʻihi Seamount , Johnston Atoll , and Cross Seamount at depths between 40 m ( 130 ft ) and 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . A small number of species identified at Lōʻihi were newly recorded sightings in Hawaiʻi , including the Tassled coffinfish ( Chaunax fimbriatus ) , and the Celebes monkfish .
= Lise Tréhot =
Lise Tréhot ( 14 March 1848 – 12 March 1922 ) was a French art model who posed for artist Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir from 1866 until 1872 , during his early Salon period . She appeared in more than twenty paintings , including notable works such as Lise ( 1867 ) and In Summer ( 1868 ) , and she was the model for almost all of Renoir 's work featuring female figures at this time . Tréhot married Georges Briere de l 'Isle in 1883 and raised four children to whom she bequeathed two of Renoir 's paintings , Lise Sewing ( 1867 – 68 ) and Lise With a White Shawl ( 1872 ) , both of which are currently held by the Dallas Museum of Art .
= = Early life = =
Lise Tréhot was born in Ecquevilly , Seine @-@ et @-@ Oise , France , on 14 March 1848 , to Louis Tréhot and Amelie Elisabeth Boudin . Her father was the postmaster of the town until the mid @-@ 1850s , after which he moved the entire family to Paris where he sold lemonade and tobacco . She was the fourth in a family of six children , including three brothers and two sisters . A document from this time describes Tréhot 's profession as a dressmaker . Clémence Tréhot , her older sister , was the lover of artist Jules Le Coeur , who later introduced her to Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir at his house in Marlotte , possibly in June 1865 .
= = Modeling period = =
Tréhot began modeling for Renoir when she was about eighteen and he was twenty @-@ five . Early paintings of Tréhot at this time include Lise in a Straw Hat ( 1866 ) and Lise Sewing ( 1867 – 68 ) . Renoir painted a modern nude of Tréhot as Diana ( 1867 ) , but it was rejected by the Salon of 1867 . Renoir found critical success the next year with Lise ( 1867 ) , which was well received at the Salon of 1868 . The Impressionist painting depicts Tréhot in a life @-@ size portrait , strolling through a wooded park as sunlight falls through the trees . Art critic Zacharie Astruc described Tréhot in Lise as " the likeable Parisian girl in the woods " , and as a working @-@ class girl . Émile Zola also approved , comparing Tréhot to Monet 's model and later wife Camille Doncieux . French art critic Théodore Duret later observed that because Renoir 's Lise was derivative of Gustave Courbet 's technique , its appearance at the Salon " provoked no definite opposition " . However , Renoir 's decision to shadow Tréhot 's face in darkness and emphasize the reflection of sunlight from her white dress in Lise led several critics to ridicule Tréhot 's appearance due to the unusual contrast .
At the Salon of 1869 , Tréhot appeared in a work named In Summer ( 1868 ) , dressed casually in a loose blouse falling off her shoulders . John Collins notes that Tréhot 's " dark , heavy @-@ set and expressionless features " worked well in such portraits , but were less successful in more formal , costume @-@ oriented paintings such as The Engaged Couple ( 1868 ) , where she poses with artist Alfred Sisley . In the summer of 1869 , she accompanied Renoir to his parent 's house in the Ville @-@ d 'Avray , and made trips to the Seine near Bougival where Renoir painted scenes with Monet on the water . La Barque ( 1870 ) is thought to depict Lise during this summer holiday .
In total , Tréhot appeared in more than twenty paintings by Renoir during his early Salon period from approximately 1866 until 1872 . According to art historian John House , " Lise was the model for virtually all of Renoir 's female figures at this time " .
Although little is known about the exact nature of Tréhot 's relationship with Renoir while she was modeling ; she is said to have given birth to a baby boy named Pierre on 14 December 1868 , but it is unclear what became of him and he may have died as an infant . On 21 July 1870 , Tréhot gave birth to a baby girl named Jeanne ( d . 1934 ) who was given to a wet nurse to raise as her own . Renoir continued to secretly support Jeanne financially until he died ( and after his death with the help of Ambroise Vollard ) , but never publicly or legally acknowledged that she was his daughter during his lifetime .
For unknown reasons , Tréhot stopped modeling for Renoir after 1872 ; it was said that she never spoke to or saw him again . Although Tréhot was an important part of Renoir 's early career , he never mentioned her in any published interviews , memoirs , or biographies .
= = Later life = =
In 1883 , more than a decade after Tréhot stopped modeling for Renoir , she married architect Georges Briere de l 'Isle ( 1847 – 1902 ) , As the wife of Brière de l 'Isle , she raised two sons and two daughters . Tréhot bequeathed two of Renoir 's paintings , Lise Sewing ( 1867 – 68 ) and Lise With a White Shawl ( 1872 ) , to her children . It is said that before her death , she destroyed many of her personal papers related to her time modeling for Renoir . Tréhot died in Paris on 12 March 1922 , at the age of 73 . She is buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery .
= = Selected works as model = =
Tréhot 's list of selected works includes at least twenty @-@ five oil on canvas paintings , twenty @-@ three of which were painted by Renoir , while two are by Frédéric Bazille ( 1841 – 1870 ) . It is thought that Tréhot may have posed for as many as twenty @-@ three works for Renoir , but only once for Bazille ; Renoir 's Landscape with Two People ( 1866 ) , in which she appeared , has either been lost or destroyed , but is believed to have been preserved as a painting within a painting in Bazille 's Studio ( 1870 ) . Bazille 's work is the only known surviving image of the full painting ; a surviving fragment of the work has been identified , but its location is unknown . Tréhot is believed to have posed for La Toilette ( 1869 – 70 ) , another work by Bazille .
= Longyearbyen =
Longyearbyen ( Norwegian pronunciation : [ ˈlɔŋjiːrbyːən ] ( lit . The Longyear Town ) is the largest settlement and the administrative centre of Svalbard , Norway . As of December 2015 , the town had a population of 2 @,@ 144 . Longyearbyen is located in the Longyear Valley and on the shore of Adventfjorden , a bay of Isfjorden located on the west coast of Spitsbergen . Since 2002 , Longyearbyen Community Council has had many of the same responsibilities of a municipality , including utilities , education , cultural facilities , fire brigade , roads and ports . The town is the seat of the Governor of Svalbard . It is the world 's northernmost settlement of any kind with greater than 1 @,@ 000 permanent residents .
Known as Longyear City until 1926 , the town was established by and named after John Munro Longyear , whose Arctic Coal Company started coal mining operations in 1906 . Operations were taken over by Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani ( SNSK ) in 1916 , which still conducts mining . The town was almost completely destroyed by the German Kriegsmarine on 8 August 1943 , but was rebuilt after the Second World War . Traditionally , Longyearbyen was a company town , but most mining operations have moved to Sveagruva since the 1990s , while the town has seen a large increase in tourism and research . This has seen the arrival of institutions such as the University Centre in Svalbard , the Svalbard Global Seed Vault and Svalbard Satellite Station . The community is served by Svalbard Airport , Longyear and Svalbard Church .
= = History = =
In 1896 , Vesteraalens Dampskibsselskab started tours to Hotellneset . To accommodate tourists , they built a prefabricated hotel , but it was not profitable and was closed after the 1897 season . However , two families overwintered in 1898 – 99 and Norway Post operated a post office at Hotellneset from 1897 to 1899 . The first commercially viable coal on Svalbard was harvested by Søren Zakariassen in 1899 . In 1901 , Bergen @-@ Spitsbergen Kullgrube @-@ kompani started mining coal in Adventtoppen .
The American industrialist John Munroe Longyear visited Spitsbergen as a tourist in 1901 , where he met with an expedition prospecting for coal . He returned to Spitsbergen 1903 , where he met Henrik B. Næss in Adventfjorden , who gave him samples and information on coal fields . Along with his associate Frederick Ayer , Longyear bought the Norwegian claims on the west side of Adventfjorden , and expanded the claims significantly the following year . In 1906 , the Boston @-@ based Arctic Coal Company , with Ayer and Longyear as the main shareholders , started mining in Mine 1a , after having built docks and housing . The company had American administration , but mostly Norwegian labourers , and named the town Longyear City . Coal was transported the 1 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) from the mine to the port using an aerial tramway . In 1913 , the company started preliminary work to open Mine 2a .
Following financial difficulties during the First World War , the mining operations were bought by Store Norske , which was incorporated in Oslo on 30 November 1916 . That year , SNSK built five new barracks , including one that was made into a hospital . SNSK introduced its own money with approval from Norges Bank , consisting entirely of banknotes at par with Norwegian krone . The American community buried their dead at Hotellneset . In 1918 , eleven people were killed by the Spanish flu and a graveyard was established in Longyear City . Two years later , 26 men were killed in a coal dust explosion in Mine 1 . This resulted in the mine being closed and electric operation being taken into use in Mine 2 . The same year , the first truck was delivered for use in the mining operations .
The Church of Norway appointed Thorleif Østenstad as Svalbard 's first vicar and teacher in 1920 . A school was established as a cooperation between the church and SNSK and had an inaugural eight pupils . The first Svalbard Church opened on 28 August 1921 , and the church 's reading room was from then used as a school . Longyear City was renamed Longyearbyen in 1926 .
The Norwegian Telecommunications Administration established a coast radio station , Svalbard Radio , at Finneset in 1911 , which was moved to Longyearbyen in 1930 . The town 's tourist industry started in 1935 , when SS Lyngen started calling regularly during the summer season . In 1937 , SNSK established Sverdrupbyen to house workers for Mine 1b and operation of the mine started in 1939 . In 1938 , Longyearbyen 's first road was completed , between the town center and Sverdrupbyen . Operations at Mine 2b , a different entrance to Mine 2a , started in 1939 .
Svalbard remained unaffected by the German occupation of Norway in 1940 . However , from 1941 the archipelago became of strategic importance in the supply chain between the Allied powers , as well as a source of badly needed coal . The Norwegian government @-@ in @-@ exile rejected a Soviet – British occupation ; instead the British Army started Operation Gauntlet to evacuate Spitsbergen . On 29 August 1941 , the entire population of Ny @-@ Ålesund was evacuated to Longyearbyen , and on 3 September 765 people were evacuated from Longyearbyen to Scotland . Later the last 150 men were also evacuated . With Longyearbyen depopulated , a small German garrison and air strip was established in Adventdalen , mostly to provide meteorological data . After the British Operation Fritham regained control of Barentsburg , the German forces left Longyearbyen without combat .
In September 1943 , the Kriegsmarine dispatched two battleships , Tirpitz and Scharnhorst , and nine destroyers to bombard Longyearbyen , Barentsburg and Grumant . Only four buildings in Longyearbyen survived : the hospital , the power station , an office building and a residential building , in addition to Sverdrupbyen . Longyearbyen remained unsettled until the end of the war , with the first ship from the mainland leaving on 27 June 1945 .
= = = Post @-@ Second World War = = =
Plans were laid during the war to ensure a quick reconstruction and commencing of mining . By 1948 , coal production reached the pre @-@ war level of 480 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 470 @,@ 000 long tons ; 530 @,@ 000 short tons ) per year . Nybyen was established in 1946 and consisted of five barracks , each housing 72 people . The first issue of Svalbardposten was published in November 1948 . Until then , there had irregularly been published various wall newspapers . In 1949 , Longyearbyen received telephone service with the mainland via a radio connection between Svalbard Radio and Harstad . In 1949 , a farm was built in Longyearbyen to hold cattle for milk , pigs and hens . A local radio station started broadcasting in 1950 . The burial ground remained in use until 1950 , seeing 44 people buried . However , it was discovered that the bodies were failing to decompose because of the permafrost . Bodies have since been sent to the mainland for burial . The community center Huset opened in 1951 .
Mining in Mine 1b was terminated in 1958 , but operation in Mine 5 started the following year . Preliminary work on Mine 4 started in 1954 , and from 1960 it was used as a reserve mine . The Norwegian Air Force started serving Longyearbyen with postal flights in the 1950s . In 1959 , a man fell seriously ill , so a landing strip was prepared in Adventdalen . From the same year , Braathens SAFE started serving the tundra airport with irregular winter flights . In 1957 , a principal was hired at the primary school and a new church was opened on 24 August 1958 . From 1961 , the primary school was supplemented by a private middle school . A branch of Tromsø Sparebank opened in 1959 .
In the 1960s , the town 's farm was closed and replaced by industrial liquifying of powdered milk . The first serial @-@ produced snowmobile was taken into use in 1961 . By 1969 , there were 140 registered snowmobiles and only 33 registered cars . From 1962 to 1984 , a recreational centre was run at Sverdrupbyen . Ordinary operation in Mine 4 started in 1966 but was terminated by 1970 , two years after Mine 2b closed . Operations in Mine 6 commenced in 1969 . Television broadcasting equipment was installed in 1969 , with the schedule of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation being aired with a two @-@ week delay .
In 1971 , a new school building , with a combined primary and lower secondary school , was opened , along with a new gymnasium and a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 41 ft ) swimming pool . The Svalbard Council was established on 1 November 1971 . It consisted of 17 non @-@ partisan members that were elected or appointed in three different groups — SNSK employees , government employees and others , although the ratio changed several times . Operations of Mine 3 started in March 1971 and operations in Mine 7 commenced the following year . In 1973 , the Ministry of Trade and Industry bought a third of SNSK . It continued buying additional shares until reaching a 99 @.@ 94 percent ownership in 1976 . The airport was opened in 1975 and initially provided four weekly services to mainland Norway and semi @-@ weekly services to Russia . In 1978 , the community received satellite communications with the mainland . The same year , an upper secondary program was introduced at the public school . From 1984 , television programmes were broadcast live via satellite .
Store Norske underwent a gradual change during the 1980s . Since 1980 , Spitsbergen money has been taken out of circulation and replaced with ordinary Norwegian currency . Mine 6 closed the following year . From 1982 , SNSK permitted private individuals to own and operate cars . By 1990 , there were 353 registered cars and 883 snowscooters . On 1 July 1983 , SNSK moved its head office from Bergen to Longyearbyen . Svalbard Samfunnsdrift ( SSD ) , a limited company that was responsible for public infrastructure and services , was established by SNSK on 1 January 1989 . Responsibilities included healthcare , the fire brigade , the kindergarten , roads , rubbish disposal , power production , the water and sewer system , the cinema , cultural actives and the library . Ownership was taken over by the Ministry of Trade and Industry on 1 January 1993 .
During the 1990s , the authorities started a process to " normalise " Longyearbyen by abolishing the company town scheme and introducing a full range of services , a varied economy and local democracy . Commercial enterprises included a shopping mall replacing SNSK 's provision store in 1992 . Similarly , Esso opened a commercial fuel station in 1994 . The Svalbard Council changed its regulations from 1993 and allowed parties to run for election . In a step to increase tourism , Svalbard Polar Hotel opened in 1995 , and a year later mining of Mine 3 terminated . Longyearbyen Community Council was established in 2002 , replacing the Svalbard Council and assimilating SSD , and took on many of the responsibilities and the structure of a municipality .
This period also saw the rise of a number of scientific establishments . The Agricultural University of Norway had established a primitive seed bank in 1984 . The University Centre in Svalbard opened on 6 September 1993 and had 30 students in its inaugural semester . Telenor Mobil established GSM coverage in 1995 , and in 2004 the Svalbard Undersea Cable System opened , providing fiber optic cable connection to the mainland . The European Incoherent Scatter Scientific Association ( EISCAT ) opened a radar in 1996 , followed by Svalbard Satellite Station in 1999 and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault in 2008 .
= = Geography = =
Longyearbyen , the largest settlement in Svalbard , is located in the lower portion of the Longyear Valley , along the Longyear River . The lower parts of the town lie along the southwestern shore of the bay of Adventfjorden , a 7 by 4 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 by 2 @.@ 5 mi ) branch of Isfjorden . Longyearbyen is on the Nordenskiöld Land peninsula of Spitsbergen , the largest island of the Svalbard archipelago . It is the world 's northern @-@ most town , with all settlements further north being research or meteorological outposts . Across the bay lie the ghost towns of Advent City and Hiorthhamn .
Longyearbyen is divided into several neighbourhoods . On the west side of the river , along the bay , lies the port and affiliated utility and industrial services . The western part of this area is called Bykaia and the eastern part Sjøområdet . Above lies Skjæringa , the site of the Governor 's offices . Slightly up the valley on the west side lies Gamle Longyearbyen ( " Old Longyearbyen " ) and the church . Even further up lies the graveyard , then Huset and the cinema , and finally Sverdrupbyen . Most of the residential , commercial and cultural institutions are located on the east side of the river . Along the bay the area is called Sjøskrenten . Further up lies the university centre and Gruvedalen , the largest residential area . Southwards from there is the main shopping area as well as the town hall . To the east is the residential area Lia and further up Haugen , which is also the location of the school . Furthest up in the valley is Mine 2b and Nybyen , which is mostly used as student housing . Westwards out of town towards Hotellneset is the airport and Mine 3 . The remaining mines are located in Adventdalen , to the east of town .
= = = Climate = = =
Svalbard 's climate is a combination of an Arctic climate ( Köppen : ET ) tempered by the North Atlantic Current . Nordenskiöld Land is the warmest and wettest part of the archipelago , caused by the convergence of mild and humid air from the south and cold air from the north . Average summer highs are typically 3 to 7 ° C ( 37 to 45 ° F ) while average winter highs are − 11 to − 13 ° C ( 12 to 9 ° F ) . Longyearbyen experiences midnight sun from 19 April to 23 August , polar night from 27 October to 14 February and civil polar night from 14 November to 29 January . However , due to shading from mountains , the sun is not visible in Longyearbyen until around 8 March . Snow typically covers the town from November to March . The warmest temperature ever recorded in Longyearbyen was 21 @.@ 3 ° C ( 70 @.@ 3 ° F ) in July 1979 and the coldest was − 46 @.@ 3 ° C ( − 51 @.@ 3 ° F ) in March 1986 . Svalbard and Longyearbyen are among the places in the world that have warmed fastest in the latest decades . The average temperatures in the table below are based on 1961 @-@ 90 . In the more recent period 1981 @-@ 2010 , winter has warmed 3 @.@ 4 ° C ( 6 @.@ 1 ° F ) and summer 1 ° C ( 1 @.@ 8 ° F ) compared to 1961 @-@ 90 .
= = Demographics = =
As of 2015 , Longyearbyen had a population of 2 @,@ 144 people . The largest regional group of Norwegians are from Northern Norway , particularly Nordland and Troms , which make more than 40 percent of the population . Roughly 300 people ( 16 percent ) are non @-@ Norwegian citizens , with the largest nationalities being from Thailand , Sweden , Russia and Ukraine . Because of the dominance of the mining industry , the gender distribution is skewed with 60 percent of adults being males . Longyearbyen has an over @-@ average share of its population between 25 and 44 years old , but nearly no residents over 66 . The number of children in relation to the population is at the national average , but Longyearbyen has significantly fewer teenagers than the national average .
Longyearbyen experiences a very high turnover ; in 2008 , 427 people ( 23 percent ) moved away from the town . The average person lived in Longyearbyen for 6 @.@ 3 years , although it is 6 @.@ 6 years for Norwegians and 4 @.@ 3 years for foreigners . In 2009 , about a quarter of the population had lived in the town since before 2000 , and can thus be regarded as permanent population . The longest residing people tend to work in the mining industry , followed by local government employees . The shortest tenures are held by students and employees in higher education , tourism and the state .
Seventy percent of households consist of a single person , compared to forty @-@ one percent on the mainland , giving an average 1 @.@ 6 people per household . The difference is largely caused by persons working on Svalbard while their family remains on the mainland . Longyearbyen 's population is more highly educated than the national average : 54 compared to 43 percent have upper secondary education and 30 compared to 26 percent have tertiary education . Among women , 40 percent have higher education .
= = Politics and government = =
Longyearbyen Community Council has many of the same responsibilities of a municipality . It is organised with a 15 @-@ member council that since 2011 has been led by Mayor Christin Kristoffersen of the Labour Party . The council 's main responsibilities are infrastructure and utilities , including power , land @-@ use and community planning , education from kindergarten to upper secondary level and child welfare . It operates three kindergartens in addition to the 13 @-@ grade Longyearbyen School .
No care or nursing services and welfare payments are available . Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities . The University Hospital of North Norway operates a clinic , Longyearbyen Hospital . Other public offices with presence on Longyearbyen are the Norwegian Directorate of Mining , the Norwegian Polar Institute , the Norwegian Tax Administration and the Church of Norway . Longyearbyen is subordinate Nord @-@ Troms District Court and Hålogaland Court of Appeal , both located in Tromsø .
The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 established full Norwegian sovereignty over the archipelago . The treaty came into effect in 1925 , following the Svalbard Act that established the institution of the Governor of Svalbard . She or he holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of police , as well as holding other authority granted from the executive branch . Duties include environmental policy , family law , law enforcement , search and rescue , tourism management , information services , contact with foreign settlements and judge in some areas of maritime inquiries and judicial examinations — albeit never in the same cases as acting as police . Kjerstin Askholt has been governor since 2015 ; she is assisted by a staff of 26 professionals . The institution is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police , but reports to other ministries in matters within their portfolio .
Because of the special treaty status of Svalbard , Longyearbyen is subject to Norwegian legislation , but citizens of any signatory country may conduct commercial activities and live in town . However , people without a source of income can be rejected by the governor . The treaty limits Norway 's right to collect taxes to that of financing services on Svalbard . Therefore , Longyearbyen has a lower income tax than mainland Norway , and there is no value added tax . The treaty has resulted in Longyearbyen being a demilitarized zone and is not part of the European Economic Area nor the Schengen Area like the rest of Norway .
= = Culture = =
The community council runs a number of cultural activities , such as a cinema , a youth club , a library and a gallery . The town 's sports club is Svalbard Turn . Svalbardhallen is an indoor sport centre that includes a multi @-@ sport hall large enough for handball or three badminton courts , a shooting range and a 25 @-@ meter ( 82 ft ) swimming pool . Svalbard Church of the Church of Norway has the entire archipelago as its parish . The congregational hall is 126 m2 ( 1 @,@ 360 sq ft ) while the sitting room is 112 m2 ( 1 @,@ 210 sq ft ) . The church is built in half @-@ timber . Svalbardposten is a weekly newspaper published on Friday . Printing takes place in Tromsø and the majority of subscribers live on the mainland . Icepeople , an alternative newspaper in English , is also published weekly . There are two museums in town , Svalbard Museum and the Spitsbergen Airship Museum . Dark Season Blues has been held annually in October since 2003 . 20 residents of the town are members of the Liverbirds Svalbard and regularly meet in the Svalbar on match days during the winter months .
= = Economy = =
The only mining still taking place in Longyearbyen is at Mine 7 , located 15 kilometers ( 9 mi ) up Adventdalen . It produces 70 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 69 @,@ 000 long tons ; 77 @,@ 000 short tons ) of coal annually , of which 25 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 000 long tons ; 28 @,@ 000 short tons ) is used to fuel Longyear Power Station , Norway 's only coal @-@ fueled power station . Most of Store Norske 's production is done at Sveagruva , located on Van Mijenfjorden , 60 kilometers ( 37 mi ) south of Longyearbyen . No roads connect the communities ; instead , workers live in dormitories in Svea . Seventy percent commute home to the mainland while thirty percent commute to Longyearbyen . Mining has not been profitable and Store Norske relies on state subsidies to retain production .
The University Centre in Svalbard ( UNIS ) has 350 students and a permanent faculty of 40 professors and assistants and 120 guest lecturers . UNIS does not offer degrees , but instead offers semester courses in biology , physics and geology . Student housing is located at Nybyen . The college is part of the 12 @,@ 000 m2 ( 130 @,@ 000 sq ft ) Svalbard Science Centre , which also features the Norwegian Polar Institute , EISCAT and Svalbard Science Forum . In 2006 , about 9 @,@ 000 research days were spent in Longyearbyen , most of which were by Norwegians . This made Longyearbyen the second @-@ largest research outpost on Svalbard , marginally below Ny @-@ Ålesund . In contrast , Longyearbyen has almost only Norwegian research , while Ny @-@ Ålesund is roughly evenly split between Norwegian and foreign .
Svalbard Satellite Station was built because of Longyearbyen 's excellent location to download data from satellites in polar orbit . Located at Platåberget above Hotellneset , it was built as a cooperation between NASA and the Norwegian Space Centre , but has since 2001 been operated by Kongsberg Satellite Services . EISCAT operates an incoherent scatter radar to study the northern lights . The Svalbard Global Seed Vault , administered by the Global Crop Diversity Trust , is a secure underground facility capable of storing millions of crop seeds . The facility has been designed to protect against natural and human disasters , including global warming , floods and fires and nuclear holocaust . The site was chosen for a number of factors including its remoteness , sound geology and the ambient temperature of the permafrost .
Longyearbyen is the centre of tourism on the archipelago , although most tourism is generated based on natural experiences rather than visiting the town itself . However , Longyearbyen does provide supplies , accommodation and several museums . In 2008 , Longyearbyen experienced 89 @,@ 000 guest @-@ nights , up from 30 @,@ 000 in 1995 . The average guest stayed 2 @.@ 2 nights and 60 percent of the capacity was used by tourists . About 40 @,@ 000 tourists flew into Longyearbyen . Two @-@ thirds of the tourists come from Norway . In 2007 , the tourism industry had a revenue of NOK 291 million and produced 200 man @-@ years .
= = Transport = =
Longyearbyen has a road network stretching 50 kilometers ( 30 mi ) , but the network does not extend to any other communities . In 2008 there were 1 @,@ 481 registered road vehicles and 49 percent of all households had a car . Cars are registered with ZN on the registration plates . There is a single workshop , Svalbard Auto , which is also a Toyota dealer .
Snowmobiles are a popular mode of transport and there are more snowmobiles than residents . In 2008 there were registered 2 @,@ 672 snowmobiles and 69 percent of households owned at least one . Off @-@ road motorized transport is prohibited on bare ground , but snowmobiles are used extensively during winter — both for commercial and recreational activities . Transport from Longyearbyen to Barentsburg ( 45 km or 28 mi ) and Pyramiden ( 100 km or 62 mi ) is possible by snowmobile by winter , or by ship all year round .
Svalbard Airport , Longyear is located at Hotellneset , 3 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) northwest of town . It has a 2 @,@ 483 @-@ meter ( 8 @,@ 146 ft ) long runway and is the only airport that is permitted to serve aircraft from off the archipelago . Scandinavian Airlines operates daily flights to Oslo and Tromsø , while there are irregular flights to Russia . Lufttransport operates regular charter services to Svea Airport and Ny @-@ Ålesund Airport , Hamnerabben . Arktikugol operates helicopters to Barentsburg and Pyramiden . There are two quays in Longyearbyen , one for export of coal and one for general goods . From 1907 to 1987 , the mining companies operated a network of aerial tramways to transport coal from the mines to the port .
= Christ lag in Todes Banden , BWV 4 =
Christ lag in Todes Banden ( also spelled Todesbanden ) ( " Christ lay in death 's bonds " or " Christ lay in the snares of death " ) , BWV 4 , is a cantata for Easter by German composer Johann Sebastian Bach , one of his earliest church cantatas . It was probably intended for a performance in 1707 , an early work in the genre to which he later contributed complete cantata cycles for all occasions of the liturgical year . It was related to his application for a post at a Lutheran church at Mühlhausen . John Eliot Gardiner describes it as Bach 's " first @-@ known attempt at painting narrative in music " .
Christ lag in Todes Banden is a chorale cantata , a style in which both text and music are based on a hymn . In this instance , the source was Martin Luther 's hymn of the same name , the main hymn for Easter in the Lutheran church . The composition is based on the seven stanzas of the hymn and its tune , which was derived from Medieval models . Bach used the unchanged words of a stanza of the chorale in each of the seven vocal movements , in the format of chorale variations per omnes versus ( for all stanzas ) , and he used its tune as a cantus firmus . After an opening sinfonia , the variations are arranged symmetrically : chorus – duet – solo – chorus – solo – duet – chorus , with the focus on the central fourth stanza about the battle between Life and Death . All movements are in E minor , and Bach achieves variety and intensifies the meaning of the text through many musical forms and techniques .
Christ lag in Todes Banden is Bach 's first cantata for Easter – in fact , his only extant original composition for the first day of the feast – and his earliest surviving chorale cantata . He later repeatedly performed it as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , beginning in 1724 when he first celebrated Easter there . Only this second version survives . It is scored for four vocal parts and a Baroque instrumental ensemble , with a choir of cornetto and three trombones doubling the choral voices , a string section of two violins , two violas , and continuo . This exemplifies a 17th @-@ century " Choralkonzert " ( chorale concerto ) style ; the lost scoring of the earlier performances was perhaps similar .
Gardiner calls Bach 's setting of Luther 's hymn " a bold , innovative piece of musical drama " , and observes " his total identification with the spirit and letter of Luther 's fiery , dramatic hymn " .
= = Composition history = =
= = = Background = = =
Bach is believed to have written Christ lag in Todes Banden in 1707 . He was a professional organist aged 22 , employed from 1703 in Arnstadt as the organist of the New Church ( which replaced the burned Bonifatiuskirche , today known as the Bach Church ) . At age 18 , he had inspected the new organ built by Johann Friedrich Wender , was invited to play one Sunday , and was hired . The organ was built on the third tier of a theatre @-@ like church . Bach 's duties as a church musician involved some responsibility for choral music , but the exact year he began composing cantatas is unknown . Christ lag in Todes Banden is one of a small group of cantatas that survive from his early years .
In Arnstadt , the Kantor ( church musician ) Heindorff was responsible for church music in the Upper Church ( Liebfrauenkirche ) , and the New Church where Bach was the organist . He typically conducted music in the Upper Church and would appoint a choir prefect for vocal music in the New Church . Wolff notes that " subjecting his works to the questionable leadership of a prefect " was not what Bach would have done . Therefore , most cantatas of the period are not for Sunday occasions , but restricted to special occasions such as weddings and funerals . Christ lag in Todes Banden is the only exception , but was most likely composed not for Arnstadt but for an application to a more important post at the Divi Blasii church in Mühlhausen .
= = = Bach 's early cantatas = = =
Bach 's early cantatas are " Choralkonzerte " ( chorale concertos ) in the style of the 17th century , different from the recitative and aria cantata format associated with Neumeister that Bach started to use for church cantatas in 1714 . Wolff points out the relation of Bach 's early cantatas to works by Dieterich Buxtehude , with whom Bach had studied in Lübeck . Christ lag in Todes Banden shows similarities to a composition of Johann Pachelbel based on the same Easter chorale . Although there is no evidence that Bach and Pachelbel met , Bach grew up in Thuringia while Pachelbel was based in the same region , and Bach 's elder brother and teacher Johann Christoph Bach studied with Pachelbel in Erfurt . Another of Pachelbel 's works appears to be referenced in the early Bach cantata , Nach dir , Herr , verlanget mich , BWV 150 , and there has been recent speculation that Bach wanted to pay tribute to Pachelbel after his death in 1706 .
The texts for the early cantatas were drawn mostly from biblical passages and hymns . Features characteristic of his later cantatas , such as recitatives and arias on contemporary poetry , were not yet present , although Bach may have heard them in oratorios by Buxtehude , or even earlier . Instead , these early cantatas include 17th @-@ century elements such as motets and chorale concertos . They often begin with an instrumental sinfonia or sonata ( sonatina ) . The following table lists the seven extant works composed by Bach until 1708 , when he moved on to the Weimar court .
Bach uses the limited types of instruments at his disposal for unusual combinations , such as two recorders and two viole da gamba in the funeral cantata Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit , also known as Actus Tragicus . He uses instruments of the continuo group as independent parts , such as a cello in Nach dir , Herr , verlanget mich and a bassoon in Der Herr denket an uns . The cantata for the inauguration of a town council is richly scored for trumpets , woodwinds and strings . Wolff notes :
The overall degree of mastery by which these early pieces compare favourably with the best church compositions from the first decade of the eighteenth century ... proves that the young Bach did not confine himself to playing organ and clavier , but , animated by his Buxtehude visit , devoted considerable time and effort to vocal composition . The very few such early works that exist , each a masterpiece in its own right , must constitute a remnant only ... of a larger body of similar compositions .
The Bach scholar Richard D. P. Jones notes in The Creative Development of Johann Sebastian Bach :
" His remarkable flair for test illustration is evident even in the early cantatas , particularly the two finest of them , the Actus tragicus , BWV 106 , and Christ lag in Todes Banden , BWV 4 . We already sense a powerful mind behind the notes in the motivic unity of the early cantatas , in the use of reprise to bind their mosaic forms together ... "
= = = Readings and chorale = = =
The prescribed readings for the feast day were from the First letter to the Corinthians ( " Christ is our Easter lamb " – 1 Corinthians 5 : 6 – 8 ) and from the Gospel of Mark ( the Resurrection of Jesus – Mark 16 : 1 – 8 ) .
The reformer Martin Luther wrote several hymns in German to be used in church services . His hymn " Christ lag in Todes Banden " was based on the Latin hymn " Victimae Paschali Laudes " , and first published in 1524 . It became a main Easter hymn in German Lutheranism . The hymn stresses the struggle between Life and Death . The third stanza refers to the " sting of death " , as mentioned in 1 Corinthians 15 . The fifth stanza relates to the " Osterlamm " , the Paschal Lamb . The sacrificial " blood " ( " Its blood marks our doors " ) refers to the marking of the doors before the exodus from Egypt . The final stanza recalls the tradition of baking and eating Easter Bread , with the " old leaven " alluding again to the exodus , in contrast to the " Word of Grace " , concluding " Christ would ... alone nourish the soul . " In contrast to most chorale cantatas that Bach composed later in Leipzig , the text of the chorale is retained unchanged , which he did again only in late chorale cantatas .
= = = Performances = = =
Christ lag in Todes Banden survives in a version from the 1720s when Bach held the position of Thomaskantor ( director of church music ) in Leipzig . There is documentary evidence suggesting that this Easter Sunday cantata was premiered in 1707 . It is known that Bach performed a cantata of his own composition at Easter in 1707 as a part of his application for the post of organist of Divi Blasii church in Mühlhausen , and this may have been Christ lag in Todes Banden . By this time , Bach was already demonstrating ingenuity in keyboard music , as known from the early works in the Neumeister Collection . Christ lag in Todes Banden is a significant milestone in his vocal music . It was completed seven years before his sequence of Weimar cantatas , begun in 1714 with Himmelskönig , sei willkommen , BWV 182 , and 17 years before he started a complete annual cycle of chorale cantatas in Leipzig in the middle of 1724 with O Ewigkeit , du Donnerwort , BWV 20 .
Bach would have been attracted to Mühlhausen for its status as a free imperial city and its several churches and tradition of vocal music . Wolff notes that Bach possibly sent two other cantata scores with his application , and once he knew the date of the audition may have composed Christ lag in Todes Banden in addition . A month after Easter , on 24 May 1707 , an agreement was reached to hire Bach , who seems to have been the only candidate considered seriously .
Bach performed the cantata again while Thomaskantor in Leipzig , notably at his first Easter there on 9 April 1724 . He also performed it the following year on 1 April 1725 , in his second cycle of Leipzig cantatas , a cycle of chorale cantatas based on Lutheran hymns . It followed in the cycle some forty newly composed cantatas . This early work fits the cycle in the sense that it is based on a chorale , but its style is different from the others .
= = Music = =
= = = Scoring and structure = = =
Bach structured the cantata in eight movements : an instrumental sinfonia and seven vocal movements corresponding to the stanzas of the hymn . The duration is given as 22 minutes .
The title of the original parts of the first Leipzig performance is ( in Johann Christoph Altnickol 's handwriting ) : " Feria Paschatos / Christ lag in Todes Banden / a.4. Voc : / Cornetto / 3 Trombon . / 2 Violini / 2 Viole / con / Continuo / Di Sign . Joh.Seb.Bach " , In this late version , Bach scored the work for four vocal parts ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) , and bass ( B ) ) , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble consisting of strings , brass and continuo . The brass parts , a choir of cornetto ( Ct ) and three trombones ( Tb ) playing colla parte with the voices at times , may have been added in the 1720s . They may also possibly represent the original scoring , in the style of the 17th @-@ century polychoral tradition .
The scoring of the cantata Christ lag in Todes Banden has been described as " archaic " and its style " medieval " :
The string section consists of two violin parts ( Vl ) and two viola parts ( VA ) ; this indicates an older practice as for instance found in 17th @-@ century church cantatas by Bach 's ancestors ( see Altbachisches Archiv ) , and in Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet , a Passion setting from the early 18th century ( or older ) which Bach had performed a few years after composing the cantata Christ lag in Todes Banden . In the first half of the 18th century the standard for a string section soon evolved to two violin parts , one viola part and continuo .
The cornett used in the cantata was an instrument that belonged to an earlier age : by the second quarter of the 18th century it had almost entirely disappeared from Bach 's compositions .
Choral singing is less distinguished from sections of the cantata where vocal soloists sing in ensemble : compared to the clear demarcation between choral movements and movements for vocal soloists in Bach 's later works .
The harmony is often modal , instead of the modern tonal system .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys follow the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) and alla breve ( 2 / 2 ) . The continuo , played throughout , is not shown .
= = = Hymn tune = = =
Luther 's hymn is based on the 12th @-@ century Easter hymn " Christ ist erstanden " ( Christ is risen ) , which relies both in text and melody on the sequence for Easter , " Victimae paschali laudes " . A new version was published by Luther in 1524 and adapted by Johann Walter in his Wittenberg hymnal for choir , Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn ( 1524 ) . A slightly modified version appeared in 1533 in a hymnal by Kluge . This chorale tune would have been familiar to Bach 's congregations . Bach composed other arrangements during his career , including the two chorale preludes BWV 625 and BWV 718 , and the " Fantasia super Christ lag in Todes Banden " , BWV 695 . Bach 's organ works and the version in the cantata use the passing notes and regular rhythmic patterns of the 1533 version .
= = = Movements = = =
Unlike in Bach 's later cantatas , all movements are in the same key . The cantata begins with an instrumental sinfonia . The seven stanzas are treated in seven movements as chorale variations " per omnes versus " ( for all stanzas ) , with the melody always present as a cantus firmus . All stanzas end on the word Halleluja .
The symmetrical sequence of the seven stanzas is a feature more often found in Bach 's mature compositions : chorus – duet – solo – chorus – solo – duet – chorus . The musicologist Carol Traupman @-@ Carr notes the variety of treatment of the seven stanzas , while retaining the same key and melody :
Polyphonic chorale fantasia
Duet , with " walking bass " in continuo
Trio sonata
Polyphonic and imitative , woven around chorale melody
Homophonic with elaborate continuo line
Duet , using trio sonata texture with extensive imitation
Four @-@ part chorale setting ( Leipzig version )
John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , calls Bach 's setting of Luther 's hymn " a bold , innovative piece of musical drama " , observing that Bach was " drawing on medieval musical roots ( the hymn tune derives from the eleventh @-@ century plainsong ' Victimae paschali laudes ' ) " , and noting Bach 's " total identification with the spirit and letter of Luther 's fiery , dramatic hymn " . Bach could follow " Luther 's ideal in which music brings the text to life " .
= = = = Sinfonia = = = =
The cantata begins with an instrumental sinfonia a work in the style of an overture to a contemporary Venetian opera , with chordal passages and occasional polyphony . It introduces the first line of the melody , The mood is sombre , recalling the " Death 's bonds " of the first line of the hymn : Christ 's death on the cross and burial .
= = = = Versus 1 = = = =
The opening stanza , " Christ lag in Todes Banden " ( Christ lay in death 's bonds ) is treated as a chorale fantasia . Without instrumental opening , the movement starts with the chorale tune sung by the soprano in very long notes , with all other parts entering soon after the soprano begins each choral statement . The alto line is derived from the chorale tune , while the viola parts principally reinforce the alto and tenor voices . The violin parts are independent and , as Traupman @-@ Carr notes " further activate the texture with a virtually continuous exchange of sixteenth @-@ note snippets " . The figure in the violins known as suspiratio ( sigh ) reflects " Christ 's suffering in the grip of death " .
The final Halleluja is faster , giving up the fantasia format for a four @-@ part fugue and in motet style , with all instruments doubling the voices . The style of the movement recalls the 16th @-@ century stile antico , although the style is still unmistakably Bach 's .
= = = = Versus 2 = = = =
The second stanza , Aria Duetto , is a duet of soprano and alto , " Den Tod niemand zwingen kunnt " ( No one could defeat death ) , over an ostinato continuo . It deals with " humanity helpless and paralysed as it awaits God 's judgement against sin " . Bach has the music almost freeze on the first words " den Tod " ( death ) , and the word " gefangen " ( imprisoned ) is marked by a sharp dissonance of the soprano and alto . In the Halleluja , the voices imitate each other on long notes in fast succession , creating a sequence of suspensions .
= = = = Versus 3 = = = =
The third stanza , " Jesus Christus , Gottes Sohn " ( Jesus Christ , God 's Son ) , is a trio of the tenor , two obbligato violins and continuo . The tenor sings the chorale melody almost unchanged . The violins illustrate first how Christ slashes at the enemy . The music stops completely on the word " nichts " ( nothing ) . The violins then present in four notes the outline of the cross , and finally the tenor sings a joyful " Halleluja " to a virtuoso violin accompaniment .
= = = = Versus 4 = = = =
" Es war ein wunderlicher Krieg , da Tod und Leben rungen " ( It was a strange battle , that death and life waged ) , is the center of the symmetrical structure . It is sung by the four voices , accompanied only by the continuo . The alto sings the cantus firmus , transposed by a fifth to B @-@ Dorian , while the other voices follow each other in a fugal stretto with entries just a beat apart until they fall away one by one . In the final Halleluja in all four voices , the bass descends nearly two octaves .
= = = = Versus 5 = = = =
Stanza five , " Hier ist das rechte Osterlamm " ( Here is the true Easter @-@ lamb ) , is sung by the bass alone , accompanied at first by a descending chromatic line in the continuo which has been compared to the Crucifixus of the Mass in B minor , but changing to " a dance @-@ like passage of continuous eighth notes " when the voice enters . For every line of the stanza , the bass sings a chorale tune , then repeats the words in counterpoint to the part of the tune repeated in the strings , sometimes transposed . Taruskin describes this : " With its antiphonal exchanges between the singer and the massed strings ... this setting sounds like a parody of a passacaglia @-@ style Venetian opera aria , vintage 1640 " . The bass sings the final victorious Hallelujas , spanning two octaves .
= = = = Versus 6 = = = =
" So feiern wir das hohe Fest " ( So we celebrate the high festival ) , is a duet for soprano and tenor accompanied only by the ostinato continuo . The chorale is shared by the voices , with the soprano singing it in E minor , the tenor in B minor . The movement is a dance of joy : the word " Wonne " ( joy ) is rendered in figuration that Gardiner finds reminiscent of Purcell . Bach incorporates the solemn rhythms of the French overture into this verse , reflecting the presence of the word feiern ( celebrate ) in the text . It may be the first time that Bach used these rhythms .
= = = = Versus 7 = = = =
Bach 's original setting of the final stanza , " Wir essen und leben wohl " ( We eat and live well ) , is lost ; it may have been a repeat of the opening chorus . In Leipzig , he supplied a simple four @-@ part setting .
= = Manuscripts and publication = =
The original autograph parts are kept in the Bach @-@ Archiv Leipzig . They were copied from the lost autograph score by six scribes , four of them known by name , including the composer | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
RAR was subsequently replaced by 1 ATF which was allocated its own area of operations in Phuoc Tuy Province , thereby allowing the Australians to pursue operations more independently using their own counter @-@ insurgency tactics and techniques . The task force arrived between April and June 1966 , constructing a base at Nui Dat , while logistic arrangements were provided by the 1st Australian Logistic Support Group which was established at the port of Vung Tau .
= U.S. Route 62 in Oklahoma =
In Oklahoma , U.S. Highway 62 runs diagonally across the state , from the Texas state line in far southwestern Oklahoma to the Arkansas state line near Fayetteville . US @-@ 62 spends a total of 402 @.@ 48 miles ( 647 @.@ 73 km ) in the Sooner State . The highway passes through fifteen of Oklahoma 's counties . Along the way the route serves two of Oklahoma 's largest cities , Lawton and Oklahoma City , as well as many regionally important cities , like Altus , Chickasha , Muskogee , and Tahlequah . Despite this , US @-@ 62 has no lettered spur routes like many other U.S. routes in Oklahoma do .
US @-@ 62 has been part of the Oklahoma highway network since 1930 . With the advent of the Interstate system , the portion of its route through Oklahoma City was revised several times to adapt to the presence of the new freeways . The present @-@ day route of US @-@ 62 includes concurrencies with I @-@ 44 , I @-@ 240 , I @-@ 35 , and I @-@ 40 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Southwestern Oklahoma = = =
US @-@ 62 enters Oklahoma in Harmon County , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Hollis . It then passes through that town , the county seat , where it serves as the southern terminus of State Highway 30 . US @-@ 62 meets the northern terminus of SH @-@ 5 in Gould . The highway passes through unincorporated McQueen 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) and then enters Jackson County . Just east of Duke , the route crosses SH @-@ 34 . Nine miles ( 14 @.@ 5 km ) later , US @-@ 62 becomes a multilane highway and begins a concurrency with SH @-@ 6 . The two highways travel together into Altus , where they intersect US @-@ 283 . SH @-@ 6 follows US @-@ 283 northward out of town , while US @-@ 62 heads east towards Headrick . US @-@ 62 runs just north of that town before crossing the North Fork of the Red River onto the Kiowa – Tillman County line .
US @-@ 62 continues eastward , sending US @-@ 62 BUS north to Snyder , which was the original US @-@ 62 alignment in the area . The county line then turns south of US @-@ 62 , and the route has an interchange with US @-@ 183 . US @-@ 62 heads farther east , meeting the other end of US @-@ 62 BUS 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) later . US @-@ 62 serves as the southern terminus of the northern State Highway 54 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of this . The road then enters Comanche County , where it serves as the southern border of Fort Sill . It serves as the southern terminus of another Oklahoma state highway , SH @-@ 115 , near Cache . A few miles of the highway east of SH @-@ 115 is freeway @-@ grade . Continuing east , US @-@ 62 becomes an expressway , Rogers Lane , that serves the north side of Lawton ( along with several Ft . Sill gates ) . In eastern Lawton , the highway has an interchange with Interstate 44 and begins a concurrency with it ( joining at Exit 40B ) , along with US @-@ 277 and US @-@ 281 .
I @-@ 44 / US @-@ 62 / 277 / 281 head northward through Fort Sill . At Exit 45 , the freeway serves as the eastern terminus of State Highway 49 . The three U.S. routes split off at Exit 46 , with I @-@ 44 continuing onto the northern section of the H. E. Bailey Turnpike . US @-@ 277 splits off to the east 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) later . US @-@ 62 / 281 then meet SH @-@ 19 in Apache . SH @-@ 9 begins overlapping the two U.S. routes 10 miles ( 16 km ) north of Apache . The three routes continue into Anadarko , where State Highway 8 briefly joins the concurrency . US @-@ 283 and SH @-@ 8 split off to the north , while US @-@ 62 / SH @-@ 9 head out of town to the east .
= = = Central Oklahoma = = =
US @-@ 62 / SH @-@ 9 cross into Grady County just west of Verden . At the western limits of Chickasha , US @-@ 81 joins the concurrency . In downtown Chickasha , US @-@ 81 splits off to the south , and US @-@ 277 once again joins with US @-@ 62 . In far eastern Chickasha , the routes have an interchange with I @-@ 44 ( the H.E. Bailey Turnpike ) . US @-@ 62 / 277 / SH @-@ 9 serve as the southern terminus of SH @-@ 92 and the western terminus of SH @-@ 39 . The three highways then angle northeast towards Blanchard , where they are briefly joined by State Highway 76 . Northeast of Blanchard , they are carried by an expressway . SH @-@ 9 splits off at a diamond interchange that also serves as the eastern terminus of the H.E. Bailey Turnpike Spur . The two U.S. routes continue north into Newcastle , running through town on a five @-@ lane ( two lanes in each direction plus center turn lane ) alignment . On the northern rim of Newcastle , the two routes encounter I @-@ 44 once again , at the northern terminus of the Bailey Turnpike . US @-@ 62 joins eastbound I @-@ 44 toward Oklahoma City , while US @-@ 277 terminates at the interchange .
I @-@ 44 / US @-@ 62 pick up State Highway 37 at Exit 107 , and the three highways cross the Canadian River into Cleveland County and Oklahoma City . SH @-@ 37 then splits off at Exit 110 . Just north of the Oklahoma County line , I @-@ 44 has an interchange at the western terminus of Interstate 240 at Exit 115 , and US @-@ 62 follows it east to Exit 4B , where it begins to concur with I @-@ 35 / US @-@ 77 . I @-@ 35 / US @-@ 62 / 77 head northward to the Fort Smith Junction . US @-@ 77 splits off to join with Interstate 235 , while I @-@ 35 / US @-@ 77 join with eastbound I @-@ 40 / US @-@ 270 . I @-@ 35 / US @-@ 62 split off to the north after just over a mile . US @-@ 62 leaves I @-@ 35 at Exit 130 , turning east onto N.E. 23rd St. , an at @-@ grade street
US @-@ 62 serves some of Oklahoma City 's eastern suburbs , including far northern Midwest City , far southern Spencer , Nicoma Park , and Choctaw . In eastern Harrah , the route meets the west terminus of State Highway 270 . The highway then crosses into far southern Lincoln County , where it crosses SH @-@ 120 at Midway . US @-@ 62 runs through two more unincorporated communities , Fowler and Jacktown ; the latter is the site of the US @-@ 62 / US @-@ 177 junction . US @-@ 62 enters Meeker 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) later , where it meets up with SH @-@ 18 . 12 miles ( 19 km ) further east , in Prague , it encounters US @-@ 377 / SH @-@ 99 .
= = = Green Country = = =
US @-@ 62 enters eastern Oklahoma 's Green Country as it crosses into Okfuskee County west of Paden . It begins to turn southeast , intersecting State Highway 48 west of Castle , before joining once again with I @-@ 40 near Okemah , at Exit 221 . US @-@ 75 also joins the interstate , 10 miles ( 16 km ) farther east at Exit 231 . The two U.S. routes split off at Exit 240B , where they continue the mainline of the Indian Nation Turnpike , which terminates at I @-@ 40 . The two U.S. routes serve eastern Henryetta , and west of Dewar , they are the western terminus of U.S. Highway 266 . In Okmulgee , US @-@ 62 turns east while US @-@ 75 continues north toward the Tulsa area . US @-@ 62 heads through Morris , where it intersects SH @-@ 52 . The highway then has a 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) overlap with SH @-@ 72 , after which it begins a concurrency with US @-@ 64 .
US @-@ 62 / 64 split up in Muskogee , where US @-@ 62 briefly shares pavement with US @-@ 69 . On the east side of town , it has an interchange with the Muskogee Turnpike / SH @-@ 165 freeway . Near Ft . Gibson , US @-@ 62 begins to concur with State Highway 10 , and the two routes stay joined through Tahlequah . US @-@ 62 starts to overlap State Highway 51 in Tahlequah as well ; the two highways split up near Eldon . The route enters Adair County near Proctor . It intersects with US @-@ 59 in Westville before US @-@ 62 crosses the state line into Arkansas .
= = History = =
When US @-@ 62 first appeared on the state highway map in 1930 , it had the same basic routing as it did today . In 1930 , most of the highway was of gravel or earthen construction . The only portions of the highway that were paved were from Chickasha to Tabler , from Newcastle to Oklahoma City and Meeker , from Okemah to Morris , and from just south of the US @-@ 64 junction to Fort Gibson . By 1948 , the entire stretch of US @-@ 62 through Oklahoma had been paved .
= = = Oklahoma City routing = = =
On 1950 @-@ 03 @-@ 06 , US @-@ 62 was rerouted through Oklahoma City . US @-@ 62 followed Newcastle Boulevard into the city and turned eastbound onto S.E. 29th Street , which it followed to Robinson Avenue . It then turned north onto Robinson , which was also US @-@ 77 , towards downtown . Through downtown , US @-@ 62 followed Robinson , while US @-@ 77 paralleled it one block to the east on Broadway . At N.E. 23rd Street , US @-@ 62 turned east , concurring with US @-@ 270 , US @-@ 66 CITY , and the second State Highway 1 . US @-@ 77 also ran along 23rd Street from Broadway to Lincoln Boulevard , where it split off to the north , along with US @-@ 66 CITY . US @-@ 62 / 270 / SH @-@ 1 then continued along 23rd Street to Spencer .
US @-@ 62 was realigned once again on April 6 , 1955 .
US @-@ 62 was realigned for a third time on September 4 , 1961 . This routing was only meant to be temporary , following Agnew , Exchange , and Reno Avenues to downtown . This change was followed up by the September 4 , 1963 rerouting , which put US @-@ 62 onto its present @-@ day routing ( though I @-@ 240 did not exist yet , and I @-@ 44 still ended at I @-@ 35 ) .
= = Junction list = =
= David Jacobs ( table tennis ) =
Dian David Michael Jacobs ( born 21 June 1977 ) , commonly referred to as David Jacobs , is an Indonesian athlete who competes in table tennis , currently Class 10 para table tennis . Born in Ujung Pandang , he took up table tennis at the age of ten and rose quickly through national tournaments . He was training to play internationally by 2000 , and in 2001 he won his first gold medal , at the SEATTA Games in Singapore . Since 2010 he has competed in para table tennis , having spent most of his career competing against athletes with full functionality . He competed in the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , winning a bronze medal .
= = Early life = =
Jacobs was born in Ujung Pandang ( now Makassar ) on 21 June 1977 . He is of Ambonese descent . He began playing table tennis at age ten , with the support of his parents Jan and Nell , as well as his brothers Rano , Piere , and Joe ; as of 2012 his three brothers also play table tennis . In 1989 his parents registered him with the PTP Club in Semarang ; in his two years with the club he became a national champion at the elementary @-@ school level .
When Jacobs was ready to begin his junior high school , the family moved to Jakarta . Jacobs was signed with UMS 80 Club . He continued to improve and joined the provincial team . In 1997 he was sent to Beijing to train at the Shi Cha Hai Sports School . By 2000 Jacobs was already being prepared to compete at the international level by the Indonesian Table Tennis Association . As of January 2012 Jacobs is married to Jeanny Palar , with whom he has one child .
= = Table tennis career = =
While earning a degree in management from the Perbanas School of Economics , Jacobs continued training . He participated in his first Southeast Asian Games ( SEA Games ) in 2001 . Together with Yon Mardiono , in 2001 Jacobs won Indonesia 's only gold medal at the SEATTA table tennis championship in Singapore . In the men 's doubles competition they defeated the Thai duo Phucong Sanguansin and Phakphoom Sanguansin in three matches , scoring 11 @-@ 4 , 11 @-@ 4 , and 11 @-@ 6 . Paired with Mardiono for the first time for this tournament , Jacobs told The Jakarta Post that they " were determined not to let ourselves be dominated " .
Jacobs continued to play at the SEA Games , competing in Vietnam ( 2003 ) , the Philippines ( 2005 ) , and Thailand ( 2007 ) . He won the 2004 Pekan Olahraga Nasional competition for table tennis , which led to him receiving an honorary position at the Department of Sport ; he became a full @-@ time employee there in 2008 . In 2008 , Jacobs served as a coach for the Indonesian men 's table tennis team , and in 2009 he competed at the SEA Games in Kuala Lumpur .
= = Para table tennis career = =
Jacobs began playing in para table tennis tournaments later that year , becoming a member of the National Paralympic Committee in 2010 . He competes in Class 10 , which is the highest level of functionality in the system . He usually trains with opponents who maintain full functionality . Jacobs himself has a problem with one of his hands .
At the 2010 Asian Para Games in Guangzhou , China , Jacobs won a bronze medal . Before the competition he had only a month to train . He competed in several international tournaments , winning a gold in Thailand , silver in Beijing , bronze in the Czech Republic , silver in the United Kingdom , and gold in Taiwan . At the 2011 ASEAN ParaGames in Surakarta , Jacobs won seven gold medals : men 's singles ( open ) , men 's doubles ( open ) , mixed doubles ( open ) , men 's doubles , mixed doubles , team , and single . In January of the following year Jacobs took on Indonesian president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono in a three @-@ game series . Although the president won one game with a score of 13 @-@ 11 , Jacobs took the series , winning two games with the scores 11 @-@ 7 and 11 @-@ 9 . After the competition , Yudhoyono gave a speech of the need to support Indonesia 's disabled athletes .
In March 2012 Jacobs won two gold medals at the Protour Paratable Tennis Liknano Open in Italy . In the men 's singles he defeated Ivan Karavec of the Czech Republic with a score of 11 @-@ 9 , 11 @-@ 7 , and 11 @-@ 8 , while in the men 's team play he was paired with Komet Akbar and defeated teams from the Netherlands and Czech Republic . In June he won the Slovakian Table Tennis Tournament , ranking him among the top three in the world .
Jacobs is one of several athletes who represented Indonesia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , with Ni Nengah Widiasih ( powerlifting ) , the swimmer Agus Ngaimin , and an athletics competitor , Setyo Budi Hartanto . Jacobs won the bronze medal in the Table Tennis Men 's Individual C10 classification . It was the nation 's first Paralympic medal in over twenty years .
= My Life with Master =
My Life with Master is an independently published role @-@ playing game written by Paul Czege and published by Half Meme Press ( it was first released at the 2003 Gen Con gaming convention ) . My Life with Master is a game about role @-@ playing the servants or minions of an evil Master or Mistress .
The game is still in print ( as of May 2012 ) , and is available in printed book format or as a PDF file download from the publisher .
= = Gameplay = =
The prototypical setting of the role @-@ playing game is in an unspecified Central European country in the early 19th century . Players in the game portray the Igor @-@ like minions of an evil Master ( or Mistress ) who preys on the nearby Townsfolk .
Like most role @-@ playing games , there is a Gamemaster ( GM ) . In this case the GM plays the part of the Master . However , the GM and players together are supposed to " design " the Master , in terms of defining his " Wants " , " Needs " , " Aspect " , and " Type " . These traits have no explicit mechanical effect , but are used to define the desires and mannerisms of the Master and how he interacts with the Townsfolk and his minions . Masters have two game statistics , " Fear " ( a measure of his power over minions ) and " Reason " ( how much minions and Townsfolk can resist the Master 's control over them ) .
In contrast , the Master 's minions , the characters portrayed by the players , are defined ( in terms of game statistics ) by their levels of " Weariness " and " Self @-@ loathing " , and the connections of " Love " that they have ( successfully or unsuccessfully ) tried to make with the Townsfolk . Self @-@ loathing is a measure of the power that a minion has to intimidate the Townsfolk , while Weariness limits their abilities to complete their tasks . Love allows minions to resist their Master and his demands on them .
Gameplay is generally resolved through a series of " scenes " . A player describes what their minion is trying to do , be it carrying out their Master 's wishes or trying to resist him , interacting with the Townsfolk , attempting an act of Love ( which could result in increasing their " Love " trait , or increasing their " Self @-@ loathing " if the attempt fails ) , etc . A series of dice rolls are used to determine success or failure , and then the scene is played out according to that outcome .
Unlike other role @-@ playing games that may have long campaigns , My Life with Master games are typically designed to end after a small number of playing sessions . As one reviewer stated , My Life with Master " strives to tell a story , and stories have endings . " Usually , a game culminates with the death of the Master at the hands of one ( or more ) of his minions . Sometimes , the Master dies because the Townsfolk are " sick of his predations " and " storm his domicile -- pitchforks in hand and torches aflame " . Some or all of the players ' characters might also meet their end in the hands of the Townsfolk , or the Master kills them as they try to resist his commands and suffer the consequences of their failure .
= = Critical reception = =
My Life with Master won the 2004 Diana Jones Award . In addition , it also won the 2003 Out of the Box Award for Best Sui Generis RPG and the 2003 Indie Roleplaying Game of the Year .
Steve Darlington , in his review , stated that " even if you never play this game , you will be smarter simply for having read it " since " it quickly becomes hard to distinguish [ Czege 's ] choice of attributes from a high @-@ level academic deconstruction of the character tropes in gothic horror films at a level which could easily be found on a college reading list . " He also said that it is " one of the very few horror games that may actually need disclaimers , and maybe even safe words too " for its " darker subtext " about escaping from abusive relationships .
According to Heather Barnhorst " Czege writes with wit and doesn 't fear to let his understanding of game theory shine through . Colin Theriot 's illustrations evoke exactly the right mood for the setting and are enjoyable as stand @-@ alone art . "
Reviewer Matthew Pook warned that " Despite the simplicity of the [ game ] mechanics ... they are not as clearly written as they need to be ... The GM will need to make a close read of the otherwise well @-@ written text to help grasp how the outcome of a scene will alter a minion 's statistics . " He concluded his review stating " although not going to be everyone 's cup of tea , My Life With Master is the most interesting roleplaying game released this year [ 2003 ] and perhaps the most challenging . "
Game designer Greg Costikyan has praised My Life with Master for the way it " evokes emotions and feelings rare in games " , and considers it to work in part because the Gothic horror theme has " a defined narrative arc : hubris and terror , followed by a fall " .
= Internet Watch Foundation and Wikipedia =
On 5 December 2008 , the Internet Watch Foundation ( IWF ) , a British watchdog group , blacklisted content on the English Wikipedia related to Scorpions ' 1976 studio album Virgin Killer , due to the presence of its controversial cover artwork , depicting a young girl posing nude , with a faux glass shatter obscuring her genitalia . The image was deemed to be " potentially illegal content " under English law which forbids the possession or creation of indecent photographs of children . The IWF 's blacklist are used in web filtering systems such as Cleanfeed .
The URL to the image 's description page , which depicts the cover art , was also blacklisted ; however thumbnails and the image itself remained accessible . The album cover had been deemed controversial at the time of its release , and was replaced in some markets with an alternate cover image featuring a photo of the band members . The IWF described the image as " a potentially illegal indecent image of a child under the age of 18 " . Wikipedia 's policies state that it does not censor content " that some readers consider objectionable or offensive , even exceedingly so " , although it does remove content that is " obviously inappropriate " , violates other Wikipedia policies , or is illegal in the United States .
As well as the direct consequence of censoring the article and image for UK @-@ based readers of the English Wikipedia through the affected ISPs ( a censoring that could be circumvented ) , and that the album cover was being made available unfiltered on other major sites including Amazon.co.uk ( from which it was later removed ) , and available for sale in the UK , the action also had some indirect effects on Wikipedia , namely temporarily preventing all editors using said ISPs in the UK from contributing to any page of the encyclopaedia , and preventing anonymous edits from these ISPs while the URL remained on the blacklist . This was described by the IWF as unintended " collateral damage " . This was due to the proxies used to access Wikipedia , as Wikipedia implements a blocking policy whereby contributors can be blocked if they vandalise the encyclopaedia . Therefore , all vandalism coming from one ISP would be directed through one proxy — hence one IP — and all of the ISP 's customers using that proxy would be barred from editing .
After invoking its appeals procedure and reviewing the situation , the IWF reversed their blacklisting of the page on 9 December 2008 , and announced that they would not blacklist other copies of the image hosted outside the UK .
= = Background = =
The album art of the Scorpions ' album Virgin Killer , featuring a young girl fully nude with a " smashed glass " effect covering her genitalia , was deemed controversial at the time of its release . The cover was replaced in some markets with an alternate cover image featuring a photo of the band members . RCA Records refused to sell the controversial album cover in the United States . The cover was not the only Scorpions ' cover which caused controversy however , as the covers for Taken by Force and Lovedrive have also caused controversy with their content .
In the United Kingdom , access to illegal content ( such as child pornography ) was strictly self @-@ regulated by individual internet service providers . This began when BT Group introduced Cleanfeed , a server @-@ side filtering system which uses data obtained from the Internet Watch Foundation . The IWF is a Quango organisation that operates a website where users can report web pages containing illegal or dubious content to be added to their blacklists . This was implemented in order to prevent users from accessing this material , since it is illegal to possess an indecent image of a child under the age of 18 per the Protection of Children Act . British ISPs were later obligated by the government to implement filters for illegal content by the beginning of 2007 .
= = Addition to IWF blacklist = =
On 5 December 2008 the Internet Watch Foundation added the Wikipedia URLs for the Virgin Killer article and the description page of the image to its blacklist . After the blacklisting , users of major UK ISPs , including BT , Vodafone , Virgin Media / Tesco.net , Be / O2 , EasyNet / UK Online / Sky Broadband , Orange , Demon , and TalkTalk ( Opal Telecom ) , were unable to access the content .
Sarah Robertson , director of communications for the IWF , said that the image was rated " 1 on a scale of 1 to 5 , where 1 is the least offensive " . She described the picture as " erotic posing with no sexual activity " . While the image itself has not been flagged as " illegal " , IWF determined it to be a " potentially illegal indecent image of a child under the age of 18 " .
The IWF said they were first notified of the Wikipedia URL on 4 December 2008 . This followed the May 2008 reporting of the cover image on Wikipedia by U.S.-based social conservative site WorldNetDaily to the Federal Bureau of Investigation . An officer of the Concerned Women for America , a conservative Christian advocacy group , commented , " By allowing that image to remain posted , Wikipedia is helping to further facilitate perversion and paedophilia " . EContent magazine subsequently reported that the discussion page associated with the article declared " Prior discussion has determined by broad consensus that the Virgin Killer cover will not be removed " , and asserted that Wikipedia contributors " favour inclusion in all but the most extreme cases " . However , according to The Guardian because " the IWF doesn 't talk to people outside of the UK they weren 't able to appreciate what was going on " . Internet security expert Richard Clayton explained that " We see this borderline stuff all the time ; it 's a no @-@ win " , before adding that the decision seems to have been based on taking the image out of context , particularly " given that you can go into HMV and buy a copy on the high street " . On 9 December 2008 the IWF reversed its blacklist of the Wikipedia pages on the basis of the " contextual issues involved in this specific case and , in light of the length of time the image has existed and its wide availability " .
= = Effects on Wikipedia = =
The blacklisting of Virgin Killer also caused other inadvertent issues for Wikipedia users in the United Kingdom . Usually most Internet users have a unique IP address visible to websites . However , as a result of ISPs using the IWF blacklist implemented through Cleanfeed technology , traffic to Wikipedia via those affected ISPs was then routed through a small number of proxy servers . This caused problems for users of the site . Since Wikipedia allows users to anonymously edit its encyclopaedia articles , these individuals are identified only through their IP addresses , which are used to selectively block users who vandalise the site or otherwise break its rules . The proxy filtering makes it impossible to uniquely distinguish users , and to prevent vandalism Wikipedia " instituted a blanket ban on anonymous edits from the six ISPs , which account for 95 % of British residential internet users " . This had the immediate effect of requiring nearly all registered users in the UK to request the lifting of IP Autoblocks on their accounts before they could edit again , and the de facto permanent effect of barring any contribution from people without user accounts on the site , who contribute merely under an IP address and not a user name .
The MediaWiki software that Wikipedia runs on can interpret X @-@ Forwarded @-@ For ( XFF ) headers , allowing Wikipedia to identify a user 's main IP address rather than the proxy IP address , allowing the ability to block proxy users individually by their client 's IP rather than the proxy server IP ( avoiding the need to block the whole proxy due to the actions of a single user ) . However , none of the ISPs subscribing to this system pass XFF information to Wikipedia , having the impact of reversing the normal method of identification and blocking on Wikipedia . IP addresses assumed to be assigned to an individual person or organisation were assigned instead to millions of people and thousands of registered editors . Wikipedia servers saw them all as the IP of the proxy rather than each as the IP of their own machine .
Due to erroneous use of Border Gateway Protocol ( BGP ) and other routing technology to redirect the connections to the filtering proxies , users of some networks were temporarily prevented from accessing or editing any content hosted by Wikimedia , a problem reminiscent of Pakistan 's accidental blocking of YouTube for much of the world instead of only their own citizens .
= = Responses = =
On 7 December 2008 , the Wikimedia Foundation , a non @-@ profit organisation which supports Wikipedia , issued a press release about the blacklisting of their sites by the IWF stating that they had " no reason to believe the article , or the image contained in the article , has been held to be illegal in any jurisdiction anywhere in the world " , and noting that not just the image but the article itself had been blocked .
On 9 December 2008 , Jimmy Wales , who holds the board @-@ appointed " community founder " seat on the Wikimedia Board of Trustees , told the UK 's Channel 4 News that he had briefly considered legal action . After the block had been removed , Mike Godwin , general counsel for the Wikimedia Foundation , stated " there is still plenty to be troubled by in the operations of the Internet Watch Foundation and its blacklist " .
On 9 December 2008 , the IWF rescinded the block , issuing the following statement :
[ ... ] the image in question is potentially in breach of the Protection of Children Act 1978 . However , the IWF Board has today ( 9 December 2008 ) considered these findings and the contextual issues involved in this specific case and , in light of the length of time the image has existed and its wide availability , the decision has been taken to remove this webpage from our list .
= = Aftermath = =
The incident was commented in some countries implementing or considering to implement Internet filtering or censorship plans . In Australia , Electronic Frontiers Australia vice @-@ chairman Colin Jacobs said that " [ the ] incident in Britain , in which virtually the entire country was unable to edit Wikipedia because the country 's Internet Watch Foundation had blacklisted a single image on the site , illustrated the pitfalls of mandatory ISP filtering " . The Sydney Morning Herald has commented that " Ironically , the banning of the image has only made it visible to more people as news sites publicise the issue and the image spreads across sites other than Wikipedia . " an example of the Streisand effect .
At the time of the incident Amazon US were also displaying the image on their site and the IWF stated that it " might yet add Amazon US to its list of ' blocked ' sites for hosting the picture " ; however , Amazon subsequently took the decision to remove the image from their site . In an impact study preparing a bill dealing with cybercrime , the Cabinet of France listed the Virgin Killer block as an example of indiscriminate filtering .
The Electronic Frontier Foundation criticised the IWF 's reasoning :
We agree with their decision [ to reverse the ban ] , but they have the wrong reasoning [ for the reversal ] : they had no business censoring that article in the first place — the community of Wikipedia editors is if anything the more legitimate , reliable and grown @-@ up adjudicator of which images are appropriate subject matter for an encyclopaedia .
The IWF continues to assert that the image is indeed child porn , and asserts that the image would be blocked if it were on a British server .
= Window of Opportunity ( Stargate SG @-@ 1 ) =
" Window of Opportunity " is the sixth episode from season 4 of the science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 , and first aired on the American subscription channel Showtime on August 4 , 2000 . The episode is based on a time loop scenario , with SG @-@ 1 team members Colonel O 'Neill and Teal 'c repeatedly reliving the same ten hours after a mission on a planet . Since the rest of their team and all personnel at Stargate Command are unaware of the happenings and do not remember the time resets , O 'Neill and Teal 'c are forced to find a solution on their own .
Penned by Joseph Mallozzi and Paul Mullie , " Window of Opportunity " was the writing duo 's second script , and their first episode to air . Mallozzi and Mullie later became executive producers of both Stargate SG @-@ 1 and Stargate Atlantis . The episode 's unique story style caused an unexpected shortage of footage during filming , which director Peter DeLuise compensated for by shooting additional scenes , many of which were humorous . " Window of Opportunity " is widely regarded as a fan favorite .
= = Plot = =
On a mission on P4X @-@ 639 , a planet experiencing strong solar activity , the SG @-@ 1 team encounters an alien archaeologist named Malikai ( Robin Mossley ) . When a geomagnetic disturbance hits its peak , the Stargate activates simultaneously on the planet and on Earth , and a flash strikes Malikai , Colonel O 'Neill ( Richard Dean Anderson ) and Teal 'c ( Christopher Judge ) near an Ancient altar . Moments later , O 'Neill finds himself in the Stargate Command ( SGC ) cafeteria in the middle of a breakfast conversation with Dr. Daniel Jackson ( Michael Shanks ) and Major Carter ( Amanda Tapping ) , who claim to have no knowledge of the planet . O 'Neill and Teal 'c later express familiarity with the events , and they are checked and certified to be in perfect health . Before SG @-@ 1 can resume their planned mission to the planet , an unscheduled offworld activation of the Earth Stargate , accompanied by flashes , transports O 'Neill back to breakfast .
While the events at the SGC repeat themselves , Daniel makes first progress in the translation of writings in the photos of the ancient altar . SG @-@ 1 return to the planet where Malikai lets slip he too remembers what 's happening , but O 'Neill finds himself back at breakfast before the altar 's activation can be stopped . With the help of O 'Neill 's and Teal 'c's explanations , Carter devises a plan to break the time loop by preventing an incoming wormhole , which fails . Meanwhile , Daniel attempts to translate the altar 's writing loop after loop , but his memory is reset each time along with everyone else 's , and he cannot possibly translate it all within just a few hours . Ultimately , O 'Neill and Teal 'c realize the only solution is to learn and remember the alien language themselves . After many loops of teaching , Daniel makes an offhand remark about events that occur during each loop having no consequences once the loop is over , which inspires O 'Neill and Teal 'c to indulge in wildly outrageous behavior as a means of dealing with the boredom and frustration of being caught in repeating time . The pair play golf through the active Stargate ( much to General Hammond 's irritation in at least one loop ) , Teal 'c takes action against the painful starts of his loops by slamming the door back in the face of the airman who accidentally hit him with it in the beginning of each loop , O 'Neill tries pottery @-@ making ( clearly improving with each progressive loop ) , bicycles through the base , and just before the end of one loop , resigns from the Air Force whilst wearing an outrageous sweatshirt for the sole purpose of grabbing Carter and kissing her in the seconds before the loop resets .
After what is later believed to have been at least three months , Daniel is finally able to reconstruct the planet 's history with the finished translations : the Ancients had attempted to escape a mysterious plague by building a time machine but never got it to work properly . Upon returning to the planet , SG @-@ 1 learn of the death of Malikai 's wife , whom Malikai wants to visit in the past with the help of the time machine . O 'Neill 's experience of his son 's death convinces Malikai to shut down the device before yet another new loop can start . Back at the SGC , O 'Neill , Carter , and Daniel have their first breakfast after the loops , and O 'Neill answers Daniel 's question about unusual activities in the loops with a long look at Carter .
= = Production = =
" Window of Opportunity " was the second Stargate SG @-@ 1 script by Joseph Mallozzi and Paul Mullie , and their first episode to air . The writing duo 's first script , " Scorched Earth " , would air three episodes later . Choosing " Ad Infinitum " as the episode 's working title , Mallozzi and Mullie originally pitched " Window of Opportunity " as a darker story from the finished episode . SG @-@ 1 would encounter a world whose scientists work feverishly on preventing an imminent apocalypse , but after being unable to find a solution in time , they initiate a time loop that would trap the SG @-@ 1 team . Executive producer Brad Wright however noted the similarities to the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " Cause and Effect " , and writer Robert C. Cooper suggested a lighter direction similar to the feature film Groundhog Day , which O 'Neill would briefly reference in the episode . To simplify continuity in the shooting process , Brad Wright encouraged chaos @-@ theory @-@ type fluctuations in the story as early as in the episode 's concept meeting . Director Peter DeLuise asked the prop department to glue the Froot Loops to O 'Neill 's breakfast spoon to have the same loops in the same spots in each take .
According to Paul Mullie , having Froot Loops as O 'Neill 's breakfast was not scripted , and he is unsure if the loop reference was intentional . This was contradicted by Script coordinator Cath @-@ Anne Ambrose who said " I had to get Fruit Loops cleared [ by the company that makes them ] , and so the guy calls me back and says , ' Well how do you feel about Eggo Waffles ? Would you consider using Eggo Waffles instead of Fruit Loops ? ' So I go to these guys [ the writing department ] and ask , ' How do you feel about waffles ? ' And they 're like , ' No ! It 's Fruit Loops ! It 's a time loop ! No ! ' Waffle sales were down . "
The off @-@ world scenes were filmed on an interior sound stage , using occasional lens flares and off @-@ camera fans to simulate weather . A matte painting by the in @-@ house visual effects department later served as a sky replacement for the used greenscreen . The Vancouver @-@ based company GDFX was responsible for almost all visual effects shots , some of which were re @-@ used within the episode to save money . Other visual effects clips were re @-@ used from previous episodes . " Window of Opportunity " was the first episode to feature a rear @-@ screen projection in the briefing room . To speed up the shooting process , scenes were filmed in thematic blocks instead of in a story @-@ chronological order , and short sequences were re @-@ used to help the audience with a visual recall in new scenes . Sound effects were later added to give the wooden altar prop the impression of being made of stone .
It became evident by the third day of production that the episode was going to run significantly short , partly caused by the time @-@ efficient filming style . The scene in which Daniel informs Jack and Teal 'c of the opportunity to do whatever they like , was a late pitch by Brad Wright , who had also had the idea for some time to show someone golfing through the Stargate . Preliminary discussions about computer @-@ generating the golf ball to not break the US $ 100 @,@ 000 Stargate prop were later overturned , and the actors used a real golf ball . Many of the other humorous scenes in " Window of Opportunity " were improvised on set during filming . With juggling being one of Richard Dean Anderson 's earlier careers , director Peter DeLuise filmed the juggling sequence in a last effort to fill the episode 's time slot . " Window of Opportunity " has no deleted scenes .
As the first episodes of season 4 addressed the attraction between O 'Neill and Carter , its after @-@ effects were chosen to be still noticeable in " Window of Opportunity " . The progressing frustration of Teal 'c , " the man of infinite patience " , is shown by his Kel 'no 'reem 'ing ( a fictional meditational state ) during the briefing . The episode 's main guest star was Robin Mossley as Malikai ; Mossley would play a different character in the season 10 episode " Morpheus " . Several crew members make cameo appearances in " Window of Opportunity " . Nicole Forrest , the show 's head of accounting and director Peter Woeste 's wife , appears as Malikai 's wife on a photographic device . One of Anderson 's stand @-@ ins on SG @-@ 1 , Bill Nikolai , plays the technician in O 'Neill 's bicycle scene . Director Peter DeLuise briefly appears as an airman who helps Daniel recover from being repeatedly knocked down by Sgt. Siler in each loop . Siler himself is played by stunt coordinator Dan Shea . The name of writer Joseph Mallozzi appears as the author of the book that O 'Neill and Teal 'c use to study the Ancient language .
= = Reception = =
In his book Approaching the Possible , Jo Storm saw the episode 's title hinting at an " inevitable " story line about the sexual tension between O 'Neill and Carter that has been looming since the beginning of the series . The characters " break [ ing ] the rules of conduct for their jobs " ( fraternization ) made the episode " seem completely unnatural " , while it allowed the writers to explore possibilities in the narrative . Jo Storm also credited the writers for breaking the " boring " convention of getting either only one or all teammembers caught in a time loop . The producers enjoyed having O 'Neill and Teal 'c instead of the usual intellectual combination of Carter and Daniel solve the puzzle . Peter DeLuise regarded the episode as " funnier " and " more lighthearted " than usual episodes .
A season 4 DVD review by digitallyobsessed.com gave " Window of Opportunity " 4 out of 5 points , calling it an " enjoyable " , " charming " , and " unique " episode and " one of the series ' most entertaining stories " . Other reviewers found the episode " hilarious " and " a fine example of SG @-@ 1 at its humorous best " . The 2000 XPosé Yearbook ranked " Window of Opportunity " as the second @-@ best episode of science fiction television in the year 2000 . A sampling of fan opinions on space.com in 2001 showed the episode as a " clear favorite " . In a fan poll conducted in 2007 on the Sci @-@ Fi Channel 's website , " Window of Opportunity " was voted the " best episode ever " out of thirty @-@ two preselected Stargate SG @-@ 1 episodes , and the majority of participants in a 2007 SG @-@ 1 fan poll on MSN Canada named the episode their " favorite of all time . "
= Black River National Forest Scenic Byway =
The Black River National Forest Scenic Byway is a National Forest Scenic Byway that runs along the Black River in the Ottawa National Forest in the U.S. state of Michigan . The byway follows County Road 513 ( CR 513 ) through Gogebic County in the Upper Peninsula . As a county road , it is maintained jointly by the Gogebic County Road Commission ( GCRC ) with assistance from the U.S. Forest Service ( USFS ) . The byway provides access to several waterfalls and other visitor attractions in the area . The route of the byway first existed as a wagon road in the 1840s and as a county road in the 1920s . The byway designation was instituted on June 20 , 1992 , and the byway was dedicated later that year .
= = Route description = =
While CR 513 ( Black River Road ) extends further south to connect with US Highway 2 near Bessemer , the National Forest Scenic Byway designation starts at the intersection with CR 204 ( Airport Road ) west of the Gogebic @-@ Iron County Airport and north of the Big Powderhorn Mountain . From this southern starting point , the roadway runs northward along the Black River through the Ottawa National Forest . CR 513 runs along the western side of the river , staying shy of the banks as it passes through the woods . The woods through which the roadway passes contain pine , hemlock and hardwood trees . The Royal Palm Ranch , a nationally known equestrian school is located along the road on 100 acres ( 40 ha ) of land next to the river . The byway curves away from the river near Copper Peak , the tallest ski flying hill in the world . The 18 @-@ story facility allows visitors on clear enough days to see 85 miles ( 137 km ) in the distance to places like Minnesota , Isle Royale and Canada .
North of Copper Peak , the road once again roughly parallels the river , but staying away from the river 's course . The road provides access to five sets of waterfalls . The first is Great Conglomerate Falls , followed by Potawatomi , Gorge , Sandstone and Rainbow falls . The falls are connected to the road by four separate hiking trails . The byway continues past these landmarks before terminating at Black River Harbor . The harbor is the site of a 1920s fishing village , one of only two harbors in the National Forest System . The area was also host to three taverns built by the Civilian Conservation Corps during the Great Depression and a pedestrian suspension bridge used by the North Country Trail to cross the mouth of the river .
= = History = =
According to the surveys of William A. Burt in 1848 , a wagon road ran south from the modern site of the Black River Harbor to Chippewa Hill , the location of Copper Peak . A wagon road was built by the State of Michigan in 1904 to connect the waterfront with Bessemer . The county had purchased the land around the waterfront in 1924 for a park , and a county road running parallel to the Black River was in place by 1927 . The residents of the fishing village were forced to move and settled at Black River Village . The roadway was improved to a gravel surface by 1930 , and fully paved in late 1949 or early 1950 . In 1967 , the Gogebic County exchanged the park land along the river , including the harbor , with the USFS for other land in the area , and the harbor has been under federal maintenance since . Local officials originally proposed the National Forest Scenic Byway designation for the road in April 1991 . The desire was to " showcase a special part of the National Forest " and boost tourism to the area , according to the park ranger in charge of handling the application . The designation was conferred by the USFS on June 20 , 1992 , with a dedication ceremony on September 19 that year .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire road is in Ironwood Township , Gogebic County .
= 2009 Giro d 'Italia =
The 2009 Giro d 'Italia was the 92nd running of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . It was held from 9 to 31 May 2009 , and marked the 100th year since the first edition of the race . Starting in Venice and finishing in Rome , 22 teams competed over 21 stages .
The Giro was raced on a unique path through Italy , taking the peloton to some historic cities and towns in Italian cycling . Though the route lacked any well @-@ known , storied climbs , the many intermediate and mountain stages in the second and third weeks of the race proved deceptively difficult . The 10th and the 16th stages were both called the race 's queen stage , as both contained multiple difficult mountain climbs .
Riders protested during the ninth stage , a criterium in Milan . This protest was nominally about the overall safety conditions of the stage , and was sparked by life @-@ threatening injuries sustained by Pedro Horrillo the day before . In the protest , riders declined to contest the stage except for a final sprint finish , a decision that proved controversial with race organizers and fans .
Denis Menchov won the race , having taken the lead in a long time trial in stage 12 , and defended vigorously against attacks by his closest challenger , Danilo Di Luca , during the mountain stages of the final week . Di Luca came in second , 41 seconds behind the winner , and won the mauve jersey as points classification winner . Subsequent to the Giro , both he and third @-@ place finisher Franco Pellizotti became embroiled in doping scandals , were given bans , and had their results stripped .
= = Teams = =
Twenty @-@ two teams were announced for the Giro . These included fifteen ProTour teams , and seven Professional Continental teams . Three ProTour teams did not wish to participate , and were thus not invited : Cofidis , Euskaltel – Euskadi , and Française des Jeux . Conversely , the organizers of the race originally declined to invite Fuji – Servetto , but changed this decision on 23 April , inviting them as the Giro 's 22nd and final team . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , so the Giro began with a peloton of 198 cyclists .
The 22 teams that took part in the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The Astana team did not include 2008 race champion Alberto Contador , who chose not to defend his championship , but did include Lance Armstrong , who had recently returned from retirement . Though his appearance was put in doubt after he crashed out of stage 1 of the Vuelta a Castilla y León and broke his collarbone , Armstrong announced on 16 April that he would start the Giro despite undergoing surgery for his injury . Silence – Lotto star Cadel Evans was originally announced to be taking part in the Giro , but he publicly announced shortly afterward that he would not ride it , and accused RCS Sport ( the organizers of the race ) of using his name to promote the event . Contador and Evans both chose to focus on the Tour de France later in the season .
Many riders were named as contenders , including Ivan Basso , Levi Leipheimer , Armstrong , Damiano Cunego , Carlos Sastre , Gilberto Simoni , Danilo Di Luca , Marzio Bruseghin , and Denis Menchov . Before his collarbone injury , Armstrong was considered an overall favorite , and it was also noted that three time trials , including the insertion of an unusually long time trial mid @-@ race , might favor him . Pre @-@ race analysis noted that Armstrong , when on his best form , would be a rider very likely to gain from having such a long race against the clock included in the Giro .
Former winner Stefano Garzelli named Leipheimer as the favorite , as did some American media outlets . Armstrong considered Basso to be the favorite when speaking about the Giro in December 2008 . Other news outlets also referred to Basso as the pre @-@ race favorite .
Only a small number of stages were expected to end in a sprint , barring a successful breakaway . Sprinters in the event included Mark Cavendish , Alessandro Petacchi , Allan Davis , Filippo Pozzato , Robert Hunter , Robert Förster , Tyler Farrar , Juan José Haedo , and Oscar Gatto .
= = Route and stages = =
The first Giro d 'Italia was held in 1909 , and the 2009 route was designed to commemorate the 100th anniversary , though interruptions due to World War I and World War II meant this was only the 92nd race . Milan , which had for years been the city in which the Giro concluded , was the site of a ten @-@ lap criterium on the same circuit that began the first Giro d 'Italia . Every city that hosted a stage start or finish in the first Giro was visited in 2009 with the exception of Genoa , although Arenzano ( in the province of Genoa ) hosted the finish to stage 11 . The 11th stage also went over the Passo del Turchino , a climb used every year in the classic cycling race Milan – San Remo .
The tenth stage was planned to mimic stage 17 of the 1949 Giro d 'Italia , which was won by Italian cycling legend Fausto Coppi en route to the overall victory . That route originally included the Col d 'Izoard , a climb in France which has been featured in the Tour de France numerous times . Race organizers were forced to alter this stage to cover only the Italian side of the Alps rather than also visit France , as there were concerns over radio communication in the area , and the roads stood the risk of landslides . It was subsequently made longer than first planned , with an additional , shorter climb added . Stages 10 and 16 , the latter of which went over Monte Petrano and two other first @-@ category climbs , were both called the race 's queen stage .
The route received a small amount of criticism for failing to include any well @-@ known and especially difficult climbs such as the Passo del Mortirolo or Monte Zoncolan , instead including stages featuring multiple climbs with lesser ascents . Race director Angelo Zomegnan responded to the criticism by saying , " I won 't follow the philosophy that the selection of climbs has to be determined by their names . "
The 21 stages of the 2009 Giro d 'Italia were divided into five categories : one team time trial , seven flat stages , four intermediate stages , seven mountain stages and two individual time trials . The type of stage together with the average speed of the winner decided how much time each cyclist would be allowed to finish that stage before being eliminated from the race .
= = Race overview = =
The Giro began with a team time trial in Lido , a barrier island in the city of Venice . The starting order of the teams was decided by a random draw . Team Columbia – High Road , the first team to take the course , won the stage , giving their star sprinter Mark Cavendish the first pink jersey as leader of the race . Cavendish was defeated in a sprint finish the following day by Italian Alessandro Petacchi , who was riding for the LPR Brakes – Farnese Vini team . Petacchi became the next wearer of the pink jersey , after he won the Stage 3 sprint into Valdobbiadene . Cavendish went on to win three mass @-@ start stages , but Team Columbia – High Road 's success was not limited to Cavendish 's victories nor the team time trial , as Edvald Boasson Hagen and Kanstantsin Sivtsov also took stage wins .
The first two high mountain stages of the Giro revealed the men who would battle for the overall race title . Danilo Di Luca of LPR Brakes – Farnese Vini took the win in Stage 4 , and put himself just 2 seconds off the pink jersey . The next day , he claimed the jersey , when he was second to stage winner Denis Menchov at Alpe di Siusi as an elite group of favorites emerged including Menchov , Di Luca , and others who had performed well on the climb and were in high places in the overall standings .
Menchov was fifth after Alpe di Siusi , but rose to second before stage 12 , the very long and hilly individual time trial in Cinque Terre . There , he claimed a convincing victory ; only Levi Leipheimer finished within a minute of Menchov 's winning time . Di Luca was nearly two minutes slower than him , finished sixth on the stage , and fell to second overall , with Menchov assuming the race lead . Di Luca tried repeatedly to shed Menchov during the remaining mountain stages to make up the time difference , which was never more than a minute . The two riders were involved in sprints for time bonuses at the finish line in stages 16 and 17 , as well as an intermediate sprint in stage 20 . Menchov was consistently quicker than Di Luca in these sprints . With his superior time @-@ trial skills providing the difference in the final stage , the Russian was able to emerge as Giro champion , despite a dramatic fall in the final kilometre before the finish line .
Stefano Garzelli was the winner of the mountains classification , gaining points for consistent high placings on the summit stage finishes , as well as a brief breakaway on the mountainous stage 10 . The points classification was won by Di Luca , after he finished in the top ten in eight of the road stages . The youth classification was won by Kevin Seeldraeyers , who remained consistent after Thomas Lövkvist lost nearly 25 minutes on stage 16 . Lövkvist had , for one day earlier in the race , led not just the youth but also the general classification .
Controversy arose during the ten @-@ lap Milan criterium of the ninth stage , when the riders staged a protest over what they viewed as unsafe riding conditions in that stage and those that preceded it . The most visible cause for the protest was Rabobank rider Pedro Horrillo 's accident during the eighth stage ; Horrillo sustained numerous fractures and head injuries after tumbling over a barricade on the roadside while descending the Culmine di San Pietro . Horrillo fell more than 60 m ( 200 ft ) , and nearly died as a result of his injuries . After spending five weeks in hospitals in both Italy and his native Spain , Horrillo eventually recovered , though the day on the Culmine di San Pietro was his last as a professional cyclist , as he retired before the 2010 season began .
The protest at first only involved the criterium being neutralized – that is , the race director agreed that each rider would receive the same finishing time as the stage winner regardless of when they actually crossed the line . After the riders rode a lap of the course , they decided instead not to contest the stage at all , riding the first six circuits 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) slower than previous stages . After four laps , they stopped altogether as race leader Di Luca addressed the unhappy crowd to explain their actions . The times for the stage did not count , and there was no aggressive riding until a final sprint finish . Along with Di Luca , Lance Armstrong was considered the principal voice speaking for the peloton on this day . Although the protest was referred to by some as " unanimous , " cyclists such as Filippo Pozzato , who was himself bearing injuries sustained in a crash that would later force him to leave the race , said the riders had been too hasty in their decision , and that it should have been made conclusively before the stage began . Armstrong apologized to the fans for the effect the protest had on what was supposed to be a grand spectacle , but also contended that it was the correct decision for the peloton to make .
Success in stages was limited to a few teams . Though there were nearly as many stages ( 21 ) as teams in the event ( 22 ) , only eight teams ultimately came away with stage victories . Six different riders won multiple stages – Cavendish , Petacchi , Menchov , Di Luca , Carlos Sastre , and Michele Scarponi . Teammates of Sastre , Scarponi and Cavendish were also stage winners ; Sastre 's Cervélo TestTeam provided the winners to stages 14 ( Simon Gerrans ) and 21 ( Ignatas Konovalovas ) , and Scarponi 's teammate Leonardo Bertagnolli was the winner of stage 15 . The only teams to be single stage winners were Liquigas with Franco Pellizotti in stage 17 , and Silence – Lotto with classics specialist Philippe Gilbert three days later in a stage thought to resemble a classic . Pellizotti was also the third @-@ place overall finisher . With wins for Quick Step 's Seeldraeyers in the youth classification , Garzelli of Acqua & Sapone in the climbers ' competition , and Astana in the Trofeo Fast Team ranking , 11 teams – half of the total entries – won significant prizes during the race .
= = = Aftermath = = =
About two months after the event concluded , on 22 July , it was announced that second place overall finisher and points classification winner Di Luca had given two positive tests for continuous erythropoietin receptor activator ( CERA , an erythropoietin derivative ) on 20 and 28 May , before the Cinque Terre time trial and the Mount Vesuvius stage in the race 's final week . He was provisionally suspended with immediate effect by the Union Cycliste Internationale ( UCI ) , cycling 's governing body . It was announced on 8 August that the analyses of the B @-@ samples from those controls confirmed the initial results , making it likely that Di Luca will be stripped of some or all of his results from the race . LPR Brakes – Farnese Vini fired him on 13 August . Di Luca at first maintained his innocence and claimed a conspiracy against him by the labs handling the tests . A period of legal maneuvering between Di Luca and the Italian National Olympic Committee ( CONI ) followed . CONI officials asked their anti @-@ doping tribunal ( TNA ) to suspend Di Luca for three years – while two years is a customary ban for a doping positive , CONI prosecutors sought a third year for recidivism , stemming from Di Luca 's previous doping incident two years earlier . He was given a two @-@ year suspension , retroactive to July 2009 , and indicated that he would appeal it to the Court of Arbitration for Sport . In October 2010 , Di Luca was reinstated to active status by CONI , due to his cooperation with several ongoing doping investigations , though his results were indeed stricken from the record . On 10 January 2011 , he signed with Team Katusha and indicated that he would return to the Giro in 2011 to support Katusha team leader Joaquim Rodríguez .
Five days before the start of the 2010 Giro d 'Italia , 2009 podium finisher Pellizotti was identified as a rider of interest to the UCI 's biological passport program due to irregular blood values . He was removed from his team 's start list for the Giro and provisionally suspended . The UCI asked that CONI open disciplinary proceedings against him , which had no resolution until after the 2010 season finished . TNA cleared him on 21 October and declared him free to race , at which time the Liquigas team intended to re @-@ sign him . The UCI decided in January 2011 to appeal his case to the CAS . The hearing was held in March , and Pellizotti asked for a quick resolution , with plans to return with Movistar Team in the 2011 Tirreno – Adriatico if he were cleared . The court reached its decision after five days , upholding the UCI 's appeal , handing Pellizotti a two @-@ year ban , and stripping all his results from this Giro and the 2009 Tour de France . Consequently , Pellizotti has said he is quitting the sport .
= = Classification leadership = =
In the 2009 Giro d 'Italia , four different jerseys were awarded . For the general classification , calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages , the leader received a pink jersey . This classification is considered the most important of the Giro d 'Italia , and the winner is considered the winner of the Giro .
Additionally , there was a points classification , which awarded a mauve jersey . In the points classification , cyclists got points for finishing in the top 15 in a stage . The stage win awarded 25 points , second place awarded 20 points , third 16 , fourth 14 , fifth 12 , sixth 10 , and one point fewer per place down the line , to a single point for 15th . In addition , points could be won in intermediate sprints .
There was also a mountains classification , which awarded a green jersey . In the mountains classifications , points were won by reaching the top of a mountain before other cyclists . Each climb was categorized as either first , second , or third category , with more points available for the higher @-@ categorized climbs . The highest point in the Giro ( called the Cima Coppi ) , which in 2009 was Sestrière in stage 10 , afforded more points than the other first @-@ category climbs .
The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification , which awarded a white jersey . This was decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1984 were eligible .
There were also two classifications for teams . The first was the Trofeo Fast Team . In this classification , the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added ; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time . The Trofeo Super Team was a team points classification , with the top 20 placed riders on each stage earning points ( 20 for first place , 19 for second place and so on , down to a single point for 20th ) for their team .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final standings = =
= = = Minor classifications = = =
Other less well @-@ known classifications , whose leaders did not receive a special jersey , were awarded during the Giro . These awards were based on points earned throughout the three weeks of the tour . Each mass @-@ start stage had one intermediate sprint , the Traguardo Volante , or T.V. The T.V. gave bonus seconds towards the general classification , points towards the regular points classification , and also points towards the T.V. classification . This award was known in previous years as the " Intergiro " and the " Expo Milano 2015 " classification . It was won by Italian Giovanni Visconti , of ISD .
Other awards included the Combativity classification , which was a compilation of points gained for position on crossing intermediate sprints , mountain passes and stage finishes . Mountains classification winner Stefano Garzelli won this award . The Azzurri d 'Italia classification was based on finishing order , but points were awarded only to the top three finishers in each stage . It was won , like the closely associated points classification , by Danilo Di Luca . Additionally , the Trofeo Fuga Cervelo rewarded riders who took part in a breakaway at the head of the field , each rider in an escape of ten or fewer riders getting one point for each kilometre that the group stayed clear . Quick @-@ Step 's Mauro Facci was first in this competition . Teams were given penalty points for minor technical infringements . Silence – Lotto and Quick @-@ Step were most successful in avoiding penalties , and so shared leadership of the Fair Play classification .
= = = World Rankings points = = =
The Giro was one of 24 events throughout the season that contributed points towards the 2009 UCI World Ranking . Points were awarded to the top 20 finishers overall , and to the top five finishers in each stage .
= Nikephoros Melissenos =
Nikephoros Melissenos ( Greek : Νικηφόρος Μελισσηνός , ca . 1045 – 17 November 1104 ) , Latinized as Nicephorus Melissenus , was a Byzantine general and aristocrat . Of distinguished lineage , he served as a governor and general in the Balkans and Asia Minor in the 1060s . In the turbulent period after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 , when several generals tried to seize the throne for themselves , Melissenos remained loyal to Michael VII Doukas and was exiled by his successor Nikephoros III Botaneiates . In 1080 – 1081 , with Turkish aid , he seized control of what remained of Byzantine Asia Minor and proclaimed himself emperor against Botaneiates . After the revolt of his brother @-@ in @-@ law Alexios I Komnenos , however , which succeeded in taking Constantinople , he submitted to him , accepting the rank of Caesar and the governance of Thessalonica . He remained loyal to Alexios thereafter , participating in most Byzantine campaigns of the period 1081 – 1095 in the Balkans at the emperor 's side . He died on 17 November 1104 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Origins and early career = = =
Nikephoros Melissenos was probably born circa 1045 at Dorylaeum , where his family had extensive estates . Through both his father and his mother , he was of aristocratic descent : his father belonged to the Bourtzes line , while his mother to the illustrious Melissenos family , which dated back to the 8th century and had produced several distinguished generals . Sometime before 1067 , Nikephoros married Eudokia Komnene , the second daughter of the Domestic of the Schools John Komnenos and Anna Dalassene and sister of the future Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) . They had at least one known son , who was named John Komnenos .
Melissenos held the rank of magistros and the post of governor ( doux ) of Triaditza ( modern Sofia ) for some time during the 1060s . In 1070 , he joined the field army commanded by his eldest brother @-@ in @-@ law , the protostrator Manuel Komnenos , in a campaign against the Seljuk Turks . The campaign ended in defeat near Sebasteia ( modern Sivas ) , and Melissenos along with Manuel Komnenos were captured by a Turkish chieftain whom the Byzantines called Chrysoskoulos . Manuel , however , quickly persuaded the Turk to enter into Byzantine service , and their captivity ended .
Melissenos remained loyal to Michael VII Doukas ( r . 1071 – 1078 ) during the rebellion of the strategos of the Anatolic Theme , Nikephoros Botaneiates ( Nikephoros III ) , which began in October 1077 . Michael VII rewarded him by appointing him to Botaneiates 's post , but after Botaneiates 's victory and entry into Constantinople in April 1078 , Melissenos was exiled to the island of Kos .
= = = Rebellion = = =
In autumn 1080 , Melissenos left Kos and returned to Asia Minor . There , he succeeded in gaining the support of the local population , and in recruiting many Turkish tribesmen as mercenaries to his army . One by one , the cities of western and central Asia Minor opened up their gates to him , and Turkish garrisons were installed in them . Botaneiates tried to send Alexios Komnenos , who had recently suppressed the revolts of Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Basilakes , against him , but he refused . In February 1081 , Melissenos 's troops took Nicaea , where he was acclaimed as emperor , and defeated a loyalist army under the eunuch John .
In March 1081 , Melissenos was encamped with his army at Damalis , on the Asian shore across the Bosporus from Constantinople . There , he received news of the revolt of the Komnenoi against Botaneiates and the proclamation of Alexios Komnenos as emperor . He sent letters to the Komnenoi , suggesting a division of authority over the imperial territory , with the Balkans remaining under Komnenian control and himself keeping Asia Minor , although he also emphasized that the Byzantine Empire should remain united . In reply , the Komnenoi offered to recognize him as Caesar – the second highest dignity after the imperial title itself – and to give him the governance of Thessalonica – the Empire 's second @-@ most important city – if he would submit to them . Melissenos initially refused to accept this offer , but as the Komnenoi were on the verge of taking Constantinople and might refuse to make similar concessions later , he eventually agreed .
At the same time , the emperor Nikephoros Botaneiates tried to forestall the capital 's fall to the Komnenoi by sending for Melissenos and asking him to enter the city and assume imperial authority . His envoys , however , were obstructed by George Palaiologos and never reached Melissenos . Constantinople fell to the Komnenian forces , and on 8 April 1081 , Melissenos too entered the imperial capital . True to his word , Alexios I raised him to Caesar and gave him authority over Thessalonica , as well as allotting the city 's revenues to his income . At the same time , however , Alexios raised his brother Isaac Komnenos to the newly created dignity of sebastokrator , which he placed above that of Caesar , bypassing Melissenos .
This act of submission , unique among the various rebels of the time , may throw some light on Melissenos 's motivation for his uprising , according to the historian Jean @-@ Claude Cheynet . Cheynet believes that Melissenos was probably more concerned with safeguarding his Asian estates from the depredations of the Turks , and when Alexios granted him Thessalonica and equivalent estates around it – some of which Melissenos later distributed to his clients , like the Bourtzes family – he readily gave up the contest for the Byzantine throne .
Despite the end of Melissenos 's revolt , it left a profound legacy : although Melissenos himself submitted to Alexios Komnenos , the towns he had occupied and garrisoned with Turkish soldiers in Ionia , Phrygia , Galatia , and Bithynia remained in their hands . Thus , by becoming involved in the Byzantine civil wars as mercenaries and allies – especially through their use by Botaneiates and Melissenos during their respective revolts to hold down various cities for them – the Turks completed their relatively peaceful take @-@ over of central and western Asia Minor .
= = = Service under Alexios Komnenos = = =
Melissenos continued to serve Alexios I faithfully throughout the rest of his life . In autumn 1081 , he marched alongside Alexios in his campaign against the Normans of Robert Guiscard . In the Battle of Dyrrhachium , which ended in a crushing Byzantine defeat , he commanded the Byzantine army 's right wing .
In the 1083 campaign in Thessaly against the Normans , who , under Guiscard 's son Bohemond were besieging Larissa , Melissenos was used by Alexios as the centerpiece to a ruse . The emperor gave him the imperial insignia and a detachment of the army , which Bohemond proceeded to attack in the belief that this was the main Byzantine force , since the emperor was present with it . While the Normans pursued Melissenos 's men , Alexios with the main army took and looted the Norman camp , forcing Bohemond to lift the siege and withdraw .
Melissenos fought alongside Alexios in the Battle of Dristra ( late August 1087 ) against the Pechenegs , commanding the Byzantine left wing . The battle ended in a heavy Byzantine defeat , and Melissenos was taken captive along with many other Byzantines , to be ransomed by the emperor after some time . In spring 1091 , Melissenos was sent to Ainos to recruit soldiers from among the Bulgarians and Vlachs . Occupied with this task , he did not join the imperial army in time for the crushing Byzantine victory over the Pechenegs at the Battle of Levounion on 29 April , arriving the next day .
Later in the same year , he participated in the family council of Philippopolis which examined the accusations of conspiracy raised against John Komnenos , the doux of Dyrrhachium by the Archbishop of Ochrid Theophylact . The council degenerated into a heated family quarrel , where John 's father , the sebastokrator Isaac , accused Melissenos and Adrian Komnenos of slandering his son , but in the end Alexios dismissed the charges .
In the 1095 campaign against the Cumans , Melissenos , along with George Palaiologos and John Taronites were left in charge of defending the region of Berrhoe ( modern Stara Zagora ) against Cuman attacks . This is the last mention of Melissenos in Anna Komnene 's Alexiad . He died on 17 November 1104 .
= Spider @-@ Man =
Spider @-@ Man is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics existing in its shared universe . The character was created by writer @-@ editor Stan Lee and writer @-@ artist Steve Ditko , and first appeared in the anthology comic book Amazing Fantasy # 15 ( Aug. 1962 ) in the Silver Age of Comic Books . Lee and Ditko conceived the character as an orphan being raised by his Aunt May and Uncle Ben , and as a teenager , having to deal with the normal struggles of adolescence in addition to those of a costumed crime @-@ fighter . Spider @-@ Man 's creators gave him super strength and agility , the ability to cling to most surfaces , shoot spider @-@ webs using wrist @-@ mounted devices of his own invention , which he calls " web @-@ shooters " , and react to danger quickly with his " spider @-@ sense " , enabling him to combat his foes . And later in his life founded his own company call Parker Industries .
When Spider @-@ Man first appeared in the early 1960s , teenagers in superhero comic books were usually relegated to the role of sidekick to the protagonist . The Spider @-@ Man series broke ground by featuring Peter Parker , the high school student behind Spider @-@ Man 's secret identity and with whose " self @-@ obsessions with rejection , inadequacy , and loneliness " young readers could relate . While Spider @-@ Man had all the makings of a sidekick , unlike previous teen heroes such as Bucky and Robin , Spider @-@ Man had no superhero mentor like Captain America and Batman ; he thus had to learn for himself that " with great power there must also come great responsibility " — a line included in a text box in the final panel of the first Spider @-@ Man story but later retroactively attributed to his guardian , the late Uncle Ben .
Marvel has featured Spider @-@ Man in several comic book series , the first and longest @-@ lasting of which is titled The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . Over the years , the Peter Parker character has developed from shy , nerdy high school student to troubled but outgoing college student , to married high school teacher to , in the late 2000s , a single freelance photographer . In the 2010s , he joins the Avengers , Marvel 's flagship superhero team . Spider @-@ Man 's nemesis Doctor Octopus also took on the identity for a story arc spanning 2012 – 2014 , following a body swap plot in which Peter appears to die . Separately , Marvel has also published books featuring alternate versions of Spider @-@ Man , including Spider @-@ Man 2099 , which features the adventures of Miguel O 'Hara , the Spider @-@ Man of the future ; Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , which features the adventures of a teenaged Peter Parker in an alternate universe ; and Ultimate Comics Spider @-@ Man , which depicts the teenager Miles Morales , who takes up the mantle of Spider @-@ Man after Ultimate Peter Parker 's supposed death .
Spider @-@ Man is one of the most popular and commercially successful superheroes . As Marvel 's flagship character and company mascot , he has appeared in countless forms of media , including several animated and live @-@ action television series , syndicated newspaper comic strips , and in a series of films . The character was first portrayed in live action by Nicholas Hammond in the 1977 television movie Spider @-@ Man . In films , Spider @-@ Man has been portrayed by actors Tobey Maguire ( 2002 – 2007 ) and Andrew Garfield ( 2012 – 2014 ) , while Tom Holland portrays the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe , first appearing in Captain America : Civil War in 2016 . Reeve Carney starred as Spider @-@ Man in the 2010 Broadway musical Spider @-@ Man : Turn Off the Dark . Spider @-@ Man has been well received as a superhero and comic book character and is usually ranked as one of the greatest comic book characters of all time alongside DC Comics characters such as Superman and Batman .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Creation and development = = =
In 1962 , with the success of the Fantastic Four , Marvel Comics editor and head writer Stan Lee was casting about for a new superhero idea . He said the idea for Spider @-@ Man arose from a surge in teenage demand for comic books , and the desire to create a character with whom teens could identify . In his autobiography , Lee cites the non @-@ superhuman pulp magazine crime fighter the Spider ( see also The Spider 's Web and The Spider Returns ) as a great influence , and in a multitude of print and video interviews , Lee stated he was further inspired by seeing a spider climb up a wall — adding in his autobiography that he has told that story so often he has become unsure of whether or not this is true . Though at the time teenage superheroes were usually given names ending with " boy " , Lee says he chose " Spider @-@ Man " because he wanted the character to age as the series progressed , and moreover felt the name " Spider @-@ Boy " would have made the character sound inferior to other superheroes . At that time Lee had to get only the consent of Marvel publisher Martin Goodman for the character 's approval . In a 1986 interview , Lee described in detail his arguments to overcome Goodman 's objections . Goodman eventually agreed to a Spider @-@ Man tryout in what Lee in numerous interviews recalled as what would be the final issue of the science @-@ fiction and supernatural anthology series Amazing Adult Fantasy , which was renamed Amazing Fantasy for that single issue , # 15 ( cover @-@ dated August 1962 , on sale June 5 , 1962 ) . In particular , Lee stated that the fact that it had already been decided that Amazing Fantasy would be cancelled after issue # 15 was the only reason Goodman allowed him to use Spider @-@ Man . While this was indeed the final issue , its editorial page anticipated the comic continuing and that " The Spiderman [ sic ] ... will appear every month in Amazing . "
Regardless , Lee received Goodman 's approval for the name Spider @-@ Man and the " ordinary teen " concept , and approached artist Jack Kirby . As comics historian Greg Theakston recounts , Kirby told Lee about an unpublished character on which he had collaborated with Joe Simon in the 1950s , in which an orphaned boy living with an old couple finds a magic ring that granted him superhuman powers . Lee and Kirby " immediately sat down for a story conference " , Theakston writes , and Lee afterward directed Kirby to flesh out the character and draw some pages . Steve Ditko would be the inker . When Kirby showed Lee the first six pages , Lee recalled , " I hated the way he was doing it ! Not that he did it badly — it just wasn 't the character I wanted ; it was too heroic " . Lee turned to Ditko , who developed a visual style Lee found satisfactory . Ditko recalled :
One of the first things I did was to work up a costume . A vital , visual part of the character . I had to know how he looked ... before I did any breakdowns . For example : A clinging power so he wouldn 't have hard shoes or boots , a hidden wrist @-@ shooter versus a web gun and holster , etc . ... I wasn 't sure Stan would like the idea of covering the character 's face but I did it because it hid an obviously boyish face . It would also add mystery to the character ....
Although the interior artwork was by Ditko alone , Lee rejected Ditko 's cover art and commissioned Kirby to pencil a cover that Ditko inked . As Lee explained in 2010 , " I think I had Jack sketch out a cover for it because I always had a lot of confidence in Jack 's covers . "
In an early recollection of the character 's creation , Ditko described his and Lee 's contributions in a mail interview with Gary Martin published in Comic Fan # 2 ( Summer 1965 ) : " Stan Lee thought the name up . I did costume , web gimmick on wrist & spider signal . " At the time , Ditko shared a Manhattan studio with noted fetish artist Eric Stanton , an art @-@ school classmate who , in a 1988 interview with Theakston , recalled that although his contribution to Spider @-@ Man was " almost nil " , he and Ditko had " worked on storyboards together and I added a few ideas . But the whole thing was created by Steve on his own ... I think I added the business about the webs coming out of his hands . "
Kirby disputed Lee 's version of the story , and claimed Lee had minimal involvement in the character 's creation . According to Kirby , the idea for Spider @-@ Man had originated with Kirby and Joe Simon , who in the 1950s had developed a character called the Silver Spider for the Crestwood Publications comic Black Magic , who was subsequently not used . Simon , in his 1990 autobiography , disputed Kirby 's account , asserting that Black Magic was not a factor , and that he ( Simon ) devised the name " Spider @-@ Man " ( later changed to " The Silver Spider " ) , while Kirby outlined the character 's story and powers . Simon later elaborated that his and Kirby 's character conception became the basis for Simon 's Archie Comics superhero the Fly . Artist Steve Ditko stated that Lee liked the name Hawkman from DC Comics , and that " Spider @-@ Man " was an outgrowth of that interest .
Simon concurred that Kirby had shown the original Spider @-@ Man version to Lee , who liked the idea and assigned Kirby to draw sample pages of the new character but disliked the results — in Simon 's description , " Captain America with cobwebs " . Writer Mark Evanier notes that Lee 's reasoning that Kirby 's character was too heroic seems unlikely — Kirby still drew the covers for Amazing Fantasy # 15 and the first issue of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . Evanier also disputes Kirby 's given reason that he was " too busy " to also draw Spider @-@ Man in addition to his other duties since Kirby was , said Evanier , " always busy " . Neither Lee 's nor Kirby 's explanation explains why key story elements like the magic ring were dropped ; Evanier states that the most plausible explanation for the sudden change was that Goodman , or one of his assistants , decided that Spider @-@ Man as drawn and envisioned by Kirby was too similar to the Fly .
Author and Ditko scholar Blake Bell writes that it was Ditko who noted the similarities to the Fly . Ditko recalled that , " Stan called Jack about the Fly " , adding that " [ d ] ays later , Stan told me I would be penciling the story panel breakdowns from Stan 's synopsis " . It was at this point that the nature of the strip changed . " Out went the magic ring , adult Spider @-@ Man and whatever legend ideas that Spider @-@ Man story would have contained " . Lee gave Ditko the premise of a teenager bitten by a spider and developing powers , a premise Ditko would expand upon to the point he became what Bell describes as " the first work for hire artist of his generation to create and control the narrative arc of his series " . On the issue of the initial creation , Ditko states , " I still don 't know whose idea was Spider @-@ Man " . Kirby noted in a 1971 interview that it was Ditko who " got Spider @-@ Man to roll , and the thing caught on because of what he did " . Lee , while claiming credit for the initial idea , has acknowledged Ditko 's role , stating , " If Steve wants to be called co @-@ creator , I think he deserves [ it ] " . He has further commented that Ditko 's costume design was key to the character 's success ; since the costume completely covers Spider @-@ Man 's body , people of all races could visualize themselves inside the costume and thus more easily identify with the character . Writer Al Nickerson believes " that Stan Lee and Steve Ditko created the Spider @-@ Man that we are familiar with today [ but that ] ultimately , Spider @-@ Man came into existence , and prospered , through the efforts of not just one or two , but many , comic book creators " .
= = = Commercial success = = =
A few months after Spider @-@ Man 's introduction , publisher Goodman reviewed the sales figures for that issue and was shocked to find it to have been one of the nascent Marvel 's highest @-@ selling comics . A solo ongoing series followed , beginning with The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 1 ( cover @-@ dated March 1963 ) . The title eventually became Marvel 's top @-@ selling series with the character swiftly becoming a cultural icon ; a 1965 Esquire poll of college campuses found that college students ranked Spider @-@ Man and fellow Marvel hero the Hulk alongside Bob Dylan and Che Guevara as their favorite revolutionary icons . One interviewee selected Spider @-@ Man because he was " beset by woes , money problems , and the question of existence . In short , he is one of us . " Following Ditko 's departure after issue # 38 ( July 1966 ) , John Romita , Sr. replaced him as penciler and would draw the series for the next several years . In 1968 , Romita would also draw the character 's extra @-@ length stories in the comics magazine The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , a proto @-@ graphic novel designed to appeal to older readers . It only lasted for two issues , but it represented the first Spider @-@ Man spin @-@ off publication , aside from the original series ' summer annuals that began in 1964 .
An early 1970s Spider @-@ Man story led to the revision of the Comics Code . Previously , the Code forbade the depiction of the use of illegal drugs , even negatively . However , in 1970 , the Nixon administration 's Department of Health , Education , and Welfare asked Stan Lee to publish an anti @-@ drug message in one of Marvel 's top @-@ selling titles . Lee chose the top @-@ selling The Amazing Spider @-@ Man ; issues # 96 – 98 ( May – July 1971 ) feature a story arc depicting the negative effects of drug use . In the story , Peter Parker 's friend Harry Osborn becomes addicted to pills . When Spider @-@ Man fights the Green Goblin ( Norman Osborn , Harry 's father ) , Spider @-@ Man defeats the Green Goblin , by revealing Harry 's drug addiction . While the story had a clear anti @-@ drug message , the Comics Code Authority refused to issue its seal of approval . Marvel nevertheless published the three issues without the Comics Code Authority 's approval or seal . The issues sold so well that the industry 's self @-@ censorship was undercut and the Code was subsequently revised .
In 1972 , a second monthly ongoing series starring Spider @-@ Man began : Marvel Team @-@ Up , in which Spider @-@ Man was paired with other superheroes and villains . From that point on there have generally been at least two ongoing Spider @-@ Man series at any time . In 1976 , his second solo series , Peter Parker , the Spectacular Spider @-@ Man began running parallel to the main series . A third series featuring Spider @-@ Man , Web of Spider @-@ Man , launched in 1985 to replace Marvel Team @-@ Up . The launch of a fourth monthly title in 1990 , the " adjectiveless " Spider @-@ Man ( with the storyline " Torment " ) , written and drawn by popular artist Todd McFarlane , debuted with several different covers , all with the same interior content . The various versions combined sold over 3 million copies , an industry record at the time . Several limited series , one @-@ shots , and loosely related comics have also been published , and Spider @-@ Man makes frequent cameos and guest appearances in other comic series . In 1996 The Sensational Spider @-@ Man was created to replace Web of Spider @-@ Man .
In 1998 writer @-@ artist John Byrne revamped the origin of Spider @-@ Man in the 13 @-@ issue limited series Spider @-@ Man : Chapter One ( Dec. 1998 - Oct. 1999 ) , similar to Byrne 's adding details and some revisions to Superman 's origin in DC Comics ' The Man of Steel . At the same time the original The Amazing Spider @-@ Man was ended with issue # 441 ( Nov. 1998 ) , and The Amazing Spider @-@ Man was restarted with vol . 2 , # 1 ( Jan. 1999 ) . In 2003 Marvel reintroduced the original numbering for The Amazing Spider @-@ Man and what would have been vol . 2 , # 59 became issue # 500 ( Dec. 2003 ) .
When primary series The Amazing Spider @-@ Man reached issue # 545 ( Dec. 2007 ) , Marvel dropped its spin @-@ off ongoing series and instead began publishing The Amazing Spider @-@ Man three times monthly , beginning with # 546 @-@ 548 ( all Jan. 2008 ) . The three times monthly scheduling of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man lasted until November 2010 when the comic book was increased from 22 pages to 30 pages each issue and published only twice a month , beginning with # 648 @-@ 649 ( both Nov. 2010 ) . The following year , Marvel launched Avenging Spider @-@ Man as the first spinoff ongoing series in addition to the still twice monthly The Amazing Spider @-@ Man since the previous ones were cancelled at the end of 2007 . The Amazing series temporarily ended with issue # 700 in December 2012 , and was replaced by The Superior Spider @-@ Man , which had Doctor Octopus serve as the new Spider @-@ Man , having taken over Peter Parker 's body . Superior was an enormous commercial success for Marvel , and ran for 31 @-@ issue before the real Peter Parker returned in a newly relaunched The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 1 in April 2014 .
= = Fictional character biography = =
In Forest Hills , Queens , New York , high school student Peter Parker is a science @-@ whiz orphan living with his Uncle Ben and Aunt May . As depicted in Amazing Fantasy # 15 ( Aug. 1962 ) , he is bitten by a radioactive spider ( erroneously classified as an insect in the panel ) at a science exhibit and " acquires the agility and proportionate strength of an arachnid " . Along with super strength , Parker gains the ability to adhere to walls and ceilings . Through his native knack for science , he develops a gadget that lets him fire adhesive webbing of his own design through small , wrist @-@ mounted barrels . Initially seeking to capitalize on his new abilities , Parker dons a costume and , as " Spider @-@ Man " , becomes a novelty television star . However , " He blithely ignores the chance to stop a fleeing thief , [ and ] his indifference ironically catches up with him when the same criminal later robs and kills his Uncle Ben . " Spider @-@ Man tracks and subdues the killer and learns , in the story 's next @-@ to @-@ last caption , " With great power there must also come — great responsibility ! "
Despite his superpowers , Parker struggles to help his widowed aunt pay rent , is taunted by his peers — particularly football star Flash Thompson — and , as Spider @-@ Man , engenders the editorial wrath of newspaper publisher J. Jonah Jameson . As he battles his enemies for the first time , Parker finds juggling his personal life and costumed adventures difficult . In time , Peter graduates from high school , and enrolls at Empire State University ( a fictional institution evoking the real @-@ life Columbia University and New York University ) , where he meets roommate and best friend Harry Osborn , and girlfriend Gwen Stacy , and Aunt May introduces him to Mary Jane Watson . As Peter deals with Harry 's drug problems , and Harry 's father is revealed to be Spider @-@ Man 's nemesis the Green Goblin , Peter even attempts to give up his costumed identity for a while . Gwen Stacy 's father , New York City Police detective captain George Stacy is accidentally killed during a battle between Spider @-@ Man and Doctor Octopus ( # 90 , Nov. 1970 ) .
In issue # 121 ( June 1973 ) , the Green Goblin throws Gwen Stacy from a tower of either the Brooklyn Bridge ( as depicted in the art ) or the George Washington Bridge ( as given in the text ) . She dies during Spider @-@ Man 's rescue attempt ; a note on the letters page of issue # 125 states : " It saddens us to say that the whiplash effect she underwent when Spidey 's webbing stopped her so suddenly was , in fact , what killed her . " The following issue , the Goblin appears to kill himself accidentally in the ensuing battle with Spider @-@ Man .
Working through his grief , Parker eventually develops tentative feelings toward Watson , and the two " become confidants rather than lovers " . A romantic relationship eventually develops , with Parker proposing to her in issue # 182 ( July 1978 ) , and being turned down an issue later . Parker went on to graduate from college in issue # 185 , and becomes involved with the shy Debra Whitman and the extroverted , flirtatious costumed thief Felicia Hardy , the Black Cat , whom he meets in issue # 194 ( July 1979 ) .
From 1984 to 1988 , Spider @-@ Man wore a black costume with a white spider design on his chest . The new costume originated in the Secret Wars limited series , on an alien planet where Spider @-@ Man participates in a battle between Earth 's major superheroes and villains . He continues wearing the costume when he returns , starting in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 252 . The change to a longstanding character 's design met with controversy , " with many hardcore comics fans decrying it as tantamount to sacrilege . Spider @-@ Man 's traditional red and blue costume was iconic , they argued , on par with those of his D.C. rivals Superman and Batman . " The creators then revealed the costume was an alien symbiote which Spider @-@ Man is able to reject after a difficult struggle , though the symbiote returns several times as Venom for revenge .
Parker proposes to Watson a second time in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 290 ( July 1987 ) , and she accepts two issues later , with the wedding taking place in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man Annual # 21 ( 1987 ) . It was promoted with a real @-@ life mock wedding using models , including Tara Shannon as Watson , with Stan Lee officiating at the June 5 , 1987 , event at Shea Stadium . However , David Michelinie , who scripted based on a plot by editor @-@ in @-@ chief Jim Shooter , said in 2007 , " I didn 't think they actually should [ have gotten ] married . ... I had actually planned another version , one that wasn 't used . "
In a controversial storyline , Peter becomes convinced that Ben Reilly , the Scarlet Spider ( a clone of Peter created by his college professor Miles Warren ) is the real Peter Parker , and that he , Peter , is the clone . Peter gives up the Spider @-@ Man identity to Reilly for a time , until Reilly is killed by the returning Green Goblin and revealed to be the clone after all . In stories published in 2005 and 2006 ( such as " The Other " ) , he develops additional spider @-@ like abilities including biological web @-@ shooters , toxic stingers that extend from his forearms , the ability to stick individuals to his back , enhanced Spider @-@ sense and night vision , and increased strength and speed . Peter later becomes a member of the New Avengers , and reveals his civilian identity to the world , furthering his already numerous problems . His marriage to Mary Jane and public unmasking are later erased in another controversial storyline " One More Day " , in a Faustian bargain with the demon | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
be debated or disputed as to which one is worse :
^ Doctor Octopus is regarded as one of Spider @-@ Man 's worst enemies and archenemy . He has been cited as the man Peter might have become if he had not been raised with a sense of responsibility . He is infamous for defeating him the first time in battle and for almost marrying Peter 's Aunt May . He is the core leader of the Sinister Six and has also referred himself as the " Master Planner " . ( " If This Be My Destiny ... ! " ) Later depictions revealed him in Peter Parker 's body where he was the titular character for a while .
^ Norman Osborn using the Green Goblin alias is also commonly described as Spider @-@ Man 's archenemy . Mostly after he is responsible for setting up the death of Spider @-@ Man 's girlfriend in one of the most famous Spider @-@ Man stories of all time which helped end the Silver Age of Comic Books and begin the Bronze Age of Comic Books . He was thought to be dead after that but writers help bring him back from the 1990s and he returned to plague Spider @-@ Man once more in the comic books ( such as being involved of the killing of Aunt May ) and other heroes ( such as the Avengers ) . He is also a enemy of Spider @-@ Man sometimes just as Norman and not just only as the Green Goblin .
^ Another character commonly described as archenemy is Venom . Eddie Brock as Venom is commonly described as the mirror version or the evil version of Spider @-@ Man in many ways . Venom 's goals is usually depicted as trying to ruin Spider @-@ Man 's life and mess with Spider @-@ Man 's head when it comes to targeting enemies . He is one of the few villains depicted as unbeatable to Spider @-@ Man without a few weaknesses . Venom is also one of the most popular Spider @-@ Man villains . This popularity has led him to be an established iconic character of his own with own comic book stories .
= = Cultural influence = =
In The Creation of Spider @-@ Man , comic book writer @-@ editor and historian Paul Kupperberg calls the character 's superpowers " nothing too original " ; what was original was that outside his secret identity , he was a " nerdy high school student " . Going against typical superhero fare , Spider @-@ Man included " heavy doses of soap @-@ opera and elements of melodrama " . Kupperberg feels that Lee and Ditko had created something new in the world of comics : " the flawed superhero with everyday problems " . This idea spawned a " comics revolution " . The insecurity and anxieties in Marvel 's early 1960s comic books such as The Amazing Spider @-@ Man , The Incredible Hulk , and X @-@ Men ushered in a new type of superhero , very different from the certain and all @-@ powerful superheroes before them , and changed the public 's perception of them . Spider @-@ Man has become one of the most recognizable fictional characters in the world , and has been used to sell toys , games , cereal , candy , soap , and many other products .
Spider @-@ Man has become Marvel 's flagship character , and has often been used as the company mascot . When Marvel became the first comic book company to be listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1991 , the Wall Street Journal announced " Spider @-@ Man is coming to Wall Street " ; the event was in turn promoted with an actor in a Spider @-@ Man costume accompanying Stan Lee to the Stock Exchange . Since 1962 , hundreds of millions of comics featuring the character have been sold around the world .
Spider @-@ Man joined the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade from 1987 to 1998 as one of the balloon floats , designed by John Romita Sr. , one of the character 's signature artists . A new , different Spider @-@ Man balloon float is scheduled to appear from at least 2009 to 2011 .
When Marvel wanted to issue a story dealing with the immediate aftermath of the September 11 attacks , the company chose the December 2001 issue of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . In 2006 , Spider @-@ Man garnered major media coverage with the revelation of the character 's secret identity , an event detailed in a full page story in the New York Post before the issue containing the story was even released .
In 2008 , Marvel announced plans to release a series of educational comics the following year in partnership with the United Nations , depicting Spider @-@ Man alongside UN Peacekeeping Forces to highlight UN peacekeeping missions . A BusinessWeek article listed Spider @-@ Man as one of the top ten most intelligent fictional characters in American comics .
Rapper Eminem has cited Spider @-@ Man as one of his favorite comic book superheroes .
In 2015 , the Supreme Court of the United States decided Kimble v. Marvel Entertainment , LLC , a case concerning royalties on a patent for an imitation web @-@ shooter . The opinion for the Court , by Justice Elena Kagan , included several Spider @-@ Man references , concluding with the statement that " with great power there must also come — great responsibility " .
= = = Reception = = =
Spider @-@ Man is well received as a comic book character , always appearing as one of the greatest comic book characters or superheroes of all time and almost always being the top Marvel Comics character . Spider @-@ Man was declared the number one superhero on Bravo 's Ultimate Super Heroes , Vixens , and Villains TV series in 2005 . Empire magazine placed him as the fifth @-@ greatest comic book character of all time . Wizard magazine placed Spider @-@ Man as the third greatest comic book character on their website . In 2011 , Spider @-@ Man placed third on IGN 's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time , behind DC Comics characters Superman and Batman. and sixth in their 2012 list of " The Top 50 Avengers " . In 2014 , IGN identified Spider @-@ Man the greatest Marvel Comics character of all time . A 2015 poll at Comic Book Resources named Spider @-@ Man the greatest Marvel character of all time . IGN described him as the common everyman that represents many normal people but also noting his uniqueness compared to many top @-@ tiered superheroes with his many depicted flaws as a superhero . IGN also noted that despite being one of the most tragic superheroes of all time that he is " one of the most fun and snarky superheroes in existence . " Empire noted and praised that despite the many tragedies that Spider @-@ Man faces that he retains his sense of humour at all times with his witty wisecracks . The magazine website also praised the depiction of his " iconic " superhero poses describing it as " a top artist 's dream " .
George Marston of Newsarama placed Spider @-@ Man 's origin story as the greatest origin story of all time opining that " Spider @-@ Man 's origin combines all of the most classic aspects of pathos , tragedy and scientific wonder into the perfect blend for a superhero origin . "
= = = Real @-@ life Spider @-@ Men = = =
Real @-@ life " Spider @-@ Men " include :
In 1981 , skyscraper @-@ safety activist Dan Goodwin , wearing a Spider @-@ Man suit , scaled the Sears Tower in Chicago , Illinois , the Renaissance Tower in Dallas , Texas , and the John Hancock Center in Chicago , Illinois .
Alain Robert , nicknamed " Spider @-@ Man " , is a rock and urban climber who has scaled more than 70 tall buildings using his hands and feet , without using additional devices . He sometimes wears a Spider @-@ Man suit during his climbs . In May 2003 , he was paid approximately $ 18 @,@ 000 to climb the 312 @-@ foot ( 95 m ) Lloyd 's building to promote the premiere of the movie Spider @-@ Man on the British television channel Sky Movies .
'The Human Spider ' , alias Bill Strother , scaled the Lamar Building in Augusta , Georgia in 1921 .
Fathers 4 Justice member David Chick used a Spider @-@ Man outfit to obtain publicity for fathers ' rights in London .
Sonchai Yoosabai , a firefighter in Thailand , is considered a real @-@ life Spider @-@ Man . He rescued an 8 @-@ year @-@ old boy with autism from falling off the ledge of a building by scaling it with no ropes and then rescuing the boy .
= = = Awards = = =
From the character 's inception , Spider @-@ Man stories have won numerous awards , including :
1962 Alley Award : Best Short Story — " Origin of Spider @-@ Man " by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko , Amazing Fantasy # 15
1963 Alley Award : Best Comic : Adventure Hero title — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1963 Alley Award : Top Hero — Spider @-@ Man
1964 Alley Award : Best Adventure Hero Comic Book — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1964 Alley Award : Best Giant Comic — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man Annual # 1
1964 Alley Award : Best Hero — Spider @-@ Man
1965 Alley Award : Best Adventure Hero Comic Book — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1965 Alley Award : Best Hero — Spider @-@ Man
1966 Alley Award : Best Comic Magazine : Adventure Book with the Main Character in the Title — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1966 Alley Award : Best Full @-@ Length Story — " How Green was My Goblin " , by Stan Lee & John Romita , Sr. , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 39
1967 Alley Award : Best Comic Magazine : Adventure Book with the Main Character in the Title — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1967 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Costumed or Powered Hero — Spider @-@ Man
1967 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Male Normal Supporting Character — J. Jonah Jameson , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1967 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Female Normal Supporting Character — Mary Jane Watson , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1968 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Adventure Hero Strip — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1968 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Supporting Character — J. Jonah Jameson , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1969 Alley Award Popularity Poll : Best Adventure Hero Strip — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man
1997 Eisner Award : Best Artist / Penciller / Inker or Penciller / Inker Team — 1997 Al Williamson , Best Inker : Untold Tales of Spider @-@ Man # 17 @-@ 18
2002 Eisner Award : Best Serialized Story — The Amazing Spider @-@ Man vol . 2 , # 30 – 35 : " Coming Home " , by J. Michael Straczynski , John Romita , Jr . , and Scott Hanna
= = In other media = =
Spider @-@ Man has appeared in comics , cartoons , films , video games , coloring books , novels , records , and children 's books . On television , he first starred in the ABC animated series Spider @-@ Man ( 1967 – 1970 ) and the CBS live @-@ action series The Amazing Spider @-@ Man ( 1978 – 1979 ) , starring Nicholas Hammond . Other animated series featuring the superhero include the syndicated Spider @-@ Man ( 1981 – 1982 ) , Spider @-@ Man and His Amazing Friends ( 1981 – 1983 ) , Fox Kids ' Spider @-@ Man ( 1994 – 1998 ) , Spider @-@ Man Unlimited ( 1999 – 2000 ) , Spider @-@ Man : The New Animated Series ( 2003 ) , and The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man ( 2008 – 2009 ) . A new animated series titled Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , starring Drake Bell , premiered on Disney XD on April 1 , 2012 .
A tokusatsu series featuring Spider @-@ Man was produced by Toei and aired in Japan . It is commonly referred to by its Japanese pronunciation " Supaidā @-@ Man " . Spider @-@ Man also appeared in other print forms besides the comics , including novels , children 's books , and the daily newspaper comic strip The Amazing Spider @-@ Man , which debuted in January 1977 , with the earliest installments written by Stan Lee and drawn by John Romita , Sr. Spider @-@ Man has been adapted to other media including games , toys , collectibles , and miscellaneous memorabilia , and has appeared as the main character in numerous computer and video games on over 15 gaming platforms .
Spider @-@ Man was also featured in a trilogy of live @-@ action films directed by Sam Raimi and starring Tobey Maguire as the titular superhero . The first Spider @-@ Man film of the trilogy was released on May 3 , 2002 ; its sequel , Spider @-@ Man 2 , was released on June 30 , 2004 and the next sequel , Spider @-@ Man 3 , was released on May 4 , 2007 . A third sequel was originally scheduled to be released in 2011 , however Sony later decided to reboot the franchise with a new director and cast . The reboot , titled The Amazing Spider @-@ Man , was released on July 3 , 2012 ; directed by Marc Webb and starring Andrew Garfield as the new Spider @-@ Man . A sequel titled The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 was released on May 2 , 2014 . Most recently , Sony and Disney have made a deal for Spider @-@ Man to appear in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . Tom Holland made his debut as Spider @-@ Man in the 2016 MCU film Captain America : Civil War , before he is scheduled to star in Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming in 2017 , directed by Jon Watts .
A Broadway musical , Spider @-@ Man : Turn Off the Dark , began previews on November 14 , 2010 at the Foxwoods Theatre on Broadway , with the official opening night on June 14 , 2011 . The music and lyrics were written by Bono and The Edge of the rock group U2 , with a book by Julie Taymor , Glen Berger , Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa . Turn Off the Dark is currently the most expensive musical in Broadway history , costing an estimated $ 70 million . In addition , the show 's unusually high running costs are reported to be about $ 1 @.@ 2 million per week .
= Bill Cunningham ( rugby union ) =
William " Bill " Cunningham ( 8 July 1874 – 3 September 1927 ) was a New Zealand rugby union player who represented New Zealand — known as the All Blacks — between 1901 and 1908 . Most notably he toured with the Original All Blacks on their 1905 – 06 tour of the British Isles , France and North America . They were the first New Zealand representative team to visit the British Isles , and of their 32 matches there Cunningham played in 23 . He played mainly at lock , and was added to the touring party due to his strong scrummaging ability . He played in three Test matches during the trip : against Scotland , Ireland and France , but did not play in the loss to Wales due to injury , the All Blacks ' only defeat on tour .
Born near Te Awamutu , Cunningham originally played club rugby in Waihi , in the Coromandel region . Lying within the Auckland Rugby Football Union 's boundaries , he was selected to play for Auckland province in 1899 and continued to represent the side until his retirement in 1913 . He was first picked for New Zealand in 1901 , and played against New South Wales that year , but was not selected again until the 1905 Originals ' tour . After the tour he continued to represent New Zealand in both 1907 and 1908 . Affiliating to Rongowhakaata , he was a member of the first ever New Zealand Māori team in 1910 , and played for them again in 1912 . On retirement in 1913 he had appeared for Auckland 45 times , and for New Zealand 39 — both large numbers for the time .
= = Early life and family = =
Born at Rangiaowhia , near Te Awamutu , on 8 July 1874 , Cunningham was the son of Hera ( Sarah ) Ngaihika Halbert and her second husband , James Cunningham . Hera was the daughter of Thomas Halbert , a whaler and trader who landed in Poverty Bay in about 1832 , and his fifth wife , Keita Kaikiri , who belonged to the Rongowhakaata iwi . Hera later remarried Paratene Tatae , a cousin of Te Kooti : their daughters included Reremoana Hakiwai , and Keita Kaikiri Paratene , who married Reweti Tuhorouta Kohere .
Cunningham married Ethel Minnie Dance of Waihi on 23 September 1907 .
= = Early career = =
Cunningham first played representative rugby union for Auckland province in 1899 . He was selected from his club Waihi West ( a club in Waihi on the Coromandel Peninsula ) , which was affiliated to the Goldfield subunion . At the time the Goldfields Rugby Union was a subunion of the Auckland Rugby Football Union , but its constituent clubs are now affiliated to the Thames Valley Rugby Football Union .
He was first selected to play for New Zealand in 1901 , and played against Wellington and the New South Wales team that was touring New Zealand at the time . Both matches were comfortably won , with the tourists defeated 20 – 3 . Cunningham played his first of four matches for Auckland against international opposition , against the same New South Wales side a week later , with his Auckland team winning 24 – 3 .
Cunningham moved to Auckland in 1902 , and played his club rugby for City , before joining Ponsonby the following season . He had been displaced from the national team by this time , with Cantabrian Bernard Fanning preferred at lock . The New Zealanders used a different scrum formation than seen today , and only one lock was ever required .
Despite not being selected for New Zealand in 1904 , Cunningham continued to appear for Auckland , and played in two particularly notable matches that season . In 1904 the first Ranfurly Shield match was played . The shield , a provincial challenge trophy won by defeating the holder , was to become the most prestigious trophy in domestic New Zealand rugby . Due to their unmatched provincial record at the time Auckland were awarded the shield . The first shield challenge was played against Wellington , who were not expected to pose much of a threat . Auckland had not lost at home in six years , but , with Cunningham in the side , Auckland lost 6 – 3 . The second notable match that season was against the touring British Isles who were conducting a tour of Australia and New Zealand . The Aucklanders defeated the British Isles side 13 – 0 , with Cunningham scoring a try and contributing significantly to the dominance of his team 's forwards .
= = Original All Blacks = =
The first ever tour of a New Zealand representative team to the British Isles was planned for 1905 , and a preliminary tour of Australia and New Zealand was undertaken to help fund the tour . Cunningham was not in the original touring squad , and so played for Auckland against New Zealand . According to Winston McCarthy , New Zealand 's forwards were at " sixes and sevens mainly through want of a good lock . " Following the conclusion of the preliminary tour of Australia and New Zealand it was clear that a specialist lock forward needed to be added to the side . Fanning , who had kept Cunningham out of the New Zealand side in 1903 and 1904 , had retired following the 1904 season and consequently Cunningham did enough to earn selection as the team 's only specialist lock .
The team departed aboard the Rimutaka and during the voyage conducted training drills on the ship 's deck ; for this the forwards were coached by the team 's captain , Dave Gallaher , with help from Cunningham . Vice @-@ captain and first five @-@ eighth Billy Stead was in charge of the backs , and consequently the services of the New Zealand Rugby Union @-@ appointed coach Jimmy Duncan were not used .
After a six @-@ week voyage , the team arrived in Plymouth , England on 8 September 1905 . After finally arriving in England , the side opened their tour against Devon . Cunningham played in the match which was won easily by the New Zealanders 55 – 4 . Devon were expected to pose a serious challenge , but were overwhelmed and only managed to score a drop @-@ kick . A series of large victories followed against domestic opposition throughout England , and by the time the All Blacks played their first Test match against Scotland , the team had played and won nineteen matches , and scored 612 points while conceding only 15 .
When time for the Scotland Test did arrive , it was discovered that as the ground had not been covered for protection from the elements , and had frozen over . The Scotland Football Union wanted to abandon the match , but Gallaher and the tour manager George Dixon contended that the weather would improve enough for the pitch to thaw , and the match was eventually allowed to proceed . The Test was closely contested , with Scotland leading 7 – 6 at half @-@ time , but the All Blacks scored two late tries , including one to Cunningham , to win 12 – 7 ; despite the close score @-@ line , the New Zealanders were clearly the better of the two sides .
Cunningham was selected for the Ireland match a week later . The fixture was won 15 – 0 by New Zealand in front of 12 @,@ 000 people at Landsdowne Road . The tourists then returned to England where they defeated England 15 – 0 at Crystal Palace , but Cunningham was not selected due to injury . He was still injured for the Wales Test , and this may have contributed to New Zealand 's defeat . The 3 – 0 loss , the New Zealander 's first of the tour , was narrow and controversial , and according to team manager Dixon , " New Zealand suffered by the absence from the team of G. W. [ George ] Smith , W. Cunningham , and J. W. [ Billy ] Stead . "
Cunningham recovered to play the team 's final Test , against France in Paris , where he played as " breakaway " ( flanker ) rather than his usual position of lock . His last two tour matches were against British Columbia during the American leg of the tour , after which the side returned to New Zealand . The " Original All Blacks " — as the team is now known — had played 35 games and lost only once . Over their 32 matches in the British Isles , of which Cunninghham had played 23 , New Zealand scored 830 points and conceded 39 ; overall they scored 976 points and conceded only 59 . On their arrival back in New Zealand on 6 March 1906 , the All Blacks were welcomed by a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 before being hosted at a civic reception in Auckland . The 1905 – 06 Originals are remembered as perhaps the greatest of All Black sides , and set the standard for all their successors . They introduced a number of innovations to Britain and Ireland , including specialised forward positions and unfamiliar variations in attacking plays .
= = Later career = =
Cunningham continued to play for Auckland on his return from the Originals ' tour . They had regained the Ranfurly Shield in 1905 , and he played in a number of shield defences over the subsequent seasons . He was selected for the New Zealand team that toured Australia in 1907 where he played seven matches , including all three Tests against Australia . He was again selected for the All Blacks in 1908 , this time to play the touring Anglo @-@ Welsh team , and played in all three Tests . This was his last appearance for New Zealand , which gave him 39 appearances for his national team , including 9 Test matches . He was later selected for the inaugural New Zealand Māori team ( now called the Māori All Blacks ) on their 1910 tour of Australia , and again for another tour in 1912 .
He continued to play for Auckland until 1913 . This period included two more matches against international opposition : a victory over the 1908 Anglo @-@ Welsh side 11 – 0 , and a defeat of Australia in 1913 . Auckland had held the Ranfurly Shield throughout this time , and had endured a number of close shield challenges during their reign . They had 23 successful shield defenses before they faced Taranaki on 16 August 1913 . In the match Taranaki scored a converted try ( worth five points at the time ) four minutes from full @-@ time to end Auckland 's shield reign . Cunningham had played in 16 of Auckland 's 24 shield matches during their tenure . He retired from provincial rugby at the end of that season .
= = Personal life and playing style = =
Cunningham was very physically fit and strong , and was " remarkably agile " according to writer Matt Elliott . He was very popular with his teammates and possessed a good sense of humour . Like the other Māori in the 1905 – 06 All Blacks Billy Stead he was able to speak the language . Outside of rugby he spent his early working @-@ life as an axeman . He also spent some time as a miner , and later worked for the Auckland Harbour Board . At the time of his death he was working at an Auckland freezing works .
= = Death and legacy = =
Cunningham died suddenly from acute meningitis at Auckland in September 1927 , and his funeral was attended by a number of dignitaries , including representatives of the New Zealand , Auckland , New South Wales and Thames Rugby Unions . His pallbearers were all former All Blacks , and included fellow Original All Blacks George Tyler , George Nicholson and George Gillett . After his casket had been lowered into its grave at Hillsborough Cemetery , an Auckland representative jersey was thrown on top .
Under the average height on a line @-@ out , yet no man ever beat him , a genius in scrum , no need to tell him when to keep the ball or let it out . Am I wrong in saying that his death removes the greatest lock the Dominion [ of New Zealand ] ever possessed ? He had three intuitions as far back as November 1904 [ sic ] , that Wales would beat us , that war would occur between England and Germany within ten years , and that he would not live to get the old age pension . How lamentably true . How hard to write the innate qualities of this Nature 's gentleman , a hard but clean player , respected and appreciated by opponents , and adored by his intimates . He goes West leaving us the poorer by his departure .
= Only Girl ( In the World ) =
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her fifth album , Loud ( 2010 ) . The album 's lead single , it was released on September 10 . Crystal Johnson wrote the song in collaboration with producers Stargate and Sandy Vee . Rihanna contacted Stargate before Loud 's production and asked them to create lively , uptempo music . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was the first song composed for the album , and the singer decided to include it on the track list before she recorded her vocals . Backed by strong bass and synthesizer , it is a Europop song that incorporates elements of Hi @-@ NRG and rave in its composition . In its lyrics , Rihanna demands physical attention from her lover .
Critical response to " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was positive ; a number of critics praised its composition and Rihanna 's decision to move away from the dark themes of her previous album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . The song reached number one on the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 chart two weeks after Loud 's second single , " What 's My Name ? " , peaked at number one . It was the first time in the chart 's history that an album 's lead single reached number one after its second single . In the United Kingdom the song spent two weeks at number one and is the nineteenth @-@ bestselling single of all time by a female artist , with over a million copies sold . The song peaked at number one in Australia , New Zealand , Canada and Ireland , and reached the top five in France , Germany and Switzerland .
Rihanna performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " on Saturday Night Live in the United States , The X Factor in the United Kingdom and a shortened version at the 31st Brit Awards . Anthony Mandler directed the song 's music video , in which Rihanna is alone in an open natural landscape . The video suggests that she is the only female in the world , echoing the song 's title and lyrics , and critics praised its bright , colorful theme . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " won the Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording at the 53rd Grammy Awards in 2011 .
= = Concept and development = =
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " was written by Crystal Johnson with the song 's producers , Stargate and Sandy Vee . Rihanna had previously worked with Stargate on the singles " Hate That I Love You " , " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Rude Boy " . In February 2011 Stargate said that Rihanna approached the Norwegian production duo before she began recording the then @-@ untitled project , saying that she wanted to have fun and produce happy , uptempo songs . According to Tor Erik Hermansen of Stargate , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was the first song created for Loud and Rihanna decided to include it on the album before recording her vocals . In a webchat with fans , Rihanna said that she wanted to take the next step as an artist : " I didn ’ t want to go backward and remake Good Girl Gone Bad . I wanted the next step in the evolution of Rihanna , and it ’ s perfect for us . You guys are always defending me , so now you ’ ve got some great songs to justify it . " The singer described " Only Girl ( In the World ) " as having a " bigger sound " than " Rude Boy " .
The song was recorded during Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth tour . Its instrumental was recorded by Mikkel Storleer Eriksen of Stargate and Miles Walker at Roc the Mic Studios in New York City and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , and by Vee at the Bunker in Paris . Kuk Harrell produced Rihanna 's vocals , recording them with Josh Gudwin and Marcos Tovar . Inaam Haq , Dane Liska and Brad Shea recorded additional vocals . The song was mixed by Phil Tan at the Ninja Beat Club in Atlanta and by Vee at The Bunker , with engineering by Damien Lewis . Eriksen , Vee and Hermansen provided the instrumentation , and Johnson sang background vocals .
= = Composition = =
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " is a Europop song with a length of three minutes and fifty @-@ five seconds . It also incorporates elements of Hi @-@ NRG , rave and R & B styles . It is in the key of F @-@ sharp minor , and written in common time with a moderate tempo of 126 beats per minute . Its instrumentation includes synthesizers , a " heavy whipping bass " and a " strobing " electro beat . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly described the song as a " stronger , sexier " version of her 2007 single , " Don 't Stop the Music " .
Rihanna 's voice spans one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half octaves in " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , from F ♯ 3 to C ♯ 5 , and her vocal has a " silky " , " seductive " tone . In the song 's lyrics Rihanna yearns for her lover 's attention , which makes her feel like the only girl in the world . The singer " pours her heart out " in the chorus : " Want you to make me feel like I 'm the only girl in the world / Like I 'm the only one that you 'll ever love / Like I 'm the only one who knows your heart / Only girl in the world . " According to Digital Spy writer Nick Levine , the chorus " thumps like a rabbit having an epileptic fit . " Rihanna sings suggestively , " Baby , I 'll tell you all my secrets that I 'm keepin ' / You can come inside / And when you enter , you ain 't leavin ' / Be my prisoner for the night . " Fraser McAlpine of the BBC compared the song 's message to that of the German fairy tale " Rapunzel " ; Rihanna is not willing to throw her hair out of the castle for just any man to come and satisfy her , " particularly not someone who isn 't prepared to make the climb up to her scarily high window . "
= = Critical response = =
The song received a generally @-@ positive response from music critics . Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times called the track a " surefire hit " and something of a " comeback " . MTV News writer James Dinh praised the uptempo song , comparing it to the " stark " lead single " Russian Roulette " from Rihanna 's previous Rated R. Monica Herrera wrote for Billboard that " Only Girl ( In the World ) " " aims squarely for dance @-@ floor domination . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song four stars out of five , calling it a " crowd @-@ pleaser " but not overly original .
According to Levine and Jim Farber of the New York Daily News , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was Rihanna 's most pop @-@ sounding song since " Don 't Stop the Music " . Analyzing the song , the BBC 's Fraser McAlpine questioned why " Only Girl ( In the World ) " leaves a " positive impression " on the listener despite its arrogant , domineering tone . Critical at first ( " Listen to the pneumatic hiss at the heart of this song . Try and endure the pumping thrust without getting winded . There is simply too much pressure being stuffed into our ears , with too much brutal force " ) , he concluded that Rihanna sings the song with great passion and gave it four stars out of five . James Dolan gave the song two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five in Rolling Stone , writing that " the trance beat won 't keep you in the club unless someone else is paying for the drinks . "
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = North America = = =
In the United States , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " debuted at number 75 on the Billboard Hot 100 on September 25 , 2010 , jumping to number three the following week , before peaking at number one ( Rihanna 's ninth ) on November 25 . Loud 's second single , " What 's My Name ? " ( featuring Drake ) , topped the Hot 100 two weeks before ; it was the first time in chart history that an album 's first single reached number one after its second . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was Rihanna 's fourth number @-@ one song of 2010 , and she was the first female and the first artist since Usher ( in 2004 ) with four number @-@ one singles in a calendar year . The singer also had the most number @-@ one singles ( nine ) since 2000 . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 year @-@ end chart in 2010 and 2011 at numbers 47 and 40 , respectively .
The song debuted on the Digital Songs chart at number one with sales of 249 @,@ 000 , Rihanna 's eighth number @-@ one single and her sixth to debut atop the chart ( the most in both categories by any artist since the chart 's 2005 introduction ) . The singer set a Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) radio @-@ airplay chart record when " Only Girl ( In the World ) " rose from number two to number one on November 25 , 2010 , her seventh number @-@ one . The song was number 46 and number 33 , respectively , on the 2011 Billboard Digital Songs and Pop Songs year @-@ end charts . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was Rihanna 's twelfth number @-@ one on the Dance Club Songs songs chart and number 46 on the 2010 Billboard year @-@ end chart . The song has been certified six times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and has sold 3 @.@ 6 million copies in the US as of June 2015 . In Canada , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " debuted at number 65 on September 25 , 2010 and rose to number one for a week the following week . On November 6 the song returned to number one for three consecutive weeks , remaining on the chart for a total of 35 weeks .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
In the United Kingdom " Only Girl ( In the World ) " debuted at number two on the UK Singles Chart on October 31 , 2010 , with 126 @,@ 000 copies sold . Cheryl Cole debuted at number one with " Promise This " , selling 157 @,@ 000 copies , and Cole and Rihanna had the highest and second @-@ highest debut sales figures of the year . The song , Rihanna 's sixth number @-@ two song on the UK Singles Chart , rose to number one the next week for two consecutive weeks . It was Rihanna 's fourth UK number @-@ one single , following " Umbrella " ( 2007 ) , " Take a Bow " ( 2008 ) and " Run This Town " ( 2009 ) . By December 2011 " Only Girl ( In the World ) " was the 108th song to sell more than a million copies in the United Kingdom , the fifteenth by a female artist , Rihanna 's first as primary artist and second overall ; the 107th million @-@ seller was Eminem 's " Love the Way You Lie " six weeks before , on which Rihanna was featured .
Rihanna was the second non @-@ United Kingdom , non @-@ North American million @-@ selling artist ; the first was Danish singer Whigfield with her 1994 song , " Saturday Night " . Although at the time the only other female two @-@ song million @-@ seller was Canadian singer Celine Dion , two of Rihanna 's subsequent singles — " We Found Love " ( 2011 ) and " Diamonds " ( 2012 ) — have also sold more than a million copies each . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " is the nineteenth @-@ bestselling single by a female artist and the 99th overall of all time in the United Kingdom . The song was the fourth- and 68th @-@ bestselling single , respectively , of 2010 and 2011 . Certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments exceeding 600 @,@ 000 copies , it has sold 1 @,@ 080 @,@ 000 copies . " Only Girl ( In the World ) " peaked at number one on the UK Single Downloads Chart and the Scottish Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
Director Anthony Mandler filmed the music video for " Only Girl ( In the World ) " at a location two hours from Los Angeles . Rihanna told JustJared.com that the video was filmed in a " big landscape " so she was the only person in the frame , echoing the song 's title . The singer is also " frolicking in a red field and lying in a bed of flowers . " The video features large balloons in different colours , a swing hanging from the sky and a tree with multi @-@ colored lights . Rihanna 's outfits include a mohair sweater , a floral miniskirt and a white @-@ bra @-@ and @-@ boyshorts two @-@ piece .
Entertainment Weekly writer Tanner Stransky praised the video 's simplicity , noting that it seems " as if Rihanna is speaking directly to you , the viewer , and she is your one and only amid swallowing rolling , beautiful , swallowing landscapes . It 's an effect that makes you focus squarely on [ Rihanna ] , who 's ensconsced in flirty outfits . " According to Joyce Lee of CBS , Rihanna appeared to have progressed from the " edgy " music videos of the Rated R singles to a more feminine , colourful tone . A Mail Online reviewer and Seth Sommerfield of Spin echoed Lee 's comments , with the former calling it " beautifully shot " and the latter " whimsical [ and ] beautiful " . The Mail Online reviewer called the video a departure from the " hard @-@ edged , heavier image " music videos of Rated R. Billboard reviewer Jason Lipshutz described the tree with flashing lights as " surreal imagery . "
= = Live performances and covers = =
Rihanna performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and a solo version of " What 's My Name ? " on Saturday Night Live in New York City on October 30 , 2010 . The next day , she flew to London to perform the song on The X Factor . Rihanna 's dancers had a food fight with cakes and cream while she sang , and the show 's producers had only one minute to clear the stage before the weekly elimination results were announced . On November 7 she performed the song at the MTV Europe Music Awards in Madrid , wearing a " fairy tale " -inspired ensemble and walking through a set of flowers against a sunset . Two days later , Rihanna sang " Only Girl ( In the World ) " on the Italian version of The X Factor in a floral @-@ print bikini , boots and a red pigtail . The next day she flew to France to sing the song on Le Grand Journal , on a set covered with white balloons .
The singer returned to London on November 11 to record an interview for The Graham Norton Show , which included a live performance of " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . Rihanna opened the American Music Awards with a medley of songs from Loud . She began with an a cappella version of " Love the Way You Lie ( Part II ) " , sitting on a stylized tree of lights above " a field of sable @-@ colored blades of grass . " Rihanna then sang a solo version of " What 's My Name ? " and a short version of " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . According to Mawuse Ziegbe of MTV News , the singer " kicked up the island theme " as drummers in tribal dress circled her .
Rihanna performed a short version of " Only Girl ( In the World ) " at the 31st Brit Awards on February 15 , 2011 , as part of a medley with two other singles from Loud : " S & M " and " What 's My Name ? " . She had planned to perform " S & M " only ( to coincide with its United Kingdom release ) , but was asked by the British Phonograpic Industry to " tone down the sexual references in the song 's lyrics " . Rihanna was reportedly angered at the request and a related one to perform a different song . She made the changes because the BPI wanted to avoid complaints like those received after the seventh @-@ series finale of The X Factor on December 11 , 2010 , when Rihanna was criticized for wearing a provocative outfit and performing a suggestive , " disgusting " dance routine before the 9 pm UK watershed . Rihanna performed " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " California King Bed " , " What 's My Name ? " and " S & M " on NBC 's May 27 , 2011 Today as part of its summer concert series . The song , which was included on the Loud , 777 and the Diamonds World Tours , was the opener for her performance at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 .
Katy Perry covered " Only Girl ( In the World ) " as part of an acoustic mash @-@ up with Willow Smith 's " Whip My Hair " on her California Dreams Tour ( 2011 ) . Ellie Goulding covered the song during her appearance on Radio 1 's Live Lounge , and the cover was the B @-@ side of her single " Lights " .
= = Formats and track listings = =
Digital download
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " – 3 : 55
German CD single
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " – 3 : 55
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " ( Extended Club Mix ) – 5 : 39
UK CD single
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " – 3 : 55
" Only Girl ( In the World ) " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 55
= = Awards = =
= = Charts = =
= = = All @-@ time charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
Since May 9 , 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
= = Radio and digital release history = =
= Badnjak ( Serbian ) =
The badnjak ( Cyrillic : бадњак , Serbian pronunciation : [ bǎdɲaːk ] ) , also called veseljak ( весељак , [ ʋɛˈsɛ ̌ ʎaːk ] , literally " jovial one " in Serbian ) , is a log brought into the house and placed on the fire on the evening of Christmas Eve , a central tradition in Serbian Christmas celebrations much like a yule log in other European traditions . The tree from which the badnjak is cut , preferably a young and straight oak , is ceremonially felled early on the morning of Christmas Eve . The felling , preparation , bringing in , and laying on the fire , are surrounded by elaborate rituals , with many regional variations . The burning of the log is accompanied by prayers that the coming year brings food , happiness , love , luck , and riches . The log burns on throughout Christmas Day , when the first visitor strikes it with a poker or a branch to make sparks fly , while wishing that the family 's happiness and prosperity be as abundant as the sparks . As most Serbs today live in towns and cities , the badnjak is often symbolically represented by a cluster of oak twigs with brown leaves attached , with which the home is decorated on Christmas Eve .
Since the early 20th century , the Serbian badnjak tradition has also been celebrated more publicly . Before World War I , soldiers of the Kingdom of Serbia developed the custom of laying a badnjak on a fire in their barracks . In the succeeding Kingdom of Yugoslavia , the military badnjak ceremony was further elaborated and standardized in army service regulations , but the tradition ended at the outbreak of World War II . Since the early 1990s , the Serbian Orthodox Church has , together with local communities , organized public celebrations on Christmas Eve in which the badnjak plays a central role . Parishioners festively cut the sapling to be used as the badnjak and take it to their church , where it is consecrated by a priest before it is ceremonially placed on a fire built in the churchyard .
The festive kindling of the badnjak commemorates the fire that — according to Serbian folk tradition — the shepherds of Bethlehem built in the cave where Jesus Christ was born , to warm the Baby Jesus and his mother throughout the night . The badnjak may also be seen as a symbol of the cross upon which Christ was crucified , the warmth of its fire symbolizing the salvation which , in the Christian belief , the crucifixion made possible for mankind . Scholars regard the tradition as inherited from the old Slavic religion . They interpret the badnjak as an incarnation of the spirit of vegetation , and as a divinity who dies by burning to be reborn , to whom sacrifices and prayers were offered for the fertility of fields , the health and happiness of the family . The burning symbolized sunshine , securing the vitalizing power of the sun in the coming year . Other South Slavic peoples have similar traditions , and the custom that a family brings a log into the house and burns it on Christmas Eve has also been recorded in other parts of Europe .
= = Family celebration = =
= = = Felling and preparing = = =
Traditionally , the badnjak ceremony begins on Christmas Eve , but there are many regional variations surrounding the details . Early in the morning the head of each family , usually accompanied by several male relatives , selects and fells the tree from which a log will be cut for their household . The group announces its departure by firing guns or small celebratory mortars called prangija . The Turkey oak is the most popular species of tree selected in most regions , but other oaks are also chosen . Beech , pear , quince , hornbeam , and plum trees are used in eastern Serbia , although less frequently than oak trees . In some areas of Montenegrin Littoral where oaks do not grow , olives , bay laurels , elms , or strawberry trees are used instead . Young , straight , and undamaged specimens are preferred . The badnjak may be more valued if it is felled stealthily in someone else 's rather than in one 's own woods .
Generally , each household prepares one badnjak , although more are cut in some regions . Depending on the local custom , Montenegrin Serbs may fell two , three , an arbitrary number greater than two , or the number equal to the male members of household plus one . The latter means that each of the males has a log associated with him , with the thickest log representing the head of household and the thinnest linked to the family 's prosperity . If there is only one man in the household , three rather than two logs are prepared . The logs may be cut from different species of tree . In parts of the Bay of Kotor , each household prepares four sets of badnjaks , as they are burned there not only on Christmas Eve , but also on the eves of New Years Day , Epiphany , and the Feast of Saint Sava .
In Grbalj , south @-@ west of Kotor , the number of the logs is equal to the number of people in the household . A terebinth is cut down for the badnjak associated with the woman of the house , called the badnjačica ( [ badˈɲatʃitsa ] ) , meaning she @-@ badnjak . The same term is also used in other areas where only a pair of oak logs is cut , in which case badnjačica refers to the smaller of the two . In Resava , the badnjačica is prepared from an Italian oak , and the badnjak from a Turkey oak . In Zagarač , central Montenegro , both of the logs may be cut from the same tree if it is tall enough , the badnjačica then coming from the upper , thinner part of the trunk . The pair is in some regions joined by a third log called the badnjačić — badnjak the child . Although young and thin trees are usually used for the badnjak , in northern Dalmatia 's region of Bukovica two relatively thick logs with diameters of 30 to 50 centimeters ( 12 to 20 inches ) are prepared , plus one thinner log ( called trinity ) . In other areas dry oak branches are collected from the ground , and used instead of a log .
When the head of household finds a suitable tree , he stands in front of it facing east . After throwing grain at the tree , he greets it with the words " Good morning and happy Christmas Eve to you " , makes the Sign of the Cross , says a prayer , and kisses the tree . He may also explain to the badnjak why it will be cut : " I have come to you to take to my home , to be my faithful helper to every progress and improvement , in the house , in the pen , in the field , and in every place . " He then cuts it slantwise on its eastern side , using an axe . Some men put gloves on before they start to cut the tree , and from then on never touch the badnjak with their bare hands . The tree should fall to the east , unhindered by surrounding trees . It must not be left half @-@ cut , as then it will curse the house of the man . In some regions , if the tree is not cut down after the third blow of the axe , then it must be pulled and twisted until its trunk breaks . The resulting badnjak has a so @-@ called " beard " , the part of the trunk at which it broke off from the base of the tree . In Šumadija , half of a circular loaf of bread is left on the stump , the other half being eaten on the way back home . In Zagarač , the stump is covered with moss or dry leaves , and it will be visited again in spring : the stump sprouting through the cover is an omen of good luck and prosperity .
The first splinter from the tree is taken home and placed where prosperity is especially desired , such as beside the beehives , in the hen roost , or between milk basins in the dairy room , in the hope that the coming year 's kaymak will clot to form thick layers in the basins . It may also be placed beneath some baker 's yeast , so that the prosperity of the household may grow like yeast . In Semberija , a piece of the splinter is put in the dough for the česnica , a round loaf of bread prepared specially for Christmas dinner . This is done " because of bees " , as the reason is traditionally termed .
The top of the felled tree is removed , leaving the badnjak of such a length that allows it to be carried on a man 's shoulder , up to about 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long . Its branches may be lopped off , or not , depending on the local custom . Once in the home , each badnjak is leaned vertically against the house beside the entrance door . In Montenegrin Littoral , each should be adorned with leaved bay laurel , olive , juniper , and rosemary twigs , which are tied to the trunk 's top , middle , and base with ivy or red silken or woolen threads . In parts of eastern Serbia and Kosovo the badnjak is wrapped in a man 's shirt .
In west Serbia 's region of Rađevina , centered on the town of Krupanj , the badnjak prepared for each household is cut into three logs , the most important of which is the dozemak — the log that comes from the part of the trunk that grew nearest to the ground . In Resava , Levač , Temnić , and Jadar of Serbia , as well as in Ozren and Romanija of Bosnia , the badnjak is cut into three logs associated respectively with the men , the women , and the children .
= = = Bringing in and burning = = =
In the evening , a man of the family brings their badnjak into the house . If there is more than one badnjak , the thickest of them is regarded as the main one , and is brought in first . Stepping across the threshold , right foot first , the man greets his gathered family with the words " Good evening and happy Christmas Eve to you . " The woman of the house greets him back , saying " May God give you well @-@ being , and may you have good luck " , or " Good luck to you , and together with you for many years to come [ may we be ] " , or similar , before throwing grain from a sieve at the man and the badnjak he carries . In the clan of Kuči , the woman touches the " beard " of the main badnjak with a whole loaf of bread . In Montenegro , two women holding lighted candles stand one on either side of the house door as the badnjaks are carried in .
Upon entering the house the man approaches the fireplace , called ognjište ( [ ˈɔɡɲiːʃtɛ ] ) — the hearth of an ognjište is similar to a campfire , in that it has no vertical surround . He lays the badnjak down on the fire and moves it a little forward , to summon prosperity for the household . Any other logs are brought in by other males and laid on the fire parallel or perpendicular to the first . In a family with the tradition of burning the badnjak and badnjačica , they are laid one across the other ; the males then kiss the former , and the females the latter . In Bukovica the two thicker logs are placed side by side , and the thinner one ( trinity ) is placed in parallel on top . In 19th @-@ century Herzegovina , families with large houses would load their logs onto three or four pairs of oxen , which were then led into the house . The logs were unloaded and laid on the fire , and the oxen driven out through the back door .
Immediately after the badnjak has been brought in , or immediately before in some places , an armful of straw is spread over the floor . The straw is usually brought in with the same greetings and throwing of grain as the badnjak . The person spreading it may imitate a hen clucking to call her chicks , " Kvo , kvo , kvo " , with the family 's children imitating chicks , " Piju , piju , piju " , while they pick at the straw . In Čečava , northern Bosnia , the children then lie down on the straw , before closing their eyes and picking a stalk with their lips : the child that picked the longest stalk will supposedly be the luckiest in the following year . In the Bay of Kotor , the ceremony is accompanied by the words " Kuda slama , tuda slava " — " Whither straw , thither celebration . " A common custom is to scatter a handful of walnuts over the straw . It will be collected and taken out of the house on the morning of the second day after Christmas . Some of the straw may be set aside and used in apotropaic practices in the coming year .
The thicker end of the log , the end that was nearest to the tree 's roots , may have a special significance . In Montenegro it is called the head of the badnjak ; the main log is laid on the fire with its head pointing east . In central Serbia the badnjak is laid with its thicker end sticking out from the ognjište . The household 's shepherds would kiss over it to ensure an abundance of lambs in the coming year . In Gruža it is coated with honey which is then licked by children . At the side of ognjište where the thicker end is situated , the family may place a plowshare , a round loaf of bread , a glove filled with wheat , sugar , or a sieve containing grain , honey , cakes , wine , salt , prunes , walnuts , and apples . The cut surface of the thicker end is in Čečava kissed by all the family members after the badnjak is laid on the fire .
The head of the household takes a jug of wine and pours some on the badnjak ; in some regions , he may strew wheat grains over the logs . He then proposes a toast : " Grant , O God , that there be health and joy in this home , that our grain and grapevines yield well , that children be born healthy to us , that our property increase in the field , pen , and barn ! " or , " Hail , badnjak , veseljak ! I give you wheat and wine , and you give me every good thing and peace ! " or similar . The name veseljak , literally " jovial one " , is used along with badnjak in some areas . The head drinks a draught of wine from the jug , after which it is passed to other members of household . In the clan of Kuči , wine is poured on the " beard " of the badnjak , and then a little girl sits for a moment on the log — for the well @-@ being of the cattle . Christmas Eve dinner follows , which traditionally includes a round loaf of unleavened bread , beans , fish , walnuts , honey , and red wine . The bread is not cut with a knife , but broken with hands .
The badnjak should not be jumped over or trodden upon , and blowing on its fire is avoided . It should not be moved when about to burn through , lest the log break at the place most consumed by the fire , which is usually strongest at the center of the fireplace ; the separation of the log should be a result of the fire only . None of the family members should fall asleep before the log splits , otherwise some of them may die in the coming year , without warning .
The moment when the badnjak burns through may be marked with festivities , such as the log being kissed by the head of household , and wine being poured over it accompanied by toasts . A reward may be given to the family member who was the first to notice the event , and in the past the men would go outside and fire their guns in celebration . There is a special verb preveseliti used instead of the common pregoreti to express " to burn through " when referring to the badnjak , which has the same root as the noun veseljak . Once the log has burnt through , some families let the fire go out , while in others the men keep watch in shifts during the night to keep the badnjak burning .
Once the badnjak has burnt through , the thicker end is often taken out of the fire and used according to the local custom . It may be carried around the beehives , extinguished , and placed between the branches of a young plum or apple tree . The men may make crosses from it and put them under the eaves , on the fields , meadows , vineyards , and apiaries , so that the coming year may be happy and fruitful . It may also be set aside for next Christmas Eve , to be placed on the fire immediately before the new badnjak , as a symbol of continuity . In Kosovo , a part of the badnjak is preserved and burned again on New Years Day and Epiphany .
The badnjak burns on through Christmas Day , whether rekindled or kept burning from the Eve . The first visit the family receives that day is considered important , comparable to New Years Day first @-@ footing in the British Isles . The family may choose someone , usually a young male , to be their first visitor , known as a polaznik , before the arrival of whom no outsider is allowed to enter the house . Early on the morning of Christmas Day he steps into the house , right foot first , and greets the family with " Christ is Born " , to which they reply " Truly He is Born . " The polaznik then approaches the ognjište and repeatedly strikes the burning log with a poker or a branch to make sparks fly . At the same time he utters a wish that the happiness and prosperity of the household be as abundant as the sparks :
The wording of this well @-@ wishing may vary , but its intention is always the same , to invoke happiness and prosperity . The polaznik will then throw a coin into the fire before being presented with a round loaf of bread , the traditional gift for the polaznik , usually accompanied by some other present . The custom to use a domestic animal as a polaznik was kept in some regions until the first half of the 20th century . In Rađevina , the head of the household would lead a sheep into the house , place it between the ognjište and himself , and utter the wishes while striking the badnjak with a branch cut from it , before saying : " We passed one fire , we are not afraid of another . " His wife would then kiss him over the sheep after saying " may the ewes kiss the lambs as we kiss each other . "
Embers of the badnjak may be used for divination in Jadar . The number of these equal to the sum of grain and livestock sorts grown by the family are taken out from the ognjište and placed on the česnica . Each of the sorts is associated with its own ember on that loaf . The sort whose ember retains its glow longer than the others should be the most productive in the coming year . The log sparking by itself presages a rich harvest of honey . Cooled coals of the badnjak may be placed between the branches of fruit trees ; the young trees may be provided also with twigs from the badnjak . Its ash may be spread over the fields and mixed with fodder . Some of the ash may be set aside to be taken with water as a remedy for headache . There are also numerous other regional practices connected with the badnjak .
These ancient traditions have modern , reduced versions . Modern houses usually have no ognjište on which to burn a badnjak , but it may be symbolically represented by several oak twigs , some of which are burnt in a wood @-@ burning kitchen stove and the others placed beside it . Some people chop the badnjak into shorter logs so that they can be put into the hearth and burnt . The most prevalent custom , however , is to place a cluster of oak twigs , with their brown leaves still attached , in whichever location in the home the family feels is appropriate . This cluster is also called the badnjak , and it is usually kept in the home until next Christmas Eve . For the convenience of those living in towns and cities , such little badnjaks can be bought at marketplaces or distributed in churches . In a common arrangement , the cluster of oak twigs is bound together with twigs of European Cornel and several stalks of straw .
The laying of a badnjak on the fire was considered the least a Serbian family could do to show their devotion to Serbian tradition . In Petar II Petrović @-@ Njegoš 's poem The Mountain Wreath , the plot of which takes place in 18th @-@ century Montenegro , Voivode Batrić urges converts to Islam to return to Christianity and Serbdom : " [ ... ] Lay the Serbian Christmas @-@ log [ badnjak ] on the fire , paint the Easter eggs various colours , observe with care the Lent and Christmas fasts . As for the rest , do what your heart desires ! " Petrović @-@ Njegoš describes the holiday atmosphere that surrounds the burning badnjak on Christmas Eve through the words of Abbot Stefan , one of the mains characters of The Mountain Wreath :
= = Public celebration = =
The badnjak ceremony , originally performed only within the family , became a more public celebration . A custom developed before World War I in the Kingdom of Serbia to lay the badnjak on a fire built in military barracks , so that the soldiers stationed there over Christmas could share in the holiday atmosphere . In the succeeding Kingdom of Yugoslavia , the military badnjak ceremony was standardized in army service regulations . On Christmas Eve , under the command of a specially appointed officer , the representatives of military units of a garrison formed a festive procession on horses , accompanied with music . Members of citizens ' associations and other civilians of the garrison town usually joined the procession as it proceeded to the nearest wood to collect the badnjak . They felled a set number of trees , dedicated respectively to the Royal Palace , the military command of the town , the respective commands of units of the garrison , its oldest officer , and its officers ' assembly house . The procession brought the trees to the barracks , in whose yard an open fire was built . The garrison commander then placed the trees ceremonially on the fire , and gave an appropriate address .
More and more state institutions , private firms , organizations , and clubs joined the procession each year , and the event began to take on the character of a public holiday . During the 1930s , the laying of badnjak on the fire became a court ritual . It was performed , in the presence of the royal family , by representatives of the army in the Royal Palace 's room with a fireplace . At the end of the 1930s in some parts of Yugoslavia , especially Vojvodina and Montenegro , the military badnjak ceremony was performed not in the barracks yard but in a square in the garrison town . An open fire was built , on which the badnjak was placed by an Orthodox priest in the presence of soldiers and citizens . This tradition , symbolizing the unity of state , church , and people , was ended by the outbreak of World War II .
Yugoslavia 's socialist government suppressed or discouraged public religious celebrations until the early 1990s . Since then , the Serbian Orthodox Church has , together with local communities , organized public celebrations on Christmas Eve . There are typically three elements to such celebrations : the preparation , the ritual , and the festivity . The preparation consists of cutting down the oak sapling to be used as the badnjak , taking it to the church yard , and preparing drink and food for the assembled parishioners . The ritual includes Vespers , placing the badnjak on the open fire built in the church yard , blessing or consecrating the badnjak , and an appropriate program with songs and recitals . In some parishes they build the fire on which to burn the badnjak not in the church yard but at some other suitable location in their town or village . The festivity consists of gathering around the fire and socializing . Each particular celebration has its own specific traits however , reflecting the traditions of the local community .
The expedition to cut down the badnjak is the basic activity in the preparation part of the celebration . It can be performed by an individual , but it is usually a collective act accompanied by a festive procession that may include carriages and horsemen . After the tree to be used as the badnjak is cut down , it is adorned with straw , ribbons , oranges , apples , and sometimes with the Serbian flag . In some parishes more than one badnjak is used in the celebration , and a different tree is felled for each . Often bunches of leaved oak twigs are prepared to be distributed to the congregation gathered at the church . Each badnjak is festively taken to the church gate , often transported on carriages . The badnjak may be taken into the churchyard without any ceremony , or it may be followed by a procession , as is the case in parts of Republika Srpska and the Bay of Kotor .
The ritual is the central part of the celebration . Vespers vary from place to place with respect to the time of the beginning of the service , its length and structure . The laying of badnjak on the fire usually comes after the service , and is done by a priest or by a respected parishioner . Before the burning , the tree may be processionally carried around the church . In the case of more than one badnjak , the trees are placed in the shape of a cross . The assembled devotees throw then into the fire their twig bunches , each representing a small badnjak . The consecration or blessing is performed by a priest : he strews wheat grains over the badnjak , censes it while singing the Troparion of the Nativity , and as he intones prayers , he pours wine and spreads honey on it . Instead of applying wine and honey , holy water may be sprinkled on the tree by dipping a bunch of basil into a bowl with the water . This rite is generally performed after the placing on the fire , although it may happen before , in which case the consecration may be performed in the church itself or in its yard .
After the ritual the priest delivers a short sermon , followed by the church choir singing Christmas songs ; poems that praise the Nativity of Jesus Christ may be recited . In Montenegro , decasyllable Serbian epics are sung to an accompaniment played on the gusle , a traditional Serbian bowed string instrument . The celebration ends with parishioners gathered around the fire , served with cooked rakia , wine , or tea , and the food allowed during the Nativity Fast . Parishioners may pick a twig from the badnjak and take it home to place in front of their icon , or at another appropriate location .
Although Serbian public religious celebrations , as those of other peoples , were discouraged in Socialist Yugoslavia until the early 1990s , they continued among Serbian Americans . The public badnjak ceremony was held in Serbian Orthodox parishes in the United States during that period , as it is today .
= = Interpretation = =
The origin of the badnjak is explained by the events surrounding the Nativity of Jesus Christ . According to the Gospel of Luke 2 : 1 – 20 , Mary Theotokos gave birth to Christ at Bethlehem , wrapped him in cloths and laid him in a manger . By Holy Tradition , the manger was located in a cave near that town . An angel of the Lord appeared to a group of shepherds who were keeping watch over their flock by night in that region , and told them that the Savior was born at Bethlehem . They went there and found the baby lying in the manger , as the angel described to them . By folk tradition , the shepherds brought firewood to the cave and built a fire to warm the newborn Christ and his mother throughout the night . The burning of the badnjak commemorates this event .
While blessing the badnjak , some priests chant the following prayer : " O Lord Jesus Christ , our God , who did plant the Tree of Life in paradise so that it might bestow upon us eternal blessedness , bless also now this tree which is a symbol of Thy cross and the Tree of Life in paradise , and which reminds us of Thy holy birth and of the logs which the shepherds of Bethlehem kindled to warm themselves when they came to worship Thee , the divine infant , and thereby prefigured Thy salvation @-@ bearing cross . "
Scholars regard the badnjak customs as practises inherited from the old Slavic religion . In the pre @-@ Christian religion of the Serbs , as shown by Serbian scholar Veselin Čajkanović , there were trees seen as dwelling places of spirits or divinities . Čajkanović argues that there were also trees seen as divinities per se . He considers the badnjak as a convincing example of the latter . Salutations , prayers , and sacrifices such as grain , wine , and honey are offered to him ( the name badnjak is of masculine gender in Serbian ) ; he is consistently treated not as a tree but as a person .
German scholar and folklorist Wilhelm Mannhardt holds that the log represented an incarnation of the spirit of vegetation . The sacrifices offered to the badnjak were meant to guarantee the fertility of fields , the health and happiness of the family . Its burning symbolized sunshine , and was intended to secure the vitalizing power of the sun in the ensuing year . The lighting of the log could be regarded as a fusion of tree worship and fire worship , attested in Slavic customs ; e.g. , Istrians fed the logs lighted on St. John 's Day by sprinkling wheat upon them . Čajkanović characterizes the pre @-@ Christian badnjak as a divinity who dies by burning to be reborn , comparing it in this respect with Attis , Osiris , Adonis , and Sandan . He also proposes that the crosses made from the thicker end of the log may have originated from idols representing deities comparable with the Roman Lares , the cruciform having developed from an anthropomorphic shape of the idols . The badnjak is preferably cut from an oak , which was the most respected tree in the old Slavic religion , associated with the supreme god Perun .
Archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans was a guest in a Serbian highlander family in the region of Krivošije , Montenegrin Littoral . Analyzing the practices , he concluded that the badnjak customs were connected with ancestor worship . The lighting of the log on the ognjište could be seen as a solemn annual rekindling of the sacred hearth fire , regarded as the center of the family life and the seat of the ancestors . The belief that ancestral spirits dwell in the domestic hearth was attested among Slavic and other peoples . Fire worship in the old Slavic religion was mostly transformed into the cult of domestic fire , and thus joined with ancestor worship . A trace of sacrifice to the fire is the coin thrown into it by the polaznik after the ritual of making sparks fly from the badnjak .
Fire from the domestic hearth was under no circumstances given out of the house on Christmas Eve , not even to a neighbor whose fire had gone out . The reason for this prohibition , according to Čajkanović , was the belief that the Eve is a time when the ancestral spirits , guardians of the family 's happiness and prosperity , are especially active in this world . Christmas Eve dinner is a feast prepared in their honor , and they join the family at it . They gather on the straw spread over the floor , and on the hearth . These spirits could be removed from the family if any piece of their fire were taken away by an outsider . In people 's words , fire should not be given lest the luck be taken away from the house , or for better crops , or because of bees . Referring to the latter explanation , Čajkanović argues that , in the old religion of the Serbs , the bees were regarded as pure and sacred insects , in whom ancestral spirits could dwell . The same explanation , " because of bees " , is also given for the aforementioned custom of putting a piece of the badnjak 's first splinter in the dough for the česnica .
Russian philologist Vladimir Toporov has proposed that the felling of the badnjak was originally a reenactment of the mythical fight in which Mladi Božić ( " young god " ) slew his father Stari Badnjak ( " old Badnjak " ) . Božić , the diminutive form of the noun bog , meaning god , is also the Serbian for " Christmas " . The characters of Stari Badnjak and Mladi Božić are found in old Serbian Christmas songs , where they are not explicitly referred to as father and son , and no fight between them is mentioned . By Toporov , the former personified the last day of the Old Year , the climax of the power of Chaos , and the latter personified the first day of the New Year , the beginning of reestablishment of Cosmic Order . He regards Stari Badnjak and Mladi Božić as originating from respectively the dragon and the dragon slayer of the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European mythology . Stari Badnjak would be related to both the Vedic serpent Ahi Budhnya ( " the Dragon of the Deep " ) killed by Indra , and the Greek dragon Python killed by Apollo . The words badnjak , budhnya , and python stem from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European root * bhudh- , denoting bottom , foundation , depths , and related notions .
According to Russian philologist and mythographer Boris Uspensky , Stari Badnjak and Mladi Božić have analogues in East Slavic tradition — Nikola 's Dad and Nikola . The name Nikola is a popular reference to Saint Nicholas of Myra , whose feast falls nineteen days before Christmas , on 6 December , his " dad " being celebrated the day before . Nikola is portrayed in East Slavic folklore as merciful and protective towards the common people , patron of animals and agriculture , connected with riches , abundance , and fertility . Uspensky argues that this saint took on attributes of the serpentine god Volos , whose cult was very strong among East Slavs before Christianization . He was the adversary of the dreadful thunder @-@ god Perun , who is in this case reflected in Nikola 's Dad .
The notion of a quarrel between Nikola and his " dad " is present in a number of legends . The connection between the father – son pairs of Stari Badnjak – Mladi Božić and Nikola 's Dad – Nikola is corroborated by the fact that , in many East Slavic regions , practices characteristic for Christmas have been transferred to the Feast of Saint Nicholas . There is , however , an inversion in the comparison between these two pairs . In the former pair , the first stems from the mythical dragon , and the second from the dragon fighter , while in the latter pair it is vice versa . This inversion explains , by Uspensky , the fact that in some areas Nikola 's Dad is celebrated on the day after his son 's feast , rather than on the eve of it . In that way , the " dragon " ( Nikola ) comes before the " dragon fighter " ( Nikola 's Dad ) , as is the case with Stari Badnjak and Mladi Božić .
Serbian ethnologist Petar Vlahović has proposed that the noun badnjak and the related adjective badnji ( attributive " Christmas Eve " ) are derived from the root of the verb bdeti ( " to be awake " ) , referring to a custom of staying awake through the night before Christmas Day . The same etymology of the adjective badnji has also been proposed by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić , 19th @-@ century Serbian philologist , systematizer of oral literature , and ethnographer .
= = Similar European traditions = =
The custom that a family solemnly brings a log into the house and lights it on the hearth on Christmas Eve has been recorded in various parts of Europe . In England , a Yule log used to be festively kindled on the domestic hearth so " that sweet luck may come while the log is a @-@ teending " , as described by 17th @-@ century poet Robert Herrick . In France , the log had different regional names : chalendal , calignaou , tréfoir , and tréfouet . In Provence , it had to be cut from a fruit tree ; it was brought in by the whole family while they sang a carol praying for blessing on the house , that the women might bear children , the nanny @-@ goats kids , and the ewes lambs , and that their grain and wine might abound . Before the log was placed on the fire , the youngest child in the family poured wine on it . Logs were devotionally laid on the domestic fire on Christmas Eve in various parts of Italy ; in Tuscany , Christmas is called Festa di Ceppo , literally " feast of log " . In the Val di Chiana , the children of the family were blindfolded and commanded to beat the burning log with tongs . Traces of Christmas @-@ log customs can also be found in Germany and Scandinavia . In Thuringia the family placed a Christklotz ( Christ log ) on the fire before going to bed , so that it might burn all through the night .
In Croatian tradition , objects of two different types are referred to as badnjak . The first type includes leaved branches cut from Turkey oaks or hazel trees , up to 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long with as many catkins as possible . Such a branch used to be placed on Christmas Eve morning above the house door , under the eaves , or on the roof , and had an aesthetic role . The other type includes logs cut usually from oak trunks . In the evening the family used to ritually bring three such logs into the house and burn them on the hearth . These practices are no longer performed , but in some places a modified form of badnjak is used : a cross is carved into the bark of pieces of firewood which are burned in kitchen stoves on Christmas Eve . In Bulgaria , the youngest man of the family goes on the Eve into a forest to cut down an oak , elm , or pear tree , which will be used as the badnik ( бъдник ) . After the man brings it into the house , a hole is bored in one end of the badnik and filled with wine , cooking oil , and incense . The hole is plugged , and that end of the log is wrapped with a white linen cloth before the badnik is festively burned on the hearth .
In Greece , a large log was lit on the hearth on Christmas Eve and kept burning or smoldering through the Twelve Days of Christmas . This was done as a protection against the demons called Kallikantzaroi , believed to be emerging from their dens at night during that period to attack people and damage their property . The fire and smoke from the log was thought to prevent the Kallikantzaroi from entering the house down the chimney . The ritual burning of logs on the Eve was also carried out in Albania . When the buzm , as the log was called there , was about to be brought into the house , a member of the family would go out into the yard , shout the name of the household 's head , and proclaim that the buzm was coming and bringing all kinds of delicious things . The head of the household would respond by saying " You are welcome ! " and the buzm would be ceremonially brought in , greeted by the family and treated with great respect . The log would be placed on the hearth , and often a significant part of all food and drink in the house would be put on the log and burned together with it .
= Puente ( song ) =
" Puente " is a latin pop song by Guatemalan recording artist Ricardo Arjona , released on August 9 2010 as the lead single from his twelfth studio album , Poquita Ropa ( 2010 ) . The song was written by Arjona , who produced it with longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stage name Los Gringos . Two versions of the song were made , one of them being a mixture of salsa , merengue along with Cuban music influences ; and the other an acoustic version made with piano and percussion .
Lyrically , " Puente " is a song related to the actual situation of Cuba and the immigration to the United States . The song received critical praise , with a critic stating that it " brings the album to an extraordinary conclusion " , and received comparisons with Fito Páez 's song " Habana " . Commercially , " Puente " did not attain commercial success , managing only to reach number 36 on the US Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart .
An accompanying music video for " Puente " was released in August 2010 . It was directed by Joaquín Cambré and filmed between Mexico and Argentina . The clip , which showcases the problematic issues of migration in Cuba , was filmed by Arjona while he was on the Quinto Piso Tour with the collaboration of children from 5 to 13 age old . As of 11 July 2012 , the video has reached 1 @.@ 4 million views on YouTube .
= = Background = =
With Poquita Ropa , Arjona wanted to drastically change his musical style . He tried to use as few instruments as possible , resulting in a production that sounds like a capella performances . Arjona said about the album , " music and women look better with little clothes " , and that " they [ the songs ] are like women ; they get things up and are so concerned about this that they forget that the less clothes , more beauty . The songs are often overwhelmed by ourselves , because we saturate them with arrangements looking to exalt their qualities and we end up hiding them . "
Arjona produced the album with the assistance of Dan Warner , who has worked with Shakira , Celine Dion and Christina Aguilera . Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic commented that Poquita Ropa " finds Arjona at his most naked , backed by spare arrangements of acoustic guitar , piano , and Hammond B @-@ 3 along with occasional touches of strings , woodwinds , and chorus vocals . " Poquita Ropa was the first album that Arjona recorded without producer Tommy Torres , whose last production was 5to Piso ( 2008 ) . The album is similar in style to Arjona 's work on Galería Caribe ( 2000 ) .
= = Composition = =
" Puente " is a latin pop song with salsa , merengue and Cuban music influences crafted in eight and a half minutes and divided in three parts . The first one is an a cappella song , sang mainly with a piano . The second part is a ballad with Caribbean and Latin sounds , with some salsa and Cuban influences . The third is a mixture of salsa and merengue , with Cuban influences . The song was written by Arjona , who produced it alongside longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin , under their stagename Los Gringos . Mónica Maristain from newspaper La Nación compared it with a song released by Fito Páez in 1999 , " Habana " . Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic praised the song , stating that it " brings the album to an extraordinary conclusion . "
In the song , Arjona sings : " Habana / siempre en las mitades , tan mitad española , tan mitad africana / saben bien las olas que en cada ventana siempre hay un testigo / Habana . " He also said that " Puente " was the only song that was " not allowed to undress " . When asked about " Puente " ' s main theme , Arjona commented , " Although many believe is a threshed topic , it isn 't for a Cuban , be it on the island or Florida . The status of this dispute hasn 't changed since 1959 and I 've never seen something as disgusting as a rivalry between people occasioned from politics . Chávez can fight with Uribe , Fidel with Obama , but what has this to do with two third @-@ generation cousins that inherit an enmity for a politic matter [ ? ] " .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Puente " was released on 17 August 2010 . It was directed by Argentinian director Joaquín Cambre , who also worked with Arjona on the music video for " Sin Ti , Sin Mi " . In the video , to brothers live separately , one of them in La Havana , and the other in Miami , Florida . The video ends with the boys encountering each other in a bridge , along many other people . The video shows the problematic about the migration on Cuba . Arjona shot the video while on his Quinto Piso Tour . It was filmed between Mexico and Argentina , with the collaboration of children from 5 to 13 age old . Coambre commented about the video that " " Puente " for me is an array of images that tell the same story in opposite realities . Two boys exactly alike ; one lives in an abandoned hotel on the beach and the other lives in a big city skyscraper , yet both are equally lonely . Miami and Havana are where those two boys are in their own worlds and see that the only way out of their realms are when they decide to encounter one another . "
The video starts showing Arjona inside a room powering on an old video projector and singing while watching a black and white film projected on the wall . This scenes are shown until the music style of the song changes into salsa . Then , after the musical change , scenes of two twin brothers are shown , interpolated , one of them living in Havana , the other living in Miami , Florida . The following scenes show the technological differences to which the brothers are attached , before going into the musical change to merengue and cuban music , on which two large group of kids , led by the two brothers , are shown sprinting throughout two shores until they meet and start to celebrate . Then , the final musical change is shown , along a collage of different scenes from the United States and Cuba . Finally , Arjona is shown again sit along the video projector , and the clip ends . As of 14 July 2012 , the video has reached 1 @.@ 4 million views on YouTube .
= = Trackslisting = =
Digital Download
" Puente " ( Caribe ) — 8 : 29
Digital Download — Acoustic
" Puente " ( Acoustic ) — 4 : 46
= = Credits and personnel = =
The credits are taken from the iTunes exclusive digital booklet .
" Puente " ( Acoustic )
" Puente " ( Caribe )
Technical credits
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Eugenia Washington =
Eugenia Scholay Washington ( June 27 , 1838 – November 30 , 1900 ) was an American historian , civil servant , and a founder of the lineage societies , Daughters of the American Revolution and Daughters of the Founders and Patriots of America .
Washington was born in 1838 near Charles Town , Virginia , in present @-@ day West Virginia . She was the daughter of William Temple Washington , through whom she was a great @-@ grandniece of George Washington , first President of the United States , and a grandniece of Dolley Payne Todd Madison . Following her family 's relocation to Stafford County , she and her family witnessed the Battle of Fredericksburg first hand during the American Civil War .
Due to her family 's limited financial resources after the war and her father 's illness , Washington accepted a position as a clerk within the United States Post Office Department in Washington , D.C. , to support her family . There , Washington was one of the four co @-@ founders of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution ( with Mary Desha , Mary Smith Lockwood , and Ellen Hardin Walworth ) . Washington had reportedly been inspired by her experiences during the American Civil War to found an organization for preserving the shared heritage of women from the North and South of the United States . Washington was the DAR 's first Registrar General , and was made " number one " on the " grand roll " of the society 's membership . In 1898 , Washington founded another lineage society , the National Society of Daughters of the Founders and Patriots of America , with the broader goal of preserving the history of the American colonial era .
While visiting a relative in Louisiana around 1870 , Washington attended a Roman Catholic mission . She later converted to Roman Catholicism from her Episcopal faith , after which she became a prominent lecturer of the Catholic faith . Washington never married , and she died in 1900 . Washington was interred beside her mother at the Moncure family burial ground of her sister 's estate , " Glencairne , " in Falmouth , Virginia .
= = Early life , family , and ancestry = =
Eugenia Scholay Washington was born on June 27 , 1838 , at " Megwillie " plantation near Charles Town in Jefferson County , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) , to William Temple Washington ( 1800 – 1877 ) and his wife , Margaret Calhoun Fletcher ( 1805 – 1865 ) . The name of the plantation on which she was born , " Megwillie , " was a portmanteau of both her mother and father 's nicknames .
Through her father , Washington was the granddaughter of George Steptoe Washington ( 1771 – 1809 ) and Lucy Payne Washington Todd ( 1772 ? – 1846 ) . She was also the great @-@ granddaughter of Samuel Washington ( 1734 – 1781 , younger brother of George Washington ) , and the great @-@ grandniece of George Washington ( 1732 – 1799 ) . Her grandfather , George Steptoe Washington , was a " favorite nephew " of George Washington and was left an inheritance following Washington 's death . Washington 's grandmother , Lucy Payne Washington Todd , was a sister of First Lady of the United States Dolley Payne Todd Madison ( 1768 – 1849 ) . The widowed Dolley Payne Todd married James Madison at Washington 's grandparents ' residence , Harewood .
Through her mother , Washington was great @-@ grandniece of John C. Calhoun ( 1782 – 1850 ) . Also through her mother , Washington was descended from Charles Francois Joseph , Count de Flechir ( born in France in 1755 ) , who served in the American Revolutionary War and was " a friend and kinsman " of Gilbert du Motier , Marquis de Lafayette . Flechir 's grandson and Washington 's grandfather , Thomas Fletcher , served on the staff of General William Henry Harrison in the War of 1812 .
Washington 's father , William Temple Washington , was educated at the College of William & Mary and home schooled his children . Around 1859 , William Washington relocated his family to a plantation at Falmouth in Stafford County , Virginia , located on the north side of the Rappahannock River across from Fredericksburg . Washington 's father suffered from paralysis , and she cared for him from a young age .
= = American Civil War = =
Following her family 's relocation to Falmouth , Washington continued to live a " tranquil life " caring for her father until the American Civil War . Union and Confederate forces fought near the family plantation , so Washington and her family " suffered all the horrors and the hardships " of the war . The family witnessed the Battle of Fredericksburg , December 11 – 15 , 1862 , first hand . A wounded Union Army officer was brought to their home early in the battle and placed in Washington 's care while waiting a surgeon , thus delaying the evacuation of Washington and her disabled father . As the battle drew even nearer , Washington " sheltered her father 's body with her own " in a trench created by a cannon , and they remained in that position for an entire day .
By the end of the American Civil War , Washington and her family were " deprived of all worldly goods " . Washington 's mother , Margaret , died shortly after the war 's conclusion in 1865 , and her father , William Temple , died twelve years later in 1877 .
= = United States Post Office Department = =
After her mother 's death , Washington accepted a position as a clerk within the United States Post Office Department in Washington , D.C. , to support herself and her ailing father . Eva Bryan , former president of the Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America , considered Washington 's position an " honorable " one for a woman , because of the family 's financial straits , although otherwise " the great @-@ great @-@ niece of George Washington would not normally be employed . " Washington and her father relocated from Falmouth to Washington in 1867 , and she lived there until her death in 1900 . During her tenure with the Post Office , Washington was known as " Miss Eugie " and " considered quite attractive and always received a great deal of attention wherever she went " . During her last decade , Washington served as a clerk in the Dead Letter Office .
= = Daughters of the American Revolution = =
Washington was one of the four co @-@ founders of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution ( with Mary Desha , Mary Smith Lockwood , and Ellen Hardin Walworth ) . The organization 's founders emulated the Sons of the American Revolution , founded in New York City on April 30 , 1889 , which excluded women . According to society tradition , Washington 's experiences during the American Civil War " inspired in her a will to assist women from both the North and the South in the worthy cause of preserving their shared heritage " .
Washington and Desha consulted regularly with Sons of the American Revolution members for advice , particularly Registrar General Dr. George Brown Goode , Secretary General A. Howard Clark , William O. McDowell ( SAR member # 1 ) , and Wilson L. Gill ( secretary at the inaugural meeting ) . On October 11 , 1890 , at 2 pm , the 18 founding members and these four men met at the Stratford Arms in Washington , D.C. , thus forming the Daughters of the American Revolution . Washington , Desha , Lockwood , and Walworth are called co @-@ founders since they held two to three meetings in August 1890 .
Washington was the DAR 's first Registrar General , and her name appears as member " number one " on the " grand roll " of membership . Washington also served as secretary general , vice president general , and in 1895 she became honorary vice president general , an office which she held until her death . Under Washington 's leadership , the society raised funds for a national monument to Mary Ball Washington , mother of George Washington . Washington ardently carried out the duties of her offices at DAR , despite suffering with a serious eye condition that made it difficult for her to write . Washington stated , " We want a patriotic society founded on service and I will not become a member of an organization which is founded on rank and not on the service of the ancestors . "
= = Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America = =
Washington founded another lineage society , the National Society of Daughters of the Founders and Patriots of America , in June 1898 . Washington established this organization with the broader goals of preserving the history of the American colonial era ( like The Colonial Dames of America and The National Society of Colonial Dames of America ) , as well as encouraging appreciation of American history and fostering patriotism . Washington disliked the " bickering " within the DAR , and to ensure a more " congenial " society that " remained small and cordial " , she required that the new organization members also be direct descendants of " a colonist who arrived in America between May 13 , 1607 and May 13 , 1687 " as well as qualify for the DAR . Washington chose the deadline date of May 13 , 1687 ( broader than the Mayflower Society ) , so that she would be eligible for membership in the society , but this criterion also limited membership of descendants of slaves since that emigration began a few decades later . While Washington intended for the organization not to grow beyond 300 members , membership in the Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America grew to 2 @,@ 800 by the mid @-@ 1980s .
= = Catholic faith = =
While visiting a family member in Louisiana around 1870 , Washington attended a Catholic mission organized by the Paulists at a neighboring parish . After " careful study " , Washington was received into the Roman Catholic Church . Prior to her conversion , Washington consulted with a clergyman at her Episcopal church , and in response to his concern , she replied : " Oh no , I must act up to my convictions and I shall pray hard that you may be given the same grace . " Washington became a prominent lecturer of the Catholic faith and attended the Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle in Washington , D.C.
= = Later life and death = =
Washington never married . In 1892 , Washington purchased a second residence at 5706 Berwyn Road in Berwyn Heights , Maryland , from James E. Waugh ; she owned it until her death . While in Washington , D.C. , she resided with her cousin Fanny Washington Finch at 813 13th Street , Northwest . Washington died at the age of 62 on Friday , November 30 , 1900 , at her home on 13th Street . Washington 's housemate and cousin Fanny Washington Finch predeceased her in March of that year . Only " a few acquaintances " among Washington 's colleagues and employees in her Post Office bureau knew she was ill , and she worked until a week before her death .
Washington 's sister , Jean Washington Moncure , also a resident of Washington and married to Thomas Gascoigne Moncure , arranged for Washington 's funeral at her own house and interment next to their mother at the Moncure estate " Glencairne " on the Rappahannock River near Falmouth . On December 1 , 1900 , the funeral train left the Pennsylvania Railroad station in Washington , D.C. , for Fredericksburg , Virginia . The Fredericksburg Betty Lewis Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution " escorted " Washington 's remains . A simple graveside service was performed by Reverend Dr. Smith , pastor of St. George 's Episcopal Church in Fredericksburg . A memorial service and requiem mass for Washington were held at St. Patrick 's Catholic Church in Washington , D.C. , on December 31 , 1900 . Following Washington 's death , her sister Jean was the last surviving patrilineal descendant of William Temple Washington .
= = Legacy = =
By Washington 's death in 1900 , membership in the National Society of Daughters of the American Revolution numbered around 35 @,@ 000 . Many chapters of the society expressed their appreciation and respect . She was also mentioned at the groundbreaking of the Memorial Continental Hall on October 11 , 1902 , by Cornelia Cole Fairbanks . In 1908 , a " mourning pin " crafted on the occasion of the death of George Washington that had been given to Washington by her grandmother , Lucy Payne Washington Todd , was donated to the Memorial Continental Hall by Jennie White Hopkins .
On April 17 , 1929 , under the leadership of President General Grace L. H. Brosseau , the Daughters of the American Revolution dedicated a memorial to its four founders , including Washington ; it was sculpted by Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney and is located at Constitution Hall in Washington , D.C. The Daughters of the American Revolution also maintained Washington 's gravesite at " Glencairne , " and in 1979 they installed a plaque honoring her . In October 1990 , the Daughters of the American Revolution held a ceremony at her gravesite to mark the centennial jubilee of the organization 's founding . On October 13 , 1999 , a year after their own centennial , 21 members of the Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America met at the gravesite to unveil a larger memorial plaque honoring her .
= Huolongjing =
The Huolongjing ( traditional Chinese : 火龍經 ; simplified Chinese : 火龙经 ; pinyin : Huǒ Lóng Jīng ; Wade @-@ Giles : Huo Lung Ching ; rendered by its translator into English as Fire Drake Manual ; in modern English , Fire Dragon Manual ) is a 14th @-@ century military treatise that was compiled and edited by Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen of the early Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) in China . It outlined the use of various " fire weapons " involving the use of gunpowder .
The Huolongjing provides information about various gunpowder compositions , including " magic gunpowder " , " poison gunpowder " , and " blinding and burning gunpowder " . It has descriptions of the Chinese hollow cast iron grenade bomb , shrapnel bombs , and bombs containing poisonous concoctions . The book describes the 10th @-@ century Chinese fire arrow and its evolution into the metal @-@ tube @-@ launched rocket , various rocket launchers , the advent of the two @-@ stage rocket that has a booster rocket , and fin – mounted , winged rockets . The book also describes the use of explosive land mines and naval mines , and the latter 's use of a complex trigger mechanism . The book describes the development of other weapons , including various proto – guns such as the fire lance , handguns with up to ten barrels , handguns with possible serpentine locks used as components in matchlock firearms , early bombard and cannon , cannon barrels filled with metal balls containing poisonous gunpowder solutions , and cannons that were mounted on wheeled carriages .
Although Jiao Yu did not provide the book 's preface until the Nanyang publication of 1412 , the book was published in the 14th century and was a compilation of material written since the late 13th century . From his own personal accounts , Jiao Yu also described gunpowder weapons that were in use since 1355 , with his involvement in the Red Turban Rebellion and revolt against Yuan Dynasty Mongol rule .
= = Gunpowder warfare and weapons = =
= = = Firearms and flamethrowers = = =
The military treatise of Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen went into a great amount of detail about the gunpowder weapons of their time . The fire lance and fire tube — a combination of a firearm and flamethrower — came in many different versions and were styled with many different names by the time Jiao Yu edited the Huolongjing . The earliest of these were made of bamboo tubes , although metal versions began to appear in the 12th century . Others , according to description and illustrated pictures of the Huolongjing , emitted arrows called the ' lotus bunch ' accompanied by a fiery blast . Some of these low – nitrate gunpowder flamethrowers used poisonous mixtures , including arsenious oxide , and would blast a spray of porcelain bits as shrapnel .
The earliest depiction of a fire lance is dated c . 950 , a Chinese painting on a silk banner found at the Buddhist site of Dunhuang . The oldest existent bronze handgun is the Heilongjiang hand cannon from the Heilongjiang archaeological excavation , dated to 1288 . For that year , the Yuan Shi historical text describes the rebellion of the Christian Mongol prince Nayan and the Jurchen @-@ born military commander Li Ting who , along with a Korean brigade conscripted by Kublai Khan , suppressed Nayan 's rebellion using foot soldiers armed with handguns and portable bombards .
The earliest metal barrel guns were not designed for high @-@ nitrate gunpowder and a bore @-@ filling projectile ; rather , they were designed for the low @-@ nitrate flamethrower fire lance that shot small co @-@ viative missiles . This was called the " bandit @-@ striking penetrating gun " ( ji zei bian chong ) , and was illustrated in a drawing in the Huolongjing . In the Islamic world , the fire lance first appears in a book of 1280 written by Hasan al – Rammah , and again appears in a manuscript of 1320 . In Europe , the first representation of the fire lance is of a horse @-@ mounted knight wielding the weapon in a Latin manuscript illustration dated to 1396 , and also appeared in an illustration of Taccola 's De Mechinis ( 1449 ) .
The Huolongjing also describes and illustrates metal @-@ barrel handguns , including guns with up to ten barrels . It describes the use of a " match @-@ holding lance gun " ( chi huo – sheng qiang ) , it described its arrangement as a match brought down to the touch hole of three gun barrels , one after the other . During the reign of the Yongle Emperor ( 1402 – 1424 ) , the Shenji Brigade was formed with cavalry horses that were said to have tubes filled with flammable materials holstered to their sides , along with troops with firearms and light artillery on carriages . In addition to firearms and fire lances , the Huolongjing also illustrates the tall , vertical , mobile shield used to hide and protect infantry gunmen , known as the " mysteriously moving phalanx @-@ breaking fierce @-@ flame sword @-@ shield " . This large , rectangular shield would have been mounted on wheels with five rows of six circular holes each where the gun barrels could be placed . The shield itself would have been accompanied by swordsmen on either side to protect the gunmen .
= = = Bombards and cannons = = =
In China , the first cannon @-@ barrel design portrayed in artwork was a stone sculpture dated to 1128 found in Sichuan province , although the oldest archaeological discovery of a cannon is a bronze cannon of China inscribed with the date , " 2nd year of the Dade era , Yuan Dynasty " ( 1298 ) . The prototype to the metal barrel was of course one made of bamboo , which was recorded in use by a Chinese garrison commander at Anlu , Hubei province , in the year 1132 . One of the earliest references to the destructive force of a cannon in China was made by Zhang Xian in 1341 , with his verse known as The Iron Cannon Affair . Zhang wrote that its cannonball could " pierce the heart or belly when it strikes a man or horse , and can even transfix several persons at once " . Jiao Yu wrote that the cannon , called the " eruptor " , was cast in bronze and had an average length of 53 inches ( 130 cm ) . He wrote that some cannons were simply filled with about 100 lead balls , but others , called the " flying @-@ cloud thunderclap eruptor " ( 飞云霹雳炮 ; feiyun pili pao ) had large rounds that produced a bursting charge upon impact . He wrote that the Chinese in his day had discovered how to pack hollow , cast iron shells of cannonballs with gunpowder to create an explosive effect upon contact with enemy targets . In perspective , exploding cannonball rounds were not discovered in Europe until the 16th century . He also mentioned the use of the " poison @-@ fog magic smoke eruptor " , in which " blinding gunpowder " and " poisonous gunpowder " were packed into the hollow cannonball shells and were effective in burning the faces and eyes of enemies , along with choking them with a formidable spray of poisonous smoke . He wrote that cannons were mounted on frames or on wheeled carriages so that they could be rotated in all directions .
= = = Land mines and naval mines = = =
The first recorded use of a land mine stated that the officer Lou Qianxia of the late Song Dynasty created them to kill invading Mongol troops in 1277 . Jiao Yu wrote that land mines were spherical , made of cast iron , and their fuses were ignited by the enemy movement disturbing a trigger mechanism . Although his book did not elaborate on the trigger mechanism , a late Ming Dynasty book of 1606 said that a complex system of a pin release , dropping weights , cords and axles worked to rotate a spinning " steel wheel " that acted as a flint to provide sparks that ignited the mines ' fuses underground . For the use of naval mines , he wrote of slowly burning joss sticks that were disguised and timed to explode against enemy ships nearby :
The sea – mine called the ' submarine dragon – king ' is made of wrought iron , and carried on a ( submerged ) wooden board , [ appropriately weighted with stones ] . The ( mine ) is enclosed in an ox @-@ bladder . It subtlety lies in the fact that a thin incense ( – stick ) is arranged ( to float ) above the mine in a container . The ( burning ) of this joss stick determines the time at which the fuse is ignited , but without air its glowing would of course go out , so the container is connected with the mine by a ( long ) piece of goat 's intestine ( through which passes the fuse ) . At the upper end the ( joss stick in the container ) is kept floating by ( an arrangement of ) goose and wild – duck feathers , so that it moves up and down with the ripples of the water . On a dark ( night ) the mine is sent downstream ( towards the enemy 's ships ) , and when the joss stick has burnt down to the fuse , there is a great explosion .
In the later " Tiangong Kaiwu " ( The Exploitation of the Works of Nature ) treatise , written by Song Yingxing in 1637 , the ox bladder described by Jiao Yu is replaced with a lacquer bag and a cord pulled from a hidden ambusher located on the nearby shore , which would release a flint steel – wheel firing mechanism to ignite the fuse of the naval mine .
= = = Gunpowder and explosives = = =
There were several gunpowder compositions proposed by Jiao Yu , with additions to the standard formula of potassium nitrate ( saltpetre ) , sulphur , and charcoal by adapting gunpowder weapons to early chemical warfare . He described the suitable uses of " magic gunpowder " , " poison gunpowder " , or " blinding and burning gunpowder " in warfare , which displays the various amounts of compositions used in his time . For the making of poisonous gunpowder in hand @-@ thrown or catapult @-@ launched grenade bombs , he advised that a mixture of tung oil , urine , sal ammoniac , feces , and scallion juice is heated and coated upon tiny iron pellets and broken porcelain . For this , Jiao Yu wrote , " even birds flying in the air cannot escape the effects of the explosion " . His book also outlined the use of the " flying @-@ sand magic bomb releasing ten thousand fires " , which included the use of a tube of gunpowder placed in an earthenware pot that was previously filled with quicklime , resin , and alcoholic extracts of poisonous plants , which would be released in the explosion .
During the 14th century , Chinese gunpowder solutions had reached their maximum explosive potential , with levels of nitrate ranging from 12 % to 91 % . At least six formulae in use by the Chinese that were considered to have maximum explosive force . This came about because of the enrichment of sulphur from pyrite extracts during the earlier Song Dynasty period , while Chinese gunpowder formulae by the late 12th century and at least by 1230 were potential enough for explosive detonations and bursting cast iron shells . The root of all this was the Chinese military handbook written in 1044 , the Wujing Zongyao , which outlined the earliest formulae for gunpowder , which was used in bombs hurled by catapults . Later , Wei Xing ( d . 1164 ) of the Song Dynasty was said to have created a gunpowder formula of saltpetre , sulphur , and willow charcoal for his projectile carriages for launching " fire – stones " up to 400 yards ( 370 m ) .
Although its destructive force was widely recognized by the 11th century , the Chinese had earlier termed gunpowder as a " fire @-@ drug " ( huo yao ) because of Chinese beliefs in its pharmaceutical properties . Its value in festival entertainment could be seen in firework displays , such as the martial demonstration in 1110 to entertain the court of Emperor Huizong . Leading up to its 10th @-@ century use with Fire Arrows and in fuses for igniting flamethrowers shooting Greek Fire , Daoist alchemists had experimented with various black powder solutions during the Han and Tang Dynasties . After the Wujing Zongyao of 1044 had explicitly stated formulae for gunpowder , the Chinese government became frightened that it could fall into the hands of neighbouring enemies , and in 1076 enacted a strict governmental monopoly over the production and distribution of sulphur . Although saltpetre was a central component of the " fire @-@ drug " and a flavour enhancer for food during the Tang and Song periods , in 1067 the Song government banned the populace of modern Shanxi and Hebei provinces to sell sulphur and saltpetre in any form to foreigners . While engaged in a war with the Mongols in 1259 , the official Li Zengbo wrote in his text " Ko Zhai Za Gao , Xu Gao Hou " that the city of Qingzhou was manufacturing one to two thousand strong iron @-@ cased bomb shells a month , dispatching to Xiangyang and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time .
= = = Fire arrows and rockets = = =
Jiao Yu termed the earliest fire arrows launched from bows ( not rocket launchers ) " fiery pomegranate shot from a bow " because the lump of gunpowder – filled paper wrapped round the arrow below the metal arrow – head resembled the shape of a pomegranate . Jiao Yu advised that a piece of hemp cloth should be used to strengthen the wad of paper and sealed with molten pine resin . Although he described the fire arrow in great detail , it was mentioned by the much earlier Xia Shaozeng , when 20 @,@ 000 fire arrows were handed over to the Jurchen conquerors of Kaifeng City in 1126 . An even earlier Chinese text of the Wujing Zongyao ( 武经总要 , " Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques " ) , written in 1044 by the Song scholars Zeng Gongliang and Yang Weide , described the use of three spring or triple bow arcuballista that fired arrow bolts holding gunpowder . Although written in 1630 ( second edition in 1664 ) , the Wulixiaoshi of Fang Yizhi said that fire arrows were presented to Emperor Taizu of Song in 960 . Even after the rocket was invented in China the fire arrow continued in use ; this could be seen in the Second Opium War , where Chinese used fire arrows against the French in 1860 .
By the time of Jiao Yu , the term " fire arrow " had taken on a new meaning and incorporated the earliest rockets found in China . The simple transition of this was to use a hollow tube instead of a bow or ballista firing gunpowder @-@ impregnated fire arrows . The historian Joseph Needham wrote that this discovery came sometime before Jiao Yu during the late Southern Song Dynasty ( 1127 – 1279 ) . From the section of the oldest passages in the Huolongjing , the text reads :
One uses a bamboo stick 4 ft 2 in long , with an iron ( or steel ) arrow – head 4 @.@ 5 in long ... behind the feathering there is an iron weight 0 @.@ 4 in long . At the front end there is a carton tube bound on to the stick , where the ' rising gunpowder ' is lit . When you want to fire it off , you use a frame shaped like a dragon , or else conveniently a tube of wood or bamboo to contain it .
In the late 14th century , the Chinese had discovered how to combine the rocket launching tube with the fire lance . This involved three tubes attached to the same staff . As the first rocket tube was fired , a charge was ignited in the leading tube which expelled a blinding lachrymatory powder at the enemy , and finally the second rocket was fired . An illustration of this appears in the Huolongjing , which describes the effectiveness of this weapon to obfuscate the location of the rockets from the enemy . The Huolongjing also describes and illustrates two kinds of mounted rocket launchers that fired multiple rockets . There was a cylindrical , basket @-@ work rocket launcher called the " Mr. Facing @-@ both @-@ ways rocket arrow firing basket " , as well as an oblong @-@ section , rectangular , box rocket launcher known as the " magical rocket @-@ arrow block " . Rockets described in the Huolongjing were not all in the shape of standard fire | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
933 in 2012 , and it reached the New York Times bestseller lists . It entered the Children 's Paperpack Books category on the June 23 , 2012 list , and had 1 @.@ 5 million copies in print in November 2012 . As of May 11 , 2014 it appeared on The New York Times top 10 list for the 71st non @-@ consecutive week , and was in the top 15 on the November 23 list . The novel has been published in 16 countries in 13 languages .
= = Film adaptation = =
Since he wrote The Perks of Being a Wallflower Chbosky aspired to adapt it into a film , calling this " a lifelong dream of mine . " After the publication of the novel Chbosky said he received film offers , refusing them because he " owed the fans a movie that was worthy of their love for the book . " In 2010 Mr. Mudd began developing a film version , and the author was signed to write and direct the film by producers John Malkovich , Lianne Halfon and Russell Smith . The film , shot in the Pittsburgh area from May 9 to June 29 , 2011 , starred Logan Lerman as Charlie , Emma Watson as Sam , Ezra Miller as Patrick , and Nina Dobrev as Charlie 's sister , Candace .
It premiered on September 8 , 2012 at the Toronto International Film Festival , and was released theatrically in the United States by Summit Entertainment on September 21 . According to Metacritic it has received " generally favorable reviews " , with an average of 67 out of 100 based on 36 reviews . Rotten Tomatoes reported an 85 % approval rate , based on 151 reviews . The film was a commercial success , grossing over $ 33 million worldwide from a $ 13 million production budget .
= Kelly Rowland =
Kelendria Trene " Kelly " Rowland ( born February 11 , 1981 ) is an American singer , songwriter , actress , and television personality . Rowland rose to fame in the late 1990s as a member of Destiny 's Child , one of the world 's best @-@ selling girl groups of all time . During their hiatus , Rowland released her debut solo album Simply Deep ( 2002 ) , which sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide and produced the number @-@ one single " Dilemma " with Nelly , as well as the international top @-@ ten hit " Stole " . Rowland also transitioned into acting , with guest appearances in television sitcoms , and starring roles in Freddy vs. Jason ( 2003 ) and The Seat Filler ( 2005 ) .
Following the disbandment of Destiny 's Child in 2005 , she released her second album Ms. Kelly ( 2007 ) , which included international hits " Like This " and " Work " . In 2009 , Rowland served as a host on the first season of The Fashion Show , and was featured on David Guetta 's number @-@ one dance hit " When Love Takes Over " . The song 's global success influenced Rowland to explore dance music on her third album Here I Am ( 2011 ) , which spawned the international top @-@ ten hit " Commander " and US R & B / Hip @-@ Hop number @-@ one " Motivation " . In 2011 , she returned to television as a judge on the eighth season of The X Factor UK , and in 2013 , became a judge on the third and final season of The X Factor USA . Rowland 's fourth album Talk a Good Game ( 2013 ) , which saw a return to her " R & B roots " , was released to positive reviews .
Throughout a career spanning 19 years , Rowland has sold over 27 million records as a solo artist and 60 million records with Destiny 's Child . Her work has earned her several awards and nominations , including four Grammy Awards , two Billboard Music Awards and two Soul Train Music Awards . Rowland has also received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame with Destiny 's Child , and as a solo artist she has been honored by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers and Essence for her contributions to music . In 2014 , Fuse ranked Rowland in their " 100 Most Award @-@ Winning Artists " list at number 20 .
She currently hosts BET 's Chasing Destiny with Frank Gatson Jr . They formed a girl group , June 's Diary .
= = Early life = =
Kelendria Trene Rowland was born on February 11 , 1981 , in Atlanta , Georgia . She is the daughter of Doris Rowland ( née Garrison ; December 6 , 1947 – December 2 , 2014 ) and Christopher Lovett Rowland . Kelly has an older brother named Orlando . When she was seven , her mother took her and left her father , who was an abusive alcoholic . At the age of eight , she relocated to Houston . Rowland was placed into a girl group , along with Beyoncé and friend LaTavia Roberson . Originally named Girl 's Tyme in 1992 , they were eventually cut down to six members . West coast R & B producer , Arne Frager , flew to Houston to see them and eventually brought them to his studio , The Plant Recording Studio , in Northern California . As part of efforts to sign Girl 's Tyme to a major label record deal , Frager 's strategy was to debut them in Star Search , the biggest talent show on national TV at that time . They participated , but lost the competition .
To manage the group , Mathew Knowles , Beyoncé 's father , resigned in 1995 from his job as a medical @-@ equipment salesman . He dedicated his time and established a " boot camp " for their training . At this time Rowland moved in with the Knowles 's . Not long after the inclusion of Rowland , Mathew cut the original lineup to four with LeToya Luckett joining in 1993 . Rehearsing in Tina Knowles ' hairstyling salon and their backyards , the group continued performing as an opening act for other established R & B girl groups of the time . They auditioned before record labels and were finally signed to Elektra Records , only to be dropped months later , before they could release an album .
= = Career = =
= = = 1997 – 2001 : Destiny 's Child = = =
Taken from a passage in the Biblical Book of Isaiah , the group changed their name to Destiny 's Child in 1993 . Together , they performed in local events and , after four years on the road , the group was signed to Columbia Records in late 1997 . That same year , Destiny 's Child recorded their major label debut song " Killing Time " , for the soundtrack to the 1997 film , Men in Black . The following year , the group released their self @-@ titled debut album , spawning hits such as " No , No , No " . The album established the group as a viable act in the music industry , amassing moderate sales and winning the group three Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards . The group rose to fame after releasing their multi @-@ platinum second album The Writing 's on the Wall in 1999 . The album featured some of the group 's most widely known songs such as " Bills , Bills , Bills " , " Jumpin ' Jumpin ' " and " Say My Name " , which became their most @-@ successful song at the time , and would remain as one of their signature songs . " Say My Name " won Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and Best R & B Song at the 43rd Annual Grammy Awards . The Writing 's on the Wall sold more than 15 million copies worldwide , essentially becoming their breakthrough album .
Along with their commercial successes , the group became entangled in much @-@ publicized turmoil involving the filing of a lawsuit by Luckett and Roberson for breach of contract . The issue was heightened after Michelle Williams and Farrah Franklin appeared in the video of " Say My Name " , implying that Luckett and Roberson had already been replaced . Eventually , Luckett and Roberson left the group . Franklin would eventually fade from the group after five months , as evidenced by her absences during promotional appearances and concerts . She attributed her departure to negative vibes in the group resulting from the departure . After settling on their final lineup , the trio recorded " Independent Women Part I " , which appeared on the soundtrack to the 2000 film , Charlie 's Angels . It became their best @-@ charting single , topping the Billboard Hot 100 for eleven consecutive weeks . The success cemented the new lineup and skyrocketed them to fame . Later that year , Luckett and Roberson withdrew their case against their now @-@ former band mates , while maintaining the suit against Mathew , which ended in both sides agreeing to stop public disparaging .
Later that year , while Destiny 's Child was completing their third album Survivor , Rowland appeared on the remix of Avant 's single " Separated " . Survivor , which channeled the turmoil the band underwent , spawned its lead single of the same name , which was a response to the experience . The song went on to win a Grammy Award for Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals . The themes of " Survivor " , however , caused Luckett and Roberson to refile their lawsuit ; the proceedings were eventually settled in June 2002 . Meanwhile , the album was released in May 2001 , debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 663 @,@ 000 copies sold . To date , Survivor has sold over twelve million copies worldwide , over forty percent of which were sold in the US alone . The album also spawned the number @-@ one hit " Bootylicious " . After releasing their remix album This Is the Remix in 2002 , the group announced their temporary break @-@ up to pursue solo projects .
= = = 2002 – 06 : Simply Deep and acting career debut = = =
In 2002 , Rowland was featured on Nelly 's single " Dilemma " , which won the pair a Grammy Award for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration . The song became one of the most successful singles of the year , topping many charts worldwide including the United States , where it became Rowland 's first number @-@ one single as a solo artist , selling worldwide over 7 @,@ 6 million copies . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian wrote that because of the song 's success , " Rowland is no longer a mere backing vocalist for Beyoncé " .
Rowland 's debut solo album , Simply Deep , was released on October 22 , 2002 in the US . Featuring production contributions by Mark J. Feist , Big Bert , Rich Harrison , and singers Brandy and Solange Knowles providing background vocals , the album took Rowland 's solo work further into an alternative music mixture , which Rowland described as a " weird fusion [ of ] a little bit of Sade and a little bit of rock . " Simply Deep debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 and at number three on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , with first @-@ week sales of 77 @,@ 000 copies sold . It was eventually certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . As of 2013 , Simply Deep remains as Rowland 's best @-@ selling album in the US , with 602 @,@ 000 copies sold . Released to an even bigger success in international territories , the album topped the UK Albums Chart and became a gold @-@ seller in Australia , Canada and New Zealand , resulting in worldwide sales total of 2 @.@ 5 million copies . Simply Deep yielded the international top @-@ ten single " Stole " and the UK top @-@ five single " Can 't Nobody " .
Rowland transitioned into acting in 2002 , playing the recurring role of Carly in the fourth season of UPN sitcom The Hughleys . She continued her acting career the following year , with guest roles in UPN sitcom Eve as Cleo , and in NBC drama series American Dreams as Martha Reeves . In August 2003 , Rowland made her big screen debut playing the supporting role of Kia Waterson alongside Robert Englund and Monica Keena in the slasher film , Freddy vs. Jason , which grossed $ 114 @.@ 5 million at the box office worldwide .
In July 2005 , Rowland starred opposite Duane Martin and Shemar Moore in the romantic comedy The Seat Filler , which grossed $ 17 @.@ 9 million worldwide . She played Jhnelle , a pop star who falls for an awards @-@ show seat filler whom she mistakes for a high @-@ profile entertainment attorney . After a three @-@ year hiatus that involved concentration on individual solo projects , Rowland rejoined Beyoncé and Michelle Williams for Destiny 's Child 's final studio album Destiny Fulfilled , released on November 15 , 2004 . The album hit number two on the Billboard 200 , and spawned the top @-@ five singles " Lose My Breath " and " Soldier " , which features T.I. and Lil Wayne . The following year , Destiny 's Child embarked on a worldwide concert tour , Destiny Fulfilled ... And Lovin ' It . During the last stop of the European tour in Barcelona , Spain on June 11 , Rowland announced that they would disband following the North American leg of the tour . Destiny 's Child released their first compilation album Number 1 's on October 25 in the US , which peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 . On March 28 , 2006 , Destiny 's Child accepted a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
After Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , Rowland and Beyoncé founded the Survivor Foundation , a charitable entity set up to provide transitional housing for victims and storm evacuees in the Houston , Texas area . The Survivor Foundation extended the philanthropic mission of the Knowles @-@ Rowland Center for Youth , a multi @-@ purpose community outreach facility in downtown Houston . Rowland and Beyoncé lent their voices to a collaboration with Kitten Sera , entitled " All That I 'm Lookin for " . The song appeared on The Katrina CD album , whose proceeds went to the Recording Artists for Hope organization . In 2006 , Rowland joined other artists such as Pink and Avril Lavigne in ads for so @-@ called empowerment tags for the ALDO Fights AIDS campaign , which went on sale exclusively at ALDO stores and benefited the YouthAIDS initiative . Rowland returned to television that same year , playing Tammy Hamilton , in the sixth season of UPN sitcom Girlfriends . Rowland initially hoped her three @-@ episode stint would expand to a larger recurring role , but as the show was moved to The CW Television Network the following year plans for a return eventually went nowhere .
= = = 2007 – 09 : Ms. Kelly , new management and label = = =
In June 2007 , Kelly Rowland embarked on the Ms. Kelly Tour to promote her second solo album Ms. Kelly . The five date tour visited Europe , North America , Africa and Asia . Ms. Kelly was released on July 3 , 2007 in the United States . Originally entitled My Story , the album 's first version was actually scheduled for a June 2006 release , but Rowland , her management and Columbia Records decided to shelve the album at the last minute to re @-@ work a version with a different vibe as the singer considered the final track listing " too full of midtempos and ballads . " Rowland eventually consulted additional producers to collaborate on the album , including Billy Mann , Mysto & Pizzi , Sean Garrett , Scott Storch , and Polow da Don . Upon its release , Ms. Kelly debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 , and at number two on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , with first @-@ week sales of 86 @,@ 000 copies . Outside the US , the album widely failed to reprise the success of Simply Deep , barely reaching the top @-@ forty on the majority of all charts it appeared on , except for the UK , where it opened at number 37 .
Ms. Kelly included the UK top @-@ five hit " Like This " , featuring Eve , and the international top @-@ ten hit " Work " . In July 2007 , Rowland released her first DVD entitled BET Presents Kelly Rowland , which celebrates the release Ms. Kelly and features an interview with Rowland about the album 's production , footage of her time with Destiny 's Child , live performances and music videos . Following the album 's lukewarm sales , it was re @-@ released as an extended play entitled , Ms. Kelly : Diva Deluxe , on March 25 , 2008 . Previously unreleased Bobby Womack cover " Daylight " , a collaboration with Travie McCoy , served as the EP 's lead single and was a moderate success in the UK .
In 2007 , Rowland , along with stars such as Jessica Simpson and the cast of Grey 's Anatomy autographed pink Goody Ouchless brushes that were made available for auction on eBay , with all proceeds going to Breast Cancer Awareness . In addition , the singer teamed up with Kanye West , Nelly Furtado and Snoop Dogg to design a Nike sneaker for another eBay auction . All proceeds went to AIDS Awareness . In October 2007 , Rowland auditioned for the role of Louise , Carrie Bradshaw 's assistant , in the 2008 film adaptation of HBO 's comedy series Sex and the City . The part eventually went to Jennifer Hudson . Two months later , Rowland appeared as a choirmaster in the first season of the NBC talent show Clash of the Choirs among other musicians such as Michael Bolton , Patti LaBelle , Nick Lachey , and Blake Shelton . Rowland 's choir finished fifth in the competition , and Clash of the Choirs did not return for a second season .
In 2008 , Rowland officially became ambassador for MTV 's Staying Alive Foundation , which aims to reduce stigma against people living with HIV and AIDS . She visited projects in Tanzania and Kenya to promote the charity , and underwent an HIV test in Africa to raise awareness of the disease . In 2009 , Rowland connected with Serve.MTV.com , MTV 's platform to connect young people with local volunteerism opportunities , for a series of on @-@ air PSAs . From battling homelessness to beautifying impoverished neighborhoods to saving whales , Rowland was joined by the likes of Cameron Diaz , will.i.am , and Sean Kingston as they discuss causes they volunteer to support , and urge young people to join with their friends in making civic service a part of their lifestyle . That same year , she spearheaded a bone marrow drive , and joined fellow singers Alesha Dixon and Pixie Lott to create T @-@ shirts for River Island in aid of the Prince 's Trust , profits from which help change young lives .
In January 2009 , Rowland ended her professional relationship with Beyoncé 's father Mathew Knowles , who had managed her career since she was a member of Destiny 's Child . Knowles stressed that no animosity was involved in the decision and acknowledged that Rowland will always be a part of the Knowles family . Then two months later , Rowland announced that she left Columbia Records , adding that she " felt the need to explore new directions , new challenges , and new freedoms outside my comfort zone . " In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Rowland stated that the label ended her contract because Ms. Kelly was not commercially successful . She later signed with Universal Motown Records .
In April 2009 , Rowland was featured on David Guetta 's single " When Love Takes Over " , which topped many charts in Europe , selling over 5 @,@ 5 million copies worldwide , and received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Dance Recording . Billboard crowned the song as the number one dance @-@ pop collaboration of all time . In May 2009 , Rowland was cast to host the first season of Bravo 's reality competition series The Fashion Show alongside Isaac Mizrahi , but was replaced by fashion model Iman in the second season .
= = = 2010 – 12 : Here I Am and The X Factor UK = = =
In 2010 , Kelly Rowland launched I Heart My Girlfriends , a charity that focuses on self @-@ esteem , date violence prevention , community service , abstinence , sports , drugs and alcohol and smoking avoidance , obesity , disabilities , and education . In April 2010 , Rowland toured Australia alongside Akon , Pitbull , Sean Paul , Jay Sean , and Eve for the Australian urban festival , Supafest . Later that month , her song " Everywhere You Go " , featuring an all @-@ star supergroup of international artists called Rhythm of Africa United , was released as the MTN theme song for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa . In October 2010 , the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) honored Rowland at the second annual ASCAP Presents Women Behind the Music , an event which recognizes women in all areas of the music industry . Rowland 's first compilation album , Work : The Best of Kelly Rowland , was released on October 25 , 2010 but failed to impact the charts .
In January 2011 , Rowland reunited with Nelly on " Gone " , a sequel to their successful 2002 collaboration " Dilemma " . Upon its release , the song failed to reprise the success of " Dilemma " . In April 2011 , Rowland appeared on Italian DJ Alex Gaudino 's single " What a Feeling " , which became another UK top @-@ ten hit . Originally scheduled for release in 2010 , Rowland 's third studio album Here I Am was released on July 26 , 2011 in the United States . The album sold 77 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . Here I Am produced the successful lead single " Commander " , which peaked in the top @-@ ten of many charts in Europe , and the UK top @-@ ten single " Down for Whatever " . It also included another successful single " Motivation " , with Lil Wayne , which topped the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart for seven consecutive weeks and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . " Motivation " won Song of the Year at the 2011 Soul Train Music Awards and Top R & B Song at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards , and received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration .
Rowland was the face of Diddy 's women 's fragrance Empress , the female counterpart to his men 's fragrance I Am King . She was also the worldwide ambassador for watchmakers company TW Steel . Rowland 's second compilation album , Playlist : the Very Best of Kelly Rowland , was released on October 18 , 2011 , but failed to impact the charts . She also released her first fitness DVD entitled , Sexy Abs with Kelly Rowland . Later that year , it was confirmed that Rowland would replace Dannii Minogue as a judge for the eighth series of The X Factor UK alongside Louis Walsh , Gary Barlow and Tulisa Contostavlos . Due to a conflicting schedule , Rowland did not return for the ninth series in 2012 and was replaced by Nicole Scherzinger . During the Black Women in Music event held on February 8 , 2012 , Essence magazine honored Rowland and music executive Sylvia Rhone for their contributions to music . In April 2012 , Rowland toured Australia alongside Ludacris , Chris Brown , Trey Songz , T @-@ Pain , Ice Cube , Lupe Fiasco , and Big Sean for the urban festival , Supafest . That same month , she returned to the big screen playing the supporting role of Brenda in the romantic comedy Think Like a Man . The film , which also starred Michael Ealy , Jerry Ferrara , Meagan Good , Regina Hall , and Kevin Hart , topped the US box office and grossed $ 91 @.@ 5 million . Rowland recorded " Need a Reason " with Future and Bei Maejor for the Think Like a Man soundtrack .
In June 2012 , Rowland became the face of popular rum brand Bacardi . Rowland and German production team Project B reworked the Bacardi song , " Bacardi Feeling ( Summer Dreamin ' ) " , and released an accompanying music video to help promote the brand . In August 2012 , Rowland became a dance master in the first season of the Australian talent show Everybody Dance Now alongside Jason Derulo . The show was cancelled after the fourth episode due to poor ratings .
= = = 2013 – 14 : Talk a Good Game and The X Factor USA = = =
In January 2013 , Destiny 's Child released a compilation album entitled Love Songs , a collection of romance @-@ themed songs from their previous albums and newly recorded song " Nuclear " . On February 3 , 2013 , during Beyoncé 's performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show , held at the Mercedes @-@ Benz Superdome in New Orleans , Rowland and Michelle Williams joined her on stage to perform " Bootylicious " , " Independent Women " and " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . On February 24 , 2013 , Rowland co @-@ hosted the Academy Awards pre @-@ show for the 85th Academy Awards alongside Kristin Chenoweth , Lara Spencer , Robin Roberts and Jess Cagle . In May 2013 , it was announced that Rowland would replace Britney Spears as a judge on The X Factor USA for its third and final season , joining Simon Cowell , Demi Lovato and fellow new judge Paulina Rubio . Later that month , Rowland performed as a supporting headlining act at the RiverFest 2013 in Little Rock , Arkansas .
Rowland embarked on the Lights Out Tour , a co @-@ headlining tour with The @-@ Dream , to promote her fourth studio album Talk a Good Game . Formerly titled Year of the Woman , the album was released on June 18 , 2013 in the US . It is Rowland 's first release with Republic Records following Universal Music Group 's decision to close Universal Motown and Universal Republic , and reviving Motown Records and Republic Records . Talk a Good Game sold 68 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 , becoming Rowland 's third top @-@ ten album in the US . The album 's lead single " Kisses Down Low " was a moderate success on the US R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and was certified gold by RIAA for exceeded 500 @,@ 000 copies sold . The second and final single " Dirty Laundry " was acclaimed by critics for its lyrical and the emotional honesty . In December 2013 , Rowland appeared in Beyoncé 's " Grown Woman " music video and alongside Williams in Beyoncé 's " Superpower " music video and provided backing vocals on the same track , taken from her self @-@ titled fifth studio album .
In February 2014 , Rowland was featured on Joe 's single " Love & Sex Part 2 " . In March 2014 , she was named a spokesperson for cosmetic company , Caress . During an interview with HuffPost Live on March 26 , 2014 , Rowland revealed that she has begun recording her fifth studio album and said the new music , which encompasses horns , drums , and flutes , was influenced by iconic female singers including Diana Ross . Rowland also announced in the interview that she left Republic Records , adding that she " just needed a fresh , new start . " In June 2014 , Rowland and Beyoncé were featured on Williams ' single " Say Yes " . The same month , her song " The Game " and its music video appeared on Pepsi 's visual album for the 2014 FIFA World Cup titled , Beats of the Beautiful Game . On July 19 , 2014 , Rowland was featured on Adrian Marcel 's song " Honey " from his mixtape Weak After Next and on Beau Vallis 's song " Love Stand Still " . Rowland also contributed background vocals to the song " You 're My Star " , the first single released from Tank 's 2014 album Stronger .
= = = 2015 – present : Empire , Chasing Destiny and fifth studio album = = =
In August 2015 , she was featured on Jacob Whitesides 's single " I Know What You Did Last Summer " . Rowland is part of the recurring cast of the second season of the American drama television series Empire . She played Leah Walker , Lucious Lyon 's mother , in flashbacks and starred in five episodes . She recorded a song for the show called " Mona Lisa " which included on the EP Empire : Music from " Be True " , released on October 21 , 2015 . On October 26 , 2015 , Rowland released a new song titled " Dumb " which will appear on her fifth album , set for a 2016 release . Rowland says that she 's been hard at work in the studio and will release new music in 2016 , is shooting a music video , and has recorded 45 songs for her new album . Rowland along with other female artists such as Missy Elliot , Kelly Clarkson , Zendaya , Janelle Monae , Lea Michele and newcomers Chloe & Halle , all feature on a charity single put together by US First Lady Michelle Obama . This Is For My Girls was written by Diane Warren and was released on March 15 . The song was created to raise funds and awareness towards Obama 's Let Girls Learn initiative - aimed at boosting education rates amongst adolescent girls around the world who are denied the right to an education The iTunes @-@ exclusive record will be used to both coincide with Obama 's Texan SXSW speech and to promote the First Lady 's third @-@ world educational initialtive " Let Girls Learn " .
On April 5 , 2016 Rowland stepped into her " music @-@ mogul shoes " for the debut of Chasing Destiny . Partnering with BET , Rowland began the search to find the next superstars for an all female group . As stated by Rowland herself , she 's not looking for reality stars , but she 's looking for stars . The show also stars Frank Gatson Jr .. The group released its first single in June 2016 titled " All of Us " .
= = Personal life = =
Rowland began dating American football player Roy Williams in 2004 and they became engaged later that year , however , the couple called off their engagement in January 2005 , two months prior to the planned wedding ceremony in March . Williams stated that they did not " know each other well enough to get married " . Shortly after , Rowland appeared on the cover of Modern Bride wearing her wedding dress . The singer stated that she was so embarrassed about the cover because the public already knew about her separation from Williams . " I didn 't even want to go out of the house and I really didn 't want to put my family in the position of having to answer questions about the wedding " .
Rowland and her manager Tim Witherspoon ( not to be confused with the former heavyweight boxing champion ) reportedly began dating in 2011 . She announced her engagement to Witherspoon during an appearance on The Queen Latifah Show on December 16 , 2013 . They were married in Costa Rica on May 9 , 2014 , with guests including Beyoncé and her sister Solange Knowles . On June 10 , 2014 , Rowland announced via Instagram that she and Witherspoon were expecting their first child . On November 4 , 2014 , Rowland gave birth to her son Titan Jewell Witherspoon .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Rowland 's voice is classified as a three @-@ octave lyric mezzo @-@ soprano , and her music includes various styles of musical genres such as contemporary R & B , pop , hip hop , soul , rock and dance . Her debut solo album Simply Deep ( 2002 ) followed an adult @-@ alternative rock sound , while her second album Ms. Kelly ( 2007 ) featured an urban sound . In an interview with The Independent , Rowland admitted that with her first two albums she struggled to find her sound . " I was in a stage with the first two records where I was searching and I was like , let me try a rock @-@ dance approach , the label [ and management ] wanted me to try it and I did it ... And then after that came a more urban approach with Ms. Kelly in 2007 . " Her third album Here I Am ( 2011 ) consisted of a pop and R & B sound , with subtle influences of dance . Rowland stated that meeting David Guetta had influenced her to record dance music . During production of the album , Rowland stated that part of the reason for the new sound on Here I Am was wanting to do something different , saying " I knew I couldn 't be afraid of this direction , and I wasn 't going to let the thoughts and opinions of others make me afraid to go in this direction " .
Most of the lyrical themes in Simply Deep ( 2002 ) speak of love and life experiences , particularly in the songs " Dilemma " , in which Rowland expresses her endless love to her love interest , and " Stole " , in which she sings about an emotional " tale of school shootings and suicides " . In Ms. Kelly ( 2007 ) , Rowland covers topics such as her " deeply personal relationship issues " in her songs , " Still in Love with My Ex " , " Flashback " , " Love " , " Better Without You " and " Gotsta Go ( Part I ) " . Alex Macpherson of The Guardian noted that the songs could be about Rowland 's former relationship with American football player Roy Williams . Here I Am ( 2011 ) included common themes of womanhood , sexual intimacy and love . Some of Rowland 's other songs such as " Work " , " I 'm Dat Chick " and " Work It Man " have been musically compared to the work of former Destiny 's Child bandmate Beyoncé .
= = = Influences = = =
Rowland has cited Whitney Houston , her namesake Kevin Rowland and Janet Jackson as her biggest musical influences . She stated that Houston " was the woman that inspired me to sing " . Rowland is also inspired by Sade Adu and says that " she has a style that 's totally her own " . Her other inspirations include Destiny 's Child , Martin Luther King , Jr . , Mariah Carey , Mary J. Blige , Naomi Campbell , and Oprah Winfrey , whom she describes as " the female version of God " . Rowland has discussed how living in Miami has influenced her style , growth , and music . From a fashion perspective , Rowland credits her grandmother , Halle Berry , Jennifer Lopez , Beyoncé , and Oprah Winfrey as her style icons . Rowland cited Houston , Beyoncé , and Brandy Norwood as vocal inspirations for her second solo album Ms. Kelly , " I love how different they are . I love how they take themselves to the next level " . Her third solo album Here I Am was inspired by Donna Summer and Diana Ross , as well as dance producers David Guetta and will.i.am. Rowland 's fourth solo album Talk a Good Game was also inspired by Houston , Marvin Gaye , and Stevie Wonder .
= = = Public image = = =
After Destiny 's Child disbanded , Rowland has always been compared by the media to her former groupmate Beyoncé . After the international success of her singles " Dilemma " and " Stole " and of her debut album Simply Deep , music critics wrote of Rowland as an emancipated and different artist from Beyoncé , that has established herself as a solo singer and songwriter . Over the years , the media have speculated about a feud between the two and have often referred to Rowland as living in Beyoncé 's shadow . In an interview with omg ! Insider , Rowland commented on the feud rumors stating , " I think the people wanted those stories for years and that 's just so sad on them because it 's not like that " . She also commented on her relationship with Beyoncé stating , " I love my sister and she is so incredibly supportive . One of the closest people to me . I love her to death " . Rowland expressed her envy of Beyoncé 's solo success in the lyrics to " Dirty Laundry " : " When my sister was on stage , killing it like a motherfucker , I was in rage , feeling it like a motherfucker . Bird in a cage , you 'd never know what I was dealing with . Went our separate ways but I was happy she was killin ' it . Bittersweet , she was up , I was down . No lie , I feel good for her but what do I do now ? " . The song garnered widespread media attention upon its release .
Rowland stated that there was a time in her life when she struggled about being dark @-@ skinned . Beyoncé 's mother Tina Knowles would eventually help Rowland embrace her skin color . In October 2007 , Rowland underwent plastic surgery to receive breast implants . She stated , " I simply went from an A @-@ cup to a B @-@ cup " and that " the decision was 10 years in the making " . In 2012 , Rowland ranked at number 61 on Complex magazine 's list of " The 100 Hottest Female Singers of All Time " and was recognized as one of the best @-@ dressed women by Glamour UK . In April 2013 , Rowland ranked seventh on People 's Most Beautiful in the World list .
= = Discography = =
Simply Deep ( 2002 )
Ms. Kelly ( 2007 )
Here I Am ( 2011 )
Talk a Good Game ( 2013 )
= = Filmography = =
Freddy vs. Jason ( 2003 )
The Seat Filler ( 2005 )
Think Like a Man ( 2012 )
= = Tours = =
Headlining
2003 : Simply Deeper Tour
2007 : Ms. Kelly Tour
2013 : Lights Out Tour ( Co @-@ headlined with The @-@ Dream )
Supporting
2010 : Supafest ( Australia )
2011 : F.A.M.E. Tour ( North America )
2012 : Supafest ( Australia )
= Radioland Murders =
Radioland Murders is a 1994 comedy mystery film directed by Mel Smith and co @-@ written / produced by George Lucas . Radioland Murders is set in the 1939 atmosphere of old @-@ time radio and pays homage to the screwball comedy films of the 1930s . The film tells the story of writer Roger Henderson trying to settle relationship issues with his wife while dealing with a whodunit murder mystery in a radio station . The films stars an ensemble cast , including Brian Benben , Mary Stuart Masterson , Scott Michael Campbell , Michael Lerner and Ned Beatty . Radioland Murders also features numerous small roles and cameo appearances , including Michael McKean , Bobcat Goldthwait , Jeffrey Tambor , Christopher Lloyd , George Burns ( in his final film appearance ) , Billy Barty and Rosemary Clooney .
George Lucas began development for the film in the 1970s , originally attached as director for Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz 's script . Universal Pictures commenced pre @-@ production and both Steve Martin and Cindy Williams had already been approached for the two leads before Radioland Murders languished in development hell for over 20 years . In 1993 , Lucas told Universal that advances in computer @-@ generated imagery from Industrial Light & Magic ( owned by Lucasfilm ) , particularly in digital mattes , would help bring Radioland Murders in for a relatively low budget of about $ 10 million , which eventually rose to $ 15 million . Mel Smith was hired to direct and filming lasted from October to December 1993 . Radioland Murders was released on October 21 , 1994 to negative reviews from critics and bombed at the box office , only grossing $ 1 @.@ 37 million in US totals .
= = Plot = =
In 1939 , a new radio network based at station WBN in Chicago , Illinois begins its inaugural night . The station 's owner , General Walt Whalen , depends on his employees to impress main sponsor Bernie King . This includes writer Roger Henderson , assistant director Penny Henderson ( Roger 's wife , seeking divorce ) , page boy Billy Budget , engineer Max Applewhite , conductor Rick Rochester , announcer Dexter Morris , director Walt Whalen , Jr. and stage manager Herman Katzenback . After King commissions rewrites on the radio scripts , the WBN writers get angry , adding to the fact that they have not been paid in weeks .
When Ruffles Reedy , a trumpet player , falls dead from rat poisoning , a series of events ensue . Director Walt Jr. is hanged ( the mysterious killer makes it look like a suicide ) , and his father , the General , has the Chicago Police Department ( CPD ) get involved to solve the murder mysteries as the nightly radio performance continues . Herman Katzenback is then killed after attempting to fix the main stage when the machinery malfunctions . Penny is appointed both stage manager and director due to Walt Jr. and Katzenback 's deaths . Writer Roger Henderson tries to solve the killings , much to the annoyance of the police , led by Lieutenant Cross .
Because Roger unfortunately appears at every scene of crime just as the murders take place , he is ruled as the prime suspect . Roger and Billy Budget then theorize that announcer Dexter Morris is the next to die . Dexter ignores their warning and is killed by electrocution . By going through private documents in WBN 's file room , Roger finds that the victims all previously worked together at a radio station in Peoria , Illinois , which he then correlates into a secretive FCC scandal . King ( laughing gas ) and General Whalen ( falls down an elevator shaft ) are the next to die after Roger 's warning , causing even more suspicion from the police .
After escaping from custody , Roger uses Billy to communicate and send scripts to Penny . When rewriting one of the programs , Gork : Son of Fire , Roger attempts to write the script with self @-@ referential events , proving to everyone that the mysterious killer is actually sound engineer Max Applewhite . Max explains that his killings were a revenge scheme that dealt with stock holders and patents , specifically detailing his invention of television , which other scientists have copied . Roger and Penny are taken by Max atop the radio tower at gunpoint . Max is eventually killed when a biplane shows up and guns him down . Impressed by the nightly performance , the sponsors decide to fund WBN . Roger and Penny reconcile their complex relationship and decide not to divorce .
= = Cast = =
Brian Benben as Roger Henderson : Ecstatic writer of WBN and husband to Penny . Much to the consternation of the police force , Roger solves the murder mystery .
Mary Stuart Masterson as Penny Henderson : Stressed WBN secretary who is promoted to both director and stage manager after the deaths of Walt Jr. and Herman Katzenback . She initially intends to divorce Roger after catching him in a compromising position with Claudette Katzenback , but they later reconcile their relationship .
Scott Michael Campbell as Billy Budget : WBN page boy who is used by Roger to communicate with Penny and send scripts , despite the fact that he is trying to hide from the police .
Michael Lerner as Lieutenant Cross : Short @-@ tempered policeman who has a vendetta against Roger .
Ned Beatty as General Walt Whalen : Owner of WBN who commands his staff with a military @-@ like work environment . The General dies after falling down an elevator shaft .
Brion James as Bernie King : WBN 's main sponsor who has no sense of humor . King eventually dies from laughing gas .
Stephen Tobolowsky as Max Applewhite : WBN 's sound engineer who is found to be responsible for the murders . Max dies after getting shot atop the radio tower .
Michael McKean as Rick Rochester : WBN band conductor who despises Dexter ( McKean also appeared as Benben 's boss in Dream On ) .
Corbin Bernsen as Dexter Morris : The station 's announcer who has a smoking habit . Dexter dies of electrocution , ignoring Roger and Billy 's warning .
Bobcat Goldthwait as Wild Writer : Violent and melancholic WBN writer .
Anita Morris as Claudette Katzenback : Famous singer and Herman 's wife . Penny catches her with Roger , presumably having sex , but this appears to have been a prank Claudette created . Roger originally believes she was responsible for killings . This was Anita Morris ' final acting role , as she died seven months before the film 's release .
Jeffrey Tambor as Walt Whalen , Jr . : The General 's toupée @-@ wearing son and show director .
Larry Miller as Herman Katzenback : German stage manager of WBN . Herman is the third to die and is aware of Claudette 's multiple affairs with other employees .
Christopher Lloyd as Zoltan : Eccentric sound designer .
Harvey Korman as Jules Cogley : Alcoholic writer who confirms that Ruffles ' death came from poisoning .
Dylan Baker as Detective Jasper : Cross ' idiot assistant .
Jack Sheldon as Ruffles Reedy : Drunk trumpet player of Rochester 's band . He is the first to die .
Cameo appearances are provided by George Burns ( in his final feature film , as Milt Lackey , a 100 @-@ year @-@ old comedian ) , Joey Lawrence , Billy Barty , Peter MacNicol , Robert Klein , Ellen Albertini Dow , Candy Clark , Bo Hopkins ( as Billy Budget 's parents ) and Wilbur Fitzgerald , as well as singers Rosemary Clooney and Tracy Byrd .
= = Production = =
The genesis of Radioland Murders came from executive producer / co @-@ writer George Lucas 's obsession with old @-@ time radio . Lucas conceived the storyline of the film during the writing phase of American Graffiti , viewing it as a homage to the various Abbott and Costello films , primarily Who Done It ( 1942 ) , in which Abbott and Costello star as two soda jerks solving a murder in a radio station . Radioland Murders also shares some inspiration from The Big Clock ( 1948 ) . When Universal Pictures accepted American Graffiti in 1972 , Lucas also allowed the studio first look deals for both Radioland Murders and an untitled science fiction film ( which eventually became the basis for Star Wars ) .
Lucas eventually negotiated a deal to produce Radioland Murders for Universal shortly after the successful release of American Graffiti in late 1973 . Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz prepared a rough draft based on Lucas 's 1974 film treatment , and Universal was confident enough to announce pre @-@ production soon after . Lucas was set to direct with Gary Kurtz producing . In the original Huyck / Katz script , Roger and Penny were not a married couple seeking divorce , but were boyfriend and girlfriend with a love @-@ hate relationship . Their script also included the controversy over the invention of radio .
In July 1978 , Lucas revealed that Radioland Murders was still in development , and that both Steve Martin and Cindy Williams were approached for the two leads . The script was being rewritten and the planned start date was early @-@ 1979 . However , throughout the 1970s to early 1990s , Radioland Murders remained in development hell . Between this time , Lucas commissioned Theodore J. Flicker to perform a rewrite . In early @-@ 1993 Lucas told Universal that advances in computer @-@ generated imagery from Industrial Light & Magic ( owned by Lucasfilm ) , particularly in digital mattes , would help bring Radioland Murders in for a relatively low budget of about $ 10 million , which eventually rose to $ 15 million .
Universal agreed to greenlight Radioland Murders if Lucas would " update " the script . The Huyck / Katz script contained parodies of old @-@ time radio that the general public in the 1970s would likely acknowledge . Universal reasoned that the script would have to be modified in an attempt to accustom audiences from the MTV Generation . Based on Ron Howard 's recommendation , Lucas hired Jeff Reno and Ron Osborn ( known for their work on Moonlighting ) to " update " the screenplay . The shooting script was prepared by Lucas , who combined his favorite elements of the Reno / Osborn draft with the original Huyck / Katz script from the 1970s . Lucas then hired Mel Smith to direct , who recommended Brian Benben for the lead role . Lucas specifically choose Smith because he believed the British comedian / filmmaker could handle Radioland Murders ' form of slapstick comedy and dark humor . Universal was adamant that the ensemble cast be filled with then @-@ popular TV stars of the early 1990s . Christopher Lloyd agreed to make a small appearance as the eccentric sound designer Zoltan on the agreement that all of his scenes were shot in one day .
Principal photography for Radioland Murders began on October 28 , 1993 at Carolco Studios in Wilmington , North Carolina . Brief filming also took place at Hollywood Center Studios . Production designer Gavin Bocquet ( Star Wars prequels , Stardust ) disguised the film 's limited rooms in a beehivelike structure . Larger areas , notably the exterior of the building and the transmission tower on the roof , were created or augmented with digital mattes added by visual effects supervisor Scott Squires ( The Lost World : Jurassic Park , Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace ) at Industrial Light & Magic . Following a break , in which Lucas , director Mel Smith and editor Paul Trejo reviewed the footage using the new digital Avid Technology editing system ( the successor to EditDroid ) , the cast and crew were reassembled for a further two weeks of filming . Principal photography for Radioland Murders ended on December 23 , 1993 .
= = Release = =
To market Radioland Murders , Universal attached a film trailer to The Flintstones in May 1994 . The studio believed both films would specifically appeal to the Baby Boom Generation . Radioland Murders was originally set to be theatrically released in September 1994 before it was pushed back . The film was released in the United States on October 21 , 1994 in 844 theaters , only grossing $ 1 @.@ 37 million . Ultimately the film bombed at the box office because it did not recoup its $ 15 million budget . It ranks among the top ten widely @-@ released films for having the biggest second weekend drop at the box office , dropping 78 @.@ 5 % from $ 835 @,@ 570 to $ 179 @,@ 315 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Radioland Murders received negative reviews with Rotten Tomatoes calculated a 24 % approval rating based on 17 reviews collected . Roger Ebert criticized the film for containing too much slapstick comedy instead of subtle humor . Although he praised the art direction and visual effects , Ebert believed " the movie just doesn 't work . It 's all action and no character , all situation and no comedy . The slapstick starts so soon and lasts so long that we don 't have an opportunity to meet or care about the characters in a way that would make their actions funny . " Richard Schickel , writing in Time magazine gave a mixed review , mainly criticizing the film for its fast pacing . Caryn James of The New York Times dismissed the film for trying too hard to pay homage to screwball comedy films of the 1930s .
Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave a mixed reaction , feeling the filmmakers failed in attempting to woo audiences with nostalgia . Internet reviewer James Berardinelli called the film a " horrible concoction synthesizing elements of The Hudsucker Proxy and Brain Donors , and setting them in the world of David Lynch 's On the Air . This film has more gags in it than anything this side of a Zucker , Abrahams and Zucker production , too few of which work . "
= = = Home media = = =
The first Region 1 DVD release came in March 1998 by Image Entertainment . Universal Studios Home Entertainment re @-@ released the film on DVD in August 2006 .
= Albin K. Longren =
Albin Kasper Longren ( January 18 , 1882 – November 19 , 1950 ) was an American aviation pioneer from the state of Kansas . Beginning in 1911 , Longren successfully flew airplanes of his own design and construction . Fully self @-@ taught as an aircraft designer and pilot , he built a thriving career as a barnstormer with his own craft , becoming known throughout the Midwest as the " Birdman " .
He established his own aeronautics manufacturing company , Longren Aircraft Corporation , which produced several models through the 1920s . The handcrafted Longren planes were well regarded by aviation professionals of the era . Longren created several innovations including the design for the first semi @-@ monocoque airplane body . In addition to his own independent enterprises , he worked for many years with some of the best @-@ known companies in the industry – Spartan , Luscombe , and Cessna – until his retirement in 1945 .
= = Early life = =
Albin K. Longren was born on January 18 , 1882 , in a rural cabin just outside Leonardville , Kansas . Known familiarly as " A.K. " , he was one of the eight children of local farmers Charles and Emma Longren . As a young man he worked as a hardware dealer , but was also known as a handyman and an avid tinkerer who built his own automobiles and motorcycles out of spare parts .
He served in the Clay Center Kansas National Guard and in that capacity was called to assist in crowd safety at one of the popular flying demonstrations in Topeka in June 1910 . Longren 's interest in aircraft was ignited after he witnessed the featured airplane spin out shortly after takeoff and crash to the ground . The 28 @-@ year @-@ old tinkerer immediately set upon building his own improved version of a flying machine .
= = Aviation career = =
= = = Topeka I = = =
Longren obtained space in Topeka for a small factory and enlisted the help of his brother Ereanius and his friend William Janicke , a fellow mechanic . Together the three men began working on Longren 's design for a new airplane , despite having no prior aviation experience or professional assistance . The trio built the prototype in complete secrecy , wishing to forestall publicity of any potential failures ; they even disassembled the craft and transported it discreetly in boxes to its first flight trial .
The new biplane was 12 metres ( 39 ft ) long with a 9 @.@ 8 metres ( 32 ft ) wingspan , and weighed 283 kilograms ( 625 lb ) . A pusher configuration with a 60 @-@ hp V8 engine and two ribbed canvas wings , the debut Longren aircraft – eventually designated the Topeka I – flew for the first time in trials beginning on September 2 , 1911 . Three days later , in his first public demonstration , Longren piloted the plane through a brief but satisfying circular pattern at 61 metres ( 200 ft ) in the air , for a total distance of about 9 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 6 mi ) . A beaming Longren told the local newspaper , " I ’ m glad now to let the people of Topeka know what I 've built . "
= = = Longren Aircraft Company = = =
To pay for construction of new planes at his factory , Longren performed frequently at airshows . Barnstorming before crowds across the U.S. , he became a popular attraction in his own right , nicknamed " Birdman " . Longren , who had never had formal training as a pilot , ended up flying 1 @,@ 372 demonstrations over the next few years .
Longren met his future wife Dolly Trent while performing in Minneapolis and married her soon thereafter . His wife quickly became an essential member of his small @-@ scale airplane factory : admiringly he said , " she could repair a plane as well as any man . " A Kansas beauty queen , Dolly also helped Longren 's cause in the arena of public relations . As one historian wrote , " she was a bubbly counterpart to her taciturn husband . "
Longren established his own firm , the Longren Aircraft Corporation of Topeka , and began offering his airplanes via mail order . He designed and sold ten different models , all of which were acknowledged for their high quality and durability . The company , however , had only moderate sales and fluctuating commercial success . In late 1915 , he was seriously injured in a mishap at a flying demonstration in Abilene , Texas , and thereafter the barnstormer devoted most of his time to architecture and design . He also took some time off beginning in 1917 when America entered the First World War – for nearly two years , he served as chief inspector of aircraft at the nation 's first military aviation research and development center , McCook Field in Ohio .
= = = Longren AK = = =
Returning to Topeka , he set upon constructing what he billed as " The New Longren Airplane " , also known as the Longren AK . A small biplane powered by a 60 @-@ hp Anzani three @-@ cylinder radial engine , the AK was sturdy , fast , and nimble . Its most arresting feature , however , was the folding set of wings which , when turned inward on the fuselage , shrank the plane 's width from 5 @.@ 8 metres ( 19 ft ) to a mere 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 9 ft ) . Longren hoped that buyers would keep the tidy craft in barns or car garages ; it was thought that the AK could become " the Ford of the air " . With its new products , the struggling company had achieved national stature by 1921 , just a decade after Longren 's first flight .
= = = Fuselage design = = =
The AK was not the commercial breakthrough that Longren would have liked , but it featured a design innovation that would burnish his reputation greatly . Improving upon the day 's standard airplane bodyform – essentially a wooden frame with a fabric skin – Longren designed the first semi @-@ monocoque fuselage . The AK body was formed by joining two mirroring halves into a simple but aerodynamic shape . The two halves formed a hard shell , made of strong vulcanized fibrous material and reinforced on both sides with wood veneer . The advanced design of the AK was remarkable for its day , and presents what Air & Space / Smithsonian calls " the world 's first semi @-@ monocoque , truly composite shell fuselage " .
The U.S. government showed interest in Longren 's finely handcrafted airplanes . Karl Smith , a general inspector from the Navy , toured the Topeka factory and his report praised Longren 's low @-@ tech manufacturing skills : despite using " more or less unsatisfactory equipment " , Longren was able to produce a first @-@ rate fuselage which the inspector described as " phenomenal in its strength and particularly easy to build " . The fuselage 's three @-@ ply bonded material particularly impressed the Navy , who found its resistance to bullets most intriguing . But the novice entrepreneur was unable to raise the necessary capital to begin production in the desired quantities , and the Navy took its business elsewhere .
= = = Later work = = =
Despite all his prowess in piloting and design work , Longren was unable to maintain the financial side of his business and in 1924 he declared bankruptcy . He sold most of the company 's assets and designs to new investors who in turn founded the Alexander Aircraft Company . Longren went on to work as a prized consultant for several other aeronautics firms including Spartan and Luscombe .
He was responsible for numerous aviation @-@ related patents throughout his career . His most significant work concerned the process of " stretch @-@ forming " metal into assembly @-@ ready fuselage panels . Luscombe was the first of many manufacturers to benefit from this patent when it produced its Luscombe Phantom , the first mass @-@ produced airplane with an all @-@ aluminum , semi @-@ monocoque fuselage . Longren brought most of his patents over to Cessna in 1935 when he joined that company as Vice @-@ President for the next three years .
Through the 1930s , new incarnations of Longren Aircraft appeared briefly , according to Longren 's energies and financial state . The last and most substantial iteration was conceived in 1938 solely as a fuselage manufacturer , with headquarters in Torrance , California . It persevered long after its founder 's departure , until April 1959 , when it was acquired by Aeronca .
= = Death and legacy = =
After his 1945 retirement , Longren moved to a ranch in Adin , California , where he stayed until his death in 1950 . His body was brought back to Kansas and buried near his birthplace in Leonardville .
He ranks as an early pioneer of aviation , having built and flown his own inventions at a time roughly contemporaneous with the Wright brothers during the heady , pre @-@ WWI era of aeroplane vogue . He was accepted into the exclusive pioneers ' club of Early Birds of Aviation soon after its foundation , and he was formally added to the Kansas Aviation Museum 's Hall of Fame in 1997 . A single example of Longren 's aircraft – the 1914 pusher biplane that he crashed in Abilene – remains on permanent exhibit at the Kansas Museum of History .
Longren remains a local Kansas hero : the Kansas Aviation Hall of Fame recognizes him for " outstanding aviation contributions " to the state , which is home to Amelia Earhart and Clyde Cessna , and where the city of Wichita is celebrated as the " Air Capital of the World " . For Kansas , Longren is both the first successful pilot and the first aircraft manufacturer in the state .
= Battle of Burton Bridge ( 1322 ) =
The 1322 Battle of Burton Bridge was fought between Thomas , 2nd Earl of Lancaster and his cousin Edward II of England during the Despenser War . Edward 's army was proceeding northwards to engage Lancaster , having defeated his Marcher Lord allies in Wales . Lancaster fortified the bridge at Burton upon Trent , an important crossing of the River Trent , in an attempt to prevent the king from proceeding . Edward arrived at nearby Cauldwell on 7 March 1322 and intended to use the ford at Walton @-@ on @-@ Trent to cross the river and outflank Lancaster . Edward was delayed for three days by floodwaters , during which time some of his force was deployed opposite Lancaster 's men at the bridge .
On 10 March 1322 Edward 's main force crossed the river at Walton and proceeded to the south side of Burton . Lancaster moved his men outside the town , intending to face the king in open battle , but withdrew northwards when he saw that he was heavily outnumbered . Lancaster was pursued closely by the king 's men and eventually captured at the Battle of Boroughbridge ; he was later executed on the king 's orders . Lancaster 's defeat removed the immediate threat to Edward 's rule , but the king continued to prove unpopular with his barons , and in 1327 was forced to abdicate the throne in favour of his son Edward III .
= = Background = =
Thomas , Earl of Lancaster had long been an enemy of the king , alienated by his practice of promoting young favourites ( and alleged lovers ) such as Piers Gaveston , 1st Earl of Cornwall , who had at one stage been made regent in Edward 's absence . Lancaster further demonstrated his disapproval of the king by his refusal to assist Edward in his Scottish campaigns , including the decisive defeat at the Battle of Bannockburn . The resulting raids by the Scottish on Northern England forced Edward to concede to demands from his barons for the kingdom to be governed by a council led by the earl and to submit to the restrictions on royal power laid out in the Ordinances of 1311 . Shortly afterwards Lancaster captured and executed Gaveston after an attack upon Scarborough Castle . The new baronial council demonstrated itself no more suited to rule than the king by failing to prevent the loss of Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed to the Scots in 1318 .
Edward continued to alienate the Barons by promoting young men such as Hugh Despenser the Younger , a known enemy of Lancaster 's . In 1318 Lancaster met with Archbishop of Dublin Alexander de Bicknor and two bishops at Horninglow , now a suburb of Burton upon Trent , in initial negotiations that resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Leake , an attempt to reconcile the king and his barons . However such co @-@ operation was short @-@ lived as Despenser 's continued rise threatened the holdings of the Welsh Marcher Lords and in 1321 Lancaster joined them in an outright rebellion against Edward .
= = Battle = =
Edward acted quickly against the Marcher Lords , defeating them easily due to a lack of co @-@ ordination amongst them , before moving north to confront Lancaster . The earl moved from his base at Pontefract , West Yorkshire to block the strategically important crossing of the River Trent at Burton . He arrived in early March 1322 , having lost much of his stores to floods en route , and set about fortifying the western end of the bridge , a 36 @-@ arch stone structure that was 515 yards ( 471 m ) long and just 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide . Lancaster sent out men to prevent the king from crossing the Trent elsewhere and outmanoeuvring him . Two such men were John de Myner , master forester of Needwood Forest , and Richard de Holland , who broke the bridges at Wychnor and Hamstall Ridware . De Holland was later fined 40 shillings by the king for his actions . De Holland 's kinsman Lord Robert de Holland had long been a supporter of Lancaster , was said to be his closest friend , and had raised troops for him to send against the king 's men in Cheshire . However , on 4 March de Holland received a secret order from the king to join him against Lancaster which he seems to have obeyed , forming a body of troops at Ravensdale Park in Derbyshire ostensibly to reinforce Lancaster 's army at Burton .
Edward arrived at nearby Cauldwell on 7 March 1322 , intending to make use of the ford at Walton @-@ on @-@ Trent to outflank Lancaster . This ford was , however , impassable due to flooding , and for three days Edward waited . During this time Edward ordered an attack upon Lancaster 's fortified position , and despite a full day 's fighting , the Royalist forces were unable to make any headway . Lancaster awaited reinforcement from Holland , who had encamped with his men at Dalbury , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Burton . Holland , however , apparently wished to await the result of the battle prior to committing himself and revealing his loyalties . Holland may have actually sent Lancaster letters intended to draw his men away from Burton .
Edward 's troops were able to cross the Trent at Walton on 10 March 1322 and advanced upon Burton from the south . Lancaster , outflanked , then moved from his positions at the bridge to a field outside of Burton , firing the town as he went . Once he realised how badly outnumbered his men were , and that Holland was not moving to his aid , Lancaster decided to withdraw and was pursued by Edward . The clash is not classified as a battle by English Heritage , though some casualties were suffered , and is not registered as a battlefield with the Battlefields Trust . The casualties included the keeper of Alton Castle , Sir Roger D 'Amory , who was injured in the fight and later died of his wounds at Tutbury .
= = Aftermath = =
The king 's troops , led by John de Warenne , 7th Earl of Surrey and Edmund of Woodstock , 1st Earl of Kent , chased Lancaster to Tutbury and Kenilworth , capturing both towns and devastating the counties of Staffordshire and Derbyshire . Holland , seeing the outcome of the battle and knowing that the king had recently imprisoned his daughter at the Tower of London , openly acted against Lancaster . Holland 's men attacked and robbed various supporters of Lancaster at Windley including Hugh de Audley and Lancaster 's wife Alice de Lacy to the value of £ 1000 . He also ordered the men raised in Cheshire to march towards Burton and prevent the escape of Lancaster 's troops to the River Mersey . Holland turned his troops over to the king at Derby on 13 March but was coldly received , his past alliance with Lancaster condemning him to imprisonment at Dover Castle and the loss of his estates . He was beheaded by an unknown gang in 1328 and his head was given to Thomas Lancaster 's brother Henry , 3rd Earl of Lancaster .
Lancaster was able to flee Tutbury Castle under cover of darkness and , with much of his army , evaded Edward 's patrols to cross the flooded River Dove and make his way northwards . Upon taking Tutbury Edward ordered D 'Amory 's corpse to be posthumously executed for treason . Lancaster fled north where Sir Andrew Harclay , having heard of the king 's victory at Burton , moved to engage him at the Battle of Boroughbridge . Lancaster was defeated and captured by Harclay and later executed at Pontefract . Edward ordered a chapel constructed on the Burton bridge in commemoration of his victory there .
Lancaster had finally been dealt with , but Edward continued to upset his barons , reneging upon his previously agreed limitations to royal power , continuing to promote Despenser and losing key battles against the Scots . With Edward 's reign becoming more unpopular , Lancaster 's grave became a site of pilgrimage for those who opposed him . Edward 's own queen , Isabella of France , sided with her lover , the Marcher Lord Roger Mortimer , and in 1327 forced Edward to abdicate in favour of his son who became Edward III .
In the aftermath of the battle , the Audley family claimed to have lost £ 300 of goods : seven cartloads of gold cloth , silver vessels and chapel ornaments from Heleigh Castle . These had been ordered to be removed to Tutbury Priory by Peter de Lymesey , but according to the prior they never arrived and were taken to Tutbury Castle and subsequently lost in the retreat of the Lancastrians from Burton . Burton Abbey also suffered damage at the hands of the Lancastrian forces .
The Abbot of Burton was charged with concealing goods from the king after it was claimed he had taken the Earl of Lancaster 's money and goods left behind after the battle , to the value of £ 200 . The abbot claimed that all he had found was a single silver cup which he subsequently gave to the king . The finding in 1831 of a large quantity of silver coins , suspected to be part of Lancaster 's treasure , in the River Dove , near Tutbury may support the abbot 's case . In either case , the next year Edward felt able to award Burton Abbey the advowsons of Tatenhill and Hanbury , which had previously belonged to Lancaster , in " perpetual memory of the glorious victory which God gave to the King over his enemies and the rebels near Burton @-@ on @-@ Trent , and also to relieve the condition of the Abbey " .
The battle gave rise to a tradition at nearby Chartley Park , a holding of Robert de Ferrers , 2nd Baron Ferrers of Chartley . The baron maintained a herd of white cattle with black ears , descended from wild specimens found when the park was formed from part of the ancient Needwood Forest . In 1322 an unusual black calf was born in the herd that was said to have foretold the Battle of Burton Bridge and the subsequent downfall of the de Ferrers house ( who were supporters of Lancaster ) . Subsequently it was said that the birth of a dark @-@ hued or part @-@ coloured calf in the herd would foretell a death in the de Ferrers family within the year . Such omens were said to have preceded the deaths of , amongst others , Robert Shirley , 7th Earl Ferrers ; his wife ; their son Robert Sewallis Shirley and his wife and the son , daughter and wife of Washington Shirley , the 8th Earl . Another local tradition places the legendary figure of Robin Hood at the battle fighting for Lancaster .
= Military history of the Aleutian Islands =
The military history of the Aleutian Islands began almost immediately following the purchase of Alaska by the United States . Prior to the early 20th century , the Aleutian Islands were essentially ignored by the military of the United States , although the islands played a small role in the Bering Sea Arbitration when a number of British and American vessels were stationed at Unalaska to enforce the arbitrators ' decision . By the early 20th century , a number of war strategies examined the possibility of conflict breaking out between the Empire of Japan and the United States . While the Aleutian Islands were seen as a potential staging point for invasions by either side , this possibility was dismissed owing to the islands ' dismal climate . In 1922 , the Washington Naval Treaty was signed , after which the United States Navy began to take an interest in the islands . However , nothing of significance was to materialize until World War Two .
In June 1942 , the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked and captured Attu Island and Kiska . The Americans wanted to recapture the two islands , and in January the following year began their advance by capturing Amchitka without opposition . On March 26 , the Battle of the Komandorski Islands ensued after the United States Navy imposed a naval blockade on the two islands to reduce the opportunities for the Japanese to keep their Attu and Kiska bases supplied . In May , Attu Island was recaptured , with a total of almost 3 @,@ 000 deaths from both sides combined . The Americans then prepared to attack Kiska in August , only to find that the entire island had been evacuated by the Japanese in late July . During the recapture of Kiska by the United States , 313 men died as a result of friendly fire and a mine , despite no Japanese soldiers being present on the island .
During the 1960s and early 1970s , the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) executed a number of nuclear tests on the island of Amchitka in the face of vehement opposition from environmental and local indigenous groups . The first test , conducted in 1965 , caused significant damage to the surrounding area , although the details of this damage were not released to the public until 1969 . In 1969 , the AEC executed a ' calibration shot ' to determine whether Amchitka would be suitable for future tests . In 1970 , the AEC announced plans to detonate a bomb named ' Cannikin ' , set to release a blast 385 times that released by the dropping of an atomic bomb on Hiroshima in 1945 . After a United States Supreme Court challenge to the testing failed by one vote , the testing proceeded as scheduled in November 1971 .
= = Early history = =
In 1853 , prior to the purchase of Alaska by the United States , the United States Navy sent the USS Fenimore Cooper to the Aleutian Islands with the aim of locating potential harbors and find coal deposits . No coal deposits were found . In 1867 , the United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire . By 1869 , a number of military posts had been established by the Government of the United States , although the Aleutian Islands did not receive such a post , with the nearest post being located on Kodiak Island . The United States Army made the decision to leave the exploration of the Aleutians to the United States Navy , and the latter showed little interest in doing so . The Aleutian Islands played a small role in the ongoing sealing dispute between the United Kingdom and the United States , which later culminated in the Bering Sea Arbitration . In 1888 , following what the United States Government saw as an infringement on the nation 's sovereignty by Canadian and Japanese sealers , the United States Navy sent a number of its ships to Unalaska to police the foreign sealers . By 1891 , an accord had been reached between the United Kingdom and the United States , and for some time a number of British and American vessels remained in Unalaska to enforce the deal .
By October 1906 , many in the U.S. government , including Secretary of State Elihu Root , were worried that war could break out in the Pacific between the United States and Japan . However , the Aleutian Islands were believed to be of little strategic importance to the United States , and were ignored by a number of pre @-@ war strategies formulated by the U.S. armed forces , including the Naval War Board 's 1896 plan , which would have brought only a few scout ships to the Islands . In 1911 , the Naval War Board considered three options through which Japan could mount an invasion of the United States , one of which involved an attack on the Aleutian Islands . However , this option was discarded by the Board owing to the cold climate of the islands .
The Aleutian Islands played little part in the proceedings of World War I , as the events of this war were concentrated in Europe . In 1922 , the Washington Naval Treaty was signed by the United States , the British Empire , the Empire of Japan , the French Third Republic , and the Kingdom of Italy . Article XIX of the Treaty required Japan , Britain and the United States to maintain the status quo in terms of military fortifications in their respective Pacific Rim territories . While Japan and Britain gained a number of exemptions from the terms of Article XIX ( for example , Australia and New Zealand were not prevented from building up their fortifications as a result of the Treaty ) , Japan made it a requirement of their agreement to the Treaty that the Aleutian Islands were not to be exempted .
= = The interwar period = =
Although the United States Navy was prevented from developing fortifications on the Aleutian Islands due to the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty , the Navy believed that at some point the United States ' treaty obligations would no longer apply , and began to scout the Aleutians for possible naval bases . In 1923 , two scouting ships investigated the possibility of establishing anchorages off the Islands , and attempted to claim the United States Army 's bases on the Aleutians for the purposes of national security .
After the mid @-@ 1920s , little attention was paid to the Aleutian Islands as a potential strategic area . United States President Herbert Hoover did not concentrate his government 's resources on developing the nation 's military due to the economic challenge posed by the Great Depression . In 1930 , one of Hoover 's aides claimed that North America 's coastal islands would play little part in a potential war between the United States and Japan unless the Navy was rendered ineffective and Canada turned against its southern neighbor . In June 1933 , a Japanese ship visited Attu Island three times . Although the ship was purportedly only carrying farming and forestry specialists , John Troy , then the Governor of Alaska , believed that the Aleutian Islands was a possible target for enemy navies and lobbied the federal government for military support . While Major General Benjamin Foulois was willing to commit to deploying more military resources in the resource @-@ rich strip of land stretching from Fairbanks to Anchorage , he was not willing to devote more of his military 's resources to the Aleutians , as , according to him , there was " nothing in southeastern Alaska or along the Aleutian Islands which is worth making an effort to defend . "
In May 1934 , following reports of a Japanese spy operating out of Dutch Harbor , the United States Navy dispatched Edwin T. Layton to the Aleutians to investigate the allegations . The result of this investigation was the arrest of the only Japanese man in the region , as well as the town 's only prostitute , a woman accused of conspiring with the Japanese man . During the 1930s , a number of United States governmental committees , boards and reports concluded that air bases in the Aleutians would be for the most part impractical due to the region 's inclement weather .
= = World War II = =
= = = Preparing for battle = = =
On December 7 , 1941 , the Imperial Japanese Navy executed a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor , bringing the United States into a war against Japan , Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy . The Pacific Theater was divided into three sectors – north , central and south , with the Aleutians falling inside the north sector , though it was also part of the American theater . With the Aleutians located just 650 miles ( 1 @,@ 050 km ) east of the Kuril Islands , the former served as an ideal physical bridge between the two nations of Japan and the United States . Although dismal climate conditions on the Aleutians made an approach by Japan unlikely , neither of the two countries could afford to not cover their bases with respect to these islands . On April 18 , 1942 , sixteen aircraft bombed Tokyo in what has become known as the Doolittle Raid . The Imperial High Command were unsure of where the aircraft originated and speculated that a hidden air base existed on the western tip of the Aleutian Islands , sparking interest by the High Command in capturing the island chain .
An early strategic plan by Isoroku Yamamoto involved the occupation of the western Aleutians and Midway Island as a ' decoy ' to lure the United States Navy 's Pacific fleet away from Pearl Harbor so as to effect the complete destruction of the Hawaiian base before reconstruction efforts could take hold . However , the Aleutians campaign meant that fewer ships could be devoted to the Battle of Midway , a turning point during World War Two . The United States armed forces had broken the Japanese communications code , and were able to learn of the Japanese plan to attack the Aleutians by May 21 , 1942 . The Imperial Japanese Navy 's plan was to attack and hold Attu and Kiska for future use , while inflicting damage on Dutch Harbor and Adak . Once the United States Navy learned of the plan , Admiral Chester W. Nimitz sent a third of his Pacific Fleet to the Aleutian Islands , under orders to hold Dutch Harbor at all costs .
= = = The initial attacks = = =
By June 1 , 1942 , the American military contingent on the Aleutians numbered 2 @,@ 300 . On 2 June , a patrol plane spotted a Japanese armada 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) southwest of Dutch Harbor . On June 3 , Imperial Japanese Navy Admiral Boshirō Hosogaya ordered some of his aircraft to attack Dutch Harbor , despite rough conditions in the air and on the ground . Only half managed to attack the town , with 17 aircraft arriving in the airspace above Dutch Harbor around 6 : 00am . Finding themselves confronted by U.S. forces , the aircraft hastily dropped their bombs and quickly returned to their carriers . On June 4 , the aircraft returned , and attacked the town 's oil storage tanks , a barracks ship and part of the military base 's hospital . On that day , 43 Americans died and 64 were wounded . Ten Japanese aircraft were lost , as were 11 American planes .
On June 6 , the Imperial Japanese Navy returned to the Aleutians , occupying Kiska on that day and Attu Island the next . Despite the U.S. not posting any forces to oppose the occupation of those islands , the Japanese public was informed of a great triumph over U.S. forces on the islands . It was the desire of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to recapture these islands as quickly as possible , and on August 30 , 1942 , 4 @,@ 500 U.S. Army troops secured the island of Adak , to be used as a staging post to recapture Kiska . In two weeks , Army engineers had constructed an airfield on the island , and on September 14 , a number of Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberators took off from Adak to attack Kiska . Repeated bombings during the fall season convinced the Japanese of the Americans ' desire to recapture Kiska and Adak , and by November the Japanese had bolstered troop numbers on the ground on both islands . During the winter months , the short daily sunshine period and inclement weather protected the Japanese from attack .
= = = Moving towards Kiska = = =
On January 11 , 1943 , U.S. forces captured Amchitka , an island just fifty miles from Kiska . However , challenges faced the Americans stationed there from the outset – on the first night that the Americans spent on the ground , harsh winds destroyed many of the Americans ' boats , and on the second night a blizzard reduced the base 's line of sight . By mid @-@ February , Army engineers had completed an airfield on the island , after which attacks on the island by the Japanese became less frequent .
With the Americans moving closer towards Kiska and Attu , the Japanese were finding it increasingly difficult to resupply their bases there . In March 1943 , Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid established a naval blockade around the islands , refusing to let Japanese ships through . On March 26 , Admiral Hosogaya attempted to break the blockade with eight battle ships as well as three transports , resulting in the Battle of the Komandorski Islands , the last battle fought only between surface ships in the Pacific War . Following the American victory in this battle , the Japanese were forced to resupply their occupied possessions in the Aleutian chain by submarine .
Following the Battle of the Komandorski Islands , Admiral Kinkaid requested a larger force of 25 @,@ 000 troops to support an assault on Kiska . However , as there were not enough ships to transport such a large division to the Aleutians , Kinkaid suggested that the Americans ' objective change from Kiska , which was defended by about 9 @,@ 000 men , to Attu , which was home to only 500 Japanese . On April 1 , Kinkaid received approval from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to execute the operation , codenamed SANDCRAB . The terrain of Attu Island was not hospitable for such an operation – much of the island 's landmass not covered in snowy peaks was covered in muskeg , a marshy soil type that is almost impossible to cross by foot . In addition , Attu Island was subject to frequent storms and soupy fogs .
= = = The recapture of Attu Island = = =
The 7th Infantry Division was selected to undertake the task of recapturing Attu Island . The Division arrived at Cold Bay on April 30 , 1943 , and despite the cold weather prevailing in the region , many of the American troops were wearing only regular field clothing as the Division had previously been stationed in California . Due to poor weather , the Americans ' assault on Attu was delayed twice – first to May 4 and then to May 11 . When the operation commenced on May 11 , heavy fog shrouded the recapturing force from the Japanese , which hampered the latter 's attempts at defending the island .
However , the inclement weather also hampered the Americans ' advance , and until May 15 the recapturing forces were unsure of whether the Japanese had held their position or retreated . When the fog lifted on that day , it became clear that the Japanese had retreated further west . However , when the American forces gave chase , they were immediately slowed by an accidental air strike upon them by an American aircraft . By May 29 , the Japanese forces numbered only 700 – 1 @,@ 000 , and these troops attempted to run through the advancing American forces as a last show of defiance against the recapturing forces . By May 30 , the Americans had recaptured Attu , and although a few small pockets of Japanese troops remained on the island , the Battle of Attu had essentially concluded .
During the American assault on Attu Island , 2 @,@ 400 Japanese troops were killed , and only 25 were captured . The Americans ' losses were significantly lower , at 566 dead and 1 @,@ 442 wounded . The bodies of the killed Japanese troops were buried in mass graves on the island – only five per cent of Japanese troops fighting on Attu Island wore dog tags , making identification difficult . In addition , many fallen Japanese were buried by their fellow soldiers up in the island 's peaks , and many bodies still remain undiscovered . The American burials were undertaken at Massacre Bay as well as at Holtz Bay – in the former case , the bodies of the soldiers were buried in group graves . Large holes of seven feet in depth were dug by bulldozers , and eight small foot @-@ deep graves were dug at the bottom of each of these holes to serve as the American soldiers ' final resting places .
= = = The recapture of Kiska = = =
With Attu Island secure , the Americans diverted their attention towards forcing the Japanese off Kiska . U.S. intelligence estimated at that point that the number of Japanese troops on Kiska was likely to be 10 @,@ 000 , so Kinkaid deployed 34 @,@ 426 men , composed of both Americans and Canadians , to the Aleutians to work on recapturing Kiska . With the recapturing operation scheduled to begin on August 15 , the Eleventh Air Force dropped 424 tons of bombs on Kiska during the month of July . In addition , the Navy fired 330 tons of shells onto the island during the same period . In late July , the pilots charged with scouting for enemy forces on Kiska reported a sharp decline in the amount of fire received by their planes from Japanese forces on the ground . The Americans believed that one of two events had occurred – either Kiska had been evacuated , or the Japanese had retreated into the hills of Kiska .
By 4 : 00pm on August 15 , a total of 6 @,@ 500 troops were on the ground on the west side of Kiska . The Canadian contingent came ashore on the north side of the island the next day . However , the invasion was an embarrassment for the Allied forces . The island of Kiska was , in fact , uninhabited – the entire Japanese force of 5 @,@ 183 men had left the island on July 28 without the Americans noticing . However , the Americans suffered significant casualties during their ' invasion ' – 313 men died as a result of accidents , with many dying due to accidental fire . Of the total 313 dead , 70 died when the destroyer USS Abner Read struck a mine , while at least 21 died due to friendly fire . The Japanese had completely deserted their buildings on the island , leaving behind them scrawled messages on the walls for the Allied troops to read – most attacked President of the United States Franklin Roosevelt and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill ; for example , one of the messages read , in a mixture of English and German , " You are dancing by foolische order of Rousebelt [ sic ] . "
On August 24 , 1943 , Kiska was declared secure by the American forces . The Aleutian Islands campaign was officially over .
For the commanding officers stationed on the Aleutian Islands during the Aleutian Islands campaign , attacking the Kuril Islands from the Aleutians was a logical continuation to recapturing Attu and Kiska . However , these officers faced resistance from their superiors in Washington and their troops on the ground . Troop morale had sharply declined as a result of the island 's dismal conditions , creating a condition that the troops called the ' Aleutian stare ' amongst those who had been on the island for more than six months . An American assault of the Kuriles never materialised .
= = Nuclear testing = =
During the 1960s , the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) conducted nuclear tests on Amchitka . Despite being designated as a national wildlife refuge by President William Taft in 1913 , Amchitka was chosen as a nuclear testing site by the AEC . There were several reasons for this decision . Firstly , Amchitka was close to the former Soviet Union , making it an ideal location for a nuclear test to intimidate the latter . However , the public reason given by the AEC was the island 's remoteness . Forceful objections were raised against the testing by a number of organisations and groups , most notably the Aleut people , who , although they vacated the island in the 19th century after Russian fur traders reduced sea otter numbers in the area , are resident on nearby islands , and were concerned about radiation leaks as well as potential physical damage resulting from the nuclear tests .
In 1965 , the Long Shot nuclear test was executed by the Department of Defense . Almost immediately , fallout from the nuclear test began to leak into adjacent freshwater lakes , although details of this contamination were not made public until 1969 . On October 2 , 1969 , the AEC executed a calibration shot underground to determine whether the island would be a safe place for future tests . However , this test set off a number of reactions in the surrounding area – the test triggered earthquakes and landslides , and sent water from lakes flying 50 feet ( 15 m ) up into the air .
In 1970 , the AEC announced plans for another test , named Cannikin . The environmental movement , then in its infancy , vehemently opposed the testing , and filed a suit in the United States Supreme Court to stop the testing . This motion was denied by a 4 to 3 vote . On November 6 , 1971 , the Cannikin bomb was detonated , creating a 60 feet ( 18 m ) deep crater in the island , killing 1 @,@ 000 sea otters and thousands of birds . The blast was 385 times that created by the Hiroshima bombing , and was the largest underground test of a nuclear weapon in history .
= Pilot ( Supernatural ) =
" Pilot " is the first episode of the television series Supernatural . It premiered on The WB on September 13 , 2005 and was written by series creator Eric Kripke , and directed by David Nutter . The Supernatural pilot introduces the characters of Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) , brothers who travel throughout the country hunting supernatural creatures , as they battle a ghostly Woman in White ( Sarah Shahi ) while searching for their missing father ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) .
Kripke had been developing the concept for ten years before it was greenlit as a television series . Before it could be filmed , the script underwent numerous revisions . It was produced in Los Angeles , though future episodes were filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia , to save money . The episode established the series ' tradition of a rock @-@ music soundtrack , and included background music scored by Kripke 's friend Christopher Lennertz . The series premiere received mixed reviews , with critics praising the horror elements but having varying opinions of the lead actors ' performances .
= = Plot = =
In Lawrence , Kansas , Mary Winchester ( Samantha Smith ) investigates a sound coming from her infant son Sam 's nursery . She sees a figure standing over his crib , and confronts him . Her husband , John ( Morgan ) , is awoken by her screams and finds her pinned to the ceiling with a slash across her stomach . She bursts into flames , and John is forced to evacuate the house with Sam and his older son , Dean , while the house erupts into flames .
Twenty @-@ two years later , Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and his girlfriend Jessica Moore ( Adrianne Palicki ) celebrate his high LSAT score . Later that night , Dean ( Jensen Ackles ) shows up at Sam 's home . Though the brothers have not spoken in years , Dean comes looking for help in finding their father , who disappeared while hunting a supernatural entity . After Sam hears a voicemail from his father that contains electronic voice phenomenon of a woman saying , " I can never go home , " he agrees to help Dean in the search . The brothers head to John 's last known whereabouts — the town of Jericho — where he had been investigating the disappearances of young men along a single stretch of road over ten years . Sam and Dean discover a local legend of a murdered girl who has returned as a homicidal , hitchhiking ghost . Research points to Constance Welch ( Shahi ) , who jumped to her death off a nearby bridge after drowning her children . While they stakeout the bridge that night , Sam tells Dean he does not want to return to hunting supernatural creatures . He points out that finding whatever creature killed their mother — a task their father has dedicated his life to — will not bring her back . The two are interrupted by a ghostly woman jumping off the bridge . Sam and Dean later check into a local motel , and discover their father is also renting a room there . They break into it and discover his research scattered all over the room ; all his findings point to Constance being a woman in white .
When Dean leaves the room to get food , he is arrested by the police , who believe he is connected to the disappearances . At the police station , they show him John 's journal , and he notices the message " Dean 35 @-@ 11 " written inside it . As Dean is interrogated , Sam tracks down Constance 's husband ( Steve Railsback ) , and learns the locations of both her grave site and the house in which she drowned their children . Sam then fakes a 911 call so Dean can escape the station . However , Constance targets Sam in his car ; she attempts to seduce him and requests he take her home . Sam refuses , but she possesses the car so that it drives Sam to her home . She attacks him once they arrive at her old house . Dean forces her to temporarily dissipate by shooting her with rock salt , and Sam uses the opportunity to crash the car into the house . Constance reappears and attacks them , but the spirits of her children confront her . They embrace their mother , causing her to scream in pain as demonic like beings spawn from under her , dragging her down through the floor .
Dean deduces John 's message was coordinates to where he has headed . Sam still does not want to join the search , so Dean drops him off at his apartment . Lying alone in bed , Sam discovers Jessica pinned to the ceiling with a slash across her stomach . She ignites into flames as Dean breaks in and rescues Sam . While firefighters attempt to put out the inferno , Sam decides to join his brother in the search for their father and the creature that killed their mother and Jessica .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Series creator Eric Kripke had previously written for the WB series Tarzan , and was offered the chance to pitch show ideas to the network . He used the opportunity for Supernatural , a concept he had been developing for nearly ten years . Kripke envisioned Supernatural as a road trip series , deeming it the " best vehicle to tell these stories because it 's pure , stripped down and uniquely American ... These stories exist in these small towns all across the country , and it just makes so much sense to drive in and out of these stories . " Though the network rejected his initial pitch — a tabloid reporter investigates supernatural occurrences throughout the country — they were still interested in a series featuring urban legends . Kripke quickly suggested a Route 66 @-@ style series , and the network loved it . Filming was greenlit after director David Nutter , who previously had worked with Kripke on Tarzan , signed on .
= = = Cast and characters = = =
The pilot stars Jared Padalecki and Jensen Ackles as Sam and Dean Winchester , whom Kripke likened to Luke Skywalker and Han Solo of Star Wars . Padalecki knew executive producers McG and Nutter , the former convincing him to audition for the role . He was excited to play " the reluctant hero " , and compared Sam to The Matrix 's Neo . However , Nutter also asked Ackles to audition for the role of Sam . Nutter and Kripke found themselves in a predicament , as they felt both actors were great as Sam . To remedy the situation , Warner Bros. president Peter Roth suggested Ackles instead audition for Dean . Kripke agreed , believing Ackles ' " smart @-@ ass attitude " made him " born to play " the Harrison Ford @-@ like character , and Ackles preferred the character of Dean after reading the script . Both actors were the only ones to audition , and network executives instantly noticed a brotherly chemistry between them . Evil Dead @-@ actor Bruce Campbell was Kripke 's first choice to portray John Winchester , father of Sam and Dean . However , Campbell was unavailable , and Jeffrey Dean Morgan eventually received the role . With Morgan 's scene taking place 22 years before the series , he expected to be replaced by an older actor for subsequent episodes , and was surprised when he was later asked to reprise the role .
For the role of Constance Welch — the Woman in White — production set out to find the " perfect actress " . Nutter , a fan of The L Word , had watched an episode featuring actress Sarah Shahi one night during the casting process . He felt she was " really sharp " and a " fine actress " , with a " seductive quality about her " . Surprised when she came in to audition the following day , he knew she " had the job when she walked in the door " . Because the scene involving Constance 's husband Joseph Welch merely discusses Constance 's backstory , the scene hinged on the actors ' performances . Seeking a " great actor " , Nutter recalled his previous experience working with Steve Railsback , and offered him the role . Other guest stars include Adrianne Palicki as Sam 's girlfriend Jessica Moore , and Samantha Smith as Mary Winchester . The latter felt she landed the part due to her joking around with Nutter during the audition .
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by series creator Eric Kripke , who described its creation as a " very difficult , birthing process " due to the numerous rewrites required . The original version did not feature the Woman in White , and John Winchester died in the teaser . In the revised script , Sam and Dean Winchester were raised by their aunt and uncle instead of their father . Because of this , Sam is unaware that supernatural beings exist , and Dean must convince him of the truth when he asks for help . Kripke realized this made the backstory too complicated , and reworked it with co @-@ executive producer Peter Johnson so that their father raised them to be hunters like him . This decision granted the brothers proficiency in both fighting and swindling people . Other revised concepts included Sam believing Dean to be a serial killer who murdered their father , and John dying instead of Sam 's girlfriend Jessica . The scene in which the brothers discuss their childhood and delve into their backstory was rewritten 20 to 30 times , and the final version was heavily trimmed .
A gas @-@ station scene within the episode was meant to establish what the brothers and the series are about — bantering , credit card scams , and classic rock ; Kripke feared that it would be cut because it was character @-@ based and did not further the episode 's plot . He also did not want the series to feature ballad music typical of The WB network , and forced the use of classic rock for the soundtrack by writing the music into the script . For the episode 's villain , Kripke used the well @-@ known urban legend of the vanishing hitchhiker , but combined it with the Mexican legend of La Llorona to give the spirit more motivation and characterization . The ghost was younger in an earlier version of script , and murdered her parents instead of her children ; this was revised to allow for the casting of an older actress .
Originally , the studio did not want Kripke to kill Jessica at the episode 's end , but rather keep her as a recurring character in the series . Kripke felt this would not fit the series 's format , and decided to have her revealed as a demon , with the revelation prompting Sam to join Dean in hunting . However , with only a short amount of screentime available to depict this , Kripke believed it would be a " tough aspect to sell " . Because Luke Skywalker only begins his journey after the deaths of his aunt and uncle , Kripke found it more appropriate for Sam 's motivation to be Jessica 's death . Thus , the character is killed in the same manner as Sam 's mother , making the deaths the " right bookends " .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for the pilot took place in Los Angeles , though subsequent episodes of the series are filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia to save money . The bridge sequences were shot at Lake Piru , near a War of the Worlds filming location , and the library and phone booth scenes were filmed at an elementary school . Triplet babies portrayed Sam in the episode 's teaser , and production found it difficult to get them to cry on cue . Though a real house served as the first @-@ story level in the teaser , the upstairs was constructed on a sound stage because of the special effects required for Mary 's fiery death . Script rewrites for the opening sequence — a better introduction for Sam was needed — required reshoots on the set of The O.C. two months after principal photography .
= = = Effects = = =
To depict the supernatural aspects of the show , the series makes use of visual , special , and make @-@ up effects , as well as stuntwork . Businesses , such as visual effects company Entity FX , were contracted for production of the pilot episode . Subsequent episodes were filmed in Vancouver and required a new crew that works exclusively for the show . Mary Winchester 's death scene , which had the character pinned to the ceiling and burning to death , required actress Samantha Smith to lie on a floor with two propane pipes spouting fire approximately five feet away from her on either side . For the actual burning of the character , a fake body the crew named " Christina " was made out of wire and papier @-@ mâché , and was then ignited on a fake ceiling . However , the room quickly caught fire , forcing an evacuation . Green screen coincided with the visual effects for the ghostly Woman in White , and executive producer McG chose to make the imagery of her death sequence an homage to Chris Cunningham 's Aphex Twin video " Windowlicker " . Japanese horror also influenced the scene , such as the school uniforms worn by the ghost children , the water cascading down the stairs , and the Dark Water elements .
= = = Music = = =
The episode 's synthesized orchestral score was written by Christopher Lennertz , Kripke 's friend and next @-@ door neighbor . The two attended USC School of Cinematic Arts together , and worked together on various projects afterwards . Lennertz described Supernatural as " one of those dream situations where you get to work with someone who you admire , but also have a relationship with already " , and noted he and Kripke " were already on the same page without even talking about [ the series ' music ] " .
For the scenes involving Mary and Jessica 's deaths at the hands of the demon Azazel , Lennertz used a piano solo with discordant notes and reverberations to create a " really nasty " sounding echo effect . He would later reuse this theme in the season one episode " Nightmare " . The episode also included a number of rock songs , which would become a tradition for the series . Kripke wanted to feature the song " Enter Sandman " , but Metallica would not grant permission .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , the pilot was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 69 million viewers . The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Diana Steenbergen of IGN , who was " hooked right away " , gave the pilot episode a score of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . She felt it began " heartbreakingly " , and the " genuinely scary " death scenes of Mary and Jess " will haunt ... the viewers " . Steenbergen praised both the writers and the lead actors for making the " [ exposition scenes ] still feel natural , for the most part " , and noted Ackles and Padalecki were " instantly convincing as brothers " . Also credited for this " well paced " episode was director David Nutter , who did an " excellent job of setting up the atmosphere and tone of the series " . Likewise , BuddyTV 's Don Williams posited , " It 's about as good as a pilot can get . " He ranked it ninth out of his favorite episodes of the first three seasons , believing it introduces the characters " in a memorable fashion " and " wonderfully " establishes the show 's universe . Robert Bianco of USA Today deemed the series as possibly " the simplest and the scariest " of the season 's new dark shows , and wrote , " It wants nothing more than to frighten you — and tonight , it does . " He noted the episode " [ pulls ] off a few surprises " and " works its way to an ending that lives up to Dean 's ' no chick @-@ flick moments ' " . However , Bianco criticized the " pauses for comic relief " ; he felt Ackles ' " comic touch " was " not yet as skillful as it needs to be " , with Ackles ' attempts at being " humorously annoying " leaving him " simply annoying " . Despite the episode having a somewhat unoriginal villain and a " relatively simple " solution , Brian Lowry of Variety deemed the series ' debut as " a promising plunge into the darkness " . Lowry applauded Ackles , who " brings an easygoing charm and engaging wise @-@ ass personality to the absurd notion of traveling the country with a trunk full of wooden stakes and holy water " .
Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times found the first half of the episode " quite effective " , with the " camera angles , spooky music and jumpy sequences ... [ being ] as frightening as those found in any horror movie , with an added twist of suspense " . However , she deemed the depiction of the ghostly villain as " pretty silly " , and noted the second half " stops building suspense and turns predictable " . Calling the series " Ghostbusters ' Creek " , Stanley felt the episode " reverts to a WB family drama about the bonds between two mismatched brothers and their father " . Similarly , Matthew Gilbert of the Boston Globe called Ackles and Padalecki " generic cuties who hold their lips together tightly , except to utter the word ' Dude ' " . Although Gilbert noted there are a couple " moderately creepy " twists , he found there to be " nothing about the central family story in Supernatural or its bland actors that makes it addictive " .
Work on the pilot episode garnered two Emmy Award nominations in 2006 . Lennertz was nominated in the category of " Outstanding Music Composition For A Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) " , and the sound editors for " Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series " .
= Rufus Wainwright ( album ) =
Rufus Wainwright is the eponymous debut studio album by Canadian @-@ American singer @-@ songwriter Rufus Wainwright , released in the United States on May 19 , 1998 through DreamWorks Records . The album was produced by Jon Brion , except " In My Arms " was produced and mixed by Pierre Marchand , and " Millbrook " and " Baby " were produced by Brion and Van Dyke Parks . Lenny Waronker was the executive producer .
Wainwright was signed to the DreamWorks label in 1996 after Waronker heard the demo tape he recorded with Marchand . Over the course of two years , Wainwright and Brion recorded 56 songs on 62 rolls of tape at a cost that exceeded $ 700 @,@ 000 , which was then narrowed down to twelve tracks for the album . No singles were released from Rufus Wainwright , though Sophie Muller directed the music video for " April Fools " , which featured Wainwright in Los Angeles attempting to prevent the deaths of opera heroines . To support the album , Wainwright toured throughout the United States and Canada following its release .
Overall , reviews for the album were positive . Though the album failed to chart in any nations , Wainwright reached number 24 on Billboard 's Top Heatseekers chart ( which highlights sales by new and developing musical recording artists ) and Rolling Stone named Wainwright the Best New Artist of 1998 . Rufus Wainwright also earned him recognitions from the Gay & Lesbian American Music Awards , the GLAAD Media Awards and the Juno Awards . The album was released in Japan with the bonus track " A Bit of You " , and later in 2008 in LP form through the record label Plain Recordings .
= = Background = =
Wainwright , born into a musical family which included parents Loudon Wainwright III and Kate McGarrigle and sister Martha Wainwright , began touring in his early teens with his family throughout Canada , Europe and the United States . At age fourteen , his song " I 'm a Runnin ' , written for the 1988 Canadian film Tommy Tricker and the Stamp Traveller , earned him a Genie Award nomination for Best Achievement in Music – Original Song and a Juno Award nomination in 1990 for Most Promising Male Vocalist of the Year .
Wainwright attended McGill University in Montreal to study classical composition for a short time . With his mother 's support , he began pursuing pop songwriting and learned how to play guitar . Wainwright started performing at the night club Sarajevo , and eventually recorded a demo tape with record producer Pierre Marchand , a " family friend " who had also worked with Kate and Anna and who also later produced Wainwright 's second studio album Poses . Songs were recorded at Marchand 's studio in Morin @-@ Heights , Quebec , and no edits were made to the simple live tunes . The tape impressed Wainwright 's father , who passed the songs along to producer Van Dyke Parks , who in turn presented them to DreamWorks executive Lenny Waronker . Waronker had signed McGarrigle to Warner Bros. Records in the 1970s . Describing his initial reaction to Wainwright 's music , Waronker stated : " When I was about to listen to his tape , I remember clearly I was thinking , ' Gee , if he has the mom 's musicality and smarts , and the dad 's smarts and voice , that 'd be nice . ' Then I put it on and I said , ' Oh , my God , this is stunning . ' " Wainwright acknowledged that having musicians as parents gave him a " foot in the door " , but attributed his success to hard work .
= = Development = =
Wainwright was signed to DreamWorks in 1996 . Waronker paired the singer with producer Jon Brion , and together they spent " most of 1996 and 1997 " recording 56 songs on 62 rolls of tape . Costs for the recording sessions reached between $ 700 @,@ 000 and $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Wainwright admitted that he and Brion took their time recording the album in Los Angeles , and considered the extended time a " blessing " and " luxury " , claiming that " most people have two weeks to record their first album " . According to Wainwright , Waronker " didn 't care how long it took , as long as we were doing good work . " Waronker was pleased with the final product , and he and Wainwright agreed on the twelve tracks that made up the album .
Songs on the album were produced by Brion , except " In My Arms " was produced and mixed by Marchand and " Millbrook " and " Baby " were produced by Brion and Van Dyke Parks . Waronker served as the executive producer . Rufus Wainwright was recorded mostly in Los Angeles studios — Ocean Way Three & Seven , Sunset Sound Factory , Sunset | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Sound , Media Vortex , Hook Studios , Groove Masters , Red Zone , Sony , The Palindrome Recorder , and NRG Recording Services — although recording also took place in Marchand 's Wild Sky in Morin @-@ Heights . Parks conducted his orchestrations at Studio B in the Capitol Studios complex . Wainwright and Brion did not always get along , the latter admitting to The New York Times : " Rufus had all these beautiful songs but every time the vocals would kick in , he 'd write some complicated keyboard part so you couldn 't hear them . He wasn 't interested in listening to ideas about simplifying arrangements . " The duo also contributed the songs " Le Roi D 'Ys " and " Banks of the Wabash " ( both " contemporary " cover versions ) to the 1997 soundtrack to the film The Myth of Fingerprints . Brion later considered " Le Roi D 'Ys " , recorded in around six hours , to be one of his favorite tracks by Wainwright .
Rufus Wainwright was released on May 19 , 1998 through DreamWorks . Following the album 's release , which earned him mostly positive reviews , Wainwright contributed to The McGarrigle Hour , a 1998 album by Kate & Anna McGarrigle featuring family members Loudon and Martha along with singers Emmylou Harris and Linda Ronstadt . In December 1998 , Wainwright appeared in a Gap commercial in which he performed Frank Loesser 's 1947 song " What Are You Doing New Year 's Eve ? " In 1999 , he was one of several featured artists promoted by Best Buy as part of a campaign to promote young talent . The album was re @-@ issued in 2008 in LP form through the record label Plain Recordings .
= = Songs = =
The " neo @-@ operatic " opening track " Foolish Love " , arranged by Van Dyke Parks , was described by Allmusic contributor Matthew Greenwald as a " lush , orchestral @-@ soaked ballad , with incredible strings " . He asserted that Wainwright 's lyrics took the form of a letter to himself , defining his goals and " sense of purpose " . The song " Danny Boy " , with its " fabulous wordplay that stays literate and easy to understand at the time " , contains " subtle " horn lines and sampled percussion . The song alludes to Wainwright 's homosexuality , which Greenwald considered a " brave move " . According to biography author Kirk Lake , " Danny Boy " is a companion piece to " Foolish Love " and together they represent the start and end of a relationship between a gay man and a straight man . Danny , the straight " drug @-@ addled " title figure with whom Wainwright had a three @-@ year relationship , is the subject of both songs in addition to others on the album ; he appears in the album 's collage artwork . Wainwright sings of being so blinded by love that he fails to notice the " ship with eight sails " threatening to come around the bend , a reference to Bertolt Brecht 's 1928 musical The Threepenny Opera .
The chorus in " April Fools " begins with an " unusually upbeat attitude " and was considered by Greenwald to be the most accessible track on the album . The song showcased Jim Keltner 's drum performance as well as Wainwright 's piano playing . Driven by Wainwright 's guitar playing , " In My Arms " was described by Greenwald as a " forlorn " , Spanish @-@ influenced ballad that sounded as though it " could have been recorded in France in the 1920s " . The song " Millbrook " is an ode to his boarding school compatriots . Wainwright has admitted to being " upset and drunk " when recording the final take . " Baby " , which has been considered one of the most melancholic songs on the album , contains " oddly placed " and " slightly quirky " major seventh chords . Greenwald called the lyrics " a stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness pleasure , relating the confusing and intoxicating emotions of young love . "
" Beauty Mark " is an ode to Wainwright 's mother , the title referring to the mole above her lip . The song is one of the few up @-@ tempo tracks on the album and contains multiple keyboard overdubs by Brion . Chris Yurkiw of the Montreal Mirror considered the track to be the most moving love song on the album , with an " overt and open @-@ hearted " reference to his homosexuality : " I may not be so manly , but still I know you love me . " Wainwright 's Summer Stage performance of " Beauty Mark " appears on his 2005 DVD All I Want . In " Barcelona " , Wainwright recalls a love affair that took place in the city of the same name . The song is loosely about AIDS and contains the Italian language lyric " Fuggi , regal fantasima " , taken from Giuseppe Verdi 's opera Macbeth . According to Wainwright , the line appears in a scene when " Macbeth is going mad and sees the ghost , and in [ Wainwright 's ] mind the ghost was AIDS . " " Matinee Idol " is about the rise and fall of an entertainment figure , inspired by the death of actor River Phoenix . According to Greenwald , the musical song has a " 1920s , cabaret musical feel " . " Damned Ladies " is a slow ballad about the " beloved yet doomed ladies of opera " . Wainwright said the following of " Damned Ladies " , which contains references to nine opera heroines : " In the song , I lament how these women are constantly dying brutal deaths , which I can see coming but cannot stop . It gets me every time . " Greenwald described " Sally Ann " as 1920s love ballad of " lost love and emotional regret " . The melody in " Imaginary Love " , the album 's closing track , contains sixth and major seventh chords .
= = Promotion = =
Wainwright acknowledged that his debut album was " not a single driven album " ; no singles were released from Rufus Wainwright . To promote the album , a music video was produced for the song " April Fools " . Directed by Sophie Muller , the video features Wainwright in Los Angeles " amidst a clique of classic opera characters " such as Madame Butterfly , attempting to prevent each of them from committing suicide . However , in each instance he arrives too late . The video also contains cameo appearances by No Doubt 's Gwen Stefani , a friend of Muller 's , and Hole bassist Melissa Auf der Maur , a high school acquaintance and former roommate of Wainwright 's . Part of the video was filmed in Stefani 's house .
Wainwright performed " Beauty Mark " on Today , the American morning news and talk show . He also taped an episode of MTV 's television program 120 Minutes to promote the album , which aired on March 28 , 1999 . An advertisement in Billboard promoting the album also referred to appearances on CBS News Sunday Morning , Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , Late Show with David Letterman , and Sessions at West 54th .
In the year prior to the album 's release , Wainwright opened for artists such as Barenaked Ladies and Sean Lennon . On March 1 , 1999 , Wainwright began his first tour as a headlining act in Hoboken , New Jersey . During that month , Wainwright toured throughout New England and the mid @-@ Atlantic states , Ontario ( Ottawa and Toronto ) , Quebec ( Montreal ) , the Southern United States ( Nashville and Atlanta ) , and midwestern United States ( Cincinnati , Chicago , and Pontiac ) . Wainwright continued to tour throughout the month of April before heading to Europe . Stops were mostly along the West Coast , including four in California , Portland , Oregon , and Seattle . Three concerts were also held in Canada , including Vancouver , Edmonton , and Calgary .
= = Critical reception = =
Overall , reception of the album was positive . Speaking of second @-@ generation artists emerging around the same time , Allmusic 's Jason Ankeny wrote that Wainwright " deserves to be heard regardless of his family tree " . Furthermore , Ankeny complimented the musician for his songwriting abilities and his " knack for elegantly rolling piano melodies and poignantly romantic lyrics " . Music journalist Robert Christgau characterized Wainwright as a " mind @-@ boggling original " whose talent is " too big to let pass " . One NME reviewer called the album " floridly impersonal and " grandiosely arranged " , but also criticized Wainwright for being " too overwrought and naff " . Greenwald complimented Martha 's backing vocals in the song " In My Arms " , as well as Parks ' " positively sterling " string arrangement in " Millbrook " . Furthermore , he praised the vocal duet between Rufus and Martha in " Sally Ann " , claiming that a similar sibling performance had not been heard since The Everly Brothers . The album 's cabaret elements and 1970s singer @-@ songwriter style drew comparisons to Cole Porter and Joni Mitchell . Josh Kun of Salon.com wrote that Wainwright poetically incorporated " foolish love and fantasy love , healing love and destructive love and love that makes you want to lose your sense of self just so you can find it again . " Kun asserted that the songs were " built on a similar set of angled melodies and hairpin turns of phrase " , and that each " succeeds as its own distinctly intimate portrait of emotion and desire " .
Ann Powers , music critic for The New York Times , included the album at number five on her list of the Top 10 albums of 1998 . The album was also included in The Village Voice 's 1998 Pazz & Jop Critics Poll , which combined ballots from 496 critics . Rufus Wainwright was nominated four times by the Gay & Lesbian American Music Awards , an organization that provided the foundation for the recognition of the excellence of LGBT artists . Wainwright received the award for Best New Artist , the album was nominated for Album of the Year , and " April Fools " was nominated for Video of the Year and Best Pop Recording . The GLAAD Media Awards , created by the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation ( GLAAD ) to recognize and honor the mainstream media for their fair and accurate representations of the LGBT community , presented Wainwright with the award for Outstanding Music Album . At the Juno Awards of 1999 , Rufus Wainwright earned Wainwright the Juno Award for Best Alternative Album .
= = Commercial reception = =
Album sales were limited — by March 1999 only 35 @,@ 000 copies had been sold . In 2001 , Michael Giltz of The Advocate wrote that Wainwright 's biggest sales boost came from the Gap advertisement rather than radio play . Despite low sales , Wainwright reached number 24 on Billboard 's Top Heatseekers chart , and Rolling Stone named him 1998 's Best New Artist . The January 19 , 1999 CMJ New Music Report showed that Rufus Wainwright spent nine weeks on CMJ Radio 200 reaching a peak position of number 52 , five weeks on CMJ Code Radio reaching a peak position of number 42 , as well as nine weeks on CMJ Triple A reaching a peak position of number 9 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Wainwright .
" Foolish Love " – 5 : 46
" Danny Boy " – 6 : 12
" April Fools " – 5 : 00
" In My Arms " – 4 : 08
" Millbrook " – 2 : 11
" Baby " – 5 : 13
" Beauty Mark " – 2 : 14
" Barcelona " – 6 : 53
" Matinee Idol " – 3 : 08
" Damned Ladies " – 4 : 07
" Sally Ann " – 5 : 01
" Imaginary Love " – 3 : 28
Bonus track
" A Bit of You " – 5 : 00 ( Japan )
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic and the album liner notes .
= Aboriginal peoples in Canada =
Aboriginal peoples in Canada , or Aboriginal Canadians , ( also known as Indigenous peoples in Canada and Indigenous Canadians ) are the indigenous peoples within the boundaries of present @-@ day Canada . They comprise the First Nations , Inuit and Métis . Although " Indian " is a term still commonly used in legal documents , the descriptors " Indian " and " Eskimo " have somewhat fallen into disuse in Canada and are sometimes considered pejorative .
Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of human habitation in Canada . The Paleo @-@ Indian Clovis , Plano and Pre @-@ Dorset cultures pre @-@ date current indigenous peoples of the Americas . Projectile point tools , spears , pottery , bangles , chisels and scrapers mark archaeological sites , thus distinguishing cultural periods , traditions and lithic reduction styles .
The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal culture included permanent settlements , agriculture , civic and ceremonial architecture , complex societal hierarchies and trading networks . The Métis culture of mixed blood originated in the mid @-@ 17th century when First Nation and Inuit people married Europeans . The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during that early period . Various laws , treaties , and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada . Aboriginal Right to Self @-@ Government provides opportunity to manage historical , cultural , political , health care and economic control aspects within first people 's communities .
As of the 2011 census , Aboriginal peoples in Canada totaled 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 685 people , or 4 @.@ 3 % of the national population , spread over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands with distinctive cultures , languages , art , and music . National Aboriginal Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Aboriginals to the history of Canada . First Nations , Inuit and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Aboriginal community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity .
= = Terminology = =
The terms First Peoples and First Nations are both used to refer to indigenous peoples of Canada . The terms First Peoples or Aboriginals in Canada are normally broader terms than First Nations , as they include Inuit , Métis and First Nations . First Nations ( most often used in the plural ) has come into general use for the indigenous peoples of North America in Canada , and their descendants , who are neither Inuit nor Métis . On reserves , First Nations is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnical identity . In conversation this would be " I am Haida " , or " we are Kwantlens " , in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities . In this Act , " Aboriginal peoples of Canada " includes the Indian , Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada .
Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution . Its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive . Aboriginals is more commonly used to describe all indigenous peoples of Canada . It also refers to self @-@ identification of aboriginal people who live within Canada claiming rights of sovereignty or aboriginal title to lands .
The term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland . Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit . The Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit , and ethnographers agree they are a distinct people . They prefer the terminology Yupik , Yupiit , or Eskimo . The Yupik languages are linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages . Linguistic groups of Arctic people have no universal replacement term for Eskimo , inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people across the geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples .
Besides these ethnic descriptors , Aboriginal peoples are often divided into legal categories based on their relationship with the Crown ( i.e. the state ) . Section 91 ( clause 24 ) of the Constitution Act , 1867 gives the federal government ( as opposed to the provinces ) the sole responsibility for " Indians , and Lands reserved for the Indians " . The government inherited treaty obligations from the British colonial authorities in Eastern Canada and signed treaties itself with First Nations in Western Canada ( the Numbered Treaties ) . It also passed the Indian Act in 1876 which governed its interactions with all treaty and non @-@ treaty peoples . Members of First Nations bands that are subject to the Indian Act with the Crown are compiled on a list called the Indian Register , and such people are called Status Indians . Many non @-@ treaty First Nations and all Inuit and Métis peoples are not subject to the Indian Act . However , two court cases have clarified that Inuit , Métis , and non @-@ status First Nations people , all are covered by the term " Indians " in the Constitution Act , 1867 . The first was Re Eskimos in 1939 covering the Inuit , the second being Daniels v. Canada in 2013 which applies to Métis and non @-@ Status First Nations .
Notwithstanding Canada 's location within the Americas , the term " Native American " is not used in Canada as it is typically used solely to describe the indigenous peoples within the boundaries of the present @-@ day United States .
= = History = =
= = = Paleo @-@ Indians period = = =
According to archaeological and genetic evidence , North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation . During the Wisconsin glaciation , 50 @,@ 000 – 17 @,@ 000 years ago , falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to north west North America ( Alaska ) . Alaska was ice @-@ free because of low snowfall , allowing a small population to exist . The Laurentide ice sheet covered most of Canada , blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska ( East Beringia ) for thousands of years .
Aboriginal genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population , one that developed in isolation , conjectured to be Beringia . The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 years . Around 16 @,@ 500 years ago , the glaciers began melting , allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond .
The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 15 @,@ 000 years ago , though increasing evidence suggests an even earlier arrival . It is believed the inhabitants entered the Americas pursuing Pleistocene mammals such as the giant beaver , steppe wisent , musk ox , mastodons , woolly mammoths and ancient reindeer ( early caribou ) . One route hypothesized is that people walked south by way of an ice @-@ free corridor on the east side of the Rocky Mountains , and then fanned out across North America before continuing on to South America . The other conjectured route is that they migrated , either on foot or using primitive boats , down the Pacific Coast to the tip of South America , and then crossed the Rockies and Andes . Evidence of the latter has been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of metres following the last ice age .
The Old Crow Flats and basin was one of the areas in Canada untouched by glaciations during the Pleistocene Ice ages , thus it served as a pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals . The area holds evidence of early human habitation in Canada dating from about 12 @,@ 000 . Fossils from the area include some never accounted for in North America , such as hyenas and large camels . Bluefish Caves is an archaeological site in Yukon , Canada from which a specimen of apparently human @-@ worked mammoth bone has been radiocarbon dated to 12 @,@ 000 years ago .
Clovis sites dated at 13 @,@ 500 years ago were discovered in western North America during the 1930s . Clovis peoples were regarded as the first widespread Paleo @-@ Indian inhabitants of the New World and ancestors to all indigenous peoples in the Americas . Archaeological discoveries in the past thirty years have brought forward other distinctive knapping cultures who occupied the Americas from the lower Great Plains to the shores of Chile .
Localized regional cultures developed from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period from 12 @,@ 900 to 11 @,@ 500 years ago . The Folsom tradition are characterized by their use of Folsom points as projectile tips at archaeological sites . These tools assisted activities at kill sites that marked the slaughter and butchering of bison .
The land bridge existed until 13 @,@ 000 – 11 @,@ 000 years ago , long after the oldest proven human settlements in the New World began . Lower sea levels in the Queen Charlotte sound and Hecate Strait produced great grass lands called archipelago of Haida Gwaii . Hunter @-@ gatherers of the area left distinctive lithic technology tools and the remains of large butchered mammals , occupying the area from 13 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 years ago . In July 1992 , the Federal Government officially designated X ̲ á : ytem ( near Mission , British Columbia ) as a National Historic Site , one of the first Indigenous spiritual sites in Canada to be formally recognized in this manner .
The Plano cultures was a group of hunter @-@ gatherer communities that occupied the Great Plains area of North America between 12 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The Paleo @-@ Indians moved into new territory as it emerged from under the glaciers . Big game flourished in this new environment . The Plano culture are characterized by a range of projectile point tools collectively called Plano points , which were used to hunt bison . Their diets also included pronghorn , elk , deer , raccoon and coyote . At the beginning of the Archaic Era , they began to adopt a sedentary approach to subsistence . Sites in and around Belmont , Nova Scotia have evidence of Plano @-@ Indians , indicating small seasonal hunting camps , perhaps re @-@ visited over generations from around 11 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Seasonal large and smaller game fish and fowl were food and raw material sources . Adaptation to the harsh environment included tailored clothing and skin @-@ covered tents on wooden frames .
= = = Archaic period = = =
The North American climate stabilized by 8000 BCE ( 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) ; climatic conditions were very similar to today 's . This led to widespread migration , cultivation and later a dramatic rise in population all over the Americas . Over the course of thousands of years , American indigenous peoples domesticated , bred and cultivated a large array of plant species . These species now constitute 50 – 60 % of all crops in cultivation worldwide .
The vastness and variety of Canada 's climates , ecology , vegetation , fauna , and landform separations have defined ancient peoples implicitly into cultural or linguistic divisions . Canada is surrounded north , east , and west with coastline and since the last ice age , Canada has consisted of distinct forest regions . Language contributes to the identity of a people by influencing social life ways and spiritual practices . Aboriginal religions developed from anthropomorphism and animism philosophies .
The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status . There is a continuous record of occupation of S 'ólh Téméxw by Aboriginal people dating from the early Holocene period , 10 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 years ago . Archaeological sites at Stave Lake , Coquitlam Lake , Fort Langley and region uncovered early period artifacts . These early inhabitants were highly mobile hunter @-@ gatherers , consisting of about 20 to 50 members of an extended family . The Na @-@ Dene people occupied much of the land area of northwest and central North America starting around 8 @,@ 000 BCE . They were the earliest ancestors of the Athabaskan @-@ speaking peoples , including the Navajo and Apache . They had villages with large multi @-@ family dwellings , used seasonally during the summer , from which they hunted , fished and gathered food supplies for the winter . The Wendat peoples settled into Southern Ontario along the Eramosa River around 8 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 BCE ( 10 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 years ago ) . They were concentrated between Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay . Wendat hunted caribou to survive on the glacier @-@ covered land . Many different First Nations cultures relied upon the buffalo starting by 6 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 BCE ( 8 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 years ago ) . They hunted buffalo by herding migrating buffalo off cliffs . Head @-@ Smashed @-@ In Buffalo Jump , near Lethbridge , Alberta , is a hunting grounds that was in use for about 5 @,@ 000 years .
The west coast of Canada by 7 @,@ 000 – 5000 BCE ( 9 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 years ago ) saw various cultures who organized themselves around salmon fishing . The Nuu @-@ chah @-@ nulth of Vancouver Island began whaling with advanced long spears at about this time . The Maritime Archaic is one group of North America 's Archaic culture of sea @-@ mammal hunters in the subarctic . They prospered from approximately 7 @,@ 000 BCE – 1 @,@ 500 BCE ( 9 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 500 years ago ) along the Atlantic Coast of North America . Their settlements included longhouses and boat @-@ topped temporary or seasonal houses . They engaged in long @-@ distance trade , using as currency white chert , a rock quarried from northern Labrador to Maine . The Pre @-@ Columbian culture , whose members were called Red Paint People , is indigenous to the New England and Atlantic Canada regions of North America . The culture flourished between 3 @,@ 000 BCE – 1 @,@ 000 BCE ( 5 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 years ago ) and was named after their burial ceremonies , which used large quantities of red ochre to cover bodies and grave goods .
The Arctic small tool tradition is a broad cultural entity that developed along the Alaska Peninsula , around Bristol Bay , and on the eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2 @,@ 500 BCE ( 4 @,@ 500 years ago ) . These Paleo @-@ Arctic peoples had a highly distinctive toolkit of small blades ( microblades ) that were pointed at both ends and used as side- or end @-@ barbs on arrows or spears made of other materials , such as bone or antler . Scrapers , engraving tools and adze blades were also included in their toolkits . The Arctic small tool tradition branches off into two cultural variants , including the Pre @-@ Dorset , and the Independence traditions . These two groups , ancestors of Thule people , were displaced by the Inuit by 1000 Common Era ( CE ) .
= = = Post @-@ Archaic periods = = =
The Old Copper Complex societies dating from 3 @,@ 000 BCE – 500 BCE ( 5 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 500 years ago ) are a manifestation of the Woodland Culture , and are pre @-@ pottery in nature . Evidence found in the northern Great Lakes regions indicates that they extracted copper from local glacial deposits and used it in its natural form to manufacture tools and implements .
The Woodland cultural period dates from about 2 @,@ 000 BCE – 1 @,@ 000 CE , and has locales in Ontario , Quebec , and Maritime regions . The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the earlier Archaic stage inhabitants . Laurentian people of southern Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada . They created pointed @-@ bottom beakers decorated by a cord marking technique that involved impressing tooth implements into wet clay . Woodland technology included items such as beaver incisor knives , bangles , and chisels . The population practising sedentary agricultural life ways continued to increase on a diet of squash , corn , and bean crops .
The Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE – 500 CE . At its greatest extent , the Hopewell Exchange System networked cultures and societies with the peoples on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario . Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula , Saugeen , and Laurel complexes .
= = = = First Nations = = = =
First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1 @,@ 000 CE . Communities developed each with its own culture , customs , and character . In the northwest were the Athapaskan , Slavey , Dogrib , Tutchone , and Tlingit . Along the Pacific coast were the Tsimshian ; Haida ; Salish ; Kwakiutl ; Heiltsuk ; Nootka ; Nisga 'a ; Senakw and Gitxsan . In the plains were the Blackfoot ; Káínawa ; Sarcee and Peigan . In the northern woodlands were the Cree and Chipewyan . Around the Great Lakes were the Anishinaabe ; Algonquin ; Míkmaq ; Iroquois and Huron . Along the Atlantic coast were the Beothuk , Maliseet , Innu , Abenaki and Mi 'kmaq .
Many Canadian Aboriginal civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks that included permanent urban settlements or cities , agriculture , civic and monumental architecture , and complex societal hierarchies . These cultures had evolved and changed by the time of the first permanent European arrivals ( c. late 15th – early 16th centuries ) , and have been brought forward through archaeological investigations .
There are indications of contact made before Christopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents . Aboriginal people in Canada interacted with Europeans around 1000 CE , but prolonged contact came after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries . In Columbus ' time there was speculation that other Europeans had made the trip in ancient or contemporary times ; Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records this in his General y natural historia de las Indias of 1526 , which includes biographical information on Columbus . European written accounts generally recorded friendliness of the First Nations , who profited in trade with Europeans . Such trade generally strengthened the more organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation . Throughout the 16th century , European fleets made almost annual visits to the eastern shores of Canada to cultivate the fishing opportunities . A sideline industry emerged in the un @-@ organized traffic of furs overseen by the Indian Department .
Prominent First Nations people include Joe Capilano , who met with King of the United Kingdom , Edward VII , to speak of the need to settle land claims and Ovide Mercredi , a leader at both the Meech Lake Accord constitutional reform discussions and Oka Crisis .
= = = = Inuit = = = =
The Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture , which emerged from western Alaska around 1 @,@ 000 CE and spread eastward across the Arctic , displacing the Dorset culture ( in Inuktitut , the Tuniit ) . Inuit historically referred to the Tuniit as " giants " , or " dwarfs " , who were taller and stronger than the Inuit . Researchers hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs , larger weapons and other technologies used by the expanding Inuit society . By 1300 , the Inuit had settled in west Greenland , and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century . The Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures . Boundary disputes were common and led to aggressive actions .
Warfare was common among Inuit groups with sufficient population density . Inuit , such as the Nunatamiut ( Uummarmiut ) who inhabited the Mackenzie River delta area , often engaged in common warfare . The Central Arctic Inuit lacked the population density to engage in warfare . In the 13th century , the Thule culture began arriving in Greenland from what is now Canada . Norse accounts are scant . Norse @-@ made items from Inuit campsites in Greenland were obtained by either trade or plunder . One account , Ívar Bárðarson , speaks of " small people " with whom the Norsemen fought . 14th @-@ century accounts that a western settlement , one of the two Norse settlements , was taken over by the Skræling .
After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland , the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century . By the mid @-@ 16th century , Basque fishers were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land , such as been excavated at Red Bay . The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations , but they did raid the stations in winter for tools , and particularly worked iron , which they adapted to native needs .
Notable among the Inuit are Abraham Ulrikab and family who became a zoo exhibit in Hamburg , Germany , and Tanya Tagaq , a traditional throat singer . Abe Okpik was instrumental in helping Inuit obtain surnames rather than disc numbers and Kiviaq ( David Ward ) won the legal right to use his single @-@ word Inuktituk name .
= = = = Métis = = = =
The Métis are people descended from marriages between Europeans ( mainly French ) and Cree , Ojibway , Algonquin , Saulteaux , Menominee , Mi 'kmaq , Maliseet , and other First Nations . Their history dates to the mid @-@ 17th century . When Europeans first arrived to Canada they relied on Aboriginal peoples for fur trading skills and survival . To ensure alliances , relationships between European fur traders and Aboriginal women were often consolidated through marriage . The Métis homeland consists of the Canadian provinces of British Columbia , Alberta , Saskatchewan , Manitoba , Quebec , New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , and Ontario , as well as the Northwest Territories ( NWT ) .
Amongst notable Métis people are television actor Tom Jackson , Commissioner of the Northwest Territories Tony Whitford , and Louis Riel who led two resistance movements : the Red River Rebellion of 1869 – 1870 and the North @-@ West Rebellion of 1885 , which ended in his trial .
The languages inherently Métis are either Métis French or a mixed language called Michif . Michif , Mechif or Métchif is a phonetic spelling of Métif , a variant of Métis . The Métis today predominantly speak English , with French a strong second language , as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues . A 19th @-@ century community of the Métis people , the Anglo @-@ Métis , were referred to as Countryborn . They were children of Rupert 's Land fur trade typically of Orcadian , Scottish , or English paternal descent and Aboriginal maternal descent . Their first languages would have been Aboriginal ( Cree , Saulteaux , Assiniboine , etc . ) and English . Their fathers spoke Gaelic , thus leading to the development of an English dialect referred to as " Bungee " .
S.35 of the Constitution Act , 1982 mentions the Métis yet there has long been debate over legally defining the term Métis , but on September 23 , 2003 , the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Métis are a distinct people with significant rights ( Powley ruling ) .
Unlike First Nations people and Inuit , there has been no distinction between status and non @-@ status , and the Métis , their heritage and aboriginal ancestry have often been absorbed and assimilated into their surrounding populations .
= = = Forced assimilation = = =
From the late 18th century , European Canadians ( and the Canadian government ) encouraged assimilation of Aboriginal culture into what was referred to as " Canadian culture " . These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , with a series of initiatives that aimed at complete integration of the aboriginal peoples . These policies , which were made possible by legislation such as the Gradual Civilization Act and the Indian Act , focused on European ideals of Christianity , sedentary living , agriculture , and education .
The attempt at Christianization of the aboriginal people of Canada had been ongoing since the first missionaries arrived in the 1600s , however it became more systematic with the Indian Act in 1876 , which would bring new sanctions for those who did not convert to Christianity . For example , the new laws would prevent non @-@ Christian aboriginals from testifying or having their cases heard in court and ban alcohol consumption . When the Indian Act was amended in 1884 , traditional aboriginal religious and social practices , such as the Potlatch , would be banned , and further amendments in 1920 would prevent aboriginals from wearing traditional dress or performing traditional dances in an attempt to stop all non @-@ Christian practices .
Another focus of the Canadian government was to make the aboriginal groups of Canada sedentary , as they thought that this would make them easier to assimilate . In the 19th century , the government began to support the creation of model farming villages , which were meant to encourage non @-@ sedentary aboriginal groups to settle in an area and begin to cultivate agriculture . When most of these model farming villages failed , the government turned instead to the creation of Aboriginal reservations with the Indian Act of 1876 . With the creation of these reservations came many restricting laws , such as further bans on all intoxicants , restrictions on eligibility to vote in band elections , decreased hunting and fishing areas , and inability for aboriginals to visit other groups on their reservations .
Through the Gradual Civilization Act in 1857 , the government would encourage aboriginals to enfranchise – to remove all legal distinctions between [ Indians ] and Her Majesty ’ s other Canadian Subjects . If an aboriginal chose to enfranchise , it would strip them and their family of aboriginal title , with the idea that they would become more integrated into Canadian society . However , they were often still defined as non @-@ citizens by Europeans , and those few who did enfranchise were often met with disappointment .
The final government strategy of assimilation , made possible by the Indian Act was the Canadian residential school system :
Of all the initiatives that were undertaken in the first century of Confederation , none was more ambitious or central to the civilizing strategy of the Department , to its goal of assimilation , than the residential school system … it was the residential school experience that would lead children most effectively out of their " savage " communities into " higher civilization " and " full citizenship . "
Beginning in 1847 and lasting until 1996 , the Canadian government , in partnership with the Catholic Church , ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for aboriginal children , who were forcibly taken from their homes . While the schools were said to educate , they were plagued by under @-@ funding , disease , and abuse .
Because of laws and policies that encouraged or required aboriginals to assimilate into a Eurocentric society , Canada violated the United Nations Genocide Convention that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952 . The residential school system that removed aboriginal children from their homes has led scholars to believe that Canada can be tried in international court for genocide . A legal case resulted in settlement of 2 billion C $ in 2006 and the establishment of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between aboriginal Canadians and Canadian Society . In 2008 Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued an apology on behalf of the Canadian government and its citizens for the residential school system .
= = Politics , law and legislation = =
= = = Treaties = = =
The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples began interactions during the European colonialization period . Numbered treaties , the Indian Act , the Constitution Act of 1982 and case laws were established . Aboriginals construe these agreements as being between them and the Crown of Canada through the districts Indian Agent , and not the Cabinet of Canada . The Māori interprets the Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand similarly . A series of eleven treaties were signed between Aboriginals in Canada and the reigning Monarch of Canada from 1871 to 1921 . The Government of Canada created the policy , commissioned the Treaty Commissioners and ratified the agreements . These Treaties are agreements with the Government of Canada administered by Canadian Aboriginal law and overseen by the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development .
According to the First Nations – Federal Crown Political Accord " cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations , wherein Canada is the short @-@ form reference to Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada . The Supreme Court argued that treaties " served to reconcile pre @-@ existing Aboriginal sovereignty with assumed Crown sovereignty , and to define Aboriginal rights " . First Nations people interpreted agreements covered in treaty 8 to last " as long as the sun shines , grass grows and rivers flow . "
= = = Indian Act = = =
The Indian Act is federal legislation that dates from 1876 . There have been over 20 major changes made to the original Act since then , the last time being in 1951 ; amended in 1985 with Bill C @-@ 31 . The Indian Act indicates how Reserves and Bands can operate and defines who is recognized as an " Indian " .
In 1985 , the Canadian Parliament passed Bill C @-@ 31 , " An Act to Amend the Indian Act " . Because of a Constitutional requirement , the Bill took effect on April 17 , 1985 .
It ends discriminatory provisions of the Indian Act , especially those that discriminated against women .
It changes the meaning of " status " and for the first time allows for limited reinstatement of Indians who were denied or lost status and / or Band membership .
It allows bands to define their own membership rules .
Those people accepted into band membership under band rules may not be status Indians . C @-@ 31 clarified that various sections of the Indian Act would apply to band members . The sections under debate concern community life and land holdings . Sections pertaining to Indians ( Aboriginals ) as individuals ( in this case , wills and taxation of personal property ) were not included .
= = = Royal Commission = = =
The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was a Royal Commission undertaken by the Government of Canada in 1991 to address issues of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada . It assessed past government policies toward Aboriginal people , such as residential schools , and provided policy recommendations to the government . The Commission issued its final report in November 1996 . The five @-@ volume , 4 @,@ 000 @-@ page report covered a vast range of issues ; its 440 recommendations called for sweeping changes to the interaction between Aboriginal , non @-@ Aboriginal people and the governments in Canada . The report " set out a 20 @-@ year agenda for change . "
= = = Health policy = = =
In 1995 , the federal government announced the Aboriginal Right to Self @-@ Government Policy . This policy recognizes that First Nations and Inuit have the constitutional right to shape their own forms of government to suit their particular historical , cultural , political and economic circumstances . The Indian Health Transfer Policy provided a framework for the assumption of control of health services by Aboriginal peoples , and set forth a developmental approach to transfer centred on self @-@ determination in health . Through this process , the decision to enter transfer discussions with Health Canada rests with each community . Once involved in transfer , communities can take control of health programme responsibilities at a pace determined by their individual circumstances and health management capabilities . The National Aboriginal Health Organization ( NAHO ) incorporated in 2000 , is an Aboriginal @-@ designed and @-@ controlled not @-@ for @-@ profit body in Canada that works to influence and advance the health and well @-@ being of Aboriginal Peoples .
= = = Political organization = = =
First Nations and Inuit organizations ranged in size from band societies of a few people to multi @-@ nation confederacies like the Iroquois . First Nations leaders from across the country formed the Assembly of First Nations , which began as the National Indian Brotherhood in 1968 . The Métis and the Inuit are represented nationally by the Métis National Council and the Inuit Circumpolar Council respectively .
Today 's political organizations have resulted from interaction with European @-@ style methods of government through the Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non @-@ Status Indians . Aboriginal political organizations throughout Canada vary in political standing , viewpoints , and reasons for forming . First Nations , Métis and Inuit negotiate with the Canadian Government through Indian and Northern Affairs Canada in all affairs concerning land , entitlement , and rights . The First Nation groups that operate independently do not belong to these groups .
= = Culture = =
Countless North American Indigenous words , inventions and games have become an everyday part of Canadian language and use . The canoe , snowshoes , the toboggan , lacrosse , tug of war , maple syrup and tobacco are just a few of the products , inventions and games . Some of the words include the barbecue , caribou , chipmunk , woodchuck , hammock , skunk , and moose . Many places in Canada , both natural features and human habitations , use indigenous names . The word " Canada " itself derives from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning " village " or " settlement " . The province of Saskatchewan derives its name from the Saskatchewan River , which in the Cree language is called " Kisiskatchewani Sipi " , meaning " swift @-@ flowing river . " Canada 's capital city Ottawa comes from the Algonquin language term " adawe " meaning " to trade . " Modern youth groups such as Scouts Canada and the Girl Guides of Canada include programs based largely on Indigenous lore , arts and crafts , character building and outdoor camp craft and living .
Aboriginal cultural areas depend upon their ancestors ' primary lifeway , or occupation , at the time of European contact . These culture areas correspond closely with physical and ecological regions of Canada . The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were centred around ocean and river fishing ; in the interior of British Columbia , hunter @-@ gatherer and river fishing . In both of these areas the salmon was of chief importance . For the people of the plains , bison hunting was the primary activity . In the subarctic forest , other species such as the moose were more important . For peoples near the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River , shifting agriculture was practised , including the raising of maize , beans , and squash . While for the Inuit , hunting was the primary source of food with seals the primary component of their diet . The caribou , fish , other marine mammals and to a lesser extent plants , berries and seaweed are part of the Inuit diet . One of the most noticeable symbols of Inuit culture , the inukshuk is the emblem of the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics . Inuksuit are rock sculptures made by stacking stones ; in the shape of a human figure , they are called inunnguaq .
Indian reserves , established in Canadian law by treaties such as Treaty 7 , are lands of First Nations recognized by non @-@ indigenous governments . Some reserves are within cities , such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in Prince Albert , Saskatchewan , Wendake in Quebec City or Stony Plain 135 in the Edmonton Capital Region . There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations , which were ceded multiple reserves by treaty . Aboriginal people currently work in a variety of occupations and may live outside their ancestral homes . The traditional cultures of their ancestors , shaped by nature , still exert a strong influence on them , from spirituality to political attitudes . National Aboriginal Day is a day of recognition of the cultures and contributions of the First Nations , Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada . The day was first celebrated in 1996 , after it was proclaimed that year , by then Governor General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc , to be celebrated on June 21 annually . Most provincial jurisdictions do not recognize it as a statutory holiday .
= = = Languages = = =
There are 13 Aboriginal language groups , 11 oral and 2 sign , in Canada , made up of more than 65 distinct dialects . Of these , only Cree , Inuktitut and Ojibway have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term . Two of Canada 's territories give official status to native languages . In Nunavut , Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun are official languages alongside the national languages of English and French , and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in territorial government . In the NWT , the Official Languages Act declares that there are eleven different languages : Chipewyan , Cree , English , French , Gwich ’ in , Inuinnaqtun , Inuktitut , Inuvialuktun , North Slavey , South Slavey and Tłįchǫ . Besides English and French , these languages are not vehicular in government ; official status entitles citizens to receive services in them on request and to deal with the government in them .
Source : Statistics Canada , 2006 Census Profile of Federal Electoral Districts ( 2003 Representation Order ) : Language , Mobility and Migration and Immigration and Citizenship Ottawa , 2007 , pp. 2 , 6 , 10 .
= = = Visual art = = =
Aboriginals were producing art for thousands of years before the arrival of European settler colonists and the eventual establishment of Canada as a nation state . Like the peoples who produced them , indigenous art traditions spanned territories across North America . Indigenous art traditions are organized by art historians according to cultural , linguistic or regional groups : Northwest Coast , Plateau , Plains , Eastern Woodlands , Subarctic , and Arctic .
Art traditions vary enormously amongst and within these diverse groups . Indigenous art with a focus on portability and the body is distinguished from European traditions and its focus on architecture . Indigenous visual art may be used conjunction with other arts . Shamans ' masks and rattles are used ceremoniously in dance , storytelling and music . Artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads . The distinct Métis cultures that have arisen from inter @-@ cultural relationships with Europeans contribute culturally hybrid art forms . During the 19th and the first half of the 20th century the Canadian government pursued an active policy of forced and cultural assimilation toward indigenous peoples . The Indian Act banned manifestations of the Sun Dance , the Potlatch , and works of art depicting them .
It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that indigenous artists such as Mungo Martin , Bill Reid and Norval Morrisseau began to publicly renew and re @-@ invent indigenous art traditions . Currently there are indigenous artists practising in all media in Canada and two indigenous artists , Edward Poitras and Rebecca Belmore , have represented Canada at the Venice Biennale in 1995 and 2005 respectively .
= = = Music = = =
The Aboriginal peoples of Canada encompass diverse ethnic groups with their individual musical traditions . Music is usually social ( public ) or ceremonial ( private ) . Public , social music may be dance music accompanied by rattles and drums . Private , ceremonial music includes vocal songs with accompaniment on percussion , used to mark occasions like Midewivin ceremonies and Sun Dances .
Traditionally , Aboriginal peoples used the materials at hand to make their instruments for centuries before Europeans immigrated to Canada . First Nations people made gourds and animal horns into rattles , which were elaborately carved and brightly painted . In woodland areas , they made horns of birch bark and drumsticks of carved antlers and wood . Traditional percussion instruments such as drums were generally made of carved wood and animal hides . These musical instruments provide the background for songs , and songs the background for dances . Traditional First Nations people consider song and dance to be sacred . For years after Europeans came to Canada , First Nations people were forbidden to practice their ceremonies .
= = Demographics and classification = =
There are three ( First Nations , Inuit and Métis ) distinctive groups of North America indigenous peoples recognized in the Canadian Constitution Act , 1982 , sections 25 and 35 . Under the Employment Equity Act , Aboriginal people are a designated group along with women , visible minorities , and persons with disabilities . They are not a visible minority under the Employment Equity Act and in the view of Statistics Canada .
The 2011 Canadian Census enumerated 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 685 Aboriginal people in Canada , 4 @.@ 3 % of the country 's total population . This total comprises 851 @,@ 560 people of First Nations descent , 451 @,@ 795 Métis , and 59 @,@ 445 Inuit . National representative bodies of Aboriginal people in Canada include the Assembly of First Nations , the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami , the Métis National Council , the Native Women 's Association of Canada , the National Association of Native Friendship Centres and the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples .
Approximately 40 @,@ 115 individuals of Aboriginal heritage could not be counted during the 2006 census . This is due to the fact that certain Aboriginal reserves and communities in Canada did not participate in the 2006 census , since enumeration of those communities were not permitted . In 2006 , 22 Native communities were not completely enumerated unlike in the year 2001 , when 30 First Nation communities were not enumerated and during 1996 when 77 Native communities could not be completely enumerated . Hence , there were probably 1 @,@ 212 @,@ 905 individuals of Aboriginal ancestry ( North American Indian , Metis , and Inuit ) residing in Canada during the time when the 2006 census was conducted in Canada .
Indigenous people assert that their sovereign rights are valid , and point to the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , which is mentioned in the Canadian Constitution Act , 1982 , Section 25 , the British North America Acts and the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties ( to which Canada is a signatory ) in support of this claim .
A. ^ % of the provincial or territorial population that is Aboriginal
B. ^ According to Statistics Canada this figure " Includes those who identified themselves as Registered Indians and / or band members without identifying themselves as North American Indian , Métis or Inuit in the Aboriginal identity question . "
Ethnographers commonly classify indigenous peoples of the Americas in the United States and Canada into ten geographical regions , cultural areas , with shared cultural traits . The Canadian regions are :
Arctic cultural area – ( Eskimo – Aleut languages )
Subarctic culture area – ( Na @-@ Dene languages – Algic languages )
Eastern Woodlands ( Northeast ) cultural area – ( Algic languages and Iroquoian languages )
Plains cultural area – ( Siouan – Catawban languages )
Northwest Plateau cultural area – ( Salishan languages )
Northwest Coast cultural area – ( Penutian languages , Tsimshianic languages and Wakashan languages )
In the 20th century the Aboriginal population of Canada increased tenfold . Between 1900 and 1950 the population grew by 29 % . After the 1960s the infant mortality level on reserves dropped dramatically and the population grew by 161 % . Since the 1980s the number of First Nations babies more than doubled and currently almost half of the First Nations population is under the age of 25 .
= Rounds ( album ) =
Rounds is the third full @-@ length solo album by British electronic musician Kieran Hebden , released under his alias Four Tet on 5 May 2003 by Domino Recording Company . Wanting to make a more personal record , Hebden recorded and produced the album in his North London flat over ten months using a desktop computer and a home hi @-@ fi system . Its ten tracks feature elements of hip @-@ hop , jazz and folk ; apart from a guitar part recorded for " Slow Jam " , the music is composed exclusively from between 200 and 300 samples , many processed beyond recognition .
Rounds produced two singles and one EP . Critics praised the album for its unique fusion of electronic and " organic " styles , and Metacritic lists it as the fourth best @-@ reviewed album of 2003 . Several publications included Rounds on " best albums of the decade " lists . In May 2013 , on the tenth anniversary of its release , Domino reissued Rounds with a bonus disc including a 2004 live performance .
= = Background and recording = =
After being a member of Fridge since 1995 , Kieran Hebden began releasing solo records under the name Four Tet in 1998 . His first release was the " Thirtysixtwentyfive " single , followed by the albums Dialogue in 1999 and Pause in 2001 . The albums were influenced by hip @-@ hop , jazz and electronic music . Hebden felt his output had sounded too much like his influences and wanted to make a record that was more personal and harder to define . Hebden drew on influences from Pete Rock , DJ Premier , Jim O 'Rourke , Timbaland , the Neptunes and Rodney Jerkins .
Hebden recorded Rounds over ten months in his North London flat , using a desktop computer and a home hi @-@ fi system . With the exception of a guitar part recorded for " Slow Jam " , he composed the music exclusively from a file of samples he had assembled over several years . The album uses between 200 and 300 samples ; each song is built from between 20 and 30 samples heavily processed with the software packages AudioMulch and Cool Edit Pro , in many cases beyond recognition . The nine @-@ minute track " Unspoken " was originally based on a sample from the Tori Amos song " Winter " but was reworked when Hebden failed to get sample clearance . Hebden also used a Creative Labs microphone to record the guitar part for " Slow Jam " and some sounds from television and sequenced the results in Cakewalk Pro Audio 9 .
After spending the early part of his career naming his songs with random words , he decided to use more personal titles . " As Serious as Your Life " takes its name from a 1977 Val Wilmer book about free jazz in New York City . Hebden was given a copy of the book by his father and said " I did hope that some kid would get interested and ask what the title was and then check out the book , so it 's a bit like leaving little trails for people . " He was inspired to title the album Rounds after hearing that his sister had been singing a musical round , telling an interviewer : " It seemed totally relevant ; a round is all about repetition and phasing , which is the essence of what I 've been doing since I 've been making music . "
= = Music = =
Rounds contains ten instrumental tracks with a total running time of 45 minutes , which Colin Joyce of Spin called a " folktronica tapestry . " Sound on Sound writer Sam Inglis said that the album was a " blend of fragile acoustic fragments , brutal beats and glitchy electronica " ; The Age described it as " electronic music that sounds deceptively organic . " Guardian critic David Peschek , who noted the influence of hip @-@ hop , R & B and folk music , wrote that " Rounds invents its own dizzying , unlikely genres . " John Bush of AllMusic found the album contained elements of electronic and experimental music combined with " a dreamy melodicism sure to endear it to indie pop fans . " Dusted critic Michael Crumsho noticed the influence of folk and jazz , writing that Hebden had " taken his earlier nods to other specific genres and turned them into something wholly his own . " PopMatters ' Adrien Begrand noted how " Hebden shifts the focus from hip @-@ hop beats , jazz influences , and far @-@ reaching sonic adventurousness , to a more spare , focused sound " that contributed to Rounds ' original sound . Nick Southall , in his review for Stylus magazine , stated that " it is more of the same , but ' the same ' for Four Tet is perpetual evolution and motion . "
" Unspoken " was named by several critics as the album 's centrepiece ; Begrand described it as " virtuosic laptop music " . NME critic Tony Naylor thought that " As Serious as Your Life " was one of the album 's more straightforward songs . The album 's closing track , " Slow Jam " , which Pitchfork reviewer Andy Beta said " has that long goodbye of the best melancholy closers , " was described by Begrand as a " warm , wide @-@ eyed , watching @-@ the @-@ sun @-@ rise song " that features chiming guitars and a sample of a child 's squeaky toy .
= = Release = =
The track " She Moves She " was released as a 12 @-@ inch single on 31 March 2003 , with " Cradle " on the B @-@ side . Rounds was released on double vinyl and compact disc by Domino on 5 May 2003 , spending one week on the UK Albums Chart at number 60 . The second single , " As Serious as Your Life " , was released in October 2003 on 7- and 12 @-@ inch formats featuring remixes and a 23 @-@ minute live version ; a second 12 @-@ inch of the same song , containing a remix by Jay Dee featuring rapping by Guilty Simpson , was released on 18 November 2003 . An EP , My Angel Rocks Back and Forth , was released in May 2004 , containing Rounds tracks , two remixes , and the unreleased songs " I 've Got Viking in Me " and " All the Chimers " , plus a DVD of music videos for " My Angel Rocks Back and Forth " , " She Moves She " , " As Serious as Your Life " and Pause single " No More Mosquitoes " .
Domino reissued Rounds in May 2013 on double vinyl , CD , and download . The CD and vinyl releases include a bonus CD of live material recorded in 2004 previously only available on the limited edition 2004 live album Live in Copenhagen 30th March 2004 .
= = Reception = =
Rounds received critical acclaim . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews and ratings from mainstream critics , the album received a metascore of 89 based on 26 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim . "
AllMusic reviewer John Bush wrote that " though Rounds is experimental by nature " it " offers something for nearly every audience that could approach it . " Michael Crumsho of Dusted found the album " a musical salvo from an artist who ’ s confidently coming into his own " , describing it as " a cozy , evocative soundtrack that ’ s as intricate as it is beautiful . " In his review for The Guardian , David Peschek described the album as " a trove of bewitching melody and subtle invention " , and wrote that " Rounds succeeds not only as a meticulously conceived piece of art but also as a moving expression of human warmth . " In NME , Tony Naylor wrote that the album was " extraordinary " , " essential " and " full of remarkable sonic ideas . " Andy Beta , writing for Pitchfork Media , praised the record 's " internal order " which " allows it to stand out against previous laptop explorations of immense record collections " .
Adrien Begrand 's review in PopMatters found that Rounds is " a remarkable record " and that " sublime , computer @-@ crafted recordings like Rounds provides in spades are making the most exciting sounds right now in 2003 . " In Spin , Will Hermes described the album as a " varied trip " and noted " a darker vibe suggesting the influence of Hebden 's labelmate Dan Snaith of Manitoba . " Stylus Magazine writer Nick Southall recognised Hebden 's " perpetual evolution and motion , " declaring that " this is simply a great record of beautiful music . " Robert Christgau 's review of Rounds for the Village Voice argued that Hebden " imagines an aural space in which electronic malfunction is cute rather than annoying or ominous , " using " the computer as music box . " Tom Ridge of The Wire stated that " nothing here sounds like an exercise in genre plundering , " and that " Hebden has devised a musical identity that is distinctly different from his work with Fridge , but both projects share a passion for defying boundaries . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Rounds was ranked number four on the Metacritic list of highest @-@ scoring albums of 2003 , and was named as one of the albums of 2003 by many publications , including the NME , The Wire , The Observer , Prefix magazine , Pitchfork , Drowned in Sound , the BBC , The Face , Q and Uncut .
Several publications rated Rounds as one of the best albums of the decade , with Pitchfork Media placing it at number 123 on their list of the top 200 albums of the 2000s . On similar lists , Drowned in Sound placed it at number 13 , One Thirty BPM placed it at number 99 , and No Ripcord at number 48 . GQ rated it as one of the 40 best albums of the 21st century .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Kieran Hebden .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Kieran Hebden – music , production
Additional personnel
Guy Davie – mastering
Matt Cooper – layout , design
Jason Evans – photography
= A. Merritt 's Fantasy Magazine =
A. Merritt 's Fantasy Magazine was a pulp magazine which published five issues from December 1949 to October 1950 . It took its name from fantasy writer A. Merritt , who had died in 1943 , and it aimed to capitalize on Merritt 's popularity . It was published by Popular Publications , alternating months with Fantastic Novels , another title of theirs . It may have been edited by Mary Gnaedinger , who also edited Fantastic Novels and Famous Fantastic Mysteries . It was a companion to Famous Fantastic Mysteries , and like that magazine mostly reprinted science @-@ fiction and fantasy classics from earlier decades .
= = Publication history and contents = =
In 1942 , Popular Publications acquired Famous Fantastic Mysteries and Fantastic Novels , both of them pulp magazines specializing in reprints of fantasy , from the Munsey Company . Fantastic Novels had ceased publication in April 1941 , but was relaunched by Popular in early 1948 as a companion to Famous Fantastic Mysteries , which was still being published . The following year Popular decided to add another fantasy reprint magazine to their line @-@ up : the title they chose was A. Merritt 's Fantasy Magazine , and the first issue was dated December 1949 . Abraham Merritt ( usually known as A. Merritt ) , after whom the magazine was named , was one of the most popular fantasy authors of the pulp era : the magazine was intended to take advantage of his popularity , but only five issues appeared , over a period of just under a year , before the magazine was cancelled .
In addition to Merritt 's novel Creep , Shadow ! , which appeared in the first issue , the magazine printed several well @-@ received stories . These included " The Smoking Land " , a novel by Frederick Faust , under the pseudonym George Challis , and a detective novel by Jack Mann , The Ninth Life . A letter to the magazine from a young Robert Silverberg appeared in one of the letter columns .
Different theories have been offered as to why the magazine failed . Editor and science fiction historian Malcolm Edwards suggests that Merritt 's death six years earlier , in 1943 , made the magazine a risky proposition , despite Merritt 's continuing popularity in the late 1940s . Science fiction historian and critic Sam Moskowitz suggests that , conversely , the magazine did not go far enough in depending on Merritt 's popularity , as it only printed three works of his during its run . This may have been because Merritt was sufficiently popular that it was not easy for the magazine to obtain reprint rights to his stories .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The editor was not announced in the magazine . Mary Gnaedinger was the editor for the two companion magazines , Famous Fantastic Mysteries and Fantastic Novels , but Sam Moskowitz has suggested that it was unlikely Gnaedinger was the editor for A. Merritt 's Fantasy Magazine . The magazine remained in pulp format throughout its short run . It was 132 pages and priced at 25 cents for all five issues . A Canadian edition of all five issues appeared ; these were identical to the originals in every way except for the back cover advertisement and the format — the Canadian issues were half an inch longer .
= Constitution of May 3 , 1791 =
The Constitution of 3 May 1791 ( Polish : Konstytucja 3 maja , Lithuanian : Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija ) was adopted by the Great Sejm ( parliament ) of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , a dual monarchy comprising Poland and Lithuania . Drafted over 32 months beginning on 6 October 1788 , and formally adopted as the Government Act ( Ustawa rządowa ) , the document was designed to redress the Commonwealth 's political defects . The system of Golden Freedoms , also known as the " Nobles ' Democracy " , had conferred disproportionate rights on the nobility ( szlachta ) and over time had corrupted politics . The adoption of the Constitution was preceded by a period of agitation for — and gradual introduction of — reforms beginning with the Convocation Sejm of 1764 and the election of Stanisław August Poniatowski as the Commonwealth 's last king .
The constitution sought to supplant the prevailing anarchy fostered by some of the country 's magnates with a more democratic constitutional monarchy . It introduced elements of political equality between townspeople and nobility , and placed the peasants under the protection of the government , thus mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom . It banned parliamentary institutions such as the liberum veto , which had put the Sejm at the mercy of any deputy who could revoke all the legislation that had been passed by that Sejm . The Commonwealth 's neighbours reacted with hostility to the adoption of the constitution . Frederick William II 's Kingdom of Prussia broke its alliance with the Commonwealth , which was attacked and then defeated in the War in Defence of the Constitution by an alliance between Catherine the Great 's Imperial Russia and the Targowica Confederation of anti @-@ reform Polish magnates and landless nobility . The King , a principal co @-@ author , eventually capitulated to the Confederates .
The 1791 document remained in force for less than 19 months ; it was annulled by the Grodno Sejm on 23 November 1793 . By 1795 , the Second and Third Partitions of Poland ended the existence of the sovereign Polish state . Over the next 123 years , the Constitution of 3 May , 1791 , was seen as proof of successful internal reform and as a symbol promising the eventual restoration of Poland 's sovereignty . In the words of two of its co @-@ authors , Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj , it was " the last will and testament of the expiring Country . " British historian Norman Davies described the document as " the first constitution of its type in Europe " ; others have called it the world 's second @-@ oldest codified national constitution after the 1789 U.S. Constitution .
= = Background = =
Polish constitutionalism can be traced to the 13th century , when government by consensus and representation was already well established in the young Polish state . The emergence of parliamentary bodies , the sejm and sejmiki , followed . By the 17th century , Poland 's legal and political tradition was characterized by : parliamentary institutions and a system of checks and balances on state power , which was itself limited by decentralization ; the idea of a contractual state , embodied in texts like the Henrician Articles and the Pacta conventa ; the concept of individual liberties ; and the notion that the monarch owed duties to his subjects . This system , which primarily benefited the Polish nobility ( szlachta ) , came to be known as the " nobles ' democracy " .
= = = End of the Golden Age = = =
The 1791 Constitution was a response to the increasingly perilous situation in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , which had been a major European power only a century earlier and was still the largest state on the continent . In the 1590s , at the peak of the nobles ' democracy , King Sigismund III Vasa 's court preacher — the Jesuit Piotr Skarga — had condemned the weaknesses of the Commonwealth . In the same period , writers and philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski and Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki , and the egzekucja praw ( Execution @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Laws ) reform movement led by Jan Zamoyski had advocated political reforms . In 1656 , Sigismund 's son King John II Casimir Vasa made a solemn vow at the ' old ' Lvov Cathedral on behalf of the entire Republic of Poland , that he would free the Polish peasants “ from their unjust burdens and oppression . ” As he was struggling with the Sejm , in 1661 John Casimir — whose reign saw highly destructive wars and obstructionism by the nobility — correctly predicted that the Commonwealth was in danger of a partition by Russia , Brandenburg and Austria .
As the Sejm failed to implement sufficient reforms , the state machinery became increasingly dysfunctional . A major cause of the Commonwealth 's downfall was the liberum veto ( " free veto " ) , which since 1652 had allowed any Sejm deputy to nullify all the legislation enacted by that Sejm . As a result , deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powers — primarily from the Russian Empire , the Kingdom of Prussia and France — or deputies who believed they were living in an unprecedented " Golden Age " paralysed the Commonwealth 's government for over a century . The threat of the liberum veto could only be overridden by the establishment of a " confederated sejm " , which was immune to the liberum veto . Declaring that a sejm either constituted a " confederation " or belonged to one was a contrivance prominently used by foreign interests in the 18th century to force a legislative outcome .
By the early 18th century , the magnates of Poland and Lithuania controlled the state , ensuring that no reforms that might weaken their privileged status ( the " Golden Freedoms " ) would be enacted . The ineffective monarchs who were elected to the Commonwealth throne in the early 18th century , Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland of the House of Wettin , did not improve matters . The Wettins , used to the absolute rule practiced in their native Saxony , tried to govern through intimidation and the use of force , which led to a series of conflicts between their supporters and opponents — including another pretender to the Polish throne , King Stanisław Leszczyński . Those conflicts often took the form of confederations — legal rebellions against the king permitted under the Golden Freedoms — including the Warsaw Confederation ( 1704 ) , Sandomierz Confederation , Tarnogród Confederation , Dzików Confederation and the War of the Polish Succession . Only 8 out of 18 Sejm sessions during the reign of Augustus II ( 1694 – 1733 ) passed legislation . For 30 years during the reign of Augustus III , only one session was able to pass legislation . The government was near collapse , giving rise to the term " Polish anarchy " , and the country was managed by provincial assemblies and magnates .
Other reform attempts in the Wettin era were led by individuals such as Stanisław Dunin @-@ Karwicki , Stanisław A. Szczuka , Kazimierz Karwowski and Michał Józef Massalski ; these mostly proved to be futile .
= = = Early reforms = = =
The Enlightenment greatly influenced certain Commonwealth circles during the 1764 – 95 reign of its last king , Stanisław II August Poniatowski . Poniatowski was an " enlightened " Polish magnate who had been a deputy to several Sejms between 1750 and 1764 and had a deeper understanding of Polish politics than previous monarchs . The Convocation Sejm of 1764 , which elected Poniatowski to the throne , was controlled by the Czartoryski family 's reformist Familia party and was backed up by Russian military forces , which the Czartoryskis invited . In exchange for passing decrees favorable to them , the Russians and Prussians let the confederated Convocation Sejm enact a number of reforms , including the weakening of liberum veto and ensuring it no longer applied to treasury and economic matters . A more comprehensive reform package was presented by Andrzej Zamoyski , but opposition from Prussia , Russia and the Polish nobility thwarted this ambitious program , which proposed to decide on all motions by majority voting . In part because his election was imposed by Empress Catherine the Great , Poniatowski 's political position was weak from the beginning . He proceeded with cautious reforms such as the establishment of fiscal and military ministries and the introduction of a national customs tariff , which was soon abandoned because of opposition from Frederick the Great of Prussia . These measures had already been authorized by the Convocation Sejm ; more legislative and executive improvements inspired by Familia or the King were implemented during and after the 1764 Sejm .
The Commonwealth 's magnates viewed reform with suspicion and neighboring powers , content with the deterioration of the Commonwealth , abhorred the thought of a resurgent and democratic power on their borders . With the Commonwealth Army reduced to around 16 @,@ 000 , it was easy for its neighbors to intervene directly — the Imperial Russian Army numbered 300 @,@ 000 and the Prussian Army and Imperial Austrian Army had 200 @,@ 000 each .
Russia 's Empress Catherine and Prussia 's King Frederick II provoked a conflict between members of the Sejm and the King over civil rights for religious minorities , such as Protestants and Greek Orthodox whose positions , which were guaranteed equal with the Catholic majority by the Warsaw Confederation of 1573 , had worsened considerably . Catherine and Frederick declared their support for the szlachta and their " liberties " , and by October 1767 Russian troops had assembled outside Warsaw in support of the conservative Radom Confederation . The King and his adherents had little choice but to acquiesce to Russian demands . During the Repnin Sejm ( named after the unofficially presiding Russian ambassador Nicholas Repnin ) the King accepted the five " eternal and invariable principles " which Catherine had vowed to " protect for all time to come in the name of Poland 's liberties " : the election of kings , the right of liberum veto , the right to renounce allegiance to and raise rebellion against the king ( rokosz ) , the szlachta 's exclusive right to hold office and land , and landowners ' power over their peasants . Thus all the privileges ( " Golden Freedoms " ) of the nobility that had made the Commonwealth ungovernable were guaranteed as unalterable in the Cardinal Laws . The Cardinal Laws and the rights of " religious dissenters " passed by the Repnin Sejm were personally guaranteed by Empress Catherine . By these acts of legislation , for the first time , Russia formally intervened in the Commonwealth 's constitutional affairs .
During the 1768 Sejm , Repnin showed his disregard for local resistance by arranging the abduction and imprisonment of Kajetan Sołtyk , Józef A. Załuski , Wacław Rzewuski and Seweryn Rzewuski , all vocal opponents of foreign domination and the recently proclaimed policies . The Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth had legally and practically become a protectorate of the Russian Empire . Nonetheless , several minor beneficial reforms were adopted , political rights of the religious minorities were restored and the need for more reforms was becoming increasingly recognized .
King Stanisław August 's acquiescence to the Russian intervention encountered some opposition . On February 29 , 1768 , several magnates — including Józef Pułaski and his young son Kazimierz Pułaski ( Casimir Pulaski ) — vowing to oppose Russian influence , declared Stanisław August a lackey of Russia and Catherine , and formed a confederation at the town of Bar . The Bar Confederation focused on limiting the influence of foreigners in Commonwealth affairs , and being pro @-@ Catholic was generally opposed to religious tolerance . It began a civil war to overthrow the King , but its irregular forces were overwhelmed by Russian intervention in 1772 .
The defeat of the Bar Confederation set the scene for the partition treaty of August 5 , 1772 , which was signed at Saint Petersburg by Russia , Prussia and Austria . The treaty divested the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth of about a third of its territory and population — over 200 @,@ 000 km2 ( 77 @,@ 220 sq mi ) and 4 million people . The three powers justified their annexation , citing anarchy in the Commonwealth and its refusal to cooperate with its neighbors ' efforts to restore order . King Stanisław August yielded and on April 19 , 1773 , he called the Sejm into session . Only 102 of about 200 deputies attended what became known as the Partition Sejm . The rest were aware of the King 's decision and refused . Despite protests from the deputy Tadeusz Rejtan and others , the treaty — later known as the First Partition of Poland — was ratified .
The first of the three successive 18th @-@ century partitions of Commonwealth territory that would eventually remove Poland 's sovereignty shocked the Commonwealth 's inhabitants and made it clear to progressive minds that the Commonwealth must either reform or perish . In the thirty years before the Constitution , there was a rising interest among progressive thinkers in constitutional reform . Before the First Partition , a Polish noble , Michał Wielhorski was sent to France by the Bar Confederation to ask the philosophes Gabriel Bonnot de Mably and Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau for their suggestions on a new constitution for a reformed Poland . Mably submitted his recommendations Du gouvernement et des lois en Pologne ( The Government and Laws of Poland ) in 1770 – 71 , whereas Rousseau finished his Considerations on the Government of Poland in 1772 when the First Partition was already underway . Works advocating the need for reform and presenting specific solutions were published in the Commonwealth by Polish – Lithuanian thinkers : On an Effective Way of Councils or on the Conduct of Ordinary Sejms ( 1761 – 63 ) , by Stanisław Konarski , founder of the Collegium Nobilium ; Political Thoughts on Civil Liberties ( 1775 ) and Patriotic Letters ( 1778 – 78 ) , by Józef Wybicki , author of the lyrics of the Polish National Anthem ; ( Anonymous Letters to Stanisław Małachowski ( 1788 – 89 ) and The Political Law of the Polish Nation ( 1790 ) , by Hugo Kołłątaj , head of the Kołłątaj 's Forge party ; and Remarks on the Life of Jan Zamoyski ( 1787 ) , by Stanisław Staszic . Ignacy Krasicki 's satires of the Great Sejm era were also seen as crucial to giving the constitution moral and political support .
A new wave of reforms supported by progressive magnates such as the Czartoryski family and King Stanisław August were introduced at the Partition Sejm . The most important included the 1773 establishment of the Commission of National Education ( Komisja Edukacji Narodowej ) — the first ministry of education in the world . New schools were opened , uniform textbooks were printed , teachers received better education and poor students were provided with scholarships . The Commonwealth 's military was to be modernized and funding to create a larger standing army was agreed . Economic and commercial reforms — including some intended to cover the increased military budget previously shunned as unimportant by the szlachta — were introduced . A new executive assembly , the 36 @-@ strong Permanent Council comprising five ministries with limited legislative powers , was established , giving the Commonwealth a governing body in constant session between Sejms and therefore immune to their liberum veto disruptions .
In 1776 , the Sejm commissioned former chancellor Andrzej Zamoyski to draft a new legal code . By 1780 , he and his collaborators had produced the Zamoyski Code ( Zbiór praw sądowych ) . It would have strengthened royal power , made all officials answerable to the Sejm , placed the clergy and their finances under state supervision , and deprived landless szlachta of many of their legal immunities . The Code would also have improved the situation of non @-@ nobles — townspeople and peasants . Zamoyski 's progressive legal code , containing elements of constitutional reform , met with opposition from native conservative szlachta and foreign powers ; the 1780 Sejm did not adopt it .
= = Adoption = =
An opportunity for reform occurred during the " Great Sejm " — also called the " Four @-@ Year Sejm " — of 1788 – 92 , which began on October 6 , 1788 , with 181 deputies . In accordance with the Constitution 's preamble , from 1790 it met " in dual number " when 171 newly elected deputies joined the earlier @-@ established Sejm . On its second day , the body became a confederated sejm to avoid the liberum veto . Concurrent world events appeared to have been opportune for the reformers . Russia and Austria were at war with the Ottoman Empire , and the Russians found themselves simultaneously fighting in the Russo @-@ Swedish War , 1788 – 1790 . A new alliance between the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth and Prussia seemed to provide security against Russian intervention , and King Stanisław August drew closer to leaders of the reform @-@ minded Patriotic Party .
The Sejm passed few major reforms in its first two years , but the subsequent two years brought more substantial changes . The Sejm adopted the 1791 Free Royal Cities Act , which was formally incorporated into the final constitution . This act addressed a number of matters related to the cities , crucially expanding burghers ' ( i.e. , townspeople 's ) rights , including electoral rights . While the Sejm comprised representatives of the nobility and clergy , the reformers were supported by the burghers , who in late 1789 organized in Warsaw a " Black Procession " demanding full political enfranchisement of the bourgeoisie . On 18 April 1791 the Sejm — fearing that the burghers ' protests , if ignored , could turn violent , as they had in France not long before — adopted the Free Royal Cities Act .
The new constitution was drafted by the King , with contributions from Ignacy Potocki , Hugo Kołłątaj and others . The King is credited with writing the general provisions and Kołłątaj with giving the document its final shape . Stanisław August wanted the Commonwealth to become a constitutional monarchy similar to that of Great Britain , with a strong central government based on a strong monarch . Potocki wanted the Sejm to be the strongest branch of government . Kołłątaj wanted a " gentle " revolution , carried out without violence , to enfranchise other social classes in addition to the nobility .
The proposed reforms were opposed by the conservatives , including the Hetmans ' Party . Threatened with violence by their opponents , the advocates of the draft began the debate on the Government Act two days early , while many opposing deputies were away on Easter recess . The debate and subsequent adoption of the Government Act was executed as a quasi @-@ coup d 'état . No recall notices were sent to known opponents of reform , while many pro @-@ reform deputies secretly returned early . The royal guard under the command of the King 's nephew Prince Józef Poniatowski were positioned about the Royal Castle , where the Sejm was gathered , to prevent opponents from disrupting the proceedings . On May 3 , the Sejm convened with only 182 members , about half its " dual " number . The bill was read and overwhelmingly adopted , to the enthusiasm of the crowds outside . A protest was submitted the next day by a small group of deputies , but on May 5 the matter was officially concluded and protests were invalidated by the Constitutional Deputation of the Sejm . It was the first time in the 18th century that a constitutional act had been passed in the Commonwealth without the involvement of foreign powers .
Soon after , the Friends of the Constitution ( Zgromadzenie Przyjaciół Konstytucji Rządowej ) — which included many participants in the Great Sejm — was organised to defend the reforms already enacted and to promote further ones . It is now regarded as the first modern @-@ style political party in Poland 's history . The response to the new constitution was less enthusiastic in the provinces , where the Hetmans ' Party enjoyed considerable influence . General support among the middle nobility was crucial and still very substantial ; most of the provincial sejmiks deliberating in 1791 and early 1792 supported the constitution .
= = Features = =
The Polish constitution was one of several to reflect Enlightenment influences , in particular Rousseau 's social contract and Montesquieu 's advocacy of a separation and balance of powers between the three branches of government and his advocacy of a bicameral legislature . Once the government was established , it aimed to ensure , in accordance with Article V , that " the integrity of the states , civil liberty , and social order shall always remain in equilibrium " . According to Polish @-@ American historian Jacek Jędruch , the liberality of its provisions " fell somewhere below [ those of ] the French , above the Canadian , and left the Prussian far behind " , but did not equal the American Constitution " . King Stanisław August Poniatowski said the new constitution was " founded principally on those of England and the United States of America , but avoiding the faults and errors of both , and adapted as much as possible to the local and particular circumstances of the country . " George Sanford said that the Polish constitution provided " a constitutional monarchy close to the English model of the time . "
Article I acknowledged the Roman Catholic faith as the " dominant religion " , but guaranteed tolerance and freedom to all religions . It was less progressive than the 16th @-@ century Warsaw Confederation , and placed Poland clearly within the Catholic sphere of influence . Article II confirmed many old privileges of the nobility , stressing that all nobles are equal and should enjoy personal security and the right to property . Article III stipulated that the earlier Free Royal Cities Act ( Miasta Nasze Królewskie Wolne w Państwach Rzeczypospolitej ) of April 18 ( or 21 ) , 1791 , was integral to the constitution . Personal security — neminem captivabimus , the Polish habeas corpus act — was extended to townspeople ( including Jews ) . Townspeople also gained the right to acquire landed property and became eligible for military officers ' commissions and public offices , such as reserved seats in the Sejm and seats in the executive commissions of the Treasury , the Police and the Judiciary . Membership of the nobility was also made easier for burghers to acquire .
With half a million burghers in the Commonwealth now substantially enfranchised , political power became more equally distributed , but little was done about the less politically conscious and active classes , such as the Jews and peasants . Although Article IV placed the Commonwealth 's peasantry under the protection of the national law — a first step toward enfranchising the country 's largest and most oppressed social class — the low status of the peasantry as compared to other classes was not eliminated , as the constitution did not abolish serfdom . Not until the Second Partition and Kościuszko 's Proclamation of Połaniec in 1794 would the Polish government begin to abolish serfdom .
Article V stated that " all power in civil society [ should be ] derived from the will of the people . " The constitution referred to the country 's " citizens " , which for the first time in Polish legislation was meant to include townspeople and peasants , as well as nobles . The document 's preamble and 11 individual articles introduced the principle of popular sovereignty applied to the nobility and townspeople , and the separation of powers into legislative ( a bicameral Sejm ) , executive ( " the King and the Guardians " , the Guardians of the Laws being the newly established top governmental entity ) and judicial branches . It advanced the democratization of the polity by limiting the excessive legal immunities and political prerogatives of landless nobility .
Legislative power , as defined in Article VI , rested with the bicameral parliament ( an elected Sejm and an appointed Senate ) and the king . The Sejm met " ordinarily " every two years and " extraordinarily " whenever required by a national emergency . Its lower chamber — the Chamber of Deputies ( Izba Poselska ) — comprised 204 deputies ( 2 from each powiat , 68 each from the provinces of Greater Poland , Lesser Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ) and 21 plenipotentiaries of royal cities ( 7 from each province ) . The royal chancellery was to inform the sejmiks of the legislation it intended to propose in advance , so that the deputies would have time to prepare for the discussions . The Sejm 's upper chamber — the Chamber of Senators ( Izba Senacka ) — comprised between 130 and 132 ( sources vary ) senators ( voivodes , castellans , and bishops , as well as governments ministers without the right to vote ) . The Senate was presided over by the king , who had one vote which could be used to break ties . The king and all deputies had legislative initiative , and most matters — known as general laws , and divided into constitutional , civil , criminal , and those for the institution of perpetual taxes — required a simple majority , first from the lower chamber , then from the upper one . For the more specialized resolutions , such as for treaties of alliance , declarations of war and peace , ennoblements and increases in national debt , a majority vote of both chambers voting jointly was needed . The Senate ( but not the king ) had a suspensive veto over the laws that the Sejm passed , applicable until the next Sejm session , when it could be overruled .
Article VI also recognized the Prawo o sejmikach , the act on regional assemblies ( sejmiks ) that had been passed on March 24 , 1791 . By reducing the enfranchisement of the noble classes , this law introduced major changes to the electoral ordinance . Previously , all nobles had been eligible to vote in sejmiks , which de facto meant that many of the poorest , landless nobles — known as " clients " or " clientele " of local magnates — voted as the magnates bade them . Now the voting right was tied to a property qualification : one had to own or lease land and pay taxes , or be closely related to somebody who did , to be eligible to vote . 300 @,@ 000 of 700 @,@ 000 previously eligible nobles were thus disfranchised , much to their displeasure . Voting rights were restored to landowners who were in military service . They had lost these rights in 1775 . Voting was limited to males of at least 18 years of age . The eligible voters elected deputies to local powiats , or county sejmiks , which elected deputies to the General Sejm .
Finally , Article VI explicitly abolished several institutional sources of government weakness and national anarchy , including the liberum veto ( which was replaced by a simple majority vote ) , confederations and confederated sejms , and the excessive influence of sejmiks stemming from the previously binding nature of their instructions to their Sejm deputies . The confederations were declared " contrary to the spirit of this constitution , subversive of government and destructive of society " . Thus the new constitution strengthened the powers of the Sejm , moving the country towards a constitutional monarchy .
Executive power , according to Article V and Article VII , was in the hands of " the king in his council " , a cabinet of ministers called the Guardians of the Laws ( or Guard of the Laws , Straż Praw ) . The ministries could not create or interpret the laws and all acts of the foreign ministry were provisional and subject to the Sejm 's approval . The king presided over this council , which was composed of the Roman Catholic Primate of Poland — who was also president of the Education Commission — and five ministers appointed by the king : a minister of police , a minister of the seal ( internal affairs ) , a minister of foreign affairs , a minister belli ( of war ) , and a minister of treasury . Council members also included — without a vote — the Crown Prince , the Marshal of the Sejm , and two secretaries . This royal council descended from similar councils that had functioned since King Henry 's Articles ( 1573 ) , and from the recent Permanent Council . Acts of the king required the countersignature of the respective minister . A minister was required to cosign a law if the king demanded it , unless that minister refused and all other ministers unanimously endorsed his objection , in which case the king could withdraw the law or press the issue by taking it before the parliament . The stipulation that the king , " doing nothing of himself , ... shall be answerable for nothing to the nation , " parallels the British constitutional principle that " The king can do no wrong . " ( In both countries , the respective minister was responsible for the king 's acts . ) The ministers were responsible to the Sejm , which could dismiss them by a vote of no confidence with a two @-@ third majority in both houses . Ministers could be also held accountable by the Sejm court , and a simple majority vote was sufficient for the Sejm to demand that a minister face an impeachment trial . The king was the nation 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief , commanding its armies ; the institution of the hetman ( high @-@ ranking military official ) was not mentioned . The king also had the right to grant pardon except in cases of treason . The decisions of the royal council were carried out by commissions , including the previously created Commission of National Education , and the new Commissions for Police , the Military and the Treasury , whose members were elected by the Sejm .
The constitution also changed the government from an elective monarchy in its unique Polish variant to a hereditary monarchy . This provision was intended to reduce the destructive , vying influences of foreign powers at each royal election . The royal dynasty was elective , and if it were to die out a new one would be chosen by " the Nation " . The king held the throne " by the grace of God and the will of the Nation " , and " all authority derives from the will of the Nation . " The institution of pacta conventa was preserved . On Stanisław August 's death the Polish throne would become hereditary and pass to Frederick Augustus I of Saxony of the House of Wettin , which had provided Poland 's two most recent elective kings before Stanisław August . This provision was contingent upon Frederic Augustus ' consent , but he declined when the offer was presented to him by Adam Czartoryski .
Discussed in Article VIII , the judiciary was separated from the two other branches of the government , and was to be served by elective judges . Courts of first instance existed in each voivodeship and were in constant session , with judges elected by the regional sejmik assemblies . Appellate tribunals were established for the provinces , based on the reformed Crown Tribunal and Lithuanian Tribunal . The Sejm elected from its deputies the judges for the Sejm court , a precursor to the modern State Tribunal of Poland . Referendary courts were established in each province to hear the cases of the peasantry . Municipal courts , described in the law on towns , complemented this system .
Article IX covered procedures for regency , which should be taken up jointly by the council of the Guardians , headed by the Queen , or in her absence by the Primate . Article X stressed the importance of education of royal children and tasked the Commission of National Education with this responsibility . The last article of the constitution , Article XI , concerned the national standing army . Said army was defined as a " defensive force " dedicated " solely to the nation 's defense " . The army was to be increased in strength to 100 @,@ 000 men .
To further enhance the Commonwealth 's integration and security , the constitution abolished the erstwhile union of Poland and Lithuania in favor of a unitary state . Its full establishment , supported by Stanisław August and Kołlątaj , was opposed by many Lithuanian deputies . As a compromise , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania received numerous privileges guaranteeing its continued existence . Related acts included the Deklaracja Stanów Zgromadzonych ( Declaration of the Assembled Estates ) of May 5 , 1791 , confirming the Government Act adopted two days earlier , and the Zaręczenie Wzajemne Obojga Narodów ( Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations , i.e. , of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ) of October 22 , 1791 , affirming the unity and indivisibility of Poland and the Grand Duchy within a single state and their equal representation in state @-@ governing bodies . The Reciprocal Guarantee strengthened the Polish – Lithuanian union while keeping many federal aspects of the state intact .
The Constitution of the 3rd May was also translated into Lithuanian , that marked the significant change in the upper society way of thinking , marked the efforts of the modernization of the State .
The Constitution remained to the last a work in progress . The provisions of the Government Act were detailed in a number of laws passed in May and June 1791 : on sejm courts ( two acts of May 13 ) , the Guardians of the Laws ( June 1 ) , the national police commission ( a ministry , June 17 ) and municipal administration ( June 24 ) . The constitution included provisions for amendments , which were to be dealt with by an extraordinary Sejm held every 25 years . Its co @-@ author Hugo Kołłątaj announced that work was underway on " an economic constitution ... guaranteeing all rights of property [ and ] securing protection and honor to all manner of labor ... " . A third planned basic law was mentioned by Kołłątaj ; a " moral constitution " , most likely a Polish analog to the United States Bill of Rights and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen . The constitution called for the preparation of a new civil and criminal code , tentatively called the Stanisław August Code . The King also planned a reform improving the situation of the Jews .
= = Aftermath : war and the final two partitions = =
The constitution remained in effect for little over a year before being overthrown by Russian armies allied with conservative Polish nobility in the Polish – Russian War of 1792 , also known as the War in Defense of the Constitution . With the wars between Turkey and Russia and Sweden and Russia having ended , Empress Catherine was furious over the adoption of the document , which she believed threatened Russian influence in Poland . Russia had viewed Poland as a de facto protectorate . " The worst possible news have arrived from Warsaw : the Polish king has become almost sovereign " was the reaction of one of Russia 's chief foreign policy authors , Alexander Bezborodko , when he learned of the new constitution . The contacts of Polish reformers with the Revolutionary French National Assembly were seen by Poland 's neighbors as evidence of a revolutionary conspiracy and a threat to the absolute monarchies . The Prussian statesman Ewald von Hertzberg expressed the fears of European conservatives : " The Poles have given the coup de grâce to the Prussian monarchy by voting a constitution " , elaborating that a strong Commonwealth would likely demand the return of the lands Prussia acquired in the First Partition .
Magnates who had opposed the constitution draft from the start , Franciszek Ksawery Branicki , Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki , Seweryn Rzewuski , and Szymon and Józef Kossakowski , asked Tsarina Catherine to intervene and restore their privileges — the Cardinal Laws abolished under the new statute . To that end these magnates formed the Targowica Confederation . The Confederation 's proclamation , prepared in St. Petersburg in January 1792 , criticized the constitution for contributing to " contagion of democratic ideas " following " the fatal examples set in Paris " . It asserted that " The parliament ... has broken all fundamental laws , swept away all liberties of the gentry and on the third of May 1791 turned into a revolution and a conspiracy . " The Confederates declared an intention to overcome this revolution . We " can do nothing but turn trustingly to Tsarina Catherine , a distinguished and fair empress , our neighboring friend and ally " , who " respects the nation 's need for well @-@ being and always offers it a helping hand " , they wrote .
Russian armies entered Poland and Lithuania , starting the Polish – Russian War of 1792 . The Sejm voted to increase the army of the Commonwealth to 100 @,@ 000 men , but owing to insufficient time and funds this number was never achieved and soon abandoned even as a goal . The Polish King and the reformers could field only a 37 @,@ 000 @-@ man army , many of them untested recruits . This army , under the command of Józef Poniatowski and Tadeusz Kościuszko , defeated or fought to a draw the Russians on several occasions , but in the end , a defeat loomed inevitable . Despite Polish requests , Prussia refused to honor its alliance obligations . Stanisław August 's attempts at negotiations with Russia proved futile . As the front lines kept shifting to the west and in July 1792 Warsaw was threatened with siege by the Russians , the King came to believe that victory was impossible against the numerically superior enemy , and that surrender was the only alternative to total defeat . Having received assurances from the Russian ambassador Yakov Bulgakov that no territorial changes will occur , the Guardians of the Laws cabinet voted 8 : 4 to surrender . On July 24 , 1792 , King Stanisław August Poniatowski joined the Targowica Confederation , as the Empress had demanded . The Polish Army disintegrated .
Many reform leaders , believing their cause was for now lost , went into self @-@ imposed exile . Some hoped that Stanisław August would be able to negotiate an acceptable compromise with the Russians , as he had done in the past . But the King had not saved the Commonwealth and neither had the Targowica Confederates , who governed the country for a short while . To their surprise , the Grodno Sejm , bribed or intimidated by the Russian troops , enacted the Second Partition of Poland . On November 23 , 1793 , it concluded its deliberations under duress , annulling the constitution and acceding to the Second Partition . Russia took 250 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 97 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , while Prussia took 58 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 22 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The Commonwealth now comprised no more than 215 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 83 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . What was left of the Commonwealth was merely a small buffer state with a puppet king , and Russian garrisons keeping an eye on the reduced Polish army .
For a year and a half , Polish patriots waited while planning an insurrection . On March 24 , 1794 in Kraków , Tadeusz Kościuszko declared what has come to be known as the Kościuszko Uprising . On May 7 , he issued the Proclamation of Połaniec ( Uniwersał Połaniecki ) , granting freedom to the peasants and ownership of land to all who fought in the insurrection . Revolutionary tribunals administered summary justice to those deemed traitors to the Commonwealth . After initial victories at the Battle of Racławice ( April 4 ) , the capture of Warsaw ( April 18 ) and the Wilno ( April 22 ) — the Uprising was crushed when the forces of Russia , Austria and Prussia joined in a military intervention . Historians consider the Uprising 's defeat to have been a foregone conclusion in face of the superiority in numbers and resources of the three invading powers . The defeat of Kościuszko 's forces led in 1795 to the third and final partition of the Commonwealth .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historical significance = = =
The constitution has been both idealized and criticized for either not going far enough or for being too radical . As it remained in force for only 18 months and 3 weeks , its influence was in any case limited . For generations , the memory of the constitution — recognized by political scientists as a progressive document for its time — helped keep alive Polish aspirations for an independent and just society , and continued to inform the efforts of its authors ' descendants . Bronisław Dembiński , a Polish constitutional scholar , stated a century later that , " The miracle of the Constitution did not save the state but did save the nation . " In Poland it is mythologized , and viewed as a national symbol and the culmination of enlightenment in Polish history and culture . In the words of two of its co @-@ authors , Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj , it was " the last will and testament of the | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
chariot 's wheels allowed a wooden figurine ( in the shape of a Chinese state minister ) to constantly point to the south , hence its name . The Song Shu ( c . AD 500 ) records that Zhang Heng re @-@ invented it from a model used in the Zhou Dynasty era , but the violent collapse of the Han Dynasty unfortunately did not allow it to be preserved . Whether Zhang Heng invented it or not , Ma Jun ( 200 – 265 ) succeeded in creating the chariot in the following century .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Science and technology = = =
Zhang Heng 's mechanical inventions influenced later Chinese inventors such as Yi Xing , Zhang Sixun , Su Song , and Guo Shoujing . Su Song directly named Zhang 's water @-@ powered armillary sphere as the inspiration for his 11th @-@ century clock tower . The cosmic model of nine points of Heaven corresponding with nine regions of earth conceived in the work of the scholar @-@ official Chen Hongmou ( 1696 – 1771 ) followed in the tradition of Zhang 's book Spiritual Constitution of the Universe . The seismologist John Milne , who created the modern seismograph in 1876 alongside Thomas Gray and James A. Ewing at the Imperial College of Engineering in Tokyo , commented in 1886 on Zhang Heng 's contributions to seismology . The historian Joseph Needham emphasized his contributions to pre @-@ modern Chinese technology , stating that Zhang was noted even in his day for being able to " make three wheels rotate as if they were one . " More than one scholar has described Zhang as a polymath . However , some scholars also point out that Zhang 's writing lacks concrete scientific theories . Comparing Zhang with his contemporary , Ptolemy ( 83 – 161 ) of Roman Egypt , Jin Guantao , Fan Hongye , and Liu Qingfeng state :
Based on the theories of his predecessors , Zhang Heng systematically developed the celestial sphere theory . An armillary constructed on the basis of his hypotheses bears a remarkable similarity to Ptolemy 's earth @-@ centered theory . However , Zhang Heng did not definitely propose a theoretical model like Ptolemy 's earth @-@ centered one . It is astonishing that the celestial model Zhang Heng constructed was almost a physical model of Ptolemy 's earth @-@ centered theory . Only a single step separates the celestial globe from the earth @-@ centered theory , but Chinese astronomers never took that step .
Here we can see how important the exemplary function of the primitive scientific structure is . In order to use the Euclidean system of geometry as a model for the development of astronomical theory , Ptolemy first had to select hypotheses which could serve as axioms . He naturally regarded circular motion as fundamental and then used the circular motion of deferents and epicycles in his earth @-@ centered theory . Although Zhang Heng understood that the sun , moon and planets move in circles , he lacked a model for a logically structured theory and so could not establish a corresponding astronomical theory . Chinese astronomy was most interested in extracting the algebraic features of planetary motion ( that is , the length of the cyclic periods ) to establish astronomical theories . Thus astronomy was reduced to arithmetic operations , extracting common multiples and divisors from the observed cyclic motions of the heavenly bodies .
= = = Poetic literature = = =
Zhang 's poetry was widely read during his life and after his death . In addition to the compilation of Xiao Tong mentioned above , the Eastern Wu official Xue Zong ( d . 237 ) wrote commentary on Zhang 's poems " Dongjing fu " and " Xijing fu " . The influential poet Tao Qian wrote that he admired the poetry of Zhang Heng for its " curbing extravagant diction and aiming at simplicity " , in regards to perceived tranquility and rectitude correlating with the simple but effective language of the poet . Tao wrote that both Zhang Heng and Cai Yong " avoided inflated language , aiming chiefly at simplicity " , and adding that their " compositions begin by giving free expression to their fancies but end on a note of quiet , serving admirably to restrain undisciplined and passionate nature " .
= = = Posthumous honors = = =
Zhang was given great honors in life and in death . The philosopher and poet Fu Xuan ( 217 – 278 ) of the Wei and Jin dynasties once lamented in an essay over the fact that Zhang Heng was never placed in the Ministry of Works . Writing highly of Zhang and the 3rd @-@ century mechanical engineer Ma Jun , Fu Xuan wrote , " Neither of them was ever an official of the Ministry of Works , and their ingenuity did not benefit the world . When ( authorities ) employ personnel with no regard to special talent , and having heard of genius neglect even to test it — is this not hateful and disastrous ? "
In honor of Zhang 's achievements in science and technology , his friend Cui Ziyu ( Cui Yuan ) wrote a memorial inscription on his burial stele , which has been preserved in the Guwen yuan . Cui stated , " [ Zhang Heng 's ] mathematical computations exhausted ( the riddles of ) the heavens and the earth . His inventions were comparable even to those of the Author of Change . The excellence of his talent and the splendour of his art were one with those of the gods . " The minor official Xiahou Zhan ( 243 – 291 ) of the Wei Dynasty made an inscription for his own commemorative stele to be placed at Zhang Heng 's tomb . It read : " Ever since gentlemen have composed literary texts , none has been as skillful as the Master [ Zhang Heng ] in choosing his words well ... if only the dead could rise , oh I could then turn to him for a teacher ! "
Several things have been named after Zhang in modern times , including the lunar crater Chang Heng , the asteroid 1802 Zhang Heng , and the mineral Zhanghengite .
= = = Citation = = =
= Kawakita v. United States =
Kawakita v. United States , 343 U.S. 717 ( 1952 ) , [ 1 ] is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that a dual U.S. / Japanese citizen could be convicted of treason against the United States for acts performed in Japan during World War II . Tomoya Kawakita , born in California to Japanese parents , was in Japan when the war broke out and stayed in Japan until the war was over . After returning to the United States , he was arrested and charged with treason for having mistreated American prisoners of war . Kawakita claimed he could not be found guilty of treason because he had lost his U.S. citizenship while in Japan , but this argument was rejected by the courts ( including the Supreme Court ) , which ruled that he had in fact retained his U.S. citizenship during the war . Originally sentenced to death , Kawakita 's sentence was commuted to life imprisonment , and he was eventually released from prison , deported to Japan , and barred from ever returning to the United States .
= = Background = =
Tomoya Kawakita ( 川北 友弥 , Kawakita Tomoya ) was born in Calexico , California , on September 26 , 1921 , of Japanese @-@ born parents . He was born with U.S. citizenship due to his place of birth , and also Japanese nationality via his parents . After finishing high school in Calexico in 1939 , Kawakita traveled to Japan with his father ( a grocer and merchant ) . He remained in Japan and enrolled in Meiji University in 1941 . In 1943 , he registered officially as a Japanese national .
Kawakita was in Japan when the attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States and Japan into World War II . In 1943 , he took a job as an interpreter at a mining and metal processing plant which used Allied prisoners of war ( POWs ) as laborers . By early 1945 , the population of the POW camp included about four hundred captured American troops . After the end of the war , Kawakita renewed his U.S. passport , explaining away his having registered as a Japanese national by claiming he had acted under duress . He returned to the U.S. in 1946 and enrolled at the University of Southern California .
In October 1946 , a former POW saw Kawakita in a Los Angeles department store and recognized him from the war . He reported this encounter to the FBI , and in June 1947 , Kawakita was arrested and charged with multiple counts of treason arising from alleged abuse of American POWs .
= = Trial and appeal = =
At Kawakita 's trial , presided over by U.S. District Judge William C. Mathes , the defense conceded that Kawakita had acted abusively toward American POWs , but argued that his actions were relatively minor , and that in any event , they could not constitute treason against the United States because Kawakita was not a U.S. citizen at the time , having lost his U.S. citizenship when he confirmed his Japanese nationality in 1943 . The prosecution argued that Kawakita had known he was still a U.S. citizen and still owed allegiance to the country of his birth — citing the statements he had made to consular officials when applying for a new passport as evidence that he had never intended to give up his U.S. citizenship .
Judge Mathes 's instructed the jury that if they found that Kawakita had genuinely believed he was no longer a U.S. citizen , then he must be found not guilty of treason . During the course of their deliberations , the jury reported several times that they were hopelessly deadlocked , but the judge insisted each time that they continue trying to reach a unanimous verdict . In the end — on September 2 , 1948 — the jury found Kawakita guilty of eight of the thirteen counts of treason against him , and he was sentenced to death . As a consequence of his conviction for treason , Kawakita 's U.S. citizenship was also revoked . In passing sentence , Mathes said : " Reflection leads to the conclusion that the only worthwhile use for the life of a traitor , such as this defendant has proved to be , is to serve as an example to those of weak moral fiber who may hereafter be tempted to commit treason against the United States . "
Kawakita appealed to a three @-@ judge panel of the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals , which unanimously upheld the verdict and death sentence . Certiorari was granted by the United States Supreme Court , and oral arguments before the Supreme Court were heard on April 3 , 1952 .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
In a 4 – 3 decision issued on June 2 , 1952 , the Supreme Court upheld Kawakita 's treason conviction and death sentence . The Court 's opinion was written by Associate Justice William O. Douglas , joined by Associate Justices Stanley F. Reed , Robert H. Jackson , and Sherman Minton .
The Court 's majority held that the jury in Kawakita 's trial had been justified in concluding that he had not lost or given up his U.S. citizenship while he was in Japan during the war . The Court added that an American citizen owed allegiance to the United States , and could be found guilty of treason , no matter where he lived — even for actions committed in another country that also claimed him as a citizen . Further , given the flagrant nature of Kawakita 's actions , the majority found that the trial judge had not acted arbitrarily in imposing a death sentence .
= = = Dissent = = =
Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson authored a dissenting opinion , which was joined by Associate Justices Hugo Black and Harold H. Burton . The dissent concluded that " for over two years , [ Kawakita ] was consistently demonstrating his allegiance to Japan , not the United States . As a matter of law , he expatriated himself as well as that can be done . " On this basis , the dissenting justices would have reversed Kawakita 's treason conviction .
= = Subsequent developments = =
On October 29 , 1953 , President Dwight D. Eisenhower commuted Kawakita 's sentence to life imprisonment plus a $ 10 @,@ 000 fine . After the commutation of his sentence , Kawakita was transferred to the Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary . Ten years later , on October 24 , 1963 , President John F. Kennedy — in what would be one of his last official acts before his assassination — ordered Kawakita released from prison on the condition that he leave the United States and be banned from ever returning . Kawakita flew to Japan on December 13 , 1963 and reacquired Japanese citizenship upon his arrival . In 1978 , Kawakita sought permission to travel to the United States to visit his parents ' grave , but his efforts were unsuccessful . As of late 1993 , he was living quietly with relatives in Japan .
= Flexible @-@ fuel vehicles in Brazil =
The fleet of flexible @-@ fuel vehicles in Brazil is the largest in the world , and since their inception in 2003 , a total of 20 million flex fuel cars and light trucks have been manufactured in the country by June 2013 , and over 3 million flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles by October 2013 . Registrations of flex @-@ fuel autos and light trucks represented 87 @.@ 0 % of all passenger and light duty vehicles sold in 2012 , while flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles represented a 48 @.@ 2 % of the domestic motorcycle production in 2012 . There are over 80 flex car and light truck models available in the market manufactured by 14 major carmakers , and five flex @-@ fuel motorcycles models available as of December 2012 .
Brazilian flexible @-@ fuel vehicles are optimized to run on any mix of E20 @-@ E25 gasoline and up to 100 % hydrous ethanol fuel ( E100 ) . Flex vehicles in Brazil are built @-@ in with a small gasoline reservoir for cold starting the engine when temperatures drop below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . An improved flex motor generation was launched in 2009 which eliminated the need for the secondary gas tank .
According to two separate research studies conducted in 2009 , 65 % of the flex @-@ fuel registered vehicles regularly use ethanol fuel , and use climbs to 93 % of flex car owners in São Paulo , the main ethanol producer state where local taxes are lower , and prices are more competitive than gasoline . However , as a result of higher ethanol prices caused by the Brazilian ethanol industry crisis that began in 2009 , by November 2013 only 23 % flex @-@ fuel car owners were using ethanol regularly , down from 66 % in 2009 .
= = History = =
After the 1973 oil crisis , the Brazilian government made mandatory the use of ethanol blends with gasoline , and neat ethanol @-@ powered cars ( E100 only ) were launched to the market in 1979 , after testing with several prototypes developed by four carmakers . Brazilian carmakers modified gasoline engines to support ethanol characteristics and changes included compression ratio , amount of fuel injected , replacement of materials that would get corroded by the contact with ethanol , use of colder spark plugs suitable for dissipating heat due to higher flame temperatures , and an auxiliary cold @-@ start system that injects gasoline from a small tank in the engine compartment to help starting when cold .
Flexible @-@ fuel technology started being developed only by the end of the 1990s by Brazilian engineers and in March 2003 Volkswagen do Brasil launched in the market the Gol 1 @.@ 6 Total Flex , the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol .
= = Technology = =
The Brazilian flexible fuel car is built with an ethanol @-@ ready engine and one fuel tank for both fuels . The small gasoline reservoir for starting the engine with pure ethanol in cold weather , used in earlier ethanol @-@ only vehicles , was kept in the first generation of Brazilian flexible @-@ fuel cars , mainly for users of the central and southern regions , where winter temperatures normally drop below15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . An improved flex motor generation was launched in 2009 that allowed for the elimination of this secondary gas reservoir tank .
A key innovation in the Brazilian flex technology was avoiding the need for an additional dedicated sensor to monitor the ethanol @-@ gasoline mix , which made the first American M85 flex fuel vehicles too expensive . This was accomplished through the lambda probe , used to measure the quality of combustion in conventional engines , is also required to tell the engine control unit ( ECU ) which blend of gasoline and alcohol is being burned . This task is accomplished automatically through software developed by Brazilian engineers , called " Software Fuel Sensor " ( SFS ) , fed with data from the standard sensors already built @-@ in the vehicle . The technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Boschin 1994 , but was further improved and commercially implemented in 2003 by the Italian subsidiary of Magneti Marelli , located in Hortolândia , São Paulo . A similar fuel injection technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Delphi Automotive Systems , and it is called " Multifuel " , based on research conducted at its facility in Piracicaba , São Paulo . This technology allows the controller to regulate the amount of fuel injected and spark time , as fuel flow needs to be decreased and also self @-@ combustion needs to be avoided when gasoline is used because ethanol engines have compression ratio around 12 : 1 , too high for gasoline .
Brazilian flex engines are being designed with higher compression ratios , taking advantage of the higher ethanol blends and maximizing the benefits of the higher oxygen content of ethanol , resulting in lower emissions and improving fuel efficiency . The following table shows the evolution and improvement of the different generations of flex engines developed in Brazil .
Brazilian flex cars are capable of running on just hydrated ethanol ( E100 ) , or just on a blend of gasoline with 20 to 25 % anhydrous ethanol , or on any arbitrary combination of both fuels . Pure gasoline is no longer sold in the country because these high ethanol blends are mandatory since 1993 . Therefore , all Brazilian automakers have optimized flex vehicles to run with gasoline blends from E20 to E25 , so these FFVs are unable to run smoothly with pure gasoline with the exception of two models are specifically built with a flex @-@ fuel engine optimized to operate also with pure gasoline ( E0 ) , the Renault Clio Hi @-@ Flex and the Fiat Siena Tetrafuel .
The flexibility of Brazilian FFVs empowers the consumers to choose the fuel depending on current market prices . As ethanol fuel economy is lower than gasoline because of ethanol 's energy content is close to 34 % less per unit volume than gasoline , flex cars running on ethanol get a lower mileage than when running on pure gasoline . However , this effect is partially offset by the usually lower price per liter of ethanol fuel . As a rule of thumb , Brazilian consumers are frequently advised by the media to use more alcohol than gasoline in their mix only when ethanol prices are 30 % lower or more than gasoline , as ethanol price fluctuates heavily depending on the result of seasonal sugar cane harvests .
= = Production and market share = =
After the market launch of the Gol 1 @.@ 6 Total Flex , the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol , GM do Brasil followed three months later with the Chevrolet Corsa 1 @.@ 8 Flexpower , using an engine developed by a joint @-@ venture with Fiat called PowerTrain . As of July 2013 , the following 14 carmakers build and sell flexible fuel vehicles in Brazil : Citroën , Chery , Fiat , Ford , GM do Brasil ( Chevrolet ) , Honda , Hyundai , Kia Motors , Mitsubishi , Nissan , Peugeot , Renault , Toyota and Volkswagen .
Flexible fuel vehicles were 22 % of the new car sales in 2004 , 73 % in 2005 , 87 @.@ 6 % in July 2008 , and reached a record 94 % in August 2009 . The production of flex @-@ fuel cars and light commercial vehicles since 2003 reached 10 million vehicles in March 2010 , and 15 million in January 2012 . Registrations of flex @-@ fuel cars and light trucks represented 87 @.@ 0 % of all passenger and light duty vehicles sold in the country in 2012 . Production passed the 20 million @-@ unit mark in June 2013 . By the end of 2014 , flex @-@ fuel cars represented 54 % of the Brazilian registered stock of light @-@ duty vehicles , while gasoline only vehicles represented 34 @.@ 3 % . As of June 2015 , flex @-@ fuel light @-@ duty vehicle sales totaled 25 @.@ 5 million units .
The rapid success of flex vehicles was made possible by the existence of 33 @,@ 000 filling stations with at least one ethanol pump available by 2006 , a heritage of the early Pró @-@ Álcool ethanol program . These facts , together with the mandatory use of E25 blend of gasoline throughout the country , allowed Brazil in 2008 to achieve more than 50 % of fuel consumption in the gasoline market from sugar cane @-@ based ethanol .
According to two separate research studies conducted in 2009 , at the national level 65 % of the flex @-@ fuel registered vehicles regularly used ethanol fuel , and use climbed to 93 % in São Paulo , the main ethanol producer state where local taxes are lower , and E100 prices at the pump are usually more competitive than gasoline . However , as a result of higher ethanol prices caused by the Brazilian ethanol industry crisis that began in 2009 , combined with government subsidies set to keep gasoline price lower than the international market value , by November 2013 only 23 % flex @-@ fuel car owners were using ethanol regularly , down from 66 % in 2009 .
= = Latest developments = =
= = = Flex @-@ fuel motorcycles = = =
The latest innovation within the Brazilian flexible @-@ fuel technology , is the development of flex @-@ fuel motorcycles . In 2007 Magneti Marelli presented the first motorcycle with flex technology , adapted on a Kasinski Seta 125 , and based on the Software Fuel Sensor ( SFS ) the firm developed for flex @-@ fuel cars in Brazil . Delphi Automotive Systems also presented in 2007 its Multifuel injection technology for motorcycles . Besides the flexibility in the choice of fuels , a main objective of the fuel @-@ flex motorcycles is to reduce CO2 emissions by 20 percent , and savings in fuel consumption in the order of 5 % to 10 % are expected . AME Amazonas Motocicletas announced that sales of its motorcycle AME GA ( G stands for gasoline and A for alcohol ) were scheduled for 2009 , but the first flex @-@ fuel motorcycle was actually launched by Honda in March 2009 . Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazônia , the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US $ 2 @,@ 700 .
Because the CG 150 Titan Mix does not have a secondary gas tank for a cold start like the Brazilian flex cars do , the tank must have at least 20 % of gasoline to avoid start up problems at temperatures below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . The motorcycle ’ s panel includes a gauge to warn the driver about the actual ethanol @-@ gasoline mix in the storage tank . In September 2009 , Honda launched a second flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle , the on @-@ off road NXR 150 Bros Mix . During the first eight months after its market launch the CG 150 Titan Mix sold 139 @,@ 059 motorcycles , capturing a 10 @.@ 6 % market share , and ranking second in sales of new motorcycles in the Brazilian market by October 2009 , and by year 's end , both Honda flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles sold a total of 183 @,@ 375 units , representing an 11 @.@ 4 % market share of the Brazilian new motorcycle sales in that year . Cumulative sales of both flex fuel motorcycles reached 515 @,@ 726 units in 2010 , and sales in that year represented 18 @.@ 15 % of all motorcycle produced .
Two other flex @-@ fuel motorcycles manufactured by Honda were launched in October 2010 and January 2011 , the GC 150 FAN and the Honda BIZ 125 Flex . During 2011 a total of 956 @,@ 117 flex @-@ fuel motorcycles were produced , raising its market share to 56 @.@ 7 % . Cumulative production of the four available flex fuel models since 2009 reached 1 @.@ 48 million units in December 2011 . The 2 million mark was reached in August 2012 . Flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle production passed the 3 million @-@ unit milestone in October 2013 , and the 4 million mark in March 2015 .
= = = Next generation of flex engines = = =
The Brazilian subsidiaries of Magneti Marelli , Delphi and Bosch have developed and announced the introduction in 2009 of a new flex engine generation that eliminates the need for the secondary gasoline tank by warming the ethanol fuel during starting , and allowing flex vehicles to do a normal cold start at temperatures as low as − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) , the lowest temperature expected anywhere in the Brazilian territory . Another improvement is the reduction of fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions , between 10 % to 15 % as compared to flex motors sold in 2008 . In March 2009 Volkswagen do Brasil launched the Polo E @-@ Flex , the first flex fuel model without an auxiliary tank for cold start . The Flex Start system used by the Polo was developed by Bosch .
= = = Direct injection = = =
In 2013 , Ford launched the first flex fuel car with direct injection : the Focus 2 @.@ 0 Duratec Direct Flex .
= = List of currently produced flexible @-@ fuel vehicles = =
The following is a list of flex @-@ fuel automobiles and light @-@ duty vehicles available in Brazil as of December 2013 .
BMW
BMW 3 Series ( F30 ) ActiveFlex , BMW X1 ActiveFlex .
Chevrolet
Astra , Blazer , Celta , Classic , Corsa , Montana , Meriva , Prisma , S10 , Vectra , Zafira .
Citroën
C3 , C4 , C4 Pallas , Xsara Picasso .
Fiat
Doblò , Linea , Idea , Mille , Palio , Palio Fire , Palio Weekend , Punto , Siena , Stilo , Strada , Uno .
Ford
Courier , EcoSport , Fiesta , Focus , Fusion , Ka , Ford Ranger CD .
Honda
City , Civic , Fit , CR @-@ V , and four motorcycles CG Titan Mix , NXR 150 Bros Mix , GC 150 Fan Flex and the BIZ 125 Flex .
Hyundai
Hyundai HB20
Kia Motors
Kia Soul , Picanto , Soul , Sportage
Mitsubishi
Pajero TR4 , Pajero Sport , Pajero L200 Triton ,
Nissan
Livina , Sentra , Tiida
Peugeot
206 , 307
Renault
Clio , Duster , Fluence , Kangoo , Grand Tour , Mégane , Scénic , Logan , Sandero , Symbol .
Toyota
Toyota Corolla , Etios
Volkswagen
Bora , CrossFox , Fox , Gol , Golf , Kombi , Parati , Polo , Saveiro , SpaceFox , Up , Voyage .
= Rachel Chiesley , Lady Grange =
Rachel Chiesley , usually known as Lady Grange ( 1679 – 1745 ) , was the wife of Lord Grange , a Scottish lawyer with Jacobite sympathies . After 25 years of marriage and nine children , the Granges separated acrimoniously . When Lady Grange produced letters that she claimed were evidence of his treasonable plottings against the Hanoverian government in London , her husband had her kidnapped in 1732 . She was incarcerated in various remote locations on the western seaboard of Scotland , including the Monach Isles , Skye and the distant islands of St Kilda .
Lady Grange 's father was convicted of murder and she is known to have had a violent temper ; initially her absence seems to have caused little comment . News of her plight eventually reached her home town of Edinburgh however , and an unsuccessful rescue attempt was undertaken by her lawyer , Thomas Hope of Rankeillor . She died in captivity , after being in effect imprisoned for 13 years . Her life has been remembered in poetry , prose and plays .
= = Early years = =
Rachel Chiesley was one of ten children born to John Chiesley of Dalry and Margaret Nicholson . The marriage was unhappy and Margaret took her husband to court for aliment . She was awarded 1 @,@ 700 merks by Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath , the Lord President of the Court of Session . Furious with the result , John Chiesley shot Lockhart dead on the High Street of Edinburgh as he walked home from church on Easter Sunday , 31 March 1689 . The assailant made no attempt to escape and confessed at his trial , held before the Lord Provost the next day . Two days later he was taken from the Tolbooth to the Mercat Cross on the High Street . His right hand was cut off before he was hanged , and the pistol he had used for the murder was placed round his neck . Rachel Chiesley 's birthday is unknown but she was baptised on 4 February 1679 and was probably born shortly before then , making her about ten years old at the time of her father 's execution .
= = Marriage and children = =
The date of Chiesley 's marriage to James Erskine is uncertain : based on the text of a letter she wrote much later in life , it may have been in 1707 when she was about 28 . Erskine was the younger son of Charles Erskine , Earl of Mar and in 1689 his older brother John Erskine , became Earl of Mar on their father 's death . These were politically troubled times ; the Jacobite cause was still popular in many parts of Scotland , and the younger Earl was nicknamed " Bobbing John " for his varied manoeuverings . After playing a prominent role in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715 he was stripped of his title , sent into exile , and never returned to Scotland .
The young Lady Grange has been described as a " wild beauty " , and it is likely the marriage only took place after she became pregnant . This uncertain background notwithstanding , Lord and Lady Grange led a superficially uneventful domestic life . They divided their time between a town house at the foot of Niddry 's Wynd off the High Street in Edinburgh and an estate at Preston ( near Prestonpans in East Lothian ) , where Lady Grange was the factor ( or supervisor ) for a time . Her husband was a successful lawyer , becoming Lord Justice Clerk in 1710 , and the marriage produced nine children :
Charlie , born August 1709 .
Johnie , born March 1711 , died age two months .
James , born March 1713 . He married his uncle " Bobbing " John 's daughter Frances . Their son John eventually became Earl of Mar after the title was restored .
Mary , born July 1714 , who married John Keith the 3rd Earl of Kintore in August 1729 .
Meggie , who died young in May 1717 .
Fannie , born December 1716 .
Jeannie , born in December 1717 .
Rachel .
John .
In addition , Lady Grange miscarried twice and one of the above children is known to have died in 1721 .
= = Acrimony and separation = =
There was evidently an element of discord in the marriage that eventually became public knowledge . In late 1717 or early 1718 , Erskine received warnings from a friend that he had enemies in the government . At about the same time one of the children 's tutors recorded in his diary that Lady Grange was " imperious with an unreasonable temper " . Her outbursts were evidently also capable of frightening her younger daughters and after Lady Grange 's kidnapping , no action was ever taken on her behalf by any of her children , the eldest of whom would have been in their early twenties when she was abducted . Macaulay writes that " [ t ] he calm acceptance by the family of their mother 's disappearance would persuade many that it need not be a matter of concern to them either " . This restraint may have been influenced by the fact their mother had previously disinherited all of them when the youngest were still infants , an outcome described as " unnatural " by the Sobieski Stuarts , two English brothers who claimed descent from Prince Charles Edward Stuart .
As the Erskines ' marriage trouble increased , Lady Grange 's behaviour became increasingly unpredictable . In 1730 , the factorship of the Preston estate was removed from her , further increasing her angst . Her discovery of an affair her husband was conducting with coffeehouse owner Fanny Lindsay can only have made matters worse . In April of that year , she threatened suicide and to run naked through the streets of Edinburgh . She may have kept a razor under her pillow and attempted to intimidate her husband by reminding him whose daughter she was . On 27 July , she signed a formal letter of separation from James Erskine but things did not improve . For example , she barracked her husband in the street and in church and he and one of their children were forced to hide from her in a tavern for two hours or more on one occasion . She intercepted one of his letters and took it to the authorities alleging it was evidence of treason . She is also said to have stood outside the house in Niddry 's Wynd , waving the letter and shouting obscenities on at least two occasions . In January 1732 she booked a stagecoach to London and James Erskine and his friends , afraid her presence there would cause them further trouble , decided it was time to take decisive action .
= = Kidnap = =
Lady Grange was abducted from her home on the night of 22 January 1732 by two Highland noblemen , Roderick MacLeod of Berneray and Macdonald of Morar , and several of their men . After a bloody struggle , she was taken out of the city in a sedan chair and then on horseback to Wester Polmaise near Falkirk , where she was held until 15 August on the ground floor of an uninhabited tower . She was by then over fifty years old .
From there she was taken west by Peter Fraser ( a page of Lord Lovat ) and his men through Perthshire . At Balquhidder , according to MacGregor tradition , she was entertained in the great hall , provided with a meal of venison , and slept on a heather bed covered with deerskins . The existence of St Fillan 's Pool on the River Fillan near Tyndrum would have provided useful cover for her captors : it was regularly used as a cure for insanity , which would have helped to explain her presence to the curious . The details of the onward route from there are not clear but it is likely she was taken through Glen Coe to Loch Ness and then through Glen Garry to Loch Hourn on the west coast . After a short delay she was then put on board ship to the Monach Isles . The difficulty of her position must have quickly become evident . She was in the company of men whose loyalty was to clan chieftains rather than the law , and few of them spoke any English at all . Their native Gaelic would have been incomprehensible to her , although as her years of captivity wore on she slowly learned something of the language . She complained that young members of the local aristocracy visited her as she waited by the shores of Loch Hourn , but that " they came with design to see me , but not to relieve me " .
= = Monach Isles = =
The Monach Isles , also known as Heisker , lie 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) west of North Uist in the Outer Hebrides , an archipelago itself lying off the western coast of Scotland . The main islands are Ceann Ear , Ceann Iar and Shivinish , which are all linked at low tide and have a combined area of 357 hectares ( 880 acres ) . The islands are low @-@ lying and fertile , and their population in the 18th century may have been about 100 . At the time they were owned by Sir Alexander MacDonald of Sleat , and Lady Grange was housed with his tacksman , another Alexander MacDonald , and his wife . When she complained about her condition , she was told by her host that he had no orders to provide her with either clothes , or food other than the normal fare he and his wife were used to . She lived in isolation for two years , not even being told the name of the island where she was living , and it took her some time to find out who her landlord was . She was there until June 1734 , when John and Norman MacLeod from North Uist arrived to move her on . They told her they were taking her to Orkney , but instead set sail for the Atlantic outliers of St Kilda .
= = St Kilda = =
One of the more poignant ruins on the island of Hirta in the St Kilda archipelago is the site of Lady Grange 's House . The " house " is in fact a large cleit or stone storage hut in the Village meadows that is said to resemble " a giant Christmas pudding " . Some authorities believe it was rebuilt on the site of a larger blackhouse where she lived during her incarceration , although in 1838 the grandson of a St Kildan who had assisted her quoted the dimensions as being " 20 feet by 10 feet " ( 7 metres by 3 metres ) , which is roughly the size of the cleit .
Hirta is more remote than the Monach Isles , lying 66 kilometres ( 41 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Benbecula in the North Atlantic Ocean and the predominant theme of life on St Kilda was isolation . When Martin Martin visited the islands in 1697 , the only means of making the journey was by open longboat , which could take several days and nights of rowing and sailing across the open ocean and was next to impossible in autumn and winter . In all seasons , waves up to 12 metres ( 40 ft ) high lash the beach of Village Bay , and even on calmer days landing on the slippery rocks can be hazardous . Cut off by distance and weather , the natives knew little of the rest of the world .
Lady Grange 's circumstances were correspondingly more uncomfortable and no @-@ one on the island spoke any English . She described Hirta as " a viled neasty , stinking poor Isle " and insisted that " I was in great miserie in the Husker but I 'm ten times worse and worse here " . Her lodgings were very primitive . They had an earthen floor , rain ran down the walls and in winter snow had to be scooped out in handfuls from behind the bed . She spent her days asleep , drank as much whisky as was available to her , and wandered the shore at night bemoaning her fate . During her sojourn on Hirta she wrote two letters relating her story , which eventually reached Edinburgh . One , dated 20 January 1738 , found its way to Thomas Hope of Rankeillor , her lawyer , in December 1740 . Some sources state that the first letter had been hidden in some yarn that was collected as part of a rent payment and taken to Inverness and thence to Edinburgh . The idea of the letter 's concealment in yarn is also mentioned by James Boswell in his Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides ( 1785 ) . However , Macaulay states that this method for the delivery of the letter ( s ) has " no basis in reality " and that both letters were smuggled off Hirta by Roderick MacLennan , the island 's minister . Whatever its route , the letter caused a sensation in Edinburgh although James Erskine 's friends managed to block attempts by Hope to obtain a warrant to search St Kilda .
In the second letter , addressed to Dr Carlyle , minister of Inveresk , Lady Grange writes bitterly of the roles of Lord Lovat and Roderick MacLeod in her capture and bemoans being described by Sir Alexander MacDonald as " the cargo " . Hope had known of Lady Grange 's removal from Edinburgh but had assumed she would be well cared for . Appalled by her condition , he paid for a sloop with twenty armed men on board to go to St Kilda at his own expense . It had already set sail by 14 February 1741 , but it arrived too late . Lady Grange had been removed from the island , probably in the summer of 1740 .
After the Battle of Culloden in 1746 , it was rumoured that Prince Charles Edward Stuart and some of his senior Jacobite aides had escaped to St Kilda . An expedition was launched , and in due course British soldiers were ferried ashore to Hirta . They found a deserted village , as the St Kildans , fearing pirates , had fled to caves to the west . When they were persuaded to come down , the soldiers discovered that the isolated natives knew nothing of the Prince and had never heard of King George II either . Paradoxically , Lady Grange 's letters and her resultant evacuation from the island may have prevented her being found by this expedition .
= = Skye = =
By 1740 Lady Grange was 61 years old . Removed from St Kilda in haste , she was transported to various locations in the Gàidhealtachd including possibly Assynt in the far north west of mainland Scotland and the Outer Hebridean locations of Harris and Uist before arriving at Waternish on Skye in 1742 . Local folklore suggests she may have been kept for 18 months in a cave either at Idrigill on the Trotternish peninsula or on the Duirinish coast near the stacks known as a " Macleod 's Maidens " . She was certainly later housed with Rory MacNeil at Trumpan in Waternish . She died there on 12 May 1745 , and MacNeil had her " decently interred " the following week in the local churchyard . For reasons unknown a second funeral was held at nearby Duirinish some time thereafter , where a large crowd gathered to watch the burial of a coffin filled with turf and stones .
It is sometimes stated that this was her third funeral , Lord Grange having conducted one in Edinburgh shortly after her kidnapping . However , this story first appears in writing in 1845 and no other evidence of its veracity has emerged .
= = Motivations = =
Lady Grange 's story is a remarkable one and various issues have been raised by Macaulay ( 2009 ) as requiring explanation . These include : what drove James Erskine to these extraordinary lengths ? ; why were so many individuals willing to participate in this illegal and dangerous kidnapping of his wife ? ; and how was she held for so long without rescue ?
The first and second of these issues are related . Erskine 's brother had already been exiled for his support of the Jacobites . Simon Fraser , Lord Lovat , a key figure in Lady Grange 's abduction was himself executed for his part in the Jacobite Rising of 1745 . No concrete evidence of Erskine 's plotting against the crown or government has ever emerged , but any threat of such exposure , whether based in fact or fantasy would certainly have been taken very seriously by all concerned . It was thus relatively easy for Erskine to find accomplices amongst the Highland gentry . In addition to Simon Fraser and Alexander Macdonald of Sleat , the Sobieski Stuarts listed Norman MacLeod of Dunvegan — who became known as " The Wicked Man " — as the senior accomplices . Erskine himself was a " singular compound of good and bad qualities " . In addition to his legal career he was elected to Parliament in 1734 and he survived the vicissitudes of the Jacobite rebellions unscathed . He was a philanderer and over @-@ partial to claret , whilst at the same time deeply religious . This last quality would have been instrumental in any decision not to have his wife assassinated , and he did not marry his long @-@ term partner Fanny Lindsay until after he had heard of the first Lady Grange 's death .
The reason no successful rescue was ever effected lies in the remoteness of the Hebrides from the anglophone world in the early 18th century . No reliable naval charts of the area became available until 1776 . Without local assistance and knowledge , finding a captive in this wilderness would have required a significant expeditionary force . Nonetheless , the lack of action taken by Edinburgh society in general and her children in particular to retrieve one of their own is remarkable . The Kirk hierarchy , for example , made no attempt to contact her or convey news of her condition to the capital , yet they could easily have done so . Whatever the call of morality and natural justice may have suggested , John Chiesley 's daughter evidently did not command a sympathetic audience in her home town .
In her account of the affair , Margaret Macaulay explores 18th @-@ century attitudes to women in general as a significant factor and notes that although numerous documents from the hands of Lord Grange 's friends and supporters are still extant , not a single contemporary female view of the affair has survived , save that of Lady Grange herself . Divorces were complex and divorced mothers were rarely given custody of children . Furthermore , Lord Grange 's powerful friends in both the church and the legal profession might have made this a risky endeavour . Something of James Erskine 's attitude to these matters may perhaps be gleaned from the fact that for his first speech in the House of Commons he chose to oppose the repeal of various laws relating to witchcraft . Even in his day this appeared unduly conservative and his perorations were met with laughter , which effectively ended his political career before it had begun . Writing in the mid @-@ 19th century the Sobieski Stuarts told the tale from the perspective of the descendants of the Highland aristocrats who had been responsible for Chiesley 's kidnap and imprisonment . They emphasise Lady Grange 's personal shortcomings , although to modern sensibilities these hardly seem good reasons for a judge and Member of Parliament and his wealthy friends to organise an illegal kidnapping and life sentence .
As for Lady Grange herself , her vituperative outbursts and indulgence in alcohol were clearly important factors in her undoing . Alexander Carlyle described her as " stormy and outrageous " , whilst noting that it was in her husband 's interests to exaggerate the nature of her violent emotions . Macaulay ( 2009 ) takes the view that the ultimate cause of her troubles was her reaction to her husband 's infidelity . In an attempt to end his relationship with Mrs Lindsay , ( who owned a coffee house in Haymarket , Edinburgh ) , Rachel threatened to expose him as a Jacobite sympathiser . Perhaps she did not understand the magnitude of this accusation and the danger it posed to her husband and his friends , or how ruthless their instincts of self @-@ preservation were likely to be .
= = In literature and the arts = =
Rachel Chiesley 's tale inspired a romantic poem called " Epistle from Lady Grange to Edward D — Esq " written by William Erskine in 1798 and a 1905 novel entitled The Lady of Hirta , a Tale of the Isles by W. C. Mackenzie . Edwin Morgan also published a sonnet in 1984 called " Lady Grange on St Kilda " . The Straw Chair is a two @-@ act play by Sue Glover , also about the time on St Kilda , first performed in Edinburgh in 1988 . Burdalane is a play about these same events by Judith Adams performed in 1996 at the Battersea Arts Centre , London and on BBC Radio 4 .
Boswell and Johnson discussed the subject in their 1773 tour of the Hebrides . Boswell wrote : " After dinner to @-@ day , we talked of the extraordinary fact of Lady Grange 's being sent to St Kilda , and confined there for several years , without any means of relief . Dr Johnson said , if M 'Leod would let it be known that he had such a place for naughty ladies , he might make it a very profitable island . "
There are portraits of both James Erskine and Rachel Chiesley in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh , by William Aikman and Sir John Baptiste de Medina respectively . When the writer Margaret Macaulay sought them out she discovered they had been placed together in the same cold store .
= Bad Pharma =
Bad Pharma : How Drug Companies Mislead Doctors and Harm Patients is a book by British physician and academic Ben Goldacre about the pharmaceutical industry , its relationship with the medical profession , and the extent to which it controls academic research into its own products . It was published in the UK in September 2012 by the Fourth Estate imprint of HarperCollins , and in the United States in February 2013 by Faber and Faber .
Goldacre argues in the book that " the whole edifice of medicine is broken , " because the evidence on which it is based is systematically distorted by the pharmaceutical industry . He writes that the industry finances most of the clinical trials into its own products and much of doctors ' continuing education , that clinical trials are often conducted on small groups of unrepresentative subjects and negative data is routinely withheld , and that apparently independent academic papers may be planned and even ghostwritten by pharmaceutical companies or their contractors , without disclosure . Describing the situation as a " murderous disaster , " he makes suggestions for action by patients ' groups , physicians , academics and the industry itself .
Responding to the book 's publication , the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry issued a statement in 2012 arguing that the examples the book offers were historical , that the concerns had been addressed , that the industry is among the most regulated in the world , and that it discloses all data in accordance with international standards .
In January 2013 Goldacre joined the Cochrane Collaboration , British Medical Journal and others in setting up AllTrials , a campaign calling for the results of all past and current clinical trials to be reported . The British House of Commons Public Accounts Committee expressed concern in January 2014 that drug companies were still only publishing around 50 percent of clinical @-@ trial results .
= = Author = =
After graduating in 1995 with a first @-@ class honours degree in medicine from Magdalen College , Oxford , Goldacre obtained an MA in philosophy from King 's College London , then undertook clinical training at UCL Medical School , qualifying as a medical doctor in 2000 and as a psychiatrist in 2005 . As of 2014 he was Wellcome Research Fellow in Epidemiology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine .
Goldacre is known for his " Bad Science " column in the Guardian , which he has written since 2003 , and for his first book , Bad Science ( 2008 ) . This unpicked the claims of several forms of alternative medicine , and criticized certain physicians and the media for a lack of critical thinking . It also looked at the MMR vaccine controversy , AIDS denialism , the placebo effect and the misuse of statistics . Goldacre was recognized in June 2013 by Health Service Journal as having done " more than any other single individual to shine a light on how science and research gets distorted by the media , politicians , quacks , PR and the pharmaceutical industry . "
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Introduction = = =
Goldacre writes in the introduction of Bad Pharma that he aims to defend the following :
Drugs are tested by the people who manufacture them , in poorly designed trials , on hopelessly small numbers of weird , unrepresentative patients , and analysed using techniques which are flawed by design , in such a way that they exaggerate the benefits of treatments . Unsurprisingly , these trials tend to produce results that favour the manufacturer . When trials throw up results that companies don 't like , they are perfectly entitled to hide them from doctors and patients , so we only ever see a distorted picture of any drug 's true effects . Regulators see most of the trial data , but only from early on in a drug 's life , and even then they don 't give this data to doctors or patients , or even to other parts of government . This distorted evidence is then communicated and applied in a distorted fashion .
In their forty years of practice after leaving medical school , doctors hear about what works through ad hoc oral traditions , from sales reps , colleagues or journals . But those colleagues can be in the pay of drug companies – often undisclosed – and the journals are too . And so are the patient groups . And finally , academic papers , which everyone thinks of as objective , are often covertly planned and written by people who work directly for the companies , without disclosure . Sometimes whole academic journals are even owned outright by one drug company . Aside from all this , for several of the most important and enduring problems in medicine , we have no idea what the best treatment is , because it 's not in anyone 's financial interest to conduct any trials at all .
= = = Chapter 1 : " Missing Data " = = =
In " Missing Data , " Goldacre argues that the clinical trials undertaken by drug companies routinely reach conclusions favourable to the company . For example , in a 2007 journal article published in PLOS Medicine , researchers studied every published trial on statins , drugs prescribed to reduce cholesterol levels . In the 192 trials they looked at , industry @-@ funded trials were 20 times more likely to produce results that favoured the drug .
He writes that these positive results are achieved in a number of ways . Sometimes the industry @-@ sponsored studies are flawed by design ( for example by comparing the new drug to an existing drug at an inadequate dose ) , and sometimes patients are selected to make a positive result more likely . In addition , the data is analysed as the trial progresses . If the trial seems to be producing negative data it is stopped prematurely and the results are not published , or if it is producing positive data it may be stopped early so that longer @-@ term effects are not examined . He writes that this publication bias , where negative results remain unpublished , is endemic within medicine and academia . As a consequence , he argues , doctors may have no idea what the effects are of the drugs they prescribe .
An example he gives of the difficulty of obtaining missing data from drug companies is that of oseltamivir ( Tamiflu ) , manufactured by Roche to reduce the complications of bird flu . Governments spent billions of pounds stockpiling this , based in large part on a meta @-@ analysis that was funded by the industry . Bad Pharma charts the efforts of independent researchers , particularly Tom Jefferson of the Cochrane Collaboration Respiratory Group , to gain access to information about the drug .
= = = Chapter 2 : " Where Do New Drugs Come From ? " = = =
In the second chapter , the book describes the process as new drugs move from animal testing through phase 1 ( first @-@ in @-@ man study ) , phase 2 , and phase 3 clinical trials . Phase 1 participants are referred to as volunteers , but in the US are paid $ 200 – $ 400 per day , and because studies can last several weeks and subjects may volunteer several times a year , earning potential becomes the main reason for participation . Participants are usually taken from the poorest groups in society , and outsourcing increasingly means that trials may be conducted in countries with highly competitive wages by contract research organizations ( CROs ) . The rate of growth for clinical trials in India is 20 percent a year , in Argentina 27 percent , and in China 47 percent , while trials in the UK have fallen by 10 percent a year and in the US by six percent .
The shift to outsourcing raises issues about data integrity , regulatory oversight , language difficulties , the meaning of informed consent among a much poorer population , the standards of clinical care , the extent to which corruption may be regarded as routine in certain countries , and the ethical problem of raising a population 's expectations for drugs that most of that population cannot afford . It also raises the question of whether the results of clinical trials using one population can invariably be applied elsewhere . There are both social and physical differences : Goldacre asks whether patients diagnosed with depression in China are really the same as patients diagnosed with depression in California , and notes that people of Asian descent metabolize drugs differently from Westerners .
There have also been cases of available treatment being withheld during clinical trials . In 1996 in Kano , Nigeria , the drug company Pfizer compared a new antibiotic during a meningitis outbreak to a competing antibiotic that was known to be effective at a higher dose than was used during the trial . Goldacre writes that 11 children died , divided almost equally between the two groups . The families taking part in the trial were apparently not told that the competing antibiotic at the effective dose was available from Médecins Sans Frontières in the next @-@ door building .
= = = Chapter 3 : " Bad Regulators " = = =
Chapter three describes the concept of " regulatory capture , " whereby a regulator – such as the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency ( MHRA ) in the UK , or the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) in the United States – ends up advancing the interests of the drug companies rather than the interests of the public . Goldacre writes that this happens for a number of reasons , including the revolving door of employees between the regulator and the companies , and the fact that friendships develop between regulator and company employees simply because they have knowledge and interests in common . The chapter also discusses surrogate outcomes and accelerated approval , and the difficulty of having ineffective drugs removed from the market once they have been approved . He argues that regulators do not require that new drugs offer an improvement over what is already available , or even that they be particularly effective .
= = = Chapter 4 : " Bad Trials " = = =
" Bad Trials " examines the ways in which clinical trials can be flawed . Goldacre writes that this happens by design and by analysis , and that it has the effect of maximizing a drug 's benefits and minimizing harm . There have been instances of fraud , though he says these are rare . More common are what he calls the " wily tricks , close calls , and elegant mischief at the margins of acceptability . "
These include testing drugs on unrepresentative , " freakishly ideal " patients ; comparing new drugs to something known to be ineffective , or effective at a different dose or if used differently ; conducting trials that are too short or too small ; and stopping trials early or late . It also includes measuring uninformative outcomes ; packaging the data so that it is misleading ; ignoring patients who drop out ( i.e. using per @-@ protocol analysis , where only patients who complete the trial are counted in the final results , rather than intention @-@ to @-@ treat analysis , where everyone who starts the trial is counted ) ; changing the main outcome of the trial once it has finished ; producing subgroup analyses that show apparently positive outcomes for certain tightly defined groups ( such as Chinese men between the ages of 56 and 71 ) , thereby hiding an overall negative outcome ; and conducting " seeding trials , " where the objective is to persuade physicians to use the drug .
Another criticism is that outcomes are presented in terms of relative risk reduction to exaggerate the apparent benefits of the treatment . For example , he writes , if four people out of 1 @,@ 000 will have a heart attack within the year , but on statins only two will , that is a 50 percent reduction if expressed as relative risk reduction . But if expressed as absolute risk reduction , it is a reduction of just 0 @.@ 2 percent .
= = = Chapter 5 : " Bigger , Simpler Trials " = = =
In chapter five Goldacre suggests using the General Practice Research Database in the UK , which contains the anonymized records of several million patients , to conduct randomized trials to determine the most effective of competing treatments . For example , to compare two statins , atorvastatin and simvastatin , doctors would randomly assign patients to one or the other . The patients would be followed up by having data about their cholesterol levels , heart attacks , strokes and deaths taken from their computerized medical records . The trials would not be blind – patients would know which statin they had been prescribed – but Goldacre writes that they would be unlikely to hold such firm beliefs about which one is preferable to the extent that it could affect their health .
= = = Chapter 6 : " Marketing " = = =
In the final chapter , Goldacre looks at how doctors are persuaded to prescribe " me @-@ too drugs , " brand @-@ name drugs that are no more effective than significantly cheaper off @-@ patent ones . He cites as examples the statins atorvastatin ( Lipitor , made by Pfizer ) and simvastatin ( Zocor ) , which he writes seem to be equally effective , or at least there is no evidence to suggest otherwise . Simvastatin came off patent several years ago , yet there are still three million prescriptions a year in the UK for atorvastatin , costing the National Health Service ( NHS ) an annual £ 165 million extra .
He addresses the issue of medicalization of certain conditions ( or , as he argues , of personhood ) , whereby pharmaceutical companies " widen the boundaries of diagnosis " before offering solutions . Female sexual dysfunction was highlighted in 1999 by a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association , which alleged that 43 percent of women were suffering from it . After the article appeared , the New York Times wrote that two of its three authors had worked as consultants for Pfizer , which at the time was preparing to launch UK @-@ 414 @,@ 495 , known as female Viagra . The journal 's editor said that the failure to disclose the relationship with Pfizer was the journal 's mistake .
The chapter also examines celebrity endorsement of certain drugs , the extent to which claims in advertisements aimed at doctors are appropriately sourced , and whether direct @-@ to @-@ consumer advertising ( currently permitted in the US and New Zealand ) ought to be allowed . It discusses how PR firms promote stories from patients who complain in the media that certain drugs are not made available by the funder , which in the UK is the NHS and the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) . Two breast @-@ cancer patients who campaigned in the UK in 2006 for trastuzumab ( Herceptin ) to be available on the NHS were being handled by a law firm working for Roche , the drug 's manufacturer . The historian Lisa Jardine , who was suffering from breast cancer , told the Guardian that she had been approached by a PR firm working for the company .
The chapter also covers the influence of drug reps , how ghostwriters are employed by the drug companies to write papers for academics to publish , how independent the academic journals really are , how the drug companies finance doctors ' continuing education , and how patients ' groups are often funded by industry .
= = = Afterword : " Better Data " = = =
In the afterword and throughout the book , Goldacre makes suggestions for action by doctors , medical students , patients , patient groups and the industry . He advises doctors , nurses and managers to stop seeing drug reps , to ban them from clinics , hospitals and medical schools , to declare online and in waiting rooms all gifts and hospitality received from the industry , and to remove all drug company promotional material from offices and waiting rooms . ( He praises the website of the American Medical Student Association – www.amsascorecard.org – which ranks institutions according to their conflict @-@ of @-@ interest policies , writing that it makes him " feel weepy . " ) He also suggests that regulations be introduced to prevent pharmacists from sharing doctors ' prescribing records with drug reps .
He asks academics to lobby their universities and academic societies to forbid academics from being involved in ghostwriting , and to lobby for " film credit " contributions at the end of every academic paper , listing everyone involved , including who initiated the idea of publishing the paper . He also asks for full disclosure of all past clinical trial results , and a list of academic papers that were , as he puts it , " rigged " by industry , so that they can be retracted or annotated . He asks drug company employees to become whistleblowers , either by writing an anonymous blog , or by contacting him .
He advises patients to ask their doctors whether they accept drug @-@ company hospitality or sponsorship , and if so to post details in their waiting rooms , and to make clear whether it is acceptable to the patient for the doctor to discuss his or her medical history with drug reps . Patients who are invited to take part in a trial are advised to ask , among other things , for a written guarantee that the trial has been publicly registered , and that the main outcome of the trial will be published within a year of its completion . He advises patient groups to write to drug companies with the following : " We are living with this disease ; is there anything at all that you 're withholding ? If so , tell us today . "
= = Reception = =
The book was generally well received . The Economist described it as " slightly technical , eminently readable , consistently shocking , occasionally hectoring and unapologetically polemical . " Helen Lewis in the New Statesman called it an important book , while Luisa Dillner , writing in the Guardian , described it as a " thorough piece of investigative medical journalism . "
Andrew Jack wrote in the Financial Times that Goldacre is " at his best in methodically dissecting poor clinical trials . ... He is less strong in explaining the complex background reality , such as the general constraints and individual slips of regulators and pharma companies ' employees . " Jack also argued that the book failed to reflect how many lives have been improved by the current system , for example with new treatments for HIV , rheumatoid arthritis and cancer .
Max Pemberton , a psychiatrist , wrote in the Daily Telegraph that " this is a book to make you enraged ... because it 's about how big business puts profits over patient welfare , allows people to die because they don 't want to disclose damning research evidence , and the tricks they play to make sure doctors do not have all the evidence when it comes to appraising whether a drug really works or not . "
The Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry ( ABPI ) replied in the New Statesman that Goldacre was " stuck in a bygone era where pharmaceutical companies wine and dine doctors in exchange for signing on the dotted line . " The ABPI issued a press release , writing that the pharmaceutical industry is responsible for the discovery of 90 percent of all medicines , and that it takes an average of 10 – 12 years and £ 1.1bn to introduce a medicine to the market , with just one in 5 @,@ 000 new compounds receiving regulatory approval . This makes research and development an expensive and risky business . They wrote that the industry is one of the most heavily regulated in the world , and is committed to ensuring full transparency in the research and development of new medicines . They also maintained that the examples Goldacre offered were " long documented and historical , and the companies concerned have long addressed these issues . " Goldacre argues in the book that " the most dangerous tactic of all is the industry 's enduring claim that these problems are all in the past . "
Humphrey Rang of the British Pharmacological Society wrote that Goldacre had chosen his target well and had produced some shocking examples of secrecy and dishonesty , particularly the nondisclosure of data on the antidepressant reboxetine ( chapter one ) , in which only one trial out of seven was published ( the published study showed positive results , while the unpublished trials suggested otherwise ) . He argued that Goldacre had gone " over the top " in devoting a whole chapter ( chapter five ) to recommending large clinical trials using electronic patient data from general practitioners , without fully pointing out how problematic these can be ; such trials raise issues , for example , about informed consent and regulatory oversight . Rang also criticized Goldacre 's style , describing the book as too long , repetitive , hyperbolic , and in places too conversational . He particularly objected to the line , " medicine is broken , " calling it a " foolish remark . "
= = AllTrials = =
Following the book 's publication , Goldacre co @-@ founded AllTrials with David Tovey , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Cochrane Library , together with the British Medical Journal , the Centre for Evidence @-@ based Medicine , and others in the UK , and Dartmouth College 's Geisel School of Medicine and the Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice in the US . Set up in January 2013 , the group campaigns for all past and current clinical trials to be registered and reported , for all treatments in use .
The British House of Commons Public Accounts Committee produced a report in January 2014 , after hearing evidence from Goldacre , Fiona Godlee , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the British Medical Journal , and others , about the stockpiling of Tamiflu and the withholding of data about the drug by its manufacturer , Roche . The committee said it was " surprised and concerned " to learn that information from clinical trials is routinely withheld from doctors , and recommended that the Department of Health take steps to ensure that all clinical @-@ trial data be made available for currently prescribed treatments .
= = Publication details = =
Bad Pharma : How drug companies mislead doctors and harm patients , Fourth Estate , 2012 ( UK ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 735074 @-@ 2
Faber and Faber , 2013 ( US ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 86547 @-@ 800 @-@ 8
Signal , 2013 ( Canada ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7710 @-@ 3629 @-@ 3
As of December 2012 foreign rights had been sold for Brazil , the Czech Republic , Netherlands , Germany , Israel , Italy , Korea , Norway , Poland , Portugal , Spain and Turkey .
= The Secret River ( Rawlings book ) =
The Secret River is a children 's fantasy book by Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings , author of the The Yearling . Published in 1955 , The Secret River received a Newbery Honor Award . The first edition , illustrated by Caldecott Medal winner Leonard Weisgard , was issued after Rawlings ' death . The book was revised and reissued in 2009 with illustrations by Caldecott Medalists Leo and Diane Dillon . The new edition received an international children 's book design award in 2012 . The Secret River is the only book Rawlings wrote specifically for children . The story of young Calpurnia , who goes on a quest to find a magical river and catch fish for her starving family and friends , it has two themes common in Rawlings ' writing , the magic of childhood and the struggle of people to survive in a harsh environment .
= = Plot = =
The Secret River is a story of Magical realism , blending real life and fantasy . Young Calpurnia is an aspiring poet living in rural Central Florida during the Great Depression . Hard times have come to her people ; the animals have disappeared , her father is unable to catch fish to sell , and everyone in the community is too weak from hunger to work . Calpurnia bravely leaves home with her little dog , Buggy @-@ Horse , to find the secret river that her neighbor Mother Albirtha has told her about . She intends to catch fish for her father to sell in his shop . When she finds the river she politely asks it to allow her to catch some fish and uses her creativity , and the pink ribbons from her hair , to catch them . On her way home , an owl , a bear and a panther each challenge her , and she has to give away some of her catch to get home . She also shares some fish with Mother Albirtha and takes the rest to her father , who gives them to the starving people in return for future payment . Strengthened by the fish , people begin working again . When the crisis is past Calpurnia searches for the river again , but cannot find it , as she no longer really needs it . Still , she realizes nothing is lost to us forever , and the book ends with one of her poems , expressing this sentiment :
Secret River is in my mind .
I can go there any time .
Everything Mother Albirtha says is true .
The sky is gold and the river is blue .
Secret River , I love you .
= = Background = =
The Secret River is Rawlings ' only book intended for children . According to Murray Laurie , the idea for the book came from something Rawlings had written in Cross Creek : “ some day a poet will write a sad and lovely story of a Negro child . ” She discussed the idea with her Scribner 's editor , Maxwell Perkins , who encouraged her to follow it up . While working on the manuscript she told Perkins she " deliberately avoided Negro dialect . ' No Uncle Remus or Little Black Sambo sort of stuff ' " . At one point she thought about making the story into a full @-@ length novel . Helen Masten , writing for The Saturday Review , commented " Had this happened this little masterpiece of the imagination of childhood might never have reached children , to whom it rightly belongs . " Rawlings also talked about her ideas with Bob Camp , an illustrator and friend . From that conversation , Camp produced a series of paintings to illustrate the idea . In 1947 Rawlings sent The Secret River 's manuscript to Perkins , and Camp visited his office in New York with the paintings . When Perkins responded with suggestions , Rawlings confessed to him that she was not completely pleased with Camp 's illustrations . By June of that year , Perkins ' death from pneumonia and Rawlings ' own personal problems had derailed the project . After Rawlings ' death in 1953 , the manuscript for The Secret River was the only complete manuscript found among her papers .
In Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings ' Rivers Lamar York says that Rawlings ' settings are an essential part of her plots , and that she did not choose to write about a river by accident . At a low time in her life she had taken time off and traveled the length of the St. Johns River with a friend . Later she wrote about the boat trip in " Hyacinth Drift " , a chapter of Cross Creek . The trip , she said , cured her depression and allowed her to live in peace , as The Secret River did for Calpurnia and her community . The river , York writes , expresses Rawlings ' belief that " man must know or discover a relationship to a suitable physical setting " in order to survive the harshness of the world , as she herself did on the St. Johns .
= = Themes = =
The Secret River 's primary theme revolves around Calpurnia 's desire to help her family and friends survive tough times . As Barbara Elleman wrote in School Library Journal , " Overriding the adventure is the determination and spirited effort of the child to help her family in need . " The struggle to live in the face of difficult circumstances was a common theme for Rawlings . In The Secret River this struggle means Calpurnia must find her way to the river , convince it to yield its precious fish , then overcome danger from starving wild animals to return with the fish to her father . Calpurnia 's courage and determination enable her to overcome every obstacle and save her community .
Juxtaposed against the struggle to survive is the enchanting but short beauty of childhood . The magic in the plot reinforces the sense of enchantment and gives the book a fairy @-@ tale like quality , leading the BolognaRagazzi Awards jury to speak of " the great Secret ( that ) lurks in the story " . It is the child Calpurnia who follows the magic to find the river and save the adults from starvation . The contrast of an idealized and protected childhood with the harsh realities that adults must face is another theme common to Rawlings ' writings , expressed in the famous speech about adult reality Ezra " Penny " Baxter delivers to his son Jody at the end of The Yearling : " Ever ’ man wants life to be a fine thing , and a easy . ’ Tis fine , boy , powerful fine , but ’ tain ’ t easy . Life knocks a man down and he gits up and it knocks him down again . . . . What ’ s he to do then ? . . . Why , take it for his share and go on . " Unlike Jody , who realizes the magic of his childhood is " gone forever " with the death of his fawn , Calpurnia retains the secret river and the magic in her mind .
= = Editions , awards = =
The Secret River appeared two years after Rawlings ' death with illustrations by the 1948 Caldecott Medal winner Leonard Weisgard , who used coffee @-@ coloured paper as an innovative way to circumvent a taboo of the era against portraying dark @-@ skinned characters . In his book In the Company of Writers , Charles Scribner discusses The Secret River 's publication , noting Rawlings never mentions Calpurnia 's race . Since the book went into production after her death Rawlings could not be consulted about her final intentions . At this time the depiction of black children in American children 's literature had decreased until it was almost non @-@ existent . While a few books were still appearing , " White ( children 's ) publishers were still not open to books with Black themes " , according to Joyce Braden Harris on " African and African @-@ American Traditions in Language Arts " . Scribner pointed out that " Whatever our decision , we could land on the wrong side of the school boards " , and claims the idea for using dark paper in the book as a way to suggest Calpurnia 's race was his , calling it " one of my silent contributions to dissolving the color barrier in the 1950s . " The book received a Newbery Honor Award in 1956 for " the most distinguished contribution to American literature for children " , and was honored by the American Society of Graphic Arts .
Atheneum Books for Young Readers reissued a revised version of the book in 2009 . The story was shortened by cutting some descriptive passages and allowing the illustrations to convey the setting . Calpurnia 's final poem was also eliminated . New illustrations in acrylics were created by Leo and Diane Dillon , who went on to win two Caldecott Awards . Unlike the more realistic illustrations by Weisgard , the Dillons emphasized the magical reality of the story , as in the cover picture , where Calpurnia 's profile is almost hidden inside a stylized blue fish . Mary Harris Russell , writing for The Chicago Tribune , felt modern audiences would appreciate the way " the fantasy side to this land of cypress trees and silent rivers is amplified and contrasted with the realistic background of little Calpurnia 's life . " The Dillon 's version of The Secret River received one of two honorable mentions in the fiction category of the 2012 BolognaRagazzi Awards , an international children 's book award that honors the art and design of illustrated books worldwide . In the words of the Bologna jury , " It is only fitting that Marjorie Rawlings , the great American writer loved by so many generations of readers , is finally paid such a refined and sensitive tribute . "
= = Critical reception = =
When The Secret River first appeared in 1955 , Saturday Review called it a " little masterpiece of the imagination of childhood ... so real and appealing one regrets that this is the only book the author wrote for children ... Leonard Weisgard has done some of his most sensitive work in drawings that have a feeling for character and place and are quite perfect for the text . " Decades later the book continued to receive strong reviews , with words like " Magical " and " timeless " . Reviewers appreciated the message of hope conveyed in the simple story .
The new edition of The Secret River also received positive reviews . Publishers Weekly gave it a starred review , as did Kirkus Reviews , calling it a " classic tale ... Rawlings ’ voice is warm and tender , employing lilting syntax and descriptive language that resonates with warmth and humor . Calpurnia is a sweet delight ... filled with love and compassion " , and the Dillon 's illustrations are , " glorious , glowing ... nothing short of breathtaking " . Monica and Hannah McRae Young , in their article " Books do justice to subjects of civil rights , racism " , praise The Secret River as " A rare picture book depicting everyday black life " . They believe modern readers will enjoy Calpunia and Buggy @-@ horse as much as the original audience . Children 's Literature agreed that the reissue would renew interest in the book .
= Henry Dewar ( rugby ) =
Henry " Norkey " Dewar ( 13 October 1883 – 9 August 1915 ) was a New Zealand rugby union forward , who played for the All Blacks , and represented Taranaki and Wellington provinces .
Playing for the Melrose Club in Wellington , he was selected in 1908 for the provincial team that played and defeated the Anglo @-@ Welsh team on tour in New Zealand . After moving to Taranaki in 1910 , he was soon selected to represent the province . Coming close to winning the Ranfurly Shield in 1912 , a subsequent challenge the following year was successful against the longtime holders Auckland . He earned selection to the North Island team for the annual Inter @-@ Island match and thereafter was picked to play for the All Blacks , first to play Australia and then for the tour of North America , in which he played 14 of the 16 games , including the 51 – 3 defeat of the All America team .
Soon after the British Empire declared war on Germany on 5 August 1914 , Dewar signed up to the New Zealand Expeditionary Force , and took part in the expedition to occupy German Samoa , departing the day after he played for Taranaki defending a challenge from Wairarapa . On his return , he volunteered again for active service and enlisted in the Wellington Mounted Rifles , joining the machine gun section . After promotion to sergeant , he departed in October for Egypt . There , he captained his regiment 's rugby team in matches against other New Zealand and Australian regiments . He landed at Anzac Cove on 8 August 1915 and participated in the action to capture Chunuk Bair in the Gallipoli Campaign . The following day he was killed in action .
= = Early life = =
Henry Dewar , born 13 October 1883 in Foxton , New Zealand , was the son of Alexander and Lydia Dewar . He spent most of his early years in Wellington until moving to Taranaki in 1910 where he worked as an iron moulder for B. Harkness of Stratford .
= = Rugby career = =
Dewar first played for the Melrose Club in Wellington and was selected for Wellington province in 1907 . In 1908 , he was a member of the Wellington team that defeated the touring Anglo @-@ Welsh 19 – 13 on 27 May . The visitors played much of the game with fourteen players , only six forwards , after an injury in the first half : the captains , before the game , had agreed that there would be no substitutions for injury . Dewar and Rush , in particular , as well as Harding and Cracroft Wilson , bore the " heat and burden of a truly Homeric struggle . "
Later in the year , on 15 August , he took part in a Ranfurly Shield challenge , which resulted in a heavy 24 – 3 defeat for Wellington at the hands of Auckland . The challengers , away to Auckland , were the underdogs but it was expected to be a close game , and at half @-@ time Auckland were just leading by a conversion , 5 – 3 . In the second half , Auckland 's forwards imposed themselves on Wellington , who struggled to maintain the pace and were unable to respond to Auckland 's scoring .
Dewar moved to Taranaki in 1910 , where he played his club rugby for Stratford ; he captained the team in 1913 . He was first selected for Taranaki that year and continued to represent the club until the outbreak of the First World War . In 1912 , Taranaki , with Dewar in the team , came close to winning the Ranfurly Shield from Auckland , losing 6 – 5 . In front of a 12 @,@ 000 @-@ spectator home crowd , Auckland dominated in the first half , scoring six points through a try and a penalty kick . The second half saw Taranaki 's forwards take control for long periods , resulting in a converted try , but despite ongoing attacks , the visitors were unable to add to their score and lost by just one point .
= = = 1913 Season = = =
1913 saw Dewar 's best season . His provincial form saw him selected for the North Island in the annual Inter @-@ Island match , having been nominated for inclusion the previous year but not selected . In the event , the North was beaten 25 – 0 . He was then part of the Taranaki team that ended Auckland 's long tenure of the Ranfurly Shield , in a game described as " the finest match ... and the most exciting ... ever witnessed in the history of the Ranfurly Shield " . Taranaki controlled the first half , with the forwards stronger than their opponents in every aspect , scoring the first points . The visitors ' lead of 0 – 3 , however , changed to a half @-@ time score of 5 – 3 in Auckland 's favour after an injury temporarily reduced the opposition to fourteen men . Soon after the break , Taranaki took the lead through a try , and then a second — scored by Dewar , who was continuously " in the thick of it " — took them four points ahead , 5 – 9 . The home side responded with two tries of their own to take back a two @-@ point lead . Towards the end of the game , Taranaki scored one more try , which was converted and gave them a 14 – 11 victory to win the Shield for the first time : Auckland was the first team to be awarded the Shield in 1902 and , after Wellington won it in 1904 , regained it and held on to it continuously from 1906 .
He also played in the Taranaki side that was only narrowly beaten by the touring Australians in 1913 . His form in these games earned him a place with the All Blacks . On 6 September 1913 , he played in the 30 – 5 first test win over Australia at Athletic Park : Albert Downing and George Sellars played alongside him and were also later killed in action in the First World War . Dewar was then selected , along with four other Taranaki players , for the tour of North America , playing in 14 of the 16 games , including the 51 – 3 victory over the All America team for his second test cap . He received particular mention in the test match for a cunning dummy pass to Downing on his right , drawing the defence and passing to five @-@ eighths McKenzie on his left to run in for a try . He scored just one try . There was little interest in the American press about the tour . A single short paragraph in the New @-@ York Tribune reports on the 51 – 3 defeat of the USA team on 15 November .
In 1914 , Dewar participated in Taranaki 's defence of the Shield against Wellington on 24 June , winning 14 – 10 ; Wanganui , on 27 June , winning 17 – 3 ; Manawatu , on 23 July , winning 11 – 3 , with Dewar " prominent " ; Horowhenua ; and Wairarapa , on 14 August , winning 22 – 3 . Within days of this last game , a number of Taranaki 's players , including Dewar , left to join the New Zealand Expeditionary Force : " a brilliant forward ... who would almost certainly have gone to Australia this season [ on the All Blacks tour ] if he had been available for selection " . Although defeating Canterbury on 20 August , Taranaki 's pack was particularly weakened by Dewar 's absence , and only managed to win 6 – 5 with a last minute try . Against a second challenge from Wellington on 10 September , the conspicuous absence of this " fine leader of forwards " contributed to the loss of the Shield .
His obituary in The Sun described him as " one of the best forwards in the New Zealand team which visited California ... he was fast and very clever , and always gave of his best . He was a good all @-@ round athlete — an excellent boxer and no mean cricketer . "
= = = International appearances = = =
= = Military career = =
Dewar enlisted early , joining the New Zealand Expeditionary Force leaving on 15 August 1914 for German Samoa . On his return he volunteered again , joining the 9th Wellington Mounted Rifles as a machine gunner and was based at Awapuni Racecourse , Palmerston North ; he was promoted quickly to sergeant . On 16 October 1914 , after training , Dewar embarked on the Orari at Wellington en route for Egypt . There , Dewar captained the Wellington Mounted Rifles rugby team in several matches against other regiments — beating the First Australian Light Horse , the Canterbury Mounted Rifles , and the Auckland Mounted Rifles — before his regiment landed on 8 August 1915 at Anzac Cove , Gallipoli . Twenty @-@ four hours later , on 9 August 1915 , Dewar lost his life in the assault on Chunuk Bair — Albert Downing was killed in the same action , the first All Black to be killed in the war . Sergeant Henry Dewar is commemorated on the Chunuk Bair ( NZ ) Memorial Turkey ( Panel 4 ) .
His mother , sister and brother published these words in memoriam :
Our thoughts they ever wander to a soldier 's honoured grave ,
Never will we forget the noble sacrifice you made ;
For our hearts arc still united in that same fond love for you ,
And loving thoughts are cherished of one so brave and true .
Your cheery , sunny countenance will not from memory fade ,
For we see you in the photo , in the home you died to save ;
And when our hearts are sore for you we seem to hear you say ,
Break not your heart , dear mother , we will meet on that Eternal Day .
So widely known ; so highly esteemed .
= Kandahar massacre =
The Kandahar massacre , more precisely identified as the Panjwai massacre , occurred in the early hours of 11 March 2012 , when United States Army Staff Sergeant Robert Bales murdered sixteen civilians and wounded six others in the Panjwayi District of Kandahar Province , Afghanistan . Nine of his victims were children , and eleven of the dead were from the same family . Some of the corpses were partially burned . Bales was taken into custody later that morning when he told authorities , " I did it " . On 23 August 2013 , a jury at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord in Fort Lewis , Washington sentenced him to life in prison without parole .
American and International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) authorities apologized for the deaths . Afghan authorities condemned the act , describing it as " intentional murder " . The National Assembly of Afghanistan passed a resolution demanding a public trial in Afghanistan , but then @-@ U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta said the soldier would be tried under U.S. military law . Bales pleaded guilty on 5 June 2013 to 16 counts of premeditated murder in exchange for the prosecution not seeking the death penalty . At the time of the plea , he stated that he did not know why he committed the murders .
United States authorities concluded that the killings were the act of a single individual . On 15 March 2012 , an Afghan parliamentary probe team made up of several members of the National Assembly of Afghanistan had speculated that up to 20 American soldiers were involved in the killings . The team later said they could not confirm claims that multiple soldiers took part in the killings .
= = Background = =
= = = The ' Surge ' in southern Afghanistan = = =
Panjwai is the birthplace of the Taliban movement and has traditionally been a stronghold of the Taliban . It has been an area of heavy fighting and was the focus of a military surge in 2010 , which brought a more than two @-@ fold increase in airstrikes , night raids into Afghan homes , insurgent casualties , and a six @-@ fold increase in special forces operations throughout Afghanistan . Fighting in Panjwai and adjacent Zhari , Arghandab and Kandahar districts was particularly intense . Conflict between the civilian population and U.S. forces was exacerbated by the wholesale destruction of some villages by American forces , mass arrests , murder of civilians by rogue units , and high casualties from improvised explosive devices ( IEDs ) .
One of the families targeted in the Kandahar shootings had returned to the area in 2011 after previously being displaced by the surge . Fearing the Taliban but encouraged by the U.S. government , the Army , and the Afghan government , they settled near the American military base because they thought it would to be a safe place to live .
Approximately three weeks before the incidents , U.S. – Afghan relations were strained by an incident where copies of the Quran were burnt at the Bagram Air Base . A couple of months before the shootings , U.S. Marines were videotaped urinating on dead Taliban fighters .
= = = Allegations of issues at Fort Lewis = = =
The shooter , Robert Bales , was based at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord ( JBLM ) . The primary medical treatment facility at the base , Madigan Army Medical Center , has come under investigation for downgrading diagnoses of soldiers with PTSD to lesser ailments . Military support groups around the base have alleged that base commanders did not give returning troops sufficient time to recover before sending them on further deployments , and that the base 's medical unit is understaffed and overwhelmed by the numbers of returning veterans with deployment @-@ related medical and psychological trauma .
Soldiers from the base have been linked to other atrocities and crimes . The 2010 Maywand District murders involved JBLM @-@ based soldiers . Also in 2010 , a recently discharged AWOL soldier from JBLM shot a police officer in Salt Lake City . In April 2011 , a JBLM soldier killed his wife and 5 @-@ year @-@ old son before killing himself . In January 2012 , a JBLM soldier murdered a Mount Rainier National Park ranger . In two separate incidents , unrelated JBLM soldiers have been charged with waterboarding their children .
Jorge Gonzalez , executive director of a veterans resource center near Fort Lewis , said that the Kandahar killings offer more proof that the base is dysfunctional : " This was not a rogue soldier . JBLM is a rogue base , with a severe leadership problem " , he said in a statement . Base officials responded , saying that the crimes committed by its soldiers were isolated events which do not " reflect on the work and dedication of all service members . " Robert H. Scales , a retired U.S. Army major general and former commandant of the Army War College , suggested that the major factor in the shootings was the overuse of infantry personnel in the last ten years for close combat in Iraq , Afghanistan , and elsewhere .
= = = 8 March roadside bombing = = =
Residents of Mokhoyan , a village about 500 metres east of Camp Belamby , stated that a bomb had exploded in their vicinity on 8 March , destroying an armored vehicle and wounding several U.S. soldiers . They recounted that U.S. soldiers afterwards lined many of the male villagers against a wall , threatening to " get revenge for this incident by killing at least 20 of your people , " and threatening that " you and your children will pay for this " . One Mokhoyan resident told The Associated Press " It looked like they were going to shoot us , and I was very afraid . " American officials from The Pentagon declared that they had " no evidence " that villagers had been lined up against a wall and threatened in Mokhoyan . U.S. officials refused to confirm or deny that American soldiers were wounded outside the village on 8 March .
Bales ' lawyer , John Henry Browne , later stated that his client was upset because a fellow soldier had lost a leg in an explosion on 9 March . It is unclear whether the bombing cited by Browne was the same as the one described by the villagers .
= = Incident = =
= = = Killings = = =
According to official reports , Bales left combat outpost Camp Belamby at 3 : 00 a.m. local time wearing night vision goggles . Bales was wearing traditional Afghan clothing over his ISAF fatigues .
According to government officials with knowledge of the investigation , the killings were carried out in two phases , with Bales returning to base in between . An Afghan guard reported a soldier returning to base at 1 : 30 am , and another guard reported a soldier leaving at 2 : 30 am . Bales is believed to have first gone to Alkozai , about 1 / 2 mile north of Camp Belambay , then to Najiban ( called Balandi in earlier reports ) , located 1 1 / 2 miles south of the base . Four people were killed and six wounded in Alkozai , and twelve people were killed in Najiban . American sentries at the base heard gunshots in Alkozai , but did not take action besides attempting to view Alkozai from their post inside the base . Until 22 March , U.S. authorities recognized 16 people killed , including nine children , four men , and three women . On 22 March that number was revised to 17 , but later reduced back to 16 . It was initially reported that five others were injured , and that number was eventually increased to six .
Four members of the same family were killed in Alkozai . According to a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy who was shot in the leg , Bales woke up his family members before shooting them . Another witness said she saw the man drag a woman out of her house and repeatedly hit her head against a wall .
The first victim in Najiban appears to have been Mohammad Dawood . According to Dawood 's brother , Bales shot Dawood in the head , but spared Dawood 's wife and six children after the wife screamed at him .
Eleven members of Abdul Samad 's family were killed in a house in Najiban village , including his wife , four girls between the ages of two and six , four boys between eight and twelve , and two other relatives . According to a witness , " he dragged the boys by their hair and shot them in the mouth " . At least three of the child victims were killed by a single shot to the head of each . Their bodies were then set on fire . Then another civilian , Mohammad Dawoud , age 55 , was killed in another house in this village . Witnesses reported that Bales was wearing a headlamp and / or a spotlight attached to his weapon .
Bales burned some of the victims ' bodies , an act considered desecration under Islamic law . Witnesses said that the eleven corpses from one family were shot in the head , stabbed , then gathered into one room and set on fire . A pile of ashes was found on the floor of one victims ' house ; at least one child 's body was found partially charred . A reporter for The New York Times inspected the children 's bodies taken to a nearby American military base and reported seeing burns on some of the legs and heads .
= = = Surrender and confession = = =
Following the events at Alkozai and Balandi , Bales handed himself over into ISAF custody . Afghan forces spotted him leaving his outpost before the killings and U.S. commanders on base assembled their troops for a head count when it was discovered that the soldier was missing . A patrol was dispatched to find the missing soldier , but did not find him before he returned to base after the killings . He was reportedly taken into custody without incident . There were no military operations being conducted in the area at the time of the shootings .
The surveillance video from the base reportedly shows " the soldier walking up to his base covered in a traditional Afghan shawl . The soldier removes the shawl and lays his weapon on the ground , then raises his arms in surrender . " The video has not been released to the public .
American investigators suspect that Bales may have departed the base before midnight , committed the murders in Alkozai , then returned to the base around 1 : 30 a.m. Bales may have then departed the base at 2 : 30 a.m. and committed the murders in Najiban . It was apparently the second departure which caused the alert and the commencement of the patrol to locate the missing soldier .
According to U.S. defense officials , upon his return to the base Bales said three words : " I did it " and then told individuals what happened . Later he retained a lawyer and refused to speak further with investigators . The United States flew Bales out of Afghanistan to Kuwait on 14 March 2012 , then to the United States Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth in Kansas on 16 March . A Pentagon spokesman said the move was done because of a " legal recommendation " .
= = = The number of assailants = = =
According to U.S. authorities , a single soldier – Staff Sergeant Robert Bales – conducted the attack . The U.S. military showed Afghan authorities the footage from the surveillance video at the base as proof that there was only one perpetrator of the shootings .
According to Reuters , some neighbors and relatives of the dead saw a group of U.S. soldiers arrive at their village at about 2 a.m. , enter homes and open fire . " They were all drunk and shooting all over the place , " said neighbor Agha Lala . According to The New York Times , one of the attack 's survivors and " at least five other villagers " described seeing a number of soldiers , while some other Afghan residents described seeing only one gunman . One mother @-@ of @-@ six , whose husband was killed during the incident , reported involvement of a large number of people : " When they shot dead my husband , I tried to drag him into the house ... I saw more than 20 people when I looked out the house . The Americans pointed their guns at me and threatened me , telling me not to leave the house or they 'd kill me . " An eight @-@ year @-@ old girl named Noorbinak , whose father was killed reported that " one man entered the room and the others were standing in the yard , holding lights . " The brother of another victim claimed his nephews and nieces had seen " numerous soldiers " with headlamps and lighted guns . Some elected officials said that they believed the attack was planned , claiming that one soldier could not have carried out such an act without help . In response , Afghan President Hamid Karzai appointed General Sher Mohammad Karimi to investigate the claims .
On 15 March 2012 , an Afghan parliamentary probe team made up of several members of the National Assembly of Afghanistan announced that up to 20 American soldiers were involved in the killings , with support from two helicopters . They had spent two days in the province on site , interviewing the survivors and collecting evidence . One of the members of the probe team , Hamizai Lali , said : " We closely examined the site of the incident , talked to the families who lost their beloved ones , the injured people and tribal elders ... The villages are one and a half kilometre from the American military base . We are convinced that one soldier cannot kill so many people in two villages within one hour ... [ the victims ] have been killed by the two groups . " Lali asked the Afghan government , the United Nations and the international community to ensure the perpetrators were punished in Afghanistan . While visiting one of the affected villages , Hamid Karzai pointed to one of the villagers and said : " In his family , in four rooms people were killed – children and women were killed – and then they were all brought together in one room and then set on fire . That , one man cannot do . " However , the team later said they could not confirm that multiple soldiers took part in the killings .
= = = Financial payments to victims ' families = = =
On 25 March 2012 at the office of the governor of Kandahar province , the United States gave the equivalent of US $ 860 @,@ 000 to the victims ' families , allocated as $ 50 @,@ 000 for each person killed and $ 10 @,@ 000 for each person injured . The official who disbursed payments to the families said the money was not compensation , but rather the U.S. government 's offering to help the victims and their families . A member of the Kandahar provincial council described the payments as assistance , but not as the kind of legal compensation that would absolve the accused .
= = Robert Bales = =
The Army concluded that Robert Bales , a 38 @-@ year @-@ old U.S. Army staff sergeant stationed at Camp Belambay , was the only person responsible for the shootings . According to Defense Secretary Leon Panetta , immediately after being captured , Bales acknowledged the killings and " told individuals what happened " . He then asked for an attorney and refused to speak with investigators about his motivations .
According to officials , Bales may have been having marital problems , and the investigation of the shootings is looking into the possibility that an e @-@ mail about marriage problems might have provoked Bales . His wife wrote on her blog about her disappointment after he was passed over for a promotion to Sergeant First Class ( E @-@ 7 ) . The family was also struggling with finances , and three days before the shootings Bales ' wife put their home up for sale , as they had fallen behind with mortgage payments .
On 23 March 2012 , the U.S. government charged Bales with 17 counts of murder , six counts of attempted murder , and six counts of assault . On 24 March 2012 , American investigators said they believe Bales split the killings in the villages of Balandi and Alkozai into two attacks , returning to Camp Belamby after the first attack before slipping out again an hour later . No other U.S. military personnel were disciplined for having any role in the incident .
On 22 August 2013 , Bales pleaded guilty at his General Court @-@ martial , apologized for his killing spree , and described the massacre as an " act of cowardice . " The plea spared Bales from the death penalty . On 23 August 2013 , Bales was sentenced to life in prison without parole by the court . He was also demoted to Private ( E @-@ 1 ) , the lowest possible rank , dishonorably discharged , and ordered to forfeit all pay and allowances . A commanding general overseeing the court @-@ martial has the option of reducing the sentence to life with the possibility of parole . Afghan villagers and the families of Bales ' victims were upset by the decision , saying he deserved death .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Reaction from family members and Afghan society = = =
A woman who lost four family members in the incident said , " We don 't know why this foreign soldier came and killed our innocent family members . Either he was drunk or he enjoyed killing civilians . " Abdul Samad , a 60 @-@ year @-@ old farmer who lost eleven family members , eight of whom were children , spoke about the incident : " I don 't know why they killed them . Our government told us to come back to the village , and then they let the Americans kill us . " One grieving mother , holding a dead baby in her arms , said , " They killed a child , was this child the Taliban ? Believe me , I haven 't seen a two @-@ year @-@ old member of the Taliban yet . "
" I don 't want any compensation . I don 't want money , I don 't want a trip to Mecca , I don 't want a house . I want nothing . But what I absolutely want is the punishment of the Americans . This is my demand , my demand , my demand and my demand , " said one villager , whose brother was killed .
More than 300 Panjwai locals gathered around the military base to protest the killings . Some brought burned blankets to represent those killed . In one house , an elderly woman screamed : " May God kill the only son of Karzai , so he feels what we feel . " On 13 March , hundreds of university students protested in Afghanistan 's eastern city of Jalalabad , shouting " Death to America – Death to Obama " and burning effigies of the U.S. president and a Christian cross . On 15 March about 2 @,@ 000 people took part in another protest , in the southern province of Zabul .
= = = Reaction from Afghan authorities = = =
The President of Afghanistan , Hamid Karzai , called the incident " intentional murder " and stated " this [ was ] an assassination , an intentional killing of innocent civilians and cannot be forgiven . " He said the United States must now pull back its troops from village areas and allow Afghan security forces to take the lead in an effort to reduce civilian deaths . On 16 March Karzai said the U.S. was not fully co @-@ operating with a probe into the killings . He also said the problem of civilian casualties at the hands of NATO forces " has been going on for too long ... It is by all means the end of the rope here " . A spokesperson for the Afghan Interior Ministry condemned the act " in the strongest possible terms . "
Afghan politicians wanted Bales to face an Afghan court . The National Assembly of Afghanistan insisted that the U.S. soldier be put on public trial in Afghanistan : " We seriously demand and expect that the government of the United States punish the culprits and try them in a public trial before the people of Afghanistan . " It also condemned the killings as " brutal and inhuman " and declared that " people are running out of patience over the ignorance of foreign forces . " Abdul Rahim Ayobi , a member of parliament from Kandahar , said the shooting " gives us the message that now the American soldiers are out of the control of their generals . " Kamal Safai , a member from Kunduz , said that while it was the act of a single man , " the public reaction will blame the government of America , not the soldier . "
= = = Reaction from U.S. and NATO = = =
American and ISAF forces apologized and promised a full investigation , with Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta stating that the soldier " will be brought to justice and be held accountable " and that the death penalty " could be a consideration . " U.S. president Barack Obama called the incident " absolutely tragic and heartbreaking " but noted that he was " proud generally " of what U.S. troops have accomplished in Afghanistan . Obama said the incident did not represent the " exceptional character " of the American military and the respect that the United States had for the people of Afghanistan . On 13 March , he said , " the United States takes this as seriously as if it were our own citizens and our own children who were murdered . We ’ re heartbroken over the loss of innocent life . The killing of innocent civilians is outrageous and it ’ s unacceptable . " In response to a reporter asking whether the killings could be likened to the 1968 My Lai massacre of civilians by U.S. forces in South Vietnam , Obama replied , " It 's not comparable . It appeared you had a lone gunman who acted on his own . "
General John R. Allen , commander of the ISAF , issued an apology as well . Adrian Bradshaw , the deputy commander of the NATO forces in Afghanistan , apologized " I wish to convey my profound regrets and dismay ... I cannot explain the motivation behind such callous acts , but they were in no way part of authorised ISAF military activity . " A " rapid and thorough " inquiry was promised . U.S. officials said the killings would not affect their strategies in the area .
= = = Response from the Taliban = = =
The Taliban said in a statement on its website that " sick @-@ minded American savages | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
part of the site for its depot . Barons Court opened 9 October 1905 and the tube railway opened as the Piccadilly line on 15 December 1906 .
= = = London Underground , 1908 – 1933 = = =
= = = = Running an electric railway = = = =
In 1908 the UERL and the other underground railway companies in London came to a joint marketing arrangement that included maps , joint publicity and combined ticketing . UNDERGROUND signs were used outside stations in Central London . The UERL eventually controlled all underground railways in London except the Waterloo & City Railway , the Metropolitan Railway and its subsidiary the Great Northern & City Railway , and introduced station name boards with a red disc and a blue bar .
'Non @-@ stop ' working was introduced on the District in December 1907 . Usually just a few stations were missed ; trains were marked NON STOP or ALL STATIONS as appropriate and panels beside the doors listed the stations the train would skip . East of Bow Road station the District shared the tracks with LT & SR steam engines and widening the railway to East Ham was considered essential . Four tracks were laid and two electrified as far as Barking , where the Tilbury and Upminster routes separated . On 1 April 1908 District trains were extended through to Barking and the work was largely finished in July 1908 . After 2 May 1909 trains no longer reversed at Hounslow Town after the station was closed and a new Hounslow Town station opened on the direct route .
Since 1904 , after the District had notified the Met that it would not use its running rights on the Uxbridge line with steam trains , it had not run services , although it paid the £ 2 @,@ 000 a year that was due under the enabling Act . When the District suggested running as far as Rayners Lane , the Met responded with a proposal to rebuild the station as a District terminus . The District proposed running trains through to Uxbridge , leading to negotiations about the charges for traction current before District services were extended to Uxbridge on 1 March 1910 . In 1910 a platform was built at Mill Hill Park for the Hounslow and Uxbridge shuttles and a flying junction built north of the station to separate the Ealing and Hounslow traffic . The station was renamed Acton Town on 1 March 1910 .
Between Turnham Green and Ravenscourt Park the District shared tracks with L & SWR steam trains to Richmond , a GWR steam service from Richmond to Ladbroke Grove and Midland coal trains . The District and L & SWR agreed to quadruple the tracks to allow a pair for the District 's sole use and build a station on the District tracks at Stamford Brook . The line was first used on 3 December 1911 and Stamford Brook opened on 1 February 1912 . However , the GWR had already withdrawn their service and L & SWR was to withdraw in 1916 . A flying junction separating the Richmond and Hammersmith routes west of Earl 's Court opened in January 1914 .
From 1910 the LT & SR ran through trains from Ealing Broadway to Southend or Shoeburyness , hauled to Barking by the District 's electric locomotives that were no longer needed for the L & NWR 's outer circle service , then pulled by steam locomotive . From 1912 two specially built sets of saloon coaches with retention toilets were used . In the 1920s the off @-@ peak weekday service was a train every ten minutes from Wimbledon and Ealing and every fifteen minutes from Richmond . Six trains per hour ran from Putney Bridge to High Street Kensington . Trains from Hounslow left every 6 – 8 minutes , terminating at Acton Town or South Acton . Six trains per hour left Hammersmith for South Harrow , three continuing to Uxbridge . In 1925 the inner circle service was ten trains per hour in each direction , but this frequency of service caused problems . A reduction to eight would leave the Kensington High Street to Edgware Road section with too few trains . However the Metropolitan had recently rebuilt it with four platforms as part of an abandoned plan for a tube to Kilburn . The District extended its Putney to High Street service to Edgware Road and the Metropolitan provided all inner circle trains at a frequency of eight trains per hour .
In 1923 the London , Midland and Scottish Railway had inherited the LT & SR line to Barking , and in 1929 proposed quadrupling the line to Upminster and electrifying one pair of tracks for use by the District . On 12 September 1932 services started with new stations at Upney and Heathway ( now Dagenham Heathway ) with platforms only on the District tracks .
= = = = Piccadilly line extension = = = =
In November 1912 a bill was published that included a plan to extend the Piccadilly tube tracks westwards from Hammersmith to connect to the L & SWR 's Richmond branch tracks . The bill passed as the London Electric Railway Act , 1913 on 15 August 1913 , although the advent of World War I prevented work on the extension .
Powers were renewed in 1926 for four tracks from Hammersmith to west of Acton Town , with the concept of the Piccadilly running non @-@ stop on the inner pair . The proposed service split , with the Piccadilly running through to Harrow and Hounslow , was clarified by 1929 . District services would run mainly through to Wimbledon , Richmond , Hounslow and Ealing , with shuttles from South Harrow to Uxbridge and Acton Town to South Acton .
With finance guaranteed by the Development ( Loan Guarantees and Grants ) Act of 1929 , construction started in 1930 . Four tracks were built from Studland Road junction to Northfields on the Hounslow branch . At the junction at Turnham Green for Richmond eastbound freight loops were built for coal trains to Kensington . Acton Town was rebuilt with five platforms , and a depot was built west of Northfields station .
Several stations were rebuilt in a Modernist style influenced or designed by Charles Holden , who was inspired by examples of Modernist architecture in mainland Europe . This influence can be seen in the bold vertical and horizontal forms , which were combined with the use of traditional materials like brick . Holden called them ' brick boxes with concrete lids ' . Today , several of these Holden @-@ designed stations are listed buildings , including the prototype Sudbury Town listed as Grade II * .
On 4 July 1932 the District service from Acton Town to South Harrow was withdrawn and one in three Piccadilly trains extended from Hammersmith to South Harrow , the District continuing to run a shuttle from South Harrow to Uxbridge . On 18 December 1932 all four tracks to Northfields opened and from 9 January 1933 Piccadilly trains started to run to Northfields , continuing to Hounslow West from 13 March 1933 . District trains continued to run through to Hounslow off @-@ peak , with a shuttle from South Acton .
= = = London Passenger Transport Board , 1933 = = =
The UERL 's ownership of the highly profitable London General Omnibus Company ( LGOC ) since 1912 had enabled the UERL group , through the pooling of revenues , to use profits from the bus company to subsidise the less profitable railways . However , competition from numerous small bus companies during the early 1920s eroded the profitability of the LGOC and had a negative impact on the profitability of the group .
To protect the UERL group 's income , its chairman Lord Ashfield lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area . Starting in 1923 , a series of legislative initiatives were made in this direction , with Ashfield and Labour London County Councillor ( later MP and Minister of Transport ) Herbert Morrison , at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought . Ashfield aimed for regulation that would give the UERL group protection from competition and allow it to take control of the LCC 's tram system ; Morrison preferred full public ownership . After seven years of false starts , a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) , a public corporation that would take control of the UERL , the Metropolitan Railway and all bus and tram operators within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area . The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933 . On this date , ownership of the assets of the District and the other Underground companies transferred to the LPTB .
= = = Legacy = = =
The railway became the District line of London Transport . From 23 October 1933 a Piccadilly line service replaced the Harrow to Uxbridge District shuttle . In 1923 the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) had taken over the L & NWR railway 's outer circle service from Earl 's Court and by the Second World War this had been cut back to an electrified Earl 's Court to Willesden Junction shuttle . Following bombing of the West London Line in 1940 the LMS and the Metropolitan line services to Addison Road were both suspended . After the war , to serve the Kensington exhibition halls a District line shuttle service started from Earl 's Court to Addison Road , now renamed Kensington Olympia .
The off @-@ peak District Hounslow branch shuttle to South Acton was discontinued on 29 April 1935 and replaced by an Acton Town to South Acton shuttle . This shuttle was withdrawn on 28 February 1959 , and the peak hour District line through service to Hounslow was withdrawn on 9 October 1964 . In the 1970s the Hounslow branch became the Heathrow branch when it was extended to serve Heathrow Airport , first on 19 July 1975 to serve Hatton Cross and then on 16 December 1977 when Heathrow Central opened .
= = Rolling stock = =
= = = Steam locomotives = = =
When in 1871 the District Railway needed its own locomotives , they ordered twenty four condensing steam locomotives from Beyer Peacock similar to the A Class locomotives the Metropolitan Railway was using on the route . As they were intended for an underground railway , the locomotives did not have cabs , but had a weatherboard with a bent @-@ back top . The back plate of the bunker was raised to provide protection when running bunker first . A total of fifty four locomotives were purchased . They were still in service in 1905 when the line was electrified , and all but six were sold the following year .
= = = Electric locomotives = = =
In 1905 the District bought ten bogie box cab locomotives that looked similar to their multiple units but were only 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) long . They were manufactured by the Metropolitan Amalgamated Carriage and Wagon Company and most had a single cab at one end . Consequently , they were operated in pairs , coupled back to back with the cabs at the outer end .
The locomotives were used to haul L & NWR passenger trains on the electrified section of the Outer Circle route between Earl 's Court and Mansion House . After December 1908 these services terminated at Earl 's Court . The locomotives were used to haul District trains , one coupled to each end of a rake of four trailer cars . From 1910 the locomotives were used on London , Tilbury and Southend Railway ( LT & SR ) trains extended over the District line , taking over from steam locomotives at Barking .
= = = Carriages = = =
The steam carriages were four wheeled , 29 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 89 m ) long over the buffers . First , second and third class compartments were available . First class carriages had four compartments , the others five . Lighting was initially provided by burning coal gas held in bags on the roof , later by a pressurised oil gas system . At first they were fitted with a chain brake . This was replaced by the simple Westinghouse brake and then a fully automatic Westinghouse brake .
Initially trains were made up of eight carriages , but after 1879 nine became the standard . At the end of 1905 the District replaced 395 carriages with electric multiple units . A preserved carriage at the Kent and East Sussex Railway was thought to be a District Railway first class , but now thought likely to be a cutdown Metropolitan Railway eight wheeler .
= = = Electric multiple units = = =
In 1903 the District tested two seven @-@ car trains with different control and brake systems on its unopened line between Ealing and South Harrow . Access to the car was by platforms with lattice gates at their ends and hand operated sliding doors on the car sides . Later some trailer cars were fitted with driving controls and two and three car trains operated from Mill Hill Park to Hounslow and South Harrow and later Uxbridge until they were withdrawn in 1925 .
The District Railway ordered 60 x 7 @-@ car electric trains in 1903 . A third of the vehicles were made in England , the rest in Belgium and France and electrical equipment was installed on arrival at Ealing Common Works . Access was by sliding doors , double doors in the centre and single doors at either end . First and third class accommodation were provided in open saloons with electric lighting . The seats were covered with rattan in third class and plush in first . From 1906 the standard formation was six cars , with an equal number of motor and trailer cars running in either two or four car formations off @-@ peak . By 1910 the District required additional rolling stock and ordered cars largely constructed of steel . The first batch arrived in 1911 , followed by more in 1912 from a different manufacturer but to a similar design . Further cars arrived in 1914 with an elliptical roof instead of the clerestory roof on the earlier designs . In 1920 the District took delivery of new cars , incompatible with the existing fleet , with three hand @-@ operated double sliding doors on each side .
In 1923 fifty motor car bodies were ordered to allow some of the original 1904 – 05 car bodies to be scrapped . From 1926 two stock pools were created . Main line trains were formed from 101 new motor cars supplemented by motor cars rebuilt from the steel bodied cars originally constructed in 1910 – 14 and 1923 , and trailers modified from the original wooden bodied cars . A small pool of unmodified ' local stock ' worked the shuttles from Acton Town to South Acton , South Harrow and Hounslow .
In 1932 the line to Upminster was electrified and new vehicles were purchased . After the District Railway became part of London Underground , similar cars were ordered to allow the Metropolitan line be extended to Barking and replace some of the rapidly deteriorating original wooden trailers . The 1935 – 40 New Works Programme fitted electro @-@ pneumatic brakes and air @-@ operated doors to most of the District line stock and allowed the remaining wooden cars to be scrapped . A number of motor cars were not suitable for conversion and so some trains retained their hand @-@ worked doors and these ran until 1957 .
As of March 2015 a driving motor car built in 1923 is a static exhibit at London Transport Museum at Covent Garden .
= = = Other publications = = =
= Göttingen Seven =
The Göttingen Seven ( German : Göttinger Sieben ) were a group of seven professors from Göttingen . In 1837 , they protested against the abolition or alteration of the constitution of the Kingdom of Hanover by Ernest Augustus and refused to swear an oath to the new king of Hanover . The company of seven was led by Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann , who himself was one of the key advocates of the unadulterated constitution . The other six were the Germanist brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm ( famed fairy tale and folk tale writers and storytellers , known together as the Brothers Grimm ) , jurist Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht , historian Georg Gottfried Gervinus , physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber , and theologian and orientalist Heinrich Georg August Ewald .
= = Background = =
The constitution that Ernst Augustus opposed came into effect in 1833 , while the King was still heir presumptive to the Hanoverian throne . Historian and politician Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann contested Ernest Augustus ' plans to change the constitution to his liking , as Dahlman himself had contributed to the constitution 's framing . Additionally , Dahlmann existed as the representative of the University of Göttingen , in the second chamber of the noble court .
The death of King William IV on June 20 , 1837 had a great impact on Hanover 's political positioning , relations , and union with the group of constitutional states in the German Confederation . With William 's death , the personal union ended between Hanover and the United Kingdom , and William 's brother ( Ernest Augustus ) took over as ruler of the kingdom of Hanover . Augustus ' niece Victoria acceded to the throne of the United Kingdom , but could not inherit Hanover due to the provision of Salic Law in force in Hanover , which barred females from ruling .
About one month after he succeeded to the throne , King Ernest addressed the matter of the Constitution . He stated that he was not bound by it , as his consent had not been asked to it . He also indicated that it would have been different , or perhaps even non @-@ existent , had he been in power at the time of its composition . He declared that it was his aim and ambition to make the necessary changes to the constitution and rewrite it to reflect his values .
Hearing this , Dahlmann made an attempt to persuade his colleagues at the University of Göttingen senate to disapprove of the king 's intent to change the constitution , and take some form of action . None of his over 40 different colleagues were willing to support Dahlmann 's view and possibly cause public conflict or unrest during ongoing festivities of the 100th anniversary of the Georg @-@ August University of Göttingen .
= = Protest and aftermath = =
On November 1 of the same year , Ernest Augustus annulled the constitution . This move was met with political criticism from some German states . The move also provoked Dahlmann to again appeal to the university and to compose a protestation opposing Augustus ' decision . This time , he received a better response : six other professors were now willing to sign as opposers . These six plus Dahlmann became known as the Göttingen Seven . Dahlmann 's document was published on November 18 and it met with an explosive influence — the students at the university produced many hundreds or even thousands of copies and disseminated them across Germany .
The protest 's impact forced the king to take action , and the seven defiant professors were questioned before the university court on December 4 . Ten days later , the seven were relieved of their posts at the university , and three of them ( Dahlmann , Jacob Grimm , and Gervinus ) were given three days to leave the country . The university viewed the dismissal as a great loss to the university , confirmed in writings about the event during the time .
The direct effects of the protest were limited , but public sensation and media interest was high in Germany and much of Europe , and the seven were popular among the general public . Each of the seven had his own personal reasons for defying the king , but the fact that they had done so was the central catalyst for the media and public attention . The efforts of the Göttingen Seven outlived each of them , and the creation of a liberal republic in Germany can in part be traced back to their protest .
= = = Literature = = =
= Operation Bodenplatte =
Operation Bodenplatte ( Baseplate ) , launched on 1 January 1945 , was an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries during the Second World War . The goal of Bodenplatte was to gain air superiority during the stagnant stage of the Battle of the Bulge so that the German Army and Waffen @-@ SS forces could resume their advance . The operation was planned for 16 December 1944 , but was delayed repeatedly due to bad weather until New Year ’ s Day , the first day that happened to be suitable .
Secrecy for the operation was so tight that not all German ground and naval forces had been informed of the operation and some units suffered casualties from friendly fire . British signals intelligence ( Ultra ) recorded the movement and buildup of German air forces in the region , but did not realise that an operation was imminent .
The operation achieved some surprise and tactical success , but was ultimately a failure . A great many Allied aircraft were destroyed on the ground but replaced within a week . Allied aircrew casualties were quite small , since the majority of Allied losses were empty planes sitting on the ground . The Germans , however , lost many pilots that they could not readily replace .
Post @-@ battle analysis suggests only 11 of the Luftwaffe 's 34 air combat Gruppen made attacks on time and with surprise . The operation failed to achieve air superiority , even temporarily , while the German ground forces continued to be exposed to Allied air attack . Bodenplatte was the last large @-@ scale strategic offensive operation mounted by the Luftwaffe during the war .
= = Background = =
The armies of the Western Allies were supported by the Allied Air Forces as they advanced across Western Europe in 1944 . The Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and its Second Tactical Air Force — under the command of Air Marshal Arthur Coningham — moved No. 2 Group RAF , No. 83 Group RAF , No. 84 Group RAF and No. 85 Group RAF to continental Europe in order to provide constant close air support . The RAF harassed the German air , sea and ground forces by hitting strong points and interdicting their supply lines while reconnaissance units apprised the Allies of German movements . With Allied air superiority , the German Army could not operate effectively . The Luftwaffe , however , found it difficult to provide effective air cover for the German Army . Although German aircraft production peaked in 1944 the Luftwaffe was critically short of pilots and fuel , and lacked experienced combat leaders .
The land battles moved towards the River Rhine , to the east of which lay the German heartland . Most of France had been liberated , as had the Belgian cities Brussels and Antwerp . Although Operation Market Garden had failed in 1944 , by 1945 the Allies had overrun most of the southern Netherlands and the Scheldt Estuary . As the ground forces moved across Europe , the Allied tactical air forces moved into new bases on the continent , to continue providing close support . The only limiting factor for the Allies was the weather . As winter came , the rains and mud turned airfields into quagmires , so large @-@ scale air and land operations came to a halt .
The situation might well have continued until the spring thaw had the German High Command ( Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ) not launched Unternehmen Wacht am Rhein ( Operation Watch on the Rhine ) on 16 December 1944 . The land offensive was to improve the German military position by capturing Antwerp and separating the British Army from United States Army forces . Part of the planning for the German land operation required the attack to be conducted under the cover of bad winter weather , which kept the main Allied asset , the Tactical Air Forces , on the ground . It initially succeeded , but the weather also grounded the Luftwaffe for the most part . Nevertheless , the Luftwaffe did manage to put 500 aircraft into the air on 16 December , more than had been achieved for a long time . This first day had been the originally planned date for the strike against Allied airfields , named Operation Bodenplatte . However , the weather proved particularly bad and operations were shut down .
The offensive achieved surprise and much initial success . To counter the attack from the air , the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) handed operational control of its XXIX Tactical Air Command and part of its Ninth Air Force , under the command of Major General Hoyt Vandenberg , to the RAF and Arthur Coningham . On 23 December , the RAF Second Tactical Air Force provided the American forces with much needed support , and helped prevent a German capture of Malmedy and Bastogne . This left the Germans with only the logistical bottleneck of St. Vith to support their operations . The German attack faltered .
The Luftwaffe had been far from absent over the front in December . It flew several thousand sorties over the theatre . Its encounters with the RAF and USAAF had meant heavy losses in matériel and pilots . On the eight days of operations between 17 and 27 December 1944 , 644 fighters were lost and 227 damaged . This resulted in 322 pilots killed , 23 captured and 133 wounded . On the three days of operations 23 – 25 December , 363 fighters were destroyed . None of the Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commanders ) expected any large @-@ scale air operations by the end of the month .
= = Plan = =
In September 1944 , Adolf Hitler resolved to recover Germany ′ s deteriorating fortunes by launching an offensive in the West . On 16 September , Hitler directed Generalleutnant Werner Kreipe — Chief of the General Staff — to prepare the necessary aircraft for the offensive . On 21 October , Kreipe ordered the air fleet defending the Greater German Reich ( Luftflotte Reich ) to hand over seven Jagdgeschwader and Schlachtgeschwader to Air Command West ( Luftwaffenkommando West ) for a future offensive .
On 14 November , Hermann Göring — Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Luftwaffe — ordered the 2 . Jagddivision and the 3 . Jagddivision to prepare their units for a large @-@ scale ground attack operation in the Ardennes . Preparations were to be complete by 27 November . The attack was to be carried out on the first day of the offensive .
Generalmajor Dietrich Peltz was to plan the operation having been appointed C @-@ in @-@ C of II . Fliegerkorps on 8 December . Luftwaffenkommando West had ordered all units — except Jagdgeschwader 300 and 301 — to attend the main planning meeting in Flammersfeld on 5 December . On 14 December , Peltz officially initiated plans for a major blow against the Allies in northwest Europe . Peltz was not a fighter pilot ; his combat record was as a dive bomber pilot , flying the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka . His experiences in Poland , in France , and during the early campaigns on the Eastern Front had moulded him into an outstanding ground attack specialist , making him an ideal candidate for planning Bodenplatte .
On 15 December , this plan was worked out with the help of the Luftwaffe ′ s Jagd @-@ Geschwaderkommodore , among them Gotthard Handrick ( Jagdabschnittsführer Mittelrhein ; Fighter Sector Leader Middle Rhein ) , Walter Grabmann and Karl Hentschel , commanders of 3 @.@ and 5 . Jagddivision respectively . It was originally scheduled to support the Battle of the Bulge , the German Army ′ s offensive , which began 16 December 1944 . However , the same bad weather that prevented the RAF and USAAF from supporting their own ground forces also prevented the Luftwaffe from carrying out the operation . It was therefore not launched until 1 January 1945 . By this time , the German Army had lost momentum owing to Allied resistance and clearing weather , which allowed Allied Air Forces to operate . The German Army attempted to restart the attack by launching Operation Northwind ( Unternehmen Nordwind ) . The Luftwaffe was to support this offensive through Bodenplatte .
The plan of Bodenplatte called for a surprise attack against 16 Allied air bases in Belgium , the Netherlands and France . The object was to destroy or cripple as many Allied aircraft , hangars and airstrips as possible . Every fighter and fighter @-@ bomber Geschwader ( Wing ) currently occupied with air defence along the Western Front was redeployed . Additional night @-@ fighter units ( Nachtjagdgeschwader ) and medium bomber units ( Kampfgeschwader ) acted as pathfinders . The strike formations themselves were mostly single @-@ engine Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 fighters .
However , in a blunder , the planners had set flight paths that took many units over some of the most heavily defended areas on the continent , namely the V2 launch sites around The Hague . These sites were protected by large numbers of German anti @-@ aircraft artillery ( AAA ) units . At the turn of 1944 / 45 Air Command West had 267 heavy and 277 medium or light AAA batteries , and in addition to this there were 100 Kriegsmarine AAA batteries along the Dutch coast . Most of these lay in the sector of the 16th AAA Division , with its control station at Doetinchem , 15 mi ( 24 km ) northeast of Arnhem . Some of the AAA units been warned about the air operation but were not kept up to date with developments about changing timetables and the flight plan of German formations . As a result , many of the German fighter units lost aircraft to " friendly fire " before the attacks could be initiated .
After five years of war and heavy attrition many of the Luftwaffe 's pilots were inexperienced and poorly trained , deficient in marksmanship and flight skills . There was a shortage of experienced instructors , and many of the training units were forced to fly front @-@ line operations in order to bolster the front @-@ line Jagdgeschwader . Long @-@ range Allied fighters exacerbated this situation by shooting down many training aircraft . By late 1944 there were no safe areas in which pilots could be trained without the possibility of air attack . Allied personnel who witnessed the attacks frequently remarked on the poor aim of the strafing aircraft , and many of the Luftwaffe aircraft shot down by Allied anti @-@ aircraft fire were caught because they were flying too slowly and too high . Aviation fuel supplies were also at a premium .
The plan called for the units to maintain strict radio silence and secrecy in order to maintain surprise . Maps were also only half complete , identified only enemy installations , and left out flight paths , lest the document fall into Allied hands enabling them to trace the whereabouts of German fighter bases . Most commanders were also refused permission to brief their pilots until moments before take @-@ off . This created operational confusion . Commanders only managed to get across the bare essentials of the plan . When the operation got under way , many German pilots still did not understand what the operation was about , or what exactly was required of them . They were convinced it was just a reconnaissance in force over the front , and were happy to follow their flight leaders on this basis .
= = = Targets and order of battle = = =
It is unclear whether all of the following were deliberately targeted . Evidence suggests that Grimbergen , Knocke and Ophoven were targeted in error , as was Heesch . In all , the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( OKL ) deployed 1 @,@ 035 aircraft from several Jagdgeschwader ( JG — fighter wings ) Kampfgeschwader ( KG — bomber wings ) , Nachtjadggeschwader ( NJG — night fighter wings ) and Schlachtgeschwader ( SG — ground attack wings ) ; of these , 38 @.@ 5 % were Bf 109s , 38 @.@ 5 % Fw 190As , and 23 % Fw 190Ds .
Below is the German target list :
= = = Codenames = = =
Following the Unternehmen Bodenplatte raids , the Allies retrieved several log @-@ books from crashed German aircraft . In several of these , the entry " Auftrag Hermann 1 @.@ 1 . 1945 , Zeit : 9 @.@ 20 Uhr " was translated as " Operation Hermann to commence on 1 January 1945 , at 9 : 20am . " This led the Allies to believe the operation itself was named Hermann for Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring . Four further different codes were used for the attack :
Varus : Indicating that the operation was " a go " and that it would take place within 24 hours of the Varus order being given .
Teutonicus : Authority to brief the pilots and to arrange for the aircraft to be armed and ready at the edge of the airfield .
Hermann : Giving the exact date and time of the attack .
Dorothea : Indicating a delay in the attack .
Spätlese : Cancelling of the attack after formations are airborne .
= = = Allied intelligence = = =
Allied intelligence failed to detect the German intention . In Ultra transcripts , there are only a few indications of what was happening on the other side of the front . On 4 December 1944 , II Jagdkorps had ordered stockpiling for navigational aids , such as " golden @-@ rain " flares and smoke bombs . Allied intelligence made no written observations of this communication . They also disregarded communications to Junkers Ju 88 groups regarding the use of flares when leading formations . Intelligence concluded that these instructions were designed for a ground support mission rather than an interception operation . This was reasonable , but no indications of possible ground targets were given .
On 20 December , a 3 . Jagddivision message was intercepted confirming that the locations for emergency landing grounds during a " special undertaking " had remained unchanged . This was a clear indication that something was amiss , but Allied intelligence did not comment on it . It also ignored more messages indicating that low @-@ level attacks were being practised . Allied intelligence , by 16 December , had monitored the reshuffling of both German Army and Luftwaffe formations opposite the American @-@ held front at the Ardennes . Yet nothing major was suspected .
= = Battle = =
= = = Maldegem , Ursel and St. Denijs Westrem = = =
Jagdgeschwader 1 ( JG 1 ) was responsible for the attack on the Ursel and Maldegem airfields . Oberstleutnant Herbert Ihlefeld led the Geschwader . The formation was mixed ; Stab . , ( headquarters flight or Stabschwarm , attached to every Geschwader ) , I. and II . / JG 1 operated the Fw 190 while the III . / JG 1 flew the Bf 109 . I. / JG 1 lost four of their number to friendly anti @-@ aircraft fire . Three of the four pilots were killed .
The attacks at Maldegem and Ursel began at 08 : 30 . Both I and II . / JG 1 became involved in intense dogfights . III . / JG 1 had lost only one aircraft over the target ( and not to enemy fire ) . I. / JG lost a further Fw 190 to friendly anti @-@ aircraft fire as it made its way to Ursel . III . / JG 1 lost at least two further Fw 190s to friendly anti @-@ aircraft fire . Casualties could have been heavier , had the British anti @-@ aircraft defences of Maldegem airfield not been removed in December .
Stab. and I. / JG 1 lost 13 Fw 190s and nine pilots were missing ; five were killed and four were captured . Thus the loss rates in personnel and matériel were 39 and 56 % , respectively . III . / JG 1 lost only three Bf 109s with one pilot dead and two captured . I. / JG 1 claimed 30 British Spitfires on the ground and two shot down over Maldegem . At Maldegem , 16 aircraft were destroyed , and at Ursel only six were lost . The claims of I. / JG 1 were actually more in line with British total losses at both Maldegem and Ursel . No. 131 Wing RAF / Polish Wing lost 13 Spitfires plus two damaged beyond repair , a total of 15 lost . At Ursel , six aircraft were destroyed , including , a B @-@ 17 , two Lancasters and a Mosquito . I. and III . / JG 1 lost a total of 16 aircraft and 12 pilots — not a good return .
II . / JG 1 attacked the airfield at St. Denis Westrem . Of the 36 II . / JG 1 Fw 190s that took off , 17 were shot down , a staggering 47 % loss rate . Among the pilots lost were several experienced fliers . In exchange , the Germans shot down two Spitfires , and seven forced @-@ landed . At St. Denis 18 Spitfires were destroyed on the ground .
Altogether JG 1 lost 25 pilots and 29 aircraft . This return for around 60 enemy aircraft ( 54 on the ground ) cannot be considered a complete success , although the damage at St. Denijs Westrem and Maldegem had been significant . Just nine of the fighters lost by JG 1 are confirmed to have been shot down in combat with Spitfires . It is possible a further three more were shot down by Spitfires , or perhaps ground fire . Two Spitfires were shot down and destroyed , with two more damaged . One pilot of each Squadron ( 308 and 317 ) was killed . The total Spitfire losses were perhaps 32 .
= = = Sint @-@ Truiden = = =
Schlachtgeschwader 4 and Jagdgeschwader 2 ( SG 4 and JG 2 ) were to strike at Sint @-@ Truiden airfield . JG 2 was commanded by Kurt Bühligen . I. / JG 2 's ground crews managed to make ready 35 of 46 Fw 190s , 29 of which were Fw 190D . Only 33 pilots were fit for operations . So the Gruppe reported only 33 Fw 190s ready . II . / JG 2 could field 20 of 29 Bf 109s . Stab . / JG 2 had three Fw 190s ready for the mission . It is not clear whether Bühligen took part in the mission . III . / JG 2 reported 40 Fw 190s operational , 34 of them Fw 190Ds . However , only 28 of the 43 pilots in the unit were fit for operations and the formation fielded only 28 fighters . In total , 84 aircraft were ready on 31 December , including 28 Fw 190D @-@ 9s .
SG 4 was led by Alfred Druschel . It had 152 machines on strength , of which just 60 were operational , yet the 129 pilots were fit for action . Stab . / SG 4 had three Fw 190s and two pilots . I. / SG 4 had 21 Fw 190s operational and 27 pilots ready . II . / SG reported 27 Fw 190s ready , but pilot strength is unknown . III . / SG reported 24 Fw 190s , but only 16 were available at the forward airfields . Pilot strength is unknown . Best estimations make it around 60 Fw 190s operational , of which 55 took part .
At 09 : 12 , JG 2 crossed the front line at Malmedy and was greeted by an enormous volume of Allied ground fire . The entire area was heavily defended by anti @-@ aircraft artillery , since the area had been the scene of heavy fighting , but also had been attacked by V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2 missiles . I. / JG 2 lost at least seven fighters to ground fire alone . III . / JG 2 lost 10 fighters . A possible seven Bf 109s from II . / JG 2 were also lost to ground fire . JG 2 attacked Asch and Ophoven airfields by mistake .
JG 2 ′ s mission was a disaster . I. / JG 2 lost 18 Fw 190s and six more were damaged by ground fire and enemy aircraft . This represented 73 % of their force . Of the 15 pilots missing , six would survive as POWs . II . / JG 2 lost five Bf 109s and three were damaged a loss rate of 40 % . Pilot losses were three missing , one dead and one wounded . III . / JG 2 lost 19 Fw 190s and three were damaged , a loss rate of 79 % . Nine pilots were killed , two were wounded and four were captured . JG 2 losses , according to another source , amounted to 40 % of its force . Pilot losses were 24 killed or posted missing , 10 captured and four wounded . Another source asserts that pilot losses stood at 23 killed or missing .
SG 4 ′ s mission was also a disaster . During the assembly phase , they flew across JG 11 ′ s flight path , and the formation was broken up . Some of the pilots joined JG 11 in the confusion . Unable to recover the formation , I and II . / SG 4 then decided to head home . The Kommodore , Druschel , had continued with five other pilots from III . / SG 4 who had lost contact with their Gruppe . They crossed the front near Hürtgenwald around 09 : 10 . As they did so , American anti @-@ aircraft batteries opened fire , claiming seven aircraft in the next 30 minutes . Only six of the 50 Fw 190s of SG 4 carried out an attack , against airfields near Aachen and the Asch aerodrome . Of these six , four did not return . Druschel himself was reported missing .
= = = Volkel and Heesch = = =
The target of Jagdgeschwader 6 ( JG 6 ) was Volkel . I and III . / JG 6 were to attack while II . / JG 6 was to provide cover against Allied fighters . I. / JG 6 managed to get 29 of its 34 Fw 190s ready , while 25 of II . / JG 6 ′ s fighters took part . Overall , most of the 99 Fw 190s were made available for the operation . III . / JG 6 received orders to target petrol installations on the airfield only . Only 78 Fw 190s took off .
While on course , JG 6 approached the airfield of Heesch and some of its pilots assumed it to be Volkel airfield . It is unlikely that the Heesch strip , built in October 1944 , was known to the Luftwaffe . No. 126 Wing RCAF was based there and had dispatched its 411 and 442 Squadrons on recce missions early that morning so the majority of its units were airborne . Its 401 Squadron was readying for takeoff when JG 6 appeared at 09 : 15 . Most of the German pilots had failed to notice the airfield , concentrating on keeping formation at low altitude . 401 Squadron scrambled . Some of the German fighters were authorised to engage , while the main body continued to search for Volkel . Stab . , and II . / JG 6 stumbled on another strip at Helmond , which contained no aircraft . Several German pilots believed it to be Volkel and attacked , losing several of their number to ground fire . II . / JG 6 suffered severely from Spitfire and Tempests based at Helmond . Very little damage was done at Heesch or Helmond .
In the event , all four Gruppen failed to find Volkel and its Hawker Tempests remained untouched . The only success JG 6 had was I. / JG ′ s erroneous attack on Eindhoven , which claimed 33 fighters and six medium bombers . Like Volkel , Helmond and Heesch had escaped damage . In the dogfights over Helmond , JG 6 claimed six kills . In fact , only two Spitfires were shot down and one badly damaged . Only one further fighter , a Hawker Typhoon , was shot down . Stab . / JG 6 lost the Kommodore , Kogler , as a POW . Of I. / JG ′ s 29 Fw 190s , seven were lost and two damaged ; of II . / JG 6 ′ s 25 Fw 190s , eight were destroyed and two damaged ; III . / JG 6 lost 12 out 20 Bf 109s . In total , JG 6 lost 43 % of its strength and suffered 16 pilots killed or missing and seven captured . As well as Kogler , one other commanding officer was lost — Gruppenkommandeure Helmut Kühle . Three Staffelkapitane were lost : Hauptmann Ewald Trost was captured , Hauptmann Norbert Katz was killed and Lothar Gerlach was posted missing presumed killed .
= = = Antwerp @-@ Deurne and Woensdrecht = = =
Deurne airfield was to be destroyed by Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 ) . Antwerp housed the largest Allied contingent of nine Squadrons . It had been incessantly attacked by V1 and V2 flying bombs and had been given a strong anti @-@ aircraft defence .
At 08 : 00 , two formations 18 Bf 109s of I and III . / JG 77 took off with their pathfinders . At the same time 23 Bf 109s of II . / JG 77 took off . Around the Bocholt area they formed up with the other two Gruppen . Heading south and still north of Antwerp , JG 77 passed Woensdrecht airfield . It was home to No. 132 Wing RAF and its five Spitfire squadrons ; No. 331 Squadron RAF , No. 332 Squadron RAF ( Norwegian ) , No. 66 Squadron RAF and No. 127 Squadron RAF , and No. 322 Squadron RAF ( Dutch ) . Some pilots from II . / JG 77 either mistakenly believed it to be Antwerp , or thought the opportunity was too good to pass up . Two German fighters were claimed shot down , and one pilot captured . However , none of the JG 77 casualties fit this description .
The main body continued to Antwerp . Some 12 – 30 German fighters attacked the airfield from 09 : 25 to 09 : 40 . The ground defences were alert and the German formations attacked in a disorganised manner . 145 Wing RAF was missed completely and considering the large number of targets the destruction was light ; just 12 Spitfires were destroyed .
In total , 14 Allied aircraft were destroyed and nine damaged . JG 77 lost 11 Bf 109s and their pilots were lost . Six were killed and five captured according to Allied sources . However , German records show the loss of only 10 pilots . Four are listed as captured .
= = = Metz @-@ Frescaty = = =
Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 ) was tasked with the operation against the USAAF airfield at Metz @-@ Frescaty Air Base . Stab . , II . , III . , and IV . / JG 53 were available . III . / JG 53 was to destroy anti @-@ aircraft installations in the Metz area , while the other Gruppen knocked out the airfields .
The USAAF XIX Tactical Air Command had established a strong presence in northeast France and was supporting the U.S. 3rd Army . JG 53 was to knock out its airfields . Some 26 Bf 109s took off but were intercepted by 12 P @-@ 47s of the 367th Fighter Squadron , 358th Fighter Group . The P @-@ 47s claimed 13 destroyed , one probable and six damaged for no losses . On the way home at 09 : 20 , III . / JG 53 were intercepted by 366th Fighter Squadron . Altogether , III . / JG 53 lost 10 Bf 109s and one damaged to the 358th Fighter Group . Of the 25 III . / JG 53 Bf 109s that took part , 11 were shot down representing 40 % of the attacking force . The 358th Fighter Group received the Distinguished Unit citation for preventing the attack on the 362nd Fighter Groups airfield .
Although III . / JG 53 failed , the main attack was a success by comparison . Stab , . II. and IV . / JG 53 encountered no difficulties on the outward leg . The Germans caused significant damage among the parked USAAF fighters on the field . When the attack against the Metz airfield was over , the three JG 53 Gruppen reported the loss of 20 Bf 109s and seven damaged . This represented more than 50 percent of the attacking 52 fighters . Some 13 pilots were missing ; three were killed , six remain missing as of today , and four were captured . A further three were wounded . JG 53 claimed 27 USAAF fighters on the ground and eight damaged . Added to this total is four aerial victories . In total JG 53 lost 30 Bf 109s and eight damaged in the two operations . This was a total loss of 48 % . The losses of the USAAF were 22 destroyed , 11 damaged ( all P @-@ 47ts ) . However , the negative effects of Bodenplatte on JG 53 outweighed any advantages gained .
= = = Le Culot and Ophoven = = =
Le Culot airfield ( later known as Beauvechain ) was 45 km ( 28 mi ) northeast of Charleroi and was the target of Jagdgeschwader 4 ( JG 4 ) target . The main strip ( A @-@ 89 ) was known locally as Beauvechain , and an auxiliary field known as Le Culot East ( Y @-@ 10 ) , known to the locals as Burettes , was nearby . It was known to the Luftwaffe because several of its units had operated there .
Geschwaderkommodore Major Gerhard Michalski commanded the force . Five pilots were shot down by ground fire . Another pilot got lost during the flight and ended up near Eindhoven where he was shot down and killed . Reduced in number , 8 – 10 fighters of IV . / JG 4 continued to their target . After 10 minutes , they located a fairly large airfield and attacked , believing it to be Le Culot . It was in fact Sint @-@ Truiden .
The mistake was easy to make , Le Culot was located nearby . Sint @-@ Truiden housed the 48th Fighter Group and 404th Fighter Group . The 492nd Fighter Squadron was readying to take off at 09 : 20 . JG 4 hit the airfield at 09 : 15 . Several P @-@ 47s taxiing out were abandoned by pilots and strafed to destruction . The small @-@ scale attack by JG had achieved considerable damage . Total American losses were 10 destroyed and 31 damaged . The Germans lost eight fighters , including seven Bf 109s , and three damaged . No damage was done at Le Culot airfield .
II ( Sturm ) . / JG 4 took off for Le Culot at 08 : 08 . Getting lost , they stumbled upon Asch airfield and claimed one P @-@ 47 destroyed and two twin @-@ engine aircraft damaged , as well as two trains and trucks destroyed . The unit claimed an Auster reconnaissance aircraft shot down . The machine was probably a Stinson L @-@ 1 Vigilant of the 125th Liaison Squadron , U.S. Army . However , virtually the entire Gruppe of 17 Fw 190s was wiped out .
I. and III . / JG 4 were to strike Le Culot together . Taking off at 08 : 20 and heading northwest , they comprised a force of 35 Bf 109s ( nine from III . / JG 4 ) . Two Ju 88G @-@ 1s of II . / NJG 101 lead as pathfinders . Some of I. / JG 4 attacked No. 125 Wing RAF Spitfires at Ophoven airfield . Spitfire losses are unclear . Two P @-@ 47s and a B @-@ 17 were destroyed . I. / JG 4 reported two Bf 109s missing , one damaged and one destroyed . Just a hangar , one P @-@ 47 and several vehicles were claimed , and the anti @-@ aircraft battery was silenced . The attack on the Spitfires at Ophoven and the mentioned B @-@ 17 and two P @-@ 47s are not included in the total . Another source suggests two Spitfires destroyed and 10 damaged at Ophoven .
According to one source , JG 4 ′ s losses were 25 fighters of the 55 that took part . With 17 pilots killed or missing and seven captured , JG 4 suffered a 42 % loss rate . A more recent source claims a total of 75 aircraft of JG 4 took part , with only 12 attacking ground targets . Two Ju 88 pathfinders were lost , as well as 26 fighters with six more damaged .
= = = Asch = = =
The Asch Airfield had been constructed in November 1944 and was home to the 352nd Fighter Group , 8th Air Force , and the 366th Fighter Group , Ninth Air Force . Jagdgeschwader 11 ( JG 11 ) was to destroy the airfield . I. / JG 11 had only 16 Fw 190s on strength and only six fit and operational pilots . Only six of I. / JG 1 ′ s pilots took part , and just four of Stab . / JG 1 ′ s pilots participated . III . / JG 11 had more aircraft than pilots , and so other Staffel made up the numbers . Just 41 Fw 190s of JG 11 took part in Bodenplatte ; four from the Stab . , six from I Gruppe and 31 of III Gruppe . The 20 fighters from II . Gruppe were Bf 109s .
The plan called for a low @-@ level strike by I and III . / JG 11 , while II . / JG 11 flew as top cover against USAAF fighters . The pilots were shown maps and photographs of the airfield , but were not told the targets ' identity until the morning of the attack . After crossing Allied lines , four fighters were lost to AAA fire . The course of JG 11 took it directly over Ophoven . Large formations of JG 11 attacked , in the mistaken belief it was Asch . The other half continued to Asch . Ophoven housed No. 125 Wing RAF , just 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of Asch . About half , or some 30 Fw 190s and Bf 109s attacked the airfield .
Asch was notable for a chance event . The 390th Squadron of the 366th Fighter Group had launched two fighter sweeps that morning , which played a crucial role in the failure of JG 11 ′ s attack . The leader of the 487th squadron , 352nd Fighter Group , John Charles Meyer , anticipated German activity and had a flight of 12 P @-@ 51s about to take off on a combat patrol when the attack began . They took off under fire .
Several pilots made " Ace " status that day . No P @-@ 51s were lost ; two were damaged and one was damaged on the ground . The 336th Fighter Group lost one P @-@ 47 . The 366th was credited with eight kills , and AAA claimed seven more . However , overclaiming is likely . Luftwaffe records indicate JG 11 lost 28 fighters . Four German pilots ( two wounded ) made it back to German @-@ held territory , while four were captured and the remaining twenty were killed . Some 24 of the Bf 109s and Fw 190s lost were lost over enemy lines . German ace Günther Specht was among those German pilots killed .
Little is known about the claims of JG 11 . According to one German document , 13 fighters , two twin @-@ engine and one four @-@ engine aircraft were claimed destroyed . Five fighters were claimed damaged on " Glabbeek airfield " — in reality it was Ophoven . Ten aerial victories and one probable were also claimed . But U.S. Fighter Group losses indicate these claims are excessive .
The Americans claimed 35 kills . Only 14 can be judged with a degree of certainty to have been shot down by USAAF fighters , and possibly two more . Four are confirmed to have been shot down by AAA fire . Total JG 11 losses were 28 . The air battle over Asch had lasted 45 minutes .
= = = Brussels @-@ Evere / Grimbergen = = =
Jagdgeschwader 26 ( JG 26 ) and the III . Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 ) were to strike at Brussels @-@ Evere . At the end of December , II . / JG 26 had 39 D @-@ 9s and III . / JG 26 had 45 Bf 109s . Records of available aircraft indicate 110 aircraft of JG 26 flew that day ; all but 29 were Fw 190s , the remainder were Bf 109s . 17 Fw 190s from III . / JG 54 took part with JG 26 .
Unknown to the Luftwaffe the Grimbergen Airfield was almost completely abandoned . The Evere airfield was located to the south . It was one of the most densely populated airfields in Belgium and had plenty of targets . The main force consisted of 60 Spitfire XVIs of No. 127 Wing RAF . Also present were B @-@ 17s and B @-@ 24s of the Eighth Air Force . Overall , well over 100 aircraft were on the field .
At 08 : 13 , the first formations took off . In total , 64 Fw 190D @-@ 9s participated . Before the target was reached , some 14 D @-@ 9s were forced to turn back due to AAA damage or mechanical difficulties . Three Fw 190s were lost to German AAA fire . At 09 : 10 , when the front was reached , Allied heavy AAA units began to engage the formation and another five were shot down . Most of the fire was from British Naval AAA defences defending the Scheldt Estuary . As the formation crossed the Dutch and Belgian border , I. / JG 26 and III . / JG 54 were intercepted by Spitfires . Five of the Fw 190s were shot down . I. / JG 26 destroyed or damaged the few aircraft at the airfield . AAA defences claimed five kills and I. / JG 26 reported two Fw 190s lost to Spitfires . Several others were lost over the airfield . Other losses occurred against friendly fire again on the return flight .
The raid was a disaster . Just six machines were destroyed at Grimbergen for the loss of 21 Fw 190s and two damaged . Another eight sustained minor damage . Some 17 pilots were missing , eight of whom would survive as prisoners .
Only II. and III . / JG 26 hit Evere . Between 44 and 52 Fw 190s from these units took off . II. and III . / JG 26 knocked out the flak towers and destroyed anything combustible : hangars , trucks , fuel dumps and aircraft . 127 Wing RCAF lost one Spitfire in the air and 11 on the ground ; 11 vehicles were damaged and one was destroyed . A total of 60 – 61 Allied aircraft were destroyed at Evere . A large number of transports were located there and attracted the attention of German pilots , which left many more Spitfires undamaged . Given the number of Spitfires on the field , the Canadian wing suffered " low " losses . The Canadian Wing Commander — Johnnie Johnson — blamed the poor marksmanship of German pilots for failing to achieve further success .
Allied losses are given at Evere as 32 fighters , 22 twin @-@ engine aircraft and 13 four @-@ engine aircraft destroyed , plus another nine single , six twin and one four @-@ engine aircraft damaged . In total , II . / JG 26 losses included 13 Fw 190s destroyed and two damaged . Nine of its pilots were missing ; five were killed and four captured . III . / JG 26 lost six Bf 109s and four pilots . Only one of them was captured , the remainder were killed . The amount of damage the Germans inflicted made up for the losses ; the Evere strike was a success .
= = = Brussels @-@ Melsbroek = = =
Jagdgeschwader 27 and IV . / Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 27 and JG 54 ) targeted Melsbroek airfield . On 31 December , JG 27 could only muster the following operational pilots and aircraft : 22 ( 22 ) from I. , 19 ( 13 ) from II . , 13 ( 15 ) from III . , and 16 ( 17 ) from IV . Gruppe . Geschwaderkommadore Wolfgang Späte had rebuilt IV . / JG 54 . It had only 21 pilots and 15 of its 23 Fw 190s were operational . Altogether 28 Bf 109s of JG 27 and 15 Fw 190s of JG 54 took off . Seven fighters were lost to enemy aircraft and friendly AAA fire before they reached the target .
The Germans hit Melsbroek hard . According to Emil Clade ( leading III . / JG 27 ) , the AAA positions were not manned , and aircraft were bunched together or in lines , which made perfect targets . The attack caused considerable damage among the units based there and was a great success . The Recce Wings had lost two entire squadrons worth of machines . No. 69 Squadron RAF lost 11 Vickers Wellingtons and two damaged . No. 140 Squadron RAF lost four Mosquitoes , the losses being made good the same day . At least five Spitfires from No. 16 Squadron RAF were destroyed . No. 271 Squadron RAF lost at least seven Harrow transports " out of action " . A further 15 other aircraft were destroyed . 139 Wing reported five B @-@ 25s destroyed and five damaged . Some 15 to 20 USAAF bombers were also destroyed . Another source states that 13 Wellingtons were destroyed , as were five Mosquitoes , four Auster and five Avro Ansons from the Tactical Air Forces 2nd Communications Squadron . Three Spitfires were also lost and two damaged . At least one RAF Transport Command Douglas Dakota was destroyed .
The pilots of JG 27 and 54 claimed 85 kills and 40 damaged . German reconnaissance was able to confirm 49 kills . JG 27 suffered unacceptable losses ; 17 Bf 109s , 11 pilots killed , one wounded and three captured . IV . / JG 54 lost two killed and one captured . Three Fw 190s were lost and one damaged .
= = = Gilze @-@ Rijen and Eindhoven = = =
Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 ) and Kampfgeschwader 51 ( KG 51 ) were tasked with eliminating the Allied units at the Eindhoven base and Gilze @-@ Rijen airfield . The field contained three Spitfire Squadrons and eight Typhoon units of the RAF and RCAF . Some 22 Bf 109s of I. / JG 3 took off , along with four from Stab . / JG 3 , 15 from III . / JG 3 and 19 Fw 190s from IV . / JG 3 . KG 51 contributed some 21 of their 30 Messerschmitt Me 262 jets to the action . Some histories mistakenly include Kampfgeschwader 76 ( KG 76 ) on the order of battle , but KG 76 did not take part in the mission .
Each staffel was expected to make at least three firing passes . I. / JG 3 took off and joined the lead Gruppe , IV Sturm . / JG 3 , with III . / JG 3 following in the rear . The Bf 109s and Fw 190s of the Geschwader reached the area at about 09 : 20 . Geschwaderkommodore Heinrich Bär led the attack . Some pilots made four passes , destroying AAA emplacements , fuel storage stations and vehicles . Nearly 300 aircraft were on the field , along with huge stores of equipment and fuel . The attack caused fires all over the airfield .
JG 3 claimed 53 single @-@ engine and 11 twin @-@ engine aircraft destroyed . Five fighters and one four @-@ engine bomber were also claimed damaged . Four Typhoons , three Spitfires , one Tempest and another unidentified aircraft were claimed shot down . All in all , JG 3 managed to destroy 43 aircraft according to British records , and damage a further 60 , some seriously . The Geschwader believed it had destroyed 116 . JG 3 did not come away unscathed . I. / JG 3 lost nine of its aircraft and pilots , a 50 % loss rate . Damage to the returning Gruppe aircraft meant the entire unit was unserviceable . RAF AAA were credited with shooting down five . JG 3 lost , altogether , 15 of the 60 fighters sent , a 25 % loss rate . Some 15 pilots were missing ; nine were killed and five captured , and another pilot was posting as missing in action and his fate remains unknown . Another source says 16 pilots ; ten killed or missing and six captured .
The damage done to Eindhoven was significant and can be considered a victory for JG 3 . It was also assisted by elements of JG 6 which had misidentified Eindhoven as one their targets . The greatest losses were amongst the Recce Wing and the Canadian 124 Wing RCAF , which suffered 24 aircraft destroyed or damaged . The visiting 39 Wing RAF lost 30 aircraft destroyed or damaged . 143 Wing RCAF lost 29 damaged or destroyed . It is likely that I. / JG 3 was responsible for about 2 / 3 of the damage . Another source gives 47 aircraft destroyed and 43 damaged .
= = = Possible V @-@ 2 missile launch attempts = = =
At least one V @-@ 2 missile on a mobile Meillerwagen launch trailer was observed being elevated to launch position by a USAAF 4th Fighter Group pilot over the northern German attack route near the town of Lochem on 1 January 1945 . Possibly , from the potential sighting of the American fighter by the missile 's launch crew , the rocket was quickly lowered from a near launch @-@ ready 85 ° elevation to 30 ° .
= = Results of raid = =
The results of the raid are difficult to judge given the confusion over loss records . It is likely more aircraft were destroyed than listed . The Americans failed to keep a proper record of their losses and it appears the U.S. 8th Air Force losses were not included in loss totals . When these estimates and figures are added to the losses listed in the table below , it is likely that the correct figures are 232 destroyed ( 143 single @-@ engine , 74 twin @-@ engine and 15 four @-@ engine ) and 156 damaged ( 139 single @-@ engine , 12 twin @-@ engine and five four @-@ engine ) . Researching individual squadron records confirms the destruction of even more USAAF aircraft . This suggests at least a further 16 B @-@ 17s , 14 B @-@ 24s , eight P @-@ 51s , and at least two P @-@ 47s were destroyed on top of that total . A total of 290 destroyed and 180 damaged seems a more realistic summation than the conservative figures given by the USAAF , RAF , and RCAF . Including the 15 Allied aircraft shot down and 10 damaged in aerial combat , 305 destroyed and 190 damaged is the sum total of the attack .
Number can 't hide the fact that it was a disaster for Germans . Both sides had many backup planes so the main limiting factor for air forces was the number of trained pilots . The Allies lost , most of the time , empty fighters on the gound while the Germans lost crewed fighters . As a consequence pilot losses were completely different . Allies : 12 pilots KIA in planes and 12 KIA or wounded on the ground Germans : 238 pilots KIA or POW . This total does not include wounded .
The results of the attacks are listed : little to no damage light damage medium damage heavy damage
= = Aftermath and casualties = =
The operation achieved tactical surprise , but it was undone by poor execution and low pilot skill ( owing to poor training ) . The operation failed to achieve its aim and that failure was very costly to German air power . Some of the units of the RAF , RCAF and USAAF on the receiving end of Bodenplatte had been badly hit , others not so badly , but most had sustained some losses . The Germans , however , launched Bodenplatte under a set of conditions , such as poor planning and low pilot skill , which clearly indicated any advantage gained would be outweighed by possible losses . Bodenplatte weakened the Jagdwaffe past any hope of rebuilding . General der Jagdflieger Adolf Galland said , " We sacrificed our last substance " .
The Luftwaffe lost 143 pilots killed and missing , while 70 were captured and 21 wounded including three Geschwaderkommodore , five Gruppenkommandeure , and 14 Staffelkapitäne — the largest single @-@ day loss for the Luftwaffe . Many of the formation leaders lost were experienced veterans , which placed even more pressure on those who were left . Thus , Bodenplatte was a very short @-@ term success but a long @-@ term failure . Allied losses were soon made up , while lost Luftwaffe aircraft and especially pilots were irreplaceable . German historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote that it left the Germans " weaker than ever and incapable of mounting any major attack again " .
In the remaining 17 weeks of war the Jagdwaffe struggled to recover sufficiently from the 1 January operation to remain an effective force . In strategic terms , German historian Werner Girbig wrote , " Operation Bodenplatte amounted to a total defeat " . The exhausted German units were no longer able to mount an effective defence of German air space during Operation Plunder and Operation Varsity , the Allied crossing of the Rhine River , or the overall Western Allied invasion of Germany . Subsequent operations were insignificant as a whole , and could not challenge Allied air supremacy . The only service in the Luftwaffe capable of profitable sorties was the night fighter force . In the last six weeks of the war the Luftwaffe was to lose another 200 pilots killed . Girbig wrote , " it was not until the autumn of 1944 that the German fighter forces set foot down the sacrificial path ; and it was the controversial Operation Bodenplatte that dealt this force a mortal blow and sealed its fate . What happened from then on was no more than a dying flicker " .
= Shahid Kapoor =
Shahid Kapoor ( pronounced [ ʃaːɦɪd ̪ kəˈpuːr ] ; born 25 February 1981 ) , also known as Shahid Khattar , is an Indian actor who appears in Hindi films . The son of actors Pankaj Kapur and Neelima Azeem , Kapoor was born in New Delhi . His parents separated when he was three , and he continued living with his mother . They moved to Mumbai when has was 10 , where he joined Shiamak Davar 's dance academy . Kapoor appeared as a background dancer in a few films of the 1990s , and was later featured in music videos and television commercials .
Kapoor made his film debut in 2003 with a leading role in the romantic comedy Ishq Vishk , a sleeper hit for which he won a Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut . He followed it with roles in several commercial failures before starring opposite Amrita Rao in Sooraj Barjatya 's top @-@ grossing family drama Vivah ( 2006 ) . Kapoor earned nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor for portraying a troubled businessman in Imtiaz Ali 's romantic comedy Jab We Met ( 2007 ) and twin brothers in Vishal Bhardwaj 's caper thriller Kaminey ( 2009 ) . After appearing in another series of box office flops , he starred in the action film R ... Rajkumar ( 2013 ) — his highest @-@ grossing release . In 2014 , Kapoor portrayed the Hamlet character in Bhardwaj 's acclaimed drama Haider , for which he won the Best Actor award at Filmfare , and in 2016 , he played a drug abusing singer in the crime drama Udta Punjab .
Cited in the media as one of the most attractive Indian celebrities , Kapoor maintains his popularity despite a fluctuating career trajectory . Initially recognised for portraying romantic roles , Kapoor has since taken on parts in action films and thrillers . He is the recipient of several awards , including two Filmfare Awards . In addition to acting , Kapoor supports charities , hosts award ceremonies , and has featured as a talent judge on the dance reality show Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa Reloaded ( 2015 ) . Following a romantic relationship with the actress Kareena Kapoor , he married Mira Rajput , a student from New Delhi , in 2015 .
= = Early life = =
Shahid Kapoor was born in New Delhi on 25 February 1981 to actor Pankaj Kapur and actor @-@ dancer Neelima Azeem . His parents divorced when he was three years old ; his father shifted to Mumbai ( and married the actress Supriya Pathak ) and Kapoor continued living in Delhi with his mother and maternal grandparents . His grandparents were journalists for the Russian magazine Sputnik , and Kapoor was particularly fond of his grandfather : " He would walk me to school every single day . He would talk to me about dad , with whom he shared a great relationship , and read out his letters to me . " His father , who was then a struggling actor in Mumbai , would visit Kapoor only once a year on his birthday . When Kapoor was 10 , his mother , who was working as a dancer , moved to Mumbai to work as an actress .
In Mumbai , Azeem went on to marry the actor Rajesh Khattar . Kapoor continued living with his mother and Khattar , until they separated in 2001 . Kapoor continues to use the last name Khattar on his passport . He has a maternal half @-@ brother from his mother 's marriage to Khattar . From his father 's marriage to Pathak , he has two paternal half @-@ siblings . Kapoor was educated at the Gyan Bharati School in Delhi and Rajhans Vidyalaya in Mumbai . He later attended Mumbai 's Mithibai College for three years .
Kapoor was interested in dance from an early age , and at the age of 15 , he joined Shiamak Davar 's dance institute . As a student there , Kapoor appeared as a background dancer in the films Dil To Pagal Hai ( 1997 ) and Taal ( 1999 ) , in which Davar served as choreographer . During a stage show at the institute , Kapoor performed in the songs " Vogue " and " GoldenEye " to a positive response from the audience ; he described the experience as the first time that he " felt like a star " . He later became an instructor at the institute . During this time , Kapoor accompanied a friend to an audition for a Pepsi commercial featuring the stars Shah Rukh Khan , Kajol and Rani Mukerji , but wound up with the part himself . He appeared in television commercials for the brands Kit Kat and Close @-@ Up , among others , and featured in music videos for several performers , including the band Aryans and the singer Kumar Sanu . Kapoor also took on the job of an assistant director to his father on the 1998 television series Mohandas B.A.L.L.B.
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early work ( 2003 – 05 ) = = =
Having noticed Kapoor in the Aryans ' music video " Aankhon Mein " , the producer Ramesh Taurani was keen to cast him in a film . However , upon meeting him , Taurani thought Kapoor , who was 20 years old at the time , to be too young and underweight to become an actor , and encouraged him to wait for a few years . Kapoor , meanwhile , turned down a lead role in N. Chandra 's sex comedy Style in hopes of working with Taurani . Taurani found a suitable project for Kapoor in the teenage romance Ishq Vishk ( 2003 ) , which Ken Ghosh was directing for his company . Kapoor , who trained extensively for a bulkier physical build , was eventually hired . Before beginning work on the film , he attended acting workshops with Naseeruddin Shah and Satyadev Dubey .
Ishq Vishk tells the story of Rajiv Mathur ( Kapoor ) , a high @-@ school student who engages in a romantic affair with two classmates of contrasting personalities ( played by Amrita Rao and Shenaz Treasurywala ) . Kapoor was attracted to the idea of playing an unlikable lead since it was a departure from the traditional portrayal of teenage heroes in Indian films . Writing for The Hindu , the critic Ziya Us Salam did not find him to be " hero material " , adding that " boyhood seems to have overstayed on his face – but he is not necessarily bad in the acting department . " The film , however , proved to be a sleeper hit at the box office and won Kapoor the Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut .
Following his debut , Kapoor reunited with Ghosh in a film he considered to be drastically different from Ishq Vishk . The thriller Fida ( 2004 ) featured him as a love @-@ struck student who is manipulated by a woman ( Kareena Kapoor ) and her lover ( Fardeen Khan ) to rob a bank . Despite criticising the film , Rama Sharma of The Tribune wrote that Kapoor " shines in his role . He looks fresh . As an impulsive emotional and innocent guy , who is sucked into crime because of these very qualities , he manages to evoke your sympathies . " Later that year , Kapoor appeared in the romantic comedy Dil Maange More in which he was paired opposite three women : Soha Ali Khan , Tulip Joshi , and Ayesha Takia . Patcy N of Rediff.com praised his dancing skills but was wary of his imitation of Shah Rukh Khan 's acting style . Both his 2004 releases were commercially unsuccessful .
The series of poorly received films continued in 2005 , when all three of Kapoor 's films failed at the box office . His first two releases that year were the comedies Deewane Huye Paagal and Vaah ! Life Ho Toh Aisi ! , both of which were largely panned . The former was plagiarised from the Hollywood film There 's Something About Mary in which Kapoor played one of Rimi Sen 's love interests ; the critic Khalid Mohamed found Kapoor to be " the only likeable element in this travesty " but Namrata Joshi of Outlook labelled him " colourless " and criticised his pairing with Sen. His final role was that of a righteous teenager drawn towards a life of indulgence in John Matthew Matthan 's drama Shikhar , co @-@ starring Ajay Devgan , Bipasha Basu and Amrita Rao . The critic Sukanya Verma found Kapoor to be miscast as a village boy in the film , but noted that he was " never short of spontaneity and youthful exuberance " .
= = = Breakthrough ( 2006 – 09 ) = = =
In 2006 , Kapoor played opposite Kareena Kapoor in two films — the thriller 36 China Town and the comedy Chup Chup Ke . In 36 China Town , a murder mystery from the director duo Abbas – Mustan , Kapoor starred as one of the seven suspects in the murder of an heiress , and in the Priyadarshan @-@ directed Chup Chup Ke , he played a depressed man who pretends to be deaf and mute . The former was his first commercial success since Ishq Vishk . Greater success came to Kapoor later that year when he starred alongside Amrita Rao in Sooraj Barjatya 's romantic drama Vivah , a film depicting an arranged marriage . Made on a shoestring budget of ₹ 100 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) , the film earned over ₹ 530 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 9 million ) worldwide , and proved to be Kapoor 's highest @-@ grossing film to that point . Reviews of the film , however , were negative ; Raja Sen termed the film a " nightmare " and wrote that Kapoor " isn 't offensively bad , doesn 't ham it up like crazy , or speak in a weird accent . Having said that , he isn 't an actor at all , standing around working on his boyish grin , simply chewing up the scenery . No screen presence at all . "
Kapoor found no success in his first release of 2007 — the ensemble comedy Fool & Final . However , his second release that year , the Imtiaz Ali @-@ directed romantic comedy Jab We Met proved to be one of the top @-@ grossing films of the year . The film tells the story of a troubled businessman ( Kapoor ) whose life undergoes a series of changes after he encounters a loquacious girl ( Kareena Kapoor ) on a train ride . Ali thought that Kapoor 's previous roles failed to justify his acting potential , and thus approached him to portray a more complex character . The BBC noted on how " endearing " he was in the film and Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN wrote that he left an " indelible impression with a performance that is understated and mature " in a film he thought primarily belonged to Kareena Kapoor . For his performance , Kapoor received his first nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor .
After featuring opposite Vidya Balan in the romantic comedy Kismat Konnection ( 2008 ) , Kapoor played twin brothers , one with a lisp and the other with a stutter , in Vishal Bhardwaj 's critically acclaimed caper thriller Kaminey ( 2009 ) . In preparation , Kapoor met speech specialists and researched on the medical and mental aspects of the two conditions . To create a lean physique for one of the brothers , a look he considered to be " radically different " from his personal appearance , Kapoor practiced functional training and followed a rigorous diet . Writing for Variety , critic Joe Leydon reviewed that Kapoor " impressively displays sufficiently variegated degrees of emotional intensity to sustain the illusion of two distinct characters . Just as important , he provides each sibling an appropriately elevated hunkiness quotient . " Rediff.com listed Kapoor 's performance as the best by a Bollywood actor in 2009 and he received a second Best Actor nomination at Filmfare . Kaminey earned over ₹ 700 million ( US $ 10 million ) worldwide . Kapoor 's final release of 2009 was as a cricketer in Dil Bole Hadippa ! , a romantic comedy co @-@ starring Rani Mukerji . It was screened at the Toronto International Film Festival , but was a financial failure .
= = = Commercial fluctuations ( 2010 – 13 ) = = =
In 2010 , Kapoor reteamed with Ken Ghosh in Chance Pe Dance , a comedy @-@ drama about a struggling actor , in which Kapoor 's performance was described as " uneven " by Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis . He had a supporting role in Paathshaala , a drama about the education system in India , starring Nana Patekar , following which he starred in Yash Raj Films ' Badmaash Company , a comedy @-@ drama about a group of overambitious youngsters who become con men . Rachel Saltz of The New York Times praised Kapoor 's look in the film , though Tushar Joshi of Mid Day thought that he was miscast . Kapoor 's fourth and final release that year was Satish Kaushik 's romantic comedy Milenge Milenge , which marked his fourth collaboration with Kareena Kapoor . Plagiarised from the Hollywood film Serendipity , the production was delayed since 2005 . During its production in December 2004 at Phuket , Kapoor requested a delay in filming to attend the premiere of Dil Maange More . The delay may have saved the lives of the crew , since the hotel booked for them was destroyed during the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami . With the exception of Badmaash Company , none of these films performed well commercially .
Kapoor next appeared in his father 's directorial Mausam ( 2011 ) ; co @-@ starring Sonam Kapoor , the star @-@ crossed romance set over a decade , took two years to complete . Considering the film to be his " dream project " , Kapoor did not take on additional work while filming for it . For his role as an unambitious village boy who becomes an air force pilot , Kapoor trained to fly the F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon . Rajeev Masand reviewed that " while he doesn ’ t quite cut it as a convincing IAF pilot , Shahid Kapoor is terrific as the small @-@ town brat " . The film was a box office flop and Kapoor was later regretful for spending so much time on the project .
The following year , Kapoor took on another romantic role in Kunal Kohli 's Teri Meri Kahaani ( 2012 ) , co @-@ starring Priyanka Chopra . It tells the story of a pair of star @-@ crossed lovers who are reincarnated in three different eras . Filmfare reviewed that " Shahid and Priyanka give it their best shot , but their charm doesn ’ t make up for the absence of a genuine kahani [ story ] " . The comedy Phata Poster Nikhla Hero from director Rajkumar Santoshi was Kapoor 's first release of 2013 . His role was that of Vishwas Rao , a struggling actor who masquerades as a policeman . Critical reviews on the film were negative , though Kapoor 's performance was praised . As with his last few releases , the film earned little at the box office leading trade analysts to question his commercial appeal . This changed later that year , when he starred in Prabhu Deva 's action film R ... Rajkumar ; despite a negative critical reception , the film earned over ₹ 995 million ( US $ 15 million ) worldwide , becoming Kapoor 's highest @-@ grossing release . In a scathing review , Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV called the film a " massive mess " and wrote that Kapoor " ends up looking more moronic than macho " in it . Kapoor suffered from burn injuries on his back and hands while filming a stunt sequence in R ... Rajkumar .
= = = Awards success ( 2014 – present ) = = =
Kapoor next reunited with director Vishal Bhardwaj to film Haider ( 2014 ) , an adaptation of William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet set during the Kashmir conflict of 1995 , in which he played the titular role opposite Tabu and Shraddha Kapoor . Kapoor described the film as the " toughest " of his career , and waived his fees to star in it . For the role , he shaved his head and learned to speak in a Kashmiri dialect . Haider garnered critical acclaim , though was controversial among Indian nationalists for its portrayal of the conflict in Kashmir . Sanjukta Sharma of Mint found the film to be an " immensely effective reimagination of Shakespeare " and particularly praised Kapoor for playing his part with " impressive zest and inventiveness " . Writing for Hindustan Times , critic Anupama Chopra wrote that Kapoor initially seemed uncomfortable in the complex central role , but added that he " slowly [ ... ] comes to inhabit Haider , veering from rage to jealousy to madness in a heartbeat . " Kapoor won several awards for the role , including the Screen Award , Producers Guild Film Award and Filmfare Award for Best Actor .
The year 2015 saw Kapoor feature as a talent judge on the dance reality show Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa Reloaded . His sole film release that year was opposite Alia Bhatt in Vikas Bahl 's Shaandaar , a romantic comedy about two insomniacs who fall in love during a destination wedding . Despite high expectations from trade analysts , the film earned negative reviews and emerged as a commercial failure .
Kapoor next took on the role of a drug abusing rock star in Udta Punjab ( 2016 ) , a crime drama from the director Abhishek Chaubey that documents the substance abuse endemic in the Indian state of Punjab . Kapoor , a teetotaler , found it challenging to play a character who he deemed to be " all about addiction " . He based the role on several pop stars , and was particularly interested in bringing out the character 's hidden vulnerability despite his obnoxious actions . Udta Punjab generated controversy when the Central Board of Film Certification demanded extensive censorship before its theatrical release , citing that the portrayal of Punjab in it was negative . The demands sparked a broad debate about the freedom of expression in India . After the producers of the film filed lawsuit against the board , the Bombay High Court cleared the film for exhibition with a single scene cut , in which Kapoor 's character is shown urinating on people . In a highly positive review , Sukanya Verma took note of the film 's anti @-@ drug message ; in addition , she considered Kapoor to be " spectacularly unbridled " in his part and added that " the believability he brings to his complex transition while preserving his inherent flakiness deserves all the praise " .
As of June 2016 , Kapoor he has completed filming the part of a soldier in Rangoon , a romantic drama set during World War II , co @-@ starring Saif Ali Khan and Kangana Ranaut , which marks his third collaboration with Vishal Bhardwaj .
= = Personal life and off @-@ screen work = =
Kapoor 's personal life is the subject of fervent tabloid reporting in India . During the filming of Fida in 2004 , he began dating Kareena Kapoor and they both publicly spoke of the relationship . They were involved in a well @-@ publicised scandal when Mid Day published a set of pictures of them kissing in public . Despite claims by the couple that the pictures were fabricated , the newspaper denied any wrongdoing . The couple separated in 2007 during the filming of Jab We Met . Since their split , Kapoor decided to keep his personal life away from media attention . However , tabloids speculated on his relationship with several other actresses , including Vidya Balan and Priyanka Chopra .
In March 2015 , Kapoor spoke of his impending marriage to Mira Rajput , a student from New Delhi , who is 13 years his junior . The Times of India reported that Kapoor met Rajput through the religious group Radha Soami Satsang Beas . The couple married at a private ceremony in Gurgaon on 7 July 2015 . They are expecting their first child in fall 2016 .
In addition to acting in films , Kapoor performs on stage and hosts award ceremonies . In 2006 , he participated in a world tour , entitled RockStars , in which he performed alongside Kareena Kapoor , John Abraham , Salman Khan and three other celebrities . From 2010 – 12 , Kapoor has co @-@ hosted three Screen Awards ceremonies with Shah Rukh Khan , and from 2012 – 14 he co @-@ hosted three International Indian Film Academy Awards with either Khan or Farhan Akhtar .
Kapoor practices vegetarianism , and credits the author Brian Hines ' book Life is Fair for influencing the lifestyle choice . He also supports charitable organisations for various causes . In 2010 , he took part in a charity event named Superstars Ka Jalwa , which helped generate money for the employees of the Cine and Television Artists Association ( CINTAA ) . Also that year , he lent his support to the NGO Swayamsiddh , which helps children with special needs . The following year , he adopted three villages in support of NDTV 's Greenathon , an initiative to support environmental consciousness and improve electricity supplies to rural areas . In 2012 , Kapoor helped revive the Victory Arts Foundation NGO , founded by Shiamak Davar , which helps underprivileged children through dance therapy programs . Also that year , he appeared alongside other Bollywood celebrities in Because My World Is Not The Same , a short film by Zoya Akhtar , to generate awareness on breast cancer . He supports the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals organisation through advertisement campaigns .
= = In the media = =
The journalist Dave Besseling of GQ , in 2014 , described Kapoor as " friendly , chirpy , affable frat @-@ boy type . Someone you ’ d want to play video games with on a Sunday , but keep the hell away from your sister " . However , certain media publications have labelled Kapoor a recluse and described him as arrogant and temperamental . Vickey Lalwani of Mumbai Mirror wrote in 2012 that this perceived media image hindered certain filmmakers from approaching him for roles . Addressing this image , Kapoor remarked , " I just don ’ t socialise much , I don ’ t party too much , I don ’ t know what to say to the media if I ’ m not talking about a film that I am doing , so yeah , maybe I am perceived as a snob . "
Analysing his career , the entertainment portal Bollywood Hungama published that his " boy next door persona " was initially perceived by critics as a weakness , but credited him for turning it into a trademark . Jitesh Pillai of Filmfare wrote that after gaining recognition in urban romantic roles , Kapoor defied typecasting by taking on diverse parts in crime dramas and action films . He noted that Kapoor 's refusal to be " slotted under any kind of tag " led to a fluctuating career trajectory . Following the success of Jab We Met ( 2007 ) and Kaminey ( 2009 ) , Kapoor 's career went through a decline ; he described the phase as a series of " wrong choices " and said that taking on a challenging role in Haider ( 2014 ) helped him reinvent himself . Sonal Gera of The Indian Express opined that the film established him in Bollywood . In her book Power of a Common Man , the author Koral Dasgupta writes that Kapoor does not " [ conform ] to any fixed rules of the trade " , and notes that despite having a lopsided success ratio at the box office , he remains popular among the audiences .
A popular celebrity , Kapoor has a significant following on Twitter and Instagram . Considered one of the most attractive male celebrities in India , he regularly features in the British magazine Eastern Eye 's listing of the " 50 Sexiest Asian Men in the World " . In 2012 and 2013 he was ranked fourth , and in 2014 he came in fifth . He was ranked fifth on The Times of India 's list of the 50 most @-@ desirable men in 2014 ; he was placed among the top 10 in 2012 , 2013 and 2015 . Kapoor was named the sexiest vegetarian man of India and Asia @-@ Pacific in 2009 and 2011 , respectively , by PETA . From 2012 – 15 , he featured among the top 50 in the Indian edition of the Forbes ' " Celebrity 100 , " a list based on the income and popularity of India 's celebrities , peaking at the 15th position in 2015 . Kapoor is the celebrity ambassador for several brands and products , including Samsung , Elf Aquitaine and Colgate .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Selected filmography = = =
= = = Awards = = =
Kapoor has been the recipient of two Filmfare Awards : Best Male Debut for Ishq Vishk ( 2003 ) and Best Actor for Haider ( 2014 ) . He has received two more Best Actor nominations at the ceremony for Jab We Met ( 2007 ) and Kaminey ( 2009 ) .
= Manny Harris =
Corperryale L 'Adorable " Manny " Harris ( born September 21 , 1989 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Anhui Wenyi of the Chinese NBL . He has previously played for the Los Angeles Lakers , Cleveland Cavaliers , Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders , Canton Charge , Texas Legends , BC Azovmash and NSK Eskişehir Basket . He is a former All @-@ Big Ten Conference guard who played three seasons for the Michigan Wolverines team .
He decided to forgo his final year of collegiate eligibility and declare himself eligible for the 2010 NBA draft , but went undrafted . He signed with the Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He began his second year injured and rehabbed for two months in the NBA D @-@ League with Cavaliers ' affiliate , the Canton Charge , before being re @-@ signed by the Cavaliers . He signed with BC Azovmash of Ukraine in September 2012 and spent 2012 – 13 playing in the Ukrainian Basketball SuperLeague . For the following two seasons he split time in the NBA , NBA D @-@ League and in the Turkish Basketball League . He is an NBA D @-@ League All @-@ star and five @-@ time D @-@ League performer of the week . He holds the single @-@ game scoring records for both the Charge and D @-@ Fenders franchises .
At Michigan , he was a 2008 – 09 first team All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection , a 2007 – 08 second team All @-@ Big Ten selection and a 2009 – 10 third team All @-@ Big Ten selection . Harris also earned Big Ten Academic All @-@ Conference honors as both a sophomore and a junior after the 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 Big Ten Conference regular seasons . Harris began the 2009 – 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season by recording the second triple double in school history .
Harris previously attended Redford High School in Detroit , Michigan , where he won the state 's Mr. Basketball award as a senior . Harris is one of only five Big Ten Conference basketball players to have finished in the top ten in the conference in scoring , rebounding , and assist average in the same season and prior to Evan Turner 's 2009 – 10 season , Harris ' 2008 – 09 season was the only time a player had finished in the top six of all three categories .
= = High school = =
Born in Detroit , Michigan , Harris was a 2005 Class A All @-@ State fifth team selection as a sophomore by The Detroit News . He was an Associated Press Class A All @-@ State first team selection in each of the next two seasons . Harris was selected as the 2007 Mr. Basketball of Michigan . That season he led the Redford to the Michigan High School Athletic Association Class A championship game , which it lost to Saginaw High School . During his high school basketball career , he became the first player to start for three consecutive Detroit Public School League championship teams since Jalen Rose and Voshon Lenard had done so from 1989 to 1991 . At Redford , Harris once recorded 52 points and 15 rebounds . During the 2006 – 07 season , his last at Redford , Harris averaged 33 @.@ 5 points , 11 @.@ 5 rebounds and 5 @.@ 5 assists . Harris was highly recruited , receiving offers from Tennessee , UCLA , Wisconsin , George Washington , and Indiana before committing to the University of Michigan . He was ranked by Rivals.com as the sixth @-@ best shooting guard in the country in the 2007 high school class , while Scout.com ranked him the twelfth @-@ best shooting guard . ESPN ranked him # 7 , but they listed him as a point guard . When Michigan announced that it would replace Tommy Amaker with John Beilein as head coach , Harris was initially unsure if he would honor his signed letter of intent , but when Michigan re @-@ signed assistant coach Mike Jackson , he again decided to attend the school .
= = College = =
= = = Freshman year = = =
Prior to the 2007 – 08 basketball season , Freshman Harris was selected as a second team pre @-@ season All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection . He started every game for the 2007 – 08 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team . He scored 13 points and tallied 4 steals in his debut on November 9 against Radford . After the 2007 – 08 NCAA basketball season , Harris was selected as a second team All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection and an All @-@ Freshman team selection . He led the Wolverines in scoring ( 16 @.@ 4 ) , assists ( 2 @.@ 8 ) , steals ( 1 @.@ 5 ) , minutes ( 32 @.@ 9 ) and free throw percentage ( 82 @.@ 0 ) . Among his highlights during the season were being named to the Great Alaska Shootout tournament team , becoming the fourth U @-@ M freshman to score over 500 points in first season ( 516 ) , and setting the U @-@ M freshman record for free throws made in a season while playing at least 20 minutes and starting every game . During the season , he keyed the first three @-@ game winning streak of the season for the team , which earned him his first Big Ten Player of the Week Award .
= = = Sophomore year = = =
As a 2008 – 09 first team pre @-@ season All @-@ Big Ten player , he was the first Wolverine to earn the honor since Daniel Horton in 2004 . Although he was the leading returning scorer and top draft prospect , Purdue 's Robbie Hummel was named Big Ten Preseason Player of the Year . Preseason All @-@ Big Ten status has not always led to regular season honors . In both 2005 and 2007 , only two preseason selections made the regular season team . Harris opened the 2008 – 09 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball season with a career @-@ high 30 points in a 77 – 55 victory over Michigan Tech on November 11 . The following night in the second game of the Coaches vs. cancer classic , Harris nearly posted a triple double when he posted 26 points , and career @-@ highs with 10 rebounds and 8 assists in a 76 – 56 win against Northeastern University . This quick start earned Harris the November 17 , 2008 Big Ten Player of the Week Award . Harris led the Big Ten Conference in scoring until the second to last game of the preconference schedule when he snapped a ten @-@ game double digit scoring streak . Throughout the season , he continued to battle with fellow sophomores Evan Turner and Talor Battle for the Big Ten scoring leadership . On February 5 , Harris was selected along with Kalin Lucas as one of only two Big Ten John R. Wooden Award 2008 – 09 Midseason Top 30 Candidates . On March 5 , the National Association of Basketball Coaches honored Harris as a District 7 ( Big Ten ) first @-@ team selection along with four other sophomores ( Lucas , Turner , Battle , and JaJuan Johnson ) . On March 9 after the conclusion of the 2008 – 09 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season , he was named to the first team All @-@ Big Ten by both the Big Ten coaches and the Big Ten media along with the same four sophomores . He was also chosen on March 10 by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association for its 2008 – 09 Men 's Division I District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team , based on voting from its national membership . On March 26 Harris was honored as one of four Michigan men 's basketball Winter Sports Big Ten Academic All @-@ Conference selections .
Iowa Hawkeyes freshman Matt Gatens completed the 2008 – 2009 season with 75 / 83 90 @.@ 4 % Free Throw shooting percentage in 32 games . However , a common threshold for eligibility for such a statistical championship is 2 @.@ 5 free throws made per game and 75 % of team games played , leaving him five free throws short of eligibility . Thus , Harris , at 86 @.@ 3 % ( 176 / 204 ) , was the Big Ten leader among those with a qualifying number of attempts according to some sources . However , the Big Ten Conference recognizes only two Free Throws made per game as the threshold . Nonetheless , the NCAA recognizes a 2 @.@ 5 attempts per game minimum . Thus , according to the Big Ten Gatens is the Conference Free Throw Champion and according to the NCAA Harris is the champion . Harris led the Wolverines in points , minutes , assists and steals . Additionally , Harris finished one behind teammate DeShawn Sims for the team leadership rebounds . In the Big Ten , Harris ranked first ( or second depending on the source ) in free throw percentage , first in free throws made , second in points per game , fifth in assists per game , and sixth in rebounds per game . Harris and Evan Turner ( who led the Big Ten in scoring ) were the only Big Ten players to finish in the conference 's top 10 in total points , rebounds , assists , and steals . They are the 4th and 5th players in conference history to finish in the top ten in average points , rebounds , and assists since assists became a statistic in 1983 – 84 , following Steve Smith , Jim Jackson , and Brian Evans . Of these five , Harris was the only one to finish in the top six in each stat prior to Turner 's 2009 @-@ 10 season .
= = = Junior year = = =
Entering the 2009 – 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season for the 2009 – 10 Michigan Wolverines , Harris was regarded by some as the most highly rated player in the Big Ten . E.g. , the FOX Sports preseason All @-@ American list included him on its second team . No other Big Ten player was listed above the third team . However , ESPN chose both Lucas and Turner to its preseason second @-@ team All @-@ American list , while Harris was not shown on a single ballot . Harris and Sims were named among the 50 preseason Wooden Award watch list nominees . Harris was also named to the preaseason Naismith College Player of the Year watchlist . The 24 @-@ member Big Ten media panel selected Harris as a first team preseason All @-@ Big Ten team member .
Harris opened the season by recording the second triple double in school history ( Gary Grant was the first ) against Division II Northern Michigan . This earned him his third Big Ten player of the week honor and marked the second consecutive season he earned the honor in the first week of the year . Harris was suspended prior to the January 23 game against # 13 Purdue due to unsportsmanlike conduct in one of the team 's practices . Harris was named as a finalist for the 2010 Bob Cousy Award and a Midseason Top @-@ 30 finalist for the 2010 John Wooden Award . At the conclusion of the regular season , he was named a third @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten selection by both the conference coaches and the media . He was recognized as an All @-@ District second @-@ team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All ‐ America teams . Since the Big Ten Conference was its own district , this is equivalent to being named second team All @-@ Big Ten by the NABC . Harris concluded his junior season with 484 free throws made . Cazzie Russell holds the official Michigan career record with 486 with Louis Bullock 's 505 total having been vacated due to the University of Michigan basketball scandal . He joined Jalen Rose and Mike McGee as the only Wolverines to amass 1600 points over a three @-@ year period . Harris finished the season among the Big Ten Conference leaders in several statistical categories including : fourth in scoring , tenth in rebounds , fifth in assists , seventh in free throw percentage , second in steals ( 1 @.@ 83 to 1 @.@ 81 ) , and eighth in minutes played .
= = = 2010 NBA draft = = =
Harris told Coach John Beilein he would not be returning to the team for his senior season on March 26 , 2010 . He was set hire an agent soon thereafter . Although these were rumors reported by The Detroit News , Harris held a press conference on March 29 to announce his intentions to enter the NBA draft . ESPN had him ranked at 76 . Draft Express , projected him as the 25th pick of the 2nd round . Another source had him listed as the 22nd pick of the 2nd round . Two days after the announcement , Harris was recognized as an Academic All @-@ Conference performer again . Harris ' name remained on the draft eligible list at the time of the April 25 deadline . Harris endured a hamstring injury shortly before the draft , which hampered his draft workouts and draft potential . Harris was undrafted in the 2010 NBA draft on June 24 , 2010 .
= = = College Statistics = = =
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2010 – 11 season = = =
Harris played for the Cleveland Cavaliers in the NBA Summer League in 2010 . He saw limited action due to the same ankle injury that impaired his draft status . After being an undrafted player from Michigan for about 31 ⁄ 2 months , Harris joined the Cleveland Cavaliers with a # 6 jersey number as a non @-@ guaranteed free agent member of the 20 @-@ man preseason roster . The Cavaliers reduced their roster to 15 by October 19 without cutting Harris , which meant that Harris made the final roster . On opening night of the 2010 – 11 NBA season for the Cavaliers , Harris was on the active twelve @-@ man roster , but was not one of the nine players to see action in the October 27 game versus the Boston Celtics . However , in the subsequent October 29 game against the Toronto Raptors , Harris debuted with an eight @-@ point performance that included two @-@ for @-@ two three point shooting . According to ESPN data , Harris ' rookie salary was $ 473 @,@ 604 , which is the lowest on the roster . Harris ' agent is Henry Thomas . Harris has been deep on the 15 @-@ man roster and in some games has not been one of the members of the 12 @-@ man active roster to dress for games . However , after compiling a 7 – 14 record in the first 21 games , head coach Byron Scott shuffled the lineup on December 8 , and Harris played twenty @-@ one minutes that night . In subsequent games , he saw significant action .
On December 29 , Harris made his first start when Mo Williams was recovering from an injury and Harris earned the surprise start instead of Ramon Sessions , scoring 8 points . Harris started again on New Years Day 2011 alongside Sessions and posted his first double digit scoring night with eleven points and his first three @-@ assist night . In his fourth start on January 7 against the Golden State , Harris posted his first double @-@ double with career highs of 16 points and 10 rebounds and added 3 steals and 4 assists , too . Then , on January 9 , he posted a new career @-@ high 27 points against the Phoenix Suns . He finished January by scoring 20 points on back @-@ to @-@ back nights against the Orlando Magic and Miami Heat on January 30 and 31 . He scored 19 in his next game against Indiana on February 2 , but then with the return of Daniel Gibson and Anthony Parker to the lineup he saw little action until Gibson was unavailable against Houston on February 23 and Harris scored 21 .
= = = 2011 – 12 season = = =
Harris was waived by the Cavaliers on December 22 , 2011 . The transaction came as the 2011 – 12 Cavaliers made their final cuts from 17 to 15 players . The move , which surprisingly left Mychel Thompson on the roster , was attributed to a freezer burn that Harris suffered on his foot during the 2011 NBA lockout in a cooling chamber designed to augment recuperation from injuries at the Nike facility in Oregon . Harris had been unable to practice with the team , but was expected to be claimed by another team . The injury has been described as the result of a cryotherapy wet sock . After clearing waivers on December 24 , Harris became an unrestricted free agent .
On December 28 , 2011 , Harris signed with the Canton Charge of the NBA Development League ( D @-@ League ) . The Charge are the D @-@ League affiliate of the Cavaliers , but the Cavaliers have no exclusive rights to Harris . He was signed under the NBA Development League 's player affiliate rule allowing " . . .D @-@ League teams to acquire up to three players that were waived from their affiliate 's NBA training camp that do not otherwise have their rights held by another team . " After about a week of rehab with the Charge , he was getting close to returning to the court with the Charge . Technically , he was waived by the team , but the Charge retained their rights to him during his rehab . On January 9 , he was readded to the roster by the Charge , and he scored 15 points for the team on the 10th in his debut .
On January 18 against the Austin Toros , he posted a game @-@ high 24 points . He entered the starting lineup on January 20 against the Texas Legends and posted a team @-@ high 17 points and added a game @-@ high 19 points and 9 rebounds in a rematch the following night . On January 24 , he contributed a game @-@ high 32 @-@ point effort against the Springfield Armor , surpassing both his professional career @-@ high of 27 set on January 9 , 2011 with Cleveland and his post @-@ secondary career @-@ high 30 set on November 11 , 2008 with Michigan . On January 27 , he had his first D @-@ league double @-@ double with 22 points and 10 rebounds , in addition to a team @-@ high 7 assists against the Bakersfield Jam . He continued his scoring binge on January 28 against the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders with a team @-@ high 21 points . He earned the NBA Development League Performer of the Week for games played from January 23 – 29 for his three @-@ game performance in which he averaged 25 @.@ 0 points , 7 @.@ 3 rebounds , 4 @.@ 3 assists and 2 @.@ 0 steals in 34 @.@ 3 minutes per contest . On February 3 , Harris logged his professional career @-@ high 14 rebounds along with 21 points on his way to his second D @-@ League double @-@ double against the Austin Toros . Harris posted his third double @-@ double on February 11 against the Sioux Falls Skyforce with 24 points and 13 rebounds . On February 16 , Harris posted a new career high 46 points along with 9 rebounds , 6 assists and 4 steals against the Rio Grande Valley Vipers . This is a Charge record for the franchise since its move to Canton . In the rematch two nights later , he added 36 points , 9 rebounds , 6 assists and 3 steals . He became the first player to earn two player of the week awards in the 2011 – 12 season when the league recognized him for his performance for the week of February 13 – 19 . In 17 games for Canton , he had averages of 21 @.@ 4 points , 7 @.@ 9 rebounds , 3 @.@ 3 assists and 1 @.@ 6 blocks per game , while shooting 47 @.@ 0 % from the field and 40 @.@ 9 % on three @-@ point shots . On February 21 , the Cleveland Cavaliers announced they had signed Harris to a 10 @-@ day contract . He was re @-@ signed on March 2 to a second 10 @-@ day contract . After the second 10 @-@ day contract expired on March 11 and with the trade deadline approaching on March 15 , the Cavaliers opted not to sign Harris to a guaranteed contract for the rest of the season ( which would be required to re @-@ sign him after two 10 @-@ day contracts ) . Rather than report to the D @-@ League Canton Charge , Harris opted to remain a free agent while teams made roster moves .
On March 17 , 2012 , the Cavaliers re @-@ signed Harris for the remainder of the season . On March 21 , Harris moved into the main rotation and began playing about 20 minutes or more per game . On March 25 , against the Phoenix Suns , Harris posted a game @-@ high 9 rebounds . On April 6 with Parker , Kyrie Irving and Gibson all injured , Harris made his first start of the season and 16th of his career against the Toronto Raptors . On April 20 , Harris posted his first NBA double @-@ double of the season with 19 points and a game @-@ high and career @-@ high 12 rebounds against the New York Knicks . In two seasons with the Cavaleiers , Harris averaged 6 @.@ 2 points , 2 @.@ 6 rebounds and 1 @.@ 5 assists in 17 @.@ 4 minutes in 80 games ( including 20 starts ) .
= = = 2012 – 13 season = = =
On July 2 , 2012 , the Cavaliers waived Harris . Harris then joined the Houston Rockets for the 2012 NBA Summer League . On September 13 , 2012 , Harris signed with BC Azovmash in Ukraine .
= = = 2013 – 14 season = = =
On September 27 , 2013 , Harris signed with the Orlando Magic for training camp . NBA.com 's John Denton evaluated Harris as a long shot to make the 15 @-@ man roster saying that " he will likely have to beat out E 'Twaun Moore or Doron Lamb at shooting guard " . Meanwhile , the Bleacher Report 's Justin Hussong listed Harris 4th on the pre @-@ training camp shooting guard depth chart behind Arron Afflalo , Victor Oladipo , and Lamb . He was later waived on October 25 . On December 7 , Harris ' rights were acquired by Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders in a trade with the Canton Charge . In his D @-@ Fenders debut on December 14 , 2013 against the Santa Cruz Warriors , he scored 41 points . He also had a professional career @-@ high 5 steals , 4 rebounds and 3 assists . The next night , Harris scored 24 points along with 4 rebounds and 3 assists . On December 16 , he was one of the top D @-@ League players of the week . On December 23 , he was again one of the top D @-@ league players of the week , based on a pair of 20 + -point performances . He was also a finalist for D @-@ League Player of the Month . Harris averaged 29 @.@ 3 points per game for the week ending January 5 , leading his team in scoring and to victory in each of the three games . As a result , he earned his first D @-@ League player of the week award of the season and third of his career . On January 10 , Harris posted 49 points along with 6 rebounds , 3 steals , 3 assists and a block against the Idaho Stampede . The 49 points was a Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders franchise record ( surpassing the old 43 @-@ point record ) and tied the 2013 @-@ 14 NBADL season high set earlier by Pierre Jackson . The record was eclipsed exactly three weeks later by Terrence Williams , who scored 50 for the D @-@ Fenders against the same team . On January 11 , against the Stampede , Harris posted 38 points and 10 rebounds , but the D @-@ Fenders ' six @-@ game winning streak was snapped . On January 13 , Harris earned his second consecutive NBA Development League Performer of the Week award . On January 13 , Harris scored 42 against the Maine Red Claws to improve his season scoring average to 30 @.@ 6 , taking the league lead from Jackson . In 13 games with the D @-@ Fenders , Harris averaged a league @-@ leading 30 @.@ 6 points , league @-@ leading 8 @.@ 9 free throws made and a league @-@ leading 10 @.@ 2 free throws attempted . He also averaged 6 @.@ 5 rebounds , 3 @.@ 7 assists and 2 @.@ 1 steals ( 6th in the league ) , while shooting 48 @.@ 5 % .
On January 16 , 2014 , Harris signed a 10 @-@ day contract with the Los Angeles Lakers . In his debut with the Lakers the next day , he had 7 points , 3 rebounds and an assist in a 107 @-@ 104 win over the Boston Celtics . On January 26 , he signed a second 10 @-@ day contract after averaging 6 @.@ 4 points , 3 @.@ 6 rebounds and 1 @.@ 6 assists in 20 @.@ 9 minutes in 5 games . The Lakers were enduring injuries of guards Kobe Bryant , Steve Nash , Steve Blake , Jordan Farmar , and Xavier Henry . After re @-@ signing , Harris posted a season high 18 points that night against the New York Knicks .
On February 3 , 2014 , Harris was named to the Futures All @-@ Star roster for the 2014 NBA D @-@ League All @-@ Star Game . At the time of the announcement , Harris was one of at five players on an NBA roster ( along with Malcolm Thomas , Isaiah Canaan , Robert Covington , and Chris Johnson ) that were selected , but who had played over half of their D @-@ League team 's games through January 26 , which is the D @-@ League All @-@ Star eligibility requirement . He must be on a D @-@ League team roster as of February 15 to play in the game . On February 4 , the eve of the end of Harris ' second 10 @-@ day contract , the Lakers appeared to be returning to good health , with the return of Nash , Blake and Farmar to the lineup imminent . That night , although Nash and Blake returned to the starting lineup against Minnesota , Jodie Meeks and Jordan Hill were injured in the first quarter and Harris contributed 19 points and 8 rebounds even though he had been told before the game he would not be re @-@ signed . On February 7 , 2014 , he was re @-@ acquired by the D @-@ Fenders . On February 8 , 2014 , Harris again set a new D @-@ Fenders franchise scoring record , this time with 56 points , while adding 15 rebounds against the Santa Cruz Warriors . It was two points shy of the league record set by Jackson four days earlier . He was a nominee for D @-@ League Player of the Week , but Jackson won . Harris only played 12 minutes in the February 15 D @-@ League All @-@ Star game . Afterwards , he missed some games due to an ankle injury . He returned to the lineup ont February 24 . He was a finalist for player of the week on March 3 and March 10 . After playing a total of 22 games in the NBA D @-@ League for the D @-@ Fenders and averaging 31 @.@ 6 points , 7 @.@ 9 rebounds and 3 @.@ 7 assists , Harris signed with Türk Telekom B.K. of the Turkish Basketball League on March 13 .
= = = 2014 – 15 season = = =
On November 1 , 2014 , Harris was reacquired by the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders . On December 6 , Harris posted a triple @-@ double with 23 points , 12 assists and 10 rebounds to help the D @-@ fenders defeat the Reno Bighorns . On December 20 , Harris recorded his second triple @-@ double of the season with 39 points , 13 assists and 10 rebounds in an historic win . The D @-@ Fenders set new NBA Development League records of most points scored in a single quarter , half and game en route to a 175 @-@ 152 win over Reno . On December 22 , Harris earned his first D @-@ League Performer of the Week of the season and fifth of his career . On December 30 , Harris left Los Angeles in order to sign with NSK Eskişehir Basket of the Turkish Basketball League the following day .
= = = 2015 – 16 season = = =
On October 31 , 2015 , Harris returned to the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders for a third stint . He began the season as a finalist for performer of the week during the first week and a half of the season . On December 14 , he was traded to the Texas Legends in exchange for the returning player rights to Damion James . On January 26 , 2016 , he left Texas and signed with Türk Telekom for a second stint .
In May 2016 , Harris signed in China with the Anhui Wenyi for the 2016 NBL season .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = NBA = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = NBA D @-@ League = = =
= = = = Regular Season = = = =
= = = International Leagues = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = Personal = =
His name , Corperryale , is a combination of the names of his cousin ( Corrine ) , an uncle ( Perry ) and the " ale " of his immediate siblings — Janelle , Jerrelle and Al . He has a total of nine brothers and sisters and is the son of Merrick ( Harris @-@ Carter ) and James Carter . His nickname , " Manny " , was given to him by his father after the character Manny Ribera in Scarface . During the 2013 @-@ 14 season , the @ DFenders and @ nbadleague Twitter accounts occasionally referred to Harris using the hashtag # MichiganMamba . Upon being called up to the NBA , @ LakerNation used the nickname once .
= Atlantic hurricane =
An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean , usually in the summer or fall . Tropical cyclones can be categorized by intensity . Tropical storms have one @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph ( 34 knots , 17 m / s , 63 km / h ) , while hurricanes have one @-@ minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph ( 64 knots , 33 m / s , 119 km / h ) . Most North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30 . The United States National Hurricane Center monitors the basin and issues reports , watches , and warnings about tropical weather systems for the North Atlantic Basin as one of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers for tropical cyclones , as defined by the World Meteorological Organization .
In recent times , tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a predetermined list . Hurricanes that result in significant damage or casualties may have their names retired from the list at the request of the affected nations in order to prevent confusion should a subsequent storm be given the same name . On average , in the North Atlantic basin ( from 1966 to 2009 ) 11 @.@ 3 named storms occur each season , with an average of 6 @.@ 2 becoming hurricanes and 2 @.@ 3 becoming major hurricanes ( Category 3 or greater ) . The climatological peak of activity is around September 11 each season .
In March 2004 , Catarina was the first hurricane @-@ intensity tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Southern Atlantic Ocean . Since 2011 , the Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center has started to use the same scale of the North Atlantic Ocean for tropical cyclones in the South Atlantic Ocean and assign names to those which reach 35 kn ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) .
= = Steering factors = =
Tropical cyclones are steered by the surrounding flow throughout the depth of the troposphere ( the atmosphere from the surface to about eight miles ( 12 km ) high ) . Neil Frank , former director of the United States National Hurricane Center , used the analogies such as " a leaf carried along in a stream " or a " brick moving through a river of air " to describe the way atmospheric flow affects the path of a hurricane across the ocean . Specifically , air flow around high pressure systems and toward low pressure areas influence hurricane tracks .
In the tropical latitudes , tropical storms and hurricanes generally move westward with a slight tend toward the north , under the influence of the subtropical ridge , a high pressure system that usually extends east @-@ west across the subtropics . South of the subtropical ridge , surface easterly winds ( blowing from east to west ) prevail . If the subtropical ridge is weakened by an upper trough , a tropical cyclone may turn poleward and then recurve , or curve back toward the northeast into the main belt of the Westerlies . Poleward ( north ) of the subtropical ridge , westerly winds prevail and generally steer tropical cyclones that reach northern latitudes toward the east . The westerlies also steer extratropical cyclones with their cold and warm fronts from west to east .
= = Intensity = =
Generally speaking , the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storm 's maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure . The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure . In terms of wind speed , Hurricane Allen ( in 1980 ) was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record , with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph ( 310 km / h ) . However , these measurements are suspect since instrumentation used to document wind speeds at the time would likely succumb to winds of such intensity . Nonetheless , their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes .
Owing to their intensity , the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification . Hurricane Opal , the strongest Category 4 hurricane recorded , intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 05 inHg ) , a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes . Nonetheless , the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones . Presently , Hurricane Wilma is the strongest Atlantic hurricane ever recorded , after reaching an intensity of 882 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 05 inHg ) in October 2005 ; this also made Wilma the strongest tropical cyclone worldwide outside of the West Pacific , where seven tropical cyclones have been recorded to intensify to lower pressures . However , this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific , which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar . Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert , which had also held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years . The 1935 Labor Day hurricane , with a pressure of 892 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 34 inHg ) , is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane and the strongest documented tropical cyclone prior to 1950 . Since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde , this pressure remains the lowest measured over land .
Hurricane Rita is the fourth strongest Atlantic hurricane in terms of barometric pressure and one of three tropical cyclones from 2005 on the list , with the others being Wilma and Katrina at first and sixth , respectively . However , with a barometric pressure of 895 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 43 inHg ) , Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico . Hurricanes Camille , Mitch , and Dean share intensities for the seventh strongest Atlantic hurricane at 905 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 73 inHg ) . Sharing tenth place for most intense Atlantic tropical cyclone are Hurricane Ivan and an unnamed hurricane from 1932 , which both are listed to have deepened to a pressure as low as 910 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 88 inHg ) .
Many of the strongest recorded tropical cyclones weakened prior to their eventual landfall or demise . However , three of the storms remained intense enough at landfall to be considered some of the strongest landfalling hurricanes – three of the eleven hurricanes on the list constitute the three most intense Atlantic landfalls in recorded history . The 1935 Labor Day hurricane made landfall at peak intensity , making it the most intense Atlantic landfall . Though it weakened slightly before its eventual landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula , Hurricane Gilbert maintained a pressure of 900 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 58 inHg ) at landfall , making its landfall the second strongest . Similarly , Hurricane Dean made landfall on the peninsula , though it did so at peak intensity and with a higher barometric pressure ; its landfall marked the third strongest in Atlantic hurricane history .
= = Climatology = =
Climatology does serve to characterize the general properties of an average season and can be used as one of many other tools for making forecasts . Most storms form in warm waters several hundred miles north of the equator near the Intertropical convergence zone from tropical waves . The Coriolis force is usually too weak to initiate sufficient rotation near the equator . Storms frequently form in the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico , the Caribbean Sea , and the tropical Atlantic Ocean as far east as the Cape Verde Islands , the origin of strong and long @-@ lasting Cape Verde @-@ type hurricanes . Systems may also strengthen over the Gulf Stream off the coast of the eastern United States , wherever water temperatures exceed 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) .
Although most storms are found within tropical latitudes , occasionally storms will form further north and east from disturbances other than tropical waves such as cold fronts and upper @-@ level lows . These are known as baroclinically induced tropical cyclones . There is a strong correlation between Atlantic hurricane activity in the tropics and the presence of an El Niño or La Niña in the Pacific Ocean . El Niño events increase the wind shear over the Atlantic , producing a less @-@ favorable environment for formation and decreasing tropical activity in the Atlantic basin . Conversely , La Niña causes an increase in activity due to a decrease in wind shear .
According to the Azores High hypothesis by Kam @-@ biu Liu , an anti @-@ phase pattern is expected to exist between the Gulf of Mexico coast and the North American Atlantic coast . During the quiescent periods ( 3000 – 1400 BC , and 1000 AD to present ) , a more northeasterly position of the Azores High would result in more hurricanes being steered toward the Atlantic coast . During the hyperactive period ( 1400 BC to 1000 AD ) , more hurricanes were steered towards the Gulf coast as the Azores High was shifted to a more southwesterly position near the Caribbean . Such a displacement of the Azores High is consistent with paleoclimatic evidence that shows an abrupt onset of a drier climate in Haiti around 3200 14C years BP , and a change towards more humid conditions in the Great Plains during the late @-@ Holocene as more moisture was pumped up the Mississippi Valley through the Gulf coast . Preliminary data from the northern Atlantic coast seem to support the Azores High hypothesis . A 3000 @-@ year proxy record from a coastal lake in Cape Cod suggests that hurricane activity has increased significantly during the past 500 – 1000 years , just as the Gulf coast was amid a quiescent period of the last millennium .
= = = Seasonal variation = = =
Climatologically speaking , approximately 97 percent of tropical cyclones that form in the North Atlantic develop between the dates of June 1 and November 30 – dates which delimit the modern @-@ day Atlantic hurricane season . Though the beginning of the annual hurricane season has historically remained the same , the official end of the hurricane season has shifted from its initial date of October 31 . Regardless , on average once every few years a tropical cyclone develops outside the limits of the season ; as of January 2016 there have been 66 tropical cyclones in the off @-@ season , with the most recent being Hurricane Alex in 2016 . The first tropical cyclone of the 1938 Atlantic hurricane season , which formed on January 3 , became the earliest forming tropical storm and hurricane after reanalysis concluded on the storm in December 2012 .
Hurricane Able in 1951 was initially thought to be the earliest forming major hurricane – a tropical cyclone with winds exceeding 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) – however following post @-@ storm analysis it was determined that Able only reached Category 1 strength which made Hurricane Alma of 1966 the new record holder ; as it became a major hurricane on June 8 . Though it developed within the bounds of the Atlantic hurricane season , Hurricane Audrey in 1957 became the earliest developing Category 4 hurricane on record after it reached the intensity on June 27 . The earliest @-@ forming Category 5 hurricane , Emily , reached the highest intensity on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale on July 17 , 2005 .
Though the official end of the Atlantic hurricane season occurs on November 30 , the dates of October 31 and November 15 have also historically marked the official end date for the hurricane season . December , the only month of the year after the hurricane season , has featured the cyclogenesis of fourteen tropical cyclones . Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 was the latest tropical cyclone to attain tropical storm intensity as it did so on December 30 . However , the second Hurricane Alice in 1954 was the latest forming tropical cyclone to attain hurricane intensity . Both Zeta and Alice were the only two storms to exist in two calendar years – the former from 1954 to 1955 and the latter from 2005 to 2006 . No storms have been recorded to exceed Category 1 hurricane intensity in December . In 1999 , Hurricane Lenny reached Category 4 intensity on November 17 as it took an unprecedented west to east track across the Caribbean ; its intensity made it the latest developing Category 4 hurricane , though this was well within the bounds of the hurricane season . Hurricane Hattie ( October 27 @-@ November 1 , 1961 ) was initially thought to have been the latest forming Category 5 hurricane ever documented , though reanalysis indicated that a devastating hurricane in 1932 reached such an intensity at a later date . Consequently , this made the hurricane the latest developing tropical cyclone to reach all four Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale classifications past Category 1 intensity .
= = = = June = = = =
The beginning of the hurricane season is most closely related to the timing of increases in sea surface temperatures , convective instability , and other thermodynamic factors . Although June marks the beginning of the hurricane season , generally little activity occurs during the month with an average of 1 tropical cyclone every 2 years . Tropical systems usually form in the Gulf of Mexico or off the east coast of the United States .
Since 1851 , a total of 81 tropical storms and hurricanes formed in the month of June . During this period , two of these systems developed in the deep tropics east of the Lesser Antilles . Since 1870 , three major hurricanes have formed during June , most notably Hurricane Audrey in 1957 . Audrey ranks as the earliest forming Category 4 hurricane in the Atlantic basin . Audrey attained an intensity greater than that of any Atlantic tropical cyclone during June or July until Hurricanes Dennis and Emily of 2005 . The easternmost forming storm during June , Tropical Storm Ana in 1979 , formed at 45 ° W.
= = = = July = = = =
Not much tropical activity occurs during the month of July , but the majority of hurricane seasons see the formation of one tropical cyclone during July . From an average of Atlantic tropical cyclone seasons from 1944 to 1996 , the first tropical storm in half of the seasons occurred by 11 July , and a second formed by 8 August .
Formation usually occurs in the eastern Caribbean Sea around the Lesser Antilles , in the northern and eastern parts of the Gulf of Mexico , in the vicinity of the northern Bahamas , and off the coast of The Carolinas and Virginia over the Gulf Stream . Storms travel westward through the Caribbean and then either move towards the north and curve near the eastern coast of the United States or stay on a north @-@ westward track and enter the Gulf of Mexico .
Since 1851 , a total of 105 tropical storms have formed during the month of July . Since 1870 , ten of these storms reached major hurricane intensity . Only Hurricane Emily of 2005 , the strongest July tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin , attained Category 5 hurricane status during July , making it the earliest Category 5 hurricane on record . The easternmost forming storm and longest lived during the month of July , Hurricane Bertha in 2008 , formed at 22 @.@ 9 ° W and lasted 17 days .
= = = = August = = = =
Decrease in wind shear from July to August contributes to a significant increase of tropical activity . An average of 2 @.@ 8 Atlantic tropical storms develop annually in August . On average , four named tropical storms , including one hurricane , occur by August 30 , and the first intense hurricane develops by 4 September .
= = = = September = = = =
The peak of the hurricane season occurs in September and corresponds with low wind shear and the warmest sea surface temperatures . The month of September sees an average of 3 storms a year . By 24 September , the average Atlantic season features 7 named tropical storms , including 4 hurricanes . In addition , two major hurricanes occur on average by 28 September . Relatively few tropical cyclones make landfall at these intensities .
= = = = October = = = =
The favorable conditions found during September begin to decay in October . The main reason for the decrease in activity is increasing wind shear , although sea surface temperatures are also cooler than in September . Activity falls markedly with 1 @.@ 8 cyclones developing on average despite a climatological secondary peak around 20 October . By 21 October , the average season features 9 named storms with 5 hurricanes . A third major hurricane occurs after 28 September in half of all Atlantic tropical cyclone seasons . In contrast to mid @-@ season activity , the mean locus of formation shifts westward to the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico , reversing the eastward progression of June through August .
= = = = November = = = =
Wind shear from westerlies increases substantially through November , generally preventing cyclone formation . On average , one tropical storm forms during every other November . On rare occasions , a major hurricane occurs . The few intense hurricanes in November include Hurricane " Cuba " in late October and early November 1932 ( the strongest November hurricane on record peaking as a Category 5 hurricane ) , Hurricane Lenny in mid @-@ November 1999 , Hurricane Kate in late November 1985 ( the latest major hurricane on record ) , and Hurricane Paloma in early November 2008 .
= = = = December to May = = = =
Although the hurricane season is defined as beginning on June 1 and ending on November 30 , there have been several off @-@ season storms . Since 1870 , there have been 32 off @-@ season cyclones , 18 of which occurred in May . In the same time span , nine storms formed in December , two in April , and one each in January , February and March . During five years ( 1887 , 1953 , 2003 , 2007 , and 2012 ) , tropical cyclones formed in the North Atlantic Ocean both during or before May and during December . In 1887 , four storms occurred outside the season , the most in a single year . High vertical wind shear and low sea surface temperatures generally preclude tropical cyclone formation during the off @-@ season .
Tropical cyclones have formed in all months . Four tropical cyclones existed during the month of January , two of which formed during late December : the second Hurricane Alice in 1954 / 1955 , and Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 / 2006 . The only two hurricanes to form in January are a Category 1 hurricane in the 1938 season , and Hurricane Alex in the 2016 season . A subtropical storm in January also began the 1978 Atlantic hurricane season . No major hurricanes have occurred in the off @-@ season .
= = Extremes = =
The season in which the most tropical storms formed on record was the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season ( 28 ) . That season was also the one in which the most hurricanes formed on record ( 15 ) .
The 2005 Atlantic hurricane season had the most major hurricanes on record ( 7 ) . The 1950 Atlantic hurricane season was once thought to have 8 , but a re @-@ analysis showed that several storms were weaker than thought , and thus the record is now held by the 2005 season .
The least active season on record since 1946 ( when the database is considered more reliable ) was the 1983 Atlantic hurricane season , with one tropical storm , two hurricanes , and one major hurricane . Overall , the 1914 Atlantic hurricane season remains the least active , with only one documented storm .
The most intense hurricane ( by barometric pressure ) on record to form in the North Atlantic basin was Hurricane Wilma ( 2005 ) ( 882 mbar ) .
The largest hurricane ( in gale diameter ) on record to form in the North Atlantic was Hurricane Sandy ( 2012 ) with a gale diameter of 1 @,@ 100 miles .
The longest @-@ lasting hurricane was the San Ciriaco 's Hurricane of 1899 , which lasted for 27 days and 18 hours as a tropical cyclone .
The longest @-@ tracked hurricane was Hurricane Faith , which travelled for 6 @,@ 850 miles as a tropical cyclone . Faith is also the northern most moving tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin .
The most tornadoes spawned by a hurricane was 127 by Hurricane Ivan ( 2004 season ) .
The strongest landfalling hurricane was the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 ( 892 hPa ) .
The deadliest hurricane was the Great Hurricane of 1780 ( 22 @,@ 000 fatalities ) .
The deadliest hurricane to make landfall on the continental United States was the Galveston Hurricane in 1900 which may have killed up to 12 @,@ 000 people .
The most damaging hurricane ( adjusted for inflation ) was Hurricane Katrina of the 2005 season which caused $ 108 billion in damages ( 2005 USD ) .
The quickest forming hurricane was Hurricane Humberto in 2007 . It was a minimal hurricane that formed and intensified faster than any other tropical cyclone on record before landfall . Developing on September 12 , 2007 , in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico , the cyclone rapidly strengthened and struck High Island , Texas , with winds of about 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) early on September 13 .
= = Trends = =
While the number of storms in the Atlantic has increased since 1995 , there is no obvious global trend . The annual number of tropical cyclones worldwide remains about 87 ± 10 . However , the ability of climatologists to make long @-@ term data analysis in certain basins is limited by the lack of reliable historical data in some basins , primarily in the Southern Hemisphere . In spite of that , there is some evidence that the intensity of hurricanes is increasing . In 2006 , Kerry Emanuel stated , " Records of hurricane activity worldwide show an upswing of both the maximum wind speed in and the duration of hurricanes . The energy released by the average hurricane ( again considering all hurricanes worldwide ) seems to have increased by around 70 % in the past 30 years or so , corresponding to about a 15 % increase in the maximum wind speed and a 60 % increase in storm lifetime . " At the time , Emanuel theorized that increased heat from global warming was driving this trend , however , some argue that Emanuel 's own research in 2008 refuted this theory . Others contend that the trend does not exist at all , but instead is a figment created by faulty readings from primitive 1970s @-@ era measurement equipment . Vecchi and Knutson ( 2008 ) found a weakly positive , although not statistically @-@ significant trend in the number of North Atlantic tropical cyclones for 1878 – 2006 , but also a surprisingly strong decrease in cyclone duration over this period .
On May 15 , 2014 , the journal Nature published a peer @-@ reviewed submission from October 2013 by James P. Kossin , Kerry A. Emanuel , and Gabriel A. Vecchi that suggests that a poleward migration exists for the paths of maximum intensity of tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic . The focus of the report is on the latitude at which recent tropical cyclones in the Atlantic are reaching maximum intensity . Their data indicates that during the past thirty years , the peak intensity of these storms has shifted poleward in both hemispheres at a rate of approximately 60 km per decade , amounting to approximately one degree of latitude per decade .
Atlantic storms are becoming more destructive financially , since five of the ten most expensive storms in United States history have occurred since 1990 . According to the World Meteorological Organization , “ recent increase in societal impact from tropical cyclones has largely been caused by rising concentrations of population and infrastructure in coastal regions . ” Pielke et al . ( 2008 ) normalized mainland U.S. hurricane damage from 1900 – 2005 to 2005 values and found no remaining trend of increasing absolute damage . The 1970s and 1980s were notable because of the extremely low amounts of damage compared to other decades . The decade 1996 – 2005 has the second most damage among the past 11 decades , with only the decade 1926 – 1935 surpassing its costs . The most damaging single storm is the 1926 Miami hurricane , with $ 157 billion of normalized damage .
Often in part because of the threat of hurricanes , many coastal regions had sparse population between major ports until the advent of automobile tourism ; therefore , the most severe portions of hurricanes striking the coast may have gone unmeasured in some instances . The combined effects of ship destruction and remote landfall severely limit the number of intense hurricanes in the official record before the era of hurricane reconnaissance aircraft and satellite meteorology . Although the record shows a distinct increase in the number and strength of intense hurricanes , therefore , experts regard the early data as suspect . Christopher Landsea et al. estimated an undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 . These undercounts roughly take into account the typical size of tropical cyclones , the density of shipping tracks over the Atlantic basin , and the amount of populated coastline .
The number and strength of Atlantic hurricanes may undergo a 50 – 70 year cycle , also known as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation . Nyberg et al. reconstructed Atlantic major hurricane activity back to the early eighteenth century and found five periods averaging 3 – 5 major hurricanes per year and lasting 40 – 60 years , and six other averaging 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 major hurricanes per year and lasting 10 – 20 years . These periods are associated with the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation . Throughout , a decadal oscillation related to solar irradiance was responsible for enhancing / dampening the number of major hurricanes by 1 – 2 per year .
Although more uncommon since 1995 , few above @-@ normal hurricane seasons occurred during 1970 – 94 . Destructive hurricanes struck frequently from 1926 – 60 , including many major New England hurricanes . Twenty @-@ one Atlantic tropical storms formed in 1933 , a record only recently exceeded in 2005 , which saw 28 storms . Tropical hurricanes occurred infrequently during the seasons of 1900 – 25 ; however , many intense storms formed during 1870 – 99 . During the 1887 season , 19 tropical storms formed , of which a record 4 occurred after November 1 and 11 strengthened into hurricanes . Few hurricanes occurred in the 1840s to 1860s ; however , many struck in the early 19th century , including an 1821 storm that made a direct hit on New York City . Some historical weather experts say these storms may have been as high as Category 4 in strength .
These active hurricane seasons predated satellite coverage of the Atlantic basin . Before the satellite era began in 1960 , tropical storms or hurricanes went undetected unless a reconnaissance aircraft encountered one , a ship reported a voyage through the storm , or a storm hit land in a populated area . The official record , therefore , could miss storms in which no ship experienced gale @-@ force winds , recognized it as a tropical storm ( as opposed to a high @-@ latitude extra @-@ tropical cyclone , a tropical wave , or a brief squall ) , returned to port , and reported the experience .
Proxy records based on paleotempestological research have revealed that major hurricane activity along the Gulf of Mexico coast varies on timescales of centuries to millennia . Few major hurricanes struck the Gulf coast during 3000 – 1400 BC and again during the most recent millennium . These quiescent intervals were separated by a hyperactive period during 1400 BC and 1000 AD , when the Gulf coast was struck frequently by catastrophic hurricanes and their landfall probabilities increased by 3 – 5 times . This millennial @-@ scale variability has been attributed to long @-@ term shifts in the position of the Azores High , which may also be linked to changes in the strength of the North Atlantic Oscillation .
According to the Azores High hypothesis , an anti @-@ phase pattern is expected to exist between the Gulf of Mexico coast and the Atlantic coast . During the quiescent periods , a more northeasterly position of the Azores High would result in more hurricanes being steered towards the Atlantic coast . During the hyperactive period , more hurricanes were steered towards the Gulf coast as the Azores High was shifted to a more southwesterly position near the Caribbean . Such a displacement of the Azores High is consistent with paleoclimatic evidence that shows an abrupt onset of a drier climate in Haiti around 3200 14C years BP , and a change towards more humid conditions in the Great Plains during the late @-@ Holocene as more moisture was pumped up the Mississippi Valley through the Gulf coast . Preliminary data from the northern Atlantic coast seem to support the Azores High hypothesis . A 3000 @-@ year proxy record from a coastal lake in Cape Cod suggests that hurricane activity increased significantly during the past 500 – 1000 years , just as the Gulf coast was amid a quiescent period of the last millennium .
= Griffith Rutherford =
Griffith Rutherford ( c . 1721 – August 10 , 1805 ) was an officer in the American Revolutionary War , a political leader in North Carolina , and an important figure in the early history of the Southwest Territory and the state of Tennessee .
During the French and Indian War , Rutherford became a captain of a local British colonial militia . He continued serving in the militia until the start of the revolution in 1775 , at which time he enlisted in the North Carolina militia as a colonel . He was appointed to the post of brigadier general of the " Salisbury District " in May 1776 , and participated in the initial phases of the Cherokee – American wars against the Cherokee Indians along the frontier . In June 1780 , he was partly responsible for the Loyalist defeat in the Battle of Ramsour 's Mill . Rutherford was present at the Battle of Camden on August 16 , 1780 , where he was taken prisoner by the British . After being exchanged in 1781 , Rutherford participated in several other campaigns , including further attacks on the Chickamauga faction of the Cherokee .
Originally from Ireland , Rutherford immigrated with his parents to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Colony , at the age of eighteen . In 1753 he moved to Rowan County , in the Province of North Carolina , where he married Elizabeth Graham . An active member of his community , Rutherford served in multiple civil occupations . He was a representative of both houses of the North Carolina House of Commons , as well as an unsuccessful candidate for governor . Rutherford was an advocate of the anti @-@ federalist movement , and was appointed President of the Legislative Council of the Southwest Territory in 1794 . Rutherford retired to Sumner County , Tennessee , where he died on August 10 , 1805 , at the age of 84 .
= = Early life = =
Little is known about Griffith Rutherford 's early life . Born in Ireland in either 1721 or 1731 to John Rutherford , who was of Ulster Scots descent , and Elizabeth ( née Griffin ) , who was of Welsh descent , he appears clearly in records after his immigration to Philadelphia at the age of eighteen . His parents died during the voyage from Ireland , and for a while he worked on a relative 's farm , where he was taught how to survey land . Around 1753 , he moved to Rowan County , North Carolina Colony , and bought a tract of land about seven miles ( 11 km ) from Salisbury ; this was the first of several land purchases he made during the 1750s . The following year Rutherford married his neighbor 's sister , Elizabeth Graham , who eventually bore him ten children . One of their sons , James Rutherford , later became a major during the Revolutionary War , dying at the Battle of Eutaw Springs . Rutherford also became friends with Daniel Boone during this time , with whom he often went on hunting and surveying expeditions . After the French and Indian War , Rutherford became increasingly active in community affairs . He was listed as a member of the North Carolina General Assembly in 1766 , a sheriff and justice of the peace of Rowan County from 1767 to 1769 , and a tax collector .
= = French @-@ Indian War = =
Rutherford began his extensive military career in 1760 during the French and Indian War . He was a participant in several battles and skirmishes , most notably the Battle of Fort Duquesne ( 1758 ) ; the battle at Fort Dobbs ( 1760 ) ; and James Grant 's campaign against the Cherokee in the southern Appalachians ( 1761 ) . By the war 's end , he had achieved the rank of captain . Between 1769 and 1771 , he embraced the cause against the rebels during the Regulator Movement , commanding a local militia which participated in the Battle of Alamance ( May 16 , 1771 ) . The following month , Rutherford retired to Salem to recover from an acute attack of gout .
= = Revolutionary War = =
Rutherford entered the war in 1775 as a colonel in the North Carolina militia following his appointment to the Rowan County Committee of Safety . Throughout that year , his regiment helped to disarm and disperse Loyalist groups in the South Carolina back country , most notably during the Snow Campaign in Ninety Six , South Carolina . Rutherford represented Rowan County at the Fourth Provincial Congress in Halifax from April 4 to May 14 , 1776 , during which he helped develop and write the North Carolina Constitution and was promoted to brigadier general of the Salisbury District . In the summer following the conference , he raised an army of 2 @,@ 400 men to campaign against local Cherokee Indians , who had been attacking colonists on the western frontier since their alliance with the British .
= = = Campaign against the Cherokee = = =
Rutherford 's regiment rendezvoused at Fort McGahey with the Guilford and Surry regiments under Colonels James Martin and Martin Armstrong on July 23 . From there , the three groups traveled through the Blue Ridge Mountains at the Swannanoa Gap , passed up the valley of Hominy Creek , and crossed the Pigeon River . They then passed through Richland Creek , near the present day town of Waynesville , North Carolina , and crossed the Tuckasegee River near an Indian settlement . They moved further onwards towards the Cowee Gap , where they had a small engagement with a band of Cherokee , in which one of Rutherford 's men was wounded . After that conflict , they marched to the Overhill Cherokee " Middle Towns " ( on the Tennessee River ) , where he met General Andrew Williamson of South Carolina on September 14 . Williamson was on a similar mission and readily joined forces with the original three regiments .
The now four regiments skirmished with hostile Indians at Valley Town , Ellijay , and near the southern Watauga settlements ( present day northeast Tennessee ) . Eventually , the Indian tribes were subdued at the cost of three fatalities to Rutherford 's regiment . Casualties to the Indians , however , were severe . By the end of the conflict , the four regiments had destroyed 36 Indian towns , decimated acres of corn farms , and chased off most of the Indians ' cattle . Afterward , Rutherford returned home by the same route . He arrived back in Salisbury in early October , where he disbanded his troops . Later that month , Rutherford authorized another punitive expedition of a recently raised cavalry force , led by Captain William Moore , to attack the Middle Towns .
= = = Southern theater = = =
British strategists viewed the Southern colonies , especially lightly populated Georgia , as the most vulnerable of all . Despite early victories won by the Patriots at Charleston and other settlements , the South became the focus of English attack starting in 1778 . Governor Richard Caswell of North Carolina identified this threat and immediately ordered militia to regroup . Rutherford , who had been checking on Loyalists since his return to Salisbury in 1776 , received word of this by October . Governor Caswell and Rutherford met in Kinston , North Carolina , on November 25 to discuss the specifics of Rutherford 's assignment . Apparently a fleet of British ships were en route from New York , heavily endangering key coastal cities . Rutherford was able to amass a force which reached the border of South Carolina by early December . They proceeded to establish headquarters near Savannah in Purrysburg , South Carolina , the following month .
With the cities of Savannah and Augusta taken by February , the campaign was severely weakened . Rutherford moved his troops near Augusta , where he supported General John Ashe during the Battle of Brier Creek on March 3 . Soldiers ' enlistments soon began expiring ; by April 10 most of Rutherford 's forces returned to North Carolina .
The loss of Charleston in 1780 was a huge blow to the Patriot cause and posed a significant threat to neighboring North Carolina , which lacked adequate defenses due to expiring enlistments . Rutherford saw this danger , calling back his remaining troops stationed in South Carolina and ordering all soldiers from Salisbury to rally near Charlotte , North Carolina . A force of 900 had accumulated by early June .
= = = = Battle of Ramsour 's Mill = = = =
After rallying troops at Charlotte , Rutherford received information that Loyalists were gathering at arms at Ramsour 's Mill — near present @-@ day Lincolnton , North Carolina — and issued orders for local officers to disperse the group before they evolved into an even greater threat . After collecting troops from Rowan and Mecklenburg counties , Rutherford moved his men to the Catawba River and crossed it at the Tuckasegee Ford on June 19 . He sent word to Colonel Francis Locke of Rowan County , to rendezvous with him about 16 miles ( 26 km ) from Ramsour 's Mill , near the forks of the Catawba . Locke accumulated a force of 400 men and encamped at Mountain Creek , which was 35 miles ( 56 km ) away from Rutherford 's position , though still approximately the same distance from Ramsour 's Mill as Rutherford 's position was . It was resolved by Locke and his officers that a junction with Rutherford was unrealistic given the distance between the two regiments and the limited amount of time before the Loyalist group grew too large to safely engage . Therefore , it was decided Locke 's forces would attack the Loyalist 's position immediately . Colonel Johnson , one of Locke 's subordinates , informed Rutherford of the new situation by 10 : 00 pm .
Locke 's forces left their encampment late in the evening of June 19 ; arriving at the Loyalist position by early morning , June 20 . The Patriots took the Loyalists by surprise . While at first bewildered and confused , the Loyalists retaliated by firing at Locke 's cavalry , who were forced to fall back . The Patriots eventually forced the Loyalists to retreat to their camp , though it was discovered that they were regrouping on the other side of the mill stream . At this point , since an immediate attack from the Loyalists was expected , messages were sent to Rutherford , who had advanced to within six miles ( 9 @.@ 6 km ) of Ramsour 's , to immediately move forward . Rutherford met Locke within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of Ramsour 's , where he was informed that the Loyalists were in full retreat .
= = = = Battle of Camden = = = =
The losses at Savannah , Charleston and the Battle of Waxhaws had practically driven the Continental Army from the South , with State defenses reduced to a number of locally @-@ lead partisan militias . In response to the loss of military presence , Congress sent Horatio Gates , who had distinguished himself at Saratoga , to reform the Continental Army in Charlotte , North Carolina . Against the advice of his officers and without knowing the capabilities of his troops — some of which were untested in battle — Gates marched toward South Carolina on July 27 with over 4 @,@ 000 men . He aimed to capturing the crossroads town of Camden , North Carolina , which would have been strategically important for control over the South Carolina backcountry . Lord Rawdon , who was stationed there with 1 @,@ 000 men , alerted Lord Cornwallis of Gates 's movements on August 9 . Cornwallis arrived at Camden by August 13 with reinforcements , increasing the British presence there to over 2 @,@ 000 men .
The battle ensued at dawn on August 16 , 1780 . Rutherford was positioned in the center of the Continental formation with other North Carolina militia . During the battle , he was wounded and taken prisoner . He was detained for ten months at Castillo de San Marcos in St. Augustine , Florida , and was later exchanged for another prisoner in 1781 .
= = = Later war = = =
Rutherford returned to Salisbury in September 1781 after his release to find his home ransacked by British troops . After a short reunion with his family , Rutherford trained and took command of 1 @,@ 400 men and allegedly began to brutally attack Tory militias and communities according to several reports sent to his superior , General Greene . Greene disagreed with Rutherford 's tactics , warning Rutherford that these methods would only encourage the Loyalist cause . While these reports were later found to be false , Rutherford decided to redirect his forces towards the British encampment and surrounding militias at Wilmington , North Carolina , beginning with the Loyalist force at Raft Swamp . During October and November , Rutherford continued to force the Loyalists into Wilmington , and eventually surrounded the city , successfully cutting off British communications and supply lines . The commanding British officer , Major Craig , was soon afterward informed of Cornwallis 's surrender at Yorktown , and his forces at Wilmington were hastily evacuated .
After Wilmington , Rutherford again fought the Chickamauga in the west in 1782 . He followed the same route he had taken seven years before . No known accounts were written of the campaign , though it was reportedly successful .
= = Later life = =
Rutherford was elected to North Carolina 's senate during the War in 1779 and continued to serve in this position until 1789 . He opposed the restoration of Loyalist lands , supporting and assisting in their confiscation while serving in the Council of State . Rutherford ran unsuccessfully for governor in 1783 . He was an ardent anti @-@ federalist during the national debate on the recently created United States Constitution . At a Constitutional Convention held at Hillsborough , North Carolina in 1788 , he had reservations about the Constitution — as did other anti @-@ federalists at the meeting . Rutherford requested if he could challenge some of the clauses . While each clause was challenged individually despite opposition from federalist Samuel Johnston and others , Rutherford rarely contributed to discussion . His final decision to vote against the ratification of the Constitution resulted in him losing his seat in the state senate . However , his reputation with his colleagues was relatively unaffected , and he was subsequently elected Councilor of the State .
Rutherford acquired nearly 13 @,@ 000 acres of Washington District land through trading off his 700 acres in Salisbury , government grants and purchasing Continental soldier 's tracts . With his family and eight slaves Rutherford relocated to this area , in what is today Sumner County , Tennessee , in September 1792 . Two years later , he was appointed President of the Legislative Council of the Southwest Territory .
Rutherford died in Sumner County , Tennessee , on August 10 , 1805 .
= = Legacy = =
These areas are all namesakes of Griffith Rutherford :
Rutherfordton , North Carolina
Rutherford County , North Carolina
Rutherford County , Tennessee
= Atherton , Greater Manchester =
Atherton ( pop . 20 @,@ 300 ) is a town within the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , in Greater Manchester , England and historically a part of Lancashire . It is 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of Wigan , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Leigh , and 10 @.@ 7 miles ( 17 @.@ 2 km ) northwest of Manchester . For about 300 years from the 17th century Atherton was referred to as Chowbent , which was frequently shortened to Bent , the town 's old nickname .
Along with neighbouring Shakerley , Atherton has been associated with coal mining and nail manufacture since the 14th century , encouraged by its outcrops of coal . At the beginning of the 20th century the town was described as " the centre of a district of collieries , cotton mills and iron @-@ works , which cover the surface of the country with their inartistic buildings and surroundings , and are linked together by the equally unlovely dwellings of the people " . Atherton 's last deep coal mine closed in 1966 , and the last working cotton mills closed in 1999 . Today the town is the third largest retail centre in the Borough of Wigan ; almost 20 % of those employed in the area work in the wholesale and retail trade , although there is still some significant manufacturing industry in the town .
Evidence has been discovered of a Roman road passing through the area , on the ancient route between Coccium ( Wigan ) and Mamucium ( Manchester ) . Following the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion of England , Atherton , which is built on and around seven brooks , became part of the manor of Warrington until the Norman conquest , when it became a township or vill in the ancient parish of Leigh . Since 1974 the town has been part of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , a local government district of the Metropolitan County of Greater Manchester .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Atherton was recorded as Aderton in 1212 and 1242 , and Atherton in 1259 . Opinions differ as to the derivation of the name . One is the farmstead or village of a man named Aethelhere , an Old English personal name and the suffix tun , meaning an enclosure , farmstead or manor estate ; another is adre , Saxon for little brook with the suffix tun . Either is possible as Atherton is bounded by brooks to the west and south , and crossed by several others . The western boundary is Hindsford Brook , originally named Goderic Brook after a Saxon saint .
The Chow – also recorded as Chew , Cholle and Chowl – family were tenants of the Athertons living at the valley by Chanters Brook . This part of the township became known as Chow 's Bent but the meaning of Bent has been lost , perhaps a bend or slope . It was referred to in the 14th century as Chollebynt or Shollebent . Chowbent , or Bent , was the name given to the built @-@ up part of Atherton from the mid @-@ 17th century for at least 300 years . As the population grew , the resulting town was called Atherton , although the names Chowbent or Bent are used by locals .
= = = Early history = = =
Evidence of a Roman road and Bronze Age settlement have been found in the area . The Roman road between Manchester and Wigan is shown on the 1849 6 " OS map crossing Miller 's Lane at 90 degrees about halfway down . The site of Gadbury Brickworks at the Gibfield Colliery site has been excavated , and evidence of Roman and possibly earlier settlements found .
= = = Manor = = =
The manor was held by the Atherton family from the de Botelers , whose chief manor was at Warrington . William and Nicholas Atherton fought at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 . The manor house was situated towards the south of the ancient township . Christopher Saxton 's map shows that there was a medieval deer park in the time of Elizabeth I. " Mad " Richard Atherton , the last direct male descendant of the Athertons is remembered for two events ; his expulsion of the congregation from the first Atherton Chapel in 1721 , and building Atherton Hall on a grand scale , to designs by architect William Wakefield . Work on the hall started in 1723 and was not finished until 1743 . The carriage drive from the hall led over Lion 's Bridge down an avenue to gates which faced the parish church in Leigh where the Atherton 's had a chapel . Richard Vernon Atherton was the last of the Atherton male line . He married Elizabeth Farington and had a daughter Elizabeth .
The Atherton family 's association with the township ended with Richard Atherton 's death in 1726 . His daughter , Elizabeth , married Robert Gwillym and their son , Robert Vernon Atherton , married Henrietta Maria Legh . They had five children , the sons died young , their eldest daughter Henrietta Maria Atherton married Thomas Powys , 2nd Baron Lilford whose father was ennobled by Pitt the Younger in 1797 , taking the title of Baron Lilford . He left his estates to his son , Thomas Atherton Powys . The Atherton estate was inherited by Lord Lilford , who preferred to live at his family seat , Lilford Hall in Northamptonshire . Lord Lilford could not afford the upkeep of another house and Atherton Hall was put up for sale but , after failing to sell , it was demolished in 1824 . Some of the outbuildings were left standing and are private property still known as Atherton Hall . This portion of Atherton was incorporated into Leigh in 1894 and the area became a public park .
= = = Two battles = = =
The area was divided in its allegiance during the Civil War , in 1642 men of Chowbent were on their way to Leigh Church when word came that James Stanley , 7th Earl of Derby 's Royalist troops were marching through Leigh probably en route for Manchester . The men of Chowbent armed themselves and drove the Earl 's men back to Lowton Common , killing some , wounding others and taking prisoner about 200 men : " ... we are all upon our guard , and the Naylors of Chowbent , instead of making Nayles , have busied themselves making Bills and Battle Axes . " ( Civil War tracts of Lancashire , Chetham Society Series , vol II ) .
In 1715 , during the Jacobite Uprising the supporters of the Old Pretender were marching on Preston . General Charles Wills wrote to Minister Wood of Atherton Chapel asking him to raise a force to be at Cuerden Green the following day , 12 November . Minister Wood led a force of Chowbent men who were given the job of guarding the bridge over the River Ribble at Walton @-@ le @-@ Dale and a ford at Penwortham , which they defended successfully . The Highlanders were routed , and for his efforts Parson James Wood was given £ 100 annuity ( equivalent to £ 14 @,@ 100 in 2015 ) by Parliament and the title " The General " by his congregation .
= = = Industrial history = = =
Atherton , along with neighbouring Shakerley , was associated with coal mining and nail manufacture . Alexander Naylor was taxed on his goods in 1332 , showing the industry was present for at least 600 years . Encouraged by the proximity of outcrops of coal , iron was brought from Derbyshire , Yorkshire and Spain . A variety of nails were made , lath nails , slate nails , thatching nails and sparrowbills . The nail smithies manufactured ploughs and scythes ; their products were taken by pack horse to be sold in Manchester , Denbigh , Clitheroe and Kendal . The nail industry developed into the manufacture of nuts and bolts . Thomas Blakemore was the first in 1843 and by 1853 there were eight makers of nuts and bolts including James Prestwich and Robert Parker . Some manufacturers of nuts and bolts made spindles and flyers for spinning machinery . Collier Brook Bolt Works on Bag Lane dating from 1856 survives and is a Grade II listed building .
Coal had been mined for several hundred years in numerous shallow shafts and adits , but took on greater importance when in 1776 Robert Vernon Atherton leased the coal rights to Thomas Guest from Leigh and John Fletcher from Bolton . In 1845 the era of deep mining arrived with the sinking of Fletcher 's Lover 's Lane pit at Howe Bridge . The Crombouke Day @-@ Eye , a drift mine accessing the shallow Brassy and Crombouke mines , opened in 1870 and closed in 1907 . ( A coal seam was referred to as a " mine " in this part of Lancashire . ) By the early 1870s Fletcher , Burrows and Company 's Howe Bridge Colliery , the biggest of the three Howe Bridge pits , was sunk to the Black & White , or Seven Foot mine . It pit closed in 1959 . Gibfield Colliery , situated alongside the Bolton and Leigh Railway , was working in 1829 , coal was mined from the Trencherbone mine . Forty years later a 1 @,@ 169 @-@ foot ( 356 m ) shaft was sunk to Arley Mine . The pit closed in 1963 . In September 1913 the first pit head baths in the country were opened at Gibfield . Chanters Colliery was in Hindsford , where 1 @,@ 120 @-@ foot ( 340 m ) shafts were sunk to the Trencherbone mine in 1854 . In the late 1890s shafts were deepened to 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) to reach the Arley mine . Atherton had its share of mining disasters , on 11 February 1850 five men died in a gas explosion caused by a lighted candle at Gibfield and 27 men died at Lovers Lane Colliery after a firedamp explosion caused by blown @-@ out shot on 28 March 1872 . On 6 March 1957 eight men died at Chanters Colliery after an explosion of gas . Chanters closed in 1966 bringing the era of deep coal mining in the town to an end . In 1908 , the Lancashire and Cheshire Coal Owners Association opened Howe Bridge Mines Rescue Station .
The cotton mills grew out of a cottage spinning and weaving industry that was widespread across the district . As industrialisation gathered pace , local weavers felt threatened by the advent of powered looms , and in April 1812 a mob smashed the machines and burnt down a new factory , Westhoughton Mill , in neighbouring Westhoughton . For this , the Luddites , three men and a boy of 14 , were tried at Lancaster Assizes and hanged . Fustian was woven and after 1827 silk also was brought from Manchester . In 1938 James Burton had built cotton mills on both sides of the Hindsford Brook including Lodge Mill . Dan Lane Spinning and Doubling Mills were built in the 1840s and lasted until the 1950s . Howe Bridge Spinning Mills , the largest complex in Atherton was started in 1868 and the last mill built in 1919 . It closed as a textile factory in early 1999 . Mills built in the 20th century were Laburnum Mills in 1905 ( closed 1980 ) , and Ena Mill in 1908 which closed in 1999 . The Ena Mill , now converted for other uses , is a Grade II listed building .
= = Governance = =
Atherton forms an electoral ward of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan . The ward elects three councillors to the 75 @-@ member metropolitan borough council , Wigan 's local authority . As of 2009 , two ward councillors of Atherton are Independents and one is a member of the Labour Party . Historically , Atherton formed part of the Hundred of West Derby , a judicial division of southwest Lancashire . Atherton was one of the six townships or vills that made up the ancient parish of Leigh . The townships existed before the parish . The manor of Atherton was held by the Atherton family from the de Botelers , whose chief manor was at Warrington .
Under the terms of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 the townships formed part of the Leigh Poor Law Union which was established on 26 January 1837 comprising an area covering the whole of the ancient parish of Leigh and part of Winwick . There were workhouses in existence in Pennington , Culcheth , Tyldesley , Lowton and Hag Fold in Atherton but Leigh Union workhouse at Atherleigh replaced these in the 1850s . In 1863 the Local Government Act 1858 was adopted for the township , meaning it was governed by a local board of health , a type of regulatory body responsible for standards of hygiene and sanitation in the township . In 1894 part of the township was added to Leigh Urban District ; the remainder became Atherton Urban District . The urban district was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , when the area became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , a local government district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester .
Following a review of parliamentary representation in Greater Manchester , Atherton is part of the Bolton West Parliamentary constituency . It is the only ward in the borough to be represented outside a Wigan borough seat ( the remainder of the borough is represented by Leigh , Makerfield or Wigan ) . Atherton 's MP is Julie Hilling who won the parliamentary seat for Bolton West at the 2010 General Election . Howe Bridge is in the Leigh constituency represented by Andy Burnham .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 31 ′ 23 ″ N 2 ° 29 ′ 44 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 5231 ° , − 2 @.@ 4955 ° ) , and 171 miles ( 275 km ) northwest of central London , Atherton is situated 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of Wigan and 10 @.@ 7 miles ( 17 @.@ 2 km ) west @-@ northwest of the city of Manchester , at the eastern end of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan .
Atherton , which includes Hindsford to the southeast , Howe Bridge in the southwest , and Hag Fold in the north , is generally low lying . The soil is clay in much of the township . The southwest of the town is 100 feet ( 30 m ) above sea level , rising to 250 feet ( 76 m ) in the north . Atherton is built around seven brooks : the Shakerley Brook forms the western boundary with Tyldesley ; Chanters Brook flows through the area known as " The Valley " ; Knight 's Brook ( Bag Lane ) ; Colliers Brook ; Small Brook is the boundary with Westleigh ; Westhoughton Brook forms the boundary with Daisy Hill ; and Red Waters Brook . The underlying rocks are the coal measures of the Manchester Coalfield .
Atherton 's climate is generally temperate , like the rest of Greater Manchester . The mean highest and lowest temperatures ( 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 55 @.@ 8 ° F ) and 6 @.@ 4 ° C ( 43 @.@ 5 ° F ) ) are slightly above the national average , while the annual rainfall ( 806 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 76 in ) ) and average hours of sunshine ( 1394 @.@ 5 hours ) are respectively above and below the national averages .
The town is situated on the old high road , now the A579 from Bolton to Leigh . The A577 runs from the town to Tyldesley in one direction and to Wigan in the other .
= = Demography = =
At the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , according to the Office for National Statistics , the Urban Subdivision of Atherton was part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area and had a total resident population of 20 @,@ 302 , of which 9 @,@ 908 ( 48 @.@ 8 % ) were male and 10 @,@ 394 ( 51 @.@ 2 % ) were female , living in 8 @,@ 745 households . The settlement occupied 429 hectares ( 1 @.@ 66 sq mi ) , compared with 431 hectares ( 1 @.@ 66 sq mi ) in the 1991 census . Its population density was 47 @.@ 32 people per hectare compared with an average of 40 @.@ 20 across the Greater Manchester Urban Area . The median age of the population was 40 , compared with 36 within the Greater Manchester Urban Area and 37 across England and Wales .
The majority of the population of Atherton were born in England ( 96 @.@ 29 % ) ; 1 @.@ 56 % were born elsewhere within the United Kingdom , 0 @.@ 89 % within the rest of the European Union , and 1 @.@ 26 % elsewhere in the world .
Data on religious beliefs across the town in the 2001 census show that 86 @.@ 6 % declared themselves to be Christian , 7 @.@ 2 % said they held no religion , and 0 @.@ 3 % reported themselves as Hindu .
= = = Population change = = =
= = Economy = =
The northern part of Atherton is within the Bolton Travel to Work Area , whilst the southern part is within the Manchester TTWA . The town is within the Manchester Larger Urban Zone .
At the time of the 2001 Census , there were 8 @,@ 755 people ( 43 @.@ 1 % ) in employment who were resident in Atherton . Of these , 19 @.@ 65 % worked in the wholesale and retail trade , including repair of motor vehicles ; 19 @.@ 28 % worked within manufacturing industry ; and 10 @.@ 27 % worked within the health and social work sector . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 as 36 @.@ 7 % in full @-@ time employment , 11 @.@ 0 % in part @-@ time employment , 6 @.@ 8 % self @-@ employed , 4 @.@ 0 % unemployed , 1 @.@ 7 % students with jobs , 3 @.@ 2 % students without jobs , 14 @.@ 6 % retired , 6 @.@ 5 % looking after home or family , 11 @.@ 8 % permanently sick or disabled , and 3 @.@ 8 % economically inactive for other reasons . The 4 @.@ 0 % unemployment rate was high compared with the national rate of 3 @.@ 3 % . According to the Office for National Statistics estimates , during the period between April 2001 and March 2002 , the average gross income of households was £ 380 per week ( £ 19 @,@ 760 per year ) , substantially less than the £ 470 per week ( £ 24 @,@ 440 ) for the rest of the North West . The average car ownership per household was 1 @.@ 01 , compared with 0 @.@ 93 across the Greater Manchester Urban Area ; 43 @.@ 74 % of households owned a single car or van , and 30 @.@ 76 % owned none .
Atherton , the third largest retail centre in the Wigan Borough , has a small pedestrian shopping centre . Most shops front onto Market Street and date from late Victorian times , the majority operated by small independent retailers , although there is a supermarket that brings customers into the town centre . Older , low cost , mostly terraced housing , surrounds the centre of town . Bolts and fastenings are still manufactured in Atherton by Smith Bullough , one of a few remaining bolt and nut manufacturers in the UK . As of 2009 , a business park is planned for the former Gibfield Colliery site .
= = Landmarks = =
There are several historic buildings in and around Atherton , some , but not all , in the area referred to as Chowbent . They include the 17th @-@ century Alder House , Chowbent Chapel , St John the Baptist 's Church ( 1879 ) , and Chanters Farmhouse , all of which are listed buildings . The name " Chanters " derives from a chantry granted by the Bishop of Lichfield in 1360 to Sir William de Atherton . The name is also given to a bridge over the Hindsford Brook and a former colliery .
A pseudo @-@ Egyptian obelisk near the south @-@ east corner of the parish church , similar to one in Leigh , was probably built for Robert Vernon Atherton in 1781 . It was restored in 1867 twelve years before the church was finished . It is a Grade II listed structure .
Between 1873 and 1875 , mineowners Fletcher Burrows built a small model village at Howe Bridge , comprising cottages , shops , a village club , and a bath house for their employees . This Victorian village on either side of Leigh Road , together with St Michael and All Angel 's Church , is a conservation area . The Ena Mill , one of Atherton 's large spinning mills , complete with chimney , survives as a reminder of the textile industry .
Atherton 's war memorial is a cenotaph at the intersection of Leigh Road and Hamilton Street was designed by architect Arthur John Hope and constructed of Darley Dale stone . It was unveiled in January 1922 by Private J. Roylance , a soldier blinded in action during the First World War .
= = Transport = =
The Bolton to Leigh road was turnpiked in about 1770 and a toll gate was installed on the Atherton boundary on Bolton Road . Shakerley Lane toll road emerged near Green Hall on Bolton Road , and was built to get coal from the Shakerley pits to the turnpike road .
In 1825 , the Bolton and Leigh Railway received Royal Assent and the single track railway was opened in 1828 bringing the railway to the western side of the township where it was close to the coal mines at Howe Bridge and Gibfield . There was a railway station at Atherton Bag Lane and one further south at Atherleigh This line was connected to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway by the Kenyon and Leigh Junction Railway in 1831 . It was connected to the Tyldesley – Wigan line in 1883 , and a station on that line was opened at Chowbent renamed Howe Bridge in 1901 . The Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway 's line from Manchester to Southport passes to the north of Atherton and Atherton Station which was opened in 1887 – 88 remains open .
In 1900 , a Bill authorising the South Lancashire Tramways Company to construct over 62 miles ( 100 km ) of tramway in southern Lancashire was given Royal Assent . However , by November 1900 the South Lancashire Electric Traction and Power Company had acquired the shares . The first section of tramway opened on 20 October 1902 between Lowton and Four Lanes Ends via Leigh and Atherton . The company got into financial difficulty and in turn became Lancashire United Tramways later Lancashire United Transport ( LUT ) . LUT had headquarters and a large depot in Howe Bridge . On 16 December 1933 , the last tram ran from Leigh to Four Lane Ends . The following day trolley buses took over .
Public transport in Atherton is co @-@ ordinated by the Transport for Greater Manchester . There are public transport links by rail from Atherton and Hag Fold stations to Wigan and Manchester operated by Northern Rail , and by bus to Bolton , Leigh , Wigan , Manchester , the Trafford Centre and Middlebrook Retail and Leisure Complex operated by Diamond Bus North West of Atherton , Stagecoach Manchester and First Greater Manchester .
= = Education = =
The first school in Atherton was Chowbent Grammar School founded before 1654 and followed by Chowbent Chapel School in 1734 . Lane Top National School opened in 1840 and Chowbent Unitarian School and Hindsford St Anne 's in 1860 . Howe Bridge School opened in 1869 and St Philip 's a year later . An undenominational school in Lee Street opened in 1871 followed by St George 's and Sacred Heart School in Hindsford in 1873 . In the 1890s , the technical school originally opened as a school for science and art , followed by St Richard 's in 1891 and Flapper Fold Higher Grade School in 1893 . Green Hall Special School opened in 1957 , and a new infant school was opened on Lodge Lane for Sacred Heart . Meadowbank Primary School can also be found on Flapper Fold Lane , marking the boundary between Atherton and Hag Fold . Hesketh Fletcher Senior School opened in 1967 and closed on 31 August 2011 . Atherton Community School opened in 2012 .
= = Religion = =
There have been three chapels or churches on the site of the Parish Church of St John the Baptist . A chapel was built in 1645 by John Atherton . It is sometimes referred to as the Old Bent Chapel . It remained unconsecrated and was used by the Presbyterians . In 1721 Richard Atherton expelled the dissenters and the chapel was consecrated in 1723 by the Bishop of Sodor and Man . A new chapel on the site was consecrated by the Bishop of Chester in 1814 . The present church dedicated to St John the Baptist was consecrated in 1879 . The church , designed by Austin and Paley , is built in Runcorn stone . It is 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide , 127 feet ( 39 m ) long , and the 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) square tower rises to 120 feet ( 37 m ) . The fabric of the church has suffered from mining subsidence .
The New Bent or Chowbent Chapel , the earliest Nonconformist chapel in Atherton , was built in 1721 and opened in 1722.The chapel was built by the Presbyterian congregation after it was expelled from the first chapel .
St Anne 's Church , Hindsford was originally a mission occupying a barn which was replaced in 1901 by a church designed by Austin and Paley on Tyldesley Road . It has since been converted to residential use . St Michael and All Angels at Howe Bridge was built in 1877 . There are chapels of the Wesleyan , Baptist , Independent Methodist , and Primitive Methodist denominations ; a Congregational church at Howe Bridge was opened in 1904 . Roman Catholics celebrated mass in a loft behind the Star and Garter public house on Tyldesley Square until Sacred Heart Church opened in Hindsford in 1869 . The site was given by Lord Lilford with building materials donated by John Holland , manager of Yew Tree Colliery in Tyldesley . It served the growing Catholic population in Hindsford and Tyldesley . Sacred Heart closed in 2004 and its parish together with those of St Richard 's in Mayfield Street which opened in 1928 , Holy Family in Boothstown , St Ambrose Barlow in Astley , St Gabriel 's , Higher Folds in Leigh are now united as a single community with St Margaret Clitherow as its patron .
= = Sport = =
Swimming baths opened in Mayfield Street in 1902 and a swimming club was formed , the baths closed in 2005 and the Atherton & Leigh Amateur Swimming Club moved to the new Leigh Sports Village facility in 2008 .
Atherton has three amateur football teams , the oldest of which is Atherton Collieries A.F.C. , formed in 1916 , who play in the North West Counties League . Others are Atherton Laburnum Rovers F.C. , also members of the North West Counties Football League and Atherton Town FC .
Atherton Cricket Club was formed in 1872 and has played in the Bolton and District Cricket Association since 1921 .
= = Public services = =
Atherton is policed by the Greater Manchester Police force from Atherton Police Station , which covers Atherton , Tyldesley , Astley and Mosley Common , it is one of 5 subdivisions within the Wigan division . It is part of the L division , which covers the entirety of Wigan borough . The statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , from Atherton fire station .
Health services in the Wigan borough are provided by the Wigan Borough Clinical Commissioning Group . Hospital services are provided by the Wrightington , Wigan and Leigh NHS Foundation Trust who provide an Accident and Emergency service at Wigan 's Royal Albert Edward Infirmary and outpatient clinics at Leigh Infirmary .
Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the Wigan Authority , which is a statutory waste disposal authority in its own right . Atherton 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Electricity North West Ltd . United Utilities manages Atherton 's drinking and waste water .
= = Culture = =
The Atherton Botanical Garden Club , which is today a social club , was formed in 1850 , and organised lectures , study groups and rambles on Chat Moss for its members . A public library was opened in 1905 with an Andrew Carnegie grant . Bent Chapel already had a library in the Chowbent School , and donated 4 @,@ 000 books to the new town library . Central Park , a 10 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) public park , was created in 1912 . Other parks were later provided in Lodge Lane , Hindsford and Devonshire Place . The urban district council also acquired the grounds belonging to Howe Bridge Welfare in 1963 . In the early and mid @-@ 20th century Atherton had three cinemas , the Gem in Bullough Street , the Savoy and the Palace on Market Street . An amateur photographic society was formed in 1938 . Formby Hall plays host to the Bent ' n ' Bongs Beer Festival over the last weekend of every January .
= = Notable residents = =
There were several ministers of note of Chowbent Chapel including James Wood , the " General " , 1672 – 1759 , who distinguished himself at the Battle of Preston in 1715 . Thomas Walker Horsfield ( 1792 – 1837 ) was a historian and topographer . Joseph Nightingale ( 1775 – 1824 ) , born in Chowbent , was a prolific English writer and preacher who subsequently became a Unitarian . Eric Roberts Laithwaite ( 1921 – 1997 ) was an engineer , principally known for his development of the linear induction motor and Maglev rail system . Chess grandmaster , Nigel Short grew up in Atherton and attended St Philip 's School . Architect Arthur John Hope ( 1875 – 1960 ) , a partner in Bradshaw Gass & Hope was born and lived in Atherton . Edward Ormerod , mining engineer at Gib Field Colliery , invented the Ormerod detaching hook , an important mining safety device .
= Girl Gone Wild =
" Girl Gone Wild " is a song by American recording artist Madonna from her twelfth studio album , MDNA ( 2012 ) . She co @-@ wrote the song with Benny Benassi , his cousin Alle Benassi ( known together as the Benassi Bros. ) , and songwriter Jenson Vaughan , while the Benassi Bros. co @-@ produced the track with Madonna . Vaughan had worked on the lyrics before sending them to Madonna , who developed the demo into the final version of " Girl Gone Wild " . The song was confirmed by Madonna as the second single from the album and was released on March 2 , 2012 , by Interscope Records .
Musically , " Girl Gone Wild " is a mid @-@ tempo electropop party track that is influenced by four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor . The song opens with a prayer and features electronic music elements . After the song was released , Joe Francis , the creator of Girls Gone Wild franchise , threatened to sue Madonna for copyright infringement if she sang the song during her performance at Super Bowl XLVI halftime show . Madonna 's representatives stated that she was not aware of either Francis or the lawsuit , and that several songs with the same name had already been released by other artists .
The song received mixed reviews from critics , who praised its composition as a return to dance music for Madonna , but criticized its lyrics and believed it failed as album opener on MDNA . " Girl Gone Wild " reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in Hungary , Israel , Italy , Russia , South Africa , South Korea and Spain , along with the Billboard digital charts in Greece . It debuted and peaked at number 38 on US Pop Songs due to radio airplay . It also became Madonna 's 42nd number @-@ one hit on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart .
A black @-@ and @-@ white music video for the song , directed by Mert and Marcus , was released on March 20 , 2012 . The video features Madonna and a number of male models in different looks , dancing with Ukrainian group Kazaky . It received critical acclaim for the editing and the visuals , while reviewers noted that it took inspiration from Madonna 's older videos , such as " Erotica " , " Justify My Love " , " Human Nature " and " Vogue " . " Girl Gone Wild " was performed as the opening song during The MDNA Tour ( 2012 ) , in a Gothic cathedral setting showing religious iconography , and Madonna and her dancers executing choreography in high @-@ heels .
= = Background and release = =
In December 2010 , Madonna posted a message on her Facebook page exclaiming that she was on the lookout for " maddest , sickest , most badass people " as collaborators for making new dance music . On July 4 , 2011 , her manager Guy Oseary announced that the singer had entered the studio for recording her then unnamed twelfth studio album . Among the collaborators enlisted for the project was Italian record producer Benny Benassi , who at that time was working on the release of his fourth studio album Electroman . His label Ultra Records ' head Patrick Moxey felt that the producer 's " aggressive " sounds would " work well with some of the major American superstar artists " . Moxey asked for some additional tracks from him , and his longtime production partner and cousin , Alle ( Allessandro ) Benassi .
A few demos produced by them were sent to songwriter Jenson Vaughan , who liked the lyrics and the " bass @-@ driven " sound . Vaughan added the top @-@ line on a demo and returned it to Moxey , who shared it with Benassi 's European co @-@ manager Paul Sears , who in @-@ turn shared the demo with Oseary . Upon listening , Madonna was impressed with the demos and requested the Benassi Bros. to come to London for a recording session . Moxey commented that the singer " loved [ the producer ] . Benny is such a quality person ; I think that made it all flow so much easier . " Two tracks from those sessions , " Girl Gone Wild " and " I 'm Addicted " , were included on the final track list of the album , named MDNA . Madonna spoke about her experience of collaborating with the Benassi Bros. :
Benny was a tricky one because he doesn 't speak English very well . I ended up kind of using his cousin Allessandro as an interpreter . It was a little bit frustrating at first but eventually we found a way to communicate . You figure out a way . With music it 's so much about the vibe and the energy and you know when things are working and when they ’ re not . When you 're working with someone for the first time , there 's a kind of shyness that everybody has , so with Benny it was more challenging because of that but we figured it out and by the end I felt like I knew him very well .
A day after Madonna 's halftime show performance on the Super Bowl XLVI , the singer confirmed to Ryan Seacrest that " Girl Gone Wild " would be released as the second single from the album . A lyric video for the song was released on February 27 , 2012 , while it was available for digital download from March 2 , 2012 at the iTunes Store . The cover art for the single was released on February 29 , 2012 . Shot by fashion photographers Mert and Marcus , who had also created the covers for MDNA , the " Girl Gone Wild " artwork showed Madonna wearing lingerie by English retailer Agent Provocateur . She had chosen the brand 's " Raphaella " padded bra , made from French corded lace and pleated tulle . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly praised the artwork saying that the singer " still wears underwear in public better than most women half her age " . Billboard writer Gregory DelliCarpini , Jr. felt that Madonna portrayed having fun in " racy undies " on the cover , in spite of being a mother . " Is this the 21st century version of her infamous cone bra ? Nah , but it made you look [ at her ] , " he concluded .
= = Threatened lawsuit = =
On February 4 , 2012 , Joe Francis , the creator of the Girls Gone Wild video franchisee , threatened to sue Madonna if she sang the song during her halftime show performance . His representatives said that " [ Madonna ] violated Federal and State trademark laws by making unauthorized use of Mr. Francis ' trademark Girls Gone Wild in not only the title , but subject line of her various advertisements in order to lure potential consumers to purchase her latest musical effort . " The National Football League ( NFL ) revealed in their magazine that the song would not be performed at the Super Bowl . On hearing about the allegations , Moxey commented that Francis only wanted attention from the press , adding : " When I looked at ASCAP , I noticed there were approximately 50 records called ' Girls Gone Wild ' . This guy just thinks too much of himself . "
The song title was slightly modified to the singular " Girl Gone Wild " to which Francis again commented : " Clearly her label was trying to avoid legal action surrounding the song ... But [ the new title ] is still infringement as far as the law is concerned , and we have been in touch with Madonna 's people in an effort to resolve this issue . " He added that he would pursue new legal action if more changes were not made to the track . Francis ' lawyer also said that his client had made a federal trademark for the singular form of the title . Oseary denied that the song 's title was changed because of Francis , explaining that Madonna had been completing the final version of MDNA and the renamed title was chosen due to the singular word " girl " in the lyrics . He stated that there are several songs titled " Girls Gone Wild " on iTunes , and that Madonna was not aware of a lawsuit or about Francis . Oseary concluded by saying that the singer was not restricted from performing the song at the Super Bowl , though she did not .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Girl Gone Wild " was recorded at MSR Studios , New York City and Sarm West Studios , Notting Hill , London . It was written by Madonna , Vaughan and the Benassi Bros. , and was produced by the Benassis and Madonna . Demacio " Demo " Castellon recorded and mixed the track . Philippe Weiss and Graham Archer assisted Castellon on the recording , while Angie Teo assisted on the mixing . Stephen " The Koz " Kozmeniuk did the additional editing of the song and arranged the vocoder . Benny Benassi recalled that Madonna would arrive in the studio around 3 – 4 pm and would work till 11 : 30 pm in the night . Together they fixed the production of the song , including the layering and stacking of the track . They added more vocals to the composition and during the chorus , decided on how many voices should be duplicated . According to Alle Benassi , Madonna " has clear idea . She knows very well what she wants : where put something , how , why . It 's surreal but impressive . "
" Girl Gone Wild " is as a mid @-@ tempo party track , drawing influence from four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor and has a similar sound to tracks from the singer 's tenth studio album , Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) . Kerri Mason of Billboard described it as mostly a dance track with more of electro influence in it rather than house . Jason Lipshutz from the same publication relegated it in the electropop genre , adding that it has a " driving beat " and " propulsive hook " reminiscent of Madonna 's 2005 single , " Hung Up " . The song opens with a prayer , and Madonna uttering " Oh my God , I 'm heartily sorry " , which was a spoken rendition of the last track , " Act of Contrition " , from Madonna 's fourth studio album , Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . During the middle eight , Madonna talks about how " good girls " should not misbehave . NME contributor Ailbhe Malone noted that the composition featured elements from the singer 's previous singles , " Music " ( 2000 ) and " Jump " ( 2006 ) . As she sings " forgive me " , the beat drops completely with the music disintegrating . Madonna 's vocals are processed to appear thin and stretched out .
According to the sheet music of the song published online by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Girl Gone Wild " is set in the time signature of common time , with a moderate tempo of 127 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of A minor with Madonna 's vocals ranging from Gm to Dm . The song follows a sequence of G ♯ m – C ♯ m – E during the opening prayer verse and Am – Em – G – F for the rest as its chord progression . Mike Senior from Sound on Sound magazine found that along with the predominant synth sounds , there was " a lot " of double tracking present in the song which made the vocals unclear . He felt that this was not pose a problem in stereo sound , but with mono sounds the combined vocals appeared double tracked while the vocal level decreased . The mixing for " Girl Gone Wild " was done mainly for stereo speakers and around the 1 : 45 – 2 : 00 mark , the vocal levels fluctuate with the backing music being dwarfed . Senior also observed that Madonna put the stresses of the words on the beats of the song , hence some of the enunciation are lost with the drum sounds , especially on the title hook .
Lyrically , the song addresses a " good girl gone wild " singing about her " burning hot desire " to have some fun . It contains references to singer Cyndi Lauper 's " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " ( 1983 ) , with lyrics like " Girls , they just wanna have some fun " and " The room is spinning / It must be the Tanqueray / I 'm about to go astray / My inhibitions gone away " . In the intermediate verses , Madonna utters " forgive me " , which is a Catholic term used as a sexual reference . The lyrics , once placed in the context of Madonna 's career " attains a new meaning " according to Josh Haigh from Attitude magazine . Explaining it , he said that the meaning behind the lyrics was how Madonna , being a Catholic girl herself , decided that she would not be tied down by anyone else 's rules , and consequently became one of the most recognizable musical artists .
= = Critical reception = =
The song has received mixed reviews from music critics . Keith Caulfied of Billboard deemed it as a " very dance @-@ by @-@ the @-@ numbers with Madonna " song , and further assessed that the chorus made " Girl Gone Wild " a memorable song . Robbie Daw from Idolator said that " Madge [ is ] doing what she does best : turning up the heat on the dance floor , " but that " the song is packed with tried @-@ but @-@ true sexual pop cliches . " Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone rated it three out of five stars . He commended the singer for the electro and Europop composition of the track , describing it as " buoyant and warm @-@ rinse soothing . It 's the sound of a woman who hits the dance @-@ floor for restoration more than craziness . " Haigh from Attitude believed that " Girl Gone Wild " should have been released as the lead single from MDNA . He felt that the track " screams " early 1990s Madonna 's work , and complimented it for being a " basic , balls @-@ to @-@ the @-@ wall night out anthem " , adding " why does that have to be something that 's considered ' below ' Madonna ? " In a pre @-@ release screening of MDNA , Matthew Todd from the same magazine praised the " pop stomper " track , writing : " The production might sound like she 's been listening to a fair bit of Rihanna , but who 's counting . Madonna brings her own authority , creating the kind of anthemic party song that she does best , the kind where everyone from your three @-@ year @-@ old niece to your 60 @-@ year @-@ old mother gets up on the dancefloor . " MTV News journalist Bradley Stern felt that the composition emulated her single " Celebration " ( 2009 ) .
A writer for Virgin Media gave the song four out of five stars , writing : " It sounds a tad familiar , not to mention inappropriate in a track named after a US porn @-@ movie series , but Benny Benassi then lifts ' Girl Gone Wild ' into a fantastic throbbing Kelis @-@ style dancefloor @-@ filler . " Nick Levine , writing for The National , praised the composition saying that it " gets better the more ( and louder ) you play it " . Michael Cragg from The Guardian felt that the song was " more interesting musically " , especially during the middle eight . " A signal we 're back in Confessions on a Dance Floor territory following the relative misstep of Hard Candy , " Cragg concluded . Laurence Green from musicOMH believed that with its nod to Confessions on a Dance Floor and " Get Together " , the song was commercial enough to represent the current sound . In a review of MDNA , Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph praised the track calling it a " lean , sleek , electro stomper , balancing the twin requirements of radio friendly hooks and dance floor drive " . Aidin Vaziri of the San Francisco Chronicle called it " insistent and sleek " but hoped that Madonna would have found different lyrical references than Lauper 's song . Matthew Parpetua from Pitchfork Media praised the Benassis ' production , adding that it was worthy of " competing with singers like Kesha , Britney Spears , and Katy Perry on pop radio " . Senior from Sound on Sound was pleased with the synth sounds and the departure from the " brightness " of Confessions on a Dance Floor tracks , making it more " palatale " .
Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson wrote that " Girl Gone Wild " sounds like a " Tumblr @-@ meme version " of the singer 's 2006 single , " Get Together " . He added that the release " may not be the nadir of Madonna 's career so far , but I can think of few moments that feel as much a betrayal of her legacy than the way she deadpans ' It 's so erotic ' right before chirping ' This feeling can 't be beat ' . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy felt the production credits for MDNA had fueled " over @-@ inflated expectations " for the single . Copsey found it was not " forward @-@ thinking " like Madonna 's past records and cited the lyrics " Girls they just wanna have some fun / Get fired up like a smoking gun " as an example of this , although he concluded his review writing " we defy anyone who isn 't singing this back to themselves immediately after . " The New York Observer journalist Daniel D 'Addario compared it to " Music " , but added that " Madonna was twelve years younger at that time and thus perhaps a more convincing ' bad girl ' , so too was our culture ... maybe it 's time for her to try something totally different ? " In another article for The Guardian , Gareth Grundy proclaimed " Girl Gone Wild " to be a " clumsy rave @-@ pop " , while Amanda Dobbins from New York panned it as a " paint @-@ by @-@ numbers , 808- and Tanqueray @-@ referencing dance track that falls even flatter when compared to its source material " . Malone from NME found no innovation in the track , writing , " combined with earlier single ' Give Me All Your Luvin ' it points to an uneasy mix for album MDNA . " Margaret Wappler from Los Angeles Times felt that Madonna would have been better re @-@ releasing " Music " again as a single , instead of " Girl Gone Wild " . She added that " There 's something very attractive about a song this militaristic and precise , but in Madge 's too @-@ capable hands it 's also suffocatingly professional . "
Brad O 'Mancey from Popjustice believed that the song failed as an " album opener " , but sounds " slightly better " after one finished the whole record . Chicago Tribune journalist Greg Kot believed that unlike Madonna 's 80s Catholic imagery , " Girl Gone Wild " does not venture into new territory with its sound . Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald found the song " laughable " , calling it a " yawning Catholic @-@ girl @-@ in @-@ heat " . In another review of the album for BBC News , Levine called it " charmless genero @-@ banger " . Alex Macpherson from Fact panned the track , saying that the " rote , lifeless singing on [ ' Girl Gone Wild ' ] sounds as though a guide track was mistakenly kept on the finished song , and arguably marks the worst vocal performance Madonna has ever committed to record . " Robert Leedham from Drowned in Sound website felt that the song did not represent the album 's sound , hence failed as a single to promote it . Jon Pareles from The New York Times called it " shallow , effective club fodder " , describing it as containing " blippy stereo @-@ hopping synthesizers and generic title " . This view was shared by Emily Mackay of The Quietus , who felt that the song would have been better off for other artist and was below Madonna 's level .
= = Chart performance = =
" Girl Gone Wild " debuted at number six on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles and at number 33 on the Pop Digital Songs charts on the issue dated March 17 , 2012 , with 22 @,@ 000 downloads sold according to Nielsen SoundScan . The song debuted at number 86 on the Canadian Hot 100 , peaking at 42 on the chart and was present for a total of nine weeks . " Girl Gone Wild " also debuted at number 46 on Hot Dance Club Songs , eventually reaching the top of the chart . It was the second Dance Club Songs chart topper from MDNA , following first single , " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " , which had peaked at number @-@ one three weeks ago . Madonna also had her quickest span of back @-@ to @-@ back number @-@ ones since 1990 , when " Vogue " reached the top of the charts just seven weeks after " Keep It Together " . With " Girl Gone Wild " reaching the top , Madonna achieved a record 73rd week atop the ranking . At the 2012 Year @-@ end tabulation of the top Hot Dance Club Songs , " Girl Gone Wild " was ranked at number 44 . The song debuted at number 38 on the US Mainstream Top 40 chart due to radio airplay , becoming her first album since Music ( 2000 ) to have two singles enter that chart . She is also the fifth artist to score a song on the list as far back as the 90s .
After the CD release in the United Kingdom , " Girl Gone Wild " sold 1 @,@ 221 copies of the CD single and 699 copies of the 12 @-@ inch single , thereby entering the CD sales chart at number two . However , overall it sold only 3 @,@ 557 copies and entered the UK Singles Chart at number 73 . It was the third single from MDNA to chart there , following " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " and " Masterpiece " . It also had a low peak on the Irish Singles Chart , entering and peaking at number 93 . On the South Korea Gaon Digital Chart , " Girl Gone Wild " debuted and peaked at number seven , with sales of 30 @,@ 512 copies . It went on to sell 54 @,@ 198 copies in the nation . " Girl Gone Wild " also reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in Greece , Hungary , Italy , Russia , Spain , South Africa and the IFPI charts in Slovakia . It received a Platinum certification from the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) for sales of over 30 @,@ 000 digital downloads .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
During her interview with Ryan Seacrest , Madonna confirmed that a music video for " Girl Gone Wild " would be filmed during the week of February 17 , 2012 . Oseary confirmed through Twitter that Mert and Marcus were enlisted as the video directors . The singer also recruited Ukrainian dance group Kazaky to appear with her in the video . Madonna was inspired by the androgynous portrayal of the group , since they danced in high @-@ heels but appeared masculine in their appearance with muscular bodies . According to Mark Johansen from International Business Times , the group achieved popularity in 2010 for their " techno beats , tiny outfits , sky @-@ high stilettos " and " highly stylized videos " . Tabitha , the choreographer of the video , recalled that since Madonna was a professional dancer , she added elements of her own characteristic routines in the choreography . " Madonna is a mover , so there were definitely moments that wasn 't choreographed and was her being raw , " Tabitha added .
Madonna also enlisted male models Brad Alphonso , Jon Kortajarena , Rob Evans , Sean O 'Pry and Simon Nessman . In the video , Madonna sported a brassiere designed by Agent Provocateur . The singer 's stilettos , which were custom @-@ made by footwear designer Paola Bay , consisted of black silk embroidered with silver threading . " She wanted them as high as possible and to be able to dance with them on , " stated Bay . " We did three fittings to make sure they were like second skin . " Arianne Phillips , dress designer for the video , recalled that she had to create custom @-@ made high @-@ heeled stilettos for Kazaky , because of unavailability of shoes in their size . Artur Gaspar from the band recalled that " By the end of the day on set , our feet were bleeding and we had blisters ... But if Madonna can repeat the dancing for the 50th time , why can 't we ? " Phillips explained that they had created three different looks for Madonna in the video . The first was called a " super vixen " look for which she created short tops that could be worn as brassiere . Hairstylist Andy Lecompte wanted to go for a 1960s style with it . The second look portrayed was called " rockstar " for which designer Michael Smith created t @-@ shirts out of metal mesh , while Lecompte cut the singer 's hair short , so that it would resemble her early look . The final look was called the " platinum bombshell " , and was inspired by Marilyn Monroe .
= = = Release and synopsis = = =
A 30 second teaser video was released on March 9 , 2012 . The full video debuted on E ! News on March 20 , 2012 , and became available on their website shortly afterwards . Shot completely in black @-@ and @-@ white , the music video is polar opposite to the colorful , football @-@ themed video for previous single " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " . Instead of having a plot , the video is an assortment of imagery referring to the singer 's early works .
The video opens with Madonna in the " platinum bombshell " look uttering the opening prayers of the song . As the music starts she is shown in the other looks , performing yoga poses , while intercepting scenes show the male models in provocative poses . Other scenes show Madonna dancing against a wall , smoking a cigarette , and being bound to a chain . Kazaky appears during the first chorus and perform a dance routine in the heels . While Madonna sings the second verse , she is surrounded by the male models , who are almost nude . The singer joins Kazaky during the chorus emulating the choreography with them . Interspersed are scenes of Madonna playing with a fog machine billowing smoke .
During the intermediate break , one of the male models is shown nude and wearing a crown of thorns on his head , while Madonna gets caressed by the others . The final sequence of the video shows the singer dancing energetically with Kazaky , with the fog machine and the male models who grind against each other . " Girl Gone Wild " ends with Madonna dropping the fog machine and a final scene showing the singer 's face with black colored tears pouring from her eyes .
= = = Analysis and reception = = =
John Mitchell from MTV News observed five main influences from Madonna 's past behind the video . He explained that references from the singer 's music video for the 1992 song " Erotica " are present with Madonna 's " platinum bombshell " look as well as scenes of leather @-@ underwear wearing men and S & M. The choreography had direct references to the " Vogue " ( 1990 ) music video , and the gay eroticism was also displayed in both of them . For Mitchell , the video for " Human Nature " ( 1995 ) is referenced with Madonna 's latex clothing and portions showing the singer against a white background . The " Justify My Love " ( 1990 ) video had scenes of orgy in it , similar to the scenes of Madonna being caressed by her dancers in " Girl Gone Wild " , towards the end . Mitchell concluded by saying that the crown of thorns directly referenced the religious iconography in the singer 's " Like a Prayer " ( 1989 ) video .
In another article , Jocelyn Vena from MTV News thought that the video was " the perfect homage " to the singer 's Sex book and her Erotica ( 1992 ) days , describing it as " crunchy , sexy and edgy " . Idolator 's X. Alexander compared the concept of the video , along with its scenes of homoeroticism , to her 1990 music videos for " Vogue " and " Justify My Love " . Sophie A. Schillaci of The Hollywood Reporter noted references to the music video for " Like a Prayer " ( 1989 ) . E ! contributor Nathalie Finn commented : " Madonna doesn 't need a song to tell us she 's ready to dance all night — just one look at her and you figure she could outlast the average partyer under any circumstances " . She added that the references to her old work , as well as the half @-@ nude men indicated that " it isn 't just the girls ' who wanna have some fun ' . "
Ethan Sack from New York Daily News said that " it 's a tossup over who looks better in tights and high @-@ heels , the 53 @-@ year @-@ old Material Girl or the bevy of shirtless male dancers who gyrate around her . " Lanford Beard of Entertainment Weekly praised the video saying that it " shows Madonna looking the best she has since at least 2005 's video for ' Hung Up ' . Of course there is the requisite writhing , hip grinding , a rousing dance sequence , and a smoldering mantourage . It is , in a word , awesome " . HitFix 's Melinda Newman praised the direction by Mert and Marcus , feeling that " the clip is a luscious collection of erotic images : two men biting an apple together , backlit men dancing in high heels , and Madge , looking as if she ’ s a dewy 25 @-@ year old . " A review in The Week praised the video for being self @-@ referential with its " dark , dominatrix @-@ y " visuals . Amanda Dobbins from New York magazine gave a positive review for the appearance of Kazaky and Madonna 's look in the video . Caryn Ganz from Spin noticed that along with her old videos , Madonna also referenced her contemporary releases , like the videos for " Give It 2 Me " ( 2008 ) and " Celebration " , with the scenes showing her " incredible " dancing alone .
The video was chosen by fans , in a Billboard poll for Madonna 's best videos , as her sixth best effort of all time , in honor of her 54th birthday . At the 2013 International Dance Music Awards , the video was nominated in the categories of Best Dance Music Video and Best Pop Music Video , but failed to win either of them . Shortly after " Girl Gone Wild " ' s release to YouTube on March 21 , 2012 , the video was rated by many viewers as inappropriate . This caused YouTube to set an age restriction , only allowing those of age 18 or older to view the video . According to the website , the video was labeled explicit because of the " raunchy " and " orgy " scenes , thereby blocking it from getting uploaded to the singer 's Vevo account . YouTube also asked Madonna 's representative to upload a more PG @-@ rated version . Madonna later commented , " What 's wrong with ... what grinding ? I 'm supposed to be a ' girl gone wild ' in the video — how can I go wild and not grind ? This is the question that people should be asking . " During her interview with Jimmy Fallon on Facebook , Madonna jokingly confessed that if she were president , " There would be no restrictions whatsoever on any of my videos , ever " . Jane Martinson of The Guardian expressed her disappointment with the ban , since she felt there were far more provocative content in YouTube than Madonna 's video . Martinson also noted that the semi @-@ nudity in question came from the men featured in the clip , and felt that Madonna had turned Francis ' concept of girls going wild , to " [ girls who ] can also be the ones in control . I watched the video ready to slate her and came away thinking , after 30 years Madonna can still show Rihanna how sex and music can subvert expectations . "
= = Live performance = =
Madonna 's first performance of " Girl Gone Wild " was on The MDNA Tour ( 2012 ) as the concert 's opening track . The performance was choreographed by Jason Young and Alison Faulk , along with dancer Derrell Bullock , who assisted as supervisor . According to Faulk , Madonna asked Bullock to experiment with the concept of " girl gone wild " , and come up with a routine and style of his own . He wanted to find a story with the dancing and presented his moves to Madonna the next day . The singer also wanted to experiment with the concept of Catholic church , along with monks and gargoyles . Her message behind it was that of freedom , " people getting to do whatever they wanted to " . Four dancers from Brooklyn , adept at bone breaking dance , were enlisted as backup crew for the performance . Young recalled that they could " create these abstract , very animalistic shapes . What they can do with their arms is unbelievable . Anything that most people can do in front of their bodies , they do it behind their bodies . " The dancing required the boys to put on heels like Kazaky in the music video . Most of them refused to abide by it , resulting in Madonna giving them a choice to put the heels and dance or leave the show . The dancers complied and learned the choreography .
The show began with a gothic cathedral setting , which was developed by Tait Towers , a production management company . They used ScreenWorks 10mm video screens with an integrated active cooling system designed to dissipate captured heat from LED tiles . The main screens could move up and down , thus creating a moving cathedral setting and steps . Onstage several dancers wearing buddhist and Christian monks ' robes swung a giant thurible back and forth , as it burnt incense and appeared to cleanse the venue . The Kalakan Trio then appeared dressed in religious robes with huge head dresses , chanting excerpts from " Lekhah Dodi " , as the backdrop screens showed a huge cross with the letters MDNA . The religious chants eventually morph into chants of Madonna 's name , as the two main backdrop screens split open to reveal a giant confessional , covered by a scrim at the front . Madonna was present inside kneeling down and praying , while the confessional | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
by several events in his personal life , including the death of his father in 2005 , his separation with Mexican model and actress Jaydy Mitchel , and his announcement that he had a three @-@ year @-@ old son outside of his marriage with Mitchel . He commented on the situation , saying " You have to put things in perspective . It was stress , something that had never affected me , but this time , yes , it did . So I had to pay . A doctor told me to stop for a couple of months to recuperate completely . " Sanz spent time in therapy , a time which " helped [ him ] a lot " and gave him " more power " to perform .
In a press conference in late 2007 , he criticized Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez , calling him " undemocratic " in the wake of a petition made by Venezuelan citizens to prevent Chávez from running for re @-@ election . Sanz further stated " If they gave me 3 million signatures to stop singing , I would stop singing immediately . " Supporters of Chávez subsequently gathered 230 @,@ 000 signatures in response to Sanz ' comments .
= = = 2008 – present : Paraíso Express , La Música no se Toca , and Sirope = = =
To promote his new record , Paraíso Express , Sanz started a campaign in which fans could create a video about their definition of paradise and upload it to his YouTube channel . Artists such as Shakira , Laura Pausini and Paulina Rubio also participated . On November 10 , 2009 , Sanz released Paraíso Express . This record was described as a return to form for Sanz , focusing more on melody as opposed to the experimentation he pursued on his previous two albums . He commented that " On this album , I first composed the melody and then the lyrics . It is more of a rock album than my past releases , with more elegant and positive lyrics and a happier and more rhythmic spirit . " The bilingual single " Looking for Paradise " featuring Alicia Keys reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . At the 2010 Latin Grammy Awards , the album was nominated Album of the Year and Best Male Pop Vocal Album , while the single " Desde Cuándo " received both Record and Song of the Year nominations .
On February 15 , 2011 , Sanz announced that he would be signing with Universal Music Group after twenty years with Warner . In the same year , Sanz received the Latin Heritage Award by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) in recognition of his contributions to Latin music . On September 2 , 2012 , the singer unveiled the official artwork of his upcoming ninth studio album , La Música No Se Toca on his official site . Sanz released La Música No Se Toca , featuring the single " No Me Compares " and based on the opening theme song in the telenovela Amores Verdaderos , on September 25 , 2012 . On August 21 , 2012 , Sanz released his new single " Irrepetível ( Me Sumerjo ) " , a duet with Brazilian singer @-@ songwriter Ana Carolina . The song is a Portuguese @-@ Spanish song and it 's only available in Brazil 's iTunes . On September 17 , he released the album 's second single , " Se Vende " . In 2013 , Sanz was recognized as the Pop Male Artist of the Year and was the recipient of the Excellence Award at the 26th Lo Nuestro Awards for his achievements in the music industry .
On November 6 , 2013 Sanz received an honorary doctor of music degree from Berklee College of Music . “ It is a great honor for me to receive this doctorate degree from one of the most prestigious music schools in the world , ” Sanz said of the Berklee recognition . “ I will continue to work every day of my life to deserve this honor . ” Sanz released his eleventh studio album , Sirope , featuring the single " A Que No Me Dejas " , a collaboration with Alejandro Fernandez and used as the opening theme song in the telenovela A Que No Me Dejas , on May 4 , 2015 . The album took a year and one month to record , and features an " eclectic sound " in Sanz 's words , containing elements of flamenco , R & B , and folk music . He worked with producer Sebastian Krys , who helped him " enrich what was there but [ not lose ] the essence " of the songs .
= = Musical style = =
Early in his career , Sanz ' music generally consisted of romantic ballads . However , in the late 1990s , his collaborations with other artists greatly expanded his musical style . On No Es lo Mismo , he experimented with rock , salsa , and hip hop . While recording the album , Sanz noted that he often entered the studio with a rough idea for a song and the guest artists would " contaminate it with their rhythms ... in a good way . " El Tren de los Momentos continued this pattern of musical experimentation , featuring diverse genres such as funk , jazz , and country . Despite this , Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic described his musical evolution by saying " Even as Sanz broadened his style over the years , he never ventured far from his strength : romantic songs , generally ballads , tinged with flamenco and sung wholeheartedly with his distinct voice . "
Sanz is known for his distinctive raspy vocals , which he attributes to his flamenco roots , crediting singer Camarón de la Isla as a major influence . His song " Sí , He Cantado Mal " ( Yes , I Have Sung Badly ) from No Es lo Mismo references this , with Sanz saying " I 'm laughing a little at myself so that I can laugh at other things . Sometimes , I 'm harder on myself than any music critic can be . I 'm laughing at that . " Throughout his youth , Sanz was heavily influenced by English @-@ language heavy metal groups such as Iron Maiden and Dio , referring to himself as a " heavy metal radical " . He also feels that living in the city of Cadiz had a major impact on his musical style , where " Any 7 @-@ year @-@ old kid you find knows how to play guitar , play the cajón , knows how to sing . When the family comes together we start to sing . In a way it 's not just music , it 's culture . "
= = Personal life = =
Sanz married Mexican fashion model and actress Jaydy Michel in Bali on December 30 , 1999 , but this marriage was never legally recognized in either of their home countries . Sanz felt that having a legally recognized marriage was unnecessary : " My wife is my wife and I am her husband . For me , that has enough validity ... I am married with the heart . " The couple separated in 2005 . Their daughter , Manuela Sánchez Michel , was born on July 28 , 2001 . Sanz later had a son named Alexander with Valeria Rivera , a Puerto Rican fashion designer .
Sanz welcomed his third child in New York , a boy named Dylan ( b . July 2011 ) , the first child from his relationship with girlfriend and former assistant , Raquel Perera . Sanz chose flamenco guitarist Paco de Lucía to be the godfather to his son . Sanz and Perera are godparents to David Bisbal 's daughter , Ella . On May 23 , 2012 , Sanz married Raquel Perera in a private ceremony in Sabadell ( Barcelona ) . Sanz had a second child ( a daughter ) with wife Raquel Perera in Madrid on the 24th of June , 2014 . They named her Alma .
In addition to music , Sanz enjoys painting , which he often does while trying to create ideas for new songs . He explains that painting " teaches you that taking risks rarely leads to failure . In fact , from the moment you assume a risk , you have succeeded . "
= = Filmography = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
1989 : Los Chulos Son Pa ' Cuidarlos
1990 : De Vuelta a Casa
1991 : Viviendo Deprisa
1993 : Si Tú Me Miras
1995 : 3
1997 : Más
2000 : El Alma al Aire
2003 : No Es lo Mismo
2006 : El Tren de los Momentos
2009 : Paraíso Express
2012 : La Música No Se Toca
2015 : Sirope
= = Tours = =
( 1991 @-@ 1992 ) Viviendo Deprisa Tour
( 1993 @-@ 1994 ) Si Tú Me Miras Tour
( 1995 @-@ 1996 ) 3 Tour
( 1997 @-@ 1998 ) Más Tour
( 2001 @-@ 2002 ) El Alma Al Aire Tour
( 2003 @-@ 2004 ) No Es Lo Mismo Tour
( 2007 @-@ 2008 ) El Tren De Los Momentos Tour
( 2009 @-@ 2011 ) Paraiso Tour
( 2012 @-@ 2014 ) La Música No Se Toca Tour
( 2015 ) Sirope Tour
= I Love Bacon ! =
I Love Bacon ! is a cookbook with over fifty recipes devoted to bacon and bacon dishes , many of them from celebrity chefs . The book was written by Jayne Rockmill and photography was provided by Ben Fink . Broken down into eight sections , the book covered how to make homemade bacon and moves onto " brunch " and " small bites " before covering soups , salads and sides , pasta , fish , meat , and desserts . I Love Bacon ! was published in October 2010 by Andrews McMeel Publishing and met with favorable reviews for its unique dishes and helpful culinary tips for novices .
= = Background = =
The book 's author , Jayne Rockmill , is a literary agent based in New York City whose clients include Tony Caputo , François Halard , and the professional photographer and storm chaser , Jim Reed . Rockmill had also become involved in producing charity food and wine events , and is a longtime supporter of the New York City Food Bank and Share Our Strength , which focuses on ending childhood hunger . She conceived the book as a way to help raise money for their work , and a portion of the proceeds from I Love Bacon will be donated to the two charities . Rockmill began by asking chefs she knew personally to donate bacon recipes , and then contacted others across the United States . In some cases , she adapted the original recipes in collaboration with the chefs .
The book 's illustrator is the well @-@ known food photographer , Ben Fink , whose photographs appear in Food & Wine , Bon Appétit , Saveur and publications of the Culinary Institute of America . A native of Memphis , Tennessee now based in New York , Fink illustrated Jacques Pépin 's , Fast Food My Way ( 2004 ) and Maggie Glezer 's Artisan Baking Across America ( 2000 ) for which he won a James Beard Foundation Award in 2001 . Some of Fink 's more unusual food photographs are those for Martha Hopkins and Randall Lockridge 's 1997 InterCourses : An Aphrodisiac Cookbook , where the food is photographed against the background of a naked human body .
= = Contents = =
I Love Bacon ! contains over 50 recipes from celebrity chefs including Cat Cora , John Besh , Ming Tsai , and Chris Cosentino , as well as brief biographies of the chefs themselves . It presents basic bacon recipes as well as dishes with bacon as one of the chief ingredients . The recipes are grouped into eight sections beginning with Make Your Own Bacon which has recipes for " Classic Cured Bacon " , " Spicy Braised Bacon " , " Soy @-@ Ginger Braised Bacon " , " Crispy Pork Belly " , and " Chinese Style Pork Belly " . The remaining seven sections ( Brunch ; Small Bites ; Soups , Salads and Sides , Pasta , Fish , Meat and Desserts ) contain recipes for dishes using bacon as one of the main ingredients .
The Brunch section begins with a recipe from Seattle @-@ based Black Rock Spirits for " Bakon Bloody Mary " , a variant on the traditional Bloody Mary cocktail using bacon infused vodka with the glass rim dipped in lime juice and finely crumbled grilled bacon . Although the majority of recipes in this section feature bacon with its traditional brunch partner , eggs , there is also a recipe for " Mediterranean BLTs " . This version of the classic BLT sandwich pairs the bacon , lettuce and tomato with toasted focaccia bread and red @-@ pepper aioli in place of mayonnaise . Another version of the BLT using toasted brioche and sun @-@ dried tomatoes cut into mini @-@ sandwiches appears in the Small Bites section which is devoted to bacon @-@ based hors d 'oeuvres .
Among the recipes in Soups , Salads and Sides are " Egg Chowder with Bacon and New Potatoes " , " Grilled Bacon and Cucumber Salad with Chili Caramel Dressing " , and " Spicy Braised Bacon with Spagna Beans and Treviso Radicchio " which uses thickly sliced pork belly bacon . The Pasta section has a recipe for " Bacon Mac and Cheese " from Julie Taras Wallach , the chef and co @-@ owner of the Tipsy Parson and Little Giant restaurants in New York City . Her variant on the traditional macaroni and cheese uses cavatelli pasta seasoned with dijon mustard , thyme , rosemary , garlic , and nutmeg and incorporates sauteed onion and pieces of grilled bacon . One of the recipes in the Meat section , " Veal and Foie Gras Meatloaf Wrapped in Bacon " , comes from Mark Allen , who in 1997 became the youngest chef , and the first American , to have headed The Dining Room at the Ritz @-@ Carlton in Boston . Allen also contributed a recipe for the Fish section , " Whole Roasted Branzino with Carrots and Bacon " . Other dishes in that section include " Pancetta @-@ Wrapped Monkfish with Cauliflower Flan " and " Bluefish with Corn , Avocado , and Bacon Salad " .
Like its somewhat lengthier predecessors , Sara Perry 's Everything Tastes Better with Bacon ( 2002 ) , Pruess and Lape 's Seduced by Bacon ( 2006 ) , and James Villas 's The Bacon Cookbook ( 2007 ) , Rockmill 's I Love Bacon ! includes sweet dishes using bacon . Among the recipes in the Desserts section are " Bacon Panna Cotta with Huckleberries " , " Cane Sugar and Bacon @-@ Iced Cupcakes " , and Cat Cora 's " Pig Candy Ice Cream " . Cora 's recipe uses a pound ( .454 kilograms ) of chopped applewood @-@ smoked bacon per quart ( .946 litres ) of brown sugar @-@ sweetened vanilla ice cream .
= = Reception = =
Carol Johnson writing in the Kansas City Star described I Love Bacon ! as both a cookbook with " inventive " recipes and " a mini @-@ course in some of the country 's top restaurants . " Johnson noted that not all recipes were for beginners , but found the accompanying notes for many of the recipes with information about techniques and ingredients to be helpful . She described Ben Fink 's photography as " vivid and mouth @-@ watering , if a little spare . " The Republic of Bacon website favorably reviewed the cookbook for its ability to go beyond the standard classic cured bacon dishes and the added biographies of the leading industry chefs which contributed recipes to the book .
= Entrada ( Fringe ) =
" Entrada " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 51st episode overall . The first part of the third season spent much of its time alternating between the prime and parallel universes , and " Entrada " was the first episode of the season to have time evenly divided between both . In the episode , both Olivia and her doppelganger " Fauxlivia " attempt to journey back to their respective universes . John Cassini , Seth Gabel , Ryan McDonald , Stefan Arngrim , and Karen Holness guest starred .
Showrunners J. H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner wrote the episode as the " culmination of a lot of things that [ they ] had been working on for quite a while . " Calling it one of their favorite episodes , they believed it was a good entry point for new viewers to the series . Frequent Fringe collaborator Brad Anderson returned to direct the episode . " Entrada " first aired on December 2 , 2010 in the United States to an estimated 5 @.@ 13 million viewers . It has been selected for " best episode " lists by various television critics . Both Anna Torv and John Noble submitted the episode for consideration at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , but both failed to garner a nomination .
= = Plot = =
At the end of the previous episode , Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) was able to cross over back to her universe long enough to warn Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) she is trapped in the parallel universe . After receiving the message , Peter tests the Olivia from the other dimension , " Fauxlivia " , by telling her the Greek phrase Na einai kalytero anthropo apo ton patera tou ( roughly , " May he be a better person than his father " ) , which Olivia told Peter in the " New Day in the Old Town " . When Fauxlivia fails to recognize the phrase , Peter confirms his suspicions . Realizing she has been exposed , Fauxlivia forces Peter to inject himself with a paralyzing agent . She then goes to a typewriter store in the Bronx to contact the parallel universe to request an extraction .
After Peter recovers , the Fringe team starts a search for Fauxlivia . Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) is distressed that he has no idea how to find Fauxlivia and no idea how to bring Olivia back . However , Astrid Farnsworth ( Jasika Nicole ) discovers Fauxlivia brought Walter malasadas from a bakery in the Bronx . Peter , Walter , Farnsworth and Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) search the nearby area , Peter finds the typewriter store and the team finds the typewriter used to contact the other universe ( a " quantum entanglement " device ) . There , the team realizes that Fauxlivia is going to a train station in Newark for a 4 : 00 PM pick @-@ up .
Meanwhile , in the parallel universe , " Walternate " ( Noble ) plans on using Olivia 's body in order for her alternate self to return home , as it would require a person of Olivia 's mass to complete the transfer . However , Walternate arranges for Olivia 's brain to be removed for further study on how to traverse universes safely . Before she is to start the operation , Olivia receives a visit from Colonel Broyles ( the alternate universe 's counterpart to her FBI supervisor ) , who is still grateful to Olivia for helping his son . Olivia convinces him that her universe is not at war with theirs ; the troubles started not from any hostile action , but only as an accidental side @-@ effect of Walter 's initial crossing to save Peter . Broyles later talks with his wife and then returns to Liberty Island to save Olivia . Together , the two reach the immersion tank that Olivia used earlier , but find it empty . As a back @-@ up plan , the two travel to Walternate 's long abandoned lab at Harvard to use the sensory deprivation tank . Broyles reveals there is a GPS tracker in him , but manages to buy Olivia enough time to successfully return to her universe .
As this transpires , Fauxlivia meets with a shapeshifter at the station to inject her with resonating rods . By that time , Broyles and Peter arrive at the station . To ensure her escape , Fauxlivia holds a hostage . However , Peter realizes the hostage is the shapeshifter when the hostage is unable to state the name of " her " nearby daughter . Peter shoots the shapeshifter in the head , killing it , and Fauxlivia is arrested . Later , the team learns that their own Olivia has returned . However , Fauxlivia still manages to escape back to her universe , leaving behind the mutilated body of the alternate counterpart of Broyles to make up for her mass . While Peter and Olivia reunite at a hospital , the typewriter store owner trades a piece of the doomsday device in exchange for the restoration of his paralyzed legs .
= = Production = =
" Entrada " was written by executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman . Filmmaker and frequent Fringe collaborator Brad Anderson returned to direct the episode , shooting it in September 2010 on New Westminster 's Front Street in Vancouver and in a train station . The special effects crew used a prosthetic body resembling actor Lance Reddick , minus a certain amount of mass equal to Anna Torv ; they did research to find out how much a human leg typically weighs , finding the number to be around 20 percent of a body 's mass .
The third season spent much of its time alternating between the prime and parallel universes , and " Entrada " was the first episode of the season to have time divided between both . This was reflected in the opening credits , which were red and blue in a season that had previously differentiated each universe with one exclusive color .
Pinkner and Wyman revealed in a conference call interview that the episode was the " culmination of a lot of things that [ they ] had been working on for quite a while " . Though they loved all of their episodes , the two stated that " Entrada " was a particular favorite of theirs , with Pinker elaborating that " if the only episode of Fringe you ever tune into watch is this one , sure , it ’ s going to take you five minutes to catch up , but you will feel what ’ s going on , and you will understand the relationships ... [ It 's ] a great entry point " . The producers considered making " Entrada " the mid @-@ season finale , but instead selected " Marionette " , the following week 's episode .
The episode featured appearances by recurring guest stars Karen Holness as Phillip Broyles ' wife Diane , John Cassini as the Store Owner , and Ryan McDonald as scientist Brandon Fayette . Seth Gabel also returned to guest star as Lincoln Lee , an agent from the parallel universe .
In a departure from previous Fringe trailers , Fox created and premiered a " grandiose movie @-@ style " trailer at Entertainment Weekly 's website to celebrate the airing of " Entrada " . Pinkner explained that the trailer idea did not come from his production team , but rather was produced by a Fox division called Special Ops , who came up with the idea in order to platform Fringe to the audience in a way they had not seen before . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Entrada " , with the intention of having " students learn about scientific intuition and how it can facilitate the scientific method of collecting data through experimentation and observation in order to formulate and test a hypothesis " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The original broadcast of " Entrada " occurred on December 2 , 2010 in the United States . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by an estimated 5 @.@ 13 million viewers , earning a 3 @.@ 2 / 5 share among all households and a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 share among viewers aged 18 – 49 . This latter demographic was down five percent from the previous episode that aired on November 18 . Entertainment Weekly writer Lynette Rice remarked of the low ratings , " If this genre series were on AMC ( or featured zombies ) , the media world would be calling it a monster hit . Sadly , the threshold for success is far different on broadcast TV , so Fringe will always be viewed as a niche performer with a small but rabid fan base . "
Seven days after its broadcast on time shifted viewings , " Entrada " was seen by an additional 1 @.@ 7 million , pushing the total viewership up to 6 @.@ 87 million with a 2 @.@ 6 rating among those 18 – 49 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received critical acclaim . James Poniewozik of Time Magazine wrote , " While it may not have been the high point that the emotional " Peter " from earlier this year was , " Entrada " was a pretty excellent action @-@ focused episode , in which the dimensional swap between Fauxlivia and Realivia came to a head . In the process , it demonstrated that Fringe 's writers have made a compelling world out of Over There in a relative few episodes — and it was another example of what a strong series Fringe has become since its committed fully to its clash @-@ of @-@ the @-@ universes storyline ... All in all , a satisfying hour and a good demonstration of how Fringe — one of the most improved shows of the past season or so — has grown into one of TV 's most entertaining dramas " .
Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly noted that the episode " closed a Fringe chapter in bringing Olivia back , while opening up all sorts of fresh new possibilities for the future . Both Olivias are changed women with new amounts of information about their opposing universes , and thus will be able to influence their Walters in how to proceed henceforth . The series can resume plot threads that have been given scant attention in recent weeks , such as Walter ’ s takeover of Massive Dynamic , and what I ’ m hoping will be an increased presence by Nina Sharp , whose role in the interuniverse machinations is ripe for exploration " .
Writing for SFScope , Sarah Stegall praised Reddick 's performance as both Colonel Broyles , and Torv 's " tour @-@ de @-@ force " performance as Olivia and her doppelganger . She also noted how strong of a show Fringe has evolved into , lauding the producers ' decision to focus on the show 's " strongest and most innovative plot " : the parallel universe . Stegall expressed hope that Fauxlivia 's experiences in the prime universe would lead her to challenge Walternate 's more militant actions to destroy it . Stegall further recognized the episode 's editing , as " a complicated story like this one could have been endlessly confusing , with multiple versions of the same character , two extremely similar universes , and plot points reaching back to the first season . Yet the writing and direction kept it all sorted out , without resorting to voice @-@ overs , flashbacks , or other lame expository devices . This is classy , tight writing , and my hat 's off to the entire team " . Television Without Pity graded the episode an A + , . Noel Murry at The A.V. Club gave it an A- highlighting Torv 's performance .
It topped several " best episode of 2010 " lists , including Den of Geek , Give Me My Remote , and TV.com. Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Entrada " the fifth best episode of the series , calling it " the sensational climax to season 3 's sensational Olivia / Fauxlivia parallel universe interplay , which seemed to bring out the best in both the writers of Fringe as well as its actors , especially Anna Torv , who rocked the tricky material and created a convincingly distinct and unique doppelganger iteration of Olivia . She deserved an Emmy nomination for her work this season . Oh , well . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Anna Torv submitted " Entrada " , along with the season three episodes " Olivia " , " Marionette " , and " Bloodline " for consideration in the " Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series " category at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . She failed to receive a nomination . John Noble also submitted " Entrada " , along with episodes " The Firefly " and " The Day We Died " , for consideration in the " Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category " , but did not receive a nomination .
= Gypsy ( Shakira song ) =
" Gypsy " is a song by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira , from her eighth studio album She Wolf ( 2009 ) . The song was chosen as the fourth and final single from the album by Epic Records . It was released internationally on 26 March 2013 ; in the United States , " Gypsy " was released as a CD single on 12 April 2010 . The Spanish @-@ language version " Gitana " was released as a digital promotional single on 1 March 2010 . Written by Shakira , Amanda Ghost , Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers , the lyrics of the song describe one 's life travelling as a " gypsy " . The song draws heavy influences from Indian and Middle Eastern music .
Upon its release , " Gypsy " received generally positive reviews from music critics , many of whom complimented its production . The single was commercially successful and peaked within the top 10 of the charts of countries including Germany , Hungary , Mexico and Spain . In the United States , " Gypsy " peaked at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , while " Gitana " reached number six on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . " Gypsy " was certified platinum and gold in Spain and Mexico , respectively .
An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Jaume de Laiguana , and stars Spanish professional tennis player Rafael Nadal as Shakira 's love interest . The music video also generated a favourable response from critics , and was praised for the chemistry between Shakira and Nadal . Shakira appeared on a number of television shows , such as German @-@ language entertainment show Wetten , dass .. ? and The Ellen DeGeneres Show , and award ceremonies to promote the song . It was also a part of the setlist of her Sun Comes Out World Tour .
= = Background and composition = =
" Gypsy " was released as the fourth and final single from Shakira 's eighth studio album , She Wolf ( 2009 ) . " Gypsy " was written by Shakira , Amanda Ghost , Ian Dench , Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers , and produced by Shakira , Ghost , Lukas Burton and Future Cut . Written in a ballad @-@ like form , the lyrics of the song describe life travelling on the road as a " gypsy " . Shakira explained the song , saying " ( The song represents my ) way of living and seeing life . I 've been on the road since I was very young so that 's where the gypsy metaphor comes from . " Musically , " Gypsy " is heavily influenced by Indian and Middle Eastern music , and features instrumentation from the mandolin , banjo , sitar and tabla . According to the music sheet published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Gypsy " is a midtempo song written in the key of C major , with a metronome of 100 beats per minute . Shakira 's vocal range on the song spans from A3 to C5 .
The original English version of the song was released worldwide on 26 March 2013 . In the United States , it was released as a CD single on 12 April 2010 . A Spanish @-@ language version of the song titled " Gitana " features additional lyrical contributions from Jorge Drexler and was released on 1 March 2010 , as a digital promotional single .
= = Critical response = =
" Gypsy " received generally positive reviews from music critics . While reviewing the album , Ayala Ben @-@ Yehuda from Billboard singled out the song as an album highlight and called it " the closest thing to an acoustic song on the album " . Fraser McAlpine from the BBC Chart Blog also reviewed the song positively and praised its versatility , claiming it manages to be both " conservative acoustic music " and " radical exotic world music " at the same time . Robert Copsey from Digital Spy appreciated the acoustic @-@ instrumentation of " Gypsy " , noting it to be " by far the most organic @-@ sounding offering from her She Wolf LP " , but he also felt that the song is not " as instantly infectious as some of her classic singles " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic felt the song was representative of the entire album , picking it as an album highlight . Evan Sawdey from PopMatters , however , disliked the concept of the " Gypsy " , saying the " metaphors don 't work very well " on the song .
The song was nominated for " Top Latin Song " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards . Two other songs by Shakira , " Loca " and " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " , were also nominated , and the award was won by the latter song . At the 2011 Annual Latin Music Awards hosted by ASCAP , Jorge Drexler won an award in the " Pop / Ballad " category for his composition of " Gitana " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Gypsy " attained international chart success . In Austria , it entered and peaked at number 11 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart , spending a total of 10 weeks on the chart . In the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders region of Belgium , the song peaked at number four on the Ultratip chart , spending a total of six weeks on the chart . In the French @-@ speaking Wallonia region of Belgium , the song entered and peaked at number 40 on the Ultratop 50 chart , spending a total of one week on the chart . In Germany , the song peaked at number seven on the Media Control Charts , remaining on the position for one week . In Spain , the song entered the Spanish Singles chart at number 47 and peaked at number three , spending a total of 38 weeks on the chart . " Gypsy " was certified platinum by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for sales of 40 @,@ 000 units . In Switzerland , the song entered and peaked at number 12 on the Schweizer Hitparade chart , spending a total of 18 weeks on the chart . In Mexico , " Gitana " topped the Monitor Latino chart . It was certified gold by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) after it shipped 30 @,@ 000 units in the country .
In the United States , " Gypsy " peaked at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , spending a total of three weeks on the chart . On the Hot Digital Songs chart , the song peaked at number 48 , and remained on the chart for a total of one week . " Gitana " peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart , and stayed on the chart for a total of 20 weeks . On the Latin Pop Airplay chart , the song peaked at number one , and remained on the chart for a total of 25 weeks . On the Tropical Songs chart , the song peaked at number 18 , and remained on the chart for a total of 20 weeks . In Canada , the song peaked at number 80 on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart , and remained on it for a total of one week .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Gypsy " was directed by Jaume de Laiguana , who had previously worked with Shakira on the videos for songs such as " No " . The video stars Spanish professional tennis player Rafael Nadal , who portrays Shakira 's love interest in the video . When asked about the reason for starring Nadal in the video , Shakira said she " thought that maybe I needed someone I could in some way identify with . And Rafael Nadal is a person who has been totally committed to his career since he was very young , since he was 17 , I believe . " The music videos for " Gypsy " and the Spanish @-@ language version " Gitana " were released on 27 February 2010 . The video begins with Shakira playing the harmonica , dressed in a black halter top and a long black skirt . The next scenes mainly consist of Shakira interacting with Nadal in different ways , such as dancing for him and laying together on the ground . The video ends with the duo sharing a kiss .
The video received positive reviews from critics . Melanie Bertoldi from Billboard praised Shakira 's appearance in the video , saying " the Colombian firebird looks hotter than ever " . The Huffington Post review of the video labelled it as a " steamy affair " . Alek & Steph from OhlalaMag praised the chemistry between Shakira and Nadal , calling it " flirtatious and playful " . Jocelyn Vena from MTV praised the video for its " organic vibe " and commented that " while she ( Shakira ) claims that she 's willing to wear her lover 's clothes if they fit , she looks much hotter in the sheer black halter top and long black skirt that she sports at one point in the clip " . The PopEater review of the video complimented the duo 's chemistry and called them both " equally @-@ stunning " .
= = Live performances = =
On 29 September 2009 , Shakira appeared on the Later ... with Jools Holland show to promote her album She Wolf and performed " Gypsy " , along with " She Wolf " and " Why Wait " . On 16 November , Shakira performed " Gypsy " live on the show The View , accompanied by a tabla and sitar . On 24 November 2009 , she performed " Gypsy " on The Rachael Ray Show . On 23 December 2009 , she appeared on A Home for the Holidays With Faith Hill to perform the song .
On 27 March 2010 , Shakira performed " Gypsy " on the German @-@ language entertainment show Wetten , dass .. ? in Salzburg , Austria . On 28 April 2010 , Shakira performed " Gypsy " on the The Ellen DeGeneres Show . The same day , she performed the song as a duet with Rascal Flatts lead @-@ vocalist Gary LeVox on American Idol . Shakira opened and closed the performance while playing the harmonica . Shakira also performed " Gypsy " in Rock in Rio Lisboa and Madrid on 21 May 2010 and 5 June 2010 . On 15 July 2010 , Shakira performed the song at the opening of the 2010 Premios Juventud awards ceremony , along with her smash hit " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " . " Gypsy " and " She Wolf " were the only two singles from the album to be included in the setlist of The Sun Comes Out World Tour . The song was performed with a " folk lilt " and Shakira 's vocals were backed by " accordion , fiddles and the rhythm section " .
= = Usage in media = =
Shakira guest @-@ starred as herself in the eighth episode of the season four of Ugly Betty titled " The Bahamas Triangle " , which aired on 4 December 2009 . The episode featured the songs " Gypsy " and " Give It Up to Me " running in the background . She sang " Gypsy " in a duet with Selena Gomez in the twelfth episode of the season three of Wizards of Waverly Place , titled " Dude Looks Like Shakira " . In the episode , the main characters of the show , Alex ( Gomez ) , Justin ( David Henrie ) , and Max ( Jake T. Austin ) , are shocked to find out that Shakira is no one but their Uncle Kelbo , who is abusing one of the magic laws concerning fame and fortune . The episode aired on 16 April 2010 .
= = Formats and track listings = =
CD Single ( " Gypsy " )
" Gypsy " - 3 : 16
" Gypsy " ( Freemasons Remix ) - 3 : 26
Digital download ( " Gitana " )
" Gitana " - 3 : 26
Digital download EP
" Gypsy " - 3 : 18
" Gypsy " ( Freemasons Remix ) - 3 : 26
" Gypsy " ( DMC Radio Mix ) - 3 : 17
" Gitana " - 3 : 26
= = Charts = =
= Nebular hypothesis =
The nebular hypothesis is the most widely accepted model in the field of cosmogony to explain the formation and evolution of the Solar System . It suggests that the Solar System formed from nebulous material . The theory was developed by Immanuel Kant and published in his Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels ( " Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens " ) , published in 1755 . Originally applied to the Solar System , this process of planetary system formation is now thought to be at work throughout the Universe . The widely accepted modern variant of the nebular hypothesis is the solar nebular disk model ( SNDM ) or simply solar nebular model . This nebular hypothesis offered explanations for a variety of properties of the Solar System , including the nearly circular and coplanar orbits of the planets , and their motion in the same direction as the Sun 's rotation . Some elements of the nebular hypothesis are echoed in modern theories of planetary formation , but most elements have been superseded .
According to the nebular hypothesis , stars form in massive and dense clouds of molecular hydrogen — giant molecular clouds ( GMC ) . These clouds are gravitationally unstable , and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps , which then rotate , collapse , and form stars . Star formation is a complex process , which always produces a gaseous protoplanetary disk around the young star . This may give birth to planets in certain circumstances , which are not well known . Thus the formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation . A Sun @-@ like star usually takes approximately 1 million years to form , with the protoplanetary disk evolving into a planetary system over the next 10 – 100 million years .
The protoplanetary disk is an accretion disk that feeds the central star . Initially very hot , the disk later cools in what is known as the T tauri star stage ; here , formation of small dust grains made of rocks and ice is possible . The grains eventually may coagulate into kilometer @-@ sized planetesimals . If the disk is massive enough , the runaway accretions begin , resulting in the rapid — 100 @,@ 000 to 300 @,@ 000 years — formation of Moon- to Mars @-@ sized planetary embryos . Near the star , the planetary embryos go through a stage of violent mergers , producing a few terrestrial planets . The last stage takes approximately 100 million to a billion years .
The formation of giant planets is a more complicated process . It is thought to occur beyond the frost line , where planetary embryos mainly are made of various types of ice . As a result , they are several times more massive than in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk . What follows after the embryo formation is not completely clear . Some embryos appear to continue to grow and eventually reach 5 – 10 Earth masses — the threshold value , which is necessary to begin accretion of the hydrogen – helium gas from the disk . The accumulation of gas by the core is initially a slow process , which continues for several million years , but after the forming protoplanet reaches about 30 Earth masses ( M ⊕ ) it accelerates and proceeds in a runaway manner . Jupiter- and Saturn @-@ like planets are thought to accumulate the bulk of their mass during only 10 @,@ 000 years . The accretion stops when the gas is exhausted . The formed planets can migrate over long distances during or after their formation . Ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune are thought to be failed cores , which formed too late when the disk had almost disappeared .
= = History = =
There is evidence that parts of the nebular hypothesis were first proposed in 1734 by Emanuel Swedenborg . Immanuel Kant , who was familiar with Swedenborg 's work , developed the theory further in 1755 , when Kant published his Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens , wherein he argued that gaseous clouds , nebulae , slowly rotate , gradually collapse and flatten due to gravity , eventually forming stars and planets .
A similar model was developed independently and proposed in 1796 by Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace. in his Exposition du systeme du monde . He envisioned that the Sun originally had an extended hot atmosphere throughout the volume of the Solar System . His theory featured a contracting and cooling protosolar cloud — the protosolar nebula . As this cooled and contracted , it flattened and spun more rapidly , throwing off ( or shedding ) a series of gaseous rings of material ; and according to him , the planets condensed from this material . His model was similar to Kant 's , except more detailed and on a smaller scale . While the Laplacian nebular model dominated in the 19th century , it encountered a number of difficulties . The main problem was angular momentum distribution between the Sun and planets . The planets have 99 % of the angular momentum , and this fact could not be explained by the nebular model . As a result , this theory of planet formation was largely abandoned at the beginning of the 20th century .
A major critique came during the 19th century from James Clerk Maxwell who maintained that different rotation between the inner and outer parts of a ring could not allow condensation of material . It was also rejected by astronomer Sir David Brewster who stated that " those who believe in the Nebular Theory consider it as certain that our Earth derived its solid matter and its atmosphere from a ring thrown from the Solar atmosphere , which afterwards contracted into a solid terraqueous sphere , from which the Moon was thrown off by the same process . " He argued that under such view , " the Moon must necessarily have carried off water and air from the watery and aerial parts of the Earth and must have an atmosphere . " Brewster claimed that Sir Isaac Newton 's religious beliefs had previously considered nebular ideas as tending to atheism , and quoted him saying that " the growth of new systems out of old ones , without the mediation of a Divine power , seemed to him apparently absurd . "
The fall of the Laplacian model stimulated scientists to find a replacement for it . During the 20th century many theories were proposed including the planetesimal theory of Thomas Chamberlin and Forest Moulton ( 1901 ) , tidal model of Jeans ( 1917 ) , accretion model of Otto Schmidt ( 1944 ) , protoplanet theory of William McCrea ( 1960 ) and finally capture theory of Michael Woolfson . In 1978 Andrew Prentice resurrected the initial Laplacian ideas about planet formation and developed the modern Laplacian theory . None of these attempts was completely successful and many of the proposed theories were descriptive .
The birth of the modern widely accepted theory of planetary formation — the solar nebular disk model ( SNDM ) — can be traced to the Soviet astronomer Victor Safronov . His book Evolution of the protoplanetary cloud and formation of the Earth and the planets , which was translated to English in 1972 , had a long @-@ lasting effect on the way scientists think about the formation of the planets . In this book almost all major problems of the planetary formation process were formulated and some of them solved . Safronov 's ideas were further developed in the works of George Wetherill , who discovered runaway accretion . While originally applied only to the Solar System , the SNDM was subsequently thought by theorists to be at work throughout the Universe ; as of 15 July 2016 , 3 @,@ 472 extrasolar planets have since been discovered in our galaxy .
= = Solar nebular model : achievements and problems = =
= = = Achievements = = =
The star formation process naturally results in the appearance of accretion disks around young stellar objects . At the age of about 1 million years , 100 % of stars may have such disks . This conclusion is supported by the discovery of the gaseous and dusty disks around protostars and T Tauri stars as well as by theoretical considerations . Observations of these disks show that the dust grains inside them grow in size on short ( thousand @-@ year ) time scales , producing 1 centimeter sized particles .
The accretion process , by which 1 km planetesimals grow into 1 @,@ 000 km sized bodies , is well understood now . This process develops inside any disk where the number density of planetesimals is sufficiently high , and proceeds in a runaway manner . Growth later slows and continues as oligarchic accretion . The end result is formation of planetary embryos of varying sizes , which depend on the distance from the star . Various simulations have demonstrated that the merger of embryos in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk leads to the formation of a few Earth @-@ sized bodies . Thus the origin of terrestrial planets is now considered to be an almost solved problem .
= = = Current issues = = =
The physics of accretion disks encounters some problems . The most important one is how the material , which is accreted by the protostar , loses its angular momentum . One possible explanation suggested by Hannes Alfvén was that angular momentum was shed by the solar wind during its T Tauri phase . The momentum is transported to the outer parts of the disk by viscous stresses . Viscosity is generated by macroscopic turbulence , but the precise mechanism that produces this turbulence is not well understood . Another possible process for shedding angular momentum is magnetic braking , where the spin of the star is transferred into the surrounding disk via that star 's magnetic field . The main processes responsible for the disappearance of the gas in disks are viscous diffusion and photo @-@ evaporation .
The formation of planetesimals is the biggest unsolved problem in the nebular disk model . How 1 cm sized particles coalesce into 1 km planetesimals is a mystery . This mechanism appears to be the key to the question as to why some stars have planets , while others have nothing around them , not even dust belts .
The formation timescale of giant planets is also an important problem . Old theories were unable to explain how their cores could form fast enough to accumulate significant amounts of gas from the quickly disappearing protoplanetary disk . The mean lifetime of the disks , which is less than ten million ( 107 ) years , appeared to be shorter than the time necessary for the core formation . Much progress has been done to solve this problem and current models of giant planet formation are now capable of forming Jupiter ( or more massive planets ) in about 4 million years or less , well within the average lifetime of gaseous disks .
Another potential problem of giant planet formation is their orbital migration . Some calculations show that interaction with the disk can cause rapid inward migration , which , if not stopped , results in the planet reaching the " central regions still as a sub @-@ Jovian object . " More recent calculations indicate that disk evolution during migration can mitigate this problem .
= = Formation of stars and protoplanetary disks = =
= = = Protostars = = =
Stars are thought to form inside giant clouds of cold molecular hydrogen — giant molecular clouds roughly 300 @,@ 000 times the mass of the Sun ( M ☉ ) and 20 parsecs in diameter . Over millions of years , giant molecular clouds are prone to collapse and fragmentation . These fragments then form small , dense cores , which in turn collapse into stars . The cores range in mass from a fraction to several times that of the Sun and are called protostellar ( protosolar ) nebulae . They possess diameters of 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 1 pc ( 2 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 AU ) and a particle number density of roughly 10 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 cm − 3 .
The initial collapse of a solar @-@ mass protostellar nebula takes around 100 @,@ 000 years . Every nebula begins with a certain amount of angular momentum . Gas in the central part of the nebula , with relatively low angular momentum , undergoes fast compression and forms a hot hydrostatic ( not contracting ) core containing a small fraction of the mass of the original nebula . This core forms the seed of what will become a star . As the collapse continues , conservation of angular momentum means that the rotation of the infalling envelop accelerates , which largely prevents the gas from directly accreting onto the central core . The gas is instead forced to spread outwards near its equatorial plane , forming a disk , which in turn accretes onto the core . The core gradually grows in mass until it becomes a young hot protostar . At this stage , the protostar and its disk are heavily obscured by the infalling envelope and are not directly observable . In fact the remaining envelope 's opacity is so high that even millimeter @-@ wave radiation has trouble escaping from inside it . Such objects are observed as very bright condensations , which emit mainly millimeter @-@ wave and submillimeter @-@ wave radiation . They are classified as spectral Class 0 protostars . The collapse is often accompanied by bipolar outflows — jets — that emanate along the rotational axis of the inferred disk . The jets are frequently observed in star @-@ forming regions ( see Herbig – Haro ( HH ) objects ) . The luminosity of the Class 0 protostars is high — a solar @-@ mass protostar may radiate at up to 100 solar luminosities . The source of this energy is gravitational collapse , as their cores are not yet hot enough to begin nuclear fusion .
As the infall of its material onto the disk continues , the envelope eventually becomes thin and transparent and the young stellar object ( YSO ) becomes observable , initially in far @-@ infrared light and later in the visible . Around this time the protostar begins to fuse deuterium . If the protostar is sufficiently massive ( above 80 Jupiter masses ( MJ ) ) , hydrogen fusion follows . Otherwise , if its mass is too low , the object becomes a brown dwarf . This birth of a new star occurs approximately 100 @,@ 000 years after the collapse begins . Objects at this stage are known as Class I protostars , which are also called young T Tauri stars , evolved protostars , or young stellar objects . By this time the forming star has already accreted much of its mass : the total mass of the disk and remaining envelope does not exceed 10 – 20 % of the mass of the central YSO .
At the next stage the envelope completely disappears , having been gathered up by the disk , and the protostar becomes a classical T Tauri star . This happens after about 1 million years . The mass of the disk around a classical T Tauri star is about 1 – 3 % of the stellar mass , and it is accreted at a rate of 10 − 7 to 10 − 9 M ☉ per year . A pair of bipolar jets is usually present as well . The accretion explains all peculiar properties of classical T Tauri stars : strong flux in the emission lines ( up to 100 % of the intrinsic luminosity of the star ) , magnetic activity , photometric variability and jets . The emission lines actually form as the accreted gas hits the " surface " of the star , which happens around its magnetic poles . The jets are byproducts of accretion : they carry away excessive angular momentum . The classical T Tauri stage lasts about 10 million years . The disk eventually disappears due to accretion onto the central star , planet formation , ejection by jets and photoevaporation by UV @-@ radiation from the central star and nearby stars . As a result , the young star becomes a weakly lined T Tauri star , which slowly , over hundreds of millions of years , evolves into an ordinary Sun @-@ like star .
= = = Protoplanetary disks = = =
Under certain circumstances the disk , which can now be called protoplanetary , may give birth to a planetary system . Protoplanetary disks have been observed around a very high fraction of stars in young star clusters . They exist from the beginning of a star 's formation , but at the earliest stages are unobservable due to the opacity of the surrounding envelope . The disk of a Class 0 protostar is thought to be massive and hot . It is an accretion disk , which feeds the central protostar . The temperature can easily exceed 400 K inside 5 AU and 1 @,@ 000 K inside 1 AU . The heating of the disk is primarily caused by the viscous dissipation of turbulence in it and by the infall of the gas from the nebula . The high temperature in the inner disk causes most of the volatile material — water , organics , and some rocks to evaporate , leaving only the most refractory elements like iron . The ice can survive only in the outer part of the disk .
The main problem in the physics of accretion disks is the generation of turbulence and the mechanism responsible for the high effective viscosity . The turbulent viscosity is thought to be responsible for the transport of the mass to the central protostar and momentum to the periphery of the disk . This is vital for accretion , because the gas can be accreted by the central protostar only if it loses most of its angular momentum , which must be carried away by the small part of the gas drifting outwards . The result of this process is the growth of both the protostar and of the disk radius , which can reach 1 @,@ 000 AU if the initial angular momentum of the nebula is large enough . Large disks are routinely observed in many star @-@ forming regions such as the Orion nebula .
The lifespan of the accretion disks is about 10 million years . By the time the star reaches the classical T @-@ Tauri stage , the disk becomes thinner and cools . Less volatile materials start to condense close to its center , forming 0 @.@ 1 – 1 μm dust grains that contain crystalline silicates . The transport of the material from the outer disk can mix these newly formed dust grains with primordial ones , which contain organic matter and other volatiles . This mixing can explain some peculiarities in the composition of Solar System bodies such as the presence of interstellar grains in the primitive meteorites and refractory inclusions in comets .
Dust particles tend to stick to each other in the dense disk environment , leading to the formation of larger particles up to several centimeters in size . The signatures of the dust processing and coagulation are observed in the infrared spectra of the young disks . Further aggregation can lead to the formation of planetesimals measuring 1 km across or larger , which are the building blocks of planets . Planetesimal formation is another unsolved problem of disk physics , as simple sticking becomes ineffective as dust particles grow larger .
One hypothesis is formation by the gravitational instability . Particles several centimeters in size or larger slowly settle near the middle plane of the disk , forming a very thin — less than 100 km — and dense layer . This layer is gravitationally unstable and may fragment into numerous clumps , which in turn collapse into planetesimals . However , the differing velocities of the gas disk and the solids near the mid @-@ plane can generate turbulence which prevents the layer from becoming thin enough to fragment due to gravitational instability . This may limit the formation of planetesimals via gravitational instabilities to specific locations in the disk where the concentration of solids is enhanced .
Another possible mechanism for the formation of planetesimals is the streaming instability in which the drag felt by particles orbiting through gas creates a feedback effect causing the growth of local concentrations . These local concentration push back on the gas creating a region where the headwind felt by the particles is smaller . The concentration is thus able to orbit faster and undergoes less radial drift . Isolated particles join these concentrations as they are overtaken or as they drift inward causing it to grow in mass . Eventually these concentrations form massive filaments which fragment and undergo gravitational collapse forming planetesimals the size of the larger asteroids .
Planetary formation can also be triggered by gravitational instability within the disk itself , which leads to its fragmentation into clumps . Some of them , if they are dense enough , will collapse , which can lead to rapid formation of gas giant planets and even brown dwarfs on the timescale of 1 @,@ 000 years . If these clumps migrate inward as the collapse proceeds tidal forces from the star can result in a significant mass loss leaving behind a smaller body . However it is only possible in massive disks — more massive than 0 @.@ 3 M ☉ . In comparison , typical disk masses are 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 03 M ☉ . Because the massive disks are rare , this mechanism of the planet formation is thought to be infrequent . On the other hand , this mechanism may play a major role in the formation of brown dwarfs .
The ultimate dissipation of protoplanetary disks is triggered by a number of different mechanisms . The inner part of the disk is either accreted by the star or ejected by the bipolar jets , whereas the outer part can evaporate under the star 's powerful UV radiation during the T Tauri stage or by nearby stars . The gas in the central part can either be accreted or ejected by the growing planets , while the small dust particles are ejected by the radiation pressure of the central star . What is finally left is either a planetary system , a remnant disk of dust without planets , or nothing , if planetesimals failed to form .
Because planetesimals are so numerous , and spread throughout the protoplanetary disk , some survive the formation of a planetary system . Asteroids are understood to be left @-@ over planetesimals , gradually grinding each other down into smaller and smaller bits , while comets are typically planetesimals from the farther reaches of a planetary system . Meteorites are samples of planetesimals that reach a planetary surface , and provide a great deal of information about the formation of the Solar System . Primitive @-@ type meteorites are chunks of shattered low @-@ mass planetesimals , where no thermal differentiation took place , while processed @-@ type meteorites are chunks from shattered massive planetesimals .
= = Formation of planets = =
= = = Rocky planets = = =
According to the solar nebular disk model , rocky planets form in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk , within the frost line , where the temperature is high enough to prevent condensation of water ice and other substances into grains . This results in coagulation of purely rocky grains and later in the formation of rocky planetesimals . Such conditions are thought to exist in the inner 3 – 4 AU part of the disk of a Sun @-@ like star .
After small planetesimals — about 1 km in diameter — have formed by one way or another , runaway accretion begins . It is called runaway because the mass growth rate is proportional to R4 ~ M4 / 3 , where R and M are the radius and mass of the growing body , respectively . It is obvious that the specific ( divided by mass ) growth accelerates as the mass increases . This leads to the preferential growth of larger bodies at the expense of smaller ones . The runaway accretion lasts between 10 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 years and ends when the largest bodies exceed approximately 1 @,@ 000 km in diameter . Slowing of the accretion is caused by gravitational perturbations by large bodies on the remaining planetesimals . In addition , the influence of larger bodies stops further growth of smaller bodies .
The next stage is called oligarchic accretion . It is characterized by the dominance of several hundred of the largest bodies — oligarchs , which continue to slowly accrete planetesimals . No body other than the oligarchs can grow . At this stage the rate of accretion is proportional to R2 , which is derived from the geometrical cross @-@ section of an oligarch . The specific accretion rate is proportional to M − 1 / 3 ; and it declines with the mass of the body . This allows smaller oligarchs to catch up to larger ones . The oligarchs are kept at the distance of about 10 · Hr ( Hr = a ( 1 @-@ e ) ( M / 3Ms ) 1 / 3 is the Hill radius , where a is the semimajor axis , e is the orbital eccentricity , and Ms is the mass of the central star ) from each other by the influence of the remaining planetesimals . Their orbital eccentricities and inclinations remain small . The oligarchs continue to accrete until planetesimals are exhausted in the disk around them . Sometimes nearby oligarchs merge . The final mass of an oligarch depends on the distance from the star and surface density of planetesimals and is called the isolation mass . For the rocky planets it is up to 0 @.@ 1 M ⊕ , or one Mars mass . The final result of the oligarchic stage is the formation of about 100 Moon- to Mars @-@ sized planetary embryos uniformly spaced at about 10 · Hr. They are thought to reside inside gaps in the disk and to be separated by rings of remaining planetesimals . This stage is thought to last a few hundred thousand years .
The last stage of rocky planet formation is the merger stage . It begins when only a small number of planetesimals remains and embryos become massive enough to perturb each other , which causes their orbits to become chaotic . During this stage embryos expel remaining planetesimals , and collide with each other . The result of this process , which lasts for 10 to 100 million years , is the formation of a limited number of Earth sized bodies . Simulations show that the number of surviving planets is on average from 2 to 5 . In the Solar System they may be represented by Earth and Venus . Formation of both planets required merging of approximately 10 – 20 embryos , while an equal number of them were thrown out of the Solar System . Some of the embryos , which originated in the asteroid belt , are thought to have brought water to Earth . Mars and Mercury may be regarded as remaining embryos that survived that rivalry . Rocky planets , which have managed to coalesce , settle eventually into more or less stable orbits , explaining why planetary systems are generally packed to the limit ; or , in other words , why they always appear to be at the brink of instability .
= = = Giant planets = = =
The formation of giant planets is an outstanding problem in the planetary sciences . In the framework of the solar nebular model two theories for their formation exist . The first one is the disk instability model , where giant planets form in the massive protoplanetary disks as a result of its gravitational fragmentation ( see above ) . The second possibility is the core accretion model , which is also known as the nucleated instability model . The latter scenario is thought to be the most promising one , because it can explain the formation of the giant planets in relatively low @-@ mass disks ( less than 0 @.@ 1 M ☉ ) . In this model giant planet formation is divided into two stages : a ) accretion of a core of approximately 10 M ⊕ and b ) accretion of gas from the protoplanetary disk . Either method may also lead to the creation of brown dwarfs . Searches as of 2011 have found that core accretion is likely the dominant formation mechanism .
Giant planet core formation is thought to proceed roughly along the lines of the terrestrial planet formation . It starts with planetesimals that undergo runaway growth , followed by the slower oligarchic stage . Hypotheses do not predict a merger stage , due to the low probability of collisions between planetary embryos in the outer part of planetary systems . An additional difference is the composition of the planetesimals , which in the case of giant planets form beyond the so @-@ called snow line and consist mainly of ice — the ice to rock ratio is about 4 to 1 . This enhances the mass of planetesimals fourfold . However , the minimum mass nebula capable of terrestrial planet formation can only form 1 – 2 M ⊕ cores at the distance of Jupiter ( 5 AU ) within 10 million years . The latter number represents the average lifetime of gaseous disks around Sun @-@ like stars . The proposed solutions include enhanced mass of the disk — a tenfold increase would suffice ; protoplanet migration , which allows the embryo to accrete more planetesimals ; and finally accretion enhancement due to gas drag in the gaseous envelopes of the embryos . Some combination of the above @-@ mentioned ideas may explain the formation of the cores of gas giant planets such as Jupiter and perhaps even Saturn . The formation of planets like Uranus and Neptune is more problematic , since no theory has been capable of providing for the in situ formation of their cores at the distance of 20 – 30 AU from the central star . One hypothesis is that they initially accreted in the Jupiter @-@ Saturn region , then were scattered and migrated to their present location . Another possible solution is the growth of the cores of the giant planets via pebble accretion . In pebble accretion objects between a cm and a meter in diameter falling toward a massive body are slowed enough by gas drag for them to spiral toward it and be accreted . Growth via pebble accretion may be as much as 1000 time faster than by the accretion of planesimals .
Once the cores are of sufficient mass ( 5 – 10 M ⊕ ) , they begin to gather gas from the surrounding disk . Initially it is a slow process , increasing the core masses up to 30 M ⊕ in a few million years . After that , the accretion rates increase dramatically and the remaining 90 % of the mass is accumulated in approximately 10 @,@ 000 years . The accretion of gas stops when the supply from the disk is exhausted . This happens gradually , due to the formation of a density gap in the protoplanetary disk and to disk dispersal . In this model ice giants — Uranus and Neptune — are failed cores that began gas accretion too late , when almost all gas had already disappeared . The post @-@ runaway @-@ gas @-@ accretion stage is characterized by migration of the newly formed giant planets and continued slow gas accretion . Migration is caused by the interaction of the planet sitting in the gap with the remaining disk . It stops when the protoplanetary disk disappears or when the end of the disk is attained . The latter case corresponds to the so @-@ called hot Jupiters , which are likely to have stopped their migration when they reached the inner hole in the protoplanetary disk .
Giant planets can significantly influence terrestrial planet formation . The presence of giants tends to increase eccentricities and inclinations ( see Kozai mechanism ) of planetesimals and embryos in the terrestrial planet region ( inside 4 AU in the Solar System ) . If giant planets form too early , they can slow or prevent inner planet accretion . If they form near the end of the oligarchic stage , as is thought to have happened in the Solar System , they will influence the merges of planetary embryos , making them more violent . As a result , the number of terrestrial planets will decrease and they will be more massive . In addition , the size of the system will shrink , because terrestrial planets will form closer to the central star . The influence of giant planets in the Solar System , particularly that of Jupiter , is thought to have been limited because they are relatively remote from the terrestrial planets .
The region of a planetary system adjacent to the giant planets will be influenced in a different way . In such a region , eccentricities of embryos may become so large that the embryos pass close to a giant planet , which may cause them to be ejected from the system . If all embryos are removed , then no planets will form in this region . An additional consequence is that a huge number of small planetesimals will remain , because giant planets are incapable of clearing them all out without the help of embryos . The total mass of remaining planetesimals will be small , because cumulative action of the embryos before their ejection and giant planets is still strong enough to remove 99 % of the small bodies . Such a region will eventually evolve into an asteroid belt , which is a full analog of the asteroid belt in the Solar System , located from 2 to 4 AU from the Sun .
= = Meaning of accretion = =
Use of the term accretion disk for the protoplanetary disk leads to confusion over the planetary accretion process . The protoplanetary disk is sometimes referred to as an accretion disk , because while the young T Tauri @-@ like protostar is still contracting , gaseous material may still be falling onto it , accreting on its surface from the disk 's inner edge . In an accretion disk , there is a net flux of mass from larger radii toward smaller radii .
However , that meaning should not be confused with the process of accretion forming the planets . In this context , accretion refers to the process of cooled , solidified grains of dust and ice orbiting the protostar in the protoplanetary disk , colliding and sticking together and gradually growing , up to and including the high @-@ energy collisions between sizable planetesimals .
In addition , the giant planets probably had accretion disks of their own , in the first meaning of the word . The clouds of captured hydrogen and helium gas contracted , spun up , flattened , and deposited gas onto the surface of each giant protoplanet , while solid bodies within that disk accreted into the giant planet 's regular moons .
= HMS Gorgon ( 1914 ) =
HMS Gorgon and her sister ship Glatton were two monitors originally built as coastal defence ships for the Royal Norwegian Navy , as HNoMS Nidaros and Bjørgvin respectively , by Armstrong Whitworth at Elswick . She was purchased from Norway at the beginning of the First World War , but was not completed until 1918 although she had been launched over three years earlier . She engaged targets in Occupied Flanders for the last several months of the war and fired the last shots of the war against such targets on 15 October 1918 . She was used as a target ship after several attempts to sell her had fallen through before being sold for scrap in 1928 .
= = Background = =
Nidaros was ordered by Norway in 1913 to supplement the older Eidsvold class and Tordenskjold class classes of coastal defense ships . She would have been known in Norway as P / S Nidaros ; P / S stands for Panserskip ( " armoured ship " ) , while Nidaros was the old name for the Norwegian city of Trondheim . However , when the First World War broke out , the Royal Navy requisitioned most warships under construction in Britain for foreign powers and refunded the two @-@ thirds of the Bjørgvin 's £ 370 @,@ 000 purchase price already paid by the Norwegians .
= = Construction and description = =
Nidaros was laid down by Armstrong Whitworth at Elswick on 11 June 1913 and launched on 9 June 1914 . She was renamed as Gorgon , after an earlier breastwork monitor of 1871 . Her completion was greatly delayed by the modifications made by the British , which included modifying the boilers to use both oil and coal and conversion of 12 double @-@ bottom tanks to carry oil . This work began on 9 January 1915 , but was suspended the following May , when it was estimated that only another 10 – 12 months of work remained , to allow for faster progress to be made on the large light cruisers Furious and Courageous that were building in Armstrong 's Naval Yard downriver . In September 1917 , work was resumed on a new design that added a large anti @-@ torpedo bulge along about 75 % of the hull 's length , suppression of the torpedo tubes and the 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns planned by the Norwegians , and a large tripod mast was fitted behind the single funnel to carry the directors for both the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) and 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) guns . Both of these guns had to be relined to use standard British ammunition and the mount for the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch gun was modified to give a maximum elevation of 40 ° which gave the gun a maximum range of 39 @,@ 000 yards ( 36 @,@ 000 m ) . Addition of the bulges cost 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) in speed , but prevented the extra weight resulting from all of these changes from deepening her draft . She was finally completed on 4 June 1918 .
Gorgon displaced 5 @,@ 700 long tons ( 5 @,@ 800 t ) at deep load as built , with a length of 310 feet ( 94 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 7 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) at maximum , although her main hull only had a beam of 55 feet ( 16 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 16 feet 4 inches ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) . She was powered by two vertical triple expansion steam engines , which developed a total of 4 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 000 kW ) from four Yarrow watertube boilers and gave a maximum speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
She was armed with two 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns arranged in two single @-@ gun turrets , one turret each fore and aft . Her secondary armament consisted of four six @-@ inch guns , also in single gun turrets , two of which superfired over the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch turrets and the others were positioned on each side of the superstructure . One 3 in ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft gun was mounted on each center @-@ line six @-@ inch turret . She also carried four 3 @-@ pounder and four 2 @-@ pounder guns on high @-@ angle mounts .
= = Service = =
Gorgon arrived at Dover on 6 June 1918 where she spent the next five weeks working up . Her first engagement was on 26 July when she fired eight rounds at a range of 33 @,@ 000 yards ( 30 @,@ 000 m ) at a German howitzer battery to calibrate her guns and fire control system , which provoked a response from the German 380 @-@ millimetre ( 15 in ) gun of Batterie Pommern south of Ostende . Three days later , she accompanied Marshal Soult on a bombardment of Batterie " Tirpitz " . She spent the next month and a half either out on patrol in the English Channel or preparing for the bombardment scheduled for the end of September in support of a major offensive along the coast .
At daybreak on 28 September 1918 , Gorgon , in company with General Wolfe , anchored about 7 mi ( 6 @.@ 1 nmi ; 11 km ) off De Panne , Belgium and opened fire about 7 : 15 on a bridge at Snaeskerke , Belgium at a range of 36 @,@ 000 yd ( 33 @,@ 000 m ) . Conditions were not good as both wind and tide were against her . Gorgon 's stern anchor cable parted and she swung around on her bow anchor so that only her rear turret could bear on the target . No aircraft were made available to spot for her so there was little chance of a hit and she only fired eleven rounds . She , and the other monitors , were attacked several times during the day by German aircraft with little effect and several coast defense batteries attempted to engage them through the smokescreen put up by the motor launches supporting the operation . She fired thirteen shells the next day in another attempt to destroy the bridge and claimed one hit although this was not confirmed by subsequent observations .
On 14 October , she repeated the experience , except that her target was now the Middelkerke batteries . She fired 41 rounds during the morning at a range of 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) , but she accompanied Vice @-@ Admiral Keyes in the destroyer Termagant in a reconnaissance mission to see if the Germans were still holding the coast in strength . The fire of the Tirpitz and Raversyde Batteries soon disabused them of any notions to the contrary and Gorgon was forced to turn away at maximum speed ( 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) ) , which was faster than she 'd made on trials , when they straddled her and hit her with splinters from the near @-@ misses . The following day she returned to her original target and fired 30 rounds in 20 minutes . These were the last shots of the war fired against German batteries on the Belgian coast .
She was sent to Portsmouth after the end of the war where she was made available to investigate the cause of her sister ship Glatton 's magazine explosion . She was moved to Devonport as a temporary tender to the stone frigate Vivid in April 1919 . She was paid off on 31 August and joined the Reserve Fleet in September . She was offered back to the Norwegians , but they rejected her as unsuitable to their requirements , especially since she was now too broad for their dock at Horten . Several attempts were made to sell her , but she was disarmed in 1922 and used as a target ship to evaluate the effects of bombs bursting underwater near a ship and the effects of six @-@ inch gunfire . She was finally sold for scrap on 26 August 1928 and broken up at the former naval dockyard at Pembroke .
= Battle of Sedan ( 1940 ) =
The Battle of Sedan or Second Battle of Sedan ( 12 – 15 May 1940 ) was a Second World War battle fought during the French Campaign . The battle was part of the German Wehrmacht 's operational plan codenamed Fall Gelb ( Case Yellow ) for an offensive through the hilly and heavily forested Ardennes , to encircle the Allied armies in Belgium and north @-@ eastern France . German Army Group A crossed the Meuse river with the intention of capturing Sedan and pushing northwards towards the Channel coast , in order to entrap the Allied forces that were advancing east into Belgium , as part of the Allied Dyle Plan strategy .
Sedan was situated on the east bank of the Meuse River . Its capture would give the Germans a base from which to capture the Meuse bridges and cross the river . Should this occur , the German divisions could then advance across the open and undefended French countryside , beyond Sedan , and to the English Channel . On 12 May , Sedan was captured without resistance . In the following days , the Germans defeated the French defences surrounding Sedan on the west bank of the Meuse . This was largely achieved by the Luftwaffe . As a result of German bombing and low morale , the French defenders were unable to mount a coherent defence . The Germans captured the Meuse bridges at Sedan allowing them to pour forces including armour across the river . On 14 May , the Allied air forces , the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) tried to destroy the bridges , and prevent German reinforcements reaching the west bank . The Luftwaffe prevented them from doing so . In large air battles , the Allies suffered high losses which depleted Allied bomber strength in the campaign .
The crossing of the Meuse enabled the Germans to break into the strategic depths , or undefended rear , of the Allied front and to advance to the English Channel without significant opposition . The French attempted to launch counter @-@ attacks against the German @-@ held bridgeheads , from 15 – 17 May , but the offensives fell victim to delay and confusion . Five days after consolidating their bridgeheads at Sedan , on 20 May , the German Army reached the Channel . The victory at Sedan achieved the operational goal of Fall Gelb and encircled the strongest Allied armies , including the British Expeditionary Force . The resulting battles destroyed the remaining French army as an effective fighting force , and expelled the British Army from the continent , leading to the defeat of France in June 1940 . The battle at Sedan was instrumental in the fall of France .
= = Background = =
= = = German plan = = =
On 10 May 1940 , the Wehrmacht invaded Luxembourg , Netherlands and Belgium . In the Netherlands the Germans made steady progress . By 12 May , parts of the German Army Group B was closing on Rotterdam and Amsterdam , while in central Belgium the Germans were close to reaching the Dyle river east of Brussels . In response to the invasions , the Allied First Army Group , under the command of Gaston Billotte , containing the French Seventh Army , French Ninth Army , French First Army and the British Expeditionary Force , advanced to the Dyle river in order to form a solid front line as part of the Dyle Plan , a defensive strategy to halt the German advances in Belgium . However , the offensive by Army Group B was a diversion . The main thrust of Fall Gelb was to be conducted by Army Group A through the Ardennes in Luxembourg and southern Belgium . Once these lightly defended areas were negotiated , Army Group A 's XIX . Panzerkorps ( 19th Tank Corps ) , under the command of Heinz Guderian , was to strike into France at Sedan , located on the Meuse river . Its capture would enable a German advance into the undefended depths of France and to the English Channel , into the rear of the Allied mobile forces advancing into Belgium . The result would be a strategic @-@ level encirclement .
For the offensive , the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( German High Command ) gave Army Group A the most powerful concentration of German armour and motorised forces . Although Army Group B was allocated 808 tanks , over 1 ⁄ 4 of the total German tanks , they were largely light tanks such as the Panzer I and Panzer II , as opposed to the Panzer III and Panzer IV . The heavier tanks were handed over to Army Group A as it required the best machines to conduct the critical operation at Sedan . Army Group A contained 1 @,@ 753 tanks of the heavier types .
= = = ' Impenetrable ' Ardennes = = =
Following the First World War , the French General Staff had ruled out the idea of a future German thrust through the Ardennes – Sedan sector . The French were certain such terrain could not be crossed by tanks . Marshal Philippe Pétain described them as " impenetrable " . Maurice Gamelin described the geographical feature as " Europe 's best tank obstacle " . The " barrier " of the Meuse and Ardennes appeared to be a sound strategic defence feature that a future enemy could not get through or go around . The French concluded that at best , a German assault through the Ardennes towards Sedan would not reach the Meuse until two weeks after the start of any German offensive , taking between five and nine days to penetrate the Ardennes alone .
The French assessments were less credible in the light of military exercises carried out in 1938 . That year , General André @-@ Gaston Prételat took command of manoeuvres which created a scenario whereby the German Army launched an assault with seven divisions , including four motorised infantry divisions and two tank brigades ( the type of the remaining three are not given ) . The " French " side 's defences collapsed . " The result was a defeat of so comprehensive a nature that the wisdom of publishing it was questioned lest morale be damaged . " As late as March 1940 , a French report to Gamelin named the defences at Sedan , the last " fortified " position on the Meuse , and the last before the open country of France , as " entirely inadequate . " Prételat had correctly identified the landscape as relatively easy terrain for armour to cross . At most , he concluded , the Germans would take 60 hours to reach the Meuse and take one day to cross it . This estimate to was to prove only three hours too late . The Germans achieved the Meuse crossing after just 57 hours .
The French Army authorised fresh attempts to increase the strength of the fortifications in the autumn of 1939 , but severe winter weather prevented the pouring of concrete and the delivery of the necessary materials . On 11 April 1940 , General Charles Huntziger asked for another four divisions to work on the defences but was refused .
= = = French defences at Sedan = = =
The French defences at Sedan were weak and neglected . The French had long believed that the German Army would not attack through the Sedan sector as part of their concentrated effort , and only Brigadier General Pierre Lafontaine 's French 55th Infantry Division , a category B division , was allocated to this sector . The Maginot Line ended 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) east of Sedan at La Ferté , where Fort No. 505 constituted its most westerly position . Sedan was a part of the extended Maginot Line that ran north behind the Meuse river . Between Sedan and La Ferté lay the Stenay gap , which was a stretch of unprotected terrain not covered by French defences or natural obstacles . This was the reason a significant number of French generals insisted on strengthening this sector , while ignoring Sedan .
As the French constructed further fortifications , Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft picked up the activity and reported it . The steep slopes on the banks of the Meuse , added to what appeared in photographic reconnaissance to be a formidable barrier of bunkers and defence lines , caused Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt , the commander in chief of Army Group A , to question the wisdom of Guderian in choosing Sedan as the point of maximum effort . To identify how strong these fortifications were , a team of photographic specialists were called in to evaluate the pictures . Their analysis concluded that what appeared to be strong fortified positions were just the construction sites of half @-@ built bunkers that were , to all intents and purposes , empty shells . The contribution of the specialists tilted the Sedan attack plan into Guderian 's favour .
General Huntziger was happy to rely on " concrete " to ensure the safety of Sedan as he rejected the idea that the Germans would attack through the Ardennes . The Second Army built 52 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of concrete fortifications along its front , but very little in the Sedan sector . Only 42 bunkers protected the Sedan bridgeheads on the outbreak of war in September 1939 and an additional 61 were built by 10 May . However , by 10 May , most of the bunkers were incomplete , lacking gun port shutters for the artillery casemates . Some of the bunkers lacked rear doors , making them vulnerable to infiltration by infantry . To the north of Sedan , on the northern bend of the Meuse , the town of Glaire overlooked the crossing points on the river , which was to be where the German armour would deliver its heaviest blow . There was a gap of 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) between Bunker 305 at Glaire and Bunker 211 next to the Pont Neuf bridge . This allowed an attacker coming from the north to use the good road routes through the Fleigneux – Saint @-@ Menges – Glaire axis to enter Sedan from the north .
The defences at Sedan also lacked any mines . The French Second Army was guarding a front of 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) , and was given only 16 @,@ 000 mines . Of that number , 7 @,@ 000 were given to the cavalry divisions that were intended to delay a German advance through southern Belgium as well as to blockhouse points along the Franco – Belgian border . That left 2 @,@ 000 for the defence of the river Meuse . Of those , the 55th Infantry Division got 422 . Not all of these were laid , and some barriers were moved during the bunker construction in the Sedan sector .
= = = German approach = = =
As the German Army advanced through southern Belgium on 12 May , General Ewald von Kleist and Guderian clashed over where the main point of effort should fall . Kleist was Guderian 's immediate superior , commanding Panzergruppe von Kleist , consisting of XLI Panzer Corps and XIX Panzer Corps ( under Guderian ) . Kleist pressed for the main point to come at Flize , further west than Sedan . Kleist argued that the blow would avoid a double river crossing at the Meuse ( at Sedan ) and Ardennes canal ( to the west of Sedan ) . Moreover , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
use = =
= = = Capture of Sedan = = =
The main problem confronting Guderian and his Sedan method was inadequate artillery support . Several batteries were stuck in traffic in the Ardennes and he could not rely on the artillery batteries of his Panzer Divisions only . Everything depended on the support of the Luftwaffe . General der Flieger Hugo Sperrle , commander of Luftflotte 3 , had planned a conventional method of a brief bombardment before the ground forces moved in . After preparatory raids , the medium and dive @-@ bombers were to smash the French defences in a concentrated blow lasting 20 minutes . The raid was planned for 16 : 00 before the infantry crossed the Meuse . In collaboration , Bruno Loerzer 's II . Fliegerkorps had developed the concept of the rolling raid with Guderian . The idea of a single massed strike was abandoned , and the German air units were to attack in small formations but constantly , through the day . It was deemed the effect would be threefold ; the French artillery would be eliminated , the effect of continuous raids would damage enemy morale , and smaller formations would be more systematic and accurate against targets such as bunkers .
Unknown to Guderian , von Kleist , his immediate superior , had contacted Loerzer and banned Guderian 's proposed long systematic approach in favour of one big assault . Guderian complained . Kleist ignored him . Yet , the following morning , Loerzer rejected Kleist 's method and went ahead with the agreed rolling bombing as discussed with Guderian . Loerzer would later say that the official order from Hugo Sperrle had arrived too late to make changes .
By nightfall on 12 May , Guderian 's XIX . Panzerkorps rolled into Sedan . Guderian reported there was no sign of the enemy . With the city itself secured , Guderian would now have to strike south , across the defended rear behind Sedan , which in turn was protected by a large bunker complex located on Marfee ridge , a piece of high ground covering the Sedan @-@ Meuse river to the south . But there were three fundamental choices . He could obey tactical necessity and protect the bridgeheads against a French counter @-@ attack from the south ; he could strike west towards Paris with his Corps ; or he could carry out the dash to the Channel . Remembering the Chief of Operations , 1st Panzer Division , Walther Wenck 's saying , " Hit with your fists , don 't feel with your fingers ! " , Guderian decided on the last option .
= = = Lack of German artillery = = =
In the early hours of 13 May , the 10th Panzer Division slipped into position upstream to the north @-@ east of Sedan , ready to strike at its designated crossing point near the town of Wadelincourt . Downstream , the 2nd Panzer Division moved into position to cross at Donchery . The 1st Panzer Division prepared to strike at the Gaulier bridgehead , in the centre of Sedan 's tactical front . It was on the northern bend of the Sedan Meuse loop that the Luftwaffe was to make its maximum effort , between Gaulier and Wadelincourt . To supplement his air support , Guderian stripped most of his Panzer Divisions of their artillery , which he then positioned directly opposite Gaulier . However , the artillery regiments lacked ammunition . Sustained and damaging bombardment through shelling was impossible . The Luftwaffe was going to have to do most of the work . Guderian reported that his Corps had only 141 artillery pieces against the French 174 . To the north and south of Sedan , the French X Corps and French XXXXI Corps ( at the artillery fortress at Charleville @-@ Mézières ) could also add their artillery and shell Guderian 's Panzer units as they crossed the bridgeheads . The slow advance of artillery units to the front added to the German numerical inferiority , which was now 1 : 3 against . Only in the afternoon did the German artillery make an appearance , but with little effect . The 2nd Panzer Division was forced to attack without artillery support . For these reasons , Guderian had decided the outcome depended on the quality of air support , acting as flying artillery .
= = = Luftwaffe assault = = =
Luftflotte 3 ( commanded by Hugo Sperrle ) , supported by Luftflotte 2 ( commanded by Albert Kesselring ) , executed the heaviest air bombardment the world had yet witnessed and the most intense by the Luftwaffe during the war . The Luftwaffe committed two Sturzkampfgeschwader ( dive bomber wings ) to the assault , flying 300 sorties against French positions , with Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 alone flying 201 individual missions . A total of 3 @,@ 940 sorties were flown by nine Kampfgeschwader ( Bomber Wing ) units often in Gruppe strength .
The planned aerial assault would last for eight hours , from 08 : 00 @-@ 16 : 00 . Loerzer and Richthofen committed two Stuka units to the attack . Loerzer 's Ju 87s flew some 180 missions against Sedan 's bunkers whilst Richthofen 's managed 90 . The nine Kampfgruppen ( bomber wings ) of Bruno Loerzer 's II . Fliegerkorps flew 900 missions against the 360 of Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen 's VIII . Fliegerkorps . VIII . Fliegerkorps 's total mission count on the Meuse front was 910 compared to II . Fliegerkorps 1 @,@ 770 missions .
The Luftwaffe 's target was the Marfee heights which lay behind Sedan to the south east . They contained the fortified artillery positions and dominated the approaches to the strategic and operational depths beyond Sedan and the Meuse . The Luftwaffe was two hours late in appearing but the effort made was considerable . The attacks were made in Gruppe ( group ) strength and against the line of maximum resistance along the enemy gun line . To restrict enemy movements and communications , German fighters swept the area to cut land @-@ lines and strafe fortifications , with some shooting of radio antennae off command posts . The attacks isolated the forward defence lines . Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 struck first in the morning of 13 May . In just five hours , 500 Ju 87 sorties had been flown .
The Luftwaffe cowed the defenders , breaking them psychologically . The gunners , the backbone of the defences , had abandoned their positions by the time the German ground assault had begun . The cost to the Luftwaffe was just six aircraft , three of which were Ju 87s .
The French 55th Infantry Division was not prepared for such an attack . French soldiers had commented on the massive psychological effect of the bombardment , in particular the siren of the Ju 87 . However , after the war , it was discovered that none of the bunkers had been destroyed by direct hits . Moreover , just 56 French casualties were suffered . It was the indirect effect that did the damage . The telecommunication cables were destroyed ( most had been laid out in the open ) through bombing , paralysing the division 's communications , and the psychological damage crippled its defensive capacity .
The ensuing psychological damage contributed to " the panic of Bulson " . At about 19 : 00 on 13 May , a report by a French artillery observer was passed on incorrectly . There was a rumour that German tanks were approaching the town of Bulson . The false reports spread and the French 55th Infantry Division deserted their positions . German sources say that the first German tank crossed the Meuse River 12 hours later . By the time the error was realised , most of the artillerymen and infantrymen had abandoned their heavy equipment .
= = = 1st Panzer at Gaulier = = =
The central ground assault was to be conducted by the 1st Panzer Division and supported by the Infantry Regiment Großdeutschland and the Sturmpionier @-@ Battalion 43 ( 43rd Assault Engineer Battalion ) as the 1st Panzer only had a single rifle regiment . The Großdeutschland would be attached to the 1st Panzer Division for the remainder of the campaign and it was the first unit to breach the defences on Hill 247 , the high ground dominating Gaulier . The regiment , much to their surprise , discovered the Luftwaffe had failed to destroy the enemy bunkers . Enemy small arms fire ensured that crossing the river at Pont Neuf bridge could not be done in rubber assault boats as intended . The Regiment retreated . Reconnaissance found an enemy Bunker , No. 211 , was still active . Its location guarded the bridgehead , making it dangerous for German infantry attempting a crossing . A platoon of infantry guns ( 75 mm short barrel artillery ) failed to knock it out . An 8 @.@ 8 cm FlaK dual purpose gun ( 88 mm ) was brought in to do the job . It succeeded , but the following crossing failed as machine gun fire came from another flanking position that had not been spotted . Once this was dealt with by the 2nd Battalion , the remainder of the regiment crossed the river . Throughout the rest of the day , the regiment moved up and into the French defences , the 2nd Battalion 's 6th , 7th and 8th Companies gradually knocking out each bunker . Despite the other two battalions being held up further south , by 20 : 00 the central Hill 247 had been taken . The Großdeutschland Regiment had now penetrated 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) into the French defences .
On Hill 301 , further west , the First Rifle Regiment under Col. Hermann Balck had helped take the position by nightfall . With help from two platoons of the 3rd Company of the 34th Assault Engineer Battalion , it had succeeded in knocking out the bunker positions . The regiment inched westward and was able to see the 2nd Panzer Division on the extreme west flank of the 1st Panzer , attacking the bunker position near Donchery . Several Panzers were knocked out . The First Rifle Regiment , 1st Panzer , had crossed the boundary into the 2nd Panzer 's territory . They eased the 2nd Panzer 's passage by knocking out several bunkers on their eastern flank and succeeded in cutting the Donchery @-@ Sedan road . The infantry also succeeded in knocking out most of the casemates in the area using flamethrower teams to destroy the bunkers whose infantry failed to surrender quickly . The last bunker to surrender did so at 22 : 40 hours on 13 May . By that time , elements of the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions had negotiated the Meuse river .
= = = 2nd Panzer at Donchery = = =
The 2nd Panzer had been given the most difficult job . Its advance through the Ardennes trapped and delayed it in nearly 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) of traffic . Consequently , it arrived late at Donchery , after the 1st and 10th Panzer Divisions had initiated their assaults across the Meuse . Due to a combination of its being late and the attacks of its sister units , the enemy defences were alerted in advance of the 2nd Panzer 's offensive . Crossing at the extreme western end of the Sedan sector on the Donchery axis , it was forced to advance across open terrain for the last 3 km before reaching the bridgehead . This subjected the division to fire from Donchery and the Bellevue Castle 's 75mm artillery casemates , located slightly to the east of the town . Several boats were tied to the Panzers and dragged across , but the tanks were knocked out . The bulk of the 174 artillery pieces available to the French at Sedan were concentrated on the 2nd Panzer Division 's front . Most were located in the bunkers on the south side of the river Meuse @-@ Donchery sector . Some of the French 102nd Infantry division 's batteries also joined in from the north west , at Charleville . The only way to respond was with howitzers . However , 2nd Panzer Division had handed its heavy howitzers over to the 1st Panzer Division , and now had only 24 guns and they did not arrive on the battlefield until 17 : 00 . When they arrived , they had only had a couple of shells per gun owing to the logistical tailback in the Ardennes .
All attempts to land on the southern side of the Meuse failed . Fortunately , the 1st Panzer Division succeeded in crossing the Meuse in the centre ( see above ) . Once completed , it headed into the right ( eastern ) flank of the French at Donchery . Some of its units cleared the Meuse bend . Assault Engineers and 1st Panzer Division neutralised the guns at Bellevue Castle , and cleared the bunker positions along the Meuse River from the rear . The artillery falling on the 2nd Panzer Division 's eastern flank was stopped . With the threat of artillery fire on its right flank removed , the units on the 2nd Panzer 's left flank crossed the river and infiltrated the French positions opposite Donchery at 20 : 00 . Heavy French fire continued from the bunkers in front of Donchery on the south side of the Meuse . It was not until 22 : 20 , in darkness , that regular ferrying missions enabled the reinforcement of the German bridgehead .
= = = 10th Panzer at Wadelincourt = = =
The 10th Panzer Division , like the 2nd Panzer Division , had detached its heavy artillery batteries to support neighbouring units . It was left with just 24 light 105 mm howitzers . Moreover , the batteries were short of ammunition . The Luftwaffe had not helped the 10th Panzer Division as most of the air attacks were in support of the 1st Panzer Division in the central sector . This meant all of the French artillery and machine gun positions in the area of Wadelincourt were undisturbed . Added to this , the newly inserted 71st Infantry Division and French X Corps in the Rémilly area prevented the 10th Panzer Division making any quick progress . The Division also had to advance down to the river on open flat terrain of some 600 – 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 600 ft ) .
Near the town of Bazeilles , the Engineers and assault infantry had gathered to prepare the boats for the crossing of the Meuse at Wadelincourt when an artillery barrage from the French positions destroyed 81 out of 96 rubber boats . The plan of attack had included an assault by both the 69th and 89th Infantry Regiments , but the loss of so many boats meant that only the 86th Infantry Regiment was able to conduct the crossing . The 69th Infantry Regiment was kept in reserve to follow the 86th as reinforcements .
The 10th Panzer Division 's assaults failed all along the Meuse front . The only success came from a small 11 @-@ man team ( five engineers and six infantrymen ) of the 2nd Company , Panzerpionier @-@ Batailion 49 ( 49th Panzer Engineer Battalion ) placed under the 1st Battalion , 86th Infantry Regiment . Unsupported and acting on their own initiative , this small force led by Feldwebel Walter Rubarth opened a decisive breach by knocking out seven bunker positions . Follow @-@ up units from the 1st Battalion 86th Rifle Regiment had crossed over by 21 : 00 and stormed the remaining bunkers on Hill 246 , where the main French defence positions were located . By the end of the day , the bridgehead had been consolidated and the objective taken .
= = = Allied air strikes = = =
In the central sector , at Gaulier , the Germans began moving 3 @.@ 7 cm Pak 36 light infantry field artillery across the Meuse to provide support to infantry across the river . By 01 : 00 on 14 May , a pontoon bridge had been erected over which Sdkz 222 , SdKfz 232 and SdKfz 264 armoured cars began to dismount in the bridgeheads . French reports spoke of German tanks crossing the bridges . Such reports were in error , as the first Panzers only crossed at 07 : 20 on 14 May . Prior to this masses of lorries , armoured cars and other traffic had passed through but not tanks .
The capture of Sedan and the expansion of the bridgeheads alarmed the French who called for a total effort against the bridgeheads at Sedan , to isolate the three Panzer Divisions . General Gaston @-@ Henri Billotte , commander of the First French Army Group , whose right flank pivoted on Sedan , urged that the bridges across the Meuse be destroyed by air attack , convinced that " over them will pass either victory or defeat ! " . General Marcel Têtu , commander of the Allied Tactical Air Forces ordered : " Concentrate everything on Sedan . Priority between Sedan and Houx is at 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to 1 " .
No. 103 Squadron and No. 150 Squadron RAF of the RAF Advanced Air Striking Force ( AASF ) flew 10 sorties against the targets in the early morning . In the process they suffered only one loss in a forced landing . Between 15 : 00 – 16 : 00 , 71 RAF bombers took off escorted by Allied fighters . The impressive escort was offset by the presence of German fighter units that outnumbered the Allied escort fighters by 3 : 1 . No. 71 Wing RAF lost 10 Fairey Battles and five Bristol Blenheims . No. 75 Wing RAF lost 14 – 18 Battles and No. 76 Wing RAF lost 11 Battles . Out of 71 bombers dispatched , 40 – 44 bombers were lost , meaning a loss rate of 56 – 62 percent . The AASF lost a further five Hawker Hurricanes . The AASF flew 81 sorties and lost 52 percent of its strength . No 2 Group RAF also contributed with 28 sorties . The bombing results were poor , with three bridges damaged and one possibly destroyed .
French Air Forces under the command of Commandant des Forces ( Commander of Forces ) Marcel Têtu Aeriennes de Cooperation du Front Nord @-@ Est ( Ardennes Cooperation Front North East , or FACNE ) rarely supported the British efforts despite substantial reinforcements . They flew only an average of one sortie per day , including strategic defensive missions . One reason for this was heavy French bomber losses on the previous two days . During the Battle of Maastricht in the Netherlands , the Groupement de Bombardement ( Bomber Groups , or GB ) had its squadrons reduced . GB I / 12 and II / 12 had only 13 LeO 451s between them . Groupement de Bombardement d 'Assaut 18 ( GBA 18 ) had only 12 of 25 Breguet 693s left . GB I / 34 and II / 34 could muster eight aircraft out of 22 Amiot 143s , I / 38 seven out of 12 , and II / 38 six out of 11 . All of these groups were sent to Sedan on 14 May . Escort was given from Groupement de Chasse ( Fighter Groups , or GC ) . GC III / 7 with 12 Morane 406s , 12 Bloch 152s of I / 8 and nine Dewoitine D.520s of I / 3 took part . GBA 18 was escorted by 15 Bloch 152s of GC I / 8 . The missions cost the French five bombers , two from ground fire . After this date , the French bomber forces were eliminated from the fight over Sedan . The major efforts were now made by the AASF .
The Allied bombers received mostly poor protection . Only 93 fighter sorties , ( 60 by the French ) were flown . The French lost 21 fighters in the operation . The German air defence was soon reinforced by Jagdgeschwader 26 and Jagdgeschwader 27 ( Fighter Wings 26 and 27 ) . One of the premier German fighter units responsible for the heavy loss rate was Jagdgeschwader 53 ( Fighter Wing 53 ) , who later engaged French bombers who tried to succeed where the AASF failed . The attacks failed as they were uncoordinated . Along with fighter aircraft , the Germans had assembled powerful flak concentrations in Sedan . The FlaK battalions of the 1st , 2nd and 10th Panzer Divisions numbered 303 anti @-@ aircraft guns . This force was built around the 102nd FlaK Regiment with its 88 mm , 37 mm , and rapid fire 20 mm weapons . So heavy was the defensive fire that the Allied bombers could not concentrate over the target . Allied bomber pilots called it " hell along the Meuse " . On 14 May , the Allies flew 250 sorties , the French losing 30 ( another source states 21 ) and the RAF losing 20 fighter aircraft . Another 65 were heavily damaged . Out of 109 RAF bombers dispatched , 47 were shot down . This meant 167 aircraft had been lost against one target . Bruno Loerzer called 14 May " the day of the fighter " .
The German Generals , in particular Guderian , were relieved that the Luftwaffe had prevented the Allied bombers from knocking out their supply bridges . By nightfall , at least 600 tanks , including those of the 2nd Panzer Division which had to use the 1st Panzer Division 's bridge at Gaulier ( owing to theirs not having yet been constructed ) , were across the Meuse . The German victory in the air battle had been decisive .
= = French counter @-@ offensive = =
Charles Huntziger , commanding the Second Army was unconcerned by the capture of Sedan , or of the collapse of French defences in the face of air attack . He expected considerable French reserves , particularly X Corps , to stabilise the front . The forces at the French commander 's disposal were formidable . Guderian 's decision to strike north west left the 10th Panzer Division protecting the bridgehead alone . Against this force was the XXI Corps ( 3d Armoured Division , 3d Motorised Infantry Division , 5th Light Cavalry Division , 1st Cavalry Brigade ) under Flavigny . A second group , consisting of the 2d Light Cavalry Division and 3d Tank Division reinforced Flavigny . X Corps , with the 12th and 64th Reconnaissance Battalions , elements of the 71st Infantry Division , 205th Infantry Regiment , the 4th Tank Battalion were also to join the attack . The French had nearly 300 tanks , with 138 main battle tanks consisting of Hotchkiss and Char B1 @-@ Bis .
The French tanks had heavier armour and armament than the Panzers . The Panzer IV had 30 mm of armour , while the Hotchkiss had 45 mm , and the Char B1 had 60 mm of protection . Moreover , its main armament , one 47 mm and one 75 mm gun , outmatched all the German tanks . In an open field engagement , Guderian 's armour stood little chance . Two @-@ thirds of his units were equipped with Panzer I and IIs . Just 30 of the Panzer IVs were on his order of battle . However , one crucial disadvantage of the French tanks , considered as a very broad whole , was their low endurance . They needed refuelling after just two hours . They were also slow in speed , complicating high tempo operations .
= = = Missed chance = = =
During 14 May , General Lafontaine had moved the 55th Infantry Division 's command post from its position on the Marfee heights to Bulson , 10 – 11 kilometres ( 6 – 7 mi ) south of Sedan . The French had prepared , to an extent , for a German breakthrough at Sedan , and accordingly placed X Corps available for a counter @-@ attack . It was to occupy the Bulson position on the Chéhéry – Bulson – Haraucourt axis and strike at the Meuse bridgeheads . The terrain included heavily wooded areas , and the units left behind convinced General Charles Huntziger , commander of the French Second Army , that they would be able to hold Bulson , and the Germans would not be able to exploit their tactical victory at Sedan on 14 May .
The Germans suffered a seven @-@ hour delay in getting their armour across the bridge from 01 : 20 @-@ 07 : 30 , which could have been disastrous for the Panzer divisions . The French had already initiated plans for counter @-@ attacks with armour on the German @-@ held bridgehead during the night but delays in bringing up forces , procrastination ( inclined towards momentary adaptation towards defensive stancing and posturing ) , and hesitation on the part of local overall French command at large , made worse by the resulting confusion from the panic and retreat of the infantry who had also abandoned their positions and artillery as part of the " panic of Bulson " , made an attack possible only in the morning of 14 May . The commander of X Corps ' artillery , Colonel Poncelet , had tried to keep his units where they were , but had reluctantly ordered a retreat . This decision resulted in the Corps artillery battalions abandoning many heavy artillery pieces and caused the collapse of the 55th Infantry Division ( " panic of Bulson " ) and a partial collapse of the 71st Infantry Division . Poncelet killed himself a few days later .
On 13 – 14 May , the Germans were vulnerable . A strong attack at this point by the French armoured units could have prevented Guderian from breaking out of the Meuse bridgeheads and changed the outcome of the campaign . However , the French commanders , already deeply schooled and versed in the rather staunchly defensively @-@ focused broad , generalized doctrine of methodological warfare , were located far to the rear , which meant they lacked a real time and up @-@ to @-@ date picture of the battle . When intelligence did filter through , it was out @-@ of @-@ date . This was to prove fatal , especially coupled with the case of the matter that the French generalship at large was envisioning plus expecting a considerably more prolonged process of initial German assault phase and overall attack effort as a whole .
= = = Race to Bulson = = =
The race to Bulson ridge began at 16 : 00 on 13 May . At 07 : 30 on 14 May , French armour advanced to Bulson ridge with a view to seizing the high ground vacated by the infantry of the 55th Infantry Division on 13 May . But the main , primary objective was to destroy the German bridgeheads . While that may have been possible on 13 May , the odds had shifted against the French .
The X Corps attack involved a strike on the left flank by the 213th Infantry Regiment and 7th Tank Battalion , and on the right flank by the 205th Infantry Regiment and 4th Tank Battalion . The right flanking force arrived late , so the 213th Infantry and the 7th Tank Battalion advanced alone on the north axis . It was thought that the 213th could reach an area in between Chéhéry and Bulson in one hour fifty minutes and the 7th Tank Battalion in two hours . Yet it was not until 17 hours after the original order to advance to Bulson that the lead French tanks reached the Bulson ridge . They found the Germans had beaten them there by a few minutes .
Lafontaine had hesitated over the 24 hours since the afternoon of 13 May . He spent hours reconnoitring the terrain , sometimes trying to contain and reason with fleeing , routing scores of French infantrymen and artillerymen of the 55th and 71st Infantry Divisions , and travelling around the area to various regimental headquarters , looking for his Corps commander , General Gransard ( whom was deliberately reconnoitring the terrain , for some time , at that relative point in time ) , for an order to attack , and , in the meantime , extemporarily assessing and conferring with some local command personnel . Owing to this Lafontaine also delayed issuing orders to the tactical attack units until 05 : 00 on 14 May , by which time the Germans had consolidated their bridgehead and the Panzer divisions ' combined arms infantry teams were already advancing inland to Bulson . Lafontaine had had a mission plan since 20 : 00 on 13 May to defeat the Germans and retake the Meuse bridgeheads , but he waited for an order to proceed . Lafontaine 's need for an order was contrary to the unit actions of the Germans , who operated the tactically more efficient Auftragstaktik ( Mission Command ) system . Ultimately , Lafontaine had squandered valuable hours essential for a prompt , perhaps opportune and timely , perhaps potentially decisive counter @-@ attack effort .
The French had an opportunity to throw the Germans back into the Meuse but they missed their chance owing to poor staff @-@ work . The 1st Panzer Division had struggled to advance as quickly as it would have liked , and was jammed on the roads leading out of Gaulier and Sedan . Moreover , the German soldiers were exhausted after a five @-@ day advance . A quick counter thrust by just two infantry regiments and two tank battalions would have " plunged the Germans into crisis " . Even a failed attack , and the holding of Bulson , would have allowed it to be used by formations of the Second French Army and the tank units , including the French 3rd Armoured Division , of General Jean Adolphe Louis Robert Flavigny 's powerful French XXI Corps which were moving up from the Maginot line area in the south .
That said , however , additionally , the French lacked neither relatively mobile tanks nor relatively offensively @-@ intended tanks , in the local area of battle just as well so , for the most part , as in the whole broad Western European theatre of war and campaign of military operations of the time . French military doctrine dictated that the tanks , mostly FCM 36s , predominantly and primarily designed and intended as basically defensive @-@ oriented infantry @-@ support units , were to advance with the infantry . The speed of the FCM 36 was not designed to go any faster for this reason , so its top speed was only 24 km / h ( 15 mph ) . It took from 07 : 30 to 08 : 45 on 14 May for the French armour to traverse the last 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) to the ridge . Lead elements of the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions had reached the ridge just minutes before , having travelled 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) in less time . But the initial clash was not in the Germans ' favour . Instead of making sure the medium Panzer III and Panzer IV tanks had priority in crossing the Meuse , the Germans had sent few across , and the van of the advance contained mostly lightly armed and lightly armoured although faster Panzer Is and Panzer IIs .
= = = Battle of Bulson = = =
The initial encounters took place as the Battle of Hannut was being fought in Belgium . The results were much the same . On the southern face of Bulson , General Friedrich Kirchner , commander of the 1st Panzer Division , suffered several tactical reverses and saw the 37mm shells from his 3 @.@ 7 cm PaK 36 anti @-@ tank guns and Panzer IIIs bounce off the more heavily armoured French tanks . A number of the German tanks were knocked out in rapid succession . The Germans had to hold the French at the ridge . Kirchner was forced to send in his tanks in dribs and drabs , tactics which Guderian hated , but which he himself decided there was no other recourse . It was once again the German tanks ' radio equipment that enabled them to move around quickly and communicate with one another , to change the point of defence or attack quickly . The speed of the German tanks also enabled them to offset their inferiority in combat power to the French tanks . Often. the Panzer III and IVs could speed into the rear of French formations , closing quickly and knocking out the French armour from the rear . The Germans noted the particular weakness between the chassis and turret of the French tanks , which were vulnerable to their fire .
The French artillery concealed in wooded areas proved more potent than the tanks . The German 1st Panzer Company was wiped out by French artillery , and pulled back with just one battle worthy tank . The Company retreated under the cover of part of the ridge , and moved its single tank back and forth , simulating the presence of many German tanks . Diverted from their success at Gaulier , near Sedan , the 2nd Panzer Company was rushed to the spot and managed to delay the French armoured advance . The Großdeutschland Infantry Regiment 's late arrival tilted the scales . They managed to eliminate the anti @-@ tank lines and entrenched French infantry .
On the left side of the Bulson ridge , the Germans encountered 13 French tanks with support from infantry near Chéhéry . The Germans ' advance intended to strike at Connage to the south of the town of Chéhéry , to outflank the French . Kirchner reacted quickly , ordering two anti @-@ tank platoons to be set up at Connage . The 37 mm guns struggled to halt the French armour which then outflanked the position at Connage by moving to the west while the infantry advanced from the south east on the German right flank . Fortunately the 43rd Assault Engineer Battalion and the 8th Company , 2nd Battalion , 2nd Panzer Regiment arrived and pushed the French back to the town of Chémery @-@ sur @-@ Bar , some 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) south west of Bulson , and due south of Connage .
At 10 : 45 , Lafontaine ordered a retreat and Guderian finally got heavy artillery from the Großdeutschland Infantry Regiment . The 88 mm dual role artillery guns and the heavier Panzer III and IVs reached the area of the battle . By this time , the French 7th Tank Battalion had been wiped out and the 213th Infantry Regiment had been devastated . Only 10 French tanks , out of 40 , remained . In the two pitched battles the 7th Tank Battalion fought that day they lost 10 from 13 . Delays on the right flank meant the 205th Infantry Regiment and 4th Tank Battalion did not reach their starting line until 10 : 45 , by which time the battle on the left wing had been lost and further attacks on the right would have made little sense . The 1st Panzer Division 's victory parade was held in Chemery at 12 : 00 , but it was cut short when the Luftwaffe bombed the square by mistake inflicting a few casualties .
= = = Battle of Stonne = = =
The German High Command did not want to exploit the victory at Sedan and Bulson until the German infantry divisions had caught up with the three Panzer divisions . To Guderian , this was madness and would throw away the victory at Sedan and allow the enemy time to recover and reorganise his still formidable armoured units . Guderian decided to push for the Channel , even if it meant ignoring the High Command and Hitler himself . Guderian ordered the 10th Panzer Division and Großdeutschland Infantry Regiment to hold the Sedan bridgehead , while the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions struck north west , towards the Channel . Now that they were pushing largely at an ' open door ' , the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions advanced into the undefended French rear with speed .
The Sedan bridgeheads were still not safe . French forces were massing to the south . Guderian decided it was better to mount an aggressive defence given the lack of any suitable anti @-@ tank weapons for a defensive battle . The better option would be to attack rather than defend . The advance of the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions had assisted his progress . They ran into and defeated elements of X Corps near Chemery . The French Corps was heading towards Sedan , but withdrew southward after the engagement . Any potential threat on the German western flank had been removed .
Part of Guderian 's original plan had called for a feint south towards and behind the Maginot Line , to mask the intention to thrust to the channel . General Franz Halder had dropped this from Fall Gelb , but Guderian resurrected it and ordered the 10th Panzer Division and Großdeutschland Infantry Regiment to attack across the Stonne plateau . In this innocuous town , a vicious two @-@ day battle took place in which the Germans came face to face with the premier French tank , the Char B1 @-@ Bis , for the only time . One of these tanks , commanded by Pierre Billotte , proved invulnerable to German anti @-@ tank fire and took 140 hits , and knocked out 13 German tanks ( two PzKpfw IV and eleven PzKpfw III ) and a number of anti @-@ tank guns . It transpired that the French had concentrated their own armour there to mount another attack on the Sedan bridgeheads . The battle of Stonne took place between 15 and 17 May , and the town changed hands 17 times . Ultimately the failure of the French to hold it meant the final failure to eliminate the Sedan bridgeheads .
The French offensive at Stonne was of vital importance . The town remained a base situated on high ground overlooking Sedan . The French could use it as a base from which to launch long @-@ term attacks on Sedan . On 15 May , the battle began . The French committed the 3d Company , 49th Tank Battalion ; 1st Company , 45th Tank Battalion ; and the 2d Company , 4th Tank Battalion ; the 1st Battalion , 67th Infantry Regiment ; and the 1st Company , 51st Infantry Regiment . The French infantry were slow in their advance , which meant the armour outran them . Alone , the tanks tried to attack and failed . At this time , Stonne was held only by the 1st Battalion Großdeutschland supported by only nine of the Regiments 12 anti @-@ tank artillery guns . As the French pressed forward , the weak German defence struggled to hold its ground . However , when one German platoon managed to knock out three French Char B1s the French tank crews panicked , and drove away to the south . It was a psychological victory for the Germans which encouraged their continued defence of the position . In the next attacks , they held their positions and fought . The town would fall to each side over the next 48 hours , as offensive followed counter @-@ attack . The 10th Panzer sent its 1st Battalion , 69th Infantry Regiment to support the hard @-@ pressed Großdeutschland . The Germans retook the town at 17 : 00 on 17 May , for the fourth time in nine hours .
The Germans reinforced their defences on the night of 16 May with the VI Corps , consisting of the 16th Division under Heinrich Krampf , and 24th Infantry Division . It was a timely deployment . By this time the Großdeutschland had lost 570 men and were in need of rest and the Panzerjägerkompanie 14 ( 14th Panzer Anti @-@ tank Company ) had lost six of its 12 guns . It had also lost 12 dead and 65 wounded . Stonne was destroyed . Around 33 French tanks and 24 German Panzers were knocked out . With the IV Corps now supporting the German defence and counter @-@ attacks , the town was captured for the 17th and final time at 17 : 45 on 17 May .
= = Aftermath = =
The French defeat at Sedan left the Allied Army Groups in Belgium with sparse flank protection . The German attack , especially the breakout from the bridgeheads at Sedan , was so fast that there were hardly any major combats . Many French soldiers were in such shock that they were taken prisoner before they could offer resistance , which also explains the low casualty rates for both sides . The two assault engineer battalions under Korthals achieved the most important success . By eliminating the bunkers in the Bellevue sector , they made the breakthroughs of the 1st and 2nd Panzer Divisions possible . This was achieved without a single casualty .
There is consensus among military historians the Battle at Sedan sealed the fate of Belgium and France . On 14 May , the Allied forces had been wrongfooted and through the failures in deployment had effectively lost the campaign . The advance to the Channel would trap 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 soldiers and expel the Allies from Western Europe .
Unfortunately for the Germans , the bulk of the British Army escaped from the port of Dunkirk . The German Army eventually won the ensuing Battle of Dunkirk , forcing the Allied Armies to leave behind large amounts of equipment , but failed , through controversial circumstances , to eliminate the British manpower trapped in the pocket . The encirclement destroyed the best units of the French Army , including a prisoner of war total of 40 @,@ 000 , but significant forces did escape ( 139 @,@ 732 British and 139 @,@ 037 French ) . Some French forces would return to France and participate in the battles of June 1940 , surrendering along with the rest of the French armed forces on 25 June 1940 .
= Robert Jefferson Breckinridge =
Robert Jefferson Breckinridge ( March 8 , 1800 – December 27 , 1871 ) was a politician and Presbyterian minister . He was a member of the Breckinridge family of Kentucky , the son of Senator John Breckinridge .
A restless youth , Breckinridge was suspended from Princeton University for fighting , and following his graduation from Union College in 1819 , was prone to engage in a lifestyle of partying and revelry . But , he was admitted to the bar in 1824 and elected to the Kentucky General Assembly in 1825 . A serious illness and the death of a child in 1829 prompted him to turn to religion , and he became an ordained minister in 1832 .
That year Breckinridge accepted the call to pastor the Second [ a ] Presbyterian Church of Baltimore , Maryland . While at the church , he became involved in a number of theological debates . During the Old School @-@ New School Controversy within the Presbyterian Church in the 1830s , Breckinridge became a hard @-@ line member of the Old School faction , and played an influential role in the ejection of several churches in 1837 . He was rewarded for his stances by being elected moderator of the Presbyterian Church 's General Assembly in 1841 .
After a brief stint as president of Jefferson College in Pennsylvania , Breckinridge returned to Kentucky , where he pastored the First Presbyterian church of Lexington , Kentucky , and was appointed superintendent of public education by Governor William Owsley . The changes he effected in this office brought a tenfold increase in public school attendance and led to him being called the father of the public school system in Kentucky . He left his post as superintendent after six years to become a professor at Danville Theological Seminary in Danville , Kentucky .
As the sectional conflict leading up to the Civil War escalated , Breckinridge was put in the unusual position of being a slaveholder who opposed slavery . His support of Abraham Lincoln for president in the election of 1860 put him at odds with his nephew , John C. Breckinridge . The tragic scenario of brother against brother literally played out in Breckinridge 's family , with two of his sons joining each side during the war . Following the war , Breckinridge retired to his home in Danville , where he died on December 27 , 1871 .
= = Early life = =
Robert Breckinridge was born March 8 , 1800 at Cabell 's Dale near Lexington , Kentucky . He was the third son born to Senator John and Mary Hopkins ( Cabell ) Breckinridge . Senator Breckinridge died in 1806 , leaving his wife to tend the family 's large plantations . Robert soon earned a reputation of misbehaving . In one instance , he and his brother John had a physical altercation because Robert put salt in a blind cousin 's coffee ; in another , his mother gave him a " tremendous whipping " for beating an old slave .
Breckinridge studied education at a classical school operated by Dr. Louis Marshall , the brother of Chief Justice John Marshall , then followed his brothers , Cabell and John , to Princeton in 1817 . His behavior problems continued there ; in one year , he spent more than $ 1200 . He was suspended for fighting , and although he was later reinstated , the incident soured him on Princeton , and he was granted an honorable release . ( The school later awarded him an honorary Master of Arts degree in 1832 . ) Breckinridge enrolled at Yale University , but after three months , discovered that a one @-@ year residency was required for graduation . Unwilling to complete this requirement , he moved to Union College in Schenectady , New York , where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1819 .
Following his graduation , Breckinridge returned to Kentucky with no clear direction in his life . He began to amuse himself by attending various parties and other social engagements . During a visit to the state capital , he so offended one man that he was challenged to a duel . Though he obtained two pistols , he never accepted the man 's challenge , and was branded a coward . The dispute was later settled in the Masonic Lodge of which both Breckinridge and the other man were members .
On March 11 , 1823 , Breckinridge married his cousin , Ann Sophonisba Preston at the bride 's home in Abingdon , Virginia ; the couple had eleven children . Ann 's political heritage rivaled that of her husband . A grandniece of Patrick Henry , she was also a sister to Senator William Campbell Preston and a sister @-@ in @-@ law to South Carolina governor Wade Hampton III , and Virginia governors John B. Floyd and James McDowell .
= = Service in the Kentucky General Assembly = =
Following the advice of his older brother , Breckinridge obtained his law license on January 3 , 1824 , but the practice of law did not suit him . He instead decided to follow the family tradition and seek public office , campaigning for a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives . Even in his early political career , he began to articulate his stance on the issues that would become his legacy .
First , he shunned the states ' rights viewpoint , stressing instead the need for a strong interdependence between the states . Second , he called for an end to slavery . Third , he emphasized the importance of education . Though they agreed on this last point , Breckinridge 's father had ardently opposed emancipation of slaves and favored states ' rights . Historian James C. Klotter opines that Louis Marshall and Robert 's mother Mary may have influenced his positions .
The most politically charged issue in Kentucky during Breckinridge 's campaign , however , was the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . The Panic of 1819 had left many Kentuckians in dire financial straits . Legislators sought to relieve some of the financial burden by passing a law of replevin which favored debtors . The Kentucky Court of Appeals , ( the highest court in the Commonwealth at the time , ) declared the law unconstitutional . The next year , an incensed General Assembly passed legislation that dissolved the court and replaced it with a new court . Neither court acknowledged the other as valid , and a confused public lost respect for public authority in general . The issue was generally split along party lines , with Democrats generally favoring the New Court and Whigs favoring the Old Court .
Breckinridge dodged the issue during the campaign , which he won in 1825 , but once he took office , he had to come down on one side or the other . He voted in favor of the Old Court , reflecting his upper @-@ class status and affinity for the establishment . In so doing , he identified himself with the party of Kentucky 's favorite son , Henry Clay . The Whigs would control Kentucky politics for the next twenty @-@ five years . In 1826 , the majority of the General Assembly sided with the Old Court and abolished the New Court .
Eventually , tensions faded , but a bigger decision awaited Robert Breckinridge in 1828 . He was chosen to sit on a committee that would draft Kentucky 's response to the Nullification Crisis . Because much of South Carolina 's reasoning for their actions was based on the logic of the Kentucky Resolutions , which had been supported by Senator John Breckinridge , Robert Breckinridge now had to determine whether he should support the words of his late father or refute them . In the end , his Unionist sympathies overrode his sense of loyalty to his father ; he sided with the committee 's majority in condemning South Carolina 's actions .
= = Religious conversion and ministry = =
Throughout his time in the General Assembly , Breckinridge had battled with typhoid fever . In an 1828 letter to his wife , who was visiting relatives in Virginia , he recounted that he had been bedridden and near death for two months . Finally , in February 1829 , the illness subsided . Only then could he be told about the death of his daughter , Louisiana , which had occurred a month earlier . The illness , combined with the news of the death of his daughter , caused Breckinridge to turn to religion .
In spring 1829 , he made a public profession of his faith . In 1831 , he hosted a revival meeting on his farm during which he decided to pursue ministerial training under the West Lexington Presbytery . He was ordained as a Presbyterian minister on April 5 , 1832 .
Breckinridge served as a Ruling Elder at the Presbyterian General Assembly of 1832 , then relocated to Princeton , New Jersey , to study under Samuel Miller at Princeton Theological Seminary . In November 1832 , he succeeded his brother John as pastor of Second [ a ] Presbyterian Church of Baltimore , Maryland . His tenure saw numerous converts , but he was put at odds with his brother and Samuel Miller over practices employed in his church . His counselors were also concerned that he was wavering on his belief in the doctrine of limited atonement . Eventually , he was persuaded back into the doctrines of the orthodox Calvinism and became one of the leaders of the Old School Presbyterian movement .
Now solidly in the Presbyterian fold , Breckinridge began to follow in the footsteps of his brother John , criticizing Roman Catholicism in a number of his speeches and publications . There were many Catholics in Baltimore . He sponsored and edited two " thoroughly Protestant " journals – the Baltimore Literary and Religious magazine and the Spirit of the XIX Century . A year @-@ long tour of Europe with his wife that began in April 1836 deepened his disdain for the denomination ; he opined that most of the continent 's ills could be traced back to Catholic " superstitions . " A particularly harsh missive against a Catholic who worked in the county almshouse drew an indictment for libel in 1840 . The trial ended in a hung jury that voted 10 – 2 in favor of acquittal . Though displeased that he could not obtain a unanimous acquittal , Breckinridge continued undaunted . In 1841 , he published several of his anti @-@ Catholic articles as Papism in the XIX Century in the United States .
Breckinridge was equally controversial in internal church politics . He rebuked the Synod of the Western Reserve for de @-@ emphasizing and effectively abandoning the office of Ruling Elder . He also condemned the governance of Presbyterian missionaries by anyone other than the Presbyterian church . In 1834 , he was the chief author of the Act and Testimony , a document summarizing the contentions between the Old and New Schools . The New School resented Breckinridge and those who signed the Act and Testimony , and even some in the Old School camp had hoped for a more moderate course . The differences between the Old and New Schools widened over the teachings of Albert Barnes , and the New School members were ejected from the Presbyterian Church in 1837 . Because of his leadership in the Old School @-@ New School controversy , Breckinridge was elected moderator of the Old School branch 's General Assembly in 1841 .
= = President of Jefferson College = =
In 1844 , Breckinridge 's wife Ann died . Lingering sadness and memories of his and Ann 's life in Baltimore may have led him to leave the city and the pastorate he had held for twelve years . He was offered pastorate of the Second Presbyterian Church of Lexington , Kentucky , but instead , accepted the presidency of Jefferson College in Pennsylvania in 1845 against the advice of his brothers John and William . A rift between Breckinridge and his brother Cabell 's widow and other relatives may help account for this surprising decision . He did not feel he could yet return to his home state .
Breckinridge was inaugurated as president of Jefferson College on September 27 , 1845 . During his tenure , he also pastored a church in the city of Canonsburg , Pennsylvania . College administration apparently did not suit him , however . A student uprising against the president and the faculty occurred in 1846 , hastening the end of his short stay at the school . A desire to see his children , most of whom were living with relatives scattered throughout Kentucky and Virginia , also factored into his decision to resign his post in 1847 . On his resignation , he was awarded an honorary LL.D from the school .
= = Father of Kentucky 's public school system = =
Breckinridge returned to Kentucky , accepting the pastorate of First Presbyterian Church of Lexington . His return to Kentucky was also motivated by a growing fondness for his cousin , Virginia Hart Shelby , who had cared for two of his children during his stay in Pennsylvania . Virginia was the widow of Alfred Shelby , the son of Isaac Shelby , who was twice governor of Kentucky . Their written exchanges included love poems from Robert and concerned questions from Virginia about the wisdom of engaging in a relationship . Despite being advised by her sisters to avoid the marriage and her own wavering on the issue , the two were married in April 1847 . They had three children , only one of whom survived to adulthood . Disagreements among the children of both partners ' previous marriages exacerbated an already tense union , which almost ended in divorce in September 1856 . Robert managed to reconcile with his wife , and they remained together until Virginia 's death in 1859 .
Breckinridge 's personal turmoil did not hinder his political accomplishments . He was appointed superintendent of public education by Governor William Owsley . He was the sixth person to hold the office since its creation in the 1830s . The task was daunting . Only one of every ten school @-@ age children in Kentucky ever attended school , and at least thirty Kentucky counties had received no state educational funds since 1840 .
Breckinridge began reforms immediately and zealously . He secured the General Assembly 's passage of a two @-@ cent property tax for education . The tax was subject to voter approval , and Breckinridge worked hard to publicize the issue . His efforts paid off , as the tax passed by almost a two @-@ to @-@ one margin . Continuing to publicize needs and push legislators to action , Breckinridge enjoyed the support of five of the six governors under whom he served . Only John L. Helm , who opposed a state @-@ funded school system , challenged him , but Helm 's veto of a Breckinridge educational bill was overridden in the General Assembly . Breckinridge 's reforms manifested tangible results . From 1847 to 1850 , educational spending increased from $ 6 @,@ 000 to $ 144 @,@ 000 . By 1850 , only one out of every ten school age children did not attend school .
In 1850 , Kentuckians ratified their third constitution . One of many changes effected by this document was that the office of superintendent became elective . Though the election belonged to the Democrats , Breckinridge , a Whig , was elected over five challengers for the office . His tenure would be a short one , however . Unlike his early reforms , his calls for parental selection of textbooks and use of the Bible as the primary reading material were not heeded . He also opposed the abolition of tuition charges and unsuccessfully lobbied for a pay increase for his position . ( The salary was only $ 750 . ) With little prospect of further reform under his leadership , Breckinridge resigned in 1853 .
Following his resignation , Breckinridge shifted his party affiliation from Whig to Know @-@ Nothing to Republican . In 1853 , he helped found Danville Theological Seminary in Danville , Kentucky , becoming a Professor of Exegetic , Didactic and Polemic Theology .
= = Civil War and later life = =
Although he owned a number of slaves , and his marriage to Virginia Shelby had left him with a good many more , Breckinridge had been a supporter of gradual emancipation and colonization of blacks since his early political career . As the sectional crisis worsened , this led him into several high @-@ profile debates , notably with fellow Kentuckian Robert Wickliffe , the uncle of Robert C. Wickliffe . His support of Abraham Lincoln for president in the election of 1860 pitted him against his own nephew , Vice President John C. Breckinridge .
At the outbreak of the Civil War , Breckinridge quickly became an ardent supporter of the Union , not for its position against slavery , but for the sake of preserving the Union . He used his position as editor of the Danville Quarterly Review to advocate his position . He called for harsh measures against secession , and in time , accepted President Lincoln 's immediate emancipation of slaves . He was chosen as the temporary chair of the 1864 Republican National Convention that re @-@ nominated Lincoln for president , and his pro @-@ Union speech was hailed by freshman Representative James G. Blaine as one of the most inspiring given at the event .
Breckinridge 's family split on the issue , with two of his sons – Joseph and Charles – fighting for the Union cause , and two – Willie and Robert Jr . – fighting for the Confederacy . While three of his sons @-@ in @-@ law also fought for the Union , daughter Sophonisba 's husband , Theophilus Steele , rode with John Hunt Morgan , and it is likely that Robert Breckinridge 's intervention kept him from being executed by Edwin M. Stanton . Following the war , Willie Breckinridge 's wife Issa refused to let her father @-@ in @-@ law see two of his grandchildren for a period of two years .
On November 5 , 1868 , Breckinridge married his third wife , Margaret Faulkner White . A year later , he resigned his professorship at Danville Seminary . He died on December 27 , 1871 after an extensive illness , and was buried in Lexington Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
In 1892 , Breckinridge Hall ( named for Breckinridge ) was built as a dormitory for students of the Danville Theological Seminary . It is now a residence hall for upper @-@ class students at Centre College in Danville - Breckinridge 's nephew John C. Breckinridge 's alma mater . Breckinridge Hall was renovated in 1999 , and is on the National Register of Historic Places .
Breckinridge Hall , a three @-@ story building on Morehead State University 's campus , is named for Robert J. Breckinridge .
= = Selected works of Robert Breckinridge = =
The Knowledge of God , Objectively Considered : Being the First Part of Theology Considered as a Science of Positive Truth , Both Inductive and Deductive
The Knowledge of God , Subjectively Considered : Being the Second Part of Theology Considered as a Science of Positive Truth , Both Inductive and Deductive
Our country – its peril and its deliverance .
Breckinridge 's protest against the use of instrumental music in worship
Presbyterian Government not a Hierarchy , but a Commonwealth
Presbyterian Ordination not a Charm , but an Act of Government
Some Thoughts on the Development of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A.
The Christian Pastor , One of Christ 's Ascension Gifts
Letter of Robert J. Breckinridge to the Second Presbyterian Church of Baltimore
Robert J. Breckinridge 's speech at the laying of the cornerstone of the Clay Monument
The Calling of the Church of Christ : A Discourse to Illustrate the Posture and Duty of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America
= Rideau Cottage =
Rideau Cottage is a historic , residential building located on the grounds of Rideau Hall in Ottawa , Ontario . The two @-@ level , 22 @-@ room Georgian Revival home is owned by the Canadian Crown and has traditionally been inhabited by persons associated with the Governor General of Canada , including the viceroy 's private secretary . It is occupied by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and his family as of 2016 .
= = History = =
Construction on the building , which was based on a design by architect F.P. Rubidge , began in 1866 and concluded in 1867 . Though intended in the early days to serve as the residence of the governor general 's secretary , the cottage was later designated for use by the government as an official guest house for visiting dignitaries .
On his arrival in Canada in 1883 , incoming governor general the Marquess of Lansdowne resided at Rideau Cottage while waiting for Rideau Hall to be vacated by the outgoing Governor General , the Marquess of Lorne . Other residents included Lionel and Lilias Massey during Vincent Massey 's time as governor general ; Georges Vanier , as Aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Governor General the Viscount Byng of Vimy , and Barbara Uteck , private secretary to the governor general from 2000 to 2006 , and her husband , Graham Fraser . Uteck 's successor , Stephen Wallace , resided in Rideau Cottage until the weekend of 24 – 25 October 2015 , when he vacated the premises to allow then prime minister @-@ designate Justin Trudeau and his family to live in the house while the traditional official residence of the Prime Minister of Canada , 24 Sussex Drive , was undergoing assessment for repairs and restoration .
Rideau Cottage was recognized as a Recognized Federal Heritage Building on 3 October 1986 .
= = Design = =
Rideau Cottage is a two @-@ level , 22 @-@ room Georgian Revival building . Originally , the structure had 14 rooms on a single floor . An 1872 remodel , using a different brick , added both the second level and a verandah on three sides of the ground floor . During that remodel , the exterior brick of the first floor was covered in stucco painted to appear like brick . ( When the verandah was removed some time later , the stucco remained . ) Between 1999 and 2000 , the building underwent major renovations to the basement , roof and interior finishes , and the mechanical and electrical systems were upgraded . Outside , the stucco was removed and each brick and joint was individually dyed to give a uniform appearance . It was again renovated in 2013 .
Rideau Cottage is characterized and distinguished by its symmetry , simple lines , classically inspired central entrance with pedimented porch , sash windows flanked by decorative shutters , and paired chimneys .
= Tōshirō Hitsugaya =
Tōshirō Hitsugaya ( Japanese : 日番谷 冬獅郎 , Hepburn : Hitsugaya Tōshirō ) is a fictional character in the manga and anime series Bleach , created by Tite Kubo . In the series , Hitsugaya is a captain of the Gotei 13 , a group of Soul Reapers who govern the flow of souls and protect Soul Society , an afterlife realm . Hitsugaya makes appearances in all Bleach 's films , being the protagonist in The Diamond Dust Rebellion , as well as and in other media related to the franchise , including video games and original video animations .
Hitsugaya 's character has been well received among both readers and reviewers , becoming the series breakout character . Amongst the Bleach reader base , he has been highly popular , placing high in several popularity polls . Several pieces of merchandise have been released in Hitsugaya 's likeness , including action figures , plush toys and key chains . Anime and manga publications have provided acclaim and criticism of Hitsugaya 's character .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In the Bleach manga and anime series = = =
Hitsugaya lived with his grandmother and with Momo Hinamori , whom he considers a very close friend . Hitsugaya excelled in the Soul Reaper academy , becoming the youngest captain in the history of Soul Society with command over Squad 10 . Introduced to the Gotei 13 , Hitsugaya suspected Squad 3 captain Gin Ichimaru of foul play as the circumstances surrounding the coming execution of Rukia Kuchiki become more complicated . When Hinamori is manipulated into thinking that Hitsugaya killed Sōsuke Aizen , Hitsugaya attacks Gin on the notion that he tricked her . The fight is interrupted when Hitsugaya dodges an attack that almost kills Hinamori , only to be intercepted by his lieutenant Rangiku Matsumoto . Seeing how destructive Rukia 's execution is becoming , Hitsugaya tries to stop it by appealing to the Chamber 46 , only to discover all members were murdered by Aizen , who faked his death . When Hitsugaya discovers Hinamori injured , Hitsugaya tries to kill Aizen but is defeated .
In a later arc , Hitsugaya leads a group of Soul Reapers assigned to defend Karakura Town against the Arrancar that Aizen has enlisted to his cause . He defeats Shawlong Qufang , and Luppi Antenor , and upon learning that Orihime Inoue has followed the Arrancars back to their home world , Hitsugaya returns to Soul Society to help in the preparation for the war against Aizen . At Karakura Town , he engages the Espada Tier Halibel before she is mortally wounded by Aizen . From there , Hitsugaya engages Aizen , and is tricked into stabs Momo in the chest with Aizen taking advantage of the youth 's rage of being tricked to cut his left limbs off . After Aizen 's defeat and healed , Hitsugaya resolves to train so that he can more freely use his bankai to protect Hinamori .
When Kugo Ginjo steals Ichigo Kurosaki 's Fullbring powers , Hitsugaya and several other high @-@ ranking Soul Reapers appear in the human world . To help Ichigo regain his Soul Reaper powers and combat Kugo , captain @-@ commander Genryūsai Shigekuni Yamamoto orders the Soul Reapers to give Ichigo some of their spirit energy . Hitsugaya then engages the Fullbringer Yukio Hans Vorarlbena in a cat @-@ and @-@ mouse game , ending with Hitsugaya encasing Yukio in ice , threatening to end his life if he does not release his Fullbring . During the Wandenreich invasion of Soul Society , Hitsugaya loses his bankai to the organization 's member Cang Du . But with the help of Kisuke Urahara , Hitsugaya retrieves his bankai from Cang Du and defeat him . However , the battle took its toll on Hitsugaya as he ends up a zombie under the Sternritter Giselle Gewelle . Hitsugaya appears along with a zomified Rangiku as they , Kensei , and Rose fight Mayuri Kurotsuchi 's group of revived Arrancars and Squad 11 's Ikkaku and Yumichika . Eventually , Mayuri manages to take control of the zombified Soul Reapers with Hitsugaya and Rangiku restored to normal and healed , although their lifespans were shortened . Hitsugaya later joins Byakuya and other soul reapers against the sternritter , Gerard . During this battle , the ice petals of Hitsugaya 's bankai dissolve . But instead of his bankai deactivating , revealing that the time limit was a sign that it was fully developed prior to the fight , Daiguren Hyōrinmaru 's power reaches its full potential while Hitsugaya is transformed into a young adult to better utilize his improved weapon .
= = = In other media = = =
He appears in all of the four featured films in the series . He fights the Dark Ones with other Soul Reaper comrades in Bleach : Memories of Nobody . He is the main character in Bleach : The DiamondDust Rebellion , where he is accused of stealing the King 's Seal , an ancient artifact , and stumbles across a dark secret concerning a long @-@ dead Soul Reaper named Sōjirō Kusaka , who was his close friend and rival when he was younger . A one @-@ shot manga chapter focusing on Histugaya 's past was released to promote the film , revealing how Hitsugaya learned of his powers . Apparently , Kusaka uses the King 's Seal to come back to life for revenge , but in the end is killed by Hitsugaya in a final rematch . He also appears in Bleach : Fade to Black , in which he loses his memories of Ichigo and Rukia , along with the other Soul Reapers . In Hell Verse , after losing his memories about Rukia 's disappearance and Ichigo , Hitsugaya along with other captains try to stop Ichigo from entering the Soul Society .
Hitsugaya is featured in the 30 minute original video animation , Sealed Sword Frenzy , in which he is part of the group of captains sent to the real world to seal away the escaped and notoriously dangerous shinigami criminal , Baishin . During their first encounter , he successfully fends off the criminal , though Baishin escapes . Hitsugaya is a common playable character in Bleach @-@ related video game , including the Blade Battlers series and the Nintendo home consoles series . Special versions of the character such his bankai form is featured in some games such Soul Resurrección , and Hitsugaya in a school costume are unlockable in other games such as Bleach : Shattered Blade . He is also a playable character in the Nintendo DS game , Jump Ultimate Stars . He also appears in two Bleach Beat Collection albums aside . The first one was a compilation album with Hinamori and Matsumoto . The second one was also a compilation album , this time with Ichigo . A Hitsugaya and Hyōrinmaru 's album was also released as part of Bleach Breathless Collection . He was initially portrayed by Takashi Nagayama in the Bleach rock musicals . Later , in Shinsei Rock Musical Bleach Reprise , Nagayama was replaced by Yūya Kido , who also was substituted ; Takuya Kawaharada took the role .
= = Reception = =
Hitsugaya has been highly popular in the Weekly Shōnen Jump 's Bleach popularity polls ranking most of the times within the top ten . In early 2008 , Hitsugaya was voted the most popular character in the series , replacing Ichigo , who had previously held the position . Hyōrinmaru was voted the most popular zanpakutō in the zanpakutō popularity poll of the series . In the 2007 Japanese Newtype magazine character polls , he was voted the 9th most popular male character in any anime . In the 28th Annual Animage Readers ' Poll , Anime Grand Prix , Hitsugaya was voted as the eighth most popular male anime character . He has also been featured in similar Animage monthly polls . Hitsugaya ranked eighth in 2008 and third in 2009 in a survey titled " The Character I Want to Be My Groom " from the Japanese music distributor Recochoku . In order to promote the second film of Bleach , the trailer had the line " Execute Hitsugaya ! " . Kubo admitted that it was his own idea to make everybody be surprised , but he and Masakazu Morita , the voice actor of Ichigo , received a lot of letters from worried fans , causing Kubo to apologize in response . Various merchandise based on Hitsugaya 's appearance has been created , including action figures , plush toys and key chains .
Various publications from manga , anime and other media have commented on Hitsugaya 's character adding praise and criticism . He has been noted to be one of the most common " fan favorite " characters from the series . Carl Kimlinger from Anime News Network praised Steve Staley for giving an interesting variation of his voice rather than " integrity @-@ destroying abominations " . Also , he commented that Hitsugaya 's unresolved personal issue is , along with the ones from others characters , a good part from the climax of the Soul Society story arc . He additionally praised the animation of Hitsugaya 's bankai in the anime . Later , however , Kimlinger criticized it as " it makes him look like an arthritic blue crow " . IGN 's Ramsey Isler lamented the fact that his first fight against an Arrancar was not very entertaining and his character did not " get a chance to shine . " Hitsugaya 's early appearances were criticized by Isaac Hale from Pop Culture Shock who found Kubo was ignoring other characters and giving a lot of attention to him and Matsumoto 's gags . However , in a later arc , Chris Beveridge of Mania Entertainment noted he " has a pretty good arc " and " shine [ s ] brightly " facing Aizen . His appearance in DiamondDust Rebellion were praised by Active Anime 's Holly Ellingwood who found his motivations and back story " involving and intriguing " . Similarly , Chris Beveridge from Mania Entertainment praised " how he stands as a man " on this film .
= Sunny Lee =
Sunny Lee is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours , played by Hany Lee . She made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 8 April 2009 . Sunny was created by executive producer Susan Bower in response to criticism that Neighbours was " too white " . Lee came to the attention of Neighbours producers after she entered a competition run by Dolly Magazine to win a three @-@ month contract with the show . Despite not winning , she was cast as Sunny soon afterwards . In August 2009 , it was announced that Lee and Sunny would be departing Neighbours and Sunny made her final appearance on 19 November 2009 .
Sunny was an exchange student from South Korea who is taken in by Karl ( Alan Fletcher ) and Susan Kennedy ( Jackie Woodburne ) . Sunny was described as having " typical teenage insecurities " , which made her appear abrasive , unfriendly and " snobby " . Her storylines focused on her starting a relationship with Zeke Kinski ( Matthew Werkmeister ) , having her first kiss stolen by Donna Freedman ( Margot Robbie ) and being the subject of a crush by Robin Hester ( Benjamin Jay ) . During her time on Neighbours , Sunny was poorly received by television critics .
= = Creation and casting = =
In July 2008 , Neighbours was branded " too white " by black and Asian viewers in Britain . A report found that many ethnic viewers felt they were under @-@ represented in some of Britain 's most popular television shows . In Australia there was talk of a ' White Australia policy ' when it came to casting actors for top @-@ rated soaps . In response to the criticism , executive producer Susan Bower made the decision to add more ethnically diverse extras , small walk on roles and speaking parts . She also decided to introduce 15 @-@ year @-@ old Korean actor Hany Lee into the cast as exchange student , Sunny Lee . Bower said " I know we 're going to get flak about this gorgeous little Korean girl who 's going to be coming in next year , because you 're damned if you do and damned if you don 't " .
Hany Lee was chosen to play the role of Sunny after she was spotted at Dolly Magazine 's " Neighbours ' Next Big Stars " contest . Lee made it to the final ten , but ultimately lost out on the six @-@ week contract to Mauricio Merino , Jr . ( Simon Freedman ) and Chelsea Jones ( Tegan Freedman ) . A few months later , Lee was cast as regular character Sunny after producers saw her audition tape for the competition .
In August 2009 , it was announced that Lee was to leave the show . Producers confirmed that Lee would film her last scenes the following month and they would air in Australia that November . Following the news , Lee said that she would miss the friendships that she had formed with the actors and crew .
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Sunny clashed with her culture 's patriarchal society after being influenced by life in western countries and was considered to be something of a rebel by her peers . On her arrival into the show , Sunny was described as being aloof by television channel , Five 's Holy Soap website . They also described her as being bright , confident , having an outspoken nature and being " full of contradictions " . Holy Soap also described Sunny as having " typical teenage insecurities " , which included being self @-@ conscious about her braces and her lack of experience with boys . This results in Sunny having an abrasive attitude . British television magazine , What 's on TV described Sunny as being initially " disappointed by the lack of excitement in Erinsborough " , they also added " Sunny appears snobby and unfriendly . But Sunny 's front is a cover for a whole host of insecurities " .
On her character , Lee said " She 's come from an Asian lifestyle and culture so she 's out there , she 's got the fashion going on , the hair and make up going on and the attitude " . Lee also said that she shares some similarities with Sunny , with them both having strict parents . On her departure , Lee said that Sunny took a " sacrifice " in leaving as she did not want her parents turning up and ruining everyone 's lives , especially after Susan had recently suffered health issues .
= = = Relationships = = =
Sunny found it difficult to express herself to the other female teens on her first day in Ramsay Street and instead she chose to talk to ' Lost Boy ' from the radio station , Pirate Net about her past and her hurtful relationship with her sister .
Sunny and her housemate , Zeke Kinski , clashed on a number of occasions , which led What 's On TV to ask " is their playful animosity fuelled by romantic chemistry ? " Viewers saw Sunny finding herself unable to deal with her feelings for Zeke and their friends trying to encourage the two to begin a relationship . Zeke managed to get Sunny to open up to him about her insecurities and she started to trust him . They later began a relationship . Holy Soap described their relationship saying " After much to @-@ ing and fro @-@ ing , she eventually got together with Zeke " . Network Ten describe Sunny and Zeke 's relationship as being a " blessing in Zeke 's life , and a great help to him " . Sunny is also credited with helping Zeke to heal from his past and putting him on the straight and narrow again . Bower called Zeke and Sunny the show 's " Romeo and Juliet couple " . Of their relationship she said " They come from different cultures and she 's got a year as an exchange student , so we play out the Romeo and Juliet thing . How far do they go for their love ? Do they love each other ? They keep clashing because of their cultural differences " .
Robin Hester played by Benjamin Jay , was a teenager who formed a crush on Sunny and tried to ruin her relationship with Zeke . Digital Spy said Robin " goes to drastic lengths to keep Zeke and Sunny apart " and Holy Soap and Jay labelled him as " creepy " . Robin was seen trying to manipulate Sunny and he locked Zeke in a store cupboard , so he could spend time with her . Lee named the storyline with Robin as her favourite from her time in the show . She said " That was probably the best storyline ever because it gave me a chance to show who Sunny Lee was " .
= = = Same @-@ sex kiss = = =
One of Sunny 's most high @-@ profile storylines was a kiss between herself and female character , Donna Freedman ( Margot Robbie ) . The kiss occurs after Donna discovers that Sunny has been writing the romantic love letters given to her by her boyfriend . Sunny is then shocked when Donna leans over and kisses her on the lips and steals her first kiss . Lee said " For days , all Sunny 's been able to think about is what it would be like to kiss Zeke . Now Donna 's gone and stolen the moment – and Sunny 's not happy , to say the least ... "
Previously a kiss between Lana Crawford ( Bridget Neval ) and Sky Mangel ( Stephanie McIntosh ) in 2004 received complaints from conservative groups . The show 's producers called the kiss between Sunny and Donna " impulsive " and Robbie agreed , saying " It 's really not a big deal at all . It 's not an actual gay storyline , it 's just kind of an impulsive peck " . The storyline came weeks after rival soap Home and Away endured a backlash to its own same @-@ sex romance .
The storyline received attention from the Australian Family Association , with spokesman John Morrissey saying that he was concerned about TV " normalising " same @-@ sex relationships . Psychologist Dr Janet Hall praised the storyline , saying it allows families to discuss the topic . Susan Bower defended the kiss , which was shot before the Home and Away controversy , saying " Ours is a lovely tale about friendship . It 's very innocent . " She added " If we were going to do a lesbian story – and " Neighbours " is not against lesbian stories – we would do it properly . This is a teenage romance story . There 's nothing sexual " .
= = Storylines = =
Susan and Karl Kennedy decide to take in exchange student , Sunny , following their step daughter 's departure . On her first night with the Kennedys , Sunny calls into the Pirate Net radio station and speaks to ' Lost Boy ' about her past and her relationship with her sister . Sunny believes that she has humiliated herself by talking too much about her life . She then decides to find out who ' Lost Boy ' is , so she can confront him . She is unaware that he is really her housemate , Zeke Kinski .
During auditions for the school play , a romantic tension builds between Sunny and Zeke and they are asked to play the lead roles . Sunny quits the play when she realises that she has to kiss Zeke . Sunny then finds out that Zeke is ' Lost Boy ' , but she forgives him . When she sees Donna Freedman practising the kissing scene with Zeke , Sunny becomes upset . Sunny and Zeke almost share a kiss one night when they are alone . However , they are interrupted by Libby Kennedy ( Kym Valentine ) . Due to rewrites of the play , Sunny 's new character has to kiss Zeke too and Sunny grows uncomfortable again . During drama camp , Sunny and Zeke are locked in a cupboard during a game of truth or dare . They almost kiss again , but are interrupted when the door is opened . Karl realises that Sunny and Zeke like each other and he tries to keep them apart . However , they eventually start a relationship .
Sunny offers to help out Ringo Brown ( Sam Clark ) with his love letters to Donna . When Donna works out that Ringo did not write the letters , Sunny has to tell her that she wrote them for him . In a spur @-@ of @-@ the @-@ moment act , Donna kisses Sunny , grateful for her honesty . Sunny is upset that her first kiss was stolen by Donna . Sunny and Zeke 's first kiss occurs during the play . Sunny struggles with public displays of affection with Zeke and she lies that she told her parents about their relationship . When Sunny finds that her grades have slipped , she decides to end the relationship and admits to Zeke that she did not tell her parents about him .
At a music festival , Sunny is embarrassed when Ringo and Declan Napier ( James Sorensen ) interrupt a kiss between her and Zeke . She runs off into the bush , falls down a cliff and injures her ankle . Zeke also falls down the cliff , they are eventually rescued by Declan and Lucas Fitzgerald ( Scott Major ) . Karl and Susan call Sunny 's parents and learn that they know nothing about the festival or Zeke . Sunny 's parents demand that she is placed on the next flight home . However , Zeke moves out , so Sunny 's parents will not worry about them having a relationship . Zeke later moves back home and Karl asks Sunny to call her father and translate for him . Sunny lies to her father about the nature of the conversation and tells him that her father said everything is fine .
After hearing Sunny on the radio , Robin Hester turns up in Ramsay Street to try to get close to her . Sunny believes he is just being friendly . Robin climbs through Sunny 's bedroom window and takes a photo of her . He locks Zeke in Pirate Net 's storeroom , so he can spend some time with Sunny alone . Sunny and Robin go to Pirate Net to see if Zeke is there and Robin pretends to find the storeroom key and unlocks the door . Zeke tells Sunny that Robin locked him in the storeroom , but she refuses to believe him . Zeke violently attacks Robin in front of Sunny , scaring her . Zeke apologises and Sunny eventually realises that Zeke had been right about Robin . Sunny meets Robin at Charlie 's and tells him that she and Zeke have broken up . Robin confesses to locking Zeke in the storeroom and tries to kiss Sunny , but Zeke appears and tells Robin to stay away them .
Libby accuses Zeke of writing Kyle Canning 's ( Christopher Milligan ) essay for him , but Sunny reveals that she wrote it . Kyle was blackmailing her after he overheard Sunny telling Donna that her parents did not know about Zeke moving home . Karl and Susan make Sunny call her parents and tell them about Zeke . Sunny tells them that her parents want her to come home . Zeke tells Sunny that he will go to South Korea with her . However , when Sunny realises how much Susan and Karl need him , she tells him to stay . On her last day , Zeke organises a picnic and a performance at Charlie 's from The Black Skirts . A few days after her departure , Sunny texts Zeke and tells him not to contact her again .
= = Reception = =
Sunny was negatively received during her time on Neighbours . Upon her arrival , the a Western Mail reporter quipped that viewers were going to tire of Sunny " quite quickly " and that she was " downright irritating . " Ruth Deller of entertainment website Lowculture called the character " annoying " and thought that she had " no other layers to her personality " . She added " As for expecting us to believe that perma @-@ mardy emo kid Zeke would fall for her ? Don 't be daft – he 's the character most likely to push her from a tower . Let 's hope her stay in Ramsay Street is short @-@ lived . " In November , Deller called the storyline between Sunny , Zeke and Robin " ludicrous " and she was placed at number one of the " soap characters we love to hate " list . Deller cited her " continued presence in general " as another reason for her being there .
During a feature on the best and worst soap characters of the decade , Sunny was placed at number eight on the worst soap characters list . Deller stated " Neighbours doesn 't have a great reputation for ethnic diversity , and when they finally decide to introduce a non @-@ white main character for the first time in years , they have to make her the most wooden , annoying , drippy character since Ned . Let 's hope Sunny 's failure isn 't an excuse for avoiding ethnic minority casting in the future … "
Jaci Stephen from the British newspaper , Daily Mail was also negative towards the character , calling her " dreadful " and " awful " . Stephen also expressed her desire for the character 's departure from the show and asked " When are they going to dispense with this hopeless character ? " During the storyline involving Robin and Sunny , Stephen commented " Is she about to disappear into the sunset with someone else ? No such luck . Looks like we 're still going to have to pay a dingo to carry her off . " Following Sunny 's departure , Stephen said " The relief at Erinsborough becoming a Sunny @-@ free zone is enormous " .
= The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill =
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill is the debut solo album by American recording artist Lauryn Hill , released on August 25 , 1998 , by Ruffhouse Records and Columbia Records . After touring with her former group Fugees , Hill became involved in a romantic relationship with Jamaican entrepreneur Rohan Marley , and shortly after , became pregnant with his child . This pregnancy , as well as other circumstances in her life , inspired Hill to make a solo album . Recording sessions for the album took place from late 1997 to June 1998 mainly at Tuff Gong Studios in Kingston , as Hill collaborated with a group of musicians known as New Ark in writing and producing the songs . Primarily a neo soul album , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill incorporates musical styles from R & B , hip hop , soul , and reggae . Its lyrics touch upon Hill 's pregnancy and the turmoil within the Fugees , along with themes of love and God . The album 's title was inspired by the film and autobiographical novel The Education of Sonny Carson , and Carter G. Woodson 's The Mis @-@ Education of the Negro .
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 422 @,@ 624 copies in its first week , which broke a record for first @-@ week sales by a female artist . The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill produced three hit singles : " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " , " Ex @-@ Factor " , and " Everything Is Everything " . Its lead single " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " peaked at number one in the US , with the latter two singles peaking within the top 40 . The album 's success propelled Hill to international superstardom , and contributed to bringing hip hop and neo soul to the forefront of popular music . At the 41st Annual Grammy Awards , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill earned 10 nominations , winning five awards , making Hill the first woman to receive that many nominations and awards in one night . By 2013 , it had sold over 8 million copies in the US and over 19 million copies worldwide .
Critics generally praised The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill for Hill 's presentation of a woman 's view on life and love , along with her artistic range . New Ark , however , felt Hill and her record label did not properly credit the group on the album ; a lawsuit filed by the group was settled out of court in 2001 . Since the record 's release , it has been ranked in numerous best @-@ album lists , with a number of critics regarding it as one of the greatest albums of the 1990s , as well as one of the greatest albums of all time . In 2015 , it was included by the Library of Congress in the National Recording Registry .
= = Background = =
In 1996 , Lauryn Hill met Rohan Marley while touring as a member of the Fugees . The two gradually formed a close relationship , and while on tour , Hill became pregnant with his child . The pregnancy and other circumstances in her life inspired her to record a solo album . After contributing to fellow Fugees member Wyclef Jean 's 1997 solo record The Carnival , Hill took time off from touring and recording due to her pregnancy and cases of writer 's block . This pregnancy , however , renewed Hill 's creativity , as she recalled in an interview several years later : " When some women are pregnant , their hair and their nails grow , but for me it was my mind and ability to create . I had the desire to write in a capacity that I hadn 't done in a while . I don 't know if it 's a hormonal or emotional thing ... I was very in touch with my feelings at the time . " Of the early writing process , Hill said , " Every time I got hurt , every time I was disappointed , every time I learned , I just wrote a song . "
While inspired , Hill wrote over thirty songs in her attic studio in South Orange , New Jersey . Many of these songs drew upon the turbulence in the Fugees , as well as past love experiences . In the summer of 1997 , as Hill was due to give birth to her first child , she was requested to write a song for gospel musician CeCe Winans . Several months later , she went to Detroit to work with soul singer Aretha Franklin , writing and producing her single " A Rose is Still a Rose " . Franklin would later have Hill direct the song 's music video . Shortly after this , Hill did writing work for Whitney Houston . Having written songs for artists in gospel , hip hop , and R & B , she drew on these influences and experiences to record The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill .
= = Recording and production = =
Hill began recording The Miseducation in late 1997 at Chung King Studios in New York City , and completed it in June 1998 at Tuff Gong Studios in Kingston , Jamaica . In an interview , Hill described the first day of recording , stating : " The first day in the studio I ordered every instrument I ever fell in love with : harps , strings , timpani drums , organs , clarinets . It was my idea to record it so the human element stayed in . I didn 't want it to be too technically perfect . " Initially , Jean did not support Hill recording a solo album , but eventually offered to help as a producer , which she did not accept . Aside from doing work at Chung King Studios , Hill also recorded at Perfect Pair Studios in New Jersey , as well as Sony Studios , with some songs having different elements recorded at different studios . The bulk of the album , however , was recorded at Tuff Gong Studios in Kingston , Jamaica , the studio built by reggae musician Bob Marley . Regarding this shift in environment , Hill stated : " When I started recording in New York and New Jersey , lots of people were talking to me about going different routes . I could feel people up in my face , and I was picking up on bad vibes . I wanted a place where there was good vibes , where I was among family , and it was Tuff Gong . " Many members of the Marley family were present in the studio during the recording sessions , among them Julian Marley , who added guitar elements to " Forgive Them Father . "
In an interview , recording engineer Gordon " Comissioner Gordon " Williams recalled the recording of " Lost Ones " , stating : " It was our first morning in Jamaica and I saw all of these kids gathered around Lauryn , screaming and dancing . Lauryn was in the living room next to the studio with about fifteen Marley grandchildren around her , the children of Ziggy , and Stephen , and Julian , and she starts singing this rap verse , and all the kids start repeating the last word of each line , chiming in very spontaneously because they were so into the song . " Columbia Records considered bringing in an outside producer for the album and had early talks with RZA of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan . However , Hill was adamant about writing , arranging , and producing the album herself : " It would have been more difficult to articulate to other people . Hey , it 's my album . Who can tell my story better than me ? " She recalled Ruffhouse Records executive Chris Swartz ensuring her artistic freedom while recording the album : " I had total control of the album . Chris Swartz at Ruffhouse , my label , said , ' Listen , you 've never done anything stupid thus far , so let me let you do your thing . ' "
= = Music and lyrics = =
A neo soul album , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill incorporates musical styles such as R & B , soul , hip hop , and reggae . Some songs are based in hip hop soul . " When It Hurts So Bad " is musically old roots reggae mixed with soul . While mostly in English , " Forgive Them Father " and " Lost Ones " both feature singing in patois , which is the common dialect in Jamaica . Although heavily R & B , the song " Superstar " contains an interpolation of the rock song " Light My Fire " by The Doors . Hill said that she " didn 't want to come out with a [ Fugees ] type of sound " , but create " something that was uniquely and very clearly a Lauryn Hill album . " She also said that she did not intend for the album 's sound to be commercially appealing : " There 's too much pressure to have hits these days . Artists are watching Billboard instead of exploring themselves . Look at someone like Aretha , she didn 't hit with her first album , but she was able to grow up and find herself . I wanted to make honest music . I don 't like things to be too perfect , or too polished . People may criticize me for that , but I grew up listening to Al Green and Sam Cooke . When they hit a high note , you actually felt it . "
Much of Hill 's lyrics dealt with motherhood , the Fugees , reminiscence , love , heartbreak , and God . Commenting on the album 's gospel content , Hill stated " Gospel music is music inspired by the gospels . In a huge respect , a lot of this music turned out to be just that . During this album , I turned to the Bible and wrote songs that I drew comfort from . " Several of the album 's songs , such as " Lost Ones , " " Superstar , " " Ex @-@ Factor " and " Forgive Them Father " were widely speculated as direct attacks at Fugee members Wyclef and Pras . " Ex @-@ Factor " was originally intended for a different artist , however , Hill decided to keep it after it was completed , due to its personal content . Although a large portion of the album 's love songs would turn out to be bitter from Hill 's previous relationship , " Nothing Even Matters , " a duet performed by Hill and R & B singer D 'Angelo , showcased a brighter , more intimate perspective on the subject . The song was inspired by Hill 's relationship with Rohan Marley . Speaking about " Nothing Even Matters " ' lyrics , Hill remarked : " I wanted to make a love song , á la Roberta Flack & Donny Hathaway , and give people a humanistic approach to love again without all the physicality and overt sexuality . "
" To Zion , " among the more introspective tracks on the album , spoke about how Hill 's family comes before her career and her decision to have her first child , even though many at the time encouraged her to abort the pregnancy , so as to not conflict with her burgeoning career . In an interview she discussed the song 's origin and significance , commenting " Names wouldn 't come when I was ready to have him . The only name that came to me was Zion . I was like , ' is Zion too much of a weight to carry ? ' But this little boy , man . I would say he personally delivered me from my emotional and spiritual drought . He just replenished my newness . When he was born , I felt like I was born again . " She further stated : " I wanted it to be a revolutionary song about a spiritual movement , and also about my spiritual change , going from one place to another because of my son . "
Throughout The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill , several interludes of a teacher speaking to what is implied to be a classroom of children are played . The " teacher " was played by American poet and politician Ras Baraka speaking to a group of children in the living room of Hill 's New Jersey home . Hill requested that Baraka speak to the children about the concept of love , to which he improvised in the lecture . Slant Magazine 's Paul Schrodt remarked on the title 's reference to Carter G. Woodson 's The Mis @-@ Education of the Negro : " [ Hill ] adopts Woodson 's thesis and makes it part of her own artistic process . Like the songs themselves , the intro / outro classroom scenes suggest a larger community working to redefine itself . " Along with Woodson 's book , the album 's title was inspired by the film and autobiographical novel The Education of Sonny Carson .
= = Release and reception = =
After The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was released on August 25 , 1998 , it entered at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 422 @,@ 624 copies in its first week . The album 's chart debut broke the record for first @-@ week sales by a female artist . It topped the Billboard 200 for a second consecutive week , during which it sold 265 @,@ 000 copies . In the United States , the album sold one million copies in less than a month and 2 @.@ 4 million copies by December . It spent 81 weeks on the Billboard 200 , and topped the Billboard Year @-@ End Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart .
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was promoted with three singles — " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " , " Ex @-@ Factor " , and " Everything Is Everything " — all of which became hits and produced popular music videos . The album 's sales increased after Hill 's appearance at the 41st Annual Grammy Awards , as it sold 234 @,@ 000 more copies in the week of March 3 , 1999 , and 200 @,@ 000 copies the following week . By August , it had sold 10 million copies worldwide , including nearly 700 @,@ 000 in Canada . On December 17 , 2001 , it was certified 8x platinum by the RIAA . In April 2002 , Columbia said that the album had sold 12 million copies worldwide , and in 2009 , its global sales were reported to be 19 million copies . By 2013 , it had sold more than eight million copies in the US .
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill received highly positive reviews from contemporary critics and , according to the Los Angeles Times , was the most acclaimed album of 1998 . Reviewers frequently praised Hill 's presentation of a female 's view on life and love . Eric Weisbard from Spin called her a " genre @-@ bender " whose confident singing and rapping was balanced by vulnerable themes and sentiment . In The New York Times , Ann Powers found it " miraculous " and " exceptional " for Hill to use " her faith , based more in experience and feeling than in doctrine , " to " connect the sacred to the secular in music that touches the essence of soul . " AllMusic 's John Bush was impressed by how she produced most of the album , " not as a crossover record , but as a collection of overtly personal and political statements " , while demonstrating " performing talents , vocal range , and songwriting smarts " . David Browne , writing in Entertainment Weekly , called it " an album of often @-@ astonishing power , strength , and feeling " , crediting Hill with " easily flowing from singing to rapping , evoking the past while forging a future of her own " . Dream Hampton of The Village Voice said she seamlessly " travels her realm within any given song " , while Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot deemed the record a " vocal tour de force " with arrangements that " bristle with great ideas " .
In a less enthusiastic review , Q magazine 's Dom Phillips felt the music 's only flaw was " a lack of memorable melody " on some songs that did not utilize interesting samples , while John Mulvey from NME quibbled about what he felt were redundant skits and Hill 's " propensity " for histrionics and declarations | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
also assume maintenance of the portion of NY 18 within the village ; the request was eventually granted .
On January 1 , 1949 , NY 18 was realigned to follow a more inland routing between the village of Lewiston and what is now Four Mile Creek State Park . The former riverside and lakeside routing of NY 18 between the two locations was redesignated as NY 18F . At the time , NY 18F was one of five spur routes of NY 18 , which at the time extended southward to the Pennsylvania state line . NY 18A , NY 18B , and NY 18D were assigned to spurs of NY 18 south of Lewiston , while NY 18E was assigned to a spur of NY 18 in the village of Lewiston that connected the village to the second Queenston – Lewiston Bridge . When NY 18 was truncated to Lewiston c . 1962 , NY 18A , NY 18B , and NY 18D were either renumbered or absorbed by pre @-@ existing routes . NY 18E also ceased to exist around this time as the Queenston – Lewiston Bridge was removed and replaced with the modern Lewiston – Queenston Bridge just upstream .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Niagara County .
= International Development Association =
The International Development Association ( IDA ) is an international financial institution which offers concessional loans and grants to the world 's poorest developing countries . The IDA is a member of the World Bank Group and is headquartered in Washington , D.C. , United States . It was established in 1960 to complement the existing International Bank for Reconstruction and Development by lending to developing countries which suffer from the lowest gross national income , from troubled creditworthiness , or from the lowest per capita income . Together , the International Development Association and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development are collectively generally known as the World Bank , as they follow the same executive leadership and operate with the same staff .
The association shares the World Bank 's mission of reducing poverty and aims to provide affordable development financing to countries whose credit risk is so prohibitive that they cannot afford to borrow commercially or from the Bank 's other programs . The IDA 's stated aim is to assist the poorest nations in growing more quickly , equitably , and sustainably to reduce poverty . The IDA is the single largest provider of funds to economic and human development projects in the world 's poorest nations . From 2000 to 2010 , it financed projects which recruited and trained 3 million teachers , immunized 310 million children , funded $ 792 million in loans to 120 @,@ 000 small and medium enterprises , built or restored 118 @,@ 000 kilometers of paved roads , built or restored 1 @,@ 600 bridges , and expanded access to improved water to 113 million people and improved sanitation facilities to 5 @.@ 8 million people . The IDA has issued a total $ 238 billion USD in loans and grants since its launch in 1960 . Thirty @-@ six of the association 's borrowing countries have graduated from their eligibility for its concessional lending . However , eight of these countries have relapsed and have not re @-@ graduated .
= = History = =
During the 1940s and 1950s , developing countries with the poorest incomes began realizing that they could no longer afford to borrow capital and needed more @-@ favorable lending terms than offered by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD ) . At the onset of his inaugural term in 1949 , then @-@ President of the United States Harry S. Truman assembled an advisory group to suggest ways to accomplish his Point Four Program , of which a significant component was an effort to strengthen developing countries , especially those nearest to the Eastern Bloc , to dissuade them from aligning with other communist states . The advisory group recommended an international mechanism that would function somewhere in between providing strictly @-@ loaned and strictly @-@ granted funds . The UN and United States government published reports expressing support for the creation of a multilateral , concessional lending program for the poorest developing countries . However , the United States was largely unresponsive and ultimately distracted by its involvement in the Korean War and unconvinced that development needed greater financial stimulation .
Developing countries grew increasingly frustrated with not being able to afford IBRD lending and perceived the Marshall Plan as a comparatively generous gift to European nations . In the late 1940s and early 1950s , developing countries began calling for the United Nations ( UN ) to create a development agency that would offer technical support and concessional financing , with a particular desire that the agency adhere to other UN bodies ' convention of each country having one vote as opposed to a weighted vote . However , the United States ultimately opposed proposals of that nature . As the United States grew more concerned over the growth of the Cold War , it made a concession in 1954 at the behest of its Department of State by backing the conception of the International Finance Corporation ( IFC ) . Despite the launch of the IFC in 1956 , developing countries persisted in demanding the creation of a new concessional financing mechanism and the idea gained traction within the IBRD . Then @-@ President of the IBRD Eugene R. Black , Sr. began circulating the notion of an International Development Association , as opposed to an idea of a concessional named the Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development ( SUNFED ) governed by the United Nations . Paul Hoffman , the Marshall Plan 's former Administrator , proposed the idea of a soft @-@ loan facility within the World Bank , where the US would have a preponderant voice in the allocation of such loans.Democratic Senator Mike Monroney of Oklahoma supported this idea . As Chairman of the Senate Subcommittee on International Finance , Monroney proposed a resolution recommending a study of the potential establishment of an International Development Association to be affiliated with the IBRD . Monroney 's proposal was more preferred received within the United States than the SUNFED . The resolution passed the senate in 1958 , and then @-@ U.S. Treasury Secretary Robert B. Anderson encouraged other countries to conduct similar studies . In 1959 , the World Bank 's Board of Governors approved a U.S.-born resolution calling for the drafting of the articles of agreement . SUNFED later became the Special Fund and merged with the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance to form the United Nations Development Programme .
By the end of January 1960 , fifteen countries signed the articles of agreement which established the International Development Association . The association launched in September of that same year with an initial budget of $ 913 million ( $ 7 @.@ 1 billion in 2012 dollars ) . Over the next eight months following its launch , the IDA grew to 51 member states and loaned $ 101 million ( $ 784 @.@ 2 million in 2012 dollars ) to four developing countries .
= = Governance and operations = =
The IDA is governed by the World Bank 's Board of Governors which meets annually and consists of one governor per member country ( most often the country 's finance minister or treasury secretary ) . The Board of Governors delegates most of its authority over daily matters such as lending and operations to the Board of Directors . The Board of Directors consists of 25 executive directors and is chaired by the President of the World Bank Group . The executive directors collectively represent all 187 member states of the World Bank , although decisions regarding IDA matters concern only the IDA 's 172 member states . The president oversees the IDA 's overall direction and daily operations . As of July 2012 , Jim Yong Kim serves as the President of the World Bank Group . The association and IBRD operate with a staff of approximately 10 @,@ 000 employees .
The IDA is evaluated by the Bank 's Independent Evaluation Group . In 2009 , the group identified weaknesses in the set of controls used to protect against fraud and corruption in projects supported by IDA lending . In 2011 , the group recommended the Bank provide recognition and incentives to staff and management for implementing activities which implement the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness principles of harmonization and alignment , promote greater use of sector @-@ wide approaches to coordination , and explain the reasons why when a country 's financial management system is not used so that the client country may address those shortcomings . It also recommended that the Bank collaborate with development partners to strengthen country @-@ level leadership of development assistance coordination by offering greater financial and technical support . Development economists , such as William Easterly , have conducted research which ranked the IDA as featuring the most transparency and best practices among donors of development aid .
Researchers from the Center for Global Development expect that the IDA 's collection of eligible borrowing countries will decrease by half by the year 2025 ( marking the 65th anniversary of the association 's establishment ) due to graduations and that remaining borrowers will consist primarily of African countries and will face substantial population declines . These changes will imply a need for the association to carefully examine its financial models and business operations to determine an appropriate strategy going forward . The center recommended that the World Bank leadership begin discussing the long @-@ term future of the IDA .
= = Membership = =
The IDA has 173 member countries which pay contributions every three years as replenishments of its capital . The IDA lends to 81 borrowing countries , nearly half of which are in Africa . Membership in the IDA is available only to countries who are members of the World Bank , particularly the IBRD . Throughout its lifetime , 36 borrowing countries have graduated from the association , although a number of these countries have relapsed as borrowers after not sustaining their graduate status .
To be eligible for support from the IDA , countries are assessed by their poverty and their lack of creditworthiness for commercial and IBRD borrowing . The association assesses countries based on their per capita income , lack of access to private capital markets , and policy performance in implementing pro @-@ growth and anti @-@ poverty economic or social reforms . As of 2012 , to borrow from the IDA 's concessional lending programs , a country 's gross national income ( GNI ) per capita must not exceed $ 1 @,@ 175 ( in 2010 dollars ) .
= = = Countries graduated from IDA lending = = =
The following countries have graduated from their eligibility for IDA lending .
= = = Countries relapsed to IDA lending = = =
The following countries have relapsed to their eligibility for IDA lending and have not yet re @-@ graduated or have instead become partially eligible ( also referred to as a blend country ) .
Cameroon ( 1994 )
Congo ( 1994 )
Cote d 'Ivoire ( 1992 )
Honduras ( 1991 )
Nicaragua ( 1991 )
Nigeria ( 1989 )
Papua New Guinea ( 2003 , partially eligible )
Zimbabwe ( 1992 )
= = Replenishment rounds = =
The IDA is a unique part of the World Bank as it requires continuous replenishment of its resources . Member countries replenish its funds through contributions in addition to supplementary funds provided by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Finance Corporation ( IFC ) . Whereas the IBRD acquires most of its funds by raising capital on international financial markets , the IDA heavily depends on contributions from its member states . The IDA received 2 billion in special drawing rights ( $ 3 billion USD ) from the IBRD and IFC . Approximately half of the IDA 's resources come from the 45 donating member countries . In its early years , the IDA received most of its replenishments from the United Kingdom and United States but , because they were not always reliable sources of funding , other developed nations began to step in and fill the economic gaps not met by these two countries . Every three years , member nations that provide funds to the IDA gather together to replenish the IDA 's resources . These funds come primarily from well @-@ developed countries including the United States , Japan , France , Germany , and the United Kingdom with 58 % from the US , 22 % from France , and 8 % from the UK . As of 2014 , there have been 17 IDA replenishment rounds . Fifty one member countries participated in the IDA 's 16th replenishment of $ 49 @.@ 3 billion USD . The IDA 's loans and grants are usually not paid in full to the borrower at the outset , but rather disbursed incrementally as needed by the project . Most of the donor countries such as the United States commit letters of credit to the IDA which bear no interest and are not able to be transferred or revoked , and which are exchanged for cash as needed for project disbursal . Other countries pay their contributions in full on the date of commitment to the IDA so that it may cover its operating expenses . Donors receive no return of funds and repayments from borrowers are again loaned to future projects such that donors won 't need to commit those funds again in the future .
Although the IDA 's funds are now regularly replenished , this does not happen without some financial and political challenges for the donating countries . When donor countries convene to negotiate the replenishments , there is often intense discussion about redefining the association 's goals and objectives or even about reforming the IDA . Due to delays in the United States Congress impeding the approval of IDA funding , the association 's members implemented a set of policy triggers outlining the commitment threshold necessary for replenishment to take effect . The threshold imposed a requirement that an aggregate share of 85 % in voting stock is necessary for executing a replenishment . The threshold was implemented with the aim to compel the United States to participate in replenishment rounds . Though countries intended for the triggers to hold the United States to its commitments , the threshold ultimately provided the United States a de facto veto power over replenishment and capital increase negotiations due to its ability to bring replenishment negotiations to an impasse by threatening to withhold support . The U.S. has used this influence to further its long @-@ term foreign policy objectives and short @-@ term political and economic goals by imposing conditionality on replenishment negotiations .
= = Lending = =
The IDA lends to countries with the aim to finance projects that will develop infrastructure and improve education , healthcare , access to clean water and sanitation facilities , and environmental responsibility . It is considered to be the soft lending window of the World Bank , while the IBRD is considered to be the hard lending window . The association offers grants and loans with maturities ranging from 25 to 40 years , grace periods of 5 to 10 years , and interest rates of 2 @.@ 8 % or 1 @.@ 25 % depending on whether the borrower is a blend country and to which degree it is eligible . Regular IDA @-@ eligible borrowers may take advantage of no @-@ interest loans . Financial resources are allocated to eligible countries based on their success at implementing pro @-@ growth and a poverty @-@ reducing domestic policies . The IDA uses the World Bank 's Country Policy and Institutional Assessment ( CPIA ) development indicator to determine each country 's place in a resource allocation index . It then prioritizes its lending to those countries which are indicated to be most promising in terms of favorable policies and aid effectiveness . The IDA adopted the Crisis Response Window in 2007 to enable the rapid provision of emergency financing in response to crises . The association adopted the Immediate Response Mechanism in 2011 to provide IDA borrowers with immediate access to withdraw undisbursed portions of their loans , should a crisis arise that meets the mechanism 's criteria .
= = = Africa = = =
Because African countries face some of the most severe poverty and underdevelopment , and because 39 of those countries are the IDA 's poorest member states , the association allocates approximately half of the IDA 's resources toward financing projects in those countries . As a result of its efforts to improve the region , the IDA has helped bring electricity to an additional 66 million Africans since 1997 , helped build or restore 240 @,@ 000 kilometers of paved roads , and helped enroll an additional 15 million African children in school since 2002 . The IDA was approved in May 2012 to provide $ 50 million USD worth of credit to the Women Entrepreneur Development Project as part of an effort to help women in Ethiopia participate in business as skilled employees or leaders . Although the positive outcomes of the IDA 's efforts in Africa had been historically slow , the large allocation of funding to African countries led to positive outcomes particularly within agriculture and infrastructure development efforts .
= = = Asia = = =
The IDA 's efforts in Asia have been particularly successful . Numerous Asian countries have graduated from the IDA lending program , including the Philippines , China , South Korea , and Thailand . Of the association 's borrowing countries , approximately 20 are in Asia . The association 's efforts in South Asia have focused primarily on projects for education , healthcare , transportation , agriculture , and energy . Due to rapid growth in Asian countries ' populations , some pockets of poverty have emerged . To mitigate this effect , the IDA adopted an economic plan of action which established organizations to improve education and healthcare , with a focus on reducing poverty across Asian nations in ways that are compatible with local culture .
= Lerkendal Stadion =
The Lerkendal Stadion ( Norwegian pronunciation : [ ˈlærkənˈdɑːl ˈstɑːdɪun ] ) is an all @-@ seater football stadium located at Lerkendal in Trondheim , Norway . The home ground of the Tippeligaen side Rosenborg BK , it has a capacity for 21 @,@ 166 spectators , making it the second @-@ largest football stadium in the country .
Lerkendal opened as a multi @-@ purpose stadium on 10 August 1947 , as the main football and athletics stadium in Trondheim . Originally the venue was mostly used by the football teams SK Freidig and FK Kvik , and Rosenborg did not became a tenant until 1957 . A new grandstand with roof was completed in 1962 , and floodlights were installed in 1968 . The oldest of the current stands were built in 1996 , along with new lighting . Three more grandstands were built between 2000 and 2002 , which also saw the removal of the athletics facilities and the sale of the stadium from Trondheim Municipality to Rosenborg . Further expansions plans have been launched , to increase capacity by filling in the corners and possibly by building a retractable roof .
The record attendance of 28 @,@ 569 dates from the decisive league match against Lillestrøm in 1985 . Ten international matches were held at Lerkendal between 1951 and 1990 . One domestic cup final has been held at Lerkendal ; the Women 's Cup Final in 1986 .
= = History = =
Construction of Lerkendal started as a public works during the 1930s , as a measure to create jobs . It opened on 10 August 1947 , and consisted of a main grass field , two gravel fields , two handball courts and two tennis courts . The main field had a spectator capacity for 37 @,@ 000 on temporary stands , making it the second @-@ largest stadium in the country . The long sides consisted of temporary wooden stands , with seating on the south stand and standing places on terraces on the north stand . The end sides of the stadium consisted of grass embankments at a 30 percent angle , allowing for standing space for spectators without having to build stands . Changing rooms were located in a nearby German @-@ built barracks dating from the Second World War .
The first major rebuilding of the venue took place ahead of the 1962 season , when the wooden stands were torn and replaced with concrete stands on both long sides . On the south side , a wave @-@ shaped roof was built ; originally designed to be self @-@ supporting , the contractor , Reinertsen , did not trust their own calculations and made a last @-@ minute decision to install support columns . The new stands were taken into use on 3 May 1962 . Floodlighting was installed in 1968 to allow UEFA club tournament matches to be held at the venue . An all @-@ weather running track was subsequently also laid . On 1 December 1988 , Lerkendal Station opened , allowing train passengers a short walk to the stadium . In 1994 , the first pitch with Desso GrassMaster was laid .
By the time Rosenborg had qualified for the 1995 – 96 UEFA Champions League , UEFA had for security reasons introduced restrictions which reduced Lerkendal 's capacity to 12 @,@ 200 spectators . In addition , a total ban on standing places would be introduced from 1997 . In 1995 , a debate arose between Rosenborg and Trondheim Municipality regarding the construction of a new grandstand , to be located on the north side of the stadium . Rosenborg 's Nils Skutle stated that if it was not built ahead of the 1997 – 98 season , Rosenborg would only be allowed to sell 2 @,@ 800 tickets to their home Champions League matches , and that they instead would be forced to play their games at Ullevaal Stadion in Oslo . The new grandstand cost 32 million , and opened in 1996 season . The upgrades also included a new floodlight and public announcement system .
Rosenborg started laying plans for further construction , at first looking at construction of a new grandstand on the east end . In May 1998 , Lerkendal Eiendom AS , owned 44 % by Rosenborg , was established to build three new grandstands , including removing the running track to make it a football @-@ only stadium . An alternative was to move and build an all @-@ new stadium at Ranheim . Following the announcement of the Ranheim plans , Mayor Anne Kathrine Slungård stated that she did not want to sell Lerkendal , as she wanted public ownership of cultural infrastructure . In April 1999 , Trondheim Municipality 's chief of administration , Knut Sæther , recommended that the municipality sell Lerkendal to Rosenborg , who would then along with private investors be free to construct the necessary facilities . At the time , the municipality estimated the value of Lerkendal to between NOK 50 and 100 million . The football district stated they were in favor of conversion of Lerkendal , and that they feared that if Rosenborg moved Lerkendal would incur high costs on the municipality , giving Granåsen as an example of a little used skiing facility which used half the municipal funding for sports venues .
On 5 October 1999 , the club and the municipality signed a letter of intent which indicated that the two would cooperate constructing a new venue along with private investors . The final contract was made with Reinertsen on 20 April 2000 , and other involved investors included Fokus Bank , Gjensidige NOR , I. K. Lykke , Eiendomspar , Siemens and Trondheims Næringsbygg . The club received a 47 % share of the stadium company , while the municipality received 14 % in exchange for the company taking over the ownership of the land and existing structure . As compensation for losing Lerkendal as an athletics venue , the municipality spent NOK 32 million upgrading Øya stadion as the city 's new main athletics stadium . NOK 20 million was financed by Rosenborg , while the remainder was spent using public funds .
Construction of the end stands started in January 2001 , and they were completed in November . The demolition of the 1962 stand started on 24 October 2001 , and the new stand was completed on 30 September 2002 . The cost of constructing the new Lerkendal , including all four stands from 1996 to 2002 , was NOK 335 million , of which NOK 253 million was for the 2001 and 2002 work . To give optimal conditions for the turf , the corners were not built out and the south stand was built with a transparent roof . However , the harsh climate forced the turf to be replaced two years later . In a 2012 survey carried out by the Norwegian Players ' Association among away @-@ team captains , Lerkendal was found to be the league 's second @-@ best stadium , with a score of 4 @,@ 40 on a scale from one to five .
= = Facilities = =
Lerkendal Stadion consists of four , three @-@ tier grandstand without corners . The stadium has a capacity for 21 @,@ 166 spectators , of which 1 @,@ 338 are in club seating and luxury boxes on the center tier of all four stands . The Hent Stand on the north side of the pitch , built in 1996 , is the largest and the only to have red seats . It holds a capacity of 7 @,@ 457 spectators . Originally named the Adidas Stand , it was renamed before the 2013 @-@ season . Opposite lies the EiendomsMegler1 Stand , which was completed in 2002 . In addition to change rooms and an honor stand , it has a capacity for 6 @,@ 194 spectators . The Rema Stand to the west , opened in 2001 , houses the supporter shop , a pizza restaurant and commercial offices . The upper tier has since its opening been used as a family tier . While the lower tier was used by Kjernen , Rosenborg 's singing supporters . Since Kjernen in 2009 moved to the upper tier of the opposite Adressa Stand , the whole Rema Stand has been used as a family stand . The Adressa Stand opened at the same time , and both have a seating capacity for 3 @,@ 810 people . The latter hosts office space for Rosenborg Arena and the football district , as well as change rooms for the training pitch . The upper tier is used by Kjernen , Rosenborg 's supporter club . The lower tier was earlier used by the away fans . But after Kjernen 's move to the upper tier , the away fans was moved to the western end of the Hent stand . The pitch has Desso GrassMaster , a natural grass pitch with artificial fibers sown in for increase strength . This includes an automatic watering system and a built @-@ in heating 25 centimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) below the surface .
The stadium is part of Lerkendal idrettspark , which also consists of three training pitches , two in full size and of which one has artificial turf . The main training pitch is the natural grass Skoglunden , while the artificial turf venue is Lerkendal kunstgress . The two pitches both have flood lighting , heating and are often used for matches by Rosenborg 's recruit and reserve teams . The team has a health club located within the south stand . The club 's offices are located in Brakka , a German @-@ built barracks dating from World War II .
The stadium is located at Lerkendal , 3 kilometers ( 2 mi ) south of the city center . It is located on the southern main road into town , with good bus service . In addition , it is located next to Lerkendal Station , the southern terminus of the Trøndelag Commuter Rail . Parking near the stadium is very limited , and ad @-@ hoc park and ride are established on matchdays at Stavset and City Syd .
= = Events = =
The venue was opened with a friendly football match between the Trondheim city team and the Vestfold county team , which Trondheim won 4 – 3 . The opening , attended by 8 @,@ 000 spectators , also saw several track and field events . The original main football tenants were SK Freidig and FK Kvik . The latter played in the Main League in 1951 – 52 and 1955 – 56 , and otherwise remained in the Second Division throughout most of the 1950s and 60s . A record 18 @,@ 000 spectators watched Freidig lose the 1948 Norwegian Football Cup semifinal against Viking . On 18 October 1950 , Lerkendal hosted a friendly between Kvik and Spartak Moscow .
Lerkendal hosted its first international on 26 June 1951 , when Norway beat Iceland 3 – 1 . On 28 August 1953 it hosted a B international game against Finland . Later national games consist of 5 – 0 against Malta on 3 July 1962 , 2 – 0 against Finland on 20 August 1964 , 4 – 2 against Luxembourg on 27 May 1965 , with the record international audience of 22 @,@ 319 , 2 – 1 against Iceland on 21 July 1969 , 0 – 1 against Denmark on 23 September 1973 , 2 – 0 against West Germany on 26 September 1979 , 1 – 0 against Wales on 6 June 1984 , 1 – 0 against Bulgaria on 26 May 1987 @.@ and 1 – 2 against Denmark on 6 June 1990 , The Football Association of Norway no longer plays international matches elsewhere than Ullevaal Stadion because of the conditions in its sponsorship agreements . On 26 May 1977 , the Norway national under @-@ 21 football team lost 2 – 3 against Sweden at Lerkendal .
Rosenborg took Lerkendal into use from the 1957 – 58 season , when they were promoted to the Regional League . The season ended in relegation and Rosenborg played the following season at their old home ground , Rosenborgbanen . With the promotion ahead of the 1959 – 60 season , Rosenborg returned to Lerkendal and have remained there since . In 1959 , Lerkendal was the venue of a neutral quarter final in the cup between Nessegutten from Levanger and Viking , which attracted 25 @,@ 043 spectators , mostly from Innherred , setting a new stadium record . From the 1960 – 61 season , Rosenborg established itself in the Main League .
The opening game of the new stands on 3 May 1962 was a Rosenborg friendly against Dunfermline Athletic . Freidig moved to Eberg idrettsanlegg when it was completed ahead of the 1965 season . A new stadium spectator record was set in the cup semifinal against Brann in 1967 , which was watched by 25 @,@ 551 people . Rosenborg qualified for the 1968 – 69 European Cup and met SK Rapid Wien in the first round . The game was spectated by 22 @,@ 492 and remains the record for UEFA tournaments . Per @-@ season average attendance for Rosenborg 's league matches lay between five and ten thousand people during the 1970s and early 1980s , with an all @-@ time low of 2 @,@ 549 in 1978 , when Rosenborg played in the Second Division . The venue hosted the Norwegian Athletics Championships four times , in 1963 , 1967 , 1973 and 1983 . Lerkendal hosted the Women 's Cup Final in 1986 , where Sprint @-@ Jeløy beat Trondheims @-@ Ørn . Strindheim IL played in the top division in 1984 and 1995 , both times playing their home games at Lerkendal . Kvik remained at Lerkendal until the upgrades started in 2000 , after which they moved to Øya stadion . Bodø / Glimt played their home game in the 1999 – 2000 UEFA Cup against Werder Bremen at Lerkendal , attracting 1 @,@ 425 spectators .
The official all @-@ time record at Lerkendal is the final game of the 1985 season , when Rosenborg won the league in the last game against Lillestrøm in a league final which attracted 28 @,@ 569 . Starting with Rosenborg 's success in the late 1980s , attendance rose and lay between eleven and thirteen thousand until 2001 . After the opening of the new stadium in 2002 , attendance again rose , peaking at an average 19 @,@ 903 in 2007 , although it has fallen somewhat since . The high of most seasons is the 16 May game held every year : the 1994 edition against Tromsø saw 27 @,@ 661 spectators , and in 1985 as many as 30 @,@ 000 may have seen the game , as the gates were opened . Since the opening of the current stadium , the attendance record is 22 @,@ 330 , set in the 2006 edition against Odd Grenland . Between 1995 and 2007 , Rosenborg played 11 seasons and 37 home matches in UEFA Champions League . The venue has been used for numerous concerts , including A @-@ ha , Iron Maiden and Kiss .
= = Future = =
Ahead of the failed Nordic bid to host the Euro 2008 , Lerkendal was , along with Ullevaal Stadion , proposed as Norwegian venues . To reach the required spectator capacity of 30 @,@ 000 seats , the plans called for the roof of the Adidas stand to be removed to allow for a temporary third tier . Additional seating would be created by adding a single row at the bottom of the four stands , and building capacity in the corners . The proposal would have given a spectator capacity of 30 @,@ 849 , although it would have been reduced after the championship by removing the extra tier . Similar plans were launched for the Norwegian – Swedish bid for Euro 2016 , where the cost of the stadium upgrades was estimated at NOK 800 million . In 2007 , the club management stated that they wanted to sell out all matches before they made further expansions to the stadium , independent of the plans to host the Euro . Construction of stands in the corners could give 4 @,@ 000 additional seats , although these would be the most costly to build and at the same time give the worst view of the pitch . Construction could be done by first building two of the corners . Since then , Rosenborg has experienced a significant drop in attendance . The failed Trondheim bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics , launched in 2007 , called for Lerkendal to be the Olympic Stadium and host the opening and closing ceremonies .
Rosenborg had originally planned to build additional commercial facilities and a tower hotel during the 2002 construction , but this was canceled . At the 2011 annual meeting , the plans were again launched by Skutle , who stated that construction might start as early as 2011 . In March 2005 , Rosenborg announced plans to build a retractable roof over the pitch and lay artificial turf . The roof was estimated to cost NOK 100 million , and the club estimated that it could generate NOK 30 million per year in increased revenue from concerts and events . By 2007 , the roof plans were delayed , with management stating that it would be necessary to complete the construction of all stands before a roof was built , and that they believed the stadium would soon be expanded .
On 19 September 2014 , Lerkendal was awarded the right to host the 2016 UEFA Super Cup , marking the first time a Norwegian stadium would host a European final .
= The Cats of Ulthar =
" The Cats of Ulthar " is a short story written by American fantasy author H. P. Lovecraft in June 1920 . In the tale , an unnamed narrator relates the story of how a law forbidding the killing of cats came to be in a town called Ulthar . As the narrative goes , the city is home to an old couple who enjoy capturing and killing the townspeople 's cats . When a caravan of wanderers passes through the city , the kitten of an orphan ( Menes ) traveling with the band disappears . Upon hearing of the couple 's violent acts towards cats , Menes invokes a prayer before leaving town that causes the local felines to swarm the cat @-@ killers ' house and devour them . Upon witnessing the result , the local politicians pass a law forbidding the killing of cats .
Influenced by Lord Dunsany , the tale was a personal favorite of Lovecraft 's and has remained popular since his death . Considered one of the best short stories of Lovecraft 's early period , aspects of The Cats of Ulthar would be referenced again in the author 's works The Other Gods and The Dream @-@ Quest of Unknown Kadath . It was first published in the literary journal Tryout in November 1920 and now resides in the public domain .
= = Synopsis = =
An unnamed narrator , while gazing upon his pet cat , begins to reminisce about a law in the town of Ulthar that forbids the killing of cats and relates the story of how this law came to be . The tale begins with the introduction of an old cotter and his wife who delight in trapping and violently killing any cats who venture onto their property . The people of the town are too afraid of the couple to speak against these acts , so they instead focus their efforts on keeping their felines from approaching the cotter 's house . One night a caravan of travelers from a distant land arrives and passes through the village . They bring with them an orphan named Menes who , having lost his family to a plague , has only a small , black kitten to keep him company . After being unable to find his kitten on the third day of his stay , Menes hears the stories of the old cotter and his wife , and decides to take action .
Menes spends time meditating prior to unleashing a prayer that affects the shapes and movements of the clouds in the sky . The caravan leaves Ulthar that night , shortly before the townspeople notice that all of their cats have gone missing . The townspeople suspect both the old couple and the wanderers , but the innkeeper 's son Atal witnesses the felines circling the property of the cotter . The next morning , the cats have returned to their owners well @-@ fed , but the cotter and his wife have vanished . When the townspeople explore their abandoned house , they discovered nothing more than two skeletons that have been picked clean . The local burgesses , after reviewing the evidence and stories of the townspeople , decide to pass a law that forbids the killing of cats in Ulthar .
= = Background = =
Lovecraft outlined the plot to his friend Rheinhart Kleiner in May 1920 and wrote The Cats of Ulthar on June 15 , 1920 , five months after completing his previous tale , The Terrible Old Man . Conceived during the author 's early period , Lovecraft was influenced by the writing of Anglo @-@ Irish writer Lord Dunsany and attempted to mimic his style . Among the literary aspects that Lovecraft borrows are the " vengeance motif " and the " ponderous tone " of Dunsany . Dunsany 's influence is evident on the surface of the text as well : wanderers , similar to the ones portrayed in The Cats of Ulthar , appear in Dunsany 's earlier tale Idle Days on the Yann . Lovecraft ’ s character of Menes shares his name with Menes , the semi @-@ mythical founder of the ancient city of Memphis , Egypt . The ancient Egyptians were admirers of cats who made it a crime to kill or export felines .
Prior to The Cats of Ulthar , Lovecraft had penned several tales in the style of Lord Dunsany , including The White Ship , The Street , The Doom that Came to Sarnath , The Terrible Old Man , and The Tree . His next Dunsanian tale , Celephaïs , was considered by Lovecraft scholar S. T. Joshi to be " one of his best and most significant " . The Cats of Ulthar was first published in the literary journal Tryout in November 1920 , and later appeared in Weird Tales in February 1926 and 1933 , as well as being privately reprinted in a forty two @-@ copy run in December 1935 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Cats of Ulthar was a personal favorite of Lovecraft 's , who was an ardent cat lover . A number of contemporary critics , as well as Lovecraft himself , consider the story to be the best of all his Dunsanian tales . Other critics have noted that the story is one of Lovecraft 's most famous tales that fits both the Dunsanian and the " weird fantasy " style . Literary critic Darrell Schweitzer , however , comments that The Cats of Ulthar resembles Dunsany in " mood and execution " only and that " [ it ] has no obvious parallels in any Dunsany story " . Schweitzer refers to the prose as " restrained " , and notes that , unlike Lovecraft , Dunsany preferred dogs and would have been unlikely to have written such an enthusiastic tribute . Lovecraft scholar S. T. Joshi disagrees , claiming that " [ t ] his tale owes more to Dunsany than many of his other ' Dunsanian ' fantasies " .
The character of Atal , the innkeeper 's son who witnesses the cats of Ulthar circling the antagonists ' cottage , would later appear in Lovecraft 's The Other Gods . In this short story , written in August 1921 and first published in November 1933 , Atal , now an adult , becomes an apprentice to Barzai the Wise and travels with him to seek out the tale 's eponymous deities . Barzai even mentions the law against killing cats in Ulthar , further cementing the connection . Atal also appears as a priest in the long The Dream @-@ Quest of Unknown Kadath — written in 1927 but not published until 1943 — when protagonist Randolph Carter visits the city 300 years after the events in The Cats of Ulthar , when the town is still heavily populated by felines . Carter is later able to summon the cats of Ulthar to his aid . Cats would be used in what scholar Katharine M. Rogers calls " a more original way " in Lovecraft 's 1923 work The Rats in the Walls . Here , as in others of Lovecraft later tales , cats embody the attraction to horror while , unlike the human protagonists , " never pursuing horror to the point of becoming horrible themselves " . The text of The Cats of Ulthar , like many of Lovecraft 's works , has fallen into the public domain and can be accessed in several compilations of the author 's work as well as on the Internet .
= Alright , Still =
Alright , Still is the debut studio album by English singer and songwriter Lily Allen , released on 13 July 2006 by Regal Recordings . After being rejected by several labels , Allen signed to London Records , who eventually lost interest in Allen , leading her to meet production duo Future Cut and sign to Regal Recordings . Recording for the album began in 2004 with sessions between Allen and Future Cut , and Allen 's work garnered publicity on the Internet as she posted demos to her Myspace account before they were officially released . Allen later traveled to the United States to work with Greg Kurstin and Mark Ronson , to complete the final half of the album in 2006 .
Alright , Still is predominately a pop album , with songs that are heavily influenced by Jamaican ska music , reggae and hip hop . The lyrics are conversational and farcical , while discussing past relationships and a dark sense of humour . Due to the instances of strong language in a great majority of the songs , the album was released with a Parental Advisory warning , although the song " Friday Night " remains censored on all versions of the album .
Upon release , Alright , Still received acclaim from the British music press , with international critics calling the record and Allen " original " . It was commercially successful in the United Kingdom , where it debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart and was later certified triple platinum . Alright , Still has sold over 2 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . The album earned a nomination for Best Alternative Music Album at the 50th Grammy Awards . It was promoted by the release of four singles , including the chart @-@ topper " Smile " and the top @-@ 10 hit " LDN " .
= = Background = =
When her family went to Ibiza on holiday , Allen told her mother that she was staying with friends but remained in Sant Antoni de Portmany instead . She earned money by working at a Plastic Fantastic record store and dealing ecstasy . Allen met her first manager , George Lamb , in Ibiza . She was rejected by several labels , which she attributed to her drinking and being the daughter of actor Keith Allen . She eventually used her father 's connections to get signed to London Records in 2002 . When the executive who had signed her left , the label lost interest and she left without releasing the folk songs that had been written for her , many of which were written by her father . She then studied horticulture to become a florist , but changed her mind and returned to music . Allen began writing songs , while her manager introduced her to production duo Future Cut in 2004 . They worked in a small studio in the basement of an office building .
= = Development = =
Allen 's manager introduced her to production duo Future Cut in 2004 . They worked in a small studio in the basement of a Manchester office building . In 2005 , Allen was signed to Regal Records ; the label gave her £ 25 @,@ 000 to produce an album , though they were unable to provide much support for it due to their preoccupation with other releases such as Coldplay 's X & Y and virtual band Gorillaz ' Demon Days .
Allen created an account on Myspace and began posting demos in November 2005 . The demos attracted thousands of listeners , and 500 limited edition 7 " vinyl singles of one of the demos , a song titled " LDN " , were rush @-@ released and sold for as much as £ 40 . Allen also produced two mixtapes titled My First Mixtape and My Second Mixtape to promote her work , including tracks by the band Creedence Clearwater Revival , and rapper Dizzee Rascal , and Ludacris . As she accumulated tens of thousands of MySpace friends , The Observer Music Monthly ( OMM ) , a magazine published in The Observer , took interest . Few people outside of her label 's A & R department had heard of Allen , so the label were slow in responding to publications who wanted to report about her .
In March 2006 , OMM published an article about Allen 's success through MySpace , and she received her first major mainstream coverage appearing in the magazine 's cover story two months later . The popularity of her songs convinced her label to allow her more creative control over the album and to use some of the songs that she had written instead of attempting to work with mainstream producers . Allen found herself distracted by the publicity , so to focus on finishing the album , she traveled to the United States to work with producers Greg Kurstin and Mark Ronson . There , she was able to complete the second half of the album in approximately two weeks .
The album 's title is used in a line from the second track , " Knock ' Em Out " : " You look alright still , yeah what 's your name ? " Allen borrowed the phrase from a slang term that her brother Alfie Owen @-@ Allen and his friends used as a synonym for cool . She stated that she liked Albert Einstein 's aphorism " Nothing changes until something moves " and the idea that " everything is [ alright ] as long as it 's still " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
In her songs , Allen develops various personas . She stated that she tried to " write about stuff that happens to people from all different backgrounds " . The lyrics are conversational , with a dark sense of humour . In many of the songs , one of Allen 's personae disparages someone around her . In " Smile " , " Not Big " , and " Shame for You " , she insults an ex @-@ boyfriend . In " Knock ' Em Out " , she mocks suitors at a bar , and Lily reprimands her brother Alfie on the song of the same name .
Joe Strummer , a close friend of Allen 's father Keith , played mixtapes of Brazilian music and Jamaican reggae and ska when she was young . Allen stated that she had " always been into very black music " such as ska , reggae , and hip hop music . Since she did not know how to rap , she chose to use reggae as a point of reference when making Alright , Still . The album 's music blends ska and reggae with pop melodies . Allen 's melodies are influenced by the jazz improvisation techniques of American singers Blossom Dearie and Ella Fitzgerald . The album 's beats are influenced by various genres such as jazz and grime .
= = Promotion = =
In 2007 , Allen played the newly launched Park Stage at the Glastonbury Festival , replacing M.I.A. who had cancelled . During the festival she reunited two members of The Specials , an act that guitarist Lynval Golding claimed played a " massive part " in the group 's 2009 reunion .
On the day " Smile " was released , Allen appeared on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge with DJ Jo Whiley , performing an acoustic version of " Smile " and a cover of The Kooks ' song " Naïve " . At the Secret Garden Party , in September 2006 , Allen made a rendition of the song and afterwards stated : " The festival was well good , particularly as Lester , my ex , who I wrote ' Smile ' about , and subsequently sold his story to the papers , had a tent called ' the shit tent ' positioned directly opposite the main stage . So he and his new girlfriend had no option but to watch me perform to a couple of thousand people singing ' Smile ' back to me . Oh , it 's the little things eh ! " " Smile " was performed live as part of the setlist of Allen 's 2007 concert tour . During the 2007 South by Southwest music festival , Allen said , " I 'm so sick of this song , but I 'll play it for you , Austin " before singing it . On 3 February 2007 , the singer was invited as a musical guest on Saturday Night Live , where she performed " Smile " and " LDN " .
= = Critical reception = =
Alright , Still received acclaim from the British music press . The album holds a score 79 out of 100 based on 27 critical reviews which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , according to the music review aggregator Metacritic . The Observer 's Rosie Swash stated that Allen 's " uniquely acidic brand of pop " music justified the publicity it generated and that " the icing on the cake is that brutally barbed tongue " . Ron Webb wrote for Drowned in Sound that the album " is almost a brilliant record , easily a good one and one that promises to divide opinion like Marmite " . In a review for The Guardian , Sophie Heawood stated that " the album is rough round the edges , that amateurism serves to bring the listener in " , noting that it gave the album a more personal touch . The NME 's Priya Elan remarked that " with a personality this size , this isn 't the last time you 'll be hearing from [ Allen ] " .
The album generally received positive reviews from international music press . Rob Sheffield wrote for Rolling Stone that Allen 's sense of irony was " just more proof that [ she 's ] an original " . Heather Phares of AllMusic stated that " enough of Alright , Still works — as pure pop and on the meta level Allen aims for — to make the album a fun , summery fling , and maybe more " . Praising Allen for her " genuine personality with wit and attitude to spare " , Pitchfork 's Mark Pytlik remarked that the album " isn 't anything else but a fantastic success " . In his review for Blender , Jon Dolan complimented Allen 's " little @-@ sisterly " personality , describing it as a combination " of panache and self @-@ doubt , courage and chaos " .
On the other hand , Stylus Magazine dismissed the album as " nothing more than pop for people who hate pop music " and " phony music for people who can 't let go of their inhibitions " , while Slant Magazine deemed it " rubbish " and called Allen " sickeningly contemptuous " . The mastering of Alright , Still , done by Tim Burrell and Tim Debney , has been criticised . In January 2007 , The Guardian ran a piece about loudness wars , the practice of increasing the loudness of tracks which often results in distortion and the loss of dynamic range . It included Alright , Still in a list of CDs in which sound quality was compromised for loudness . Rolling Stone published a similar story in December 2007 , and it also identified Alright , Still as an album " so unrelentingly loud that the sound is actually distorted " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The Guardian ranked it the seventh best album of the year and commented , " For her lyrical nous and her quick delivery alone , get that toast on . " Pitchfork called it " one of 2006 's most enduringly rewarding pop albums " and listed it as the 29th best album of 2006 . " Rolling Stone " ranked the album 13th on its list of the best albums of 2007 . Uncut called it " a terrific , bolshy , eclectic stew of London street pop " , listing Alright , Still at number 38 on its " Definitive Albums of 2006 " . The Observer ranked the album tenth on its list of the best albums of 2006 . At the 2008 Grammy Awards , the album was nominated for Best Alternative Music Album but lost to The White Stripes ' Icky Thump . Ronson 's production on " Littlest Things " helped him win a Grammy Award for Producer of the Year , Non @-@ Classical .
= = Commercial performance = =
Alright , Still debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart , selling 62 @,@ 701 copies in its first week . During the week ending 3 February 2007 , all top 10 places on the UK Albums Chart were occupied by British artists for the first time since the chart was established in 1956 ; Alright , Still was number nine that week . The British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified it triple platinum on 14 March 2008 . As of May 2014 , the album had sold 1 @,@ 117 @,@ 604 copies in the United Kingdom .
In Ireland , the album debuted at number six on the Irish Albums Chart and was certified platinum by the Irish Recorded Music Association ( IRMA ) . The album was less successful in continental Europe ; it charted inside the top 20 in Norway , the top 30 in Belgium and the Netherlands , and the top 50 in France and Sweden . In April 2007 , Alright , Still received a Platinum Europe Award by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting sales in excess of one million copies across Europe .
Alright , Still debuted at number 20 on the Billboard 200 in the United States , with first @-@ week sales of 34 @,@ 000 copies . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) awarded the album a gold certification on 6 December 2007 , and by November 2013 , it had sold 627 @,@ 000 copies in the US . Alright , Still peaked at number seven on the Australian ARIA Albums Chart , and in 2009 , it received a platinum accreditation by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , shipping over 70 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the album reached number 26 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipments in excess of 7 @,@ 500 copies . As of February 2009 , the album had sold more than 2 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" Smile " contains replayed elements of " Free Soul " by Jackie Mittoo and Clement Dodd .
" Knock ' Em Out " contains replayed elements of the work " Big Chief " by Earl King .
" LDN " contains replayed elements of " Reggae Merengue " .
" Littlest Things " contains elements from " Theme from Emmanuelle ( Instrumental ) " and " Emmanuelle in the Mirror " written by Pierre Bachelet and Hervé Roy .
" Friend of Mine " contains elements from " For the Love of You " written and composed by O 'Kelly Isley , Jr . , Ernest Isley , Rudolph Isley , Ronald Isley , Marvin Isley and Chris Jasper .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Alright , Still .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Cannabis in Oregon =
Cannabis in Oregon relates to a number of legislative , legal , and cultural events surrounding use of cannabis ( marijuana , hashish , THC , kief , etc . ) . Oregon was the first U.S. state to decriminalize the possession of small amounts of cannabis , and among the first to authorize its use for medical purposes . An attempt to recriminalize possession of small amounts of cannabis was turned down by Oregon voters in 1997 .
From 1999 through 2005 , the ratio of Oregonians using cannabis outpaced the general United States population by 32 – 45 % . In surveys conducted in 1974 and 1975 — one and two years after decriminalization — it was found that 2 % of respondents said they did not use marijuana or cannabis because they were unavailable , 4 % for legal or law enforcement reasons , 53 % reported lack of interest , and 23 % cited health dangers . The remaining 19 % were using or had used it at one time .
Measure 91 was approved in 2014 , legalizing non @-@ medical cultivation and uses of marijuana . It followed perennial , unsuccessful efforts to legalize marijuana by ballot initiative , including in 1986 and in 2012 which made it to the ballot , but voters rejected .
In 2015 the Oregon state governor signed an emergency bill declaring marijuana sales legal to recreational users from dispensaries starting October 1st , 2015 .
= = Cannabis culture in Oregon = =
= = = Usage = = =
According to the Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) , cannabis is readily available in Oregon . According to a 2006 report by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration , in 2003 – 2004 Oregon ranked in the top fifth of states for cannabis usage in three age categories : 12 to 17 , 18 to 25 , and 26 and older . In 2005 , while most states that had passed medical marijuana bills over the past decade saw marijuana use among teenagers decline faster than the national average ( a 43 % decrease ) , Oregon , Nevada , and Maine saw smaller decreases than the average .
The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration estimates and publishes the number of people to have used cannabis in the previous 30 days , as compiled by the Oregon chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws ( NORML ) :
= = = Cultivation = = =
Oregon imports cannabis from Washington , California , Mexico and Canada , while also producing a large quantity locally . Large indoor and outdoor growing operations have been discovered on private , state , and forest lands , with plants numbering in the thousands . Allegedly large outdoor growing operations run by Mexican cartels drug trafficking were assumed to be operating in remote locations . Highly potent cannabis grown in Oregon is consumed locally , and distributed to other parts of the U.S.
In 1988 , due to the success of the DEA 's Campaign Against Marijuana Planting in California , Oregon rivaled California nationally in cannabis production . In the 1990s , Oregon was a national leader in indoor cannabis cultivation , along with California , Washington , Kentucky and South Florida . For the decade ending in 1991 , the DEA considered Oregon the " nation 's cradle of indoor marijuana growing . " In 2006 , Oregon was the fourth largest indoor cannabis producing state , and the tenth largest cannabis producing state overall .
= = = Events and attitudes = = =
According to Nick Budnick of the Willamette Week , medical marijuana has " helped legitimize pot culture in Oregon . " In 2005 , Multnomah County Circuit Judge Doug Beckman said " I think there 's a broader social acceptance for users of marijuana . And gradually there 's increasing public pressure , I think , to decriminalize marijuana . "
In 2007 , nearly 20 @,@ 000 people attended the third annual Hempstalk Festival at Sellwood Riverfront Park in Portland , Oregon . While organizers insisted smoking would not be tolerated , the smell of marijuana lingered in the air and some festival goers chose to consume various forms of cannabis foods . No festival attendees were arrested . Seattle Hempfest is an annual event in Seattle , Washington also attended by Oregonians , known as the world 's largest annual gathering advocating decriminalization of marijuana for uses including but not limited to medicinal , industrial , and recreational . The 2008 Seattle Hempfest , which took place August 16 – 17 , set a new record with around 150 @,@ 000 people in attendance .
The first International Cannabis Business Conference ( ICBC ) took place in Portland , on September 13 and 14 , 2014 , at the Oregon Convention Center . The conference brought together entrepreneurs , professionals and advocates from across the globe , with the goal to further mainstream the global cannabis industry . The ICBC is a collaboration between veteran activists Anthony Johnson , Alex Rogers and Debby Goldsberry . Johnson has served as chief petitioner of statewide cannabis reforms and is currently Director of the Oregon Cannabis Industry Association ; Rogers is CEO of Northwest Alternative Health and lead producer of the Oregon Medical Marijuana Business Conference ; Goldsberry is a co @-@ founder of the Berkeley Patients Group and serves as an ambassador for Magnolia Wellness . The ICBC further cements Portland has a prominent locale for cannabis activism .
= = Legality = =
Measure 91 was approved in 2014 , legalizing non @-@ medical cultivation and uses of marijuana in Oregon starting July 1 , 2015 .
Cannabis was completely legal in Oregon until 1935 , when the state passed the Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act . The legislative record contains no mention of those substances causing any problems , but they were simply included as part of the package . The Oregon Decriminalization Bill of 1973 abolished criminal penalties for possession of small amounts of marijuana . As a result , possession of up to an ounce of marijuana in Oregon was a violation ( not a crime ) , punishable only by a fine of $ 500 to $ 1000 . There is one exception , however , which is : if possession of such an amount occurs in a public place within 1000 feet of a school attended by minors , the person committing the offense is guilty of a Class C misdemeanor instead . Possession of more than one ounce , no matter the proximity to a school , was a Class B felony until July 3 , 2013 , at which point it became a Class B misdemeanor . The actual use of marijuana in private , and being under the influence of marijuana , are not punishable offenses under Oregon law . However , public use , and also driving under the influence of intoxicants are punishable offenses .
Intentionally growing even one marijuana plant ( Unlawful manufacture of marijuana ) , was a Class A felony in Oregon ( ORS 475 @.@ 856 , 475 @.@ 858 ) until July 1 , 2015 . Selling or giving away marijuana was an offense ( Unlawful delivery of marijuana ) that varied in severity and penalty depending on the amount of marijuana involved in the transaction , whether or not consideration was involved , the relative ages of the people involved , and the proximity of the transaction to nearby schools attended by minors ( ORS 475 @.@ 860 , 475 @.@ 862 ) . Giving away five grams ( approx . 0.18oz ) of marijuana or less by an adult to another adult for no payment at a location at least 1000 feet from the closest school was only a violation , punishable by a fine of $ 500 to $ 1000 . However , if greater amounts of marijuana were involved , if any payment at all were involved , if delivery was by an adult to a minor , and / or if delivery occurred within 1000 feet of a school ( even if both parties are adults ) , the severity of the offense ranged from Class C misdemeanor to Class A felony with increasing penalties .
The preceding convictions and penalties applied to any person , minor or adult , Oregon resident or otherwise , when the offense occurred within the state of Oregon . However , Oregon marijuana law is further complicated due to the existence of Oregon 's medical marijuana program . The Oregon Medical Marijuana Program allows individuals with a medical history of one or more qualifying illnesses and a doctor 's recommendation to apply for registration with the program . Accepted applicants are issued a Medical Marijuana Card , which entitles them to different treatment under the law . Essentially , medical marijuana patients are allowed to possess , without fear of citation , arrest , or penalty , up to 1 @.@ 5 pounds of marijuana at a time . Possession of a greater amount , however , does become punishable by law . In addition to legal possession , cardholders may also legally grow , without fear of citation , arrest , or penalty , up to 18 immature cannabis plants and 6 mature ones at a single time . Cardholders are also allowed to designate a primary caregiver and a grower of their choice , if so inclined . These people enjoy the same freedoms , in regard to possession , as the cardholder as long as they remain officially registered . The above limits of legal possession apply to the total combined property of the cardholder , caregiver , and grower . If a grower is growing plants for more than one cardholder , he or she may possess up to 18 immature plants per cardholder . A grower may not grow plants for more than four cardholders at a time . Also , in addition to legal possession and manufacture as outlined above , cardholders , caregivers , and growers may legally deliver marijuana to each other , and to other cardholders , so long as the delivery is made without consideration . The privileges which normally protect cardholders , caregivers , and growers from citation , arrest , and penalty do not excuse possession , manufacture , or delivery in cases where they are simultaneously guilty of certain offenses listed in ORS 475 @.@ 316 , such as driving under the influence of marijuana or using marijuana in public .
In June 2010 , the Oregon Board of Pharmacy reclassified marijuana from a Schedule I drug to a Schedule II drug . According to a press release from the board , " The Board of Pharmacy ’ s action to reschedule marijuana on the state list does not supersede federal law or create a direct conflict with federal law . It simply does not address federal law , " and , " Marijuana or products containing any amount of marijuana will not be available by prescription in Oregon unless they have been approved by the FDA . " News reports noted that this reclassification makes Oregon the " first state in the nation to make marijuana anything less serious than a Schedule I drug . " ( See also Removal of cannabis from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act )
A ballot measure of the November 2010 election would have established a state licensing system for marijuana producers and dispensaries , allowed the sale of marijuana from the dispensaries to medical marijuana patients , provide low income assistance for those patients , and set up a research program to evaluate the effects of the new law . It was defeated with 43 @.@ 85 % support and 56 @.@ 15 % opposition .
The Oregon Cannabis Tax Act is another recent citizens ' initiative . It qualified for the November 2012 state ballot , with the petition having 88 @,@ 887 valid signatures . If approved , it would have legalized marijuana for recreational adult use , regulate and tax the cultivation and sale of marijuana , and legalize the production , use , and sale of hemp . It appeared as Measure 80 on the ballot , but was defeated by a margin of approximately 53 % -47 % .
= = = Decriminalization = = =
In 1973 , Oregon became the first state to decriminalize cannabis . Possession of 28 @.@ 35 grams ( 1 ounce ) or less is a violation ( not a crime ) punishable by a $ 500 to $ 1 @,@ 000 fine ; stricter punishments exist for sale or cultivation . Possession of 1 ounce to 110 grams is a class B felony punishable by 10 years in prison , and possession of more than 110 grams is a felony with punishment depending on the defendant 's prior record . In 1986 , Oregon 's Ballot Measure 5 sought to legalize cannabis . The Oregon Marijuana Initiative spent about $ 50 @,@ 000 promoting the proposition , and collected the 87 @,@ 000 signatures necessary to place it on the ballot . In 1986 , by some estimates , cannabis was Oregon 's largest cash crop , estimated in 1985 at between $ 1 billion and $ 1 @.@ 15 billion . The ballot measure was rejected by Oregon voters with 279 @,@ 479 " Yes " and 781 @,@ 922 " No " votes , or 26 @.@ 33 % support .
In 1995 , Oregon House Bill 3466 , which would have recriminalized marijuana in Oregon , died . According to bill sponsor Jerry Grisham ( R – Beavercreek ) , HB 3466 was meant to counter a circulating initiative petition called The Oregon Cannabis Tax Act of 1997 , which would have allowed state liquor stores to sell marijuana and permitted hemp production for paper , fabric , oil , and protein . Taxes on these products would go to schools to replace funding allegedly lost by Measure 5 . The petition was sponsored by a political action committee named Pay for Schools by Regulating Cannabis .
HB 3466 would have increased penalties for possession of under an ounce of marijuana from an infraction ( traffic ticket @-@ like offense ) to a Class A misdemeanor , the worst non @-@ felony offense , with a fine of $ 100 to $ 1 @,@ 000 per gram , up to a maximum of $ 5 @,@ 000 . The bill also would have created a new crime — being under the influence of marijuana — punishable by a fine of up to $ 5 @,@ 000 . The bill would have passed according to the positions of state senators , but was blocked on a technical basis which prevented it from coming to the floor the same day it was read — which allows public input — unless overridden by a vote .
In 1997 , the Oregon Legislature passed House Bill 3643 , making the possession of less than an ounce of marijuana a Class C misdemeanor , which added a possible jail sentence of up to 30 days . According to Eric Schlosser of Rolling Stone , John Kitzhaber , then Oregon 's governor , signed the bill because he did not want to appear soft on crime . Activists opposing HB 3643 collected twice as many signatures as were required to force a referendum on the bill . John Sperling , Peter Lewis , and George Soros were the principal financial backers of the referendum signature drive . Measure 57 , which would have upheld HB 3643 , was turned down by a margin of 2 – 1 .
The Oregonians For Cannabis Reform 2010 hoped to make cannabis products legal and available in a retail environment by enacting the Oregon Cannabis Tax Act of 2010 ( OCTA ) , but the effort failed to collect the minimum 83 @,@ 000 signatures by the July 2 deadline to qualify for the 2010 ballot . Backers of the initiative say 90 % of the proceeds from the state 's sale of marijuana would have gone to Oregon 's general fund ( as much as $ 300 million ) , lowering the state tax burden , while 10 % of the revenue would have been used to fund drug abuse education and treatment programs . Advocates claim the marijuana market would be removed from the underground economy , where young people and drug abusers often take control , and place it in liquor stores regulated by the Oregon Liquor Control Commission so the minimum age of 21 can be enforced . According to Madeline Martinez , Executive Director of NORML 's Oregon chapter , U.S. Congressman Barney Frank ( D – Massachusetts ) has endorsed the idea , though support from Oregon state officials has been limited .
An initiative petition to allow recreational use of marijuana passed in November 2014 . In September 2014 , some of the municipalities revealed intention to apply sales tax on recreational use , ahead of it being legalized . Measure 91 only allows the state to tax marijuana , so local governments are hoping they ’ ll be able to get their taxes grandfathered in if they pass them now .
= = = Medical cannabis = = =
The Oregon Medical Marijuana Act was established by Ballot Measure 67 , a citizens ' initiative , in November 1998 , the same election as the referendum Measure 57 . It modified state law to allow the cultivation , possession , and use of marijuana by prescription by patients with certain medical conditions . The ballot measure passed by a margin of 54 @.@ 6 % to 45 @.@ 4 % . The Act does not affect federal law , which still prohibits the cultivation and possession of marijuana . Bernie Hobson , spokesman for the DEA 's Seattle regional office , said " From a federal standpoint , there is no such thing as medical marijuana . " Four other western states ( Alaska , Arizona , Nevada and Washington ) and the District of Columbia passed similar measures legalizing the use of marijuana for medical purposes in the same election .
The act created " The Oregon Medical Marijuana Program , " which administers the Medical Marijuana Act approved by the public in November 1998 . The Oregon Medical Marijuana Program administers the program within the Oregon Department of Human Services . As of April 1 , 2009 , there were 20 @,@ 974 patients registered , with 10 @,@ 626 caregivers holding cards for these patients . Virtually all patients benefiting from the program ( 18 @,@ 000 + ) suffer from severe pain and more than 3 @,@ 200 from nausea . The other conditions are given as epilepsy , HIV / AIDS , cancer , cachexia , chronic glaucoma and tremors caused by Alzheimer 's disease . Multiple states have requested information on Oregon 's program to use as a model for their own medical marijuana initiatives and registration systems .
In 2004 , an Oregon ballot measure that would have increased the amount of cannabis a patient can legally possess to six pounds was defeated by Oregon voters . In 2005 , the Oregon Medical Marijuana Program brought in more than $ 900 @,@ 000 to the state 's budget for the Department of Human Services .
An initiative seeking to legalize medical marijuana dispensaries appeared on the November 2010 ballot as Ballot Measure 74 where it was defeated with 56 % of voters opposing the initiative . However , the state legislature legalized medical dispensaries a few years later during its 2013 legislative session .
= = = Conflict with federal drug law = = =
= = = = Physician liability = = = =
Physicians cannot have their licenses revoked for recommending or supporting marijuana according to a September 7 , 2000 decision by the U.S. District Court . The case , Dr. Marcus Conant , et al . , v. McCaffrey et al . , arose from two events : the November 1996 passage of California Proposition 215 which authorized medical marijuana , and a December 30 , 1996 response to the law by the director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy which said :
The statement accompanied authorization for the U.S. Inspector General for Health and Human Services to exclude individuals from participation in Medicare and Medicaid programs , such as physicians who recommend marijuana to patients for medical purposes . Clarification two months later affirmed that mere discussion of any drugs with a patient was not grounds for sanction , but affirmed that physicians " may not intentionally provide their patients with oral or written statements in order to enable them to obtain controlled substances in violation of federal law . " The court 's decision acknowledged that the government has a legitimate concern that physicians might recommend marijuana in bad faith . However , physicians in good faith using honest medical judgment should not fear DEA sanctions . Furthermore ,
The government appealed the decision to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals , which agreed with the lower court on October 29 , 2002 , and expanded the grounds for the injunction to include free speech . The government appealed again to the Supreme Court which declined to hear it October 14 , 2003 , reaffirming the California Circuit Court 's injunction .
= = = = Law enforcement = = = =
In November 2007 , a California appeals court ruled that " it is not the job of the local police to enforce the federal drug laws . " The U.S. Supreme Court denied an appeal by the city of Garden Grove in December 2008 , upholding the decision . The case began in June 2005 with a medical marijuana patient from Garden Grove being pulled over by city police and cited for possession of marijuana , despite his immediate display of proper medical marijuana documentation . The charge against him was later dismissed , but the city refused to return his confiscated eight grams of marijuana , even after being instructed by Orange County Superior Court . The Supreme Court ruling affects 13 U.S. states with medical marijuana laws .
Police departments throughout Oregon decline to press charges , or charges have been dropped for possessing and growing marijuana , even for convicted drug dealers . Salem police estimated they received 30 or 40 calls for marijuana activity in 2007 which were not pursued because the grow operations were legal , even one next to a high school . One grower , a previously convicted felon , was found with evidence of making hash oil , which is not protected , though a grand jury did not indict him .
= = = Thermal imaging searches = = =
After a federal agent from the Department of the Interior used a thermal imaging device to determine that Danny Lee Kyllo was using grow lamps to grow marijuana in his Florence , Oregon home , the Supreme Court of the United States determined that the use of a thermal imaging device from a public vantage point to monitor the radiation of heat from a person 's home was a " search " within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment , and thus required a warrant . Because the police in this case did not have a warrant , the Court reversed Kyllo 's conviction for growing marijuana .
= Rewrite ( visual novel ) =
Rewrite ( リライト , Riraito ) is a Japanese visual novel developed by Key , a brand of VisualArt 's . It was released on June 24 , 2011 for Windows PCs and is rated for all ages . Rewrite is Key 's ninth game , along with other titles such as Kanon , Air , and Clannad . Key released a fan disc expanding on the game 's story titled Rewrite Harvest festa ! on July 27 , 2012 for Windows . Rewrite was ported to the PlayStation Portable , PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 3 . The story follows the life of Kotarou Tennouji , a high school student with superhuman abilities who investigates supernatural mysteries with five girls from his school in the fictional city of Kazamatsuri . This ultimately leads him into the middle of a conflict between familiar summoners and superhumans with the fate of the world at stake .
The gameplay in Rewrite follows an interactive branching plot line with multiple scenarios , and focuses on the player character gaining the favor of the six female main characters . There are additional minigames and quests added into the gameplay , which are necessary to complete the game . The game ranked as the best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 twice more afterwards . There have been four manga adaptations based on Rewrite published by ASCII Media Works and Ichijinsha . Comic anthologies , light novels and an art book were also published , as were several music albums . A 13 @-@ episode anime television series adaptation , produced by 8 @-@ Bit and directed by Tensho , premiered in July 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
Rewrite is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Kotarou Tennouji . Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story 's narrative and dialogue . The text in the game is accompanied by character sprites , which represent who Kotarou is talking to , over background art . Throughout the game , the player encounters CG artwork at certain points in the story , which take the place of the background art and character sprites . When the game is completed at least once , a gallery of the viewed CGs and played background music becomes available on the game 's title screen . Rewrite follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .
There are eight main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , three which are initially available and five more which can later become available . Throughout gameplay , the player is given multiple options to choose from , and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . Some decisions can lead the game to end prematurely , which offer an alternative ending to the plot . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction . When first playing the game , the scenarios for the heroines Kotori , Chihaya and Lucia are available . To access Sizuru 's scenario , Kotori 's must be completed first . Similarly , to access Akane 's scenario , Chihaya 's must be done first . After the plot lines for these five heroines have been completed , an additional scenario called Moon is made available . Upon the completion of the Moon route , another scenario called Terra is made available , which serves as the true conclusion to the story ; both Moon and Terra revolve around the main heroine , Kagari .
Throughout gameplay , the player encounters minigames accessed through an in @-@ game GPS system called Mappie , which is rendered as a point and click map . In most cases , the player can choose to automatically skip accessing Mappie , but sometimes the player is required to play through the minigame to move on to the next event . When accessing Mappie , the player meets various people who become Kotarou 's friends , and certain people and items encountered will lead the player to do a quest . The names of the friends and the completed quests are recorded in the Memory function , which serves as an encyclopedia of events . If the player completes all 31 quests , a bonus scenario called Oppai ( おっぱい , Breasts ) is made available . Oppai is a branch off Akane 's scenario and serves as a comedic plot line not important to the overall story .
The gear and dial in the bottom left of the game screen is related to the Kotarou 's Rewrite ability . The dial moves forward whenever this ability is used , and the outcome of certain scenes is determined by how much the dial has moved . Throughout most of the game , the text is presented in a dialog box on the lower portion of the game screen , but this is changed for the Terra scenario , where the text is overlaid across the entire screen .
In Rewrite Harvest festa ! , there are six separate scenarios , one for each heroine . The player is initially given the choice to play the scenarios for Kotori , Chihaya and Lucia from a character selection screen . Once these three scenarios are completed , the routes for Sizuru and Akane become available , and after those two are completed , Kagari 's scenario is made available . After the completion of Kagari 's scenario , a dungeon exploration role @-@ playing minigame called Rewrite Quest becomes available .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The main part of Rewrite 's story takes place in the fictional city of Kazamatsuri in Japan , where treeplanting and afforestation have caused the city to become overgrown with trees and vegetation . The protagonist Kotarou and his friends in the occult research society attend a high school in Kazamatsuri , and the characters also spend time in the society 's clubroom . Outside of the school , frequented locations include the forest around Kazamatsuri and Kotarou 's house . Throughout the story , Kotarou encounters an alternate dimension of Kazamatsuri where everything is silent and the sky is gray . There are many entrances to this dimension throughout the city . In this secret world developed by Gaia , a sustainable environment exists to support life . When on the Moon , a hill where daisies grow is prominently shown amid a ruined Kazamatsuri where the night is eternal . This hill appears again later on Earth in the forest of Kazamatsuri .
Kazamatsuri is the setting for a secret war being waged by two main groups : Gaia and Guardian . Gaia , an organization under the auspices of the environmental conservation group Martel , is populated by nihilistic and misanthropic people able to contract with familiars , which manifest as constructs fueled by the summoner 's life force . Martel itself used to be a church and contains within it a holy maiden group of girls with developmental disabilities . Guardian is dedicated to the destruction of familiars and is composed almost entirely of humans who possess special powers . Gaia and Guardian came to Kazamatsuri in the pursuit of the Earth 's familiar named Kagari , who manifests as a young , high school age @-@ looking girl . Kagari , the main heroine of Rewrite , has the power to initiate a period of re @-@ evolution , which restarts the process of evolving another means of intelligent life . However , this is done with the use of the Earth 's energy , and by the time the events of Rewrite occur , there is no more energy left to do another re @-@ evolution . Gaia wants to capture Kagari to ensure the destruction of humanity , but Guardian wishes to seek out Kagari to kill her , ensuring that human life continues .
= = = Principal characters = = =
The player assumes the role of Kotarou Tennouji , the protagonist of Rewrite . He is a second @-@ year high school student who has a bright personality and is sociable to others . Kotarou is a superhuman with two powers called Rewrite and Aurora . Rewrite enables him to permanently restructure and modify any part of his body , including his blood , so as to make himself stronger or faster . Every time Kotarou uses his Rewrite ability , he uses up some of his life @-@ force and becomes closer to being a full familiar . Aurora manipulates his energy to form weapons like a sword or claw . Kotarou is invited into his school 's occult research society by the club president Akane Senri , who is one year older than him and is referred to as the " School Witch " by other students because of her mysterious nature . Akane , a heroine in the game , is unenthusiastic towards Kotarou 's pursuit of the supernatural , which she initially claims she does not believe in , but is later shown to be a high ranking summoner in Gaia . Akane also invites into the club Chihaya Ohtori , a second @-@ year transfer student in Kotarou 's class who is very strong , but clumsy . Chihaya , who is also a heroine , has led a sheltered life and now lives with her butler Sakuya Ohtori , who poses as her brother at school . Like Akane , Chihaya is in Gaia and is a summoner .
Kotarou invites three other girls into the occult research society who are also heroines in the game . One is Kotori Kanbe , Kotarou 's childhood friend in his class who has few friends and starts attending school regularly after joining the club . She has a playful personality and has an extremely strong pet dog named Chibi @-@ Moth . Kotori , who is a summoner , is not affiliated with Gaia or Guardian , and instead follows in the path of an ancient sect of summoners called Druids who revered nature and protected Kagari with familiars . Kotarou meets first @-@ year student Sizuru Nakatsu , a shy girl on the public morals committee who has excellent hearing , eyesight and can read lips . She has heterochromia , though wears an eyepatch over her golden @-@ colored right eye as she is very self @-@ conscious about it ; her left eye is blue . Sizuru is a member of Guardian who has the ability to produce various chemicals inside her body which can be used to heal herself and others , paralyze and cause amnesia . Sizuru joins the club with her close friend Lucia Konohana , the class representative of Kotarou 's class . Lucia is easily agitated by the antics of boys and often punches Kotarou when he annoys her . She is obsessed with cleanliness and always wears gloves . Like Sizuru , Lucia is a member of Guardian and has the ability to produces poisonous miasma and pus as a result of an experiment by Guardian , which she takes medication for to suppress . She can also create vibrations within the objects she touches . Both Lucia and Sizuru have superhuman speed , agility , and reflexes in addition to their other abilities .
= = = Story = = =
Rewrite 's story revolves around the protagonist Kotarou Tennouji , a male high school student living in Kazamatsuri , and the story begins on October 3 , 2010 on the Moon . Kotarou , who is interested in the unidentified mysterious animals in the forest in and around Kazamatsuri , spends times with five girls in the occult research society at his school : Kotori Kanbe , Chihaya Ohtori , Sizuru Nakatsu , Lucia Konohana , and Akane Senri , who is also the club president . The club members spend fun , peaceful times together uncovering the supernatural mysteries of Kazamatsuri . During this time , Kotarou falls in love with each of them in separate plot lines determined by the choices the player makes . These plot lines represent various timelines in which the conflict between Gaia and Guardian occurs , although it is hinted that humanity is inevitably destroyed in every timeline .
After the five heroine 's routes are completed , the story shifts to a setting amid a ruined Kazamatsuri where Kotarou encounters Kagari in a world after re @-@ evolution , still on the Moon . Kotarou at this point is a unified entity of all the Kotarous from all timelines where humanity was destroyed and he has memories of these events . The Moon 's Kagari is trying to research a way so the Earth and humanity are not destroyed , and Kotarou attempts to buy her time while fighting a hoard of familiars summoned by Sakura Kashima of Gaia whose resolve is to annihilate humanity by killing Kagari . Kotarou and the entire cast rejoin together to protect Kagari , who manages to finish her plan to allow the Earth and humanity to coexist by sending the Moon 's life force back to Earth . In the past , the Earth had sent this energy to the Moon so life could continue . There is just enough energy and resources left for a final re @-@ evolution .
Prior to the initial events of Rewrite , Kotarou had been a low @-@ ranking member of Guardian posted in Kazamatsuri , where he encounters Kagari . In one timeline , Kotarou is badly injured by Kagari , though he is healed into a half @-@ familiar existence by a young Kotori with a piece of Kagari 's ribbon . Kotarou 's aging is also slowed as a consequence . Kotarou falls into a coma , and he is administered an amnesiac drug to forget about Gaia and Guardian . By the time he wakes up , Kotori is in junior high school , and Kotarou later graduates junior high with Kotori . He goes on to spend time in high school with the occult research society as shown before . In a different timeline when he encounters Kagari , Kotarou lets her go .
Kotarou becomes disillusioned with Guardian 's tactics and returns to Kazamatsuri where he meets Kagari again . She tells him she must initiate re @-@ evolution , but since this would lead to a dead world , Kagari must find good memories brought out through the betterment of life on Earth , as opposed to bad memories caused by war and conflict . Kotarou agrees to help her and he acts as a double agent , demolishing Gaia 's and Guardian 's infrastructure in Kazamatsuri and killing those on either side . Kazamatsuri is partly destroyed when Gaia attempts to force Kagari to initiate re @-@ evolution , but Kotarou manages to stop this from occurring . As a result , Kagari praises Kotarou and shows gratitude for showing her satisfactory memories . Kotarou unwillingly stabs Kagari , and after a kiss , they evolve into an orb of light inside a tree .
Humanity survives in the aftermath , but the world experiences an ice age outside of Kazamatsuri . In the city , a huge tree grows 500 meters tall in three years , which contains the orb of light from Kotarou and Kagari . The five heroines , now in high school , investigate the tree as members of the occult research society and transform Kotarou into a familiar , but he refuses to do what they demand . Kotarou takes the girls to the Moon where they are shown circled around a seedling ( as the embodiment of the Moon 's Kagari ) sprouting on the otherwise barren regolith .
= = Development = =
Rewrite is Key 's ninth game , and is the first of Key 's visual novels to feature a 16 : 9 image aspect ratio instead of the previously @-@ used 4 : 3 aspect ratio . Rewrite is also the first Key game to be developed on VisualArt 's ' game engine Siglus . The project 's planning was headed by Itaru Hinoue , who is also the art director and character designer for Rewrite . During the time when Key was developing their fifth game Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life in 2005 , Hinoue had more free time since she was just helping Fumio with the character design , and that is when Hinoue got the initial idea for Rewrite . Hinoue wrote a proposal for the basis of Rewrite 's premise and passed it on to Takahiro Baba , the president of VisualArt 's .
After the project was accepted , Hinoue consulted Key 's former main scenario writer Jun Maeda on various game scenario writers to employ for Rewrite . However , the one writer Hinoue wanted on the project was Romeo Tanaka , who she had become a fan of after she played FlyingShine 's 2003 visual novel Cross Channel , written by Tanaka . While he did not initially accept the offer , Tanaka decided to take the project when he was given the time he needed to do the job . When he accepted it , Tanaka was still unaware that Maeda had stepped down as Key 's main scenario writer , and he became more interested when he was told that he would write Rewrite 's overall story .
At the time , the only other scenario writer on the project was Yūto Tonokawa of Key , who previously contributed on Key 's sixth game Little Busters ! . Tanaka was tasked with drawing up the entire scenario framework , and during this time , Takahiro Baba suggested that one more heroine route be added to the story to bring the total to six , but to do that they had to hire another writer . Ryukishi07 of 07th Expansion , the creators of the Higurashi no Naku Koro ni and Umineko no Naku Koro ni game franchises , was brought in as the third scenario writer after Baba suggested in late 2007 that Key ask him to join the staff for Rewrite . Ultimately , Tanaka wrote the story leading up to the heroine 's routes , Kotori 's and Akane 's scanarios , the Moon and Terra routes , and the bonus Oppai route . Tonokawa wrote Chihaya 's and Sizuru 's routes , and Ryukishi07 wrote Lucia 's story . Tanaka initially planned on the length of Rewrite 's story to be on about the same scale as Key 's second game Air , but as it increased in size , he later attempted to keep it close to the scale of Little Busters ! .
Rewrite marked the first time since Key 's third game Clannad that Itaru Hinoue was staffed as the sole art director and character designer in a Key visual novel . The school uniforms for the heroines in the game are old designs that Hinoue created and used before in dōjinshi ( self @-@ published work ) . In particular , Hinoue spent much time on drawing the character art in Rewrite due in part to the design of the school uniforms , the fact that most of the female characters have long hair , and because of the increased aspect ratio . Six more graphic artists worked on Rewrite : Torino headed the background art , Ryou Shigawa designed and illustrated the monsters , and the computer graphics in the game were done by Na @-@ Ga , Shinory , Mochisuke , and Minimo Tayama . The game 's soundtrack was composed by Key 's signature composers Jun Maeda and Shinji Orito , in addition to Maiko Iuchi of I 've Sound , Sōshi Hosoi , and Ryō Mizutsuki . Maeda also contributed on the quality control for the game .
= = = Marketing and release = = =
Rewrite was announced on April 1 , 2008 , which led to some speculation whether it was an April Fool 's joke or an actual announcement of Key 's new game . It was announced the following day on Key 's blog that production on Rewrite had begun . On April 1 , 2010 , Rewrite 's official website was updated with the announcement that the game would be an adult game , but this turned out to be an April Fool 's joke the following day . It was later reported by Key in February 2011 that an adult version of Rewrite would definitely not be produced . On April 1 , 2011 , Key released an anime video featuring the song " Rewrite " by Psychic Lover . The video was animated by White Fox , and directed by Motoki Tanaka . Again there was some speculation on its validity , but Key confirmed the following day that the video and song would be used in Rewrite as the game 's second opening theme song .
Key hosted a promotional event on May 8 , 2011 called Rewrite Fes. in Akihabara . Displayed in the event hall were various large illustrations of Rewrite characters by Hinoue , as well as illustrations of the characters by various artists that were originally posted on Rewrite 's official website . The event featured live performances by NanosizeMir and Psychic Lover , as well as on @-@ stage discussions of Rewrite development staff members and voice actors featured in the game . The staff members included Tonokawa and Ryukishi07 who discussed the game 's scenario , and Orito and Hoshi who talked about Rewrite 's music . Orito also performed at the event on an electric guitar decorated with images of Rewrite including character images and the title logo . The guitar was later sold on Yahoo ! Auctions in July 2011 for 405 @,@ 000 yen . Promotional items that could be purchased at the event included a Rewrite introduction pamphlet , a Rewrite stationary set , a remix album titled Deejay Busters ! featuring remixes of music from Little Busters ! and Key 's eighth game Kud Wafter , and a Kanon light novel titled Kanojotachi no Kenkai ( 彼女たちの見解 , The Girls ' Opinions ) written by Mariko Shimizu and illustrated by Zen .
A lengthy game demo of Rewrite came bundled with the limited edition version of Kud Wafter released on June 25 , 2010 . Another slightly longer version of the demo , ver . 2 @.@ 00 , was released on Rewrite 's official website on March 26 , 2011 . A free benchmark program titled Chihaya Rolling became available for download at Key 's official website on August 20 , 2010 . The program , which also came with the previously released demo , features Chihaya rolling down a hill and hitting boulders and Kotori 's pet dog Chibi @-@ Moth . The purpose of the program is to test whether a given Windows computer will be able to play Rewrite or other games using the Siglus game engine . If a rank of D and above is shown , gameplay of Rewrite will be normal , but if E is shown , gameplay will be fairly normal other than a few exceptions . Between April 21 and May 9 , 2011 , VisualArt 's accepted orders for a " Rewrite Note PC " laptop in two versions : a normal version and an AKN version with higher specifications ; AKN refers to Akane . The AKN version has one random signature from either Hinoue , Orito or Tonokawa , though VisualArt 's also sold the AKN version without the signature . The AKN version also contained 16 Rewrite wallpaper images , with the normal version having nine . The laptops feature five separate themes of system sounds , which use dialogue of the voice actresses of five Rewrite heroines : Kotori , Chihaya , Akane , Sizuru and Lucia .
While Rewrite was originally planned to be released on April 28 , 2011 , the game was later released on June 24 , 2011 as a limited edition version , playable as a 2 @-@ disc DVD set on a Windows PC . The limited edition came bundled with an approximately 80 @-@ page official guide book titled Rewrite of the Life , a remix album titled Soil , a CD containing recordings of the Internet radio show Radio Rewrite , three original cards from the Weiß Schwarz trading card game , an original card from the Lycèe Trading Card Game , three extra DVD case covers , and a mobile phone strap . Over two dozen stores in Akihabara and online offered special promotional items if the limited edition version of the game was bought at their store . These items included telephone cards , gift cards , mobile phone straps , pin buttons , desk mats , posters , cushion covers , tote bags , tapestries , and bed sheets . The regular edition of Rewrite was released on September 30 , 2011 . Prototype released a PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) port of Rewrite on April 17 , 2014 ; those who pre @-@ ordered the game also received an exclusive drama CD . Prototype also released a PlayStation Vita ( PS Vita ) version on August 28 , 2014 , and the drama CD bundled with the PSP version was also bundled with the PS Vita version for a limited time only . Prototype released a PlayStation 3 version on February 11 , 2015 .
= = = Fan disc and Rewrite + = = =
In interviews before the release of Rewrite , Tonokawa expressed interest in expanding on the story if the game was well received . Shortly after Rewrite 's release , Tonokawa approached Takahiro Baba with the proposal , who gave his approval for the production of a fan disc . Titled Rewrite Harvest festa ! , the fan disc was produced by the same staff as Rewrite , and was released on July 27 , 2012 , playable on a Windows PC . It came bundled with the fan disc 's original soundtrack titled Feast , a CD containing recordings of Radio Rewrite , an original booklet , two mobile phone straps , and one promotional card each from the trading card games Weiß Schwarz , Lycèe and Phantasmagoria .
The scenario consists of spin @-@ off stories which expand on Rewrite 's story , the harvest festival from Rewrite 's story is expanded on in Harvest festa ! , and minigames are included during the course of gameplay , as in Rewrite . The size of the scenario in Harvest festa ! is roughly comparable in size to Tomoyo After . The fan disc also features official character art of Inoue , a supporting character who was not illustrated in Rewrite . Unlike Rewrite , Kotarou is fully voiced in the fan disc . The five system sound themes included with the Rewrite laptops were released with the fan disc , with the addition of dialogue of Kagari by Kana Hanazawa .
To advertise Harvest festa ! , Good Smile Racing produced an itasha ( a car featuring illustrations of anime @-@ styled characters ) of a 2008 Daihatsu Hijet Cargo decorated with images from the game , and drove it around Japan between May 30 and July 26 , 2012 . The car was put onto the Japanese Yahoo ! Auction website on September 3 , 2012 and sold for 1 @,@ 806 @,@ 000 yen after starting the auction at 1 yen . Like the previously held Rewrite Fes . , Key hosted a promotional event on June 10 , 2012 called Rewrite Harvest festa ! Fes. in Akihabara . The event featured live performances by NanosizeMir and Aoi Tada , as well as on @-@ stage discussions of development staff members Tonokawa and Orito , and voice actors featured in the game .
Key will released an updated version of Rewrite titled Rewrite + on July 29 , 2016 for Windows . It includes various improvements and revisions to the scenario led by Romeo Tanaka , and additional illustrations not in the original game . Rewrite + contains the additional content featured in the consumer ports , including fully voicing over 500 characters , and the official character art of Inoue . Rewrite + will come bundled with Rewrite Harvest festa ! , a remix album titled Selene featuring music from both Rewrite and Harvest festa ! , a CD containing recordings of the Internet radio show Radio Rewrite , and an original card from the Weiß Schwarz trading card game . An English version of Rewrite + has been announced .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Print media = = =
A manga adaptation , illustrated by Sakana Tōjō and titled Rewrite : Side @-@ B , began serialization in the October 2010 issue of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine . The manga ended serialization in the magazine 's May 2014 issue and continued serialization in Dengeki G 's Comic between the June 2014 and July 2015 issues . Eight tankōbon volumes for Side @-@ B were released between April 27 , 2011 and July 27 , 2015 . A second manga , illustrated by Shūichi Kawakami and titled Rewrite : Side @-@ R , was serialized between the April 2011 and September 2013 issues of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Daioh . Five volumes of Side @-@ R were released between June 27 , 2011 and October 26 , 2013 . Side @-@ B and Side @-@ R are meant to be read together as a pair . A third , four @-@ panel comic strip manga , illustrated by Miyura Yano and titled Rewrite : Okaken e Yōkoso ! ! ( Rewrite オカ研へようこそ ! ! ) , was serialized between the June 2011 and April 2014 issues of Ichijinsha 's Manga 4 @-@ koma Palette . Two volumes of Okaken e Yōkoso ! ! were released : the first on July 21 , 2012 and the second on August 22 , 2014 . A fourth manga , illustrated by Yayoi Hazuki and titled Rewrite : Okaken Blog ( Rewrite ‒ OKA ☆ KEN ぶろぐ ‒ ) , was serialized between volumes 20 and 29 of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Festival ! Comic sold between October 26 , 2011 and April 26 , 2013 . Two volumes of Okaken Blog were released : the first on July 27 , 2012 , and the second on July 27 , 2013 .
There have also been several sets of manga anthologies produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists . An anthology published by Taibundo and illustrated by Zen titled Earth Star Comics Rewrite was published in September 2011 . Two volumes of an anthology series released by Ichijinsha under the title Rewrite Comic Anthology were released between September and November 2011 . Enterbrain released two volumes of a collection of four @-@ panel comic strips under the title Magi @-@ Cu 4 @-@ koma Rewrite between December 2011 and March 2012 . A manga anthology titled Rewrite Comic A La Carte : Okaken Katsudō Hōkokusho ( Rewrite コミックアラカルト オカ研活動報告書 ) appeared in Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace and a single volume was released in October 2011 .
A series of seven short stories titled Official Another Story Rewrite : Ha Yure Sasayaku Shōkei de ( Official Another Story Rewrite -葉揺れささやく小径で- ) , written by the scenario writers of Rewrite and illustrated by Zen , were serialized between the September 2011 and March 2012 issues of Dengeki G 's Magazine . Self @-@ described as an official illustrated story for Rewrite , the short stories were collected into a single volume released on July 27 , 2012 . Three volumes of a short story compilation series by several authors titled Rewrite SSS were published by Harvest between October 2011 and January 2012 . Four volumes of a light novel anthology published by Paradigm under their VA Bunko imprint titled Rewrite Novel Anthology were released between November 2011 and February 2012 . A 224 @-@ page art book titled Rewrite Perfect Visual Book ( Rewrite パーフェクトビジュアルブック ) was released on November 30 , 2011 by ASCII Media Works . The art book contains story summaries of the game 's scenarios , information on the cast of characters , interviews from the production staff , and illustrations featuring art from the game .
= = = Internet radio show = = =
An Internet radio show to promote Rewrite called Radio Rewrite : Gekkan Tera Kazamatsuri Gakuin Shikyoku ( ラジオRewrite 月刊テラ ・ 風祭学院支局 , Radio Rewrite : Terra Monthly Magazine - Kazamatsuri Academy Branch ) broadcast 70 episodes between May 27 , 2011 and September 28 , 2012 . The show was streamed online every Friday , and was produced by the Japanese Internet radio stations Hibiki and Onsen . The show was hosted by Masakazu Morita and Chiwa Saitō , who voice Kotarou Tennouji and Kotori Kanbe from the game , respectively . Seven CD compilation volumes containing all 70 episodes were released between September 30 , 2011 and August 28 , 2013 .
= = = Anime = = =
A 13 @-@ episode anime television series adaptation , directed by Tensho and produced by 8 @-@ Bit , premiered on July 2 , 2016 . The series is also being streamed by Crunchyroll with English subtitles . The screenplay is written by Takashi Aoshima and Tatsuya Takahashi with Romeo Tanaka and Kai credited with collaborating on the composition and scripts . The series features character design by Masayuki Nonaka who based the designs on Itaru Hinoue 's original concepts . The series will be released on seven DVD and Blu @-@ ray compilation volumes between September 28 , 2016 and March 22 , 2017 by Aniplex . The fourth DVD and Blu @-@ ray volume will include a video game for Windows written by Ryukishi07 .
The opening theme is " Philosophyz ( TV animation ver . ) " sung by Runa Mizutani of NanosizeMir and the ending theme is " Sasayaka na Hajimari ( TV animation ver . ) " ( ささやかなはじまり 〜 TV animation ver . 〜 ) performed by NanosizeMir . Both songs are remixes of theme songs featured in the original Rewrite and Rewrite Harvest festa ! visual novels . The rest of the soundtrack for the anime series is sampled from the Rewrite Original Soundtrack .
= = Music = =
Rewrite has seven pieces of theme music : two opening themes and five ending themes . The first opening theme is " Philosophyz " by Runa Mizutani of the dōjin music group NanosizeMir . The second opening theme is " Rewrite " by Psychic Lover . The first ending theme is " Yami no Kanata e " ( 闇の彼方へ , Beyond the Darkness ) by NanosizeMir , and it is used for Kotori 's , Chihaya 's and Lucia 's scenarios . The next two ending themes are " Koibumi " ( 恋文 , Love Letter ) and " Itsuwaranai Kimi e " ( 偽らない君へ ) , both sung by Nagi Yanagi . " Koibumi " is used for Sizuru 's route , and " Itsuwaranai Kimi e " is used for Akane 's story . " Itsuwaranai Kimi e " is also used as an insert song during Lucia 's route . The last two ending themes are " Watari no Uta " ( 渡りの詩 ) used in the Moon route , and " Canoe " used in the Terra route , both sung by Aoi Tada .
In Rewrite Harvest festa ! , the opening theme is " Harvest " by Tada , and the ending theme is " Sasayaka na Hajimari " ( ささやかなはじまり ) by NanosizeMir . " Philosophyz " , " Itsuwaranai Kimi e " , and " Watari no Uta " are used in the fan disc as insert songs . Eight of the main characters from Rewrite have background music leitmotifs — the six heroines , Haruhiko Yoshino and Sakuya Ohtori . Kagari 's theme is " Hinagiku " ( ヒナギク , Daisy ) ; Kotori 's theme is " Nirinsō " ( ニリンソウ , Soft Windflower ) ; Chihaya 's theme is " Asagao " ( アサガオ , Morning Glory ) ; Akane 's theme is " Anthurium " ( アンスリウム , Ansuriumu ) ; Sizuru 's theme is " Carnation " ( カーネーション , Kānēshon ) ; Lucia 's theme is " Sunbright " ( サンブライト , Sanburaito ) ; Yoshino 's theme is " DIS is a Pain " ; lastly , Sakuya 's theme is " Sanka " ( 散花 ) .
The single for " Philosophyz " was released on January 28 , 2011 . The single contained " Philosophyz " and " Yami no Kanata e " in original , short and instrumental versions . A single for " Rewrite " was released on May 27 , 2011 . As with Key 's previous works ( excluding Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet ) , a music album came bundled with the limited edition release of the game ; the album , released on June 24 , 2011 , is titled Soil and contains arranged versions of ten tracks of the game 's music . Rewrite 's original soundtrack was first released on August 12 , 2011 at Comiket 80 containing 63 tracks ; it was later released for general sale on October 28 , 2011 . A remix album titled Branch was released on December 29 , 2011 at Comiket 81 . The original soundtrack for Rewrite Harvest festa ! , titled Feast , was released bundled with the fan disc on July 27 , 2012 . A remix album titled Dye Mixture featuring tracks from both Rewrite and Harvest festa ! was released on December 29 , 2012 at Comiket 83 . Another remix album titled Crann Mor featuring tracks from Rewrite was released on December 29 , 2015 at Comiket 89 . A single performed by Runa Mizutani and NanosizeMir will be released in July 2016 for the anime series titled " Philosophyz / Sasayaka na Hajimari " , which contains the anime 's opening and ending themes in original , short , and instrumental versions . A remix album titled Selene featuring tracks from both Rewrite and Harvest festa ! will be released on July 29 , 2016 bundled with Rewrite + . Each of the singles and albums released were on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label .
= = Reception = =
In 2011 , Rewrite ranked five times in the top ten in national PC game pre @-@ orders in Japan . The rankings were at No. 9 in January , No. 4 in February , No. 3 in March , and twice at No. 1 in April and May . Rewrite ranked first in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in June 2011 . Rewrite would rank twice more in the top 50 highest selling PC games in Japan , at No. 14 in July and at No. 29 in August 2011 . According to public sales information published at Gamasutra , taken from the Japanese Amazon website , Rewrite was the number one top seller of PC games in Japan the day of its release . Rewrite premiered as the No. 1 game sold on Getchu.com , a major redistributor of visual novel and domestic anime products , during the month of its release , and at No. 30 in July . The game would go on to be the No. 8 game sold for the first half of 2011 , and at No. 11 for the whole year . In 2012 , Rewrite Harvest festa ! ranked three times in the top ten in national PC game pre @-@ orders in Japan . The rankings were at No. 6 in April , No. 3 in May , and No. 1 in June . Harvest festa ! ranked first in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in July 2012 .
On the day of its release , two video game retailers in Akihabara opened two hours early for advance sales of Rewrite . The main Gamers store opened at 7 a.m. to a line of about 200 people . The Sofmap Amusement store opened at 9 a.m. and used two floors in the eight @-@ story building for sales of Rewrite : | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the fifth floor was used for general sale and advance orders of the game , while the eighth floor was used solely for those who had reserved their copy . The PSP port in 2014 was reviewed by the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu , which gave it an overall score of 30 / 40 ( out of the four individual review scores of 7 , 8 , 8 and 7 ) .
Key held a character popularity poll between December 15 – 31 , 2011 for every character from the game , even very minor ones . The top three winners would each get a downloadable wallpaper , and first place would get original artwork for the wallpaper . A voter could vote one time for up to three characters per day . While Sizuru led at first , Akane surged ahead near the end . The top three winners were Akane with 18 @,@ 042 votes , Sizuru with 16 @,@ 839 votes , and Lucia with 15 @,@ 047 votes .
= Abby Cunningham =
Abby Fairgate ( formerly Cunningham , Ewing and Sumner ) is a fictional character from the CBS soap opera Knots Landing , a long @-@ running serial about middle class life on the fictional cul @-@ de @-@ sac known as Seaview Circle in Los Angeles , California . She was played by actress Donna Mills between 1980 and 1989 . Abby was created by producer David Jacobs as one of Knots Landing 's earliest characters . She debuted in the first episode of the second season . Mills remained a principal actor in the series until she left in its tenth season . She returned for the two @-@ part series finale to provide closure for the fans . The character made her last television appearance in 1997 , when she appeared in the Knots Landing reunion series Knots Landing : Back to the Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac , and was reunited with former cast members .
Prior to being cast on Knots Landing , Mills was predominantly known for playing " damsel in distress " roles , which is why the producers didn 't initially consider her . Abby 's storylines focused on business dealings , affairs and family troubles . Introduced as the sister of Sid Fairgate , she was initially portrayed as a friendly , warm @-@ hearted woman with great love for her children . In due time , she evolved into the series ' main antagonist , constantly causing mayhem in others ' lives . According to series creator David Jacobs , the producers always intended Abby to be a J.R. Ewing @-@ esque character . Jacobs said , " When we were casting the role of Abby , we were looking for a homey type , someone whom the other women characters would trust . It was our intention to have this nice person gain the trust of the other women and then cause trouble for them . We didn 't want the other characters and the audience to know that there was a scheming person under this nice facade . We wanted her to come on as a good person and then evolve into a vixen . "
The character became known for her manipulative behavior and was often labeled a " soap vixen " . She was praised by television critics , with Carolyn McGuire of The Chicago Tribune saying : " Whoever shows up as the next villain , chances are his or her work won 't be easy . That 's because at least one resident — Abby Ewing — knows how to dish nasty with the best of them . " When asked which character he wished he had created , Mike Kelly , the creator of ABC 's popular primetime @-@ soap opera Revenge , said : " Abby Ewing . Donna Mills , you rocked my world . " John Mapes of The Biography Channel said , " Any great soap opera needs a great villain . While viewers may identify more with the protagonist , the villains in a serial drama always spice things up , cause trouble , and make it more fun to watch . "
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Mills portrayed Abby from 1980 – 1989 . Prior to being cast in Knots Landing , Mills was primarily known for playing the " damsel in distress " archetype in both film and television media . The actress became somewhat famous for playing these roles , often leading to unwanted typecasting . In an interview with Jerry Buck for the Toledo Blade , Mills said : " I got tired of playing the victim . It 's a more active role . Abby keeps things stirred up , and I like that . " According to Jacobs , Abby was not planned when the show began . He knew that he wanted a female J.R. Ewing @-@ esque character . However , he had a different sense of the character and who would wind up in the role . With Mills ' reputation of playing the victim , he initially didn 't choose her for the part .
In the early planning stages of season two , CBS executive Tony Barch suggested Mills for the role of Abby Cunningham . The character was initially conceived as the sister of Sid Fairgate ( Don Murray ) , one of the central characters on the show , who was killed off in the next season . Casting agent Barbara Miller @-@ Gidaly introduced Mills and Jacobs . After meeting with Miller @-@ Gidaly , Jacobs decided to have Mills test for the role , which was unusual for an established actress . She auditioned shortly after and convinced the producers that she was the right person for the part . Jacobs said , " She came back that afternoon and she read and she was great , and it meant reshaping the role a little bit , but , um , not that much . You know , she still came in , she drove up in the Volvo station wagon . She had the kids in the back . It was very middle class . "
In 1989 , Mills announced her intention to leave the long @-@ running nighttime soap after nine years as Abby . According to Mills , she wanted to take a break from acting for a while , and from Abby as well . In an interview with The Cedartown Standard , Mills explained : " I 'm tired of the show . It 's been too long . I 'm not particularly happy with the way they 've been writing Abby lately . She 's too soft . I 'd like Abby to get back to her old self . " Mills returned for the series finale and the subsequent reunion specials ( Knots Landing : Back to the Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac and Knots Landing Reunion : Together Again ) . Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times praised her scenes with fellow actor William Devane , saying : " The Jean Naté @-@ scented banter between the actors Donna Mills and William Devane is both the daffiest and the most enlightening part of the reunion special . "
= = = Characterization = = =
The producers always intended Abby to be the " pot stirrer " . Devane , who played Greg Sumner , said that the show was looking for a woman " in high heels with the throat of the guy – that 's what they wanted " . He added , " It was your character that influenced all these unhappy women today who have jobs and are out there working hard , trying to raise kids by themselves , going crazy . " Mark Harris of Entertainment Weekly said , " Michelle Phillips is the last of prime @-@ time 's great schemers , an essential element of the show since the departure of Donna Mills , whose Abby Cunningham was Knots ' resident harpy for years . "
In an interview with Greg Hernandez , Mills explained : " I knew that she was going to be a trouble maker but actually knowing the writers and the producers , I knew that the character would be rounded and have dimension and that was really fun for me to play . It wasn ’ t one @-@ note all the time , it was a lot of different colors . " Television personality Julie Chen said , " The women of Knots , Michele Lee , Joan Van Ark , and Donna Mills have been compared to earth , wind , and fire , with Donna Mills bringing the heat as Abby , the conniving vixen that everybody loved to hate . " According to Mills , many people were wary of meeting her in person because they assumed she would be like Abby . She said , " They were very trepedacious about what I was going to do . " Mike Celizic of NBC said that her character was " the archetypal predatory female " , while Meredith Vieira said " even the bad girl could show a tender side every once in a while " , in reference to her daughter 's on @-@ screen drug addiction . It was this very storyline that showed Abby at her most vulnerable and human , a story which audiences recall as perhaps one of her most desperate and motherly of moments . In addition to that , Abby also helped Val get her kidnapped babies back , even though she was blamed she said she " could never do a thing like that to anyone " . When Karen and Mack began to have some problems in their marriage and Karen distanced herself from Mack , Abby confronted Karen aggressively and told her she was wrong for doing so to him .
Mills became known for wearing a lot of eye makeup in her scenes , to the point where it became a major character trait for her fictional personality . Carole Glinez of Star magazine said , " Mills was so famous for her dramatic eye makeup on the show that she produced her own beauty video called The Eyes Have It . " Eddie Shapiro of Out magazine said that " Abby 's eye makeup was legendary ! " Glinez also referred to her as Knots " Fox " , saying : " Mills was one of the queens of the nighttime soap . Abby Cunningham Ewing was the conniving , bed hopping blonde beauty on the Dallas spin @-@ off Knots Landing .
= = = Relationships = = =
Abby was always intended to be the show 's promiscuous seductress . In an interview with Carolyn McGuire of The Chicago Tribune , Jacobs said : " When we were casting the role of Abby , we were looking for a homey type , someone whom the other women characters would trust . It was our intention to have this nice person gain the trust of the other women and then cause trouble for them . We didn 't want the other characters and the audience to know that there was a scheming person under this nice facade . We wanted her to come on as a good person and then evolve into a vixen . " Author June L. May of Monsters and Critics said , " In season two of Knots Landing , a catalyst moves into the neighborhood in the form of Sid ’ s sister , the drop dead gorgeous Abby Cunningham . Whether Abby is directly involved , or simply in the neighborhood , she has a detrimental affect on the harmony of couples . " Almost immediately , Abby sank her claws into Richard Avery ( John Pleshette ) , one of the neighborhood husbands . Though the affair was brief , it set the stage for what was to come .
In season three , Abby sets her sights on the wealthy Gary Ewing , the husband of her good friend Valene Ewing . While Gary initially thwarted her attempts , he eventually gave in and had a full @-@ fledged affair with her . Actress Joan Van Ark , who played Val , said : " I went in way early , whenever Donna Mills came on the show , and told David Jacobs that it made total sense that Gary would fall for Abby . Because they were celebrating Donna Mills and she became the center I can ’ t believe I did that but it really provided us with some great stories . And it was the longest running story on the show . " Dan Lewis of the Sarasota Journal said , " In a recent episode , Abby lures Gary Ewing into an affair , and sets it up so that his wife will discover it . After she completed the scene , Miss Mills recalls , the crew hissing at her – jokingly , of course . " The character was known for her numerous rivalries with other female characters , such as Paige and Karen . Carole Glinez said , " Mills ' character faced her rival Paige , played by future Desperate Housewives sexpot Nicollette Sheridan . "
= = Storylines = =
Before her first appearance , Abby meets and marries Jeff Cunningham . They move to San Luis Obispo , California , and have two children , Olivia and Brian . When she and Jeff divorce , Abby moves to San Diego . On the way she stops to visit her brother , Sid , and decides to stay in Knots Landing . She rents a house on Seaview Circle , and has an affair with Richard Avery . Abby soon sets her eyes on neighbor Gary Ewing , which becomes obvious after she starts working as a bookkeeper for Knots Landing Motors . She and Gary get the company involved with the mob , which results in her brother Sid 's death . At the same time , Jeff kidnaps her children . She eventually gets them back . Abby and Gary go into a methanol business together and start an affair . Valene finds out and kicks Gary out , so he moves in with Abby . Gary soon inherits millions from his father Jock Ewing 's death . Abby uses the money to manipulate those around her , and Gary starts drinking again . Gary sobers up and buys a ranch , similar to Southfork , the ranch his family owns . They move there and marry .
Abby begins running Gary 's company , and uses his money to fund her own corporation , Apaloon , which she uses to develop Lotus Point . She becomes involved with politician Greg Sumner and the Wolfbridge group . When Gary finds out about her illegal dealings , he leaves her . After Abby is kidnapped , he takes her back , and makes Karen a partner in Lotus Point . Abby soon finds out that Val is pregnant with Gary 's twins . She expresses her displeasure to employee Scott Easton , who has Val 's twins kidnapped at birth . Abby works to find out where the twins are , and brings Val to them . Abby finagles her way to become a part of the " real " Empire Valley . After Gary blows it up , he leaves Abby again . She attempts to get him back , but instead they divorce . Abby soon starts an affair with Peter Hollister as a way to get information on Greg . Then Charles Scott , her first love , returns . He is married , but he divorces his wife and asks Abby to marry him .
Abby is in love again , but then finds out that Charles is the front for a group of thugs wanting to build a marina at Lotus Point for drug trafficking . Abby pretends to go along with the marriage and accepts a two million dollar wedding gift from Charles . After the ceremony she has the marriage annulled , but keeps the money . After this , Abby marries Greg Sumner . It isn 't love , but rather a political marriage . Abby forms another company , Morikame , in order to buy Lotus Point . When her former partners find out and threaten to have her arrested for fraud , she donates Lotus Point to the government as a wildlife preserve . Abby goes after a political appointment that Greg wants , and leaves Knots Landing to be a trade representative in Japan . Abby later forms another illegal company with Nigel Treadwell , and tries to take over the Sumner Group , but her plan fails . She moves back into her old house on the cul @-@ de @-@ sac .
In the 1997 reunion mini @-@ series , Abby sells her house and prepares to leave the cul @-@ de @-@ sac and move to Malibu . However , the IRS freezes her assets for non @-@ payment of back taxes , and she temporarily moves in with Karen and Mack , and gets a job from Gary at the construction company he runs with Karen . However , Abby 's motives are to obtain a legal document from their company in order to help Greg Sumner , who is being sued . Should she obtain the document , Greg will pay her the $ 1 million she needs . Greg then informs her he no longer needs the document . Abby tries to infiltrate his other business dealings to her advantage . Instead of paying her off , Greg offers her a job overseeing one of his business operations in Thailand , which will make her rich again . Before departing , Abby learns that Brian 's girlfriend ( Kate Whittaker ) is expecting their first child , thus making her a grandmother .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Abby was well received by television critics . Carolyn McGuire of The Chicago Tribune commented , " Whoever shows up as the next villain , chances are his or her work won 't be easy . That 's because at least one resident — Abby Ewing — knows how to dish nasty with the best of them . Only Alexis Carrington Colby Dexter , played by Joan Collins on Dynasty , and Angela Channing , portrayed by Jane Wyman on Falcon Crest , rival Abby Ewing , played by Donna Mills , for best prime @-@ time female villain . " When asked which character he wished he had created , Mike Kelly , the creator of ABC 's popular primetime @-@ soap Revenge , said : " Abby Ewing . Donna Mills , you rocked my world . " Jamey Giddens of Zap2it said , " While I readily admit Alexis will go down in soap history as the most famous of the 80 's primetime soap vixens , she was never truly my cup of detergent . I much preferred the more subdued , methodical villainy of characters like Abby Fairgate ( Donna Mills ) , who slept her way through Seaview Circle , and to the top of Corporate California on Knots Landing . God I miss that damn Cul @-@ de @-@ Sac ! "
Josh Mapes of The Biography Channel listed her in the category " 10 Primetime Stars We Love to Hate " . He said , " Any great soap opera needs a great villain . While viewers may identify more with the protagonist , the villains in a serial drama always spice things up , cause trouble , and make it more fun to watch . From tongue lashings to catfights , underhanded tricks to boldface lies , the characters we love to hate have each brought a fair share of great moments to primetime soaps . While Larry Hagman played the bad guy on Dallas , Donna Mills played bad girl on its spin @-@ off , Knots Landing . Unapologetically going after what she wanted , Mills ' character engaged in affairs with two of the husbands on the Knots Landing cul @-@ de @-@ sac . But , like most vixens on primetime soaps , she was only out for money , not love . " Steve Eighinger of the Quincy Newspapers listed Abby as the third @-@ most memorable TV character in an article he wrote for the Quincy Herald @-@ Whig . He said , " No one , absolutely no one , rocked eye shadow and the messy @-@ hair look like Abby Ewing , who was this marvelous combination of vixen and corporate sleuth . As her character developed , life on the cul @-@ de @-@ sac made Knots Landing destination TV every Thursday night for more than a decade . "
Marta Hoelsher of Technorati Media said : " The biggest news of season two , though , is the appearance of Donna Mills as Abby Cunningham , the blonde bombshell who wreaks havoc all through the neighborhood . With the appearance of Abby , things really started to heat up and get interesting . No marriage is off limits when Abby sets her eyes on it . Played to perfection by Donna Mills , Abby is wicked , vicious , bitchy , and heartless enough to keep us loving and hating her for years . Abby 's clashes with Karen MacKenzie and Val were legendary , and season two gets things rolling . After a fairly peaceful start to the season , we start to see the beginnings of the rivalry that defines the show for years : Karen vs. Abby . It 's fun watching their early friendship evolve into a bitter rivalry . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= HMS Boadicea ( H65 ) =
HMS Boadicea was a B @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy ( RN ) around 1930 . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , she was transferred to the Home Fleet in 1936 . Before her departure , the ship evacuated civilians from Spain during the beginning of the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 . Boadicea later spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . During World War II , the ship spent the bulk of the war on convoy escort duty in British waters and participated in the Battle of the Atlantic , Operation Torch , the Russian Convoys , and in the Normandy landings . Badly damaged by German dive bombers in 1940 , she was sunk almost exactly four years later by aerial torpedoes .
= = Description = =
Boadicea displaced 1 @,@ 360 long tons ( 1 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 790 long tons ( 1 @,@ 820 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 32 feet 3 inches ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Boadicea carried a maximum of 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 134 officers and enlisted men , although it increased to 142 during wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Boadicea had two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on a platform between her funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . The ship was fitted with a Type 119 ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
By October 1940 , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased when the rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun . The ' Y ' gun was later removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . When Boadicea was converted into an escort destroyer at the end of 1943 , her ' A ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and additional depth charge stowage replaced the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun . In addition , two QF 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns were added to deal with surfaced submarines at close range and the 2 @-@ pounder guns were replaced by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon autocannon and four additional Oerlikon guns were also added .
= = Construction and service = =
The ship was ordered on 4 March 1929 from Hawthorn Leslie , under the 1928 Naval Programme . She was laid down at Hebburn @-@ on @-@ Tyne on 11 July 1929 , and launched on 23 September 1930 , as the fifth RN ship to carry this name . Boadicea was completed on 9 April 1931 at a cost of £ 225 @,@ 325 , excluding items supplied by the Admiralty such as guns , ammunition and communications equipment . After her commissioning , she was assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet until 1936 . She was damaged whilst refuelling at sea with the battleship Revenge on 15 March 1935 ; her repairs lasted until 18 April . Later that year she was deployed to Famagusta , Cyprus , and Haifa , Palestine to assist British forces in putting down riots from December 1935 – January 1936 . Boadicea had to return to Haifa in June to help put down the beginnings of the Arab Revolt . Afterwards the ship was deployed to Cartagena and Valencia to evacuate civilians at the start of the Spanish Civil War before beginning a refit at Portsmouth that lasted until 26 September . She remained with the 4th Flotilla until January 1939 and made multiple deployments off the coast of Spain enforcing the embargo until April 1938 when she was again refitted . After leaving the 4th Flotilla , Boadicea served as the plane guard for the aircraft carriers of the Mediterranean Fleet for a few months until she became the emergency destroyer at the Nore . She was attached to the Reserve Fleet at Portland for the Fleet Review in August 1939 .
On 29 August , Boadicea was assigned to the 19th Destroyer Flotilla based at Dover where she escorted the troopships of the British Expeditionary Force through October . The ship was then transferred to the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla at Harwich for two months before rejoining the 19th Flotilla where she escorted convoys through the English Channel . On 4 March 1940 , she towed the oil tanker Charles F. Meyer to Southampton Water after that ship struck a mine . Boadicea began a refit at Chatham Dockyard on 2 May and was not operational until she sailed for Le Havre , France on 9 June to assist in the evacuation of British troops before advancing German troops . The next afternoon , she was severely damaged by Junkers Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bombers that knocked out her engines and boilers . After all depth charges and torpedoes were jettisoned to reduce her topweight and temporary repairs made to the holes in her hull , Boadicea was towed by the destroyer Ambuscade and the tugboat Krooman to Dover .
Repairs at Portsmouth lasted until 14 February 1941 and included the installation of a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar . Upon completions , the ship was assigned to Home Fleet and participated in the search for the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau which had broken out into the North Atlantic . In March , Boadicea was transferred to the 4th Escort Group at Greenock for convoy escort duties and remained with them until February 1942 when the group was disbanded . She was then assigned to the Western Approaches Command until July . The ship was detached to escort Convoys PQ 15 and Convoy QP 12 to and from Murmansk in April – May . Boadicea was refitted between August and October , after which she escorted a convoy to Gibraltar as part of the preparations for Operation Torch , the invasion of French North Africa . She escorted British ships to Oran during the invasion and was struck by a shell from a French L 'Adroit @-@ class destroyer on 8 November that did little damage . Three days later , the ship was escorting the empty ocean liner RMS Viceroy of India when the latter ship was torpedoed . The destroyer attempted to take the troopship under tow , but was unable to save the ship . Boadicea rescued 449 passengers and crew and delivered them to Gibraltar . Upon her return home , the ship was assigned to the 20th Escort Group where she escorted Convoys JW 51A , JW 53 and RA 53 to and from Russia . She was badly damaged by sea ice during the latter convoy in March and required repairs that lasted until May .
Upon their completion , Boadicea was transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone where she served as a local escort . On 19 July , she rescued 220 survivors from the torpedoed ocean liner MV Incomati . The ship returned to the Home Fleet in September and briefly assigned to the 8th Escort Group before she started her conversion into an escort destroyer in November . This included the addition of Type 271 target indication radar and the replacement of the Type 286 radar by a Type 290 . After this was completed in January 1944 , Boadicea rejoined the 8th Escort Group and escorted Convoys JW 57 , RA 58 and RA 59 to Russia from February through April . In preparation for Operation Overlord , the invasion of Normandy , she was transferred to Portsmouth where she escorted convoys arriving in England as well as the convoys across the Channel . Boadicea was sunk on 13 June off Portland Bill by two torpedoes dropped by Junkers Ju 88 medium bombers while escorting a convoy of merchant ships to France . The torpedoes caused a magazine explosion and Boadicea sank quickly , with only 12 of her crew of 182 surviving .
The ship is included on the Chatham Naval Memorial ; her wreck is 16 miles ( 26 km ) southwest of the Isle of Portland at 50 ° 28 ′ 12 ″ N 02 ° 29 ′ 30 ″ W in 53 metres ( 174 ft ) of water . Her bow is blown off forward of the engine rooms . Her stern section is upright and reasonably intact . The wreck site is designated as a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 .
= Apex Hides the Hurt =
Apex Hides the Hurt is a 2006 novel by American author Colson Whitehead . The novel follows an unnamed nomenclature consultant who is asked to visit the town of Winthrop , which , rather conveniently for the nomenclature consultant , is considering changing its name . During his visit , the main character is introduced to several citizens attempting to persuade him in favor of their preferred name for the town .
The novel has received mostly positive reviews from critics , with few negative comments . In a positive review for American magazine Entertainment Weekly , Jennifer Reese called the book " a blurry satire of American commercialism , " adding that " it may not mark the apex of Colson Whitehead 's career , but it brims with the author 's spiky humor and intelligence . " The book was featured among the 100 Most Notable Books of The Year for 2006 , as published by The New York Times .
= = About the author = =
Colson Whitehead ( born 1969 ) is an American author . Whitehead was born and raised in Brooklyn , New York and wrote for The Village Voice for two years during his early career , and has since authored three other novels : The Intuitionist , John Henry Days and The Colossus of New York . Since Whitehead began writing , he has had his books and writing reviewed and mentioned in The New York Times , New York Magazine , Harper 's Magazine and has been a recipient of the MacArthur and Whiting Award .
= = Plot = =
The book is set in the fictional town of Winthrop . The protagonist of the book is an unnamed African @-@ American " nomenclature consultant " who has had recent success in branding and selling Apex bandages , which come in multiple colors to better match a broad array of skin tones . The novel begins with the main character being contacted by his former employer , which he had left after losing a toe . He travels to the town of Winthrop after requests from the town council , which has proposed that the town be renamed . However , three key citizens disagree what the name should be : Albie Winthrop , descendant of the town 's namesake ( who 'd made his fortune in barbed wire ) ; Regina Goode , the mayor ( descendant of one of the town 's two founders ) ; and Lucky Aberdeen , a software magnate who 's leading the drive to rename the town . Winthrop wants to keep the name ; Goode wants the town to revert to the name it bore at its founding as a town of free blacks , Freedom ; while Aberdeen wants to call it " New Prospera . "
As the consultant talks with the residents of the town and investigates its history , the backstory of his injury is gradually revealed . After repeatedly stubbing his toe and covering it up with Apex bandages , the consultant accidentally stepped into pig feces during a company team retreat . Because of the colored bandage , he never discovered how his toe was badly infected , and fainted on the sidewalk after fleeing from an awards party . This led to the amputation of his toe , his departure from the nomenclature firm , and the beginning of his hermetic lifestyle .
After much deliberation , the consultant decides on the name " Struggle , " the original idea of the other of the two original founders , Field . Following this , the consultant promptly returns home , where his foot injury continues to bother him even more than before .
= = Themes = =
In an interview with Alma Books , Whitehead states that the concept of the book originated from an article about the naming process for new pharmaceuticals such as Prozac . The article made Whitehead question how a similar process is used to assert a certain control over one 's environment ( his example is a boulevard named after a particular person ) , and yoking the two concepts was the beginning of the ideas that led to his composition of the novel .
= = Reception = =
Overall , the novel was critically well received . It was highlighted among The New York Times ' 100 Most Notable Books of the Year , and also highlighted among 100 noteworthy books from 2006 , as published by The Charleston Gazette . In a review in The Boston Globe , Saul Austerlitz called it a " wickedly funny new novel . " USA Today noted that " no novelist writing today is more engaging and entertaining when it comes to questions of race , class and commercial culture than Colson Whitehead , " concluding that the novel " gets to the heart of the thing , but in a delightfully roundabout way . " The San Francisco Chronicle gave the novel a mixed review , commenting that " It 's pure joy to read writing like this , but watching Whitehead sketch out a minor character 's essence with one stroke , while breathtaking , makes one wish the same treatment was afforded the people who ostensibly inhabit the novel 's complex ideas . " American trade news magazine Publishers Weekly reacted negatively to the book , writing that " Whitehead disappoints in this intriguingly conceived but static tale of a small town with an identity crisis . "
Erin Aubry Kaplan of the Los Angeles Times noted that " too often , [ Whitehead ] can 't resist the temptation of irony , and his big ideas are sometimes overwhelmed by one wink @-@ wink or metaphor too many . " Kirkus Reviews praised the book , writing that " while making no attempt at depth of characterization , Whitehead audaciously blurs the line between social realism and fabulist satire . " The Library Journal praised the book , noting that " In spare and evocative prose , Whitehead does Shakespeare one better : What 's in a name , and how does our identity relate to our own sense of who we are ? " The New York Observer was critical of the book but noted that " readers not looking for direct emotional access to the characters may find it gratifying to solve the intellectual puzzle set here by Colson Whitehead . "
Scott Esposito of webzine PopMatters gave the novel mixed comments , writing that " it is no surprise that Apex Hides the Hurt , Whitehead 's third novel , is packed with a number of allegorical elements blended into a multi @-@ layered structure . What 's unfortunate , however , is that all this technical artistry is in the service of unremarkable themes and ideas . Entertainment newspaper The A.V. Club complimented the book , writing that " perhaps taking his cues from his protagonist 's profession , Whitehead keeps his prose as streamlined as it comes , and he uses it to craft a satiric novel in tune with a moment where marketing overshadows content and even the lowliest blogger thinks in branding terms . " Michael McGirr of The Sydney Morning Herald called it " a book of abundant irony . "
= = Honors = =
PEN Oakland / Josephine Miles Literary Award
= 1 + 1 ( song ) =
" 1 + 1 " is a song recorded by American recording artist Beyoncé for her fourth studio album , 4 ( 2011 ) . It was released by Columbia Records in the United States on May 25 , 2011 , as a promotional single . Serving as the opening track on 4 , it was written and produced by Beyoncé , The @-@ Dream and Tricky Stewart . " 1 + 1 " was originally titled " Nothing But Love " and The @-@ Dream had initially planned to include it on his second studio album , Love vs. Money ( 2009 ) . A down @-@ tempo contemporary R & B and soul music power ballad , " 1 + 1 " Beyoncé expressing her endless love to her soul mate ; the lyrics make strong statements about the power of the relationship .
" 1 + 1 " garnered acclaim from music critics , who noted its resemblance to the work of American singers Prince and Sam Cooke . It was also complimented for its subtle instrumentation , which provides emphasis on Beyoncé 's vocals . " 1 + 1 " peaked at number 82 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart and at number 57 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Its accompanying music video was directed by Beyoncé herself , alongside Lauren Briet and Ed Burke , and it premiered on August 26 , 2011 . The video was a " different " direction in the sense that it does not incorporate the heavy dance routines Beyoncé is known for , and that it experiments with psychedelic visual effects as well as innovative lighting , which give the clip a cinematic feel . The clip met with generally positive reception from music critics , who praised its aesthetic and sexual theme and claimed that it will be remembered as one of Beyoncé 's most iconic visual work .
Soon after Beyoncé 's performance on American Idol , a video that surfaced online received considerable coverage from different media . It was filmed by Jay @-@ Z with a camera phone and shows Beyoncé rehearsing " 1 + 1 " backstage at American Idol . The ballad was included on Beyoncé 's set list for a free concert as part of Good Morning America 's Summer Concert Series , the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé , and her revue , 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé , held at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City . Beyoncé 's live performances of " 1 + 1 " have received positive reception ; a writer from The Huffington Post described her live performance at the American Idol as " an epic , emotionally @-@ charged [ one ] . " American singers Dondria and Tiffany Evans have performed covers of the ballad , with lyrical modifications .
= = Conception and release = =
" 1 + 1 " was initially written and titled " Nothing but Love " by Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash , who intended to include it on his second studio album , Love King ( 2010 ) . He later gave it to Beyoncé Knowles for her fourth studio album 4 , where she and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart did some additional writing . The song was produced by the trio at the Studio at the Palms in Paradise , Nevada and Triangle Sound Studio in Atlanta , Georgia , where Beyoncé recorded the song . The @-@ Dream and Stewart did the musical arrangements and Beyoncé worked on arranged the vocals . Lee Blaske , Nikki Gallespi and Pete Wolford played the instruments , while Brian Thomas alongside Pat Thrall assisted in recording the music . Jordan Young then recorded Beyoncé 's vocals . Tony Maserati mixed the track with assistance from Val Brathwaite , and Jason Sherwood , Mark Gray , Steven Dennis and Wolford all assisted in the audio engineering .
Shortly after " 1 + 1 " was released online , Beyoncé debuted the ballad by performing a piano version on the finale of the tenth season of American Idol on May 25 , 2011 . " 1 + 1 " was made available for download only a few hours after her performance ; its cover art was photographed by Anthony Duran . The song was released through the iTunes Store as a promotional single from 4 in the United States . People who pre @-@ ordered 4 at the iTunes Store received a free download of " 1 + 1 " . The song was not sent for airplay in the US as " Best Thing I Never Had " was favored as the second single , following the release of the lead single " Run the World ( Girls ) " .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" 1 + 1 " is a downtempo R & B and soul music power ballad with influences of indie rock music . The song features " a soft , almost non @-@ existent " backing beat and makes use of a guitar and a piano as its foundation , while wind chimes , sprinkling strings , synthesizers , funk @-@ influenced bass and a pipe organ are also present . " 1 + 1 " is set in 12 / 8 time with a slow tempo of 50 beats per minute and was written in the key of G ♭ major . Beyoncé 's voice spans from the low note of F # 3 to the high note of C6 . " 1 + 1 " essentially demonstrates her " urgent " and " raw " vocals ; in an interview with Ray Rogers of Billboard magazine , Beyoncé stated that she wanted to use her album 4 to showcase this side of her vocal abilities : " I used a lot of the brassiness and grittiness in my voice that people hear in my live performances , but not necessarily on my records . " Nadine Cheung wrote that the subtle instrumentation allows Beyoncé 'ss voice to emphasise the emotional lyrics Amos Barshad of New York magazine and Tim Finney of Pitchfork Media described the vocals as similar to those of Whitney Houston 's work .
Several critics including Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone noted that " 1 + 1 " is comparable to Sam Cooke 's 1960 song " Wonderful World " and Prince 's 1984 song " Purple Rain " . Brandon Soderberg of Pitchfork Media explained that " Wonderful World " ' s line , " don 't know much about algebra " , was retained during the conception of " 1 + 1 " by its producers , who however accentuated its " love song sentiment " . Soderberg further wrote that " 1 + 1 " bears resemblance to " Purple Rain " as they both have similar " delicate guitars , melodramatic piano , and [ Beyoncé affects Prince 's ] high @-@ register whimper a few times " . Jillian Mapes of Billboard magazine wrote that the guitar solo is similar to the ones in Bon Jovi 's power ballads .
" 1 + 1 " begins with a low fidelity indie rock arrangement which is brought about by distorted guitar arpeggios and a discreet pipe organ . Beyoncé sings a meandering melody as she alternately references the pleasures of love and sex . Using simple arithmetic to describe her undying love for her partner , she begins the first verse as she affirms to her romantic interest that the only thing she is sure about is her feelings for him , " I don 't know much about algebra , but I know that one plus one equals two ... If I ain 't got something , I don 't give a damn / ' Cause I got it with you " . In the pre @-@ chorus lines , Beyoncé expresses her reliance on her man without whom she believes to be incomplete as she sings , " And it 's me and you , that 's all we 'll have when the world is through / Because baby we ain 't got nothing without love / Darling , you got enough love for the both of us " .
Brandon Soderberg of Pitchfork Media commented that Beyoncé mixes " vulnerability and confidence " while singing the chorus lines , where she repeatedly pleads her romantic interest , " Make love to me when my days look low / Pull me in close and don 't let me go / Make love to me when the world 's at war / That our love will heal us all " , while the music stays steady and soft with only a few piano chords and a baseline plucked guitar riff . As she continues to chant about making love in apocalyptic circumstances , " So when the world 's at war / Let our love heal us all " , she projects a universal " all you need is love " feeling , as noted by Jillian Mapes . In the second verse , Beyoncé sings , " Hey ! I don 't know much about guns but I ... I 've been shot by you " , as she pushes the final word " you " up at a full octave . She then continues : " Hey ! And I don 't know when I 'm gonna die , but I hope that I 'm gonna die by you / Hey ! And I don 't know much about fighting , but I , I know I will fight for you / Hey ! Just when I ball up my fist , I realize that I 'm laying right next to you " . According to Thomas Conner of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , these lines are intended to show that love conquers all . The song ends with an intense electric guitar solo .
= = Critical reception = =
" 1 + 1 " garnered acclaim from music critics , who complimented the effective display of Beyoncé 'ss emotive vocals due to the use of light instrumentation , and approved that the ballad was the opening song on 4 . AOL Music 's Contessa Gayles called it " an achy , screechy ballad – in the best way possible " and Nadine Cheung from AOL Radio noted that the minimal instrumentation highlights the song 's lyrics , and effectively show Beyoncé 's " powerful voice and impressive control " , further writing , " The professions are so intense that there 's no need for a complicated bridge or dramatic key change . " Brandon Soderberg from Pitchfork Media wrote , " she really digs in and sells the song 's knotty qualities , and when that over @-@ the @-@ top guitar break appears exactly when it should , it 's cathartic . At that precise moment , this passionate pastiche of timeless pop becomes a classic all its own . " Ryan Dombal , writing for the same music webzine , commented that Adele 's ' Someone Like You ' is the only recent pop ballad which comes close to " the power " of " 1 + 1 " . Michael Cragg of The Guardian called the song a " loved up ballad " and praised Beyoncé for showcasing her raw vocals . Describing " 1 + 1 " as " [ having ] no interest in [ Beyoncé 'ss ] typical pursuit of forward @-@ thinking , energetic fare , preferring to throw the emphasis on her radio @-@ destroying vocal chords " , David Amidon of PopMatters wrote that the song " is the best result of this , finally providing Beyoncé a song that can compete with the favorites of this generation 's parents . "
Jocelyn Vena of MTV News wrote , " Beyoncé may not know a thing about algebra , but when it comes to the math of power ballads , she totally gets it . " Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone wrote that " the album [ 4 ] opens with its most tender ballad , a slow @-@ burning number that calls back to both Sam Cooke 's ' Wonderful World ' and Prince 's ' Purple Rain ' without sounding like a retread of either tune [ ... ] it sounds best in the context of the album , where its slow , steady build to a cathartic guitar break is the perfect introduction to a set of mostly low @-@ key tracks about love and heartbreak . " Similarly considering " 1 + 1 " to be " the perfect opener " of 4 , Joanne Dorken of MTV UK wrote that it exposes a more vulnerable side of Beyoncé and that it will remain " a classic stripped @-@ back slow jam from the diva . " Praising Beyoncé 's vocals , Jon Caramainca of The New York Times stated that " [ ' 1 + 1 ' ] requires a vocal muscle few singers possess , and even fewer would care to deploy . " Writing for The Baltimore Sun , Wesley Case included " 1 + 1 " in his list of Five Great Songs and praised song 's concept , writing that he began crying when he heard the album version and called it " gut @-@ wrenching " and " gorgeous " . Case appreciated Beyoncé 's sensitivity and concluded that it " fades to black like an ellipsis and it 's so damn beautiful . "
Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun wrote that " 1 + 1 " is an " amazing [ and ] arguably the most honest and tender Beyoncé has sounded , singing ' help me let my guard down , make love to me ' " . Similarly , Claire Suddath of Time magazine commented that " 1 + 1 " is probably the finest ballad Beyoncé has delivered in years . Amos Barshad of New York magazine described " 1 + 1 " as " a big grand love ballad " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic picked " 1 + 1 " as one of the album 's top songs , describing it as " a sparse and placid vocal showcase , [ which ] fades in with a somber guitar line , throws up occasional and brief spikes in energy , and slowly recedes . " Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound commented that in contrast to the geometry taught at school , there is something interesting in " 1 + 1 " ; he further wrote that ballad focuses on Beyoncé 's " amazing vocal range " as it is not upbeat like most of her previous offerings . Leah Collins of Canada 's Dose described the song as a " melodramatic soul ballad " . A reporter from The Huffington Post stated that " 1 + 1 " is a departure from " Run the World ( Girls ) " , noting that Beyoncé " replac [ es ] the defiance of [ ' Run the World ( Girls ) ' ] with devotion " [ in ' 1 + 1 ' ] " . He added that it is one of the first representations that " Beyoncé is keeping her promise that a whole new array of sounds will make their way into 4 . " Similarly , Rap @-@ Up favored the track stating that " If ' Run the World ( Girls ) ' wasn 't your thing , this should do the trick . " By contrast , Katy Hasty from HitFix criticized the song 's lyrics and wrote that it " seem [ s ] the lyrics to ' 1 + 1 ' were penned by a second @-@ grader . "
= = = Recognition = = =
The Guardian 's critic Sean Michaels ranked " 1 + 1 " at number one on his list of The 10 Best Tracks of 2011 . The song was also ranked on The Guardian 's writers ' year @-@ end list of Best Songs of 2011 at number 30 . Allison Stewart of The Washington Post placed the ballad at number one on her list of the Special Year @-@ End Best @-@ of Edition , writing that Beyoncé " just kills this otherwise unremarkable ballad . Her obvious pride in her abilities , in her Beyonce @-@ ness , informs every note , but it doesn 't seem showoff @-@ y . It 's just sweet . " On The Village Voice 's 2011 year @-@ end Pazz & Jop singles list , " 1 + 1 " was ranked at number 77 . The staff members of Pitchfork Media placed the " 1 + 1 " at number 26 on their list of The Top 100 Tracks of 2011 , writing :
Following Beyoncé 's work on " 1 + 1 " is like a journey to the center of her craft , a stripping away of every distraction until all that 's left is her voice . Without it , " 1 + 1 " would be a muted ballad : Its simple guitar line and stardust @-@ sprinkled strings serve no purpose other than to evoke a sense of familiar romantic intimacy , and then to elegantly step aside while Beyoncé delivers one of her most wonderfully impassioned performances ever . " 1 + 1 " possesses that slightly scary intensity that has been R & B 's worst @-@ kept secret weapon since Whitney Houston 's " I Have Nothing " , but it also demonstrates perfectly how Beyoncé stands apart from every other big @-@ chested diva getting her Whitney on . She lets the song sing through her with a clarity that is never clinical , a strength that never sabotages , and an expressiveness that is precisely as sentimental as its subject matter requires . Beyoncé is R & B 's field marshal , demanding of her listeners and herself an absolute fidelity to the music 's emotional possibilities , with a perfectly modulated vehemence that is as captivating as it is tyrannical .
Writing for The New Yorker , Jody Rosen credited the jarring timbral and tonal variations on the song for giving a new musical sound that didn 't exist in the world before Beyoncé . He further wrote , " If they sound ' normal ' now , it 's because Beyoncé , and her many followers , have retrained our ears . "
= = Chart performance = =
" 1 + 1 " entered the US Hot Digital Songs chart at number 33 on June 11 , 2011 , having sold 57 @,@ 000 downloads in the previous week . As a result , the song also appeared at number 57 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . The following week , it fell to number 89 on the Hot 100 chart . Overall , it charted for only two weeks . For the week ending June 11 , 2011 , the song charted on the US Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles at number 5 . That same week , " 1 + 1 " entered the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number 82 . Following the release of 4 and based solely on digital downloads , " 1 + 1 " appeared on the UK Singles Chart at number 67 and on the UK R & B Chart at number 23 in the July 9 , 2011 issue . After the release of its music video , " 1 + 1 " moved from number 125 to number 71 on the UK Singles Chart on September 11 , 2011 . The following week , it reached a high point of number 21 on the R & B chart . Selling 18 @,@ 263 downloads , the song opened at number 25 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart for the week ending July 2 , 2011 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
It was reported in early August 2011 that Beyoncé was recording new music videos for several songs from 4 , including " 1 + 1 " which was shot by August 3 , 2011 . The video premiered on August 26 , 2011 on E ! News at 7 : 00 pm EST / PST and it was posted on Beyoncé 's website one hour later . It was directed by Beyoncé herself , alongside Lauren Briet and Ed Burke . The video was described by her official website as " the story of love at its best . It 's about commitment and fulfillment and it 's Beyoncé at her most beautiful . The video experiments with psychedelic visual effects and innovative lighting that gives the clip a cinematic feel . " The music video for the song is four and a half minutes long . The director 's cut of " 1 + 1 " was released on November 1 , 2011 . It features slightly different scenes to the original .
The song 's video features close @-@ up shots of Beyoncé and incorporates psychedelic light effects and symmetrical filming photography . As the acoustic guitar begins playing , Beyoncé 's face comes into view . She stands with her blond hair draped just below her exposed shoulders . As she intently stares into the camera , her skin glistens as though it has been coated with a honey @-@ like and glittery substance . Turning her head from right to left , with her eyes fixed off @-@ camera , Beyoncé starts belting out the first verse . As the chorus is reached , scenes of Beyoncé in a darkened room are shown . Additionally , she places her face delicately against dripping water , gently brushing it with her lips and palms . The scenery changes and Beyoncé is back in the darkened chamber , where she removes her dress .
A quick shot of the " IV " tattoo inked on Beyoncé 's left ring finger is shown ( a reference to her album 's title , 4 ) , before she bathes in a tub of flowers as well as berries and blows billows of smoke . As she continues to caress her upper @-@ body , an array of light imagery is projected behind her , serving as a backdrop . During the second verse , the video begins to use symmetrical visual arts . Beyoncé appears standing in front of a purple background , draped by large and billowing garments . As the song progresses , her emotions are heightened ; zoomed shots of tears trickling down her cheeks are shown . A man appears behind Beyoncé and begins closely embracing her in endearment . The man is nondescript , and his muscular arms grip Beyoncé 's body before taking her through a series of dips and bends , while he remains mostly in the background . With tears still rolling down her cheeks , Beyoncé chants to her love interest to make love to her on the song 's vocal finale . As the guitar melodies close the song , Beyoncé is seen engulfed by the colorful light and special effects . The video ends with the camera returning to a glistening Beyoncé with blackened scenery in the background .
= = = Reception = = =
Jennifer Cady of E ! News found the video " sexy " and " pretty stripped down " , further writing : " There are no catchy choreographed dances or freakum dresses , just Queen Bey looking gorgeous in lingerie and belting out her love and devotion to her man . " Cady added that that the video was entertaining because of Beyoncé " seriously magical hair " and her skin , which was sparkling like Edward Cullen . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly concluded that although the video was different from the previous " heavily produced spectacles " Beyoncé has made , " it 's hard to take your eyes off it " . Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic criticized the sex appeal which was used in the videos for Lady Gaga 's " You and I " ( 2011 ) and Katy Perry 's " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " ( 2011 ) but felt that " Beyonce 's game is unique in its reliance on pure visual magnetism " . He wrote that even when Beyoncé is " inhabiting apocalyptic warzones or Mad Men @-@ era domestic scenes " , she is always classical . Kornhaber concluded that the video for " 1 + 1 " is " catchy , fun dance , pretty face , pretty body " , which according to him , is what " Beyonce [ has ] always been about " . Melinda Newman from the website HitFix found " some lovely kaleidoscopic shots and billowing sheets " . She added that " we never see her ' + 1 ' other than an arm and back shot , but that works to the video 's advantage " .
Similarly , Willa Paskin of New York magazine praised the final minute of the video in which " we are treated to what is supposed to be the instrumental equivalent of an orgasm " , illustrated by split @-@ screen kaleidoscope effects and capped off by Beyoncé staring into the camera " in postcoital contentment " . Mawuse Ziegbe of The Boston Globe noted that Beyoncé 'ss sex appeal was at its maximum in the video for " 1 + 1 " . She compared the kaleidoscope effects with Lady Gaga 's " Born This Way " ( 2011 ) and finished her review by writing , " ultimately , the clip shows the diva doesn 't need the elaborate costumes , club @-@ anthem rhythms and booty @-@ quivering grooves to bring the heat . But a lustrous , fling @-@ ready mane is always handy . " Similarly , a writer for MTV UK praised the video 's " light effects and symmetrical camera tricks " which " [ sell ] sex as art " . Leah Collins of the Canadian magazine Dose commented that Beyoncé was " gifted with seemingly supernatural powers of hotness " in the video . A writer for Rolling Stone found the video for " 1 + 1 " to be " the moistest music video ever made " , adding that it " perfectly matches the sultry , romantic tone of the song " . Maura Johnston of The Village Voice found a " ' What D 'Angelo 's ' Untitled ( How Does It Feel ) ' Feels Like For A Girl ' vibe " in the video for " 1 + 1 " and compared it to the one for " Sweet Dreams " ( 2009 ) .
Rob Markman of MTV News wrote that the choreography is very different from the Beyoncé 's standard dance routines , which feature high @-@ powered steps , swaying hips and " her patented bootylicious shake " . He commented , " Instead , Beyoncé settles for ballet @-@ style steps , moving in a leotard and long , flowing cape . " Markman added that the video will most likely remain " under the radar " in comparison to the highlights in her high @-@ budgeted reel , which includes clips like " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " ( 2008 ) and " Crazy in Love " ( 2003 ) . He concluded that " much like the song , the visuals for ' 1 + 1 ' shouldn 't be measured in terms of size , but rather in emotive presentation and subdued sexiness " . A writer for The Huffington Post wrote that the music video for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " was Beyoncé 'ss most iconic visual work , but added that after the premiere of the video for " 1 + 1 " , " it may now have company " . David Malitz of The Washington Post stated that Beyoncé looks like Hurricane Irene at the beginning of the video , but added that she looks like " any number of chillwave videos " at the end . A more mixed review was given by OK ! magazine , which described the video as cheesy . L Magazine 's Mike Conklin was unsatisfied with the video , writing that since Beyoncé is rightfully considered to be among " the absolute best [ artists ] " , she can do better . "
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé first performed " 1 + 1 " live on American Idol on May 25 , 2011 . Wearing a purple gown , she sang the song surrounded by smoke and red lighting , declaring , " This is my favorite song " . Towards the end of the performance , she fell to her knees and shook the hands of audience members . The performance earned her a standing ovation from the judges and members of the crowd . A writer from The Huffington Post called it " an epic , emotionally @-@ charged performance " and praised the fact that Beyoncé " channel [ led ] every particle of the room 's energy into her lung @-@ bursting calls and cries . " Jillian Mapes of Billboard magazine noted , " The sheer force of the ballad literally brought [ Beyoncé ] to her knees during the performance . " Shortly after Beyoncé 's performance on American Idol , a video that surfaced online received considerable coverage from music critics . It became an instant viral video as soon as it hit the web . The clip was filmed using a camera phone and it shows Beyoncé rehearsing " 1 + 1 " backstage at American Idol with no microphone and simple keyboard accompaniment . The video was filmed by Beyoncé 'ss husband , Jay @-@ Z. In an introduction to the video on his Life + Times website he wrote : " Sometimes you need perspective . You 've been right in front of greatness so often that you need to step back and see it again for the first time . " In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the video at number eight on their list of Beyoncé 's ten best videos , writing that she sounds " perfect " . While reviewing 4 , Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal complimented the video , writing :
One of the year 's best music videos was directed by Jay @-@ Z and cost about zero dollars to make . The video has a similar impromptu charm to the many intimate , one @-@ shot performance clips popularized by Vincent Moon 's Take @-@ Away Shows , its appeal compounded by the shock of seeing such a notoriously manicured superstar without embellishment . It 's all quite endearing and personal – two words one might not often associate with this superhumanly talented and famous couple .
On July 1 , 2011 , Beyoncé performed a free concert as part of Good Morning America 's Summer Concert Series . She sang " 1 + 1 " while kneeling on top of a white grand piano . Beyoncé also performed the song live on the TV show , The View . She sang " 1 + 1 " live on August 14 , 2011 during 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé , held in Roseland Ballroom , New York City . Wearing a gold dress , she performed the song in front of 3 @,@ 500 people while her band and orchestra were watching on . During the performance , Beyoncé climbed on top of a piano and sang on her knees . Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine wrote that Beyoncé performed " 1 + 1 " , " wrapped up in smoke and red hued lights , reminiscent of her live performance on the American Idol finale . " Ramirez stated that Beyoncé sang the ballad with " impeccability . " Mike Wass of Idolator praised how Beyoncé " wrung every ounce of emotion from the lyrics of ' 1 + 1 ' and hit each note perfectly " , concluding that it was " an impressive display . " Entertainment Weekly 's Brad Wete wrote that Beyoncé 's voice " rang soulfully , only breaking to let the crowd fill in gaps for a sing @-@ along feel . " Joycelyn Vena of MTV News commented that on " 1 + 1 " , Beyoncé 's vocal abilities " outshined it all . " On September 14 , 2011 , Beyoncé stopped at Target perform at the managers meeting . Wearing a red dress , she sung " 1 + 1 " accompanied by three backup singers and a pianist . During the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé which aired on December 4 in the United Kingdom , Beyoncé performed " 1 + 1 " to a selected crowd of fans .
In May , 2012 , Beyoncé performed " 1 + 1 " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . She performed the song while kneeling on the piano . Jim Farber of Daily News commented that the song was sung with " precision and sweep , she tipped the balance decidedly softer , giving her power grounding " . According to Chuck Darrow of The Philadelphia Inquirer , the acoustic performance of the ballad , " proved a nice respite from the relentless thump @-@ thump @-@ thump of the many dance @-@ pop numbers " . Tris McCall of New Jersey On @-@ Line complimented the " magnificent run through the slow @-@ burning " song . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times mentioned " 1 + 1 " in the " almost continuous high point " of the concert . Brad Wete of Complex magazine wrote that " B [ eyoncé ] ' s voice was stellar " during the performance of the song on the revue .
= = Other versions and usage in media = =
The @-@ Dream 's demo of " 1 + 1 " , originally titled as " Nothing but Love " , leaked onto the Internet in late May 2011 . Michael Cragg of The Guardian found it to be " Prince @-@ esque " . In late June 2011 , American recording artist Dondria posted a video of herself , singing " 1 + 1 " while seated in front her computer . On July 12 , 2011 , Rap @-@ Up reported that the American singer , Tiffany Evans , who had previously covered " Speechless " from Beyoncé 'ss first studio album , Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) , had also covered " 1 + 1 " , with some lyrical modifications . Miss Murphy covered the song during the second series of The Voice ( Australia ) on May 20 , 2013 . Murphy 's version peaked at number 49 on the Australian Singles Chart .
Beyoncé appeared on Entertainment Tonight on June 16 , 2011 to promote the exclusive @-@ to @-@ Target deluxe edition of 4 and gave fans a sneak preview of its television commercial . The 30 @-@ second commercial , which features " 1 + 1 " and " Countdown " playing in the background , began airing in the United States on June 24 , 2011 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from 4 liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Thayer School of Engineering =
Thayer School of Engineering offers graduate and undergraduate education in engineering sciences at Dartmouth College , Hanover , New Hampshire , United States . The school was established in 1867 with funds from Brig. Gen. Sylvanus Thayer , known for his work in establishing an engineering curriculum at the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York . Located in a two @-@ building complex along the Connecticut River on the Dartmouth campus , the Thayer School today offers undergraduate , master 's , and doctoral degrees , as well as dual @-@ degree programs with other local institutions . Over 500 students are currently enrolled at Thayer , overseen by a faculty of 56 and preceded by over 4 @,@ 500 living alumni of the school . In 2016 Thayer became the first US national research university with a graduating class of engineering undergraduates that was over 50 % female .
= = History = =
Thayer School is named for Sylvanus Thayer , an alumnus of Dartmouth in the class of 1807 . Thayer was known as " the father of West Point " for his sixteen @-@ year superintendency of the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York , where he developed an extensive engineering curriculum unlike any other in the United States at the time . After thirty years of professional service in the Army Corps of Engineers , Thayer endowed Dartmouth College with $ 40 @,@ 000 in 1867 ( and increased the gift to $ 70 @,@ 000 by 1871 ) for the establishment of a school of engineering initially called the Thayer School of Civil Engineering .
The school opened four years later , in 1871 , with six students . The curriculum borrowed heavily from the model which Thayer himself had developed at West Point ; graduates of the two @-@ year program were awarded a degree in civil engineering ( C.E. ) . Though Robert Fletcher , the first director and dean of the school , was also its only instructor for several years , the enrollment , funding , and faculty of the School increased markedly throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
Under the administration of Frank Warren Garran ( dean of the School from 1933 to 1945 ) , Thayer experienced extensive expansion and modernization . Thayer 's curriculum expanded to incorporate mechanical engineering and electrical engineering , as well as a dual business / engineering administration degree from the Tuck School of Business . Garran also oversaw the establishment of Cummings Hall , the Thayer School 's first dedicated physical plant , and the institution of the school 's first major research program , which was in radiophysics . Dean William P. Kimball ( 1945 – 61 ) continued the school 's growing emphasis on research and established the first master 's degrees for students wishing to earn more than a Bachelor of Engineering .
In 1961 , Myron Tribus became dean of the School , placing a heavy emphasis on the practical , problem @-@ solving aspects of engineering as well as the traditional , theoretical base of the discipline . Tribus developed an integrated curriculum and introduced design courses to the school to provide Thayer students with real @-@ life experience in creative applications of engineering . Under Tribus , the Thayer School offered its first doctorates in engineering .
From the 1970s to the first decade of the 21st century , the Thayer School saw expansion into new fields such as nanotechnology and biochemical engineering , as well as collaboration with such nearby institutions as Dartmouth Medical School , the Dartmouth @-@ Hitchcock Medical Center , and the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory . In the early first decade of the 21st century , the core curriculum for undergraduates was revamped under Dean Lewis Duncan ( 1998 – 2004 ) , making the school 's offerings more accessible to non @-@ major Dartmouth students . The MacLean Engineering Sciences Center ( ESC ) , completed in 2006 , was a $ 21 million project to expand the school 's classrooms and research centers .
= = Campus = =
The Thayer School is located on the campus of Dartmouth College , which is situated in the rural , Upper Valley New England town of Hanover , New Hampshire . The campus of the Thayer School sits in a complex on the west side Dartmouth 's campus near the Connecticut River . When classes first began in 1871 , Sylvanus Thayer 's endowment had not provided for a physical plant . Consequently , the school was an itinerant institution for many years , occupying parts of various College buildings and , at one point , a former structure of the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts .
In 1938 , Dartmouth president Ernest Martin Hopkins successfully lobbied the Board of Trustees to construct an independent facility for the school . $ 200 @,@ 000 were spent to build Horace Cummings Memorial Hall , which with several major additions ( built in 1945 @-@ 46 and 1989 ) served as Thayer 's only facility for nearly 70 years . In 2004 , construction began on the MacLean Engineering Sciences Center ( ESC ) , which was completed in 2006 . At the cost of nearly $ 21 million , the new center adds both classroom and research space to the Thayer School .
The Thayer School shares the Murdough Center ( containing the Feldberg Business & Engineering Library ) with the adjacent Tuck School of Business .
= = Academics = =
The Thayer School serves as both Dartmouth College 's undergraduate department of engineering , as well as a graduate school offering advanced degrees . Undergraduate majors can receive their Bachelor of Arts degree in engineering at the school , and may choose to continue on to earn a Bachelor of Engineering ( B.E. ) degree in an additional year or less . Thayer also offers a dual @-@ degree program for undergraduates at other colleges who wish to earn their bachelor 's degree at their home institution and their B.E. at Thayer . As a College academic department , the school 's undergraduate offerings are open to any Dartmouth student , including non @-@ majors .
Thayer offers several graduate degree programs , including a Master of Engineering ( M.Eng ) in Biomedical Engineering , Master of Science ( M.S. ) , and Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D ) in engineering . The school also offers a Master of Engineering Management ( M.E.M. ) degree in conjunction with the adjacent Tuck School of Business , and a combination Ph.D / Doctor of Medicine ( M.D. ) from Dartmouth Medical School . The school also has the United States ' first engineering Ph.D. Innovation Program .
= = = Research and entrepreneurship = = =
The Thayer School emphasizes the cross @-@ disciplinary nature of its research topics . In 2007 , sponsored research at the school amounted to $ 16 @.@ 2 million . Research at Thayer is divided into three general " focus areas " : engineering in medicine , energy technologies , and complex systems . Projects within each focus area are divided by three " research categories " : biomedical , biochemical , chemical & environmental engineering ( BBCEE ) , electrical & computer engineering , & engineering physics ( ECEEP ) , and materials & mechanical systems engineering ( MMSE ) .
The Thayer School promotes its connections to engineering entrepreneurship . The Cook Engineering Design Center , founded in 1978 , acts to solicit industry @-@ sponsored projects for degree candidates to work on . The school also offers a variety of conferences , programs , and internships to foster student connections to the professional world . Companies and products that have emerged from the Thayer School include emeritus professor Robert Dean 's Creare , Inc. and Dartmouth music professor Jon Appleton 's work on the Synclavier synthesizer . The school maintains a list of startup companies established by its current faculty .
= = = Rankings and admissions = = =
In 2007 , the Thayer School was ranked 47th by U.S. News & World Report among American engineering schools . It was also included in BusinessWeek 's unranked list of 60 " Best Design Schools in the World " .
Admissions for undergraduate students are handled by Dartmouth College 's Office of Undergraduate Admissions . Admission to graduate programs , including the B.E. degree , requires an undergraduate background in engineering and mathematics or science . In the fall of 2006 , Thayer accepted 14 @.@ 5 % of applicants overall . Average Graduate Record Examination ( GRE ) test scores of applicants in verbal , quantitative , and analytical sections were 601 , 778 , and 695 , respectively .
= = People = =
= = = Student profile and student life = = =
As of the 2007 – 2008 academic year , the Thayer School has an enrollment of 354 students : 107 undergraduates , 62 doctoral candidates , 27 B.E. students , 76 M.E.M. students , 20 M.S. students , and 13 student pursuing special studies . The school offers a number of professional and community service student groups , as well as social life governance councils for the student body .
= = = Faculty = = =
The Thayer School currently claims 74 active instructors , including 29 tenured or tenure @-@ track faculty , 16 research or instructional faculty , 22 adjunct faculty members , and seven lecturers . Notable former faculty include Arthur Kantrowitz , emeritus professor of engineering , and Myron Tribus , the dean of the Thayer School for most of the 1960s .
= = = Alumni = = =
As of 2007 , Thayer has 4 @,@ 046 engineering alumni in all 50 U.S. states and over 50 countries . Nearly 3 @,@ 000 of the graduates received a B.E. or a graduate degree , with the remaining 1 @,@ 000 earning only the undergraduate A.B. degree .
= Run @-@ Away ( Super Furry Animals song ) =
" Run @-@ Away " is a song by Super Furry Animals and the second single taken from their 2007 album , Hey Venus ! . The song is an homage to the ' Wall of Sound ' production made famous by Phil Spector , particularly in his work with 1960 's girl groups .
" Run @-@ Away " received many positive reviews from critics who variously described it as " absolutely timeless stuff " , " outstanding " and " up there with the most finely polished weapons in the SFA armoury " . The track 's Phil Spector @-@ leanings were also commented on by numerous journalists . A " spooky " , " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " video was produced for the song directed by Richard Ayoade and starring his Garth Marenghi 's Darkplace and The Mighty Boosh co @-@ star Matt Berry .
= = Origins and recording = =
In an interview with Tiny Mix Tapes in January 2008 Gruff Rhys admitted that " Run @-@ Away " owed much to Phil Spector @-@ type ' Wall of Sound ' production : " The drumbeat is definitely a nod to that . We started collecting a lot of old 7 @-@ inch singles recently . Cian got heavy into doo @-@ wop music and I was getting into late 60s girl groups . " Run @-@ Away " came out of listening to " Be My Baby " too many times " . Guto Pryce echoed this sentiment in an interview with Washington , D.C. website DCist stating that " on " Run Away " that was exactly what we were after , a fuzzy Phil Spector type thing . A dirty , grimy ' 60s pop song " . The track was recorded at Miraval Studios , France along with the rest of Hey Venus !
= = Musical structure = =
" Run @-@ Away " is 2 minutes 53 seconds long and is in the key of B major . The " hook laden " song begins with a spoken word introduction from Gruff ( " This song is based on a true story ... which would be fine if it wasn 't autobiographical " ) over a B chord playing on the " familiar " dum @-@ de @-@ dum @-@ dum " Phil Spector drum beat " provided by drummer Dafydd Ieuan .
Lead guitar embellishments accompany the first verse before the track builds up to its first " falsetto laden " chorus at 34 seconds . Another verse follows , with additional percussion backing , during which Rhys mourns " we may have fought with teeth and nails , I still recall your banking details " . A short breakdown middle 8 leads to a double chorus ( the second of which features a key change to C @-@ sharp major ) before the song breaks down again and ends with Rhys singing " There 's nothing that I could have said but cry , a little , lie , a little , die , just a little " over sparse musical backing .
= = Critical response = =
" Run @-@ Away " received much praise from reviewers with the Manchester Evening News claiming the track to be " absolutely timeless stuff " , likening it to Gruff Rhys " swaggering up to the karaoke and picking out his favourite Roy Orbison ballad " and the NME stating that , " with a chorus as big as guitarist Huw Bunford 's new serial @-@ killer beard , it 's up there with the most finely polished weapons in the SFA armoury " . Website Culture Deluxe claimed the track showed the band at " their pop @-@ best " and proved they " could do no wrong " while the Independent on Sunday called " Run @-@ Away " " outstanding " .
The Spector @-@ like nature of the track was commented on in several reviews with British television station Channel 4 describing " Run @-@ Away " as " Spector pop " , BBC Wales describing the song as " a homage to gun @-@ wielding production oddball Phil Spector " , and Yahoo ! Music in the UK and Ireland stating that the single " welds a killer falsetto chorus to a latterday incarnation of the ' Wall of Sound ' " .
Tiny Mix Tapes thought the " rousing and pleasant " song could have " found a home anywhere in or between Fuzzy Logic and 2005 's Love Kraft " while Pitchfork Media thought the track 's " ostensible real @-@ life origins " would " render " Run @-@ Away " one of the most heart @-@ on @-@ sleeve entries in a catalogue better known for left field classics like " Ice Hockey Hair " and " The Man Don 't Give a Fuck " " . B @-@ sides , the " Beach Boys @-@ influenced " " These Bones " and the " pulsating " " That 's What I 'm Talking About " , were also singled out for praise by the Manchester Evening News . The Chronicle however , criticised " Run @-@ Away " and previous single " Show Your Hand " for sounding " more like the generic pop songs one would find on the radio than those of a historically experimental band " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music video = =
The " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " , video for " Run @-@ Away " was directed by Richard Ayoade and features his Garth Marenghi 's Darkplace and The Mighty Boosh co @-@ star Matt Berry . The video begins with close @-@ ups of Berry driving a vintage car on a moonlit night intercut with shots of a woman in a white dress running through sparse woodland . After 54 seconds Berry abruptly stops his car and the shot changes to show the woman in white laid on the road in front of his vehicle . Berry leaves his car and walks over to the woman who appears dazed . The next shot features the woman resting her head on Berry 's shoulder while he drives .
Towards the middle of the video we find the pair sat together at a house party while Berry discusses the woman with his friends . Part of this conversation features subtitles , with Berry stating " She can 't remember a thing " . Immediately afterwards a man in a brown suit and bow tie enters , rubbing the back of his head and looking confused . He focuses on the woman in the white dress and says " Maria ? " to which Berry counters " Who the heck are you ? " while ' Maria ' bites her lip and looks on guiltily . When the man in the suit states " That 's my wife ! " Berry gets to his feet and the man promptly punches him in the face . We then cut to shots of Berry running through the same woodland as ' Maria ' earlier in the video . After around 20 seconds he looks to his left and is blinded by a light . The next shot shows him laid on the road in front of a car as its driver , a woman in a red coat , rushes to check on him . As the song comes to an end we see the women in red driving her car with Berry resting his head on her shoulder .
Music website Stereogum described the video as a " cheeky , soft @-@ focused bit of ' 80s fun " , while British alternative music radio station Xfm included it in their top ten videos of 2007 , calling it " spooky , very tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek and utterly hilarious " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
CD ( RTRADSCD419 )
" Run @-@ Away " – 2 : 53
" These Bones " – 3 : 23
" That 's What I 'm Talking About " – 5 : 41
7 " picture disc ( RTRADS419 )
" Run @-@ Away " – 2 : 53
" These Bones " – 3 : 23
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys : Vocals
Huw Bunford : Guitar
Guto Pryce : Bass guitar
Cian Ciaran : keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan : Drums
Kris Jenkins : Percussion
= = Singles chart positions = =
= Lisa 's Date with Density =
" Lisa 's Date with Density " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 15 , 1996 . It was written by Mike Scully , and directed by Susie Dietter . It sees Lisa develop a crush on Nelson Muntz , which eventually leads to Lisa and Nelson dating . It also was among the first episodes to feature Milhouse 's crush on Lisa , an element of the series ( along with Lisa 's vegetarianism ) to have spun off from " Lisa 's Wedding " .
= = Plot = =
At Springfield Elementary School , Superintendent Chalmers visits Principal Skinner to show off his newly purchased 1979 Honda Accord . However , he becomes distraught when he discovers the car 's hood ornament missing . Principal Skinner orders a search of every student 's locker , and it is discovered that Nelson Muntz is the culprit . As punishment , Nelson is forced to return all stolen items to their owners and help Groundskeeper Willie with his jobs around the school .
Mr. Largo catches Lisa looking outside at Nelson during a music lesson , and as a result is given detention . After school , she continues to watch Nelson and develops a crush on the bully .
Lisa tries to let Nelson know how she feels about him by getting Milhouse to pass a love note to him in class . However , the plan backfires , with Nelson seriously injuring Milhouse ( this is not seen , but Milhouse is seen being loaded into an ambulance ) , thinking the note came from him . Lisa admits that she wrote the letter and although Nelson seems indifferent about the matter he begins by visiting her house . Lisa is resolved to turn Nelson from a trouble maker into a sweet , sensitive young man . She changes his appearance by giving him new clothes and hairstyle . Later , Lisa and Nelson share their first kiss during their date at the Springfield Observatory .
However , the influence of Nelson 's friends Jimbo , Dolph and Kearney proves to win out when they convince him to come along with them and throw rancid coleslaw at Principal Skinner 's house . Skinner immediately phones the police , and the four flee . Nelson takes refuge with Lisa , proclaiming his innocence . Lisa believes him , until Nelson unwittingly lets the truth slip . Lisa realizes that Nelson is always going to be who he is and ends their relationship , much to the relief of an overjoyed Milhouse .
Meanwhile , Chief Wiggum arrests a scam artist for telemarketing fraud . Homer witnesses the arrest and sees the discarded autodialer in a nearby trash bin . Homer takes the autodialer home to use for tele @-@ panhandling .
Homer ends up annoying all of Springfield with his " Happy Dude " scam , and soon enough Chief Wiggum catches him . Instead of confiscating the autodialer and taking Homer into custody , he shoots it then gives Homer a citation and asks him to bring the autodialer with him ( although full of lead ) to his court hearing , otherwise there would be no case and Homer would be let off the hook . In the closing credits , however , Homer has recorded a new message telling everyone he scammed he is sorry and that if they can forgive him to send more money .
= = Production = =
The idea of Lisa dating Nelson had been around for a while , with several different versions being pitched . The writers wanted a " silly " Homer story to balance the episode out , and the idea of using the telemarketing scam for this had also been around for a while . By this time , the show had begun to have episodes revolving around secondary characters . This was the first episode to revolve around Nelson , and was done to partly explain why Nelson acts the way he does . The words to Nelson 's song were contributed by Mike Scully 's daughters . The scene in which Milhouse passes Lisa 's note to Nelson was written by Bill Oakley , with the line " He can 't hear you , we had to pack his ears with gauze " being George Meyer 's line . There was a debate as to how injured Milhouse could look without it looking disturbing , and the drop of blood coming from his nose was decided to be enough . Milhouse liking Vaseline on toast was based on a child from Josh Weinstein 's school days who everyday would get on to the bus with a piece of toast , which had Vaseline on it .
= = Cultural references = =
A majority of the story is a reference to the film Rebel Without a Cause . Lisa remarks Nelson is " like a riddle wrapped in an enigma wrapped in a vest , " a reference to " a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma " ; this was Winston Churchill 's opinion of Russia at the outbreak of the World War II .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Lisa 's Date with Density " finished 63rd in ratings for the week of December 9 – 15 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 4 , equivalent to approximately 7 @.@ 2 million viewing households . It was the fifth @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Melrose Place , Beverly Hills , 90210 and Party of Five .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " impressive " how " even after Nelson has beaten him [ Milhouse ] up for apparently making a pass , [ Milhouse ] will still do anything for uncaring Lisa . " Josh Weinstein called it one of the most " real " episodes , commenting that every character in the episode , from Superintendent Chalmers to Lisa , acts like a real person throughout . The medic 's line " He can 't hear you , we had to pack his ears with gauze " is one of Matt Groening 's favorites . Marge 's line " When I first met your father , he was loud , crude and piggish . But I worked hard on him , and now he 's a whole new person , " is one of Susie Dietter 's favorites , as it explains why Marge is still married to Homer despite his actions .
This is also one of several episodes that has been performed live by the cast in front of an audience .
= Lord of the Universe =
Lord of the Universe is a 1974 American documentary film about Prem Rawat ( at the time known as Guru Maharaj Ji ) at an event in November 1973 at the Houston Astrodome called " Millennium ' 73 " . Lord of the Universe was first broadcast on PBS on February 2 , 1974 , and released in VHS format on November 1 , 1991 . The documentary chronicles Maharaj Ji , his followers and anti @-@ Vietnam War activist Rennie Davis who was a spokesperson of the Divine Light Mission at the time . A counterpoint is presented by Abbie Hoffman , who appears as a commentator . It includes interviews with several individuals , including followers , ex @-@ followers , a mahatma , a born @-@ again Christian , and a follower of Hare Krishna .
The production team of Top Value Television produced the documentary , using Portapak video cameras . The TVTV team followed Maharaj Ji across the United States over a period of six weeks , and edited a large amount of tape down to the fifty @-@ eight @-@ minute piece . It was the first documentary made on 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 13 mm ) video tape broadcast nationally , and also the first independent video documentary shown on national public television .
The documentary was generally well @-@ received , and garnered its TVTV production team the 1974 Alfred I. du Pont / Columbia University Award in Broadcast Journalism . The documentary received a negative review in the New York Post , and positive reviews in The New York Times , The Boston Globe , the Los Angeles Times , and the Chicago Sun @-@ Times . The San Francisco Bay Guardian wrote that the TVTV team had improved since their previous work but wanted them to move on to more challenging subjects .
= = Content = =
The documentary chronicles Guru Maharaj Ji , the Divine Light Mission , his followers and anti @-@ Vietnam War activist Rennie Davis at " Millennium ' 73 " , an event held at the Houston Astrodome in November 1973 . Rennie Davis , a follower of Guru Maharaj Ji , was one of the spokespersons and speakers at the " Millennium ' 73 " event . His speech is featured in the documentary .
Abbie Hoffman appears as a commentator in the documentary and addresses some points raised in Davis 's speech , stating : " It 's rather arrogant of Rennie to say that he has found God and has his Telex number in his wallet . " The TVTV crew interviewed different " premies " , or followers of Prem Rawat , throughout the film , and one teenage boy is shown stating : " Before I came to the Guru I was a freak , smoking dope and dropping out – and my parents were happier then than they are with this . " In a later part of the film , a loudspeaker voice announces : " Those premies who came in private cars can leave now . Those who came in rented buses can stay and meditate until further notice . " Adherents of other belief systems also appear in the documentary , including a born @-@ again Christian who criticizes devotees for " following the devil " , and a Hare Krishna follower .
A separate storyline is seen concurrently through the coverage of the " Millennium ' 73 " event , involving a man named Michael who has come to Houston , Texas , to receive " Knowledge " from Maharaj Ji . Once Michael has received the " Knowledge " , he defends the secrecy behind the rituals . Michael 's experiences are contrasted in the documentary with interviews with " ex @-@ premies " or former followers of Maharaj Ji , recounting their initiation and later disillusionment with Maharaj Ji 's teachings . One of them says that after receiving " Knowledge " from Maharaj Ji , he was told that this free gift required lifetime devotion and donations of " worldly goods " .
Maharaj Ji is shown in a scene in the Astrodome relating a satsang to the attendants . He is seen dressed in gold @-@ colored clothing and a crown , and sits on a platform throne . The story he relates to the crowd involves a young boy who comes to Houston , while searching for a Superman comic book . While seated on the platform , Maharaj Ji is surrounded by flashing moon signs and women wearing decorative garlands , while a band called " Blue Aquarius " plays his theme song . The stage is decorated with glitter and neon lights , and Maharaj Ji 's brother performs rock music songs . Abbie Hoffman gives a final comment in the documentary , stating : " If this guy is God , this is the God the United States of America deserves . "
= = Production = =
The documentary was produced by Top Value Television ( TVTV ) in association with TV Lab , and was primarily directed by Michael Shamberg . TVTV had received initial funding for the documentary through a small grant from the Stern Foundation , and an additional promise from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting . David Loxton arranged a post @-@ production budget of USD $ 4 @,@ 000 , and the total production costs for the documentary amounted to $ 36 @,@ 000 – about forty @-@ five percent of the average costs for a PBS film production at the time . Several camera crews used 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 13 mm ) black and white portapaks and followed Maharaj Ji and his group across the United States for six weeks . The TVTV production team debated whether to include the secret techniques of Maharaj Ji in the documentary and finally decided that it was vital to disclose these practices in the piece . They chose to have an ex @-@ premie divulge these practices rather than use a narration , but they were fearful of potential repercussions , which never came . TVTV member Tom Weinberg found a man who demonstrated meditation techniques in the documentary , which he described as being the " Knowledge " . Producer Megan Williams stated that TVTV crew members empathized with the experiences of Maharaj Ji 's followers , because there was very little age difference between them and the TVTV production team . Nevertheless , many in the crew of TVTV felt superior to these " lost souls " describing the followers as " gurunoids " .
At the end of filming , eighty @-@ two hours of tape were edited to the final fifty @-@ eight @-@ minute documentary piece . TVTV 's team utilized graphics , live music , and wide angle lens shots . Stop @-@ action sequences where quotations flash on the screen were also used for effect . The production was the first Portapak video documentary made for national television , and the " first program originally made on 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 13 mm ) video tape to be broadcast nationally " . Lord of the Universe was also : " The first independent video documentary made for national broadcast on public television . " The trailer was originally broadcast on WNET Channel Thirteen television . Lord of the Universe was shown to a national audience in the United States on February 2 , 1974 , broadcast on 240 stations of the Public Broadcasting Service . It aired a second time on July 12 , 1974 . Later TVTV productions broadcast on public television included Gerald Ford 's America , and a 1975 program on Cajuns The Good Times Are Killing Me .
In 1989 , the documentary was included in an exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art on video art called " Image World : Art and Media Culture " . The documentary was re @-@ released to VHS on November 1 , 1991 , by Subtle Communications . On the packaging it is claimed that Guru Maharaj Ji " promised to levitate the Astrodome " . Sources including TVRO , the library of the University of California , Santa Cruz , and Art Journal repeat this statement in varying forms . The documentary was screened in August 2006 at The Centre for Contemporary Arts in Glasgow , Scotland , as part of the Camcorder Guerilla cinema programme .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
Ron Powers of the Chicago Sun Times called the documentary " highly recommended viewing " , and described it as : " ... both as an example of skeptical , unimpressed ( but never vicious ) journalism , and as a peek into the future of television ... a clever , ironic and eventually devastating documentary " . Electronic Arts Intermix described Lord of the Universe as " a forceful expose on the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Guru Maharaj Ji and the national gathering of his followers at the Houston Astrodome " . Michael Blowen of The Boston Globe wrote that the documentary " captures the absurdity of Millennium ' 73 " , and that " The desperation of flower people alienated from politics is both touching and hilarious as they offer hope for eternal life to other converts . "
Dick Adler of the Los Angeles Times gave the documentary a positive review , writing : " ' The Lord of the Universe ' doesn 't really take sides , which doesn 't mean it 's a bland hour trying to please everybody . Its considerable bite comes first from the material TVTV so carefully gathered and there from the artfully wise frame in which it chose to present it . " Deirdre Boyle wrote in Art Journal that the piece was " the zenith of TVTV 's guerrilla @-@ TV style " . According to Boyle 's Subject to Change : Guerrilla Television Revisited , as in all TVTV tapes , everyone in the documentary comes across as foolish , describing the production 's sarcasm as the " ultimate leveler " using equal irony " both with the mighty and the lowly " .
Katy Butler wrote in the San Francisco Bay Guardian that the TVTV style had improved since their previous work : " This show has fewer interjections from TVTV personnel , fewer moments that drag , more technological razzle @-@ dazzle ( color footage , slow motion , stop motion , tight and rapid cutting ) . " However , she described Guru Maharaj Ji and his entourage as " an easy target " and wrote that " anybody can look like a fool when a smartass wide angle lens distorts their face , and teenage ex @-@ dopers who think a fat boy is God don 't stand a chance " . Butler wished that TVTV would move on to more challenging subjects for their future work . Bob Williams of the New York Post called the documentary a " deplorable film " and " flat , pointless , television " . He wrote : " The hour @-@ long program was remiss in not providing some small examination of the available box @-@ office take of the goofy kid guru , much less telling prospective contributors how it got involved in spending how much of its foundation grants and viewer subscription money in such a questionable venture without more inquisitive journalistic endeavor , or ignoring gurus . "
A review in The Oakland Tribune described the film as " a fascinating hour documentary on the guru 's three @-@ day happening at the Houston Astrodome " , and commented that the event was " deftly captured by the mobile video cameras of TVTV , a group of talented young tapemakers " . John J. O 'Connor of The New York Times described TVTV 's work as " a terrific documentary " and complimented the team on the visual results of the piece : " After TVTV superbly dissected the guru , his ' holy family ' and his followers , more objective viewers might have chosen to laugh , cry , or throw up . " In a later piece by O 'Connor in 1975 , he wrote that TVTV " gained a respectable measure of national success with ' The Lord of the Universe ' " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The documentary received the 1974 " Alfred I. du Pont / Columbia University Award in Broadcast Journalism " ( DuPont Award ) . The jurors from the 1974 DuPont @-@ Columbia awards stated that the documentary was : " hectic , hilarious and not a little disquieting . With a heavier and less sure hand , the subject would have been squashed beneath the reporters ’ irony or contempt . As it was , cult religion was handed to us , live and quivering , to make of it what we would . " The group 's work impressed WNET president John Jay Iselin , and he raised additional funds that helped TVTV to produce five more programs , including Gerald Ford 's America .
= = Credits = =
= Local marketing agreement =
In U.S. and Canadian broadcasting , a local marketing agreement ( or local management agreement , abbreviated as an LMA ) is a contract in which one company agrees to operate a radio or television station owned by another party . In essence , it is a sort of lease or time @-@ buy .
Under Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) regulations , a local marketing agreement must give the company operating the station ( the " senior " partner ) under the agreement control over the entire facilities of the station , including the finances , personnel and programming of the station . Its original licensee ( the " junior " partner ) still remains legally responsible for the station and its operations , such as compliance with relevant regulations regarding content . Occasionally , a " local marketing agreement " may refer to the sharing or contracting of only certain functions , in particular advertising sales . This may also be referred to as a local sales agreement ( LSA ) , management services agreement ( MSA ) , or most commonly , a joint sales agreement ( JSA ) or shared services agreement ( SSA ) . JSAs are counted toward ownership caps for television and radio stations . In Canada , local marketing agreements between domestic stations require the consent of the Canadian Radio @-@ television and Telecommunications Commission ( CRTC ) , although Rogers Media has used a similar arrangement to control a U.S.-based radio station in a border market .
The increased use of sharing agreements by media companies to form consolidated , " virtual " duopolies became controversial between 2009 and 2014 , especially arrangements where a company buys a television station 's facilities and assets , but sells the license to an affiliated third @-@ party " shell " corporation , who then enters into agreements with the owner of the facilities to operate the station on their behalf . Activists have argued that broadcasters were using these agreements as a loophole for the FCC 's ownership regulations , that they reduce the number of local media outlets in a market through the aggregation or outright consolidation of news programming , and allow station owners to have increased leverage in the negotiation of retransmission consent with local subscription television providers . Station owners have contended that these sharing agreements allow streamlined , cost @-@ effective operations that may be beneficial to the continued operation of lower @-@ rated and / or financially weaker stations , especially in smaller markets .
In 2014 under chairman Tom Wheeler , the FCC began to increase its scrutiny regarding the use of such agreements — particularly joint sales — to evade its policies . On March 31 , 2014 , the commission voted to make joint sales agreements count as ownership if the senior partner sells 15 % or more of advertising time for its partner , and to ban coordinated retransmission consent negotiations between two of the top four stations in a market . Wheeler indicated that he planned to address local marketing and shared services agreements in the future . The change in stance also prompted changes to then @-@ proposed acquisitions by Gray Television and Sinclair Broadcast Group , who , rather than use sharing agreements to control them , moved their existing programming and network affiliations to digital subchannels of existing company @-@ owned stations in the market , and then relinquished control over them by selling the stations to minority @-@ owned broadcasters intending to operate them independently .
= = History and background = =
Due to the FCC 's limits on station ownership at the time ( which prevented the common ownership of multiple radio stations ) , local marketing agreements in radio , in which a smaller station would sell its entire airtime to a third @-@ party in time @-@ buy , were widespread between the 1970s and early 1990s . These alliances gave larger broadcasters a way to expand their reach , and smaller broadcasters a means of obtaining a stable stream of revenue . In 1992 , the FCC began allowing broadcasting companies to own multiple radio stations in a single market . Following these changes , local marketing agreements largely fell out of favor for radio , as it was now possible for broadcasters to simply buy another station outright rather than lease it – consequentially triggering a wave of mass consolidation in the radio industry . However , broadcasters still used local marketing agreements to help transition acquired stations to their new owners .
The first local marketing agreement in North American television was formed in 1991 , when the Sinclair Broadcast Group purchased Fox affiliate WPGH @-@ TV in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . As Sinclair had already owned independent station WPTT ( now MyNetworkTV affiliate WPNT ) in that market , which would have violated FCC rules which at the time had prohibited television station duopolies , Sinclair decided to sell the lower @-@ rated WPTT to the station 's manager Eddie Edwards , but continued to operate the station through an LMA ( Sinclair eventually repurchased the station – then assigned the call letters WCWB – outright in 2000 , after the Federal Communications Commission began permitting common ownership of two television stations in the same market , creating a legal duopoly ) .
Sinclair 's use of local marketing agreements would lead to legal issues in 1999 , when Glencairn , Ltd . ( since restructured as Cunningham Broadcasting ) announced that it would acquire Fox affiliate KOKH @-@ TV in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma from Sullivan Broadcasting ; Glencairn subsequently announced plans to sell five of its 11 existing stations that were operated by Sinclair under LMAs to that company outright . As the family of Sinclair Broadcast Group founder Julian Smith controlled 97 % of Glencairn 's stock assets ( which remains the case under its Cunningham structure ) and the company was to be paid with Sinclair stock in turn for the purchases , KOKH and Sinclair @-@ owned WB affiliate KOCB ( now a CW affiliate ) would effectively constitute a duopoly in violation of FCC rules . The Rainbow / PUSH coalition ( headed by Jesse Jackson ) filed challenges against the sale with the FCC , citing concerns over a single company holding two broadcast licenses in a single market and argued that Glencairn was masquerading as a separate minority @-@ owned company ( Edwards , who served as Glencairn 's president , is African American ) when it was really an arm of Sinclair that the company used to gain control of the stations through LMAs . After the FCC updated its media ownership rules to allow a single company to own two television stations in the same market in August 1999 , Sinclair restructured the deal to acquire KOKH outright . In 2001 , the FCC issued a $ 40 @,@ 000 fine against Sinclair for illegally controlling Glencairn .
In 1999 , the FCC modified its media ownership rules to count LMAs formed after November 5 , 1996 that cover more than 15 % of the broadcast day toward the ownership limits for the brokering station 's owner . Even still , the related joint sales and shared services agreement structures became increasingly common during the 2000s ; these outsourcing agreements proliferated between 2011 and 2013 , when station owners such as Sinclair and the Nexstar Broadcasting Group began expanding their portfolios by acquiring additional stations in an effort to drive scale as well as to gain leverage in retransmission consent negotiations with cable and satellite television providers .
= = Uses = =
= = = Consolidation = = =
The most common use of an LMA in television broadcasting is to create a " virtual duopoly " , where the stations operated under the agreement are consolidated into a single entity . The operations of the stations can be streamlined for cost @-@ effectiveness through the sharing of resources , such as facilities , advertising sales , personnel and programming . Many broadcasters that engage in the practice believe that such agreements are beneficial to the survival of television stations – especially in smaller markets , where the overall audience reach is considerably less than that of markets that are centered upon densely populated metropolitan areas , and the cost savings achieved through the consolidation of resources and staff may be necessary to fund a station 's continued operation .
Sharing agreements may also be used as a loophole to control television stations in situations where it is legally impossible to own them outright . For instance , FCC regulations only allow a single company to own more than one full @-@ powered television station in a given market if there are at least eight distinct station owners , and also prohibits the ownership of two or more of the four highest @-@ rated stations ( based on total day viewership ) in a market . An LMA or similar agreement does not affect the ownership of the station 's license , meaning that they do not require the approval of the FCC to establish , and the two stations are still legally considered separate operations from a licensing standpoint . Both Tribune Media and the Gannett Company were required to use shared services agreements as a similar loophole to take control of certain stations in their respective 2013 purchases of Local TV and Belo , as they did not have exemptions to the FCC 's newspaper cross @-@ ownership restrictions in the affected markets . Both companies have since spun out their publishing arms as independent companies ; the Tribune Publishing Company and Gannett Company . Tegna , who holds the former Gannett 's broadcasting and digital media properties , re @-@ acquired the licenses for most of the affected stations following the split .
Broadcasters could also collect carriage fees for the stations they operate under sharing agreements on behalf of their owner , often bundling its carriage agreements with those of stations they own outright . This could , especially in LMAs between two stations affiliated with the " major " networks , allow the broadcaster to charge higher fees for retransmission consent to television providers for carrying the stations , which could result in smaller cable companies not being able to afford the higher fees imposed . Cable television providers advocated barring sharing agreements between television stations for this particular reason . In the United States , the FCC no longer allows broadcasters to collude with one another in negotiating retransmission consent fees .
= = = Operation on behalf of a third @-@ party owner = = =
Although the majority of LMAs involve the outsourcing of one television station 's operations to another , occasionally , a company may operate a station under an LMA , JSA or SSA even if it does not already own a station in that market . One example occurred in December 2013 , when the Louisiana Media Company ( owned by New Orleans Saints and New Orleans Hornets owner Tom Benson ) entered into a shared services agreement with Raycom Media to run the former company 's Fox affiliate in New Orleans , Louisiana , WVUE @-@ DT ; while Louisiana Media Company retained the station 's ownership and license , other assets were assumed by Raycom , which owns stations in markets adjacent to New Orleans ( including Baton Rouge , Jackson , Biloxi , Lake Charles and Shreveport ) but not within New Orleans itself . Benson had received offers from Raycom and others to buy the station , but was not prepared to sell WVUE outright .
= = = Foreign control of broadcast outlets = = =
LMAs can also allow companies to control foreign stations from outside of their respective country ; Canadian media company Rogers Media uses a joint sales agreement to operate Cape Vincent , New York radio station WLYK as a station targeting the nearby Canadian market of Kingston , Ontario , where it owns CKXC @-@ FM and CIKR @-@ FM . Rogers owns a 47 % stake in WLYK 's licensee , Border International Broadcasting .
Similarly , Entravision Communications Corporation controls XHDTV @-@ TDT , a Tijuana , Mexico @-@ based station owned by Televisora Alco , which operates as an English @-@ language station serving the border market of San Diego .
= = Effects of LMAs = =
Public interest organizations have disapproved of the use of LMAs for virtual duopolies that circumvent the FCC 's rules due to their effects on the broadcasting industry , particularly the results of consolidation through the irregular use of LMAs . In markets where duopolies are not legally possible , a company may elect to form one by purchasing a station 's " non @-@ license " assets ( such as their physical facilities , programming rights , and other intellectual property ) , and selling the license itself to a third @-@ party " sidecar " company ( which is often affiliated with the purchaser ) , which in turn , enters into an LMA or a similar agreement with the senior partner . The FCC only recognizes ownership of television stations by the ownership of their license and facility ID , and not by the ownership of these " non @-@ license " assets ; this means that the senior partner becomes the de facto owner and operator of the station , but the sidecar is still the legal owner . Although the FCC determines a sidecar firm to be an independent entity from the company using it to outsource station operations for licensing purposes , the Securities and Exchange Commission does not make such a designation , requiring reports on sidecars to be included in a broadcaster 's financial statements .
Both Sinclair Broadcast Group and Nexstar Broadcasting Group became infamous for their frequent use of sidecars as part of their expansion and consolidation tactics , partnering with companies like Cunningham Broadcasting , Deerfield Media , Mission Broadcasting , and even each other in the case of a virtual duopoly in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania between Sinclair @-@ owned CBS affiliate WHP @-@ TV and Nexstar @-@ owned CW affiliate WLYH @-@ TV , and a former virtual duopoly in Rochester , New York between Nexstar @-@ owned CBS affiliate WROC @-@ TV and Sinclair @-@ owned Fox affiliate WUHF ( in the wake of Sinclair and Deerfield 's purchase of ABC affiliate WHAM @-@ TV , this particular arrangement ended in January 2014 ) .
While not to the same , wide extent as Sinclair and Nexstar , some broadcasters have similar business relationships with specific sidecar companies as partners for these agreements :
Raycom Media has a similar business relationship with American Spirit Media in markets such as Toledo , Ohio ( where American Spirit Media purchased Fox affiliate WUPW from LIN Media in 2012 , with that station 's operations being taken over by CBS affiliate WTOL ) , On the other hand , two Raycom @-@ owned Fox stations , WFLX in West Palm Beach and KNIN @-@ TV in Boise , are managed by E.W. Scripps Company stations WPTV and KIVI @-@ TV .
Gray Television is affiliated with the sidecar Excalibur Broadcasting – owned by former Gray executive Don Ray ,
Granite Broadcasting operated virtual duopolies in Fort Wayne , Indiana and Duluth , Minnesota with the sidecar Malara Broadcast Group . The stations have since been respectively sold to Quincy Newspapers and SagamoreHill Broadcasting , with Quincy operating SagamoreHill 's stations under an SSA – although in Fort Wayne , Quincy acquired the previous junior partner , Malara 's ABC affiliate WPTA , with SagamoreHill taking NBC affiliate WISE @-@ TV instead .
News @-@ Press and Gazette Company is affiliated with the sidecar VistaWest Media for stations such as KIDK ( which was previously taken over by NPG under Fisher Communications ownership ) and KCOY @-@ TV ( under Cowles Publishing Company ownership ) . Both companies are based in St. Joseph , Missouri .
= = = Effects on programming = = =
The stations partnered through a sharing agreement may also consolidate their programming operations : local newscasts on the junior partner in the LMA , if it operated a separate news department before the LMA 's formation , may be rescheduled or scaled back to prevent direct competition with newscasts airing on the station acting as the senior partner ( the latter aspect is less common with LMAs involving only stations affiliated with one of the three largest broadcast television networks ) . The stations may share news @-@ gathering resources , but maintain separate news telecasts that are differentiated by their on @-@ air presentation , anchors , and overall format , with varying degrees of autonomy ; in these cases , a seemingly separate newscast on the brokered station in the duopoly may ultimately consist of repackaged news content from the other station . Alternatively , the stations may consolidate their news programming under a single joint brand .
Redundant staff members are often laid off as part of the consolidation process , and the sharing of news content reduces the number of unique editorial voices in the market . This in particular is one of the caveats of pushes to ban outsourcing agreements by media consolidation critics , who also suggest that LMAs result in a decreased amount of local news coverage on the brokered station .
Depending on how the outsourcing agreement is structured , as well as how the brokered station is programmed , how the stations are consolidated and the amount of news programming featured on the brokered station may vary , for example :
In October 2008 , Tribune Broadcasting and Local TV LLC consolidated the operations of their respective CW and Fox affiliates in Denver and St. Louis , resulting from a groupwide management agreement between both companies . In Denver , CW affiliate KWGN @-@ TV moved into Fox affiliate KDVR 's facilities in the Speer neighborhood ; while in St. Louis , Fox affiliate KTVI – despite being the senior partner in the LMA with CW affiliate KPLR – moved into the latter station 's Maryland Heights studios . Both cities were ( and still are ) top @-@ 25 markets , making Denver and St. Louis the largest where any English @-@ language stations were involved in an LMA ; however , both cities had enough stations to allow a legal duopoly ( this was not possible with KPLR and KTVI as both were among the four highest @-@ rated stations in St. Louis at the time , placing ahead of ratings @-@ challenged ABC affiliate KDNL @-@ TV ) , and were large enough to support at least four television news operations ( Denver had five and St. Louis had four news @-@ producing stations prior to the formation of the LMA ) .
KWGN and KPLR moved The CW 's primetime lineup one hour later ( to 8 : 00 p.m. ) than the network @-@ recommended timeslot , and shifted their evening newscasts to 7 : 00 p.m. ( weekend editions of the evening newscasts were discontinued with the move ; KPLR has since expanded its 7 : 00 p.m. newscast to Saturday and Sunday evenings ) to avoid competing with KDVR and KTVI 's 9 : 00 p.m. newscasts ; KWGN retained its weekday morning newscast ( which competes directly with KDVR 's morning newscast ) , but canceled its 5 : 30 p.m. – and later , 11 : 00 a.m. – newscasts . In contrast , KPLR ( which had run a primetime newscast for much of its history ) eventually added hour @-@ long midday and late afternoon newscasts . The two LMA arrangements became legal duopolies in December 2013 , once Tribune finalized its acquisition of Local TV .
In 2009 , Raycom Media ( owner of Honolulu @-@ based NBC and MyNetworkTV affiliates , KHNL and KFVE ) announced it would take over the operations of local CBS affiliate KGMB ( then owned by | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
MCG Capital Corporation ) , giving it control of three of the television stations in Hawaii . The deal was a complex arrangement which involved trading the non @-@ license assets of KFVE ( such as its call sign , programming , and network affiliation ) for those of KGMB ( effectively placing the station under Raycom ownership , but using KFVE 's license , signal , and virtual channel 5 ) , and taking over KFVE ( which moved to the channel 9 license owned by MCG Capital ) under a shared services agreement . Due to its nature , the swap was not a transaction that would require the intervention of the FCC , aside from the changing of call signs . The three stations were then folded into a shared news operation branded as Hawaii News Now . An estimated 68 positions from a total of 198 from the three stations would be eliminated as part of the agreement . On November 20 , 2013 , MCG Capital filed to sell KFVE to the aforementioned American Spirit Media .
In 2010 , the operations of Schurz Communications @-@ owned NBC affiliate WAGT in Augusta , Georgia were taken over by Media General @-@ owned ABC affiliate WJBF @-@ TV . Both stations were consolidated into new , high @-@ definition capable facilities constructed on the site of a former Barnes & Noble store , with separate studios for each station , and a third , shared studio . Despite the consolidation , the two stations aimed to maintain some autonomy from each other : both WAGT and WJBF maintain their own on @-@ air identities , newsrooms , and sales departments within the facility . While the newscasts on both stations do share some " factual " video content , they are otherwise produced independently of each other . However , upon the consolidation , most of WAGT 's managerial staff were dismissed and other employees were reassigned to different positions . The agreement was unwound after Gray Television 's purchase of the station , but briefly reinstated following legal action by Media General . After the injunction was struck down , Gray re @-@ assumed control of WAGT on March 28 , 2016 , adding 5 : 30 p.m. and 7 : 00 p.m. newscasts exclusive to the station , with the remainder simulcast from WRDW .
In 2010 , Nexstar announced a new joint news operation for its consolidated cluster in Utica / Rome , New York , which consists of Nexstar @-@ owned Fox and MyNetworkTV affiliates WFXV and WPNY @-@ LP , and Mission @-@ owned ABC affiliate WUTR . Unlike the other examples , neither station had a pre @-@ existing newscast at the time ; WUTR 's original news department was closed in 2003 by previous owner Clear Channel Communications as a cost @-@ saving measure , and WFXV had never aired local news programming at all . Its slate included early and late evening newscasts on WUTR , an encore of WUTR 's evening newscast on WPNY , and a 10 : 00 p.m. newscast on WFXV with a faster , younger @-@ skewing format . The station 's executive vice president , Steve Merren ( who had come from NBC affiliate WKTV , which had the sole television news operation in the market prior to the formation of Nexstar 's Eyewitness News operation ) believed that it " [ was ] important that the community has another source of news . We have one newspaper and one news station and the community could benefit from another voice . "
In Evansville , Indiana , Mission Broadcasting acquired then @-@ independent station WTVW ( now a CW affiliate ) in 2011 with its former owner Nexstar Broadcasting retaining operational duties under an SSA . WTVW consolidated news operations with ABC affiliate WEHT , for which Nexstar traded WTVW to Mission in exchange for acquiring WEHT from Gilmore Broadcasting Corporation , and had its newscast output reduced through the reductions of its weekday morning newscast from four hours to two and its 6 : 00 p.m. newscast – except on Sundays , where it remained one hour – from one hour to 30 minutes ( leaving only a two @-@ hour morning newscast , half @-@ hour noon and 6 : 30 p.m. newscasts and an hour @-@ long newscast at 9 : 00 p.m. ) . Both stations were then folded into a shared news operation branded as Eyewitness News .
In November 2011 , in the Tucson , Arizona , market , Belo relinquished the operations of its Fox and MyNetworkTV duopoly KMSB and KTTU to Raycom Media . Operations of the two stations , along with production of KMSB 's 9 : 00 p.m. newscast , were assumed by Raycom 's CBS station KOLD @-@ TV . Belo Media Operations president Peter L. Diaz touted that the consolidation would result in " better produced , increased news programming for the Tucson market , " citing Raycom 's addition of a locally produced morning newscast to KMSB , and the upgrade of KMSB 's news programming to high definition as part of the transition . Although ruling out the need to do so in other markets , Diaz noted that the agreements " [ allowed ] us to increase our news product that we couldn 't afford to do otherwise . " The consolidation resulted in layoffs for almost all of the two stations ' employees , aside from advertising sales staff , which remained employed by Belo but worked from KOLD 's facilities . The acquisition of Belo by Gannett in 2013 had few effects on the virtual triopoly ; although the stations ' licenses were sold to third @-@ parties to satisfy newspaper cross @-@ ownership restrictions , Raycom still operates the stations , but their sales departments remained operated by Gannett . The licenses were , in turn , sold to Tegna — the spin @-@ out of Gannett 's broadcasting division , in December 2015 .
The 2012 sale of Newport Television led to the formation of two full @-@ power virtual quadropolies . In Little Rock , Arkansas , Nexstar and Mission Broadcasting formed a virtual quadropoly consisting of two duopolies ; NBC station KARK @-@ TV and MyNetworkTV station KARZ @-@ TV ( owned by Nexstar ) , along with Fox station KLRT @-@ TV and CW station KASN ( owned by Mission , operated by Nexstar under a local marketing agreement ) . All four stations were consolidated into KARK 's facilities ; 30 employees were laid off as part of the consolidation . As a result , KLRT reduced its weeknight 5 : 00 p.m. newscast from one hour to 30 minutes ( limiting it to the 5 : 30 half @-@ hour ) and dropped its 10 : 00 p.m. newscast , while adding a two @-@ hour weekday morning newscast and retaining its existing hour @-@ long newscast at 9 : 00 p.m.
Sinclair formed a similar arrangement in Mobile , Alabama between its existing Pensacola duopoly of ABC affiliate WEAR @-@ TV and MyNetworkTV affiliate WFGX , and the newly acquired Mobile duopoly of NBC affiliate WPMI and independent station WJTC ( owned by Deerfield Media ) . However , the stations were not consolidated , and maintain their own studio facilities , news departments and staff . WEAR and WPMI also produce competing 9 : 00 p.m. newscasts for their respective duopoly partners .
= = Reaction and government action = =
In February 2001 , Clear Channel Communications subsidiary Citicasters was fined $ 25 @,@ 000 for its use of time brokerage agreements and litigation for unlawfully controlling Youngstown , Ohio area radio station WBTJ ( 101 @.@ 9 FM , now WYLR ) ; the company had also been the target of complaints for using KFJO ( FM ) to rebroadcast KSJO after it had nominally sold KFJO to minority @-@ owned interests .
In 2009 , the Media Council of Hawaii complained to the FCC about Raycom 's Hawaii News Now operation , stating that it would " directly reduce the diversity of local voices in a community by replacing independent newscasts on the brokered station with those of the brokering station . " In response , the FCC stated it would begin to investigate into the matter .
In 2011 , after temporarily losing its Fox affiliation for WFFT @-@ TV to a subchannel of WISE @-@ TV due to a reverse compensation dispute , Nexstar Broadcasting Group ( ironically , given its use of similar practices in other markets ) filed an antitrust lawsuit against the station 's managing partner , Granite Broadcasting , arguing that it had built a monopoly on local advertising sales by having effective control of the outlets for five major networks ( ABC and MyNetworkTV on WPTA , and NBC , Fox , and The CW on WISE @-@ TV ; owned by Malara Broadcast Group and operated under agreements by Granite ) . The lawsuit was settled in February 2013 via mutual agreement , after which the Fox affiliation was given back to WFFT .
= = = Gannett acquisition of Belo = = =
Gannett Company 's 2013 acquisition of Belo was opposed by organizations such as the American Cable Association and Free Press , due to Gannett 's plans to use LMAs and two shell companies owned by former Belo and Fisher Communications executives ( respectively , Sander Media and Tucker Operating Co . ) to dodge FCC newspaper cross @-@ ownership restrictions in Louisville , Phoenix , Portland , Oregon and Tucson . Although Gannett contended that the arrangements were legal , Free Press president Craig Aaron stated that " the FCC shouldn 't let Gannett break the rules . Media consolidation results in fewer journalists in the newsroom and fewer opinions on the airwaves . Concentrating media outlets in the hands of just a few companies benefits only the companies themselves . " The deal would have given Gannett a virtual triopoly in Phoenix , consisting of its NBC station KPNX , independent station KTVK and CW affiliate KASW . In Tucson , Fox affiliate KMSB and MyNetworkTV affiliate KTTU were already operated by Raycom Media 's CBS affiliate KOLD @-@ TV under a shared services agreement established under Belo ownership , but Gannett would still handle advertising sales for the stations .
In December 2013 , the U.S. Department of Justice blocked Gannett from using an agreement with Sander Media to operate CBS affiliate KMOV in St. Louis alongside its own NBC station KSDK , and ordered Gannett to sell KMOV . Even though Gannett planned to operate KMOV separately from KSDK , the Department ruled the agreement to be a violation of antitrust law , as it would reduce competition for advertising sales . Following the closure of the Belo purchase , Meredith Corporation announced a deal to purchase KMOV , along with KTVK and KASW . As Meredith would have a duopoly between KTVK and its Phoenix CBS affiliate KPHO @-@ TV , KASW was to be sold to SagamoreHill Broadcasting and operated by Meredith under an LMA . As a result of the FCC 's scrutiny on any new station sharing agreements , on October 23 , 2014 , Meredith would backtrack on this plan and instead sell KASW to the Nexstar Broadcasting Group , which would operate the station independently of KTVK and KPHO .
Following Gannett 's split into independent broadcasting and publishing companies , Tegna , Inc . — the owner of Gannett 's stations following the split , bought back the licenses to the Sander Media stations , placing them back under its full control .
= = = Sinclair acquisition of Allbritton = = =
As part of its planned acquisition of Allbritton Communications , Sinclair originally planned to sell its existing stations in three markets – Charleston , South Carolina , Birmingham , Alabama and Harrisburg , Pennsylvania – where Allbritton already owned stations , but continue to operate them under local marketing agreements . WABM and WTTO in Birmingham and WHP @-@ TV in Harrisburg were to be sold to Deerfield Media , and WMMP in Charleston was to be sold to Howard Stirk Holdings – a broadcasting company owned by conservative pundit Armstrong Williams . Howard Stirk Holdings was also used as a sidecar for two conflicting stations in Sinclair 's earlier acquisition of Barrington Broadcasting .
In December 2013 , FCC Video Division Chief Barbara Kreisman sent a letter demanding information from the Sinclair Broadcast Group on the financial aspects of its " sidecar " operations , and warned that in the three aforementioned markets , " the proposed transactions would result in the elimination of the grandfathered status of certain local marketing agreements and thus cause the transactions to violate our local TV ownership rules . " It was asserted that the deal might only be legal if the affected stations were operated under shared services agreements . Sinclair restructured the deal in March 2014 , choosing to sell WHP @-@ TV , WMMP and WABM , and terminate an SSA with the Cunningham @-@ owned Fox affiliate WTAT in Charleston to acquire the Allbritton @-@ owned stations in those markets ( WCIV , WHTM @-@ TV and WBMA @-@ LD , while also creating a new duopoly between the ABC and CW affiliates in Birmingham ) , as well as foregoing any operational or financial agreements with the buyers of the stations being sold to other parties .
In May 2014 , Sinclair disclosed in an FCC filling that it was unable to find buyers for the three affected stations , requiring changes to its transaction . In Harrisburg , Sinclair chose to retain WHP @-@ TV , and divest WHTM to Media General . However , in Charleston and Birmingham , the company proposed to shut down stations entirely ( rather than selling them to other buyers that would also handle their operational responsibilities ) so it could maintain legal duopolies ; surrendering the licenses for WCIV and the full @-@ powered repeaters of WBMA @-@ LD ( WJSU and WCFT ) , and moving their ABC programming to Sinclair 's existing stations WMMP and WABM respectively – which would shift their existing MyNetworkTV programming to digital subchannels . After nearly a year of delays , Sinclair 's deal to acquire Allbritton was approved by the FCC on July 24 , 2014 .
= = = FCC limits on joint sales agreements for television stations = = =
In response to criticism of the virtual duopolies and sharing agreements , the FCC began to consider potential changes to address these loopholes . In March 2013 , the Commission first tabled a proposal that would make joint sales agreements count the same as ownership .
In January 2014 town hall meeting , FCC chairman Tom Wheeler disclosed that he planned to place more scrutiny on the use of LMA @-@ style agreements and shell companies , stating that " there were a couple of references in a couple of recent decisions in which we 've said that we 're going to do things differently going forward on what were called these shell corporations . " Later that month , it was reported that the FCC had placed all pending acquisitions involving the use of shell companies on hold , so the Commission could discuss changes to its policies . Among the deals affected by this decision included the aforementioned Sinclair / Allbritton purchase .
On March 6 , 2014 , the FCC announced that it would hold a vote on March 31 on a proposal to ban joint sales agreements involving television stations outright , making them attributable to FCC ownership limits if the senior partner sells 15 % or more of advertising time of a competing junior partner station in the JSA ; the ban applies to both existing sharing agreements under such a structure as well as pending station transactions that include a JSA . Station owners would be given a two @-@ year grace period to unwind or modify joint sales agreements in violation of the policy ; coordinated retransmission consent negotiations between two of the four highest @-@ rated stations in a single market would also be barred under the proposal . Wheeler also proposed an expedited process to review joint sales agreements on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis , granting a waiver of the rules if a broadcaster can prove a particular joint sales agreement arrangement serves the public interest .
On March 12 , 2014 , the FCC Media Bureau released a notice that it would further analyze television station transactions that include sharing agreements , particularly those that include a purchase option that " may counter any incentive the licensee has to increase the value of the station , since the licensee may be unlikely to realize that increased value . " Under the new provisions , broadcasters must demonstrate in their transaction applications as to how such deals would serve the public interest . The National Association of Broadcasters ( NAB ) – which , along with station groups such as Sinclair Broadcast Group , have disapproved of the proposal to ban JSAs – presented a compromise proposal , in which the brokered licensee in a sharing agreement would retain control over at least 85 percent of the station 's programming , maintain at least 70 percent of ad sales revenue and " maintain at least 20 percent of station value in the license itself " . FCC commissioner Ajit Pai , and Gordon Smith , president of the NAB , were also opposed to the new rules on joint sales agreements , believing that they would discourage the ownership of television stations by minority @-@ owned companies . Tom Wheeler , however , proposed the restrictions in the hopes of encouraging more women and minorities to own stations , due to the ongoing consolidation in the television industry through company mergers and sharing agreements .
On March 31 , 2014 , the FCC voted 3 – 2 to approve the proposed ban on joint sales agreements and voted 5 – 0 to approve the proposed ban on coordinated retransmission consent negotiations between two of the four highest @-@ rated stations within a given market ; the JSA ban went into effect on June 19 , 2014 . Under the restrictions , the FCC would rule on waivers to maintain select existing JSAs within 90 days of the application 's filing . The FCC also began a request for comment on policies to address other agreements , such as shared services agreements . The prohibition on television JSAs had been proposed as early as 2004 , a year after the FCC voted to treat JSAs between radio stations as duopolies . Despite this fact , broadcasting companies criticized the ban , accusing the Commission of using it as a move to encourage participation in a spectrum incentive auction then set to occur in 2015 , and stating that the ban would place them at a disadvantage during retransmission consent negotiations with pay television providers .
On December 19 , 2015 , as a rider to the federal budget , the grace period for unwinding or modifying existing JSAs was extended to 10 years . On May 25 , 2016 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit struck down the restrictions on joint sales agreements , ruling that the FCC cannot manipulate its ownership rules without " [ in ] the previous four years , [ fufilling ] its obligation to review [ the ] rule and determine whether it is in the public interest " .
= = = Shutdown and spin @-@ offs of stations = = =
The increased scrutiny being imposed by the FCC regarding local marketing , shared services , and joint sales agreements have led to more drastic measures by broadcasting companies attempting to use them in acquisitions ; in 2014 , two broadcasting companies declared intents to shut acquired stations down entirely and consolidate their programming onto existing stations through multicasting , rather than attempting to use sidecars and sharing agreements or selling them to other parties that would assume full responsibility of their day @-@ to @-@ day operations .
In May 2014 , Sinclair informed the FCC that it was unable to find buyers for WABM or WMMP – the company 's MyNetworkTV stations in Birmingham , Alabama and Charleston , South Carolina that it planned to sell in its purchase of Allbritton Communications . In Birmingham , the company proposed surrendering the licenses of WCFT @-@ TV and WJSU @-@ TV – the two full @-@ powered satellites of ABC affiliate WBMA @-@ LD , converting WABM into a full @-@ powered satellite of WBMA @-@ LD – and moving its existing MyNetworkTV programming to a digital subchannel of WABM ( although the WBMA @-@ LD simulcast was placed on WABM 's subchannel instead while MyNetworkTV programming was retained on its main channel ) . Similarly , in Charleston , Sinclair planned to surrender WCIV 's license and move its ABC affiliation and programming to WMMP . In both cases , Sinclair believed that its own stations had superior technical facilities than those of the stations it intends to surrender . Sinclair was able to retain WBMA @-@ LD in any event as the FCC does not impose any ownership limits on low @-@ power stations .
On June 13 , 2014 , Gray Television announced that it would shutter six stations and consolidate existing programming onto subchannels of Gray @-@ owned stations in their respective market . Unlike Sinclair , however , Gray stated that it would sell the licenses of the shuttered stations to minority @-@ owned broadcasters in collaboration with the Minority Media and Telecommunications Council – under the condition that they would operate them independently from other stations in the market , and without the use of any sharing agreements . All six of the stations were owned by companies other than Gray , but their non @-@ license assets are either owned by Gray , or were operated by stations now owned by Gray under agreements . Gray would operate the affected stations under LMAs until the sales and consolidation are complete . Aside from one , most of the stations involved in these changes were related to Gray 's acquisition of stations from Hoak Media . Three of these stations were immediately shut down the same day , while the remainder remained operated by Gray until the sales were completed . Gray announced buyers for the stations on August 27 , 2014 .
The six stations affected by Gray 's move included :
KHAS @-@ TV ( Hastings / Lincoln , Nebraska ) , previously owned by Hoak . On June 13 , 2014 , KHAS @-@ TV was shut down and its NBC programming was moved to the primary channel of KSNB @-@ TV ( channel 4 ) . Gray had bought KSNB under a failing station waiver to form a duopoly with CBS station KOLN / KGIN , and operated the station as a MyNetworkTV / MeTV affiliate with local programming focused on central Nebraska ; this existing programming was moved to KSNB @-@ DT2 upon the transition . On August 27 , 2014 , the station was sold to Legacy Broadcasting .
KNDX / KXND ( Bismarck / Minot , North Dakota ) , owned by Prime Cities Broadcasting , which asked the FCC to dismiss the sale of the stations to Excalibur Broadcasting ( a sidecar owned by former Gray executive Don Ray ) , which would have made them sisters to the NBC North Dakota chain being acquired from Hoak by Gray . Gray acquired the stations ' non @-@ license assets on May 1 , 2014 ; both stations were then taken off the air on June 13 , 2014 , with Fox programming being moved to subchannels of the NBC North Dakota stations ( KMOT , KQCD @-@ TV and KFYR @-@ TV ) . On August 27 , 2014 , the stations were sold to Legacy Broadcasting .
KXJB @-@ TV and KAQY ( Fargo , North Dakota and Columbia / Monroe , Louisiana – El Dorado , Arkansas ) , both owned by Parker Broadcasting and operated by Hoak ( now Gray ) stations . Both were originally to be sold to Excalibur Broadcasting . On August 27 , 2014 , KXJB @-@ TV was sold to Major Market Broadcasting , and KAQY to Legacy Broadcasting .
KJCT ( Grand Junction , Colorado ) , acquired by Excalibur in August 2013 from News @-@ Press & Gazette Company , and taken over by Gray @-@ owned KKCO following the acquisition . On August 27 , 2014 , the station was sold to Chang Media Group , and was later re @-@ launched as Cozi TV station KGBY .
Following the approval of Sinclair 's purchase of Allbritton , commissioner Ajit Pai further criticized the FCC 's new policies and its endorsement of Sinclair 's proposal to shut down stations to comply with them . Describing the three Allbritton stations as being " victims " of the " crackdown " against joint sales agreements , he stated regarding WCIV that " apparently the Commission believes that it is better for that station to go out of business than for Howard Stirk Holdings to own the station and participate in a joint sales agreement with Sinclair . I strongly disagree . And so too , I 'll bet , would consumers in Charleston . " In September 2014 , Sinclair backtracked on its original plans , and reached deals to sell WCIV , WCFT and WJSU 's license assets to Howard Stirk Holdings for $ 50 @,@ 000 each and lease them studio space , pending FCC approval . Unlike Howard Stirk Holdings ' other stations , they are operated and programmed independently , and Sinclair did not enter into any agreements to operate the stations on HSH 's behalf .
In Quincy Newspapers ' acquisition of Granite Broadcasting 's remaining stations , the acquisition was briefly re @-@ structured to have Malara Broadcast Group — which served as a virtual duopoly partner for stations WISE @-@ TV ( NBC ) Fort Wayne and KDLH @-@ TV Duluth ( CBS ) , retain the stations and their current agreements with WPTA and KBJR @-@ TV in lieu of having them sold to SagamoreHill Broadcasting . The acquisition was restructured in July 2015 to , again , have SagamoreHill Broadcasting acquire the two stations , but have their current SSAs wound down within nine months . Following the end of the SSA , the two stations will retain The CW as independently @-@ run stations , with their remaining affiliations moved to subchannels of KBJR and WPTA .
= = = WAGT dispute = = =
In February 2016 , Gray Television acquired Schurz Communications ' stations , including Augusta , Georgia 's WAGT . As Gray could not own both WAGT and its existing CBS affiliate WRDW @-@ TV as a legal duopoly , Gray proposed the sale of WAGT 's broadcast spectrum during the incentive auction , and for WAGT to go silent upon completion of the deal so the company would not be running more than one of the top four stations in the market . Gray also requested special temporary authority for WAGT 's signal to be replaced on its existing technical facilities and UHF channel 30 by the co @-@ owned low @-@ power station , WRDW @-@ CD ( as previously mentioned , low @-@ power stations are not subject to the rules regarding duopolies ) .
The FCC , however , required that Gray continue to operate WAGT as a separate station through the end of the auction , and not enter into any joint sales agreements . Upon the closure of the sale , Gray unwound the shared services and joint sales agreements that Schurz had established with WJBF @-@ TV and Media General , and replaced its previous news programs with simulcasts from WRDW . Gray also accused WJBF of " [ refusing ] to agree to a smooth transition of personnel [ from WAGT ] " , as WAGT 's employees fall under the employment of Media General due to the SSA .
On February 26 , 2016 , Media General obtained a preliminary injunction against Gray for violating the SSA and JSA , which required that Gray return control of WAGT to Media General , and forbids Gray from selling WAGT in the spectrum incentive auction . The company accused Gray of using the spectrum auction and sale of the station to exit the agreements illegitimately , as they were to last through 2020 , and apply to any future owner of WAGT . Gray attempted to block the injunction by arguing that its actions were required in order to comply with the FCC 's prohibition of joint sales agreements , but was denied . Media General took back control of WAGT on March 7 , 2016 .
On March 10 , 2016 , FCC Deputy General Counsel David Gossett announced that the Commission would investigate Media General 's actions as possibly being in violation of Section 310 ( d ) of the Communications Act . Gossett argued that by legally blocking Gray 's participation in the spectrum auction , Media General had " [ sought ] injunctive relief that interferes with a licensee 's ultimate control of a station " . He also stated that the FCC may consider a license revocation hearing against Media General under Section 312 of the Communications Act . On March 23 , 2016 , the Supreme Court of Georgia struck down the injunction without addressing the litigation , and Gray took back control of WAGT .
= = Internationally = =
In a 2005 Canadian dispute , Rogers Media and Newcap Broadcasting maintained a joint sales agreement pertaining to CHNO @-@ FM in Sudbury , Ontario , but community interests and the lobby group Friends of Canadian Broadcasting presented substantial evidence to the Canadian Radio @-@ television and Telecommunications Commission that in practice , the agreement was a de facto LMA , going significantly beyond advertising sales into program production and news @-@ gathering . LMAs in Canada cannot be implemented without the CRTC 's approval , and in early 2005 , the CRTC ordered the agreement to cease .
In 2008 , the Filipino Associated Broadcasting Company leased its airtime to the Malaysian broadcaster Media Prima ( through the local subsidiary MPB Primedia , Inc ) similar to an LMA – with MPB Primedia providing entertainment programming , and ABC handling news programming and operations . Soon afterward , ABC and Media Prima were sued by rival media company GMA Network , Inc. for attempting to use the partnership to skirt laws requiring domestic ownership of broadcasters . In response , ABC 's media relations head Pat Marcelo @-@ Magbanua reiterated that the subsidiary was a Filipino company which was self @-@ registered and Filipino @-@ run . The concerns became moot in 2010 , when Media Prima announced it would divest its ownership in the network to the Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company 's broadcasting subsidiary MediaQuest Holdings .
= Ground Combat Vehicle =
The Ground Combat Vehicle ( GCV ) was the US Army 's replacement program for armored fighting vehicles in Armored and Stryker brigade combat teams . The GCV was organized under the Follow On Incremental Capabilities Package of the BCT Modernization program . The first variant of the vehicle was to be prototyped in 2015 and fielded by 2017 . It replaced the canceled Future Combat Systems , manned ground vehicles program . The Ground Combat Vehicle program was cancelled in February 2014 .
= = Design = =
Specific design elements of the GCV were contracted out , though the Army designed the architecture and retained overall responsibility for synchronization . This contrasted with the former FCS manned ground vehicles program where contractors had more control over the design . The GCV was to be networked and offer improved survivability , while using the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art mobility and power management functions . The military released classified details of the FCS Manned Ground Vehicles program to interested contractors to be utilized in design proposals for the GCV . The GCV family was to be built around a common chassis .
= = = Network = = =
The GCV was to be operable with the current battle command control and communications suite but would gradually use a more state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art networked integration system known as the BCT Network . It would provide exportable electrical power , and a battery charging capability for external hardware including vehicles and electronics from the BCT Soldier subsystems . The system would be capable of integration with unmanned systems and dismounted soldiers .
= = = Mobility = = =
The GCV must have been transportable by cargo aircraft , rail , and ship . The Army required it to meet the availability rates of the current Stryker . The Army did not limit the vehicle by the dimensions of the C @-@ 130 Hercules , which , in the past , constrained many designs . Air mobility would be provided by the more spacious C @-@ 17 Globemaster III . The GCV was to have good cross @-@ country mobility , with a baseline requirement of 30 mph off @-@ road speed . The GCV should have delivered higher sustainability levels and consume less fuel than the Bradley or other vehicles of similar weight and power . The military was accepting both tracked and wheeled designs . The operational maintenance cost requirement of the GCV was up to $ 200 per mile , compared to $ 168 per mile for the M2 Bradley .
= = = Offensive capabilities = = =
The type and caliber of the weapons were classified or open to interpretation by the industry . The IFV variant was notable for having a non @-@ lethal weapon requirement .
= = = Countermeasures = = =
The Army wanted the GCV to have a passive blast protection level equal to the MRAP and would utilize hit avoidance systems . The Army wanted to install an active protection system on the Ground Combat Vehicle . BAE tested the Artis LLC Iron Curtain and General Dynamics demonstrated a version of the Israeli Trophy system . By incorporating an APS , the GCV would only need 18 tons of ballistic armor protection , compared to 52 tons of armor required without it . Developers were considering modular armor technology , with the ability to add @-@ on and remove armor plates depending on threat levels and mission requirements .
= = Development = =
In June 2009 , a blue @-@ ribbon panel met in Washington , D.C. , to discuss requirements for the Ground Combat Vehicle . In October and November 2009 , more than 100 defense contractors turned up for two U.S. Army @-@ organized industry day events in Michigan to express interest in bidding on the vehicle . A review required for continuation was held and passed in February 2010 in Washington D.C. A request for proposals ( RFP ) was issued on February 25 , 2010 to which companies had 60 days to respond , but was extended an additional 25 days . A committee examined the schedule for the GCV to " shave a little time off " . For fiscal year 2011 , the U.S. Army wished to spend $ 934 million of the $ 2 @.@ 5 billion allocated for BCT Modernization to develop the GCV .
Up to three competitive contracts were to be awarded by early fall . A prototype development contract decision would have followed by 2013 . The Technology Development Phase ( or Milestone A ) would begin in the fourth quarter of Fiscal Year 2010 with the award of up to three vehicle contracts . This was to be followed by an Engineering & Manufacturing Development ( EMD ) phase and Low Rate Initial Production ( LRIP ) phase before full production could start .
Nine vehicles were evaluated in the Analysis of Alternatives ( AOA ) . The four primary vehicles included in the AOA were the M2A3 Bradley II , a modernized Stryker , an M2A3 Bradley variant used in Iraq , and a XM1230 Caiman Plus MRAP . The five secondary vehicles included two unnamed foreign @-@ made platforms , the M1126 Stryker Infantry Fighting Vehicle , the M1A2 SEP TUSK Abrams , and a modernized M1 Abrams . Vehicles included the AOA were determined to be inferior to the planned GCV .
On 25 August 2010 , the U.S. Army canceled the original RFP to revise the requirements . A new RFP was to be issued 60 days later . When Peter Chiarelli was asked if the Army was developing an alternative to the GCV , Chiarelli replied " We 're totally committed to GCV . " The National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform suggested deferring development of the GCV until after 2015 .
In August 2011 , technology development contracts were awarded to BAE Systems Land & Armaments for $ 449 @.@ 9 million and General Dynamics Land Systems for $ 439.7M.
= = = Budget concerns and proposed cuts = = =
In December 2012 , it was reported that the Army may need to cut $ 150 million from the GCV program in 2014 , with deeper cuts between $ 600 million- $ 700 million between 2014 and 2018 . This put the program , one of the Army 's highest priorities , at serious risk . With the drawdown of the War in Afghanistan and budgetary concerns , the expensive development of a new combat vehicle was not seen as feasible . BAE Systems and General Dynamics were each awarded engineering and manufacturing development ( EMD ) phase contracts in August 2011 . The EMD phase was to last 48 months for both contractors , but there were arguments for only one to proceed as a cost @-@ saving measure . This would present the problem of selecting a vehicle based on design outlines , rather than on real prototypes . Another suggestion was to lengthen the EMD period to allow for smaller contract awards over time . This might delay the operational deadline beyond the planned 2018 date . The underlying concern is the fact that the Army plans to spend 80 percent of its ground combat vehicle budget on GCV development from 2013 @-@ 2018 . With 1 @,@ 847 GCV Infantry Fighting Vehicles expected to be acquired , they would make up only 10 percent of the Army combat vehicle fleet . Redirected funds could be shifted to modernization efforts for the combat @-@ proven Stryker , M1 Abrams , and Bradley families of vehicles .
= = = Revision = = =
The GCV acquisition strategy was revised on 17 January 2013 to further reduce risk and maintain affordability of the program . The revision extended the technology development phase by six months to give industry more time to refine vehicle designs . Milestone B would occur in 2014 , with the selection of a single vendor for the engineering and manufacturing development ( EMD ) and production phases of the program . This would initiate critical design and testing activities in anticipation of vehicle production . Budgetary pressures caused the reduction of number of vendors to be selected from two to one .
= = = CBO report = = =
On 2 April 2013 , the Congressional Budget Office ( CBO ) issued a report on the progress of the GCV program . The report questioned the program , estimated to cost $ 28 billion from 2014 – 2030 , with the possibility of alternate vehicle options . While none met overall Army goals desired in the GCV , they offer advantages in being less costly and delayed . Planned GCV prototypes were heavy , weighing up to 84 tons , to be better protected and seat a 9 @-@ man squad . Officials said that a vehicle of that size would not be well suited to operations faced in Iraq or Afghanistan . Alternate vehicles would be cheaper and more maneuverable in urban settings . The CBO report analyzed four alternative options :
Purchase the Namer APC – Seats 9 soldiers with combat survival rates expected slightly higher than the GCV , and costs $ 9 billion less . The Namer has less ability to destroy other enemy vehicles and is less mobile . Production would be conducted in part domestically , but fielding would require collaboration with foreign companies and governments .
Upgrade the Bradley IFV – An upgraded Bradley would be more lethal than the GCV against enemy forces and would probably survive combat at about the same rates as would the GCV , saving $ 19 @.@ 8 billion . Upgrading the Bradley would make it " significantly more capable " than the GCV . The Bradley still only carries a 7 @-@ man squad and has less mobility .
Purchase the Puma ( IFV ) – More lethal than the GCV , combat survival and protection at better rates , and just as mobile . Purchasing the Puma would save $ 14 @.@ 8 billion and was considered the most capable of the vehicles . Puma IFVs only carry six infantrymen , which would require five vehicles to replace every four Bradleys . Development and production would require collaboration with foreign companies and governments .
Cancel the Ground Combat Vehicle – If the Army reconditioned its current Bradley instead of replacing them , the current capability of the IFV fleet could be maintained through 2030 . The Army could continue to investigate ways to improve the current Bradleys , but it would not field any new or improved vehicles . The $ 24 billion saved in funding could be used on other programs .
General Dynamics and BAE Systems , who received contracts in the Ground Combat Vehicle program , criticized the CBO report , saying they used the wrong vehicle in its analysis . Officials from both companies said they used the wrong notional model of the GCV that did not account for the change in requirements made by the Army or the advancements made in the technology development phase of the program . They also criticized the comparisons of the other vehicles . The report factored cost , survivability , mobility , and lethality , ranking the GCV 's capabilities as lower than all others . The Army 's response was that none of the vehicles meet the requirements to replace the Bradley . An Army test of currently fielded vehicles in 2012 revealed that some met critical GCV requirements , but none met enough without needing significant redesign . They also note that lethality was judged with a 25 mm cannon for analysis , before the Army planned to mount a 30 mm cannon . The CBO report did give credit to cost , assuming the Army 's goal of $ 13 million per vehicle . However , Pentagon cost assessments estimated the price at $ 16 – $ 17 million per vehicle .
= = = Funding cut and prioritization = = =
On 29 July 2013 , Army Chief of Staff General Ray Odierno warned that the Ground Combat Vehicle program might be delayed or possibly even cancelled because of the sequestration budget cuts . Although he specifically said it could be delayed , he did not rule out the possibility of cancellation . The GCV was high @-@ priority for the Army to give better protection than the M2 Bradley , but because of the sequester cuts everything was being considered . On 1 August 2013 , Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel outlined two basic results if the effects of sequestration continued : modernization programs like the GCV would be cut to maintain troop levels , or high @-@ end capability efforts like the GCV would be preserved to continue modernization and keep equipment technologically advanced with troop levels being cut . Odierno was committed to balancing soldiers , readiness , and modernization , and was intent on the need for the Ground Combat Vehicle . Suggested alternative options , such as further upgrading the Bradley and buying currently available infantry fighting vehicles like the German Puma , were recommended as cost @-@ saving measures . Army leaders said the Puma 's low troop @-@ carrying capacity would require buying five vehicles to replace every four Bradleys , and that upgrading the Bradley would essentially be engineering a new vehicle . While these options would offer no improvement over the fleet 's current capability , not pursuing the GCV would allow the money to be spent elsewhere .
Some reports suggested that the Armored Multi @-@ Purpose Vehicle program to replace the M113 family of vehicles was being favored over the GCV program . While procurement of the AMPV fleet would cost over $ 5 billion , the Government Accountability Office estimated the GCV fleet would cost $ 37 billion . In April 2013 , the Congressional Budget Office said the AMPV would be a better buy because analysts had asserted that the vehicles the GCV was slated to replace should not be first . The GCV would replace 61 M2 Bradley IFVs per armored combat brigade , making up 18 percent of the 346 armored combat vehicles in each armored brigade . A 24 September 2013 Congressional Research Service report suggested that given budgetary constraints , the GCV program may be unrealistic , and that one potential discussion could focus on a decision by the Army to replace the GCV with the AMPV as their number one ground combat vehicle acquisition priority .
Army leaders say having a large ground army is still necessary for deterrence and " regime change " operations . They also realize that their equipment will be mostly modernized versions of current equipment for the rest of the decade . Technologies from the GCV program are being explored , although development and procurement of a vehicle is not . By mid @-@ November 2013 , both BAE and General Dynamics designs had passed Preliminary Design Reviews ( PDR ) , but neither company had commenced building prototypes . The Army was increasingly willing to slow down the GCV program or push it back from EMD to research and development . While the Army had said previously that it was their highest priority acquisition program , they had since shifted their main modernization priority to an integrated electronic command network . Short @-@ term incremental upgrades will be applied to existing weapons systems to keep them from becoming obsolete , and advanced technologies available in the future will be used to build entirely new systems when funding is restored .
On 15 January 2014 , a spending bill passed by the House appropriated $ 100 million for the GCV program , even though the Army had requested $ 592 million for the program for FY 2014 . The Army planned to spend 80 percent of its ground vehicle modernization budget on the GCV over the next 5 years , with costs ranging from $ 29- $ 34 billion depending on overruns and setbacks . Several options were being considered to make the program more affordable , including reducing the squad size from their optimum goal of nine men and using new emerging , and undeveloped , technologies to reduce the weight of the vehicle to 30 tons for operations in urban environments . The two contractors were to run out of money for development of their prototype vehicles by June 2014 unless the Army funded the rest of the technology development phase . The Pentagon and Army tried to find ways to continue the program , without actually starting vehicle production , through new technologies like advanced fire control systems and hybrid engines . Prematurely ending the GCV program before the start of the EMD phase to select one vendor would result in owing money to the contractors for cancelling the contract . The Army could complete the technology development phase and conduct the milestone decision in June , then say they wouldn 't move on to the next phase of the program . Although the Army wanted 1 @,@ 894 Ground Combat Vehicles with a target price of $ 9 – 10 @.@ 5 million per unit , the Pentagon 's Office of Cost Assessment and Program Evaluation estimated a unit cost of up to $ 17 million . The 83 @-@ percent cut in funding essentially scaled back the GCV program to a research effort . The program had declined in support over the past months with the Army determining that the desired vehicle was no longer feasible in the near term due to budget reductions , suspicion from the contractors that the program would not move past technology development , and Congress 's believing it would not succeed . The Army could have tried to save the GCV by delaying it , or could reset its modernization priorities with more emphasis on the AMPV program to replace the outdated M113 .
In a speech on 23 January 2014 , General Ray Odierno confirmed that the Ground Combat Vehicle program was being put on hold due to budget difficulties . He said that the Army needed a new IFV but that they could not afford one at the time . Odierno said that he was pleased with the requirements for the vehicle and that progress and development with the contractors was good . " Leap @-@ ahead technologies " that make the vehicle light and mobile while still being protected against RPGs and roadside bombs are still desired . In the past decade , mobility was traded for protection , but Army war games have caused the service to decide it will need small , mobile formations to be deployed quickly in the future . Recent conflicts have shown the need for expeditionary forces to be transported quickly to remote areas in small packages with as little support as possible . Weight estimates of 70 tons for the GCV IFV did not make it easily deployable . The Army may direct some funds for technology development so it can start another program within " three to four years . " Science and technology investments are to be made to address the size and weight of armored ground vehicles . The Army reviewed the components of the GCV IFV to find areas to save weight . Reducing the weight of the vehicle would allow it to fit into the Army 's expeditionary view by making it easier and cheaper to transport greater numbers of them across the world .
= = Termination = =
The Pentagon FY 2015 budget proposal unveiled on 24 February 2014 cancelled the GCV program . Army acquisition executive Heidi Shyu said that criticism of the program was " unfortunate " and cancelling it had nothing to do with vehicle performance . She said the program had been doing " remarkably well " and wasn 't having technical issues , and that the contracts were being executed well . The decision to cancel development was based entirely on budget calculations , with no possible way to come up with funds no matter how many other areas were reduced . Money will be redistributed to engineering change proposals ( ECP ) on existing platforms until budget difficulties pass to allow investment in next @-@ generation capabilities in about seven years .
The decision had to be made to either exclusively fund the GCV or ECPs , so upgrades were chosen for the Bradley , Abrams , Stryker , and M109 Paladin fleets to have them more combat @-@ capable in the near @-@ term , should they be needed for an international situation . Vehicles like the Bradley and Abrams have been upgraded since the 1980s with new armor , sensors , and other gear that have maxed out the platforms for further horsepower and electrical advances , so the requirement for an entirely new ground combat vehicle built from the outset from lessons learned in combat from the previous decade remains . The Army 's own budget proposal unveiled on March 4 discontinued the program , and instead funds were shifted to the AMPV program as the main vehicle priority and to improving the Bradley IFV in the interim until more resources become available . Incremental improvements will be made to current vehicle fleets to improve protection and networking abilities . $ 131 million will be directed into science and technology to look at the feasibility of future combat vehicle technologies , and Secretary Hagel has directed the Army , as well as the Marine Corps , to deliver " realistic " visions for vehicle modernization by the end of FY 2014 .
The cancellation of the GCV is the second time in 15 years an Army program to replace the Bradley has failed . FCS ran from 1999 to 2009 , with the Manned Ground Vehicles portion for replacing several armored vehicle classes costing " hundreds of millions " of dollars out of $ 20 billion total . From 2010 to 2014 , the Army spent over $ 1 billion on the GCV . Although there was criticism that vehicle weight could not be kept at a reasonable level while meeting its size , weight , and power requirements , the Army maintains the official reason for the cancellation was budgetary pressures . BAE Systems and General Dynamics will each receive $ 50 million in FY 2015 to continue technology development . The next follow @-@ up IFV development program is currently named the Future Fighting Vehicle ( FFV ) .
= = = Continued technology development = = =
On 18 July 2014 , BAE and General Dynamics were awarded $ 7 @.@ 9 million study contracts for technical , cost , and risk assessments to salvage subsystems and other technologies created under the GCV for use in the FFV system . General Dynamics will utilize the GCV integrated propulsion and mobility subsystems Automotive Test Rig ( ATR ) , and the conventional drive integrated propulsion subsystem , while BAE will utilize the GCV TD phase integrated hybrid @-@ electric propulsion and mobility subsystems ATR and the hybrid @-@ electric integrated propulsion subsystem ( Hotbuck ) .
= = Variants = =
The Army was using an incremental approach to combat vehicle modernization , centered on the Ground Combat Vehicle . The deployment was to be synchronized with upgrades , reset , and divestiture of existing vehicles . Vehicles displaced by the IFV may then replace selected M113 family of vehicles such as command and control , medical evacuation , and mortar carrier , allowing the Army to begin divestiture of the M113 family of vehicles . Upgrades to existing Bradley and Stryker vehicles may have been considered as risk mitigation based on the rate at which the GCV was introduced . Although upgraded , the Bradley and Stryker would also be replaced in the midterm .
= = = Infantry Fighting Vehicle = = =
The Infantry Fighting Vehicle superseded the previous infantry carrier replacement effort , the XM1206 Infantry Carrier Vehicle of the FCS MGV program . It was the U.S. Army 's intention that the IFV replace the M113 APC by 2018 , the M2 Bradley later , and the Stryker ICV in the midterm . The IFV was to hold a crew of three and a squad of nine .
= Charon 's obol =
Charon 's obol is an allusive term for the coin placed in or on the mouth of a dead person before burial . Greek and Latin literary sources specify the coin as an obol , and explain it as a payment or bribe for Charon , the ferryman who conveyed souls across the river that divided the world of the living from the world of the dead . Archaeological examples of these coins , of various denominations in practice , have been called " the most famous grave goods from antiquity . "
The custom is primarily associated with the ancient Greeks and Romans , though it is also found in the ancient Near East . In Western Europe , a similar usage of coins in burials occurs in regions inhabited by Celts of the Gallo @-@ Roman , Hispano @-@ Roman and Romano @-@ British cultures , and among the Germanic peoples of late antiquity and the early Christian era , with sporadic examples into the early 20th century .
Although archaeology shows that the myth reflects an actual custom , the placement of coins with the dead was neither pervasive nor confined to a single coin in the deceased 's mouth . In many burials , inscribed metal @-@ leaf tablets or exonumia take the place of the coin , or gold @-@ foil crosses in the early Christian era . The presence of coins or a coin @-@ hoard in Germanic ship @-@ burials suggests an analogous concept .
The phrase " Charon ’ s obol " as used by archaeologists sometimes can be understood as referring to a particular religious rite , but often serves as a kind of shorthand for coinage as grave goods presumed to further the deceased 's passage into the afterlife . In Latin , Charon 's obol sometimes is called a viaticum , or " sustenance for the journey " ; the placement of the coin on the mouth has been explained also as a seal to protect the deceased 's soul or to prevent it from returning .
= = Terminology = =
The coin for Charon is conventionally referred to in Greek literature as an obolos ( Greek ὀβολός ) , one of the basic denominations of ancient Greek coinage , worth one @-@ sixth of a drachma . Among the Greeks , coins in actual burials are sometimes also a danakē ( δανάκη ) or other relatively small @-@ denomination gold , silver , bronze or copper coin in local use . In Roman literary sources the coin is usually bronze or copper . From the 6th to the 4th centuries BC in the Black Sea region , low @-@ value coins depicting arrowheads or dolphins were in use mainly for the purpose of " local exchange and to serve as ‘ Charon ’ s obol . ‘ " The payment is sometimes specified with a term for " boat fare " ( in Greek naulon , ναῦλον , Latin naulum ) ; " fee for ferrying " ( porthmeion , πορθμήϊον or πορθμεῖον ) ; or " waterway toll " ( Latin portorium ) .
The word naulon ( ναῦλον ) is defined by the Christian @-@ era lexicographer Hesychius of Alexandria as the coin put into the mouth of the dead ; one of the meanings of danakē ( δανάκη ) is given as " the obol for the dead " . The Suda defines danakē as a coin traditionally buried with the dead for paying the ferryman to cross the river Acheron , and explicates the definition of porthmēïon ( πορθμήϊον ) as a ferryman ’ s fee with a quotation from the poet Callimachus , who notes the custom of carrying the porthmēïon in the " parched mouths of the dead . "
= = = Charon 's obol as viaticum = = =
In Latin , Charon ’ s obol is sometimes called a viaticum , which in everyday usage means " provision for a journey " ( from via , " way , road , journey " ) , encompassing food , money and other supplies . The same word can refer to the living allowance granted to those stripped of their property and condemned to exile , and by metaphorical extension to preparing for death at the end of life ’ s journey . Cicero , in his philosophical dialogue On Old Age ( 44 BC ) , has the interlocutor Cato the Elder combine two metaphors — nearing the end of a journey , and ripening fruit — in speaking of the approach to death :
Drawing on this metaphorical sense of " provision for the journey into death , " ecclesiastical Latin borrowed the term viaticum for the form of Eucharist that is placed in the mouth of a person who is dying as provision for the soul ’ s passage to eternal life . The earliest literary evidence of this Christian usage for viaticum appears in Paulinus ’ s account of the death of Saint Ambrose in 397 AD . The 7th @-@ century Synodus Hibernensis offers an etymological explanation : " This word ‘ viaticum ’ is the name of communion , that is to say , ‘ the guardianship of the way , ’ for it guards the soul until it shall stand before the judgment @-@ seat of Christ . " Thomas Aquinas explained the term as " a prefiguration of the fruit of God , which will be in the promised land . And because of this it is called the viaticum , since it provides us with the way of getting there " ; the idea of Christians as " travelers in search of salvation " finds early expression in the Confessions of St. Augustine .
An equivalent word in Greek is ephodion ( ἐφόδιον ) ; like viaticum , the word is used in antiquity to mean " provision for a journey " ( literally , " something for the road , " from the prefix ἐπ- , " on " + ὁδός , " road , way " ) and later in Greek patristic literature for the Eucharist administered on the point of death .
= = In literature = =
Greek and Roman literary sources from the 5th century BC through the 2nd century AD are consistent in attributing four characteristics to Charon ’ s obol :
it is a single , low @-@ denomination coin ;
it is placed in the mouth ;
the placement occurs at the time of death ;
it represents a boat fare .
Greek epigrams that were literary versions of epitaphs refer to " the obol that pays the passage of the departed , " with some epigrams referring to the belief by mocking or debunking it . The satirist Lucian has Charon himself , in a dialogue of the same name , declare that he collects " an obol from everyone who makes the downward journey . " In an elegy of consolation spoken in the person of the dead woman , the Augustan poet Propertius expresses the finality of death by her payment of the bronze coin to the infernal toll collector ( portitor ) . Several other authors mention the fee . Often , an author uses the low value of the coin to emphasize that death makes no distinction between rich and poor ; all must pay the same because all must die , and a rich person can take no greater amount into death :
The incongruity of paying what is , in effect , admission to Hell encouraged a comic or satiric treatment , and Charon as a ferryman who must be persuaded , threatened , or bribed to do his job appears to be a literary construct that is not reflected in early classical art . Christiane Sourvinou @-@ Inwood has shown that in 5th @-@ century BC depictions of Charon , as on the funerary vases called lekythoi , he is a non @-@ threatening , even reassuring presence who guides women , adolescents , and children to the afterlife . Humor , as in Aristophanes ’ s comic catabasis The Frogs , " makes the journey to Hades less frightening by articulating it explicitly and trivializing it . " Aristophanes makes jokes about the fee , and a character complains that Theseus must have introduced it , characterizing the Athenian hero in his role of city organizer as a bureaucrat .
Lucian satirizes the obol in his essay " On Funerals " :
In another satirical work of Lucian , the " Dialogs of the dead " , a character called Menippus has just died and Charon is asking for an obol in order to convey him across the river to the underworld , Menippus refuses to pay the obol , and consequently to enter the world of the dead claiming that :
Literally , " You can 't get [ any obols ] from one who doesn 't have any . "
= = Archaeological evidence = =
The use of coins as grave goods shows a variety of practice that casts doubt on the accuracy of the term " Charon ’ s obol " as an interpretational category . The phrase continues to be used , however , to suggest the ritual or religious significance of coinage in a funerary context .
Coins are found in Greek burials by the 5th century BC , as soon as Greece was monetized , and appear throughout the Roman Empire into the 5th century AD , with examples conforming to the Charon ’ s obol type as far west as the Iberian Peninsula , north into Britain , and east to the Vistula river in Poland . The jawbones of skulls found in certain burials in Roman Britain are stained greenish from contact with a copper coin ; Roman coins are found later in Anglo @-@ Saxon graves , but often pierced for wearing as a necklace or amulet . Among the ancient Greeks , only about 5 to 10 percent of known burials contain any coins at all ; in some Roman cremation cemeteries , however , as many as half the graves yield coins . Many if not most of these occurrences conform to the myth of Charon ’ s obol in neither the number of coins nor their positioning . Variety of placement and number , including but not limited to a single coin in the mouth , is characteristic of all periods and places .
= = = Hellenized world = = =
Some of the oldest coins from Mediterranean tombs have been found on Cyprus . In 2001 Destrooper @-@ Georgiades , a specialist in Achaemenid numismatics , said that investigations of 33 tombs had yielded 77 coins . Although denomination varies , as does the number in any given burial , small coins predominate . Coins started to be placed in tombs almost as soon as they came into circulation on the island in the 6th century , and some predate both the first issue of the obol and any literary reference to Charon ’ s fee .
Although only a small percentage of Greek burials contain coins , among these there are widespread examples of a single coin positioned in the mouth of a skull or with cremation remains . In cremation urns , the coin sometimes adheres to the jawbone of the skull . At Olynthus , 136 coins ( mostly bronze , but some silver ) , were found with burials ; in 1932 , archaeologists reported that 20 graves had each contained four bronze coins , which they believed were intended for placement in the mouth . A few tombs at Olynthus have contained two coins , but more often a single bronze coin was positioned in the mouth or within the head of the skeleton . In Hellenistic @-@ era tombs at one cemetery in Athens , coins , usually bronze , were found most often in the dead person ’ s mouth , though sometimes in the hand , loose in the grave , or in a vessel . At Chania , an originally Minoan settlement on Crete , a tomb dating from the second half of the 3rd century BC held a rich variety of grave goods , including fine gold jewelry , a gold tray with the image of a bird , a clay vessel , a bronze mirror , a bronze strigil , and a bronze " Charon coin " depicting Zeus . In excavations of 91 tombs at a cemetery in Amphipolis during the mid- to late 1990s , a majority of the dead were found to have a coin in the mouth . The burials dated from the 4th to the late 2nd century BC .
A notable use of a danake occurred in the burial of a woman in 4th @-@ century BC Thessaly , a likely initiate into the Orphic or Dionysiac mysteries . Her religious paraphernalia included gold tablets inscribed with instructions for the afterlife and a terracotta figure of a Bacchic worshipper . Upon her lips was placed a gold danake stamped with the Gorgon ’ s head . Coins begin to appear with greater frequency in graves during the 3rd century BC , along with gold wreaths and plain unguentaria ( small bottles for oil ) in place of the earlier lekythoi . Black @-@ figure lekythoi had often depicted Dionysiac scenes ; the later white @-@ ground vessels often show Charon , usually with his pole , but rarely ( or dubiously ) accepting the coin .
The Black Sea region has also produced examples of Charon ’ s obol . At Apollonia Pontica , the custom had been practiced from the mid @-@ 4th century BC ; in one cemetery , for instance , 17 percent of graves contained small bronze local coins in the mouth or hand of the deceased . During 1998 excavations of Pichvnari , on the coast of present @-@ day Georgia , a single coin was found in seven burials , and a pair of coins in two . The coins , silver triobols of the local Colchian currency , were located near the mouth , with the exception of one that was near the hand . It is unclear whether the dead were Colchians or Greeks . The investigating archaeologists did not regard the practice as typical of the region , but speculate that the local geography lent itself to adapting the Greek myth , as bodies of the dead in actuality had to be ferried across a river from the town to the cemetery .
= = = Near East = = =
Charon ’ s obol is usually regarded as Hellenic , and a single coin in burials is often taken as a mark of Hellenization , but the practice may be independent of Greek influence in some regions . The placing of a coin in the mouth of the deceased is found also during Parthian and Sasanian times in what is now Iran . Curiously , the coin was not the danake of Persian origin , as it was sometimes among the Greeks , but usually a Greek drachma . In the Yazdi region , objects consecrated in graves may include a coin or piece of silver ; the custom is thought to be perhaps as old as the Seleucid era and may be a form of Charon ’ s obol .
Discoveries of a single coin near the skull in tombs of the Levant suggest a similar practice among Phoenicians in the Persian period . Jewish ossuaries sometimes contain a single coin ; for example , in an ossuary bearing the inscriptional name " Miriam , daughter of Simeon , " a coin minted during the reign of Herod Agrippa I , dated 42 / 43 AD , was found in the skull ’ s mouth . Although the placement of a coin within the skull is uncommon in Jewish antiquity and was potentially an act of idolatry , rabbinic literature preserves an allusion to Charon in a lament for the dead " tumbling aboard the ferry and having to borrow his fare . " Boats are sometimes depicted on ossuaries or the walls of Jewish crypts , and one of the coins found within a skull may have been chosen because it depicted a ship .
= = = Western Europe = = =
Cemeteries in the Western Roman Empire vary widely : in a 1st @-@ century BC community in Cisalpine Gaul , coins were included in more than 40 percent of graves , but none was placed in the mouth of the deceased ; the figure is only 10 percent for cremations at Empúries in Spain and York in Britain . On the Iberian Peninsula , evidence interpreted as Charon 's obol has been found at Tarragona . In Belgic Gaul , varying deposits of coins are found with the dead for the 1st through 3rd centuries , but are most frequent in the late 4th and early 5th centuries . Thirty Gallo @-@ Roman burials near the Pont de Pasly , Soissons , each contained a coin for Charon . Germanic burials show a preference for gold coins , but even within a single cemetery and a narrow time period , their disposition varies .
In one Merovingian cemetery of Frénouville , Normandy , which was in use for four centuries after Christ , coins are found in a minority of the graves . At one time , the cemetery was regarded as exhibiting two distinct phases : an earlier Gallo @-@ Roman period when the dead were buried with vessels , notably of glass , and Charon ’ s obol ; and later , when they were given funerary dress and goods according to Frankish custom . This neat division , however , has been shown to be misleading . In the 3rd- to 4th @-@ century area of the cemetery , coins were placed near the skulls or hands , sometimes protected by a pouch or vessel , or were found in the grave @-@ fill as if tossed in . Bronze coins usually numbered one or two per grave , as would be expected from the custom of Charon ’ s obol , but one burial contained 23 bronze coins , and another held a gold solidus and a semissis . The latter examples indicate that coins might have represented relative social status . In the newer part of the cemetery , which remained in use through the 6th century , the deposition patterns for coinage were similar , but the coins themselves were not contemporaneous with the burials , and some were pierced for wearing . The use of older coins may reflect a shortage of new currency , or may indicate that the old coins held a traditional symbolic meaning apart from their denominational value . " The varied placement of coins of different values … demonstrates at least partial if not complete loss of understanding of the original religious function of Charon ’ s obol , " remarks Bonnie Effros , a specialist in Merovingian burial customs . " These factors make it difficult to determine the rite ’ s significance . "
Although the rite of Charon ’ s obol was practiced no more uniformly in Northern Europe than in Greece , there are examples of individual burials or small groups conforming to the pattern . At Broadstairs in Kent , a young man had been buried with a Merovingian gold tremissis ( ca . 575 ) in his mouth . A gold @-@ plated coin was found in the mouth of a young man buried on the Isle of Wight in the mid @-@ 6th century ; his other grave goods included vessels , a drinking horn , a knife , and gaming @-@ counters of ivory with one cobalt @-@ blue glass piece .
Scandinavian and Germanic gold bracteates found in burials of the 5th and 6th centuries , particularly those in Britain , have also been interpreted in light of Charon ’ s obol . These gold disks , similar to coins though generally single @-@ sided , were influenced by late Roman imperial coins and medallions but feature iconography from Norse myth and runic inscriptions . The stamping process created an extended rim that forms a frame with a loop for threading ; the bracteates often appear in burials as a woman ’ s necklace . A function comparable to that of Charon ’ s obol is suggested by examples such as a man ’ s burial at Monkton in Kent and a group of several male graves on Gotland , Sweden , for which the bracteate was deposited in a pouch beside the body . In the Gotland burials , the bracteates lack rim and loop , and show no traces of wear , suggesting that they had not been intended for everyday use .
According to one interpretation , the purse @-@ hoard in the Sutton Hoo ship burial ( Suffolk , East Anglia ) , which contained a variety of Merovingian gold coins , unites the traditional Germanic voyage to the afterlife with " an unusually splendid form of Charon ’ s obol . " The burial yielded 37 gold tremisses dating from the late 6th and early 7th century , three unstruck coin blanks , and two small gold ingots . It has been conjectured that the coins were to pay the oarsmen who would row the ship into the next world , while the ingots were meant for the steersmen . Although Charon is usually a lone figure in depictions from both antiquity and the modern era , there is some slight evidence that his ship might be furnished with oarsmen . A fragment of 6th century BC pottery has been interpreted as Charon sitting in the stern as steersman of a boat fitted with ten pairs of oars and rowed by eidola ( εἴδωλα ) , shades of the dead . A reference in Lucian seems also to imply that the shades might row the boat .
In Scandinavia , scattered examples of Charon ’ s obol have been documented from the Roman Iron Age and the Migration Period ; in the Viking age eastern Sweden produces the best evidence , Denmark rarely , and Norway and Finland inconclusively . In the 13th and 14th centuries , Charon ’ s obol appears in graves in Sweden , Scania , and Norway . Swedish folklore documents the custom from the 18th into the 20th century .
= = = Among Christians = = =
The custom of Charon ’ s obol not only continued into the Christian era , but was adopted by Christians , as a single coin was sometimes placed in the mouth for Christian burials . At Arcy @-@ Sainte @-@ Restitue in Picardy , a Merovingian grave yielded a coin of Constantine I , the first Christian emperor , used as Charon ’ s obol . In Britain , the practice was just as frequent , if not more so , among Christians and persisted even to the end of the 19th century . A folklorist writing in 1914 was able to document a witness in Britain who had seen a penny placed in the mouth of an old man as he lay in his coffin . In 1878 , Pope Pius IX was entombed with a coin . The practice was widely documented around the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries in Greece , where the coin was sometimes accompanied by a key .
= = = ' Ghost ' coins and crosses = = =
See also Exonumia .
So @-@ called " ghost coins " also appear with the dead . These are impressions of an actual coin or numismatic icon struck into a small piece of gold foil . In a 5th- or 4th @-@ century BC grave at Syracuse , Sicily , a small rectangular gold leaf stamped with a dual @-@ faced figure , possibly Demeter / Kore , was found in the skeleton ’ s mouth . In a marble cremation box from the mid @-@ 2nd century BC , the " Charon 's piece " took the form of a bit of gold foil stamped with an owl ; in addition to the charred bone fragments , the box also contained gold leaves from a wreath of the type sometimes associated with the mystery religions . Within an Athenian family burial plot of the 2nd century BC , a thin gold disk similarly stamped with the owl of Athens had been placed in the mouth of each male .
These examples of the " Charon 's piece " resemble in material and size the tiny inscribed tablet or funerary amulet called a lamella ( Latin for a metal @-@ foil sheet ) or a Totenpass , a " passport for the dead " with instructions on navigating the afterlife , conventionally regarded as a form of Orphic or Dionysiac devotional . Several of these prayer sheets have been found in positions that indicate placement in or on the deceased 's mouth . A functional equivalence with the Charon 's piece is further suggested by the evidence of flattened coins used as mouth coverings ( epistomia ) from graves in Crete . A gold phylactery with a damaged inscription invoking the syncretic god Sarapis was found within the skull in a burial from the late 1st century AD in southern Rome . The gold tablet may have served both as a protective amulet during the deceased ’ s lifetime and then , with its insertion into the mouth , possibly on the model of Charon ’ s obol , as a Totenpass .
In a late Roman @-@ era burial in Douris , near Baalbek , Lebanon , the forehead , nose , and mouth of the deceased — a woman , in so far as skeletal remains can indicate — were covered with sheets of gold | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
up Cauldron , he is surrounded by animals with mythico @-@ religious significance ; taken in the context of an accompanying scene of initiation , the horned god can be interpreted as presiding over the process of metempsychosis , the cycle of death and rebirth , regarded by ancient literary sources as one of the most important tenets of Celtic religion and characteristic also of Pythagoreanism and the Orphic or Dionysiac mysteries .
From its 7th @-@ century BC beginnings in western Anatolia , ancient coinage was viewed not as distinctly secular , but as a form of communal trust bound up in the ties expressed by religion . The earliest known coin @-@ hoard from antiquity was found buried in a pot within the foundations of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus , dating to the mid @-@ 6th century BC . The iconography of gods and various divine beings appeared regularly on coins issued by Greek cities and later by Rome . The effect of monetization on religious practice is indicated by notations in Greek calendars of sacrifices pertaining to fees for priests and prices for offerings and victims . One fragmentary text seems to refer to a single obol to be paid by each initiate of the Eleusinian Mysteries to the priestess of Demeter , the symbolic value of which is perhaps to be interpreted in light of Charon ’ s obol as the initiate ’ s gaining access to knowledge required for successful passage to the afterlife .
Erwin Rohde argued , on the basis of later folk customs , that the obol was originally a payment to the dead person himself , as a way of compensating him for the loss of property that passed to the living , or as a token substitute for the more ancient practice of consigning his property to the grave with him . In Rohde 's view , the obol was later attached to the myth of the ferryman as an ex post facto explanation .
In the view of Richard Seaford , the introduction of coinage to Greece and the theorizing about value it provoked was concomitant with and even contributed to the creation of Greek metaphysics . Plato criticizes common currency as " polluting " , but also says that the guardians of his ideal republic should have divine gold and silver money from the gods always present in their souls . This Platonic " money in the soul " holds the promise of " divinity , homogeneity , unchanging permanence , self @-@ sufficiency , invisibility . "
= = = The coin as food or seal = = =
Attempts to explain the symbolism of the rite also must negotiate the illogical placement of the coin in the mouth . The Latin term viaticum makes sense of Charon ’ s obol as " sustenance for the journey , " and it has been suggested that coins replaced offerings of food for the dead in Roman tradition .
This dichotomy of food for the living and gold for the dead is a theme in the myth of King Midas , versions of which draw on elements of the Dionysian mysteries . The Phrygian king 's famous " golden touch " was a divine gift from Dionysus , but its acceptance separated him from the human world of nourishment and reproduction : both his food and his daughter were transformed by contact with him into immutable , unreciprocal gold . In some versions of the myth , Midas 's hard @-@ won insight into the meaning of life and the limitations of earthly wealth is accompanied by conversion to the cult of Dionysus . Having learned his lessons as an initiate into the mysteries , and after ritual immersion in the river Pactolus , Midas forsakes the " bogus eternity " of gold for spiritual rebirth .
John Cuthbert Lawson , an early 20th @-@ century folklorist whose approach was influenced by the Cambridge Ritualists , argued that both the food metaphor and the coin as payment for the ferryman were later rationalizations of the original ritual . Although single coins from inhumations appear most often inside or in the vicinity of the skull , they are also found in the hand or a pouch , a more logical place to carry a payment . Lawson viewed the coin as originally a seal , used as potsherds sometimes were on the lips of the dead to block the return of the soul , believed to pass from the body with the last breath . One of the first steps in preparing a corpse was to seal the lips , sometimes with linen or gold bands , to prevent the soul ’ s return . The stopping of the mouth by Charon 's obol has been used to illuminate burial practices intended , for instance , to prevent vampires or other revenants from returning .
The placement of the coin on the mouth can be compared to practices pertaining to the disposition of the dead in the Near East . An Egyptian custom is indicated by a burial at Abydos , dating from the 22nd Dynasty ( 945 – 720 BC ) or later , for which the deceased woman 's mouth was covered with a faience uadjet , or protective eye amulet . Oval mouth coverings , perforated for fastening , are found in burials throughout the Near East from the 1st century BC through the 1st century AD , providing evidence of an analogous practice for sealing the mouths of the dead in regions not under Roman Imperial control . Bahraini excavations at the necropolis of Al @-@ Hajjar produced examples of these coverings in gold leaf , one of which retained labial imprints .
A coin may make a superior seal because of its iconography ; in the Thessalian burial of an initiate described above , for instance , the coin on the lips depicted the apotropaic device of the Gorgon ’ s head . The seal may also serve to regulate the speech of the dead , which was sometimes sought through rituals for its prophetic powers , but also highly regulated as dangerous ; mystery religions that offered arcane knowledge of the afterlife prescribed ritual silence . A golden key ( chrusea klês ) was laid on the tongue of initiates as a symbol of the revelation they were obligated to keep secret . " Charon 's obol " is often found in burials with objects or inscriptions indicative of mystery cult , and the coin figures in a Latin prose narrative that alludes to initiation ritual , the " Cupid and Psyche " story from the Metamorphoses of Apuleius .
= = = The catabasis of Psyche = = =
See Cupid and Psyche for a synopsis of Apuleius 's narrative .
In the 2nd @-@ century " Cupid and Psyche " narrative by Apuleius , Psyche , whose name is a Greek word for " soul , " is sent on an underworld quest to retrieve the box containing Proserpina ’ s secret beauty , in order to restore the love of Cupid . The tale lends itself to multiple interpretational approaches , and it has frequently been analyzed as an allegory of Platonism as well as of religious initiation , iterating on a smaller scale the plot of the Metamorphoses as a whole , which concerns the protagonist Lucius ’ s journey towards salvation through the cult of Isis . Ritual elements were associated with the story even before Apuleius ’ s version , as indicated in visual representations ; for instance , a 1st @-@ century BC sardonyx cameo depicting the wedding of Cupid and Psyche shows an attendant elevating a liknon ( basket ) used in Dionysiac initiation . C. Moreschini saw the Metamorphoses as moving away from the Platonism of Apuleius ’ s earlier Apology toward a vision of mystic salvation .
Before embarking on her descent , Psyche receives instructions for navigating the underworld :
The two coins serve the plot by providing Psyche with fare for the return ; allegorically , this return trip suggests the soul ’ s rebirth , perhaps a Platonic reincarnation or the divine form implied by the so @-@ called Orphic gold tablets . The myth of Charon has rarely been interpreted in light of mystery religions , despite the association in Apuleius and archaeological evidence of burials that incorporate both Charon ’ s obol and cultic paraphernalia . And yet " the image of the ferry , " Helen King notes , " hints that death is not final , but can be reversed , because the ferryman could carry his passengers either way . " A funeral rite is itself a kind of initiation , or the transition of the soul into another stage of " life . "
= = = Coins on the eyes ? = = =
Contrary to popular aetiology there is little evidence to connect the myth of Charon to the custom of placing a pair of coins on the eyes of the deceased , though the larger gold @-@ foil coverings discussed above might include pieces shaped for the eyes . Pairs of coins are sometimes found in burials , including cremation urns ; among the collections of the British Museum is an urn from Athens , ca . 300 BC , that contained cremated remains , two obols , and a terracotta figure of a mourning siren . Ancient Greek and Latin literary sources , however , mention a pair of coins only when a return trip is anticipated , as in the case of Psyche ’ s catabasis , and never in regard to sealing the eyes .
Only rarely does the placement of a pair of coins suggest they might have covered the eyes . In Judea , a pair of silver denarii were found in the eye sockets of a skull ; the burial dated to the 2nd century A.D. occurs within a Jewish community , but the religious affiliation of the deceased is unclear . Jewish ritual in antiquity did not require that the eye be sealed by an object , and it is debatable whether the custom of placing coins on the eyes of the dead was practiced among Jews prior to the modern era . During the 1980s , the issue became embroiled with the controversies regarding the Shroud of Turin when it was argued that the eye area revealed the outlines of coins ; since the placement of coins on the eyes for burial is not securely attested in antiquity , apart from the one example from Judea cited above , this interpretation of evidence obtained through digital image processing cannot be claimed as firm support for the shroud 's authenticity .
= = = Coins at the feet = = =
Coins are found also at the deceased ’ s feet , although the purpose of this positioning is uncertain . John Chrysostom mentions and disparages the use of coins depicting Alexander the Great as amulets attached by the living to the head or feet , and offers the Christian cross as a more powerful alternative for both salvation and healing :
= = Christian transformation = =
With instructions that recall those received by Psyche for her heroic descent , or the inscribed Totenpass for initiates , the Christian protagonist of a 14th @-@ century French pilgrimage narrative is advised :
Anglo @-@ Saxon and early – medieval Irish missionaries took the idea of a viaticum literally , carrying the Eucharistic bread and oil with them everywhere .
The need for a viaticum figures in a myth @-@ tinged account of the death of King William II of England , told by the Anglo @-@ Norman chronicler Geoffrey Gaimar : dying from a battle wound and delirious , the desperate king kept calling out for the corpus domini ( Lord ’ s body ) until a huntsman acted as priest and gave him flowering herbs as his viaticum . In the dominant tradition of William 's death , he is killed while hunting on the second day of red stag season , which began August 1 , the date of both Lughnasadh and the Feast of St. Peter 's Chains .
The hunt is also associated with the administering of a herbal viaticum in the medieval chansons de geste , in which traditional heroic culture and Christian values interpenetrate . The chansons offer multiple examples of grass or foliage substituted as a viaticum when a warrior or knight meets his violent end outside the Christian community . Sarah Kay views this substitute rite as communion with the Girardian " primitive sacred , " speculating that " pagan " beliefs lurk beneath a Christian veneer . In the Raoul de Cambrai , the dying Bernier receives three blades of grass in place of the corpus Domini . Two other chansons place this desire for communion within the mytheme of the sacrificial boar hunt . In Daurel et Beton , Bove is murdered next to the boar he just killed ; he asks his own killer to grant him communion " with a leaf , " and when he is denied , he then asks that his enemy eat his heart instead . This request is granted ; the killer partakes of the victim ’ s body as an alternative sacrament . In Garin le Loheren , Begon is similarly assassinated next to the corpse of a boar , and takes communion with three blades of grass .
Kay ’ s conjecture that a pre @-@ Christian tradition accounts for the use of leaves as the viaticum is supported by evidence from Hellenistic magico @-@ religious practice , the continuance of which is documented in Gaul and among Germanic peoples . Spells from the Greek Magical Papyri often require the insertion of a leaf — an actual leaf , a papyrus scrap , the representation of a leaf in metal foil , or an inscribed rectangular lamella ( as described above ) — into the mouth of a corpse or skull , as a means of conveying messages to and from the realms of the living and the dead . In one spell attributed to Pitys the Thessalian , the practitioner is instructed to inscribe a flax leaf with magic words and to insert it into the mouth of a dead person .
The insertion of herbs into the mouth of the dead , with a promise of resurrection , occurs also in the Irish tale " The Kern in the Narrow Stripes , " the earliest written version of which dates to the 1800s but is thought to preserve an oral tradition of early Irish myth . The kern of the title is an otherworldly trickster figure who performs a series of miracles ; after inducing twenty armed men to kill each other , he produces herbs from his bag and instructs his host 's gatekeeper to place them within the jaws of each dead man to bring him back to life . At the end of the tale , the mysterious visitor is revealed as Manannán mac Lir , the Irish god known in other stories for his herd of pigs that offer eternal feasting from their self @-@ renewing flesh .
= = = Sacrament and superstition = = =
Scholars have frequently suggested that the use of a viaticum in the Christian rite for the dying reflected preexisting religious practice , with Charon ’ s obol replaced by a more acceptably Christian sacrament . In one miraculous story , recounted by Pope Innocent III in a letter dated 1213 , the coins in a moneybox were said literally to have been transformed into communion wafers . Because of the viaticum ’ s presumed pre @-@ Christian origin , an anti @-@ Catholic historian of religion at the turn of the 18th – 19th centuries propagandized the practice , stating that " it was from the heathens [ that ] the papists borrowed it . " Contemporary scholars are more likely to explain the borrowing in light of the deep @-@ seated conservatism of burial practices or as a form of religious syncretism motivated by a psychological need for continuity .
Among Christians , the practice of burying a corpse with a coin in its mouth was never widespread enough to warrant condemnation from the Church , but the substitute rite came under official scrutiny ; the viaticum should not be , but often was , placed in the mouth after death , apparently out of a superstitious desire for its magical protection . By the time Augustine wrote his Confessions , " African bishops had forbidden the celebration of the eucharist in the presence of the corpse . This was necessary to stop the occasional practice of placing the eucharistic bread in the mouth of the dead , a viaticum which replaced the coin needed to pay Charon ’ s fare . " Pope Gregory I , in his biography of Benedict of Nursia , tells the story of a monk whose body was twice ejected from his tomb ; Benedict advised the family to restore the dead man to his resting place with the viaticum placed on his chest . The placement suggests a functional equivalence with the Goldblattkreuze and the Orphic gold tablets ; its purpose — to assure the deceased ’ s successful passage to the afterlife — is analogous to that of Charon ’ s obol and the Totenpässe of mystery initiates , and in this case it acts also as a seal to block the dead from returning to the world of the living .
Ideally , the journey into death would begin immediately after taking the sacrament . Eusebius offers an example of an elderly Christian who managed to hold off death until his grandson placed a portion of the Eucharist in his mouth . In a general audience October 24 , 2007 , Pope Benedict XVI quoted Paulinus ’ s account of the death of St. Ambrose , who received and swallowed the corpus Domini and immediately " gave up his spirit , taking the good Viaticum with him . His soul , thus refreshed by the virtue of that food , now enjoys the company of Angels . " A perhaps apocryphal story from a Cistercian chronicle circa 1200 indicates that the viaticum was regarded as an apotropaic seal against demons ( ad avertendos daemonas ) , who nevertheless induced a woman to attempt to snatch the Host ( viaticum ) from the mouth of Pope Urban III ’ s corpse . Like Charon 's obol , the viaticum can serve as both sustenance for the journey and seal .
In the 19th century , the German scholar Georg Heinrici proposed that Greek and Roman practices pertaining to the care of the dead , specifically including Charon ’ s obol , shed light on vicarious baptism , or baptism for the dead , to which St. Paul refers in a letter to the Corinthians . A century after Heinrici , James Downey examined the funerary practices of Christian Corinthians in historical context and argued that they intended vicarious baptism to protect the deceased ’ s soul against interference on the journey to the afterlife . Both vicarious baptism and the placement of a viaticum in the mouth of a person already dead reflect Christian responses to , rather than outright rejection of , ancient religious traditions pertaining to the cult of the dead .
= = Art of the modern era = =
Although Charon has been a popular subject of art , particularly in the 19th century , the act of payment is less often depicted . An exception is the Charon and Psyche of John Roddam Spencer Stanhope , exhibited ca . 1883 . The story of Cupid and Psyche found several expressions among the Pre @-@ Raphaelite artists and their literary peers , and Stanhope , while mourning the death of his only child , produced a number of works dealing with the afterlife . His Psyche paintings were most likely based on the narrative poem of William Morris that was a retelling of the version by Apuleius . In Stanhope ’ s vision , the ferryman is a calm and patriarchal figure more in keeping with the Charon of the archaic Greek lekythoi than the fearsome antagonist often found in Christian @-@ era art and literature .
The contemporary artist Bradley Platz extends the theme of Charon ’ s obol as a viatical food in his oil @-@ on @-@ canvas work Charon and the Shades ( 2007 ) . In this depiction , Charon is a hooded , faceless figure of Death ; the transported soul regurgitates a stream of gold coins while the penniless struggle and beg on the shores . The painting was created for a show in which artists were to bring together a mythological figure and a pop @-@ culture icon , chosen randomly . The " soul " in Platz ’ s reinterpretation is the " celebutante " Nicole Richie " as a general symbol for the modern celebrity and wealth , " notes the artist : " She is represented dry and emaciated , having little physical beauty left but a wealth of gold " which she purges from her mouth .
= = Modern poetry = =
Poets of the modern era have continued to make use of Charon 's obol as a living allusion . In " Don Juan aux enfers " ( " Don Juan in Hell " ) , the French Symboliste poet Charles Baudelaire marks the eponymous hero 's entry to the underworld with his payment of the obol to Charon . Irish Nobel laureate Seamus Heaney makes a less direct allusion with a simile — " words imposing on my tongue like obols " — in the " Fosterage " section of his long poem Singing School :
= Darin Ruf =
Darin Cortland Ruf ( born July 28 , 1986 ) is an American professional baseball first baseman and outfielder for the Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball . He was born in Omaha , Nebraska , and played at Westside High School . Subsequently , he attended Creighton University , and excelled playing baseball there before the Phillies drafted him in 2009 . In the minor leagues , he initially hit for a high batting average , but in 2011 combined that with power numbers to become one of the Phillies ' top prospects . He made his major league debut in September 2012 , after having hit 38 home runs to lead the Eastern League . In 2013 , he split time between Triple @-@ A and the major league Phillies , and was among the league 's top rookies during the season . He was embroiled in a roster battle for a bench spot entering 2014 , but hurt his oblique , and landed on the disabled list prior to the season .
= = Early life and career = =
Ruf was born on July 28 , 1986 to parents Bill and Mary Ruf in Omaha , Nebraska ; he has four siblings ( one of which is older , the rest younger ) . He attended Westside High School , where he helped the team win a Nebraska state championship his sophomore season and finish as the runner @-@ up his senior year . He also played football and basketball , and was the captain of the baseball and football teams – during his senior season , he achieved all @-@ state honors in both football and basketball . After his senior season , he committed to play baseball at Creighton for its " combination of athletics and academics " ; there , he was a " standout " over his four seasons , serving as the squad 's first baseman .
Even in Ruf 's freshman season ( 2006 ) , he started all 52 games . His sophomore season ( 2007 ) drew him significant accolade – he was named the Missouri Valley Conference ( MVC ) Player of the Year , a member of both the first @-@ team all conference squad , and a first @-@ team all @-@ conference scholar athlete . He also was named an all @-@ star for his performance in summer collegiate baseball , for which he was a member of the Wisconsin Woodchucks of the Northwoods League . His strong performance continued during his junior season ( 2008 ) , during which he compiled a 15 @-@ game hitting streak that contributed to his .347 season batting average . His collegiate career culminated in 2009 , when he was named to the second @-@ team all @-@ MVC team and a third @-@ team academic @-@ all American by ESPN . Overall , he is " all over the Bluejay record books , finishing second in RBI with 201 , third in total bases with 423 and in hits with 275 , sixth in walks with 135 , seventh in doubles with 57 and tied for 10th in home runs with 27 ... ( he ) started all 227 games in his career . " While at Creighton , he earned a degree in finance , compiled a 3 @.@ 51 grade point average ( GPA ) , and aspired to be a successful businessman .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues ( 2009 – 11 ) = = =
Ruf was drafted by the Philadelphia Phillies in the 20th round of the 2009 Major League Baseball draft . After the Phillies drafted him , scouting director Marti Wolever asserted that Ruf " is an outstanding defensive first baseman with a chance to hit and has tremendous makeup . " After converting to play predominantly in the outfield , however , Ruf 's fielding has been characterized as either " serviceable " or " weak " , and Phillies general manager Rubén Amaro , Jr. commented that he did not have the defensive skills to play every day .
His first professional assignment was the GCL Phillies in 2009 ; after performing well there , he was promoted to the Williamsport Crosscutters of short season A. With both squads , he held a batting average of over .300 . He also participated in the Florida Instructional League . In 2010 , he began the season with the Lakewood BlueClaws , also of Class A , but spent only 32 games there . The Phillies promoted him to the Class A @-@ Advanced Clearwater Threshers , and was the Phillies ' minor league player of the week in late May . In total , he amassed nine home runs and 67 runs batted in ( RBIs ) while posting a .290 amalgamated batting average . His power emergence began in 2011 when he hit a Florida State League @-@ leading 43 doubles , as well as 17 home runs and 82 RBIs and a .308 batting average . Defensively , he played first base , third base , and left field , and even pitched two innings of relief during a 23 @-@ inning game . After the season , he played in the Arizona Fall League for the Scottsdale Scorpions .
= = = Philadelphia Phillies ( 2012 – present ) = = =
Ruf enjoyed great success playing for the Reading Phillies ( since renamed the Reading Fightin Phils ) in 2012 , earning Eastern League most valuable player ( MVP ) honors , as well as the Paul Owens Award , which is given to the best player in the Phillies ' minor league system . During the season , the Fightin Phils sold T @-@ shirts that said " Babe Ruf " , a reference to Babe Ruth . He led the Eastern League with 38 home runs and 104 RBIs , and tied for the league lead by playing in 139 games and 11 sacrifice flies , all en route to earning a September callup and making his major league debut on September 14 ( skipping the Triple @-@ A level entirely ) . He recorded his first major league hit on September 25 , a home run off the Washington Nationals ' Ross Detwiler . Ruf totaled three home runs and 10 RBIs in his 12 @-@ game " cup of coffee " at the end of the season . An article on Phillies Nation summarized his season and journey through the minor league system :
Darin Ruf slugged his way onto the scene about midway through the 2012 season with the Reading Phillies ; it wasn ’ t as though Ruf was some highly @-@ touted prospect everyone knew about . Really , he was an afterthought at 26 years old ; a guy who was just kind of there . That all changed .
Ruf started the 2013 season in Triple @-@ A with the Lehigh Valley IronPigs , but was recalled by the Phillies on July 6 when Ryan Howard was placed on the disabled list . At the major league level , he finished fifth among rookies with 14 home runs , nine of which were in August , the most among any major league player during that stretch . Of his 70 starts at the major league level , 28 were at first base , 27 in right field , and 16 in left field , while of his 78 starts in Triple @-@ A , 59 came in left field and 19 came at first base . Ruf struggled to find a spot on the Phillies roster at which he could contribute , despite strong performance : " Even after proving he can be a productive offensive contributor and showing his defensive versatility , Ruf 's spot in the Phils ’ lineup may not be locked in for next season . " one columnist wrote .
Entering the 2014 season , he was set to compete for a spot on the bench , as Amaro declared that he was not good enough , particularly defensively , to play everyday . However , the Phillies placed him on the disabled list ( DL ) due to a strained oblique ; his estimated recovery time was around the end of April or the beginning of May . When Ruf returned , he played for the IronPigs , but suffered another injury on June 3 , fracturing his left wrist when sliding into the wall while playing left field . He returned to the major league Phillies on July 22 when John Mayberry , Jr. landed on the disabled list , but struggled in his first several games ; in his first 17 at @-@ bats , he had just two hits . Nevertheless , the Phillies toyed with platooning him with Ryan Howard , who was also struggling , at first base , and Ruf also played two innings at third base . Overall , Ruf amassed only 117 major league plate appearances , and was significantly hindered by injuries .
As 2015 began , Ruf once again had to fight for playing time ; there was no clear opening for him on the Phillies ' roster , notwithstanding the fact that he was one of the few players on the roster with the ability to hit for power .
On May 13 , 2016 , Ruf was optioned to Triple @-@ A in exchange for Tommy Joseph .
= = Player profile = =
Eric Longehagen , a baseball analyst for Crashburn Alley , asserts that Ruf 's ceiling is a platoon player at first base , but that his superior intangibles have allowed him to overachieve in terms of his potential . He wrote ,
For him to be anything more than that would be positively historic . We ’ ve never seen a player of this age with a similar skill set ( a fringe average hitter with a huge hole in his swing and plus raw power who is a 20 runner with pretty much unknown arm strength ) do anything sustainable of note at the major league level . Ruf turns 28 halfway through next year and possesses both a skillset and body that typically don ’ t age well . It 's a very weird situation but it 's a triumph of the Phillies player development system and of Ruf 's effort that he ever put on a Major League uniform at all .
= = = Offense = = =
Ruf is a strong power hitter who , according to one talent evaluator quoted in Lindy 's Sports 2014 baseball preview magazine , possesses " raw country strength " at the plate . He has an uppercut swing , and struggles to hit outside pitches because of poor balance at the plate , but consequently , is able to hit fly balls and drive mistake pitches out of the park . He is a patient hitter , but is the opposite of many hitters , in that as a right @-@ handed hitter , he hits left @-@ handed pitchers better than right @-@ handed pitchers .
= = = Defense = = =
Ruf has played first base as well as both of the corner outfield spots during his career , and focused on the outfield during the latter stages of his development because of Ryan Howard 's perceived preeminence at first base . In the outfield , Ruf is a " liability " , and he is " pretty shaky " at first base , further underscoring his " man without a position " persona within the Phillies ' organization . This has led some to suggest he would be better suited as a designated hitter in the American League .
= = Personal life = =
Ruf 's wife is Libby Schuring , whom Ruf married in December 2011 . His hobbies include golfing and traveling . During the offseason , he resides in his hometown of Omaha , Nebraska . Christa Ruf , Ruf 's sister , also attended Creighton ; she played softball there for four seasons .
= The X @-@ Files ( season 3 ) =
The third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files commenced airing on Fox in the United States on September 22 , 1995 , concluded on the same channel on May 17 , 1996 , and contained 24 episodes . The season continues to follow the cases of FBI special agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , portrayed by David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson respectively , who investigate paranormal or supernatural cases , known as X @-@ Files by the FBI .
The season features the conclusion of several plot @-@ lines introduced in season two , while also introducing several new plot elements . Major plot arcs include an elaborate conspiracy being discovered when a fake alien autopsy video is acquired by Mulder , Scully 's search for the killer of her sister , and the mystery surrounding X ( Steven Williams ) . Pivotal characters such as the First Elder ( Don S. Williams ) and the alien virus black oil were first introduced in this season . In addition , the season features a wide variety of " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " episodes , which feature stand @-@ alone stories not of influence to the wider mythology of the series .
The season attained higher ratings than season two , receiving the highest viewing audience the series had yet achieved . Season premiere " The Blessing Way " debuted with a Nielsen household rating of 19 @.@ 94 , which more than doubled the premiere of the last season . The ratings consistently stayed above 15 @.@ 0 , making it one of the most watched series of the 1995 – 96 television line @-@ up . The season received generally positive reviews from television critics , winning five Primetime Emmy Awards . Many of the episodes written by writer Darin Morgan received critical acclaim , including the episodes " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " and " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " which are often cited as some of the best of the series . Morgan left the series following this season , due to an inability to keep up with the fast paced nature of the show .
= = Plot overview = =
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is later found in the desert following the events of the second season finale and nursed back to health by Albert Hosteen ( Floyd Red Crow Westerman ) . Meanwhile , Scully investigates the possible involvement of the smallpox eradication program in human genetic experimentation , discovering that a Nazi scientist who defected during Operation Paperclip has been conducting human experimentation to create alien @-@ human hybrids . Her sister Melissa ( Melinda McGraw ) , however , is shot by assassins who mistake her for Dana , and dies in hospital that night .
Investigating evidence of an alien autopsy , Mulder infiltrates a secretive government train carriage carrying an alien @-@ human hybrid . Mulder is almost killed by a Syndicate operative guarding the hybrid , but is saved by his informant X ( Steven Williams ) . X had been tipped off about Mulder 's activities by the agent 's partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . Scully , meanwhile , meets a group of women with abduction experiences similar to her own , and meets another member of the Syndicate known as the First Elder ( Don S. Williams ) , who claims during her abduction she was placed on a similar train car and experimented upon by the Japanese scientists .
The crew of a French salvage ship trying to raise a World War II @-@ era submarine from the sea floor are stricken with massive radiation burns — except for one , who has been infected with a parasitic black oil discovered on the submarine . The oil is controlling the crewman 's body , and after passing through several hosts , has overtaken Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , whom Mulder has been pursuing . Scully finds that the submarine had been involved in discovering the oil on the sea floor during World War II , under the guise of finding a sunken fighter plane . The infected Krycek makes his way to a missile silo used to hide a UFO , and the oil escapes his body to board the craft . Meanwhile , Scully has tracked down Luis Cardinal , the man responsible for killing her sister .
= = Writing = =
Development of the first episode of the season , " The Blessing Way " , began with the second season finale " Anasazi " . Both of those episodes , along with " Paper Clip " , form a three part trilogy of episodes that began the third season . " Anasazi " was directed by R. W. Goodwin , who later directed the season finale " Talitha Cumi " , and " Paper Clip " was directed by Rob Bowman . Bowman directed a total of eight episodes for the season , followed by Kim Manners who directed seven . Series creator Chris Carter also served as executive producer and showrunner and wrote eight episodes , directing one .
Darin Morgan had a small involvement in the second season , and was asked to contribute more content for the third . He first appeared in " The Host " as the Flukeman , and was brought on by his brother Glen Morgan to help write the episode " Blood " . Morgan 's first sole credit as a writer came in the episode " Humbug " , which received a positive reception by the staff . David Duchovny expressed an enjoyment for working with Morgan , commenting " what I loved about his scripts was that he seemed to be trying to destroy the show . " Morgan wrote a total of three episodes , but later left the series because he could not keep up with the fast paced nature of network television . He also expressed a negative opinion of the way his teleplays were handled , despite a positive reception by both critics and the crew of his work . He also contributed to the script for the episode " Quagmire " . After writing one episode the previous season , Vince Gilligan returned to write another solo episode for the season , now credited as a creative consultant . Cast member David Duchovny collaborated with Howard Gordon and Chris Carter for two episodes receiving story credit .
New writers in the third season included story editor Jeffrey Vlaming who wrote two episodes , supervising producer Charles Grant Craig who wrote a single episode , Kim Newtown who wrote two episodes , and staff writer John Shiban who wrote two episodes . All new writers except Shiban did not return after this season . Series visual effects producer Mat Beck also wrote an episode . Other producers included production manager and producer Joseph Patrick Finn and co @-@ producer Paul Rabwin .
= = Themes = =
" Nisei " and " 731 " , show a darker side to the series , exploring the public 's distrust in the government . Other episodes dealing with the wider mythology of the series — " Talitha Cumi " , " Piper Maru " and " Apocrypha " — explore similar concepts , showcasing the shadow government plot line of the series . Episodes like " 2Shy " and " Pusher " feature sadistic villains , containing human beings capable of highly immoral acts despite their seemingly mundane appearances . Another episode with a serial killer antagonist , " Grotesque " , revolves around the way that evil can change and influence people . " Oubliette " offers a sentimental and emotional plot driven by the kidnapping of a young girl . The episode features parallels to the real life Polly Klaas case and provides commentary on both stockholm syndrome and trauma .
Aliens and serial killers are not the only antagonists in the season ; several episodes revolve around more traditional , B @-@ movie inspired monsters , taking influence from horror films . These episodes include " War of the Coprophages " and " Quagmire " , about killer cockroaches and a lake monster . Several episodes have satirical elements , including " D.P.O. " , " Syzygy " and " War of the Coprophages " , with the latter two showcasing how the public can create panic out of need . Both " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " and " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " play against tropes and the established formula of the series , subverting themes the series usually followed .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder ( 24 episodes )
Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully ( 24 episodes )
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = = Also starring = = = =
Mitch Pileggi as Deputy Director Walter Skinner ( 10 episodes )
= = = = Guest starring = = = =
= = Episodes = =
Episodes marked with a double dagger ( ) are episodes in the series ' Alien Mythology arc .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The third season of The X @-@ Files debuted with " The Blessing Way " on September 22 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 3 , with a 22 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 22 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . The episode was viewed by 19 @.@ 94 million viewers . " The Blessing Way " was , at the time , the highest @-@ rated episode of The X @-@ Files to air ; the previous record belonged to the season two entry " Fresh Bones " , which only scored an 11 @.@ 3 rating with a 19 share . As the season continued , however , ratings dropped slightly and stabilized . After the season premiere , the highest @-@ rated episode the season was the finale , " Talitha Cumi " , which was viewed by 17 @.@ 86 million viewers . The season hit a low with the twenty @-@ third and penultimate episode of the season , " Wetwired " , which was viewed by only 14 @.@ 48 million viewers .
The series was ranked as number 55 during the 1995 – 96 television season , and was viewed by an average of 15 @.@ 40 million viewers , an increase in almost seven percent when compared to the second season , which was viewed by 14 @.@ 50 . In its third season , The X @-@ Files became Fox 's top @-@ rated program in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The third season of the show was the last to be aired on Friday nights ; for its fourth season , the show was moved to Sunday .
= = = Reviews = = =
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the third season The X @-@ Files ' " best season and maybe one of the greatest TV seasons of all time " , noting it was consistent and " [ swung ] from strength to strength " between mythology and stand @-@ alone episodes . However , he thought it " starts out kind of terribly " with " The Blessing Way " . Zack Handlen , VanDerWerff 's colleague , wrote that the third season was " one of the show 's strongest , with the conspiracy arc still keeping tension high instead of just vamping for time . By this point , the sometimes awkward effects work of the early years is gone , and the overall direction is highly polished , giving even the season 's weakest entries a cinematic feel " . He also stated that Morgan 's " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " and " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " were " The X @-@ Files 's two greatest hours " . The writing credits provided by Morgan was widely cited as a highlight of the season . " War of the Coprophages " written by him received positive reviews , and Entertainment Weekly gave " War of the Coprophages " an A – , who praised the absurdity and entertainment value of the episode . Another episode , " Quagmire " containing some writing credits by Morgan received positive reviews , with the 10 @-@ minute dialogue sequence featuring Mulder and Scully receiving highly positive reviews .
Gilligan 's episode " Pusher " was also cited as one of the best episodes of the series by both IGN and Den of Geek , and Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , named the episode the third best episode of The X @-@ Files and called it the " best MOTW [ " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " ] in the series history " Duchovny considers his performance in " Oubliette " as his favorite of the season , an episode that also received mostly positive reviews . Writing for DVD Talk , Earl Cressey rated the season overall four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , finding that the series ' increased budget meant that its production values and the quality of its guest appearances were better than previous seasons .
= = = Accolades = = =
The third season earned the series eight Primetime Emmy Award nominations . It received its second consecutive nomination for Outstanding Drama Series , Gillian Anderson received her first nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series , and the episode " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " was nominated for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Art Direction for a Series . The series won five awards , including Outstanding Individual Achievement in Writing for a Drama Series , for the episode " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " written by Darin Morgan ; Peter Boyle won for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series for his performance in that same episode . The episode " Nisei " won for both Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Editing for a Series and Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Drama Series . John S. Bartley won for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Cinematography for a Series due to the episode " Grotesque " . Duchovny and Anderson were each nominated for a Golden Globe Award for their performances .
= = DVD release = =
= Made in America ( Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West song ) =
" Made in America " is a song by American hip hop artists Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z , from their first collaborative album Watch the Throne . It is the 11th track on the album and features vocals from OFWGKTA singer Frank Ocean . Lyrically , the song explores themes of family life and the American Dream . It expresses the hardships of youth and coming of age . The track received positive reviews from music critics who praised Ocean 's vocal hook , and the subject matter of the verses . The song has been compared to " inspirational ballads of late @-@ period Michael Jackson . " The song charted on South Korea Gaon International Chart at position 178 . Jay @-@ Z and West performed the song at their 2011 Watch the Throne Tour .
= = Background = =
Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West are both American rappers who have collaborated on several tracks together . In 2010 , they began production and recording on a collaborative record Watch the Throne . Frank Ocean is an R & B recording artist who released his debut mixtape Nostalgia , Ultra in early 2011 to critical acclaim . The release of the mixtape interested West , who was reported to be a big fan . West invited Ocean to write and sing on two songs off of the record . Frank wrote and provided vocals on tracks " No Church in the Wild " and " Made in America " and the songs were recorded in New York .
= = Composition = =
The song has been described as an " understated soft @-@ pop " track with influence from Michael Jackson and his 1985 charity single " We Are the World " . Ocean 's hook " pays tribute to Martin Luther King , Jr . , Coretta Scott King , Malcolm X , Betty Shabazz and , of course , the sweet baby Jesus on the album 's most serene track . " Rob Harvilla of Spin stated that " PBR & B prince Frank Ocean " sings on the " subdued but triumphant " Made in America " ( wherein Jay wistfully recalls his grandma 's banana pudding and Kanye complains about South Park ) . The song " invokes heroes of the civil rights movement " and reflects on how West and Jay have " seized what might be an American Dream . "
Jay @-@ Z muses on his drug @-@ dealing past with lines like " our apple pie was supplied by Arm & Hammer " , utilizing " his skill at baking double- and triple @-@ meanings into a line " . West 's verse describes his " original hustle in terms of blogging and web traffic " and his conflict with fame , " tinged with a political or socio @-@ economic hue . " West offers a verse that " starts off humble , but by the end he 's bragging about his power and slamming his critics " over a " weirdly magnetic synthetic beat and dots of pretty piano clusters crafted by producer Sak Pace of the Jugganauts . " Popdust reported that " this is Jay at his most vulnerable , revealing things he may be thinking but not regularly willing to share with others . While the song ’ s chorus seems to honor all of those “ Made In America , ” the track is really a look at the history these two have shared and perhaps their differing futures . "
= = Reception = =
" Made in America " received mostly positive reviews from most music critics . Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan commented that the track reminded him of " the inspirational ballads of late @-@ period Michael Jackson " , and said that while the song was " silly " , it " succeeds on pure orchestral excess . " Rolling Stone stated that " both rappers deliver sentimental verses , but Ocean carries most of the emotional weight here . " Steve Jones of USA Today commented " on the equally potent Made in America , the two talk about their rises to fame , while acknowledging those who helped and inspired them . " Sputnikmusic 's Tyler Fisher noted that " Frank Ocean asks , “ What ’ s a god to a nonbeliever ? ” on “ No Church in the Wild ” , but later invokes “ sweet baby Jesus ” on “ Made in America ” , pandering to each track without a thought to the coherence of the album . "
Los Angeles Times writer Randall Roberts stated " the album 's highlight , and an instant classic , is “ Made in America , ” a solid , slow @-@ paced Frank Ocean @-@ teamed jam about the American dream that reveals the main difference between West and Jay @-@ Z : humility . " Popdust writer Emily Exton that while " Frank Ocean ’ s “ Sweet Baby Jesus ” might be stuck in your head for the rest of the day " , the highlist is " Kanye who manages to both appreciatively give thanks to his rise to fame as well as generate more than one eye roll with his bravado . " Rolling Stone 's Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson mused " Frank Ocean 's second appearance on the album is another keeper . Hip @-@ hop heads will be singing his honey @-@ voiced , religiously @-@ themed hook all fall . Jay @-@ Z and Kanye keep the thoughtful mood going with verses that revisit their respective rises to fame . " BBC Music 's Marcus J. Moore perceived that " Made in America fails to resonate because of a contrived chorus that pays homage to West 's Sweet Baby Jesus , among others . " Andy Gill of The Independent found it to be a stand @-@ out track , " featuring assured vocal refrains from Frank Ocean , while the two rappers muse over familiar themes of loyalty , sexuality and maternal solidarity . " The track briefly charted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart for one week .
= = Promotion = =
The track was performed by West and Jay @-@ Z on their Watch the Throne tour . Ocean performed his hook of the song at some of the performances during his 2011 concert series through the US and Europe . The name was adopted for Jay @-@ Z 's first annual " Budweiser Made in America " festival at Fairmount Park in Philadelphia in September 2012 . Jay @-@ Z will be the curator and the headliner for the festival .
= Education in the Faroe Islands =
The levels of education in the Faroe Islands are primary , secondary and higher education . Most institutions are funded by the state ; there are few private schools in the country . Education is compulsory for 9 years between the ages of 7 and 16 .
In the twelfth century education in the Faroe Islands was provided by the Catholic Church . The Church of Denmark took over education after the Protestant Reformation . Modern educational institutions started operating in the last quarter of the nineteenth century and developed throughout the twentieth century . The status of the Faroese language in education was a significant issue for decades , until it was accepted as a language of instruction in 1938 . Initially education was administered and regulated by Denmark . In 1979 responsibilities on educational issues started transferring to the Faroese authorities , a procedure which was completed in 2002 .
Compulsory education consists of seven years of primary education , and two years of lower secondary education ; it is public , free of charge , provided by the respective municipalities , and is called the Fólkaskúli in Faroese . The Fólkaskúli also provides optional preschool education as well as the tenth year of education that is a prerequisite to get admitted to upper secondary education . Students that complete compulsory education are allowed to continue education in a vocational school , where they can have job @-@ specific training and education . Since fishing industry is an important part of country 's economy , maritime schools are an important part of Faroese education . Upon completion of the tenth year of Fólkaskúli , students can continue to upper secondary education which consists of several different types of schools . Higher education is offered at the University of the Faroe Islands ; a part of Faroese youth moves abroad to pursue higher education , mainly in Denmark . Other forms of education comprise adult education and music schools . The structure of the Faroese educational system bears resemblances with its Danish counterpart .
The main language of instruction up to the lower secondary school is Faroese , while Danish is the main language of instruction in upper secondary schools . Education in the Faroe Islands is administered and regulated by the Ministry of Education , Research and Culture ( Faroese : Mentamálaráðið ) , with Rigmor Dam being the minister since 15 September 2015 .
= = Background = =
The Ministry of Education , Research and Culture has the jurisdiction of educational responsibility in the Faroe Islands . Since the Faroe Islands is a constituent country of the Danish Realm , education in the Faroe Islands is influenced and has similarities with the Danish educational system ; there is an agreement on educational cooperation between the Faroe Islands and Denmark . In 2012 the public spending on education was 8 @.@ 1 % of GDP . The municipalities are responsible for the school buildings for children 's education in Fólkaskúlin from age 1st grade to 9th or 10th grade ( age 7 to 16 ) . In November 2013 1 @,@ 615 people , or 6 @.@ 8 % of the total number of employees , were employed in the education sector . Of the 31 @,@ 270 people aged 25 and above 1 @,@ 717 ( 5 @.@ 5 % ) have gained at least a Master 's degree or a Ph.D. , 8 @,@ 428 ( 27 % ) have gained a B.Sc. or a Diploma , 11 @,@ 706 ( 37 @.@ 4 % ) have finished upper secondary education while 9 @,@ 419 ( 30 @.@ 1 % ) has only finished primary school and have no other education . There is no data on literacy in the Faroe Islands , but the CIA Factbook states that it is probably as high as in Denmark proper , i.e. 99 % .
The majority of students in upper secondary schools are women , although men represent the majority in higher education institutions . In addition , most young Faroese people who relocate to other countries to study are women . Out of 8 @,@ 535 holders of bachelor degrees , 4 @,@ 796 ( 56 @.@ 2 % ) have had their education in the Faroe Islands , 2 @,@ 724 ( 31 @.@ 9 % ) in Denmark , 543 in both the Faroe Islands and Denmark , 94 ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) in Norway 80 in the United Kingdom and the rest in other countries . Out of 1 @,@ 719 holders of master 's degrees or PhDs , 1 @,@ 249 ( 72 @.@ 7 % have had their education in Denmark , 87 ( 5 @.@ 1 % ) in the United Kingdom , 86 ( 5 % ) in both the Faroe Islands and Denmark , 64 ( 3 @.@ 7 % ) in the Faroe Islands , 60 ( 3 @.@ 5 % ) in Norway and the rest in other countries ( mostly EU and Nordic ) . Since there is no medical school in the Faroe Islands , all medical students have to study abroad ; as of 2013 , out of a total of 96 medical students , 76 studied in Denmark , 19 in Poland and 1 in Hungary .
= = = Language = = =
Although the Faroese language is designated as the country 's principal language , the Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands states that the Danish language " is to be learnt well and carefully " . Up to ninth grade , most school material is in Faroese ; there are Danish classes since third grade . In upper secondary education this pattern is reversed ; courses are taught in Danish , except the Faroese language courses . The Faroese language is taught 64 hours per week , overall , throughout compulsory education , while Danish is taught 29 hours per week ; exams in both languages are equal in length . English language courses start from 4th grade and they are taught for 60 hours annually at that grade , 90 hours in 5th grade , 120 hours in 6th , 7th , 8th and 9th grade ; pupils who chose to take the 10th grade have the option to get another 120 hours of English lessons .
= = History = =
In the Middle Ages there was education in Kirkjubøur offered by the Catholic Church . According to the Sverris saga , Sverre of Norway received schooling by Roe the bishop of Faroe Islands ; later speeches of his , show that he was taught Latin , a feature revealed by his knowledge of the Decretum Gratiani . The school in Kirkjubøur continued until the Protestant Reformation . After the reformation Latin Schools were established in the Danish kingdom , extending over today 's Denmark , Iceland , Greenland , Faroe Islands , Skåneland and Gotland in Sweden , and Øsel ( now Saaremaa ) in Estonia . The Latin School in the Faroe Islands is first mentioned in 1547 , in a letter to Thomas Koppen who got the Faroe Islands as a fief .
In 1870 the Faroese Teachers School ( Faroese : Føroya Læraraskúli ) was established to offer training and qualification for teachers . The first maritime schools were founded as private institutions in Tórshavn in 1893 . The first Evening School was founded in 1904 , with joint financing by the Løgting and Denmark . In 1912 a Danish Royal decree established compulsory primary education , with the provision that teaching was in Danish . That decision led to tensions in education as Faroese teachers Louis Zachariasen and Jákup Dahl continued teaching in Faroese and were persecuted for doing so ; the issue was resolved in 1938 when Faroese was recognized as equal to Danish in Faroese schools . In 1927 the Danish government , upon the request of the Faroese parliament , established a public navigational school in Tórshavn , followed by a marine engineers school in 1929 .
The Faroese Nursing School was established in 1960 by the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs ; it traces its roots back in 1910 when nurses were trained in the hospital of Tórshavn . The University of the Faroe Islands , was established in 1965 ; Klaus H. Jacobsen , a Dane , was appointed as the first lecturer in 1970 to teach courses for the examen philosophicum , a prerequisite at the time to pursue higher education in Denmark . After Denmark abandoned the examen philosophicum in 1971 , on the initiative of Jacobsen and Kjartan Hoydal the university accepted its first full @-@ time science students in the autumn of 1972 . Education in the Faroe Islands was administered by Denmark under the Home Rule Act , until in the late 1990s its administration was transferred to the Faroese government as a matter of local interest .
In 1979 responsibility on educational matters started transferring from Denmark to the Faroese authorities , with the Faroese government getting full economic responsibility of education in 1988 . By 1996 education became the responsibility of the Faroese government ; this procedure was completed in 2002 , preceded by the establishment of the Ministry of Education , Research and Culture . The administration of the Nursing School was passed to the Ministry of Education , Research and Culture in 2000 and the degree was recognized as a bachelor 's degree in 2003 . In 2005 the marine schools of navigation and engineering merged to form the Centre of Maritime Studies and Engineering . On 1 August 2008 the Faroese School of Education and the Faroese School of Nursing where incorporated into the University becoming its departments .
= = Structure = =
= = = Primary and lower secondary education = = =
Compulsory education in the Faroe Islands is provided for nine years from the age of 7 to 16 . Primary education in the Faroe Islands commences at the beginning of the school year in the calendar year in which the child has reached the age of seven years . It is part of the compulsory education , and it lasts at least seven years , Primary education is provided by 51 Fólkaskúli and 3 Free Schools ; some of these Fólkaskúli also provide optional preschool education . In 2014 there were 5 @,@ 205 students attending primary education in the Faroe Islands .
Upon completion of the first seven years of primary education , students can continue their studies in lower secondary education in the 8th and 9th grade and if they wish to , they can also take the 10th year of Fólkaskúli . Two thirds of the pupils from the 9th grade chose to take the 10th grade of Fólkaskúlin also . Lower secondary education lasts two to three years and , as with primary education , it is provided by Fólkaskúli and is free of charge . The first two years are part of the compulsory education , while the third year is optional , though a prerequisite to continue to the upper high school . In 2014 there were 1 @,@ 932 students in lower secondary education .
The final examination from the Fólkaskúli gives access to upper secondary education like " Studentaskúlin " , " Fiskivinnuskúlin " or other similar secondary schools which takes three years or ( Higher Preparatory Examination ( HF ) ) which takes two years . It also gives access to the one year FHS Yrkisnám from Føroya Handilsskúli ( Faroese business college ) or the 3 @-@ year secondary education Búskaparbreytin ( Economy secondary school ) from Føroya Handilsskúli .
= = = Upper secondary education = = =
Upper secondary education is offered by eight schools that offer five different type of courses . The Studentaskúli is an academically oriented three @-@ year @-@ long school . Upon completion students can apply for admission in higher education institutions . This type of education is offered at three schools : Føroya Studentaskúli og HF @-@ Skeið in Tórshavn , Studentaskúlin og HF @-@ skeiðið í Eysturoy in Kambsdalur and Miðnámsskúlin í Suðuroy in Suðuroy . Another type of upper secondary education is HF , which is a 2 @-@ year academically oriented course for adults , that is offered at Føroya Studentaskúli og HF @-@ Skeið and Studentaskúlin og HF @-@ skeiðið í Eysturoy . The Business College ( Faroese : Føroya Handilsskúli ) , also called FHS , offers a three @-@ year curiculum and its completion allows its alumni to continue to higher education . It is also possible to take a one @-@ year education from the Business College . There are two Business Colleges , one in Tórshavn and one Kambsdalur . The Technical college ( Faroese : Tekniski skúlin ) offers courses on several technical fields along with apprenticeship . It is offered in two schools , one in Tórshavn and one in Klaksvík . Its alumni can pursuit higher education in technical sciences or take higher education courses of the Technical College . The Fisheries College ( Faroese : Fiskivinnuskúlin ) in Vestmanna . It focuses in the fishing industry and food science and upon its completion students can continue in higher education studies related to the fishing industry .
= = = Vocational education = = =
= = = = Maritime education = = = =
There are two vocational maritime schools in the Faroe Islands : The Centre of Maritime Studies and Engineering ( Faroese : Vinnuháskúlin ) in Tórshavn and the Sjónam Maritime School ( Faroese : Sjónám ) in Klaksvík .
Vinnuháskúlin offers three @-@ year studies to become a shipmaster or a marine engineer , in addition to shorter versions of these , while it also offers a one and a half @-@ year studies to become a captain and individual marine courses . In 2010 100 % of the graduates for skipper , shipmaster , machinist and marine engineer were men . All graduates from Vinnuháskúlin in June 2015 were men .
Sjónam in Klaksvík offers a 1 ½ year shipmaster education , which qualifies its alumni to be either First Officer or Captain on merchant ships up to 3000 gross tonnage . In order to get access to the education , the applicants must fulfill the terms according to Ship Master Law ( Kunngerð um skiparaútbúgving ) number 107 of 20 September 2005 , i.e. the applicants must have experience from working on board a ship which is at least 20 gross tonnage for at least 36 month , of which at least 18 months should be from a lager vessel of at least 200 gross tonnage . They should also have finished the nine years of compulsory primary and lower secondary school with at least " passed " results in Faroese , Danish , English , physics , chemistry and math .
Sjónám also offers a shorter maritime education of six months . It is a ship assistant education ( Faroese : skipsatstøðingur ) which provides the students to be able to perform all kinds of work on deck and in the engine room on board a ship . The applicants must be at least 17 and a half years old and must have completed the 9 years of Fólkaskúlin . The applicants must also have a health certificate for seamen . This education together with 9 months which are required for becoming an able @-@ bodied seaman , qualifies the alumni for the 1 ½ year long shipmaster education .
= = = = Public Health School = = = =
The Public Faroese Health School ( Faroese : Heilsuskúli Føroya ) in Suðuroy is a vocational school offering two types of education . The health care assistant education ( Heilsuhjálpari ) takes fifteen months . Following graduation , pupils can choose to leave the school and work in home care and retirement homes . Alternatively they can continue with another 22 months and become an assistant nurse ( heilsurøktari ) . The assistant nurse can work in various places , mostly in retirement homes or hospitals . The graduates from the Health School are mainly women . In 2012 almost 90 % of the School 's graduates were women .
= = = Other schools = = =
The Faroe Music School ( Faroese : Musikkskúlin ) runs fourteen institutions around the islands that are responsible for teaching music in the Faroe Islands . The pupils pay between 1 @,@ 200 and 1 @,@ 600 DKK each year in order to get lessons , the price depends on which municipality the pupil lives in . In Tórshavn there are classes , called Musikkspælistova , for children up to 6 years costing 600 DKK for a year ; it also offers a three @-@ year musical education program in Tórshavn , which is a middle @-@ range training for Faroese people aged 14 to 25 , costing 2 @,@ 400 DKK annually and admitting up to 8 pupils a year .
The Evening School ( Faroese : Kvøldskúli or Frítíðarundirvísing ) , offers a variety of courses for everyone and Faroese language lessons for foreigners . Courses range from handicraft , music lessons , foreign languages to swimming . The courses are offered by the municipalities , with 50 % of the teachers ' wages paid by them and the rest paid by the Ministry of Culture and Education ; the Ministry of Culture pays 100 % of the wages in cases of disabled people .
Additionally there are the School of Home Economics ( Faroese : Húsarhaldsskúli Føroya ) and the Folk High School ( Faroese : Føroya Fólkaháskúli ) offering half @-@ year courses in food and diet , hygiene , sowing , embroidering and humanities , arts and creative subjects respectively .
= = = Higher education = = =
Higher education in the Faroe Islands is mainly undertaken by the University of the Faroe Islands , a public research university granting academic degrees . Individual higher education courses are offered by The Business School . Many Faroese pursue higher education out of the islands , mainly in Denmark ; in August 2015 a report showed 1 @,@ 345 Faroese students in Denmark , 904 in the Faroe Islands and 182 in other countries . Studni , the Faroese Student Grant Fund , provides student grants and loans to Faroese students , to study either in the Faroe Islands or abroad .
= = = = University of the Faroe Islands = = = =
Higher education is offered by the , Tórshavn based , University of the Faroe Islands ( Faroese : Fróðskaparsetur Føroya ) . It was founded in 1965 , as Academia Færoensis , by members of the Faroese Academy of Sciences . The university is divided in two faculties : the Faculty of Humanities , Social Sciences and Education and the Faculty of Natural and Health Sciences , offering several B.Sc. degrees , M.Sc. degrees and Ph.D.s. It is publicly funded and in 2010 it received approximately 68 million DKK . Admission requirements include taking the upper secondary school leaving examination . Specific departments could place additional requirements , e.g. in 2015 the Software Engineering department required a grade of 6 / 13 in mathematics .
= = = = Higher education from the Business School = = = =
It is possible to take individual higher education courses in Commerce from the Business School in Kambsdalur and in Tórshavn . The alumni can work at the same time and take one course each semester . After three years they will have achieved 60 ECTS which is the same as the first part of the HD education . They can also take the second part of the HD education from the Business College , and they can also combine it with courses from the Aarhus University via distant education . If they wish to study further for at MBA they must take it from a university in Denmark , i.e. the Aarhus University .
= = = = Research = = = =
Research in the Faroe Islands is administered by the Faroese Research Council ( Faroese : Granskingarráðið ) . Each year the Parliament of the Faroe Islands allocates money to the Faroese Research Foundation , and it is the Faroese Research Council that decides its recipients . From 2002 to 2012 the Research Foundation had received over 70 million DKK . Research is conducted by several governmental institutions ( i.e. museums , laboratories , hospitals , marine institutes ) and the University of the Faroe Islands .
= Battle of Waterloo =
The Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday , 18 June 1815 , near Waterloo in present @-@ day Belgium , then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands . A French army under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by two of the armies of the Seventh Coalition : an Anglo @-@ led Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington , and a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher , Prince of Wahlstatt . The battle resulted in the end of Bonaparte 's reign and of the First French Empire , and set a chronological milestone between serial European wars and decades of relative peace .
Upon Napoleon 's return to power in March 1815 , many states that had opposed him formed the Seventh Coalition and began to mobilize armies . Wellington and Blücher 's armies were cantoned close to the north @-@ eastern border of France . Napoleon chose to attack them in the hope of destroying them before they could join in a coordinated invasion of France with other members of the coalition . Waterloo was the decisive engagement of the Waterloo Campaign and Napoleon 's last . According to Wellington , the battle was " the nearest @-@ run thing you ever saw in your life " . The defeat at Waterloo ended Napoleon 's rule as Emperor of the French , and marked the end of his Hundred Days return from exile . Napoleon abdicated 4 days later , and on 7 July coalition forces entered Paris .
After the Battle of Quatre Bras , Wellington withdrew from Quatre Bras to Waterloo . After the simultaneous Battle of Ligny the Prussians withdrew parallel to Wellington , drawing a third part of Napoleon 's forces away from Waterloo to the separate and simultaneous Battle of Wavre . Upon learning that the Prussian army was able to support him , Wellington decided to offer battle on the Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Jean escarpment , across the Brussels road . Here he withstood repeated attacks by the French throughout the afternoon , aided by the progressively arriving Prussians . In the evening Napoleon committed his last reserves to a desperate final attack , which was narrowly beaten back . With the Prussians breaking through on the French right flank Wellington 's Anglo @-@ allied army counter @-@ attacked in the centre , and the French army was routed .
The battlefield is located in the municipalities of Braine @-@ l 'Alleud and Lasne , about 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) south of Brussels , and about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the town of Waterloo . The site of the battlefield today is dominated by a large monument , the Lion 's Mound . As this mound was constructed from earth taken from the battlefield itself , the contemporary topography of the battlefield near the mound has not been preserved .
= = Prelude = =
On 13 March 1815 , six days before Napoleon reached Paris , the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw . Four days later , the United Kingdom , Russia , Austria , and Prussia mobilised armies to defeat Napoleon . Critically outnumbered , Napoleon knew that once his attempts at dissuading one or more of the Seventh Coalition allies from invading France had failed , his only chance of remaining in power was to attack before the coalition mobilised .
Had Napoleon succeeded in destroying the existing coalition forces south of Brussels before they were reinforced , he might have been able to drive the British back to the sea , knock the Prussians out of the war , and then turn his armies towards the Austrians and Russians . An additional consideration was that there were many French @-@ speaking sympathisers in Belgium and a French victory might trigger a friendly revolution there . Also , the British troops in Belgium were largely second @-@ line troops ; most of the veterans of the Peninsular War had been sent to North America to fight in the War of 1812 .
Wellington 's initial dispositions were intended to counter the threat of Napoleon enveloping the Coalition armies by moving through Mons to the south @-@ west of Brussels . This would have cut Wellington 's communications with his base at Ostend , but would have pushed his army closer to Blücher 's . Napoleon manipulated Wellington 's fear of this loss of his supply chain from the channel ports with false intelligence .
By June , Napoleon had raised a total army strength of about 300 @,@ 000 men . The force at his disposal at Waterloo was less than one third that size , but they were nearly all loyal and experienced soldiers . He divided his army into a left wing commanded by Marshal Ney , a right wing commanded by Marshal Grouchy and a reserve under his command ( although all three elements remained close enough to support one another ) . Crossing the frontier near Charleroi before dawn on 15 June , the French rapidly overran Coalition outposts , securing Napoleon 's " central position " between Wellington 's and Blücher 's armies .
Only very late on the night of 15 June was Wellington certain that the Charleroi attack was the main French thrust . In the early hours of 16 June , at the Duchess of Richmond 's ball in Brussels , he received a dispatch from the Prince of Orange and was shocked by the speed of Napoleon 's advance . He hastily ordered his army to concentrate on Quatre Bras , where the Prince of Orange , with the brigade of Prince Bernhard of Saxe @-@ Weimar , was holding a tenuous position against the soldiers of Ney 's left wing . Ney 's orders were to secure the crossroads of Quatre Bras , so that , if necessary , he could later swing east and reinforce Napoleon .
Napoleon moved against the concentrated Prussian army first . On 16 June , with a part of the reserve and the right wing of the army , he attacked and defeated Blücher 's Prussians at the Battle of Ligny . The Prussian centre gave way under more heavy French assaults but the flanks held their ground . Ney , meanwhile , found the crossroads of Quatre Bras lightly held by the Prince of Orange , who repelled Ney 's initial attacks but was gradually driven back by overwhelming numbers of French troops . First reinforcements and then Wellington arrived . He took command and drove Ney back , securing the crossroads by early evening , too late to send help to the Prussians , who were defeated at the Battle of Ligny on the same day . The Prussian defeat made Wellington 's position at Quatre Bras untenable , so the next day he withdrew northwards , to a defensive position he had reconnoitred the previous year — the low ridge of Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Jean , south of the village of Waterloo and the Sonian Forest .
The Prussian retreat from Ligny went uninterrupted and seemingly unnoticed by the French . The bulk of their rearguard units held their positions until about midnight and some elements did not move out until the following morning , ignored by the French . Crucially , the Prussians did not retreat to the east , along their own lines of communication . Instead , they too fell back northwards — parallel to Wellington 's line of march , still within supporting distance and in communication with him throughout . The Prussians rallied on Bülow 's IV Corps , which had not been engaged at Ligny and was in a strong position south of Wavre .
Once he had intelligence of the Prussian defeat , Wellington organised a retreat from Quatre Bras to Waterloo . Napoleon , with the reserves , made a late start on 17 June and joined Ney at Quatre Bras at 13 : 00 to attack Wellington 's army but found the position empty . The French pursued Wellington 's retreating army all the way to Waterloo , however due to weather and the head start that Napoleon 's tardy advance had allowed Wellington , apart from a cavalry action at Genappe there was no other substantial engagement .
Before leaving Ligny , Napoleon ordered Grouchy , commander of the right wing , to follow up the retreating Prussians with 33 @,@ 000 men . A late start , uncertainty about the direction the Prussians had taken and the vagueness of the orders given to him meant that Grouchy was too late to prevent the Prussian army reaching Wavre , from where it could march to support Wellington . By the end of 17 June , Wellington 's army had arrived at its position at Waterloo , with the main body of Napoleon 's army following . Blücher 's army was gathering in and around Wavre , around 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the east of the city .
= = Armies = =
Three armies were involved in the battle : Napoleon 's Armée du Nord ; a multinational army under Wellington ; and a Prussian army under Blücher .
The French army of around 69 @,@ 000 consisted of 48 @,@ 000 infantry , 14 @,@ 000 cavalry , and 7 @,@ 000 artillery with 250 guns . Napoleon had used conscription to fill the ranks of the French army throughout his rule , but he did not conscript men for the 1815 campaign . His troops were mainly veterans with considerable experience and a fierce devotion to their Emperor . The cavalry in particular was both numerous and formidable , and included fourteen regiments of armoured heavy cavalry and seven of highly versatile lancers .
Wellington claimed that he himself had " an infamous army , very weak and ill @-@ equipped , and a very inexperienced Staff " . His troops consisted of 67 @,@ 000 men : 50 @,@ 000 infantry , 11 @,@ 000 cavalry , and 6 @,@ 000 artillery with 150 guns . Of these , 25 @,@ 000 were British , with another 6 @,@ 000 from the King 's German Legion ( KGL ) . All of the British Army troops were regular soldiers but only 7 @,@ 000 of them were Peninsular War veterans . In addition , there were 17 @,@ 000 Dutch and Belgian troops , 11 @,@ 000 from Hanover , 6 @,@ 000 from Brunswick , and 3 @,@ 000 from Nassau .
Many of the troops in the Coalition armies were inexperienced . The Dutch army had been re @-@ established in 1815 , following the earlier defeat of Napoleon . With the exception of the British and some from Hanover and Brunswick who had fought with the British army in Spain , many of the professional soldiers in the Coalition armies had spent some of their time in the French army or in armies allied to the Napoleonic regime . The historian Barbero states that in this heterogeneous army the difference between British and foreign troops did not prove significant under fire .
Wellington was also acutely short of heavy cavalry , having only seven British and three Dutch regiments . The Duke of York imposed many of his staff officers on Wellington , including his second @-@ in @-@ command the Earl of Uxbridge . Uxbridge commanded the cavalry and had carte blanche from Wellington to commit these forces at his discretion . Wellington stationed a further 17 @,@ 000 troops at Halle , 8 miles ( 13 km ) away to the west . They were not recalled to participate in the battle but were to serve as a fallback position should the battle be lost . They were mostly composed of Dutch troops under Prince of Orange 's younger brother Prince Frederick of the Netherlands . They were placed as a guard against any possible wide flanking movement by the French forces , and also to act as a rearguard if Wellington was forced to retreat towards Antwerp and the coast . According to Hofschröer , the best Dutch troops were at Halle and he questions the reasons for their placement .
The Prussian army was in the throes of reorganisation . In 1815 , the former Reserve regiments , Legions , and Freikorps volunteer formations from the wars of 1813 – 1814 were in the process of being absorbed into the line , along with many Landwehr ( militia ) regiments . The Landwehr were mostly untrained and unequipped when they arrived in Belgium . The Prussian cavalry were in a similar state . Its artillery was also reorganising and did not give its best performance – guns and equipment continued to arrive during and after the battle .
Off @-@ setting these handicaps the Prussian Army had excellent and professional leadership in its General Staff organisation . These officers came from four schools developed for this purpose and thus worked to a common standard of training . This system was in marked contrast to the conflicting , vague orders issued by the French army . This staff system ensured that before Ligny , three @-@ quarters of the Prussian army concentrated for battle at 24 hours notice .
After Ligny , the Prussian army , although defeated , was able to realign its supply train , reorganise itself , and intervene decisively on the Waterloo battlefield within 48 hours . Two and a half Prussian army corps , or 48 @,@ 000 men , were engaged at Waterloo ; two brigades under Bülow , commander of IV Corps , attacked Lobau at 16 : 30 , while Zieten 's I Corps and parts of Pirch I 's II Corps engaged at about 18 : 00 .
= = Battlefield = =
The Waterloo position was a strong one . It consisted of a long ridge running east @-@ west , perpendicular to , and bisected by , the main road to Brussels . Along the crest of the ridge ran the Ohain road , a deep sunken lane . Near the crossroads with the Brussels road was a large elm tree that was roughly in the centre of Wellington 's position and served as his command post for much of the day . Wellington deployed his infantry in a line just behind the crest of the ridge following the Ohain road .
Using the reverse slope , as he had many times previously , Wellington concealed his strength from the French , with the exception of his skirmishers and artillery . The length of front of the battlefield was also relatively short at 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) . This allowed Wellington to draw up his forces in depth , which he did in the centre and on the right , all the way towards the village of Braine @-@ l 'Alleud , in the expectation that the Prussians would reinforce his left during the day .
In front of the ridge , there were three positions that could be fortified . On the extreme right were the château , garden , and orchard of Hougoumont . This was a large and well @-@ built country house , initially hidden in trees . The house faced north along a sunken , covered lane ( usually described by the British as " the hollow @-@ way " ) along which it could be supplied . On the extreme left was the hamlet of Papelotte .
Both Hougoumont and Papelotte were fortified and garrisoned , and thus anchored Wellington 's flanks securely . Papelotte also commanded the road to Wavre that the Prussians would use to send reinforcements to Wellington 's position . On the western side of the main road , and in front of the rest of Wellington 's line , was the farmhouse and orchard of La Haye Sainte , which was garrisoned with 400 light infantry of the King 's German Legion .
On the opposite side of the road was a disused sand quarry , where the 95th Rifles were posted as sharpshooters . This position presented a formidable challenge to any attacking force . Any attempt to turn Wellington 's right would entail taking the entrenched Hougoumont position . Any attack on his right centre would mean the attackers would have to march between enfilading fire from Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte . On the left , any attack would also be enfiladed by fire from La Haye Sainte and its adjoining sandpit , and any attempt at turning the left flank would entail fighting through the lanes and hedgerows surrounding Papelotte and the other garrisoned buildings on that flank , and some very wet ground in the Smohain defile .
The French army formed on the slopes of another ridge to the south . Napoleon could not see Wellington 's positions , so he drew his forces up symmetrically about the Brussels road . On the right was I Corps under d 'Erlon with 16 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 500 cavalry , plus a cavalry reserve of 4 @,@ 700 . On the left was II Corps under Reille with 13 @,@ 000 infantry , and 1 @,@ 300 cavalry , and a cavalry reserve of 4 @,@ 600 . In the centre about the road south of the inn La Belle Alliance were a reserve including Lobau 's VI Corps with 6 @,@ 000 men , the 13 @,@ 000 infantry of the Imperial Guard , and a cavalry reserve of 2 @,@ 000 .
In the right rear of the French position was the substantial village of Plancenoit , and at the extreme right , the Bois de Paris wood . Napoleon initially commanded the battle from Rossomme farm , where he could see the entire battlefield , but moved to a position near La Belle Alliance early in the afternoon . Command on the battlefield ( which was largely hidden from his view ) was delegated to Ney .
= = Battle = =
= = = Preparation = = =
Wellington rose at around 02 : 00 or 03 : 00 on 18 June , and wrote letters until dawn . He had earlier written to Blücher confirming that he would give battle at Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Jean if Blücher could provide him with at least one corps ; otherwise he would retreat towards Brussels . At a late @-@ night council , Blücher 's chief of staff , August Neidhardt von Gneisenau , had been distrustful of Wellington 's strategy , but Blücher persuaded him that they should march to join Wellington 's army . In the morning Wellington duly received a reply from Blücher , promising to support him with three corps .
From 06 : 00 Wellington was in the field supervising the deployment of his forces . At Wavre , the Prussian IV Corps under Bülow was designated to lead the march to Waterloo as it was in the best shape , not having been involved in the Battle of Ligny . Although they had not taken casualties , IV Corps had been marching for two days , covering the retreat of the three other corps of the Prussian army from the battlefield of Ligny . They had been posted farthest away from the battlefield , and progress was very slow . The roads were in poor condition after the night 's heavy rain , and Bülow 's men had to pass through the congested streets of Wavre and move 88 artillery pieces . Matters were not helped when a fire broke out in Wavre , blocking several streets along Bülow 's intended route . As a result , the last part of the corps left at 10 : 00 , six hours after the leading elements had moved out towards Waterloo . Bülow 's men were followed to Waterloo first by I Corps and then by II Corps .
Napoleon breakfasted off silver plate at Le Caillou , the house where he had spent the night . When Soult suggested that Grouchy should be recalled to join the main force , Napoleon said , " Just because you have all been beaten by Wellington , you think he 's a good general . I tell you Wellington is a bad general , the English are bad troops , and this affair is nothing more than eating breakfast " .
Napoleon 's surprisingly dismissive statements should not be taken at face value , given the Emperor 's maxim that " in war , morale is everything " and that praising the enemy is always wrong , as it reduces one 's morale . Indeed , he had been seen engaging in such pre @-@ battle , morale @-@ boosting harangues on a number of occasions in the past and on the morning of the battle of Waterloo he had to deal with his chief of staff 's pessimism and nervousness and had to respond to several persistent and almost defeatist objections from some of his senior generals .
Later on , being told by his brother , Jerome , of some gossip overheard by a waiter between British officers at lunch at the ' King of Spain ' inn in Genappe that the Prussians were to march over from Wavre , Napoleon declared that the Prussians would need at least two days to recover and would be dealt with by Grouchy . Surprisingly , Jerome 's overheard gossip aside , the French commanders present at the pre @-@ battle conference at Le Caillou had no information about the alarming proximity of the Prussians and did not suspect that Blücher 's men would start erupting onto the field of battle in great numbers just five hours later .
Napoleon had delayed the start of the battle owing to the sodden ground , which would have made manoeuvring cavalry and artillery difficult . In addition , many of his forces had bivouacked well to the south of La Belle Alliance . At 10 : 00 , in response to a dispatch he had received from Grouchy six hours earlier , he sent a reply telling Grouchy to " head for Wavre [ to Grouchy 's north ] in order to draw near to us [ to the west of Grouchy ] " and then " push before him " the Prussians to arrive at Waterloo " as soon as possible " .
At 11 : 00 , Napoleon drafted his general order : Reille 's Corps on the left and d 'Erlon 's Corps to the right were to attack the village of Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Jean and keep abreast of one another . This order assumed Wellington 's battle @-@ line was in the village , rather than at the more forward position on the ridge . To enable this , Jerome 's division would make an initial attack on Hougoumont , which Napoleon expected would draw in Wellington 's reserves , since its loss would threaten his communications with the sea . A grande batterie of the reserve artillery of I , II , and VI Corps was to then bombard the centre of Wellington 's position from about 13 : 00 . D 'Erlon 's corps would then attack Wellington 's left , break through , and roll up his line from east to west . In his memoirs , Napoleon wrote that his intention was to separate Wellington 's army from the Prussians and drive it back towards the sea .
= = = Hougoumont = = =
The historian Andrew Roberts notes that " It is a curious fact about the Battle of Waterloo that no one is absolutely certain when it actually began " . Wellington recorded in his dispatches that at " about ten o 'clock [ Napoleon ] commenced a furious attack upon our post at Hougoumont " . Other sources state that the attack began around 11 : 30 . The house and its immediate environs were defended by four light companies of Guards , and the wood and park by Hanoverian Jäger and the 1 / 2nd Nassau .
The initial attack by Bauduin 's brigade emptied the wood and park , but was driven back by heavy British artillery fire , and cost Bauduin his life . As the British guns were distracted by a duel with French artillery , a second attack by Soye 's brigade and what had been Bauduin 's succeeded in reaching the north gate of the house . Sous @-@ Lieutenant Legros , a French officer , broke the gate open with an axe . Some French troops managed to enter the courtyard . The 2nd Coldstream Guards and 2 / 3rd Foot Guards arrived to help . There was a fierce melee , and the British managed to close the gate on the French troops streaming in . The Frenchmen trapped in the courtyard were all killed . Only a young drummer boy was spared .
Fighting continued around Hougoumont all afternoon . Its surroundings were heavily invested by French light infantry , and coordinated attacks were made against the troops behind Hougoumont . Wellington 's army defended the house and the hollow way running north from it . In the afternoon , Napoleon personally ordered the house to be shelled to set it on fire , resulting in the destruction of all but the chapel . Du Plat 's brigade of the King 's German Legion was brought forward to defend the hollow way , which they had to do without senior officers . Eventually they were relieved by the 71st Foot , a British infantry regiment . Adam 's brigade was further reinforced by Hugh Halkett 's 3rd Hanoverian Brigade , and successfully repulsed further infantry and cavalry attacks sent by Reille . Hougoumont held out until the end of the battle .
I had occupied that post with a detachment from General Byng 's brigade of Guards , which was in position in its rear ; and it was some time under the command of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel MacDonald , and afterwards of Colonel Home ; and I am happy to add that it was maintained , throughout the day , with the utmost gallantry by these brave troops , notwithstanding the repeated efforts of large bodies of the enemy to obtain possession of it .
When I reached Lloyd 's abandoned guns , I stood near them for about a minute to contemplate the scene : it was grand beyond description . Hougoumont and its wood sent up a broad flame through the dark masses of smoke that overhung the field ; beneath this cloud the French were indistinctly visible . Here a waving mass of long red feathers could be seen ; there , gleams as from a sheet of steel showed that the cuirassiers were moving ; 400 cannon were belching forth fire and death on every side ; the roaring and shouting were indistinguishably commixed — together they gave me an idea of a labouring volcano . Bodies of infantry and cavalry were pouring down on us , and it was time to leave contemplation , so I moved towards our columns , which were standing up in square .
The fighting at Hougoumont has often been characterised as a diversionary attack to draw in Wellington 's reserves which escalated into an all @-@ day battle and drew in French reserves instead . In fact there is a good case to believe that both Napoleon and Wellington thought that holding Hougoumont was key to winning the battle . Hougoumont was a part of the battlefield that Napoleon could see clearly , and he continued to direct resources towards it and its surroundings all afternoon ( 33 battalions in all , 14 @,@ 000 troops ) . Similarly , though the house never contained a large number of troops , Wellington devoted 21 battalions ( 12 @,@ 000 troops ) over the course of the afternoon in keeping the hollow way open to allow fresh troops and ammunition to reach the buildings . He moved several artillery batteries from his hard @-@ pressed centre to support Hougoumont , and later stated that " the success of the battle turned upon closing the gates at Hougoumont " .
= = = First French infantry attack = = =
The 80 guns of Napoleon 's grande batterie drew up in the centre . These opened fire at 11 : 50 , according to Lord Hill ( commander of the Anglo @-@ allied II Corps ) , while other sources put the time between noon and 13 : 30 . The grande batterie was too far back to aim accurately , and the only other troops they could see were skirmishers of the regiments of Kempt and Pack , and Perponcher 's 2nd Dutch division ( the others were employing Wellington 's characteristic " reverse slope defence " ) . Nevertheless , the bombardment caused a large number of casualties . Though some projectiles buried themselves in the soft soil , most found their marks on the reverse slope of the ridge . The bombardment forced the cavalry of the Union Brigade ( in third line ) to move to its left , as did the Scots Greys , to reduce their casualty rate .
At about 13 : 00 , Napoleon saw the first columns of Prussians around the village of Lasne @-@ Chapelle @-@ Saint @-@ Lambert , four or five miles ( three hours march for an army ) away from his right flank . Napoleon 's reaction was to have Marshal Soult send a message to Grouchy telling him to come towards the battlefield and attack the arriving Prussians . Grouchy , however , had been executing Napoleon 's previous orders to follow the Prussians " with your sword against his back " towards Wavre , and was by then too far away to reach Waterloo . Grouchy was advised by his subordinate , Gérard , to " march to the sound of the guns " , but stuck to his orders and engaged the Prussian III Corps rear guard under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Baron Johann von Thielmann at the Battle of Wavre . Moreover , Soult 's letter ordering Grouchy to move quickly to join Napoleon and attack Bülow would not actually reach Grouchy until after 20 : 00 .
A little after 13 : 00 , I Corps ' attack began . D 'Erlon , like Ney , had encountered Wellington in Spain , and was aware of the British commander 's favoured tactic of using massed short @-@ range musketry to drive off infantry columns . Rather than use the usual nine @-@ deep French columns deployed abreast of one another , therefore , each division advanced in closely spaced battalion lines behind one another . This allowed them to concentrate their fire , but it did not leave room for them to change formation .
The formation was initially effective . Its leftmost division , under François @-@ Xavier Donzelot , advanced on La Haye Sainte . The farmhouse was defended by the King 's German Legion . While one French battalion engaged the defenders from the front , the following battalions fanned out to either side and , with the support of several squadrons of cuirassiers , succeeded in isolating the farmhouse . The King 's German Legion resolutely defended the farmhouse . Each time the French tried to scale the walls the outnumbered Germans somehow held them off . The Prince of Orange saw that La Haye Sainte had been cut off and tried to reinforce it by sending forward the Hanoverian Lüneberg Battalion in line . Cuirassiers concealed in a fold in the ground caught and destroyed it in minutes and then rode on past La Haye Sainte , almost to the crest of the ridge , where they covered d 'Erlon 's left flank as his attack developed .
At about 13 : 30 , d 'Erlon started to advance his three other divisions , some 14 @,@ 000 men over a front of about 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yards ) , against Wellington 's left wing . At the point they aimed for they faced 6 @,@ 000 men : the first line consisted of the Dutch 1st " Brigade van Bylandt " of the 2nd Dutch division , flanked by the British brigades of Kempt and Pack on either side . The second line consisted of British and Hanoverian troops under Sir Thomas Picton , who were lying down in dead ground behind the ridge . All had suffered badly at Quatre Bras . In addition , the Bijlandt brigade had been ordered to deploy its skirmishers in the hollow road and on the forward slope . The rest of the brigade was lying down just behind the road .
At the moment these skirmishers were rejoining their parent battalions , the brigade was ordered to its feet and started to return fire . On the left of the brigade , where the 7th Dutch Militia stood , a " few files were shot down and an opening in the line thus occurred " . The battalion had no reserves and was unable to close the gap . D 'Erlon 's troops pushed through this gap in the line and the remaining battalions in the Bylandt brigade ( 8th Dutch Militia and Belgian 7th Line Battalion ) were forced to retreat to the square of the 5th Dutch Militia , which was in reserve between Picton 's troops , about 100 paces to the rear . There they regrouped under the command of Colonel Van Zuylen van Nijevelt . A moment later the Prince of Orange ordered a counterattack , which actually occurred around 10 minutes later . Bylandt was wounded and retired off the field , passing command of the brigade to Lt. Kol . De Jongh .
D 'Erlon 's men ascended the slope and advanced on the sunken road , Chemin d 'Ohain , that ran from behind La Haye Sainte and continued east . It was lined on both sides by thick hedges , with Bylandt 's brigade just across the road while the British brigades had been lying down some 100 yards back from the road , Pack 's to Bylandt 's left and Kempt 's to Bylandt 's right . Kempt 's 1 @,@ 900 men were engaged by Bourgeois ' brigade of 1 @,@ 900 men of Quiot 's division . In the centre , Donzelot 's division had pushed back Bylandt 's brigade . On the right of the French advance was Marcognet 's division led by Grenier 's brigade consisting of the 45e Régiment de Ligne and followed by the 25e Régiment de Ligne , somewhat less than 2 @,@ 000 men , and behind them , Nogue 's brigade of the 21e and 45e regiments . Opposing them on the other side of the road was Pack 's 9th Brigade consisting of three Scottish regiments : the Royal Scots , the 42nd Black Watch , the 92nd Gordons and the 44th Foot totaling something over 2 @,@ 000 men . A very even fight between British and French infantry was about to occur .
The French advance drove in the British skirmishers and reached the sunken road . As they did so , Pack 's men stood up , formed into a four deep line formation for fear of the French cavalry , advanced , and opened fire . However , a firefight had been anticipated and the French infantry had accordingly advanced in more linear formation . Now , fully deployed into line , they returned fire and successfully pressed the British troops ; although the attack faltered at the centre , the line in front of d 'Erlon 's right started to crumble . Picton was killed shortly after ordering the counter @-@ attack and the British and Hanoverian troops also began to give way under the pressure of numbers . Pack 's regiments , all four ranks deep , advanced to attack the French in the road but faltered and began to fire on the French instead of charging . The 42nd Black Watch halted at the hedge and the resulting fire @-@ fight drove back the British 92nd Foot while the leading French 45e Ligne burst through the hedge cheering . Along the sunken road , the French were forcing the Allies back , the British line was dispersing , and at two o 'clock in the afternoon Napoleon was winning the Battle of Waterloo .
= = = Charge of the British heavy cavalry = = =
Our officers of cavalry have acquired a trick of galloping at everything . They never consider the situation , never think of manoeuvring before an enemy , and never keep back or provide a reserve .
At this crucial juncture , Uxbridge ordered his two brigades of British heavy cavalry — formed unseen behind the ridge — to charge in support of the hard @-@ pressed infantry . The 1st Brigade , known as the Household Brigade , commanded by Major @-@ General Lord Edward Somerset , consisted of guards regiments : the 1st and 2nd Life Guards , the Royal Horse Guards ( the Blues ) , and the 1st ( King 's ) Dragoon Guards . The 2nd Brigade , also known as the Union Brigade , commanded by Major @-@ General Sir William Ponsonby , was so called as it consisted of an English , the 1st ( The Royals ) ; a Scottish , 2nd ( ' Scots Greys ' ) ; and an Irish , 6th ( Inniskilling ) ; regiment of heavy dragoons .
More than 20 years of warfare had eroded the numbers of suitable cavalry mounts available on the European continent ; this resulted in the British heavy cavalry entering the 1815 campaign with the finest horses of any contemporary cavalry arm . British cavalry troopers also received excellent mounted swordsmanship training . They were , however , inferior to the French in manoeuvring in large formations , cavalier in attitude , and unlike the infantry some units had scant experience of warfare . The Scots Greys , for example , had not been in action since 1795 . According to Wellington , though they were superior individual horsemen , they were inflexible and lacked tactical ability . " I considered one squadron a match for two French , I didn 't like to see four British opposed to four French : and as the numbers increased and order , of course , became more necessary I was the more unwilling to risk our men without having a superiority in numbers " .
The two brigades had a combined field strength of about 2 @,@ 000 ( 2 @,@ 651 official strength ) ; they charged with the 47 @-@ year @-@ old Uxbridge leading them and a very inadequate number of squadrons held in reserve . There is evidence that Uxbridge gave an order , the morning of the battle , to all cavalry brigade commanders to commit their commands on their own initiative , as direct orders from himself might not always be forthcoming , and to " support movements to their front " . It appears that Uxbridge expected the brigades of Sir John Ormsby Vandeleur , Hussey Vivian and the Dutch cavalry to provide support to the British heavies . Uxbridge later regretted leading the charge in person , saying " I committed a great mistake " , when he should have been organising an adequate reserve to move forward in support .
The Household Brigade crossed the crest of the Allied position and charged downhill . The cuirassiers guarding d 'Erlon 's left flank were still dispersed , and so were swept over the deeply sunken main road and then routed . The sunken lane acted as a trap , funnelling the flight of the French cavalry to their own right and away from the British cavalry . Some of the cuirassiers then found themselves hemmed in by the steep sides of the sunken lane , with a confused mass of their own infantry in front of them , the 95th Rifles firing at them from the north side of the lane , and Somerset 's heavy cavalry still pressing them from behind . The novelty of fighting armoured foes impressed the British cavalrymen , as was recorded by the commander of the Household Brigade .
The blows of the sabres on the cuirasses sounded like braziers at work .
Continuing their attack , the squadrons on the left of the Household Brigade then destroyed Aulard 's brigade . Despite attempts to recall them , they continued past La Haye Sainte and found themselves at the bottom of the hill on blown horses facing Schmitz 's brigade formed in squares .
To their left , the Union Brigade suddenly swept through the infantry lines ( giving rise to the legend that some of the 92nd Gordon Highland Regiment clung onto their stirrups and accompanied them into the charge ) . From the centre leftwards , the Royal Dragoons destroyed Bourgeois ' brigade , capturing the eagle of the 105th Ligne . The Inniskillings routed the other brigade of Quoit 's division , and the Scots Greys came upon the lead French regiment , 45th Ligne , as it was still reforming after having crossed the sunken road and broken through the hedge row in pursuit of the British infantry . The Greys captured the eagle of the 45th Ligne and overwhelmed Grenier 's brigade . These would be the only two eagles captured from the French during the battle . On Wellington 's extreme left , Durutte 's division had time to form squares and fend off groups of Greys .
As with the Household Cavalry , the officers of the Royals and Inniskillings found it very difficult to rein back their troops , who lost all cohesion . Having taken casualties , and still trying to reorder themselves , the Scots Greys and the rest of the Union Brigade found themselves before the main French lines . Their horses were blown , and they were still in disorder without any idea of what their next collective objective was . Some attacked nearby gun batteries of the Grande Battery . Though the Greys had neither the time nor means to disable the cannon or carry them off , they put very many out of action as the gun crews were killed or fled the battlefield . Sergeant Major Dickinson of the Greys stated that his regiment was rallied before going on to attack the French artillery : Hamilton , the regimental commander , rather than holding them back cried out to his men " Charge , charge the guns ! " . Napoleon promptly responded by ordering a counter @-@ attack by the cuirassier brigades of Farine and Travers and Jaquinot 's two Chevau @-@ léger ( lancer ) regiments in the I Corps light cavalry division . Disorganized and milling about the bottom of the valley between Hougoumont and La Belle Alliance , the Scots Greys and the rest of the British heavy cavalry were taken by surprise by the countercharge of Milhaud 's cuirassiers , joined by lancers from Baron Jaquinot 's 1st Cavalry Division .
As Ponsonby tried to rally his men against the French cuirassers , he was attacked by Jaquinot 's lancers and captured . A nearby party of Scots Greys saw the capture and attempted to rescue their brigade commander . However , the French lancer who had captured Ponsonby killed him and then used his lance to kill three of the Scots Greys who had attempted the rescue . By the time Ponsonby died , the momentum had entirely returned in favour of the French . Milhaud 's and Jaquinot 's cavalrymen drove the Union Brigade from the valley . The result was very heavy losses for the British cavalry . A countercharge , by British light dragoons under Major @-@ General Vandeleur and Dutch – Belgian light dragoons and hussars under Major @-@ General Ghigny on the left wing , and Dutch – Belgian carabiniers under Major @-@ General Trip in the centre , repelled the French cavalry .
All figures quoted for the losses of the cavalry brigades as a result of this charge are estimates , as casualties were only noted down after the day of the battle and were for the battle as a whole . Some historians , Barbero for example , believe the official rolls tend to overestimate the number of cavalrymen present in their squadrons on the field of battle and that the proportionate losses were , as a result , considerably higher than the numbers on paper might suggest . The Union Brigade lost heavily in both officers and men killed ( including its commander , William Ponsonby , and Colonel Hamilton of the Scots Greys ) and wounded . The 2nd Life Guards and the King 's Dragoon Guards of the Household Brigade also lost heavily ( with Colonel Fuller , commander of the King 's DG , killed ) . However , the 1st Life Guards , on the extreme right of the charge , and the Blues , who formed a reserve , had kept their cohesion and consequently suffered significantly fewer casualties . On the rolls the official , or paper strength , for both Brigades is given as 2 @,@ 651 while Barbero and others estimate the actual strength at around 2 @,@ 000 and the official recorded losses for the two heavy cavalry brigades during the battle was 1 @,@ 205 troopers and 1 @,@ 303 horses .
Some historians , such as Chandler and Weller , assert that the British heavy cavalry were destroyed as a viable force following their first , epic charge . Barbero states that the Scots Grey were practically wiped out and that the other two regiments of the Union Brigade suffered comparable losses . Other historians , such as Clark @-@ Kennedy and Wood , citing British eyewitness accounts , describe the continuing role of the heavy cavalry after their charge . The heavy brigades , far from being ineffective , continued to provide valuable services . They countercharged French cavalry numerous times ( both brigades ) , halted a combined cavalry and infantry attack ( Household Brigade only ) , were used to bolster the morale of those units in their vicinity at times of crisis , and filled gaps in the Anglo @-@ allied line caused by high casualties in infantry formations ( both brigades ) . This service was rendered at a very high cost , as close combat with French cavalry , carbine fire , infantry musketry and — more deadly than all of these — artillery fire steadily eroded the number of effectives in the two brigades . At 6 o 'clock in the afternoon the whole Union Brigade could field only 3 squadrons , though these countercharged French cavalry , losing half their number in the process . At the end of the fighting the two brigades , by this time combined , could muster one squadron .
14 @,@ 000 French troops of D 'Erlon 's I Corps had been committed to this attack . The I Corps had been driven in rout back across the valley costing Napoleon 3 @,@ 000 casualties including over 2 @,@ 000 prisoners taken . Also some valuable time was lost , the charge had dispersed numerous units and it would take until 16 : 00 hours for D 'Erlon 's shaken corps to reform . And although elements of the Prussians now began to appear on the field to his right , Napoleon had already ordered Lobau 's VI corps to move to the right flank to hold them back before D 'Erlon 's attack began .
= = = The French cavalry attack = = =
A little before 16 : 00 , Ney noted an apparent exodus from Wellington 's centre . He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat , and sought to exploit it . Following the defeat of d 'Erlon 's Corps , Ney had few infantry reserves left , as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right . Ney therefore tried to break Wellington 's centre with cavalry alone . Initially Milhaud 's reserve cavalry corps of cuirassiers and Lefebvre @-@ Desnoëttes ' light cavalry division of the Imperial Guard , some 4 @,@ 800 sabres , were committed . When these were repulsed , Kellermann 's heavy cavalry corps and Guyot 's heavy cavalry of the Guard were added to the massed assault , a total of around 9 @,@ 000 cavalry in 67 squadrons . When Napoleon saw the charge he said it was an hour too soon .
Wellington 's infantry responded by forming squares ( hollow box @-@ formations four ranks deep ) . Squares were much smaller than usually depicted in paintings of the battle – a 500 @-@ man battalion square would have been no more than 60 feet ( 18 m ) in length on a side . Vulnerable to artillery or infantry , squares that stood their ground were deadly to cavalry , because they could not be outflanked and because horses would not charge into a hedge of bayonets . Wellington ordered his artillery crews to take shelter within the squares as the cavalry approached , and to return to their guns and resume fire as they retreated .
Witnesses in the British infantry recorded as many as 12 assaults , though this probably includes successive waves of the same general attack ; the number of general assaults was undoubtedly far fewer . Kellermann , recognising the futility of the attacks , tried to reserve the elite carabinier brigade from joining in , but eventually Ney spotted them and insisted on their involvement .
A British eyewitness of the first French cavalry attack , an officer in the Foot Guards , recorded his impressions very lucidly and somewhat poetically :
About four p.m. , the enemy 's artillery in front of us ceased firing all of a sudden , and we saw large masses of cavalry advance : not a man present who survived could have forgotten in after life the awful grandeur of that charge . You discovered at a distance what appeared to be an overwhelming , long moving line , which , ever advancing , glittered like a stormy wave of the sea when it catches the sunlight . On they came until they got near enough , whilst the very earth seemed to vibrate beneath the thundering tramp of the mounted host . One might suppose that nothing could have resisted the shock of this terrible moving mass . They were the famous cuirassiers , almost all old soldiers , who had distinguished themselves on most of the battlefields of Europe . In an almost incredibly short period they were within twenty yards of us , shouting " Vive l 'Empereur ! " The word of command , " Prepare to receive cavalry " , had been given , every man in the front ranks knelt , and a wall bristling with steel , held together by steady hands , presented itself to the infuriated cuirassiers .
In essence this type of massed cavalry attack relied almost entirely on psychological shock for effect . Close artillery support could disrupt infantry squares and allow cavalry to penetrate ; at Waterloo , however , co @-@ operation between the French cavalry and artillery was not impressive . The French artillery did not get close enough to the Anglo @-@ allied infantry in sufficient numbers to be decisive . Artillery fire between charges did produce mounting casualties , but most of this fire was at relatively long range and was often indirect , at targets beyond the ridge . If infantry being attacked held firm in their square defensive formations , and were not panicked , cavalry on their own could do very little damage to them . The French cavalry attacks were repeatedly repelled by the steadfast infantry squares , the harrying fire of British artillery as the French cavalry recoiled down the slopes to regroup , and the decisive countercharges of Wellington 's light cavalry regiments , the Dutch heavy cavalry brigade , and the remaining effectives of the Household Cavalry . At least one artillery officer disobeyed Wellington 's order to seek shelter in the adjacent squares during the charges . Captain Mercer , who commanded ' G ' Troop , Royal Horse Artillery , thought the Brunswick troops on either side of him so shaky that he kept his battery of six nine @-@ pounders in action against the cavalry throughout , to great effect :
I thus allowed them to advance unmolested until the head of the column might have been about fifty or sixty yards from us , and then gave the word , " Fire ! " The effect was terrible . Nearly the whole leading rank fell at once ; and the round shot , penetrating the column carried confusion throughout its extent ... the discharge of every gun was followed by a fall of men and horses like that of grass before the mower 's scythe .
For reasons that remain unclear , no attempt was made to spike other allied guns while they were in French possession . In line with Wellington 's orders , gunners were able to return to their pieces and fire into the French cavalry as they withdrew after each attack . After numerous costly but fruitless attacks on the Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Jean ridge , the French cavalry was spent . Their casualties cannot easily be estimated . Senior French cavalry officers , in particular the generals , experienced heavy losses . Four divisional commanders were wounded , nine brigadiers wounded , and one killed – testament to their courage and their habit of leading from the front . Illustratively , Houssaye reports that the Grenadiers à Cheval numbered 796 of all ranks on 15 June , but just 462 on 19 June , while the Empress Dragoons lost 416 of 816 over the same period . Overall Guyot 's Guard heavy cavalry division lost 47 % of its strength .
= = = Second French infantry attack = = =
Eventually it became obvious , even to Ney , that cavalry alone were achieving little . Belatedly , he organised a combined @-@ arms attack , using Bachelu 's division and Tissot 's regiment of Foy 's division from Reille 's II Corps ( about 6 @,@ 500 infantrymen ) plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight . This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks ( between Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte ) . It was halted by a charge of the Household Brigade cavalry led by Uxbridge . The British cavalry were unable , however , to break the French infantry , and fell back with losses from musketry fire .
Uxbridge recorded that he tried to lead the Dutch Carabiniers , under Major @-@ General Trip , to renew the attack and that they refused to follow him . Other members of the British cavalry staff also commented on this occurrence . However , there is no support for this incident in Dutch or Belgian sources . Meanwhile , Bachelu 's and Tissot 's men and their cavalry supports were being hard hit by fire from artillery and from Adam 's infantry brigade , and they eventually fell back . Although the French cavalry caused few direct casualties to Wellington 's centre , artillery fire onto his infantry squares caused many . Wellington 's cavalry , except for Sir John Vandeleur 's and Sir Hussey Vivian 's brigades on the far left , had all been committed to | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
still @-@ growing snake , may shed up to four times a year . The discarded skin gives a perfect imprint of the scale pattern and it is usually possible to identify the snake if this discard is reasonably complete and intact .
= = Arrangement of scales = =
Scale arrangements are important , not only for taxonomic utility , but also for forensic reasons and conservation of snake species . Excepting for the head , snakes have imbricate scales , overlapping like the tiles on a roof . Snakes have rows of scales along the whole or part of their length and also many other specialised scales , either singly or in pairs , occurring on the head and other regions of the body .
The dorsal ( or body ) scales on the snake 's body are arranged in rows along the length of their bodies . Adjacent rows are diagonally offset from each other . Most snakes have an odd number of rows across the body though certain species have an even number of rows e.g. Zaocys spp . In the case of some aquatic and marine snakes , the scales are granular and the rows cannot be counted .
The number of rows range from ten in Tiger Ratsnake Spilotes pullatus ; thirteen in Dryocalamus , Liopeltis , Calamaria and Asian coral snakes of genus Calliophis ; 65 to 75 in pythons ; 74 to 93 in Kolpophis and 130 to 150 in Acrochordus . The majority of the largest family of snakes , the Colubridae have 15 , 17 or 19 rows of scales . The maximum number of rows are in mid @-@ body and they reduce in count towards the head and on the tail .
= = Nomenclature of scales = =
The various scales on a snake 's head and body are indicated in the following paragraphs with annotated photographs of Buff @-@ striped Keelback Amphiesma stolata , a common grass @-@ snake of South Asia and a member of Colubridae , the largest snake family .
= = = Head scales = = =
Identification of cephalic scales is most conveniently begun with reference to the nostril , which is easily identified on a snake . There are two scales enclosing the nostril which are called the nasals . In colubrids , the nostril lies between the nasals , while in vipers it lies in the centre of a single nasal scale . The outer nasal ( near the snout ) is called the prenasal while the inner nasal ( near the eye ) is called the postnasal . Along the top of the snout connecting the nasals on both sides of the head are scales called internasals . Between the two prenasals is a scale at the tip of the snout called the rostral scale .
The scales around the eye are called circumorbital scales and are named as ocular scales but with appropriate prefixes . The ocular scale proper is a transparent scale covering the eye which is called the spectacle , brille or eyecap . The circumorbital scales towards the snout or the front are called preocular scales , those towards the rear are called postocular scales , and those towards the upper or dorsal side are called supraocular scales . Circumorbital scales towards the ventral or lower side , if any , are called subocular scales . Between the preocular and the postnasal scales are one or two scales called loreal scales . Loreal scales are absent in elapids .
The scales along the lips of the snake are called labials . Those on the upper lip are called supralabials or upper labials , while those on the lower lip are called infralabials or lower labials . On top of the head , between the eyes , adjacent to the supraoculars is the frontal scale . The prefrontal scales are the scales connected to the frontal towards the tip of the snout which are in contact with the internasals . They may have a scale in between them . The back of the top of the head has scales connected to the frontal scale called the parietal scales . At the sides of the back of the head between the parietals above and the supralabials below are scales called temporal scales .
On the underside of the head , a snake has an anterior scale called the mental scale . Connected to the mental scale and all along the lower lips are the infralabials or lower labials . Along the chin connected to the infralabials is a pair of shields called the anterior chin shields . Next to the anterior chin shields , further back along the chin is another pair of shields called the posterior chin shields . In some texts the chinshields are referred to as submaxillary scales .
Scales in the central or throat region , which are in contact with the first ventral scales of a snake 's body and are flanked by the chin shields , are called gular scales . The mental groove is a longitudinal groove on the underside of the head between the large , paired chin shields and continuing between the smaller gular scales .
= = = Body scales = = =
The scales on the body of the snake are called the dorsal or costal scales . Sometimes there is a special row of large scales along the top of the back of the snake , i.e. , the uppermost row , called the vertebral scales . The enlarged scales on the belly of the snake are called ventral scales or gastrosteges . The number of ventral scales can be a guide to the species . In " advanced " ( Caenophidian ) snakes , the broad belly scales and rows of dorsal scales correspond to the vertebrae , allowing scientists to count the vertebrae without dissection .
= = = Tail scales = = =
At the end of the ventral scales of the snake is an anal plate which protects the opening to the cloaca ( a shared opening for waste and reproductive material to pass ) on the underside near the tail . This anal scale may be single or divided into a pair . The part of the body beyond the anal scale is considered to be the tail .
Sometimes snakes have enlarged scales , either single or paired , under the tail ; these are called subcaudals or urosteges . These subcaudals may be smooth or keeled as in Bitis arietans somalica . The end of the tail may simply taper into a tip ( as in the case of most snakes ) , it may form a spine ( as in Acanthophis ) , end in a bony spur ( as in Lachesis ) , a rattle ( as in Crotalus ) , or a rudder as seen in many sea snakes .
Sources . Details for this section have been sourced from scale diagrams in Malcolm Smith . Details of scales of Buff @-@ striped Keelback have been taken from Daniels .
= = Glossary of scales = =
Scales on the head .
Rostral .
Nasorostral .
Nasal .
Prenasal .
Postnasal .
Supranasal .
Fronto @-@ nasal .
Internasal .
Brille , spectacle , ocular scale , eyecap .
Circumorbital .
Preocular .
Postocular .
Supraocular .
Subocular .
Loreal .
Interorbital , Intersupraocular .
Frontal .
Prefrontal .
Parietal .
Occipital .
Interoccipital .
Temporal .
Labial .
Supralabial , Upper labial .
Sublabial , Infralabial , Lower labial .
Mental or Symphysial .
Chin shield .
Anterior chin shield , Anterior genials .
Posterior chin shield , Posterior genials .
Intergeneial .
Gular .
Scales on the body .
Dorsal .
Vertebral .
Ventral , Gastrostege .
Scales on the tail .
Anal .
Subcaudal , Urostege .
= = = Other pertinent terms = = =
Canthus , or Canthus rostralis , the angle between the supraocular scale and the rostral scale .
Mental groove .
= = Taxonomic importance = =
Scales do not play an important role in distinguishing between the families but are important at generic and specific level . There is an elaborate scheme of nomenclature of scales . Scales patterns , by way of scale surface or texture , pattern and colouration and the division of the anal plate , in combination with other morphological characteristics , are the principal means of classifying snakes down to species level .
In certain areas in North America , where the diversity of snakes is not too large , easy keys based on simple identification of scales have been devised for the lay public to distinguish venomous snakes from non @-@ venomous snakes . In other places with large biodiversity , such as Myanmar , publications caution that venomous and non @-@ venomous snakes cannot be easily distinguished apart without careful examination .
The scales patterning may also be used for individual identification in field studies . Clipping of specific scales , such as the subcaudals , to mark individual snakes is a popular approach to population estimation by mark and recapture techniques .
= = = Distinguishing between venomous and non @-@ venomous snakes = = =
There is no simple way of differentiating a venomous snake from a non @-@ venomous one merely by using a scale character . Finding out whether a snake is venomous or not is correctly done by identification of the species of a snake with the help of experts , or in their absence , close examination of the snake and using authoritative references on the snakes of the particular geographical region to identify it . Scale patterns help to indicate the species and from the references , it can be verified if the snake species is known to be venomous or not .
Species identification using scales requires a fair degree of knowledge about snakes , their taxonomy , snake @-@ scale nomenclature as well as familiarity with and access to scientific literature . Distinguishing by using scale diagrams whether a snake is venomous or not in the field cannot be done in the case of uncaught specimens . It is not advisable to catch a snake to check whether it is venomous or not using scale diagrams . Most books or websites provide an array of traits of the local herpetofauna , other than scale diagrams , which help to distinguish whether a snake in the field is venomous or not .
In certain regions , presence or absence of certain scales may be a quick way to distinguish non @-@ venomous and venomous snakes , but used with care and knowledge of exceptions . For example , in Myanmar , the presence or absence of loreal scales can be used to distinguish between relatively harmless Colubrids and lethally venomous Elapids . The rule of hand for this region is that the absence of a loreal scale between the nasal scale and pre @-@ ocular scale indicates that the snake is an Elapid and hence lethal . This rule @-@ of @-@ thumb cannot be used without care as it cannot be applied to vipers , which have a large number of small scales on the head . A careful check would also be needed to exclude known poisonous members of the Colubrid family such as Rhabdophis .
In South Asia , it is advisable to take the snake which has bitten a person , if it has been killed , and carry it along to the hospital for possible identification by medical staff using scale diagrams so that an informed decision can be taken them as to whether and which anti @-@ venom is to be administered . However , attempts to catch it or kill the venomous snake are not advised as the snake may bite more people .
= = Cultural significance = =
Snakes have been a motif in human culture and religion and an object of dread and fascination all over the world . The vivid patterns of snake scales , such as the Gaboon Viper , both repel and fascinate the human mind . Such patterns have inspired dread and awe in humans from pre @-@ historic times and these can be seen in the art prevalent to those times . Studies of fear imagery and psychological arousal indicate that snake scales are a vital component of snake imagery . Snake scales also appear to have affected Islamic art in the form of tessallated mosaic patterns which show great similarity to snake @-@ scale patterns .
Snakeskin , with its highly periodic cross @-@ hatch or grid patterns , appeals to people 's aesthetics and have been used to manufacture many leather articles including fashionable accessories . The use of snakeskin has however endangered snake populations and resulted in international restrictions in trade of certain snake species and populations in the form of CITES provisions . Animal lovers in many countries now propagate the use of artificial snakeskin instead , which are easily produced from embossed leather , patterned fabric , plastics and other materials .
Snake scales occur as a motif regularly in computer action games . A snake scale was portrayed as a clue in the 1982 film Blade Runner . Snake scales also figure in popular fiction , such as the Harry Potter series ( desiccated Boomslang skin is used as a raw material for concocting the Polyjuice potion ) , and also in teen fiction .
= Issy Smith =
Issy Smith VC ( c . 18 September 1890 – 11 September 1940 ) was a British @-@ Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to eligible forces of the Commonwealth and United Kingdom . In recognition of his VC , he was also awarded the French Croix de Guerre and Russian Cross of St. George ( 4th class ) by the respective governments .
Born Ishroulch Shmeilowitz ( and other renderings ) , to parents residing in Egypt , Smith travelled to Britain as a child stowaway and first volunteered to serve in the British Army in 1904 . He emigrated to Australia after discharge , where he remained until mobilised as a reservist in 1914 . As a corporal in the 1st Battalion , The Manchester Regiment , Smith was engaged in the Second Battle of Ypres . On 26 April 1915 , Smith , on his own initiative , recovered wounded soldiers while exposed to sustained fire and attended to them " with the greatest devotion to duty regardless of personal risk " . His conduct secured a recommendation for the Victoria Cross , which was awarded to Smith in August 1915 .
After his demobilisation , Smith returned to Australia with his wife and daughter . He became a prominent figure in Melbourne 's Jewish community , was appointed a Justice of the Peace , and unsuccessfully stood as a candidate for the United Australia Party in the 1931 general election .
= = Early life = =
Smith was born in Alexandria , the son of French citizens Moses and Eva Shmeilowitz , who were of Russian origin . His father was employed by the French Consulate @-@ General as a clerk . Aged 11 , Smith embarked as a stowaway aboard a vessel proceeding to London . Undaunted by this unfamiliar environment , Smith attended Berner Street School , Commercial Street , and worked as a deliverer in the East End , then an impoverished ghetto where Yiddish was the predominant spoken language . Persecution and extreme deprivation had compelled millions of Eastern European Jews to migrate to Western Europe , the Americas , and elsewhere . By the time of Issy Smith 's arrival , Jewish immigration to Britain had peaked and was further curtailed by the enactment of the Aliens Act in 1905 .
He joined the British Army in 1904 , becoming a private in the Manchester Regiment . The pseudonym Issy Smith was adopted in the process of enlisting at the behest of a recruiting sergeant . Smith completed his training , serving in South Africa and India with the 1st Battalion . He boxed competitively , winning the British Army 's middleweight championship , and played football . While in India , Smith was present at the Delhi Durbar parade , in which the 1st Manchesters participated , and was thus awarded the Delhi Durbar Medal .
Accepting his discharge in 1912 , Smith emigrated to Australia after brief employment in London . He lived in the Melbourne suburb of Ascot Vale while working for the city 's gas company . Retained as a reservist , Smith was mobilised by the British Army after the commencement of hostilities in August 1914 . Some sources state that Smith was present at the capture of German New Guinea by the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force .
= = World War I = =
The 1st Manchester Regiment , stationed in India , sailed from Karachi for France on 29 August 1914 as the constituent British battalion of the Jullundur Brigade , 3rd ( Lahore ) Division . The battalion disembarked at Marseilles in late September , but was not deployed to the front until 26 October 1914 , when it occupied trenches east of Festubert .
Actively engaged in the battles of Givenchy and Neuve Chapelle , the 1st Manchesters had incurred hundreds of casualties by the beginning of " Second Ypres " on 22 April 1915 . Chemical warfare first emerged on the Western Front during the German offensive , and Smith himself would be temporarily incapacitated by gas . The 1st Manchesters were involved in an initially successful counter @-@ attack conducted by the Jullundur and Ferozepore brigades on 26 April 1915 , near Wieltje , in conjunction with other Allied units . Rudimentary forms of protection against the chlorine gas proved ineffectual , limiting the advance and causing many soldiers to succumb to its effects .
During the Allied counter @-@ attack , Smith , of his own volition , ventured towards a German position to attend to a severely wounded soldier . He carried him some 250 yards ( 230 m ) to relative safety while exposed to intense German fire . According to the Victoria Cross citation , he brought in " many more wounded men " throughout the day under similarly perilous conditions " regardless of personal risk " . Recounting his own rescue by Smith to a Daily Mail correspondent , Sergeant Rooke said of the corporal : " He behaved with wonderful coolness and presence of mind the whole time , and no man deserved a Victoria Cross more thoroughly than he did " .
Smith was hospitalised in Dublin , where he recuperated from his gassing . His Victoria Cross was later presented to him at Buckingham Palace by King George V. He was feted by publications such as The Jewish Chronicle , and his status as a recipient of the VC was utilised by the British government for the purposes of stimulating further recruitment . His visits to Jewish communities in the United Kingdom generated much interest , attracting dignitaries and large crowds in the process . On one such occasion , in September 1915 , he was invited back to his old school in the East End to receive a gold watch and chain in honour of his Victoria Cross from his former schoolmates . Also that month , Smith was received at Mansion House , Dublin , by the Under @-@ Secretary for Ireland , Matthew Nathan , who took advantage of the occasion to reaffirm loyalty to both Britain and Ireland . Contemporaries , however , continued to report instances of discrimination against Jewish servicemen , including an incident involving Issy Smith in Leeds . While documenting his recruitment drive , The Jewish Chronicle reported that the proprietor of the Grand Restaurant had refused to serve Smith during his tour of Yorkshire because he was Jewish , while indicating the staff were prepared to accept his non @-@ Jewish acquaintance . Smith 's tour continued without disruption , taking him to Edinburgh , Scotland .
Meanwhile , on the Western Front , the demoralised and depleted Indian Corps fought its final European battle at Loos . With the exception of two cavalry divisions , the Indian Corps in Europe redeployed to the Middle East theatre , sailing from Marseilles on 10 December 1915 and arriving in Basra on 8 January 1916 to be integrated into the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force . Smith returned to active duty as a sergeant , serving in Mesopotamia and Palestine until the cessation of hostilities with the Ottoman Empire and Germany on 30 October and 11 November respectively . He had been wounded five times .
Demobilised after the war , Smith returned to London . As a war hero , he was intermittently invited to social functions . In June 1920 , he attended a garden party at Buckingham Palace , given by the king for all surviving Victoria Cross recipients . They included veterans of the Indian Mutiny , Rorke 's Drift , Relief of General Gordon , the First and Second Boer Wars , countless campaigns on the borders of the empire , and dozens from the Great War . In October 1921 , with Harry Kenny VC , he unveiled the Hackney War Memorial . In 1922 , he attended " The Pilgrimage to Ypres " , in Belgium , laying a wreath at the Cloth Hall there .
= = Legacy = =
Despite his fame and popularity , like many former servicemen contending with post @-@ war economic hardship , Smith struggled financially – a predicament compounded by illness . As a consequence he pawned his medals for £ 20 , only for them to be recovered by the Jewish Historical Society on the urging of the wife of Chief Rabbi Joseph H. Hertz and ultimately reunited with Smith . Smith 's varied occupations in post @-@ war Britain included work as an actor with a theatre troupe . He emigrated to Australia in 1925 with his wife Elsie ( née McKechnie ) , whom he had married at Camberwell Register Office . Marriage to Elsie produced two children ( Olive and Maurice ) and reputedly angered his parents despite the couple 's later observance of Jewish religious tradition in a formal ceremony held at Central Synagogue , Hallam Street .
The family settled in Moonee Ponds , Melbourne , where Smith 's standing in the Jewish community became high . He was appointed manager of British International Pictures in Melbourne , in 1928 , worked for Dunlop Rubber Company , and was finally employed by the Civil Aviation Board at Essendon Airport . Appointed a Justice of the Peace in 1930 , Smith tried politics as a candidate in the 1931 federal election for the United Australia Party contesting the seat of Melbourne in the House of Representatives , and " seriously challenged the hitherto unassailable Dr Maloney " .
Smith died of coronary thrombosis in September 1940 . He was buried in the Jewish section of Fawkner Cemetery with full military honours . His Victoria Cross was sold by his family in 1990 and later auctioned as part of a collection of Smith 's medals , selling for approximately £ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 60 @,@ 000 ) .
Following representations from the Association of Jewish Ex @-@ Servicemen and Women , in September 2013 Communities Secretary Eric Pickles announced that the plan to memorialise British @-@ born First World War Victoria Cross medal holders by laying commemorative paving stones in their home towns would be extended to include Smith , who was born in Egypt .
= Mike Kafka =
Michael John " Mike " Kafka ( born July 25 , 1987 ) is a former American football quarterback and current offensive graduate assistant for the Northwestern Wildcats football team . He was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the fourth round of the 2010 National Football League ( NFL ) draft . He played college football at Northwestern .
Kafka attended St. Rita of Cascia High School in Chicago , Illinois , where he played both football and baseball . Kafka led St. Rita Cascia to three conference championships . He ended his high school football career with 1 @,@ 816 total yards and 16 touchdowns . After his senior season , he moved on to Northwestern University .
In 2007 , Kafka was the backup to C. J. Bachér and played in only two games . Despite being the backup quarterback again in 2008 , Kafka threw for 330 yards and finished second on the team in rushing yards with 321 . Following Bachér 's graduation after the 2008 season , Kafka became the starter for 2009 . Against Syracuse he set the school record for most consecutive pass completions with 16 . In the same game , he became the first Big Ten Conference player to score a passing , receiving , and rushing touchdown since Zack Mills from Penn State in 2004 . He was named Big Ten Co @-@ Offensive Player of the Week for his performance . Kafka received second @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten honors in 2009 . In the 2010 Outback Bowl against Auburn , Kafka set the all @-@ time bowl record with 47 completions and 78 passing attempts . He set Northwestern and Outback Bowl records with 532 passing yards and an Outback Bowl record with five interceptions . During his career at Northwestern , Kafka threw for 4 @,@ 265 yards with a completion percentage of 64 @.@ 1 % , 19 touchdowns and 20 interceptions . He rushed for 891 yards and 11 touchdowns on 268 carries , and caught a pass for 24 yards and a touchdown .
Kafka spent two seasons as a member of the Eagles . In 2010 he was the third @-@ string quarterback behind Michael Vick and Kevin Kolb but did not see playing time . He was mainly the third @-@ string quarterback again in 2011 behind Vick and Vince Young , but saw some playing time in two games early in the season , both of which resulted in losses . He was expected to be the backup quarterback behind Vick in 2012 but a broken hand caused him to miss time in the preseason and was ultimately released in favor of rookie Nick Foles and veteran Trent Edwards . Kafka spent time on offseason rosters with the New England Patriots and Jacksonville Jaguars in 2013 , before he was signed by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2014 . He spent the majority of the 2014 season on the Buccaneers ' practice squad , but was not re @-@ signed following the conclusion of the season . He participated in the first NFL veteran combine in 2015 and was subsequently signed by the Vikings . After playing in the preseason , the team released him . He spent one week with the Tennessee Titans ' practice squad in December 2015 , before signing with the Cincinnati Bengals ' practice squad one week later . He was not re @-@ signed following the season .
= = Early years = =
Kafka was born on July 25 , 1987 , in Chicago , Illinois , to Michael and Sandra Kafka . He attended St. Rita of Cascia High School in Chicago where he played football ( coached by Todd Kuska ) and baseball . He was the team captain for both teams . In football , he led the Mustangs to three conference championships and had a career record of 35 – 8 . As a senior in 2004 , Kafka completed 75 of 129 passes . In the season @-@ opener against Homewood @-@ Flossmoor High School , Kafka went up against H @-@ F 's quarterback Freddie Barnes and won the game , 52 – 28 . Against Mt . Carmel High School , he ran for 164 yards and passed for 126 yards . Kafka passed for 1 @,@ 004 yards and 10 touchdowns in 2004 . He ran for 806 yards with a 5 @.@ 6 yards per carry average , and five touchdowns on 144 carries . His career stats at St. Rita were 1 @,@ 816 total offensive yards and 16 touchdowns .
Kafka made the school 's Silver Honor Roll all four years of high school and was an Academic All @-@ State . He was an All @-@ area selection by Tom Lemming 's Prep Football Report and was an honorable mention all @-@ state selection . SuperPrep named him All @-@ Midwest Region and Rivals.com placed him on the Top 25 dual @-@ threat quarterbacks list . SuperPrep ranked him 25th among players from Illinois at all positions and 50th nationally among quarterbacks . He was ranked 20th in Illinois by Rivals.com and 25th nationally among dual @-@ threat quarterbacks . Kafka was named Team Offensive MVP and Catholic Metro Blue Offensive MVP . He was an honorable mention all @-@ area honoree by Chicago Sun @-@ Times and Daily Southtown .
Kafka committed to Northwestern University on December 10 , 2004 . He also received offers from Florida Atlantic University , the University of Pittsburgh and Stanford University .
= = College career = =
= = = 2005 season = = =
During the 2005 season , his first year , Kafka redshirted in order for him to learn the Northwestern Wildcats ' offensive system .
= = = 2006 season = = =
In his Northwestern career debut on September 1 versus Miami University , Kafka threw for 106 yards and one touchdown on 13 completions out of 17 attempts . His first touchdown was a 19 @-@ yard pass to running back Tyrell Sutton . He led all players with 89 yards rushing on 17 rushing attempts . His passer rating for that game was 148 @.@ 26 as Northwestern went on to win 21 – 3 . The following week against New Hampshire on September 9 , Kafka went 19 – 32 and threw for 173 yards along with one interception and a fumble . He rushed for 42 yards . The Wildcats ended up losing the game , 34 – 17 . Kafka played the first half of the game against Eastern Michigan in the third week of the season and rushed for 33 yards with a 6 @.@ 6 yards per run average , along with his first career rushing touchdown , a 6 @-@ yard run . He passed for 76 yards and completed 10 out of 18 passes with an interception .
Days before Northwestern faced Nevada in the fourth game of the season , head coach Pat Fitzgerald confirmed that Kafka would remain the starter despite his poor prior performances . In the game , Kafka ran for a career @-@ high 111 yards , which included a 13 @-@ yard touchdown rush , and averaged 9 @.@ 2 yards per run . He passed for 122 yards , completing 9 out of 21 passes and three interceptions . His 111 yards rushing were the most by a Northwestern quarterback since Zak Kustok ran for 111 yards in a November 21 , 2001 , game versus Bowling Green . Kafka suffered a hamstring injury during the game , which kept him out of the next three games of the season . One of the games he missed was the biggest comeback in NCAA Division 1 @-@ A history , an eventual 41 – 38 loss to Michigan State on October 21 . Kafka made his first appearance since the injury against Ohio State on November 11 , in which he passed for 17 yards and completed four out of eight passes .
= = = 2007 season = = =
In 2007 , Kafka was a backup and only played in two games , where he passed for 11 yards on two completions and rushed for eight yards .
= = = 2008 season = = =
Kafka entered the 2008 season as a backup quarterback behind C. J. Bachér . Against Syracuse , Kafka entered the game in the fourth quarter and rushed twice for 18 yards . Against Southern Illinois , he threw two passes , completing one for one yard , in addition to rushing for three yards . He played in the final series at Indiana and completed a pass , which went for nine yards .
Starting in place of the injured Bachér for the game against Minnesota , Kafka ran for 217 yards on 27 attempts , which included a 53 @-@ yard run , and passed for 143 yards and two touchdowns on 12 completions out of 16 throws . His 217 rushing yards set a school and Big Ten Conference record for quarterback rushing yards in a game . The Big Ten record was later beaten in 2010 by Michigan quarterback Denard Robinson on September 11 , 2010 . Kafka began the game by completing his first eight throws , which included a 36 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jeremy Ebert . He was named the team 's offensive player of the week after that game , along with being named the Big Ten Co @-@ Offensive Player of the Week . Kafka earned an ESPN College Gameday Helmet Sticker and was named an AT & T All @-@ America Player of the Week candidate .
The next week , Kafka started in his second straight game against Ohio State , and passed for 177 yards while completing 18 out of 27 throws . He ran for 83 yards and a touchdown on 29 attempts . He ran for 300 yards in his two starts against Ohio State , which is the most by a Northwestern quarterback in successive contests . He was named the team 's offensive big playmaker for the game .
Against Michigan , he entered the game in Northwestern 's second series on offense and rushed for 20 yards on three carries before he was forced to leave the game after suffering a concussion . He ran for one yard on three carries against Illinois .
Kafka passed for 330 yards during the season along with two touchdowns on 32 completions and 46 total attempts . He finished second on the team in rushing with 321 yards .
= = = 2009 season = = =
Kafka entered his senior season as Northwestern 's starting quarterback after C. J. Bachér graduated . He was named to the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award watch list , along with 19 other players nationally , with two others in the Big Ten Conference . Texas quarterback Colt McCoy eventually won the award . In the offseason , Kafka was tutored by offensive coordinator Mick McCall and former Northwestern quarterback Brett Basanez . Kafka was named co @-@ captain for the 2009 season .
At home against Towson on September 5 to start the 2009 season , Kafka threw 15 completions of 20 attempts for 192 yards , setting a career @-@ high for passing yards in a game . He ran for six yards on six carries in a blowout 47 – 14 win . Against Eastern Michigan at home on September 12 , he threw for 158 yards and one interception on 14 completions out of 24 attempts . He ran for 21 yards on five runs in the close 27 – 24 win over the Eagles .
During the Syracuse game , Kafka set a school record for consecutive completions in a game with 16 , breaking the 47 @-@ year @-@ old record set by Tom Myers in 1962 . He set a new career @-@ high in passing yards in a game by passing for 390 yards , breaking his previous career @-@ high in the season opener . Kafka also ran for a three @-@ yard touchdown and threw three touchdown passes along with an interception . He caught a receiving touchdown when he tossed a lateral to Andrew Brewer who threw it back to Kafka for a 24 @-@ yard touchdown . Kafka became the first Big Ten Conference player to score at least one passing , receiving and rushing touchdown in a game since Zack Mills from Penn State accomplished it on September 4 , 2004 against Akron . Kafka finished the game with 35 completions on 42 attempts . However , despite his record @-@ breaking performance , the Wildcats lost 37 – 34 . He was named Big Ten Co @-@ Offensive Player of the Week on September 20 for his performance .
Kafka passed for 309 yards , two touchdowns and an interception against Minnesota . He took four sacks and during a desperation drive to win the game , fumbled the football , which helped end the game and give the Golden Gophers the win . In the Purdue game , Kafka went 28 @-@ of @-@ 44 and threw for 224 yards . He rushed for a season @-@ high 39 yards on 18 carries and ran for the game @-@ winning two @-@ yard touchdown . After leading after the touchdown 25 – 21 , Kafka threw a successful two @-@ point conversion pass to Drake Dunsmore to increase the lead by six to win the game after Purdue failed to score on the final drive of the game .
Kafka went 15 completions of 31 attempts for 191 yards and one interception to lead Northwestern to a 16 – 6 win over Miami ( OH ) in the sixth game of the season . He was the leading rusher for Northwestern , rushing for 53 yards on 15 carries and two touchdowns . In the 24 – 14 loss at Michigan State on October 17 , Kafka went 34 @-@ for @-@ 47 and threw for 291 yards and two touchdowns . He was the leading rusher for the second straight week for Northwestern , rushing for 42 yards on 18 carries .
In a come @-@ from @-@ behind win against Indiana , the Wildcats trailed 28 – 3 during the second quarter before Kafka ran for a one @-@ yard touchdown and later passed for two touchdowns to lead Northwestern to a 29 – 28 win . The Wildcats overcame a 25 @-@ point deficit , which was the biggest comeback in school history . He went 26 @-@ of @-@ 46 and passed for 312 yards , along with two touchdowns and a career @-@ tying three interceptions . He rushed for 65 yards on 17 carries and one touchdown . Kafka totaled 377 yards of total offense , which was second @-@ best in his career . Against 12th ranked Penn State , Kafka went 14 @-@ for @-@ 18 and passed for 128 yards , along with rushing for 42 yards on eight carries and a touchdown before leaving the game with a leg injury during the second quarter . He was replaced by backup Dan Persa .
Kafka shared time at quarterback with Persa due to his strained hamstring on November 7 against the 4th @-@ ranked , and previously undefeated , Iowa Hawkeyes . Northwestern coming into the game was a 16 @-@ point underdog , but still beat Iowa 17 – 10 in Northwestern 's first win over a nationally ranked top @-@ ten team since they won against Ohio State in 2004 . Persa had to leave the game early to receive X @-@ rays for a hand injury , which forced Kafka to play more than original planned . He finished as Northwestern ’ s leading passer with 72 yards on ten completions .
Against Illinois on November 14 , Kafka threw for 305 yards and went 23 @-@ of @-@ 37 , along with a 28 @-@ yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Zeke Markshausen . He rushed seven times for 12 yards and a one @-@ yard touchdown to beat the Fighting Illini 21 – 16 . Kafka threw for 300 or more yards for the fourth time that season . Against 16th @-@ ranked Wisconsin on November 21 , Kafka went 26 @-@ of @-@ 40 for 326 yards and two touchdowns , both to converted wide receiver Andrew Brewer . He rushed for 17 yards on seven carries to upset the Badgers with a 33 – 31 win . Kafka threw for 300 or more yards for the fifth time in the season and for the second straight game . He was named Big Ten Co @-@ Offensive Player of the Week for his performance against Wisconsin .
Kafka ranked third in the Big Ten Conference in passing yards with 241 @.@ 5 passing yards per game and he ranked second in total offense . He finished the season tied for first in the Big Ten in rushing touchdowns by a quarterback with seven . His 65 @.@ 7 completion percentage for 2009 ranked first in the Big Ten . His 414 pass attempts ranked third in the Big Ten and eighth among all quarterbacks nationally .
Kafka was named second @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten following the 2009 season . He was named first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten by Rivals.com. He finished fourth in the Chicago Tribune 's Silver Football voting , given out to the Big Ten 's Most Valuable Player , behind Brandon Graham , Daryll Clark and John Clay . Hall of Fame quarterback Bob Griese said Kafka " has the three qualities I look for . One , he 's a good decision @-@ maker , he knows when to throw the ball away . Two , he 's accurate . Three , he makes plays . This is where Kafka really jumps out . If he has a playmaker downfield , he gets the ball to him . " Kafka graduated from Northwestern in December .
In the 2010 Outback Bowl against Auburn on January 1 , Kafka set the all @-@ time bowl record with 47 completions and 78 passing attempts . He set Northwestern and Outback Bowl records with 532 passing yards , a career @-@ high . He set an Outback Bowl record with five interceptions . He tied the Outback Bowl record with four touchdown passes . His 98 plays and 566 total yards were also Outback Bowl records . He threw four touchdown passes in the 38 – 35 loss that went to overtime , with two going to Andrew Brewer ( 39 and 35 yards ) , one to Drake Dunsmore for 66 yards , and one to Sidney Stewart for 18 yards . He finished second in rushing for Northwestern with 20 carries for 34 yards and a two @-@ yard touchdown . He was named to ESPN.com 's All @-@ Big Ten Bowl team as an honorable mention .
Kafka was named Northwestern 's Most Valuable Player on offense following the season . Kafka led the Big Ten in passing yards with 3 @,@ 430 yards , total offense with 286 @.@ 8 yards per game , completions with 24 @.@ 5 per game , and fewest interceptions with 2 @.@ 44 of all passes being intercepted . He was seventh nationally in completions , 16th in passing yards and 12th in total offensive yards . His 3 @,@ 430 passing yards are third @-@ most in school history . His 3 @,@ 729 total offensive yards are second @-@ most in school history .
In the 2010 East – West Shrine Game on January 23 , Kafka started at quarterback for the East squad and , despite a slow start , led the East squad to a comeback victory . On the final drive of the game , Kafka threw a two @-@ yard touchdown pass to Penn State tight end Andrew Quarless to win the game for the East squad , 13 – 10 . After the game , Kafka was named Offensive MVP after he went 18 @-@ of @-@ 27 , passed for 150 yards and threw the winning touchdown pass .
= = = Statistics = = =
His win / loss ratio for his career as the starting quarterback for Northwestern was 11 – 8 . He finished his career as the third all @-@ time leading quarterback rusher at Northwestern with 887 yards rushing , and as the eighth all @-@ time leading passer with 4 @,@ 265 yards passing .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
Prior to the 2010 NFL Draft , Kafka was projected to be drafted in the sixth round by NFLDraftScout.com and as high as the fourth round . He was rated as the eleventh @-@ best quarterback in the draft . Northwestern head coach Pat Fitzgerald said at the time that 85 NFL scouts , general managers and personnel directors who watched film or came to see a game or a practice said about Kafka was that he " throws a lot better than our No. 3 [ quarterback ] does right now . " Fitzgerald also said that he would be " shocked " if Kafka was not drafted in the 2010 NFL Draft . After the Outback Bowl loss to Auburn on January 1 , in which Kafka threw 78 passes for 532 yards , Fitzgerald said , " I hope the NFL sees the same thing that I see , a man with a big @-@ time arm . " An NFL general manager said at the 2010 Senior Bowl that Kafka could be drafted as high as the third round .
Kafka was invited to the 2010 NFL Scouting Combine in Indianapolis , which started on February 24 , along with teammates Corey Wootton and Sherrick McManis . Kafka chose Mike McCartney of Priority Sports of Chicago as his agent , who also represents Wootton . Priority hired former Chicago Bears quarterback Erik Kramer and a trainer in Phoenix , Arizona to help Kafka prepare for the NFL Scouting Combine . To prepare for the Combine , Kafka worked out twice a day in Arizona , and held practice sessions with Notre Dame wide receiver Golden Tate . At the Combine , Kafka said , " I want to be an NFL starter . I 'm not going to the league to be a No. 2 . I think my whole game can go to another level . I 'm ready to take it up another notch . "
Kafka chose not to bench press at the NFL Combine . On February 28 , Kafka answered 35 out of the 50 questions on the Wonderlic test , and was " 99 percent sure " that he answered all 35 correctly . Draft analyst Mike Mayock said that Kafka was " a developmental guy " who should stay on a team 's practice squad for a year . Kafka had some of the best measurements in the vertical jump , broad jump , 60 @-@ yard shuttle , and three @-@ cone drill among all quarterbacks .
At Northwestern 's Pro Day on March 11 , Kafka passed to his former teammates Andrew Brewer and Zeke Markshausen , and , according to Gil Brandt , only missed one pass during the entire workout . 25 NFL teams attended the workout , including the Cincinnati Bengals quarterbacks coach Ken Zampese and the Arizona Cardinals quarterback coach Chris Miller .
Northwestern held its second Pro Day workout on March 29 . He passed to his former teammates Brewer , Markshausen , and Brendan Mitchell during the workout . He was reportedly not as accurate on the second Pro Day as he was on the first , but still " very accurate . " 24 NFL team representatives attended the Pro Day .
Kafka worked out for the Cincinnati Bengals , Cleveland Browns , New England Patriots and Oakland Raiders prior to the draft . Mike Mayock called Kafka the " sleeper " of the quarterback class , projecting him to be drafted in the sixth round . Mayock also said , " He 's a really smart kid . Has a better arm than people think . I don 't even think he 's sleeping anymore . He was a month @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half ago , but he 's on the rise . He 's a kid who could surprise people at the end of the day . " Former NFL quarterback Ron Jaworski concurred , saying that Kafka " knows how to play the quarterback position . There 's a real feel for hitting the open receiver , good anticipation . I can see him being one of those sleeper type guys . " A scout before the draft said that Kafka " throws a lot of picks , but at least he 's willing to pull the trigger . You don 't see that from a lot of young kids . "
= = = Philadelphia Eagles = = =
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Kafka was selected by the Philadelphia Eagles in the fourth round ( 122nd overall ) in the 2010 NFL Draft . He was the fifth quarterback taken in the draft , behind Sam Bradford ( 1st overall ) , Tim Tebow ( 25th overall ) , Jimmy Clausen ( 48th overall ) and Colt McCoy ( 85th overall ) . Kafka was expected to be the team 's third @-@ string quarterback behind Kevin Kolb and Michael Vick . Eagles head coach Andy Reid said of Kafka , " I think once you meet him , I think you 'll see he 's a smart guy . He has some of the intangible things – the leadership , he 's a tough kid . Inner city , Chicago kid . He 's got a little grit to him . I think that 's important . You have to be wired right to handle you guys and play in the city of Philadelphia . I think he 's wired right . He likes to compete . " Kafka was signed to a four @-@ year contract worth $ 2 @.@ 256 million with $ 467 @,@ 000 guaranteed on June 15 , 2010 .
In the final practice of rookie and selected veterans training camp on July 29 , Kafka took all the snaps at quarterback after Kolb and Vick got practice off . After practice , offensive coordinator Marty Mornhinweg said Kafka was " the best rookie that I 've ever had in 15 , 16 , 17 years or something like that . So , he 's really sharp . Now , he 's sharp book @-@ wise , but he 's also very intelligent in a football sense . He 's really picked [ the playbook ] up very quickly . "
In the first preseason game on August 14 against the Jacksonville Jaguars , Kafka went 3 @-@ for @-@ 7 for 76 yards and threw a 57 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Chad Hall after taking over for Vick late in the third quarter . Kafka began the second preseason game on August 20 against the Cincinnati Bengals in the fourth quarter . He went 4 @-@ for @-@ 12 for 29 yards and two interceptions ( both to cornerback Morgan Trent ) with a passer rating of 2 @.@ 4 . He also had one carry for 24 yards . On August 27 against the Kansas City Chiefs , Kafka came into the game in the fourth quarter and went 9 @-@ for @-@ 13 for 93 yards and one touchdown . He led the Eagles on the winning drive with an 18 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Riley Cooper with 23 seconds left in the game to win , 20 – 17 . In the final preseason game on September 2 , Kafka replaced Vick during the second quarter and played for almost three quarters . He went 9 @-@ for @-@ 27 for 76 yards and an interception against the New York Jets .
During the 2010 regular season and playoffs , Kafka was inactive as the team 's third quarterback for all but five games . In week two Kafka was the backup to Vick against the Detroit Lions after Kolb suffered a concussion in week one against the Green Bay Packers . In week five against the San Francisco 49ers , week six against the Atlanta Falcons and week seven against the Tennessee Titans , Kafka was the backup to Kolb after Vick , who took over as the starting quarterback for the remainder of the season , suffered a rib injury in week four against the Washington Redskins . In the week seventeen game against the Dallas Cowboys , Kafka was the backup quarterback to Kolb in a decision to rest Vick and the team 's starters before the playoffs .
Kafka said of his rookie year that he " learned a lot about football . I learned a lot about being a professional , especially being around [ Vick ] and [ Kolb ] . Those guys have been great mentors , and obviously the coaching staff that I have has been really great as far as developing me to learn the west coast system . "
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Following the 2010 season , Kafka said that his goal for the 2011 offseason was to " continue to learn the offense . I haven 't mastered it by any means , the more study and preparation I can get the better . Physically , I can work on my feet , my arm strength , and my timing and rhythm . There 's a bunch of things I can work on , and I 'm really excited to get to it . " Eagles general manager Howie Roseman said Kafka is the hardest working player in the NFL , but needs to get bigger and stronger . The Eagles reportedly received trade offers from other teams for Kafka prior to the 2011 NFL Draft but declined due to his potential . Kafka , in response , laughed and did not believe the rumors .
Because of the NFL lockout , Kafka and his teammates organized informal workouts in Marlton , New Jersey . After one of the workout sessions , Vick said Kafka was " ready for " the backup role and would embrace it should Kolb leave after the lifting of the lockout . Kolb was traded to the Arizona Cardinals on July 28 following the lifting of the NFL lockout , and Kafka was temporarily elevated to the backup behind Vick before the Eagles signed former Tennessee Titan Vince Young on July 29 . Kafka took second @-@ team reps at the start of training camp , but on the first official depth chart that was released on August 9 , Kafka was listed as the third @-@ stringer behind Young .
Against the Baltimore Ravens in the preseason opener on August 11 , Kafka replaced Young at quarterback during the second quarter and played into the fourth quarter . He went 13 @-@ of @-@ 19 for 132 yards with one interception thrown to Ravens safety Bernard Pollard in the game . In the second week of the preseason on August 18 against the Pittsburgh Steelers , Kafka entered the game in the fourth quarter and led the Eagles to two scoring drives in a 24 – 14 loss . With less than four minutes remaining in the game , he threw a 14 @-@ yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Gerald Jones , and with only 19 seconds left on the following drive , threw a second touchdown pass to Jones for seven yards . He finished the game going 14 @-@ for @-@ 19 for 160 yards along with the two scores . Kafka played in garbage time in the next preseason game against the Cleveland Browns , handing the ball off twice and kneeling down twice . Against the New York Jets in the preseason finale , he filled in for the injured Young , who started the game , to start the third quarter . Kafka had the wind knocked out of him on a sack , but was able to play the rest of the game despite a rib contusion . He finished the game 7 @-@ for @-@ 11 for 76 yards and one interception . He went 34 @-@ for @-@ 49 for 369 yards , two touchdowns , and two interceptions in the preseason overall .
Young suffered a hamstring injury in the final preseason game , and was subsequently inactive for the team 's first two games . Kafka was active as the backup to Vick in both games , but was forced to play in the second game when Vick suffered a concussion in the second half . Kafka went 7 @-@ of @-@ 9 passing for 72 yards in relief during the 35 – 31 loss to the Atlanta Falcons . Vick broke his hand during a week 3 game against the New York Giants on September 25 , so Kafka again replaced him . Kafka threw for 35 yards and two interceptions as he went 4 @-@ for @-@ 7 passing . Both Kafka and Young were active as Vick 's backups in week 4 , with neither seeing playing time . Kafka was declared inactive for week 5 , but returned as active for weeks 6 and 8 . He was inactive again for weeks 9 and 10 , before he was activated for the rest of the season 's games . Young started at quarterback in weeks 11 , 12 , and 13 in place of an injured Vick , elevating Kafka to backup . Kafka saw playing action in two of the final games of the season with no pass attempts .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
With Young not returning to the Eagles with his contract expiring after the 2011 season , Kafka was expected to be the backup quarterback behind Vick for the 2012 season . Trent Edwards was signed to a one @-@ year contract on February 23 , 2012 , and the team drafted Nick Foles in the third round of the 2012 NFL draft to compete with Kafka for spots on the roster . Kafka was considered the favorite to win the backup job during training camp . According to Adam Caplan from thesidelineview.com , Kafka showed during OTAs that " his arm strength has noticeably improved " since his previous two seasons . In the first preseason game on August 9 against the Pittsburgh Steelers , Kafka suffered a fracture in his non @-@ throwing hand after passing for 31 yards and an interception . Foles was named the backup quarterback over Kafka and Edwards on August 29 , and Kafka was released in favor of Edwards during final roster cuts on August 31 , having sat out the remaining three preseason games for the Eagles .
= = = New England Patriots = = =
The Kansas City Chiefs and Green Bay Packers reportedly had interest in signing Kafka immediately after his release from the Eagles . The New England Patriots worked Kafka out on September 4 , and the Pittsburgh Steelers worked him out on November 20 . The Patriots signed him to a reserve / future contract on January 4 , 2013 , after he sat out the entire 2012 regular season . Kafka was expected to compete with Ryan Mallett for the backup job behind Tom Brady , but he was released on June 10 in favor of newly signed Tim Tebow .
= = = Jacksonville Jaguars = = =
The Jacksonville Jaguars claimed Kafka off waivers on June 11 , 2013 , one day after his release by the Patriots . The Dallas Cowboys had also put in a claim for him . The general manager for the Jaguars , Dave Caldwell , said on June 13 that Kafka had as good of a chance at being named the starting quarterback as Blaine Gabbert , Chad Henne , or Matt Scott had . Kafka was the third quarterback to play in the first preseason game for the Jaguars on August 9 against the Miami Dolphins after Henne and Gabbert . He went 4 @-@ of @-@ 8 for 19 yards and an interception in the game . In the second week of the preseason , he went 1 @-@ for @-@ 3 for − 4 yards . He did not play in the team 's third preseason game , but passed for 46 yards and a touchdown in the fourth game . The Jaguars signed Ricky Stanzi on August 27 for additional competition for the team 's third quarterback job . Kafka and Scott were both released in favor of Stanzi during final roster cuts on August 30 , 2013 .
= = = Tampa Bay Buccaneers = = =
After his release from the Jaguars , the Chicago Bears worked out Kafka on October 25 , 2013 , the Tampa Bay Buccaneers worked him out on November 5 , the Atlanta Falcons worked him out on November 19 , and the Dallas Cowboys worked him out on February 6 , 2014 . He signed with the Buccaneers on February 10 . During training camp , Kafka competed against Alex Tanney for the third @-@ string quarterback spot behind Josh McCown and Mike Glennon . Kafka went 2 @-@ of @-@ 7 for 14 yards in the first preseason game , 4 @-@ of @-@ 11 for 55 yards and a touchdown in the second preseason game , and 7 @-@ of @-@ 14 for 86 yards and a touchdown in the fourth preseason game . He was released during final roster cuts with Tanney on August 30 , 2014 , but was subsequently re @-@ signed to the team 's practice squad on August 31 . After spending the first three weeks of the season on the practice squad , Kafka was promoted to the active roster on September 25 due to an injury suffered by starter McCown . He was active but did not play in the first three weeks he was on the active roster . He was declared inactive in week 8 with McCown healthy again , and he was waived on October 28 . He was re @-@ signed to the practice squad on October 30 . At the conclusion of the 2014 NFL season , Kafka 's practice squad contract expired and he was not re @-@ signed by the team .
= = = Minnesota Vikings = = =
Kafka was invited to work out at the first NFL veteran combine on March 22 , 2015 . The veteran combine was created as a way for unemployed players to potentially work their way back into the league by going through drills in front of NFL scouts and coaches . Daniel Jeremiah of NFL Network said that he has " never seen [ Kafka ] throw it as well as he did on the field " and that he expected Kafka to sign with a team following his workout . The Minnesota Vikings signed Kafka to a one @-@ year contract worth $ 660 @,@ 000 on April 1 , 2015 . He was expected to compete with rookie undrafted signee Taylor Heinicke for the third quarterback job behind starter Teddy Bridgewater and backup Shaun Hill .
In the 2015 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game , in which the Vikings played the Pittsburgh Steelers , Kafka replaced Bridgewater as a member of the team 's backup offense in the middle of the second quarter . Kafka threw a 34 @-@ yard touchdown pass to rookie tight end MyCole Pruitt , before he was substituted for Heinicke in the third quarter . Kafka did not play in the team 's second preseason game , against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , and he was the fourth quarterback to play in the third game against the Oakland Raiders . He played one drive in the fourth preseason game , throwing an incomplete pass against the Dallas Cowboys , before suffering a hamstring strain . The Vikings waived / injured him on September 1 , and he was placed on season @-@ ending injured reserve on September 2 after he cleared waivers . He was waived off of the injured reserve list on September 15 .
= = = Tennessee Titans = = =
The Tennessee Titans gave Kafka a workout after week 14 , and he signed with their practice squad on December 16 , as the third quarterback on the roster behind Marcus Mariota and Zach Mettenberger . After Mariota suffered a knee injury in a week 15 game against the Patriots , the team re @-@ signed Alex Tanney to the active roster to serve as the backup quarterback to Mettenberger in week 16 . The Titans released Kafka from the practice squad and signed Bryn Renner in his place on December 22 , 2015 .
= = = Cincinnati Bengals = = =
The Cincinnati Bengals ' starting quarterback , Andy Dalton , suffered a thumb injury in week 14 , and the team 's backup , A. J. McCarron injured his wrist in week 16 , leaving the team with one fully healthy quarterback on the roster , third @-@ stringer Keith Wenning . The team signed Kafka to their practice squad on December 29 , 2015 , one week after his release from the Titans . After the Bengals were defeated in the first round of the 2015 – 16 NFL playoffs , his practice squad contract with the team expired and he was not re @-@ signed . His acceptance of a college coaching position after the season effectively ended his playing career .
= = Coaching career = =
The Northwestern Wildcats football team hired Kafka as an offensive graduate assistant , with a focus on wide receivers , on March 29 , 2016 .
= = Personal = =
Kafka majored in communication studies at Northwestern University . Mike 's brother , Jason , is a pitcher for the independent Windy City ThunderBolts and attended St. Rita of Cascia High School . Both Kafkas were recruited by Ken Margerum , who is now an assistant at San Jose State . Mike Kafka is married to his wife , Allison .
Kafka worked as an instructor at former Northwestern teammate Brett Basanez 's prep quarterback development camps in Woodbury , Minnesota and Minnetonka , Minnesota , in mid @-@ 2011 . Kafka worked at a Pop Warner Football passing camp , Three5Seven , with former Northwestern teammate Chris Malleo in July 2011 . On November 13 , 2014 , Kafka started a Kickstarter campaign for his product , the Roo Inferno , a type of hand warmer for both athletes and outdoor enthusiasts . The campaign successfully gained $ 15 @,@ 974 from 124 backers on December 18 , 2014 . With help from the NFL and the University of Miami , Kafka began an executive Master of Business Administration program catered towards NFL players in 2015 .
Kakfa trained at EVO Ultrafit in Phoenix , AZ throughout his career .
= Hurricane Beth =
Hurricane Beth was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone which traveled from Florida to Nova Scotia in the middle of August 1971 . The second named storm of the 1971 Atlantic hurricane season , Beth 's genesis was impeded by a cold environment surrounding the storm . However , as it continued on its northeastward course , it achieved fully tropical characteristics and peaked as a modest Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The cyclone struck Nova Scotia on August 16 before dissipating shortly after . Beth produced substantial precipitation , and the resultant flooding inflicted severe damage to infrastructure and crops .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 9 , a low pressure system in the upper levels of the atmosphere formed off the east coast of Florida . It became a surface low by the next day and acquired the characteristics of a tropical cyclone ; it is officially stated to have become a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on August 10 . The depression slowly advanced northeastward within a relatively cold environment , and as such , it did not intensify for several days . The system turned more toward the east as it approached the coast of North Carolina , at which time its structure became conducive to further development . On August 14 , the depression was declared a tropical storm and assigned the name Beth following recent data from a reconnaissance aircraft .
Several hundred miles off the U.S. East Coast , Beth accelerated somewhat – reaching forward speeds of up to 19 mph ( 31 km / h ) as it resumed a northeastward course . Its minimum central pressure deepened to 990 millibars ( 29 inHg ) , and correspondingly , maximum sustained winds increased . In response , the cyclone was recognized as a Category 1 hurricane . It continued to mature as it passed east of Cape Cod , achieving peak winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) and a pressure of 977 mb ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Subsequently , the hurricane weakened slightly while nearing Nova Scotia . On August 16 , it made landfall near Copper Lake before crossing Cape Breton Island . Shortly thereafter , Beth was swept up by a nearby cold front and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In advance of Hurricane Beth , hurricane warnings were issued for coastal and marine areas of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland . In Halifax , bus service was disrupted by the storm , and in Antigonish , business owners closed their stores and filled sandbags to prepare .
The hurricane left extensive damage in its wake , especially to crops and infrastructure . Halifax International Airport reported 10 @.@ 49 in ( 266 mm ) of rainfall over 30 hours . The heavy precipitation throughout the country triggered severe flooding , stranding hundreds of travelers . The mayor of Dartmouth reported that the area was a " disaster " , as 500 homes were reportedly inundated . Antigonish also experienced significant flooding ; waters there approached the top of parking meters . Impacted crops in the region included cereal grain , corn , and tobacco , whose inundated fields resembled vast lakes .
Transport suffered severely : several main roads , including part of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway and Nova Scotia Highway 102 , in northeastern Nova Scotia received flood damage and were temporarily blocked off . Additionally , the rising waters washed out several bridges in the region and swept away automobiles . Railways were covered by water , forcing trains to suspend their operation . Drinking water in Dartmouth was contaminated due to excessive runoff into Lake Antigonish , and a trailer park in Antigonish flooded , prompting 600 residents to evacuate . Overall monetary damage from Beth is estimated at between $ 3 @.@ 5 million and $ 5 @.@ 1 million USD . One person was indirectly killed by the hurricane in a traffic accident induced by heavy rain .
= Margaret Murray =
Margaret Alice Murray ( 13 July 1863 – 13 November 1963 ) was an Anglo @-@ Indian Egyptologist , archaeologist , anthropologist , historian , and folklorist . The first woman to be appointed as a lecturer in archaeology in the United Kingdom , she worked at University College London ( UCL ) from 1898 to 1935 . She served as President of the Folklore Society from 1953 to 1955 , and published widely over the course of her career .
Born to a wealthy middle @-@ class English family in Calcutta , British India , Murray divided her youth between India , Britain , and Germany , training as both a nurse and a social worker . Moving to London , in 1894 she began studying Egyptology at UCL , developing a friendship with department head Flinders Petrie , who encouraged her early academic publications and appointed her Junior Professor in 1898 . In 1902 – 03 she took part in Petrie 's excavations at Abydos , Egypt , there discovering the Osireion temple and the following season investigated the Saqqara cemetery , both of which established her reputation in Egyptology . Supplementing her UCL wage by giving public classes and lectures at the British Museum and Manchester Museum , it was at the latter in 1908 that she led the unwrapping of Khnum @-@ nakht , one of the mummies recovered from the Tomb of the Two Brothers – the first time that a woman had publicly unwrapped a mummy . Recognising that British Egyptomania reflected the existence of a widespread public interest in Ancient Egypt , Murray wrote several books on Egyptology targeted at a general audience .
Murray also became closely involved in the first @-@ wave feminist movement , joining the Women 's Social and Political Union and devoting much time to improving women 's status at UCL . Unable to return to Egypt due to the First World War , she focused her research on the witch @-@ cult hypothesis , the theory that the witch trials of Early Modern Christendom were an attempt to extinguish a surviving pre @-@ Christian , pagan religion devoted to a Horned God . Although later academically discredited , the theory gained widespread attention and proved a significant influence on the emerging new religious movement of Wicca . From 1921 to 1931 Murray undertook excavations of prehistoric sites on Malta and Minorca and developed her interest in folkloristics . Awarded an honorary doctorate in 1927 , she was appointed assistant professor in 1928 and retired from UCL in 1935 . That year she visited Palestine to aid Petrie 's excavation of Tall al @-@ Ajjul and in 1937 she led a small excavation at Petra in Jordan . Taking on the presidency of the Folklore Society in later life , she lectured at such institutions as the University of Cambridge and City Literary Institute , and continued to publish in an independent capacity until her death .
Murray 's work in Egyptology and archaeology was widely acclaimed and earned her the moniker of " The Grand Old Woman of Egyptology " , although after her death many of her contributions to the field were overshadowed by those of Petrie . Conversely , Murray 's work in folkloristics and the history of witchcraft has been academically discredited and her methods in these areas heavily criticised . The influence of her witch @-@ cult theory in both religion and literature has been examined by various scholars , and she herself has been dubbed the " Grandmother of Wicca " .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth : 1863 – 93 = = =
Margaret Murray was born on 13 July 1863 in Calcutta , Bengal Presidency , then a major military city in British India . A member of the wealthy British imperial elite , she lived in the city with her family : parents James and Margaret Murray , an older sister named Mary , and her paternal grandmother and great @-@ grandmother . James Murray , born in India of English descent , was a businessman and manager of the Serampore paper mills who was thrice elected President of the Calcutta Chamber of Commerce . His wife , Margaret ( née Carr ) , had moved to India from Britain in 1857 to work as a missionary , preaching Christianity and educating Indian women . She continued with this work after marrying James and giving birth to her two daughters . Although most of their lives were spent in the European area of Calcutta , which was walled off from the indigenous sectors of the city , Murray encountered members of indigenous society through her family 's employment of 10 Indian servants and through childhood holidays to Mussoorie . The historian Amara Thornton has suggested that Murray 's Indian childhood continued to exert an influence over her throughout her life , expressing the view that Murray could be seen as having a hybrid transnational identity that was both British and Indian . During her childhood , Murray never received a formal education , and in later life expressed pride in the fact that she had never had to sit an exam before entering university .
In 1870 , Margaret and her sister Mary were sent to Britain , there moving in with their uncle John , a vicar , and his wife Harriet at their home in Lambourn , Berkshire . Although John provided them with a strongly Christian education and a belief in the inferiority of women , both of which she would reject , he awakened Murray 's interest in archaeology through taking her to see local monuments . In 1873 , the girls ' mother arrived in Europe and took them with her to Bonn in Germany , where they both became fluent in German . In 1875 they returned to Calcutta , staying there till 1877 . They then moved with their parents back to England , where they settled in Sydenham , South London . There , they spent much time visiting The Crystal Palace , while their father worked at his firm 's London office . In 1880 , they returned to Calcutta , where Margaret remained for the next seven years . She became a nurse at the Calcutta General Hospital , which was run by the Sisters of the Anglican Sisterhood of Clower , and there was involved with the hospital 's attempts to deal with a cholera outbreak . In 1887 , she returned to England , moving to Rugby , Warwickshire , where her uncle John had moved , now widowed . Here she took up employment as a social worker dealing with local underprivileged people . When her father retired and moved to England , she moved into his house in Bushey Heath , Hertfordshire , living with him until his death in 1891 . In 1893 she then travelled to Madras , Tamil Nadu , where her sister had moved to with her new husband .
= = = Early years at University College London : 1894 – 1905 = = =
Encouraged by her mother and sister , Murray decided to enroll at the newly opened department of Egyptology at University College London ( UCL ) in Bloomsbury , Central London . Having been founded by an endowment from Amelia Blanford Edwards , one of the co @-@ founders of the Egypt Exploration Fund ( EEF ) , the department was run by the pioneering early archaeologist Sir William Flinders Petrie , and based in the Edwards Library of UCL 's South Cloisters . Murray began her studies at UCL at age 30 in January 1894 , as part of a class composed largely of other women and older men . There , she took courses in the Ancient Egyptian and Coptic languages which were taught by Francis Llewellyn Griffith and Walter Ewing Crum respectively .
Murray soon got to know Petrie , becoming his copyist and illustrator and producing the drawings for the published report on his excavations at Qift , Koptos . In turn , he aided and encouraged her to write her first research paper , " The Descent of Property in the Early Periods of Egyptian History " , which was published in the Proceedings of the Society for Biblical Archaeology in 1895 . Becoming Petrie 's de facto though unofficial assistant , Murray began to give some of the linguistic lessons in Griffith 's absence . In 1898 she was appointed to the position of Junior Lecturer , responsible for teaching the linguistic courses at the Egyptology department ; this made her the first female lecturer in archaeology in the United Kingdom . In this capacity , she spent two days a week at UCL , devoting the other days to caring for her ailing mother . As time went on , she came to teach courses on Ancient Egyptian history , religion , and language . Among Murray 's students — to whom she referred as " the Gang " — were several who went on to produce noted contributions to Egyptology , including Reginald Engelbach , Georgina Aitken , Guy Brunton , and Myrtle Broome . She supplemented her UCL salary by teaching evening classes in Egyptology at the British Museum .
At this point , Murray had no experience in field archaeology , and so during the 1902 – 03 field season , she travelled to Egypt to join Petrie 's excavations at Abydos . Petrie and his wife , Hilda Petrie , had been excavating at the site since 1899 , having taken over the archaeological investigation from French Coptic scholar Émile Amélineau . Murray at first joined as site nurse , but was subsequently taught how to excavate by Petrie and given a senior position . This led to some issues with some of the male excavators , who disliked the idea of taking orders from a woman . This experience , coupled with discussions with other female excavators ( some of whom were active in the feminist movement ) led Murray to adopt openly feminist viewpoints . While excavating at Abydos , Murray uncovered the Osireion , a temple devoted to the god Osiris which had been constructed by order of Pharaoh Seti I during the period of the New Kingdom . She published her site report as The Osireion at Abydos in 1904 ; in the report , she examined the inscriptions that had been discovered at the site to discern the purpose and use of the building .
During the 1903 – 04 field season , Murray returned to Egypt , and at Petrie 's instruction began her investigations at the Saqqara cemetery near to Cairo , which dated from the period of the Old Kingdom . Murray did not have legal permission to excavate the site , and instead spent her time transcribing the inscriptions from ten of the tombs that had been excavated during the 1860s by Auguste Mariette . She published her findings in 1905 as Saqqara Mastabas I , although would not publish translations of the inscriptions until 1937 as Saqqara Mastabas II . Both The Osireion at Abydos and Saqqara Mastabas I proved to be very influential in the Egyptological community , with Petrie recognising Murray 's contribution to his own career .
= = = Feminism , the First World War , and folklore : 1905 – 20 = = =
On returning to London , Murray took an active role in the feminist movement , volunteering and financially donating to the cause and taking part in feminist demonstrations , protests , and marches . Joining the Women 's Social and Political Union , she was present at large marches like the Mud March of 1907 and the Women 's Coronation Procession of June 1911 . She concealed the militancy of her actions in order to retain the image of respectability within academia . Murray also pushed the professional boundaries for women throughout her own career , and mentored other women in archaeology and throughout academia . As women could not use the men 's common room , she successfully campaigned for UCL to open a common room for women , and later ensured that a larger , better @-@ equipped room was converted for the purpose ; it was later renamed the Margaret Murray Room . At UCL , she became a friend of fellow female lecturer Winifred Smith , and together they campaigned to improve the status and recognition of women in the university , with Murray becoming particularly annoyed at female staff who were afraid of upsetting or offending the male university establishment with their demands . Feeling that students should get nutritious yet affordable lunches , for many years she sat on the UCL Refectory Committee .
Various museums around the United Kingdom invited Murray to advise them on their Egyptological collections , resulting in her cataloguing the Egyptian artefacts owned by the Dublin National Museum , the National Museum of Antiquities in Edinburgh , and the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland , being elected a Fellow of the latter in thanks . Petrie had established connections with the Egyptological wing of Manchester Museum in Manchester , and it was there that many of his finds had been housed . Murray thus often travelled to the museum to catalogue these artefacts , and during the 1906 – 07 school year regularly lectured there . In 1907 , Petrie excavated the Tomb of the Two Brothers , a Middle Kingdom burial of two Egyptian priests , Nakht @-@ ankh and Khnum @-@ nakht , and it was decided that Murray would carry out the public unwrapping of the latter 's mummified body . Taking place at the museum in May 1908 , it represented the first time that a woman had led a public mummy unwrapping and was attended by over 500 onlookers , attracting press attention . Murray was particularly keen to emphasise the importance that the unwrapping would have for the scholarly understanding of the Middle Kingdom and its burial practices , and lashed out against members of the public who saw it as immoral ; she declared that " every vestige of ancient remains must be carefully studied and recorded without sentimentality and without fear of the outcry of the ignorant " . She subsequently published a book about her analysis of the two bodies , The Tomb of the Two Brothers , which remained a key publication on Middle Kingdom mummification practices into the 21st century .
Murray was dedicated to public education , hoping to infuse Egyptomania with solid scholarship about Ancient Egypt , and to this end authored a series of books aimed at a general audience . In 1905 she published Elementary Egyptian Grammar which was followed in 1911 by Elementary Coptic ( Sahidic ) Grammar . In 1913 , she published Ancient Egyptian Legends for John Murray 's " The Wisdom of the East " series . She was particularly pleased with the increased public interest in Egyptology that followed Howard Carter 's discovery of the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun in 1922 . From at least 1911 until his death in 1940 , Murray was a close friend of the anthropologist Charles Gabriel Seligman of the London School of Economics , and together they co @-@ authored a variety of papers on Egyptology that were aimed at an anthropological audience . Many of these dealt with subjects that Egyptological journals would not publish , such as the " Sa " sign for the uterus , and thus were published in Man , the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute . It was at Seligman 's recommendation that she was invited to become a member of the Institute in 1916 .
In 1914 , Petrie launched the academic journal Ancient Egypt , published through his own British School of Archaeology in Egypt ( BSAE ) , which was based at UCL . Given that he was often away from London excavating in Egypt , Murray was left to operate as de facto editor much of the time . She also published many research articles in the journal and authored many of its book reviews , particularly of the German @-@ language publications which Petrie could not read .
The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , in which the United Kingdom went to war against Germany and the Ottoman Empire , meant that Petrie and other staff members were unable to return to Egypt for excavation . Instead , Petrie and Murray spent much of the time reorganising the artefact collections that they had attained over the past decades . To aid Britain 's war effort , Murray enrolled as a volunteer nurse in the Volunteer Air Detachment of the College Women 's Union Society , and for several weeks was posted to Saint @-@ Malo in France . After being taken ill herself , she was sent to recuperate in Glastonbury , Somerset , where she became interested in Glastonbury Abbey and the folklore surrounding it which connected it to the legendary figure of King Arthur and to the idea that the Holy Grail had been brought there by Joseph of Aramathea . Pursuing this interest , she published the paper " Egyptian Elements in the Grail Romance " in the journal Ancient Egypt , although few agreed with her conclusions and it was criticised for making unsubstantiated leaps with the evidence by the likes of Jessie Weston .
= = Later life = =
= = = The witch @-@ cult , Malta , and Minorca : 1921 – 35 = = =
Murray 's interest in folklore led her to develop an interest in the witch trials of Early Modern Europe . In 1917 , she published a paper in Folklore , the journal of the Folklore Society , in which she first articulated her version of the witch @-@ cult theory , arguing that the witches persecuted in European history were actually followers of " a definite religion with beliefs , ritual , and organization as highly developed as that of any cult in the end " . She followed this up with papers on the subject in the journals Man and the Scottish Historical Review . She articulated these views more fully in her 1921 book The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe , published by Oxford University Press after receiving a positive peer review by Henry Balfour , and which received both criticism and support on publication . Many reviews in academic journals were critical , with historians claiming that she had distorted and misinterpreted the contemporary records that she was using , but the book was nevertheless influential .
As a result of her work in this area , she was invited to provide the entry on " witchcraft " for the fourteenth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica in 1929 . She used the opportunity to propagate her own witch @-@ cult theory , failing to mention the alternate theories proposed by other academics . Her entry would be included in the encyclopedia until 1969 , becoming readily accessible to the public , and it was for this reason that her ideas on the subject had such a significant impact . It received a particularly enthusiastic reception by occultists such as Dion Fortune , Lewis Spence , Ralph Shirley , and J. W. Brodie Innes , perhaps because its claims regarding an ancient secret society chimed with similar claims common among various occult groups . Murray joined the Folklore Society in February 1927 , and was elected to the society 's council a month later , although stood down in 1929 . Murray reiterated her witch @-@ cult theory in her 1933 book , The God of the Witches , which was aimed at a wider , non @-@ academic audience . In this book , she cut out or toned down what she saw as the more unpleasant aspects of the witch @-@ cult , such as animal and child sacrifice , and began describing the religion in more positive terms as " the Old Religion " .
From 1921 to 1927 , Murray led archaeological excavations on Malta , assisted by Edith Guest and Gertrude Caton Thompson . She excavated the Bronze Age megalithic monuments of Santa Sofia , Santa Maria tal @-@ Bakkari , Għar Dalam , and Borġ in @-@ Nadur , all of which were threatened by the construction of a new aerodrome . In this she was funded by the Percy Sladen Memorial Fund . Her resulting three @-@ volume excavation report came to be seen as an important publication within the field of Maltese archaeology . During the excavations , she had taken an interest in the island 's folklore , resulting in the 1932 publication of her book Maltese Folktales , much of which was a translation of earlier stories collected by Father Magri and her friend Liza Galea . In 1932 Murray returned to Malta to aid in the cataloguing of the Bronze Age pottery collection held in Malta Museum , resulting in another publication , Corpus of the Bronze Age Pottery of Malta .
On the basis of her work in Malta , Louis C. G. Clarke , the curator of the Cambridge Museum of Ethnology and Anthropology , invited her to lead excavations on the island of Minorca from 1930 to 1931 . With the aid of Guest , she excavated the megalithic sites of Trapucó and Sa Torrera , resulting in the publication of Cambridge Excavations in Minorca . Murray also continued to publish works on Egyptology for a general audience , such as Egyptian Sculpture ( 1930 ) and Egyptian Temples ( 1931 ) , which received largely positive reviews . In the summer of 1925 she led a team of volunteers to excavate Homestead Moat in Whomerle Wood near to Stevenage , Hertfordshire ; she did not publish an excavation report and did not mention the event in her autobiography , with her motives for carrying out the excavation remaining unclear .
In 1924 , UCL promoted Murray – then aged sixty @-@ two – to the position of assistant professor , and in 1927 she was awarded an honorary doctorate for her career in Egyptology . That year , Murray was tasked with guiding Mary of Teck , the Queen consort , around the Egyptology department during the latter 's visit to UCL . The pressures of teaching had eased by this point , allowing Murray to spend more time travelling internationally ; in 1920 she returned to Egypt and in 1929 visited South Africa , where she attended the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , whose theme was the prehistory of southern Africa . In the early 1930s she travelled to the Soviet Union , where she visited museums in Leningrad , Moscow , Kharkov , and Kiev , and then in late 1935 she undertook a lecture tour of Norway , Sweden , Finland , and Estonia . Although having reached legal retirement age in 1927 , and thus unable to be offered another five @-@ year contract , Murray was reappointed on an annual basis each year until 1935 . At this point , she retired , expressing the opinion that she was glad to leave UCL , for reasons that she did not make clear . In 1933 , Petrie had retired from UCL and moved to Jerusalem in Mandatory Palestine with his wife ; Murray therefore took over as editor of the Ancient Egypt journal , renaming it Ancient Egypt and the East to reflect its increasing research interest in the ancient societies that surrounded and interacted with Egypt . The journal folded in 1935 , perhaps due to Murray 's retirement . Murray then spent some time in Jerusalem , where she aided the Petries in their excavation at Tall al @-@ Ajjul , a Bronze Age mound south of Gaza .
= = = Petra , Cambridge , and London : 1935 – 53 = = =
During Murray 's 1935 trip to Palestine , she had taken the opportunity to visit Petra in neighbouring Jordan . Intrigued by the site , in March and April 1937 she returned in order to carry out a small excavation in several cave dwellings at the site , subsequently writing both an excavation report and a guidebook on Petra . Back in England , from 1934 to 1940 , Murray aided the cataloguing of Egyptian antiquities at Girton College , Cambridge , and also gave lectures in Egyptology at the university until 1942 . During the Second World War , Murray evaded the Blitz of London by moving to Cambridge , where she volunteered for a group ( probably the Army Bureau of Current Affairs or The British Way and Purpose ) who educated military personnel to prepare them for post @-@ war life . Based in the city , she embarked on research into the town 's Early Modern history , examining documents stored in local parish churches , Downing College , and Ely Cathedral ; she never published her findings .
After the war ended she returned to London , settling into a bedsit room in Endsleigh Street , which was close to University College London ( UCL ) and the Institute of Archaeology ( then an independent institution , now part of UCL ) ; she continued her involvement with the former and made use of the latter 's library . On most days she visited the British Museum in order to consult their library , and twice a week she taught adult education classes on Ancient Egyptian history and religion at the City Literary Institute ; upon her retirement from this position she nominated her former pupil , Veronica Seton @-@ Williams , to replace her .
Murray 's interest in popularising Egyptology among the wider public continued ; in 1949 she published Ancient Egyptian Religious Poetry , her second work for John Murray 's " The Wisdom of the East " series . That same year she also published The Splendour That Was Egypt , in which she collated many of her UCL lectures . The book adopted a diffusionist perspective that argued that Egypt influenced Greco @-@ Roman society and thus modern Western society . This was seen as a compromise between Petrie 's belief that other societies influenced the emergence of Egyptian civilisation and Grafton Elliot Smith 's highly unorthodox and heavily criticised hyperdiffusionist view that Egypt was the source of all global civilisation . The book received a mixed reception from the archaeological community .
= = = Final years : 1953 – 63 = = =
In 1953 , Murray was appointed to the presidency of the Folklore Society following the resignation of former president Allan Gomme . The Society had initially approached John Mavrogordato for the post , but he had declined , with Murray accepting the nomination several months later . Murray remained President for two terms , until 1955 . In her 1954 presidential address , " England as a Field for Folklore Research " , she lamented what she saw as the English people 's disinterest in their own folklore in favour of that from other nations . For the autumn 1961 issue of Folklore , the society published a festschrift to Murray to commemorate her 98th birthday . The issue contained contributions from various scholars paying tribute to her – with papers dealing with archaeology , fairies , Near Eastern religious symbols , Greek folk songs – but notably not about witchcraft , potentially because no other folklorists were willing to defend her witch @-@ cult theory .
In May 1957 , Murray had championed the archaeologist Thomas Charles Lethbridge 's controversial claims that he had discovered three pre @-@ Christian chalk hill figures on Wandlebury Hill in the Gog Magog Downs , Cambridgeshire . Privately she expressed concern about the reality of the figures . Lethbridge subsequently authored a book championing her witch @-@ cult theory in which he sought the cult 's origins in pre @-@ Christian culture . In 1960 , she donated her collection of papers – including correspondences with a wide range of individuals across the country – to the Folklore Society Archive , where it is now known as " the Murray Collection " .
Crippled with arthritis , Murray had moved into a home in North Finchley , north London , where she was cared for by a retired couple who were trained nurses ; from here she occasionally took taxis into central London to visit the UCL library . Amid failing health , in 1962 Murray moved into the Queen Victoria Memorial Hospital in Welwyn , Hertfordshire , where she could receive 24 @-@ hour care ; she lived here for the final 18 months of her life . To mark her hundredth birthday , on 13 July 1963 a group of her friends , former students , and doctors gathered for a party at nearby Ayot St. Lawrence . Two days later , her doctor drove her to UCL for a second birthday party , again attended by many of her friends , colleagues , and former students ; it was the last time that she visited the university . In Man , the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute , it was noted that Murray was " the only Fellow of the Institute to [ reach their centenary ] within living memory , if not in its whole history " . That year she published two books ; one was The Genesis of Religion , in which she argued that humanity 's first deities had been goddesses rather than male gods . The second was her autobiography , My First Hundred Years , which received predominantly positive reviews . She died on 13 November 1963 , and her body was cremated .
= = Murray 's witch @-@ cult hypotheses = =
The later folklorists Caroline Oates and Juliette Wood have suggested that Murray was best known for her witch @-@ cult theory , with biographer Margaret S. Drower expressing the view that it was her work on this subject which " perhaps more than any other , made her known to the general public " . It has been claimed that Murray 's was the " first feminist study of the witch trials " , as well as being the first to have actually " empowered the witches " by giving the ( largely female ) accused both free will and a voice distinct from that of their interrogators . The theory was faulty , in part because all of her academic training was in Egyptology , with no background knowledge in European history , but also because she exhibited a " tendency to generalize wildly on the basis of very slender evidence " . Oates and Wood , however , noted that Murray 's interpretations of the evidence fitted within wider perspectives on the past that existed at the time , stating that " Murray was far from isolated in her method of reading ancient ritual origins into later myths " . In particular , her approach was influenced by the work of the anthropologist James Frazer , who had argued for the existence of a pervasive dying @-@ and @-@ resurrecting god myth , and she was also influenced by the interpretative approaches of E. O. James , Karl Pearson , Herbert Fleure , and Harold Peake .
= = = Argument = = =
In The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe , Murray stated that she had restricted her research to Great Britain , although made some recourse to sources from France , Flanders , and New England . She drew a division between what she termed " Operative Witchcraft " , which referred to the performance of charms and spells with any purpose , and " Ritual Witchcraft " , by which she meant " the ancient religion of Western Europe " , a fertility @-@ based faith that she also termed " the Dianic cult " . She claimed that the cult had " very probably " once been devoted to the worship of both a male deity and a " Mother Goddess " but that " at the time when the cult is recorded the worship of the male deity appears to have superseded that of the female " . In her argument , Murray claimed that the figure referred to as the Devil in the trial accounts was the witches ' god , " manifest and incarnate " , to whom the witches ' offered their prayers . She claimed that at the witches ' meetings , the god would be personified , usually by a man or at times by a woman or an animal ; when a human personified this entity , Murray claimed that they were usually dressed plainly , though they appeared in full costume for the witches ' Sabbaths .
Members joined the cult either as children or adults through what Murray called " admission ceremonies " ; Murray asserted that applicants had to agree to join of their own free will , and agree to devote themselves to the service of their deity . She also claimed that in some cases , these individuals had to sign a covenant or were baptised into the faith . At the same time , she claimed that the religion was largely passed down hereditary lines . Murray described the religion as being divided into covens containing thirteen members , led by a coven officer who was often termed the " Devil " in the trial accounts , but who was accountable to a " Grand Master " . According to Murray , the records of the coven were kept in a secret book , with the coven also disciplining its members , to the extent of executing those deemed traitors .
Describing this witch @-@ cult as " a joyous religion " , she claimed that the two primary festivals that it celebrated were on May Eve and November Eve , although that other dates of religious observation were 1 February and 1 August , the winter and summer solstices , and Easter . She asserted that the " General Meeting of all members of the religion " were known as Sabbaths , while the more private ritual meetings were known as Esbats . The Esbats , Murray claimed , were nocturnal rites that began at midnight , and were " primarily for business , whereas the Sabbath was purely religious " . At the former , magical rites were performed both for malevolent and benevolent ends . She also asserted that the Sabbath ceremonies involved the witches paying homage to the deity , renewing their " vows of fidelity and obedience " to him , and providing him with accounts of all the magical actions that they have conducted since the previous Sabbath . Once this business had been concluded , admissions to the cult or marriages were conducted , ceremonies and fertility rites took place , and then the Sabbath ended with feasting and dancing .
Deeming Ritual Witchcraft to be " a fertility cult " , she asserted that many of its rites were designed to ensure fertility and rain @-@ making . She claimed that there were four types of sacrifice performed by the witches : blood @-@ sacrifice , in which the neophyte writes their name in blood , the sacrifice of animals , the sacrifice of a non @-@ Christian child to procure magical powers , and the sacrifice of the witches ' god by fire to ensure fertility . She interpreted accounts of witches ' shapeshifting into various animals as being representative of a rite in which the witches dressed as specific animals which they took to be sacred . She asserted that accounts of familiars were based on the witches ' use of animals , which she divided into " divining familiars " used in divination and " domestic familiars " used in other magic rites .
Murray asserted that a pre @-@ Christian fertility @-@ based religion had survived the Christianization process in Britain , although that it came to be " practised only in certain places and among certain classes of the community " . She believed that folkloric stories of fairies in Britain were based on a surviving race of dwarfs , who continued to live on the island up until the Early Modern period . She asserted that this race followed the same pagan religion as the witches , thus explaining the folkloric connection between the two . In the appendices to the book , she also alleged that Joan of Arc and Gilles de Rais were members of the witch @-@ cult and were executed for it , a claim which has been refuted by historians , especially in the case of Joan of Arc .
The later historian Ronald Hutton commented that The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe " rested upon a small amount of archival research , with extensive use of printed trial records in 19th @-@ century editions , plus early modern pamphlets and works of demonology " . He also noted that the book 's tone was generally " dry and clinical , and every assertion was meticulously footnoted to a source , with lavish quotation " . It was not a bestseller ; in its first thirty years , only 2 @,@ 020 copies were sold . However , it led many people to treat Murray as an authority on the subject ; in 1929 , she was invited to provide the entry on " Witchcraft " for the Encyclopædia Britannica , and used it to present her interpretation of the subject as if it were universally accepted in scholarship . It remained in the encyclopedia until being replaced in 1968 .
Murray followed The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe with The God of the Witches , published by the popular press Sampson Low in 1931 ; although similar in content , unlike her previous volume it was aimed at a mass market audience . The tone of the book also differed strongly from its predecessor , containing " emotionally inflated [ language ] and coloured with religious phraseology " and repeatedly referring to the witch @-@ cult as " the Old Religion " . In this book she also " cut out or toned down " many of the claims made in her previous volume which would have painted the cult in a bad light , such as those which discussed sex and the sacrifice of animals and children .
In this book she began to refer to the witches ' deity as the Horned God , and asserted that it was an entity who had been worshipped in Europe since the Palaeolithic . She further asserted that in the Bronze Age , the worship of the deity could be found throughout Europe , Asia , and parts of Africa , claiming that the depiction of various horned figures from these societies proved that . Among the evidence cited were the horned figures found at Mohenjo @-@ Daro , which are often interpreted as depictions of Pashupati , as well as the deities Osiris and Amon in Egypt and the Minotaur of Minoan Crete . Within continental Europe , she claimed that the Horned God was represented by Pan in Greece , Cernunnos in Gaul , and in various Scandinavian rock carvings . Claiming that this divinity had been declared the Devil by the Christian authorities , she nevertheless asserted that his worship was testified in officially Christian societies right through to the Modern period , citing folkloric practices such as the Dorset Ooser and the Puck Fair as evidence of his veneration .
In 1954 , she published The Divine King in England , in which she greatly extended on the theory , taking in an influence from Frazer 's The Golden Bough , an anthropological book that made the claim that societies all over the world sacrificed their kings to the deities of nature . In her book , she claimed that this practice had continued into medieval England , and that , for instance , the death of William II was really a ritual sacrifice . No academic took the book seriously , and it was ignored by many of her supporters .
= = = Academic reception = = =
= = = = Early support = = = =
Upon initial publication , Murray 's thesis gained a favourable reception from many readers , including some significant scholars , albeit none who were experts in the witch trials . Historians of Early Modern Britain like George Norman Clark and Christopher Hill incorporated her theories into their work , although the latter subsequently distanced himself from the theory . For the 1961 reprint of The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe , the Medieval historian Steven Runciman provided a foreword in which he accepted that some of Murray 's " minor details may be open to criticism " , but in which he was otherwise supportive of her thesis . Her theories were recapitulated by Arno Runeberg in his 1947 book Witches , Demons and Fertility Magic as well as Pennethorne Hughes in his 1952 book Witches . As a result , a commentator writing in 1962 could claim that the Murrayite interpretations of the witch trials " seem to hold , at the time of writing , an almost undisputed sway at the higher intellectual levels " , being widely accepted among " educated people " .
The Canadian historian Elliot Rose suggested that the reason that Murray 's theory gained such support was partly because of her " imposing credentials " as a member of staff at UCL , a position that lent her theory greater legitimacy in the eyes of many readers . He further suggested that the Murrayite view was attractive to many as it confirmed " the general picture of pre @-@ Christian Europe a reader of Frazer or [ Robert ] Graves would be familiar with " . Similarly , Hutton suggested that the cause of the Murrayite theory 's popularity was because it " appealed to so many of the emotional impulses of the age " , including " the notion of the English countryside as a timeless place full of ancient secrets " , the literary popularity of Pan , the widespread belief that the majority of British had remained pagan long after the process of Christianisation , and the idea that folk customs represented pagan survivals . At the same time , Hutton suggested , it seemed more plausible to many than the previously dominant rationalist idea that the witch trials were the result of mass delusion . Related to this , the folklorist Jacqueline Simpson suggested that part of the Murrayite theory 's appeal was that it appeared to give a " sensible , demystifying , liberating approach to a longstanding but sterile argument " between the rationalists who denied that there had been any witches and those , like Montague Summers , who insisted that there had been a real Satanic conspiracy against Christendom in the Early Modern period replete with witches with supernatural powers . " How refreshing " , noted the historian Hilda Ellis Davidson , " and exciting her first book was at that period . A new approach , and such a surprising one . "
= = = = Early criticism = = = =
Murray 's theories never received support from experts in the Early Modern witch trials , and from her early publications onward many of her ideas were challenged by those who highlighted her " factual errors and methodological failings " . Indeed , the majority of scholarly reviews of her work produced during the 1920s and 1930s were largely critical . George L. Burr reviewed both of her initial books on the witch @-@ cult for the American Historical Review . He stated that she was not acquainted with the " careful general histories by modern scholars " and criticised her for assuming that the trial accounts accurately reflected the accused witches ' genuine experiences of witchcraft , regardless of whether those confessions had been obtained through torture and coercion . He also charged her with selectively using the evidence to serve her interpretation , for instance by omitting any supernatural or miraculous events that appear in the trial accounts . W. R. Halliday was highly critical in his review for Folklore , as was E. M. Loeb in his review for American Anthropologist .
Soon after , one of the foremost specialists of the trial records , L 'Estrange Ewen , brought out a series of books which rejected Murray 's interpretation . Rose suggested that Murray 's books on the witch @-@ cult " contain an incredible number of minor errors of fact or of calculation and several inconsistencies of reasoning " . He accepted that her case " could , perhaps , still be proved by somebody else , though I very much doubt it " . Highlighting that there is a gap of about a thousand years between the Christianisation of Britain and the start of the witch trials there , he argues that there is no evidence for the existence of the witch @-@ cult anywhere in the intervening period . He further criticises Murray for treating pre @-@ Christian Britain as a socially and culturally monolithic entity , whereas in reality , it contained a diverse array of societies and religious beliefs . He also challenges Murray 's claim that the majority of Britons in the Middle Ages remained pagan as " a view grounded on ignorance alone " .
Murray did not respond directly to the criticisms of her work , but reacted to her critics in a hostile manner ; in later life she asserted that she eventually ceased reading reviews of her work , and believed that her critics were simply acting out of their own Christian prejudices to non @-@ Christian religion . Simpson noted that despite these critical reviews , within the field of British folkloristics Murray 's theories were permitted " to pass unapproved but unchallenged , either out of politeness or because nobody was really interested enough to research the topic " . As evidence , she noted that no substantial research articles on the subject of witchcraft were published in Folklore between Murray 's in 1917 and Rossell Hope Robbins ' in 1963 . She also highlighted that when regional studies of British folklore were published in this period by folklorists like Theo Brown , Ruth Tongue , or Enid Porter , none adopted the Murrayite framework for interpreting witchcraft beliefs , thus evidencing her claim that Murray 's theories were widely ignored by scholars of folkloristics .
= = = = Academic rejection = = = =
Murray 's work was increasingly criticised following her death in 1963 , with the definitive academic rejection of the Murrayite witch @-@ cult theory occurring during the 1970s . During these decades , a variety of scholars across Europe and North America – such as Alan Macfarlane , Erik Midelfort , William Monter , Robert Muchembled , Gerhard Schormann , Bente Alver and Bengt Ankarloo – published in @-@ depth studies of the archival records from the witch trials , leaving no doubt that those tried for witchcraft were not practitioners of a surviving pre @-@ Christian religion . In 1971 , the English historian Keith Thomas stated that on the basis of this research , there was " very little evidence to suggest that the accused witches were either devil @-@ worshippers or members of a pagan fertility cult " . He stated that Murray 's conclusions were " almost totally groundless " because she ignored the systematic study of the trial accounts provided by Ewen and instead used sources very selectively to argue her point .
In 1975 , the historian Norman Cohn commented that Murray 's " knowledge of European history , even of English history , was superficial and her grasp of historical method was non @-@ existent " , adding that her ideas were " firmly set in an exaggerated and distorted version of the Frazerian mould " . That same year , the historian of religion Mircea Eliade described Murray 's work as " hopelessly inadequate " , containing " numberless and appalling errors " . In 1996 , the feminist historian Diane Purkiss stated that although Murray 's thesis was " intrinsically improbable " and commanded " little or no allegiance within the modern academy " , she felt that male scholars like Thomas , Cohn , and Macfarlane had unfairly adopted an androcentric approach by which they contrasted their own , male and methodologically sound interpretation against Murray 's " feminised belief " about the witch @-@ cult .
Hutton stated that Murray had treated her source material with " reckless abandon " , in that she had taken " vivid details of alleged witch practices " from " sources scattered across a great extent of space and time " and then declared them to be normative of the cult as a whole . Simpson outlined how Murray had selected her use of evidence very specifically , particularly by ignoring and / or rationalising any accounts of supernatural or miraculous events in the trial records , thereby distorting the events that she was describing . Thus , Simpson pointed out , Murray rationalised claims that the cloven @-@ hoofed Devil appeared at the witches ' Sabbath by stating that he was a man with a special kind of shoe , and similarly asserted that witches ' claims to have flown through the air on broomsticks were actually based on their practice of either hopping along on broomsticks or smearing hallucinogenic salves onto themselves . Concurring with this assessment , the historian Jeffrey Burton Russell , writing with the independent author Brooks Alexander , stated that " Murray 's use of sources , in general , is appalling " . The pair went on to claim that " today , scholars are agreed that Murray was more than just wrong – she was completely and embarrassingly wrong on nearly all of her basic premises " .
The Italian historian Carlo Ginzburg has been cited as being willing to give " some slight support " to Murray 's theory . Ginzburg stated that although her thesis had been " formulated in a wholly uncritical way " and contained " serious defects " , it did contain " a kernel of truth " . He stated his opinion that she was right in claiming that European witchcraft had " roots in an ancient fertility cult " , something that he argued was vindicated by his work researching the benandanti , an agrarian visionary tradition recorded in the Friuli district of Northeastern Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries . Several historians and folklorists have pointed out that Ginzburg 's arguments are very different to Murray 's : whereas Murray argued for the existence of a pre @-@ Christian witches ' cult whose members physically met during the witches ' Sabbaths , Ginzburg argued that some of the European visionary traditions that were conflated with witchcraft in the Early Modern period had their origins in pre @-@ Christian fertility religions . Moreover , other historians have expressed criticism of Ginzburg 's interpretation of the benandanti ; Cohn stated that that there was " nothing whatsoever " in the source material to justify the idea that the benandanti were the " survival of an age @-@ old fertility cult " . Echoing these views , Hutton commented that Ginzburg 's claim that the benandanti 's visionary traditions were a survival from pre @-@ Christian practices was an idea resting on " imperfect material and conceptual foundations " . He added that Ginzburg 's " assumption " that " what was being dreamed about in the sixteenth century had in fact been acted out in religious ceremonies " dating to " pagan times " , was entire " an inference of his own " and not one supported by the documentary evidence .
= = Personal life = =
On researching the history of UCL 's Egyptology department , the historian Rosalind M. Janssen stated that Murray was " remembered with gratitude and immense affection by all her former students . A wise and witty teacher , two generations of Egyptologists have forever been in her debt . " Alongside teaching them , Murray was known to socialise with her UCL students outside of class hours . The archaeologist Ralph Merrifield , who knew Murray through the Folklore Society , described her as a " diminutive and kindly scholar , who radiated intelligence and strength of character into extreme old age " . Davidson , who also knew Murray through the Society , noted that at their meetings " she would sit near the front , a bent and seemingly guileless old lady dozing peacefully , and then in the middle of a discussion would suddenly intervene with a relevant and penetrating comment which showed that she had missed not one word of the argument " . The later folklorist Juliette Wood noted that many members of the Folklore Society " remember her fondly " , adding that Murray had been " especially keen to encourage younger researchers , even those who disagreed with her ideas " .
One of Murray 's friends in the Society , E. O. James , described her as a " mine of information and a perpetual inspiration ever ready to impart her vast and varied stores of specialised knowledge without reserve , or , be it said , much if any regard for the generally accepted opinions and conclusions of the experts ! " Davidson described her as being " not at all assertive ... [ she ] never thrust her ideas on anyone . [ In relation to her witch @-@ cult theory , ] she behaved in fact rather like someone who was a fully convinced member of some unusual religious sect , or perhaps , of the Freemasons , but never on any account got into arguments about it in public . " The archaeologist Glyn Daniel observed that Murray remained mentally alert into her old age , commenting that " her vigour and forthrightness and ruthless energy never deserted her " .
Murray never married , instead devoting her life to her work , and for this reason , Hutton drew comparisons between her and two other prominent female British scholars of the period , Jane Harrison and Jessie Weston . Murray 's biographer Kathleen L. Sheppard stated that she was deeply committed to public outreach , particularly when it came to Egyptology , and that as such she " wanted to change the means by which the public obtained knowledge about Egypt 's history : she wished to throw open the doors to the scientific laboratory and invite the public in " . She considered travel to be one of her favourite activities , although due to restraints on her time and finances she was unable to do this regularly ; her salary remained small and the revenue from her books was meagre .
Raised a devout Christian by her mother , Murray had initially become a Sunday School teacher to preach the faith , but after entering the academic profession she rejected religion , gaining a reputation among other members of the Folklore Society as a noted sceptic and a rationalist . She was openly critical of organised religion , although continued to maintain a personal belief in a God of some sort , relating in her autobiography that she believed in " an unseen over @-@ ruling Power " , " which science calls Nature and religion | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
calls God " . She was also a believer and a practitioner of magic , performing curses against those whom she felt deserved it : in one case she cursed a fellow academic , Jaroslav Černý , when she felt that his promotion to the position of Professor of Egyptology over her friend Walter Bryan Emery was unworthy . Her curse entailed mixing up ingredients in a frying pan , and was undertaken in the presence of two colleagues . In another instance , she was claimed to have created a wax image of Kaiser Wilhelm II and then melted it during the First World War .
= = Legacy = =
= = = In academia = = =
Hutton noted that Murray was one of the earliest women to " make a serious impact upon the world of professional scholarship " , and the archaeologist Niall Finneran described her as " one of the greatest characters of post @-@ war British archaeology " . Upon her death , Daniel referred to her as " the Grand Old Woman of Egyptology " , with Hutton noting that Egyptology represented " the core of her academic career " . In 2014 , Thornton referred to her as " one of Britain 's most famous Egyptologists " . However , according to the archaeologist Ruth Whitehouse , Murray 's contributions to archaeology and Egyptology were often overlooked as her work was overshadowed by that of Petrie , to the extent that she was often thought of primarily as one of Petrie 's assistants rather than as a scholar in her own right . By her retirement she had come to be highly regarded within the discipline , although , according to Whitehouse , Murray 's reputation declined following her death , something that Whitehouse attributed to the rejection of her witch @-@ cult theory and the general erasure of women archaeologists from the discipline 's male @-@ dominated history .
In his obituary for Murray in Folklore , James noted that her death was " an event of unusual interest and importance in the annals of the Folk @-@ Lore Society in particular as well as in the wider sphere in which her influence was felt in so many directions and disciplines " . However , later academic folklorists , such as Simpson and Wood , have cited Murray and her witch @-@ cult theory as an embarrassment to their field , and to the Folklore Society specifically . Simpson suggested that Murray 's position as President of the Society was a causal factor in the mistrustful attitude that many historians held toward folkloristics as an academic discipline , as they erroneously came to believe that all folklorists endorsed Murray 's ideas . Similarly , Catherine Noble stated that " Murray caused considerable damage to the study of witchcraft " .
In 1935 , UCL introduced the Margaret Murray Prize , awarded to the student who is deemed to have produced the best dissertation in Egyptology ; it continued to be presented annually into the 21st century . In 1969 , UCL named one of their common rooms in her honour , but it was converted into an office in 1989 . In June 1983 , Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother visited the room and there was gifted a copy of Murray 's My First Hundred Years . UCL also hold two busts of Murray , one kept in the Petrie Museum and the other in the library of the UCL Institute of Archaeology . This sculpture was commissioned by one of her students , Violet MacDermot , and produced by the artist Stephen Rickard . UCL also possess a watercolour painting of Murray by Winifred Brunton ; formerly exhibited in the Petrie Gallery , it was later placed into the Art Collection stores . In 2013 , on the 150th anniversary of Murray 's birth and the 50th of her death , the UCL Institute of Archaeology 's Ruth Whitehouse described Murray as " a remarkable woman " whose life was " well worth celebrating , both in the archaeological world at large and especially in UCL " .
The historian of archaeology Rosalind M. Janssen titled her study of Egyptology at UCL The First Hundred Years " as a tribute " to Murray . Murray 's friend Margaret Stefana Drower authored a short biography of her , which was included as a chapter in the 2004 edited volume on Breaking Ground : Pioneering Women Archaeologists . In 2013 , Lexington Books published The Life of Margaret Alice Murray : A Woman 's Work in Archaeology , a biography of Murray authored by Kathleen L. Sheppard , then an assistant professor at Missouri University of Science and Technology ; the book was based upon Sheppard 's doctoral dissertation produced at the University of Oklahoma . Although characterising it as being " written in a clear and engaging manner " , one reviewer noted that Sheppard 's book focuses on Murray the " scientist " and as such neglects to discuss Murray 's involvement in magical practices and her relationship with Wicca .
= = = In Wicca = = =
Murray 's witch @-@ cult theories provided the blueprint for the contemporary Pagan religion of Wicca , with Murray being referred to as the " Grandmother of Wicca " . The Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White stated that it was the theory which " formed the historical narrative around which Wicca built itself " , for on its emergence in England during the 1940s and 1950s , Wicca claimed to be the survival of this witch @-@ cult . Wicca 's theological structure , revolving around a Horned God and Mother Goddess , was adopted from Murray 's ideas about the ancient witch @-@ cult , and Wiccan groups were named covens and their meetings termed esbats , both words that Murray had popularised . As with Murray 's witch @-@ cult , Wicca 's practitioners entered via an initiation ceremony ; Murray 's claims that witches wrote down their spells in a book may have been an influence on Wicca 's Book of Shadows . Wicca 's early system of seasonal festivities were also based on Murray 's framework .
Noting that there is no evidence of Wicca existing before the publication of Murray 's books , Merrifield commented that for those in 20th century Britain who wished to form their own witches ' covens , " Murray may have seemed the ideal fairy godmother , and her theory became the pumpkin coach that could transport them into the realm of fantasy for which they longed " . The historian Philip Heselton suggested that the New Forest coven – the oldest alleged Wiccan group – was founded circa 1935 by esotericists aware of Murray 's theory and who may have believed themselves to be reincarnated witch @-@ cult members . It was Gerald Gardner , who claimed to be an initiate of the New Forest coven , who established the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca and popularised the religion ; according to Simpson , Gardner was the only member of the Folklore Society to " wholeheartedly " accept Murray 's witch @-@ cult hypothesis . The duo knew each other , with Murray writing the foreword to Gardner 's 1954 book Witchcraft Today , although in that foreword she did not explicitly specify whether she believed Gardner 's claim that he had discovered a survival of her witch @-@ cult . In 2005 , Noble suggested that " Murray 's name might be all but forgotten today if it were not for Gerald Gardner " .
Murray 's witch @-@ cult theories were likely also a core influence on the non @-@ Gardnerian Wiccan traditions that were established in Britain and Australia between 1930 and 1970 by the likes of Bob Clay @-@ Egerton , Robert Cochrane , Charles Cardell , and Rosaleen Norton . The prominent Wiccan Doreen Valiente eagerly searched for what she believed were other surviving remnants of the Murrayite witch @-@ cult around Britain . Valiente remained committed to a belief in Murray 's witch @-@ cult after its academic rejection , and she described Murray as " a remarkable woman " . In San Francisco during the late 1960s , Murray 's writings were among the sources used by Aidan A. Kelly in the creation of his Wiccan tradition , the New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn . In Los Angeles during the early 1970s , they were used by Zsuzsanna Budapest when she was establishing her feminist @-@ oriented tradition of Dianic Wicca . The Murrayite witch @-@ cult theory also provided the basis for the ideas espoused in Witchcraft and the Gay Counterculture , a 1978 book written by the American gay liberation activist Arthur Evans .
Members of the Wiccan community gradually became aware of academia 's rejection of the witch @-@ cult theory . Accordingly , belief in its literal truth declined during the 1980s and 1990s , with many Wiccans instead coming to view it as a myth that conveyed metaphorical or symbolic truths . Others insisted that the historical origins of the religion did not matter and that instead Wicca was legitimated by the spiritual experiences it gave to its participants . In response , Hutton authored The Triumph of the Moon , a historical study exploring Wicca 's early development ; on publication in 1999 the book exerted a strong impact on the British Pagan community , further eroding belief in the Murrayite theory among Wiccans . Conversely , other practitioners clung on to the theory , treating it as an important article of faith and rejecting post @-@ Murrayite scholarship on European witchcraft . Several prominent practitioners continued to insist that Wicca was a religion with origins stretching back to the Palaeolithic , but others rejected the validity of historical scholarship and emphasised intuition and emotion as the arbiter of truth . A few " counter @-@ revisionist " Wiccans – among them Donald H. Frew , Jani Farrell @-@ Roberts , and Ben Whitmore – published critiques in which they attacked post @-@ Murrayite scholarship on matters of detail , but none defended Murray 's original hypothesis completely .
= = = In literature = = =
Simpson noted that the publication of the Murray thesis in the Encyclopaedia Britannica made it accessible to " journalists , film @-@ makers popular novelists and thriller writers " , who adopted it " enthusiastically " . It influenced the work of Aldous Huxley and Robert Graves . It was also an influence on the American horror author H. P. Lovecraft , who cited The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe in his writings about the fictional cult of Cthulhu .
The author Sylvia Townsend Warner cited Murray 's work on the witch @-@ cult as an influence on her 1926 novel Lolly Willowes , and sent a copy of her book to Murray in appreciation , with the two meeting for lunch shortly after . There was nevertheless some difference in their depictions of the witch @-@ cult ; whereas Murray had depicted an organised pre @-@ Christian cult , Warner depicted a vague family tradition that was explicitly Satanic . In 1927 , Warner lectured on the subject of witchcraft , exhibiting a strong influence from Murray 's work . Analysing the relationship between Murray and Warner , the English literature scholar Mimi Winick characterised both as being " engaged in imagining new possibilities for women in modernity " .
= Harley J. Earl Trophy =
The Harley J. Earl Trophy is the trophy presented to the winner of the premier – and season @-@ opening – event of the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing ( NASCAR ) , the Daytona 500 . It is named after influential automobile designer Harley Earl , who served as the second commissioner of NASCAR . Earl has been known as the so @-@ called " father of the Corvette " and designer of the Firebird I prototype that adorns the trophy . The trophy is kept on display at the Daytona International Speedway , while a small replica is given to each Daytona 500 winner .
= = Description and history = =
The Harley J. Earl Trophy is named after General Motors car designer Harley Earl . Earl , the second commissioner of NASCAR , was the designer of the Chevrolet Corvette ; his Firebird I concept car provides the basis of the automobile that sits atop the trophy ; the car is often misidentified as Sir Malcolm Campbell 's " Blue Bird " land speed record car . Earl was a friend of NASCAR founder Bill France , Sr. , who named the trophy after him as a sign of respect .
The trophy is awarded to the winner of the annual Daytona 500 , known as " The Great American Race " , which acts as the season @-@ opening event for the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series ( formerly known as the Nextel Cup Series , Winston Cup Series , and Grand National Series ) , and is also considered the most prestigious and important event on the NASCAR schedule . The trophy is considered to be the most coveted award with which a NASCAR driver can be presented .
The Harley J. Earl Perpetual Trophy , the " official " version of the award , is housed at the Daytona International Speedway . It stands about four feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) tall , five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) wide and is in the same triangular " tri @-@ oval " shape of Daytona International Speedway . It 's removed from its display once a year to appear in victory lane with the winner of the Daytona 500 . In 2010 , the trophy was removed from the Daytona International Speedway , transported to the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and put on display alongside the Borg @-@ Warner Trophy – awarded to the winner of the Indianapolis 500 – in the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum during the Indianapolis 500 race week .
= = The Trophy and the Award = =
Winners of the Daytona 500 through 1997 received the Harley Earl Award , a wooden trophy approximately three feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) tall , adorned with silver figurines . Starting in 1998 , to celebrate the 40th running , individual winners of the Daytona 500 have been presented with a miniature replica of the Harley J. Earl Trophy , which was recreated by John Lajba , a sculptor from Omaha , Nebraska . Previously commissioned to craft a sculpture of Bill France and his wife , Ann France , for display in front of NASCAR corporate headquarters in Daytona Beach , Florida , Lajba 's work on each replica trophy requires six weeks of 12 @-@ hour days to create the Firebird I automobile , with all the work done by hand , before it gets plated in silver by A & J Plating , also located in Omaha . The first replica trophy , won in 1998 by Dale Earnhardt was originally on a marble base , but has since been switched to an acrylic stand , making it lighter . For the 2008 Daytona 500 , the 50th anniversary of the first race , the replica of the trophy , presented to winner Ryan Newman , was plated in gold rather than silver .
The replica trophies weigh 54 pounds ( 24 kg ) , measures 18 inches ( 46 cm ) tall , 22 inches ( 56 cm ) wide and 12 inches ( 30 cm ) deep .
= = = Additional Daytona 500 trophies = = =
The Harley J. Earl Trophy is not the only trophy awarded at the conclusion of the annual Daytona 500 . The crew chief of the winning team receives the Cannonball Baker Trophy , named after the first commissioner of NASCAR ; the winning team owner is awarded the Governor 's Cup .
= = = Winners of the Harley J. Earl Trophy = = =
The most Harley Earl Awards and Harley J. Earl Trophy Replicas have been won by Richard Petty , often referred to as " The King " of NASCAR . Petty 's seven victories lead the four Daytona 500 wins of Cale Yarborough , and three each by Bobby Allison , Dale Jarrett and Jeff Gordon . Bill Elliott , Sterling Marlin , Michael Waltrip , Matt Kenseth , Jimmie Johnson and Dale Earnhardt , Jr. have won the Daytona 500 and Harley J. Earl Trophy twice ; twenty @-@ five other drivers have been awarded the trophy once . As of 2015 , Trevor Bayne was the youngest winner of the trophy when he won it at age 20 years , 1 day in 2011 ; Allison was the oldest winner ( 50 years , 2 months , 11 days ) in 1988 .
= European polecat =
The European polecat ( Mustela putorius ) — also known as the black or forest polecat , or fitch ( as well as some other names ) — is a species of mustelid native to western Eurasia and North Africa . It is of a generally dark brown colour , with a pale underbelly and a dark mask across the face . Occasionally , colour mutations , including albinos and erythrists , occur . Compared to minks and other weasels — also fellow members of the genus Mustela — the polecat has a shorter , more compact body ; a more powerfully built skull and dentition ; is less agile ; and it is well known for having the characteristic ability to secrete a particularly foul @-@ smelling liquid to mark its territory .
It is much less territorial than other mustelids , with animals of the same sex frequently sharing home ranges . Like other mustelids , the European polecat is polygamous , though pregnancy occurs directly after mating , with no induced ovulation . It usually gives birth in early summer to litters consisting of five to 10 kits , which become independent at the age of two to three months . The European polecat feeds on small rodents , birds , amphibians and reptiles . It occasionally cripples its prey by piercing its brain with its teeth and stores it , still living , in its burrow for future consumption .
The European polecat originated in Western Europe during the Middle Pleistocene , with its closest living relatives being the steppe polecat , the black @-@ footed ferret and the European mink . With the two former species , it can produce fertile offspring , though hybrids between it and the latter species tend to be sterile , and are distinguished from their parent species by their larger size and more valuable pelts .
The European polecat is the sole ancestor of the ferret , which was domesticated more than 2000 years ago for the purpose of hunting vermin . The species has otherwise been historically viewed negatively by humans . In the British Isles especially , the polecat was persecuted by gamekeepers , and became synonymous with promiscuity in early English literature . During modern times , the polecat is still scantly represented in popular culture when compared to other rare British mammals , and misunderstandings of its behaviour still persist in some rural areas . As of 2008 , it is classed by the IUCN as Least Concern due to its wide range and large numbers .
= = Etymology and naming = =
The word " polecat " first appeared after the Norman Conquest of England , written as polcat . While the second syllable is largely self @-@ explanatory , the origin of the first is unclear . It is possibly derived from the French poule , meaning " chicken " , likely in reference to the species ' fondness for poultry , or it may be a variant of the Old English ful , meaning " foul " . In Middle English , the species was referred to as foumart , meaning " foul marten " , in reference to its strong odour . In Old French , the polecat was called fissau , which was derived from the Low German and Scandinavian verb for " to make a disagreeable smell " . This was later corrupted in English as fitchew or fitchet , which itself became the word " fitch " , which is used for the polecat 's pelt . The word fitchet is the root word for the North American fisher , which was named by Dutch colonists in America who noted similarities between the two species . In some countries such as New Zealand , the term " fitch " has taken on a wider use to refer to related creatures such as ferrets , especially when farmed for their fur .
A 2002 article in The Mammal Society 's Mammal Review contested the European polecat 's status as an animal indigenous to the British Isles on account of a scarce fossil record and linguistic evidence . Unlike most native British mammals , the polecat 's Welsh name ( ffwlbart , derived from the Middle English foulmart ) is not of Celtic origin , much as the Welsh names of invasive species such as the European rabbit and fallow deer ( cwningen , derived from the Middle English konyng and danas , derived from the Old French dain , respectively ) are of Middle English or Old French origin . Polecats are not mentioned in Anglo @-@ Saxon or Welsh literature prior to the Norman conquest of England in 1066 , with the first recorded mention of the species in the Welsh language occurring in the 14th century 's Llyfr Coch Hergest and in English in Chaucer ’ s The Pardoner ’ s Tale ( 1383 ) . In contrast , attestations of the Welsh word for pine marten ( bele ) , date back at least to the 10th century Welsh Laws and possibly much earlier in northern England .
= = = Local and indigenous names = = =
= = = = Dialectal English names = = = =
Probably no other animal on the British list has had as many colloquial names as the polecat . In southern England it was generally referred to as ' fitchou ' whereas in the north it was ' foumat or foumard ... However there were a host of others including endless spelling variations : philbert , fulmer , fishock , filibart , poulcat , poll cat , etc . Charles Oldham identified at least 20 different versions of the name in the Hertfordshire / Bedfordshire area alone .
= = = Latin name = = =
As well as the several indigenous names referring to smell ( see above ) , the scientific name Mustela putorius is also derived from this species ' foul smell . The Latin putorius translates to stench or stink , from which the English word putrid is derived .
= = Evolution = =
The earliest true polecat was Mustela stromeri , which appeared during the late Villafranchian period . It was considerably smaller than the present form , thus indicating polecats evolved at a relatively late period . The oldest modern polecat fossils occur in Germany , Britain and France , and date back to the Middle Pleistocene . The European polecat 's closest relatives are the steppe polecat and black @-@ footed ferret , with which it is thought to have shared Mustela stromeri as a common ancestor . The European polecat is , however , not as maximally adapted in the direction of carnivory as the steppe polecat , being less specialised in skull structure and dentition . The European polecat likely diverged from the steppe polecat 1 @.@ 5 million years ago based on IRBP , though cytochrome b transversions indicate a younger date of 430 @,@ 000 years . It is also closely related to the European mink , with which it can hybridise .
= = = Domestication = = =
Morphological , cytological and molecular studies confirm the European polecat is the sole ancestor of the ferret , thus disproving any connection with the steppe polecat , which was once thought to have contributed to the ferret 's creation . Ferrets were first mentioned by Aristophanes in 450 BC and by Aristotle in 350 BC . Greek and Roman writers in the first century AD were the first to attest on the ferret 's use in bolting rabbits from their burrows . The first accurate descriptions of ferrets come from Strabo during 200 AD , when ferrets were released onto the Balearic Islands to control rabbit populations . As the European rabbit is native to the Iberian Peninsula and northwest Africa , the European polecat likely was first domesticated in these regions .
The ferret and European polecat are similar in both size and portions , to the point that dark @-@ coloured ferrets are almost indistinguishable from their wild cousins , though the ferret 's skull has a smaller cranial volume , and has a narrower postorbital constriction . Compared to the European polecat , the ferret has a much smaller brain , though this comparison has not been made with Mediterranean polecats , from which ferrets likely derive . The theory of a Mediterranean origin is further strengthened because the ferret is less tolerant of cold than northern polecat subspecies . The ferret is also more fertile than the polecat , producing two or more litters annually , as opposed to just one . Unlike other subspecies , which are largely solitary , the ferret will readily live in social groups . The ferret is also slower in all its movements than the polecat , and hardly ever makes any use of its anal scent glands . Overall , the ferret represents a neotenous form of polecat .
= = = Subspecies = = =
As of 2005 , seven subspecies are recognised .
= = Physical description = =
= = = Build = = =
The appearance of the European polecat is typical of members of the genus Mustela , though it is generally more compact in conformation and , although short @-@ legged , has a less elongated body than the European mink or steppe polecat . The tail is short , about ⅓ its body length . The eyes are small , with dark brown irises . The hind toes are long and partially webbed , with weakly curved 4 mm @-@ long , nonretractable claws . The front claws are strongly curved , partially retractable , and measure 6 mm in length . The feet are moderately long and more robust than in other members of the genus . The polecat 's skull is relatively coarse and massive , more so than the mink 's , with a strong , but short and broad facial region and strongly developed projections . In comparison to other similarly sized mustelids , the polecat 's teeth are very strong , large and massive in relation to skull size . Sexual dimorphism in the skull is apparent in the lighter , narrower skull of the female , which also has weaker projections . The polecat 's running gait is not as complex and twisting as that of the mink or stoat , and it is not as fast as the mountain weasel ( solongoi ) , stoat or least weasel , as it can be outrun by a conditioned man . Its sensory organs are well developed , though it is unable to distinguish between colours .
The dimensions of the European polecat vary greatly . The species does not conform to Bergmann 's rule , with the pattern of size variation seeming to follow a trend of size increase along an east @-@ west axis . Males measure 350 – 460 mm in body length and females are 290 – 394 mm . The tail measures 115 – 167 mm in males and 84 – 150 mm in females . Adult males in middle Europe weigh 1 @,@ 000 @-@ 1 @,@ 500 grams and females 650 @-@ 815 grams . Gigantism is known among polecats , but specimens exhibiting this are likely the products of polecat @-@ mink hybridisation .
= = = Fur = = =
The winter fur of the European polecat is brownish @-@ black or blackish @-@ brown , the intensity of which is determined by the colour of the long guard hairs . On the back and flanks , the dark tone is brightened by bright whitish @-@ yellowish , sometimes yellowish @-@ greyish underfur which shows through . The lightly coloured underfur is not equally visible on different parts of the body . On the back and hindquarters , the underfur is almost completely covered by the dark guard hairs . On the flanks , though , the lightening is well defined , and contrasts sharply with the general tone of the back . The throat , lower neck , chest and abdomen are black or blackish @-@ brown . The limbs are pure black or black with brown tints , while the tail is black or blackish @-@ brown , completely lacking light underfur . The area around and between the eyes is black @-@ brown , with a longitudinal stripe of similar colour along the top of the nose . The ears are dark brown and edged with white . The summer fur is short , sparse and coarse . It is greyer , duller and lacking in the lustre of the winter fur . The underfur is more weakly developed in the summer fur , and has a brownish @-@ grey or rusty @-@ grey colour . The polecat is a good swimmer , but its fur is not as well insulated against cold water as the American mink 's ; while a mink will take 118 minutes to cool in a water temperature of 8 ° C , the polecat cools down much faster at 26 – 28 minutes .
Polecats were found in two major phenotypes a typic one and a dark fur one with no black mask . Colour mutations include albinos and erythrists . In typical erythristic individuals , the underfur is usually bright reddish . The guard hairs on the trunk are bright reddish or reddish @-@ brown . Black guard hairs are absent on the lower body and head . In some rare cases , the guard hairs are so light , they are almost indistinguishable from the pale @-@ yellow underfur . In these cases , the whole animal is a very light golden @-@ yellow colour .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Social and territorial behaviours = = =
Unlike the steppe polecat , the European polecat has a much more settled way of life , with definite home ranges . The characteristics of polecat home ranges vary according to season , habitat , sex and social status . Breeding females settle in discrete areas , whereas breeding males and dispersing juveniles have more fluid ranges , being more mobile . Males typically have larger territories than females . Each polecat uses several den sites distributed throughout its territory . Occasionally , abandoned European badger or red fox burrows are used . Rabbit warrens are often areas of intense polecat activity . In winter , the polecat may use farm buildings or haystacks as daytime resting sites . The polecat is not as territorial as other small mustelids , having been known to share territories with other members of the same sex . Evidence of polecats marking their territories is sparse . Like other mustelids , the polecat is usually a silent animal , though it will growl fiercely when angered , and squeak when distressed . It also emits a low , mewling cry to its mate or offspring .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
The European polecat is a seasonal breeder , with no courtship rituals . During the mating season , the male grabs the female by the neck and drags her about to stimulate ovulation , then copulates for up to an hour . The species is polygamous , with each male polecat mating with several females . Unlike with other small mustelids , ovulation is not induced , and pregnancy occurs immediately after mating . The gestation period lasts 40 – 43 days , with litters usually being born in May @-@ early June . Each litter typically consists of five to 10 kits . At birth , the kits weigh 9 @-@ 10 g and measure 55 – 70 mm in body length ; they are blind and deaf . At the age of one week , the kits are covered in silky , white fur , which is replaced with a cinnamon brown @-@ greyish woolly coat at the age of 3 – 4 wk . Weaning begins at three weeks of age , while the permanent dentition erupts after 7 – 8 wk . The kits become independent after two to three months . Females are very protective of their young , and have even been known to confront humans approaching too closely to their litters .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Diet = = =
The European polecat 's diet consists of mouse @-@ like rodents , followed by amphibians and birds . Its most frequent prey item in the former Soviet Union is the common vole and rarely the red @-@ backed vole . In large river floodlands , water vole are common prey . In spring and winter , amphibians ( especially grass frogs and green toads ) become important food items . Selective predation on male frogs by the polecat decreases the occurrence of polyandry in frog populations . However , because amphibians have little calorific value , the polecat never grows fat on them , no matter how many it consumes . In Central Europe , the diet in winter months is dominated by birds including quail , grey partridges , grouse , chickens , pigeons and passerines . Seasonal changes in the activity rhythm is synchronised with the activity of the main prey . Some species only rarely preyed upon by the polecat include European hedgehogs , asp vipers , grass snakes and insects . In the British Isles , it commonly kills brown rats and European rabbits , and is capable of killing larger prey , such as geese and hares . One polecat was reported to frequently wait at a riverbank and catch eels , which it took back to its burrow . The polecat feeds on eels mostly during lengthy frosts when eels , unable to breathe air at regular intervals because of the ice , congregate at breathing holes . Unlike the stoat and weasel , the polecat readily eats carrion , including that of large ungulates . The European polecat hunts its prey by stalking it and seizing it with its canine teeth , killing the animal with a bite to the neck . This killing method is instinctive , but perfected with practice . The polecat sometimes caches its food , particularly during seasonal gluts of frogs and toads . Sometimes , the polecat does not kill these , but bites them at the base of the skull , thus paralyzing them and keeping them fresh for later consumption . Though they are normally shy around humans , naturalist Alfred Brehm in his Brehms Tierleben mentions an exceptional case in which three polecats attacked a baby in Hesse . During the winter period , when live prey is scarce , the European polecat may raid beehives and feed on the honey .
= = = Enemies and competitors = = =
The polecat may be preyed upon by red foxes , and both wild and domestic cats . Although the polecat can coexist with the European mink ( though there is one record of a polecat attacking a European mink and dragging it to its burrow ) , it suffers in areas where the invasive American mink also occurs , as the latter species feeds on the same mammalian species as the polecat much more frequently than the European mink , and has been known to drive the polecat out of wetland habitats . In areas where the European polecat is sympatric with the steppe polecat , the two species overlap greatly in choice of food , though the former tends to consume more household foods and birds , while the latter preys on mammals more frequently . There is at least one record of a beech marten killing a polecat . The European polecat may prey on the much smaller least weasel .
= = Hybridisation = =
In some parts of the British Isles , the abandoning of domestic ferrets has led to ferret @-@ polecat crossbreeds living in the wild . Ferrets were likely first brought to Britain after the Norman Conquest of England , or as late as the fourteenth century . It is currently impossible to distinguish pure polecats from hybrids through DNA analysis , as the two forms are too closely related and intermixed to be separated through modern genetic methods . Crossbreeds between the two animals typically have a distinct white throat patch , white feet and white hairs interspersed among the fur . Typically , first generation crossbreeds between polecats and ferrets develop their wild parents ' fear of humans if left with their mothers during the critical socialisation period between 7 ½ and 8 ½ weeks of age . Occasionally , supposed ferret @-@ polecat crossbreeds are advertised as superior to pure ferrets for the purposes of rabbiting , though actual crossbreeds are very likely to be less handleable , less willing to familiarise themselves with dogs , and are more likely to kill their quarry outright rather than simply flush it from its burrow .
Polecats are able to hybridise with the rare European mink , producing offspring termed khor ' -tumak by furriers and khonorik ( from Russian words for ferret and mink ) by fanciers . Such hybridisation is very rare in the wild , and typically only occurs where European minks are declining . A polecat @-@ mink hybrid has a poorly defined facial mask , yellow fur on the ears , grey @-@ yellow underfur and long , dark brown guard hairs . It is fairly large , with a male attaining the peak sizes known for European polecats ( weighing 1 @,@ 120 @-@ 1 @,@ 746 g and measuring 41 – 47 cm in length ) , and a female is much larger than female European minks ( weighing 742 g and measuring 37 cm in length ) . The majority of polecat @-@ mink hybrids have skulls bearing greater similarities to those of polecats than to minks . Hybrids can swim well like minks and burrow for food like polecats . They are very difficult to tame and breed , as males are sterile , though females are fertile . The first captive polecat @-@ mink hybrid was created in 1978 by Soviet zoologist Dr. Dmitry Ternovsky of Novosibirsk . Originally bred for their fur ( which was more valuable than that of either parent species ) , the breeding of these hybrids declined as European mink populations decreased . Studies on the behavioural ecology of free @-@ ranging polecat @-@ mink hybrids in the upper reaches of the Lovat River indicate hybrids will stray from aquatic habitats more readily than pure minks , and will tolerate both parent species entering their territories , though the hybrid 's larger size ( especially the male 's ) may deter intrusion . During the summer period , the diets of wild polecat @-@ mink hybrids are more similar to those of minks than to the polecats , as they feed predominantly on frogs . During the winter , their diets overlap more with those of polecats , and will eat a larger proportion of rodents than in the summer , though they still rely heavily on frogs and rarely scavenge ungulate carcasses as polecats do .
The European polecat can also hybridise with the Asian steppe polecat or the North American black @-@ footed ferret to produce fertile offspring . European @-@ steppe polecat hybrids are very rare , despite their sympatry in several areas . Nevertheless , hybrids have been recorded in southern Ukraine , the Kursk and Voronezh Oblasts , the Trans @-@ Carpathians and several other localities .
= = Range , history and conservation = =
The European polecat is widespread in the western Palaearctic to the Urals in the Russian Federation , though it is absent from Ireland , northern Scandinavia , and much of the Balkans and eastern Adriatic coast . It occurs only marginally in northern Greece . It is found in Morocco in the Rif Mountains , from sea level to 2400 m . Its domesticated form , the ferret , was introduced in Britain , and some Mediterranean islands and New Zealand .
= = = The British Isles = = =
There are ... some extreme examples , but the fact remains that throughout England and Wales polecats were consistently persecuted at a greater intensity than any other species of mustelid . Did this level of persecution have an effect on overall numbers or did it purely satisfy local vengeance ? ... The polecat may be the best example of a species for which the level of killing really did make a difference to the population . The developing sporting estates then administered the coup de grâce .
In Britain , the European polecat was regarded as a serious poultry predator prior to the introduction of wire netting , therefore eliminating it was considered the only option to protect stock . In Kent , for example , at least 42 parishes paid bounties for polecats , of which three extended into the 19th century , though by this time only single individuals were recorded , and usually after gaps of many years . In the Kingdom of Scotland , during the reign of David II , an export duty of 4d. was imposed on each polecat fur trimmer , which was raised to 8d. in 1424 . The species held an important place in Scotland 's fur markets ; the annual Dumfries Fur Fair ( 1816 – 1874 ) sold 400 polecat pelts in 1829 and 600 in 1831 . The following year , a contemporary account described polecat skins as " a drug on the market " . In 1856 , the number of sold pelts decreased to 240 , 168 in 1860 , 12 in 1866 and none in 1869 . The decline was halted with the decrease in the intensity of gamekeeping during the 20 year interval between the First and Second World Wars .
In modern times , the European polecat is found throughout most of rural Wales and in England from Cheshire south to Somerset , and east to Leicestershire and Northamptonshire . The species was reintroduced into the Cumberland and Westmorland , Argyll and on Speyside during the 1970s and 1980s , though the current status of these populations is unknown . Its modern distribution is unclear to a certain extent because of the presence of polecat @-@ ferret hybrids . Aside from the reintroductions , factors aiding the recovery of British polecat populations include an increase in rabbit populations and a lessening of persecution by gamekeepers . Its population has been considered viable since the mid @-@ 1990s . The European polecat is afforded both national and European protection ; it is listed on Schedule 6 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and Regulation 41 of the Conservation ( Natural Habitats , & c . ) Regulations 1994 and is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive . A survey carried out by the Vincent Wildlife Trust in 2015 found that the polecat had spread into areas ( such as East Anglia and South Yorkshire ) where they had not been seen for 100 years . Naturalist Chris Packham termed the spread " ... one of the great natural recoveries . "
= = = France = = =
The European polecat is present in all of France 's territories , excepting Corsica , and has been in a state of decline for several decades . Nevertheless , it is listed as Least Concern on France 's Red Data Book . The European polecat is rare in numerous regions or départements . In the Rhone @-@ Alps region , its population has undergone a sizeable decline since the 1990s , largely as a consequence of poisoning campaigns against muskrats . A 1999 study on the decline of polecats in this region indicated the species has little chance of surviving there . Elsewhere , it is considered either rare or sporadic in 22 districts and absent or extirpated in 22 others . In Drôme , for example , polecat populations have been decreasing since 1975 , and have disappeared in 27 communes in Isère . Its numbers are declining in Morvan and Ariège , and is thinly distributed in Brittany . Though present in Aquitaine , its numbers have been dropping since the 1950s , and is very rare in the mountain regions . In Normandy , the speed of the polecat 's decline has somewhat decreased . In the alpine départements , its range is limited by altitude , as the species relies on more Mediterranean climates to thrive . It is , however , especially abundant in the irrigated Crau , but is absent on the eastern part of the area , apparently being restricted by the valleys of the Durance and Rhone Rivers . The largest populations occur in Northern France : Pas de Calais , Central France ; Alsace , Lorraine and the areas of the Loire with the Vendée , which holds the largest record of polecat observations . It is common in all the départements of Champagne @-@ Ardenne .
= = = Former Soviet Union = = =
The western border of the European polecat 's range in the former Soviet Union begins from the mouth of the Danube in the south approximately to northwest of Suoyarvi , on the Finnish border in the north . In Karelia , its northern border extends from the former point towards the southeast to the Spassk Bay of Lake Onega , thereby passing around the West Karelian uplands from the south and then , passing around these uplands from the east , it suddenly ascends directly to the north passing in particular , near the western shore of Segozer and reaches Rugozer . From there , the border line turns northeast , crossing the Lakhta and reaching Kem on the White Sea . From Archangelsk , the border reaches Mezen , thus attaining the species ' most northerly range . From the Mezen River 's mouth , the border abruptly returns south , approaching closer to the upper Mezen near 64 ° lat . From there , the polecat 's northern border goes on to the upper Vychegda River , and descends further on southwards and in the Urals . Its eastern range apparently extends along the Urals , embracing Sverdlovsk from the west . It is probably absent in the southern Urals , where the steppe polecat occurs . The southern border of the polecat 's range starts in the west of the Danube 's mouth and extends eastward along the coast of the Black Sea reaching the mouth of the Dnepr , from which it moves back from the shore of the Azov Sea and , along it , goes to the mouth of the Don . From the mouth and lower course of the Don , its range passes into the steppe region of western and middle Ciscaucasia . The European polecat is absent from the Saratov steppes of Transvolga , instead being encountered only in the extreme lower Bolshoy and Maly Irgiz Rivers . Further on , the border goes to the north along the Volga River . It steeply returns east somewhat south at the Samara bend , passing around Obshchy Syrt , reaching the Urals at the latitude of Magnitogorsk . The range of the polecat within the former Soviet Union has expanded northwards . From 1930 @-@ 1952 for example , the polecat colonised northwestern Karelia and southern Finland .
Prior to the First World War , the Russian Empire produced more than 50 % of global polecat skins . The harvesting of polecats in Russia increased substantially after the October Revolution , which coincided with Western Europe 's decline in polecat numbers . The Russian population of polecats decreased somewhat after the Second World War , and their hunting was subsequently discouraged , as polecats were acknowledged to limit harmful rodent populations .
= = Diseases and parasites = =
The European polecat may suffer from distemper , influenza , the common cold and pneumonia . Occasionally , it is affected by malignant tumours and hydrocephaly . It commonly has broken teeth and , on rarer occasions , fatal abscesses on the jaw , head and neck . In mainland Europe , it is a carrier of trichinosis , leptospirosis , toxoplasmosis and adiaspiromycosis . Incidences of polecats carrying rabies are high in some localized areas .
Ectoparasites known to infest polecats include flea species such as Ctenocephalides felis , Archaeospylla erinacei , Nosopsyllus fasciatus and Paraceras melis . The tick Ixodes hexagonus is the polecat 's most common ectoparasite , which is sometimes found in large numbers on the neck and behind the ears . Another , less common species to infest polecats is I. canisuga . The biting louse Trichodectes jacobi is also known to infest polecats .
Endoparasites carried by polecats include the cestodes Taenia tenuicollis and T. martis and the nematodes Molineus patens , Strongyloides papillosus , Capilliaria putorii , Filaroides martis and Skjrabingylus nasicola .
= = Relationships with humans = =
= = = Hunting and fur use = = =
European polecat hunting was once a favourite sport of the Westmorland dalesmen and the Scots , who hunted them at night in midwinter . However , the majority of polecat deaths caused by humans have been accidental , having mostly been caused by steel traps set for rabbits . Hunting polecats by moonlight was also a popular diversion among midland schoolboys . Until the mid @-@ 19th century , polecats in Britain were hunted from early February to late April with mixed packs of hunting dogs on the Welsh hills and Lakeland fells , though otterhounds were used on the fells , the Border country and the Scottish Lowlands . John Tucker Edwardes , the creator of the Sealyham terrier , used captured wild male polecats to test the gameness of yearling terriers . In the former Soviet Union , polecats are hunted chiefly in late autumn and early winter with guns and hunting dogs , as well as foothold traps and wooden snares . However , even in season , hunters rarely catch more than 10 @-@ 15 polecats . The species does not constitute an important element in former Soviet commercial hunting , and is usually only caught incidentally .
The European polecat is a valuable fur bearer , whose pelt ( fitch ) is more valuable than the steppe polecat 's . Its skin is used primarily in the production of jackets , capes and coats . It is particularly well suited for trimmings for women 's clothing . The tail is sometimes used for the making of paintbrushes . One disadvantage of polecat skin , however , is its unpleasant odour , which is difficult to remove . The European polecat was first commercially farmed for its fur in Great Britain during the 1920s , but was only elevated to economic importance in Finland in 1979 . It never became popular in the United States and Canada , due to import laws regarding non @-@ native species . It did gain economic importance in the USSR , though .
= = = Tameability = = =
Unlike the stoat and least weasel , the European polecat is easy to breed in captivity . According to Aubyn Trevor @-@ Battye , the European polecat is difficult to tame , but is superior to its domesticated form , the ferret , in bolting rats from their holes due to its greater agility . It is prone to attempting escape once finished bolting rats , but can be easily outrun . Polecat kits can be successfully raised and suckled by mother cats . According to Owen 's Welsh Dictionary , the Gwythelians ( early Irish settlers in northern Wales ) kept polecats as pets . Attempts to tame the European polecat are generally hampered by the adult 's nervous and unsociable disposition . First generation hybrids between polecats and ferrets , conceived to improve the latter 's bloodlines , produce animals with personalities similar to their wild parents .
= = = In culture = = =
In the British Isles , the polecat historically has had a negative reputation . References to the polecat in early English literature are often vilifying , usually being synonymous with prostitutes and generally immoral people , as is the case in Shakespeare 's The Merry Wives of Windsor : " Out of my door , you witch , you hag , you baggage , you polecat , you runyon ! " In some rural areas , the belief persists that the polecat chews off the ears of sleeping sheep and can paralyse or kill men by jumping on them from behind and biting their necks . However , in some regions , it was widely believed among farmers that allowing a polecat to nest in a chicken coop would ensure the animal would not kill the poultry out of gratitude , and instead kill vermin . Cases in which polecats did kill poultry were attributed to animals which were guests at other farms . In Wales , polecats were widely believed to migrate in large numbers every spring to the great peat bog of Tregaron to feed on the breeding frogs there . This was later proven to be incorrect , as the climate in Tregaron is too wet for the European polecat , and it does not hold large frog populations . Compared to other British carnivores , such as otters and badgers , the polecat has received little exposure in popular media . A study conducted on rural school children showed only 3 @.@ 8 % of the surveyed children could identify polecats on photographs , whereas 83 @.@ 7 % correctly identified otters .
A caged polecat appears as a key character of Saki 's short story " Sredni Vashtar " .
= = Gallery = =
= HMS King George V ( 41 ) =
HMS King George V ( pennant number 41 ) was the lead ship of the five British King George V @-@ class battleships of the Royal Navy . Laid down in 1937 and commissioned in 1940 , King George V operated during the Second World War as part of the British Home and Pacific Fleets . In May 1941 , along with HMS Rodney , King George V was involved in the hunt for and pursuit of the German battleship Bismarck , eventually inflicting severe damage which led to the German vessel sinking . On 1 May 1942 destroyer HMS Punjabi sank after a collision with King George V in foggy conditions . King George V took part in Operation Husky ( the allied landings in Sicily ) and bombarded the island of Levanzo and the port of Trapani . She also escorted part of the surrendered Italian Fleet , which included the battleships Andrea Doria and Caio Duilio , to Malta . In 1945 King George V took part in operations against the Japanese in the Pacific .
Following the war , King George V spent three years as the flagship of the British Home Fleet , was placed in reserve in 1949 , and scrapped eight years later .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
King George V was built by Vickers @-@ Armstrong at Walker Naval Yard , Newcastle upon Tyne ; she was laid down on 1 January 1937 , launched on 21 February 1939 and commissioned on 11 December 1940 . The ship had an overall length of 745 ft ( 227 @.@ 08 m ) , a beam of 112 ft ( 34 @.@ 24 m ) and a draught of 34 ft ( 10 @.@ 41 m ) . She displaced 38 @,@ 031 tons at normal load and 42 @,@ 237 tons at full load . After her refit in 1944 , she displaced 44 @,@ 460 tons at full load . She could carry 3 @,@ 918 tons of fuel oil , 192 tons of diesel oil , 256 tons of reserve feed water and 444 tons of freshwater . Based on the designed fuel consumption , range was : 4000 nautical miles at 25 knots , 10 @,@ 250 nautical miles at 15 knots and 14 @,@ 400 nautical miles at 10 knots . However , in practice fuel consumption was much higher , and at 10 knots the actual range was about 7000 nautical miles . Designed within the tight 35 @,@ 000 ton limitations of the Washington Naval Treaty , wartime service necessitated increases over the design displacement , seriously reducing freeboard and affecting seaworthiness . This was most acute at the already low bow . With too little buoyancy forward the bows were easily buried even in moderate seas , with spray washing up over both forward turrets . Heavy seas could flood ‘ A ’ turret , drenching both men and machinery within .
= = = Propulsion = = =
King George V was equipped with eight Admiralty boilers . This configuration was a little more conventional than the Nelson class , with boiler rooms placed side by side and with each pair associated with a turbine room astern of them . The total heating surface of the boiler plants in King George V was 78 @,@ 144 sq. ft . The 416 ton boiler installation produced more than 100 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower , giving a top speed of 28 knots . The eight boilers were more economic in space and fuel than the twenty @-@ four boilers in the battlecruiser HMS Hood . Fewer , but larger , boilers lowered the weight per unit of heat delivered , as did increased boiler efficiency and consumption of fuel per unit area of heating surface . This made King George V the fastest battleship in the British fleet but slower than the German , French or the new Italian capital ships , or the battlecruisers HMS Hood , Repulse and HMS Renown .
King George V had four sets of Parsons geared turbines . Two main turbines were arranged in series and drove a shaft through double helical gears . An astern turbine was incorporated in the exhaust casing of the low @-@ pressure turbine , and a cruising turbine was coupled directly to the high @-@ pressure turbine . A speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots was expected at standard displacement and 27 @.@ 5 knots at full @-@ load displacement on normal output ; corresponding speeds at overload condition were 29 @.@ 25 and 28 @.@ 25 knots respectively . The turbine unit was a low @-@ speed type ( 2 @,@ 257 rpm ) coupled to a single reduction gear which produced 236 rpm at the propeller shaft .
= = = Armament = = =
= = = = Main battery = = = =
The tight limitations of the Washington Naval Treaty raised many challenges and required difficult compromises if they were to be met . To avoid the class being outgunned by the new ships of foreign navies , especially as by the mid @-@ 1930s the Treaty had been renounced by Japan and Italy , Churchill wrote to the First Lord of the Admiralty in 1936 , voicing strong objections to the proposed armament of 10 14 @-@ inch guns . His proposal was for 9 16 @-@ inch guns . However , when completed King George V mounted ten 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) guns . They were mounted in one Mark II twin turret forward and two Mark III quadruple turrets , one forward and one aft . They could be elevated 40 degrees and depressed 3 degrees . Training arcs were : " A " turret , 286 degrees ; " B " turret , 270 degrees and " Y " turret , 270 degrees . Training and elevating was achieved through a hydraulic drive , with rates of two and eight degrees per second , respectively . A full gun broadside weighed 15 @,@ 950 pounds ; a salvo could be fired every 40 seconds . The quadruple turrets weighed 1 @,@ 582 tons , the twin turret 915 tons . The turrets were designed by the Vickers Armstrong 's Elswick Works , but sets of each type of equipment were manufactured by Vickers Armstrongs in Barrow . A considerable amount of design effort was expended to make the turrets as flashtight as possible . This complicated the mechanical design of the turrets , particularly the quadruple mountings . Due to insufficient clearances and slightly distorted link mechanisms , failures in the intricate safety interlocks in the loading sequence for antiflash precautions caused jams during drills and practice firing . King George V used an Admiralty Fire Control Table Mark IX to control her main armament .
= = = = Secondary battery = = = =
The secondary armament consisted of 16 × 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 133 mm ) guns in eight twin mounts , weighing 81 tons each . They were grouped at the four corners of the citadel , with a twin mount on the main deck and another superimposed above it nearer amidships . This disposition gave better arcs of fire , freedom from blast , more separation of the magazines and a better arrangement of the ammunition supply . The cupolas for these mounts revolved on either the upper or superstructure deck ; between deck mountings travelled on roller paths on the armoured deck . This permitted a flat @-@ trajectory or high @-@ angle fire . Loading was semi @-@ automatic , normal rate of fire was ten to twelve rounds per minute . The maximum range of the Mk I guns was 24 @,@ 070 yards ( 22 @,@ 009 @.@ 6 m ) at a 45 @-@ degree elevation , the anti @-@ aircraft ceiling was 49 @,@ 000 feet ( 14 @,@ 935 @.@ 2 m ) . The guns could be elevated to 70 degrees and depressed to 5 degrees . However , the guns could only practically fire seven to eight rounds per minute , due to the heavy weight of the shell and the fact that the 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch round was semi @-@ fixed , requiring the crew to separately load the cartridge and shell into the breech . King George V introduced the High Angle Control System Mark IVGB anti @-@ aircraft fire control system to the Royal Navy , which , along with the Mk IV Pom @-@ Pom Director , pioneered the use of the Gyro Rate Unit .
= = = = Anti @-@ aircraft battery = = = =
The King George V design had four 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch quadruple machine gun mounts , but in 1939 these were replaced by two Mark VI pom @-@ pom mounts . In 1940 , to combat air attack , four Unrotated Projectile mountings were fitted , on " B " turret , two on " Y " turret , one replaced a pom @-@ pom mount added in 1939 at the stern . The pom @-@ poms mounted in the King George V were designed and produced by Vickers Armstrongs as a result of a post @-@ First World War requirement for a multiple mounting which was effective against close @-@ range bombers or torpedo planes . The first model , tested in 1927 , was superior to anything developed in other countries at the time and in 1938 the Mark VI * had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 400 feet per second , a 1 @.@ 594 @-@ inch bore and a barrel length of 40 calibres . They fired a 1 @.@ 8 @-@ pound shell at a rate of 96 – 98 rounds per minute for controlled fire and 115 rounds per minute for automatic fire . The range of the Mark VI * was 6 @,@ 800 yards , at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 300 feet per second . The Mark VI octuple mount weighed 16 tons . The Mark VII quadruple mount weighed 10 @.@ 8 tons if power operated ; it could be elevated to 80 degrees and depressed to 10 degrees at a rate of 25 degrees per second which was also the rate of train . The normal ammunition supply on board for the Mark VI was 1 @,@ 800 rounds per barrel . King George V introduced the Mk IV Pom @-@ pom director to the Royal Navy in 1940 , becoming the first ship in the world to feature gyroscopic target tracking in tachymetric anti @-@ aircraft directors .
= = Operational history = =
The first of her class to be completed , King George V was commissioned at her shipyard and sailed for Rosyth in Scotland on 16 October 1940 ; there she took on board her ammunition and began her sea trials . By the end of the year she had joined the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow . She crossed the Atlantic early in 1941 to take Lord Halifax , the Ambassador to the United States , to Annapolis and covered an east @-@ bound convoy on her return , arriving back at Scapa Flow on 6 February . Her next task was to provide distant cover for Operation Claymore , the Royal Marines raid on the Lofoten islands off the north @-@ west coast of Norway . She escorted further Atlantic convoys , HX 104 and HX 115 during March .
= = = Action with Bismarck = = =
When Bismarck along with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen broke out into the Atlantic Ocean , King George V sailed on 22 May with HMS Victorious and eleven cruisers and destroyers in support of the cruiser patrols off Iceland . King George V was the flagship of Admiral Sir John Tovey , who commanded the force . King George V was still 300 to 400 miles away on the morning of 24 May , when HMS Prince of Wales and Hood engaged both Bismarck and Prinz Eugen . Hood was sunk and Prince of Wales was damaged when taking fire from both Bismarck and Prinz Eugen and forced to retire . The German Battleship Bismarck , although damaged , and Prinz Eugen continued south .
The British re @-@ located Bismarck at 10 : 30 on 26 May , when a Catalina flying boat of RAF Coastal Command sighted her , heading for the French port of Brest . Rodney and King George V were still about 125 miles away . The aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal was ordered to launch an air attack , and at 22 : 25 her torpedo bombers , a flight of Fairey Swordfishes damaged Bismarck , slowing her down and jamming her rudder , forcing her to turn back out into the Atlantic , away from the safety of port . At 15 : 00 Rodney joined King George V and they maintained 22 knots – which was nearly maximum speed for Rodney . King George V had only 32 percent of her fuel left while Rodney had only enough fuel to continue the chase at high speed until 8 : 00 the following day .
Admiral Tovey signalled his battle plan to Rodney just before sunrise on 27 May ; she was free to manœuvre independently as long as she conformed generally to the movements of King George V. Both ships were to close the range to 15 @,@ 000 yards as quickly as possible , then turn for broadside fire .
At 08 : 15 HMS Norfolk spotted Bismarck and turned away out of range . She soon sighted the other British ships off her starboard quarter , and informed them that Bismarck was roughly 50 @,@ 000 yards to the southwest . By 08 : 43 King George V had Bismarck in sight , at 20 @,@ 500 yards . Four minutes later Rodney opened fire . King George V followed suit in less than a minute . Bismarck answered almost immediately , straddling Rodney on her second salvo . By 08 : 59 King George V had closed to 16 @,@ 000 yards and all her 14 @-@ inch guns were firing ; Rodney was firing full 16 @-@ inch salvoes . Bismarck concentrated all her remaining guns on King George V , but only an occasional shell came close . At 09 : 14 King George V , at 12 @,@ 000 yards , had opened fire with her 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch guns , and Rodney had moved to 8 @,@ 500 – 9 @,@ 000 yards .
At 09 : 27 a shell hitting Bismarck penetrated the hydraulic machinery in turret ' Anton ' and disabled it , causing the guns to run down to maximum depression . Her topsides were wrecked , and a large fire burned amidships . After firing steadily for over 30 minutes , without any problems , King George V , by 09 : 27 , began having trouble with her main battery , and from that point onward every salvo missed at least one gun due to failures in the safety interlocks for antiflash protection and from ammunition feed jams . At 10 : 21 , with Bismarck silenced and obviously sinking , Admiral Tovey detailed the cruiser Dorsetshire to finish her off with torpedoes . King George V fired 339 14in ( 354mm ) and over 700 5.25in ( 133mm ) shells during the action . As both Rodney and King George V were low on fuel they returned to port at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ) , escorted by eleven destroyers to guard against German air or submarine attack . The next day , after the escort was reduced to three destroyers , four German aircraft did attack but scored no hits . Both King George V and Rodney returned to port safely , but the destroyer HMS Mashona , sent ahead to refuel , was bombed and sunk .
= = = Collision damage = = =
After repairs and adjustments to her guns , King George V attacked German shipping in the Glom Fjord , Norway , in October 1941 . She then covered convoys to Russia . On 1 May 1942 she was operating with USS Washington as an escort to Convoy PQ 15 , and collided with the destroyer HMS Punjabi , which had manoeuvred to avoid a mine and crossed her bow in dense fog . Punjabi was cut in two and King George V had 40 feet of her bow badly damaged . King George V entered the Gladstone Dock in Liverpool on 9 May for repairs by Cammell Laird , and returned to Scapa Flow on 1 July 1942 to resume convoy escort duty .
= = = Mediterranean operations = = =
In May 1943 , King George V was moved to Gibraltar in preparation for Operation Husky . King George V and her sister ship HMS Howe were allocated to the reserve covering group when the operation got under way on 1 July . The two ships bombarded Trapani in Sicily on 12 July and also helped defend against an air raid whilst in Algiers prior to departing for Operation Avalanche , ( the Allied invasion of Italy ) . The two ships also bombarded the islands of Levanzo and Favignana , after which they were in the reserve group for the Salerno landings ( Operation Avalanche ) which began on 9 September . King George V escorted part of the Italian Fleet , including the battleships Andrea Doria and Caio Duilio , to Malta after the armistice and with Howe provided cover for the 1st Airborne Division who were transported to Taranto in support of Operation Slapstick from 9 to 11 September by the cruiser USS Boise and the fast minelayer HMS Abdiel . The battleship then escorted a naval force which occupied the Italian naval base at Taranto . She later escorted surrendered Italian ships from Malta to Alexandria . After bombarding German positions during the Salerno landings , King George V returned to the United Kingdom .
= = = Pacific operations = = =
King George V was in Liverpool for an overhaul from March to June , 1944 ; it included the installation of additional radar gear , more anti @-@ aircraft guns , improved accommodation and ventilation . On 28 October 1944 King George V sailed from Scapa Flow under the command of Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser to join other Royal Navy units assembling at Trincomalee in Ceylon . A stop at Alexandria en route enabled her to divert to Milos in the Aegean Sea to bombard German positions . On 1 December she resumed her eastward journey , arriving in Trincomalee on 15 December . King George V got under way again on 16 January 1945 . The flotilla , known as Task Force 63 , comprised King George V , the aircraft carriers HMS Illustrious , Indomitable , Indefatigable and Victorious , four cruisers and ten destroyers . The first stage of the voyage was covering the 11 @,@ 000 nautical miles to Sydney ; en route the force attacked oil refineries on Sumatra in Operation Meridian . They also practised replenishment @-@ at @-@ sea and beat off a Japanese air attack , with King George V 's anti @-@ aircraft crews shooting down one Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 21 .
Joined by Howe and re @-@ designated Task Force 57 , the British Pacific Fleet was again involved in operations in late March 1945 , when it launched attacks on the Sakishimo @-@ Gunto airfields , a task it repeated in early May . On 4 May 1945 King George V led battleships and cruisers in a forty @-@ five @-@ minute bombardment of Japanese air facilities in the Ryukyu Islands . As the Allies approached the Japanese homeland , King George V was dispatched in mid @-@ July to join the US battleships in a bombardment of industrial installations at Hitachi . King George V fired 267 rounds from her 14 @-@ inch guns during this operation . The task force then moved on to Hamamatsu in southern Honshu , where it carried out a further bombardment of aviation factories . During the Okinawa campaign , the battleship supported four fast carriers of the British Pacific Fleet . Her last offensive action was a night bombardment of Hamamatsu on 29 and 30 July 1945 .
With the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the surrender that followed , King George V moved with other units of the British Pacific Fleet into Tokyo Bay to be present at the surrender ceremonies .
= = = Post war = = =
In January 1946 she conveyed the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester on an official visit to Australia , returning to Portsmouth in March . She was flagship of the Home Fleet until December 1946 , after becoming a training vessel .
King George V 's active naval career was terminated by the Royal Navy in June 1950 , when she and her sister @-@ ships went into reserve and were mothballed . King George V was the first large warship to be preserved in this fashion . This involved sealing the armament , machinery and boilers against damp and installing dehumidifiers throughout . In December 1955 , she was downgraded to extended reserve and in 1957 the decision was taken to scrap the four ships . The following year King George V was moved from her berth in Gareloch to the ship breaking firm of Arnott Young and Co. in Dalmuir to undergo dismantling .
= = Refits = =
During her career , King George V was refitted on several occasions in order to update her equipment . The following are the dates and details of the refits undertaken :
= HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b =
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b is a planet in the orbit of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 , which lies 1 @,@ 367 light years away from Earth . Its discovery was reported in June 2011 , although it was suspected to be a planet as early as 2004 . The planet is about three @-@ fourths the mass of Jupiter , but is almost eighty percent larger than Jupiter is ; this inflation has , as with the discovery of similar planets WASP @-@ 17b and HAT @-@ P @-@ 32b , raised the question of what ( other than temperature ) causes these planets to become so large .
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b was difficult to confirm because its star experiences high jitter , which disrupted the ability to obtain accurate measurements . As such , a greater number of radial velocity observations were collected to make the confirmation , although it was later determined that HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b could not be determined using the radial velocity method . The planet 's confirmation came about after the planet 's light curve was collected , and the Blendanal process ruled out most false positive scenarios .
= = Discovery = =
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b 's existence was first suggested after observations by the six @-@ telescope HATnet collaboration , a project that searches the sky for planets in transit of , or crossing in front of , their host stars . The presence of a planet in HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 's orbit had been suspected as early as 2004 , although high levels of jitter were detected . This jitter , or a random and shaky appearance that clouds the accuracy of measurements , made it difficult to easily verify the radial velocity of the planetary candidate 's host star , which usually leads summarily to the planet 's confirmation .
As a start , the spectrum of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 was composed using the digital speedometer at the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ meter Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory in Arizona . The collected data found that the star was a single dwarf star exhibiting a slight rotation . Several of its parameters , including its effective temperature and surface gravity , were found . Additionally , the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph at a 1 @.@ 93 @-@ meter telescope at France 's Haute @-@ Provence Observatory was used to observe the star . The resulting data invited the possibility that radial velocity measurements , which can exhibit anomalies that often indicate the presence of a planet , may have been because of background distortion ( and not a planet ) . This possibility significantly complicated the ability of scientists to verify this planet . After the observations , follow @-@ ups were postponed for several years .
Between September 2008 and December 2010 , twenty @-@ two spectra were collected using the High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer ( HIRES ) instrument at Hawaii 's W.M. Keck Observatory . This data was used to derive HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 's radial velocity . A far greater number of spectra were gathered for HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 than the number usually gathered for planetary candidates to compensate for the data 's jitter effect . It was concluded that the jitter in the data was caused by stellar activity and not the presence of other planets .
It became apparent to the investigating science team that radial velocity data alone could not prove the existence of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b . As such , photometric observations of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 were conducted using the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory 's 1 @.@ 2 @-@ meter telescope , which hosted the KeplerCam CCD instrument . This data was used to create the light curve of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 . In doing so , a slight dimming was observed where HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b was believed to have transited its star .
Using a program called Blendanal , similar to the Blender technique used to verify the planets discovered by Kepler , the astronomers observing HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 hoped to rule out false positive alternatives that could explain the planet @-@ like signal seen in HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 's light curve and radial velocity . The use of Blendanal ruled out the possibilities that the signal was caused by that of a hierarchical triple star or a mixture between a bright star and a binary star in the background . The possibility that HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 is actually a binary star whose secondary companion is too dim to be distinguishable from the brighter star could not be ruled out . However , the data indicated that the planet HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b did indeed exist .
The discoveries of the high @-@ radii planets HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b and HAT @-@ P @-@ 32b , along with that of WASP @-@ 17b , contributed to the question of what factors , besides temperature , contribute to the large radii of these inflated planets . The discrepancy lies in planet WASP @-@ 18b , which is far hotter than the newly discovered HAT planets and WASP @-@ 17b , but has a far smaller radius .
The discoveries of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b and HAT @-@ P @-@ 32b were reported together in the Astrophysical Journal . The paper was submitted on June 6 , 2011 . The authors of the discovery paper of the planets suggested the usage of the Spitzer Space Telescope to observe the occultation of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b behind its star to better define its characteristics .
= = Host star = =
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 , or GSC 2461 @-@ 00988 , is an F @-@ type star that lies 419 parsecs ( 1 @,@ 367 light years ) away from Earth . The star has 1 @.@ 403 solar masses and 1 @.@ 777 solar radii ; the star is , in other words , 40 % more massive than and 77 % larger than the Sun . With an effective temperature of 6401 K , HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 is hotter than the Sun . It is also more metal @-@ rich , with a metallicity that is measured at [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 05 . This means that HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 has 12 % more iron than the amount measured in the Sun . HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 is younger than the Sun , at an estimated age of 2 @.@ 4 billion years . The surface gravity of the star is determined to be 4 @.@ 09 . All the values above are determined with the assumption that planet HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b has an irregular , or eccentric , orbit .
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 has an apparent magnitude of 11 @.@ 89 . It cannot be seen from Earth with the naked eye because it is so dim .
Because high levels of jitter have been detected in the spectrum of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 , the ability to collect the most sensitive radial velocity measurements possible has been dulled . The loss of accuracy has prevented astronomers from disregarding the possibility that HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 is actually a binary star , where the secondary , dimmer companion is visually indistinguishable from the brighter primary companion . If this is the case , then the dimmer star in the HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 system would have to have a mass that is less than 0 @.@ 55 times that of the Sun . A search for a binary companion star using adaptive optics at the MMT Observatory was negative .
It is possible that other planets with shorter orbital periods than HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b exist in the system . However , at the time of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b 's discovery , not enough radial velocity measurements had been collected to determine if this is so .
= = Characteristics = =
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b is a planet that has 0 @.@ 764 Jupiter masses and 1 @.@ 827 Jupiter radii . In other words , it is about three @-@ fourths as massive as Jupiter , but is slightly less than twice Jupiter 's size . HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b orbits its star at an average distance of 0 @.@ 0503 AU , which is about 5 % of the average distance between the Sun and Earth . This orbit is completed every 3 @.@ 474474 days ( 83 @.@ 39 hours ) . HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b has an equilibrium temperature of 1838 K , which is almost fifteen times hotter than the measured equilibrium temperature of Jupiter ( 124 K ) .
The best fit for the shape of HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b 's orbit suggests that the orbit is slightly elliptical , as the planet 's orbital eccentricity is fit to 0 @.@ 148 . However , because the star HAT @-@ P @-@ 33 has such a high level of jitter , it is difficult to constrain the planet 's eccentricity with accuracy . Most of the planet 's defined characteristics are based on the assumption that HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b has an elliptical orbit , although the planet 's discoverers have also derived HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b 's characteristics on the assumption that the planet has a circular orbit . The elliptical model has been chosen because it is considered to be the most likely scenario .
HAT @-@ P @-@ 33b has an orbital inclination of 86.7º as seen from Earth . The planet is , thus , almost edge @-@ on when seen from Earth . The planet has been observed to transit its host star .
= Dallas Buyers Club =
Dallas Buyers Club is a 2013 American biographical drama film , co @-@ written by Craig Borten and Melisa Wallack , and directed by Jean @-@ Marc Vallée . The film tells the story of Ron Woodroof , an AIDS patient diagnosed in the mid 1980s when HIV / AIDS treatments were under @-@ researched , while the disease was not understood and highly stigmatized . As part of the experimental AIDS treatment movement , he smuggled unapproved pharmaceutical drugs into Texas for treating his symptoms , and distributed them to fellow people with AIDS by establishing the " Dallas Buyers Club " while facing opposition from the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) . Two fictional supporting characters , Dr. Eve Saks ( Jennifer Garner ) , and Rayon ( Jared Leto ) , were composite roles created from the writer 's interviews with transgender AIDS patients , activists , and doctors .
Screenwriter Borten interviewed Woodroof in 1992 and wrote the script , which he polished with writer Wallack in 2000 , and then sold to producer Robbie Brenner . Several other actors , directors , and producers who were attached at various times to the development of the film left the project . Universal Pictures also tried to make the film , but did not . A couple of screenwriters wrote drafts that were rejected . In 2009 , producer Brenner involved McConaughey , because of his Texas origins , the same as Woodroof 's . Brenner selected the first draft , written by Borten and Wallack , for the film , and then Vallée was set to direct the film . Principal photography began on November 11 , 2012 , in New Orleans , Louisiana , continuing for 25 days of filming , which also included shooting in Baton Rouge . Brenner and Rachel Winter co @-@ produced the film . The official soundtrack album was featured by various artists , and was released digitally on October 29 , 2013 , by the Relativity Music Group .
Dallas Buyers Club premiered at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival and was released theatrically in the United States on November 1 , 2013 , by Focus Features , strategically entering wide release on November 22 for award season . The film grossed over $ 27 million domestically and $ 27 @.@ 9 million internationally , the box office revenue returned over $ 55 million against a budget of $ 5 million in 182 @-@ days of a theatrical run . It grossed over $ 4 @.@ 5 million from DVD , and over $ 3 million from Blu @-@ ray sales . The film received universal critical acclaim , resulting in numerous accolades . Most praised the performances of McConaughey and Leto , who received the Academy Award for Best Actor and for Best Supporting Actor , respectively , at the 86th Academy Awards , making this the first film since Mystic River ( 2003 ) , and only the fifth movie ever , to win both awards . The film also won the award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling , and garnered nominations for Best Picture , Best Original Screenplay , and Best Editing .
= = Plot = =
In 1985 , Dallas electrician and rodeo cowboy Ron Woodroof is diagnosed with AIDS and given 30 days to live . He initially refuses to accept the diagnosis , but remembers having unprotected sex with an intravenous drug @-@ using prostitute . He is soon ostracized by family and friends , gets fired from his job , and is eventually evicted from his home . At the hospital , he is tended to by Dr. Eve Saks , who tells him that they are testing a drug called zidovudine ( AZT ) , an antiretroviral drug which is thought to prolong the life of AIDS patients — and is the only drug approved by the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) for testing on humans . Saks informs him that in the clinical trials , half the patients receive the drug and the other half are given a placebo , as this is the only way they can determine if the drug is working .
Woodroof bribes a hospital worker to get him the AZT . As soon as he begins taking it , he finds his health deteriorating ( exacerbated by his cocaine use ) . When he returns to the hospital , he meets Rayon , a drug addicted , HIV @-@ positive trans woman , toward whom he is hostile . As his health worsens , he drives to a Mexican hospital to get more AZT . Dr. Vass , who has had his American medical license revoked , tells him that the AZT is " poisonous " and " kills every cell it comes into contact with " . He instead prescribes ddC and the protein peptide T , which are not approved in the US . Three months later , Woodroof finds his health much improved . It occurs to him that he could make money by importing the drugs and selling them to other HIV @-@ positive patients . Since the drugs are not illegal , he is able to get them over the border by masquerading as a priest and swearing that they are for personal use . Meanwhile , Dr. Saks also begins to notice the negative effects of AZT , but is told by her supervisor Dr. Sevard that it cannot be discontinued .
Woodroof begins selling the drugs on the street . He comes back into contact with Rayon , with whom he reluctantly sets up business since she can bring many more clients . The pair establish the " Dallas Buyers Club " , charging $ 400 per month for membership , and it becomes extremely popular . He gradually begins to respect Rayon and think of her as a friend . When Woodroof has a heart attack caused by a recently acquired dose of interferon , Sevard learns of the club and the alternative medication . He is angry that it is interrupting his trial , while Richard Barkley of the FDA confiscates the interferon and threatens to have Woodroof arrested . Saks agrees that there are benefits to AIDS medicine buyers clubs ( of which there are several around the country ) but feels powerless to change anything . The processes that the FDA uses to research , test and approve drugs is seen as flawed and a part of the problem for AIDS patients . Saks and Woodroof strike up a friendship .
Barkley gets a police permit to raid the Buyers Club , but can do nothing but give Woodroof a fine . In 1987 , the FDA changes its regulations such that any unapproved drug is also illegal . As the Club runs out of funds , Rayon , who is addicted to cocaine , begs her father for money and tells Woodroof that she has sold her life insurance policy to raise money . Woodroof travels to Mexico and gets more of the peptide T. Upon return , Ron finds out that Rayon died after being taken to the hospital . Saks is also upset by her death , and is asked to resign when the hospital discovers she is linking patients with the Buyers Club . She refuses to comply and insists that she would have to be fired .
As time passes , Woodroof shows compassion towards gay , lesbian , and transgender members of the club and making money becomes less of a concern ; his priority is provision of the drugs . Peptide T gets increasingly difficult to acquire , and in 1987 he files a lawsuit against the FDA . He seeks the legal right to take the protein , which has been confirmed as non @-@ toxic but is still not approved . The judge is compassionate toward him and admonishes the FDA , but lacks the legal tools to do anything . As the film ends , on @-@ screen text reveals that the FDA later allowed Woodroof to take peptide T for personal use and that he died of AIDS in 1992 , seven years later than his doctors initially predicted .
= = Cast = =
Matthew McConaughey as Ron Woodroof , a real @-@ life AIDS patient who smuggled unapproved pharmaceutical drugs into Texas when he found them effective at improving his symptoms . In an interview with CBS News ' Lee Cowan in February 2014 , McConaughey said that he selected the role because he thought it was not just a normal story , but it was a story of a " wild man . " McConaughey was born and raised near Dallas , so he was very familiar with the culture . Additionally , he thought that the script was " incredibly human , with no sentimentality . " McConaughey lost nearly 50 pounds ( 22 kilograms ) to play Woodroof in the film .
Jennifer Garner as Dr. Eve Saks , who treats AIDS patients like Woodroof and Rayon . Upon Garner 's casting , after reading the script she expressed : " I had heard about it , and I had seen pictures of Matthew losing weight . And really couldn 't imagine how I was going to do it , and was so happy at home . "
Jared Leto as Rayon , a fictional trans woman with HIV who helps Woodroof . To accurately portray his role , Leto lost 30 pounds ( 13 kilograms ) , shaved his eyebrows and waxed his entire body . He stated the portrayal was grounded in his meeting transgender people while researching the role . He stated that , when he moved to Los Angeles in 1991 , he had a roommate who died of AIDS . He " [ worked ] on Rayon 's voice for weeks " and refused to break character during filming ; director Vallée stated : " I don 't know Leto . Jared never showed me Jared . "
Denis O 'Hare as Dr. Sevard
Steve Zahn as Tucker
Michael O 'Neill as Richard Barkley
Dallas Roberts as David Wayne
Griffin Dunne as Dr. Vass
Kevin Rankin as T. J.
Bradford Cox as " Sunflower " , Rayon 's lover , a cross @-@ dresser dying of AIDS
Scott Takeda as Mr. Yamata
Adam Dunn ( cameo ) as a bartender
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The film is based on the real life of Ron Woodroof , a patient of HIV and AIDS , who was the subject of a lengthy 1992 article in The Dallas Morning News written by journalist and author Bill Minutaglio . A month before Woodroof died in September 1992 , screenwriter Craig Borten was told about the story by his friend , so he went and interviewed him to create the screenplay ; Borten recorded many hours of interviews with Woodroof and had access to his personal journals . Borten wrote a script for what he believed would make a great movie and attempted to attract interest in making the film in mid 1996 , with Dennis Hopper attached to direct . Columbia Pictures was set to buy the script but the film was unable to secure financial backing .
In an interview , Borten revealed that he met Melisa Wallack in 2000 and asked her to help with the script , to which she said yes . In 2001 , after one year of working on the script , they sold it to producer Robbie Brenner , who then set Marc Forster to direct the film for Universal Pictures , but left due to some personal delays . In June 2008 , Craig Gillespie and Ryan Gosling were in talks to join the film , which was to be produced by David Bushell and Marc Abraham for Universal Pictures and Strike Entertainment . Chase Palmer was writing the script that time around , and screenwriters Guillermo Arriaga and Stephen Belber had reportedly also written the subsequent drafts for the film . In 2009 , producer Robbie Brenner got involved again and rejected all the rewrites of the script , and the original version by Borten and Wallack was sent to actor Matthew McConaughey to see if the Dallas native would be interested in playing the role . On March 9 , 2011 , Jean @-@ Marc Vallée was confirmed to direct the film based on the script by Borten and Wallack . Rachel Winter also attached to produce the film .
On November 14 , 2012 , it was announced that Remstar Films had acquired the Canadian rights while Entertainment One would handle the United Kingdom rights for the film . On April 23 , 2013 , Focus Features acquired the United States and Latin American distribution rights for the theatrical release of the film . In May 2013 , Voltage Pictures and Truth Entertainment closed a deal to produce the film .
= = = Casting = = =
In 1996 , Woody Harrelson was attached to the film to play Ron Woodroof , but left the film because of financing issues . In 2002 , Brad Pitt was attached to play the lead role . In June 2008 , Ryan Gosling was in talks to join the film for the lead role to play Woodroof , but couldn 't take the role . In 2009 , producer Brenner sent the script to actor Matthew McConaughey and got him involved to star in the film . Wondering whether the Texas native was interested in playing another Texas native ( he 's originally from Uvalde ) , Brenner says that he asked himself : " ' Who is Ron Woodroof ? ' And in my mind , it was Matthew . Like Ron , he 's from Dallas , he 's handsome , and he has a twinkle in the eye . Matthew also has intensity and intelligence like Ron did , mixed with that cowboy charisma and fighter 's spirit . He was beyond perfect for the role . " Writer Borten said : " Ron was a very charismatic , funny and persuasive , a real salesman . Even if he was making fun of you , you wanted him to continue because he was so charming . Matthew possesses a lot of those same qualities . " On March 9 , 2011 , Los Angeles Times confirmed that McConaughey would star in the film as Woodroof and quoted McConaughey as saying : " It 's a great script and a great story . And I think it can be a great movie . " Woodroof 's sister Sharon Woodroof Braden was reportedly pleased with the casting of McConaughey as Woodroof because he had a similar swagger and personality . She had shown concern earlier in the development process when Pitt and Gosling were attached , due to their personalities not matching Woodroof 's .
On May 11 , 2011 , Hilary Swank was reportedly in talks to join the film with McConaughey 's role confirmed . On October 3 , 2012 , it was announced that Swank had dropped out of the film and that Gael Garcia Bernal was in talks to play an HIV patient who meets Woodroof in the hospital and helps him in the club . On November 6 , The Hollywood Reporter confirmed that Jared Leto would be returning to acting to play the role which Bernal was previously in talks to play . In January 2014 , Jared Leto has admitted that he was sent a script 15 years ago but never read it . When Leto was asked about his role , he said : " This was a really special movie . I think it was the role of a lifetime . It 's one of the best things I 've ever done . " He also said that he tried to stay focused on the role because he knew it was an incredible opportunity . On November 14 , Dallas Roberts and Steve Zahn joined the film ; Roberts would play David Wayne , Ron 's defense attorney , while Zahn would play a Dallas police officer who is sympathetic to Ron . On November 26 , Griffin Dunne , Denis O 'Hare , and Bradford Cox joined the cast when the shooting was underway in New Orleans .
McConaughey lost 47 pounds ( 21 kg ) for the role , going from 183 pounds ( 83 kg ) to 136 pounds ( 62 kg ) . He reportedly stayed indoors in his Texas mansion for six months to become paler and ceased socializing and had to find new ways to entertain himself , which made him " smarter " . When he reached as low as 143 lbs , his eyesight began to fail . He began to feel extremely weak to the point that he would be sore from doing five push @-@ ups and his legs would lock up after running 30 feet . Leto lost over 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) for the role and said that he had stopped eating to lose weight quicker ; his lowest record weight was 114 pounds ( 52 kg ) .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on November 11 , 2012 in New Orleans , Louisiana . Filming also took place in Baton Rouge . Jennifer Garner has stated that the film was shot very quickly over just 25 days and has remarked that McConaughey " gave an even wilder performance in takes that didn 't appear onscreen " . McConaughey stated that " I was riding a new way of making a film . There were no lights , one camera , 15 @-@ minute takes . " Half of the shots were lit with artificial light and the other half were not . Vallée said : " I now had a perfect opportunity to try to shoot an entire movie without artificial lights , using the Alexa digital camera . Like the RED , the Alexa offers a broad spectrum of colors and shadows in even the darkest natural lighting conditions . I felt that the approach was right for this project . The look and feel became that we were capturing reality ; even though Dallas Buyers Club is not a documentary in content or structure , it could have that subtle quality . We shot the movie 100 % handheld with two lenses , a 35 @-@ millimeter and a 50 @-@ millimeter . These get close to the actors and don 't skew the images . ( Director of Photography ) Yves Belanger adjusted for every shot at 400 or 1600 ASA ( light sensitivity ) , displaying different color balance . "
Jared Leto , who played Rayon , an AIDS patient and trans woman with a drug problem in the film , refused to break character for the whole 25 @-@ days shooting . During the interviews of people with the New York Times at TIFF premiere , who were involved in the film said about Leto that , in a sense , they never really met Mr. Leto until months after the shoot was over . Leto said about his character , " That phrase staying in character to me really means commitment , focus , and for a role like this that 's so intense and challenging and extreme in a lot of ways , it demanded my full attention . "
= = Music = =
The official soundtrack album was announced on October 16 , 2013 , and it was released digitally on October 29 , 2013 , by the Relativity Music Group . The soundtrack album featured various artists , include Leto 's band Thirty Seconds to Mars , Tegan and Sara , Awolnation , The Naked and Famous , T. Rex , My Morning Jacket , Fitz and The Tantrums , Blondfire , Neon Trees , Cold War Kids , Capital Cities , The Airborne Toxic Event , and more . It was announced that 40 cents of every sale of album at iTunes would go to the AIDS relief charity Project Red 's Global Fund .
New Noise Magazines Joseph Tucker said , " The score on this record is incredibly diverse and of equally incredible quality , unlike so many others . Pick this up before or after you go and see Dallas Buyers Club . " Matt of Homo Razzi said about the album , " Overall this soundtrack has a little bit of everything and it works perfectly , mirroring some of the themes , emotions and moments of the film . " Stephanie Ochona reviewed for Renowned for Sound and gave the soundtrack 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 ratings , she said , " Set in the 80s where drugs and other experimentation was all the rage , music plays a big factor in the entire atmosphere of the movie . The soundtrack includes a diverse group of artists , from country stars , indie icons and modern rockers . All the songs featured help bring out the kind of mood a movie like Dallas Buyers Club is . " Ochona also said that , " Without such an accurate soundtrack , the film wouldn 't have made such a big impact , and both the visual and aural aspects work together to create a beautiful story of a man fighting for the right to live his life . "
Music critic Green Baron reviewed the music for Sputnikmusic , and said : " Dallas Buyers Club itself was a breathtaking motion picture driven by the extraordinary performances from Matthew McConaughey and Jared Leto . Its accompanying soundtrack , however , is less than satisfying . Filled to the brim with lifeless , stale indie @-@ rock tracks , the supporting album to one of the year 's most gripping films is a complete waste of talent and potential . " Baron thought that Dallas Buyers Club was saved by a few excellent songs , which were " Ready to Be Called On " , " After the Scripture " , and " City of Angels " . He said that , " Overall , the Dallas Buyers Club soundtrack is one that really isn 't worth your time or money . Aside from three superb songs , the whole album is a collection of drab indie pop / rock that ultimately falls flat due to its lack of memorability . "
= = Release = =
The first trailer was launched on August 27 , 2013 . The film premiered at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival on September 7 , on which Deadline 's Pete Hammond said , " It would seem an absolute no @-@ brainer that both ( McConaughey and Leto ) will be sitting front and center come March 2nd at the Dolby Theatre when Oscar winners are announced . If there are two better performances by anyone this year I have not seen them . " Focus Features released the film on November 1 , 2013 .
= = = Box office = = =
The film 's release was previously set for December 5 , but hoping to gain a competitive edge amid a crowded playing field , Focus Features shifted the release date to November 1 , believing the new date was ideal to launch a platform release in the awards season , and expecting to do a wide release for 5 @-@ day Thanksgiving weekend ( November 27 – December 1 ) . Because the film was an awards contender , Focus set the date in November for an Oscars strategy like that for 2013 Oscar winner Argo , which was released in October 2012 .
Over its opening weekend from November 1 – 3 of limited release in Los Angeles , New York , Toronto and Montreal , the film grossed $ 260 @,@ 865 from 9 theaters with an average of $ 28 @,@ 985 per theater , In second weekend from November 8 – 10 , film grossed $ 638 @,@ 704 , making total of $ 993 @,@ 088 with an average amount of $ 18 @,@ 249 from 35 theaters . And it was expanded to 184 locations in its third week of release and it grossed $ 1 @,@ 751 @,@ 359 from Nov 15 – 17 , with an average of $ 9 @,@ 518 , making total of $ 3 @,@ 012 @,@ 295 . It opened wide on November 22 ( the weekend before Thanksgiving ) in 666 theaters and grossed $ 2 @,@ 687 @,@ 157 from November 22 – 24 , with a total of $ 6 @,@ 374 @,@ 058 and average of $ 4 @,@ 035 per location . The wide release coincided with the Screen Actors Guild Awards ballots deadline , and was before the Golden Globe Awards ballots . The Screen Actors Guild mailed Screen Actors Guild Award nomination ballots to its voters on November 20 , and the nomination ballots for the Golden Globe Awards were mailed to the Hollywood Foreign Press Association members on or before November 27 .
71st Golden Globe Awards were announced on January 12 , 2014 with Dallas Buyers Club winning both of its nominations , and the film earned six 86th Academy Awards nominations that were announced on January 16 . The twelfth weekend after limited release , the film 's theater run jumped from 125 screens to a total of 419 and the film grossed $ 17 @,@ 813 @,@ 220 with an average of $ 2 @,@ 246 per theater from January 17 – 19 . After the 20th Screen Actors Guild Awards were announced on January 18 with Dallas Buyers Club winning two of its three nominations , during the thirteenth weekend from January 24 – 26 , 2014 , the film expanded to 1 @,@ 110 locations ( highest playing of the film ) and grossed $ 2 @,@ 028 @,@ 570 more in that weekend with an average of $ 1 @,@ 828 . Until that weekend the top grossing markets were Los Angeles , New York , San Francisco , Chicago and Dallas .
After a total of 182 days , the film ended its American theatrical run on May 1 , 2014 with a gross of $ 27 @,@ 298 @,@ 285 in North America . It grossed $ 27 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 in foreign countries including $ 8 @,@ 755 @,@ 794 of the United Kingdom , $ 2 @,@ 761 @,@ 258 of Australia , making a worldwide total gross of $ 55 @,@ 198 @,@ 2 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
0 ha ) was resold to the farmers who worked them . By 1950 , 89 % of all agricultural land was owner @-@ operated and only 11 % was tenant @-@ operated . MacArthur 's efforts to encourage trade union membership met with phenomenal success , and by 1947 , 48 % of the non @-@ agricultural workforce was unionized . Some of MacArthur 's reforms were rescinded in 1948 when his unilateral control of Japan was ended by the increased involvement of the State Department . During the Occupation , SCAP successfully , if not entirely , abolished many of the financial coalitions known as the Zaibatsu , which had previously monopolized industry . Eventually , looser industrial groupings known as Keiretsu evolved . The reforms alarmed many in the U.S. Departments of Defense and State , who believed they conflicted with the prospect of Japan and its industrial capacity as a bulwark against the spread of communism in Asia .
During this period , MacArthur , never a modest man , grew more self @-@ important and egoistical . Faubion Bowers , one of MacArthur 's aides during this period recalled :
When I clapped eyes on MacArthur I fell madly in love . Here was a magnificence I 'd never known and I 'd never been close to . Here was a man who moved in the highest circles , who held in personal contempt presidents , who had met kings and queens , and who knew the world in a way that I had not known up to that time . He was so overwhelmingly impressive , he had a kind of magnetism , a kind of charm that could charm the birds off the wallpaper in the room . And it was so interesting ... One of the interesting things , one of the tragic things in a way , was that all of us who were in the inner sanctum were corrupted by him . All of us , me included , felt that the more we glorified him , the more we ourselves were deified in some way . And it was remarkable how he was surrounded by , well , what Eisenhower called bootlickers , but we were like disciples to a Christ . And I remember one time before I put his mail on his desk , there was a card , an open card written in pencil and I read it . It was from Anthony Storey , Major Storey , who was his pilot , who 'd gone to the Philippines on some sort of business . And he wrote this card and it said : ' To one who walks and talks with God ' . And I thought , my God in heaven . That 's his what own pilot wrote " .
MacArthur 's tendency to surround himself with hero @-@ worshipping officers who held him in the highest awe meant he was never contradicted by his staff or given advice that was contrary to his own inclinations .
Much has been made of the apparent paradox between MacArthur , a man whose political inclinations were to the right of the Republican Party who acted as a liberal reformer when he ruled Japan . On one hand , MacArthur forced through a land reform , gave women the right to vote , removed the emphasis on militarism in the educational system , imposed a constitution that renounced the right to wage war , and sought to club the power of the zaibatsu . On the other hand , MacArthur 's intelligence chief General Charles A. Willoughby , whom MacArthur called " my lovable fascist " cultivated connections with former members of the Japanese military and secret police . Like Willoughby , MacArthur believed that Communism was part of a Jewish conspiracy to take over the world and he often complained that too many officials sent out by Washington to help govern Japan were Jewish and thus Communists . MacArthur told the British diplomat Sir Alvary Gascoigne in 1948 that Eisenhower could not be considered a potential president or even a " good Republican " because he had " Jewish blood in his veins " . Remarks like that led the American Japanologist Michael Schaller to comment : " Attacking a rival as a Jew was a frequent MacArthur tactic " .
Willoughby had developed an elaborate conspiracy theory that the spy network created by the Soviet spy Richard Sorge was still in existence and that members of the Sorge spy network were now occupying positions of power in Washington , who in turn were responsible for the fall of the Kuomintang government in China in 1949 . With MacArthur 's approval , Willloughby leaked this theory about the Sorge spy network 's supposed power in Washington to House Un @-@ American Activities Committee in the late 1940s , leading to long investigations of the State Department officials whom Willoughby had accused of being part of the Sorge spy network . Schaller argued this paradox between MacArthur the liberal reformer vs. MacArthur the ultra @-@ conservative anti @-@ Semite can be easily explained by the fact that MacArthur 's primary aim was always to win the Republican nomination for presidency and he needed to be seen as a success in ruling Japan to win the nomination . Almost all Americans during the war believed that Japan needed drastic reforms after the war , and as such an American occupation of Japan that did not carry out reforms would be seen as a failure by the American people . MacArthur , despite all of his talk about leading a " revolution " in Japan shared many of the same assumptions promoted by former ambassador Joseph C. Grew who believed that pre @-@ war Japan had been an essentially normal society that had unfortunately been " hijacked " in the 1930s by a few " fanatics " , and as such , Japan really did not need radical reforms . Grew argued against those who claimed that Japan had carried out a flawed modernization with the Meiji Restoration and needed deep structural reforms that on the contrary , all that was needed was to remove the handful of " fanatics " and Japan would revert to the " normal " country it had been before 1931 . It was MacArthur 's political ambitions that drove him to carry out reforms in Japan , not a genuine belief in their desirability . Schnaller wrote that MacArthur would oscillate between the conservative stance favored by Grew vs. the liberal stance favored by the " New Dealers " as the officials who favored deep reforms were known , and such shifts in emphasis had everything to do with his desire to be the Republican candidate for president , and nothing to do with the Cold War , what Washington wanted or the question of how much of a " normal " nation had Japan had been prior to World War II .
In 1948 , MacArthur made a bid to win the Republican nomination to be the GOP candidate for president , which was the most serious of several efforts he made over the years . MacArthur 's status as one of America 's most popular war heroes together with his reputation as the statesman who had " transformed " Japan gave him a strong basis for running for president , but MacArthur 's lack of connections within the GOP were a major handicap . MacArthur 's strongest supporters came from the quasi @-@ isolationist , Midwestern wing of the Republicans and embraced men such as Brigadier General Hanford MacNider , Philip La Follette , and Brigadier General Robert E. Wood , a diverse collection of " Old Right " and Progressive Republicans only united by a belief that the U.S. was too much involved in Europe for its own good . MacArthur declined to campaign for the presidency himself , but he privately encouraged his supporters to put his name on the ballot . MacArthur had always stated he would retire when a peace treaty was signed with Japan , and his push in the fall of 1947 to have the U.S sign a peace treaty with Japan was intended to allow him to retire on a high note , and thus campaign for the presidency . For the same reasons , Truman subverted MacArthur 's efforts to have peace treaty signed in 1947 , saying that more time was needed before the U.S could formally make peace with Japan .
Without a peace treaty , MacArthur decided not to resign while at the same time writing letters to his friend General Wood saying he would be more than happy to accept the Republican nomination if it were offered to him . In late 1947 @-@ early 1948 , MacArthur received several Republican grandees in Tokyo while General Robert Eichelberger wrote in his diary that MacArthur was obsessed with becoming president . On 9 March 1948 MacArthur issued a press statement declaring his interest in being the Republican candidate for president , saying he would be honored if the GOP were to nominate him , but would not resign from the Army to campaign for the presidency . The press statement had been forced by Wood , who told MacArthur that it was impossible to campaign for a man who was not officially running for president , and that MacArthur could either declare his candidacy or see Wood cease campaigning for him . MacArthur 's supporters made a major effort to win the Wisconsin Republican primary held on 6 April 1948 . MacArthur 's refusal to campaign badly hurt his chances and the 1948 Wisconsin primary was won to everybody 's surprise by Harold Stassen . The defeat in Wisconsin followed by defeat in Nebraska effectively ended MacArthur 's chances of winning the Republican nomination , but MacArthur refused to withdraw his name until the 1948 Republican convention which was won by Governor Thomas Dewy of New York .
In an address to Congress on 19 April 1951 , MacArthur declared :
The Japanese people since the war have undergone the greatest reformation recorded in modern history . With a commendable will , eagerness to learn , and marked capacity to understand , they have from the ashes left in war 's wake erected in Japan an edifice dedicated to the supremacy of individual liberty and personal dignity , and in the ensuing process there has been created a truly representative government committed to the advance of political morality , freedom of economic enterprise , and social justice .
MacArthur handed over power to the Japanese government in 1949 , but remained in Japan until relieved by President Harry S. Truman on 11 April 1951 . The San Francisco Peace Treaty , signed on 8 September 1951 , marked the end of the Allied occupation , and when it went into effect on 28 April 1952 , Japan was once again an independent state . The Japanese subsequently gave him the nickname Gaijin Shogun ( " foreign military ruler " ) but not until around the time of his death in 1964 .
= = = War crimes trials = = =
MacArthur was responsible for confirming and enforcing the sentences for war crimes handed down by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East . In late 1945 , Allied military commissions in various cities of the Orient tried 5 @,@ 700 Japanese , Taiwanese and Koreans for war crimes . About 4 @,@ 300 were convicted , almost 1 @,@ 000 sentenced to death , and hundreds given life imprisonment . The charges arose from incidents that included the Rape of Nanking , the Bataan Death March and Manila massacre . The trial in Manila of Yamashita was criticized because he was hanged for Iwabuchi 's Manila massacre , which he had not ordered and of which he was probably unaware . Iwabuchi had killed himself as the battle for Manila was ending .
MacArthur gave immunity to Shiro Ishii and other members of the bacteriological research units in exchange for germ warfare data based on human experimentation . He also exempted the Emperor and all members of the imperial family implicated in war crimes , including Princes Chichibu , Asaka , Takeda , Higashikuni and Fushimi , from criminal prosecutions . MacArthur confirmed that the emperor 's abdication would not be necessary . In doing so , he ignored the advice of many members of the imperial family and Japanese intellectuals who publicly called for the abdication of the Emperor and the implementation of a regency .
= = Korean War = =
= = = South to the Naktong , North to the Yalu = = =
On 25 June 1950 , North Korea invaded South Korea , starting the Korean War . The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 82 , which authorized a United Nations ( UN ) force to assist South Korea . The UN empowered the American government to select a commander , and the Joint Chiefs of Staff unanimously recommended MacArthur . He therefore became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the United Nations Command ( UNCOM ) , while remaining SCAP in Japan and Commander of the USAFFE . All South Korean forces were also placed under his command . As they retreated before the North Korean onslaught , MacArthur received permission to commit U.S. ground forces . All the first units to arrive could do was trade men and ground for time , falling back to the Pusan Perimeter . During the summer of 1950 , MacArthur exhibited wild mood swings , at one moment saying he could defeat the North Koreans with " one hand tied behind his back " , and at other moments being in the words of his staff " a dejected , completely despondent man " who talked about abandoning South Korea . By the end of August , the crisis subsided . North Korean attacks on the perimeter had tapered off . While the North Korean force numbered 88 @,@ 000 troops , Lieutenant General Walton Walker 's Eighth Army now numbered 180 @,@ 000 , and he had more tanks and artillery pieces .
In 1949 , the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , General of the Army Omar Bradley , had predicted that " large scale combined amphibious operations ... will never occur again , " but by July 1950 , MacArthur was planning just such an operation . MacArthur compared his plan with that of General James Wolfe at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham , and brushed aside the problems of tides , hydrography and terrain . In September , despite lingering concerns from superiors , MacArthur 's soldiers and marines made a successful landing at Inchon , deep behind North Korean lines . Launched with naval and close air support , the landing outflanked the North Koreans , recaptured Seoul and forced them to retreat northward in disarray . Visiting the battlefield on 17 September , MacArthur surveyed six T @-@ 34 tanks that had been knocked out by Marines , ignoring sniper fire around him , except to note that the North Korean marksmen were poorly trained .
On 11 September , Truman issued orders for an advance beyond the 38th parallel into North Korea . MacArthur now planned another amphibious assault , on Wonsan on the east coast , but it fell to South Korean troops before the 1st Marine Division could reach it by sea . In October , MacArthur met with Truman at the Wake Island Conference , with Truman emulating Roosevelt 's wartime meeting with MacArthur in Hawaii . On the day before the meeting , Truman who disliked MacArthur on the account of his ego said : " Tomorrow , I have to talk with God 's right @-@ hand man " . The president awarded MacArthur his fifth Distinguished Service Medal . Briefly questioned about the Chinese threat , MacArthur dismissed it , saying that he hoped to be able to withdraw the Eighth Army to Japan by Christmas , and to release a division for service in Europe in January . MacArthur called the possibility of Chinese intervention " pure bluff " . He regarded the possibility of Soviet intervention as a more serious threat . MacArthur reported to Washington that he " had plenty of troops to deal adequately with the Chinese and even with the Russians if they should prove so foolish as to enter the area at this stage " .
A month later , things had changed . The enemy were engaged by the UN forces at the Battle of Unsan in late October , which demonstrated the presence of Chinese soldiers in Korea and rendered significant losses to the American and other UN troops . Nevertheless , Willoughby downplayed the evidence about Chinese intervention in the war . He estimated that up to 71 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers were in the country , while the true number was closer to 300 @,@ 000 . He was not alone in this miscalculation . On 24 November , the Central Intelligence Agency reported to Truman that while there could be as many as 200 @,@ 000 Chinese troops in Korea , " there is no evidence that the Chinese Communists plan major offensive operations . "
That day , MacArthur flew to Walker 's headquarters and he later wrote :
For five hours I toured the front lines . In talking to a group of officers I told them of General Bradley 's desire and hope to have two divisions home by Christmas ... What I had seen at the front line worried me greatly . The R.O.K. troops were not yet in good shape , and the entire line was deplorably weak in numbers . If the Chinese were actually in heavy force , I decided I would withdraw our troops and abandon any attempt to move north . I decided to reconnoiter and try to see with my own eyes , and interpret with my own long experience what was going on ...
MacArthur flew over the front line himself in his Douglas C @-@ 54 Skymaster but saw no signs of a Chinese build up and therefore decided to wait before ordering an advance or withdrawal . Evidence of the Chinese activity was hidden to MacArthur : the Chinese Army traveled at night and dug in during the day . For his reconnaissance efforts , MacArthur was nonetheless awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and honorary combat pilot 's wings .
The next day , 25 November 1950 , Walker 's Eighth Army was attacked by the Chinese Army and soon the UN forces were in retreat . MacArthur provided the Chief of Staff , General J. Lawton Collins with a series of nine successive withdrawal lines . On 23 December , Walker was killed when his jeep collided with a truck , and was replaced by Lieutenant General Matthew B. Ridgway , whom MacArthur had selected in case of such an eventuality . Ridgway noted that MacArthur 's " prestige , which had gained an extraordinary luster after Incheon , was badly tarnished . His credibility suffered in the unforeseen outcome of the November offensive ... "
Collins discussed the possible use of nuclear weapons in Korea with MacArthur in December , and later asked him for a list of targets in the Soviet Union in case it entered the war . MacArthur testified before the Congress in 1951 that he had never recommended the use of nuclear weapons . He did at one point consider a plan to cut off North Korea with radioactive poisons ; he did not recommend it at the time , although he later broached the matter with Eisenhower , then president @-@ elect , in 1952 . In 1954 , in an interview published after his death , he stated he had wanted to drop atomic bombs on enemy bases , but in 1960 , he challenged a statement by Truman that he had advocated using atomic bombs . Truman issued a retraction , stating that he had no evidence of the claim ; it was merely his personal opinion .
In April 1951 , the Joint Chiefs of Staff drafted orders for MacArthur authorizing nuclear attacks on Manchuria and the Shantung Peninsula if the Chinese launched airstrikes originating from there against his forces . The next day Truman met with the chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission , Gordon Dean , and arranged for the transfer of nine Mark 4 nuclear bombs to military control . Dean was apprehensive about delegating the decision on how they should be used to MacArthur , who lacked expert technical knowledge of the weapons and their effects . The Joint Chiefs were not entirely comfortable about giving them to MacArthur either , for fear that he might prematurely carry out his orders . Instead , they decided that the nuclear strike force would report to the Strategic Air Command .
= = = Removal from command = = =
Within weeks of the Chinese attack , MacArthur was forced to retreat from North Korea . Seoul fell in January 1951 , and both Truman and MacArthur were forced to contemplate the prospect of abandoning Korea entirely . European countries did not share MacArthur 's world view , distrusted his judgment , and were afraid that he might use his stature and influence with the American public to re @-@ focus American policy away from Europe and towards Asia . They were concerned that this might lead to a major war with China , possibly involving nuclear weapons . Since in February 1950 the Soviet Union and China had signed a defensive alliance committing each to go to war if the other party was attacked , the possibility that an American attack on China would cause World War Three was considered to be very real at the time . In a visit to the United States in December 1950 , the British prime minister , Clement Attlee , had raised the fears of the British and other European governments that " General MacArthur was running the show . "
Under Ridgway 's command , the Eighth Army pressed north again in January . He inflicted heavy casualties on the Chinese , recaptured Seoul in March 1951 , and pushed on to the 38th Parallel . With the improved military situation , Truman now saw the opportunity to offer a negotiated peace but , on 24 March , MacArthur called upon China to admit that it had been defeated , simultaneously challenging both the Chinese and his own superiors . Truman 's proposed announcement was shelved .
On 5 April , Representative Joseph William Martin , Jr . , the Republican leader in the House of Representatives , read aloud on the floor of the House a letter from MacArthur critical of Truman 's Europe @-@ first policy and limited @-@ war strategy . The letter concluded with :
It seems strangely difficult for some to realize that here in Asia is where the communist conspirators have elected to make their play for global conquest , and that we have joined the issue thus raised on the battlefield ; that here we fight Europe 's war with arms while the diplomats there still fight it with words ; that if we lose the war to communism in Asia the fall of Europe is inevitable , win it and Europe most probably would avoid war and yet preserve freedom . As you pointed out , we must win . There is no substitute for victory .
In March 1951 secret United States intercepts of diplomatic dispatches disclosed clandestine conversations in which General MacArthur expressed confidence to the Tokyo embassies of Spain and Portugal that he would succeed in expanding the Korean War into a full @-@ scale conflict with the Chinese Communists . When the intercepts came to the attention of President Truman , he was enraged to learn that MacArthur was not only trying to increase public support for his position on conducting the war , but had secretly informed foreign governments that he planned to initiate actions that were counter to United States policy . The President was unable to act immediately since he could not afford to reveal the existence of the intercepts and because of MacArthur 's popularity with the public and political support in Congress . However , following the release on April 5 by Representative Martin of MacArthur 's letter , Truman concluded he could relieve MacArthur of his commands without incurring unacceptable political damage .
Truman summoned Secretary of Defense George Marshall , Chairman of the Joint Chiefs Omar Bradley , Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Averell Harriman to discuss what to do about MacArthur . They concurred MacArthur should be relieved of his command , but made no recommendation to do so . Although they felt that it was correct " from a purely military point of view , " they were aware that there were important political considerations as well . Truman and Acheson agreed that MacArthur was insubordinate , but the Joint Chiefs avoided any suggestion of this . Insubordination was a military offense , and MacArthur could have requested a public court martial similar to that of Billy Mitchell . The outcome of such a trial was uncertain , and it might well have found him not guilty and ordered his reinstatement . The Joint Chiefs agreed that there was " little evidence that General MacArthur had ever failed to carry out a direct order of the Joint Chiefs , or acted in opposition to an order . " " In point of fact , " Bradley insisted , " MacArthur had stretched but not legally violated any JCS directives . He had violated the President 's 6 December directive [ not to make public statements on policy matters ] , relayed to him by the JCS , but this did not constitute violation of a JCS order . " Truman ordered MacArthur 's relief by Ridgway , and the order went out on 10 April with Bradley 's signature .
In a 3 December 1973 article in Time magazine , Truman was quoted as saying in the early 1960s :
I fired him because he wouldn 't respect the authority of the President . I didn 't fire him because he was a dumb son of a bitch , although he was , but that 's not against the law for generals . If it was , half to three @-@ quarters of them would be in jail .
The relief of the famous general by the unpopular politician for communicating with Congress led to a constitutional crisis , and a storm of public controversy . Polls showed that the majority of the public disapproved of the decision to relieve MacArthur . By February 1952 , almost nine months later , Truman 's approval rating had fallen to 22 percent . As of 2014 , that remains the lowest Gallup Poll approval rating recorded by any serving president . As the increasingly unpopular war in Korea dragged on , Truman 's administration was beset with a series of corruption scandals , and he eventually decided not to run for re @-@ election . Beginning on May 3 , 1951 , a Joint Senate Committee — chaired by Democrat Richard Russell , Jr . — investigated MacArthur 's removal . It concluded that " the removal of General MacArthur was within the constitutional powers of the President but the circumstances were a shock to national pride . "
= = Later life = =
A day after his arrival in San Francisco from Korea on April 18 , 1951 , MacArthur had flown with his family to Washington , D.C. where he was scheduled to address a joint session of Congress . It was his and Jean 's first visit to the continental United States since 1937 , when they had been married ; Arthur IV , now aged 13 , had never been to the U.S. And , on April 19 , 1951 , MacArthur made his last official appearance in a farewell address to the U.S. Congress presenting and defending his side of his disagreement with Truman over the conduct of the Korean War . During his speech , he was interrupted by fifty ovations . MacArthur ended the address saying :
I am closing my 52 years of military service . When I joined the Army , even before the turn of the century , it was the fulfillment of all of my boyish hopes and dreams . The world has turned over many times since I took the oath on the plain at West Point , and the hopes and dreams have long since vanished , but I still remember the refrain of one of the most popular barrack ballads of that day which proclaimed most proudly that " old soldiers never die ; they just fade away . "
And like the old soldier of that ballad , I now close my military career and just fade away , an old soldier who tried to do his duty as God gave him the light to see that duty .
Good Bye .
MacArthur received public adulation , which aroused expectations that he would run for president , but he was not a candidate . MacArthur carried out a speaking tour in 1951 – 52 attacking the Truman administration for " appeasement in Asia " and for mismanaging the economy . Initially attracting large crowds , by early 1952 MacArthur 's speeches were attracting smaller and smaller numbers of people as many complained that MacArthur seemed more interested in settling scores with Truman and praising himself than in offering up a constructive vision for the nation . MacArthur felt uncomfortable campaigning for the Republican nomination , and hoped that at the Republican convention , a deadlock would ensue between Senator Robert Taft and General Eisenhower , which would end with the GOP nominating him as the best compromise . MacArthur 's unwillingness to campaign for the presidency seriously hurt his ability to win the nomination . In the end , MacArthur endorsed Senator Robert A. Taft , and was keynote speaker at the 1952 Republican National Convention . Taft lost the nomination to Eisenhower , who went on to win the 1952 election by a landslide . Once elected , Eisenhower consulted with MacArthur about ending the war in Korea .
Douglas and Jean MacArthur spent their last years together in the penthouse of the Waldorf Towers , a part of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel . He was elected Chairman of the Board of Remington Rand . In that year , he earned a salary of $ 68 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 612 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , in addition to $ 20 @,@ 000 pay and allowances as a General of the Army . The Waldorf became the setting for an annual birthday party on 26 January thrown by the general 's former deputy chief engineer , Major General Leif J. Sverdrup . At the 1960 celebration for MacArthur 's 80th birthday , many of his friends were startled by the general 's obviously deteriorating health . The next day , he collapsed and was rushed into surgery at St. Luke 's Hospital to control a severely swollen prostate .
After his recovery , MacArthur methodically began to carry out the closing acts of his life . He visited the White House for a final reunion with Eisenhower . In 1961 , he made a " sentimental journey " to the Philippines , where he was decorated by President Carlos P. Garcia with the Philippine Legion of Honor . MacArthur also accepted a $ 900 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 7 @.@ 25 million in 2016 ) advance from Henry Luce for the rights to his memoirs , and wrote the volume that would eventually be published as Reminiscences . Sections began to appear in serialized form in Life magazine in the months before his death .
President John F. Kennedy solicited MacArthur 's counsel in 1961 . The first of two meetings was held shortly after the Bay of Pigs Invasion . MacArthur was extremely critical of the military advice given to Kennedy , and cautioned the young President to avoid a U.S. military build @-@ up in Vietnam , pointing out that domestic problems should be given a much greater priority . Shortly before his death , MacArthur gave similar advice to President Lyndon B. Johnson .
In 1962 , West Point honored the increasingly frail MacArthur with the Sylvanus Thayer Award for outstanding service to the nation , which had gone to Eisenhower the year before . MacArthur 's speech to the cadets in accepting the award had as its theme Duty , Honor , Country :
" The shadows are lengthening for me . The twilight is here . My days of old have vanished , tone and tint . They have gone glimmering through the dreams of things that were . Their memory is one of wondrous beauty , watered by tears , and coaxed and caressed by the smiles of yesterday . I listen vainly , but with thirsty ears , for the witching melody of faint bugles blowing reveille , of far drums beating the long roll . In my dreams I hear again the crash of guns , the rattle of musketry , the strange , mournful mutter of the battlefield . But in the evening of my memory , always I come back to West Point . Always there echoes and re @-@ echoes : Duty , Honor , Country . Today marks my final roll call with you , but I want you to know that when I cross the river my last conscious thoughts will be of The Corps , and The Corps , and The Corps . I bid you farewell . "
In 1963 , President Kennedy asked MacArthur to help mediate a dispute between the National Collegiate Athletic Association and the Amateur Athletic Union over control of amateur sports in the country . The dispute threatened to derail the participation of the United States in the 1964 Summer Olympics . His presence helped to broker a deal , and participation in the games went on as planned .
= = Death and legacy = =
Douglas MacArthur died at Walter Reed Army Medical Center on 5 April 1964 , of biliary cirrhosis . Kennedy had authorized a state funeral before his own death in 1963 , and Johnson confirmed the directive , ordering that MacArthur be buried " with all the honor a grateful nation can bestow on a departed hero . " On 7 April , his body was taken on a funeral train to Union Station and transported by a funeral procession to the Capitol , where it lay in state . An estimated 150 @,@ 000 people filed by the bier . The body was finally laid to rest in the rotunda of the Douglas MacArthur Memorial in Norfolk , Virginia .
In 1960 , the mayor of Norfolk , Virginia , had proposed using funds raised by public contribution to remodel the old Norfolk City Hall as a memorial to General MacArthur and as a repository for his papers , decorations , and mementos he had accepted . Restored and remodeled , the MacArthur Memorial contains nine museum galleries whose contents reflect the general 's 50 years of military service . At the heart of the memorial is a rotunda . In its center lies a sunken circular crypt with two marble sarcophagi , one for MacArthur , the other for Jean , who continued to live in the Waldorf Towers until her own death in 2000 .
MacArthur has a contested legacy . In the Philippines in 1942 , he suffered a defeat that Gavin Long described as " the greatest in the history of American foreign wars . " Despite this , " in a fragile period of the American psyche when the general American public , still stunned by the shock of Pearl Harbor and uncertain what lay ahead in Europe , desperately needed a hero , they wholeheartedly embraced Douglas MacArthur — good press copy that he was . There simply were no other choices that came close to matching his mystique , not to mention his evocative lone @-@ wolf stand — something that has always resonated with Americans . "
MacArthur 's concept of the role of the soldier as encompassing a broad spectrum of roles that included civil affairs , quelling riots and low @-@ level conflict , was dismissed by the majority of officers who had fought in Europe during World War II , and afterwards saw the Army 's role as fighting the Soviet Union . Unlike them , in his victories in New Guinea in 1944 , the Philippines in 1945 and Korea in 1950 , he fought outnumbered , and relied on maneuver and surprise for success . The American Sinologist John Fairbank called MacArthur " our greatest soldier " .
On the other hand , Truman once remarked that he did not understand how the US Army could " produce men such as Robert E. Lee , John J. Pershing , Eisenhower and Bradley and at the same time produce Custers , Pattons and MacArthur . " His relief of MacArthur cast a long shadow over American civil @-@ military relations for decades . When Lyndon Johnson met with William Westmoreland in Honolulu in 1966 , he told him : " General , I have a lot riding on you . I hope you don 't pull a MacArthur on me . " MacArthur 's relief " left a lasting current of popular sentiment that in matters of war and peace , the military really knows best , " a philosophy which became known as " MacArthurism . "
MacArthur remains a controversial and enigmatic figure . He has been portrayed as a reactionary , although he was in many respects ahead of his time . He championed a progressive approach to the reconstruction of Japanese society , arguing that all occupations ultimately ended badly for the occupier and the occupied . He was often out of step with his contemporaries , such as in 1941 when he contended that Nazi Germany could not defeat the Soviet Union , when he argued that North Korea and China were no mere Soviet puppets , and throughout his career in his insistence that the future lay in the Far East . This implicitly rejected White American contemporary notions of their own racial superiority . He always treated Filipino and Japanese leaders with respect as equals . At the same time , his Victorian sensibilities recoiled at leveling Manila with aerial bombing , an attitude the hardened World War II generation regarded as old fashioned . When asked about MacArthur , Blamey once said that " The best and the worst things you hear about him are both true . "
= = = Honors and awards = = =
During his lifetime , MacArthur earned over 100 military decorations from the U.S. and other countries including the Medal of Honor , the French Légion d 'honneur and Croix de guerre , the Order of the Crown of Italy , the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau from the Netherlands , the Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath from Australia , and the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers , Grand Cordon from Japan .
MacArthur was enormously popular with the American public . Streets , public works , and children were named after him . Even a dance step was named after him . In 1955 , his promotion to General of the Armies was proposed in Congress , but the proposal was shelved .
Since 1987 the General Douglas MacArthur Leadership Awards are presented annually by the United States Army on behalf of the General Douglas MacArthur Foundation to recognize company grade officers ( lieutenants and captains ) and junior warrant officers ( warrant officer one and chief warrant officer two ) who have demonstrated the attributes of " duty , honor , country " in their professional lives and in service to their communities .
The MacArthur Leadership Award at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston , Ontario is awarded to the graduating officer cadet who demonstrates outstanding leadership performance based on the credo of Duty @-@ Honor @-@ Country and potential for future military service .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Several actors have portrayed MacArthur on screen . Dayton Lummis played him in the 1955 picture The Court @-@ Martial of Billy Mitchell , Henry Fonda in the television movie Collision Course : Truman vs. MacArthur in 1976 , Gregory Peck in the 1977 film MacArthur , Laurence Olivier in Inchon in 1981 , and Daniel von Bargen in the 1995 HBO film Truman . In the 2013 film Emperor he is played by Tommy Lee Jones .
= No Mercy ( 2005 ) =
No Mercy ( 2005 ) was the eighth annual No Mercy professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . The event , presented by Sony 's PlayStation 2 , took place on October 9 , 2005 , at the Toyota Center in Houston , Texas and featured wrestlers and other talent from WWE 's SmackDown ! brand . Nine professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event 's card .
Three of the four championships exclusive to the SmackDown ! brand were contested for ; one was lost while the other two were retained . The main event was a standard wrestling match , in which World Heavyweight Champion Batista defeated challenger Eddie Guerrero to retain his title . One of the featured preliminary matches was a Casket match between The Ortons ( Randy and " Cowboy " Bob ) and The Undertaker . The Ortons won the match after placing Undertaker inside the casket and closing it . Another primary preliminary match was a standard match between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) and Rey Mysterio , which JBL won .
The event received 219 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , which was greater than the 193 @,@ 000 buys the previous year 's event received . The event was claimed to be " unmerciful " by Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section , as they rated none of the matches higher than a five out of ten . When the event was released on DVD , it reached a peak position of fourth on Billboard 's DVD sales chart for recreational sports . It remained on the chart for four consecutive weeks .
= = Background = =
Nine professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's card , which were planned with predetermined outcomes by WWE 's script writers . The buildup to these matches and scenarios that took place before , during and after the event were also planned by the script writers . The event featured wrestlers and other talent from WWE 's SmackDown ! brand , a storyline expansion in which WWE assigned its employees . Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick , an on @-@ screen character , for the entertainment of the audience .
The main rivalry heading into No Mercy was between Batista and Eddie Guerrero over the World Heavyweight Championship . On the September 16 episode of SmackDown ! , Palmer Cannon , a miscellaneous on @-@ screen authority figure of SmackDown ! , a portrayed match maker and rules enforcer , announced that Guerrero was the next challenger to Batista 's World Heavyweight Championship . Guerrero , who had recently portrayed a manipulative character , came out and claimed he was now more about compassion than manipulation . Two weeks later , on the September 30 episode of SmackDown ! , Guerrero , as part of the scripted events , accidentally hit Batista with a folding chair while attempting to hit MNM tag team member Joey Mercury . The following week , Batista showed Guerrero the footage of him hitting Batista last week . Batista , as part of their storyline , then proclaimed that he would hurt Guerrero if he were to revert to his villainous character .
The feud between The Undertaker and Randy Orton and " Cowboy " Bob Orton began at SummerSlam . At the event , Randy faced off against Undertaker . During the match , " Cowboy " Bob ( disguised as a fan ) came into the ring and interrupted the match . Following this , Randy pinned Undertaker after he jumped and pulled Undertaker 's head down over his shoulders , a move dubbed the RKO , to win . After the match , Randy peeled off the latex mask of the fan and revealed him to be his father , " Cowboy " Bob . On the September 16 episode of SmackDown ! , Undertaker defeated Randy . During the match , " Cowboy " Bob drove a U @-@ Haul truck down to the ring and unloaded a casket . As Undertaker went to put Randy inside the casket , he opened it and found a mannequin of himself inside . Despite this distraction , Undertaker pinned Randy after he drove Randy 's head into the mat in an upside down position , a move called the Tombstone Piledriver . The following week , druids wheeled out a casket . Undertaker appeared on the TitonTron and urged The Ortons to look inside . The Ortons opened the casket and found mannequins of themselves inside . Undertaker then proclaimed that this would be their fate at No Mercy .
At the previous SmackDown ! brand pay @-@ per @-@ view event , The Great American Bash , The Legion of Doom ( Road Warrior Animal and Heidenreich ) defeated MNM ( Joey Mercury and Johnny Nitro ) to win the WWE Tag Team Championship . After both teams got involved in a storyline between Melina ( Melina Perez ) , who was also a member of MNM , and Christy Hemme , The Legion of Doom and Hemme versus MNM was announced for No Mercy .
The storyline over the WWE United States Championship began when Booker T , Orlando Jordan , and Christian each explained why they thought they deserved a title match against the champion , Chris Benoit . Theodore Long , SmackDown ! ' s on @-@ screen general manager / authority figure , then announced that Benoit could choose who he wanted to face for the title . After Jordan won a standard wrestling match between three wrestlers , also involving Booker and Christian , Benoit decided that he would face all three men in a match between the four at No Mercy .
= = Event = =
Before the live broadcast of the event began , William Regal and Paul Burchill defeated Paul London and Brian Kendrick in a tag team match that aired on the Sunday Night Heat pre @-@ show .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match of the event was The Legion of Doom ( Road Warrior Animal and Heidenreich ) and Christy Hemme versus MNM ( Joey Mercury , Johnny Nitro , and Melina ) in a six @-@ person tag team match . After a match predominately controlled by MNM , Hemme pinned Melina after executing a Doomsday Device , performed by one wrestler hoisting the opponent on their shoulders as another wrestler climbs the ring post to the top turnbuckle and delivers a flying attack onto the opponent , to win the match for her team . The next match on the card was Bobby Lashley , who was making his WWE pay @-@ per @-@ view debut , versus Simon Dean . Lashley won the match in under two minutes after pinning Dean following an inverted powerbomb , which is performed by lifting an opponent over one 's shoulders and slamming them down in a forward position . After the match , Lashley forced Dean to eat twenty double cheeseburgers as the show progressed , with Dean eventually running into the bathroom after finding a long hair in of the burgers .
The third contest was a match between four wrestlers for the WWE United States Championship . Chris Benoit defended his title against Booker T , Christian , and Orlando Jordan . After a match evenly controlled by all four men , Benoit forced Christian to submit with the sharpshooter submission hold to win the match and retain the title . The match that followed saw Mr. Kennedy face off against Hardcore Holly . Kennedy controlled most of the match , as he attacked and applied various submission holds on Holly 's arm . Kennedy pinned Holly after he performed a Green Bay Plunge off the top rope . The following match was between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) and Rey Mysterio . The match went back and forth , as each man was able to gain the advantage numerous times . JBL pinned Mysterio following a Clothesline from Hell to win .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The sixth bout on the card was a Casket match between The Ortons ( Randy and " Cowboy " Bob ) and The Undertaker . In order for The Undertaker to win the match , he had to put both Randy and " Cowboy " Bob in the casket , which was at ringside , and close it ; for The Ortons , they had to place Undertaker in the casket and close it . Near the end of the match , Undertaker had placed " Cowboy " Bob in the casket and was attempting to place Randy in it as well . After performing a Last Ride on Randy , Undertaker went to open the casket . As he did , however , " Cowboy " Bob sprayed a fire extinguisher in his eyes . Randy then hit Undertaker with a folding chair and placed him in the casket . The Ortons closed the casket to win the bout . After the match , The Ortons , as part of the scripted events , locked Undertaker in the casket and hit it numerous times with an axe . They then poured gasoline on the casket and lit it on fire . The next match saw WWE Cruiserweight Champion Nunzio defend his title against Juventud . After a back and forth match between the two , Juventud pinned Nunzio after a sit @-@ out body slam to win the match and the Cruiserweight Championship .
Next was the main event , which saw Batista defend the World Heavyweight Championship against Eddie Guerrero . Towards the end of the match , Guerrero executed three vertical suplexes , a move that is performed by vertically rotating the opponent 270 ° and slamming them onto the mat , and attempted to perform a Frog Splash . Batista , however , rolled out of the way and performed a Spinebuster . Batista pinned Guerrero afterwards to win the match and retain the World Heavyweight Championship . After the match , Batista and the crowd at the arena sang " Happy Birthday " to Guerrero .
= = Aftermath = =
The rivalry between Batista and Eddie Guerrero ended after Guerrero unexpectedly died due to heart failure on November 13 , 2005 . Their feud was planned to continue , as Guerrero would have gone back to his villainous character .
The Undertaker would not be seen on @-@ screen until Survivor Series after being burned inside a casket at the event . After being the sole survivor in his elimination match , Randy Orton celebrated his victory with his father , " Cowboy " Bob Orton , and wrestlers from the SmackDown ! brand . During the celebration , druids brought out a casket and set it up in an upright position . Lightning then struck the casket and set it on fire . Undertaker emerged from the flaming casket and attacked the SmackDown wrestlers . The Ortons , however , escaped the attack . This set up a Hell in a Cell match , a match that is contested in a roofed cage inside the ring , between Randy and Undertaker at Armageddon . Undertaker defeated Randy and ended their storyline that had lasted nearly one year .
After successfully retaining the WWE United States Championship at the event , Chris Benoit started a rivalry with Booker T. Booker defeated Benoit for the title on the edition of October 21 of SmackDown ! to begin their feud . The following month , on the edition of November 24 of SmackDown ! , a match between Benoit and Booker for the title ended in a no @-@ contest after both men 's shoulders were on the mat while pinning one another . Theodore Long then vacated the title and announced that the two would face off against one another in a " Best of Seven series " for the title , in which the winner would be the man who won four matches over the other first . Booker defeated Benoit in the first match at Survivor Series , and eventually won the vacant title after Randy Orton , Booker 's replacement due to a legitimate injury to his ankle at a house show , defeated Benoit in the seventh and final match in January . Booker began his fourth reign as United States Champion .
= = = Reception = = =
The event received 219 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , which was greater than the 193 @,@ 000 buys the previous year 's event received . The promotion 's revenue was $ 18 @.@ 8 million , which was greater than the previous year 's revenue of $ 18 @.@ 5 million . Despite the general positive fan reception of the show , Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section claimed the event was " unmerciful " and that it left fans " begging for mercy " . They rated the overall event , as well as the main event , a five out of ten . None of the matches received a rating higher than a five out of 10 . The match between Bobby Lashley and Simon Dean was rated a three out of 10 , the lowest overall .
The event was released on DVD on November 8 , 2005 . The DVD reached a peak position of fourth on Billboard 's DVD sales chart for recreational sports on December 3 , 2005 . It remained on the chart for four consecutive weeks , until December 24 , when it ranked ninth .
= = Results = =
= Kirk McLean =
Kirk Alan McLean ( born June 26 , 1966 ) is a retired Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender who played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the New Jersey Devils , Vancouver Canucks , Carolina Hurricanes , Florida Panthers and New York Rangers . He played in the style of a stand @-@ up goaltender .
McLean played major junior hockey with the Oshawa Generals of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) and was drafted in the sixth round , 107th overall by the Devils in 1984 . He played with the Devils ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Maine Mariners , before being traded to the Canucks in 1987 . He is best known for his 10 and a half seasons with the Canucks , during which time he was a finalist for two Vezina Trophies in 1989 and 1992 , named to two NHL All @-@ Star Games and received Second All @-@ Star Team honours . In 1994 , he backstopped the Canucks to the seventh game of the Stanley Cup Finals against the Rangers . In 1998 , he was traded away and spent the final three seasons of his career with the Hurricanes , Panthers and Rangers , before retiring in 2001 .
Since retiring , McLean has been a goaltending coach for the Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , worked in broadcasting with the Canucks ' pay @-@ per @-@ view telecasts and became a part @-@ owner of the British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) ' s Burnaby Express ( now Coquitlam Express ) . He has also become involved in the restaurant business in Vancouver .
= = Early life = =
McLean was born in Willowdale , Ontario , on June 26 , 1966 and is of Scottish and smaller Irish descent , in which his mask had his family 's Scottish tartan on it . He grew up dreaming of playing for the Toronto Maple Leafs and looked up to NHL star Bernie Parent as a role model . Playing minor hockey in the Metro Toronto Hockey League ( MTHL ) with the Don Mills Flyers , he recorded a 2 @.@ 01 goals against average ( GAA ) over 26 games in the 1982 – 83 season .
= = Playing career = =
= = = New Jersey Devils ( 1985 – 87 ) = = =
McLean played major junior in the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) for three seasons with the Oshawa Generals . Following his rookie season with the Generals , he was drafted by the New Jersey Devils in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft with their sixth pick , 107th overall . He debuted with the Devils in 1985 – 86 , appearing in two games after being called up from Oshawa on April 2 , 1986 . McLean had to compete with numerous other goaltenders in the Devils ' system for ice time . Following the club 's 1987 training camp , he and Craig Billington were sent to their AHL affiliate , the Maine Mariners , while Karl Friesen and Chris Terreri were chosen to backup Alain Chevrier . Sean Burke was also in the Devils ' system , although he was playing for the Canadian National Team at the beginning of the season .
McLean was called up from Maine on December 19 , 1986 , after Friesen was released and Terreri was sidelined with the flu . He arrived in New Jersey three hours before game @-@ time against the Washington Capitals that day . He appeared in relief of Chevrier after the starter allowed three goals in the first 81 seconds . McLean allowed one goal on 24 shots for the rest of the game while earning the win in a 6 – 4 comeback victory . He appeared in four games during his call @-@ up before being reassigned on January 6 , 1987 . After his return to the AHL , McLean suffered an injury , damaging cartilage in his right knee during a game on February 15 . The injury required arthroscopic surgery . He finished the campaign in Maine with a 15 @-@ 23 @-@ 4 record and 3 @.@ 22 GAA in 45 games . While training in the off @-@ season , McLean injured his left knee and underwent his second arthroscopic surgery on July 29 , 1987 .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 1987 – 98 ) = = =
= = = = Arrival to Stanley Cup run ( 1987 – 94 ) = = = =
Leading up to the 1987 – 88 season , McLean was traded , along with Greg Adams and a second round choice ( Leif Rohlin ) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft , to the Vancouver Canucks for centre Patrik Sundström and the Canucks ' second- ( Jeff Christian ) and fourth @-@ round draft picks ( Matt Ruchty ) in 1988 , on September 15 , 1987 . The deal constituted the first major transactions by newly appointed Vancouver Canucks and New Jersey Devils general managers Pat Quinn and Lou Lamoriello , respectively . McLean 's acquisition was an integral part of Vancouver 's rebuilding process , led by Quinn . Within the next two years , McLean was joined in the Canucks organization by additional franchise cornerstones Trevor Linden and Pavel Bure . He became known to fans as " Captain Kirk " , in reference to the Star Trek protagonist .
McLean made 14 saves in his Canucks debut , recording an 8 – 2 win over the St. Louis Blues in the season opener on October 8 , 1987 . He notched his first NHL career shutout later that season on February 17 , 1988 , making 27 saves in a 5 – 0 win against the Pittsburgh Penguins . McLean split playing time with long @-@ time Canucks starter Richard Brodeur in his first season in Vancouver , playing in 41 games with an 11 @-@ 27 @-@ 4 record , 3 @.@ 71 GAA and .875 save percentage . He won his first of three Molson Cups with the Canucks at the end of the season , having earned the most three stars selections on the team .
McLean emerged the following season in 1988 – 89 with a winning 20 @-@ 17 @-@ 3 record , 3 @.@ 08 GAA and .891 save percentage . Early in the season , he returned to New Jersey in a game against the Devils and recorded a shutout against his former team in a 4 – 0 Canucks win on October 20 , 1988 . He went on to receive his first Vezina Trophy nomination as the league 's best goaltender and finished third in voting , losing to Patrick Roy of the Montreal Canadiens . In 1989 – 90 , McLean appeared in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game in Pittsburgh and was the top goaltender at the Skills Competition by allowing the fewest goals against for the Breakaway Relay and Rapid Fire events . He led the league in games and minutes played with 63 and 3 @,@ 738 , respectively . McLean also set Canucks records with 1 @,@ 797 shots against and 1 @,@ 581 saves ( both marks have since been surpassed ) . Backstopping the Canucks to 21 wins , 33 losses and 10 ties , he won his first Cyclone Taylor Trophy as Canucks MVP and second Molson Cup .
Early in the 1990 – 91 season , McLean re @-@ signed with the Canucks to a one @-@ year contract with a second year option on October 16 , 1990 . He was set to make $ 145 @,@ 000 prior to re @-@ organizing his contract for the season . McLean struggled in his fourth year with the Canucks , however , recording a career @-@ worst 3 @.@ 99 GAA with a 10 @-@ 22 @-@ 3 record in 41 games .
McLean bounced back the following season in 1991 – 92 , starting the season with five consecutive wins to be named league player of the week for October 3 to 13 , 1991 . He set an NHL record for wins in October with nine ( McLean 's mark was matched by the Toronto Maple Leafs ' Felix Potvin and Philadelphia Flyers ' Dominic Roussel in October 1993 and surpassed by the Detroit Red Wings ' Manny Legace 's 10 wins in October 2005 ) ; he was named player of the month . Another season highlight for McLean occurred on December 4 , when he stopped all 50 shots in a game against the Montreal Canadiens to earn his third shutout of the season in a 3 – 0 win ; the performance garnered a standing ovation from Canadiens fans at the Montreal Forum . McLean went on to lead the league with five shutouts ( tied with the Chicago Blackhawks ' Ed Belfour , the Canadiens ' Patrick Roy and the Winnipeg Jets ' Bob Essensa ) and 38 wins in 65 games ( tied with the Red Wings ' Tim Cheveldae ) , as Vancouver won their first Smythe Division title since 1975 . He appeared in his second All @-@ Star Game , won his second Cyclone Taylor Trophy and was named to the Second All @-@ Star Team . He earned his second Vezina Trophy nomination , finishing second in voting as Roy won the award once more . He recorded personal bests with a 2 @.@ 74 GAA and 38 wins , the latter of which set a Canucks single @-@ season goaltending record . ( The mark stood for 15 years before Roberto Luongo recorded 47 wins in 2006 – 07 . ) In the subsequent 1992 playoffs , McLean recorded his first post @-@ season shutout by stopping 33 shots in a 5 – 0 win against the Winnipeg Jets in game seven of the opening round . The win eliminated the Jets after the Canucks overcame a 3 – 1 series deficit .
McLean appeared in 54 games in 1992 – 93 , posting a 28 @-@ 21 @-@ 3 record . He recorded three shutouts , which included back @-@ to @-@ back blankings in January 1993 . Playing against the Los Angeles Kings in the second round of the 1993 playoffs , McLean recorded his 15th playoff win in a 7 – 2 Game 4 victory , establishing himself as the winningest playoff goaltender in Canucks history . The Canucks were , however , eliminated in six games by Los Angeles , the eventual Western Conference champions .
Towards the end of the 1993 – 94 season , McLean became a part of hockey history in a game against the Los Angeles Kings on March 23 , 1994 , by allowing Wayne Gretzky 's 802nd career NHL goal . The goal broke Gordie Howe 's record of 801 , making Gretzky the all @-@ time leading goal @-@ scorer in NHL history . Despite allowing the historic goal , the Canucks won the game 6 – 3 . McLean finished the season with a losing 23 – 26 – 3 record , as the Canucks finished with the seventh seed in the Western Conference .
McLean 's peak with the Canucks came during the subsequent 1994 Stanley Cup playoffs , when he backstopped them to the seventh game of the Stanley Cup Finals . Facing the Calgary Flames in the opening round , he made one of the most memorable plays in Canucks and NHL playoff history – a series saving stop on Flames forward Robert Reichel during the first overtime of the seventh game . Reichel had one @-@ timed a pass from Theoren Fleury on a 3 @-@ on @-@ 1 when McLean threw out both his pads to make the stop and preserve the series . With McLean out of position and Reichel having had an open net to shoot at , the red light even came on at the Olympic Saddledome to signal a goal . The following overtime , Bure scored to eliminate the Flames and advance the Canucks to the second round .
Vancouver defeated the Dallas Stars the following round to advance to the semi @-@ finals against the Toronto Maple Leafs . McLean posted back @-@ to @-@ back shutouts against the Leafs in the third and fourth games to tie the NHL playoff record of four shutouts in a single year ( the New York Rangers ' Mike Richter also recorded four that year ; they became the seventh and eighth goaltenders to tie the record . Five more goaltenders went on to record four shutouts until the Red Wings ' Dominik Hasek broke the record with six in 2002 ) . He also became the first goaltender to record back @-@ to @-@ back shutouts in the semifinals since the Red Wings ' Terry Sawchuk did so against the Maple Leafs in 1952 . McLean 's shutout streak lasted a total of 143 minutes and 17 seconds .
The Canucks went on to capture the Clarence S. Campbell Bowl as Western Conference champions to meet the New York Rangers in the Finals . McLean opened the series with a 52 @-@ save performance , including 17 in overtime , to win the first game 3 – 2 . It was the second @-@ most saves by a goaltender in a Stanley Cup Finals game , coming within four stops of Canadiens goaltender Ken Dryden 's 56 saves in 1971 against the Chicago Blackhawks . It also remained the most saves by a Canucks goaltender in a playoff game until Luongo made 72 stops in 2007 . Canucks head coach Pat Quinn commented after the game that McLean 's performance should be sent " in an instructional package ... to young goaltender [ s ] . " Although the Canucks managed to force a game seven after falling 3 – 1 in the series , they eventually lost the Stanley Cup to the Rangers by a 3 – 2 score in the final game . McLean finished the 1994 playoffs with a 15 @-@ 9 record , a 2 @.@ 29 GAA and .928 save percentage . His 1 @,@ 544 minutes played , 820 shots against and 761 saves all set playoff records ( they have since been surpassed ) .
= = = = Post @-@ lockout to trade ( 1994 – 97 ) = = = =
The following lockout @-@ shortened 1994 – 95 season , McLean appeared in 40 of the Canucks 48 games , and recorded all the team 's 18 wins . Winning his third and final Molson Cup , he posted a career @-@ high .904 save percentage along with a 2 @.@ 75 GAA . Before the season ended , McLean signed a five @-@ year contract extension that included the 1994 – 95 season , worth an approximate $ 2 @.@ 4 million per season , on April 5 , 1995 . Vancouver failed to defend their Western Conference title of the previous year 's playoffs , however , as the Chicago Blackhawks swept them in the second round .
McLean 's play began to slip in 1995 – 96 as his GAA inflated to 3 @.@ 54 and he recorded a losing 15 @-@ 21 @-@ 9 record . He was sidelined for six weeks during the season , beginning in January 1996 , due to a cartilage tear in his left knee that required arthroscopic surgery . Rookie Corey Hirsch , who began the season as McLean 's backup , in comparison recorded a 2 @.@ 93 GAA and a 17 @-@ 14 @-@ 6 record . McLean was chosen to start in the opening series against the top @-@ seeded Colorado Avalanche , but was pulled in favour of Hirsch during Game 1 after allowing three goals on 12 shots . The game marked McLean 's final playoff appearance of his career as Hirsch played the remaining five games . The Avalanche eliminated Vancouver in six games and went on to win the Stanley Cup .
McLean reinjured his knee during the 1996 – 97 season during a game against the Dallas Stars on November 11 , 1996 . He missed approximately a month after undergoing his second arthroscopic surgery of the year in mid @-@ November 1996 . McLean and Hirsch continued to share starts in 1996 – 97 , as McLean appeared in 44 games with a 21 @-@ 18 @-@ 3 record and 3 @.@ 21 GAA .
= = = Post @-@ Vancouver ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = =
McLean 's tenure with the Canucks ended the following season in 1997 – 98 . Pat Quinn was dismissed as general manager early in the campaign and was replaced by a four @-@ man committee of team executives . On the recommendation of newly hired head coach Mike Keenan , the management team dealt McLean to the Carolina Hurricanes on January 3 , 1998 . He was sent in a trade , along with winger Martin Gélinas , in exchange for goaltender Sean Burke and wingers Geoff Sanderson and Enrico Ciccone .
After ten @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons in Vancouver , McLean left as the franchise 's all @-@ time leader in regular season games played ( 516 ) , wins ( 211 ) and shutouts ( 20 ) , as well as playoff games played ( 68 ) , wins ( 34 ) and shutouts ( 6 ) . ( Luongo surpassed McLean 's regular season shutouts total with his 21st on October 26 , 2009 . ) McLean 's departure marked the beginning of an unstable period of time for Canucks goaltending . In the seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons between the time McLean was traded away and Luongo was acquired by the Canucks , a total of 18 goaltenders played for the club . General manager Brian Burke , who succeeded the four @-@ man committee , coined the term " goalie graveyard " during his time in Vancouver to describe the club 's goaltending fortunes .
McLean entered his first game with the Hurricanes with the NHL 's worst GAA at 3 @.@ 68 , but helped his new club to a 4 – 1 win to record his first victory with Carolina . His tenure in Carolina was brief , as the Hurricanes traded him after eight appearances to the Florida Panthers for forward Ray Sheppard on March 24 , 1998 . He made his debut with the Panthers two days later on March 26 and recorded a 5 – 4 win against the Canadiens . The following season , McLean recorded his first shutout with the Panthers in a 1 – 0 win against the Nashville Predators . He went on to match his personal best 2 @.@ 74 GAA in his first and only full season with the Panthers in 1998 – 99 , playing in 30 games as Sean Burke 's backup .
The following off @-@ season , he signed a two @-@ year deal , worth an approximate $ 1 @.@ 64 million with bonus incentives for games played , as an unrestricted free agent with the New York Rangers on July 13 , 1999 . McLean was brought in to replace Dan Cloutier , who had been traded away , as Mike Richter 's backup . With Richter experiencing back problems early in the 1999 – 2000 season , McLean filled in as the Rangers ' starter during the first month . He made his Rangers debut in the season opener , making 25 saves in a 2 – 1 loss on October 5 , 1999 . He completed the season with a 2 @.@ 89 GAA in 22 games . The following campaign in 2000 – 01 , McLean 's GAA rose to 3 @.@ 49 GAA in 23 games . After two seasons in New York and 17 seasons in the NHL overall , McLean retired in 2001 .
= = International play = =
Over the course of his career , McLean represented Canada in international competition once . On March 28 , 1990 , McLean was among the players named to Canada 's roster for the 1990 World Championships in Bern and Fribourg , Switzerland . McLean was given the role of starting goaltender , with Ken Wregget serving as his backup . Canada won its first four round robin games with McLean in net , including an 8 – 0 shutout victory versus Norway in which McLean split goaltending duties with Wregget , thus clinching a spot in the medal round . As the round robin continued , Canada added to their perfect record with a 5 – 3 victory over Czechoslovakia in which McLean stopped 25 of 28 shots for the victory . McLean started Canada 's next game , a 3 – 1 victory versus Sweden , but was replaced in the second period by third string goaltender Bob Essensa who had yet to play in the tournament . Following a 3 – 3 tie with the Soviet Union , Canada clinched first place in the round robin . The game was one of McLean 's best of the tournament , as he managed to keep the Soviet Union at bay during the third period in which they had a 14 – 2 margin in shots on goal .
After suffering a 3 – 2 loss versus Czechoslovakia in the opening game of the medal round , Canada opted to start Essensa versus the Soviet Union . Essensa let in four early goals before being replaced by McLean , who let in another three in a 7 – 1 loss to move Canada out of contention for the gold medal . In the final game of the tournament versus Sweden , Canada suffered a 6 – 4 loss and finished fourth overall for the tournament , missing out on their opportunity for a bronze medal that would have come with a win versus Sweden .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Following McLean 's retirement , he was hired as a goaltending coach for the Kamloops Blazers of the WHL . He served in that capacity for one season , in 2002 – 03 . McLean also returned to the Canucks organization as a broadcaster for the team 's pay @-@ per @-@ view telecasts .
McLean has also pursued the restaurant business in Vancouver . He co @-@ owns McLean 's restaurant ( opened June 24 , 2010 ) , the result of buying out other owners of So.cial at Le Magasin , a restaurant in the Gastown neighbourhood that opened in April 2007 , with his former Canucks head coach , Bob McCammon . McLean is also a part @-@ owner in the Coquitlam Express , a Junior A team in the BCHL . The ownership group includes several other former NHLers , including Darcy Rota , Bill Ranford and Dave Lowry .
From Sept 3 , 2010 to May 14 , 2013 , McLean served as Colorado Avalanche 's goaltending consultant ; . During the 2010 – 11 season , McLean was honoured by the Canucks in a ceremony prior to a game against the Avalanche on November 25 , 2010 . The organization made him the second inductee of the Canucks ' Ring of Honour , commemorating the team 's best players of all @-@ time with plaques circling the Rogers Arena stands .
McLean was named to BC 's Hockey Hall of Fame on Jan 22 , 2014 .
= = Personal life = =
Following his retirement , McLean moved back to Vancouver , where he joined the Canucks ' alumni squad . The group is active in the local community , participating in fundraisers and working alongside Hockey Canada and BC Hockey for minor hockey associations . In September 2011 , his off @-@ ice efforts as a member of the Canucks ' alumni were recognized and he was presented the Jake Milford Award .
McLean has pursued various interests besides hockey during and after his playing career . An avid golfer , he is part of the Marine Drive Golf Club in Vancouver and the Nicklaus North Golf Club in Whistler . He was also accepted into the Royal Portrush Golf Club in Northern Ireland in 2008 . McLean began playing regularly at the age of 10 .
Involved in thoroughbred horse racing , he co @-@ owned Regal Discovery , a colt who won the 136th Queen 's Plate in 1995 , with his wife Lesley and her parents Anne and Ron . McLean and Lesley have since divorced . He was also briefly married to Canadian journalist Jane MacDougall , a columnist for the National Post newspaper .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
Bold denotes league @-@ leading statistic .
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
In the 1990 All @-@ Star Competition , Kirk led all goalies with the fewest goals ( 4 GA , 27 shots ) against throughout all of the events .
= = Awards = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
= = Vancouver Canucks records = =
= = = All @-@ time = = =
Regular season games played , goaltender - 516
Regular season wins , goaltender - 211
Regular season losses , goaltender – 228
Playoff games played , goaltender - 68
Playoff wins , goaltender - 34
Playoff losses , goaltender – 34
Playoff shutouts - 6
= = = Single @-@ season = = =
Playoff wins – 15 ( 1994 )
Playoff shutouts – 4 ( 1994 ) ( tied with Roberto Luongo , 2011 )
Playoff shots against – 820 ( 1994 )
Playoff saves – 761 ( 1994 )
Playoff minutes played – 1 @,@ 543 ( 1994 )
= = Transactions = =
June 9 , 1984 – Drafted in the sixth round , 107th overall by the New Jersey Devils in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft .
September 15 , 1987 – Traded by the New Jersey Devils with Greg Adams and the Devils ' second round selection ( Leif Rohlin ) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft to the Vancouver Canucks for Patrik Sundstrom , the Canucks ' second round selection ( Jeff Christian ) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft , and the Canucks ' fourth round selection ( Matt Ruchty ) in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft .
January 3 , 1998 – Traded by the Vancouver Canucks with Martin Gélinas to the Carolina Hurricanes for Sean Burke , Enrico Ciccone , and Geoff Sanderson .
March 24 , 1998 – Traded by the Carolina Hurricanes to the Florida Panthers for Ray Sheppard .
July 13 , 1999 – Signed as an unrestricted free agent by the New York Rangers .
= BootX ( Apple ) =
BootX is a software @-@ based bootloader designed and developed by Apple Inc. for use on the company 's Macintosh computer range . BootX is used to prepare the computer for use by loading all required device drivers and then starting @-@ up Mac OS X by booting the kernel on all PowerPC Macintoshes running the Mac OS X 10 @.@ 2 operating system or later versions . Using BootROM , a read @-@ only memory ( ROM ) computer chip containing OpenFirmware , a graphical bootsplash is shown briefly on all compatible Macintosh computers as a grey Apple logo with a spinning cursor that appears during the startup sequence . The program is freely available as part of the Darwin operating system under the open source Apple Public Source License . BootX was superseded by another nearly identical bootloader named boot.efi and an Extensible Firmware Interface ROM on the release of the Intel @-@ based Mac .
= = History = =
Older Macintoshes dating from 1983 until 1998 utilized a basic bootloader ; the bootloader was solely a ROM chip varying in sizes up to 4 megabytes ( MB ) , which contained both the computer code to boot the computer and to run the Mac OS operating system . This was known as the Macintosh Toolbox , or the Old World ROM , and differs greatly from design the | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the most danger . Weak points can sometimes only be attacked from dangerous areas , and enemies ' attack patterns often change mid @-@ battle , forcing the player to adapt .
The player can attack with the dragon 's laser , which strikes multiple targets simultaneously , or Edge 's gun , which focuses damage on a single target and is useful for striking weak points . Edge 's gun can be upgraded with power @-@ ups including three @-@ way fire and the " Sniper " modification , which deals additional damage to weak points . The dragon 's " berserks " , the equivalent of magic spells in other RPGs , have effects including powerful attacks , healing , and boosting the dragon 's defense or agility . Berserks require berserk points ( BP ) and sometimes multiple action gauges .
The dragon can be morphed to change its attack , defense , agility and spiritual attributes . Boosting one attribute diminishes another ; for example , boosting the attack attribute reduces the spiritual attribute , meaning berserks require more BP , while boosting means gauges fill faster at the expense of defense . Certain berserks are only available in certain dragon configurations .
= = Plot = =
Edge , a mercenary hired by the Empire , guards a site where artefacts from an ancient advanced civilization are being excavated . Fending off an ancient monster , he discovers a girl buried in a wall . The site is attacked by the mutinous Black Fleet , who seize the girl and kill Edge 's companions . Edge escapes with the help of a mysterious flying dragon and swears revenge on the Black Fleet leader , Craymen .
Edge rescues Gash , one of a band of scavengers called the Seekers , from a monster . Gash directs him to a nearby nomadic caravan , where he learns the location of the Black Fleet . Edge and the dragon defeat the fleet , but learn that Craymen has already reached the Tower , an ancient structure of tremendous power . They fend off an attack by the girl from the excavation site , who has sworn allegiance to Craymen and rides an enormous dragon , Atolm .
In the town of Zoah , Edge meets an engineer , Paet , who will trade information about the Tower for ancient artefacts . Searching an ancient vessel for parts , Edge is captured by imperial soldiers but rescued by Gash . Paet reveals that the Tower can be reached via the ruins of Uru ; there , Edge is attacked again by the girl and Atolm . After the battle , separated from their dragons , he and the girl fall into an ancient underground facility and form a truce to escape . The girl explains that she is an ancient bio @-@ engineered being named Azel , created in the facility , and designed to interface with ancient technology . After Edge 's dragon rescues them , Azel warns Edge that she will kill him if he crosses Craymen 's path again and leaves on Atolm .
Craymen surprises Edge in Zoah and asks for his help fighting the Empire . Paet tells Edge he can find the Tower by deactivating an ancient machine , Mel @-@ Kava , that obscures the Tower 's location with fog . In exchange for destroying an imperial base , the village leader gives Edge access to an ancient artefact that grants him a vision of Mel @-@ Kava 's location . Edge and the dragon destroy Mel @-@ Kava , clearing the fog , but are attacked again by Azel and Atolm . They shoot down Atolm and rescue Azel as she falls .
The Emperor 's flagship , Grig Orig , destroys Zoah , but the Black Fleet intervenes before Edge and the dragon are killed . At the Tower , Craymen tells Edge that it is one of several that manufacture monsters to combat humanity 's destructive forces . He needs Azel to activate the Tower and destroy the Empire before they can use it for themselves . Imperials arrive and capture Edge and Craymen . After the Emperor forces Azel to activate the Tower , monsters emerge and kill everyone but Edge and Azel , who escape on Edge 's dragon . At the Seeker stronghold , Gash explains that the Tower will destroy humanity if it is not deactivated . He believes Edge 's dragon is the prophesied Divine Visitor who will be humanity 's salvation . Edge and the dragon battle rampaging monsters and destroy the infested Grig Orig .
Edge rescues Azel from monsters in the Uru facility , where she has returned to contemplate her purpose . They infiltrate the Tower and Azel prepares to transfer Edge and the dragon into Sestren , the AI network that controls the towers . She confesses her love for Edge and he promises to return . Inside Sestren , Edge and the dragon defeat the network 's " anti @-@ dragon " programs . Through visions , Edge learns his dragon originated as the Heresy Program , a rogue AI purged from Sestren . The Heresy Program explains that the Divine Visitor is actually " the one from the outside world " who has guided Edge , and who must now destroy Sestren with Edge inside .
Gash awaits Edge in the desert , to no avail . Travelling alone , Azel asks directions across treacherous land .
= = Development = =
Panzer Dragoon Saga was developed by Sega 's Team Andromeda studio for the Saturn over approximately two years . Development began around the same time as development of the game 's predecessor , Panzer Dragoon II Zwei ( 1996 ) , with a team of about 40 , twice as many as the Zwei team . Director Yukio Futatsugi stated that Saga was the hardest Panzer Dragoon game to develop , as the team had to implement fully 3D environments and full voice acting , unusual for RPGs at the time .
It took about a year to rework the previous games ' shooting gameplay into an RPG . Once the team had settled on the core action of " locking on " to targets , such as enemies , NPCs , or other elements , the rest of the design followed . Futatsugi originally conceived a battle system in which the player would fight enemies for space , which became the game 's positioning system . The dragon 's morphing ability was added to compensate for the lack of a party of characters with different skills common in other RPGs . The team wanted to show the dragon morphing between forms , but dismissed the idea as too difficult to implement ; one day , a programmer surprised them with a working prototype , and the idea became a feature . After the battle system was finalized , development proceeded quickly and some members were moved to help complete Zwei .
Rather than create a " save @-@ the @-@ world " story with a large cast , Futatsugi wanted to concentrate on a small number of characters " who you are really close to " , which he felt would make the story more meaningful . An early version had Edge as an imperial soldier who defects ; Craymen also had an extensive backstory , explaining his motivations for betraying the Empire . Both stories were cut for time . Although Edge is not a silent protagonist , Futatsugi minimized his dialogue outside cutscenes to focus on Azel 's story , whom he felt was the most important character .
The team did not want the android Azel to be a typical energetic anime @-@ style heroine , and instead tried to make her simultaneously appealing and frightening . Her character underwent the most revisions , emphasizing her human and non @-@ human aspects , and one early design had a hole in her torso . Art director Manabu Kusunoki picked Katsumi Yokota to design the characters ; according to Futatsugi , Yokota is " a very , very good artist . The fragility of the character Azel exists because of Yokota @-@ san . "
The game uses the Zwei engine . As the dragon 's movement is not " on rails " , unlike other Panzer Dragoon games , the engine had to support free exploration along with battle sequences and real @-@ time morphing and shading ; according to GameSpot , this pushed the Saturn 's hardware further than any game . Futatsugi felt it would not have been possible on PlayStation , as the Saturn 's " cloudier " palette gives the Panzer Dragoon series its atmosphere . Rather than using pre @-@ recorded music , the game 's soundtrack is mostly generated via pulse @-@ code modulation by the Saturn ’ s sound hardware , as with Zwei .
Two staff died during development : one in a motorcycle accident and the other from suicide . Futatsugi attributed the deaths to the stressful working conditions of the video game industry . In 2013 , he said : " All we could do was carry on and finish the game - it was out of my hands . Part of me did want to stop though . That was definitely the toughest project I 've ever worked on . Personal relationships became strained . The stress was overwhelming . " Despite the difficulty of the project , he felt it had benefited from having " someone who plays the bad guy role , someone who acts a little selfish , acts a little forceful to the team to achieve specific goals ... Having team members that will support that kind of bad cop is necessary , and if they don 't exist then you can 't get those kind of results . "
= = Release = =
Panzer Dragoon Saga was released in North America in April 1998 on four CDs , one of the last Saturn games released outside Japan . As Sega had moved its focus to its next console , the Dreamcast , fewer than 20 @,@ 000 copies were released in the west and the game 's Japanese voice acting was subtitled rather than rerecorded in English . IGN 's Levi Buchanan characterized the release as an example of the Saturn 's " ignominious send @-@ off " , writing that " sunset Saturn games like Panzer Dragoon Saga and Burning Rangers demanded far better launches . The way these games were slipped into retail with zero fanfare and low circulation was insulting to both hard @-@ working developers and Sega fans . "
Because of its limited release , English @-@ language copies of Panzer Dragoon Saga are rare and sell for high prices . It has not been re @-@ released . In 2009 , game @-@ downloading service GameTap ’ s general manager Sene Sorrow stated that GameTap had the rights to distribute the game , but as Saturn emulation is difficult , he did not believe there was enough demand to make it a priority . In the same year , Futatsugi stated that Sega had lost the game 's source code , which would make porting the game difficult .
= = Reception and legacy = =
According to the review aggregator GameRankings , Panzer Dragoon Saga is the most critically acclaimed Saturn game , with an aggregate score of 92 % . It received praise for its graphics , gameplay , story and music , and many critics felt it was one of the best RPGs of all time . In 2007 , Game Informer wrote that " critically , the game was a smash hit , lauded as one of the year 's best , and generally considered the Saturn 's finest title . "
Edge praised the game 's range of enemies , tactical gameplay , and especially its extensive FMV cutscenes , which have " a cinematic quality that shames the work of almost every other developer " . It concluded that the game had " true creative integrity " and lamented that the Saturn 's failure meant it would not find a wider audience . Game Informer described it as " easily " the best Saturn RPG , praising its graphics , story , sound , and originality , and felt it was rivalled on other consoles only by Final Fantasy VII , released the previous year . Sega Saturn Magazine described the game as " a monumental effort , a work of art , and quite clearly a labour of love " , concluding that it was the best adventure on the Saturn . GameSpot praised its graphics , music , battle system , and story , concluding that it was " flawlessly executed " and " possibly the finest RPG of 1998 " . Electronic Gaming Monthly reviewers unanimously praised the game as one of the best RPGs of all time .
In 2007 , 1UP described Panzer Dragoon Saga as " the greatest RPG you 've never played " and one of the " most unique " RPGs of all time . In 2005 , Electronic Gaming Monthly placed Panzer Dragoon Saga # 1 in its list of cult classic games . Game Informer ranked it # 1 in its 2006 list of the " top 10 rare RPGs you need " . It was named one of best games of all time by Computer and Video Games in 2000 , Electronic Gaming Monthly in 2001 and 2006 , IGN readers in 2005 , IGN in 2007 and G4 in 2012 . In 2010 , NowGamer named it the 30th greatest retro game and called it " one of Sega ’ s greatest non @-@ hedgehog moments " .
After the game 's completion , Sega disbanded Team Andromeda . Futatsugi left Sega and joined Konami , while other staff moved to Sega teams including Smilebit , which went on to develop the final Panzer Dragoon game , Panzer Dragoon Orta ( 2002 ) , for Xbox .
= Typhoon Vera ( 1983 ) =
Typhoon Vera , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Bebeng , was a tropical cyclone that brought significant flooding to the Philippines in July 1983 . The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression on July 12 east of the Philippines . Although the depression was initially slow to organize , the system headed west @-@ northwestward , strengthening to a tropical storm the following day and a typhoon on the July 14 . Vera moved onshore early the next day as a minimal typhoon in the Philippines before weakening slightly over the islands . However , Vera managed to restrengthen over the South China Sea while accelerating , later attaining winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . After crossing Hainan while still at peak intensity and moving into the northern portion of the Gulf of Tonkin , Vera gradually weakened before moving ashore in northern Vietnam on July 18 . By July 19 , Vera had dissipated inland .
Across the Philippines , Typhoon Vera killed 123 and left 60 missing and 45 hurt . Approximately 200 @,@ 000 people were homeless . The typhoon destroyed 29 @,@ 054 dwellings and " badly " damaged 5 @,@ 558 others . A total of 76 @,@ 346 homes were " partially " damaged . Moreover , 24 @,@ 280 people sought shelter due to Vera . Around 80 % of Manila 's residents lost power . Many low @-@ lying areas of Manila were underwater while strong winds damaged homes and trees . The province of Bataan sustained the worst damage from the storm and 10 nearby villages were destroyed . Throughout the province , 50 people perished , primarily due to drownings . In all , damage totaled $ 42 million ( 1983 USD ) . In addition to the impact on the Philippines , Typhoon Vera claimed three lives in Vietnam and damaged 2 @,@ 500 houses . Offshore China , a swimmer drowned due to rough seas caused by Vera .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Vera can be traced back to a poorly organized monsoon trough that extended westward from the Philippines to the 160th meridian east in early July . On July 4 , the storm developed a persistent circulation . Four days later , a pair of organized areas of convection began to form , one near the 120th meridian east and another close to Guam . A Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued at 0600 UTC on July 10 after the storm developed a well @-@ defined upper @-@ level circulation . However , further development was slow to occur and the TCFA was re @-@ issued 24 hours later despite Hurricane Hunters suggesting that the storm did not have a low @-@ level circulation . Early on July 12 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) upgraded the system into a tropical depression after Hurricane Hunters indicated that the system had developed a closed wind circulation . Twelve hours later , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical storm , bypassing the tropical depression stage .
After tropical cyclogenesis , the depression began to strengthen quite steadily . Meanwhile , the storm slowed down , and by July 13 , Verna turned west @-@ northwest and towards the Central Philippines . At 1200 UTC , the JMA estimated that Vera had deepened into a severe tropical storm . Several hours later , the JTWC upgraded the storm into a typhoon . At 0000 UTC on July 14 , the JMA upgraded Vera into a typhoon while skirting Samar . Around this time , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Bebeng . Even though meteorologists from the JTWC anticipated weakening as it moved through the island group , this did not occur . Convention gradually increased , until very early on July 15 , when the storm started to interact with rugged terrain near Manila . Around this time , the JMA downgraded Vera into a severe tropical storm as it passed very close to Manila Bay . Within the next several hours , the JMA decreased the winds to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Late on July 15 , the storm began to reintensify and the JTWC upgraded Vera back to typhoon status . Early the following morning , the JMA followed suit . Accelerating , the storm continued to slowly deepen and early on July 27 , the JMA reported that Vera reached its peak intensity , with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . Around this time , the JTWC estimated peak winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) , making it equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . After crossing Hai @-@ Nan at peak intensity and moving into the northern portion of the Gulf of Tonkin , Vera slowly weakened before moving ashore near Haiphong at around 0000 UTC on July 18 . At the time of landfall , the JMA estimated winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Severe Tropical Storm Vera rapidly weakened over land and by July 19 , the JMA stopped monitoring Vera .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = Philippines = = =
Prior to the arrival of Vera , schools and government offices were shut down . Railway services were suspended ; Philippine Airlines called off domestic services .
Upon making landfall , Vera became the first storm to hit the nation in eight months while helping to relieve drought conditions . Typhoon Vera killed 123 and left 60 others missing across the Philippines , including 100 in Luzon alone . A total of 145 people were also injured . Around 200 @,@ 000 people were homeless . The typhoon destroyed 29 @,@ 054 houses and " badly " damaged 5 @,@ 558 others . A total of 76 @,@ 346 homes were " partially " damaged , which directly affected 628 @,@ 985 people . According to authorities , 24 @,@ 280 persons sought shelter . Moreover , more than 40 domestic flights were canceled due to the storm .
About 80 % of Manila 's 7 million residents lost power due to the storm . Low @-@ lying areas of Manila were underwater as strong winds blew away roofs of shacks and uprooted trees . Throughout the city , four deaths happened . One man was electrocuted while another man was crushed by debris . Fifty people were confirmed to have died and 2 @,@ 089 dwellings were damaged in nearby Bataan after storm surge crashed into the area . Most of the casualties in Bataan were due to drownings ; the city was also the hardest hit by the storm . Throughout the area near Bataan , 10 villages were destroyed . In Pantalan Luma , all but four of the town 's 400 huts were destroyed .
About 30 houses in San Pablo , Laguna were either demolished by strong winds or by falling coconut trees . Elsewhere , in Zambales , a woman was killed after she was struck by lighting . In Lucena City , a farmer was swept away via floods and two boys died due to fallen trees . The resort city of Legaspi suffered severe damage because hundreds of dwellings were destroyed , forcing many residents to seek shelter in schools or churches . Along the east coast of Luzon , seven people perished when hit by falling coconut trees in Quezon . Meanwhile , three casualties occurred in a fire in the province of Sorsogon . A total of 15 people drowned in the town of Sexmoan . The nearby towns of Macabebe and Masantol saw two drownings each . In the city of Manila or the provinces of Batangas , Quezon , Laguna , and Cavite , 34 @,@ 000 people were displaced . Overall , damage totaled $ 42 million ( 1983 USD ) . Infrastructure damage totaled $ 31 million . However , damage to crops totaled to only $ 9 @.@ 4 million since residents were just beginning to replant fields .
According to the Philippine Red Cross , 26 @,@ 845 families necessitated emergency assistance . Government agencies were ordered to arrest profiteers , hoarders and looters . President Ferdinand Marcos ordered all relief agencies to submit damage reports so emergency funds can be issued .
= = = Vietnam and China = = =
After striking Vietnam , Typhoon Vera claimed three lives and damaged 2 @,@ 500 houses . Heavy rains helped alleviate a prolonged drought in northern Vietnam , which had prevented the planting of rice . Because Typhoon Vera posed a threat to Southern China , 36 bulletins were issued by the Hong Kong Royal Observatory . A Typhoon signal No. 3 was also issued . After passing south of the area , a peak windspeed of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) was measured at Tate 's Cairn . In addition , the storm generated showers and squally weather to the region . One swimmer drowned due to rough seas .
= Alaska @-@ class cruiser =
The Alaska class was a class of six large cruisers ordered before World War II for the United States Navy . They were officially classed as large cruisers ( CB ) , but others have regarded them as battlecruisers . They were all named after territories or insular areas of the United States , signifying their intermediate status between larger battleships and smaller heavy / light cruisers . Of the six planned , two were completed , the third 's construction was suspended on 16 April 1947 , and the last three were canceled . Alaska and Guam served with the U.S. Navy for the last year of World War II as bombardment ships and fast carrier escorts . They were decommissioned in 1947 after spending only 32 and 29 months in service , respectively .
The idea for a large cruiser class originated in the early 1930s when the U.S. Navy sought to counter Deutschland @-@ class " pocket battleships " being launched by Germany . Planning for ships that eventually evolved into the Alaska class began in the late 1930s after the deployment of Germany 's Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships and rumors that Japan was constructing a new battlecruiser class . To serve as " cruiser @-@ killers " capable of seeking out and destroying these post @-@ Treaty heavy cruisers , the class was given large guns of a new and expensive design , limited armor protection against 12 @-@ inch shells , and machinery capable of speeds of about 31 – 33 knots ( 36 – 38 mph , 58 – 61 km / h ) .
= = Background = =
Heavy cruiser development steadied between World War I and World War II thanks to the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and successor treaties and conferences , where the United States , Britain , Japan , France , and Italy agreed to limit heavy cruisers to 10 @,@ 000 tons displacement with 8 @-@ inch main armament . Up until the Alaska class , US cruisers designed between the wars followed this pattern .
The initial impetus for the Alaska design came from the deployments of Germany 's so @-@ called pocket battleships in the early 1930s . Though no actions were immediately taken , these thoughts were revived in the late 1930s when intelligence reports indicated Japan was planning or building " super cruisers " that would be much more powerful than the current US heavy cruisers . The navy responded in 1938 when the General Board asked the Bureau of Construction and Repair to conduct a " comprehensive study of all types of naval vessels for consideration for a new and expanded building program " . The US President at the time , Franklin Delano Roosevelt , may have taken a lead role in the development of the class with his desire to have a counter to raiding abilities of Japanese cruisers and German pocket battleships . While these claims are difficult to verify , they have led to the speculation that their design was " politically motivated " . These were the most powerful cruisers ever built .
= = = Design = = =
One historian described the design process of the Alaska class as " torturous " due to the numerous changes and modifications made to the ship 's layouts by numerous departments and individuals . Indeed , there were at least nine different layouts , ranging from 6 @,@ 000 @-@ ton Atlanta @-@ class anti @-@ aircraft cruisers to " overgrown " heavy cruisers and a 38 @,@ 000 @-@ ton mini @-@ battleship that would have been armed with twelve 12 @-@ inch and sixteen 5 @-@ inch guns . The General Board , in an attempt to keep the displacement under 25 @,@ 000 tons , allowed the designs to offer only limited underwater protection . As a result , the Alaska class , when built , were vulnerable to torpedoes and shells that fell short of the ship . The final design was a scaled @-@ up Baltimore @-@ class class that had the same machinery as the Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers . This ship combined a main armament of nine 12 @-@ inch guns with protection against 10 @-@ inch gunfire into a hull that was capable of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) .
The Alaskas were officially funded in September 1940 along with a plethora of other ships as a part of the Two @-@ Ocean Navy Act . Their role had been altered slightly : in addition to their surface @-@ to @-@ surface role , they were planned to protect carrier groups . Because of their bigger guns , greater size and increased speed , they would be more valuable in this role than heavy cruisers , and would provide insurance against reports that Japan was building super cruisers more powerful than U.S. heavy cruisers .
= = = Possible conversion to aircraft carriers = = =
Yet another drastic change was considered during the " carrier panic " in late 1941 , when the Navy realized that they needed more aircraft carriers as quickly as possible . Many hulls currently under construction were considered for conversion into carriers . At different times , they considered some or all of the Cleveland @-@ class light cruisers , the Baltimore @-@ class heavy cruisers , the Alaska @-@ class , and even one of the Iowa @-@ class battleships ; in the end , they chose the Clevelands , resulting in the conversion of nine ships under construction at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation shipyard as the light aircraft carriers comprising the Independence @-@ class .
A conversion of the Alaska cruisers to carriers was " particularly attractive " because of the many similarities between the design of the Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers and the Alaska class , including the same machinery . However , when Alaska cruisers were compared to the Essex carriers , converted cruisers would have had a shorter flight deck ( so they could carry only 90 % of the aircraft ) , would have been 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) lower in the water , and could travel 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ) less at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . In addition , the large cruiser design did not include the massive underwater protections found in normal carriers due to the armor weight devoted to counter shell fire . Lastly , an Alaska conversion could not satisfy the navy 's goal of having new aircraft carriers quickly , as the work needed to modify the ships into carriers would entail long delays . With this in mind , all planning to convert the Alaskas was abandoned on 7 January 1942 .
= = Construction = =
Of the six Alaska @-@ class cruisers that were planned , only three were laid down . The first two , Alaska and Guam , were completed . Construction of Hawaii , the third , was suspended on 16 April 1947 when she was 84 % complete . The last three , Philippines , Puerto Rico , and Samoa , were delayed since all available materials and slipways were allocated to higher priority ships , such as aircraft carriers , destroyers , and submarines . Construction had still not begun when steel shortages and a realization that these " cruiser @-@ killers " had no more cruisers to hunt — as the fleets of Japanese cruisers had already been defeated by aircraft and submarines — made the ships " white elephants " . As a result , construction of the last three members of the class never began , and they were officially canceled on 24 June 1943 .
= = Service history = =
Alaska and Guam served with the U.S. Navy during the last year of World War II . Similar to the Iowa @-@ class fast battleships , their speed made them useful as shore bombardment ships and fast carrier escorts . Both protected Franklin when she was on her way to be repaired in Guam after being hit by two Japanese bombs . Afterward , Alaska supported the landings on Okinawa , while Guam went to San Pedro Bay to become the leader of a new task force , Cruiser Task Force 95 . Guam , joined by Alaska , four light cruisers , and nine destroyers , led the task force into the East China and Yellow Seas to conduct raids upon shipping ; however , they only encountered Chinese junks . By the end of the war , the two had become celebrated within the fleet as excellent carrier escorts . During the war , both ships were part of Cruiser Division 16 commanded by Rear Admiral Francis S. Low , USN .
After the war , both ships served as part of Task Force 71 , the designation for the U.S. Seventh Fleet 's North China Naval Force . Its mission was to support the allied occupation of the Korean peninsula . This included executing various show @-@ the @-@ flag operations along the western coast of Korea as well as in the Gulf of Chihli . These naval demonstrations preceded Operation Campus , the amphibious landing of U.S. Army ground forces at Jinsen , Korea , on 8 September 1945 . Subsequently , both ships returned to the United States in mid @-@ December 1945 , and they were decommissioned and " mothballed " in 1947 @.@ after having spent 32 months ( Alaska ) and 29 months ( Guam ) in service .
In 1958 , the Bureau of Ships prepared two feasibility studies to explore whether Alaska and Guam could be suitably converted into guided @-@ missile cruisers . The first study involved removing all of the guns in favor of four different missile systems . At $ 160 million , the cost of this proposed removal was seen as prohibitive , so a second study was initiated . The study left the forward batteries ( the two 12 @-@ inch triple turrets and three of the 5 @-@ inch dual turrets ) unchanged , and added a reduced version of the first plan on the stern of the ship . Even though the proposals would have cost approximately half as much as the first study 's plan ( $ 82 million ) , it was still seen as too expensive . As a result , both ships were stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 June 1960 . Alaska was sold for scrap on 30 June 1960 , and Guam on 24 May 1961 .
The still @-@ incomplete Hawaii was considered for a conversion to be the Navy 's first guided @-@ missile cruiser ; this thought lasted until 26 February 1952 , when a different conversion to a " large command ship " was contemplated . In anticipation of the conversion , her classification was changed to CBC @-@ 1 . This would have made her a " larger sister " to Northampton , but a year and a half later ( 9 October 1954 ) she was re @-@ designated CB @-@ 3 . Hawaii was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 9 June 1958 and was sold for scrap in 1959 .
= = " Large cruisers " or " battlecruisers " = =
Early in its development , the class used the US battlecruiser designation CC , which had been planned for the Lexington class . However , the designation was changed to CB to reflect their new status , " large cruiser " , and the practice of referring to them as battlecruisers was officially discouraged . The U.S. Navy then named the individual vessels after U.S. territories , rather than states ( as was the tradition with battleships ) or cities ( for which cruisers were named ) , to symbolize the belief that these ships were supposed to play an intermediate role between heavy cruisers and fully @-@ fledged battleships .
The Alaska class certainly resembled contemporary US battleships ( particularly the North Carolina class , South Dakota class , and Iowa class ) in appearance , including the familiar 2 @-@ A @-@ 1 main battery and massive columnar mast , and displaced twice that of the newest heavy cruisers ( the Baltimore class ) . In weight , the ships were only 5 @,@ 000 tons less than the London Treaty battleship standard displacement limit of 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) , also longer than several treaty battleships such as the King George V and North Carolina @-@ classes .
In design and armor the Alaska class are regarded as " large cruisers " rather than battlecruisers . Their design was scaled up from the treaty cruisers limited by the Washington , London and Second London naval treaties . In common with U.S. heavy cruisers , they had aircraft hangars and a single large rudder . Their armor lacked the underwater protection systems found on full @-@ fledged battleships and even intermediate capital ships like the French Dunkerque and German Scharnhorst classes . This left the Alaskas virtually defenseless against torpedoes , as well as vulnerable to shells falling slightly short and continuing underwater to hit the hull . While the Alaskas had more side armor than other contemporary U.S. cruisers , their protection was only marginally capable of stopping 12 " fire ; they were vulnerable to battleship fire ( 14 – 16 " fire ) at any range .
In addition , despite being much larger than the Baltimore class , the numbers of secondary and anti @-@ aircraft batteries of the Alaskas were similar . Whereas the Alaska class carried twelve 5 " / 38 caliber in six twin turrets , fifty @-@ six 40 mm , and thirty @-@ four 20 mm guns , the Baltimore class carried the same number of 5 " / 38s , eight fewer 40 mm , and ten fewer 20 mm . , considerably fewer than new U.S. battleships that had ten ( save for South Dakota ( BB @-@ 57 ) ) 5 " / 38 twin mounts while older refitted U.S. battleships had eight . Author Richard Worth remarked that when they were finally completed , launched , and commissioned , they had the " size of a battleship but the capabilities of a cruiser " . The Alaska class was similarly expensive to build and maintain as contemporary battleships yet far less capable due to armor deficiencies , while only able to put up an anti @-@ aircraft defense comparable to the much cheaper Baltimore cruisers .
Despite these cruiser @-@ like characteristics , and the U.S. Navy 's insistence on their status as cruisers , the Alaska class has been frequently described as battlecruisers . The official navy magazine All Hands said " The Guam and her sister ship Alaska are the first American battle cruisers ever to be completed as such . " Some modern historians take the view that this is a more accurate designation because they believe that the ships were " in all senses of the word , battlecruisers " , with all the vulnerabilities of the type . The traditional Anglo @-@ American battlecruiser concept had always sacrificed protection for the sake of speed and armament — they were not intended to stand up against the guns they themselves carried . The Alaska 's percentage of armor tonnage , 28 @.@ 4 % , was slightly less than that of fast battleships ; the British King George V @-@ class , the American Iowa class , and the battlecruiser / fast battleship HMS Hood all had armor percentages between 32 and 33 % , whereas the Lexington @-@ class battlecruiser design had a nearly identical armor percentage of 28 @.@ 5 % . In fact , older battlecruisers , such as the Invincible ( 19 @.@ 9 % ) , had a significantly lower percentage . Armament @-@ wise , they had much larger guns than contemporary heavy cruisers ; while the Baltimore class only carried nine 8 " / 55 caliber Marks 12 and 15 guns , the Alaska class carried nine 12 " / 50 caliber guns that were as good as , if not superior to , the old 14 " / 50 caliber gun used on the U.S. Navy 's pre @-@ treaty battleships .
= = Armament = =
= = = Main battery = = =
As built , the Alaska class had nine 12 " / 50 caliber Mark 8 guns mounted in three triple ( 3 @-@ gun ) turrets , with two turrets forward and one aft , a configuration known as " 2 @-@ A @-@ 1 " . The previous 12 " gun manufactured for the U.S. Navy was the Mark 7 version , which had been designed for and installed in the 1912 Wyoming @-@ class battleships . The Mark 8 was of considerably higher quality ; in fact , it " was by far the most powerful weapon of its caliber ever placed in service . " Designed in 1939 , it weighed 121 @,@ 856 pounds ( 55 @,@ 273 kg ) , including the breech , and could sustain an average rate of fire of 2 @.@ 4 – 3 rounds a minute . It could throw a 1 @,@ 140 @-@ pound ( 520 kg ) Mark 18 armor @-@ piercing shell 38 @,@ 573 yards ( 35 @,@ 271 m ) at an elevation of 45 ° , and had a 344 @-@ shot barrel life ( about 54 more than the much larger but similar 16 " / 50 caliber Mark 7 gun found in the Iowa battleships . ) . The Alaska 's Mark 8 guns were the heaviest main battery of any cruiser of World War II , and as capable as the old 14 " / 50 caliber gun used on the U.S. Navy 's pre @-@ treaty battleships .
The turrets were very similar to those of the Iowa @-@ class battleships , but differed in several ways ; for example , the Alaska class had a two @-@ stage powder hoist instead of the Iowa class 's one @-@ stage hoist . These differences made operating the guns safer and increased the rate of fire . In addition , a " projectile rammer " was added to Alaska and Guam . This machine transferred shells from storage on the ship to the rotating ring that fed the guns . However , this feature proved unsatisfactory , and it was not planned for Hawaii or any subsequent ships .
Because Alaska and Guam were the only two ships to mount these guns , only ten turrets were made during the war ( three for each ship including Hawaii and one spare ) . They cost $ 1 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 each and were the most expensive heavy guns purchased by the U.S. Navy in World War II .
= = = Secondary battery = = =
The secondary battery of the Alaska class was composed of twelve dual @-@ purpose ( anti @-@ air and anti @-@ ship ) 5 " / 38 caliber guns in twin mounts , with four offset on each side of the superstructure ( two on each beam ) and two centerline turrets fore and aft . The 5 " / 38 was originally intended for use on only destroyers built in the 1930s , but by 1934 and into World War II it was being installed on almost all of the U.S. ' s major warships , including aircraft carriers , battleships , and heavy and light cruisers .
= = = Anti @-@ aircraft battery = = =
For anti @-@ aircraft armament , the Alaska @-@ class ships carried 56 × 40 mm guns and 34 × 20 mm guns . These numbers are comparable to 48 × 40 mm and 24 × 20 mm on the smaller Baltimore @-@ class heavy cruisers and 80 × 40 mm and 49 × 20 mm on the larger Iowa battleships .
Arguably the most efficient light anti @-@ aircraft gun of World War II , the 40 mm Bofors was used on nearly every major warship in the U.S. and UK fleets during World War II from about 1943 to 1945 . Although they were a descendant of German and Swedish designs , the Bofors mounts used by the United States Navy during World War II had been heavily " Americanized " to U.S. Navy standards . This new standard resulted in a gun system set to English standards ( now known as the Standard System ) with interchangeable ammunition , simplifying the logistics situation for World War II . When coupled with hydraulic couple drives to reduce salt contamination and the Mark 51 director for improved accuracy , the 40 mm Bofors became a fearsome adversary , accounting for roughly half of all Japanese aircraft shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945 .
The Oerlikon 20 mm anti @-@ aircraft gun was one of the most extensively used anti @-@ aircraft guns of World War II ; the U.S. alone manufactured a total of 124 @,@ 735 of these guns . When activated in 1941 , they replaced the 0 @.@ 50 " M2 Browning machine gun on a one @-@ for @-@ one basis . The Oerlikon gun remained the primary anti @-@ aircraft weapon of the United States Navy until the introduction of the 40 mm Bofors in 1943 .
= = Ships = =
USS Alaska ( CB @-@ 1 ) was commissioned on 17 June 1944 . She served in the Pacific , screening aircraft carriers , providing shore bombardment at Okinawa , and going on raiding missions in the East China Sea . She was decommissioned on 17 February 1947 after less than three years of service and was scrapped in 1960 .
USS Guam ( CB @-@ 2 ) was commissioned on 17 September 1944 . She served in the Pacific with Alaska on almost all of the same operations . Along with Alaska , she was decommissioned on 17 February 1947 and was scrapped in 1961 .
USS Hawaii ( CB @-@ 3 ) was intended as a third ship of the class , but she was never completed . Numerous plans to utilize her as a guided @-@ missile cruiser or a large command ship in the years after the war were fruitless , and she was scrapped .
USS Philippines ( CB @-@ 4 ) , Puerto Rico ( CB @-@ 5 ) , and Samoa ( CB @-@ 6 ) were planned as the fourth , fifth , and sixth ships of the class , respectively . All were going to be built at Camden , New Jersey , but they were canceled before construction could begin .
= = Endnotes = =
= Vijayanagara literature in Kannada =
Vijayanagara literature in Kannada is the body of literature composed in the Kannada language of South India during the ascendancy of the Vijayanagara Empire which lasted from the 14th through the 16th century . The Vijayanagara empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I. Although it lasted until 1664 , its power declined after a major military defeat by the Shahi Sultanates in the battle of Talikota in 1565 . The empire is named after its capital city Vijayanagara , whose ruins surround modern Hampi , now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka .
Kannada literature during this period consisted of writings relating to the socio @-@ religious developments of the Veerashaiva and Vaishnava faiths , and to a lesser extent to that of Jainism . Writing on secular topics was popular throughout this period . Authorship of these writings was not limited to poets and scholars alone . Significant literary contributions were made by members of the royal family , their ministers , army commanders of rank , nobility and the various subordinate rulers . In addition , a vast body of devotional folk literature was written by musical bards , mystics and saint @-@ poets , influencing society in the empire . Writers of this period popularised use of the native metres : shatpadi ( six @-@ line verse ) , sangatya ( compositions meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument ) , and tripadi ( three @-@ line verse ) .
The development of Veerashaiva literature was at its peak during the reign of King Deva Raya II , the best @-@ known of the Sangama dynasty rulers . The rule of King Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty and his successors was a high point in Vaishnava literature . The influence of Jain literature , which had dominated Kannada language in the previous centuries , was on the wane with increasing competition from the resurgent Veerashaiva faith and Vaishnava bhakti movement ( devotional movement of the haridasas ) . Interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures left lasting influences that continued after the Vijayanagara era .
= = Court literature = =
= = = Overview = = =
Before the 12th century , Jain writers had dominated Kannada literature with their champu ( verses mixed with prose ) style of writings popular in court literature . In the later medieval period , they had to contend with the Veerashaivas who challenged the very notion of royal literature with their vachana poetry , a stylised form of spoken language , more popular in folk genres . The popular growth of Veerashaiva ( devotees of the Hindu god Shiva ) literature began in the 12th century , while Vaishnava ( devotees of the Hindu god Vishnu ) writers began to exert their influence from the 15th century . Jain writers had to reinvent their art , moving away from the traditional themes of renunciation and tenets to focus on contemporary topics . Andayya 's 13th century classic Kabbigara Kava ( " Poets defender " ) was an early example of the change in literary style , and also reflected the hostility toward the Veerashaivas ; the Jain author found it ideal to narrate the story of Manmatha , the God of Love , who turned Shiva into a half woman . The Veerashaivas had initiated an important change , casting aside the concept of formal literature and making way for shorter local genres . The Vaishnava haridasas later popularised musical forms that were more acceptable to the common man . Written classics eulogising kings and commanders were a thing of the past . Kannada literature had moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions , with singability being its hallmark , and devotion to God its goal .
This significant shift in the literary landscape was coupled with major political changes that were taking place in southern India in the early 14th century . With the decline of the regional Hindu kingdoms , the Vijayanagara Empire had risen as a bulwark against Muslim incursions from the north while creating an atmosphere conducive to development of the fine arts . In an important age of Kannada literature , competition between Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writers came to the fore . Literary disputations between the two sects were common , especially in the court of King Deva Raya II . Acute rivalry led to " organised processions " in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects . With the exception of the best @-@ known writers from these faiths , many authors produced lesser quality writings with a sectarian and propagandist bent .
The Vaishnava writers consisted of two groups who seemed to have no interaction with each other : the Brahmin commentators who typically wrote under the patronage of royalty ; and the Bhakti ( devotion ) poets who played no role in courtly matters , instead taking the message of God to the people in the form of melodious songs composed using folk genres . Kumara Vyasa and Timmanna Kavi were well @-@ known among the Brahmin commentators , while Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa were the most famous of the Bhakti writers . The philosophy of Madhvacharya , which originated in the Kannada – speaking region in the 13th century , spread beyond its borders over the next two centuries . The itinerant haridasas , best described as mystic saint @-@ poets , spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya in simple Kannada , winning mass appeal by preaching devotion to God and extolling the virtues of jnana ( enlightenment ) , bhakti ( devotion ) and vairagya ( detachment ) .
This was the age of the shatpadi metre , although only the most skilled of poets , such as Chamarasa , Kumara Vyasa , Kanaka Dasa and Bhaskara used it to the best effect . Mentioned for the first time in Kannada literature by Nagavarma I in his Chhandombudhi ( c . 990 ) and successfully used by the 12th century Hoysala poet Raghavanka , this hexa @-@ metre style suited for narrative poetry found immense popularity throughout the Vijayanagara period . The shataka metre ( string of 100 verses ) was put to best use by the Veerashaivas who produced most of the didactic writings in this metre , although the Jain poet Ratnakaravarni is the most famous exponent of it . The writings of Ratnakaravarni and Kanaka Dasa in sangatya metre are considered masterpieces from this period .
In the royal courts , there was increased interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures , continuing a trend which had begun in the Hoysala period . Translations of classics from Kannada to Telugu and vice versa became popular . Well @-@ known bilingual poets of this period were Bhima Kavi , Piduparti Somanatha and Nilakanthacharya . Some Telugu poets , including Dhurjati , were so well versed in Kannada that they freely used many Kannada terms in their Telugu writings . It was because of this " familiarity " with Kannada language that the notable writer Srinatha called his Telugu writings " Kannada " . Translations by bilingual writers continued in the centuries to follow .
With the disintegration of the Vijayanagara Empire in the late 16th and early 17th centuries , the centres of Kannada literature moved to the courts of the emerging independent kingdoms , the Kingdom of Mysore and the Keladi Nayakas . Writers in these courts , many of whom were Veerashaiva by faith , were not only adept in Kannada but often also in Sanskrit and / or Telugu . Two such writers were Kalale Nanjaraja and Kempe Gowda , the founder of Bangalore . This multi @-@ linguality was perhaps a lingering legacy of the cosmopolitan Vijayanagara literary culture and the emerging social responsibilities of the Veerashaiva monastic order which no longer confined itself to a Kannada only audience , but rather sought to spread its influence across southern India .
In the Kingdom of Mysore , the Veerashaiva literary school was challenged by the growing influence of the Srivaishnava intelligentsia in the Wodeyar court . The Srivaishnava writers ( followers of a sect of Vaishnavism ) of Kannada literature were also in competition with Telugu and Sanskrit writers , their predominance continuing into the English colonial rule over the princely state of Mysore . Meanwhile , the radical writings of 16th @-@ century poet Ratnakaravarni had made way for a new kind of poetry heralded by those who were not poets in the traditional courtly sense , rather itinerant poets who travelled across the Kannada @-@ speaking region , cutting across court and monastery , writing poems ( in the tripadi metre ) and influencing the lives of people with their humanistic values which overcame the social barriers of caste and religion . Sarvajna ( often compared to Telugu poet Vemana ) , Sisunala Sherif , Mupina Sadakshari , Navalingayogi and Kadakolada Madivalappa are the best @-@ known among them . These maverick poets heralded yet another epoch of unconventional literature in Kannada language , free of courtly conservatism and established literary tastes .
= = = Vaishnava writings = = =
Vaishnava authors wrote treatments of the Hindu epics , the Ramayana , the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata , as well as the Vedanta and other subjects from the Hindu puranic traditions . This was the age of Kumara Vyasa , an influential Vaishnava poet and a doyen of medieval Kannada epic poetry . Historians have drawn parallels between Adikavi Pampa ( c . 941 ) and Kumaraya Vyasa , while identifying fundamental differences in their style . Both are considered masters of their respective periods ; while Pampa is identified as a stylist of the classical age , Kumara Vyasa is considered a generalist of the medieval age . Unlike Pampa , a product of the marga ( Sanskritic @-@ mainstream ) period of Kannada literature , Kumara Vyasa successfully wielded the flexibility of the desi ( native ) shatpadi metre , which used a range of language that included metaphors , similes , humour and even vulgarity .
Kumara Vyasa wrote Gadugina Bharata in 1430 in the Vyasa tradition . The title of the work is a reference to Gadagu ( modern Gadag ) , where the author lived . The writing is based on the first ten chapters of the Hindu epic Mahabharata and is also alternatively titled Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari or Kumaravyasa Bharata . It is a dedication to the deity of Gadag and emphasises the divinity and grace of the Hindu god Krishna . Unlike Pampa , who adhered to a strictly Jain interpretation of the epic in his Vikramarjuna Vijaya ( 941 ) , eulogising Pandava Arjuna as the hero , making Draupadi solely Arjuna 's wife and casting the Kaurava prince Duryodhana and his loyal companion Karna as lofty individuals , Kumara Vyasa portrays all characters with the exception of Krishna as deeply human with foibles . His depiction of the secondary characters , such as the cunning Keechaka and the coward Uttara Kumara , is also noteworthy . An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humour exhibited by the poet and his hero , Krishna . This work marks the transition in Kannada literature from old to modern . Particularly known for his use of sophisticated metaphors , Kumara Vyasa earned the title Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti ( " Emperor of the land of Metaphors " ) . The remaining chapters of the epic were translated by Timmanna Kavi ( 1510 ) of the court of King Krishnadevaraya . The poet named his work Krishnaraya Bharata after his patron king . Airavata ( 1430 ) by Kumara Vyasa recounts an episode from the Mahabharata and is a story of the elephant ridden by god Indra .
Inspired by Kumara Vyasa , the first complete brahminical adaptation of the epic Ramayana was written by Kumara Valmiki ( a pseudonym of Narahari , 1500 ) and is called Torave Ramayana after the village Torave , where it was composed . As with the Mahabharata , this adaptation veers away from the Jain version by Nagachandra ( 1105 ) . Nagachandra had used the champu metre popular in Sanskrit works and sought to portray Ravana as a tragic hero . In a departure from the original version ( by Valmiki ) , the Jain epic ends with Rama 's asceticism and nirvana . Kumara Valmiki 's account , written in the Valmiki tradition , is in the shatpadi metre and is steeped in the author 's devotion for the god Rama , an incarnation of the god Vishnu . According to the author , the epic he wrote was actually a recounting of Shiva 's conversation with his consort Parvati . In this version of the epic , King Ravana , the villain , is one of the suitors at Sita 's Swayamvara ( lit a ceremony of " choice of a husband " ) . His failure in winning the bride 's hand results in jealousy towards Rama , the eventual bridegroom . As the story progresses , Hanuman , for all his services , is heaped with encomium and is exalted to the status of " the next creator " . At the end of the story , during the war with Rama , Ravana realises that Rama is none other than the god Vishnu and hastens to die at his hands to achieve salvation . The chapter narrating the war ( Yuddhakanda ) is given prominence over all other chapters . The writing has remained popular for centuries and inspired folk theatre such as the Yakshagana , which draws from episodes of Torave Ramayana for enactment . The influence of the Puranic tradition and that of Madhavacharya are visible in this lively yet religious narration that uses every opportunity to glorify its hero , Rama . However , the author has been criticised for dwelling in abstractions and for not reaching the graceful poetic level of his predecessor Kumara Vyasa .
The early Bhagavata writings in Sanskrit by well @-@ known acharyas ( gurus ) were solely meant to have a proselytising effect on the masses , encouraging them to a theistic way of life and belief in the god Krishna . Chatu Vitthalanatha , who flourished as a court poet of King Krishnadeva Raya and his successor King Achyuta Raya , was the first to translate the Bhagavata into Kannada in a voluminous writing comprising 12 @,@ 247 stanzas divided into 280 sections . The work covered the entire original version in shatpadi metre . Two other names appear in the colophons , Sadananda Yati and Nityatma Sukayogi , prompting some scholars to attribute the work to the group while others consider them alternate names of the same writer . The work covers all ten avatars of the god Vishnu , though it is essentially centred on the depiction of Krishna as the supreme Lord . The purana covers stories of Vishnu 's famous devotees such as Prahlad and Dhruva in detail , as well as stories of demons Vritasura , Hiranyakashipu and others who sought to attain salvation by dying at the hands of Vishnu . Most noteworthy is the epic 's influence on the compositions of the Haridasas . Though the writing is not considered as important as the other two epics of the period , its significance to religiously minded people is well accepted . Chatu Vitthalanatha wrote a fuller version of portions of the epic Mahabharata as well . Other notable writers of the 16th century were Tirumala Bhatta ( Siva Gite ) and Ramendra ( Saundarya Katharatna , using tripadi metre ) .
= = = Veerashaiva writings = = =
The Veerashaiva writers were devotees of the Hindu god Shiva , his 25 forms , and the expositions of Shaivism . An important development in their literature during this period was the recasting the saints of the 12th century Veerashaiva movement ( Basavanna , Allama Prabhu and others ) as the protagonists of their writings .
Bhima Kavi paved the way for the shatpadi metre tradition in his work Basavapurana ( c.1369 ) , a form first experimented with by the 12th century Hoysala poet Raghavanka . Bhima Kavi 's work , a biography of Basavanna , is an important Veerashaiva purana . It was inspired by earlier biographies of Basavanna by the Hoysala poet Harihara ( the author of the first biographical narrative poem of the protagonist 's life called Basavaraja Ragale ) and the Telugu writings of Palkuriki Somanatha of the 13th century . Bhima Kavi humbly acknowledges and eulogises his predecessors in a writing full of well @-@ known personalities .
The author starts with Basavanna 's birth and weaves episodes of other famous sharanas ( devotees of Hindu god Shiva ) — such as Allama Prabhu — into his life history . Basavanna is depicted as a saintly person , a great devotee of Shiva , an incarnation of Nandi , a man of miracles and one with a mission , sent to re @-@ establish the Veerashaiva faith on earth . The work is arranged into eight aswasas ( divisions ) containing sixty @-@ one sandhis ( chapters ) and 3 @,@ 621 verses . The narration includes stories of devotees of Shiva who overcame their egos . Apart from a few variations , the writings of Bhima Kavi and his predecessors are complementary . Two lost works of Bhima Kavi are the Bhimakaviswara Ragale and the Bhringidandaka .
Chamarasa , Lakkanna Dandesa and Jakkanarya flourished under the patronage of King Deva Raya II . Chamarasa , champion of the Veerashaiva faith , was a rival of Kumara Vyasa in the court of King Deva Raya II . His magnum opus , the Prabhulinga Lile ( 1430 ) was a eulogy of 12th @-@ century saint Allama Prabhu ; it was translated into Telugu and Tamil language at the behest of his patron king , and later into the Sanskrit and Marathi languages . In the story , the saint is considered an incarnation of Hindu god Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi . In stark contrast to Kumara Vyasa 's war @-@ torn epic , Chamarasa delivered a writing full of spirituality . A remark made by the poet in the writing , that his story is " not about ordinary mortals " , implied that the Vaishnava epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were about mortals ; this was evidence of rivalry between the two faiths .
Lakkanna Dandesa , the king 's prime minister and provincial governor , wrote an encyclopaedia on the beliefs and rites of the Veerashaiva faith titled Sivatattva Chintamani . This work is an account of the life of Basavanna , the progenitor of the faith , and hundreds of his followers , making it valuable material for students of the Lingayat movement . Numerous references are made in this work to the capital city of Vijayanagara and its suburbs . Jakkanarya , a minister in the court , not only wrote Nurondusthala ( one hundred and one stories ) but also was patron to Kumarabanka Natha and Mahalinga Deva , poet @-@ saints who wrote vachana poems and books on the Shaiva philosophy ( called shatsthala ) . Other writers of the 15th century worthy of mention are Kavi Linga ( 1490 ) , court poet of King Saluva Narasimha I , Adrisappa ( Praudaraya Charitra ) , Bommarasa ( Soundara Purana ) , Kallarasa ( Janavasya ) , Chaturmukha Bommarasa ( Revanasiddhesvara Purana ) , Suranga Kavi ( Trisashti Puratanara Charitre ) , and Nilakanthacharya ( Aradhya Charitra ) , court poet of the Ummattur chieftain Virananjendra .
In 1500 , inspired by Palkuriki Somanatha ( a bilingual poet in Kannada and Telugu ) , Singiraja synthesised an account on the life of Basavanna titled Maha Basavaraja Charitra ( or Singiraja Purana ) , using the protagonist 's vachana poems and giving details of his 88 famous deeds , as well as information about his opponents in the court of Southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II . An eminent poet of this time was Guru Basava , known for his authorship of seven famous poems ( Sapta Kavya ) , all but one being written in the shatpadi metre . He expounded on religious teachings in the form of formal discussions between the guru and disciple . His kavyas ( classical epic poems ) deal with spiritualism and extrasensory perception .
Mallanarya of Gubbi , a poet bilingual in Kannada and Sanskrit , enjoyed the patronage of King Krishnadeva Raya . His important writings in Kannada in the shatpadi metre are the Bhava Chintaratna ( also called Satyendra Chole Kathe , 1513 ) and the Virasaivamrita Purana ( 1530 ) . The former was based on a 7th @-@ century Tamil work and about a Chola King in the context of the Shaiva faith ; the latter is a writing of encyclopedic proportions that goes beyond philosophical content , describing the various forms ( or sports , called lila ) of god Shiva and the lives of famous Shaiva saints .
In 1584 , Virupaksha Pandita , the head priest at the Virupaksha Temple in Vijayanagara , wrote an account on the life and deeds of the 12th @-@ century saint and vachana poet Chennabasava . The writing , titled Chenna Basava Purana , regards the protagonist as an incarnation of god Shiva and describes the glory of Shiva and his famous devotees . The book gives valuable information , including dates , about early Veerashaiva saints and vachanakaras ( vachana poets ) . In addition to religious content , the writing provides useful insights about the former capital Vijayanagara , its royal palace , its market places and merchants , its military encampments , specialisations and divisions and the guilds of workers who served the military in various capacities . Other authors from the 16th century were Chermanka ( Chermanka Kavya ) , Virabhadraraja ( Virabhadra Vijaya ) , Chennabasavanka ( Mahadevi Akkanna Purana ) , Nanjunda of Ikkeri ( Bhairavaesvara Kavya ) and Sadasiva Yogi ( Ramanatha Vilasa ) .
= = = Jain writings = = =
The cultural supremacy of the Jains steadily diminished from the 12th century ; the decline began in the 10th century after the conquest of the predominantly Jain Rashtrakutas by the Western Chalukya Empire , and the defeat of the Ganga kingdom by the Cholas of Tanjore . While Veerashaivism flourished in northern Karnataka from the time of Basavanna , Sri Vaishnavism ( a branch of Vaishnavism ) thrived in the South due to the influence of Ramanujacharya . The Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana and his descendants took to Vaishnavism . Though tolerant of all faiths , the founders of the Vijayanagara Empire and the succeeding kings of the Sangama dynasty were Shaivas by faith ( devotees of Shiva ) while the later Tuluva dynasty kings were Sri Vaishnavas ( followers of Sri Vaishnavism ) . The Jain population appears to have begun its decline from this period ; however , available records include a decree by King Bukka Raya I giving Jains freedom of worship , following their complaint of persecution . Although the influence of Jainism and its literature was on the wane , the coastal areas of modern Karnataka , where important Jain monuments and monoliths were constructed , remained a stronghold . As in earlier centuries , Jain authors wrote about tirthankars , princes and other personages important to the Jain religion . Most famous among Jain poets from the coastal Karnataka region were Ratnakaravarni , Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda , Salva and Nemanna .
Ratnakaravarni of Mudabidri ( 1557 ) , court poet at Karkala under the patronage of Bhairasa Wodeyar , is famous for successfully integrating an element of worldly pleasure into asceticism and for treating the topic of eros with discretion in a religious epic , his magnum opus the Bharatadesa Vaibhava . One of the most popular poets of Kannada literature , Ratnakaravarni 's writings were popular across religions and sects . He appears to have had tense relationships with both court and monastery , however , owing to writings on erotics and the science of pleasure , rather than purely spiritual poetry . A radical and sensitive poet , he once claimed that spiritual meditation " was boring " . Tradition has it that Ratnakaravarni converted to Veerashaivism when his Bharatadesa Vaibhava ( also called Bharatesvara Charite ) was initially scorned , later to return to the Jain fold and pen other important writings . The Bharatadesa Vaibhava is written in eighty cantos and includes 10 @,@ 000 verses . His other important writings include the 2 @,@ 000 spiritual songs called Annagalapada ( " Songs of the Brothers " ) and the three shatakas : the Ratnakara sataka , the Aparajitesvara shataka ( a discourse on Jain morals , renunciation and philosophy ) and the Trilokya shataka , an account of the universe as seen by Jains , consisting of heaven , hell and the intermediate worlds .
Bharatadesa Vaibhava is a version of the earlier Poorvapurana by Jinasenacharya and reflects a different perspective than the Adipurana written by Adikavi Pampa c . 941 . Centred on the glorification of the enlightened Bharata , the son of the first Jain tirthankar Adinatha , Ratnakaravarni cleverly focuses on those aspects that the original by Pampa ignored . Ratnakaravarni goes into minute detail about prince Bharata who , according to the author , serves as the ideal balance between detachment ( yoga ) and attachment ( bhoga ) . Though married to " 96 @,@ 000 women " , Bharata is depicted as one who at once could separate himself from worldly pleasures . Unlike Pampa , who focused on the conflict between the brothers Bahubali and Bharata , ending with Bahubali 's asceticism and Bharata 's humiliation , Ratnakaravarni 's eulogy of Bharata leaves room only for Bahubali 's evolution towards sainthood . Eventually , Bharata attains moksha ( liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth ) by burning himself in ascetic fire . The author showers encomium on Bharata in his various roles as monarch , husband , son , friend and devotee , a rare description of a " perfect human being " among Jain writings . Since details of the early life of Bharata as a young ruler did not exist in previous writings or in tradition , much of Ratnakaravarni 's vivid description of that period was a product of his imagination . This work finds its pride of place in Kannada 's epic poetry as the longest poem in the folk sangatya metre .
Salva ( 1550 ) , who was the court poet of a Konkan prince named Salvamalla , wrote a propagandist work called the Salva Bharata . This was a Jain version of the epic Mahabharata in sixteen parvas ( divisions ) , intended to compete with the Vaishnava version of the epic written by Kumar Vyasa in the mid @-@ 15th century . Abhinava Vadi Vidyananda of Gerosoppa ( 1553 ) wrote Kavya Sara , a 1 @,@ 143 verse anthology of extracts of subjects written about by earlier poets between 900 and 1430 . The text closely resembles an anthology written by Hoysala poet Mallikarjuna ( 1245 ) , with some additions to account for writings in the post Mallikarjuna era . A staunch Jain and a disputant , Vidyananda argued for the cause of his faith in the Vijayanagara court and other provincial courts . Nemanna ( 1559 ) wrote Jnana Bhaskara Charite on the importance of inner contemplation rather than rituals as the correct path towards emancipation .
In Vijayanagara , Madhura was the court poet of King Harihara II and King Deva Raya I under the patronage of their respective prime ministers . He is famous for his account of the 15th tirthankar titled Dharmanatha Purana ( 1385 ) , written in a style similar to that of Jain poets of earlier centuries . Madhura is also credited with a poem about Gomateshwara of Shravanabelagola . Ayata Varma , who is tentatively dated to 1400 , translated from Sanskrit a champu ( mixed prose @-@ verse ) titled Ratna Karandaka describing Jain ideologies . Manjarasa , a feudatory king of Kallahalli and a Vijayanagara general of rank , wrote two books . Nemijinesa Sangata , completed in 1508 , was an account of the life of the 22nd Jain tirthankar ; Samyukta Koumudi , written in 1509 , comprised 18 short stories on religious values and morals .
An important shatpadi writing from this period is the Jivandhara Charite ( 1424 ) by Bhaskara , a story of Prince Jivanadhara , who regained the throne usurped by his father . Other well @-@ known Jain writers were Kalyanakirti ( Jnanachandrabhyudaya , 1439 ) , Santikirtimuni ( Santinathacharite , 1440 ) , Vijayanna ( Dvadasanuprekshe , 1448 ) , Bommarasa of Terakanambi ( Sanatkumara Charite , 1485 ) , Kotesvara ( 1500 ) , Mangarasa III ( Jayanripa Kavya ) , Santarasa ( Yogaratnakara ) , Santikirti ( Santinatha Purana , 1519 ) , Doddayya ( Chandraprabha Purana , 1550 ) , Doddananka ( Chandraprabha Purana , 1578 ) and Bahubali Pandita of Sringeri ( Dharmanathapuranam , 1352 ) .
= = = Secular writings = = =
Although most of the writings that have survived from this period are religious in nature , there is sufficient literary evidence that secular writing was also popular in the imperial court . Some of these writings carry useful information on urban life , grandeur of the imperial and provincial courts , royal weddings and ceremonies . Other works refer the general town planning , fortifications and ordnance details at Vijayanagara and other important cities , irrigation reservoirs , merchants and shops dealing in a variety of commodities . On occasion , authors dwell on mythical cities that reflect their idealised views on contemporary life . Commonly found in these works are description of artists and professionals and their relationship with the court . These included poets , bards , composers , painters , sculptors , dancers , theatrical performers and even wrestlers . Others who find mention are political leaders , ambassadors , concubines , accountants , goldsmiths , moneylenders and even servants and door keepers .
Writings in various literary genres such as romance , fiction , erotica , folk songs and musical compositions were popular . A wealth of literature dealing in subjects such as astronomy , meteorology , veterinary science and medicine , astrology , grammar , philosophy , poetry , prosody , biography , history and lexicon , as well as dictionaries and encyclopedias , were written in this era .
In 1360 , Manjaraja I wrote a book on medicine called Khagendra Mani Darpana , basing it on the 5th century writings of Pujyapada . Padmananka ( 1385 ) wrote a biography of his ancestor Kereya Padmarasa , a Hoysala minister and poet , in a work titled Padmaraja Purana . The writing provides details about the Hoysala Empire and notable personalities such as the poets Harihara and Raghavanka . Chandrashekara ( or Chrakavi ) , a court poet of Deva Raya II , wrote an account on the Virupaksha temple , its precincts and settlements at Pampapura ( modern Hampi ) in the Pampasthana Varnanam in 1430 . Mangaraja II authored a lexicon called Mangaraja Nighantu in 1398 , while Abhinava Chandra gave an account on veterinary science in his book called Asva Vaidya in the 14th century . Kavi Malla wrote on erotics in the Manmathavijaya in the 14th century . In the 15th century , Madhava translated an earlier Sanskrit poem by Dandi and called it Madhavalankara , and Isvara Kavi ( also called Bana Kavi ) wrote a prosody called Kavijihva Bandhana .
Deparaja , a member of the royal family , authored Amaruka and a collection of romantic stories called the Sobagina Sone ( 1410 ) , written in the form of a narration by the author to his wife . However , according to Kotraiah , Sobagina Sone was actually written by King Deva Raya II . The writing contains interesting details on the king 's hunting expeditions and on the professional hunters who accompanied him . In 1525 , Nanjunda Kavi , a feudatory prince wrote on local history , published a eulogy of prince Ramanatha ( also called Kumara Rama ) titled Ramanatha Charite ( or Kumara Rama Sangatya ) in the sangatya metre . The poem is about the prince of Kampili and his heroics at the dawn of the Muslim invasion into southern India . This work combines folk and epic literature . The protagonist rejects the advances of his stepmother , only to be condemned to death . He is rescued by a minister , but eventually achieves martyrdom fighting Muslim invaders at the capital .
In 1567 , Jain ascetic Srutakirti of Mysore translated from Sanskrit a biographic poem of a Hoysala lady Vijayakumari in Vijayakumari Charite . The writing goes into detail about a city ( believed to be Vijayanagara , the royal capital ) , discussing its shops , guilds and businesses . The text describes the rigid caste @-@ based human settlements and notes that people involved in mundane duties such as washing , barbering , pot @-@ making and carpentry lived outside the fort walls in streets constructed specifically for them . Salva ( 1550 ) authored two poems called Rasa Ratnakar and Sharada Vilas . The former is about rasa ( poetical sentiment or flavour ) and the latter , only portions of which have been recovered , is about the dhvani ( suggested meaning ) in poems . Thimma 's Navarasalankara of the 16th century also discusses poetical flavour . In the 16th century , lexicons were written by Lingamantri ( Kabbigarakaipidi ) and Devottama ( Nanaratha Ratnakara ) . At the turn of the 17th century , Bhattakalanka Deva wrote comprehensively on old Kannada grammar . His Karnataka Sabdanusasanam is modelled on the lines of Sanskrit grammar and is considered an exhaustive work .
= = Bhakti literature = =
= = = Vaishnava writings = = =
Unlike the Veerashaiva movement which preached devotion to the god Shiva with an insistence on a classless society and had its inspiration from the lower classes of society , the haridasa movement started from the higher echelons and preached devotion to the god Vishnu in a more flexible caste @-@ based society , eventually becoming popular among the common people . The beginnings of the haridasa tradition can be traced to the Vaishnava school of Dvaita philosophy pioneered by Madhvacharya . Its influence on Kannada literature in the early 14th century is seen in the earliest known compositions written by Naraharitirtha , a prominent disciple of Madhvacharya .
The Vaishnava Bhakti ( devotional ) movement involving well @-@ known haridasas ( devotee saints ) of the 14th through 16th centuries made an indelible imprint on Kannada literature , with the development of a body of literature called Haridasa Sahitya ( " Haridasa literature " ) . This philosophy presented another strong current of devotion , pervading the lives of millions , similar to the effects of the Veerashaiva movement of the 12th century . The haridasas conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through esoteric Sanskrit writings ( written by Vyasa kuta or Vyasa school ) and simple Kannada language compositions , appealing to the common man , in the form of devotional songs ( written by the Dasa Kuta or Dasa school ) . The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha , Jayatirtha , Vyasatirtha , Sripadaraya , Vadirajatirtha , Purandara Dasa , Kanaka Dasa and others .
Compositions in the haridasa literature are sub @-@ divided into four types : kirthane , suladi , ugabhoga and mundige . Kirthanes are devotional musical compositions with refrains based on raga and tala and celebrate the glory of god . The suladi are tala based , the ugabhoga are melody based while the mundige are in the form of riddles . Compositions were also modelled on jogula ( lullaby songs ) and sobane ( marriage songs ) . A common feature of haridasa compositions are influences from the Hindu epics , the Ramayana , the Mahabharata and Bhagavata .
Haridasa poetry , which faded for a century after the death of Naraharitirtha , resurfaced with Sripadaraya , who was for some time the head of the Madhva matha ( monastery of Madhvacharya ) at Mulubagilu ( in modern Kolar district ) . About a hundred of his kirthanes have survived , written under the pseudonym " Sriranga Vithala " . Sripadaraya is considered a pioneer of this genre of devotional songs . Sripadaraya 's disciple , Vyasatirtha ( or Vyasaraya ) , is most famous among the latter day Madhva saints . It was he who created the Vyasa kuta and Dasa kuta schools within the Madhva order . He commanded respect from King Krishnadeva Raya , who honoured him with the title kuladevata ( family god ) . A poet of merit in Kannada and the author of seminal works in Sanskrit , Vyasatirtha was the guru responsible for shaping the careers of two of Kannada 's greatest saint @-@ poets , Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa . Another prominent name in the age of Dasa ( devotee ) literature is Vadirajatirtha , a contemporary of Purandara Dasa and the author of many works in Kannada and Sanskrit .
Purandara Dasa ( 1484 – 1564 ) , a wandering bard who visited Vijayanagara during the reign of King Achyuta Raya , is believed to have composed 475 @,@ 000 songs in the Kannada and Sanskrit languages , although only about 1 @,@ 000 songs are known today . Composed in various ragas , and often ending with a salutation to the Hindu deity Vittala , his compositions presented the essence of the Upanishads and the Puranas in simple yet expressive language . He also devised a system by which the common man could learn Carnatic music , and codified the musical composition forms svaravalis , alankaras and geethams . Owing to his contributions in music , Purandara Dasa earned the honorific Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha ( " Father of Carnatic Music " ) .
Kanaka Dasa ( whose birth name was Thimmappa Nayaka , 1509 – 1609 ) of Kaginele ( in modern Haveri district ) was an ascetic and spiritual seeker , who according to historical accounts came from a family of Kuruba ( shepherds ) or beda ( hunters ) . Under the patronage of the Vijayanagara king , he authored such important writings as Mohanatarangini ( " River of Delight " , 1550 ) , written in dedication to King Krishnadevaraya , which narrates the story of Krishna in sangatya metre . His other famous writings are Narasimhastava , a work dealing with glory of God Narasimha , Nalacharita , the story of Nala , which is noted for its narration , and Hari Bhaktisara , a spontaneous writing on devotion in shatpadi metre . The latter writing , which is on niti ( morals ) , bhakti ( devotion ) and vairagya ( renunciation ) , continues to be a popular standard book of learning for children . A unique allegorical poem titled Ramadhanya Charitre ( " Story of Rama 's Chosen Grain " ) which exalts ragi over rice was authored by Kanaka Dasa . In this poem , a quarrel arises between ragi , the food grain of the poor , and rice , that of the rich , as to which is superior . Rama decides that ragi is superior because it does not rot when preserved . This is one of the earliest poetic expressions of class struggle in the Kannada language . In addition to these classics , about 240 songs written by Kanaka Dasa are available .
For a brief period following the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire , the devotional movement seemed to lose momentum , only to become active again in the 17th century , producing an estimated 300 poets in this genre ; famous among them are Vijaya Dasa ( 1682 – 1755 ) , Gopala Dasa ( 1721 – 1769 ) , Jagannatha Dasa ( 1728 – 1809 ) , Mahipathi Dasa ( 1750 ) , Helavanakatte Giriamma and others . Over time , their devotional songs inspired a form of religious and didactic performing art of the Vaishnava people called the Harikatha ( " Stories of Hari " ) . Similar developments were seen among the followers of the Veerashaiva faith , who popularised the Shivakatha ( " Stories of Shiva " ) .
= = = Veerashaiva writings = = =
Vachana poetry , developed in reaction to the rigid caste @-@ based Hindu society , attained its peak in popularity among the under @-@ privileged during the 12th century . The Veerashaivas , who wrote this poetry , had risen to influential positions by the Vijayanagara period . Following the Muslim invasions in the early 14th century , Brahmin scholars methodically consolidated writings of Hindu lore . This inspired several Veerashaiva anthologists of the 15th and 16th centuries to collect Shaiva writings and vachana poems , originally written on palm leaf manuscripts . Because of the cryptic nature of the poems , the anthologists added commentaries to them , thereby providing their hidden meaning and esoteric significance . An interesting aspect of this anthological work was the translation of the Shaiva canon into Sanskrit , bringing it into the sphere of the Sanskritic cultural order .
Well @-@ known among these anthologies are Ganabhasita Ratnamale by Kallumathada Prabhudeva ( 1430 ) , Visesanubhava Satsthala by Channaviracharya ( 16th century ) and Bedagina Vachanagalu by Siddha Basavaraja ( 1600 ) . The unique Shunyasampadane ( the ' mystical zero ' ) was compiled in four versions . The first among them was anthologised by Shivaganaprasadi Mahadevaiah ( 1400 ) , who set the pattern for the other three to follow . The poems in this anthology are essentially in the form of dialogues between patron saint Allama Prabhu and famous Sharanas ( devotees ) , and was meant to rekindle the revolutionary spirit of the 12th century . Halage Arya ( 1500 – 1530 ) , Gummalapura Siddhalinga Yati ( 1560 ) and Gulur Siddaveeranodaya ( 1570 ) produced the later versions .
Though the writing of vachana poems went into decline after the passing of the Basavanna era in the late 12th century , latter day vachanakaras such as Tontada Siddhesavara ( or Siddhalinga Yati ) , a noted Shaiva saint and guru of King Virupaksha Raya II , started a revival . He wrote Shatsthala Jnanamrita ( 1540 ) , a collection of 700 poems . In 1560 , Virakta Tontadarya made the life of Tontada Siddhesavara the central theme in his writing Siddhesvara Purana . Virakta Tontadarya , Gummalapura Siddhalinga , Swatantra Siddhalingeshwara ( 1560 ) and Ghanalingideva ( 1560 ) are some well @-@ known vachana poets who tried to recreate the glory days of the early poets , though the socio @-@ political expediency did not exist .
Mystic literature had a resurgence towards the beginning of the 15th century , in an attempt to synthesise the Veerashaiva and advaitha ( monistic ) philosophies ; this trend continued into the 19th century . Prominent among these mystics was Nijaguna Shivayogi , by tradition a petty chieftain near the Kollegal region ( modern Mysore district ) turned Shaiva saint , who composed devotional songs collectively known as Kaivalya sahitya ( or Tattva Padagalu , literally " songs of the pathway to emancipation " ) . Shivayogi 's songs were reflective , philosophical and concerned with yoga . They were written in almost all the native metres of Kannada language with the exception of shatpadi metre .
Shivayogi 's other writings include a scientific encyclopaedia called Vivekachintamani , so well regarded that it was translated into Marathi language in 1604 and Sanskrit language in 1652 and again in the 18th century . The writing categorises 1 @,@ 500 topics based on subject and covers a wide array such as poetics , dance and drama , musicology and erotics . His translation of the Shiva Yoga Pradipika from Sanskrit was done to elucidate the Shaiva philosophy and benefit those ignorant of the original language .
In the post @-@ Vijayanagara era , the Kaivalya tradition branched three ways . The first consisted of followers of the Nijaguna Shivayogi school , the second was more elitist and brahminical in nature and followed the writings of Mahalingaranga ( 1675 ) , while the third was the branch that kept the vachana tradition alive . Well @-@ known poet @-@ saints from this vachana tradition were Shivayogi 's contemporary Muppina Sadakshari , whose collection of songs are called the Subodhasara ; Chidananda Avadhuta of the 17th century ; and Sarpabhushana Shivayogi of the 18th century . So vast is this body of literature that much of it still needs to be studied .
= Pepper Martin =
Johnny Leonard Roosevelt " Pepper " Martin ( February 29 , 1904 – March 5 , 1965 ) was an American professional baseball player and minor league manager . He was known as the Wild Horse of the Osage because of his daring , aggressive baserunning abilities . Martin played in Major League Baseball as a third baseman and an outfielder for the St. Louis Cardinals during the 1930s and early 1940s . He was best known for his heroics during the 1931 World Series , in which he was the catalyst in a Cardinals ' upset victory over the Philadelphia Athletics .
Martin was an integral member of the Cardinals ' teams of the 1930s that became known as the Gashouse Gang for their roguish behavior and practical jokes . Early in his career , he was labeled by some contemporary press reports as the next Ty Cobb because of his spirited , hustling style of play . However , because his headlong attitude on the playing field took a physical toll on his body , he never lived up to those initial expectations . After the end of his playing career , he continued his career in baseball as a successful minor league baseball manager .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Temple , Oklahoma , Martin moved to Oklahoma City with his parents at the age of six where he grew up playing baseball . He began his professional baseball career at the age of 19 when he signed to play as a shortstop in the Oklahoma State League for a team in Guthrie , Oklahoma . When the league folded in 1924 , his contract was sold to the Greenville Hunters of the East Texas League . In 1925 , he posted a .340 batting average in 98 games for the Hunters . He continued to post batting averages above the .300 mark and in 1927 , he was signed by the St. Louis Cardinals to play for their affiliate , the Houston Buffaloes . He hit for a .306 average in 147 games with Houston , he earned a promotion to the major leagues .
After spending five years in the minor leagues , Martin made his major league debut with the Cardinals on April 16 , 1928 at the age of 24 . He posted a .308 batting average in 39 games as a utility player , helping the Cardinals win the National League pennant . Martin made one appearance as a pinch runner in the 1928 World Series , when the Cardinals lost in four straight games to the New York Yankees . Despite his respectable batting average , Martin was sent back to the Houston Buffaloes in January 1929 where he hit for a .298 batting average . The following season , he was promoted to the Rochester Red Wings where his offensive statistics improved with 20 home runs , a .363 batting average and a .631 slugging percentage , helping the Red Wings win the 1930 International League title . The Red Wings then defeated the Louisville Colonels of the American Association to win the Junior World Series .
Martin 's performance earned him a return to the major leagues with the Cardinals in 1931 . When veteran center fielder Taylor Douthit went into a hitting slump , Martin replaced him and played well enough that Cardinals ' president , Branch Rickey , traded Douthit to the Cincinnati Reds in June . Martin impressed observers with his hustle in the outfield as well as on the base paths where he often slid into bases head @-@ first . He ended the year with a .300 batting average along with seven home runs and 75 runs batted in to help the Cardinals clinch the 1931 National League pennant by 13 games over the New York Giants .
= = = World Series star = = =
The 1931 World Series was a rematch of the previous year 's participants , pitting the Cardinals against the Philadelphia Athletics . Led by Connie Mack , the Athletics had won the previous two World Series and were heavily favored to win for a third consecutive year . They featured a lineup that included five future National Baseball Hall of Fame members in Mickey Cochrane , Jimmie Foxx , Lefty Grove , Waite Hoyt and Al Simmons .
In Game 1 held at Sportsman 's Park in St. Louis , Martin had three hits , including a double , a stolen base and drove in one run in a 6 @-@ 2 loss to the ace of the Athletics staff , 31 @-@ game winning pitcher Lefty Grove . Martin proved to be the difference in Game 2 in what was otherwise a tight pitching duel between Bill Hallahan of the Cardinals and George Earnshaw for the Athletics . He scored the first run of the game in the second inning by stretching a single into a double when the ball was mishandled in the outfield , stealing third base , and then scoring on a sacrifice fly . Martin added another run in the seventh inning when he hit a single , stole second base , took third base on a fielder 's choice , and then scored on a squeeze bunt . Those would be the only runs of the game as Hallahan pitched a three @-@ hit shutout to even the series at one win apiece . The series then moved to Shibe Park in Philadelphia for Game 3 , where Martin had two hits , including a double and scored twice in a 5 @-@ 2 Cardinals ' victory over Grove . In Game 4 , he produced the only two hits by the Cardinals as they lost to Earnshaw , 3 @-@ 0 . Martin almost single @-@ handedly provided the offense for the Cardinals in Game 5 , driving home four runs with two singles , a home run and a sacrifice fly , as the Cardinals triumphed 5 @-@ 1 . Although he was held hitless in the final two games of the series , he made an impressive catch to extinguish an Athletics two @-@ run rally in the ninth inning of Game 7 to end the game and clinch the world championship for the Cardinals .
He set a then record 12 hits in the series , including four doubles , a home run , five stolen bases and five runs batted in . Martin 's .500 series batting average may have made the difference in the series outcome , as without him the Cardinals batted just .205 as a team . During the series , Martin was asked how he had learned to run so fast ; he replied , " I grew up in Oklahoma , and once you start runnin ' out there there ain 't nothin ' to stop you " . Longtime major league manager , John McGraw , described Martin 's performance as " the greatest individual performance in the history of the World Series . " In December , he was selected as male athlete of the year by the Associated Press .
= = = Later career = = =
Martin experienced an injury @-@ plagued season in 1932 , missing several weeks when he dislocated his shoulder in April and missed a month and a half when he broke a finger in July while sliding into home plate . In August , Cardinals manager Gabby Street converted Martin into a third baseman in an attempt to fill the gap left by the injured Sparky Adams . Martin was not a naturally gifted third baseman , often fielding balls after having stopped them with his chest . He ended the season with a .238 batting average with four home runs and 34 runs batted in as the Cardinals fell to seventh place in the National League .
Having rebounded from his injuries , in 1933 Martin was leading the league in hitting with a .363 batting average in the middle of June , earning him a starting role as the third baseman for the National League team in the inaugural Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game held on July 6 , 1933 . Now hitting as the Cardinals ' leadoff hitter , he finished the season ranked sixth in the league with a career @-@ high .316 average and led the league with 122 runs scored and 26 stolen bases . Martin ranked tenth in the league with a .456 slugging percentage , and he had a career @-@ high .387 on @-@ base percentage along with 36 doubles , 12 triples and eight home runs as the Cardinals improved to a fifth @-@ place finish . He came in fifth place in the voting results for the 1933 National League Most Valuable Player Award .
Martin 's batting average dropped to .289 in 1934 , but he once again led the league in stolen bases as the Cardinals rallied from seven games behind the New York Giants in early September to win the National League pennant on the last day of the season . He made an appearance as a relief pitcher on August 19 , allowing one hit in two innings pitched . In a memorable 1934 World Series against the Detroit Tigers , the Cardinals were down 3 games to 2 , before rebounding to win the final two games . The series was highlighted by several rough plays on the base paths that culminated in Game 7 , when Joe Medwick made a rough slide into Tigers ' third baseman Marv Owen . The following inning , outraged Detroit fans pelted Medwick with debris when he assumed his defensive position in the outfield . The disturbance wasn 't quelled until the umpires appealed to Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis , who had Medwick removed from the game . Martin ended the series with 11 hits for a .355 average , stole two bases and scored eight runs in the series . He experienced difficulties in the field , committing 3 errors in Game 4 and setting a World Series record with four errors overall . While in a St. Louis hospital in December 1934 , for a minor operation on his left arm , Martin insisted that he be entertained by a cowboy musical group that he had hired . He created such a disturbance among the other patients that the hospital staff moved him to an isolated wing . Martin , along with Cardinals teammates such as Leo Durocher , Dizzy Dean and Joe Medwick among others , became known as the 1934 Gashouse Gang due to their boisterous activities on and off the field . He played the guitar in a hillbilly band composed of Cardinals players named The Mudcat Band .
Although Martin had a good year offensively in 1935 , he continued to struggle defensively at third base . In the midst of a tight pennant race in July , he committed three costly errors in a loss to the New York Giants , and ended the year with 30 errors . He was hitting for a .333 average by mid @-@ season to earn the starting third baseman 's position in the 1935 All @-@ Star Game . For the season , he hit for a .299 average with nine home runs and 54 runs batted in . In October , Martin underwent surgery again , this time on his right arm . In January 1936 , Branch Rickey asked Martin to curtail his extra @-@ curricular activities . Already well known as a hunting and fishing enthusiast , Martin had taken up the hobby of midget car racing and was also playing in football and basketball games during the winter months . He also became the vice @-@ president and general manager of an Oklahoma City ice hockey team .
Martin moved back to the outfield , playing as the Cardinals ' right fielder in 1936 as the Cardinals battled the New York Giants for the National League title before settling for second place . He responded with a good year offensively , hitting for a .309 average with career @-@ highs in home runs ( 11 ) and in runs batted in ( 76 ) . Martin also led the National League in stolen bases with 23 . He continued to hit well , by 1937 although , he was relegated to a part @-@ time role , as his spirited , headlong style of play took its toll on his body . At the beginning of the 1939 season , he was named as the Cardinals ' team captain , taking the job from Leo Durocher who had been traded to the Brooklyn Dodgers . He experienced a resurgence , leading the team with a .340 batting average in June before a sprained wrist put him out of action for two weeks . He ended the season with a .306 batting average in 88 games , helping the Cardinals to finish second in the National League . Martin hit for a respectable .316 average in 1940 before the Cardinals named him as the player @-@ manager of the Sacramento Solons of the Pacific Coast League in October .
Martin led Sacramento to a second @-@ place finish in 1941 before leading them to their first Pacific Coast League championship in 38 years in 1942 . He then became a player @-@ manager for the Rochester Red Wings in 1943 . When professional baseball experienced a shortage of players during World War II , Martin returned to the major leagues in 1944 with the Cardinals at the age of 40 . In 40 games with the Cardinals , he posted a .279 batting average and an impressive .386 on @-@ base percentage to help the Cardinals clinch the 1944 National League pennant . Martin did not appear in the 1944 World Series , playing his final major league game on October 1 , 1944 .
= = Career statistics = =
In a 13 @-@ year major league career , Martin played in 1 @,@ 189 games , accumulating 1 @,@ 227 hits in 4 @,@ 117 at bats for a .298 career batting average along with a .443 slugging percentage , 59 home runs , 501 runs batted in , 146 stolen bases and an on @-@ base percentage of .358 . He retired with a .973 career fielding percentage in 613 games as an outfielder and a .927 fielding percentage in 429 games as a third baseman . A four @-@ time All @-@ Star , Martin 's World Series career batting average of .418 is still a series record , and he is tied for 10th with seven World Series stolen bases . He led the National League three times in stolen bases and once in runs scored . On May 5 , 1933 , Martin hit for the cycle in a game against the Philadelphia Phillies at the Baker Bowl .
= = Managing career = =
After the end of his major league career , Martin returned to the minor leagues , serving as a player @-@ manager with the San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League in 1945 and 1946 before becoming the player @-@ manager for the Greenville Spinners of the South Atlantic League in 1947 . His fiery , competitive nature was still evident in July 1945 when it was reported that he had punched one of his players for not performing to his standards . While managing the Miami Sun Sox of the Florida International League in 1949 , he was fined and suspended for the remainder of the season for choking an umpire . In August 1951 , he made news again when he was arrested after a Sun Sox game when he went into the stands to punch a spectator in Lakeland , Florida .
When the Sun Sox released him , Martin was hired to manage the Miami Beach Flamingos of the Florida International League in 1952 . Despite leading them to a 103 @-@ 49 record , the Flamigos finished the season one game behind his former team , the Sun Sox . In 1953 , he became the manager of the Fort Lauderdale Lions and led them to the Florida International League title . After spending the 1954 season as the manager for the Portsmouth Merrimacs , Martin was named as a coach for the Chicago Cubs in September 1955 . Stan Hack was fired as the Cubs manager when they finished in last place in the 1956 season , and the new Cubs manager , Bob Scheffing , asked for Martin 's resignation along with the rest of the coaching staff . Martin returned to the minor leagues once again where he became a player @-@ coach for the Tulsa Oilers , playing his final game at the age of 54 . He took his final field assignment as the manager of the Miami Marlins in 1959 .
= = Later life = =
Before his death , he served briefly as the athletic director of the Oklahoma State Penitentiary at McAlester , Oklahoma . Martin died on March 5 , 1965 , after suffering a heart attack . His wife , Ruby , survived him by over four decades , dying just after her 99th birthday in 2009 . Martin was inducted into the Oklahoma Sports Hall of Fame in 1992 .
= Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood ( traditional Chinese : 寶貝計劃 ; simplified Chinese : 宝贝计划 , also known as Robin @-@ B @-@ Hood ) is a 2006 Hong Kong action comedy film written , produced and directed by Benny Chan , and starring Jackie Chan , Louis Koo , Yuen Biao and Michael Hui . The film was produced with a budget of HK $ 130 million ( US $ 16 @.@ 8 million ) and filmed between December 2005 and January 2006 . Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood is the first film in over 30 years in which Jackie Chan plays an anti @-@ hero .
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood tells the story of a kidnapping gone wrong in Hong Kong ; a trio of burglars consisting of Thongs ( Chan ) , Octopus ( Koo ) and the Landlord ( Hui ) kidnap a baby from a wealthy family on behalf of triads . With the Landlord arrested , Thongs and Octopus take care of the baby for a short time , developing strong bonds with him . Reluctant to hand the baby over , the two are forced to protect him from the triads who hired them in the first place .
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood was released in Hong Kong , China and Southeast Asia on 29 September 2006 based in Hong Kong to generally positive reviews . The film topped the Chinese box office in October 2006 and despite not being given a release in most European and North American countries , it grossed over US $ 20 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
The film begins showing Thongs and Octopus evading security guards in a hospital , having stolen money and cancer medication from the safe . Meanwhile , a newborn baby to the wealthy Lee family is snatched by Max , the mother 's ex @-@ boyfriend , prompting the security guards give chase , ignoring the burglars , and corner Max on an escalator . Following a violent struggle , Max and the baby fall over the side — the baby is caught by Thongs , while Max plummets to his death . While the guards are distracted , Thongs and Octopus leave in the Landlord 's minivan .
A few months later , the Landlord finds his flat burgled , his life savings gone . He receives a phone call from his middleman Uncle Seven , offering him a job to kidnap baby Lee on behalf of a triad boss , who claims the baby is his grandson . Enticed by the HK $ 7 million reward , Thongs and Octopus accept the job without knowing its objectives , finding out only after the Landlord has fled the Lees ' mansion with the baby . Disgusted by the idea of kidnapping a baby , Thongs threatens to return him , but relents after the Landlord tells him of his predicament . En route to their rendezvous point in Sai Kung , the trio encounter a police road block which the Landlord attempts to outrun , only to crash his van down a hill . As the police close in on them , the stuck Landlord instructs Thongs and Octopus to leave with the baby . While in custody for reckless driving , the Landlord learns of the baby 's value through the news . He phones Thongs , instructing him not to hand the baby over to anyone prior to his release so he can jack up the price . Over the next few days , Thongs and Octopus take care of the baby , developing a strong bond with him . The two begin to regret their vices : Thongs resists the urge to gamble , while Octopus feels sorry for cheating on his wife . Meanwhile , both the triads and the police are after the baby . The triad boss , enraged by the non @-@ delivery of his " grandson " , sends his men to retrieve the baby from Thongs ' flat . Confronted by both the triads and Police Inspector Mok , Thongs and Octopus go into hiding with the baby .
Shortly after his release , the Landlord is brought to the triad boss , who increases his offer to HK $ 30 million for the baby . He finds Thongs and Octopus at the hospital , where the baby is being treated for fever . The Landlord informs the two of the triads ' latest offer , but Thongs and Octopus are more concerned about the baby 's welfare than the cash . However , the two agree to bring the baby to the triad boss ' mansion , where the Landlord will meet them with the rest of the money . They reach the triad boss ' mansion and hand over the baby reluctantly . As the trio are about to leave , they hear the baby crying for them as a blood sample is taken from his arm . Thongs and Octopus experience a flashback of the days they spent with the baby . Overcome by their feelings , they fight their way into the triad boss ' private amusement park to recover the baby while the Landlord leaves with the money . Thongs almost manages to escape with the baby , but is forced to surrender when the triads threaten to hurl Octopus to his death .
Thongs and Octopus are taken to the triad boss , who insists the baby is his grandson , only to be proven wrong by the blood test . Driven mad , the boss places the baby in a deep freeze room next to Max 's corpse so the baby can be with his son , prompting Thongs and Octopus to fight for the baby . The two end up trapped in the room with two minions , but are saved when Inspector Mok arrives with the Landlord , who swiftly cracks the lock to the room . Thongs and Octopus run to the garage with the comatose baby , where Thongs attempts to revive him with a makeshift defibrillator powered by a car battery from a Pagani Zonda . Despite his efforts , the baby does not come to and is driven off in an ambulance , where his heart is found to be beating weakly . Imprisoned for kidnapping , Thongs , Octopus and the Landlord volunteer for a mock capital punishment demonstration during an open day , using the opportunity to apologise to their loved ones . After the demonstration , Inspector Mok informs the three that their sentences have been further reduced by the Department of Justice . Thongs , Octopus , and the Landlord then see the baby alive and well with his parents . As a token of appreciation for saving the baby 's life , Thongs , Octopus and the Landlord are offered jobs by the Lee family as a bodyguard , chauffeur and head of security respectively .
= = Cast = =
Jackie Chan ( 成龍 ) as Thongs ( 人字拖 ) : A professional burglar who has stolen a variety of expensive goods . A compulsive gambler , he has fallen out with his family over his lifestyle , resulting in his father having a stroke . Despite his vices , Thongs maintains a sense of ethics , making him reluctant to kidnap the baby . The name " Thongs " refers to his flip @-@ flop footwear .
Louis Koo ( 古天樂 ) as Octopus ( 八達通 ) : A fellow burglar working with Thongs . He uses the money he steals to buy expensive cars and to court a rich girl . He neglects his pregnant wife ( played by Charlene Choi ( 蔡卓妍 ) , forcing her into a series of dead end jobs to make ends meet .
Michael Hui ( 許冠文 ) as The Landlord ( 包租公 ) : The mentor of Thongs and Octopus for over 20 years . Unlike his trainees , the Landlord does not spend his share of the loot , instead stashing it in a safe in his home .
Matthew Medvedev as Matthew the Baby : The infant son of the wealthy Lee family , kidnapped by Thongs , Octopus and the Landlord on behalf of a triad boss .
Yuen Biao ( 元彪 ) as Inspector Steve Mok ( 莫史迪 ) : The policeman in charge of the case involving the baby 's disappearance .
Teresa Carpio as The Landlady ( 包租婆 ) : The Landlord 's wife . Driven mad by the death of her only son many years earlier , the Landlady carries a doll of a baby boy with her at all times .
Gao Yuanyuan ( 高圓圓 ) as Melody : A student nurse from the Peking University , who works as a part @-@ time childcare consultant , teaching Thongs and Octopus how to take care of the baby , and later becomes Thong 's love interest .
Terence Yin ( 尹子維 ) as Max : The former boyfriend of the baby 's mother who claims the baby as his . He dies from a fall following a struggle for the baby in a hospital soon after it is born .
Chen Baoguo ( 陳寶國 ) as The Triad boss : Having lost his only son Max , the triad boss will stop at nothing to capture the baby .
Ken Lo ( 盧惠光 ) and Hayama Go ( 葉山豪 ) as Balde and Tokyo Joe : Two high @-@ ranking minions of the triad gang .
Daniel Wu as agen Daniel ( cameo appearance )
Nicholas Tse as agen Nicholas ( cameo appearance )
= = = Jackie Chan stunt team = = =
Chan Man @-@ ching
Nicky Li
Ken Lo
Wu Gang
He Jun
Park Hyun Jin
Lee In Seob
Han Kwan Hua
= = Production = =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood was a joint production from JCE Movies Limited , a company set up by Jackie Chan in 2003 , and Huayi Brothers Film & Taihe Investment Company , distributors of films such as Warriors of Heaven and Earth , The Banquet and Kekexili : Mountain Patrol . Chan has starred in over 50 action films , and has intimated in recent years that he has grown tired of being typecast as the " nice guy " . The film is notable as the first in over 30 years , in which he plays a negative character — a criminal and compulsive gambler .
= = = Writing = = =
Jackie Chan contacted Benny Chan shortly after the release of New Police Story to discuss plans for a new action film . Chan stated that he did not want to play the typical nice guy role that has been the staple of his previous films . Eventually , Benny Chan and scriptwriter Alan Yuen came up with a daring idea : Chan will play Thongs , a petty criminal who has fallen out with his family over his gambling habit . Benny Chan had originally intended for Jackie to play a full @-@ fledged villain , who " hits women and burns people with cigarettes " . However , the script was toned down to appease the Chinese censors , who found the character to be too evil . Nevertheless , for only the third time in his acting career , Chan plays a character who is sentenced to prison .
Chan co @-@ wrote the film and designed the action sequences , whilst director Benny Chan wrote the film 's dramatic elements , completing the script by October 2005 . Two additional protagonists were designed as Thongs ' partners in crime , with the intention of increasing the comedic value of the film through their interactions . The film 's Chinese title is Bo Bui Gai Wak ( Cantonese : 寶貝計劃 , literally Project BB , with " BB " being a homophone for " Baby " ) , a reference to Chan 's award winning 1983 film Project A ( Cantonese : A Gai Wak , A計劃 ) .
= = = Casting = = =
The cast of Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood includes actors ranging from newcomer Gao Yuanyuan to veteran actor Chen Baoguo . Daniel Wu and Nicholas Tse , stars of New Police Story , make cameo appearances as homosexual security van drivers during a car chase in the film .
Octopus , Thong 's partner in crime , is played by Louis Koo , an award winning actor with past appearances including the TVB drama series Detective Investigation Files IV and the films Election and Election 2 . Although Koo co @-@ starred with Jackie Chan , a number of action scenes involving his character were shot with a stunt double . In addition , Koo was the baby 's favourite on set — Whenever the baby cried , Koo was always the first to cheer him up .
The Landlord , the leader of Thongs and Octopus , is played by Michael Hui , a Hong Kong Film Award @-@ winning comedic actor who starred in various box office hits from 1970s to 1990s before emigrating to Canada shortly before the handover of Hong Kong . Hui was chosen for the part because he is the ideal actor to play a character who persuades others to do bad things . The producers had originally intended Hui to fight along with Chan and Koo , however , it was eventually decided that Hui would simply act as the brains of the gang .
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood features a collaboration between Jackie Chan and Yuen Biao . The pair , along with Sammo Hung , were Peking Opera School classmates and co @-@ starred in a number of action comedy films in the 1980s , including Project A , Wheels on Meals , and the Lucky Stars trilogy . Chan had originally intended to co @-@ star with both Yuen and Hung , reuniting the trio for the first time since 1988 film Dragons Forever . However , Hung declined due to a scheduling conflicts . Yuen Biao plays the role of Police Inspector Steve Mok , assigned to investigate the baby 's disappearance . Some of Yuen 's past antics were revisited in Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood , including a fight in which he tried in vain to handcuff Chan 's character .
Over 100 auditions were held before the suitable baby was found to star in the film . Benny Chan chose Matthew Medvedev , a one @-@ year @-@ old infant of Chinese and Colombian descent . Medvedev , known as Baby Matthew , was literally recruited off the street when an assistant director spotted him with his parents on the MTR . Although his family was simply visiting Hong Kong , they agreed to stay and let Matthew appear in Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood .
= = = Filming = = =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood is the third Jackie Chan film directed by Benny Chan , following Who Am I ? and New Police Story . Filming took place in Hong Kong between December 2005 and April 2006 with a budget of HK $ 16 @.@ 8 million . Filming locations included Central , Sai Kung , Sha Tin , Hong Kong Ocean Park , Cyberport , Tai Po Waterfront Park and Victoria Prison .
Benny Chan described the filming process as some of the darkest days of his career , explaining that the baby was a factor beyond his control , and could not work more than eight hours a day . Whenever a scene involving the baby was shot , the crew members had to be silent , communicating in sign language . Benny Chan stated it took time , patience , and money to guide the baby through each shot , and numerous retakes were required due to the baby 's constant crying and napping . As a result , production went over budget . Special methods were sometimes used to coax the baby into co @-@ operation . One scene required the baby to suckle Chan 's nipple . The baby was initially hesitant , but relented after the crew brushed a large amount of honey onto the nipple .
Jackie Chan was the stunt director of Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood , having choreographed all the stunts with the Jackie Chan Stunt Team . He continued his tradition of performing his own stunts in the film , for example , jumping between several air @-@ conditioners on the outer wall of a tall building to reach the ground . Several scenes required Chan to co @-@ ordinate his stunts with the baby , including a car chase around the Sha Tin industrial area , in which he managed to snatch the baby away seconds before a car crashed into him ; and a scene in Ocean Park in which he climbed on the underside of a roller coaster with the baby in hand . Chan suffered minor injuries attempting stunts in the film , having been kicked in the chest by a stuntman wearing the wrong boots and fallen off a quad bike , while attempting to perform a wheelie . Chan 's combat choreography included the use of improvised weapons in combat ; when he fought a pair of skilled henchmen in a deep freeze room , he defeated them by spraying them with milk and then using a large fan to blast them with cold air .
= = Releases = =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on 8 September 2006 . After the film 's premiere at the Venice Film Festival , several scenes highlighting the personal relationships between characters were deleted from Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood prior to its release to the general public . Benny Chan explains that including too many dramatic scenes may distract the audience from the plot . The uncut version of Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood is included in the DVD release as the " Extended Version " feature .
The cut version of the film was released simultaneously in Hong Kong , China , Singapore , Malaysia and other Southeast Asian countries on 29 September . Afterwards , Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood was released in Japan on 7 April 2007 . Greece remains the only European country in which Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood was released , on 13 February 2007 . The film is rated IIA in Hong Kong ( unsuitable for children ) , G in Singapore and U in Malaysia .
The Japanese title of Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood is プロジェクトBB ( Purojekuto BB ) , literally Project BB , the name initially proposed for the film . In Greece , the film is known as Ασύλληπτοι Απατεώνες ( transliteration : Asulliptoi Apateones ) , meaning Inconceivable Frauds . In the United States , the film is known as Robin @-@ B @-@ Hood .
= = = DVD = = =
The first pressing of the DVD was released in Hong Kong in November 2006 on Region 0 . This has since been discontinued and the subsequent standard and limited edition releases were on Region 3 . All Hong Kong versions contain two discs : a movie disc and an extras disc . The movie disc features both the cinematic and uncut versions of the film , along with a commentary track by Benny Chan . The extras disc contains a " behind @-@ the @-@ scenes " video , the post @-@ production press conference , a collection of deleted scenes and the music | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
video of the theme song .
The limited edition DVD is housed in a box @-@ file style box and contains various pieces of merchandise including branded sandals and door signs . An even more limited release of 5000 units was briefly available , and handed out at various film festivals . This edition contained a crystal dummy , an imitation bank note and a branded 2007 calendar in addition to the merchandise in the other limited edition release .
The DVD was later released in other East Asian countries , including China ( Region 6 ) , Japan ( Region 2 ) , South Korea , Thailand and Malaysia ( Region 3 ) . On 26 December 2007 , the DVD was released in the US ( Region 1 ) by Dragon Dynasty in a " two @-@ disc ultimate edition " , which contains much of the same extras as the Hong Kong releases , including the commentary by Benny Chan , though with US trailers replacing the domestic ones . However , the runtime for this release is 126 : 28 , which is somewhere between the theatrical cut ( 121 : 46 ) and the director 's cut ( 135 : 11 ) on the Hong Kong releases .
On 24 May 2010 , DVD was released by Cine Asia in a two @-@ disc ultimate edition at the United Kingdom in Region 2 .
= = Reception = =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood was generally well received by critics . Jay Weissberg of Variety described the film as " a mildly fun ride that banked on Jackie 's tried @-@ and @-@ true comic charm in a standard baby kidnapping farce enlivened by just enough action sequences to keep hoary diaper scenes from soiling the playpen " . Credit was given to the stunt choreography and the acting partnership of Jackie Chan and Louis Koo , although some reviewers were disappointed about the absence of Sammo Hung .
The plot of Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood received mixed reviews : The Chinese newspaper Xiao Xiang Chen Bao found it concise , hilarious and touching , whereas Jay Weissberg criticised it for being unoriginal . In addition , Felix Cheong of Channel NewsAsia found the subplots involving the antagonists ' families redundant , detracting from the main story and making the film " tediously long " . However , Chan was praised for his decision to play a darker character in Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood . Andrew Sun of South China Morning Post stated that " one of the best things Chan can do for his flagging movie career is to play a heavy — a nasty , scum @-@ of @-@ the @-@ earth antagonist , since you do not always have to play a hero to be a hero . " Sun emphasised the need for Chan to show flexibility in his roles , citing a number of actors that have thrived by playing the occasional villain .
= = = Box office = = =
Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood grossed HK $ 1 @.@ 2 million the day it was released in Hong Kong . In China , the film topped the box office during the four @-@ day National Day holiday weekend , grossing ¥ 8 @.@ 9 million . It went on to top the Chinese box office in October with box office figures exceeding ¥ 90 million . Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood performed well in Southeast Asia , grossing US $ 404 @,@ 000 in Singapore , US $ 400 @,@ 000 in Malaysia and US $ 604 @,@ 000 in Thailand during its first four days . In total , Rob @-@ B @-@ Hood had a worldwide gross of US $ 20 @,@ 434 @,@ 179 despite not being released in North America and most of Europe .
= Landkreuzer P. 1000 Ratte =
The Landkreuzer P. 1000 " Ratte " ( English : Land Cruiser P. 1000 " Rat " ) was a design for a super @-@ heavy tank for use by Nazi Germany during World War II , proposed by Krupp director Edward Grotte in June 1942 , who had already named it " Landkreuzer " . Submitted designs and drawings of the tank went under the names OKH Auftrag Nr. 30404 and E @-@ 30404 / 1 , which were presented in December 1942 . The tank was planned to be 1000 metric tonnes , being far heavier than the Panzer VIII " Maus " , the heaviest tank ever built ( weighing 188 tonnes ) . The project gained the approval of Adolf Hitler , who had expressed interest in the development of the tank . The project was canceled by Albert Speer in early 1943 , with no prototype tank ever built .
= = Development = =
The development history of the Ratte originated with a 1941 strategic study of Soviet heavy tanks conducted by Krupp , the study also giving birth to the Panzer VIII Maus super @-@ heavy tank . The study led to a suggestion from Krupp 's director ( Grotte ) , a special officer for submarine construction , who , on 23 June 1942 , proposed to Hitler a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ tonne tank which he named " Landkreuzer " . It was to be armed with naval artillery and armored with 25 centimetres ( 10 in ) of hardened steel , so heavy that only similar weapons could hope to affect it .
Hitler became enamored with Grotte 's concept and ordered Krupp to begin development of it in 1942 . As of December 29 , 1942 a few preliminary drawings had been completed , by which time the concept had been named " Ratte " ( Rat ) by Hitler himself . These submitted designs went under the titles OKH Auftrag Nr. 30404 and E @-@ 30404 / 1 . Albert Speer saw no reasonable use of the tank and canceled the project in 1943 before any prototype could be manufactured , although this did lead to the concept of the Landkreuzer P. 1500 Monster self @-@ propelled siege gun , which would have been heavier than the Ratte . The general idea for such a big tank was best summed up by Heinz Guderian , saying that : " Hitler 's fantasies sometimes shift into the gigantic " .
= = Description = =
The Ratte is known for its enormous size : it would have weighed 1 @,@ 000 tonnes , five times the weight of the Panzer VIII Maus . The divided weight of the Ratte includes 300 tonnes of armament ( the total weight of the guns themselves are 100 tonnes , so turret armour would have weighed 200 tonnes ) , 200 tonnes of armour and frame and 100 tonnes of track and automotive components , while remaining weight would be distributed to miscellaneous features . It was planned to be 35 m ( 115 ft ) long ( 39 metres ( 128 ft ) when including naval guns ) , 11 m ( 36 ft ) high and 14 m ( 46 ft ) wide . To compensate for its immense weight , the Ratte would have been equipped with three 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) wide and 21 m ( 69 ft ) long treads on each side with a total tread width of 7 @.@ 2 m ( 23 ft 7 in ) . This would help stability and weight distribution , but the vehicle 's sheer mass would have destroyed roads and rendered bridge crossings next to impossible . It was expected that its height , and its ground clearance of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , would have allowed it to ford most rivers with relative ease .
Planned propulsion was by two MAN V12Z32 / 44 24 @-@ cylinder marine diesel engines of 6 @,@ 300 kW ( 8 @,@ 400 hp ) each ( as used in U @-@ boats ) or eight Daimler @-@ Benz MB 501 20 @-@ cylinder marine diesel engines of 1 @,@ 500 kW ( 2 @,@ 000 hp ) each ( as used in E @-@ boats ) to achieve the 12 @,@ 000 kW ( 16 @,@ 000 hp ) needed to move this tank . The engines were to be provided with snorkels , also like those used by German submarines . The snorkels were designed to provide a way for oxygen to reach the engine , even during amphibious operations passing through deep water .
The Ratte 's primary weapon would have been a dual 280 mm SK C / 28 gun turret . This was the same turret that was used on the German capital ship Gneisenau but modified by removing one of the guns and its associated loading mechanism . Removing the third gun allowed extra accommodation of ammunition , which on ships is stored in the hull and later on sent to the turret through an ammunition elevator . This reduced the total weight of the tank by 50 tonnes . The guns used for the Ratte would have fired ammunition developed for other naval guns . It also included armour @-@ piercing rounds with 8 @.@ 1 kg ( 18 lb ) of explosive filler , and high @-@ explosive rounds with 17 @.@ 1 kg ( 38 lb ) of explosive filler .
Further armament was to consist of a 128 mm anti @-@ tank gun of the type used in the Jagdtiger or Maus , two 15 mm Mauser MG 151 / 15 autocannons , and eight 20 mm Flak 38 anti @-@ aircraft guns , probably with at least four of them as a Flakvierling quad mount . The 128 mm anti @-@ tank gun 's precise location on the Ratte is a point of contention among historians , most believing that it would have been mounted within the primary turret , with some others thinking a smaller secondary turret at the rear of the Ratte more logical . Some concept drawings exist to suggest a flexible mount on the glacis plate . The tank was to be provided with a vehicle bay that could hold two BMW R12 motorcycles for scouting , and several smaller storage rooms , a compact infirmary area , and a self @-@ contained lavatory system .
= = Issues = =
Its large size and weight would have rendered the tank unable to cross bridges at the risk of collapsing them , and travelling on roads would soon destroy them . Its top intended speed was 40 kilometres per hour , resulting in a slow , highly visible tank , vulnerable to air bombardment and artillery fire , despite having heavy armour . Issues with transporting the vehicle to the battlefield were also prominent . No railway or train car could bear the weight and the width would be too large for any railway or tunnel to accommodate .
= 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year problem =
The 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year problem ( " 100 ky problem " , " 100 ka problem " ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800 @,@ 000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21 @,@ 000 , 40 @,@ 000 , 100 @,@ 000 , and 400 @,@ 000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations .
While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100 @,@ 000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100 @,@ 000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41 @,@ 000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid @-@ Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800 @,@ 000 years ago .
The related " 400 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ problem " refers to the absence of a 400 @,@ 000 @-@ year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1 @.@ 2 million years .
= = Recognition of the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year cycle = =
The geologic temperature record can be reconstructed from sedimentary evidence . Perhaps the most useful indicator of past climate is the fractionation of oxygen isotopes , denoted δ18O . This fractionation is controlled mainly by the amount of water locked up in ice and the absolute temperature of the planet , and has allowed a timescale of marine isotope stages to be constructed .
By the late 1990s , δ18O records of air ( in the Vostok ice core ) and marine sediments was available and was compared with estimates of insolation , which should affect both temperature and ice volume . As described by Shackleton ( 2000 ) , the deep @-@ sea sediment record of δ18O " is dominated by a 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year cyclicity that is universally interpreted as the main ice @-@ age rhythm " . Shackleton ( 2000 ) adjusted the time scale of the Vostok ice core δ18O record to fit the assumed orbital forcing and used spectral analysis to identify and subtract the component of the record that in this interpretation could be attributed to a linear ( directly proportional ) response to the orbital forcing . The residual signal ( the remainder ) , when compared with the residual from a similarly retuned marine core isotope record , was used to estimate the proportion of the signal that was attributable to ice volume , with the rest ( having attempted to allow for the Dole effect ) being attributed to temperature changes in the deep water .
The 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year component of ice volume variation was found to match sea level records based on coral age determinations , and to lag orbital eccentricity by several thousand years , as would be expected if orbital eccentricity were the pacing mechanism . Strong non @-@ linear " jumps " in the record appear at deglaciations , although the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year periodicity was not the strongest periodicity in this " pure " ice volume record .
The separate deep sea temperature record was found to vary directly in phase with orbital eccentricity , as did Antarctic temperature and CO2 ; so eccentricity appears to exert a geologically immediate effect on air temperatures , deep sea temperatures , and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations . Shackleton ( 2000 ) concluded : " The effect of orbital eccentricity probably enters the paleoclimatic record through an influence on the concentration of atmospheric CO2 " .
Elkibbi and Rial ( 2001 ) identified the 100 ka cycle as one of five main challenges met by the Milankovitch model of orbital forcing of the ice ages .
= = Hypotheses to explain the problem = =
As the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year periodicity only dominates the climate of the past million years , there is insufficient information to separate the component frequencies of eccentricity using spectral analysis , making the reliable detection of significant longer @-@ term trends more difficult , although the spectral analysis of much longer palaeoclimate records , such as the Lisiecki and Raymo stack of marine cores and James Zachos ' composite isotopic record , helps to put the last million years in longer term context . Hence there is still no clear proof of the mechanism responsible for the 100ka periodicity — but there are several credible hypotheses .
= = = Climatic resonance = = =
The mechanism may be internal to the Earth system . The Earth 's climate system may have a natural resonance frequency of 100ka ; that is to say , feedback processes within the climate automatically produce a 100ka effect , much as a bell naturally rings at a certain pitch . Opponents to this claim point out that the resonance would have to have developed 1 million years ago , as a 100ka periodicity was weak to non @-@ existent for the preceding 2 million years . This is feasible — continental drift and sea floor spreading rate change have been postulated as possible causes of such a change . Free oscillations of components of the Earth system have been considered as a cause , but too few Earth systems have a thermal inertia on a thousand @-@ year timescale for any long @-@ term changes to accumulate . The 100 @,@ 000 year problem has been scrutinized by José A. Rial , Jeseung Oh and Elizabeth Reischmann who find that master @-@ slave synchronization between the climate systems natural frequencies and the eccentricity forcing started the 100ky ice ages of the late Pleistocene and explain their large amplitude .
= = = Orbital inclination = = =
Orbital inclination has a 100ka periodicity , while eccentricity 's 95 and 125ka periods could inter @-@ react to give a 108ka effect . While it is possible that the less significant , and originally overlooked , inclination variability has a deep effect on climate , the eccentricity only modifies insolation by a small amount : 1 – 2 % of the shift caused by the 21 @,@ 000 @-@ year precession and 41 @,@ 000 @-@ year obliquity cycles . Such a big impact from inclination would therefore be disproportionate in comparison to other cycles . One possible mechanism suggested to account for this was the passage of Earth through regions of cosmic dust . Our eccentric orbit would take us through dusty clouds in space , which would act to occlude some of the incoming radiation , shadowing the Earth . In such a scenario , the abundance of the isotope 3He , produced by solar rays splitting gases in the upper atmosphere , would be expected to decrease — and initial investigations did indeed find such a drop in 3He abundance . But the idea of an inclination effect has been deemed unnecessary ( Rial 1999 ) . However , there is still the possibility that the 100ka eccentricity cycle acts as a " pacemaker " to the system , amplifying the effect of precession and obliquity cycles at key moments , pushing the system out of a locally stable state and triggering a swift melting phase , by a small perturbation .
= = = Precession cycles = = =
A similar suggestion holds the 21 @,@ 636 @-@ year precession cycles solely responsible . Ice ages are characterized by the slow buildup of ice volume , followed by relatively swift melting phases . It is possible that ice built up over several precession cycles , only melting after four or five such cycles .
= = = Solar Luminosity Fluctuation = = =
A mechanism that may account for periodic fluctuations in solar luminosity has also been proposed as an explanation . Diffusion waves occurring within the sun can be modeled in such a way that they explain the observed climatic shifts on earth . However , the He3 signal again appears to contradict this finding .
= = = Land vs. oceanic photosynthesis = = =
The Dole effect describes trends in δ18O arising from trends in the relative importance of land @-@ dwelling and oceanic photosynthesizers . Such a variation is a plausible cause of the phenomenon .
= = = Ongoing research = = =
The recovery of higher @-@ resolution ice cores spanning more of the past 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years by the ongoing EPICA project may help to shed more light on the matter . A new , high @-@ precision dating method developed by the team allows better correlation of the various factors involved and puts the ice core chronologies on a stronger temporal footing , endorsing the traditional Milankovitch hypothesis , that climate variations are controlled by insolation in the northern hemisphere . The new chronology is inconsistent with the " inclination " theory of the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ year cycle . The establishment of leads and lags against different orbital forcing components with this method — which uses the direct insolation control over nitrogen @-@ oxygen ratios in ice core bubbles — is in principle a great improvement in the temporal resolution of these records and another significant validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis . An international climate modelling exercise ( Abe @-@ ouchi et al . , Nature , 2013 ) demonstrated that climate models can replicate the 100 @,@ 000 year cyclicity given the orbital forcing and carbon dioxide levels of the late Pleistocene . The isostatic history of ice sheets was implicated in mediating the 100 @,@ 000 year response to the orbital forcing . Larger ice sheets are lower in elevation because they depress the continental crust upon which they sit , and are therefore more vulnerable to melting .
= S. A. Andrée 's Arctic Balloon Expedition of 1897 =
S. A. Andrée 's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897 was an effort to reach the North Pole in which all three expedition members perished . S. A. Andrée ( 1854 – 97 ) , the first Swedish balloonist , proposed a voyage by hydrogen balloon from Svalbard to either Russia or Canada , which was to pass , with luck , straight over the North Pole on the way . The scheme was received with patriotic enthusiasm in Sweden , a northern nation that had fallen behind in the race for the North Pole .
Andrée ignored many early signs of the dangers associated with his balloon plan . Being able to steer the balloon to some extent was essential for a safe journey , and there was plenty of evidence that the drag @-@ rope steering technique he had invented was ineffective ; yet he staked the fate of the expedition on drag ropes . Worse , the polar balloon Örnen ( The Eagle ) was delivered directly to Svalbard from its manufacturer in Paris without being tested ; when measurements showed it to be leaking more than expected , Andrée refused to acknowledge the alarming implications of this . Most modern students of the expedition see Andrée 's optimism , faith in the power of technology , and disregard for the forces of nature as the main factors in the series of events that led to his death and those of his two companions Nils Strindberg ( 1872 – 97 ) and Knut Frænkel ( 1870 – 97 ) .
After Andrée , Strindberg , and Frænkel lifted off from Svalbard in July 1897 , the balloon lost hydrogen quickly and crashed on the pack ice after only two days . The explorers were unhurt but faced a grueling trek back south across the drifting icescape . Inadequately clothed , equipped , and prepared , and shocked by the difficulty of the terrain , they did not make it to safety . As the Arctic winter closed in on them in October , the group ended up exhausted on the deserted Kvitøya ( White Island ) in Svalbard and died there . For 33 years the fate of the Andrée expedition remained one of the unsolved riddles of the Arctic . The chance discovery in 1930 of the expedition 's last camp created a media sensation in Sweden , where the dead men had been mourned and idolized .
Andrée 's motives have since been re @-@ evaluated , along with assessing the role of the polar areas as the proving @-@ ground of masculinity and patriotism . An early example is Per Olof Sundman 's fictionalized bestseller novel of 1967 , The Flight of the Eagle , which portrays Andrée as weak and cynical , at the mercy of his sponsors and the media . ( This was later adapted and filmed as Flight of the Eagle , 1982 , directed by Jan Troell . ) The verdict on Andrée by modern writers for virtually sacrificing the lives of his two younger companions varies in harshness , depending on whether he is seen as the manipulator or the victim of Swedish nationalist fervor around the turn of the 20th century .
= = S. A. Andrée 's scheme = =
The second half of the 19th century has often been called the Heroic Age of polar exploration . The inhospitable and dangerous Arctic and Antarctic regions appealed powerfully to the imagination of the age , not as lands with their own ecologies and cultures , but as challenges to be conquered by technological ingenuity and manly daring .
The Swede Salomon August Andrée shared these enthusiasms , and proposed a plan for letting the wind propel a hydrogen balloon from Svalbard across the Arctic Sea to the Bering Strait , to fetch up in Alaska , Canada , or Russia , and passing near or even right over the North Pole on the way . Andrée was an engineer at the patent office in Stockholm , with a passion for ballooning . He bought his own balloon , the Svea , in 1893 and made nine journeys with it , starting from Gothenburg or Stockholm and travelling a combined distance of 1 @,@ 500 kilometers ( 930 mi ) . In the prevailing westerly winds , the Svea flights had a strong tendency to carry him uncontrollably out to the Baltic Sea and drag his basket perilously along the surface of the water and / or slam it into one of the many rocky islets in the Stockholm archipelago ( see artist 's impression , right ) . On one occasion he was blown clear across the Baltic to Finland . His longest trip was due east from Gothenburg , across the breadth of Sweden and out over the Baltic to Gotland . Even though he saw a lighthouse and heard breakers off Öland , he remained convinced that he was travelling over land and seeing lakes .
During a couple of the Svea flights , Andrée tested and tried out the drag @-@ rope steering technique which he had developed and wanted to use on his projected North Pole expedition . Drag ropes , which hang from the balloon basket and drag part of their length on the ground , are designed to counteract the tendency of lighter @-@ than @-@ air craft to travel at the same speed as the wind , a situation that makes steering by sails impossible . The friction of the ropes was intended to slow the balloon to the point where the sails would have an effect ( beyond that of making the balloon rotate on its axis ) . Andrée reported , and presumably believed , that with drag rope / sails steering he had succeeded in deviating about ten degrees either way from the wind direction . This notion is rejected by modern balloonists ; the Swedish Ballooning Association maintains that Andrée 's belief that he had deviated from the wind was mistaken , being misled by inexpertise and a surfeit of enthusiasm in an environment of variable winds and poor visibility . Use of drag ropes ( prone to snapping , falling off , or becoming entangled with each other or the ground , in addition to being ineffective ) is not considered by any modern expert to be a useful steering technique .
= = Promotion and fundraising = =
The Arctic ambitions of Sweden were still unrealized in the late 19th century , while neighboring and politically subordinate Norway was a world power in Arctic exploration through such pioneers as Fridtjof Nansen . The Swedish political and scientific elite were eager to see Sweden take that lead among the Scandinavian countries which seemed her due , and Andrée , a persuasive speaker and fundraiser , found it easy to gain support for his ideas . At a lecture in 1895 to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , Andrée thrilled the audience of geographers and meteorologists . A polar exploration balloon , he explained , would need to fulfill four conditions :
It must have enough lifting power to carry three people and all their scientific equipment , advanced cameras for aerial photography , provisions for four months , and ballast , altogether about 3000 kilograms ( about 3 @.@ 5 short tons ) .
It must retain the gas well enough to stay aloft for 30 days .
The hydrogen gas must be manufactured , and the balloon filled , at the Arctic launch site .
It must be at least somewhat steerable .
Andrée gave a glowingly optimistic account of the ease with which these requirements could be met . Larger balloons had been constructed in France , he claimed , and more airtight , too . Some French balloons had remained hydrogen @-@ filled for over a year without appreciable loss of buoyancy . As for the hydrogen , filling the balloon at the launch site could easily be done with the help of mobile hydrogen manufacturing units ; for the steering he referred to his own drag @-@ rope experiments with the Svea , stating that a deviation of 27 degrees from the wind direction could be routinely achieved .
Andrée assured the audience that Arctic summer weather was uniquely suitable for ballooning . The midnight sun would enable observations round the clock , halving the voyage time required , and do away with all need for anchoring at night , which might otherwise be a dangerous business . Neither would the balloon 's buoyancy be adversely affected by the cold of night . The drag @-@ rope steering technique was particularly well adapted for a region where the ground , consisting of ice , was " low in friction and free of vegetation " . He said that the minimal precipitation in the area posed no threat of weighing down the balloon . If some rain or snow did fall on the balloon , Andrée argued , " precipitation at above @-@ zero temperatures will melt , and precipitation at below @-@ zero temperatures will blow off , for the balloon will be travelling more slowly than the wind . " The audience was convinced by these arguments , so disconnected were they from the realities of the Arctic summer storms , fogs , high humidity , and ever @-@ present threat of ice formation . The academy approved Andrée 's expense calculation of 130 @,@ 800 kronor in all , corresponding in today 's money to just under a million U.S. dollars , of which the single largest sum , 36 @,@ 000 kronor , was for the balloon . With this endorsement , there was a rush to support his project , headed by King Oscar II , who personally contributed 30 @,@ 000 kronor , and Alfred Nobel , the dynamite magnate and founder of the Nobel Prize .
There was also considerable international interest , and the European and American newspaper @-@ reading publics were curious about a project that seemed as modern and scientific as the books of contemporary author Jules Verne . The press fanned the interest with a wide range of predictions , from certain death for the explorers to a safe and comfortable " guidance " of the balloon ( upgraded by the reporter to an " airship " ) to the North Pole in a manner planned by Parisian experts and Swedish scientists .
" In these days , the construction and guidance of airships have been improved greatly " , wrote The Providence Journal , " and it is supposed , both by the Parisian experts and by the Swedish scientists who have been assisting M. Andree , that the question of a sustained flight in this case will be very satisfactorily answered by the character of the balloon , by its careful guidance and , providing it gets into a Polar current of air , by the elements themselves . "
Faith in the experts and in science was common in the popular press , but with international attention came also for the first time informed criticism . Andrée being Sweden 's first balloonist , no national had the requisite knowledge to second @-@ guess him about buoyancy or drag ropes ; but both Germany and France had long ballooning traditions and several of their more experienced balloonists expressed skepticism about Andrée 's methods and inventions . However , just as with the Svea mishaps , all objections failed to dampen Andrée 's optimism . Eagerly followed by national and international media , he began negotiations with the well @-@ known aeronaut and balloon builder Henri Lachambre in Paris , world capital of ballooning , and ordered a varnished three @-@ layer silk balloon , 20 @.@ 5 meters ( 67 ft ) in diameter , from his workshop . The balloon , originally called Le Pôle Nord ( French for " The North Pole " ) , was to be renamed Örnen ( Swedish for " The Eagle " ) .
Special technical solutions had to be designed for the accommodations for three adults to be confined in a small balloon basket for up to 30 days . The sleeping berths for the crew were fitted at the floor of the basket , along with some of stores and provisions . The highly flammable hydrogen meant that cooking could not be done in the basket itself . The solution was a modified primus stove ( designed by a friend of Andrée 's ) that could be dangled 8 m ( 26 ft ) below the crew and then lit from the basket , at a safe distance . An angled mirror attached to the specially designed stove allowed the crew to determine whether it was successfully lit or not .
= = The 1896 fiasco = =
For his 1896 attempt to launch the balloon , Andrée had many eager volunteers to choose from . He picked Nils Gustaf Ekholm ( 1848 – 1923 ) , an experienced Arctic meteorological researcher and formerly his boss during an 1882 – 83 geophysical expedition to Spitsbergen , and Nils Strindberg ( 1872 – 97 ) , a brilliant student who was doing original research in physics and chemistry . The main scientific purpose of the expedition was to map the area by means of aerial photography , and Strindberg was both a devoted amateur photographer and a skilled constructor of advanced cameras . This was a team with many useful scientific and technical skills , but lacking any particular physical prowess or training for survival under extreme conditions . All three men were indoor types , and only one , Strindberg , was young . Andrée expected a sedentary voyage in a balloon basket , and strength and survival skills were far down on his list .
Modern writers all agree that Andrée 's North Pole scheme was unrealistic . He relied on the winds blowing more or less in the direction he wanted to go , on being able to fine @-@ tune his direction with the drag ropes , on the balloon being sealed tight enough to stay airborne for 30 days , and on no ice or snow sticking to the balloon to weigh it down . In the attempt of 1896 , the wind immediately refuted his optimism by blowing steadily from the north , straight at the balloon hangar at Danes Island , until the expedition had to pack up , let the hydrogen out of the balloon , and go home . It is now known that northerly winds are to be expected at Danes Island ; but in the late 19th century , information on Arctic airflow and precipitation existed only as contested academic hypotheses . Even Ekholm , an Arctic climate researcher , had no objection to Andrée 's theory of where the wind was likely to take them . The observational data simply did not exist .
On the other hand , Ekholm was skeptical of the balloon 's ability to retain hydrogen , from his own measurements . His buoyancy checks in the summer of 1896 , during the process of producing the hydrogen and pumping it into the balloon , convinced him that the balloon leaked too much to ever reach the Pole , let alone go on to Russia or Canada . The worst leakage came from the approximately eight million tiny stitching holes along the seams , which no amount of glued @-@ on strips of silk or applications of special secret @-@ formula varnish seemed to seal . The balloon was losing 68 kilograms ( 150 lb ) of lift force a day . Taking into account its heavy load , Ekholm estimated that it would be able to stay airborne for 17 days at most , not 30 . When it was time to go home , he warned Andrée that he would not take part in the next attempt , scheduled for summer 1897 , unless a stronger , better @-@ sealed balloon was bought .
Andrée resisted Ekholm 's criticisms to the point of deception . On the boat back from Svalbard , Ekholm learned from the chief engineer of the hydrogen plant the explanation of some anomalies he had noticed in his measurements : Andrée had from time to time secretly ordered extra topping @-@ up of the hydrogen in the balloon . Andrée 's motives for such self @-@ destructive behavior are not known . Several modern writers , following Sundman 's Andrée portrait in the semi @-@ documentary novel , The Flight of the Eagle ( 1967 ) , have speculated that Andrée had by this time become the prisoner of his own successful funding campaign . The sponsors and the media followed every delay and reported on every setback , and were clamoring for results . Andrée , Strindberg , and Ekholm had been seen off by cheering crowds in Stockholm and Gothenburg ( see image from Aftonbladet , right ) , and now all the expectations were coming to nothing with the long wait for southerly winds at Danes Island . Especially pointed was the contrast between Nansen 's simultaneous return , covered in polar glory from his daring yet well @-@ planned expedition on the ship Fram , and Andrée 's failure even to launch his own much @-@ hyped conveyance . Sundman theorizes that Andrée could not face letting the press report that he did not know the prevailing wind direction , and had also miscalculated in ordering the balloon , and needed a new one to rectify his error .
After the 1896 launch was called off , enthusiasm declined for joining the expedition for a second attempt in 1897 . From the candidates Andrée picked the 27 @-@ year @-@ old engineer , Knut Frænkel , to replace Ekholm . Frænkel was a civil engineer from the north of Sweden , an athlete who was fond of long mountain hikes . He was enrolled specifically to take over Ekholm 's meteorological observations . Despite lacking Ekholm 's theoretical and scientific knowledge , he handled this task efficiently . His meteorological journal has enabled researchers to reconstruct the movements of the three men during their last few months with considerable precision .
= = The 1897 disaster = =
= = = Launch , flight , and landing = = =
Returning to Danes Island in the summer of 1897 , the expedition found that the balloon hangar built the year before had weathered the winter storms well . The winds were more favorable , too . Andrée had strengthened his leadership by replacing the older and critical Ekholm , an authority in his field , with the 27 @-@ year @-@ old enthusiast Knut Frænkel . On July 11 , in a steady wind from the south @-@ west , the top of the plank hangar was dismantled , the three explorers climbed into the already heavy basket , and Andrée dictated one last @-@ minute telegram to King Oscar and another to the paper Aftonbladet , holder of press rights to the expedition . The large support team cut away the last ropes holding the balloon and it rose slowly . Moving out low over the water , it was pulled so far down by the friction of the several @-@ hundred @-@ meter @-@ long drag ropes against the ground as to dip the basket into the water . The friction also twisted the ropes round , detaching them from their screw holds . These holds were a new safety feature that Andrée had reluctantly been persuaded to add , whereby ropes that got caught on the ground could be more easily dropped .
Most of them unscrewed at once and 530 kilograms ( 1170 lb ) of rope were lost , while the three explorers could simultaneously be seen to dump 210 kilograms of sand overboard to get the basket clear of the water . Seven hundred and forty kilograms ( 1630 lb ) of essential weight was thus lost in the first few minutes . Before it was well clear of the launch site , the Eagle had turned from a supposedly steerable craft into an ordinary hydrogen balloon with a few ropes hanging from it , at the mercy of the wind ; its crew had no means to direct it to any particular goal and had too little ballast for stability . Lightened , the balloon rose to 700 meters ( 2300 ft ) , an unimagined height , where the lower air pressure made the hydrogen escape all the faster through the eight million little holes .
The balloon had two means of communication with the outside world , buoys and homing pigeons . The buoys , steel cylinders encased in cork , were intended to be dropped from the balloon into the water or onto the ice , to be carried to civilization by the currents . Only two buoy messages have ever been found . One was dispatched by Andrée on July 11 , a few hours after takeoff , and reads " Vår resa har hittills gått bra . Seglatsen fortgår på ungefär 250 m. höjd med en riktning till en början åt N 10 ° ost rättvisande men sednare åt N 45 ° ost rättvisande . [ … ] Vädret härrligt [ sic ] . Humöret utmärkt . " ( " Our journey goes well so far . We sail at an altitude of about 250 m , at first N 10 ° east , but later N 45 ° east . [ … ] Weather delightful . Spirits high . " ) The second was dropped an hour later and gave the height as 600 meters .
The newspaper Aftonbladet had supplied the pigeons , bred in northern Norway with the optimistic hope that they would manage to return there , and their message cylinders contained pre @-@ printed instructions in Norwegian asking the finder to pass the messages on to the newspaper 's address in Stockholm . Andrée released at least four pigeons , but only one was ever retrieved , by a Norwegian steamer where the pigeon had alighted and been promptly shot . Its message is dated July 13 and gives the travel direction at that point as East by 10 ° South . The message reads : " Från Andrées Polarexp. till Aftonbladet , Stockholm . Den 13 juli kl . 12 @,@ 30 midd . Lat . 82 ° 2 ' Long . 15 ° 5 ' ost god fart åt ost 10 ° syd . Allt väl ombord . Detta är tredje dufposten . Andrée . " ( " The Andree Polar Expedition to the " Aftonbladet " , Stockholm . July 13 12.30pm , 82 deg. north latitude , 15 deg.5 min. east longitude . Good journey eastwards , 10 deg. south . All goes well on board . This is the third message sent by pigeon . Andree . " ) Lundström and others note that all three messages fail to mention the accident at takeoff , or the increasingly desperate situation , which Andrée was describing fully in his main diary . The balloon was out of equilibrium , sailing much too high and thereby losing hydrogen faster than even Nils Ekholm had feared , then repeatedly threatening to crash on the ice . It was weighed down by being rain @-@ soaked ( " dripping wet " , writes Andrée in the diary ) , and the men were throwing all the sand and some of the payload overboard to keep it airborne .
Free flight lasted for 10 hours and 29 minutes and was followed by another 41 hours of bumpy ride with frequent ground contact before the inevitable final crash . The Eagle traveled for 2 days and 3 ½ hours altogether , during which time , according to Andrée , none of the three men got any sleep . The definitive landing appears to have been gentle . Neither the men nor the homing pigeons in their wicker cages were hurt , and none of the equipment was damaged , not even the delicate optical instruments and Strindberg 's two cameras .
= = = On foot on the ice = = =
From the moment the three were grounded on July 14 , Strindberg 's highly specialized cartographic camera , which had been brought to map the region from the air , became instead a means of recording daily life in the icescape and the constant danger and drudgery of the trek . Strindberg took about 200 photos with his seven @-@ kilogram ( 15 lb ) camera over the course of the three months they spent on the pack ice , one of the most famous being his picture of Andrée and Frænkel contemplating the fallen Eagle ( see image above ) .
Andrée and Frænkel also kept meticulous records of their experiences and geographical positions , Andrée in his " main diary " , Frænkel in his meteorological journal . Strindberg 's own stenographic diary was more personal in content , and included his general reflections on the expedition , as well as several messages to his fiancée Anna Charlier . All three manuscripts were eventually retrieved from the ice on Kvitøya in 1930 .
The Eagle had been stocked with safety equipment such as guns , snowshoes , sleds , skis , a tent , a small boat ( in the form of a bundle of bent sticks , to be assembled and covered with balloon silk ) , most of it stored not in the basket but in the storage space arranged above the balloon ring . These items had not been put together with great care , or with any acknowledgement of adopting indigenous peoples ' techniques for dealing with the extreme environment . In this , Andrée contrasted not only with later but also with many earlier explorers . Sven Lundström points to the agonizing extra efforts that became necessary for the team due to Andrée 's mistaken design of the sleds , with a rigid construction that borrowed nothing from the long proven Inuit sleds , and were so impractical for the difficult terrain . Andrée called it " dreadful terrain " , with channels separating the ice floes , high ridges , and partially iced @-@ over melt ponds . The men 's clothes included no furs but were woollen coats and trousers , plus oilskins . They wore the oilskins but the explorers reported always seeming to be damp or wet from the half @-@ frozen pools of water on the ice and the typically foggy , humid Arctic summer air , and preoccupied with drying their clothes , mainly by wearing them . Danger was everywhere , as it would have meant certain death to lose the provisions lashed to one of the inconvenient sleds into one of the many channels that had to be laboriously crossed .
Before starting the march across the " dreadful terrain , " the three men spent a week in a tent at the crash site , packing up and making decisions about what and how much to bring and where to go . The far @-@ off North Pole was not mentioned as an option ; the choice lay between two depots of food and ammunition laid down for their safety , one at Cape Flora in Franz Josef Land and one at Sjuøyane ( Seven Islands ) in Svalbard ( see map ) . Inferring from their faulty maps that the distances to each were about equal , they decided to try for the bigger depot at Cape Flora . Strindberg took more pictures during this week than he would at any later point , including 12 frames that make up a 360 @-@ degree panorama of the crash site .
The balloon had carried a lot of food , of a kind adapted more for a balloon voyage than for travels on foot . Andrée had reasoned that they might as well throw excess food overboard as sand , if losing weight was necessary ; and if it was not , the food would serve if wintering in the Arctic desert did after all become necessary . There was therefore less ballast and large amounts of heavy @-@ type provisions , 767 kg ( 1690 lb ) altogether , including 200 liters of water and some crates of champagne , port , beer , etc . , donated by sponsors and manufacturers . There was also lemon juice , though not as much of this precaution against scurvy as other polar explorers usually thought necessary . Much of the food was in the form of cans of pemmican , meat , sausages , cheese , and condensed milk . By the time they crashed , they had thrown some of it overboard . The three men took most of the rest with them on leaving the crash site , along with other necessities such as guns , tent , ammunition , and cooking utensils , making a load on each sled of more than 200 kg ( 440 lb ) . This was not realistic , as it broke the sleds and wore out the men . After one week , they sorted out and left behind a big pile of food and non @-@ essential equipment , bringing the loads down to 130 kg per sled . It became more necessary than ever to hunt for food . They shot and ate seals , walruses , and especially polar bears throughout the march .
Starting out for Franz Josef Land to the south @-@ east on July 22 , the three soon found that their struggle across the ice , which had ridges two @-@ stories high , was hardly bringing the goal any nearer : the drift of the ice was in the opposite direction , moving them backwards . On August 4 they decided , after a long discussion , to aim for Sjuøyane in the southwest instead , hoping to reach the depot there after a six- to seven @-@ week march , with the help of the current . The terrain in that direction was mostly extremely difficult , sometimes necessitating a crawl on all fours , but there was occasional relief in the form of open water — the little boat ( not designed by Andrée ) was apparently a functional and safe conveyance — and smooth , flat ice floes . " Paradise ! " wrote Andrée . " Large even ice floes with pools of sweet drinking water and here and there a tender @-@ fleshed young polar bear ! " They made fair apparent headway , but the wind turned almost as soon as they did , and they were again being pushed backwards , away from Sjuøyane . The wind varied between southwest and northwest over the coming weeks ; they tried in vain to overcome this by turning more and more westward , but it was becoming clear that Sjuøyane was out of their reach .
On September 12 , the explorers resigned themselves to wintering on the ice and camped on a large floe , letting the ice take them where it would , " which " , writes Kjellström , " it had really been doing all along " ( p . 47 ) . Drifting rapidly due south towards Kvitøya , they hurriedly built a winter " home " on the floe against the increasing cold , with walls made of water @-@ reinforced snow to Strindberg 's design ( see plan , below , left ) . Observing the rapidity of their drift , Andrée recorded his hopes that they might get far enough south to feed themselves entirely from the sea . However , the floe began to break up directly under the hut on October 2 from the stresses of pressing against Kvitøya , and they were forced to bring their stores on to the island itself , which took a couple of days . " Morale remains good " , reports Andrée at the very end of the coherent part of his diary , which ends : " Med sådana kamrater bör man kunna reda sig under snart sagdt hvilka omständigheter som helst . " ( " With such comrades one should be able to manage under , I may say , any circumstances " . ) It is inferred from the incoherent and badly damaged last pages of Andrée 's diary that the three men were all dead within a few days of moving onto the island .
= = Speculation and recovery = =
For the next 33 years , the fate of the expedition was shrouded in mystery and its disappearance part of cultural lore in Sweden and to a certain extent elsewhere . It was actively sought for a couple of years and remained the subject of myth and rumor , with frequent international newspaper reports of possible findings . An extensive archive of American newspaper reports from the first few years , 1896 – 99 , titled " The Mystery of Andree " , shows a much richer media interest in the expedition after it disappeared than before . A great variety of fates are suggested for it , inspired by finds , or reported finds , of remnants of what might be a balloon basket , or great amounts of balloon silk , or by stories of men falling from the sky , or visions by psychics , all of which would typically locate the stranded balloon far from Danes Island and Svalbard .
Lundström points out ( p . 134 ) that some of the international and national reports took on the features of urban legends . They reflected a prevailing disrespect for the indigenous peoples of the Arctic , who were portrayed in the newspapers as uncomprehending savages who had killed the three men or showed a deadly indifference to their plight . These speculations were refuted in 1930 , upon the discovery of the expedition 's final resting place on Kvitøya by the crews of two ships , the Bratvaag and the Isbjørn .
The Norwegian Bratvaag Expedition , studying the glaciers and seas of the Svalbard archipelago from the Norwegian sealing vessel Bratvaag of Ålesund , found the remains of the Andrée expedition on August 5 , 1930 . Kvitøya was usually inaccessible to the sealing or whaling ships of the time , as it is typically surrounded by a wide belt of thick polar ice and often hidden by thick ice fogs . However , summer in 1930 had been particularly warm , and the surrounding sea was practically free of ice . As Kvitøya was known to be a prime hunting ground for walrus and the fogs over the island on that day were comparatively thin , some of the crew of the Bratvaag took this rare opportunity to land on what they called the " inaccessible island " . Two of the sealers in search of water , Olav Salen and Karl Tusvick , discovered Andrée 's boat near a small stream , frozen under a mound of snow and full of equipment , including a boathook engraved with the words " Andrée 's Polar Expedition , 1896 " . Presented with this hook , the Bratvaag 's captain , Peder Eliassen , assigned the crew to search the site together with the expedition members . Among other finds , they uncovered a journal and two skeletons , identified as Andrée 's and Strindberg 's remains by monograms found on their clothing .
The Bratvaag left the island to continue its scheduled hunting and observations , with the intent of coming back later to see if the ice had melted further and uncovered more artifacts . Further discoveries were made by the M / K Isbjørn of Tromsø , Norway , a sealing sloop chartered by news reporters to waylay the Bratvaag . Unsuccessful in this , the reporters and the Isbjørn crew made instead for Kvitøya , landing on the island on September 5 in fine weather and finding even less ice than the Bratvaag had . After photographing the area , they searched for and found Frankel 's body , and additional artifacts , including a tin box containing Strindberg 's photographic film , his logbook and maps . The crews of both ships turned over their finds to a scientific commission of the Swedish and Norwegian governments in Tromsø on September 2 and 16 , respectively . The bodies of the three explorers were transported to Stockholm , arriving on October 5 .
= = Cause of deaths = =
The bodies of the three men were cremated in 1930 without further examination upon being returned to Sweden . The question of what , exactly , caused their deaths has attracted both interest and controversy among scholars . Several medical practitioners and amateur historians have read the extensive diaries with a detective 's eye , looking for clues in the diet , for telltale complaints of symptoms , and for suggestive details at the death site . They agree on many particulars . For instance , the explorers are known to have eaten mainly scanty amounts of canned and dry goods from the balloon stores , plus huge portions of half @-@ cooked meat of polar bears and occasionally seals . They suffered often from foot pains and diarrhea , and were always tired , cold , and wet . When they moved on to Kvitøya from the ice , they left much of their valuable equipment and stores outside the tent , and even down by the water 's edge , as if they were too exhausted , indifferent , or ill to carry it further . Strindberg , the youngest , died first and was " buried " ( wedged into a cliff aperture ) by the others . However , the interpretation of these observations is contested .
The best @-@ known and most widely credited suggestion is that made by Ernst Tryde , a medical practitioner , in his book De döda på Vitön ( " The Dead on Kvitøya " ) in 1952 : that the men succumbed to trichinosis , which they had contracted from eating undercooked polar bear meat . Larvae of Trichinella spiralis were found in parts of a polar bear carcass at the site . Lundström and Sundman both favor this explanation . Critics note that the diarrhea , which Tryde cites as the main symptomatic evidence , hardly needs an explanation beyond the general poor diet and physical misery , but some more specific symptoms of trichinosis are missing . Also , Fridtjof Nansen and his companion Hjalmar Johansen had lived largely on polar bear meat in exactly the same area for 15 months without any ill effects . Other suggestions have included vitamin A poisoning from eating polar bear liver ; however , the diary shows Andrée to have been aware of this danger . Carbon monoxide poisoning is a theory that has found a few adherents , such as the explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson . The chief objection is that their primus stove had kerosene still in the tank when found . Stefansson argues that they were using a malfunctioning stove , something he has experienced in his own expeditions . Lead poisoning from the cans in which their food was stored is an alternative suggestion , as are scurvy , botulism , suicide ( they had plenty of opium ) , and polar bear attack . A combination favoured by Kjellström is that of cold and hypothermia as the Arctic winter closed in , with dehydration and general exhaustion , apathy , and disappointment . Kjellström argues that Tryde never takes the nature of their daily life into account , and especially the crowning blow of the ice breaking up under their promisingly mobile home , forcing them to move onto a glacier island . " Posterity has expressed surprise that they died on Kvitøya , surrounded by food , " writes Kjellström . " The surprise is rather that they found the strength to live so long " ( p . 54 ) .
In 2010 , writer and researcher Bea Uusma at Karolinska institutet , Sweden , rejected the theory that larvae of Trichinella spiralis killed the expedition members . After examining the men 's clothes , she concluded that at least Strindberg was killed by polar bears .
= = Legacy = =
In 1897 , Andrée 's daring or foolhardy undertaking nourished Swedish patriotic pride and Swedish dreams of taking the scientific lead in the Arctic . The title of " Engineer " — " Ingenjör Andrée " — was generally and reverentially used in speaking of him , and expressed high esteem for the late 19th @-@ century ideal of the engineer as a representative of social improvement through technological progress . The three explorers were fêted when they departed and mourned by the nation when they disappeared . When they were found , they were celebrated for the heroism of their doomed two @-@ month struggle to reach populated areas and were seen as having selflessly perished for the ideals of science and progress . The procession carrying their mortal remains from the ships into Stockholm on October 5 , 1930 , writes Swedish historian of ideas Sverker Sörlin ,
" must be one of the most solemn and grandiose manifestations of national mourning that has ever occurred in Sweden . One of the rare comparable events is the national mourning that followed the Estonia disaster in the Baltic Sea in September 1994 " ( p . 100 ) .
More recently , Andrée 's heroic motives have been questioned , beginning with Per Olof Sundman 's bestselling semi @-@ documentary novel of 1967 , The Flight of the Eagle . Sundman portrays Andrée as the victim of the demands of the media and the Swedish scientific and political establishment , and as ultimately motivated by fear rather than courage . Sundman 's interpretation of the personalities involved , the blind spots of the Swedish national culture , and the role of the press is reflected in the film adaptation , Flight of the Eagle ( 1982 ) , based on his novel and directed by Jan Troell . It was nominated for an Oscar .
Appreciation of Nils Strindberg 's role seems to be growing , both for the fortitude with which the untrained and unprepared student kept photographing , in what must have been a more or less permanent state of near @-@ collapse from exhaustion and exposure , and for the artistic quality of the result . Out of the 240 exposed frames that were found on Kvitøya in waterlogged containers , 93 were saved by John Hertzberg at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm , Strindberg 's former workplace . In his article , " Recovering the visual history of the Andrée expedition " ( 2004 ) , Tyrone Martinsson has lamented the traditional focus by previous researchers on the written records — the diaries — as primary sources of information ; he renewed his claim for the historical significance of the photographs .
Some of the items from the expedition , including the balloon @-@ silk boat and the tent , are on display at the Andréeexpeditionen Polar Centre at Grenna Museum , Sweden . The expedition is also featured in the Spitsbergen Airship Museum in Longyearbyen , Svalbard .
= = Representation in other media = =
In 1983 , American composer Dominick Argento created a song cycle for baritone and piano entitled The Andrée Expedition . This cycle sets to music texts from the diaries and letters .
Swedish composer Klas Torstensson 's opera Expeditionen ( 1994 – 99 ) is based on Andrée 's story .
An account of the expedition is included in The Ghost Disease and Twelve Other Stories of Detective Work in the Medical Field , by Michael Howell and Peter Ford ( Penguin , 1986 ) .
It was dramatised as a play by Michael Butt for BBC Radio 4 as The Stranded Eagle , as part of the " Medical Detectives " series . The radio play aired 1 April 1998 and starred John Woodvine ( Knut Stubbendorf ) , Clive Merrison ( Ernst Tryde ) , Ken Stott ( S.A. Andrée ) , Jack Klaff ( Knut Fraenkel ) and Scott Handy ( Nils Strindberg ) . The play has subsequently been broadcast on the digital channel , BBC 7 .
In 2013 the NIE Theatre Group produced a play about the expedition , entitled North , North , North , and presented it on tour around the UK .
= North by North Quahog =
" North by North Quahog " is the first episode of the fourth season of Family Guy , following the revival of the series three years after its cancellation in 2002 . The episode was first broadcast on May 1 , 2005 , on Fox , though it had premiered three days earlier at a special screening at the University of Vermont , Burlington . In the episode , Peter and Lois go on a second honeymoon to spice up their marriage , but are chased by Mel Gibson after Peter steals the sequel to The Passion of the Christ from Gibson 's private hotel room . Meanwhile , Brian and Stewie take care of Chris and Meg at home .
Family Guy had been canceled in 2002 due to low ratings , but was revived by Fox after reruns on Adult Swim became the cable network 's most watched program , and more than three million DVDs of the show were sold . " North by North Quahog " was directed by Peter Shin and written by series creator Seth MacFarlane . Much of the plot and many of the technical aspects of the episode , as well as the title , are direct parodies of the 1959 Alfred Hitchcock movie North by Northwest ; in addition , the episode makes use of Bernard Herrmann 's theme music from that film . The episode contains many cultural references ; in the opening sequence Peter lists 29 shows that were canceled by Fox after Family Guy was canceled and says that if all of those shows were to be canceled , they might have a chance at returning .
Critical responses to " North by North Quahog " were mostly positive , with the opening sequence being praised in particular . The episode was watched by nearly 12 million viewers and received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) . Shin won an Annie Award for Directing in an Animated Television Production for this episode .
= = Plot = =
In the cold open , Peter tells his family that they have " been canceled " . He then lists all 29 shows that were canceled by Fox between the show 's cancellation and revival and says that if all of those shows were to be canceled , they might have a chance at returning .
As Peter and Lois are having sex , she yells out George Clooney 's name , so Peter realizes that she is imagining him as Clooney to maintain her libido . Lois and Peter decide to take a second honeymoon to enliven their marriage , and leave their anthropomorphic dog Brian to take care of their children Stewie , Chris , and Meg . Brian is unable to control the children , but Stewie offers to help ( in exchange for Brian changing his diaper ) and together they manage the home . The pair chaperone a dance at Chris 's school , during which a school staff member catches Chris in the boys ' restroom with vodka that belongs to his classmate Jake Tucker . Although Brian and Stewie punish Chris by grounding him , they try to clear his name . Jake 's father Tom refuses to believe Brian and Stewie , so they resort to planting cocaine in Jake 's locker , and Jake is sentenced to community service .
On the way to their vacation spot , Peter reads a comic book while driving with Lois asleep , and crashes his car into a tree . They are forced to spend their entire honeymoon money on car repairs and are about to return home when Peter discovers that actor / director Mel Gibson has a private suite at a luxurious hotel nearby , " which he barely uses " . He and Lois then go to the hotel , where Peter poses as Gibson to gain access to his room . When Lois yells out Gibson 's name during intercourse , Peter , again , decides to return home . As the two are about to leave , Peter accidentally stumbles upon Gibson 's private screening room and discovers a sequel to The Passion of the Christ entitled The Passion of the Christ 2 : Crucify This . To spare the world from " ... another two hours of Mel Gibson Jesus mumbo @-@ jumbo , " Peter steals the film . However , when they leave the hotel , they are noticed by two priests , Gibson 's associates , who were there to collect the film .
Pursued by the priests in a car chase that leads them through a shopping mall , Lois and Peter escape from the priests and drive to a cornfield where Peter buries the film . While he is doing so , the priests fly down in a crop @-@ duster and kidnap Lois . Peter is then given a message telling him that if he does not return the film to Gibson at his estate on top of Mount Rushmore , his wife will be killed . Peter arrives at the house and gives Gibson a film can . As Peter and Lois are about to leave , Gibson discovers that the film has been replaced with dog feces , leading to a chase on the face of the mountain . While being chased , Lois slips but hangs on to George Washington 's lips . Peter grabs her and , while being held at gunpoint , he tells Gibson that the film " is in President Rushmore 's mouth " and points to the other side of the monument . Gibson follows Peter 's direction and falls off the edge as Peter pulls Lois to safety . Upon climbing back to the top of the mountain , the two have sexual intercourse there , improving their marriage .
= = Production and development = =
In 2002 , Family Guy was canceled after three seasons due to low ratings . The show was first canceled after the 1999 – 2000 season , but following a last @-@ minute reprieve , it returned for a third season in 2001 . Fox tried to sell rights for reruns of the show , but it was hard to find networks that were interested ; Cartoon Network eventually bought the rights , " [ ... ] basically for free " , according to the president of 20th Century Fox Television Production . When the reruns were shown on Cartoon Network 's Adult Swim in 2003 , Family Guy became Adult Swim 's most @-@ watched show with an average 1 @.@ 9 million viewers an episode . Following Family Guy 's high ratings on Adult Swim , the first season was released on DVD in April 2003 . Sales of the DVD set reached 2 @.@ 2 million copies , becoming the best @-@ selling television DVD of 2003 and the second highest @-@ selling television DVD ever , behind the first season of Comedy Central 's Chappelle 's Show . The second season DVD release also sold more than a million copies . The show 's popularity in both DVD sales and reruns rekindled Fox 's interest in it . They ordered 35 new episodes in 2004 , marking the first revival of a television show based on DVD sales . Fox president Gail Berman said that it was one of her most difficult decisions to cancel the show , and was therefore happy it would return . The network also began production of a film based on the series .
" North by North Quahog " was the first episode to be broadcast after the show 's cancellation . It was written by MacFarlane and directed by Peter Shin , both of whom also wrote and directed the pilot . MacFarlane believed the show 's three @-@ year hiatus was beneficial because animated shows do not normally have hiatuses , and towards the end of their seasons " ... you see a lot more sex jokes and ( bodily function ) jokes and signs of a fatigued staff that their brains are just fried " . With " North by North Quahog " , the writing staff tried to keep the show " ... exactly as it was " before its cancellation , and did not " ... have the desire to make it any slicker " than it already was . Walter Murphy , who had composed music for the show before its cancellation , returned to compose the music for " North by North Quahog " . Murphy and the orchestra recorded an arrangement of Bernard Herrmann 's score from North by Northwest , a film referenced multiple times in the episode .
Fox had ordered five episode scripts at the end of the third season ; these episodes had been written but not produced . One of these scripts was adapted into " North by North Quahog " . The original script featured Star Wars character Boba Fett , and later actor , writer and producer Aaron Spelling , but the release of the iconic film The Passion of the Christ inspired the writers to incorporate Mel Gibson into the episode . Multiple endings were written , including one in which Death comes for Gibson . During production , an episode of South Park was released entitled " The Passion of the Jew " that also featured Gibson as a prominent character . This gave the Family Guy writers pause , fearing accusations " [ ... ] that we had ripped them off . "
Three days before the episode debuted on television , it was screened at the University of Vermont ( UVM ) in Burlington , accompanied by an hour @-@ long question @-@ and @-@ answer session with MacFarlane . The UVM 's special screening of the episode was attended by 1 @,@ 700 people . As promotion for the show , and to , as Newman described , " expand interest in the show beyond its die hard fans " , Fox organized four Family Guy Live ! performances , which featured cast members reading old episodes aloud ; " North by North Quahog " was also previewed . In addition , the cast performed musical numbers from the Family Guy Live in Vegas comedy album . The stage shows were an extension of a performance by the cast during the 2004 Montreal Comedy Festival . The Family Guy Live ! performances , which took place in Los Angeles and New York , sold out and were attended by around 1 @,@ 200 people each .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode opens with Peter telling the rest of the family that Family Guy has been canceled . He lists the following 29 shows ( in chronological order ) , that he says Fox has to make room for : Dark Angel , Titus ( though Titus was facing cancellation the same year Family Guy was ) , Undeclared , Action , That ' 80s Show , Wonderfalls , Fastlane , Andy Richter Controls the Universe , Skin , Girls Club , Cracking Up , The Pitts , Firefly , Get Real , Freakylinks , Wanda at Large , Costello , The Lone Gunmen , A Minute with Stan Hooper , Normal , Ohio , Pasadena , Harsh Realm , Keen Eddie , The $ treet , The American Embassy , Cedric the Entertainer Presents , The Tick , Luis , and Greg the Bunny . Lois asks whether there is any hope , to which Peter replies that if all these shows are canceled they might have a chance , the joke being all these shows had indeed already been canceled by Fox . The New York Times reported that , during the first Family Guy Live ! performance , " ... the longer [ the list ] went , the louder the laughs from the Town Hall crowd [ became ] " .
Australian @-@ American actor Mel Gibson is prominently featured in the episode ; his voice was impersonated by André Sogliuzzo . Gibson directed the film The Passion of the Christ and , in the episode , is seen making a sequel entitled Passion of the Christ 2 : Crucify This . The fictional sequel is a combination of The Passion of the Christ and Rush Hour , and stars Chris Tucker , who starred in Rush Hour , and James Caviezel who portrayed Jesus in The Passion of the Christ .
The episode contains several references to Alfred Hitchcock 's 1959 film North by Northwest . Besides the title of the episode , several scenes in " North by North Quahog " are inspired by the Hitchcock film . In the scene in which Lois is kidnapped by Gibson 's associates , the two priests chase Peter through a cornfield , flying a crop @-@ duster , parodying the crop @-@ duster scene from the film . The final face @-@ off between Peter , Lois and Gibson that takes place on Mount Rushmore is also a reference to North by Northwest .
As Peter and Lois are driving to Cape Cod for their second honeymoon , Peter is reading a Jughead comic book and their car crashes . The fictional Park Barrington Hotel , where Peter and Lois steal Gibson 's film , is located in Manhattan . The car chase scene through a shopping mall is a recreation of a scene from the 1980 comedy film The Blues Brothers . To stop Meg and Chris from fighting , Brian reads to them from one of the few books Peter owns , a novelization of the 1980 film Caddyshack and quotes a line by Chevy Chase 's character , Ty Webb .
The episode contains a number of other cultural references . When Peter and Lois enter their motel room and find a hooker on the bed , Peter warns Lois to stay perfectly still , as the prostitute 's vision is based on movement . This is a reference to a scene in the movie Jurassic Park in which Dr. Grant gives this warning in reference to a Tyrannosaurus Rex . Pinocchio appears in a cutaway gag , in which Gepetto bends over and deliberately sets Pinocchio up to tell a lie in an attempt to emulate anal sex . This was based on a joke MacFarlane 's mother had told her friends when he was a child . Lois yells out George Clooney 's name when she and Peter are having sex . The 1950s sitcom The Honeymooners is also referenced when a fictional episode of the sitcom is shown in which Ralph Kramden , the show 's main character , hits his wife , something he would only threaten to do on the show . Meg watches an episode of the CBS sitcom Two and a Half Men , which shows three men in a living room , one of whom is cut in half at the waist and screaming in agony , the other two standing over him and screaming in horror . Fictional army soldier Flint of G.I. Joe : A Real American Hero appears briefly after Chris is caught drinking vodka , and educates the children on drinking and informs them that " ... knowing is half the battle " . Flint 's voice was provided by Bill Ratner , the actor who had voiced the character in the G.I. Joe television series . According to Seth Green , who voices Chris , the reason the Family Guy cast members did not voice Flint themselves is because if you have the original actor providing the voice " [ ... ] you take it with a little bit more gravitas " .
= = Reception = =
" North by North Quahog " was broadcast on May 1 , 2005 as part of an animated television night on Fox , was preceded by two episodes of The Simpsons ( including the show 's 350th episode ) , and was followed by the premiere of MacFarlane 's new show , American Dad ! . It was watched by 11 @.@ 85 million viewers , higher than both The Simpsons and American Dad . The episode 's ratings were Family Guy 's highest ratings since the airing of the season one episode " Brian : Portrait of a Dog " . Family Guy was the week 's highest @-@ rated show among teens and men in the 18 to 34 demographic , and more than doubled Fox 's average in its timeslot . The episode 's first broadcast in Canada on Global was watched by 1 @.@ 27 million viewers , making it fourth for the week it was broadcast , behind CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , CSI : Miami and Canadian Idol .
The reactions of television critics to " North by North Quahog " were mostly positive . In a simultaneous review of the two episodes of The Simpsons that preceded this episode and the American Dad ! pilot , Chase Squires of the St. Petersburg Times stated that " North by North Quahog " " ... score [ d ] the highest " . Multimedia news and reviews website IGN was pleased to see Stewie and Brian get more screen time as a duo , something they thought had always been one of the show 's biggest strengths . IGN placed Peter 's idea to pose as Mel Gibson and steal Passion of the Christ 2 in 9th place on their list of " Peter Griffin 's Top 10 Craziest Ideas " . Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe commented that the episode 's material " would wear thin after a while if the character 's weren 't as distinct and endearing as they are , most notably Stewie , the wrathful infant . "
Critics reacted positively to the opening sequence ; in his review of the episode , Mark McGuire of The Times Union wrote : " ... the first minute or so of the resurrected Family Guy ranks among the funniest 60 seconds I 've seen so far this season . " Variety critic Brian Lowry considered the opening sequence to be the best part of the episode . M. Keith Booker , author of the book Drawn to Television : Primetime Television from The Flintstones to Family Guy , called the opening sequence an " ... in @-@ your @-@ face , I @-@ told @-@ you @-@ so rejoinder to the Fox brass [ ... ] followed by one of the most outrageous Family Guy episodes ever " .
However , the episode also garnered negative responses . Melanie McFarland of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer stated that " Three years off the air has not made the ' Family Guy ' team that much more creative " . Kevin Wong of PopMatters thought the episode made fun of easy targets such as Gibson and The Passion of The Christ , although he felt Family Guy regained " ... its admirable mix of niche nostalgia and hysterical characterizations " after the first two episodes of the new season . Though Alex Strachan , critic for The Montreal Gazette , praised the opening sequence , he felt " it 's all downhill from there " . Bill Brioux of the Toronto Star considered the show to be similar to The Simpsons . Media watchdog group the Parents Television Council , a frequent critic of the show , branded the episode the " worst show of the week " .
" North by North Quahog " was nominated for an Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) , the eventual recipient of the award being South Park episode " Best Friends Forever " . Peter Shin , director of the episode , won the Annie Award for Best Directing in an Animated Television Production . Fellow Family Guy director Dan Povenmire , was nominated for the same award for directing " PTV " .
= My Chick Bad =
" My Chick Bad " is a song by American rapper Ludacris . The song features American recording artist Nicki Minaj , who co @-@ wrote the song with Ludacris , Samuel Lindley , and Derrelle Davidson . The track was produced by The Legendary Traxster . " My Chick Bad " serves as the second single from Ludacris ' eighth album , Battle of the Sexes . An official remix to the song was also released , featuring female rappers Diamond , Eve , and Trina .
The song was a commercial success , peaking at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song reached number two on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Rap Songs charts , and also appeared on the Pop Songs without an official release to pop radio . " My Chick Bad " was nominated for a 2011 Grammy Award in the category Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group . The accompanying music video for both versions of the song take place in a dungeon during the filming of a movie , with Minaj portraying a Freddy Krueger @-@ esque character .
= = Background = =
In an interview with Rap @-@ Up , on Nicki Minaj , Ludacris said , " She ’ s an animated female and I ’ m an animated rapper myself . " Before it was released as a single , in the interview , he said , " That ’ s one of the records that we gonna put out there . " The official remix features Eve , Trina , and Diamond , while Ludacris only has background vocals . The remix was also included on Battle of the Sexes , and an extension of the original video was made to accompany it . On the set of the video , Eve said , " I ’ m just happy that Luda [ cris ] got this together and made this happen . This is just a nice prelude to what ’ s about to happen . I think it ’ s about to be another movement of strong women . "
= = Composition = =
The song carries a " thumping " and " dark " tone described as " spooky . " Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club described the song as " swaggering " , and it has been called " rambunctious " by XXL . It also features the catchy hook , " My chick bad / My chick ' hood / My chick do stuff that your chick wish she could . " As Ludacris 's verse brags about his significant other , Minaj 's as well as the females present on the remix , brag about themselves . In the song , Ludacris refers to tennis stars Venus and Serena Williams , and to the Tiger Woods scandal in a reference of his wife , Elin Nordegren . Minaj refers to basketball star Lisa Leslie , as well as the horror franchises A Nightmare on Elm Street and Friday the 13th , and their respective main antagonists , Freddy Krueger and Jason Voorhees .
= = Critical reception = =
August Brown of the Los Angeles Times complimented " a cameo from the ever @-@ delightful Nicki Minaj . " Sarah Godfrey of the Washington Post commented that the remix version of the song was the only track on Battle of the Sexes to fully live up to the album 's name and original premise . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club said the song provide a " vital forum for red @-@ hot Lil Wayne protégé Nicki Minaj on the original track and Eve on the remix . " XXL said : Minaj 's turn at the song " proves she ’ s got the goods to be the perfect playmate to any of rap ’ s leading men . " Jesal Padania of RapReviews called Minaj impressive on the song , and said the song had less energy than lead single " How Low " , but more " meat . "
People Magazine , Rap @-@ Up , and Ken Capbobianco of the Boston Globe referred to the song as one of the highlights of Battle of the Sexes . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly also chose the track as two of the album 's best , calling Minaj 's appearance " scene @-@ stealing . " Jason Richards of Now Magazine was not impressed , calling the song " particularly gross " and called the production " bargain @-@ basement . It was named the eighth worst song of 2010 by The Village Voice ; Christopher Weingarten , writing for the publication , described the song as " loathsome " , criticizing its " hashtag rap " .
The song was nominated for a 2011 Grammy Award in the category Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group , but lost to " On to the Next One " by Jay @-@ Z and Swizz Beatz .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending March 13 , 2010 , " My Chick Bad " debuted at 46 on the Billboard Hot 100 . After its release to radio , followed by increasing digital sales , the song eventually continued to rise , and peaked at number 11 for two weeks . The song peaked at two on both Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Rap Songs charts . Although the song never officially went for adds on mainstream airplay , the song appeared on the Pop Songs chart at 39 . As of December 2014 the song has sold 1 @.@ 8 million copies in the US .
= = Music video = =
The music video was filmed the weekend of February 6 , 2010 in Miami , Florida , directed by TAJ Stansberry . Two clips were filmed , one for the original song and one for the remix version . On the set of the video , Ludacris said , " It hasn ’ t been this many women on the same song or the same video set in ... I don ’ t know how long , so we making history and it feels damn good . " It premiered on February 19 , 2010 on BET 's 106 & Park and VEVO .
The video takes place in a lair / dungeon setting , as Ludacris is directing a movie but the filming is on break . During that time Ludacris begins to brag about his " girl " towards the other cast members . Later in the video Minaj is revealed as the actress of the film , portraying a Freddy Krueger character , complete with the trademark glove made of razor blades . She is found lying in a couch , held by restraints , before the video ends with Ludacris and Nicki performing in the lair . The remix video with Diamond , Trina and Eve , also directed by TAJ , premiered on March 26 , 2010 on VEVO and 106 & Park . The video is an extension of the original clip , featuring the same concept and premise . While Eve , Trina , and Diamond , make cameos near the end of the original video , Rick Ross , Lil Scrappy , DJ Khaled , Larenz Tate , and 2 Chainz make cameo appearances both clips .
= = Live performances = =
The song was first performed by the duo at BET 's Rip the Runway 2010 , which Minaj co @-@ hosted with The Game actor Pooch Hall . While Ludacris wore a black vest similar to in the " How Low " video , Minaj 's attire was from the " My Chick Bad " video , as she donned a pink wig and similar clothing as in the Freddy Kruger @-@ lair scene . Ludacris and Minaj performed the song at MTV 's Spring Break 2010 in Acapulco , Mexico , featuring Minaj donning a blonde wig . The duo also performed the song at the 2010 BET Awards on June 27 , 2010 , as a part of a medley with the remix of " All I Do Is Win " , featuring Ludacris in a mask , flanked by violin players , and Minaj with a spiraling blonde wig seated in a medieval chair , similar to her scene in the music video . Minaj has also recited her verse on select dates of her debut tour , the Pink Friday Tour . She has performed her verse in a medley on her Pink Friday : Reloaded Tour .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Dolphinarium =
A dolphinarium is an aquarium for dolphins . The dolphins are usually kept in a large pool , though occasionally they may be kept in pens in the open sea , either for research or for public performances . Some dolphinariums consist of one pool where dolphins perform for the public , others are part of larger parks , such as marine mammal parks , zoos or theme parks , with other animals and attractions as well .
While cetaceans have been held in captivity since the 1860s , the first commercial dolphinarium was opened only in 1938 . Their popularity increased rapidly until the 1960s . Since the 1970s , increasing concern for animal welfare led to stricter regulation , which in several countries ultimately resulted in the closure of some dolphinariums . Despite this trend , dolphinariums are still widespread in Europe , Japan and North America .
The most common species of dolphin kept in dolphinariums is the bottlenose dolphin , as it is relatively easy to train and has a long lifespan in captivity . While trade in dolphins is internationally regulated , other aspects of keeping dolphins in captivity , such as the minimum size and characteristics of pools , vary among countries . Though animal welfare is perceived to have improved significantly over the last few decades , many animal rights groups still consider keeping dolphins captive to be a form of animal abuse .
= = History = =
Though cetaceans have been held in captivity in both North America and Europe since the 1860s , the first being a pair of Beluga Whales in the New York museum , dolphins were first kept for paid entertainment in the Marine Studios dolphinarium founded in 1938 in St. Augustine , Florida . It was here that it was discovered that dolphins could be trained to perform tricks . Recognizing the success of Marine Studios , more dolphinariums began keeping dolphins for entertainment . In the 1960s , keeping dolphins in zoos and aquariums for entertainment purposes increased in popularity after the 1963 Flipper movie and subsequent Flipper television series . In 1966 , the first dolphin was exported to Europe . In these early days , dolphinariums could grow quickly due to a lack of legislation and lack of concern for animal welfare .
New legislation , most notably the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act in the United States , combined with a more critical view on animal welfare , forced many dolphinariums around the world to close . A prominent example is the United Kingdom ; in the early 1970s there were at least 36 dolphinariums and traveling dolphin shows , however , the last dolphinarium closed its doors in 1993 . The last dolphinarium in Hungary was closed in 1992 . In 2005 both Chile and Costa Rica prohibited keeping cetaceans captive . However , around 60 dolphinariums currently exist across Europe , of which 34 are within the EU . Japan , Mexico and the United States are also home to a relatively large number of dolphinariums .
= = Design = =
Many varied designs exist , but basic dolphinarium design for public performances often consists of stands for the public around a semi @-@ circular pool , sometimes with glass walls which allow underwater viewing , and a platform in the middle from which the trainers direct and present the show .
The water in the pools has to be constantly filtered to keep it clean for the dolphins and the spectators , and the temperature and composition of the water has to be controlled to match the conditions dolphins experience in the wild . In the absence of a common international regulation , guidelines regarding the minimum size of the pools vary between countries . To give an indication of pool sizes , the European Association for Aquatic Mammals recommends that a pool for five dolphins should have a surface area of 275 m2 ( 2 @,@ 960 sq ft ) plus an additional 75 m2 ( 810 sq ft ) for every additional animal , have a depth of 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) and have a water volume of at least 1 @,@ 000 m3 ( 35 @,@ 000 cu ft ) with an additional 200 m3 ( 7 @,@ 100 cu ft ) for every additional animal . If two of these three conditions are met , and the third is not more than 10 % below standard , the EAAM considers the pool size to be acceptable .
= = Animals = =
= = = Species = = =
Various species of dolphins are kept in captivity as well as several other small whale species such as Harbour Porpoises , Finless Porpoises and Belugas , though in those cases the word dolphinarium may not be fitting as these are not true dolphins . Bottlenose Dolphins are the most common species of dolphin kept in dolphinariums as they are relatively easy to train , have a long lifespan in captivity and a friendly appearance . Hundreds if not thousands of Bottlenose Dolphins live in captivity across the world , though exact numbers are hard to determine . Orcas are well known for their performances in shows , but the number of Orcas kept in captivity is very small , especially when compared to the number of bottlenose dolphins , with only 44 captive orcas being held in aquaria as of 2012 . Of all Orcas kept in captivity , the majority are located in the various SeaWorld parks in the United States . Other species kept in captivity are Spotted Dolphins , False Killer Whales , Pilot Whales and Common Dolphins , Commerson 's Dolphins , as well as Rough @-@ toothed Dolphins , but all in much lower numbers than the Bottlenose Dolphin . There are also fewer than ten , Amazon River Dolphins , Risso 's Dolphins , Spinner Dolphins , or Tucuxi in captivity . Two unusual and very rare hybrid dolphins known as Wolphins are kept at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii , which are a cross between a Bottlenose Dolphin and a False Killer Whale . Also two Common / Bottlenose hybrids reside in captivity : one at Discovery Cove and the other SeaWorld San Diego .
= = = Trade and capture = = =
In the early days , many Bottlenose dolphins were wild @-@ caught off the coast of Florida . Though the Marine Mammal Protection Act , established in 1972 , allows an exception for the collection of dolphins for public display and research purposes when a permit is obtained , Bottlenose dolphins have not been captured in American waters since 1989 . In most Western countries , breeding programs have been set up to provide the dolphinariums with new animals . To achieve a sufficient birth rate and to prevent inbreeding , artificial insemination ( AI ) is occasionally used . The use of AI also allows dolphinariums to increase the genetic diversity of their population without having to bring in any dolphins from other facilities .
The trade of dolphins is regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( also known as the Washington Convention or CITES ) . Endangered dolphin species are included in CITES ’ Appendix I , in which case trade is permitted only in exceptional circumstances . Species considered not to be threatened with extinction are included in Appendix II , in which case trade “ must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival ” . Most cetacean species traded for display in captivity to the public or for use in swimming with dolphins and other interaction programs are listed on Appendix II .
However , live dolphins trade still continues . A live Bottlenose Dolphin is estimated to be worth between a few thousand to several tens of thousands of US dollars , depending on age , condition and prior training . Captures are reported to be on the rise in the South Pacific and the Caribbean , Cuba has also been an exporter of dolphins in recent years , this being organized by the Acuario Nacional de Cuba . In recent years , the Solomon Islands have also allowed the collection and export of dolphins for public display facilities . A 2005 law banned the export of dolphins , however , this ban was seemingly overturned in 2007 when some 28 dolphins were shipped to Dubai . Some , mainly Japanese , dolphinariums obtain their dolphins from local drive hunts , though several other countries in Asia also import dolphins from Japan . Several American dolphinariums had also done so . This practice was halted in 1993 , when the US National Marine Fisheries Service refused a permit for Marine World Africa USA to import four False Killer Whales caught in a Japanese drive hunt .
= = Criticism = =
= = = Animal welfare = = =
Many animal welfare groups such as the World Animal Protection consider keeping dolphins in captivity to be a form of animal abuse . The main arguments are that dolphins do not have enough freedom of movement in pools , regardless of pool size , ( in the wild , dolphins swim hundreds of miles every day ) and do not get enough stimulation . Dolphins often show repetitive behavior in captivity and sometimes become aggressive towards other animals or people . In some cases , the behavior of dolphins in captivity also results in their own death .
The lifespan of dolphins in captivity is another subject of debate . Research has shown that Orcas indeed have a much lower survival rate in captivity ; however , there is no significant difference between wild and captive survival rates for Bottlenose dolphins . This does not , however , reflect a global state of affairs : for example , Bottlenose dolphins in captive facilities in Jamaica suffer from extremely high mortality rates .
Some scientists suggest that the " unusually high " intelligence of dolphins means that they should be recognized as " non @-@ human persons " . In 2013 , the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests prohibited the captivity of dolphins on these grounds , finding it " morally unacceptable to keep them captive for entertainment purpose " .
= Ocean Village Marina , Gibraltar =
The Ocean Village Marina is one of three marinas in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar , at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula . Formerly Sheppard 's Marina , it is located in the Bay of Gibraltar , between the North Mole of Gibraltar Harbour and the runway of Gibraltar International Airport . Both Ocean Village Marina and the adjacent Marina Bay have been incorporated into the Ocean Village Project , a luxury resort .
Ocean Village Marina and the adjacent Marina Bay together have 330 berths , with a draft ( or draught ) of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) . The marina can accommodate vessels up to 90 metres ( 300 ft ) to 100 metres ( 330 ft ) in length . There are three residential towers with blue glass balconies overlooking the marina : Grand Ocean Plaza , Imperial Plaza , and Majestic Plaza . On 4 June 2012 , Ocean Village Marina hosted 161 vessels which formed the Gibraltar Diamond Jubilee Flotilla , celebrating sixty years of the Queen 's reign .
= = Location = =
Gibraltar has three marinas : Marina Bay , Ocean Village Marina , and Queensway Quay Marina . Ocean Village Marina is located on Gibraltar 's Westside , outside the northern end of Gibraltar Harbour , in the Bay of Gibraltar , next to the airport runway . It is adjacent to Marina Bay which is just to its north . The marina forms part of the Ocean Village Project or Ocean Village Marina Complex , often referred to as just Ocean Village . Ocean Village Marina is the former Sheppard 's Marina or Sheppard 's Yard . Both Marina Bay and Ocean Village Marina have been incorporated into Ocean Village , between the North Mole and the airport runway . The strategic location of the marina offers protection from moisture @-@ laden Levanter winds .
= = History = =
Ocean Village Marina was formerly Sheppard 's Marina , owned by H. Sheppard & Co . By 2004 , the marina had been sold to Ocean Village Investments Ltd and demolition had commenced . The marina retained its original name , at least informally , for several years after the sale . The sale of Sheppard 's Marina was not without controversy , as some residents of the marina were eventually evicted from their berths by the new owners . After Ocean Village Investments acquired the adjacent Marina Bay in 2006 , both marinas were incorporated into Ocean Village , a resort with residential , retail , and leisure facilities .
On 4 June 2012 , the Ocean Village Marina hosted 161 vessels which formed the Gibraltar Diamond Jubilee Flotilla , celebrating sixty years of the Queen 's reign . The flotilla took place one day after a similar event in London up the Thames . The festivities started officially with greetings from Gregory Butcher , founder of Ocean Village , and Ros Astengo , event organiser of Ocean Village . The Gibraltar Port Authority addressed those assembled on the topic of safety , and made recommendations regarding precautions which ranged from sunscreen to the distance between vessels . The flotilla departed from the marina at midday , sailing from the western side of the runway , passing Europa Point , and returning after reaching the eastern side of the runway . Boats up to 70 metres ( 230 ft ) participated in the flotilla . Small boats led the flotilla , followed by power boats over 9 metres ( 30 ft ) , and , finally , sailing vessels . The General Elliot , a Gibraltar Port Authority vessel , was at the head of the flotilla , and was supported by other official vessels .
= = Facilities = =
Ocean Village Marina and the adjacent Marina Bay together have 330 berths , with a draft of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) . The marina can accommodate vessels up to 90 metres ( 300 ft ) to 100 metres ( 330 ft ) in length . The marina now offers premier berths , the majority of which are between 18 metres ( 59 ft ) and 25 metres ( 82 ft ) , although the largest can accommodate vessels up to 80 metres ( 260 ft ) in length . The Yacht Reporting Berth for Gibraltar closed in 2005 and customs clearance of vessels is now performed by the individual marinas . Each berth at Ocean Village Marina offers utilities which include metered water and electricity , as well as access to satellite television , telephone , fax , and Wi @-@ Fi . Other amenities include laundry and concierge services . Gasoline and diesel are available at the quayside .
In addition to the marina , the Ocean Village resort features three residential towers , with blue glass balconies , that also have commercial space : Grand Ocean Plaza , Imperial Plaza , and Majestic Plaza . Construction of a new World Trade Center in Ocean Village was scheduled to begin in 2012 . The development has a variety of restaurants , bars , and retail outlets , as well as executive office space . Leisure Island , on reclaimed land , has a business centre and casino , among other facilities .
Sheppard 's of Gibraltar , the former owner of the marina which was established in 1961 , still has a presence there . The business provides support services for yacht owners from both their chandlery and shipyard departments . Their chandlery shop on the ground floor of Marina Court at Ocean Village has a variety of products for yacht equipment and maintenance . Their shipyard on Coaling Island near Queensway Quay Marina performs repair services such as engine rebuilds , rigging , welding , and painting . Sheppard 's attends to yachts at all three of Gibraltar 's marinas , and also has a 40 @-@ ton lift when haul @-@ outs are needed . Their haul @-@ out work includes hull cleaning , replacement of anodes or transducers , and slurry blasting , among other services . Haul @-@ outs are performed at both Coaling Island and the North Mole .
= Self @-@ harm =
Self @-@ harm ( SH ) is defined as the intentional , direct injuring of body tissue , done without suicidal intentions . The term self @-@ harm means the same as self @-@ injury . These terms are used in the more recent literature in an attempt to reach a more neutral terminology . The older literature , especially that which predates the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR ) , almost exclusively refers to self @-@ mutilation .
The most common form of self @-@ harm is skin @-@ cutting , but self @-@ harm also covers a wide range of behaviors including burning , scratching , banging or hitting body parts , interfering with wound healing ( dermatillomania ) , hair @-@ pulling ( trichotillomania ) and the ingestion of toxic substances or objects . Behaviours associated with substance abuse and eating disorders are usually not considered self @-@ harm because the resulting tissue damage is ordinarily an unintentional side effect . However , the boundaries are not always clearly defined and in some cases behaviours that usually fall outside the boundaries of self @-@ harm may indeed represent self @-@ harm if performed with explicit intent to cause tissue damage . Although suicide is not the intention of self @-@ harm , the relationship between self @-@ harm and suicide is complex , as self @-@ harming behaviour may be potentially life @-@ threatening . There is also an increased risk of suicide in individuals who self @-@ harm to the extent that self @-@ harm is found in 40 – 60 % of suicides . However , generalising self @-@ harmers to be suicidal is , in the majority of cases , inaccurate .
The desire to self @-@ harm is listed in the DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR as a symptom of borderline personality disorder . However , patients with other diagnoses may also self @-@ harm , including those with depression , anxiety disorders , substance abuse , eating disorders , post @-@ traumatic stress disorder , schizophrenia , and several personality disorders . Self @-@ harm is also apparent in high @-@ functioning individuals who have no underlying clinical diagnosis . The motivations for self @-@ harm vary and it may be used to fulfill a number of different functions . These functions include self @-@ harm being used as a coping mechanism which provides temporary relief of intense feelings such as anxiety , depression , stress , emotional numbness or a sense of failure or self @-@ loathing and other mental traits including low self @-@ esteem or perfectionism . Self @-@ harm is often associated with a history of trauma and abuse , including emotional and sexual abuse . There are a number of different methods that can be used to treat self @-@ harm and which concentrate on either treating the underlying causes or on treating the behaviour itself . When self @-@ harm is associated with depression , antidepressant drugs and treatments may be effective . Other approaches involve avoidance techniques , which focus on keeping the individual occupied with other activities , or replacing the act of self @-@ harm with safer methods that do not lead to permanent damage .
In 2013 about 3 @.@ 3 million cases of self @-@ harm occurred . Self @-@ harm is most common in adolescence and young adulthood , usually first appearing between the ages of 12 and 24 . Self @-@ harm in childhood is relatively rare but the rate has been increasing since the 1980s . However , self @-@ harm behaviour can nevertheless occur at any age , including in the elderly population . The risk of serious injury and suicide is higher in older people who self @-@ harm . Self @-@ harm is not limited to humans . Captive animals , such as birds and monkeys , are also known to participate in self @-@ harming behaviour .
= = Classification = =
Self @-@ harm ( SH ) , also referred to as self @-@ injury ( SI ) , self @-@ inflicted violence ( SIV ) , nonsuicidal self injury ( NSSI ) or self @-@ injurious behavior ( SIB ) , refers to a spectrum of behaviors where demonstrable injury is self @-@ inflicted . The behavior involves deliberate tissue damage that is usually performed without suicidal intent . The most common form of self @-@ harm involves cutting of the skin using a sharp object , e. g. a knife or razor blade . The term self @-@ mutilation is also sometimes used , although this phrase evokes connotations that some find worrisome , inaccurate , or offensive . Self @-@ inflicted wounds is a specific term associated with soldiers to describe non @-@ lethal injuries inflicted in order to obtain early dismissal from combat . This differs from the common definition of self @-@ harm , as damage is inflicted for a specific secondary purpose . A broader definition of self @-@ harm might also include those who inflict harm on their bodies by means of disordered eating .
Nonsuicidal self injury ( NSSI ) was added to the DSM @-@ V as its own disorder , which distinguishes it from milder forms of self @-@ harm . This disorder occurs when a person is deliberately harming themselves in a physical way without the intent of committing suicide . Self @-@ harm without suicidal intent can be seen on a spectrum , just like many other disorders ( substance abuse , gambling addiction ) . Just like these other disorders , once the self harming behaviors cross a certain threshold , it then becomes classified as a mental health disorder . Criteria for NSSI include five or more days of self @-@ inflicted harm over the course of one year without suicidal intent , and the individual must have been motivated by seeking relief from a negative state , resolving an interpersonal difficulty , or achieving a positive state .
A common belief regarding self @-@ harm is that it is an attention @-@ seeking behavior ; however , in most cases , this is inaccurate . Many self @-@ harmers are very self @-@ conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior , leading them to go to great lengths to conceal their behavior from others . They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries , or conceal their scars with clothing . Self @-@ harm in such individuals may not be associated with suicidal or para @-@ suicidal behavior . People who self @-@ harm are not usually seeking to end their own life ; it has been suggested instead that they are using self @-@ harm as a coping mechanism to relieve emotional pain or discomfort or as an attempt to communicate distress . Alternatively , interpretations based on the supposed lethality of a self @-@ harm may not give clear indications as to its intent : life risking behaviour may have no suicidal intent , whilst seemingly superficial cuts may have been a suicide attempt .
Studies of individuals with developmental disabilities ( such as intellectual disability ) have shown self @-@ harm being dependent on environmental factors such as obtaining attention or escape from demands . Some individuals may have dissociation harboring a desire to feel real or to fit into society 's rules .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Eighty percent of self @-@ harm involves stabbing or cutting the skin with a sharp object . However , the number of self @-@ harm methods are only limited by an individual 's inventiveness and their determination to harm themselves ; this includes burning , self @-@ poisoning , alcohol abuse , self @-@ embedding of objects , hair pulling , bruising / hitting one 's self , scratching to hurt one 's self , knowingly abusing over the counter or prescription drugs , and forms of self @-@ harm related to anorexia and bulimia . The locations of self @-@ harm are often areas of the body that are easily hidden and concealed from the detection of others . As well as defining self @-@ harm in terms of the act of damaging the body , it may be more accurate to define self @-@ harm in terms of the intent , and the emotional distress that the person is attempting to deal with . Neither the DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR nor the ICD @-@ 10 provide diagnostic criteria for self @-@ harm . It is often seen as only a symptom of an underlying disorder , though many people who self @-@ harm would like this to be addressed .
= = Cause = =
= = = Mental disorder = = =
Although some people who self @-@ harm do not have any form of recognised mental disorder , many people experiencing various forms of mental ill @-@ health do have a higher risk of self @-@ harm . The key areas of disorder which exhibit an increased risk include autism spectrum disorders , borderline personality disorder , bipolar disorder , depression , phobias , and conduct disorders . Schizophrenia may also be a contributing factor for self @-@ harm . Those diagnosed with schizophrenia have a high risk of suicide , which is particularly greater in younger patients as they may not have an insight into the serious effects that the disorder can have on their lives . Substance abuse is also considered a risk factor as are some personal characteristics such as poor problem @-@ solving skills and impulsivity . There are parallels between self @-@ harm and Münchausen syndrome , a psychiatric disorder in which individuals feign illness or trauma . There may be a common ground of inner distress culminating in self @-@ directed harm in a Münchausen patient . However , a desire to deceive medical personnel in order to gain treatment and attention is more important in Münchausen 's than in self @-@ harm .
= = = Psychological factors = = =
Abuse during childhood is accepted as a primary social factor increasing the incidence of self @-@ harm , as is bereavement , and troubled parental or partner relationships . Factors such as war , poverty , and unemployment may also contribute . Self @-@ harm is frequently described as an experience of depersonalisation or a dissociative state . As many as 70 % of individuals with borderline personality disorder engage in self @-@ harm . An estimated 30 % of individuals with autism spectrum disorders engage in self @-@ harm at some point , including eye @-@ poking , skin @-@ picking , hand @-@ biting , and head @-@ banging .
= = = Genetics = = =
The most distinctive characteristic of the rare genetic condition , Lesch – Nyhan syndrome , is self @-@ harm and may include biting and head @-@ banging . Genetics may contribute to the risk of developing other psychological conditions , such as anxiety or depression , which could in turn lead to self @-@ harming behaviour . However , the link between genetics and self @-@ harm in otherwise healthy patients is largely inconclusive .
= = = Drugs and alcohol = = =
Substance misuse , dependence and withdrawal are associated with self @-@ harm . Benzodiazepine dependence as well as benzodiazepine withdrawal is associated with self @-@ harming behaviour in young people . Alcohol is a major risk factor for self @-@ harm . A study which analysed self @-@ harm presentations to emergency rooms in Northern Ireland found that alcohol was a major contributing factor and involved in 63 @.@ 8 % of self @-@ harm presentations . A recent study in the relation between cannabis use and deliberate self @-@ harm ( DSH ) in Norway and England found that , in general , cannabis use may not be a specific risk factor for DSH in young adolescents .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Self @-@ harm is not typically suicidal behaviour , although there is the possibility that a self @-@ inflicted injury may result in life @-@ threatening damage . Although the person may not recognise the connection , self @-@ harm often becomes a response to profound and overwhelming emotional pain that cannot be resolved in a more functional way .
The motivations for self @-@ harm vary , as it may be used to fulfill a number of different functions . These functions include self @-@ harm being used as a coping mechanism which provides temporary relief of intense feelings such as anxiety , depression , stress , emotional numbness and a sense of failure or self @-@ loathing . There is also a positive statistical correlation between self @-@ harm and emotional abuse . Self @-@ harm may become a means of managing and controlling pain , in contrast to the pain experienced earlier in the person 's life of which they had no control over ( e.g. , through abuse ) .
Other motives for self @-@ harm do not fit into medicalised models of behaviour and may seem incomprehensible to others , as demonstrated by this quotation : " My motivations for self @-@ harming were diverse , but included examining the interior of my arms for hydraulic lines . This may sound strange . "
Assessment of motives in a medical setting is usually based on precursors to the incident , circumstances , and information from the patient . However , limited studies show that professional assessments tend to suggest more manipulative or punitive motives than personal assessments .
The UK ONS study reported only two motives : " to draw attention " and " because of anger " . For some people , harming themselves can be a means of drawing attention to the need for help and to ask for assistance in an indirect way . It may also be an attempt to affect others and to manipulate them in some way emotionally . However , those with chronic , repetitive self @-@ harm often do not want attention and hide their scars carefully .
Many people who self @-@ harm state that it allows them to " go away " or dissociate , separating the mind from feelings that are causing anguish . This may be achieved by tricking the mind into believing that the present suffering being felt is caused by the self @-@ harm instead of the issues they were facing previously : the physical pain therefore acts as a distraction from the original emotional pain . To complement this theory , one can consider the need to " stop " feeling emotional pain and mental agitation . " A person may be hyper @-@ sensitive and overwhelmed ; a great many thoughts may be revolving within their mind , and they may either become triggered or could make a decision to stop the overwhelming feelings . "
Alternatively , self @-@ harm may be a means of feeling something , even if the sensation is unpleasant and painful . Those who self @-@ harm sometimes describe feelings of emptiness or numbness ( anhedonia ) , and physical pain may be a relief from these feelings . " A person may be detached from himself or herself , detached from life , numb and unfeeling . They may then recognise the need to function more , or have a desire to feel real again , and a decision is made to create sensation and ' wake up ' . "
Those who engage in self @-@ harm face the contradictory reality of harming themselves while at the same time obtaining relief from this act . It may even be hard for some to actually initiate cutting , but they often do because they know the relief that will follow . For some self @-@ harmers this relief is primarily psychological while for others this feeling of relief comes from the beta endorphins released in the brain . Endorphins are endogenous opioids that are released in response to physical injury , act as natural painkillers , and induce pleasant feelings and would act to reduce tension and emotional distress . Many self @-@ harmers report feeling very little to no pain while self @-@ harming and , for some , deliberate self @-@ harm may become a means of seeking pleasure .
As a coping mechanism , self @-@ harm can become psychologically addictive because , to the self @-@ harmer , it works ; it enables him or her to deal with intense stress in the current moment . The patterns sometimes created by it , such as specific time intervals between acts of self @-@ harm , can also create a behavioural pattern that can result in a wanting or craving to fulfill thoughts of self @-@ harm .
= = = Autonomic nervous system = = =
Everyone has a natural set point for their ability to experience stress . For some people , this is a very high threshold , whereas other people can become overwhelmed very quickly . Emotional pain activates the same regions of the brain as physical pain , so this can be a significantly intolerable state for some people . Some of this is environmental and some of this is due to physiological differences in responding . The autonomic nervous system is composed of two components : the sympathetic nervous system controls arousal and physical activation ( i. e. the fight @-@ or @-@ flight response ) and the parasympathetic nervous system controls physical processes that are automatic ( e.g. , saliva production ) . The sympathetic nervous system innervates ( i.e. , is physically connected to and regulates ) many parts of the body involved in stress responses . Studies of adolescents have shown that adolescents who self @-@ injure have greater physiological reactivity ( i.e. , skin conductance ) to stress than adolescents who do not self @-@ injure . This stress response persists over time , staying constant or even increasing in self @-@ injuring adolescents , but gradually decreases in adolescents who do not self @-@ injure .
= = Treatment = =
There is considerable uncertainty about which forms of psychosocial and physical treatments of people who harm themselves are most effective . Psychiatric and personality disorders are common in individuals who self @-@ harm and as a result self @-@ harm may be an indicator of depression and / or other psychological problems . Many people who self @-@ harm have moderate or severe depression and therefore treatment with antidepressant medications may often be used . There is tentative evidence for the medication flupentixol ; however , greater study is required before it can be recommended .
= = = Therapy = = =
There is no well @-@ established treatment for self @-@ injurious behavior in children or adolescents . Cognitive behavioural therapy may also be used to assist those with Axis I diagnoses , such as depression , schizophrenia , and bipolar disorder . Dialectical behaviour therapy ( DBT ) can be successful for those individuals exhibiting a personality disorder , and could potentially be used for those with other mental disorders who exhibit self @-@ harming behaviour . Diagnosis and treatment of the causes of self @-@ harm is thought by many to be the best approach to treating self @-@ harm . But in some cases , particularly in people with a personality disorder , this is not very effective , so more clinicians are starting to take a DBT approach in order to reduce the behaviour itself . People who rely on habitual self @-@ harm are sometimes hospitalised , based on their stability , their ability and especially their willingness to get help . In adolescents multisystem therapy shows promise . Treatments such as CBT , family intervention , interpersonal therapy , and various psychodynamic therapies were all shown to be possibly effective in treating self @-@ injurious behavior in children and adolescents .
A meta @-@ analysis found that psychological therapy is effective in reducing self @-@ harm . The proportion of the adolescents who self @-@ harmed over the follow @-@ up period was lower in the intervention groups ( 28 % ) than in controls ( 33 % ) . Psychological therapies with the largest effect sizes were dialectical behavior therapy ( DBT ) , cognitive @-@ behavioral therapy ( CBT ) , and mentalization @-@ based therapy ( MBT ) .
In individuals with developmental disabilities , occurrence of self @-@ harm is often demonstrated to be related to its effects on the environment , such as obtaining attention or desired materials or escaping demands . As developmentally disabled individuals often have communication or social deficits , self @-@ harm may be their way of obtaining these things which they are otherwise unable to obtain in a socially appropriate way ( such as by asking ) . One approach for treating self @-@ harm thus is to teach an alternative , appropriate response which obtains the same result as the self @-@ harm .
= = = Avoidance techniques = = =
Generating alternative behaviours that the person can engage in instead of self @-@ harm is one successful behavioural method that is employed to avoid self @-@ harm . Techniques , aimed at keeping busy , may include journaling , taking a walk , participating in sports or exercise or being around friends when the person has the urge to harm themselves . The removal of objects used for self @-@ harm from easy reach is also helpful for resisting self @-@ harming urges . The provision of a card that allows the person to make emergency contact with counselling services should the urge to self @-@ harm arise may also help prevent the act of self @-@ harm . Alternative and safer methods of self @-@ harm that do not lead to permanent damage , for example the snapping of a rubber band on the wrist , may also help calm the urge to self @-@ harm . Using biofeedback may help raise self @-@ awareness of certain pre @-@ occupations or particular mental state or mood that precede bouts of self @-@ harming behaviour , and help identify techniques to avoid those pre @-@ occupations before they lead to self @-@ harm . Any avoidance or coping strategy must be appropriate to the individual 's motivation and reason for harming .
= = Epidemiology = =
It is difficult to gain an accurate picture of incidence and prevalence of self @-@ harm . This is due in a part to a lack of sufficient numbers of dedicated research centres to provide a continuous monitoring system . However , even with sufficient resources , statistical estimates are crude since most incidences of self @-@ harm are undisclosed to the medical profession as acts of self @-@ harm are frequently carried out in secret , and wounds may be superficial and easily treated by the individual . Recorded figures can be based on three sources : psychiatric samples , hospital admissions and general population surveys .
The World Health Organization estimates that , as of 2010 , 880 @,@ 000 deaths occur as a result of self @-@ harm . About 10 % of admissions to medical wards in the UK are as a result of self @-@ harm , the majority of which are drug overdoses . However , studies based only on hospital admissions may hide the larger group of self @-@ harmers who do not need or seek hospital treatment for their injuries , instead treating themselves . Many adolescents who present to general hospitals with deliberate self @-@ harm report previous episodes for which they did not receive medical attention . In the United States up to 4 % of adults self @-@ harm with approximately 1 % of the population engaging in chronic or severe self @-@ harm .
Current research suggests that the rates of self @-@ harm are much higher among young people with the average age of onset between 14 and 24 . The earliest reported incidents of self @-@ harm are in children between 5 and 7 years old . In the UK in 2008 rates of self @-@ harm in young people could be as high as 33 % . In addition there appears to be an increased risk of self @-@ harm in college students than among the general population . In a study of undergraduate students in the US , 9 @.@ 8 % of the students surveyed indicated that they had purposefully cut or burned themselves on at least one occasion in the past . When the definition of self @-@ harm was expanded to include head @-@ banging , scratching oneself , and hitting oneself along with cutting and burning , 32 % of the sample said they had done this . In Ireland , a study found that instances of hospital @-@ treated self @-@ harm were much higher in city and urban districts , than in rural settings . The CASE ( Child & Adolescent Self @-@ harm in Europe ) study suggests that the life @-@ time risk of self @-@ injury is ~ 1 : 7 for women and ~ 1 : 25 for men .
= = = Gender differences = = =
In general , the latest aggregated research has found no difference in the prevalence of self @-@ harm between men and women . This is in contrast to past research which indicated that up to four times as many females as males have direct experience of self @-@ harm . However , caution is needed in seeing self @-@ harm as a greater problem for females , since males may engage in different forms of self @-@ harm ( e.g. , hitting themselves ) which could be easier to hide or explained as the result of different circumstances . Hence , there remain widely opposing views as to whether the gender paradox is a real phenomenon , or merely the artifact of bias in data collection .
The WHO / EURO Multicentre Study of Suicide , established in 1989 , demonstrated that , for each age group , the female rate of self @-@ harm exceeded that of the males , with the highest rate among females in the 13 – 24 age group and the highest rate among males in the 12 – 34 age group . However , this discrepancy has been known to vary significantly depending upon population and methodological criteria , consistent with wide @-@ ranging uncertainties in gathering and interpreting data regarding rates of self @-@ harm in general . Such problems have sometimes been the focus of criticism in the context of broader psychosocial interpretation . For example , feminist author Barbara Brickman has speculated that reported gender differences in rates of self @-@ harm are due to deliberate socially biased methodological and sampling errors , directly blaming medical | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
categories of sanctioned self @-@ mutilations ; rituals and practices . The rituals are mutilations repeated generationally and " reflect the traditions , symbolism , and beliefs of a society " ( p . 226 ) . Practices are historically transient and cosmetic such as piercing of earlobes , nose , eyebrows as well as male circumcision ( for non @-@ Jews ) while Deviant self @-@ mutilation is equivalent to self @-@ harm .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Awareness = = =
There are many movements among the general self @-@ harm community to make self @-@ harm itself and treatment better known to mental health professionals , as well as the general public . For example , March 1 is designated as Self @-@ injury Awareness Day ( SIAD ) around the world . On this day , some people choose to be more open about their own self @-@ harm , and awareness organizations make special efforts to raise awareness about self @-@ harm . Some people wear an orange awareness ribbon or wristband to encourage awareness of self @-@ harm .
= = Other animals = =
Self @-@ harm in non @-@ human mammals is a well @-@ established but not widely known phenomenon . Its study under zoo or laboratory conditions could lead to a better understanding of self @-@ harm in human patients .
Zoo or laboratory rearing and isolation are important factors leading to increased susceptibility to self @-@ harm in higher mammals , e.g. , macaque monkeys . Lower mammals are also known to mutilate themselves under laboratory conditions after administration of drugs . For example , pemoline , clonidine , amphetamine , and very high ( toxic ) doses of caffeine or theophylline are known to precipitate self @-@ harm in lab animals .
In dogs , canine obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder can lead to self @-@ inflicted injuries , for example canine lick granuloma . Captive birds are sometimes known to engage in feather @-@ plucking , causing damage to feathers that can range from feather shredding to the removal of most or all feathers within the bird 's reach , or even the mutilation of skin or muscle tissue .
Breeders of show mice have noticed similar behaviors . One known as " barbering " involves a mouse obsessively grooming the whiskers and facial fur off of themselves and cage @-@ mates . Other behaviors include scratching ears so severely , that large sections are lost .
= Epacris impressa =
Epacris impressa , also known as common heath , is a plant of the heath family , Ericaceae , that is native to southeast Australia ( the states of Victoria , Tasmania , South Australia and New South Wales ) . French botanist Jacques Labillardière collected the species in 1793 and described it in 1805 . Four forms have been identified , but no subspecies are recognised . Growing in heathland , shrubland or open forest , it is generally a small shrub around 0 @.@ 5 to 1 m ( 1 ft 8 in to 3 ft 3 in ) tall , with small stiff leaves . The red , pink or white tube @-@ like flowers appear from late autumn to early spring . Honeyeaters , particularly the eastern spinebill , feed upon the nectar of the flowers . It regenerates after bushfire by seed or by resprouting .
A highly regarded garden plant , the common heath was first cultivated in England in 1825 ; over seventy named cultivars have been developed , most of which have now vanished . A pink @-@ flowered form , often referred to as " pink heath " , is the floral emblem of the state of Victoria . Epacris impressa has proven a difficult plant to propagate reliably , which has limited its use in horticulture and revegetation . It grows best in well @-@ drained but moist soil in a semishaded position .
= = Description = =
Epacris impressa grows as a woody shrub with an erect habit , sometimes reaching 2 to 3 m ( 6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in ) in height although plants in the range of 0 @.@ 5 to 1 m ( 1 ft 8 in to 3 ft 3 in ) tall are more commonly observed . The branches are stiff and have small leaves with prickly , pointed apices that are 8 – 16 mm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 5 ⁄ 8 in ) long . The flowers mainly occur between late autumn and early spring , arising in dense and sometimes pendulous clusters along the stems . White , pink or red in colour , they are 1 – 2 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) and are narrow and tubular with five indentations on the base . The corolla of the flower is formed by five petals , fused at the base to form a tubelike structure , with the free petal ends forming five lobes at the apex . There are five whorled sepals at the base of the corolla . Within the corolla is a central style that persists through development of the fruit . The style connects the stigma at the apex and ovary at the base , where the nectar is also located . Different colour forms are often observed growing near each other . The fruit is a 5 @-@ locule capsule that is about 3 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 ⁄ 8 in ) in diameter . It is globular in shape , sometimes with one end flattened . Initially green , it dries and splits , releasing numerous tiny seeds .
= = Taxonomy = =
The type specimen of common heath was collected in 1793 by French botanist Jacques Labillardière in Van Diemen 's Land ( now Tasmania ) during a voyage with Antoine Bruni d 'Entrecasteaux . Labillardière described it in his 1805 work Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen , giving it its current name Epacris impressa . The Latin specific epithet impressa ( meaning " impressed " or " indented " ) alludes to the indentations on the floral tube . The original mounted specimen is currently held at the National Herbarium of Victoria at the Royal Botanic Gardens , Melbourne .
A number of specimens once described as separate species are now regarded as Epacris impressa , with no recognised subspecies . Scottish botanist Robert Brown described Epacris ruscifolia in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen alongside E. impressa . John Lindley described Epacris tomentosa from plant specimens collected during the third expedition of Thomas Mitchell in 1838 . Upon encountering Epacris impressa on Mount William in the Grampians , Mitchell remarked that it was " A most beautiful downy @-@ leaved Epacris with large , curved , purple flowers , allied to E. grandiflora but much handsomer " . Dr Robert Graham described Epacris ceriflora ( which he spelt ceraeflora ) from plants cultivated at the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens in 1832 . The seed had come from Tasmania , the resulting progeny flowering over April and May 1832 . A year later , he described E. nivalis , which he called an " exceedingly beautiful species " , from specimens growing in Loddiges nursery . He also noted a form with long corollas that had been called E. variabilis that was in cultivation at the time , and noted it was difficult to describe the precise characteristics that distinguished E. ceraeflora , E. nivalis , E. variabilis and E. impressa .
In his landmark Flora Australiensis ( 1869 ) , George Bentham argued that several previously described species were in fact a single species – E. impressa , uniting E. variabilis , a short red @-@ flowered E. campanulata , E. ruscifolia , which had narrow leaves and long flowers , the white @-@ flowered E. nivalis , and short white @-@ flowered E. ceraeflora . He re @-@ classified as a separate species – E. reclinata – several plants that Allan Cunningham had collected in the Blue Mountains and classified as E. impressa .
In the same work , Bentham named and described two naturally occurring varieties , Epacris impressa var. grandiflora and E. impressa var. ovata . Plant specimens designated as grandiflora had been collected in the Wimmera , the Grampians ( including those previously designated as E. tomentosa ) and at Stawell in Victoria . Those classified as ovata were collected at Twofold Bay and Mount Imlay in southeastern New South Wales as well as Woolnorth and Rocky Cape in northern Tasmania . Bentham noted that , although variable , all forms had " five impressed cavities outside , alternating with the stamens immediately above the ovary . "
In his 1972 publication A Handbook to Plants in Victoria , Australian botanist Jim Willis expressed his view that dividing the species into subspecies was not feasible given that common heath is highly variable in flower colour and leaf shape , though he conceded the Grampians race grandiflora might be distinctive based on its larger corollas and coarser and hairier foliage . Currently , both grandiflora and ovata are regarded as synonyms of Epacris impressa rather than being classified as distinct varieties . The plant populations that best fit Bentham 's original description of grandiflora , also known as Grampians heath , occur naturally on sandstone at locations including Mount Zero , Mount Stapylton and the Black Range . Other nearby populations are regarded as having intermediate characteristics , including those in the Victoria Range and Mount Arapiles . Although not recognised in the Australian Plant Census , the variety is noted as " rare " on the list of Advisory List of Rare or Threatened Plants in Victoria issued by the Department of Environment and Primary Industries .
= = = Variation in flower colour and length = = =
In 1977 Helen Stace and Yvonne Fripp from La Trobe University studied 195 populations of Epacris impressa in Victoria , South Australia and Tasmania and found that 120 consisted of mixed stands of two or more races while 75 populations were of one race only . They identified four races based on the following corolla characteristics :
white @-@ flowered with a markedly shortened corolla that is 9 – 12 mm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long and red @-@ purple anthers , usually found in sites with greater sun exposure . Occurring throughout the species range , this form is the most widely distributed .
pink @-@ flowered , with a longer corolla that is 12 – 19 mm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long and cream @-@ white anthers , in more shaded sites . This form occurs throughout the species range . Field work in Victoria and Tasmania found that pink @-@ flowered plants in mixed populations often have pink or red anthers .
long scarlet race , with orange @-@ red flowers and corolla 15 – 19 mm ( 5 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long and cream @-@ white anthers . Those from the granitic mountains of Wilsons Promontory and near W Tree in East Gippsland in Victoria flower between April and November . Other localities where this race has been recorded include the Howe Ranges and Clyde Mountain in New South Wales .
broad pink or white , the grandiflora race from the Grampians and Mount Arapiles in Victoria . Plants of this race are taller , often reaching 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) in height . White or pink colour bear no relation to corolla length . Plants from Mount Arapiles are always pink @-@ flowered .
The long @-@ pink and short @-@ white races frequently occur in close proximity to each other ; in these mixed populations the former tends to flower in winter and the latter in spring . The question has been raised whether these different forms are becoming incompatible . However , controlled cross @-@ pollination between plants with short and long corollas showed that there was no incompatibility between them .
Pink @-@ flowering populations have a relatively distinct genetic makeup , whereas red or white flowering populations have more evident sharing of genetic traits . Research based on DNA profiling has revealed substantial genetic diversity within and between flower colour races and site populations . This has implications for vegetation projects in that provenance material needs to be collected from a wide geographic area to maintain this diversity .
= = Distribution = =
Epacris impressa is commonly found in coastal regions and nearby foothills , ranging from Kangaroo Island and the southern Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia across southern Victoria , extending to the Grampians and the Little Desert , and northwards to southern New South Wales as far as the Clyde River in the Budawang Range . It is also widespread in Tasmania . Plants are recorded at altitudes up to 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) at Mount Stradbroke and Mount Tingaringy in East Gippsland . The species grows in widely diverse habitats including sand and clay heathland , herb @-@ rich and heathy woodland , lowland and shrubby dry forests , riparian thickets , montane rocky shrubland and rocky outcrops .
= = Ecology = =
Honeyeaters such as the eastern spinebill are attracted to the flowers . As the bird gathers the nectar , the pollen , which has fins , attaches itself to the feathers on the heads of the birds and is carried to other flowers , aiding cross pollination . A study in forests near Hobart in Tasmania found that the eastern spinebill arrived in the area at the same time the common heath was in flower in March , and left once flowering had finished . Other honeyeaters , such as the strong @-@ billed , crescent and yellow @-@ throated honeyeaters , fed occasionally at common heath flowers . Field work in the Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia recorded the white @-@ plumed and New Holland honeyeaters , as well as the crescent honeyeater and the eastern spinebill .
Insects recorded visiting white @-@ flowered plants include the Australian painted lady ( Vanessa kershawi ) and yellow admiral ( V. itea ) , as well as bees . Field work in southern Tasmania showed that the introduced bumblebee ( Bombus terrestris ) sometimes robbed nectar by piercing the base of the tube . This then allowed honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) to retrieve nectar the same way . Epacris impressa is host to the scale insect Lecanodiaspis microcribraria .
A field study of the invasion of the pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi into the Brisbane Ranges National Park in Victoria in 1971 indicated that Epacris impressa was moderately susceptible to the pathogen . Inoculation of seedlings confirmed this . Fieldwork in the Brisbane Ranges National Park in 1985 showed that there was some evidence that E. impressa seedlings were able to recolonise areas that had been infested with P. cinnamomi a decade before .
Epacris impressa regenerates after bushfire by seed and resprouting . Fieldwork in heathland in the Otway Ranges in the years following the 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfires showed that large numbers of E. impressa seedlings appeared in some areas , and that flowering took place as early as the second year after the fire .
The roots of Epacris impressa are colonized by fungi forming ericoid mycorrhiza . It is believed that the fungal species vary between regions .
= = Cultivation = =
Propagated from seed collected by William Baxter in southern Australia , common heath was introduced into cultivation in England by the Clapton Nursery in 1825 . Due to its frost @-@ tenderness , it was mostly restricted to greenhouse cultivation . In 1873 , a variety known as Epacris impressa alba was recorded as being grown commercially for cut flowers in Boston in the United States . While initially popular – over seventy cultivars appeared in the literature at the time – most have since disappeared .
Plants grow best in a moist but well @-@ drained , acidic soil , with added peat being helpful . They may be grown in coastal gardens in a sheltered position , and generally require some degree of shade . Once established , plants can tolerate short dry spells . As they age , plants may become straggly , but benefit from hard pruning after fertilizing and watering , which promotes compact , bushier growth . Common heath can be short @-@ lived and difficult to transplant , though it can be readily grown as a pot plant . Along with other members of the genus , Epacris impressa initially proved difficult to grow and maintain on original soil in the Australian National Botanic Gardens in Canberra .
Propagation both by seed and cuttings is difficult , reducing potential production by plant nurseries . Germination rates of soil @-@ stored seeds have been found to increase substantially with the application of heat and aqueous solutions of smoke . The most satisfactory results from cuttings can be achieved by using tip growth , taken six weeks after the cessation of flowering , and kept under a fogging system for twenty weeks . Plantsman Neil Marriott recommends semi @-@ hardened cutting material taken in spring and autumn . Roots of cuttings are brittle and easily damaged .
= = = Cultivars = = =
The following forms have been selected and grown for cultivation :
'Bega'
This is a form from Bega in southern New South Wales that has bright red flowers and grows to 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It is regarded as one of the more reliable forms in cultivation . White- and pink @-@ flowered forms from the same region also have horticultural potential .
'Cranbourne Bells ' and other double @-@ flowered forms
'Cranbourne Bells ' is a double @-@ flowered form with pink flower buds fading to white as they open . Registered by the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority in 1988 , it occurred naturally near the Royal Botanic Gardens Cranbourne in Victoria , but its habitat has since been cleared . A double @-@ flowered form of Epacris impressa was collected as early as the 1860s in Victoria when Government Botanist Ferdinand von Mueller sent a specimen to Kew Gardens . This was examined by botanist William Hemsley in 1865 . The specimen , labelled as Epacris impressa var. pleniflora , originated from Stawell in western Victoria . Another specimen given the same name by Mueller was collected at Nunawading , today a suburb of Melbourne . Charles French , co @-@ founder of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria , collected a white double @-@ flowered form from Cheltenham south of Melbourne in 1859 and a pink double @-@ flowered form from Dromana on the Mornington Peninsula in about 1862 . These were later sent as rooted cuttings to Veitch Nurseries in England . Double @-@ flowered forms of various colours have since been found throughout Victoria , but only single plants have been observed in any location , and they are still regarded as a rarity . A naturally occurring form of the variety grandiflora with rosebud @-@ like double flowers is also grown .
'Spring Pink'
A form with deep pink flowers on long spikes , ' Spring Pink ' appears in spring . It grows to 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) high .
= = Symbolism = =
At a meeting of representatives of government and other bodies in 1951 it was agreed that the pink form of the common heath , the " pink heath " , be adopted as the official floral emblem for the state of Victoria . Victoria was the first Australian state to adopt a floral emblem . The proclamation , made on 11 November 1958 by Governor Dallas Brooks , was as follows :
I , the Governor of the State of Victoria , in the Commonwealth of Australia , by and with the advice of the Executive Council of the said State , do by this my Proclamation declare that the Pink Form of the Common Heath , Epacris impressa Labill . , be adopted as the Floral Emblem for the State of Victoria "
An Australian stamp issue of state floral emblems was issued in 1968 , including the pink heath which was featured on the 13 cent stamp . In 2014 a 70 @-@ cent stamp labelled as " Common Heath " was issued . The pink heath is also depicted on the Victorian driver 's licence . In 1973 , a depiction of pink heath was added to the armorial bearings for Victoria .
= Ellie Cole =
Ellie Victoria Cole OAM ( born 12 December 1991 ) is an Australian Paralympic swimmer and wheelchair basketball player . After having her leg amputated due to cancer , she trained in swimming as part of her rehabilitation program and progressed more rapidly than instructors had predicted . She began competitive swimming in 2003 and first competed internationally at the 2006 IPC Swimming World Championships , where she won a silver medal . Since then , she has won medals in the Pan Pacific Swimming Championships , the Commonwealth Games , the Paralympic Games , the IPC Swimming World Championships , and various national championships . At the 2012 London Paralympics , she won four gold and two bronze medals . After the Games , she underwent two shoulder reconstructions and made a successful return to swimming at the 2015 IPC Swimming World Championships winning five medals including three gold medals . She has been selected to represent Australia at the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Paralympics .
= = Personal = =
Ellie Victoria Cole was born in the Melbourne suburb of Lilydale on 12 December 1991 . Her mother and grandfather were both swimmers , and her father was athletic . At two years of age , she was diagnosed with a rare tumour , a sarcoma that was wrapped around the nerves of her right leg . After unsuccessful attempts to treat her cancer with chemotherapy , her right leg was amputated above the knee on 14 February 1994 . Eight weeks after the surgery , as part of her rehabilitation , Cole 's mother Jenny enrolled her in swimming lessons . Cole 's instructors expected her to take up to a year to learn how to swim in a straight line , but it took her two weeks .
Cole attended Mount Eliza North Primary school and Frankston High School , both in the outer Melbourne suburb of Frankston . As of 2015 she lives in Sydney and trains at the Castle Hill RSL Swim Club while she works towards a Bachelor of Sports Coaching and Exercise Science at the Australian Catholic University . She has a twin sister , Brittany .
= = Swimming = =
Cole is classified in the S9 category in swimming due to her amputation , a classification that also includes swimmers who have joint restrictions in one leg and those with double below @-@ knee amputations . She began competitive swimming in 2003 and , at the 2006 IPC Swimming World Championships in Durban , she won a silver medal in the women 's 100 m backstroke S9 event . Also in 2006 Cole won the 100 m backstroke at the Telstra Australian Swimming Championships . Cole qualified for the Australian Paralympic Swim Team in 2008 and , in the same year , attended the Beijing Paralympics where she won a silver medal in the Women 's 100 m Butterfly S9 event and bronze medals in the 400 m Freestyle and 100 m Backstroke events .
On 12 August 2009 Cole participated in the 100 m freestyle multi @-@ disability event in the 2009 Australian Short Course Swimming Championships in Hobart , where she broke the world record with a time of 1 : 04 : 06 . This championship is the qualifying event for the IPC Swimming World Championships , run by FINA , the international organization for swimming . The same year Cole participated in the 2009 IPC Swimming World Championships 25 m in Rio de Janeiro , where she won bronze medals in the 100 m backstroke , 400 m freestyle , 4 × 100 m freestyle relay and the 200 m individual medley .
In 2010 at the IPC Swimming World Championships in Eindhoven , Netherlands she won bronze medals in the women 's 200 m individual medley and 400 m freestyle S9 events . In that same year she won bronze medals in the 100 m Freestyle S9 and 100 m Butterfly S9 events at the 2010 Commonwealth Games in New Delhi . At the 2011 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Edmonton , Alberta , Canada she won a total of six gold medals , emerging victorious in the women 's 50 m freestyle , 100 m freestyle , 400 m freestyle , 100 m butterfly , 100 m backstroke and 200 m individual medley S9 events . Cole has also participated in national championships such as the Australian Age Multi Class Swimming Championships and the New South Wales State Open championships . The former competition is held in Canberra at the Australian Institute of Sport and is designed to prepare elite swimmers for international competition . She then participated in the 2012 New South Wales State Open Championships in multi @-@ class events .
Cole was an Australian Institute of Sport Scholarship holder . Her coach , Graeme Carroll , trained her in Canberra in preparation for the 2012 London Paralympics with an approach that combined swim training with aerobics and gym work . She trained with Teigan Van Roosmalen , a blind and deaf S13 swimmer . Cole also mentors young athletes . When not in high school Cole was undertaking ten or more swimming sessions a week but , while at school , she reduced her load . As of 2015 , her coach is Nathan Doyle .
At the 2012 London Paralympics , Cole participated in eight events and won six medals . In her first event , the 100 m Butterfly S9 , she finished fourth , while South Africa 's Natalie du Toit finished first . However , the following night , Cole won the 100 m Backstroke S9 , winning her first gold medal of the games in Australian record time . She told the press that it had " been a goal of mine ever since I was 12 years old to beat Natalie du Toit " who was " kind of like the Michael Phelps of swimming for me , she has been a great mentor and relaxes me in the marshalling room . She is my biggest hero . " Cole won a second gold medal in the 4 x 100 m freestyle relay 34 pts , this time in World Record time . In the 400 m Freestyle S9 , she was again beaten by du Toit , who finished first , while Cole took bronze . Cole won a second bronze in the 50 m Freestyle S9 , in which du Toit finished seventh , and then gold in the 100 m Freestyle S9 , in which du Toit finished third . Cole capped off the games , surprising even herself with a fourth gold medal , in the 4 x 100 m freestyle relay 34 pts , again in Australian record time .
After the London Paralympics , she underwent two shoulder reconstructions that threatened her swimming career . At the 2015 IPC Swimming World Championships , she won gold medals in the Women 's 100 m Backstroke S9 breaking the world record in the heats and final , Women 's 100 m Freestyle S9 and Women 's 4 x 100 m Freestyle Relay 34 points , a silver medal in the Women 's 4 × 100 m Medley Relay and a bronze medal in the Women 's 50 m Freestyle S9 .
Cole became the first S9 swimmer to break 29 seconds in the 50m freestyle in winning the gold medal at the 2016 Australian Swimming Championships in Adelaide in the 50m Freestyle Multiclass event . Her time of 28 @.@ 75 broke Natalie du Toit 's world record of 29 @.@ 04 .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
Cole played wheelchair basketball for Victoria in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League in 2013 and 2014 as a 4 @.@ 0 point player , taking out the league 's award for Best New Talent in 2013 . " I loved working in a team because swimming isn 't considered a team sport , " Cole told an interviewer in 2013 . " I definitely wanted a new challenge because when you 've been competing for a decade the increments of improvements are quite small . However , in wheelchair basketball I knew that I could make big improvements . I 've been chosen for the women 's national league team , which is great , so I 'm actually getting somewhere , which is a surprise . But my heart is definitely in swimming and I think it always will be . "
= = Recognition = =
During her time at Frankston High School , Cole received a Debbie Flintoff @-@ King award for the most outstanding sporting achievement from the institution three years in a row ; she was also nominated for the Junior Paralympian of the Year award . The award was received for winning silver and two bronze medals in the Beijing Paralympic Games , silver in 100 m butterfly and bronze in 100 m backstroke and 400 m freestyle . In 2009 she received an Outstanding Sporting Achievement Award from the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development . In 2011 she was nominated for The Age 's Sport Performer Award in the Performer with a Disability category . In August of the same year she was voted International Paralympic Committee Athlete of the Month after winning six gold medals in Edmonton . She was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia in the 2014 Australia Day Honours " for service to sport as a Gold Medallist at the London 2012 Paralympic Games . " In November 2015 , she was awarded Cosmopolitan Magazine 's 2015 Sportswoman of the Year .
= Chikaraishi =
Chikaraishi ( 力石 , chikaraishi , lit . " strength stones " ) ( also hakari @-@ ishi ( 秤石 , " weighing stones " ) or bijuru ( Okinawan ) ) are heavy rocks used at least since the 8th century CE in Japan to develop or demonstrate physical strength . Commonly found within Shinto shrines , they were used for competition , divination , physical fitness and entertainment ; some famous examples have also become tourist attractions , and many have been recognised as Important Cultural Assets by the Japanese Government .
Competitive stone @-@ lifting is still continued in modern times , and a number of competitive forms of stone @-@ lifting exist , employing different physical techniques .
= = History = =
Strength @-@ stones are found throughout Japan , often at Shinto shrines . In 2005 around 14 @,@ 000 strength @-@ stones were recorded in shrines around Japan . Of these , around 300 are designated as Important Cultural Assets . Many are inscribed with the names and feats of those who lifted them . The oldest @-@ known inscribed stone is from Shinobu , and dates to 1664 . The first recorded incidence of strength @-@ stone lifting is attributed to the samurai Kamakura Gongorō Kagemasa in 1089 , however the practice itself is much older , dating to before the 8th century . The Nippo Jisho , also called the Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam , a Japanese – Portuguese dictionary published in 1603 , includes the term chikaraishi in the written record as early as the 17th century . The Nippo Jisho , published in Nagasaki and associated with the Jesuit priest João Rodrigues ( 1561 or 1562 – 1633 ) , identically records both the modern pronunciation and written form of the term chikaraishi.A
It is one of the few traditional sports not solely the preserve of the samurai class , being popular among peasants and sake brewers . Both professions valued the manual labor of young people , and similar practices called kyokumochi also existed , which involved lifting sacks of rice or barrels of sake . The sporting aspect of stone @-@ lifting developed in Edo around the seventeenth century , likely evolving from the sack @-@ lifting contests of the stevedores and labourers . Historically , the lifting of strength @-@ stones was exclusively practiced by men .
The practice of lifting strength @-@ stones was especially popular in the 19th and early 20th centuries ( roughly coinciding with the Meiji period ) , with organised competitions occurring . Stones used in competition were usually inscribed with their weight , measured in kan ( 貫 ) ( a unit of approximately 3 @.@ 75 kg ( 8 lb ) ) , and if not naturally smooth , were often sculpted into a roughly oval shape .
Some strength @-@ stones have become tourist attractions due to the legends attached to them . In Nerima , for example , tourists still visit Sobei 's Horse @-@ Headed Kannon Stone , a strength @-@ stone associated with the tale of Kato Sobei from 1840 . According to the story , Sobei was awarded possession of a heavy stone that he managed to lift . However , his horse collapsed and died under the weight of the stone , and in its memory , he erected the stone as the horse 's grave marker . Another famous stone is the Benkei @-@ ishi , a huge rock supposedly moved from present @-@ day Himeji , Hyōgo , Hyōgo Prefecture to its current resting place on Mount Shosha by the folk hero Benkei ( 1155 – 1189 ) . The Benkei @-@ ishi can be viewed at Engyō @-@ ji , high above Himeji .
= = Purpose = =
A general lack of recorded evidence makes it difficult to ascertain the intended purpose of stone @-@ lifting . It has been assumed that the practice was for competition , physical fitness or entertainment purposes ( sumo wrestlers have been known to perform such feats between bouts for the entertainment of their audience ) . Records of competition techniques and winners ( such as the 1836 list of " Men of Strength in Edo " , which ranks competitors by weights lifted ) indicate a competitive aspect .
Strength @-@ stones are used in modern times for strength training , particularly in the martial arts where such practices are known as hojo undō . Special stones are manufactured for this purpose , usually with a wooden handle to aid their manipulation ; such stones are also known as chi ishi . It is a common practice in karate , used in solo training to improve stances and upper body strength .
= = = In divination = = =
The prevalence of the stones in Shinto shrines and temples has led to speculation that rock @-@ lifting was used for divining the future , a practice known as ishi @-@ ura ( 石占 ) . The ease with which a petitioner lifted the stones indicated the likelihood of his preferred outcome occurring . Ishi @-@ ura was notably practiced in ancient Shinano Province , now modern @-@ day Nagasaki Prefecture . Smaller versions of these stones were sometimes placed by a child 's bed , in the belief that this would strengthen the child .
= = = As a sport = = =
Several forms of competition were employed in stone @-@ lifting , each sometimes using a particular type of stone . Ishizashi ( 石差 , " various stones " ) was the simplest form , requiring competitors to hoist a rock of about 70 kg ( 154 lb ) , known as a sashi @-@ ishi ( サシ石 ) , from the ground to above the head . It was permissible for participants to pause and readjust their grip once the rock was at chest height . Ishikatsugi ( 石担 , " shoulder carried stone " ) contests required that the stone be lifted to the shoulder ; this form employed heavier rocks ( up to 240 kg ( 529 lb ) ) , known as a katage @-@ ishi ( カタゲ石 ) , and allowed the use of a rope wrapped around the stone . In ishihakobi ( 石運び , " stone carrying " ) competitions , the aim was to carry the stone as far as possible , the winner naturally being the man who carried it the greatest distance , whilst ashiuke ( 足受 , " foot receiving " ) contests featured extremely heavy stones that were lifted with the feet by competitors lying on their backs . Rocks that were too heavy to be lifted clear of the ground were employed in ishiokoshi ( 石起し , " stone raising " ) , using a type of stone called the chigiri @-@ ishi ( チギリ石 ) , the aim of which was to raise a stone so that it was balanced on its edge .
Stone @-@ lifting contests still take place in the modern era . The city of Sōja , Okayama hosts an annual competition in which local teams participate .
= = Footnote = =
A. ^ The Nippo Jisho romanizes " chikaraishi " as " chicara ixi " ; the difference in spelling reflects the early Portuguese romanization of the Japanese language , not a difference between the early 17th century and modern pronunciations of the name .
= George Balabushka =
George Balabushka ( Russian : Григорий Антонович Балабушка Grigoriy Antonovich Balabushka ; December 9 , 1912 – December 5 , 1975 ) was a Russian @-@ born billiards ( pool ) cue maker , arguably the most prominent member of that profession , and is sometimes referred to as " the Stradivarius of cuemakers " . His full name or last name standing alone is often used to refer to a cue stick made by him . Arriving in the U.S. in 1924 , he worked at various carpentry and toy and furniture making jobs . He was an avid pool player and purchased a pool room with a business partner in 1959 and thereafter started making cues as gifts for friends which quickly blossomed into a business when others wanted to purchase them .
Balabushka turned out approximately 1 @,@ 200 handcrafted cues during his 16 @-@ year cue @-@ making career , spanning from 1959 to his death in 1975 . His cues are highly valued collectors items , made more so after being prominently featured in Martin Scorsese 's 1986 film , The Color of Money . Balabushka cues are generally separated into three distinct classes and time periods related to what blanks Balabushka was using in cue construction : The Titlist blank era ( 1959 – 1966 ) , the Burton Spain blank era ( 1966 – 1971 ) and the Gus Szamboti blank era ( 1971 – 1975 ) . Original Balabushka cues with verified provenance may realize tens of thousands of dollars at auction .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
George Balabushka was born in Russia on December 9 , 1912 and immigrated to the United States in 1924 at 12 years of age . His family , parents Anton and Natalie and younger sister Mary , settled in New York City . Although originally named Gregori , according to Balabushka he was given a new first name , George , by immigration officials when he was processed through Ellis Island .
= = = Employment = = =
Balabushka 's first job was as a wooden toy designer and maker , working for the Educational Equipment Company , then located at 71 West 23rd St. , in Manhattan , which made building blocks for nurseries and schools . Thereafter he built children 's furniture for the Playtime Woodworking Company located on Greenwich Village 's Jane Street . While on the job , Balabushka lost his middle finger to a band saw . Using a wooden mold , he made himself a replacement plastic finger of such craftsmanship that even his friends did not realize his loss until long after the incident . As Balabushka 's carpentry skills deepened he began building accordions and other detailed carpentry pieces on his own time . In 1949 , Balabushka applied for patent on a folding leg bracket mechanism he invented , which was granted in 1951 .
= = = Marriage and children = = =
While working at Playtime Woodworking he met a woman named Josephine , his future wife , who then lived directly across the street from the toy company . They were married in 1941 , and bought a home in Brooklyn several years later . Josephine and George had two sons , Gregory and George , both named after their father .
Josephine was not just a source of love and stability but was the rock that allowed Balabushka the ability to hone his craft . According to the writers of the The Billiard Encyclopedia , " Josephine 's limitless patience and strong sense of independence would afford George the time and solitude necessary that a great artist needs in order to perfect his craft . "
= = = Transition to cuemaker = = =
Balabushka was an avid billiards player , especially of the game of straight pool , taking part in competitions and spending time with well @-@ known practitioners of the sport . In 1959 , he purchased a Brooklyn @-@ based pool hall with partner , Frank McGown , which was located at 50th Street and 5th Avenue . While running the room , he began repairing cues as a hobby , and soon the idea was sparked to design and manufacture his own line of pool cues .
By the end of 1959 , Balabushka had made a number of cues , most of which were given to friends as Christmas gifts . As this practice went on , he began receiving orders for his cues . His first cues were conversions of the popular Brunswick @-@ Balke @-@ Collender Company manufactured " Titlist " cues , which were one @-@ piece cues ; that is , they had no joint in the middle that would allow a player to break down the cue into two sections for ease of transport . At the time he started , there were very few private cuemakers , the industry being dominated by large manufacturers .
= = = Cuemaking career and death = = =
Between 1959 and 1962 , Balabushka handcrafted between 20 and 30 cues per year on a part @-@ time basis . Because of the relative dearth of private cuemakers and the excellence of his product , Balabushka 's name quickly became known amongst professional players . By the end of 1962 , Balabushka was receiving more orders for cues than he could fill given his time constraints . Balabushka accordingly sold his interest in the pool room , converted his garage into a carpentry shop , and by 1964 was building cues full @-@ time , while continuing to hone his cuemaking abilities .
Unlike many of the large manufacturers of the day , Balabushka 's emphasis was on playing ability and fine craftsmanship , reflecting the values he had held during his years in the woodworking business . He was an innovator in cue construction , cue finishes and cue design . Balabushka 's cues were not the elaborately decorated attempts at building art that became a mainstay of the cue market starting in the 1980s and onward . Rather , most Balabushka cues are relatively plain and without grand ornamentation flourishes . Many of his trademark construction techniques have become standard in the industry , such as the use of Irish linen for wrap material and block style checkered @-@ pattern ringwork above a cue 's wrap , commonly employing alternating ebony and ivory , pieces which are eponymously named " Bushka rings . "
George Balabushka died in 1975 at the age of 62 . He was posthumously honored as the first inductee into the American Cuemakers Association Hall of Fame in February , 1993 . In 2004 , he was inducted into the Meritorious Service category of the Billiard Congress of America 's Hall of Fame .
= = Cue details = =
There are three distinct classes of cues produced during different time periods related to what blanks Balabushka was using in cue construction : The Titlist blank era ( 1959 – 1966 ) , the Burton Spain blank era ( 1966 – 1971 ) and the Gus Szamboti blank era ( 1971 – 1975 ) . The " blanks " referred to are the bottom ( butt ) portion of a cue where the splicing of various hardwoods has been completed but the cue has not yet been turned on a lathe to produce the final shape , and certain features have not yet been added such as a wrap , joint mechanism , butt cap , bumper and any inlays .
While blank variety is the defining demarcation between one Balabushka cue and another , there are some shared features spanning Balabushka 's fleeting 16 @-@ year career . Cue forearms were characteristically made with straight @-@ grained maple , based on Balabushka 's belief that a single @-@ direction maple grain provided superior integrity to that of curly maple or birdseye maple . He used stainless steel joints and delrin butt caps almost exclusively . A small number of his cues feature ivory joints and ivory butt caps , making them highly valued collector 's items . Balabushka used a distinguishing reddish @-@ brown bumper , and employed Cortland Irish linen for many of his wraps , with the highly sought after leather wrap a rare departure for him and a distinct value enhancer . Unless a different length was specified , Balabushka made all his cues to a standard 57 ½ inches in length .
In addition to Bushka rings , various other decorative rings were commonly incorporated , including various colored plastics ( often marbleized ) , and silver and contrasting wooden rings . For decoration , Balabushka often inlaid small mother @-@ of @-@ pearl dots and notched diamonds . Series of window @-@ shaped maple pieces commonly adorned Balabushka butt sleeves , with each window usually featuring one burl for its aesthetic effect . Some other features common to many other cuemakers ' lines from the same era are notably absent or mostly absent from Balabushka 's , including ivory inlays and the signing of his cues . A long @-@ standing controversy exists over what finish Balabushka used . One side argues that he used an oil finish on all his cues , while the other insists that his later cues were coated with a spray lacquer .
= = = Titlist era = = =
When Balabushka first started repairing cues while working at his pool room , he started converting house cues into custom cues . Many of these house cues were made by Brunswick . When he started building his own cues in 1959 , he used blanks purchased from Brunswick for their " Titlist " cue line ; the same used in the construction of the house cues he had been converting . Many of the fine cuemakers working during the same era as Balabushka did likewise , including Frank Paradise ( Paradise cues ) , Eugene Balner ( Palmer cues , named after Arnold Palmer ) and Ernie Gutierrez ( Ginacue ) , all following in the footsteps of earlier master cuemaker , Herman Rambow .
Building a full spliced blank from scratch was an expensive and painstaking process , and the large manufacturing facilities of Brunswick turned out good quality blanks , with beautiful points , veneers and sound construction . In Balabushka 's case , his entire workshop consisted of a single lathe and other woodworking equipment in the confines of his modest garage , and building his own full @-@ splice butts would have been prohibitively difficult and expensive for him .
= = = Burton Spain era = = =
Balabushka used Titlist blanks until 1966 when he was contacted by Chicagoan Burton Spain . Spain had recently begun making handmade spliced blanks and was supplying them to Balabushka 's closest rival , Frank Paradise . Spain had become fascinated by splicing technology when he came upon a Titlist cue split down the middle in 1965 and set out to perfect and even improve on the Titlist splice . Spain 's original intent was to be predominantly a cuemaker in his own right using his proprietary spliced blanks . However , by 1966 Spain 's superior blanks were in high demand and he instead turned to making blanks for other cuemakers full @-@ time , which he continued until 1970 .
Balabushka took Spain up on his offer after seeing the quality of his splices . Buying from Spain also had the advantage that he was able to have Spain customize the blanks to his specifications . During this period Balabushka began incorporating more elaborate details into his cues , including the eponymous Bushka rings innovation . Many later cuemakers would install Bushka rings both above the wrap and on the butt sleeve below the wrap . Balabushka used them only above the wrap , which is believed to have aided him in keeping the balance point higher on the cue . In 1970 , Spain sold his cue business to tool and die maker John Davis , who had been assisting Spain for a number of years . Balabushka continued buying blanks from Davis until 1971 .
= = = Gus Szamboti era = = =
In 1971 , Balabushka met Penndel , Pennsylvania native Gus Szamboti at a tournament . Szamboti had been working for RCA as a draftsman and designer , but RCA layoffs were common at the time , and he had started designing and selling pool cues as a more stable job path . Though he too started production with Titlist blanks as well as blanks manufactured by WICO of Chicago , Szamboti later began making his own . Balabushka was very impressed with Szamboti 's blanks and , in addition to the two men becoming fast friends , he became Szamboti 's first customer , buying blanks from him for $ 18 apiece .
Balabushka cues from the Gus Szamboti era are typified by straight grained maple forearms bearing four ebony points , with four veneers included , normally colored black , green , white and mahogany , or sometimes with an orange veneer in place of mahogany . Balabushka cues from this era , spanning the last five years of his life , are considered the finest of his career as a class . There have been unconfirmed rumors that some few cues made during this period included splices made by Balabushka himself .
= = Prominence = =
It is estimated that Balabushka produced between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 200 cues during his lifetime . However , by the mid @-@ 1960s , forged Balabushka cues started circulating in the market , as he was already recognized as the premier cue maker of the era , referred to as " the Stradivarius of cuemakers " . Balabushka and his cues achieved much wider recognition after being prominently featured in Martin Scorsese ’ s 1986 film , The Color of Money ( the sequel to the classic 1961 film The Hustler ) .
In the film , Tom Cruise ’ s character , Vincent Lauria , is presented with a beautiful cue by Paul Newman 's character , Fast Eddie Felson . Vincent takes the cue , his reverence obvious , and is told by Eddie " it 's a Balabushka . " After this , Balabushka 's name became associated by the general public with highly valued and rare cues . The cue actually used in the film was , however , not a genuine Balabushka , but a Joss Cues model J @-@ 18 ( renamed the N @-@ 07 ) , custom @-@ made to look like a Balabushka . The filmmakers feared that any cue used might get damaged during filming ; especially in light of a scene set in a pool room where Cruise 's character rapidly whirls the cue around in time to the song Werewolves of London . An original Balabushka was thus considered too valuable to be risked in the production .
Original Balabushka cues with verified provenance may realize tens of thousands of dollars at auction . In 1994 , for example , a Balabushka was purchased by a collector for $ 45 @,@ 000 . In a 1998 Syracuse Herald @-@ Journal article a collection of thirty original Balabushkas cues and six Gus Szamboti cues was estimated to be worth 2 million dollars , the cues said to be the equivalent in the cue collecting world of Rembrandts and van Goghs respectively . There are , however , many fake Balabushka cues in existence . Complicating matters , in the 1980s with the permission and license of his surviving family , a line of Balabushka replicas began to be manufactured in large quantities by the Adam Custom Cue Company .
= Bill Szymczyk =
William Frank " Bill " Szymczyk ( / ˈsɪmzɪk / ; born February 13 , 1943 ) is an American music producer and technical engineer best known for working with rock and blues musicians , most notably the Eagles in the 1970s . He produced many top albums and singles of the 1970s , though he retired from the music business by 1990 . He re @-@ emerged in the late 2000s , taking on select projects including the 2007 Eagles album Long Road Out of Eden and the 2008 eponymous debut of Brian Vander Ark .
Unlike many music producers , Szymczyk has no background as a musician . He was originally a sonar operator for the U.S. Navy and took some audio production classes as part of his Navy training . Besides his work with the Eagles , he has produced hit songs and albums for such diverse artists as B.B. King , Joe Walsh , The James Gang , and Elvin Bishop .
= = Early life = =
Bill Szymczyk was born in Muskegon , Michigan on February 13 , 1943 . His mother worked as a nurse , and his father held several jobs , including factory worker and maintenance at a school . Growing up , his first introduction to music and electronics was when he built his own crystal radio from a kit . Using his radio , he became a fan of blues and R & B while listening to a station out of Nashville , Tennessee .
He joined the United States Navy in 1960 , where he worked as a sonar technician . It was in the Navy that he took his first course in radio and television production . Upon leaving the service in 1964 , and without much of an idea of what to do for a post @-@ military career , he enrolled at New York University 's Media Arts School .
= = Professional career = =
Bill Szymczyk began working at a firm which produced demo recordings for Screen Gems Records and worked extensively with Brill Building songwriters such as Carole King and Gerry Goffin . He also worked as an assistant to music producers and songwriters Quincy Jones and Jerry Ragovoy , eventually working his way up to chief engineer at Ragavoy 's Hit Factory recording studio . His first work as the primary producer on an album came for a Harvey Brooks solo record . He dropped out of NYU to work full @-@ time in the music industry .
He left the Hit Factory and took a job at ABC Records , taking a large pay cut in exchange for the opportunity to move from engineer to producer . He successfully lobbied ABC to let him work with B. B. King , whose own record label was a subsidiary of ABC and who was a long time idol of Szymczyk 's . After convincing King that he could improve his sound to make him more appealing to a wider audience , King himself agreed to let Szymczyk produce for him . Among the albums he produced for King are the 1969 live album Live & Well , King 's first ever top @-@ 100 album . He produced his follow @-@ up studio album Completely Well , which featured " The Thrill Is Gone " , the biggest hit of King 's career and his signature song . He would continue to produce blues albums throughout the early 1970s for the likes of King and Albert Collins .
Szymczyk was moved several times while working for ABC Records ; first to Los Angeles when ABC acquired Dunhill Records and Szymczyk took over production for the West Coast operations , and later to Denver when he decided to form his own label , Tumbleweed Records . He worked for a while as a disc jockey at radio station KFML , and continued to produce albums in New York and Los Angeles , such as the J. Geils Band 's 1971 album The Morning After , recorded at the Los Angeles Record Plant . He did extensive work at the Colorado studio Caribou Ranch , where would be the center of his operations for the rest of the 1970s .
After producing the James Gang 's first three albums , he followed singer @-@ guitarist Joe Walsh when he left the band , first as a solo artist with the Szymczyk @-@ produced albums Barnstorm ( the first recorded at the Caribou Ranch studio ) and The Smoker You Drink , the Player You Get and later with the Eagles . His most prolific collaborations have been with Walsh ; the two have made over 15 albums together in many settings . Walsh himself moved to Boulder , Colorado in 1971 in order to work with Szymczyk and the location would inspire one of Walsh 's biggest solo hits , 1973 's " Rocky Mountain Way " . Besides work with Walsh in his band The James Gang and as a solo @-@ artist , he also brought Walsh in to work on several albums he was doing with other musicians , using him as a session player for the B. B. King album Indianola Mississippi Seeds and the Michael Stanley album Friends and Legends . It was at Szymczyk 's suggestion that the Eagles bring in Walsh to give them a " rock " edge ; Walsh remains a core member of the band to this day .
His long relationship with the Eagles began with their 1974 album On the Border , an album he took over from London @-@ based producer Glyn Johns . He would be the sole producer for the next three Eagles studio albums , including 1976 's Hotel California , the first to feature Joe Walsh . Szymczyk was instrumental in giving the Eagles a more " rock sound " and helping them to move away from their country rock roots .
Among the other acts he worked with extensively through the 1970s include Michael Stanley and the The J. Geils Band . While working with The Outlaws , he coined the term " Guitar Army " to describe the band 's sound ; the name continues as a nickname for the band . He worked in the studio for the Edgar Winter Group 's biggest hit , the Rick Derringer @-@ produced " Frankenstein " , and later produced Derringer 's best known solo album All American Boy and its hit single , " Rock and Roll , Hoochie Koo " . At the start of the 1980s he was a highly sought @-@ after producer , and worked on such albums as Bob Seger 's 1980 album Against the Wind and The Who 's 1981 release Face Dances . During this time period , Szymczyk produced such hit singles as Elvin Bishop 's " Fooled Around and Fell in Love " , The Who 's " You Better You Bet " , The Eagles ' " Hotel California " , and Bob Seger 's " Against the Wind " .
His workload tailed off in the mid @-@ 1980s , due mostly to his own financial success . He officially retired from the music industry in 1990 , but re @-@ emerged in 2005 , producing Dishwalla 's self @-@ titled fourth album . He returned to work with the Eagles on the 2007 album Long Road Out of Eden , and followed that with the 2008 solo debut of ex @-@ Verve Pipe singer Brian Vander Ark .
He now lives in Little Switzerland , North Carolina with his wife , Lisi Szymczyk . The couple has two sons , Michael and Daniel , and have become involved in their local community , having raised money for a local shelter for victims of domestic violence , among other charity work . He still works as a producer , but is more selective about projects he works on .
= = Production style = =
Bill Szymczyk 's has frequently been noted as the sort of producer who pushes bands to expand their musical horizons ; he has been brought in with the specific intent of changing a band 's sound . He himself has credited this tendency to his lack of musical knowledge , stating : " I 'm a professional listener . I listen and I react . I never was a musician , so I don 't bring any preconceived prejudices to the table ; I don 't favour the guitar over the keyboard , and so forth . I just listen and try to figure out if I have anything I can bring to a song . "
For his work with the Eagles , he has been cited for his innovative mixing of drums , laboriously working to get the right microphones and placements for just the right sound . Rather than recording harmony vocals individually , and mixing them together later , as was common , Szymczyk preferred to capture the Eagles singing in ensemble , often spending many hours to record each phrase " just right " .
For the Elvin Bishop hit , " Fooled Around and Fell in Love , " it was Szymczyk who suggested the inclusion of the song on Bishop 's Struttin ' My Stuff album , feeling the blues @-@ oriented album lacked a pop single . The song would go on to become Bishop 's biggest hit . Such a pattern was repeated throughout his career . The Eagles brought him in to refine and improve their " rock " sound , and all of their biggest selling albums and songs were Szymcyzk @-@ produced . Martin Turner of Wishbone Ash has called him " my all time favourite producer " . While the two did not always get along during recording , usually over Turner 's bass @-@ playing style , Turner does credit Szymczyk with giving the band a more commercial sound on one of their most successful albums , 1974 's There 's the Rub .
= = Selected discography = =
All credits as producer unless otherwise noted .
= = = B. B. King = = =
Live & Well ( 1969 )
Completely Well ( 1969 )
Indianola Mississippi Seeds ( 1970 )
Live in Cook County Jail ( 1971 )
= = = Silk / Michael Stanley / Michael Stanley Band = = =
Smooth as Raw Silk ( 1969 )
Michael Stanley ( 1972 )
Friends and Legends ( 1973 )
You Break It ... You Bought It ( 1975 )
Ladies Choice ( 1976 )
Stagepass ( 1977 )
= = = The James Gang = = =
Yer ' Album ( 1969 )
James Gang Rides Again ( 1970 )
Thirds ( 1971 )
James Gang Live in Concert ( 1971 )
= = = Joe Walsh = = =
Barnstorm ( 1972 )
The Smoker You Drink , the Player You Get ( 1973 )
So What ( 1974 )
But Seriously , Folks ... ( 1978 )
You Bought It , You Name It ( 1983 )
Ordinary Average Guy ( as engineer ) ( 1991 )
Songs for a Dying Planet ( 1992 )
= = = The Eagles = = =
On the Border ( 1974 )
One of These Nights ( 1975 )
Hotel California ( 1976 )
The Long Run ( 1979 )
Eagles Live ( 1980 )
Long Road Out of Eden ( 2007 )
= = = The J. Geils Band = = =
The Morning After ( 1971 )
Bloodshot ( 1973 )
Ladies Invited ( 1973 )
Nightmares ... and Other Tales from the Vinyl Jungle ( 1974 )
Hotline ( 1975 )
Blow Your Face Out ( live , 1976 )
= = = Jo Jo Gunne / Jay Ferguson = = =
Bite Down Hard ( 1973 )
Jumpin ' the Gunne ( 1973 )
All Alone in the End Zone ( 1976 )
Thunder Island ( 1978 )
Real Life Ain 't This Way ( 1979 )
= = = Others = = =
Ford Theatre - Time Changes ( 1969 )
Edgar Winter Group - They Only Come Out at Night ( as technical director ) ( 1972 )
Johnny Winter - Still Alive and Well ( as technical director ) ( 1973 )
Rick Derringer - All American Boy ( 1973 )
Wishbone Ash - There 's the Rub ( 1974 )
Johnny Winter - Saints & Sinners ( as engineer ) ( 1974 )
Elvin Bishop - Struttin ' My Stuff ( 1975 )
Rick Derringer - Spring Fever ( 1975 )
REO Speedwagon - This Time We Mean It ( as Executive Producer ) ( 1975 )
Elvin Bishop - Hometown Boy Makes Good ! ( 1976 )
The Outlaws - Hurry Sundown ( 1977 )
The Outlaws - Bring It Back Alive ( live , 1978 )
Bob Seger & The Silver Bullet Band - Against the Wind ( 1980 )
The Who - Face Dances ( 1981 )
Santana - Shango ( 1982 )
Dishwalla - Dishwalla ( 2005 )
Brian Vander Ark - Brian Vander Ark ( 2008 )
Brian Vander Ark - Magazine ( 2011 )
Tide Brothers - High Water Mark ( as mixing and mastering engineer ) ( 2016 )
= Kefka Palazzo =
Kefka Palazzo ( ケフカ ・ パラッツォ , Kefuka Parattso , romanized as Cefca Palazzo in the Japanese version ) is a character in the Final Fantasy series of video games . Originally designed by Yoshitaka Amano , he appears in the 6th installment of the series - Final Fantasy VI . First introduced as the court jester and army general under Emperor Gestahl , throughout the game he reveals himself to be a nihilistic psychopath , and , finally , takes on a Lucifer @-@ esque form , after setting in motion events leading to the Apocalypse and pronouncing himself the God of Magic . From that point he acts as the game 's primary antagonist .
He is also present in the spin @-@ off fighting games Dissidia Final Fantasy and Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , wherein he is voiced by Shigeru Chiba ( Dave Wittenberg in English localization ) . As well as these appearances , he shows up in Theatrhythm Final Fantasy , Final Fantasy Artniks , and Final Fantasy All the Bravest as an enemy boss character .
Kefka has been rated one of the most memorable and most evil video game villains ever created , with critics and fans noting his intense hatred and maniacal laughter as defining characteristics . He has also been compared to the Joker from the Batman universe .
= = Attributes = =
= = = Character design = = =
Kefka 's appearance was designed by Yoshitaka Amano , who was given complete creative freedom in Final Fantasy VI , with only brief character outlines as guidelines . His approach was to create " real " and " alive " characters , though with consideration for the representation as small computer sprites . Kefka is well known for his clown @-@ like apparel , which has been compared to the Joker from Batman . His dress has been described as " garish " , with " makeup smeared across his face " and " a shrill , girlish laughter " that is thought to " punctuate his madness " .
= = = Personality = = =
Given only the artwork and outline to work with during production , writer Yoshinori Kitase felt that one early scene of Kefka 's approach of a castle was too " boring to make completely normal " and decided to ad @-@ lib a scene where he requests that his accompanying soldiers dust off his boots in the middle of a desert . The scene set the tone for his personality from that point onwards , suggesting that there " may be a screw or two missing from this character 's head " . He has been described as " powerful " and " manipulative " , though he is retiring on occasion when confronted by opposition and even called a coward for his delegating . He is also known for his sarcastic tone and one @-@ liners . As Kefka 's power grows , his nihilism and madness grow in tandem and , as he attains godlike powers he thirsts for the destruction of all life , expresses his loathing of everything in existence by chanting the word " hate " to his enemies . He is also very sadistic , taking amusement at the very idea of people dying and screaming . This is especially evident when he poisoned Doma , as well as his admission prior to confronting the Returners for the final time that he enjoys destroying things precisely because precious lives are lost in the process . In his Dissidia appearance , Kefka 's insanity is further explored , suggesting that his actions stem from a desire to fill his heart with destruction when love failed to provide his life with meaning . Final Fantasy VI features a song called " Kefka " , which exemplifies the " sadistic joy " of the character . His laughter has been called the greatest video game laughter of all time .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy VI = = =
Kefka first appears as a general under the game 's primary antagonist Emperor Gestahl , serving as his court mage . Prior to the start of the game , he was the first human to be experimentally infused with the magic @-@ like craft " Magitek , " which granted him the ability to wield magic , although the imperfect process warped his mind and made him into the nihilistic psychopath he is during the course of the game . Through the first half of the game , Kefka leads the charge for the city @-@ state of Vector to conquer the world , one kingdom at a time , using their magic weapons . Kefka mentally enslaves Terra and uses her to lead an attack on the town of Narshe to claim the frozen esper Tritoch there . When she escapes Imperial control , he pursues Terra to the kingdom of Figaro , setting the castle ablaze as she , Locke and King Edgar flee .
During a siege on the kingdom of Doma , Kefka grows impatient with fellow Imperial General Leo and poisons the drinking water in the castle of Doma , resulting in mass casualties and a swift victory for the Empire . After the alliance of Espers and revolutionaries invade and destroy Vector , Gestahl feigns sorrow for the Empire 's evils , and to gain the trust of the protagonists , Gestahl has Kefka imprisoned , citing the poisoning of Doma . Kefka later goes to the village of Thamasa to kill the espers congregated there , killing Leo when he tries to intervene . Using the power of the espers , Kefka helps Gestahl raise the espers ' homeworld and create the Floating Continent , where they intend to awaken three entities known as the Warring Triad . Upon being confronted by the protagonists , Gestahl freezes them except for former Imperial general Celes , whom he orders to kill her friends to show her loyalty to the Empire . She instead stabs Kefka , who becomes enraged . Kefka and the Emperor then get in an argument as to what degree they will wield the power of the triad — the Emperor taking a more conservative approach , since he only wants enough power to rule the world , while Kefka wants to unleash the Warring Triad 's full potential . The Emperor tries and fails to kill Kefka , who retaliates by having the Warring Triad strike Gestahl down and unceremoniously boots him off the Floating Continent to his death . Kefka then moves the statues of the Warring Triad out of balance , unleashing enough raw magical energy to reshape the face of the planet and bringing about the second act of the game .
Imbued with the power of the statues , Kefka becomes the god of the ruined world he created , using the statues to forge a massive tower of random debris to serve as his headquarters . Kefka smites the millions who refuse to worship him with his " Light of Judgment " , a beam of incinerating light capable of cutting fissures into the planet 's surface . Confronted by the protagonists at the game 's conclusion , Kefka reveals his nihilistic motivations : when the protagonists reject his claims , Kefka goes berserk and proclaims his desire to eradicate everything . Upon the defeat of his minions , Kefka reveals his godlike form and , after uttering one final nihilistic vision of life , dreams and hope , attacks the protagonists before he is ultimately dispatched , causing the power of magic to vanish .
= = = Other games = = =
Kefka is the villain representing Final Fantasy VI in Dissidia Final Fantasy , where the gods Cosmos and Chaos are fighting a cosmic war for control , with Kefka on the side of Chaos . As revealed in its prequel Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , Kefka controlled Terra while she was a warrior of Chaos until Kuja weakens his spell , allowing Terra to escape and become a warrior of Cosmos with the aid of Vaan . During the events of Dissidia , Kefka allies himself with the Cloud of Darkness to bring Terra back to their side so he can use her Esper powers to fulfill his destructive desires . However , mastering her powers , Terra defeats Kefka to obtain her crystal . After Cosmos 's death , Kefka breaks his ties to the other villains and starts his own scheme to become the ruler of the ruined world before being ultimately dispatched for good . Kefka received a considerable amount of work and changes according to producer Tetsuya Nomura and planning director Mitsunori Takahashi . Translator Tom Slattery , who worked on Final Fantasy VI Advance for the Game Boy Advance , enjoyed writing new dialogue for Kefka . Director Takahashi Mitsunori said he felt that developing Kefka 's attacks such as " reverse magic " felt similar to development of the recurring minor character Gilgamesh 's attacks , and that the staff enjoyed brainstorming the moves . Kefka 's Japanese voice actor , Shigeru Chiba , ad @-@ libbed many lines , including shouting seafood words like " Pike ! " " Yellowtail ! "
Kefka makes cameo appearances in Itadaki Street Portable , Theatrhythm Final Fantasy , and Final Fantasy : All the Bravest as an antagonist . He also appears as a huntable villain in a GREE social network card game called " Final Fantasy Artniks " , where players must share information to find and defeat Kefka to earn rewards . He also appears in the 2015 arcade reboot of Dissidia : Final Fantasy as an add @-@ on character , where his role is reprised by Chiba .
= = Analysis = =
Konami video game developer Tomm Hulett described Kefka as a pure villain , stating " Unlike most Japanese stories , Kefka did not have shades of gray . He didn 't have a tragic past that turned him into a sadistic clown that you felt sorry for him over . He didn 't have some greater purpose that he lost sight of . Yet , at the same time , he wasn 't ' evil for evil 's sake . ' There was something twisted and nasty inside him that MADE him that way ... and you could feel it ... but you also knew there wasn 't any good in there . " That he is a central villain of the entire game also serves to intensify a players negative fixation on him . In a review of Final Fantasy VI Advance , IGN stated " it 's the game 's maniacal nihilist Kefka that really stands out . The most evil and destructive villain in the entire Final Fantasy franchise , Kefka 's brutality and ruthlessness is unmatched and he has to be seen to be believed . " IGN also noted his ability to " tap into primal , instinctive fears " , including fears of clowns . CNet in their own review described him as " the unrivaled star of the show ... he 's the kind of villain that you will love to hate " , comparing him to Jack Nicholson 's portrayal of the Joker and calling his laugh one of the greatest sound effects in any video game . Kotaku has called Kefka the greatest video game villain of all time , and attempted to explain players ' lasting fascination by noting that he inspires such hatred that when his evil plans are finally thwarted , the sense of joy from victory is so much the greater . GameSpy compared Kefka 's final form as a representation of Lucifer , highlighted by his powerful " Fallen Angel " attack . Another theory posited by GameSpot is that the intense reaction to Kefka stems from the fact that he is one of the few villains in Final Fantasy , or any game , that succeeds at his master plan before he is defeated .
= = Cultural Impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
In 2006 , Kefka was made into a toy in the Final Fantasy Master Creatures line . The figure is 6 " tall from the bottom of the base , representing his final form from the game 's conclusion . A munny doll of Kefka in his human form was also created by Tomopop . An album of the music from Final Fantasy VI entitled " Kefka 's Domain " was released on July 1 , 1994 . A figurine was created of Kefka for Square Enix 's " Final Fantasy Creatures Kai Volume 5 " in 2012 .
= = = Reception = = =
In a " Reader 's Choice " edition of GameSpot 's " Top Ten Video Game Villains " , Kefka placed first , stating " Kefka topped many of your lists , as the villain who gave Sephiroth a run for his money in the status department . You love and hate Kefka , but you surely think he 's about as vile and evil as evil gets . " In a similar article the boss battle against Kefka was voted by readers as one of the ten best in video games ; GameSpot 's staff noted " Kefka is one of the two bosses that won through the write @-@ in ballot , meaning he wasn 't on our main list of nominees . That means he 's a serious favorite . "
Nintendo Power named Kefka the best villain to appear on Nintendo consoles in 1994 , ranking higher than Donkey Kong Country 's King K. Rool and Marvel Comics ' Carnage . They again featured him in their January 2010 issue , ranking him as their third favorite Nintendo villain . He also was ranked 3rd place in the " Our Favorite Villains , " section of their " 250 Reasons to Love Nintendo , " article . He was described as " An insane , remorseless clown with godlike powers who wants to destroy everyone and everything ( and comes frighteningly close to achieving his goal ) , Kefka is downright evil . " UGO.com named him third in their " Top 25 Japanese RPG Characters " article , stating " Insane , nihilistic , and cruel , Kefka isn 't a reserved mystery like other Final Fantasy villains – rather , he 's in @-@ your @-@ face at all times , doing dirty deeds just to say he did them . " Digital Spy states that he caused some of the most surprising moments in the Final Fantasy series when he destroyed the world . IGN ranked him sixth on their list of the " Top 25 " Final Fantasy characters of all time , noting that several factors , such as his dialogue and appearance , contributed to his memorability as a character ; in a " Reader 's Choice " edition of the article he placed eighth , with similar comments . He was also ranked 18th in IGN 's " Top 100 Videogame Villains " list . GamePro ranked him 33rd on the top 47 most diabolical video game villains of all time , citing both his " genocide " and his enslavement of Terra . GamesRadar ranked him the most " outrageous camp bad guys " , stating that when compared to Kefka , Final Fantasy VII antagonist Sephiroth seems as interesting as a dead accountant painted brown . They also compared him to Batman antagonist the Joker , praising him for both his villainous ambition and his laugh . Gamespy declared that Kefka is quite possibly the greatest video game villain of all time .
= The Boat Race 1857 =
The 14th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 4 April 1857 . Held annually , The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . Oxford rowed in a keel @-@ less carvel @-@ built boat , the first time in the history of the race that such a construction method was used for one of the vessels . Umpired by Joseph William Chitty , the race was won by Oxford who triumphed over Cambridge by 11 lengths .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by half @-@ a @-@ length in the previous year 's race . They led overall with eight wins to Oxford 's five .
It was the first race to feature a keel @-@ less carvel @-@ built boat . Purchased personally by Oxford boat club president Arthur Heywood @-@ Lonsdale from Newcastle boat builder Matthew Taylor , the Oxford crew rowed a practice time of 19 minutes 50 seconds in it , considered " remarkable " in a boat with fixed seats . Lonsdale engaged Taylor to instruct Oxford how to " send his boat along as quickly as possible " , avoiding connotations of professional coaching which was banned in the Boat Race . Cambridge rowed in a boat built by Salter of Wandsworth . It was also the first race in which both crews rowed with round loom oars .
Oxford " soon showed signs of good pace " in practice and set the course record with 19 minutes 50 seconds , a time which would remain unbeaten until the 1873 race . Cambridge began their practice rows " very late " . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race .
= = Crews = =
Oxford saw four crew members return from the 1856 race in Gurdon , Lonsdale , Thorley and the cox , Elers , while Cambridge welcomed back just two former Blues in Lloyd and Snow . Oxford were marginally the heavier crew at an average of just over 11 st 9 lb ( 73 @.@ 8 kg ) per rower , about 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 5 kg ) more on average than Cambridge . The Oxford president , Heywood @-@ Lonsdale , rowed at number seven while his counterpart , R. Lloyd , rowed at six for the Light Blues .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , leaving Cambridge with the Surrey station . Starting soon after 11am , Oxford made a good start and at Searle 's boathouse ( originally home to the Leander Club ) were clear of Cambridge . They increased their lead to a length by the time they had reached " The Crab Tree " pub . Despite Cambridge making a number of pushes to try to recover the deficit , Oxford continued to pull away and completed the course 32 seconds ahead of Cambridge , and eleven lengths clear . The winning time was 22 minutes 5 seconds . It was Oxford 's fourth victory in the previous five races and represented the largest winning margin since the 1841 race . It was described in the Oxford Books ' account as " without doubt ... about the most hollow beating ever given to Cambridge by Oxford . "
= New York State Route 132 =
New York State Route 132 ( NY 132 ) is a 2 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 43 km ) state highway located entirely within the town of Yorktown in Westchester County , New York , in the United States . The route acts as a connector between the concurrency of U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) and NY 35 in the south and US 6 in the hamlet of Shrub Oak in the north . When the route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it continued southeast to the hamlet of Katonah . It was cut back to its current southern terminus in the early 1940s and extended one block northward to its present length between 1968 and 1973 .
= = Route description = =
NY 132 begins at an intersection with the concurrency of US 202 and NY 35 in front of Franklin D. Roosevelt State Park in the town of Yorktown . NY 132 proceeds north along Old Yorktown Road , crossing through a residential section of Yorktown . After passing a junction with Meadowcrest Drive , the route takes a turn to the northwest then returns to its northerly progression near Strang Boulevard . Remaining a two @-@ lane residential street through Yorktown , NY 132 passes Lakeland Copper Beech Middle School and turns northwest once again towards more homes and into a partial diamond interchange with the Taconic State Parkway . At this interchange , there is no access from NY 132 to the northbound Taconic , and no access from the southbound Taconic to NY 132 .
A short distance northwest of the interchange , NY 132 reaches a junction with the eastern end of East Main Street ( unsigned County Route 1309 ( CR 1309 ) ) . Two blocks north of East Main Street , NY 132 enters a junction with US 6 in the hamlet of Shrub Oak . This junction marks the northern terminus of NY 132 , whose right @-@ of @-@ way continues north through Yorktown as Barger Street , connecting to the Putnam County line .
= = History = =
The north – south highway connecting Crompond Road to the hamlet of Shrub Oak was acquired by the state of New York in the mid @-@ 1920s . It did not have a posted route number until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York when it became part of NY 132 , a new route extending from US 6 in Shrub Oak to NY 22 near the hamlet of Katonah . The highway went southeast from Shrub Oak to Yorktown Heights on Crompond Street and Crompond Road , from where it traveled generally eastward to Katonah on Hallocks Mill , Saw Mill River , Amawalk , and Woods Bridge roads . In Katonah , NY 132 used Woods Bridge Road , Bedford Road , and Jay Street to connect to NY 22 .
As originally assigned , NY 132 bypassed the center of Yorktown Heights to the north . This was changed by 1932 as NY 132 was realigned to directly serve the hamlet by way of Crompond and Saw Mill River roads . In the early 1940s , all of NY 132 east of Yorktown became part of NY 35 , a new cross @-@ county route extending from Peekskill to the Connecticut state line . As a result , NY 132 was truncated to its junction with NY 35 and US 202 in the hamlet of Yorktown . NY 132 's northern terminus was moved a short distance northward between 1968 and 1973 as a result of the re @-@ alignment of US 6 through Yorktown . Prior to being called Old Yorktown Road , most of NY 132 was named Crompond Street .
= = NY 132A = =
NY 132A was a suffixed route of NY 132 in the town of Yorktown . When it was initially assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 132A was an alternate route of NY 132 along Mohansic Avenue and Baldwin Road , providing access from NY 132 to Mohansic State Park . Part of Mohansic Avenue was demolished in the early 1930s to make way for the Taconic State Parkway , splitting the route into two pieces . The western segment was removed from the state highway system while the eastern stub remained designated as NY 132A . NY 132 was truncated to Yorktown in the early 1940s , separating it from NY 132A ; however , NY 132A was not renumbered or otherwise altered . The route remained in existence until the mid @-@ 1970s , at which time maintenance of Mohansic Avenue and Baldwin Road was transferred to the town of Yorktown .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Westchester County .
= Southern Rhodesia in World War II =
Southern Rhodesia , then a self @-@ governing colony of the United Kingdom , entered World War II along with Britain shortly after the invasion of Poland in 1939 . By the war 's end in 1945 , 26 @,@ 121 Southern Rhodesians of all races had served in the armed forces , 8 @,@ 390 of them overseas , operating in the European theatre , the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre , East Africa , Burma and elsewhere . The territory 's most important contribution to the war is commonly held to be its contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) , under which 8 @,@ 235 British , Commonwealth and Allied airmen were trained in Southern Rhodesian flight schools . The colony 's operational casualties numbered 916 killed and 483 wounded of all races .
Southern Rhodesia had no diplomatic powers , but largely oversaw its own contributions of manpower and materiel to the war effort , being responsible for its own defence . Rhodesian officers and soldiers were distributed in small groups throughout the British and South African forces in an attempt to prevent high losses . Most of the colony 's men served in Britain , East Africa and the Mediterranean , particularly at first ; a more broad dispersal occurred from late 1942 . Rhodesian servicemen in operational areas were mostly from the country 's white minority , with the Rhodesian African Rifles — made up of black troops and white officers — providing the main exception in Burma from late 1944 . Other non @-@ white soldiers and white servicewomen served in East Africa and on the home front within Southern Rhodesia . Tens of thousands of black men were conscripted from rural communities for work , first on the aerodromes and later on white @-@ owned farms .
World War II prompted major changes in Southern Rhodesia 's financial and military policy , and accelerated the process of industrialisation . The territory 's participation in EATS brought about major economic and infrastructural developments and led to the post @-@ war immigration of many former airmen , contributing to the growth of the white population to over double its pre @-@ war size by 1951 . The war remained prominent in the national consciousness for decades afterwards . Since the country 's reconstitution as Zimbabwe in 1980 , the modern government has removed many references to the World Wars , such as memorial monuments and plaques , from public view , regarding them as unwelcome vestiges of white minority rule and colonialism . Southern Rhodesia 's dead of the war today have no official commemoration , either in Zimbabwe or overseas .
= = Background = =
When World War II broke out in 1939 , the southern African territory of Southern Rhodesia had been a self @-@ governing colony of the United Kingdom for 16 years , having gained responsible government in 1923 . It was unique in the British Empire and Commonwealth in that it held extensive autonomous powers ( including defence , but not foreign affairs ) while lacking dominion status . In practice , it acted as a quasi @-@ dominion , and was treated as such in many ways by the rest of the Commonwealth . Southern Rhodesia 's white population in 1939 was 67 @,@ 000 , a minority of about 5 % ; the black population was a little over a million , and there were about 10 @,@ 000 residents of coloured ( mixed ) or Indian ethnicity . The franchise was non @-@ racial and in theory open to all , contingent on meeting financial and educational qualifications , but in practice very few black citizens were on the electoral roll . The colony 's Prime Minister was Godfrey Huggins , a physician and war veteran who had emigrated to Rhodesia from England in 1911 and held office since 1933 .
The territory 's contribution to the British cause during World War I ( 1914 – 18 ) had been very large in proportion to its white population , though troops had been mostly raised from scratch as there had been no professional standing army beforehand . Since the start of self @-@ government in 1923 , the colony had organised the all @-@ white Rhodesia Regiment into a permanent defence force , complemented locally by the partly paramilitary British South Africa Police ( BSAP ) . The Rhodesia Regiment comprised about 3 @,@ 000 men , including reserves , in 1938 . The country had fielded black troops during World War I , but since then had retained them only within the BSAP . A nucleus of airmen existed in the form of the Southern Rhodesian Air Force ( SRAF ) , which in August 1939 comprised one squadron of 10 pilots and eight Hawker Hardy aircraft , based at Belvedere Airport near the capital Salisbury .
The occupation of Czechoslovakia by Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Germany in March 1939 convinced Huggins that war was imminent . Seeking to renew his government 's mandate to pass emergency measures , he called an early election in which his United Party won an increased majority . Huggins rearranged his Cabinet on a war footing , making the Minister of Justice Robert Tredgold Minister of Defence as well . The territory proposed forces not only for internal security but also for the defence of British interests overseas . Self @-@ contained Rhodesian formations were planned , including a mechanised reconnaissance unit , but Tredgold opposed this . Remembering the catastrophic casualties suffered by units such as the Newfoundland Regiment and the South African Brigade on the Western Front in World War I , he argued that one or two heavy defeats for a white Southern Rhodesian brigade might cause crippling losses and have irrevocable effects on the country as a whole . He proposed to instead concentrate on training white Rhodesians for leadership roles and specialist units , and to disperse the colony 's men across the forces in small groups . These ideas met with approval in both Salisbury and London and were adopted .
Southern Rhodesia would be automatically included in any British declaration of war due to its lack of diplomatic powers , but that did not stop the colonial government from attempting to demonstrate its loyalty and legislative independence through supportive parliamentary motions and gestures . The Southern Rhodesian parliament unanimously moved to support Britain in the event of war during a special sitting on 28 August 1939 .
= = Outbreak of war = =
When Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939 , following the invasion of Poland , Southern Rhodesia issued its own declaration of war almost immediately , before any of the dominions did . Huggins backed full military mobilisation and " a war to the finish " , telling parliament that the conflict was one of national survival for Southern Rhodesia as well as for Britain — the mother country 's defeat would leave little hope for the colony in the post @-@ war world , he said . This stand was almost unanimously supported by the white populace , as well as most of the coloured community , though with World War I a recent memory this was more out of a sense of patriotic duty than enthusiasm for war in itself . The majority of the black population paid little attention to the outbreak of war .
The British had expected Italy ( with its African possessions ) to join the war on Germany 's side as soon as it began , but fortunately for the Allies this did not immediately occur . No. 1 Squadron SRAF was already in northern Kenya , having been posted to the Italian East African frontier at Britain 's request in late August . The first Southern Rhodesian ground forces to be deployed abroad during World War II were 50 Territorial troops under Captain T G Standing , who were posted to Nyasaland in September at the request of the colonial authorities there to guard against a possible uprising by local German expatriates . They returned home after a month having seen little action . White Rhodesian officers and non @-@ commissioned officers left the colony in September and October 1939 to command units of black Africans in the west and east of the continent , with most joining the Royal West African Frontier Force ( RWAFF ) in Nigeria , the Gold Coast and neighbouring colonies . The deployment of white Rhodesian officers and NCOs to command black troops from elsewhere in Africa met with favour from the military leadership and became very prevalent .
As in the First World War , white Rhodesians volunteered for the forces readily and in large numbers . Over 2 @,@ 700 had come forward before the war was three weeks old . Somewhat ironically , the Southern Rhodesian recruiters ' main problem was not sourcing manpower but rather persuading men in strategically important occupations such as mining to stay home . Manpower controls were introduced to keep certain men in their civilian jobs . The SRAF accepted 500 recruits in the days following the outbreak of war , prompting its commander Group Captain C W Meredith to contact the Air Ministry in London with an offer to run a flying school and train three squadrons . This was accepted . In January 1940 the Southern Rhodesian government announced the establishment of an independent Air Ministry to oversee the Rhodesian Air Training Group , Southern Rhodesia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) .
Huggins set up a Defence Committee within the Cabinet to co @-@ ordinate the colony 's war effort in early 1940 . This body comprised the Prime Minister , the Finance Minister Jacob Smit , Tredgold and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Ernest Lucas Guest , the Minister of Mines and Public Works , who was put in charge of the new Air Ministry . About 1 @,@ 600 of the colony 's whites were serving overseas by May 1940 when , during the Battle of France , Salisbury passed legislation allowing the authorities to call up any male British subject of European ancestry aged between 19 and a half and 25 who had lived in the colony for at least six months . The minimum age was reduced to 18 in 1942 . Part @-@ time training was compulsory for all white males between 18 and 55 , with a small number of exceptions for those in reserved occupations . On 25 May 1940 Southern Rhodesia , the last country to join the EATS , became the first to start operating an air school under it , beating Canada by a week . The SRAF was absorbed into the British Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in April 1940 , with No. 1 Squadron becoming No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron RAF . The | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, women served as drivers and in the stores and workshops . Many of the women in the air service did skilled work , checking flying instruments , testing parts and doing minor repairs . The women of the Auxiliary Police Service served as BSAP officers both in stations and on the streets .
Members of Southern Rhodesia 's white female population who did not join the forces still contributed to the war in various ways . Women worked in munitions factories and engineering workshops in Salisbury and Bulawayo . The Women 's National Service League , which thousands of women joined before the war even started , revived the role white Rhodesian women had played in World War I , sending the colony 's servicemen overseas parcels containing warm clothes , newspapers , razor blades , soap , food and minor luxuries such as sweets , tobacco and novels . Efforts such as these did much to keep the troops ' morale up .
= = = Domestic politics = = =
On the outbreak of war , Huggins invited the leader of the opposition Labour Party , Harry Davies , to join a coalition government . Davies accepted without consulting his party caucus , much to the indignation of many of his contemporaries ; Labour promptly split . The two Labour factions reconciled in 1943 and briefly threatened Huggins 's premiership until a heated dispute over whether Labour should become multiracial led to the party 's disintegration in 1944 .
= = = Economic impact ; conscripted labour ( chibaro ) = = =
The Southern Rhodesian economy grew considerably during the war despite the concurrent rise of war expenditure to pay for the expansion of the military and the air training scheme . Expenditure on the war grew from £ 1 @,@ 793 @,@ 367 in the financial year 1940 – 41 to £ 5 @,@ 334 @,@ 701 in 1943 – 44 — total Southern Rhodesian expenditure on the air training scheme was £ 11 @,@ 215 @,@ 522 . These sums , while tiny compared to those incurred by larger nations , were enormous when scaled against the white population of less than 70 @,@ 000 that accounted for most of the colony 's economic output . Annual costs for the air training scheme alone far exceeded the pre @-@ war national budget .
Southern Rhodesia was then the second largest gold producer in the world , after South Africa . The colony 's gold output had expanded greatly during the 1930s , and it remained the territory 's main source of income during the war , though many extracting operations were diverted towards strategic minerals , most prominently chrome and asbestos . Southern Rhodesia became one of the two main sources of chrome for the Allies ( South Africa was the other ) and the world 's third largest producer of asbestos after Canada and the Soviet Union . By the end of the war the mines at Shabani and Mashaba were turning out 1 @.@ 5 million tonnes of asbestos a year , in addition to 600 @,@ 000 tonnes of chrome . Gold output reached peak levels in 1941 – 42 and thereafter subsided . Southern Rhodesia also exported tungsten , mica and tin , and provided coal for the copper mines of Northern Rhodesia and the Congo . The Southern Rhodesian government encouraged private enterprise to form secondary industries to exploit the colony 's natural resources and increase production , but also set up some state industries in an attempt to spark growth . The establishment of the RATG prompted a minor economic boom , and also caused the primary direct demand placed on Southern Rhodesia 's black population during the early stages of the war — a programme of conscripted labour to build the aerodromes .
The government assigned labour quotas for each district to native commissioners across the territory who in turn called on local chiefs and headmen to provide workers . The tribal leaders decided who was required at the kraal and who would report to the district native commissioner for work . This system , known locally as the chibaro , cibbalo , isibalo or chipara — according to Charles van Onselen , synonymous etymologically with concepts ranging from contract labour to slavery — had been relatively widespread during Company rule ( 1890 – 1923 ) , but had fallen out of use by the 1930s . Some tribal communities were resettled to make room for the airstrips .
The chibaro workers received pay and provisions , but the salary of 15s / - per month compared unfavourably with the 17s / 6d generally received on white @-@ owned farms . It met with widespread opposition , with many men electing to run away rather than join the work parties . " Hundreds if not thousands " , according to Kenneth Vickery , crossed into Bechuanaland or South Africa to avoid the call @-@ up . Some suspected that after finishing the conscripted aerodrome work , they might be drafted to fight overseas . Rumours to this effect abounded enough that the chief native commissioner , H H D Simmonds , distributed a circular in November 1940 instructing the commissioners to make clear that the drafted men were required for labour only .
Voluntary employment increased sharply during 1940 and 1941 , both among indigenous blacks and migrant labourers , but many white farmers still complained about a lack of manpower . A severe drought during the 1941 – 42 season led to a food shortage in the colony , prompting the passing in June 1942 of the Compulsory Native Labour Act , under which unemployed black males between 18 and 45 years of age could be conscripted for work on white @-@ owned farms . Announcing the act , Tredgold — by now Minister of Native Affairs in addition to Defence and Justice — commented that its " principle ... would be intolerable under ordinary circumstances " , but that the war made it necessary . The act required each draftee to work at least three months at 15s / - per month ; the pay rose to 17s / 6 if he agreed to stay a further three months . This conscription of labour contributed to the rise in the country 's overall agricultural yield , but had a negative impact on the localised production of many kraals , either because too many men had been drafted for work elsewhere or because they had fled to avoid it . The scheme continued until the act 's repeal in 1946 .
A central Food Production Committee , set up in early 1942 , organised the conscripted labourers and attempted to help the white farmers to grow all the crops they could . Maize production grew by 40 % between 1942 and 1944 , the potato harvest doubled and the onion crop grew sixfold by the end of the war . Production of the colony 's most important cash crop , tobacco , was high throughout the war , averaging about 40 million pounds ( 18 million kg ) annually . The number of cattle slaughtered by the beef industry increased by 134 % , from 71 @,@ 000 head in 1937 to 160 @,@ 000 head in 1945 . Vegetable dehydration , one of the Food Production Committee 's main initiatives , proved a great success , allowing Rhodesia to export many products to the UK that would previously have spoiled in transit . Southern Rhodesia also provided goods to the Eastern Group Supply Council , a body set up in 1940 to co @-@ ordinate the build @-@ up of war materiel in India and other British colonies and dominions east of Suez , with the goal of reducing the amount of supplies shipped from the UK . A Rhodesian officer , Brigadier E G Cook , was the group 's deputy controller general . Between 1941 and 1945 Southern Rhodesia contributed large quantities of timber , leather goods , soap and building materials .
= = = Internment camps and Polish refugees = = =
Thousands of Axis POWs and people described as " enemy aliens " were held in Southern Rhodesia during the conflict . These were mainly Italians and Germans , but there were also a handful from Iraq and the Levant ; the colony furthermore hosted nearly 7 @,@ 000 refugees from Poland . Britain delegated responsibility for co @-@ ordinating investigation into enemy aliens in central Africa to the Southern Rhodesian government , which set up a system whereby the Criminal Investigation Department ( CID ) identified potential detainees while a body called the Internment Camps Corps oversaw the camps . Many of those held in Southern Rhodesia were sent there by Britain or authorities elsewhere in the Empire .
Five internment camps were set up in two waves . No. 1 ( General ) Internment Camp opened to the north @-@ east of Salisbury in October 1939 and No. 2 ( Tanganyika ) Internment Camp , just south of the city , opened the following year , mostly housing Germans formerly resident in Tanganyika . The first two camps together had less than 800 inmates . The third , fourth and fifth camps were set up near Gatooma , Umvuma and Fort Victoria in 1941 – 42 to accommodate roughly 5 @,@ 000 Italians from Somaliland and Abyssinia . The Internment Camps Corps ' reliance on the elderly , the infirm and so @-@ called " friendly aliens " to staff the three new camps led to indiscipline , poor living conditions and dozens of escapes . A 1943 government commission into the quality of the internment camps reported the second wave camps to be of far worse quality than those of the first wave .
Polish refugees were housed at dedicated settlements set up at Marandellas and Rusape , two towns about 40 km ( 25 mi ) apart to the south @-@ east of Salisbury , from 1943 . There were similar camps in Kenya , Nyasaland , Tanganyika , Northern Rhodesia and South Africa . The Polish settlements in Southern Rhodesia were run jointly by local authorities and the Polish consulate in Salisbury ; the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile in London provided funding . Transport back to Europe picked up sharply as the war came to a close , and by October 1945 less than 2 @,@ 000 Polish refugees remained . Colonial officials were reluctant to let the Poles stay indefinitely , asserting that they were not culturally British enough and might have communist connections or sympathies , but most of those who remained showed little inclination to leave . Southern Rhodesia ultimately allowed around 726 Polish refugees to settle permanently after the war .
= = End of the war ; statistics = =
Along with most of the Commonwealth and Allied nations , Southern Rhodesia sent a delegation of soldiers , airmen and seamen to London to take part in the grand Victory Parade of 8 June 1946 . The colony 's contingent , led by Colonel R E B Long , marched after South Africa and before Newfoundland . The Southern Rhodesian colour guard comprised a white officer and two black sergeants of the Rhodesian African Rifles . During the royal visit to Southern Rhodesia in April 1947 , King George VI accorded the prefix " Royal " to the Rhodesia Regiment in recognition of its contributions to the two World Wars , and agreed to be its Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief .
Southern Rhodesia had contributed more manpower to the Allied cause in World War II , proportional to white population , than any other British dominion or colony , and more than the UK itself . According to figures compiled by MacDonald for his War History of Southern Rhodesia , 26 @,@ 121 Southern Rhodesians served in the armed forces during the conflict , of whom 2 @,@ 758 were commissioned officers . Broken down by race and gender , there were 15 @,@ 153 black men , 9 @,@ 187 white men , 1 @,@ 510 white women and 271 coloured and Indian men . Of the 8 @,@ 390 who served outside the territory , 1 @,@ 505 were black men , 6 @,@ 520 were white men , 137 were white women and 228 were coloured or Indian men .
According to official figures , 33 @,@ 145 black Southern Rhodesians were conscripted for labour between 1943 and 1945 ; Vickery estimates that between 15 @,@ 000 and 60 @,@ 000 more may have worked on the aerodromes . According to Ashley Jackson 's work The British Empire and the Second World War , the Rhodesian Air Training Group instructed 8 @,@ 235 Allied pilots , navigators , gunners , ground crew and others — about 5 % of overall EATS output .
A total of 2 @,@ 409 Southern Rhodesians ( 977 officers and 1 @,@ 432 other ranks ) served in the RAF during the war , 373 ( 86 officers and 287 ratings ) joined the Royal Navy , and 13 officers and 36 ratings from Southern Rhodesia mustered into the South African Navy . The vast majority of the rest served in either the Southern Rhodesian territorial forces or the British or South African Army . The colony 's men and women received 698 decorations during the war ; whites received 689 while black troops won nine . No coloured or Indian serviceman was decorated . Army officers won 269 decorations while the other ranks received 158 ; the air force officers and other ranks respectively won 184 and 72 decorations . All eight decorated Southern Rhodesian naval personnel were officers . Of the seven decorated women , all but one held commissioned rank . Two hundred and fifty @-@ three Southern Rhodesians were mentioned in despatches during the war .
MacDonald records 916 Southern Rhodesian fatalities from enemy action during World War II — 498 airmen , 407 ground troops , eight seamen and three female personnel — and 483 wounded , of whom 434 were soldiers , 47 were airmen and two were sailors .
= = Legacy = =
The Rhodesian Air Training Group , widely accepted as the colony 's main contribution to World War II , proved to be " one of the most important happenings in Rhodesian history " , in the words of its commander Air Vice @-@ Marshal Sir C W Meredith , as it led to great economic development and a large wave of immigration after the war by former instructors , trainees and other staff . This contributed to the swelling of Southern Rhodesia 's white population to 135 @,@ 596 , over double its pre @-@ war size , by 1951 . RAF training operations in the country were stepped down considerably after the war , and the project formally ended in March 1954 .
The strengthening of ties with South Africa continued following the war as both countries underwent considerable industrialisation . Between 1948 and 1953 Southern Rhodesia and South Africa operated a customs agreement under which most export and import duties were waived . The decade immediately following 1945 has been called " the moment when Southern Rhodesia 's economy ' took off ' " . Huggins , secure in office at the end of the war , remained Prime Minister for another decade afterwards , and oversaw the colony 's Federation with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953 . He retired in 1956 . Southern Rhodesia contributed to several Commonwealth counter @-@ insurgency operations during the 1950s and early 1960s , including the Malayan Emergency , similar actions in Aden and Cyprus , and Operation Vantage in Kuwait .
Amid decolonisation and the Wind of Change , the Federation failed to become a Commonwealth realm and collapsed in 1963 . Two years later , following prolonged dispute with Britain over the terms for full sovereignty , the mostly white government in Southern Rhodesia ( or Rhodesia , following Northern Rhodesia 's independence as Zambia ) issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI ) . The Rhodesian government , counting several World War II veterans including the Prime Minister Ian Smith , attempted to emphasise Rhodesians ' prior war record on Britain 's behalf by declaring independence on Armistice Day , 11 November , at 11 : 00 local time . As part of its subsequent isolation of Rhodesia , the UK government banned the post @-@ UDI authorities from taking part in the annual Armistice Day service at the Cenotaph in London . Smith 's government organised its own Rhodesian wreath @-@ laying ceremony there . Veterans of World War II and Malaya held many key positions in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Bush War of the 1970s .
Since the country 's reconstitution and recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980 , Robert Mugabe 's administration has pulled down many monuments and plaques making reference to the dead of the First and Second World Wars , perceiving them as reminders of white minority rule and colonialism that go against what the modern state stands for . This view is partly rooted in the association of these memorials with those commemorating the British South Africa Company 's dead of the Matabele Wars , as well as those memorialising Rhodesian servicemen killed during the Bush War . Many Zimbabweans see their nation 's involvement in the World Wars as a consequence of colonial rule that had more to do with the white community than the black majority . Southern Rhodesia 's dead of the two World Wars today have no official commemoration , either in Zimbabwe or overseas .
= Digital : A Love Story =
Digital : A Love Story is an indie visual novel by video game designer Christine Love , released for free in February 2010 . The game 's story is linear , with the player 's actions unable to significantly change the course of the plot . Set " five minutes into the future of 1988 " , Digital tells the story of the protagonist 's online relationship with a girl and their attempts to solve a mystery surrounding the deaths of several artificial intelligences . The game is presented entirely through the interface of a 1980s computer with online bulletin board system posts and messages from other characters ; the protagonist 's own messages are implied but never shown . The game was received positively , with critics especially praising the game 's writing and plot , and it was noted in lists of the best indie games of 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
Digital : A Love Story is a visual novel , or interactive fiction game , where the game 's story is told primarily through text . The game is presented as if on a computer from the late 1980s running the Amie operating system ( the name and visual appearance a reference to 1.x versions of AmigaOS ) . The player logs into bulletin board systems , or BBSs , where they read and reply to messages from other people . Messages received from other characters in the game are displayed through a different program on the computer screen . Accessing a BBS requires the knowledge of the telephone number for that board , which the player must type in manually . Boards that require a long @-@ distance telephone number to reach require the player to use illegally obtained long @-@ distance calling card numbers found online . Accessing boards also requires the player to either set up a user account for that board or to know the password necessary to enter the system .
Many of the messages sent by the player and the replies back to those messages have no effect on the game . The messages that the player sends are never explicitly revealed , though their contents can be inferred from replies received from other characters in the game . The player , therefore , is unable to send a " wrong " reply or message , and the game cannot be lost . The player does not have a choice in the direction that the story takes , though the game requires the player to correctly decipher what actions to take before the plot can advance . A single playthrough of the game takes around one hour .
= = Plot = =
The game , set " five minutes into the future of 1988 " , opens with the silent protagonist , whose name is given by the player , having just obtained a computer . When the player checks their messages , they learn the telephone number to the Lake City Local BBS , a local board , and can then log on to there . One of the topics posted to that board is some poetry by a girl named " * Emilia " ; when the player responds to her message , the two start up a conversation . While this conversation is ongoing , the player learns of another BBS and of a board whose telephone number is in another area code . They also learn of an illegal method to get access to boards like that , which would otherwise require the purchase of long distance calling cards . The conversation between the player and * Emilia , which is inferred to have taken place over a much longer duration of time than has transpired in reality , begins at this point to show * Emilia forming an attachment to the player . Soon after , * Emilia confesses to the player that she loves them ; however , the host computer for Lake City Local breaks down , leaving the player unable to contact her .
Soon afterwards the owner of Lake City Local contacts the player with a garbled message that * Emilia had tried to send to them . This message implies that * Emilia is in danger , asking the player to contact someone named * Paris , and provides a mass of binary code . The player has no context for this message ; but after hacking into another BBS , The Gibson , the player finds a cryptic message reposted from another board saying that there are several artificial intelligences ( AIs ) around the world that have been recently " killed " , naming * Emilia as one of them . The player hacks into the source board for this message , and finds a history of artificial intelligence posted there by * Blue Sky , a " historian " AI .
According to * Blue Sky 's records , the American government created an AI at the same time it created ARPANET in the 1970s . This AI , * Mother , in turn created child AIs , but its first attempt spread out of control and had to be destroyed by a virus that spread after it — later officially explained by the government as the real @-@ life Creeper and Reaper worms . * Mother 's later attempts , which could only exist on one system at a time , were more successful , and these AIs left the ARPANET in favor of the Internet when it was developed . * Reaper , however , continued to spread and destroyed any AI it found , such as * Emilia . The player finds * Paris , another AI and * Emilia 's brother , on an ARPANET node , who explains that compiling the binary code in * Emilia 's message can recreate her . The player compiles * Emilia onto their system , and the two learn of a " payload " that the other AIs have developed , which can cause * Reaper to self @-@ terminate ; however , infecting * Reaper with it requires that an AI be recompiled with it as living bait , meaning permanent deletion . Realizing that they have no other choice , * Emilia becomes the payload carrier . After a final conversation , the player allows * Emilia to sacrifice herself , saving the AIs and ending the game .
= = Development = =
Digital was created and released by Christine Love in February 2010 . Although it was not her first game , it was her first successful one ; Love noted in January 2011 that her previous titles were played by " less than a dozen " people , while Digital had been played by " countless thousands " , gotten onto the reading lists of university classes , and became " a defining point in [ her ] writing career " . It was also her largest game to date ; prior to its release she thought of herself only as a writer , not as a game developer . She made Digital as a visual novel rather than just prose because she felt that immersing the player into the game would allow the story to resonate with them more than just reading the text . Love chose to set the game in the 1980s rather than more recently because she felt that the computing systems and number of people online then created a sense of isolation , which she felt was more conducive to both the romance and mystery aspects of the story . One of Love 's influences on the gameplay was Uplink ; she initially intended to reference more of its gameplay mechanics but eventually " streamlined " much of the hacking elements of Digital away .
Although * Emilia is explicitly female , Love purposely ensured that the protagonist 's gender is never stated , as she wanted them to be a blank slate that the player would project themselves into , rather than a character that the player would control . She intended this , combined with never showing what the protagonist actually says , to create more immersion in the story . Unofficially , however , Love thought of the relationship as " queer " , both in respect to the player 's gender and in respect to * Emilia as " a confused adolescent falling in love with someone she 's not supposed to " ; Love has stated that this did not come across as strongly as she intended . Love has said that one of the intended messages of the game was the importance of love and relationships , though not necessarily romantic love ; as an example she specifically referenced * Emilia valuing saving her " family " due to her love for them over her adolescent love for the player .
= = Reception = =
The writing and story of the game were especially praised by reviewers . Kieron Gillen of Rock , Paper , Shotgun said that after playing it , he " can 't think of a better love story in the Western medium " , and that the terse and minimalist prose worked well to create clearly defined characters . A reviewer from The Economist called the story " engaging " , saying that it provided a " memorable and thought @-@ provoking experience " . In an analysis of the game 's story , Emily Short of Gamasutra called the decision to leave the protagonist blank rather than making a viewpoint character " brilliant " , saying that it made the entire game work much better than it otherwise would . A reviewer from The A.V. Club , grading the game as an " A " , called the story " moving " . The majority of the criticism for the game was in regards to the interface used to navigate the online world ; while The Economist found it quirky and realistic , Gillen felt that it made it easy for the player to miss a key message , leaving the player stuck with no direction as to where to turn .
Gamasutra gave Digital an honorable mention in their " Best Indie Games of 2010 " list . It was chosen as a " freeware game pick " by Tim W. of IndieGames , Gamasutra 's independent games site , who said that it was " an absorbing experience that no other game from this day and age can offer . " IndieGames also named it number two in their " Top Freeware Adventure Games of 2010 " . PC Gamer listed it as number seven in their " 20 Free PC Games " feature in May 2011 , saying that it was " an hour of gorgeously crafted , personality @-@ imbued indie gaming . "
Love later made a " spiritual sequel " , don 't take it personally , babe , it just ain 't your story , and then another game " that further extends the non @-@ linear style of Digital " , Analogue : A Hate Story .
= Theef =
" Theef " is the fourteenth episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 12 , 2000 . It was written by Vince Gilligan , John Shiban , and Frank Spotnitz and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Theef " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 4 , being watched by 11 @.@ 91 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate the murder of a prominent doctor 's father @-@ in @-@ law , who was found with the word " theef " written on the wall in blood . After a string of follow @-@ up accidents , Mulder suspects hexcraft may be the source of threats against the doctor 's family .
" Theef " was written in a short amount of time during the show 's Christmas break after another script was dropped by the series . The main conceit of the episode was " modern medicine versus backyards supernatural arts " . The episode featured several noted actors , including Billy Drago , who played the role of antagonist Orell Peattie , and James Morrison , who was a former cast member of the science fiction series Space : Above and Beyond , which was created by former X @-@ Files writers Glen Morgan and James Wong . Series creator Chris Carter later called the episode " very well cast " .
= = Plot = =
Dr. Irving Thalbro is staying the night with his daughter and her family in Marin County , California , including her husband Dr. Robert Wieder ( James Morrison ) . In the middle of the night , Irving finds a pile of dirt shaped like a man in his bed . Irving is eventually discovered by Robert hanging from the ceiling with the word " theef " painted in Irving 's blood on the wall . While investigating the next morning , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) notices the graveyard dirt in Irving 's bed and believes it may be caused by a hoodoo hex . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , however , believes that the doctor committed suicide by slitting his own throat , writing on the wall , and hanging himself . After the autopsy , it is determined that Irving suffered from a prion disease called kuru , which has not been found in the United States before . Mulder believes that kuru was given to him by a hex that caused him to go mad . The Wieders then find a family photo missing from their bedroom , and a " hoodoo man " , later revealed to be named Orell Peattie ( Billy Drago ) , is seen placing the faces cut from the picture into various poppet dolls . Ms. Wieder collapses after another pile of graveyard dirt is found in her bed . Her skin then sprouts lesions as the " hoodoo man " stands by the pool talking to the doll .
Peattie visits Dr. Wieder at work , but refuses to tell him why he is committing these hexes against his family . Wieder does some research of his own and finds a bracelet in a Jane Doe file that he believes may be connected . Mulder consults an expert in the occult , who notes that , in order to commit hexes , the man must draw energy from a charm and place blood , hair and a picture of the victim inside a poppet in order to follow through with the hexes . Meanwhile , Mrs. Wieder is burned to death during Magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) , and the " hoodoo man " is found taking her doll out of the microwave . The word " theef " is also found branded in Mrs. Wieder 's chest . Dr. Wieder tells the agents that the man came to see him , and that he found a Jane Doe case that may be connected to the murders . After investigating , it is revealed that the Jane Doe was Lynnette Peattie who died last October during a bus crash . The doctor gave her an overdose of morphine , euthanizing her due to her pain . Mulder assumes the man is her father and that he feels the doctor stole his family away from him . Mulder decides to exhume the body of Lynette Peattie and move it to Virginia , taking away her father 's power , but when they exhume the casket there is no body inside .
Meanwhile , Peattie 's landlord sneaks into his apartment for pain medication and finds the body of Lynnette in his bed . Immediately , she contracts a flesh @-@ eating disease . After hearing about the incident on the news , Mulder goes to Peattie 's apartment and finds Lynnette 's headless body , but Peattie missing . Peattie finds the Wieder family , whom Scully is protecting , and makes a poppet with Scully 's hair and photo inside . He places nails in the doll 's eyes and Scully promptly goes blind . Peattie breaks into the house , takes Scully 's gun and stabs a poppet of Dr. Wieder , causing the doctor to collapse in pain . Mulder shows up , finds Scully 's doll and removes the nails from it , allowing her to regain her vision and shoot Peattie . He is placed in a coma and Lynnette 's body is shipped back to her home in West Virginia .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Originally , the episode was not planned to be produced during the seventh season . However , just before the writing crew prepared to take their Christmas break , one of the scheduled scripts was removed from the line @-@ up . In order to meet the deadline , Frank Spotnitz , John Shiban , and Vince Gilligan decided to write a script about " modern medicine versus backyards supernatural arts " . Gilligan later joked that " I think I was enlisted for the fact that I 'm Southern , and they thought I was the closest thing they had to a hillbilly on the staff " .
Producer David Amann explained that the inspiration for the story was " What if you have a doctor who is prosperous but has a dark page from his past that comes back to haunt him ? " Spotnitz later elaborated that the story initially was " going to be how do you get rid of something you can 't get rid of " . However , the writers soon found this storyline difficult to develop , and , by Spotnitz 's own admission , the story " started to evolve into a Cape Fear type of situation " . The episode was finished by the writers over the Christmas break and then " handed over " to Kim Manners , who became the episode 's director .
= = = Casting , directing , and makeup = = =
Noted actor Billy Drago was brought in to play the role of Orell Peattie , a casting decision that series creator Chris Carter later called " especially lucky " . His son , Darren E. Burrows , had previously been cast as Bernard in a season six episode , Monday . Actor James Morrison , who played Dr. Wieder , was a former cast member of the science fiction series Space : Above and Beyond , and had previously been cast as detective Jim Horn in an episode of Millennium called " Dead Letters " . Both of these were written by former X @-@ Files writers Glen Morgan and James Wong . Leah Sanders , who was cast as the background character Reporter # 1 , was a childhood friend of John Shiban who had not been in contact for twenty years . Shiban was reportedly delighted to discover that his former friend had been coincidentally cast in the episode . Carter noted that the episode " was very well cast " .
Kim Manners later noted that " Theef " was difficult to shoot because the cast and crew had inadequate time to prepare . He explained , " It was kind of a rush thing and we got the script very late . We were totally winging it while we were shooting it " . Manners later stated that the episode " came together " in the editing room : " When I looked at the footage , it was like I was looking at somebody else 's film . But it cut together real nice and the end result was that ' Theef ' turned out to be a decent little episode " . Manners later admitted that the episode was his only credit for the series during which he experienced illness . With Manners out for a day due to his sickness , Rob Bowman took over directing duties for a day .
Cheri Montesanto @-@ Medcalf , one of the show 's makeup creators , was extremely pleased with Drago 's makeup in the episode . She later noted , " I remember Billy Drago was awesome – he looked so creepy after makeup . I just wanted this guy to look super @-@ creepy and disturbing to look at , but real enough that you might be scared if you looked out your window at night and saw him standing there " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Theef " first aired in the United States on March 12 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 4 , with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 11 @.@ 91 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on June 18 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 71 million viewers , making it the third most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Voodoo curse ? Tonight , the dark powers of black magic have chosen their next victim ... Agent Scully . " The episode was nominated and won a 2000 Emmy Award by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for Outstanding Makeup for a Series .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " , and called it " the strongest straight @-@ up , non @-@ experimental standalone the season ’ s had so far , " as well as one of " the strongest ' scary ' episode since season five . " He praised the guest cast — mostly notably Drago and Morrison — and wrote that the writers of the episode were able to successfully make the character deaths in the episode count in a way that moved the audience . VanDerWerff 's main criticism of the episode was that it painted Peattie " as a backwoods hick and a rather broad stereotype of one . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a moderately positive review . Despite slightly criticizing the episode utilizing a voodoo @-@ based plot , which he called " [ not ] terribly original " , he concluded that " there 's nothing wrong with a little modern medicine vs. practical magic confrontation . And I definitely enjoyed how Scully had her envelope pushed once again " . Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 4 out of 5 stars , noting , " writer Vince Gilligan gets fairly serious in this ep concerning a series of deadly hexes cast upon a doctor and his family , as well as some cryptic scrawlings . There 's plenty of bad mojo going around as the X @-@ Files team gets to dig deep into the dark side of the magick arts , with Scully at one point losing her sight , thanks to a vengeful hex doll . Spooky " . TV Guide later named the episode 's main antagonist , Orell Peattie , as one of " The Scariest X @-@ Files Monsters " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately mixed review and awarded it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She concluded that " although ' Theef ' is burdened with some illogical plot developments and some underdeveloped characterization , overall it is a decent installment of The X @-@ Files " .
Several other reviews were more mixed . Kenneth Silber from Space.com was critical of the episode , noting that the main antagonist is " a veritable caricature of backwoods stupidity and thus hard to take seriously " . He did , however , compliment the sympathetic qualities of Dr. Wieder and his family . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , noting that the episode was " just too unambitious an X @-@ File to be anything more than a collection of moments , only some of which work " .
= Frederick Russell Burnham =
Frederick Russell Burnham DSO ( May 11 , 1861 – September 1 , 1947 ) was an American scout and world @-@ traveling adventurer . He is known for his service to the British South Africa Company and to the British Army in colonial Africa , and for teaching woodcraft to Robert Baden @-@ Powell in Rhodesia . He helped inspire the founding of the international Scouting Movement .
Burnham was born on a Lakota Sioux Indian reservation in Minnesota where he learned the ways of American Indians as a boy . By the age of 14 , he was supporting himself in California , while also learning scouting from some of the last of the cowboys and frontiersmen of the American Southwest . Burnham had little formal education , never finishing high school . After moving to the Arizona Territory in the early 1880s , he was drawn into the Pleasant Valley War , a feud between families of ranchers and sheepherders . He escaped and later worked as a civilian tracker for the United States Army in the Apache Wars . Feeling the need for new adventures , Burnham took his family to southern Africa in 1893 , seeing Cecil Rhodes 's Cape to Cairo Railway project as the next undeveloped frontier .
Burnham distinguished himself in several battles in Rhodesia and South Africa and became Chief of Scouts . Despite his U.S. citizenship , his military title was British and his rank of major was formally given to him by King Edward VII . In special recognition of Burnham 's heroism , the King invested him into the Companions of the Distinguished Service Order , giving Burnham the highest military honors earned by any American in the Second Boer War . He had become friends with Baden @-@ Powell during the Second Matabele War in Rhodesia , teaching him outdoor skills and inspiring what would later become known as Scouting . Burnham returned to the United States , where he became involved in national defense efforts , business , oil , conservation , and the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) .
During World War I , Burnham was selected as an officer and recruited volunteers for a U.S. Army division similar to the Rough Riders , which Theodore Roosevelt intended to lead into France . For political reasons , the unit was disbanded without seeing action . After the war , Burnham and his business partner John Hays Hammond formed the Burnham Exploration Company ; they became wealthy from oil discovered in California . Burnham joined several new wilderness conservation organizations , including the California State Parks Commission . In the 1930s , he worked with the BSA to save the big horn sheep from extinction . This effort led to the creation of the Kofa and Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuges in Arizona . He earned the BSA 's highest honor , the Silver Buffalo Award , in 1936 , and remained active in the organization at both the regional and national level until his death in 1947 . To symbolise the friendship between Burnham and Baden @-@ Powell , the mountain beside Mount Baden @-@ Powell in California was formally named Mount Burnham in 1951 .
= = Early life = =
Burnham was born on May 11 , 1861 on a Lakota Sioux Indian reservation in Minnesota , to a missionary family living near the small pioneer town of Tivoli ( now gone ) , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Mankato . His father , the Reverend Edwin Otway Burnham , was a Presbyterian minister educated and ordained in New York ; he was born in Ghent , Kentucky . His mother Rebecca Russell Burnham had spent most of her childhood in Iowa , having emigrated with her family from Westminster , England at the age of three . In the Dakota War of 1862 , Chief Little Crow and his Sioux warriors attacked the nearby town New Ulm , Minnesota ; Burnham 's father was in Mankato buying ammunition at the time , so when Burnham 's mother saw Sioux approaching her cabin dressed in war paint , she knew she had to leave and could never escape carrying her baby . She hid Frederick in a basket of green corn husks in a corn field and fled for her life . Once the Sioux attack had been repulsed , she returned to find their house burned down , but the baby Frederick was safe , fast asleep in the basket with the corn husks .
The young Burnham attended schools in Iowa . There he met Blanche Blick , whom he later married . The Burnham family moved from Minnesota to Los Angeles , California in 1870 , in search of easier living conditions soon after Edwin was seriously injured in an accident while rebuilding the family homestead . Two years later , Edwin died , leaving the family destitute . Burnham 's mother and 3 @-@ year @-@ old younger brother Howard returned to Iowa to live with her parents ; the 12 @-@ year @-@ old Burnham remained in California alone to repay his family 's debts and ultimately make his own way .
For the next few years , Burnham worked as a mounted messenger for the Western Union Telegraph Company in California and Arizona Territory . On one occasion his horse was stolen from him by Tiburcio Vásquez , a famous Californio bandit . At 14 , he began his life as a scout and Indian tracker in the Apache Wars , during which he took part in the United States Army expedition to find and capture or kill the Apache chief Geronimo . In Prescott , Arizona , he met an old scout named Lee who served under General George Crook . Lee taught Burnham how to track Apache by detecting the odor of burning mescal , a species of aloe they often cooked and ate . With careful study of the local air currents and canyons , trackers could follow the odor to Apache hiding places from as far away as 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) . During the Apache uprisings , the young Burnham also learned much from Al Sieber , the Chief of Scouts , and his assistant Archie McIntosh , who had been Chief of Scouts in Crook 's last two campaigns . Burnham learned much about scouting from these Indian trackers , who were advanced in age and fading from the frontier , including the vital lesson that " it is imperative that a scout should know the history , tradition , religion , social customs , and superstitions of whatever country or people he is called on to work in or among . " But the scout who was to have perhaps the greatest influence on Burnham during his formative years was a man named Holmes .
Holmes had served under Kit Carson and John C. Fremont , but he was old and physically impaired when he met Burnham . He had lost all of his family in the Indian wars and before he died he wanted to impart his knowledge of the frontier to the young Burnham . The two men traveled throughout the American Southwest and northern Mexico , and Holmes taught him many scouting skills , such as how to track a trail , how to double and cover one 's own trail , how to properly ascend and descend precipices , and how to tell the time at night . Burnham also learned survival skills from Holmes , such as where to find water in the desert , how to protect himself from snakes , and what to do in case of forest fires or floods . A stickler for details , Holmes impressed on him that even in the simplest things , such as braiding a rope , tying a knot , or putting on or taking off a saddle , there is a right way and a wrong way . The two men earned a living by hunting and prospecting . Burnham also worked as a cowboy , a guard for the mines , a guide , and a scout during these years .
In Globe , Arizona , Burnham unwittingly joined the losing side of the Pleasant Valley War before mass killing started , and only narrowly escaped death . He had no stake in the feud , but he was drawn into the conflict by his association with the Gordon family . Once the killing started , he felt he had to join a faction as a hired gun , although it put him on the wrong side of the law . In between raids and forays , he practiced incessantly with his pistol ; he learned to shoot using either hand and from the back of a galloping horse . Even after his faction admitted defeat ( the feud would begin again years later ) , Burnham still had many enemies .
During this time he met " a fine , hard riding young Kansan , who I had met on an Indian raid and whose nerve I greatly admired . " The young Kansan , who had been swindled by an unscrupulous superintendent of mines , had a plan to rustle cattle and horses from the superintendent and sell them to Curly Bill ( William Brocius ) , an outlaw with whom he had indirectly been in contact . Both men were broke at the time , and the job sounded easy . But Burnham had always rejected the life of a thief and even as a wanted man , he did not view himself as a criminal . Burnham began to see that even though he joined the feud to help his friends , he had been in the wrong , that " avenging only led to more vengeance and to even greater injustice than that suffered through the often unjustly administered laws of the land . "
Burnham decided to reject the offer of the young Kansan ( who followed through with the plan and was later killed ) , and that he needed to leave the Tonto Basin . Judge Aaron Hackney , editor of the local Arizona Silver Belt newspaper and a friend , helped him escape to Tombstone , Arizona with the assistance of Neil McLeod . He was a well @-@ known prizefighter in Tombstone and one of the most successful smugglers along the Arizona – Mexico frontier . The Gunfight at the O.K. Corral had occurred only a few months earlier , but as Tombstone was a boomtown attracting new silver miners from all parts , it was an ideal location to hide out . Burnham assumed several aliases and occasionally he delivered messages for McLeod and his smuggler partners in Sonora , Mexico . From McLeod , he learned many valuable tricks for avoiding detection , passing coded messages , and throwing off pursuers .
Burnham eventually went back to California to attend high school , but he never graduated . He returned to Arizona and was appointed Deputy Sheriff of Pinal County , but he soon went back to herding cattle and prospecting . After he went to Prescott , Iowa to visit his childhood sweetheart Blanche , the two were married on February 6 , 1884 . He was 23 years old . He and Blanche settled down soon after in Pasadena , California , to tend to an orange grove but soon Burnham returned to prospecting and scouting . Active as a Freemason , he rose to become a Thirty @-@ Second Degree Mason of the Scottish Rite .
During the 1880s , sections of the American press popularized the notion that the West had been won and there was nothing left to conquer in the United States . The time when great scouts like Kit Carson , Daniel Boone , and Davy Crockett could explore and master the wild and uncharted Western territories was coming to a close . Contemporary scouts such as Buffalo Bill , Wild Bill Hickok , and Texas Jack Omohundro , were leaving the old West to become entertainers , and they battled great Native American chiefs like Sitting Bull , Chief Joseph , and Geronimo only in Wild West Shows . In 1890 the United States Census Bureau formally closed the American frontier , ending the system under which land in the Western territories had been sold cheaply to pioneers . As a " soldier of fortune " , as Richard Harding Davis later called him , Burnham began to look elsewhere for the next undeveloped frontier , feeling that the American West was becoming tame and unchallenging . When he heard of the work of Cecil Rhodes and his pioneers in southern Africa , who were working to build a railway across Africa from Cape to Cairo , Burnham sold what little he owned . In 1893 with his wife and young son , he set sail for Durban in South Africa , intending to join Rhodes 's pioneers in Matabeleland and Mashonaland .
= = Military career = =
= = = First Matabele War = = =
Burnham was trekking the 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 609 km ) north from Durban to Matabeleland with his wife and son , an American buckboard and six donkeys when war broke out between Rhodes 's British South Africa Company and the Matabele ( or Ndebele ) King Lobengula in late 1893 . He signed up to scout for the Company immediately on reaching Matabeleland , and joined the fighting . Leander Starr Jameson , the Company 's Chief Magistrate in Mashonaland , hoped to defeat the Matabele quickly by capturing Lobengula at his royal town of Bulawayo , and so sent Burnham and a small group of scouts ahead to report on the situation there . While on the outskirts of town they watched as the Matabele burned down and destroyed everything in sight . By the time the Company troops had arrived in force , Lobengula and his warriors had fled and there was little left of old Bulawayo . The Company then moved into the remains of Bulawayo , established a base , and sent out patrols to find Lobengula . The most famous of these patrols was the Shangani Patrol , led by Major Allan Wilson and the man he chose as his Chief of Scouts , Fred Burnham .
= = = = Shangani Patrol = = = =
Jameson sent a column of soldiers under Major Patrick Forbes to locate and capture Lobengula . The column camped on the south bank of the Shangani River about 25 miles ( 40 km ) north @-@ east of the village of Lupane on the evening of December 3 , 1893 . The next day , late in the afternoon , a dozen men under the command of Major Wilson were sent across the river to patrol the area . The Wilson Patrol came across a group of Matabele women and children who claimed to know Lobengula 's whereabouts . Burnham , who served as the lead scout of the Wilson Patrol , sensed a trap and advised Wilson to withdraw , but Wilson ordered his patrol to advance .
Soon afterwards , the patrol found the king and Wilson sent a message back to the laager requesting reinforcements . Forbes , however , was unwilling to set off across the river in the dark , so he sent only 20 more men , under the command of Henry Borrow , to reinforce Wilson 's patrol . Forbes intended to send the main body of troops and artillery across the river the following morning ; however , the main column was ambushed by Matabele warriors and delayed . Wilson 's patrol too came under attack , but the Shangani River had swollen and there was now no possibility of retreat . In desperation , Wilson sent Burnham and two other men , Pearl " Pete " Ingram ( a Montana cowboy ) and William Gooding ( an Australian ) , to cross the Shangani River , find Forbes , and bring reinforcements . In spite of a shower of bullets and spears , the three made it to Forbes , but the battle raging there was just as intense as the one they had left , and there was no hope of anyone reaching Wilson in time . As Burnham loaded his rifle to beat back the Matabele warriors , he quietly said to Forbes , " I think I may say that we are the sole survivors of that party . " Wilson , Borrow , and their men were indeed surrounded by hundreds of Matabele warriors ; escape was impossible , and all were killed .
Colonial @-@ era histories called this the Shangani Patrol , and hailed Wilson and Borrow as national heroes . Their last stand together became a kind of national myth , as Lewis Gann writes , " a glorious memory , [ Rhodesia 's ] own equivalent of the bloody Alamo massacre and Custer 's Last Stand in the American West " . The version of events recorded by history is based on the accounts of Burnham , Ingram and Gooding , the Matabele present at the battle ( particularly inDuna Mjaan ) , and the men of Forbes ' column . While all of the direct evidence given by eyewitnesses supports the findings of the Court of Inquiry , some historians and writers debate whether or not Burnham , Ingram and Gooding really were sent back by Wilson to fetch help , and suggest that they might have simply deserted when the battle got rough . The earliest recording of this claim of desertion is long after the event in a letter written in 1935 by John Coghlan to a friend , John Carruthers , that " a very reliable man informed me that Wools @-@ Sampson told him " that Gooding had confessed on his deathbed that he and the two Americans had not actually been despatched by Wilson , and had simply left on their own accord . This double hearsay confession , coming from an anonymous source , is not mentioned in Gooding 's 1899 obituary , which instead recounts the events as generally recorded . Several well @-@ known writers have used the Coghlan letter , as shaky as it is , as clearance to create hypothetical evidence in an attempt to challenge and revise the historical record .
For his service in the war , Burnham was presented the British South Africa Company Medal , a gold watch , and a share of a 300 acre ( 120 ha ) tract of land in Matabeleland . It was here that Burnham uncovered many artifacts in the huge granite ruins of the ancient civilization of Great Zimbabwe . Matabeleland became part of the Company domain , which was formally named Rhodesia , after Rhodes , in 1895 . Matabeleland and Mashonaland became collectively called Southern Rhodesia .
= = = Northern Rhodesia Exploration = = =
In 1895 , Burnham oversaw and led the Northern Territories British South Africa Exploration Company expedition that first established for the British South Africa Company that major copper deposits existed north of the Zambezi in North @-@ Eastern Rhodesia . Along the Kafue River , Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States , and he encountered native peoples wearing copper bracelets . After this expedition he was elected a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society . Later , the British South Africa Company built the mining towns of the Copperbelt and a railroad to transport the ore through Portuguese Mozambique .
= = = Second Matabele War = = =
In March 1896 , the Matabele again rose up against the British South Africa Company administration in what became called the Second Matabele War or the First Chimurenga ( liberation war ) . Mlimo , the Matabele spiritual leader , is credited with fomenting much of the anger that led to this confrontation . The colonists ' defenses in Matabeleland were undermanned due to the ill @-@ fated Jameson Raid into the South African Republic ( or Transvaal ) , and in the first few months of the war alone hundreds of white settlers were killed . With few troops to support them , the settlers quickly built a laager in the centre of Bulawayo on their own and mounted patrols under such figures as Burnham , Robert Baden @-@ Powell , and Frederick Selous . The Matabele retreated into their stronghold of the Matopos Hills near Bulawayo , a region that became the scene of the fiercest fighting between Matabele warriors and settler patrols . It was also during this war that two scouts of very different backgrounds , Burnham and Baden @-@ Powell , would first meet and discuss ideas for training youth that would eventually become the plan for the program and the code of honor for the Boy Scouts .
= = = = Assassination of Mlimo = = = =
The turning point in the war came when Burnham and Bonar Armstrong , a Company native commissioner , found their way through the Matopos Hills to a sacred cave not many miles from the Mangwe district , to a sanctuary then known only to the Matabele where Mlimo had been hiding . Not far from the cave was a village ( now gone ) of about 100 huts filled with many warriors . The two men tethered their horses to a thicket and crawled on their bellies , screening their slow , cautious movements by means of branches held before them . Once inside the cave , they waited until Mlimo entered . Mlimo was said to be about 60 years old , with very dark skin , sharp @-@ featured ; American news reports of the time described him as having a cruel , crafty look . Burnham and Armstrong waited until Mlimo entered the cave and started his dance of immunity , at which point Burnham shot Mlimo just below the heart , killing him .
Burnham and Armstrong leapt over the dead Mlimo and ran down a trail toward their horses . The warriors in the village nearby picked up their arms and searched for the attackers ; to distract them , Burnham set fire to some of their huts . The whites escaped and rode back to Bulawayo . Shortly after , Cecil Rhodes walked unarmed into the Matabele stronghold and made peace with the rebels , ending the Second Matabele War .
= = = Klondike Gold Rush = = =
With the Matabele wars over , Burnham decided it was time to leave Africa and move on to other adventures . The family returned to California . Soon after , Fred traveled to Alaska and the Yukon to prospect in the Klondike Gold Rush , taking with him his eldest son Roderick , who was then 12 years old . On hearing of the Spanish – American War , Burnham rushed home to volunteer his services , but the war had ended before he could get to the fighting . Burnham returned to the Klondike having played no part in the war . Colonel Theodore Roosevelt regretted this as much as Burnham and paid him a great tribute in his book .
= = = Second Boer War = = =
The Second Boer War ( October 1899 – May 1902 ) was fought between the British and two independent Boer republics , the South African Republic and the Orange Free State , partly the result of long @-@ simmering strife between them . It was directly caused by each side 's desire to control the lucrative Witwatersrand gold mines in the Transvaal . Field Marshal Frederick Roberts , one of the British Army 's most successful commanders of the 19th century , was appointed to take overall command of British forces , relieving General Redvers Buller , following a number of Boer successes in the early weeks of the war , including the Siege of Mafeking , in which Baden @-@ Powell , his small regiment of men , and the townspeople had been besieged by thousands of Boer troops since the conflict began . Roberts asked General Frederick Carrington , who had commanded the British forces in Matabeleland three years earlier , whom he should appoint as his Chief of Scouts in South Africa . Carrington had selected Burnham for this role and advised Roberts to do the same , describing Burnham as " the finest scout who ever scouted in Africa . "
Roberts sent for Burnham soon after arriving in South Africa on the RMS Dunottar Castle . The American scout was prospecting near Skagway , Alaska , when he received the following telegram in January 1900 : " Lord Roberts appoints you on his personal staff as Chief of Scouts . If you accept , come at once the quickest way possible . " Cape Town is at the opposite end of the globe from the Klondike , so Burnham left immediately . In an unusual step for a foreigner , Burnham received a command post from Roberts and the British Army rank of captain . Burnham reached the front just before the Battle of Paardeberg ( February 1900 ) . During the war , Burnham spent much time behind the Boer lines gathering information and blowing up railway bridges and tracks . He was captured twice ( escaping both times ) , and also temporarily disabled at one point by near @-@ fatal wounds .
Burnham was first captured during the fighting at Sanna 's Post in the Orange Free State . He gave himself up in order to obtain information on the enemy , which he did , and then he escaped from his guards and succeed in reaching British occupied Bloemfontein safely after two days and nights on the run . The second time he was captured was while trying to warn a British column approaching Thaba ' Nchu . He came upon a group of Boers hiding on the banks of the river , toward which the British were even then advancing . Cut off from his own side , Burnham chose to signal the approaching soldiers even though it would expose him to capture . With a red kerchief , Burnham signaled the soldiers to turn back , but the column paid no attention and plodded steadily on into the ambush , while Burnham was at once taken prisoner . In the fight that followed , Burnham pretended to receive a wound in the knee , limping heavily and groaning with pain . He was placed in a wagon with the officers who really were wounded and who , in consequence , were not closely guarded . Later that evening , Burnham slipped over the driver 's seat , dropped between the two wheels of the wagon , lowered himself , and fell between the legs of the oxen on his back in the road . In an instant , the wagon had passed over him safely , and while the dust still hung above the trail he rolled rapidly over into the ditch at the side of the road and lay motionless . It was four days before he was able to re @-@ enter the British lines , during which time he had been lying in the open veld . He had subsisted on one biscuit and two handfuls of " mielies " ( i.e. , maize ) .
On June 2 , 1900 , during the British march on Pretoria , Burnham was wounded , almost fatally . He was on a mission to cut off the flow of Boer gold and supplies to and from the sea and to halt the transportation of British prisoners of war out of the Pretoria . He scouted alone far to the east behind enemy lines trying to identify the best choke point along the Pretoria @-@ Delagoa Bay railway line . He came upon an underpass of a railway bridge , an ideal location to disrupt the trains , but was immediately surrounded by a party of Boers . Burnham instantly fled and he had almost escaped when his horse was shot and fell , knocking him senseless and pinning him under its dead body . It was night and he was already far away when his horse was shot , so the Boer troopers apparently did not check to see if Burnham had been injured or killed . When he awoke hours later , Burnham was alone and in a dazed state having sustained serious injuries . In spite of his acute agony , Burnham proceeded to creep back to the railway , placed his charges , and blew up the line in two places . He then crept on his hands and knees to an empty animal enclosure to avoid capture and stayed there for two days and nights insensible . The next day , Burnham heard fighting in the distance so he crawled in that direction . By this time he was indifferent as to the source of the gunshots and by chance it was a British patrol that found him . Once in Pretoria the surgeons discovered that Burnham had torn apart his stomach muscles and burst a blood @-@ vessel . His very survival was due only to the fact that he had been without food or water for three days .
Burnham 's injuries were so serious that he was ordered to England by Lord Roberts . Two days before leaving for London , he was promoted to the rank of major , having received letters of commendation or congratulations from Baden @-@ Powell , Rhodes , and Field Marshal Roberts . On his arrival in England , Burnham was commanded to dine with Queen Victoria and to spend the night at Osborne House . A few months later , after the Queen 's death , King Edward VII personally presented Burnham with the Queen 's South Africa Medal with four bars for the battles at Driefontein ( March 10 , 1900 ) , Johannesburg ( May 31 , 1900 ) , Paardeberg ( February 17 – 26 , 1900 ) , and Cape Colony ( October 11 , 1899 – May 31 , 1902 ) , in addition to the cross of the Distinguished Service Order , the second highest decoration in the British Army , for his heroism during the " victorious " march to Pretoria ( June 2 – 5 , 1900 ) . The King also made his British Army appointment and rank permanent , in spite of his U.S. citizenship . Burnham received the highest awards of any American who served in the Second Boer War . Following his investiture , the British press hailed him as : " The King of Army Scouts " .
Burnham 's most accomplished soldiers during the Second Boer War were the Lovat Scouts , a Scottish Highland regiment he commanded , whom he described as " half wolf and half jackrabbit . " Formed by Lord Lovat in 1899 , this yeomanry unit was the first to wear Ghillie suits , a type of camouflage clothing developed to resemble heavy foliage . These scouts were well practiced in the arts of marksmanship , field craft , and tactics . After the war , the Lovat Scouts went on to become the British army 's first sniper unit .
= = " Father of Scouting " = =
Burnham was already a celebrated scout when he first befriended Baden @-@ Powell during the Second Matabele War , but the backgrounds of these two scouts was as strange a contrast as it is possible to imagine . From his youth on the open plains , Burnham 's earliest playmates were Sioux Indian boys and their ambitions pointed to excelling in the lore and arts of the trail and together they dreamed of some day becoming great scouts . When Burnham was a teenager he supported himself by hunting game and making long rides for Western Union through the California deserts , his early mentors were wise old scouts of the American West , and by 19 he was a seasoned scout chasing and being chased by Apache . The British scout he would later befriend and serve with in Matabeleland , Baden @-@ Powell , was born in London and had graduated from Charterhouse , one of England 's most famous public schools . Baden @-@ Powell developed an ambition to become a scout at an early age . He passed an exam that gave him an immediate commission into the British Army when he was 19 , but it would take several years before he was engaged in any active service . When the two men met in 1896 , Baden @-@ Powell was an army intelligence officer and a brilliant outdoorsman who had organized a small scouting section in his regiment , written a book called Reconnaissance and Scouting ( 1884 ) and served in India , Afghanistan , Natal and Ashanti . Burnham , meanwhile , was General Carrington 's Chief of Scouts .
During the siege of Bulawayo , these two men rode many times into the Matopos Hills on patrol , and it was in these hills that Burnham first introduced Baden @-@ Powell to the ways and methods of the Native Americans , and taught him " woodcraft " ( better known today as Scoutcraft ) . Baden @-@ Powell had written at length about reconnaissance and tracking , but from Burnham he learned many new dimensions such as how to travel in wild country without either a compass or map , how to discover nearby dangers by observing animals , and the many techniques for finding potable water . So impressed was Baden @-@ Powell by Burnham 's Scouting spirit that he closely listened to all he had to tell . It was also here that Baden @-@ Powell began to wear his signature Stetson campaign hat and neckerchief , like those worn by Burnham , for the first time . Both men recognized that wars were changing markedly and that the British Army needed to adapt . During their joint scouting missions , Baden @-@ Powell and Burnham discussed the concept of a broad training program in woodcraft for young men , rich in exploration , tracking , fieldcraft , and self @-@ reliance . In Africa , no scout embodied these traits more than Burnham .
In his first scouting handbook , Aids to Scouting ( 1899 ) , Baden @-@ Powell published many of the lessons he learned from Burnham and this book was later used by boys ' groups as a guide to outdoor fun . At the urging of several youth leaders , Baden @-@ Powell decided to adapt his scouting handbook specifically to training boys . While Baden @-@ Powell went on to refine the concept of Scouting , publish Scouting for Boys ( 1908 ) , and become the founder of the international Scouting movement , Burnham has been called the movement 's father . James E. West , Chief Scout Executive for the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) , summarized Burnham 's historical relevance to Scouting : " There is an especial significance for those of us in Scouting in this man 's list , for he was engaged for this work by Lord Baden Powell , who was then connected with the British Army in Africa , and who had unbounded admiration for the scouting methods of Frederick Burnham . So these two pioneers , each of whom was to have such immeasurable influence in restoring the old traditions of American youth , met in Africa , years before the Scouting movement was ever thought of . "
Burnham later became close friends with others involved in the Scouting movement in the United States , such as Theodore Roosevelt , the Chief Scout Citizen , and Gifford Pinchot , the Chief Scout Forester , and E. B. DeGroot , BSA Scout Executive of Los Angeles . DeGroot said of Burnham : " Here is the sufficient and heroic figure , model and living example , who inspired and gave Baden @-@ Powell the plan for the program and the code of honor of Scouting for Boys . " With assistance from Baden @-@ Powell , the BSA published his biography : He @-@ who @-@ sees @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dark ; the Boys ' Story of Frederick Burnham , the American Scout . The BSA made Burnham an Honorary Scout in 1927 , and for his noteworthy and extraordinary service to the Scouting movement , Burnham was bestowed the highest commendation given by the BSA , the Silver Buffalo Award , in 1936 . Throughout his life he remained active in Scouting at both the regional and the national level in the United States and he corresponded regularly with Baden @-@ Powell on Scouting topics .
Burnham and Baden @-@ Powell remained close friends for their long lives . Burnham called Baden @-@ Powell a " wonderfully able scout " , and nicknamed him " Sherlock Holmes . " Baden @-@ Powell considered Burnham to be " the greatest scout alive . " The seal on the Burnham – Baden @-@ Powell letters at Yale and Stanford expired in 2000 and the true depth of their friendship and love of Scouting has again been revealed . In 1931 , Burnham read the speech dedicating Mount Baden @-@ Powell , California , to his old Scouting friend . Their friendship , and equal status in the world of Scouting and conservation , was honored in 1951 with the dedication of the adjoining peak as Mount Burnham .
Burnham 's descendants followed in his footsteps and are active in Scouting and in the military . His son Roderick enlisted in the U.S. Army and he fought in France in World War I. His grandson , Frederick Russell Burnham II , was a leader in the BSA and a Vietnam War veteran . His great @-@ grandson , Russell Adam Burnham , is an Eagle Scout and was the United States Army 's Soldier of the Year in 2003 .
= = Later life = =
= = = Post war = = =
After convalescing , Burnham became the London office manager for the Wa Syndicate , a commercial body with interests in the Gold Coast and neighboring territories in West Africa . He led the Wa Syndicate 's 1901 expedition through the Gold Coast and the Upper Volta , looking for minerals and ways to improve river navigation . Between 1902 and 1904 he was employed by the East Africa Syndicate , for which he led a vast mineral prospecting expedition in the East Africa Protectorate ( Kenya ) . Traveling extensively in the area around Lake Rudolf ( now Lake Turkana ) , he discovered a huge soda lake .
= = = Mexico = = =
Burnham returned to North America and for the next few years became associated with the Yaqui River irrigation project in Mexico . While investigating the Yaqui valley for mineral and agricultural resources , Burnham reasoned that a dam could provide year @-@ round water to rich alluvial soil in the valley ; turning the region into one of the garden spots of the world and generate much needed electricity . He purchased water rights and some 300 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) of land in this region and contacted an old friend from his time in Africa , John Hays Hammond , who conducted his own studies and then purchased an additional 900 @,@ 000 acres ( 3 @,@ 600 km2 ) of this land — an area the size of Rhode Island . Burnham together with Charles Frederick Holder made important archaeological discoveries of Mayan civilization in this region , including the Esperanza Stone .
In 1909 , William Howard Taft and Porfirio Díaz planned a summit in El Paso , Texas , and Ciudad Juárez , Mexico , an historic first meeting between a U.S. president and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president would cross the border into Mexico . But tensions rose on both sides of the border , including threats of assassination , so the Texas Rangers , 4 @,@ 000 U.S. and Mexican troops , U.S. Secret Service agents , FBI agents and U.S. marshals were all called in to provide security . Burnham was put in charge of a 250 private security detail hired by Hammond , who in addition to owning large investments in Mexico was a close friend of Taft from Yale and a U.S. Vice @-@ Presidential candidate in 1908 . On October 16 , the day of the summit , Burnham and Private C.R. Moore , a Texas Ranger , discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route . Burnham and Moore captured and disarmed the assassin within only a few feet of Taft and Díaz .
After the Taft @-@ Díaz summit , Burnham led a team of 500 men in guarding mining properties owned by Hammond , J. P. Morgan , and the Guggenheims in the Mexican state of Sonora . Just as the irrigation and mining projects were nearing completion in 1912 , a long series of Mexican revolutions began . The final blow to these efforts came in 1917 when Mexico passed laws prohibiting the sale of land to foreigners . Burnham and Hammond carried their properties until 1930 and then sold them to the Mexican government .
= = = World War I = = =
During this period , Burnham was one of the 18 officers selected by former U.S. president Theodore Roosevelt to raise a volunteer infantry division for service in France in 1917 shortly after the United States entered the war . A plan to raise volunteer soldiers from the Western U.S. came out of a meeting of the New York @-@ based Rocky Mountain Club and Burnham was put in charge of both the general organization and recruitment . Congress gave Roosevelt the authority to raise up to four divisions similar to the Rough Riders of 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry Regiment and to the British Army 25th ( Frontiersmen ) Battalion , Royal Fusiliers ; however , as Commander @-@ in @-@ chief , President Woodrow Wilson refused to make use of Roosevelt 's volunteers .
Roosevelt had been an outspoken critic of Wilson 's neutrality policies , so even though Roosevelt had made several attempts to come to an agreement with Wilson , the President was unwilling to accept any compromise . In an astute political maneuver , Wilson announced to the press that he would not send Roosevelt and his volunteers to France , but instead would send an American Expeditionary Force under the command of General John Pershing . Roosevelt was left with no option except to disband the volunteers . He never forgave Wilson , and quickly published The Foes Of Our Own Household , a harsh indictment of the sitting president . These relentless attacks helped the Republicans win control of Congress in 1918 . Roosevelt might have been a serious candidate for president in 1920 , but lingering malaria kept him out of the race .
During World War I , Burnham was living in California and was active in counterespionage for Britain . Much of it involved a famous Boer spy , Captain Fritz Joubert Duquesne , who became a German spy in both World Wars and claimed to have killed Field Marshal Kitchener while en route to meet with the Russians . During the Second Boer War , Burnham and Duquesne were each under orders to assassinate the other , but it was not until 1910 that the two men first met while both were in Washington , D.C. , separately lobbying Congress to pass a bill in favor of the importation of African game animals into the United States ( H.R. 23621 ) . Duquesne was twice arrested by the FBI and in 1942 he and 32 other Nazi agents ( the Duquesne Spy Ring ) were jailed for espionage in the largest spy ring conviction in U.S. history .
= = = Oil wealth = = =
Although Burnham had lived all over the world , he never had a great deal of wealth to show for his efforts . It was not until he returned to California , the place of his youth , that he found great affluence . In November 1923 , he struck oil in Dominguez Hills , near Carson , California . In a field that covered just two square miles , over 150 wells from Union Oil were soon producing 37 @,@ 000 barrels a day , with 10 @,@ 000 barrels a day going to the Burnham Exploration Company , a syndicate formed in 1919 between Frederick Burnham , his son Roderick , John Hayes Hammond , and his son Harris Hammond . In the first 10 years of operation , the Burnham Exploration Company paid out $ 10 @.@ 2 million in dividends . The spot where Burnham found oil was land where " as a small boy he used to graze cattle , and shoot game which he sold to the neighboring mining districts to support his widowed mother and infant brother . " Many years after the oil was depleted , the land near the Dominguez field was re @-@ developed and became the site of the California State University , Dominguez Hills . In 2010 , Occidental Petroleum Corporation expressed interest in redeveloping the former Dominguez oil field using modern extraction technologies .
= = = Conservation = = =
An avid conservationist and hunter , Burnham supported the early conservation programs of his friends Theodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot . He and his associate John Hayes Hammond led novel game expeditions to Africa with the goal of finding large animals such as Giant Eland , hippopotamus , zebra , and various bird species that might be bred in the United States and become game for future American sportsmen . Burnham , Hammond , and Duquesne appeared several times before the House Committee on Agriculture to ask for help in importing large African animals . In 1914 , he helped establish the Wild Life Protective League of America , Department of Southern California , and served as its first Secretary .
In his later years , Burnham filled various public offices and also served as a member of the Boone and Crockett Club of New York , and as a founding member of the American Committee for International Wildlife Protection ( now a committee of the World Conservation Union ) . He was one of the original members of the first California State Parks Commission ( serving from 1927 to 1934 ) , a founding member of the Save @-@ the @-@ Redwoods League , president of the Southwest Museum of Los Angeles from 1938 until 1940 , and he served as both the Honorary President of the Arizona Boy Scouts and as a regional executive for the BSA throughout the 1940s until his death in 1947 .
In 1936 , Burnham enlisted the Arizona Boy Scouts in a campaign to save the Desert Bighorn Sheep from probable extinction . Several other prominent Arizonans and environmental groups joined the movement and a " save the bighorns " poster contest was started in schools throughout the state . Burnham provided prizes and appeared in store windows from one end of Arizona to the other . The contest @-@ winning bighorn emblem was made into neckerchief slides for the 10 @,@ 000 Boy Scouts , and talks and dramatizations were given at school assemblies and on radio . On January 18 , 1939 , over 1 @.@ 5 million acres ( 6 @,@ 100 km2 ) were set aside in Arizona to establish the Kofa National Wildlife Refuge and the Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge , and Burnham gave the dedication speech .
= = Personal life = =
At 5 ft 4 in ( 1 @.@ 62 m ) , Burnham was slight , but he was also muscular and bronzed , with a finely formed square jaw . He had a boyish appearance which he used to his advantage on numerous occasions . His most noticeable feature was his steady , grey @-@ blue eyes . Contemporary reports had it that Burnham 's gaze appeared to never leave those of the person he was looking at , and yet somehow could simultaneously monitor all the details of the physical surroundings . It was also said that Burnham 's eyes possessed a far @-@ away look such as those acquired by people whose occupation has caused them to watch continually at sea or on great plains .
Burnham would not smoke and seldom drank alcohol , fearing these habits would injure the acuteness of his sense of smell . He found ways to train himself in mental patience , took power naps instead of indulging in periods of long sleep , and drank very little liquid . He trained himself to accept these abstinences in order to endure the most appalling fatigues , hunger , thirst , and wounds , so that when scouting or traveling where there was no water , he might still be able to exist . On more than one occasion he survived in environments where others would have died , or were in fact dying , of exhaustion . He was quiet @-@ mannered and courteous , according to contemporaries . Their reports describe a man who was neither shy nor self @-@ conscious , who was extremely modest , and who seldom spoke of his many adventures .
Burnham died of heart failure at the age of 86 , on September 1 , 1947 at his home in Santa , Barbara , California . He was buried at a private ceremony at Three Rivers , California , near his old cattle ranch , La Cuesta . His memorial stone was designed by his only surviving child , Roderick . Also buried at Three Rivers cemetery are his first wife , Blanche , several members of the Blick family who had also pioneered 1890s Rhodesia with Burnham , Roderick , his granddaughter Martha Burnham Burleigh , and " Pete " Ingram , the Montana cowboy who had survived the Shangani Patrol massacre along with Burnham .
= = = Family = = =
Burnham 's wife of 55 years , Blanche ( February 25 , 1862 – December 22 , 1939 ) of Nevada , Iowa , accompanied him in very primitive conditions through many travels in both the Southwest United States and southern Africa . Together they had three children , all of whom spent their early youth in Africa . In the early years , she watched over the children and the pack animals , and she always kept a rifle nearby . In the dark of night , she used her rifle many times against lions and hyena and , during the Siege of Bulawayo , against Matabele warriors . Several members of the Blick family joined the Burnhams in Rhodesia , moved with them to England , and returned to the United States with the Burnhams to live near Three Rivers , California . When Burnham Exploration Company struck it rich in 1923 , the Burnhams moved to a mansion built by Pasadena architect Joseph Blick , his brother @-@ in @-@ law , in a new housing development then known as Hollywoodland ( a name later shortened to " Hollywood " ) and took many trips around the world in high style . In 1939 , Blanche suffered a stroke . She died a month later and was buried in the Three Rivers Cemetery .
Burnham 's first son , Roderick ( August 22 , 1886 – July 2 , 1976 ) , was born in Pasadena , California , but accompanied the family to Africa and learned the Matabele language , Sindebele . He went to boarding school in France in 1895 , and then to a military school in England the following year . In 1898 , he went to Skagway , Alaska with his father , and returned to Pasadena the next year . In 1904 , he attended the University of California , Berkeley , joined the football team , but left Berkeley after a dispute with his coach . In 1905 – 08 , he went to the University of Arizona , joined the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity , played the position of running back , and became the captain of the football team . He attended the Michigan School of Mines ( now Michigan Technological University ) in 1910 , became a geologist , and worked for Union Oil as Manager of Lands and Foreign Exploration helping to develop the first wells in Mexico and Venezuela . He took time off from his job to serve in the U.S. Army in World War I and fought in France . He and his father became minority owners of the Burnham Exploration Company , incorporated in 1919 by Harris Hays Hammond ( the son of John Hays Hammond , Sr ) . In 1930 , he and Paramount Pictures founder W. W. Hodkinson started the Central American Aviation Corporation , the first airline in Guatemala .
Nada ( May 1894 – May 19 , 1896 ) , Burnham 's daughter , was the first white child born in Bulawayo ; she died of fever and starvation during the town 's siege . She was buried three days later in the town 's Pioneer Cemetery , plot No. 144 . Nada is the Zulu word for lily and she was named after the heroine in Sir H. Rider Haggard 's Zulu tale , Nada the Lily ( 1892 ) . Three of Haggard 's books are dedicated to Burnham 's daughter , Nada : The Wizard ( 1896 ) , Elissa : The Doom of Zimbabwe ( 1899 ) , and Black Heart and White Heart : A Zulu Idyll ( 1900 ) .
Burnham 's youngest son , Bruce B. Burnham ( 1897 – October 3 , 1905 ) , was staying with his parents in London when he accidentally drowned in the River Thames . His brother , Roderick , was in California the night Bruce died , yet claimed to know from a dream exactly what had happened . Roderick awoke screaming and rushed to tell his grandmother about his nightmare . The next morning , a cable arrived with the news of Bruce 's death .
His brother Howard Burnham ( 1870 – 1918 ) , born shortly before the family moved to Los Angeles , lost one leg at the age of 14 and suffered from tuberculosis . During his teenage years he lived with Fred in California and learned from his brother the art of Scoutcraft , how to shoot , and how to ride the range , all in spite of his wooden leg . Howard moved to Africa , became a mining engineer in the Johannesburg gold mines , and later wrote a text book on Modern Mine Valuation . He traveled the world and for a time teamed up with Fred on Yaqui River irrigation project in Mexico . During World War I , Howard worked as a spy for the French government , operating behind enemy lines in southwest Germany . Throughout the war he used his wooden leg to conceal tools he needed for spying . From his death bed , Howard returned to France via Switzerland and shared his vital data and secrets with the French government : the Germans were not opening a new front in the Alps and there was no need to move allied troops away from the Western Front . Howard was buried at Cannes , France , leaving behind his wife and four children . He had been named after his second cousin , Lieutenant Howard Mather Burnham who was killed in action in the American Civil War .
Burnham 's first cousin Charles Edward Russell ( 1860 – 1941 ) was a journalist and politician and also a founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) . The author of a number of books of biography and social commentary Russell won a Pulitzer Prize in 1928 for his biography : The American Orchestra and Theodore Thomas .
In 1943 , at 83 years of age , Burnham married his much younger typist , Ilo K. Willits Burnham ( June 20 , 1894 – August 28 , 1982 ) . The couple sold their mansion and moved to Santa Barbara in 1946 .
Burnham was a descendant of Thomas Burnham ( 1617 – 1688 ) of Hartford , Connecticut , the first American ancestor of a large number of Burnhams . The descendants of Thomas Burnham have been noted in every American war , including the French and Indian War .
= = Film and stage accounts = =
In 1899 , Frank E. Fillis brought his circus and stage show " Savage South Africa " , featuring a number of Zulu performers , to the Empress Theatre at Earls Court in London as part of the " Greater Britain Exhibition . " The actors dramatically played out famous battles from the Matabele wars twice a day . The program featured " Wilson 's Heroic Stand at the Shangani River " , a re @-@ enactment of the battle of the Shangani Patrol . Fillis himself played Major Wilson , Peter Lobengula played the Matabele King Lobengula , and Burnham was played by the adopted son of Texas Jack Omohundro , " Texas Jack " Jr . , who later ran a Wild West show in South Africa featuring the American cowboy and entertainer Will Rogers . The Shangani segment of the show was filmed in September 1899 , and subsequently sold to movie houses around the world as Major Wilson 's Last Stand . Years later , a feature length Shangani Patrol ( film ) ( 1970 ) was released . The picture was shot on location in and around Bulawayo by RPM Film Studios and directed by David Millin . Burnham was portrayed by the American cowboy actor Will Hutchins of the ABC / Warner Brothers | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
there is little information available on plans for this album , the band is steadily working towards its fifth studio release . Tool has worked around Keenan and his side projects since 1999 , starting with the creation of A Perfect Circle , which has led to several years between projects . Regarding the future of Tool , Keenan stated in a 2007 interview with Spin , " We 'll make music together until one of us is dead . "
On March 24 , 2009 , a summer tour was announced on Tool 's website , and in a March 26 press release Tool was confirmed as a headliner for the second annual Mile High Music Festival in Commerce City , Colorado , with Widespread Panic and The Fray . Tool also headlined Lollapalooza 2009 in Chicago , Illinois .
On December 12 , 2012 , Tool 's webmaster posted on the band website :
Something that might be encouraging to some Tool enthusiasts is that while riding with Danny to Chili John 's yesterday , I heard a lot of new Tool music ( sans Maynard ) . This was the most new material that I 've heard so far , although a few of the riffs and arrangements were familiar . So , what did I think ? Dare I say that it sounded like ... Tool ( some of it reminiscent to earlier Tool stuff , with other parts pushing the envelope ) , and I assume that it will sound even more like Tool once the vocal melodies , etc. have been added . To answer your next question , I cannot say how far along in the writing process the band is . If I had to GUESS , I would say more than half way ( and keep in mind that in the past , at least , the writing went faster once the first few [ more complex ] songs were finished ) .
= = = A Perfect Circle = = =
During Tool 's post @-@ Ænima hiatus to deal with their legal issues , Keenan began working with Billy Howerdel , Tool 's guitar tech through the Ænima tour , on a different project . The supergroup they formed , A Perfect Circle , began performing in 1999 and released its first album Mer de Noms in 2000 . They released a successful follow @-@ up in 2003 titled Thirteenth Step , a reference to twelve @-@ step programs ( many of the songs were written from the perspective of recovery ) . Both albums were eventually certified platinum . Their subsequent 2004 album , eMOTIVe , was primarily composed of covers , except for the singles " Counting Bodies Like Sheep to the Rhythm of the War Drums " — a song inspired by " Pet " that was originally released on Thirteenth Step — and " Passive " . Keenan later characterized the record as a political album with which he " tested the waters " and was subsequently " crucified " for it because of the content . It was certified gold the month after its release . That same year they released the DVD and CD set entitled aMOTION , which was certified platinum within a month of its release .
Howerdel reported in a May 2006 interview with MTV that the supergroup 's work was concluded for the time being . After more than two years since the band 's last release , Keenan was asked about the status of A Perfect Circle during an interview with Revolver . He stated :
The real problem with running Tool and A Perfect Circle at the same time was they both operate the same way . They 're both live touring bands with a label , still working under the old contract mentality . So I thought it was time to let A Perfect Circle go for now and let Billy explore himself . It 's tough for a guy who went from being a guitar tech [ for Tool ] to being in a band with a pretentious , famous singer and having to live in that shadow . It was important for Billy to go and do his own thing and really explore his own sound and let people hear what he has to say and how he would do it on his own , and then we 'll get back and do some A Perfect Circle stuff .
When asked , in an interview for Spin that same month , about the possibility of another A Perfect Circle album , Keenan stated , " Maybe , someday , a song on a soundtrack . But an album ? No . " A year later , on December 9 , 2008 , blabbermouth.net reported that Keenan had announced on The Pulse of Radio that he and Howerdel have been writing new music for A Perfect Circle . Keenan also said that the band has no plans to resume full @-@ scale touring , or even to write and record a new album . Instead , they will focus on " one or two songs at a time " , which will most likely be released via the Internet .
However , in November 2010 , the band returned from a nearly 6 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ year hiatus with a 14 @-@ show tour in the western US . Touring resumed in May 2011 with a North American tour across the US and Canada that wrapped up at the end of August . The band performed only once in 2012 with a December 29 show in Las Vegas , followed by a five @-@ show Australian tour and a three @-@ show South American tour in early 2013 .
= = = Puscifer = = =
In 2003 , Keenan surfaced under the name " Puscifer " for the song " REV 22 : 20 " on the Underworld film soundtrack . Puscifer was once advertised as a side project with Danny Lohner , who had formerly performed live with Nine Inch Nails , but has since been formed as a manifestation of Keenan 's " creative subconscious " — meaning that Keenan is now using the name as a pseudonym for his solo work . Keenan has stated that it is " a premiere improvisational hardcore band " , and his " catch @-@ all , stream of consciousness , anything goes , etc . " project . When comparing the project to Tool in an interview with Rolling Stone , Keenan described it as his " attempt to make music to inspire people . ... This is definitely not thinking man 's music , but groove @-@ oriented music that makes you feel good . " In a later interview with Artistdirect , Keenan said that he did not want the lyrics to be puzzles . He wanted the complexity to be in the music , stating " that 's the part that gets under your skin and makes you feel good . "
In 2006 , Puscifer contributed the song " The Undertaker ( Renholder Mix ) " to the soundtrack of Underworld : Evolution , where " Renholder " , a moniker for Danny Lohner created by the members of A Perfect Circle , is the reversal of " Re : D Lohner " . Keenan financed and released the first studio album , " V " Is for Vagina , in October 2007 . Created in a tour bus , in several hotel rooms , and in various studios around the country while Keenan toured with Tool , the album is a radical departure from Keenan 's contributions in Tool and A Perfect Circle . Tim Alexander , best known as the drummer for rock band Primus , was a guest musician on the album . He called Puscifer " trancy and hypnotic " and a " total 180 from Tool " . The album was criticized as unfocused and lacking in the passion and intelligence present in Keenan 's previous work .
Puscifer is also a clothing line , with merchandise available for purchase on the band 's website . On September 16 , 2008 , Keenan updated the puscifer.com blog , revealing that the first ever Puscifer store would be opening " hopefully " by October 1 in Jerome , Arizona . Occupying a small space above a tattoo parlor , the store opened on October 3 , 2008 . In addition to the merchandise available on the band 's online store , Keenan has also made available locally roasted coffee , art , and limited edition collectibles .
On February 13 – 15 , 2009 , Keenan debuted Puscifer at the Pearl Concert Theater in Palms Casino Resort in Paradise , Nevada , with a cabaret @-@ style show so abstract it is not easily described . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , Keenan stated " we didn 't really have any clue what to call it , so we just kind of called it cabaret . " Keenan — who has had previous experience with this type of entertainment , having fronted a similar show in Los Angeles before achieving fame with Tool — went on to add that " you just can 't really describe it , you just have to see it , then it makes sense . " Featuring an ever @-@ changing lineup of artists including Milla Jovovich and Primus drummer Tim Alexander , the show was originally said to have a long @-@ term residency at the Pearl ; however , Keenan later revealed that it was to be only a two @-@ show performance .
Puscifer continued to perform with a revolving lineup throughout 2009 at venues around the Southwest . However , in a November 2009 interview , Keenan stated : " Efforts to confine our beloved enigma to the Southwestern United States have been thwarted . We are compelled beyond all reason to bring the noise Eastward and share our special sauce . Although authorities suggest you be prepared for any and all possibilities , we simply suggest you arrive happy and hungry . "
On October 18 , 2011 , Keenan released Puscifer 's second album , Conditions of My Parole . The album received generally favorable reviews on Metacritic , a positive review from Allmusic 's Gregory Heaney , who described it as " a fine piece of cold weather headphone music . " Keenan followed with the February 19 , 2013 , release of Donkey Punch the Night . This EP includes covers of " Bohemian Rhapsody " by Queen and " Balls to the Wall " by Accept . It received mostly mixed reviews , resulting in a Metacritic rating of 62 % .
= = = Writing and performance style = = =
A primary purpose of Keenan 's lyrics for Tool involves a desire to connect with the listeners on a personal level ; to encourage them to look within themselves for self @-@ identity , understanding and reflection . Tool does not include lyrics with any releases as Keenan believes most people " don 't get it " and it is not a priority of the band that people do . However , after each release Keenan has eventually published his typed lyrics online via the semi @-@ official fansite , with the exception of " Lateralus " , which was published on the official Tool website . Despite Maynard 's aversion to promoting the lyrical content of Tool 's work to its audience , lyrical arrangements are often given special attention , such as in the lyrics to " Lateralus " , wherein the number of syllables per line correspond to an arrangement of the Fibonacci numbers , and " Jambi " , in which the metrical foot iamb is used . Keenan 's lyrics on Ænima and Lateralus focused on philosophy and spirituality — specific subjects range from evolution and Jungian psychology in " Forty @-@ Six & 2 " and transcendence in " Lateralus " .
In live performances with Tool , Keenan has often been known to be situated on a platform towards the rear of the stage , without a spotlight , facing the backdrop rather than the audience . Breckinridge Haggerty , the band 's live video director , says that the dark spaces on stage " are mostly for Maynard " . He explains , " a lot of the songs are a personal journey for him and he has a hard time with the glare of the lights when he 's trying to reproduce these emotions for the audience . He needs a bit of personal space , and he feels more comfortable in the shadows . " An exception , which surprised even devout Tool fans , occurred when a fan climbed on stage and attempted to hug Keenan during the band 's performance of " Pushit " . After dropping the fan to the ground with a gentle hip toss , Keenan , continuing to sing , wrapped himself around the man 's back into a rear naked choke . He held the man without actually constricting his neck , allowing him to raise his fist in celebration . Keenan eventually turned the man to his stomach and sat on his back , where he stayed for " an uncomfortably long period of time . " His appearance with Tool has included the Mohawk hairstyle , wigs , Kabuki masks , bras , tights , and his entire body in blue paint . This is contrasted with a variety of long haired wigs while performing with or promoting A Perfect Circle .
Describing Keenan 's contribution to Tool and A Perfect Circle , The New York Times wrote that " both groups rely on Mr. Keenan 's ability to dignify emotions like lust , anger and disgust , the honey in his voice adding a touch of profundity " . He ranked No. 21 in Hit Parader 's 2006 list of " Heavy Metal 's All @-@ Time Top 100 Vocalists " , and his unique style of singing has often been considered influential to artists such as Pete Loeffler of Chevelle and Jared Leto of Thirty Seconds to Mars .
= = Comedy and acting = =
Keenan is featured in several segments of Mr. Show , most notably in the Ronnie Dobbs sketch presented in the first season . In one scene , he is seen being arrested with Dobbs . Later in the sketch he is featured wearing a wig as the lead singer of the then @-@ fictitious band " Puscifer " . When asked about the arrest of Dobbs , Keenan replies " Guilty ? Yeah . I 'm sure he 's guilty but ... he knows it . I mean , you 're guilty , and you don 't know it . So ... who 's really in jail ? " He also appears in episode 2 @.@ 6 , " The Velveteen Touch of a Dandy Fop " , as one of the viewers of Coupon : The Movie , saying " Now is not the time " , waving the cameras off and slapping the microphone out of his face in disgust after walking out of the theater . Later , Keenan would sing on a track for the Mr. Show incarnation Run Ronnie Run , and appear in the " music video sex scene " on its DVD . Keenan appeared on the cover of the May / June 1999 issue of Pop Smear magazine , portraying Charles Manson as part of a photo essay , imitating a famous Life magazine portrait . He also appeared as Satan in the 2002 film Bikini Bandits and its 2004 sequel Bikini Bandits 2 : Golden Rod . When asked in an interview which role was more difficult , Keenan responded , " Oh , Manson . He 's a real person . People know what he looks like , how he talked . With Satan there 's so much gray area . "
In the mid @-@ 90s , responding to requests for Tool to perform in benefit shows , Keenan created " Free Frances Bean " tee @-@ shirts to represent his own platform . Frances ' mother , Courtney Love , had previously referred to Keenan as a " media whore " to which he responded , " Isn 't that great ? I have the distinction of being called a media whore by Courtney Love . " He said that after watching " the tornado that is her mother " , he thought " Oh my God , how is Frances Bean gonna survive this insanity ? " Although it was started as a simple joke , the T @-@ shirts were soon in high demand and Keenan was giving them away .
On April 1 , 2005 , the official Tool website announced , as an April Fools ' Day prank , that " Maynard has found Jesus " and would be abandoning the recording of the new album temporarily and possibly permanently . Kurt Loder of MTV contacted Keenan via email to ask for a confirmation and received a nonchalant confirmation . When Loder asked again , Keenan 's response was simply " heh heh " . On April 7 , the official site revealed that it was a hoax . During an interview Keenan later stated , " It was April Fools ' . If you fall for that on April Fools ' Day , there 's nothing I can do for you . " He has been part of other April Fools ' pranks related to Tool , including one in which he was said to be in critical condition after a tour bus accident .
Keenan made his major feature film debut in the April 17 , 2009 , release of Crank : High Voltage . Sharing a scene with the movie 's lead , Jason Statham , Keenan portrays a dog walker " who has an electrifying experience [ ... ] in a public park " .
In May 2015 , Keenan made a cameo in an episode of Comedy Bang ! Bang ! as fictional punk musician Barf Edwards .
= = Winemaking and other endeavors = =
In addition to a produce market in Cornville , Arizona ; Keenan , whose grandparents and great @-@ uncle made wine in Northern Italy , owns Merkin Vineyards and Caduceus Cellars , based in the unincorporated area of Page Springs / Cornville , Arizona , southwest of Sedona , where he resides . While the winery is named after an ancient symbol for commerce ( caduceus ) , the vineyard is named after a pubic wig ( merkin ) . He is also a partner of Stronghold Vineyards , " an 80 @-@ acre site dedicated to producing affordable wines in the state " , located in the small , unincorporated area known as Kansas Settlement in Sulfur Springs Valley , Arizona . Keenan 's mother died in 2003 , at the age of 59 , due to complications from an aneurysm . Following her death , he scattered her ashes across one of his vineyards , and later named one of his wines after her , honoring her memory with his Cabernet Sauvignon " Nagual del Judith " . In a statement released in April 2009 , Keenan stated :
I am standing on a metaphorical plateau . The view from here suggests that I / we still have many mountains to negotiate . It has already been a long journey . But the successes and failures have been in balance . Which would suggest that I / we have chosen the correct path . I hold in my hands the evidence to support this statement . . . With tears in my eyes , I present to you the very first 100 percent Arizona Caduceus wine . Nagual del Judith , named after my late mother , Judith Marie .
His previous wines were named after relatives of the Chiricahua Apache chief Cochise who lived in the area where the vineyard is located , and were produced at Page Springs Cellars , owned by Keenan 's business partner . While those wines used some fruits imported from California , " Nagual del Judith " is the first made entirely from Keenan 's own vineyard . Keenan was also a part @-@ owner of Cobras & Matadors , an LA restaurant ran by Steven Arroyo until 2012 .
During the fall season of 2008 , Keenan began a small tour of sorts with his Stronghold Vineyards partner Eric Glomski , promoting his wine with signing sessions at Whole Foods Markets in California and Nevada . The tour continued in 2009 with sessions in Texas kicking off in March , and appearances scheduled during Tool 's 2009 summer tour in Florida , Massachusetts , and New Jersey . In July 2009 , Keenan opened an organic market which features a tasting room for his Arizona wines as well as a food court .
Keenan is featured in Blood Into Wine : The Arizona Stronghold , a documentary co @-@ produced by Moog filmmakers Ryan Page and Christopher Pomerenk that chronicles Keenan and Glomski 's embarkation into winemaking in the desert conditions of Arizona 's Verde Valley , and the success they 've seen in the decade since its inception . The film , which includes appearances from Tim & Eric , Patton Oswalt , and Milla Jovovich , was shown at the Noise Pop Festival on February 25 , 2010 , along with another documentary produced by Pomerenk , The Heart is a Drum Machine . It investigates why people create and listen to music , and features Keenan , Jason Schwartzman , Kurt Loder , Nic Harcourt , Juliette Lewis , and Elijah Wood .
In a January 2013 interview with Phoenix New Times , Keenan announced he is working on an autobiography .
I think there are a lot of misconceptions with some people that , all of a sudden , I was born when my first band came out , " Keenan says . " I actually had a life before that , and there were a lot of accomplishments . [ The book ] will kind of chronicle why it is I got to where I am , and why I got to where you knew about me .
In April 2016 it was announced that Maynard 's authorized biography would be called " A Perfect Union Of Contrary Things " and would be for sale November 8 , 2016 .
= = Philanthropy = =
Keenan has used his voice on numerous occasions to support charitable causes . He performed at a 1997 benefit concert for RAINN ( the Rape , Abuse & Incest National Network ) organized by Tori Amos ( who had often referred to Keenan as an unofficial brother ) . He is one of the notable performers for Axis of Justice , a non @-@ profit organization that brings musicians , fans of music , and grassroots political organizations together to fight for social justice . In 2004 , Axis of Justice released Concert Series Volume 1 . Included are two tracks featuring Keenan on vocals . The second track on the album , " ( What 's So Funny ' Bout ) Peace , Love , and Understanding " , was recorded live during Lollapalooza in Seattle , Washington on August 23 , 2003 . The first track , " Where the Streets Have No Name " , was recorded live during the Axis of Justice Concert Series at The Avalon in Hollywood on July 19 , 2004 . In February 2005 , Keenan appeared as a surprise vocalist at a Seattle benefit concert for victims of the 2004 earthquake and tsunami in southern Asia , performing with the partly reformed Alice in Chains , in place of the deceased vocalist Layne Staley , on the songs " Them Bones " , " Man in the Box " , and " Rooster " .
= = Personal life = =
He has a son named Devo H. Keenan ( born 1995 ) who sang backing vocals on A Perfect Circle 's Thirteenth Step , and later was credited as the cellist on Keep Telling Myself It 's Alright — the debut album of Ashes Divide , Billy Howerdel 's post @-@ A Perfect Circle project . He also gave a solo cello performance for Maynard 's 50th birthday celebrational concert , " Cinquanta " .
Two songs bear the name of Maynard 's mother , Judith Marie Keenan : the song " Wings for Marie ( Pt . 1 ) " by Tool and " Judith " by A Perfect Circle .
Keenan has a reputation for being reclusive , elliptical and controlling of his public image . He dislikes the manner in which rock stars are worshipped , and at one point carried business cards with the name " Jesus H. Christ " printed on them . When having to deal with stalkers , Keenan has apparently resorted to using a paintball gun to run off trespassers from his property . Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu is one of Keenan 's pursuits , and he studied under Rickson Gracie .
It was announced in June 2010 that Keenan had proposed to girlfriend and Caduceus lab manager Lei Li . On September 10 , 2012 , Keenan wrote an article for the Phoenix New Times in which he made reference to his wife , and he has included in the position field of her Caduceus staff page , " Wife " and " My Better half , " and her interests as " Me . " On July 25 , 2014 , Keenan and his wife welcomed a baby daughter , Lei Li Agostina Maria .
= = Selected discography = =
With TexA.N.S.
Live at Sons and Daughters Hall ( 1986 )
Never Again ( 1986 )
With Children of the Anachronistic Dynasty
Fingernails ( 1986 )
Dog.House ( 1987 )
With Tool
Undertow ( 1993 )
Ænima ( 1996 )
Lateralus ( 2001 )
10 @,@ 000 Days ( 2006 )
With A Perfect Circle
Mer de Noms ( 2000 )
Thirteenth Step ( 2003 )
eMOTIVe ( 2004 )
As Puscifer
" V " Is for Vagina ( 2007 )
Conditions of My Parole ( 2011 )
Money Shot ( 2015 )
= Drew Carey =
Drew Allison Carey ( born May 23 , 1958 ) is an American actor , comedian , sports executive , and game show host . After serving in the U.S. Marine Corps and making a name for himself in stand @-@ up comedy , Carey eventually gained popularity starring in his own sitcom , The Drew Carey Show , and serving as host of the U.S. version of the improv comedy show Whose Line Is It Anyway ? , both of which aired on ABC .
Carey has appeared in several films , television series , music videos , a made @-@ for @-@ television film , and a computer game . He has hosted the game show The Price Is Right since 2007 on CBS . He is interested in a variety of sports , has worked as a photographer at U.S. National Team soccer games , is a minority owner of the Major League Soccer team Seattle Sounders FC . Carey has written an autobiography , Dirty Jokes and Beer : Stories of the Unrefined , detailing his early life and television career .
= = Early life = =
Carey is the youngest of Lewis and Beulah Carey 's three sons and raised in the Old Brooklyn neighborhood of Cleveland , Ohio . When Drew was eight years old , his father died from a brain tumor . He played the cornet and trumpet in the marching band of James Ford Rhodes High School , from which he graduated in 1975 .
He continued on to college at Kent State University ( KSU ) and was expelled twice for poor academic performance . He left KSU after three years . After leaving the university , Carey enlisted into the United States Marine Corps Reserve in 1980 and served for six years . He moved to Las Vegas for a few months in 1982 , and for a short time worked as a bank teller and a waiter at Denny 's .
= = Stand @-@ up career = =
In 1985 , he began his comedy career by following up on a suggestion by David Lawrence ( a disc jockey friend who had been paying Drew to write jokes for David 's radio show in Cleveland ) to go to the library and borrow books on how to write jokes . The following year , after winning an open @-@ microphone contest , he became Master of Ceremonies at the Cleveland Comedy Club . He performed at comedy clubs over the next few years in Cleveland and Los Angeles . He first came to the national eye as a comedian when he competed in the 1988 Star Search . Carey was working as a stand @-@ up comedian when he appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in November 1991 . His performance that night impressed Carson , who invited Carey to the couch next to his desk ; this was considered a rare honor for any comedian . In that same year , Carey joined the 14th Annual Young Comedians Special on HBO and made his first appearance on Late Night with David Letterman . In 1994 , Carey wrote his own stand @-@ up comedy special , Drew Carey : Human Cartoon , which aired on Showtime and won a CableACE Award for Best Writing .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early roles = = =
His early stand @-@ up career led to supporting roles on television shows , during which he developed the character of a hapless middle @-@ class bachelor . In 1993 , Carey had a small role in the film Coneheads as a taxi passenger . In 1994 , Carey co @-@ starred with John Caponera in The Good Life , a short @-@ lived sitcom on NBC . After the show was cancelled , Bruce Helford , a writer on the show , hired Carey as a consultant for the television show Someone Like Me .
= = = The Drew Carey Show = = =
After their stint on Someone Like Me , Carey and Helford developed and produced the storyline for The Drew Carey Show . The sitcom revolved around a fictionalized version of Carey , as he took on the stresses of life and work with his group of childhood friends . The show premiered on September 13 , 1995 on ABC . In his autobiography , Carey revealed his frustration with having to deal with censors and being unable to employ the off @-@ color humor common in his stand @-@ up routines . Carey initially earned $ 60 @,@ 000 per episode in the first seasons , then renegotiated for $ 300 @,@ 000 . By the final season , he was earning $ 750 @,@ 000 per episode . The show had high ratings for its first few seasons , but declining ratings and increasing production costs ( around $ 3 million per episode ) precipitated its cancellation . The program had a total of 233 episodes over its nine @-@ year run and Carey was one of four actors to appear in every episode . The show starred ( in order of episode appearances ) Carey , Diedrich Bader , Kathy Kinney , Ryan Stiles ( all in every episode ) ; Craig Ferguson ( starring role in seasons 2 – 8 and guest appearances in 9 ) ; Christa Miller ( seasons 1 – 7 ) ; and Ian Gomez ( semi @-@ regular from seasons 1 – 9 ) and John Carroll Lynch ( semi @-@ regular from seasons 3 / 4 – 9 ) .
= = = Improv television = = =
While still starring in The Drew Carey Show , in 1998 Carey began hosting the American version of the improvisational comedy show Whose Line Is It Anyway ? . He would announce the improv guests , direct the games , and then would usually involve himself in the final game of the episode . The show ran for a total of 220 episodes until the show 's cancellation in 2006 . In 1998 , the New York Friars ' Club made Carey the newest inductee of the group 's Comedy Central Roast . His friend Ryan Stiles ( who costarred in The Drew Carey Show and Whose Line Is It Anyway ? ) served as the roastmaster . Carey 's income from Whose Line Is It Anyway ? and The Drew Carey Show led to his inclusion on the Forbes list of highest @-@ paid entertainers of 1998 , at 24th with $ 45 @.@ 5 million .
For the WB 's 2004 – 2005 prime time schedule , Carey co @-@ produced and starred in Drew Carey 's Green Screen Show , a spin @-@ off of Whose Line Is It Anyway ? . It was canceled by the WB , but picked up shortly afterward by Comedy Central . The show 's premise relied on the use of a green screen for all of the actors ' improv interactions . Animation on the screen was inserted during post @-@ production .
In April 2011 , Carey began hosting a new primetime improv show , called Drew Carey 's Improv @-@ A @-@ Ganza . It was filmed at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas , Nevada and first aired on April 11 . The show takes on the premise of Whose Line ? and Drew Carey 's Green Screen Show in that it features many of the same performers from both shows and they do improv based on audience @-@ provided suggestions .
= = = Improv All @-@ Stars = = =
Carey was one of the founders of the Improv All @-@ Stars , a group of eleven actors who perform in unscripted skits . The group joined Carey in all three of his improv shows , Whose Line Is It Anyway ? , Drew Carey 's Green Screen Show , and Drew Carey 's Improv @-@ a @-@ ganza and some members had major roles or guest starred on The Drew Carey Show . The Improv All @-@ Stars travel on comedy tours , performing at comedy clubs throughout the United States .
= = Game show host = =
= = = Power of 10 = = =
Beginning in 2007 , Carey began hosting game shows , beginning with his April selection as host of the CBS game show pilot Power of 10 . The show ran from August 7 , 2007 to April 7 , 2008 and aired twice weekly during the late summer and early fall . Each game featured contestants predicting how a cross @-@ section of Americans responded to questions covering a wide variety of topics in polls conducted by CBS .
= = = The Price Is Right = = =
After taping the pilot episode for Power of 10 , Carey was contacted by CBS about replacing Bob Barker — who had earlier announced his own retirement — as host of The Price Is Right . After initially turning down the offer , Carey announced on Late Show with David Letterman that he would succeed Barker as host of the program beginning in the fall of 2007 . His first episode of The Price Is Right was taped on August 15 , and his shows began airing on October 15 . In response to replacing Barker as host of the game show , Carey stated " You can 't replace Bob Barker . I don 't compare myself to anybody ... It 's only about what you 're doing and supposed to do , and I feel like I 'm supposed to be doing this . " When Carey began hosting , the set , theme music , and show logo were updated . However , Carey kept the old closing line about spaying and neutering the pets that originated with Barker , although his version uses slightly different wording . During Carey 's second year as host , he began to write some of the sketches used during the Showcase , which sometimes features guest appearances by stars of other CBS programs . In the April Fools ' Day 2013 episode , Carey and announcer George Gray switched places with the models , letting the two men be the models for the episode .
= = Other roles and appearances = =
Carey began appearing in commercials for restaurants in the late 1990s in Canada with The Great Root Bear , but his two @-@ year contract with A & W Food Services of Canada was cut short in November 1998 after an episode of The Drew Carey Show featured McDonald 's . As a result of his dismissal , Carey sued A & W for compensation .
Disney 's Hollywood Studios ( then " Disney @-@ MGM Studios " ) , part of Walt Disney World Resort in Florida , debuted a 12 @-@ minute attraction in 1999 titled Sounds Dangerous ! . In the show , a camera follows Carey through a day as an undercover detective . When his video camera fails , the audience is left in complete darkness wearing earphones , following his adventure through sound cues . The attraction is now closed .
In 2000 , Carey was given a cameo appearance in the House Party expansion pack of the computer game The Sims . To make him appear , the characters in the game must throw a successful party , which causes Carey to arrive in a limo and join the festivities . Carey is a fan of The Sims series and during one April Fool 's episode of The Drew Carey Show , a scene takes place completely within The Sims . Carey made several other cameo appearances in music videos , including " Weird Al " Yankovic 's " It 's All About the Pentiums " and Fountains of Wayne 's 2004 video for " Mexican Wine " , giving an introduction to the video as if it were on a stage .
On January 21 , 2001 , Drew entered as Vince McMahon 's guest entrant in the Royal Rumble match .
Although primarily known for his television work , Carey has done limited film work , with his first appearance in 1993 's Coneheads . His next film was the 2000 television film , Geppetto that debuted on The Wonderful World of Disney . The film , an adaptation of Pinocchio , included actor Wayne Brady who had joined Carey on his improv shows . Carey took singing lessons to prepare for the role . In 2005 , Carey appeared in three films : the animated film Robots , where he provided a voice @-@ over for the character Crank ; The Aristocrats where he retold a dirty joke along with other celebrities ; and the documentary , Fuck , where he was interviewed .
Carey provided the entertainment for the 2002 Annual White House correspondents ' dinner . Once Carey completed his standup routine for the 1 @,@ 800 guests , President George W. Bush , noting Carey 's improv work , made a joke of his own : " Drew ? Got any interest in the Middle East ? " In 2003 , he joined Jamie Kennedy to host the WB 's live special Play for a Billion . In September 2003 , Carey led a group of comedians , including Blake Clark and The Drew Carey Show 's Kathy Kinney , on a comedy tour of Iraq .
On June 8 , 2006 , Drew Carey 's Sporting Adventures debuted on the Travel Channel . In this series , Carey traveled throughout Germany to photograph multiple FIFA World Cup soccer games while he immerses himself in the culture of the towns and states he visits . In early 2008 , Carey appeared in Matt Groening 's The Simpsons as part of the episode " All About Lisa " as a guest on the Krusty the Clown Show . He also surfaced in the second season of Community , playing a well liked former boss to Jeff Winger .
On March 4 , 2014 , it was announced on Good Morning America that Carey would compete on the season 18 of Dancing with the Stars . He was partnered with professional dancer Cheryl Burke . The couple was eliminated on the sixth week of competition , finishing in 8th place .
= = Writing = =
Carey has routinely written throughout his career , including developing his stand @-@ up comedy routines in his early stand @-@ up career , and then moving on to assist in writing sitcoms . In 1997 , Carey published his autobiography , Dirty Jokes and Beer : Stories of the Unrefined wherein he shared memories of his early childhood and of his father 's death when he was eight . He also revealed that he was once molested , had suffered bouts of depression , and had made two suicide attempts by swallowing a large amount of sleeping pills . The book discusses his college fraternity years while attending Kent State University , and his professional career up to that time . The book featured large amounts of profanity and , as the title suggests , includes multiple dirty jokes ( there is one at the start of each chapter ) and references to beer . The book was featured on The New York Times bestseller list for three months .
= = Personal life = =
He adopted his crew cut hair style while serving in the United States Marine Corps . Carey has had refractive surgery to correct his vision and therefore did not really require glasses ( any glasses he wore in public were merely props to help the audience recognize him ) . However , while this was true for several years , on the May 17 , 2006 episode of Jimmy Kimmel Live ! he revealed that when he turned 40 , he actually developed a need for bifocals . As of 2007 , Carey resides in Los Angeles and New York City .
Carey is a father figure to Nicole Jaracz 's son , Connor , from a previous relationship . They have no children together . Nicole and Connor have appeared alongside Carey on The Price Is Right several times . Although he proposed to Jaracz in 2007 , the pair never wed as the engagement was called off in January 2012 .
After suffering chest pains while filming The Drew Carey Show in August 2001 , Carey went to the hospital where he underwent a coronary angioplasty . Although his weight was a comedic topic throughout his sitcom and improv shows , in 2010 he began a diet and exercise plan , resulting in an extensive weight loss ( similar to former TPIR announcer Rod Roddy ) . He also claimed that he cured his Type 2 diabetes .
= = = Political views = = =
Carey is an outspoken libertarian . He has expressed his political philosophy in the following terms , " I believe the answers to all the problems we face as a society won 't come from Washington , it will come from us . So the way we decide to live our lives and our decisions about what we buy or don 't buy are much more important than who we vote for . "
Carey expressed his distaste for the Bush administration 's management of the Iraq War , specifically on the September 15 , 2007 , episode of Real Time with Bill Maher . He made donations to Ron Paul 's presidential campaign for the 2008 election . On the September 26 , 2008 , episode of The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson , Carey defined " libertarian " to host Craig Ferguson as " a conservative who still gets high . " In 2016 , he supported Libertarian Party presidential candidate Gary Johnson in his run for office .
Carey has spoken about his various political beliefs in several interviews , and in 1998 he led a " smoke @-@ in " in defiance of California 's newly passed no @-@ smoking ordinance inside bars and restaurants . Carey has hosted a series of mini @-@ documentaries called The Drew Carey Project on Reason.tv , an online project of Reason Foundation , a libertarian @-@ oriented nonprofit think tank ( for which Carey sits as a member of the board of trustees ) . The first episode , " Gridlock " , addresses private highway ownership and was released on October 15 , 2007 . Other episodes discuss topics such as eminent domain , urban traffic congestion , and medical marijuana .
= = = Sports involvement = = =
Carey is a devoted fan of the U.S. National Soccer Team , Cleveland Browns , Cleveland Cavaliers , Cleveland Indians and the Columbus Blue Jackets . In 1999 , Carey was part of the pregame ceremonies at the first game of the return of the Cleveland Browns , televised on ESPN . Carey attended the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany and the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa . Carey is a minority owner of the Seattle Sounders FC , who began play in Major League Soccer on March 19 , 2009 . Carey is a fan of FC Barcelona and of the Scottish team Rangers . In 2006 he was a season ticket holder for the Los Angeles Galaxy .
Carey has shown his support for the Indians by throwing the first pitch at an August 12 , 2006 , game against the Kansas City Royals . He was rewarded by the Cleveland Indians for being " the greatest Indians fan alive " with a personal bobblehead doll made in his likeness that was given to fans . Carey responded to his bobblehead likeness by saying " Bobblehead Day , for me , is as big as getting a star in the Hollywood Walk of Fame . "
In 2001 , Carey was the first television actor to enter World Wrestling Federation 's 30 @-@ man " Royal Rumble " match , which he did to promote an improv comedy pay @-@ per @-@ view at the time . He appeared in a few backstage segments before his brief participation in the match . Upon entering the ring , Carey stood unopposed for more than half a minute , but after the next entrant Kane refused a monetary bribe , Carey eliminated himself from the match by jumping over the top rope and retreated from ringside . On April 2 , 2011 , Carey was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame by Kane .
Carey competed against five other celebrities in the first celebrity edition of the 2003 World Poker Tour . He placed fifth , only beating out actor Jack Black . Carey won $ 2 @,@ 000 for his charity .
On May 15 , 2011 , Carey completed the " Marine Corps Historic Half Marathon " in 1 : 57 : 02 , then on September 4 , 2011 , he improved to complete the Disneyland Half Marathon in 1 : 50 : 46 . And on October 30 , 2011 , he finished the Marine Corps Marathon with a chip time of 4 : 37 : 11 , placing 10149th out of 20940 .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Carey is a supporter of libraries , crediting them for beginning his successful comedy career . On May 2 , 2000 , in a celebrity edition of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire , he selected the Ohio Library Foundation to receive his $ 500 @,@ 000 winnings . He later went on to win an additional $ 32 @,@ 000 on the second celebrity Millionaire , making him one of the biggest winning contestants on Millionaire who did not win the top prize . Carey also has played on the World Poker Tour in the Hollywood Home games for the Cleveland Public Library charity . In June 2007 , Carey offered to donate up to $ 100 @,@ 000 ( in $ 10 @,@ 000 increments ) to the Mooch Myernick Memorial Fund if anybody could beat him at the video game FIFA Soccer 07 for the Xbox 360 . He dared five players from both the U.S. Men 's and Women 's National Teams to compete against him . Carey ended up donating $ 100 @,@ 000 plus $ 60 @,@ 000 for losing two games out of the six games he played .
In October 2009 , Carey made a bid of $ 25 @,@ 000 in a charity auction for the @ drew Twitter account . He later increased his offer to $ 100 @,@ 000 if the number of followers of his account @ DrewFromTV reached 100 @,@ 000 by the end of the auction . In an interview with CBS News , he said he would instead donate $ 1 million to the charity Livestrong Foundation if his follower count reached one million by December 31 , 2009 .
= = Photography = =
Carey can sometimes be seen on the sidelines of U.S. National Team soccer games as a press photographer . His images are sold via wire services under the pseudonym Brooks Parkenridge . He was at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in the summer of 2006 , for his television show Drew Carey 's Sporting Adventures .
= = Filmography = =
Carey has starred in only a few television shows and films , but also has numerous guest star appearances in a variety of sitcoms and comedy shows .
= = = Television = = =
= = = Film = = =
.
= = Awards and honors = =
= = = Individual = = =
1994 : Cable Ace Award for Best Writing – Drew Carey : Human Cartoon
1995 : TV Guide " 10 Hottest New Faces of 1995 "
1998 : Satellite Award for Best Actor – Musical / Comedy Series
2000 : Honorary DHL from Cleveland State University
2000 : People 's Choice Award for Favorite Male Television Performer
2003 : Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
2004 : Comedy Central 's 100 Greatest Stand @-@ Ups of All Time ( # 84 )
2011 : WWE Hall of Fame inductee
2011 : Southern California Journalism " Best Advocacy Journalism " Award winner
= = = Collective = = =
2013 : Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show ( as host of The Price Is Right )
2014 : Supporters ' Shield winner ( as part owner of the Seattle Sounders )
Four @-@ time Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup winner ( as part owner of the Seattle Sounders - 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2014 )
= Manchester Ship Canal =
The Manchester Ship Canal is a 36 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 58 km ) inland waterway in the North West of England linking Manchester to the Irish Sea . Starting at the Mersey Estuary near Liverpool , it generally follows the original routes of the rivers Mersey and Irwell through the historic counties of Cheshire and Lancashire . Several sets of locks lift vessels about 60 feet ( 18 m ) up to Manchester , where the canal 's terminus was built . Major landmarks along its route include the Barton Swing Aqueduct , the only swing aqueduct in the world , and Trafford Park , the world 's first planned industrial estate and still the largest in Europe .
The rivers Mersey and Irwell were first made navigable in the early 18th century . Goods were also transported on the Runcorn extension of the Bridgewater Canal ( from 1776 ) and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway ( from 1830 ) , but by the late 19th century the Mersey and Irwell Navigation had fallen into disrepair and was often unusable . In addition , Manchester 's business community viewed the charges imposed by Liverpool 's docks and the railway companies as excessive . A ship canal was therefore proposed as a way of giving ocean @-@ going vessels direct access to Manchester . The region was suffering from the effects of the Long Depression , and for the canal 's proponents , who argued that the scheme would boost competition and create jobs , the idea of a ship canal made sound economic sense . They initiated a public campaign to enlist support for the scheme , which was first presented to Parliament as a bill in 1882 . Faced with stiff opposition from Liverpool , the canal 's supporters were unable to gain the necessary Act of Parliament to allow the scheme to go ahead until 1885 .
Construction began in 1887 ; it took six years and cost £ 15 million ( equivalent to about £ 1 @.@ 65 billion in 2011 ) . When the ship canal opened in January 1894 it was the largest river navigation canal in the world , and enabled the newly created Port of Manchester to become Britain 's third busiest port despite the city being about 40 miles ( 64 km ) inland . Changes to shipping methods and the growth of containerisation during the 1970s and ' 80s meant that many ships were now too big to use the canal and traffic declined , resulting in the closure of the terminal docks at Salford . Although able to accommodate a range of vessels from coastal ships to inter @-@ continental cargo liners , the canal is not large enough for most modern vessels . By 2011 traffic had decreased from its peak in 1958 of 18 million long tons ( 20 million short tons ) of freight each year to about 7 million long tons ( 7 @.@ 8 million short tons ) . The canal is now privately owned by Peel Ports , whose plans include redevelopment , expansion , and an increase in shipping from 8 @,@ 000 containers a year to 100 @,@ 000 by 2030 , as part of their Atlantic Gateway project .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The idea that the rivers Mersey and Irwell should be made navigable from the Mersey Estuary in the west to Manchester in the east was first proposed in 1660 , and revived in 1712 by the English civil engineer Thomas Steers . The necessary legislation was proposed in 1720 , and the Act of Parliament for the navigation passed into law in 1721 . Construction began in 1724 , undertaken by the Mersey & Irwell Navigation Company . By 1734 boats " of moderate size " were able to make the journey from quays near Water Street in Manchester to the Irish Sea , but the navigation was only suitable for small ships ; during periods of low rainfall or when strong easterly winds held back the tide in the estuary , there was not always sufficient depth of water for a fully laden boat . The completion in 1776 of the Runcorn extension of the Bridgewater Canal , followed in 1830 by the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway , intensified competition for the carriage of goods . In 1825 an application had been made to Parliament for an Act to allow the construction of a ship canal between the mouth of the River Dee and Manchester at a cost of £ 1 million , but " the necessary forms not having been observed " , it did not become law . In 1844 ownership of the Mersey & Irwell Navigation was transferred to the Bridgewater Trustees , and in 1872 it was sold to The Bridgewater Navigation Company for £ 1 @.@ 112 million . The navigation had by then fallen into disrepair , its owners preferring instead to maintain the more profitable canal ; in 1882 the navigation was described as being " hopelessly choked with silt and filth " , and was closed to all but the smaller boats for 264 out of 311 working days .
Along with deteriorating economic conditions in the 1870s and the start of a period known as the Long Depression , the dues charged by the Port of Liverpool and the railway charges from there to Manchester were perceived to be excessive by Manchester 's business community ; it was often cheaper to import goods from Hull , on the opposite side of the country , than it was from Liverpool . A ship canal was proposed as a way to reduce carriage charges , avoid payment of dock and town dues at Liverpool , and by @-@ pass the Liverpool to Manchester railways by giving Manchester direct access to the sea for its imports and its exports of manufactured goods . Historian Ian Harford suggested that the canal may also have been conceived as an " imaginative response to [ the ] problems of depression and unemployment " that Manchester was experiencing during the early 1880s . Its proponents argued that reduced transport costs would make local industry more competitive , and that the scheme would help create new jobs .
The idea was championed by Manchester manufacturer Daniel Adamson , who arranged a meeting at his home , The Towers in Didsbury , on 27 June 1882 . He invited the representatives of several Lancashire towns , local businessmen and politicians , and two civil engineers : Hamilton Fulton and Edward Leader Williams . Fulton 's design was for a tidal canal , with no locks and a deepened channel into Manchester . With the city about 60 feet ( 18 m ) above sea level , the docks and quays would have been well below the surrounding surface . Williams ' plan was to dredge a channel between a set of retaining walls , and build a series of locks and sluices to lift incoming vessels up to Manchester . Both engineers were invited to submit their proposals , and Williams ' plans were selected to form the basis of a bill to be submitted to Parliament later that year .
= = = Public campaign = = =
To generate support for the scheme , the provisional committee initiated a public campaign led by Joseph Lawrence , who had worked for the Hull and Barnsley Railway . His task was to set up committees in every ward in Manchester and throughout Lancashire , to raise subscriptions and sell the idea to the local public . The first meeting was held on 4 October in Manchester 's Oxford Ward , followed by another on 17 October in the St. James Ward . Within a few weeks meetings had been held throughout Manchester and Salford , culminating in a conference on 3 November attended by the provisional committee and members of the various Ward Committees . A large meeting of the working classes , attended by several local notables including the general secretaries of several trade unions , was held on 13 November at the Free Trade Hall in Manchester .
Regular night @-@ time meetings were held across the region , headed by speakers from a range of professions . Harford suggests that the organisers ' choice of orators represents their " canny ability " to choose speakers who might move their audiences to support their cause . By adopting techniques used by the Anti @-@ Corn Law League , their strategy was ultimately successful : local offices were acquired , secretaries hired and further meetings organised . The weekly Ship Canal Gazette , priced at one penny , was by the end of the year being sold at newsagents in towns across Lancashire . The Gazette was part of a prolonged print campaign organised by the committee , to circulate leaflets and pamphlets , and write supportive letters to the local press , often signed with pseudonyms . One of the few surviving leaflets , " The Manchester Ship Canal . Reasons why it Should be Made " , argued against dock and railway rates , which were apparently levied " with the object of protecting the interests of Railway kings , [ so that ] trade is handicapped , and wages kept low " . By the end of 1882 the provisional committee comprised members from several of Manchester 's large industries , but notably few of the city 's wealthier inhabitants . The sympathetic Manchester City News reported that " the rich men of South and East Lancashire , with a few notable exceptions , have not rivalled the enthusiasm of the general public " .
= = = Bills = = =
The Mersey Docks Board opposed the committee 's first bill , presented late in 1882 , and it was rejected by Parliament in January 1883 for breaching Standing Orders . Within six weeks the committee organised hundreds of petitions from a range of bodies across the country : one representing Manchester was signed by almost 200 @,@ 000 people . The requirement for Standing Orders was dispensed with , and the represented bill allowed to proceed . Some witnesses against the scheme , worried that a canal would cause the entrance to the Mersey estuary to silt up , blocking traffic , cited the case of Chester harbour . This had silted up due to a man @-@ made cut through the Dee estuary . Faced with conflicting evidence , Parliament rejected the bill . Later mass meetings were held , including a large demonstration at Pomona Gardens on 24 June 1884 . Strong opposition from Liverpool led the House of Commons Committee to reject the committee 's second bill on 1 August 1884 .
The unresolved question of what would happen to the Mersey estuary if the canal was built had remained a sticking point . During questioning , an engineer for the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board was asked how he would avoid such a problem . His reply , " I should enter at Eastham and carry the canal along the shore until I reached Runcorn , and then I would strike inland " , prompted Williams to change his design to include this suggestion . Despite continued opposition , the committee 's third bill , presented in November 1884 , was passed by Parliament on 2 May 1885 , and received royal assent on 6 August , becoming the Manchester Ship Canal Act 1885 . Certain conditions were attached ; £ 5 million had to be raised , and the ship canal company was legally obliged to buy both the Bridgewater Canal and the Mersey & Irwell Navigation within two years . The estimated cost of construction was £ 5 @.@ 16 million , and the work was expected to take four years to complete .
= = = Financing = = =
The enabling Act of Parliament stipulated that the ship canal company 's £ 8 million share capital had to be issued within two years , otherwise the act would lapse . Adamson wanted to encourage the widest possible share ownership , and believed the funds should be raised largely from the working population . Richard Peacock , vice @-@ chairman of the Provisional Manchester Ship Canal Committee , said in 1882 :
No few individuals should be expected to subscribe and form a company for mere gain ; it should be taken on by the public ; and if it is not ... I for one should say drop the scheme ... unless I see the public coming forward in a hearty manner .
The act forbade the company from issuing shares below £ 10 so , to make them easier for ordinary people to buy , they issued shilling coupons in books of ten so they could be paid for in instalments . The construction costs and expected competition from the Port of Liverpool put off potential investors ; by May 1887 only £ 3 million had been raised . As a temporary solution Thomas Walker , the contractor selected to construct the canal , agreed to accept £ 500 @,@ 000 of the contract price in shares , but raising the remainder required another Act of Parliament to allow the company 's share capital to be restructured as £ 3 million of ordinary shares and £ 4 million of preference shares . Adamson was convinced that the money should be raised from members of the public and opposed the debt restructuring , resigning as chairman of the Ship Canal Committee on 1 February 1887 . Barings and Rothschild jointly issued a prospectus for the sale of the preference shares on 15 July , and by 21 July the issue had been fully underwritten , allowing construction to begin . The first sod was cut on 11 November 1887 , by Lord Egerton of Tatton , who had taken over the chairmanship of the Manchester Ship Canal Company from Adamson .
The canal company exhausted its capital of £ 8 million in 4 years , when only half the construction work was completed . To avoid bankruptcy they appealed for funds to Manchester Corporation , which set up a Ship Canal Committee . On 9 March 1891 the corporation decided , on the committee 's recommendation , to lend the necessary £ 3 million , to preserve the city 's prestige . In return the corporation was allowed to appoint five of the fifteen members of the board of directors . The company subsequently raised its estimates of the cost of completion in September 1891 and again in June 1892 . An executive committee was appointed as an emergency measure in December 1891 , and on 14 October 1892 the Ship Canal Committee resolved to lend a further £ 1 @.@ 5 million on condition that Manchester Corporation had an absolute majority on the canal company 's board of directors and its various sub @-@ committees . The corporation subsequently appointed 11 of the 21 seats , nominated Alderman Sir John Harwood as deputy director of the company , and secured majorities on five of the board 's six sub @-@ committees . The cost to Manchester Corporation of financing the Ship Canal Company had a significant impact on local taxpayers . Manchester 's municipal debt rose by 67 per cent , resulting in a 26 per cent increase in rates between 1892 and 1895 .
However well this arrangement served the corporation , by the mid @-@ 1980s it had become " meaningless " . Most of the company 's shares were controlled by the property developer John Whittaker , and in 1986 the council agreed to give up all but one of its seats in return for a payment of £ 10 million . The deal extricated Manchester Council from a politically difficult conflict of interest , as Whittaker was proposing to develop a large out of town shopping centre on land owned by the Ship Canal Company at Dumplington , the present @-@ day Trafford Centre . The council opposed the scheme , believing that it would damage the city centre economy , but accepted that it was " obviously in the interests of the shareholders " .
= = = Construction = = =
Thomas Walker was appointed as contractor , with Edward Leader Williams as chief engineer and designer and general manager . The 36 @-@ mile ( 58 km ) route was divided into eight sections , with one engineer responsible for each . The first reached from Eastham to Ellesmere Port . Mount Manisty , a large mound of earth on a narrow stretch between the canal and the Mersey northwest of Ellesmere Port , was constructed from soil taken from the excavations . It and the adjacent Manisty Cutting were named after the engineer in charge . The last section built was the passage from Weston Point through the Runcorn gap to Norton ; the existing docks at Runcorn and Weston had to be kept operational until they could be connected to the completed western sections of the ship canal .
For the first two years construction went according to plan , but Walker died on 25 November 1889 . While the work was continued by his executors , the project suffered a number of setbacks and was hampered by harsh weather and several serious floods . In January 1891 , when the project had been expected to have been completed , a severe winter added to the difficulties ; the Bridgewater Canal , the company 's only source of income , was closed after a fall of ice . The company decided to take over the contracting work and bought all the on site equipment for £ 400 @,@ 000 . Some railway companies , whose bridges had to be modified to cross the canal , demanded compensation . The London and North Western Railway and Great Western Railway refused to co @-@ operate , and between them demanded about £ 533 @,@ 000 for inconvenience . The Ship Canal Company was unable to demolish the older , low railway bridges until August 1893 , when the matter went to arbitration . The railway companies were awarded just over £ 100 @,@ 000 , a fraction of their combined claims .
By the end of 1891 , the ship canal was open to shipping as far as Saltport , the name given to wharves built at the entrance to the Weaver Navigation . The success of the new port was a source of consternation to merchants in Liverpool , who suddenly found themselves cut out of the trade in goods such as timber , and a source of encouragement to shipping companies , who began to realise the advantages an inland port would offer . Saltport was rendered useless when the ship canal was completely filled with water in November 1893 . The Manchester Ship Canal Police were formed the following month , and the canal opened to its first traffic on 1 January 1894 . On 21 May , Queen Victoria performed the official opening , the last of three royal visits she made to Manchester . During the ceremony she knighted the Mayor of Salford , William Henry Bailey , and the Lord Mayor of Manchester , Anthony Marshall ; Edward Leader Williams was knighted on 2 July by letters patent .
The ship canal took six years to complete at a cost of just over £ 15 million , equivalent to about £ 1 @.@ 65 billion in 2011 . It is still the longest river navigation canal and remains the world 's eighth @-@ longest ship canal , only slightly shorter than the Panama Canal in Central America . More than 54 million cubic yards ( 41 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m ³ ) of material were excavated , about half as much as was removed during the building of the Suez Canal . An average of 12 @,@ 000 workers were employed during construction , peaking at 17 @,@ 000 . Regular navvies were paid 4 1 ⁄ 2d per hour for a 10 @-@ hour working day , equivalent to about £ 16 per day in 2010 . In terms of machinery , the project made use of more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) of temporary rail track , 180 locomotives , more than 6000 trucks and wagons , 124 steam @-@ powered cranes , 192 other steam engines , and 97 steam excavators . Major engineering landmarks of the scheme included the Barton Swing Aqueduct , the first swing aqueduct in the world , and a neighbouring swing bridge for road traffic at Barton , both of which are now Grade II * listed structures . In 1909 the canal 's depth was increased by 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) to 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) , equalling that of the Suez Canal .
= = = Operational history = = =
The Manchester Ship Canal enabled the newly created Port of Manchester to become Britain 's third @-@ busiest port , despite the city being about 40 miles ( 64 km ) inland . Since its opening in 1894 the canal has handled a wide range of ships and cargos , from coastal vessels to intra @-@ European shipping and inter @-@ continental cargo liners . The first vessel to unload its cargo on the opening day was the Pioneer , belonging to the Co @-@ operative Wholesale Society ( CWS ) , which was also the first vessel registered at Manchester ; the CWS operated a weekly service to Rouen .
Manchester Liners established regular sailings by large ocean @-@ going vessels . In late 1898 the Manchester City , at 7 @,@ 698 gross tons , became the largest vessel to reach the terminal docks . Carrying cattle and general cargo , it was met by the Lord Mayor of Manchester and a large welcoming crowd . In 1968 Manchester Liners converted its fleet to container vessels only . To service them it built two dedicated container terminals next to No. 9 Dock . The four container vessels commissioned that year , each of 11 @,@ 898 gross tons , were the largest ever to make regular use of the terminal docks at Salford . In 1974 the canal handled 2 @.@ 9 million long tons ( 3 @.@ 25 million short tons ) of dry cargo , 27 per cent of which was carried by Manchester Liners . The dry tonnage was , and is still , greatly supplemented by crude and refined oil products transported in large tanker ships to and from the Queen Elizabeth II Dock at Eastham and the Stanlow Refinery just east of Ellesmere Port , and also in smaller tankers to Runcorn . The limitations imposed by the canal on the maximum size of container vessel meant that by the mid @-@ 1970s Manchester Liners was becoming uncompetitive ; the company sold its last ship in 1985 .
The amount of freight carried by the canal peaked in 1958 at 18 million long tons ( 20 million short tons ) , but the increasing size of ocean @-@ going ships and the port 's failure to introduce modern freight @-@ handling methods resulted in that headline figure dropping steadily , and the closure of the docks in Salford in 1984 . Total freight movements on the ship canal were down to 7 @.@ 56 million long tons ( 8 @.@ 47 million short tons ) by 2000 , and further reduced to 6 @.@ 60 million long tons ( 7 @.@ 39 million short tons ) for the year ending September 2009 .
The maximum length of vessel currently accepted is 530 feet ( 161 @.@ 5 m ) with a beam of 63 @.@ 5 feet ( 19 @.@ 35 m ) and a maximum draft of 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) . By contrast the similarly sized Panama Canal , completed a few years after the Manchester Ship Canal , is able to accept ships of up to 950 feet ( 289 @.@ 6 m ) in length with a beam of 106 feet ( 32 @.@ 31 m ) . Ships passing under the Runcorn Bridge have a height restriction of 70 feet ( 21 m ) above normal water levels .
= = Present day = =
The canal was completed just as the Long Depression was coming to an end , but it was never the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for . Many ship owners were reluctant to dispatch ocean @-@ going vessels along a " locked cul @-@ de @-@ sac " at a maximum speed of 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) . The Ship Canal Company found it difficult to attract a diversified export trade , which meant that ships not uncommonly had to return down the canal loaded with ballast rather than freight . The only staple imports attracted to the Port of Manchester were lamp oil and bananas , the latter from 1902 until 1911 . As the import trade in oil began to grow during the 20th century the balance of canal traffic switched to the west , from Salford to Stanlow , eventually culminating in the closure of the docks at Salford . Historian Thomas Stuart Willan has observed that " What may seem to require explanation is not the comparative failure of the Ship Canal but the unquenchable vitality of the myth of its success " .
Unlike most other British canals , the Manchester Ship Canal was never nationalised . In 1984 Salford City Council used a derelict land grant to purchase the docks at Salford from the Ship Canal Company , rebranding the area as Salford Quays . Principal developers Urban Waterside began redevelopment work the following year , by which time traffic on the canal 's upper reaches had declined to such an extent that its owners considered closing it above Runcorn . In 1993 the Ship Canal Company was acquired by Peel Holdings ; as of 2014 it is owned and operated by Peel Ports , which also owns the Port of Liverpool . The company announced a £ 50 billion Atlantic Gateway plan in 2011 to develop the Port of Liverpool and the Manchester Ship Canal as a way of combating increasing road congestion . Their scheme involves the construction of a large distribution centre to be named Port Salford and an additional six sites along the canal for the loading and unloading of freight . Peel Ports predict that the number of containers transported along the canal could increase from the 8 @,@ 000 carried in 2010 to 100 @,@ 000 by 2030 .
= = Route = =
= = = Geography = = =
From Eastham the canal runs parallel to , and along the south side of the Mersey estuary , past Ellesmere Port . Between Rixton east of the M6 motorway 's Thelwall Viaduct and Irlam , the canal joins the Mersey ; thereafter it roughly follows the route the river used to take . At the confluence of the Mersey and Irwell near Irlam , the canal follows the old course of the River Irwell into Manchester .
= = = Locks , sluices and weirs = = =
Vessels travelling to and from the terminal docks , which are 60 feet ( 18 m ) above sea level , must pass through several locks . Each set has a large lock for ocean @-@ going ships and a smaller , narrower lock for vessels such as tugs and coasters . The entrance locks at Eastham on the Wirral side of the Mersey , which seal off the tidal estuary , are the largest on the canal . The larger lock is 600 feet ( 180 m ) long by 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide ; the smaller lock is 350 feet ( 110 m ) by 50 feet ( 15 m ) . Four additional sets of locks lie further inland , 600 feet ( 180 m ) long and 65 feet ( 20 m ) wide and 350 feet ( 110 m ) by 45 feet ( 14 m ) for the smaller lock ; each has a rise of approximately 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . The locks are at Eastham ; Latchford , near Warrington ; Irlam ; Barton near Eccles and Mode Wheel , Salford .
Five sets of sluices and two weirs are used to control the canal 's depth . The sluices , located at Mode Wheel Locks , Barton Locks , Irlam Locks , Latchford Locks and Weaver Sluices , are designed to allow water entering the canal to flow along its length in a controlled manner . Each consists of a set of mechanically driven vertical steel roller gates , supported by masonry piers . Originally , manually operated Stoney Sluices were used ; these were replaced in the 1950s by electrically driven units , with automation technology introduced from the late 1980s . The sluices are protected against damage from drifting vessels by large concrete barriers . Stop logs can be inserted by roving cranes , installed upstream of each sluice ; at Weaver Sluices , accessed by boat , this task is performed by a floating crane .
Woolston Siphon Weir , built in 1994 to replace an earlier structure and located on an extant section of the Mersey near Latchford , controls the amount of water in the Latchford Pond by emptying canal water into the Mersey . Howley Weir controls water levels downstream of Woolston Weir . Further upstream , Woolston Guard Weir enables maintenance to be carried out on both .
= = = Docks and wharfs = = =
Seven terminal docks were constructed for the opening of the canal . Four small docks were located on the south side of the canal near Cornbrook , within the Borough of Stretford : Pomona Docks No. 1 , No. 2 , No. 3 , and No. 4 . The three main docks , built primarily for large ocean @-@ going vessels , were in Salford , to the west of Trafford Road on the north bank of the canal , docks No. 6 , No. 7 , and No. 8 . In 1905 , No. 9 Dock was completed on the same site . Dock No. 5 , known as Ordsall Dock , was part of Pomona Docks , but was dug on the Salford side of the river ; it was never completed and was filled in around 1905 .
Pomona Docks have also been filled in except for the still intact No. 3 Dock , and are largely derelict . A lock at No. 3 Dock connects it to the nearby Bridgewater Canal at the point where the two canals run in parallel . The western four docks have been converted into the Salford Quays development ; ships using the Manchester Ship Canal now dock at various places along the canal side such as Mode Wheel ( Salford ) , Trafford Park , and Ellesmere Port . Most ships have to terminate at Salford Quays , although vessels capable of passing under Trafford Road swing bridge ( permanently closed in 1992 ) can continue up the River Irwell to Hunts Bank , near Manchester Cathedral .
In 1893 the Ship Canal Company sold a parcel of land just east of the Mode Wheel Locks to the newly established Manchester Dry Docks Company . The graving docks were constructed adjacent to the south bank of the canal , and a floating pontoon dock was built nearby . Each of the three graving docks could accommodate ocean @-@ going ships of up to 535 feet ( 163 @.@ 1 m ) in length and 64 feet ( 19 @.@ 5 m ) in beam , equivalent to vessels of 8 @,@ 000 gross tons . Manchester Liners acquired control of the company in 1974 , to ensure the availability of facilities for the repair of its fleet of ships .
= = = Trafford Park = = =
Two years after the opening of the ship canal , financier Ernest Terah Hooley bought the 1 @,@ 183 @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 790 @,@ 000 m2 ) country estate belonging to Sir Humphrey Francis de Trafford for £ 360 @,@ 000 ( £ 37 @.@ 6 million in 2016 ) . Hooley intended to develop the site , which was close to Manchester and at the end of the canal , as an exclusive housing estate , screened by woods from industrial units constructed along the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) frontage onto the canal .
With the predicted traffic for the canal slow to materialise , Hooley and Marshall Stevens ( the general manager of the Ship Canal Company ) came to see the benefits that the industrial development of Trafford Park could offer to both the ship canal and the estate . In January 1897 Stevens became the managing director of Trafford Park Estates , where he remained until 1930 , latterly as its joint chairman and managing director .
Within five years Trafford Park , Europe 's largest industrial estate , was home to forty firms . The earliest structures on the canal side were grain silos ; the grain was used for flour and as ballast for ships carrying raw cotton . The wooden silo built opposite No.9 Dock in 1898 ( destroyed in the Manchester Blitz in 1940 ) was Europe 's largest grain elevator . The CWS bought land on Trafford Wharf in 1903 , where it opened a bacon factory and a flour mill . In 1906 it bought the Sun Mill , which it extended in 1913 to create the UK 's largest flour mill , with its own wharf , elevators and silos .
Inland from the canal the British Westinghouse Electric Company bought 11 per cent of the estate . Westinghouse 's American architect Charles Heathcote was responsible for much of the planning and design of their factory , which built steam turbines and turbo generators . By 1899 Heathcote had also designed fifteen warehouses for the Manchester Ship Canal Company .
= = = Manchester Ship Canal Railway = = =
During construction , a year after the death of Walker , the directors of the canal company and Walker 's trustee 's came to an agreement for the canal company to take ownership of the construction assets . These included the more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) of temporary rail track , 180 locomotives and more than 6 @,@ 000 trucks and wagons . These formed the basis of the Manchester Ship Canal Railway , which became the largest private railway in the United Kingdom .
The construction railway followed the route of the former River Irwell . To bring in construction materials , the construction railway had a connection to the Cheshire Lines Committee ( CLC ) east of Irlam railway station . Every month this allowed more than 10 @,@ 000 tons of coal and 8 @,@ 000 tons of cement to be delivered to sites along the canal excavation . All existing railway companies with lines along the route had been given notice that their lines had to either be abandoned by a given date or raised to give a minimum of 75 feet ( 23 m ) clearance with all deviation construction costs to be paid by the MSC . The CLC Glazebrook to Woodley mainline passed over the River Mersey at Cadishead and so they decided to build a deviation . Construction of the Cadishead Viaduct began in 1892 , approached via earth banks , with two brick arches accessing a multi @-@ lattice iron girder centre span of 120 feet ( 37 m ) in length . It opened to freight on 27 February 1893 and to passenger traffic on 29 May 1893 . Following the withdrawal of passenger services in 1964 , the line became freight only . When expensive repairs to the viaduct were needed in the early 1980s British Rail opted to close it , together with the line to Glazebrook .
At the end of construction , the canal company left in place the original construction railway route , and eventually developed track along 33 miles ( 53 km ) of the canal 's length , mainly to its north bank . Built and operated mainly as a single track line , the busiest section from Weaste Junction through Barton and Irlam , to Partington was all double tracked . The railway 's access to Trafford Park was over the double @-@ tracked Detroit Swing Bridge , which after closure of the MSC Railway in 1988 was floated down the canal to be placed in Salford Quays . The only major deviation was to allow construction of the CWS Irlam soap works and the adjacent Partington Steel & Iron Co. works at Partington ( both of which had their own private railways and locomotives ) , with the MSC Railway 's deviation route pushed south to run alongside the canal 's north bank and under the Irlam viaduct . The canal company also developed large complexes of sidings along the route , built to service freight to and from the canal 's docks and nearby industrial estates , especially at : Salford Docks ; Trafford Park ; Partington North Coaling Basin ( both sides of the canal ) ; Glazebrook sidings ; and a small but busy marshalling yard east of Irlam locks . Unlike most other railway companies in the UK it was not nationalised in 1948 , and at its peak it had 790 employees , 75 locomotives , 2 @,@ 700 wagons and more than 230 miles ( 370 km ) of track .
The MSC Railway was able to receive and despatch goods trains to and from all the UK 's main line railway systems , using connecting junctions at three points in the terminal docks . Two were to the north of the canal , operated by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway and the London and North Western Railway . The third was to the south , operated by the Cheshire Lines Committee ( CLC ) , where by the MSC Railway had taken over the old and abandoned route of the CLC , giving them a monopoly on traffic to the new soap works and steel mill .
The MSC Railway 's steam locomotives were designed to negotiate the tight @-@ radius curves of the sidings and industrial tracks on which they ran . Originally only hence specifying 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 wheel arrangements , later 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 locomotives - purchased to cope with increasing traffic and loads - had flangeless centre axles , whilst the coupling rods had a hinged central section that permitted several inches of lateral play . A long term user of Hudswell Clarke , from their steam through to diesel locomotives , like many industrial railways later motive power was often provided by the purchase of refurbished former " big @-@ four " operated types , with the advantage that crew were hence readily available to operate these types . Post @-@ WWII purchases included several war surplus Hunslet ' Austerity ' 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 saddle tanks ; the last steam locomotive types purchased for the MSC Railway . A fleet of diesel locomotives was purchased between 1959 and 1966 , including 18 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 diesels from the Rolls @-@ Royce @-@ owned Sentinel Waggon Works from 1964 @-@ 66 . These enabled the MSC Railways to complete its conversion from steam on 6 July 1966 , more than three years before British Railways .
However , as transshipment costs increased , and unprocessed bulk cargos decreased in volume , the economics of road transport resulted in a gradual dwindling of traffic on the MSC Railway system , and hence contraction in the MSC Railway itself . Traffic reduction was added to by : the 1969 closure of the CWS Irlam soap works ; post nationalisation British Steel Corporation building their own line to Glazebrook to junction with BR ; and severe reductions in traffic of ICI 's soda ash trains , British Tar Products and reduced domestic coal consumption . With the remaining engines stationed at Ellesmere Port and Stanlow , maintenance on the line from Irlam through to Partington was halted in late summer 1977 , and all through traffic except engineering trains stopped on 21 December 1977 . The through line was officially closed to all traffic in 1978 , but many of the sidings complexes remained ; the last operational section of the MSC Railway , at Trafford Park , closed on 30 April 2009 .
= = = Other features on the banks = = =
At Ellesmere Port the canal is joined by the Shropshire Union Canal , at a site now occupied by the National Waterways Museum . The area formerly consisted of a 7 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) canal port linking the Shropshire Union Canal to the River Mersey . Designed by Thomas Telford , it remained operational until the 1950s . It was a " marvellously self @-@ contained world " with locks , docks , warehouses , a blacksmith 's forge , stables , and cottages for the workers . Its Island Warehouse was built in 1871 to store grain . A few miles from Ellesmere Port , at Weston , near Runcorn , the ship canal also connects with the Weaver Navigation .
= = Ecology = =
The quality of water in the ship canal remains adversely affected by several factors . The high population density of the Mersey Basin has , historically , placed heavy demands on sewage treatment and disposal . Industrial and agricultural discharges into the Irwell , Medlock , and Irk rivers are responsible for a number of industrial contaminants found in the canal . Matters have improved since 1990 , when the National Rivers Authority found the area between Trafford Road Bridge and Mode Wheel Locks to be " grossly polluted " . The water was depleted of dissolved oxygen , which in the latter half of the 20th century often resulted in toxic sediments normally present at the bottom of the turning basin in what is now Salford Quays rising to the surface during the summer months , giving the impression of solid ground . Previously , only roach and sticklebacks could be found in the canal 's upper levels , and then only during the colder parts of the year , but an oxygenation project implemented at Salford Quays from 2001 , together with the gradual reduction of industrial pollutants from the Mersey 's tributaries , has encouraged the migration into the canal of fish populations from further upstream . The canal 's water quality remains low , with mercury and cadmium in particular present at " extremely high levels " . Episodic pollution and a lack of habitat remain problems for wildlife , although in 2005 , for the first time in living memory , salmon were observed breeding in the River Goyt ( a part of the Mersey 's catchment ) . In 2010 the Environment Agency issued a report concluding that the canal " does not pose a significant barrier to salmon movement or impact on migratory behaviours " .
Despite the canal 's poor water quality there are several nature reserves along its banks . Wigg Island , a former brownfield site east of Runcorn , contains a network of public footpaths through newly planted woodlands and meadows . Among the wildlife species found there are butterflies , dragonflies , kestrels , swallows and house martins . Further upstream the 200 @-@ acre ( 81 ha ) Moore Nature Reserve , which is bisected by the de @-@ watered Runcorn to Latchford Canal , comprises lakes , woodland and meadows . The reserve is open to the public and contains a number of bird hides , from which native owls and woodpeckers may be viewed . Near Thelwall , Woolston Eyes ( a corruption of the Saxon Ees ) , is a Site of Special Scientific Interest . It is used as a deposit for canal dredgings and is a habitat for many species of bird , including black @-@ necked grebes , grasshopper warblers , blackcaps and common whitethroats . Great crested newts and adders are present , and local flora includes orchids and broad @-@ leaved helleborines . Diving ducks are regular visitors to Salford Quays , where species such as pochard and tufted ducks feed on winter nights .
= Cyclone Gonu =
Cyclone Gonu ( IMD designation : ARB 01 , JTWC designation : 02A , also known as Super Cyclonic Storm Gonu ) is the strongest tropical cyclone on record in the Arabian Sea , and is also the strongest named cyclone in the northern Indian Ocean . The second named tropical cyclone of the 2007 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , Gonu developed from a persistent area of convection in the eastern Arabian Sea on June 1 , 2007 . With a favorable upper @-@ level environment and warm sea surface temperatures , it rapidly intensified to attain peak winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) on June 3 , according to the India Meteorological Department . Gonu weakened after encountering dry air and cooler waters , and early on June 6 , it made landfall on the easternmost tip of Oman , becoming the strongest tropical cyclone to hit the Arabian Peninsula . It then turned northward into the Gulf of Oman , and dissipated on June 7 after making landfall in southern Iran , the first landfall in the country since 1898 .
Intense tropical cyclones like Gonu are extremely rare over the Arabian Sea , since most storms in this area tend to be small and dissipate quickly . The cyclone caused 50 deaths and about $ 4 @.@ 2 billion in damage ( 2007 USD ) in Oman , where the cyclone was considered the nation 's worst natural disaster . Gonu dropped heavy rainfall near the eastern coastline , reaching up to 610 mm ( 24 inches ) , which caused flooding and heavy damage . In Iran , the cyclone caused 28 deaths and $ 216 million in damage ( 2007 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Toward the end of May 2007 , the monsoon trough spawned a low pressure area in the eastern Arabian Sea . By May 31 , an organized tropical disturbance was located about 645 km ( 400 mi ) south of Mumbai , India , with cyclonic convection , or thunderstorm activity , and a well @-@ defined mid @-@ level circulation . The disturbance initially lacked a distinct low @-@ level circulation ; instead it consisted of strong divergence along the western end of a surface trough of low pressure . A favorable upper @-@ level environment allowed convection to improve , and by late on June 1 , the system developed to the extent that the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classified it as a depression . It tracked westward along the southwestern periphery of a mid @-@ level ridge over southern India . Convection continued to organize , and early on June 2 the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified it Tropical Cyclone 02A about 685 km ( 425 mi ) southwest of Mumbai .
Upon first forming , the system contended with the entrainment of dry air to the northwest of the storm , which was expected to limit intensification . The storm steadily intensified , and early on June 2 the IMD upgraded it to deep depression status . Later in the day the IMD classified the system as Cyclonic Storm Gonu about 760 km ( 470 mi ) southwest of Mumbai , India . As a mid @-@ latitude trough developed over Pakistan , Gonu turned to the north and northeast , though it resumed a westward track after ridging built to the north of the storm . With a solid area of intense convection , it rapidly intensified to attain severe cyclonic status early on June 3 , and with good outflow the JTWC upgraded it to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane . The dry air ultimately had a smaller impact on the intensification than previously estimated . A well @-@ defined eye developed in the center of convection , and after moving over a local increase in ocean heat content , Gonu rapidly deepened .
Late on June 3 , the IMD upgraded the storm to Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Gonu . With warm waters , low amounts of vertical wind shear , and favorable upper @-@ level outflow , Gonu strengthened further to attain peak 1 @-@ min sustained winds of 270 km / h ( 165 mph ) and gusts to 315 km / h ( 195 mph ) , about 285 km ( 175 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Masirah Island on the coast of | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
" amusing " . The Orlando Sentinel 's Gregory Hardy named it the third best episode of the show with a sports theme . Phillip Stephenson of Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette called the episode " classic " , and Susan Dunne of The Hartford Courant described it as " debauched but hilarious " . The Cincinnati Post 's Greg Paeth noted that the episode is a critical favorite .
On the other hand , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide gave the episode a more mixed review . He wrote : " Like most guest star @-@ ridden episodes , this one gets a bit gimmicky to fit in all the cameos . " He found the self @-@ referential ending " fails to become clever and instead just seems silly . " However , he wrote that the episode " includes a few goods bits , especially the phone call in which Homer convinces Lenny to go to the game . " Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News wrote that the episode is " so jam @-@ packed with guest celebrity voices that they ran out of room for a plot . Or humor . " Chris Barsanti of Filmcritic.com gave a negative review as well , and wrote that the episode is " lost amid a flurry of celebrity walk @-@ ons and lazy jokes . "
= St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador =
St. John 's ( / ˌseɪntˈdʒɒnz / , local / ˌseɪntˈdʒɑːnz / ) is the capital and largest city in Newfoundland and Labrador , Canada . St. John 's was incorporated as a city in 1888 , yet is considered by some to be the oldest English @-@ founded city in North America . It is located on the eastern tip of the Avalon Peninsula on the island of Newfoundland . With a population of 214 @,@ 285 as of July 1 , 2015 , the St. John 's Metropolitan Area is the second largest Census Metropolitan Area ( CMA ) in Atlantic Canada after Halifax and the 20th largest metropolitan area in Canada . It is one of the world 's top ten oceanside destinations , according to National Geographic Magazine . Its name has been attributed to the feast day of John the Baptist , when John Cabot was believed to have sailed into the harbour in 1497 , and also to a Basque fishing town with the same name .
= = History = =
= = = 16th and 17th centuries = = =
St. John 's is one of the oldest settlements in North America , with year @-@ round settlement beginning sometime after 1630 and seasonal habitation long before that . It is not , however , the oldest surviving English settlement in North America or Canada , having been preceded by the Cuper 's Cove colony at Cupids , founded in 1610 , and the Bristol 's Hope colony at Harbour Grace , founded in 1618 . In fact , although English fishermen had begun setting up seasonal camps in Newfoundland in the 16th Century , they were expressly forbidden by the British government , at the urging of the West Country fishing industry , from establishing permanent settlements along the English controlled coast , hence the town of St. John 's was not established as a permanent community until after the 1630s at the earliest . Other permanent English settlements in the Americas that predate St. John 's include : St. George 's , Bermuda ( 1612 ) and Jamestown , Virginia ( 1607 ) .
Sebastian Cabot declares in a handwritten Latin text in his original 1545 map , that the St. John 's earned its name when he and his father , the Venetian explorer John Cabot became the first Europeans to sail into the harbour , in the morning of 24 June 1494 ( against British and French historians stating 1497 ) , the feast day of Saint John the Baptist . However , the exact locations of Cabot 's landfalls are disputed . A series of expeditions to St. John 's by Portuguese from the Azores took place in the early 16th century , and by 1540 French , Spanish and Portuguese ships crossed the Atlantic annually to fish the waters off the Avalon Peninsula . In the Basque Country , it is a common belief that the name of St. John 's was given by Basque fishermen because the bay of St. John 's is very similar to the Bay of Pasaia in the Basque Country , where one of the fishing towns is also called St. John ( in Spanish , San Juan , and in Basque , Donibane ) .
The earliest record of the location appears as São João on a Portuguese map by Pedro Reinel in 1519 . When John Rut visited St. John 's in 1527 he found Norman , Breton and Portuguese ships in the harbour . On 3 August 1527 , Rut wrote a letter to King Henry on the findings of his voyage to North America ; this was the first known letter sent from North America . St. Jehan is shown on Nicholas Desliens ' world map of 1541 and San Joham is found in João Freire 's Atlas of 1546 . It was during this time that Water Street was first developed , making it the oldest street in North America .
On 5 August 1583 , an English Sea Dog , Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed the area as England 's first overseas colony under Royal Charter of Queen Elizabeth I. There was no permanent population , however , and Gilbert was lost at sea during his return voyage , thereby ending any immediate plans for settlement . The Newfoundland National War Memorial is located on the waterfront in St. John 's , at the purported site of Gilbert 's landing and proclamation .
By 1620 , the fishermen of England 's West Country controlled most of Newfoundland 's east coast . In 1627 , William Payne , called St. John 's " the principal prime and chief lot in all the whole country " . The population grew slowly in the 17th century and St. John 's was the largest settlement in Newfoundland when English naval officers began to take censuses around 1675 . The population would grow in the summers with the arrival of migratory fishermen . In 1680 , fishing ships ( mostly from South Devon ) set up fishing rooms at St. John 's , bringing hundreds of Irish men into the port to operate inshore fishing boats .
The town 's first significant defences were likely erected due to commercial interests , following the temporary seizure of St. John 's by the Dutch admiral Michiel de Ruyter in June 1665 . The inhabitants were able to fend off a second Dutch attack in 1673 , when this time it was defended by Christopher Martin , an English merchant captain . Martin landed six cannons from his vessel , the Elias Andrews , and constructed an earthen breastwork and battery near chain Rock commanding the Narrows leading into the harbour . With only twenty @-@ three men , the valiant Martin beat off an attack by three Dutch warships . The English government planned to expand these fortifications ( Fort William ) in around 1689 , but actual construction didn 't begin until after the French admiral Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville captured and destroyed the town in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign ( 1696 ) . When 1500 English reinforcements arrived in late 1697 they found nothing but rubble where the town and fortifications had stood .
= = = 18th and 19th centuries = = =
The French attacked St. John 's again in 1705 ( Siege of St. John 's ) , and captured it in 1708 ( Battle of St. John 's ) , devastating civilian structures with fire on each instance .
The harbour remained fortified through most of the 18th and 19th centuries . The final battle of the Seven Years ' War in North America ( the French and Indian War ) was fought in 1762 , in St. John 's . Following a surprise capture of the town by the French early in the year , the British responded , and at the Battle of Signal Hill , the French surrendered St. John 's to British forces under the command of Colonel William Amherst .
The 18th century saw major changes in Newfoundland : population growth , beginnings of government , establishment of churches , reinforcement of commercial ties with North America and development of the seal , salmon and Grand Banks fisheries . St. John 's population grew slowly , and although it was still primarily a fishing station , it was also a garrison , a centre of government and a commercial hub . St. John 's served as a naval base during both the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 .
The core of the city was destroyed by fire several times , the most famous of which was the Great Fire of 1892 .
= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =
Guglielmo Marconi received the first transatlantic wireless signal in St. John 's on December 1901 from his wireless station in Poldhu , Cornwall .
St. John 's was the starting point for the first non @-@ stop transatlantic aircraft flight , by Alcock and Brown in a modified Vickers Vimy IV bomber , in June 1919 , departing from Lester 's Field in St. John 's and ending in a bog near Clifden , Connemara , Ireland . In July 2005 , the flight was duplicated by American aviator and adventurer Steve Fossett in a replica Vickers Vimy aircraft , with St. John 's International Airport substituting for Lester 's Field ( now an urban and residential part of the city ) .
During the Second World War , the harbour supported Royal Navy and Royal Canadian Navy ships that were engaged in anti @-@ submarine warfare . It was also the site of an American Army Air Force base , Fort Pepperrell , that was established as part of the " Lend @-@ Lease " agreement between the United Kingdom and United States . The base was transferred to Canadian control in 1960 and is now known as CFS St. John 's . The Knights of Columbus Hostel fire in December 1942 , saw 99 military and civilian lives lost .
St. John 's , and the province as a whole , was gravely affected in the 1990s by the collapse of the Northern cod fishery , which had been the driving force of the provincial economy for hundreds of years . After a decade of high unemployment rates and depopulation , the city 's proximity to the Hibernia , Terra Nova and White Rose oil fields has led to an economic boom that has spurred population growth and commercial development . As a result , the St. John 's area now accounts for about half of the province 's economic output .
As of 2012 , St. John 's contains 21 National Historic Sites of Canada .
St. John 's is serviced by one major airport , and has daily direct service to Toronto , Ottawa , Montreal , Gander , Deer Lake , Wabush , Goose Bay and Halifax ; and seasonal service direct to Calgary , Dublin and London .
= = Geography = =
St. John 's is located along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean , on the northeast of the Avalon Peninsula in southeast Newfoundland . The city covers an area of 446 @.@ 04 square kilometres ( 172 @.@ 22 sq mi ) and is the most easterly city in North America , excluding Greenland ; it is 475 kilometres ( 295 mi ) closer to London , England than it is to Edmonton , Alberta . The city of St. John 's is located at a distance by air of 3 @,@ 636 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 259 mi ) from Lorient , France which lies on a nearly precisely identical latitude across the Atlantic on the French western coast . The city is the largest in the province and the second largest in the Atlantic Provinces after Halifax , Nova Scotia . Its downtown area lies to the west and north of St. John 's Harbour , and the rest of the city expands from the downtown to the north , south , east and west .
Coniferous trees such as black spruce , white spruce , and balsam fir dominate the native vegetation . The largest deciduous tree is white birch ; species of lesser stature include alder , cherry and mountain ash . Of introduced tree species , sycamore maple is most abundant and Norway maple is common . Blue spruce , common horsechestnut , European beech and littleleaf linden are among the other non @-@ native species grown .
= = = Climate = = =
St. John 's has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb ) , with lower seasonal variation than normal for the latitude , which is due to Gulf Stream moderation . However , despite this maritime moderation , average January high temperatures are actually slightly colder in St. John 's than it is in Kelowna , British Columbia , which is an inland city that is near the more marine air of the Pacific , demonstrating the cold nature of Eastern Canada . Mean temperatures range from − 4 @.@ 9 ° C ( 23 @.@ 2 ° F ) in February to 16 @.@ 1 ° C ( 61 @.@ 0 ° F ) in August , showing somewhat of a seasonal lag in the climate . The city is also one of the areas of the country most prone to tropical cyclone activity , as it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east , where tropical storms ( and sometimes hurricanes ) travel from the United States . The city is one of the rainiest in Canada outside of coastal British Columbia . This is partly due to its propensity for tropical storm activity as well as moist , Atlantic air frequently blowing ashore and creating precipitation .
Of major Canadian cities , St. John 's is the foggiest ( 124 days ) , windiest ( 24 @.@ 3 km / h ( 15 @.@ 1 mph ) average speed ) , and cloudiest ( 1 @,@ 497 hours of sunshine ) . St. John 's experiences milder temperatures during the winter season in comparison to other Canadian cities , and has the mildest winter for any Canadian city outside of British Columbia . Precipitation is frequent and often heavy , falling year round . On average , summer is the driest season , with only occasional thunderstorm activity , and the wettest months are from October to January , with December the wettest single month , with nearly 165 millimetres of precipitation on average . This winter precipitation maximum is quite unusual for humid continental climates , which most commonly have a late spring or early summer precipitation maximum ( for example , most of the Midwestern U.S. ) . Most heavy precipitation events in St. John 's are the product of intense mid @-@ latitude storms migrating from the Northeastern U.S. and New England states , and these are most common and intense from October to March , bringing heavy precipitation ( commonly 4 to 8 centimetres of rainfall equivalent in a single storm ) , and strong winds . In winter , two or more types of precipitation ( rain , freezing rain , sleet and snow ) can fall from passage of a single storm . Snowfall is heavy , averaging nearly 335 centimetres per winter season . However , winter storms can bring changing precipitation types . Heavy snow can transition to heavy rain , melting the snow cover , and possibly back to snow or ice ( perhaps briefly ) all in the same storm , resulting in little or no net snow accumulation . Snow cover in St. John 's is variable , and especially early in the winter season , may be slow to develop , but can extend deeply into the spring months ( March , April ) . The St. John 's area is subject to freezing rain ( called " silver thaws " ) , the worst of which paralyzed the city over a three @-@ day period in April 1984 .
The highest temperature ever recorded in St. John 's was 33 @.@ 9 ° C ( 93 ° F ) on 14 August 1876 . The coldest temperature ever recorded was − 29 @.@ 4 ° C ( − 21 ° F ) on 16 February 1875 .
= = Cityscape = =
Downtown St. John 's
= = = Architecture = = =
The architecture of St. John 's has a distinct style from that of the rest of Canada , and its major buildings are remnants of its history as one of the first British colonial capitals . Buildings took a variety of styles according to the means available to build the structures .
Starting as a fishing outpost for European fishermen , St. John 's consisted mostly of the homes of fishermen , sheds , storage shacks , and wharves constructed out of wood . Like many other cities of the time , as the Industrial Revolution took hold and new methods and materials for construction were introduced , the landscape changed as the city grew in width and height . The Great Fire of 1892 destroyed most of the downtown core , and most residential and other wood @-@ frame buildings date from this period .
Often compared to San Francisco due to the hilly terrain and steep maze of residential streets , housing in St. John 's is typically painted in bright colours . The city council has implemented strict heritage regulations in the downtown area , including restrictions on the height of buildings . These regulations have caused much controversy over the years . With the city experiencing an economic boom a lack of hotel rooms and office space has seen proposals put forward that do not meet the current height regulations . Heritage advocates argue that the current regulations should be enforced while others believe the regulations should be relaxed to encourage economic development .
To meet the need for more office space downtown without compromising the city 's heritage , the city council amended heritage regulations , which originally restricted height to 15 metres in the area of land on Water Street between Bishop 's Cove and Steer 's Cove , to create the " Commercial Central Retail – West Zone " . The new zone will allow for buildings of greater height . A 47 @-@ metre , 12 @-@ storey office building , which includes retail space and a parking garage , was the first building to be approved in this area .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2006 Census , there were 100 @,@ 646 inhabitants in St. John 's itself , 151 @,@ 322 in the urban area and 181 @,@ 113 in the St. John 's Census Metropolitan Area ( CMA ) . Thus , St. John 's is Newfoundland and Labrador 's largest city and Canada 's 20th largest CMA . Apart from St. John 's , the CMA includes 12 other communities : the city of Mount Pearl and the towns of Conception Bay South , Paradise , Portugal Cove @-@ St. Philip 's , Torbay , Logy Bay @-@ Middle Cove @-@ Outer Cove , Pouch Cove , Flatrock , Bay Bulls , Witless Bay , Petty Harbour @-@ Maddox Cove and Bauline . The population of the CMA was 192 @,@ 326 as of 1 July 2010 .
As of 2011 , there were 4 @,@ 205 members of visible minorities in the city . The largest visible minority group were South Asians ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) , followed by Chinese Canadian ( 1 @.@ 0 % ) , and Blacks ( 0 @.@ 9 % ) . There were 4 @,@ 305 Aboriginals in St. John 's , comprising 4 @.@ 1 % of the city 's population . First Nations people made up 2 @.@ 9 % of the city 's population , Inuit comprised 0 @.@ 8 % of St. John 's population , and 0 @.@ 6 % were Métis .
= = = Religion = = =
The information below is from the 2001 Canadian Census. and the National Household Survey 2011
Predominantly Christian , the population of St. John 's was once divided along sectarian ( Catholic / Protestant ) lines . In recent years , this sectarianism has declined significantly , and is no longer a commonly acknowledged facet of life in St. John 's . St. John 's is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archbishop of St. John 's , and the Anglican Bishop of Eastern Newfoundland and Labrador . All major Christian sects showed a decline from 2001 – 2011 with a large increase in those with no religion from 3 @.@ 9 % to 11 @.@ 1 % .
= = Economy = =
St. John 's economy is connected to both its role as the provincial capital of Newfoundland and Labrador and to the ocean . The civil service which is supported by the federal , provincial and municipal governments has been the key to the expansion of the city 's labour force and to the stability of its economy , which supports a sizable retail , service and business sector . The provincial government is the largest employer in the city , followed by Memorial University . With the collapse of the fishing industry in Newfoundland and Labrador in the 1990s , the role of the ocean is now tied to what lies beneath it – oil and gas – as opposed to what swims in or travels across it . The city is the centre of the oil and gas industry in Eastern Canada and is one of 19 World Energy Cities . ExxonMobil Canada is headquartered in St. John 's and companies such as Chevron , Husky Energy , Suncor Energy and Statoil have major regional operations in the city . Three major offshore oil developments , Hibernia , Terra Nova and White Rose , are in production off the coast of the city and a fourth development , Hebron , is expected to be producing oil by 2017 .
The economy has been growing quickly in recent years . In both 2010 and 2011 , the metro area 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) led 27 other metropolitan areas in the country , according to the Conference Board of Canada , recording growth of 6 @.@ 6 per cent and 5 @.@ 8 per cent respectively . At $ 52 @,@ 000 the city 's per capita GDP is the second highest out of all major Canadian cities . Economic forecasts suggest that the city will continue its strong economic growth in the coming years not only in the " oceanic " industries mentioned above , but also in tourism and new home construction as the population continues to grow . In May 2011 , the city 's unemployment rate fell to 5 @.@ 6 per cent , the second lowest unemployment rate for a major city in Canada .
St. John 's is also becoming known as an entrepreneurial city . In a 2009 report by the Canadian Federation of Independent Business ; Communities in Boom : Canada ’ s Top Entrepreneurial Cities , St. John 's was ranked the best major city in Atlantic Canada , and 19th overall in Canada for providing a good environment for small business development .
= = Arts and culture = =
The downtown area is the cultural hub of St. John 's and is a major tourist destination in Newfoundland and Labrador and Atlantic Canada . Water Street and Duckworth Street are known for their brightly coloured low rise heritage buildings , housing numerous tourist shops , clothing boutiques , and restaurants .
George Street , a downtown side @-@ street above the western end of Water Street , is the predominant home of the city 's nightlife . The street holds numerous annual festivals including the George Street Festival in August and the Mardi Gras Festival held in October . The street can be credited with kick starting the careers of many musical acts and is busy nearly every night of the week .
The city has a symphony orchestra , a string quartet , and several choirs . In addition the School of Music of Memorial University of Newfoundland has several ensembles , including a chamber orchestra . St. Johns also plays host to the Tuckamore Festival of chamber music , which has been held every August since 2001 . Opera on the Avalon puts on performances of opera , over several days , in the summer
The LSPU Hall is home to the Resource Centre for the Arts . The " Hall " hosts a vibrant and diverse arts community and is regarded as the backbone of artistic infrastructure and development in the downtown . The careers of many well @-@ known Newfoundland artists were launched there including Rick Mercer , Mary Walsh , Cathy Jones , Andy Jones and Greg Thomey . The St. John 's Arts and Culture Centre houses an art gallery , libraries and a 1000 @-@ seat theatre , which is the city 's major venue for entertainment productions .
The Nickel Film Festival and the St. John 's International Women 's Film Festival are two independent film festivals held annually in St. John 's .
= = Attractions = =
= = = Museums = = =
The Provincial Museum of Newfoundland and Labrador ( c . 1892 – 93 ) was located on Duckworth Street in a building designated as a heritage site by the City of St. John 's . In 2005 the museum , along with the Art Gallery of Newfoundland and Labrador and the Provincial Archives of Newfoundland and Labrador , moved into The Rooms . The Rooms is Newfoundland and Labrador 's cultural facility , and is located in the downtown area .
The Railway Coastal Museum is a transportation museum located in the 104 @-@ year @-@ old Newfoundland and Labrador train station building on Water Street .
The Johnson Geo Centre is a geological interpretation centre located on Signal Hill . The centre is designed to teach the public about the history of the earth through the unique and complex geological history of Newfoundland and Labrador .
The East Rider Motorcycle Museum showcases over 110 years of Newfoundland 's Motorcycle History , with two floors of bikes , memorabilia , and biker culture . Located downtown St. John 's ( above East Rider Motorcycle Gear Shop ) .
= = = Urban parks = = =
Pippy Park is an urban park located in the east end of the city ; with over 3 @,@ 400 acres ( 14 km2 ) of land , it is one of Canada 's largest urban parks . The park contains a range of recreational facilities including two golf courses , Newfoundland and Labrador 's largest serviced campground , walking and skiing trails as well as protected habitat for many plants and animals . Pippy Park is also home to the Fluvarium , an environmental education centre which offers a cross section view of Nagle 's Hill Brook .
Bowring Park , located in the Waterford Valley , is one of the most scenic parks in St. John 's . Entrance to the park is via Waterford Bridge Road , passing a sculptured duck pond and a statue of Peter Pan . The park land was donated to the city in 1911 by Sir Edgar Rennie Bowring on behalf of Bowring Brothers Ltd. on their 100th anniversary of commerce in Newfoundland . The park was officially opened by His Royal Highness , the Duke of Connaught on 15 July 1914 .
Bannerman Park is a Victorian @-@ style park located near the downtown . The park was officially opened in 1891 by Sir Alexander Bannerman , Governor of the Colony of Newfoundland who donated the land to create the park . Today the park contains a public swimming pool , playground , a baseball diamond and many large open grassy areas . Bannerman Park plays host to many festivals and sporting events , most notably the Newfoundland and Labrador Folk Festival and St. John 's Peace @-@ a @-@ chord . The park is also the finishing location for the annual Tely 10 Mile Road Race .
= = = Murray Premises = = =
The Murray Premises is a National Historic Site located in downtown St. John 's . The buildings once served as a fishery premises , with facilities for drying and packaging fish and warehouses for fish , barrels and other items . The oldest of the buildings is the one facing on Beck 's Cove . It was built after the 1846 fire and for a time served as both shop and house . The Murray Premises was renovated in 1979 and now contains office suites , restaurants , retail stores and a boutique hotel .
= = = Signal Hill = = =
Signal Hill is a hill which overlooks the city of St. John 's . It is the location of Cabot Tower which was built in 1897 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of John Cabot 's discovery of Newfoundland , and Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee . The first transatlantic wireless transmission was received here by Guglielmo Marconi on 12 December 1901 . Today , Signal Hill is a National Historic Site of Canada and remains incredibly popular amongst tourists and locals alike ; 97 % of all tourists to St. John 's visit Signal Hill . Amongst its popular attractions are the Signal Hill Tattoo , showcasing the Royal Newfoundland Regiment of foot , c . 1795 , and the North Head Trail which grants an impressive view of the Atlantic Ocean and the surrounding coast .
= = Sports = =
St. John 's has been home to several professional hockey franchises . Currently it is home to the St. John 's IceCaps the minor league affiliate of the Montreal Canadiens .
The St. John 's Maple Leafs were the city 's former American Hockey League ( AHL ) team . Placed in St. John 's in 1991 , the team was lost during the 2004 – 2005 season to Toronto , Ontario due to the desire of its parent team , the Toronto Maple Leafs , to reduce travel costs and to have a tenant for its Ricoh Coliseum .
Shortly after the Maple Leafs were replaced by the St. John 's Fog Devils of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) . The team left St. John 's in 2008 after just three seasons due to a poor lease arrangement with the city over the use of Mile One Centre and poor attendance .
The rugby union team The Rock is the Eastern Canadian entry in the Americas Rugby Championship . The Rock play their home games at Swilers Rugby Park , as did the Rugby Canada Super League champions for 2005 and 2006 , the Newfoundland Rock . The city hosted a Rugby World Cup qualifying match between Canada and the USA on 12 August 2006 , where the Canadians heavily defeated the USA 56 – 7 to qualify for the 2007 Rugby World Cup finals in France . The 2007 age @-@ grade Rugby Canada National Championship Festival was held in the city .
St. John 's is home to North America 's oldest annual sporting event , the Royal St. John 's Regatta , which dates back to at least 1816 . The event is important enough in the life of the city that the day of the Regatta ( the first Wednesday in August , weather permitting ) is a civic holiday – one of the few weather @-@ dependent holidays in the world .
The Tely 10 is an annual 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) road race that starts in Paradise and finishes at Bannerman Park . The race draws in excess of 2 @,@ 500 runners . It began in 1922 , which makes it one of the oldest road races in Canada .
St. John 's was where the Canada men 's national soccer team qualified for their only FIFA World Cup on 14 September 1985 , when they defeated Honduras 2 – 1 , at King George V Park .
Curling has gained prominence in St. John 's over the years . The 2005 Scott Tournament of Hearts , the Canadian women 's curling championship , was held at Mile One Centre from 19 to 27 February 2005 . The 2006 Olympic gold medalist men 's curling team , skipped by Brad Gushue , is based in St. John 's . The city has two curling clubs , the St. John 's Curling Club and the Bally Haly Golf & Curling Club .
The St. John 's Avalon Harps are the local Hurling and Gaelic Football team , that compete in Canadian GAA events .
= = Law and government = =
St. John 's is governed by a mayor @-@ council system , and the structure of the municipal government is stipulated by the City of St. John 's Act . The St. John 's City Council is a unicameral legislative body composed of a mayor , deputy mayor and nine councillors . The mayor , deputy mayor and four of the councillors are elected at large while the five other councillors represent geographical wards throughout the city . The mayor and members of the city council serve four @-@ year terms without term limits .
Elections in St. John 's are held every four years on the last Tuesday in September . The current city council was elected in the municipal election held on 24 September 2013 . The Mayor of St. John 's is Dennis O 'Keefe , who has served in the position since 2008 . The St. John 's City Hall , located on New Gower Street , has housed municipal offices and Council Chambers since being officially opened in 1970 .
St. John 's served as the capital city of the Colony of Newfoundland and the Dominion of Newfoundland before Newfoundland became Canada 's tenth province in 1949 . The city now serves as the capital of Newfoundland and Labrador , therefore the provincial legislature is located in the city . The Confederation Building , located on Confederation Hill , is home to the House of Assembly along with the offices for the Members of the House of Assembly ( MHAs ) and Ministers . The city is represented by ten MHAs , four who are members of the governing Progressive Conservative Party , three that belong to the New Democratic Party ( NDP ) , and three that belong to the Liberal Party . Lorraine Michael , leader of the NDP since 2006 , represents the district of Signal Hill @-@ Quidi Vidi .
St. John 's is represented in the House of Commons by two members of Parliament , both from the Liberal Party . Nick Whalen represents St. John 's East and Ryan Cleary , elected 2011 , represents St. John 's South — Mount Pearl .
The Newfoundland and Labrador office for the regional federal minister is located in downtown St. John 's . Regional offices for federal government departments and agencies are also located throughout the city .
= = = Crime = = =
Policing services for the city are provided by the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary , which serves as the primary policing body of the metropolitan area . The B Division headquarters of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police is located in the Pleasantville neighbourhood but the RCMP primarily operate in the rest of Newfoundland and Labrador and not St. John 's .
St. John 's has traditionally been one of the safest cities in Canada to live ; however , in recent years crime in the city has steadily increased . While nationally crime decreased by 4 % in 2009 , the total crime rate in St. John 's saw an increase of 4 % . During this same time violent crime in the city decreased 6 % , compared to a 1 % decrease nationally . In 2010 the total crime severity index for the city was 101 @.@ 9 , an increase of 10 % from 2009 and 19 @.@ 2 % above the national average . The violent crime severity index was 90 @.@ 1 , an increase of 29 % from 2009 and 1 @.@ 2 % above the national average . St. John 's had the seventh @-@ highest metropolitan crime index and twelfth @-@ highest metropolitan violent crime index in the country in 2010 .
According to Statistics Canada 's Juristat reports ( 1993 – 2007 ) , the metropolitan area reports an average homicide rate of approximately 1 @.@ 15 per 100 @,@ 000 population ; an average of two homicides per year . An all @-@ time high rate of 2 @.@ 27 was reported in 1993 ( four homicides ) . This figure is far below the national average and ranks amongst the lowest rates for any metropolitan area in Canada .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
St. John 's has a substantial harbour . Among other things , the harbour is the base for the following Canadian Coast Guard ( CCG ) ships :
CCGS Ann Harvey – icebreaker
CCGS George R. Pearkes – icebreaker
CCGS Henry Larsen – icebreaker
CCGS Louis S. St @-@ Laurent – icebreaker
CCGS Terry Fox – icebreaker
CCGS Cygnus – patrol vessel
CCGS Wilfred Templeman - offshore fishery science vessel * No longer a Canadian Coast Guard Vessel
CCGS Leonard J. Cowley – multi role
CCGS Sir Wilfred Grenfell – multi role
St. John 's is served by St. John 's International Airport ( YYT ) , located 10 minutes northwest of the downtown core . In 2011 , roughly 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 passengers travelled through the airport making it the second busiest airport in Atlantic Canada in passenger volume . Regular destinations include Halifax , Montreal , Ottawa , Toronto , as well as destinations throughout the province . International locations include Dublin , London , New York City , Saint Pierre and Miquelon , Glasgow and Varadero . Scheduled service providers include Air Canada , Air Canada Jazz , Air Saint @-@ Pierre , Air Transat , United Airlines , Porter Airlines , Provincial Airlines , Sunwing Airlines and Westjet .
St. John 's is the eastern terminus of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , one of the longest national highways in the world . The divided highway , also known as " Outer Ring Road " in the city , runs just outside the main part of the city , with exits to Pitts Memorial Drive , Topsail Road , Team Gushue Highway , Thorburn Road , Allandale Road , Portugal Cove Road and Torbay Road , providing relatively easy access to neighbourhoods served by those streets . Pitts Memorial Drive runs from Conception Bay South , through the city of Mount Pearl and into downtown St. John 's , with interchanges for Goulds , Water Street and Hamilton Avenue @-@ New Gower Street .
The St. John 's Cycling Master Plan was officially launched in July 2009 . Its first phase will consist of 43 kilometres ( 27 mi ) of on @-@ road painted bike lanes , signs on an additional 73 kilometres ( 45 mi ) of roadway , the installation of 20 bicycle parking facilities and the addition of bike racks on the fleet of 53 Metrobuses .
Metrobus Transit is responsible for public transit in the region . Metrobus has a total of 19 routes , 53 buses and an annual ridership of 3 @,@ 014 @,@ 073 . Destinations include the Avalon Mall , The Village Shopping Centre , Memorial University , Academy Canada , the College of the North Atlantic , the Marine Institute , the Confederation Building , downtown , Stavanger Drive Business Park , Kelsey Drive , Goulds , Kilbride , Shea Heights , the four hospitals in the city as well as other important areas in St. John 's and Mount Pearl .
St. John 's was the eastern terminus of the Newfoundland Railway from 1898 until the abandonment and closure of the railway in September 1988 .
= = = Medical centres and hospitals = = =
St. John 's is served by Eastern Health , Newfoundland and Labrador 's largest health authority .
The city 's major hospitals include the Health Sciences Centre , St. Clare 's Mercy Hospital , Waterford Hospital and the Janeway Children 's Health and Rehabilitation Centre .
St. John 's Harbour
= = Education = =
St. John 's is served by the Eastern School District , the largest school district in Newfoundland and Labrador by student population . There are currently 36 primary , elementary and secondary schools in the city of St. John 's , including three private schools . St. John 's also includes one school that is part of the province @-@ wide Conseil Scolaire Francophone ( CSF ) , the Francophone public school district . It also contains two private schools , St. Bonaventure 's College and Lakecrest Independent . Atlantic Canada 's largest university , Memorial University of Newfoundland ( MUN ) , is located in St. John 's . MUN provides comprehensive education and grants degrees in several fields and its historical strengths in engineering , business , geology , and medicine , make MUN one of the top comprehensive universities in Canada . The Fisheries and Marine Institute of Memorial University of Newfoundland ( MI ) or simply Marine Institute , is a post @-@ secondary ocean and marine polytechnic located in St. John 's and is affiliated with Memorial University of Newfoundland . MUN also offers the lowest tuition in Canada ( $ 2 @,@ 644 , per Academic Year )
The College of the North Atlantic ( CNA ) is the public college of the province and operates two main campuses within the city . CNA provides career , trade , and university @-@ transfer programs for St. John 's residents . The city also hosts a number of private colleges and post @-@ secondary schools ; Academy Canada , Eastern College , and Keyin College are the largest of these schools .
= = Local media = =
St. John 's has one daily newspaper , The Telegram . Other local papers include The Muse , The Gazette , Le Gaboteur , The Scope , The Business Post and The Current . St. John 's also receives the nationally distributed newspaper The Globe and Mail .
CJON @-@ DT , known on air as " NTV " , is an independent station . The station sublicenses entertainment programming from Global and news programming from CTV and Global , rather than purchasing primary broadcast rights . Rogers Cable has its provincial headquarters in St. John 's , and their community channel Rogers TV airs local shows such as Out of the Fog and One Chef One Critic . CBC has its Newfoundland and Labrador headquarters in the city and their television station CBNT @-@ DT broadcasts from University Avenue .
The city is home to 15 am and FM radio stations , two of which are French @-@ language stations . St. John 's is the only Canadian city served by radio stations whose call letters do not all begin with the letter C. The ITU prefix VO was assigned to the Dominion of Newfoundland before the province joined Canadian Confederation in 1949 , and three AM stations kept their existing call letters . However , other commercial radio stations in St. John 's which went to air after 1949 use the same range of prefixes ( CF – CK ) currently in use elsewhere in Canada , with the exception of VOCM @-@ FM , which was permitted to adopt the VOCM callsign because of its corporate association with the AM station that already bore that callsign . VO also remains in use in amateur radio .
allNewfoundlandLabrador is the city 's daily online newspaper , which focuses on business news from across the province .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
Ílhavo , Portugal
Waterford , Ireland
= United Kingdom Election Results =
United Kingdom Election Results is a website and e @-@ book written by David Boothroyd , published in 1994 . Boothroyd also wrote The History of British Political Parties , published in 2001 . The website includes material about elections in the United Kingdom , including election results , resources for further information and links to relevant websites . Boothroyd used a minimalist approach for the site 's design , avoiding " flashy graphics " and placing an emphasis on " authoritative unbiased information " .
Boothroyd 's website has been cited by several oganisations and authors , including the United Nations Development Programme and the Parliament of Australia . Boothroyd 's site is listed as a resource by the website of the Parliamentary Library of the Parliament of Australia , and the Gilbert + Tobin Centre of Public Law at The University of New South Wales . The Data & Information Services Center of the University of Wisconsin said that Boothroyd maintains " an emphasis on including the entire range of parties " , and The University of York library said that the " site maintained by David Boothroyd provides detailed results data for all UK Parliamentary Elections since 1983 " .
= = Contents = =
The site contains information and resources related to UK elections , including election results , lists of candidates and maps of election districts . It also contains resources such as links to relevant websites covering politics and those of political parties . In an introduction to the website , Boothroyd writes : " Unlike some other political sites , this site doesn ’ t go in for minimising the information to ‘ major parties ’ only , using flashy graphics that distract from the content , compromising its impartiality by accepting sponsorship , or including irrelevant party propaganda . On these pages you will find authoritative unbiased information and nothing else . "
Data on parliamentary elections in the UK since 1983 are on the website . It also includes results of the Labour Party National Executive Committee elections , European Parliamentary elections from 1994 onwards , a list of members expelled since the 1660 Restoration , and recent regional elections for the National Assembly for Wales , the Northern Ireland Assembly , and the Greater London Authority . The earliest snapshot of the website in the archival database Internet Archive is from 1996 . The website is located at www.election.demon.co.uk.
= = Reception = =
Several authors and organisations — including United Nations Development Programme ( 2004 ) , the Politics and Public Administration Group of the Parliament of Australia ( 2002 ) , and Scott L. Greer ( 2005 ) — have cited Boothroyd 's website in their works . Oonag Gay and Patricia Leopold used information about parliamentary expulsion from the site in their book Conduct Unbecoming : The Regulation of Parliamentary Behaviour ( 2004 ) ; they wrote , " As the author , David Boothroyd , makes clear , expulsion was no bar to further parliamentary career in the eighteenth century . " The Guardian referenced the site in a 2007 article about politics of education in the UK .
In their 2008 book The Politics of Electoral Systems , Michael Gallagher and Paul Mitchell wrote that Boothroyd 's site " Has detailed results of elections at all levels of government . " The website of the Parliamentary Library of the Parliament of Australia lists Boothroyd 's site as a resource , as does the Gilbert + Tobin Centre of Public Law at The University of New South Wales . The Data & Information Services Center of the University of Wisconsin said that Boothroyd maintains " an emphasis on including the entire range of parties " . RBA ( Rhodes @-@ Blakeman Associates ) website maintained by Karen Blakeman describes Boothroyd 's resource as a " fast @-@ loading , no @-@ nonsense site " . The University of York library said that the " site maintained by David Boothroyd provides detailed results data for all UK Parliamentary Elections since 1983 " . " Scottish Politics " , the website of the Scottish Politics Research Institute , Alba Publishing said , " Those interested in election results and analysis from England & Wales are encouraged to consult David Boothroyd 's inspirational United Kingdom Election Results site . "
= CenturyLink Field =
CenturyLink Field is a multi @-@ purpose stadium in Seattle , Washington , United States . It serves as the home field for the Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League ( NFL ) and Seattle Sounders FC of Major League Soccer ( MLS ) . Originally called Seahawks Stadium it became Qwest Field on June 23 , 2004 , when telecommunications carrier Qwest acquired the naming rights . It received its current name in June 2011 after the acquisition of Qwest by CenturyLink . The complex also includes the Event Center with the WaMu Theater , a parking garage , and a public plaza . The venue hosts concerts , trade shows , and consumer shows along with sporting events . Located within a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of Seattle 's central business district , the venue is accessible by multiple freeways and forms of mass transit .
The stadium was built between 2000 and 2002 after voters approved funding for the construction in a statewide election held on June 17 , 1997 . This vote created the Washington State Public Stadium Authority to oversee public ownership of the venue . The owner of the Seahawks , Paul Allen , formed First & Goal Inc. to develop and operate the new facilities . Allen was closely involved in the design process and emphasized the importance of an open @-@ air venue with an intimate atmosphere . The stadium is a modern facility with views of the skyline of Downtown Seattle . The stadium can seat 69 @,@ 000 people .
The crowd at CenturyLink Field is notoriously loud during Seahawks games . On September 15 , 2013 , during a game against the San Francisco 49ers , the fans broke the Guinness World Record for loudest crowd roar at an outdoor stadium with 136 @.@ 6 decibels . The record was broken on October 13 , 2013 , at Kansas City 's Arrowhead Stadium , home of the NFL 's Kansas City Chiefs with a roar of 137 @.@ 5 dB , but fans reclaimed the title on December 2 , 2013 , during a Monday night game against the New Orleans Saints , with a roar of 137 @.@ 6 decibels . Arrowhead reclaimed the title on September 29 , 2014 reaching 142 @.@ 2 dB in a Monday Night Football game vs. the Patriots . The noise has contributed to the team 's home field advantage with an increase in false start ( movement by an offensive player prior to the play ) and delay of game ( failure of the offense to snap the ball prior to the play clock expiring ) penalties against visiting teams . The stadium was the first in the NFL to implement a FieldTurf artificial field . Numerous college and high school American football games have also been played at the stadium .
CenturyLink Field is also designed for soccer . The first sporting event held included a United Soccer Leagues ( USL ) Seattle Sounders match . The USL team began using the stadium regularly for home games in 2003 . The MLS expansion team Seattle Sounders FC , began its inaugural season in 2009 at the stadium . CenturyLink Field was the site of the MLS Cup in 2009 . The venue also hosted the 2010 and 2011 tournament finals for the U.S. Open Cup . Sounders FC won both times and new attendance records were set each year it was hosted at CenturyLink Field . On August 25 , 2013 , the Sounders broke a new home field attendance record when 67 @,@ 385 fans turned out to watch them play the Portland Timbers .
= = Funding = =
The Seahawks played their home games at the Kingdome from their 1976 inaugural season until 1999 . In 1995 a proposal was made to issue county bonds to fund a remodeling project of the facility . The proposal failed , and as a result , Seahawks ' owner Ken Behring threatened to sell or move the team . In 1997 local billionaire Paul Allen pledged to acquire the team if a new stadium could be built and said that the team could not be profitable until they left the Kingdome . He asked the state legislature to hold a special statewide referendum on a proposal to finance a new stadium . Allen also agreed to cover any cost overruns . With Allen agreeing to pay the $ 4 million cost , the legislature agreed . The vote was scheduled to be held in June 1997 but in May a Seattle resident filed a lawsuit that claimed the legislature did not have authority to call for such a vote , since it would be paid for by a private party who could gain from the result . The case was delayed until after the vote . The proposal was pitched to voters as providing both a new home for the Seahawks and a venue for top @-@ level soccer . It passed on June 17 , 1997 , with 820 @,@ 364 ( 51 @.@ 1 % ) in favor and 783 @,@ 584 against . The vote was close in Seattle , but it received 60 % approval in Seattle 's northern and eastern suburbs . The public funding was unpopular farther away in the eastern portion of the state . In October , a Thurston County Superior Court judge ruled that the legislature acted properly and in the public 's interest , and he dismissed the pending lawsuit . The Washington Supreme Court upheld the decision that December .
Voter approval of the referendum created a public – private partnership . The Washington State Public Stadium Authority was created to oversee public ownership of the stadium , exhibition center , and parking garage complex . Allen purchased the Seahawks and formed First & Goal Inc. to build and operate the facility . The budget for the project was $ 430 million . Of this cost , $ 44 million was allotted to build the Event Center , $ 26 million for the parking garage , and $ 360 million for the stadium . First & Goal was to cover cost overruns and pay up to $ 130 million of the project while the contribution from the public was capped at $ 300 million . The public funding package included new sports @-@ related state lottery games , taxes on the facility 's admissions and parking , sales tax credits and deferrals , and an eight @-@ year extension of the 2 % tax on hotel rooms in King County . The taxes on admissions and parking are set at 2 % to pay off the project 's tax @-@ exempt bonds . Those taxes will be kept below the authorized 10 % to preserve the tax @-@ exempt status , but the percentage will be increased to the full amount when the bonds are completely paid in 2021 . At such time , they will become dedicated funding sources for maintenance and modernization of the facilities .
In September 1998 First & Goal signed a 30 @-@ year stadium lease that includes options to extend for another 20 . Per the agreement , the Public Stadium Authority receives $ 850 @,@ 000 a year from First and Goal ( adjusted for inflation ) , and First & Goal keeps all revenue from the stadium and parking garage . The company receives 80 % of the revenue from the exhibition center while the other twenty percent is allotted to a state education fund . First & Goal is responsible for all operating and maintenance costs , expected to be $ 6 million a year , and must keep the facility in " first @-@ class " condition . Other details of the lease include the availability of affordable seats , a coordinated effort with neighboring Safeco Field to prevent gridlock , a provision for naming rights , the investment in public art at the stadium , and the giveaway of a luxury suite to a fan each Seahawks ' game .
= = Construction and layout = =
The architectural firm Ellerbe Becket , in association with Loschky Marquardt & Nesholm Architects of Seattle , designed the 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 140 @,@ 000 m2 ) project . Allen was closely involved during the design process . While growing up he attended games at the University of Washington 's outdoor Husky Stadium . His goal was to create a similar experience and atmosphere at the new venue . The exhibition center portion of the project was designed over a period of 14 months by Loschky Marquardt & Nesholm Architects while First & Goal managed the construction . Town meetings were held to discuss the impact on the public , and the company created a $ 6 million mitigation fund for nearby neighborhoods . In accordance with a program established by the building team , contracts totaling $ 81 million were awarded to minority- and women @-@ owned businesses . Union apprentices made up 19 % of the workforce through another program with local trade unions .
In September 1998 construction began on the new exhibition center and parking garage . By October 1999 the exhibition center was open and hosting events . On March 26 , 2000 , to make way for the stadium , the Kingdome was demolished in the world 's largest implosion of a single concrete structure . Almost all of the Kingdome rubble was recycled with roughly half used for the new stadium . The designers were challenged by the soft soil at the site since it was a tidal marsh until public works projects in the early 20th century adjusted the waterline of nearby Elliott Bay . The top layer is a soft fill taken from the grading projects that had leveled portions of Seattle 's hills . To account for the soft soil , the complex sits on over 2 @,@ 200 pilings driven 50 to 70 ft ( 15 to 21 m ) below the ground to form what is essentially a pier for the foundation . Eight individually connected sections were built to account for the soil concerns , temperature effects , and the potential for earthquakes . The adjoining exhibition center and parking garage are separate structures and are not part of the eight @-@ section stadium .
The site of CenturyLink Field is the smallest of those developed for new NFL stadiums . The upper levels were cantilevered over the lower sections to fit within the limited space . Along with the angle of seats and the placement of the lower sections closer to the field , this provided a better view of the field than typically seen throughout the country and allowed for a 67 @,@ 000 @-@ seat capacity . Space is available to increase the total capacity to 72 @,@ 000 for special events . Included in the capacity are 111 suites and over 7 @,@ 000 club seats . The stadium has 1 @,@ 400 seats for those with disabilities and their companions located in various sections . In 2009 CenturyLink Field ranked 21st out of the 31 stadiums in the NFL for total seating capacity .
The configuration of CenturyLink Field is a U @-@ shape with an open north end to provide views of downtown Seattle and the large north plaza . The large retractable roof of Safeco Field along with Mount Rainier to the southeast can be seen from the partially open south end . The stadium 's concourses were built to be wide , and they provide additional views of the surrounding area . A 13 @-@ story tower was erected at the north end of the stadium that visually complements the Seattle skyline . The tower features a vertically oriented scoreboard which is the first of its kind in the NFL . At the base is bleacher seating for 3 @,@ 000 called the " Hawks ' Nest " . Another addition not previously seen in the NFL are field @-@ level luxury suites located directly behind the north end zone .
Allen rejected plans for a retractable roof during the early stages of the stadium 's design . The lack of a retractable roof made it open to the elements , provided better views , and reduced the total cost of the project . The roof , at 200 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 19 @,@ 000 m2 ) , covers 70 % of the seats but leaves the field open . The roof spans 720 ft ( 220 m ) between concrete pylon supports at the north and south ends of the stadium . Its two expansive sections are held from below by trusses . From above , two arches with additional supports rise 200 ft ( 61 m ) over the field . Post @-@ tensioned cables were used to achieve its final shape and positioning . To minimize damage in the event of an earthquake , the roof has a friction pendulum damper system . This disconnects the roof from the support pylons so that it can move independently of the structure . The technology had never been applied to a large @-@ scale roof before CenturyLink Field .
The roof was originally painted white to aesthetically distinguish it from both Safeco Field and the nearby industrial area . The east side of the stadium has a large glass curtain wall that faces the nearby International District . The exterior of the stadium also consists of salmon @-@ colored concrete , and the west side of the structure is partially clad with red brick . The coloring and facade were designed so the stadium would blend with the older buildings in neighboring Pioneer Square . To reduce costs , the exterior was not completed with brick or ornate steel work .
A 6 @.@ 8 @-@ magnitude earthquake struck the Seattle area during construction . The structure responded as expected by the designers , and there was minimal damage . The project was completed on budget and a month ahead of schedule .
In 2015 the stadium was expanded with the addition of the Toyota Fan Deck including a new 12 Flag raising platform . This expansion was privately funded by the Seahawks and the 1 @,@ 000 additional seats were made available to purchase by current season ticket holders the Blue Pride waiting list for season tickets . The additional seating pushed the capacity of the stadium to 69 @,@ 000 @-@ plus .
= = Surface = =
In 2002 , CenturyLink Field became the first stadium in the NFL to install a FieldTurf artificial field . The surface is made of plastic fibers rooted in a mixture of ground rubber and sand . The field was replaced in the spring of 2008 after tests showed that compression of the sand and rubber increased the risk of player injuries . FieldTurf won the bid for the second installation over Polytan . For the replacement surface , a one @-@ inch ( two and one @-@ half centimeters ) poured rubber foundation was added to prevent the compression from reoccurring . Under the naming rights agreement , Qwest paid $ 500 @,@ 000 for the installation and First & Goal paid the remaining amount , which was undisclosed . By 2010 the FieldTurf 's quality had decreased with the blades becoming matted down . It also failed FIFA 's quality testing to be ranked 2 Star . A new FieldTurf surface was laid down in 2012 and it met the requirements of a 2 Star field after testing .
The 1997 state referendum stated that the stadium would feature a natural grass surface , but FieldTurf was not an option when the stadium was originally presented to voters according to the Public Stadium Authority . Seahawks management reconsidered surface after the Seahawks played on FieldTurf at Husky Stadium during the 2000 and 2001 seasons . Artificial turf was installed because it was easier to maintain than natural grass . The potential damage to a natural grass field caused by Seattle 's frequent rain also made the surface an appropriate option . In order to keep a grass surface robust under heavy football use during late fall and early winter rains , a $ 1 @.@ 8 million irrigation and heating system would have been required . The coach of the Seahawks at the time , Mike Holmgren , said FieldTurf installation was the right decision and stated that " the players love it , and I think this surface will offer a better product on the field for the fans . "
Local soccer fans were concerned that the lack of a natural grass field would hinder Seattle 's chances of receiving an MLS expansion franchise . They asserted that voters had approved the facility with the understanding that the new stadium was intended for soccer as well as football . In a compromise , First & Goal agreed to pay for grass to be installed for special events when needed .
There have been various opinions regarding both the artificial surface and temporary grass surfaces used for soccer matches . After the Brazilian national team defeated Canada 's side 3 – 2 in 2008 , Brazil 's coach commented that one reason for his team 's unexpectedly poor performance was the loosely installed grass field . The Grenada national team struggled to cope with the artificial surface during their loss at the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup . In July 2009 , the U.S. Soccer Federation chose D.C. United 's RFK Stadium over CenturyLink Field for the U.S. Open Cup . The general manager of D.C. United speculated that RFK 's grass field was one of the reasons his team had a stronger bid . The general manager of the Sounders , Adrian Hanauer , told The Seattle Times in 2010 that replacement of the surface was a continuing conversation between the Sounders and Allen 's Vulcan Inc . When the Los Angeles Galaxy traveled to Seattle in May 2012 , the FieldTurf was noted as one of the reasons David Beckham and Robbie Keane were left out of the line @-@ up .
Between August and November both the Seahawks and Sounders FC host games at CenturyLink Field . Each team has emphasized the importance of playing their games without the other team 's painted lines on the field . Around 2003 , at the Seahawks ' request , local company EcoChemical developed for the field a new kind of paint " designed to fail . " The new paint is relatively easy to remove with a power washer and a special chemical solution , a process that the company describes as environmentally friendly . With the new paint , converting the field between American football and soccer takes 14 hours in dry weather , though painting logos and other colors takes additional time .
A new turf field , using the FieldTurf Revolution 360 , was installed in February 2016 ahead of the 2016 Sounders season .
= = American football = =
= = = Seahawks = = =
Prior to the stadium opening in 2002 , Allen and Bob Whitsitt said that they hoped the new stadium would help turn the Seahawks into a Super Bowl contender and that Seattle would be considered to host the championship game . The seating is expandable to 72 @,@ 000 for the purpose of holding the game , but the NFL typically does not consider cities with outdoor stadiums where the average temperature in February is below 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) . The number of season tickets available at Qwest was capped at 61 @,@ 000 following the Super Bowl appearance . The ensuing waiting list was the first for the Seahawks since the early 1990s .
The team 's first season at their new home was in 2002 . Their first game at the new facility was a 28 – 10 preseason loss to the Indianapolis Colts on August 11 , 2002 . They went on to end their first season at the new field with a 7 – 9 record . In the 2003 season , the team went undefeated at home and reached the playoffs . It was the first time the franchise had won 10 games in a single season in 17 years . The Seahawks again reached the postseason during the 2004 season and played their first playoff game at CenturyLink Field on January 8 , 2005 . In that game , they lost to the St. Louis Rams who had already defeated them twice that season . The following season , the Seahawks went undefeated at home for the second time in three years and won their first @-@ ever NFC Championship , but lost in Super Bowl XL . Between 2002 and 2005 , the Seahawks won 24 of their 32 regular season games at the stadium .
In 2006 the Seahawks had a 9 – 7 record and hosted the Dallas Cowboys in the wild card round of the playoffs . The Seahawks trailed 20 – 13 with less than 7 minutes remaining but came back to win 21 – 20 . In 2007 , the team won seven of their eight home games and clinched their fourth consecutive division title . CenturyLink Field was again the site for their wild card game , and they defeated the Washington Redskins 35 – 14 . In 2008 , the Seahawks went 4 – 12 and had only two home wins . Holmgren left the organization after the season . When he was interviewed about memorable moments and the fans , he said that CenturyLink Field was " a remarkable place to compete in and to play professional football . " He called a game at the stadium " an experience . "
In 2010 , the Seahawks were the first NFL team with a losing record ever to win a division title in a season not shortened by a strike . Seattle earned its fifth consecutive home playoff victory with a 41 – 36 win over the New Orleans Saints . " God bless the voters , " defensive tackle Craig Terrill said after the game in reference to the stadium 's importance to the franchise .
Under Pete Carroll , the Seahawks were undefeated at home during the 2012 season . Season tickets for 2013 sold @-@ out with a franchise @-@ record 98 % renewal rate .
CenturyLink Field often sells out for Seahawks games . Although the team struggled in 2008 and 2009 , the team maintained its base of season ticket holders . Before the 2008 season , the 14 @,@ 000 single game tickets not already allotted sold out less than 15 minutes after they became available . By the end of the 2009 season , the Seahawks had sold out 60 consecutive games . After going 9 – 23 over two seasons in 2008 and 2009 , the number of available season tickets was increased to 62 @,@ 000 . The largest crowd to attend a Seahawks game at CenturyLink Field was 69 @,@ 055 vs the Pittsburgh Steelers on November 29 , 2015 .
= = = = Home field advantage = = = =
CenturyLink Field has earned a reputation as one of the loudest stadiums in the NFL . It was , at one point in time , in the Guinness World Record books for being the loudest stadium in the world . The seating decks and partial roof , both trap and amplify exceptional amounts of noise and reflect it back onto the field . This noise possibly contributes to increased false start penalties since opposing offenses can miss audibles and the snap count , as well as delay of game penalties due to the reduced efficiency of communicating plays to the offense . From 2002 through 2012 , there have been 143 false @-@ start penalties on visiting teams in Seattle , second only to the Minnesota Vikings . During that same time period , the Seahawks have accumulated a home win record of 59 @-@ 29 , with a simultaneous road record of 33 @-@ 55
When Tod Leiweke was hired as the Seahawks ' new CEO in 2003 , he had a large flagpole installed in the south end to fly the 12th Man Flag as a tribute to the team 's 12th man . The organization had retired the number in 1984 to honor the 12th man . A local celebrity , sometimes a former Seahawk , raises the flag during the network television pre @-@ game events . The Seahawks currently refer to their fans as the 12s .
In 2005 , the stadium gained national attention when the visiting New York Giants committed 11 false start penalties . Seahawks head coach Mike Holmgren attributed the penalties to the enthusiasm and noise from the crowd . He dedicated the ball used to make the game @-@ winning field goal to the fans , and it is now displayed at the stadium . The Giants ' general manager , Ernie Accorsi , asked an NFL senior vice president whether the Seahawks had broadcast artificial crowd noise over the public address system during this game . The NFL sent a memorandum early in the 2006 season about such complaints and sent officials to monitor two games . Holmgren denied the allegations , and the crowd responded by being even louder than usual when the Giants returned to CenturyLink Field . Since 2005 the Seahawks have tracked the number of false starts committed by visiting teams and display the statistic on a scoreboard to motivate the crowd . As of 2013 , the stadium has had a league @-@ high number of false starts since . In preparation for 2005 – 06 NFC Championship Game at CenturyLink Field , the Carolina Panthers practiced with the recorded sounds of jet engines in the background to prepare for the volume of the crowd .
Kickers experience further disadvantages when attempting field goals at CenturyLink Field . Both the stadium 's proximity to Puget Sound and the open north end create winds that are challenging to gauge . Former Seahawks kicker Josh Brown adjusted to the winds , and he believed the moisture in the air caused trouble for others .
On September 15 , 2013 , Seattle Seahawks fans successfully broke the Guinness World Records for the loudest stadium in the world . The 131 @.@ 9 @-@ decibel record occurred during the sack of San Francisco 49er quarterback Colin Kaepernick in the first quarter . Fans then broke their new record during the third quarter of the same game when a level of 136 @.@ 6 decibels was achieved during a goal line stand by the Seahawks defense . The record was broken by the crowd at Arrowhead Stadium on October 13 , 2013 , with a sound pressure level of 137 @.@ 57 decibels . The record was later regained by the Seahawks fans on December 2 , 2013 with 137 @.@ 6 decibels against the New Orleans Saints , but lost once again to Arrowhead Stadium in a Monday Night Football game between the Kansas City Chiefs and New England Patriots on September 29 , 2014 , setting the record at 142 @.@ 2 decibels .
= = = College = = =
CenturyLink Field has hosted several college football games . The hometown Washington Huskies played their 2005 season opener against the Air Force Falcons at the stadium in Tyrone Willingham 's first game as head coach . In 2011 , the University of Washington began a $ 250 million renovation to Husky Stadium , so the Huskies and the Washington State Cougars played the 2011 Apple Cup at CenturyLink Field . The Huskies also played their entire 2012 home football schedule at CenturyLink Field .
Except for in 2010 , the stadium hosted a Washington State Cougars non @-@ conference home game each season between 2002 and 2014 . This included the 86th " Battle of the Palouse " against the Idaho Vandals in 2003 . The Cougars were and their crowds ranged from 30 @,@ 927 to 63 @,@ 588 . CenturyLink Field is about 300 miles ( 500 km ) from the university . The university 's athletic director said that 50 @,@ 000 need to attend to make it worth moving the game from Pullman . The Cougars went 6 – 6 in the annual game . The games generated additional revenue that was invested in facilities for the football program while also increasing exposure to the western side of the state .
In April 2009 , it was proposed that the annual Apple Cup between the Seattle @-@ based Huskies and the Pullman @-@ based Cougars be hosted at CenturyLink Field for six years beginning in 2010 . The two programs could not reach an agreement on how to divide tickets . Pullman 's business community had expressed concerns that playing the game away from the area would be detrimental to the local economy .
Qwest Field hosted the 2002 Seattle Bowl , in which Wake Forest beat Oregon 38 – 17 . The inaugural Seattle Bowl was played a year earlier at Safeco Field , but the game was discontinued when organizers could not secure financing before 2003 . Later attempts to revive the Seattle Bowl were unsuccessful . The Seattle Sports Commission is pushing for a proposal of a new bowl game . In 2008 a business plan was begun for a game in 2010 that would be a fundraiser for Seattle Children 's Hospital .
Lower division NCAA teams have played at the stadium throughout the years . From 2003 to 2008 , the Division II football teams from Western Washington University and Central Washington University met each year in a rivalry game called " The Battle in Seattle " . Central won all but the 2004 game , and each meeting attracted more than 11 @,@ 000 people . Western discontinued its football program after the 2008 season , but Central came to an agreement to continue the series with Western Oregon University for games in 2009 and 2010 . " Battle in Seattle VII " saw Central make a comeback to win 23 – 21 in front of 5 @,@ 374 .
On October 31 , 2009 , the Division I FCS Eastern Washington University Eagles played a home game in Seattle for the first time . Along with the goal of drawing alumni from the metropolitan area , the athletic directors from both Eastern Washington and Washington State had expressed the importance of connecting with alumni at receptions and other events on the western side of the state . Billed as the " Showdown on the Sound " , the game was a 47 – 10 victory over the Portland State Vikings . According to Eastern 's athletic director , Qwest Field 's rental was $ 50 @,@ 000 for the day .
= = = High school = = =
CenturyLink Field has been used for high school football . The Washington Interscholastic Activities Association puts on the annual Emerald City Kickoff Classic at the stadium . The event is a season @-@ opening series of games between some of the best teams in the state .
The stadium features a meeting between one of the best teams in Washington and one of the best from another state in the " Best of the West " game . On September 4 , 2004 , Washington 's Bellevue High School and California 's De La Salle High School played in front of over 25 @,@ 000 , a state high school event attendance record . Bellevue ended De La Salle 's national @-@ record 151 @-@ game winning streak in a 39 – 20 win . On September 16 , 2009 , Bellevue defeated another highly regarded California school at Qwest Field in a 30 – 16 victory over Long Beach Polytechnic . USA Today had recently rated both teams highly with Long Beach third and Bellevue at 16th in the nation .
After the organizer of the event announced a match @-@ up between Washington 's Skyline High School and Oregon 's Jesuit High School in 2009 , he said that he proposed the possibility of televising games to Fox Sports , but Fox did not televise the game . Skyline went on to shut out Jesuit 17 – 0 during that year 's Emerald City Classic .
Within CenturyLink Field , there is a large art piece called The State of Football that pays tribute to high school football in the state of Washington . The piece features a depiction of Washington and holds replica football helmets from every high school football team in the state . The art is part of the nearly $ 1 @.@ 75 million Stadium Art Program commissioned through First & Goal 's lease of the facility .
= = Soccer = =
CenturyLink Field is also designed for soccer . The stadium meets FIFA sight line requirements and provides separate locker rooms for soccer teams . Camera locations were chosen for optimal television coverage of the sport . Numerous exhibition games have taken place at CenturyLink Field , including high @-@ profile clubs such as Manchester United , Barcelona , Celtic , Real Madrid , Chelsea , Club América and Chivas de Guadalajara . These games have proved to be highly popular , and the first sell @-@ out of 66 @,@ 772 fans at CenturyLink Field was a soccer match between Manchester United and Celtic . National teams such as Brazil , Venezuela , Mexico , and China have played exhibition games at the stadium . The artificial turf has been temporarily overlaid with grass for international matches .
Seattle was the site of the 2005 CONCACAF Gold Cup Group B opening round between the national teams of the United States , Costa Rica , Canada , and Cuba . Two matches of the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup opening round were also played at the stadium on July 4 , 2009 . In the second match , the United States comfortably defeated Grenada , who were playing in their first major international competition , 4 – 0 . The Gold Cup returned in 2013 with Panama beating Martinique and Mexico defeating Canada in opening group play matches .
CenturyLink Field was among the 58 facilities in the United States being considered for World Cup matches had the country hosted the tournament in 2018 or 2022 . When discussing Seattle as a candidate , Sunil Gulati of the U.S. Soccer Federation called it " a world @-@ class facility . " Seattle finally hosted a qualifier in June 2013 — only the city 's second with the first being over 3 decades earlier . The United States topped Panama 2 — 0 in front of a raucous crowd .
On November 22 , 2009 , Seattle was the site of the 14th annual MLS Cup between Real Salt Lake and the Los Angeles Galaxy , where Salt Lake won the Cup on penalty kicks ( 5 – 4 ) in front of 46 @,@ 011 . The stadium was the eighth stadium to host the event .
= = = Sounders ( USL ) = = =
The first sporting event at the stadium was a double @-@ header on July 28 , 2002 , that included both the Sounders Select Women and the men 's Seattle Sounders of the USL team . The women defeated the Vancouver Breakers 4 – 3 , while the men beat the Vancouver Whitecaps 4 – 1 in front of 25 @,@ 515 people . The USL team began using the facility regularly as their home field in 2003 . Although team management was concerned with the high rent and the underused seating capacity , they were drawn by the sponsorship opportunities and location . The Sounders increased their average attendance from 2 @,@ 583 at Seattle 's Memorial Stadium in 2002 to 3 @,@ 452 at the new stadium in 2003 . In 2005 , the Sounders beat the Richmond Kickers 2 – 1 in a penalty shootout for the USL championship in front of 8 @,@ 011 . Scott Jenkins scored the final goal and announced his retirement after the game .
In 2008 , the MLS expansion franchise Sounders FC decided to develop the Starfire Sports Complex in nearby Tukwila , and the USL team played most of the season at that facility . At the time , team management thought that practicing and playing at Starfire could provide a better transition for those hoping to play for the new MLS team . The last match for the USL Sounders at Qwest Field was the 2008 season opener against the rival Portland Timbers . The game ended in a scoreless draw in front of 10 @,@ 184 .
= = = Sounders FC = = =
The potential to draw an MLS expansion team helped drive public support for building the stadium in 1997 . In 1996 , Seattle was considered for one of the 10 original MLS teams ; however , the region lacked an adequate outdoor stadium . In 2007 , it was announced that Seattle would be the home of an expansion team . The first Sounders FC regular season match was at the stadium on March 19 , 2009 . Fredy Montero scored the first goal in a 3 – 0 Seattle victory .
Before the opening of their first season , the Sounders already had the highest number of season ticket holders in the MLS after they sold all 22 @,@ 000 of the offered season ticket packages . The team created a web site that was used to identify seating arrangements for season ticket holders based on personal interests including preferred method for watching a game and foreign team preference . For the first half of the inaugural season , the upper and lower sections were tarped off , limiting the seating capacity to 27 @,@ 700 . The club hoped to create an intimate environment as well as a supply @-@ and @-@ demand factor that would reward season ticket holders and encourage early purchase of seats . The stadium has continuously sold out league matches in the limited seating configuration . However , majority owner Joe Roth has said that he " won 't be happy " until the entire venue is open .
The stadium was designed to easily open seating sections in stages if needed . After repeated sellout crowds , additional sections were opened , increasing total capacity to 32 @,@ 400 . In the Sounders ' first year they set an MLS record with an average home attendance of 30 @,@ 943 people . Official capacity was increased to 35 @,@ 700 after the 2009 season . In 2011 , The Sounders continued to hold the highest average attendance in the league with 38 @,@ 496 . Official capacity was increased again to 38 @,@ 500 with the opening of the Hawk 's Nest for the 2012 season . The Sounders set the state 's single game soccer attendance record when they hosted Manchester United in front of 67 @,@ 052 in July 2011 . On October 15 , 2011 , additional seats were available for a record crowd of 64 @,@ 140 during the final regular season home match , a Sounders 2 – 1 win followed by ceremonies honoring retiring goalkeeper Kasey Keller . And on October 7 , 2012 , another attendance record was broken when 66 @,@ 452 fans were present for a 3 – 0 win over the Portland Timbers , following a ceremony awarding retired Forward Roger Levesque a Golden Scarf .
CenturyLink Field has hosted two U.S. Open Cup tournament finals . On October 5 , 2010 , the tournament 's 81 @-@ year @-@ old attendance record was broken when Sounders FC defeated the Columbus Crew 2 – 1 in front of 31 @,@ 311 . That record was broken one year later when CenturyLink Field again hosted the final on October 4 , 2011 as 36 @,@ 615 spectators watched Seattle defeat the Chicago Fire 2 – 0 . Like the Seahawks , the Sounders have received attention for sellout crowds and boisterous fans . The Seattle Times reported that a " new standard for attendance and game @-@ day atmosphere has been set " due to the loud sellout crowds . The passionate Emerald City Supporters have dubbed the general admission sections behind the south goal the " Brougham End " for the street that runs along the south edge of the complex .
= = Other events = =
The stadium became a yearly site for Supercross races in 2005 . Seattle had been left out of the circuit since the Kingdome hosted the race in 1999 . It takes more than 650 truckloads of dirt to build the course for the event that around 50 @,@ 000 spectators attend .
The Rolling Stones , U2 , Metallica , Taylor Swift and other large acts have performed at CenturyLink Field . The stadium hosts both trade and consumer shows . A stadium record for attendance was set in June 2011 when U2 played in front of more than 70 @,@ 000 .
The CenturyLink Field Event Center connects to the stadium 's west field plaza and consists of two exhibition halls , a conference room , and a concourse . The center hosts pre @-@ game events for the Seahawks and Mariners . According to the Public Stadium Authority 's website , the event center contributes more than half a billion dollars to the region 's economy . The center was renamed the CenturyLink Field Event Center in June 2011 , following the acquisition of Qwest Communications by CenturyLink and the renaming of the stadium .
The Event Center had previously been called " the worst venue in town " for concerts , but in 2006 , AEG Live and First & Goal formed a partnership to create a new theater within the Event Center space . Washington Mutual obtained the naming rights to the new theater , calling it the " WaMu Theater . " The theater space can be assembled on an as @-@ needed basis within the building and equipment , including the 104 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) wide stage , can be dismantled and stored in the stadium . The theater 's acoustics were improved by installing panels on the ceiling and a large curtain . Depending on the seating configuration , the capacity can be 3 @,@ 300 , 4 @,@ 000 , or 7 @,@ 000 . Seal performed the inaugural concert on November 6 , 2006 . Though the naming rights deal ended following the bankruptcy of Washington Mutual in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis , the space retained the WaMu Theater name , amending the abbreviation to now mean the " Washington Music Theater . "
The facilities have been used for public speaking engagements . For example , the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet , Tenzin Gyatso , delivered a 28 @-@ minute speech to 50 @,@ 817 people on April 12 , 2008 .
= = Football stadium shaking experiments = =
During a Seattle football game on January 8 , 2011 , the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network ( PNSN ) recorded what was dubbed a " Beast Quake " , for Marshawn " Beast Mode " Lynch , a player whose performance excited the ( then @-@ named ) Qwest Field stadium crowd enough for the resultant shaking to be recorded on PNSN instruments . In 2014 and 2015 additional sensors were added in and around the stadium . Motivations for the experiment included conducting a quick @-@ reaction exercise for the seismometer network team to install sensors and interpret results , and to test the ability to handle increased web traffic from interested visitors from the general public . Shaking was detected at the stadium after a 90 @-@ yard touchdown run during a January 10 , 2015 playoff game , dubbed a " Kam Quake " for the player making the run , Kam Chancellor . The PNSN scientists say that the biggest event of all was the " Dance Quake " , which was caused by the all the jumping and dancing that followed Marshawn Lynch 's touchdown and 2 @-@ point conversion during 2014 – 15 NFC Championship Game on January 18 , 2015 .
= = Facility contracts and naming rights = =
The stadium was originally named Seahawks Stadium . The name was changed to Qwest Field in June 2004 after the telecommunications carrier bought the naming rights for $ 75 million for a period of 15 years . According to the agreement , the proceeds must be used for maintenance and upgrades . A portion of any profit then goes into a $ 10 million fund Allen guaranteed for youth playfields . Due to CenturyLink 's recent acquisition of Qwest , the stadium was officially renamed CenturyLink Field on June 23 , 2011 . There is speculation as to if there will be a new nickname for the venue . An informal reader poll conducted by The Seattle Times showed that " The Clink " was a popular suggestion . During Sounders FC matches , the field has been entitled " The Xbox Pitch at CenturyLink Field " as part of a sponsorship deal with Microsoft .
In addition to its 48 concession stands , restaurants and lounges are located throughout the stadium . Along with typical fare , local Pacific salmon sandwiches , Dungeness crab cakes , and microbrews are served . In 2006 , Levy Restaurants replaced Aramark in a five @-@ year deal to provide the food and beverage service for the stadium and exhibition center . As of 2013 , Sportservice manages and operates all general concessions and premium dining in the stadium .
In May 2007 , Seattle @-@ based Jones Soda outbid Coca @-@ Cola to sign a five @-@ year contract for the pouring rights of non @-@ alcoholic beverages at the stadium , making it the only venue in the NFL that did not have a contract with either Coca @-@ Cola or Pepsi . Jones Soda , known for unusual and holiday @-@ themed soda flavors such as Blue Bubblegum and Turkey & Gravy , said it was working to develop football @-@ related soda flavors , such as " grass @-@ stain . " In June 2010 , the Seahawks and Jones Soda announced their mutual decision to end the Jones sponsorship , following which Coca @-@ Cola reclaimed the vending rights with a new five @-@ year agreement .
= = Transportation = =
CenturyLink Field is bordered by the Pioneer Square , International District , and Industrial District neighborhoods of Seattle . The stadium 's referendum approval required a transportation management program to coordinate transportation options . First & Goal 's facility lease agreement also included a provision to ease gridlock . A " Dual Event Agreement " with Safeco Field was established so that two events with a combined attendance of over 58 @,@ 000 would not occur within four hours of each other . The agreement was also implemented to coordinate mass transit to the stadiums on game days . Local and regional buses service the area with stops within three blocks of the stadium , and the county 's Metro bus service offers express routes from several area park and ride lots for games . Trains service the stadium through Seattle 's King Street Station and overflow tracks accommodate extra trains during events . Regional commuter trains operate on Sundays if the Seahawks have a home game . Trains also run for mid @-@ day Sounders FC games on Saturdays . In 2008 , the commuter trains carried 64 @,@ 000 event goers to the two nearby stadiums . Amtrak , primarily through the Pacific Northwest corridor 's Cascades route , also serves the station . On July 18 , 2009 , light rail service between SeaTac and downtown began in time for an exhibition match between the Sounders and Chelsea . The light rail connects to the baseball and football stadiums via the Stadium station . The International District / Chinatown station also offers convenient access .
CenturyLink Field is bordered by the junction of Interstates 5 and 90 to the east and State Route 99 to its west . The State Route 519 corridor connects I @-@ 90 to the neighborhood . Local governments compromised with both the Seahawks and Mariners on the location of new ramps over the train tracks that run along the east sides of CenturyLink and Safeco Fields . An overpass for S Royal Brougham Way , the road that borders the south edge of the CenturyLink Field complex , to improve access and safety was completed in May 2010 . The stadium has 2 @,@ 000 parking spaces in its parking garage and 8 @,@ 400 in the surrounding lots to accommodate automobile traffic . Beginning in December 2011 , construction of the Stadium Place mixed @-@ use development project replaced much of the north lot . The developer must replace the 500 lost parking spots and turn over parking revenue to the Public Stadium Authority per an agreement with King County .
= Dynasty Warriors 4 =
Dynasty Warriors 4 ( 真 ・ 三國無双3 , Shin Sangokumusō 3 , Shin Sangokumusou 3 in Japan ) is a hack and slash video game and the fourth installment in the popular Dynasty Warriors series . Dynasty Warriors 4 was developed by Omega Force and published by Koei . The game is available on PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) and Xbox and is based on a series of books called Romance of the Three Kingdoms , written by Luo Guanzhong . As the series has progressed , it has strayed further from the actual plot of Romance of the Three Kingdoms but instead has given the user more input on how the storyline progresses . When it was released in Japan as Shin Sangokumusou 3 , it topped the sales charts , sold over one million copies within nine days , and received an average of 78 out of 100 on Metacritics reviews .
Originally released on the PS2 in March 2003 , it was later ported to the Xbox in September of the same year and , in 2005 , ported to the PC under the name Dynasty Warriors 4 Hyper . Two expansions were released for the PS2 version of the game , Xtreme Legends and Empires . Whereas Xtreme Legends requires the player to use the original Dynasty Warriors 4 disc to access all of its features , Empires is a stand @-@ alone game and can be played with all of its content without the use of the original disk . The game is the first in the Dynasty Warriors series to introduce an Empires expansion pack and the second to include an Xtreme Legends title . These expansions are not available for the Xbox version of the game .
= = Gameplay = =
Dynasty Warriors 4 expands on its predecessors by adding new characters , new modes of play and a completely new ' Edit Mode . ' Instead of having strict routines to follow during battle , officers , to some extent , will have a greater reaction to the events taking place on the battlefield in the game and may react to things more often .
The aim of most of the stages in Dynasty Warriors 4 is to defeat the enemy commander . The player must make their way through the stage , defeating enemy officers and troops while trying to keep their own commander alive . Some stages have secondary objectives for the player to complete to make the stage easier , unlock new features , or help in later stages . Each playable character has their own unique weapon and individual superhuman abilities . The scope of each stage allows for each side to have thousands of soldiers in the battlefield . The game uses a fairly simple combination system so that players can chain attacks together ; the highest possible attack combo being 10 . And new character designs and attack moves are also updated in this hit game , leaving more damage and raising your characters skill up more easily .
Playable starting officers include Liu Bei , Zhang Fei , and Guan Yu for the Shu Kingdom ; Xiahou Dun , Xiahou Yuan , and Cao Cao for the Wei Kingdom ; and Sun Shang Xiang , Huang Gai , and Sun Jian for the Wu Kingdom . It is possible to unlock new characters from other kingdoms as well as use a player created character in any of the campaigns . The new ' Edit Mode ' allows players to create an officer from sets of different features , motions , and weapons to use in ' Kaiba Mode . ' The characters stance and motion are affected by their gender and the weapon the player has selected them to carry and use . The motions for the weapons are taken from pre @-@ existing officers as well as from two characters removed from Dynasty Warriors 4 that were in Dynasty Warriors 3 : Fu Xi and Nu Wa . Some characters are unlocked by fulfilling optional side @-@ goals ; most are unlocked by completing certain battles during gameplay . The maximum number of playable characters is 42 , 46 with created characters .
Each playable character in the game has the ability to equip items . Weapons in the game , unlike its predecessors , are gained in levels . Some items are only found in certain stages , but is only obtainable if completing a goal . Sometimes the goal may be very simple , but some may be not that easy to figure out how to obtain the certain item . By defeating generals and lieutenants , the player 's character is awarded experience scaled by the difficulty of each officer , and the amount of them defeated . This experience is allocated at the end of the level and allows the player to increase their attributes or obtain new forms . Each playable officer has 9 levels to achieve with their standard weapon , while a 10th level is accessible through special in @-@ game requirements , and on the " Hard " difficulty , which is found to be frustrating like most games , the harder the difficulty the more eager you gain . Items can have a number of effects on the player such as increasing attack power , defense , and movement speed . You can also retrieve your health level to avoid getting killed and having " Game Over " by obtaining " Chinese Meatbuns " that at first , look like onions like in any other game in the so far successful Dynasty Warriors franchise . You can also obtain item boost that increase a certain skill by 2 for limited time only . You can also get packs of wine and packs of Chinese Meatbuns in certain stages in certain locations during gameplay . As said above , special items can also be unlocked by completing objectives during gameplay . Special items can grant the player a statistics boost , a unique ability or skill , or even a ride @-@ able mount such as an Elephant or Horse .
'Musou Mode , ' the main campaign mode , has separate campaigns for each kingdom rather than a separate ' Musou Mode ' for each character , as was featured in Dynasty Warriors 3 , which made it more frustrating for the player to unlock their favorite characters . So , Dynasty Warriors 4 Mosou Modes are easier for the player to unlock their favorite characters . While the storyline is still linear , ' Musou Mode ' is rather open @-@ ended in the sense that depending on the user ’ s actions , different events will occur , such as unlocking new characters for use or new kingdoms . The unlockable kingdoms in the game include the Wu , Shu , and Wei Kingdoms , and unlockable characters include warlords who were defeated in the book that the game series is based on , Romance of the Three Kingdoms .
In @-@ game features include large battlefields , a large number of enemies and officers to defeat , and multiple outcomes for each stage . Certain levels make use of the siege engine ( A new feature to the series ) and introduce specialized siege equipment such as bridge layers , battering rams and catapults to the stage . Although it is not essential for the completion of stages , having a siege weapon will increase morale for the player 's forces , and help the player succeed .
The morale system in the game is similar to previous Dynasty Warrior games . Morale is increased and decreased by performing a number of positive actions for the player ’ s army . Action that produce this effect include defeating enemies in multiples of fifty , defeating enemy officers , and completing special events such as ambushes , siege attacks , and finding enemy strongholds . Morale in the game has a strong effect on the player 's forces , determining their strength and speed , as well as their ability to perform Berwald attacks . Morale will also affect how the CPU characters move along through battle . Example : Ally Oxenstiernas are winning . They are more likely to charge the enemy and destroy the enemies in the path . They may or may not stop if the charging armies morale drops to losing . More chances they 'll stop and stay where they are , or they 'll flee back to the ally side of the battlefield .
Occasionally , when the player confronts an enemy officer , the officer will challenge them to a one @-@ on @-@ one duel . If the player accepts , they will be transported to a small arena away from the main battlefield where a one @-@ on @-@ one fight with the officer will take place until either is victorious or time runs out . If the player declines , your morale will drop . If the player wins , their morale will rise and the enemy officer will be removed from the battlefield . If you accept the officers challenge they do become more difficult to beat in the duel .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Dynasty Warriors 4 is set in Ancient China during the time of the Three Kingdoms era . The game begins at the fall of the Han Dynasty , shortly before the death of Emperor Ling when the Yellow Turban Rebellion led by Zhang Jiao begun an uprising against the Empire . A number of elements in the game build on aspects of Chinese Mythology and there is a mix between fact and fiction as the game is built on the story of Romance of the Three Kingdoms .
Many of the locations , characters , and events in Dynasty Warriors 4 are reported to have happened in Chinese history although many have been exaggerated to make the game more appealing to the player . There are also some features that are historically inaccurate such as Zhou Tai 's weapon , a Japanese tachi , as there is no historical record of this kind of weapon being used in that era . The game features environments resembling that of ancient China and various items from the era . Common items throughout the game include Fairy Wine and Dim Sum ’ s .
= = = Stages = = =
Many of the stages are recreations of notable battles present historically or from the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms , while original creations became more common with the newer installments . Of course , the battlefields are not exact reproductions of the original locations , as newer establishments , buildings and othe facilities have been built on top of them . For example , He Fei , a key site in both the game and in the historical context , has been developed and expanded into an urbanised area , making an exact replication impossible . Instead , levels are designed to be vaguely accurate , focusing more on expression of mood and effects ; these are not re @-@ used in every game , but are instead updated in every Dynasty Warriors game , save the games ' extension packages - in this case , Dynasty Warriors 4 : Xtreme Legends and Dynasty Warriors 4 : Empires
= = = Characters = = =
* Denotes new characters to the series
* Denotes new characters to the seriesBold denotes default charactersNote : Fu Xi and Nü Wa were removed in DW4
= = = Story = = =
Although Dynasty Warriors 4 does allow for some player input into how the story unfolds , the three main kingdoms ' ' Musou Modes ' follow the main events of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms story .
= = = = Han and Allied Forces Story = = = =
In 184 AD , with the corruption and poverty within the Han dynasty , Zhang Jiao and a religious sect known as the Way of Peace start a rebellion within China , attracting hundreds of thousands of followers . In response to this threat , Regent Marshal He Jin gathers generals from across the land to combat the " Yellow Turban Rebellion " . Among the volunteers for the Han Forces are Cao Cao of Chang 'an , Sun Jian of Jianye , and Liu Bei . The Han forces are able to destroy Zhang Liang , who is laying siege to Huangfu Song at Xiapi Castle . They proceed to drive Zhang Bao out of his fortress at He Nan Yin and the whole Han army triumphs over Zhang Jiao himself in Ji Province ( If Zhang Jiao withdraws from the battle , one of the forces , either Wei , Wu , or Shu , will defeat Zhang Jiao and Zhang Lu in Hanzhong ) .
With Zhang Jiao and his followers dead , it is Dong Zhuo who seizes power within the Imperial Court . Followed by Lu Bu and Diaochan , he enslaves Emperor Xian and makes himself regent in place of the deceased He Jin . In 190 AD , the powerful nobleman Yuan Shao rallies an army of warriors from across the land , including Cao Cao , Sun Jian , Liu Bei , Gongsun Zan , and many fresh warriors . These forces defeat Li Jue and Hua Xiong at Si Shui Gate and , at Hulao Gate a year later , they defeat Dong Zhuo and Lu Bu ; Dong Zhuo survives , and burns down Luoyang .
= = = Shu Story = = =
After defeating Dong Zhuo , Liu Bei and his sworn brothers Zhang Fei and Guan Yu are forced to wander the land in search of a home . Since the people love Liu Bei , Cao Cao sets out to destroy him . In 200 AD , Guan Yu returns to Liu Bei after an escape ( " Tales " ) , making it through many gates to ships on the river . At Ru Nan ( " Tales " ) , Liu Bei is rejoined by Guan Yu and is now followed by Zhao Yun , who saves him from advancing infantry . Cao Cao is defeated , but Liu Bei must continue wandering . In 208 AD , Liu Bei finds talent in a strategist known as Zhuge Liang , who agreed to follow him after Liu Bei visited him three times . Zhuge Liang proves his worth by defeating Cao Cao 's army in a series of ambushes at the Battle of Bo Wan Po and Liu Bei successfully manages to flee to Sun Jian in Wu after the Battle of Changban , where Zhao Yun saved his son . Sun Jian agrees to assist Liu Bei in his goal of defeating Cao Cao , and Wu strategist Zhou Yu teams up with Zhuge Liang to execute a fire attack that destroyed Cao Cao 's fleet at the Battle of Chi Bi .
After Chi Bi , Liu Bei focused on building up his kingdom . He took over Luo Castle from his cousin Liu Zhang after the people pleaded for his guidance ( although he lost Pang Tong ) , and also unified Jing Province after defeating Han Xuan of Changsha , Liu Du of Lingling , Zhao Fan of Guiyang , and Jin Xuan of Wuling . He gained Huang Zhong and Wei Yan as officers after this battle , and his great army conquered the rest of Yi Province at Chengdu in 214 AD . Soon after , he assisted Ma Chao at the Battle of Tong Pass ( " Tales " ) against Cao Cao , and gained him as a general after Chengdu .
Liu Bei then attacks either Wei or Wu , depending on if the fire attack at Chi Bi succeeds or not . Either Wei or Wu will be the final battle where you attack their capital ; the battles are the same .
Liu Bei proceeds to campaign in the southlands to get rid of Wu 's threat , as Wu had backed a Nanman rebellion by King Meng Huo . In Nanzhong , he systematically defeated Meng Huo for a total of seven times , as Zhuge Liang cleverly resisted the Nanman armor troops and also pacified the poison marshes . After taking down Meng Huo , Shu proceeded to capture Fan Castle from Wei 's Cao Ren , and also defeated Wu reinforcements under Lu Meng and traitors under Mi Fang and Fu Shiren . The final battle with Wu was at the Battle of Yi Ling , where Liu Bei braved a Wu fire attack and defeated ( if Wu falls first , kills ) Sun Jian and his officers . If Wei has been defeated before Wu , Liu Bei proceeds to attack Jianye , and sees through Sun Jian 's body double trickery and kills Sun Jian , Sun Ce , Sun Quan , and Sun Shangxiang .
He also attacks Wei in campaigns masterminded by Zhuge Liang . Zhuge Liang gains Jiang Wei as a general after isolating him and tricking Wei general Ma Zun into thinking that he was betraying him , in a clever ploy at the Battle of Tianshui ( " Tales " ) . He proceeds to defeat the Wei after a failed prisoner exchange at the Battle of Mt . Dingjun and saves Ma Su from defeat at the Battle of Jieting . His final battle with Wei is at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains , where he fakes his death , only to ambush the Wei forces and defeat Sima Yi . If Wu has fallen before Wei , Shu will attack Xuchang , the co @-@ capital of Wei , and take it , with Wei 's officers fighting to the death .
Having united the land , Liu Bei will ride on a victory march with his generals , and enter the capital in a glorious procession .
= = = Wei Story = = =
After Dong Zhuo 's defeat , Cao Cao focuses on uniting the land . He is surrounded by enemies : Dong Zhuo 's general Lu Bu has taken over all of Dong Zhuo 's troops and taken Xiapi Castle ; Zhang Xiu has rebelled in Wan Castle ; to the north , Yuan Shao threatened to swallow the north whole . Cao Cao defeated Zhang Xiu at Wan Castle , with his guard Dian Wei holding foes back in the burning castle . Cao Cao , having escaped , defeats Lu Bu in alliance with Liu Bei at Xiapi in 198 AD , exterminating his army and gaining several officers . Cao Cao 's final victory is at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD , where he destroys Yuan Shao 's army before he even arrives .
After defeating Yuan Shao , Cao Cao proceeds to fight against Liu Bei , who is wandering the land in search of a master . Xiahou Dun pursues and defeats Guan Yu , Liu Bei 's brother , who is trying to escape to boats on the Huang He ( " Tales " ) . In 208 AD , Cao Cao wins victories over Zhuge Liang 's trickery at Bo Wan Po , defeats a fleeing Liu Bei at Changban , and stops a fire attack ploy by an allied fleet of Sun Jian and Liu Bei at Chi Bi .
Although his southern foes were still very alive , Cao Cao focused to the north to crush Ma Chao and his rebels at Tong Gate in 211 AD ( " Tales " ) . He also chooses to defend against Lu Bu , who is terrorizing Xiapi , and in a fireattack , he ends Lu Bu 's Offensive ( " Tales " ) . Cao Cao 's generals then destroy the army of the alive Dong Zhuo piecemeal at Ji Province ( " Tales " ) , and he eradicates all of his foes . Cao Cao then chooses to go after Shu or Wu , depending on the result of the Chibi fire attack .
Cao Cao defends against Shu 's attacks , with Xiahou Yuan defeating Huang Zhong at Mt . Dingjun in 218 AD after a failed prisoner exchange . Zhuge Liang then makes a new attempt to go north , appointing Ma Su as a subordinate , but Ma Su is encircled at Jieting in 229 AD and his army is decimated by Sima Yi , Cao Cao 's strategist . Cao Cao and Sima Yi then defeat Zhuge Liang at the Wuzhang Plains in 234 AD , defeating ( or killing , depending on order of conquest ) Liu Bei . If Wu has fallen first , Cao Cao proceeds to attack the Shu capital of Chengdu . He gets Wei Yan to defect to his forces and the Wei army seizes both Luo Castle and Chengdu from the Shu forces , and Liu Bei and his peasant militias are killed .
Wei strikes back against Wu , who have attacked them at Fan Castle . Cao Ren successfully defends the fortifications against Lu Meng , who fails to lay siege layers against the walls . At Shiting in 228 AD , Cao Xiu narrowly survives a defection ploy by Zhou Fang , with aid from Sima Yi , who destroys Lu Xun 's army . The final battle is at He Fei Castle , where the Wei general Zhang Liao defeats Sun Jian in a series of ambushes . If Shu has been defeated first , Wei will attack the capital at Jianye and every member of the Sun family is killed as the Three Kingdoms come to an end .
Cao Cao and his generals will then make a victory march into the capital , waved at by local peasants .
= = = Wu Story = = =
Dong Zhuo 's defeat has left him holed up in Luoyang , so Sun Jian and his army attack and defeat him in the city , finding the Imperial Seal in the process ( " Tales " ) . Sun Jian then leads his army home , but finds out that Liu Biao has taken over Jing Province , Yan Baihu , Wang Lang , and Liu Yong have conquered the Wu Territory , and Liu Xun has allied with Yuan Shu . At Xiangyang in 192 AD , Sun Jian falls into a trap in the castle but survives and defeats the attackers . His generals also kill off many of Liu Biao 's generals and defeat Yuan Shao 's reinforcements , and Liu Biao is defeated after interrogating why he invaded Jing . His son Sun Ce continues his conquest , and proceeds to conquer the Wu Territory from the regional lords ; Zhou Yu plans his campaign for the lands . With Wu secure , the Sun Family continues on to Mt . Xingshi , where they attack Jiangdong and defeat the armies of Liu Xun and Yuan Shu in 198 AD . If only Liu Xun has been defeated , Sun Jian and his family will participate in a unification of Jing Province , securing all of the cities from the forces of Liu Biao and the three Wu lords .
With their home base secured , Wu looked to external threats . Huang Zu , who had formerly supported Liu Biao , prepared a pirate fleet to attack . Nanman king Meng Huo had shown signs of revolt in the south . In the north , Cao Cao prepared an armada to invade the south . Sun Ce and Zhou Yu defeated Huang Zu with a naval fire attack at Xiakou and convinced Gan Ning to join them , and Zhou Yu inflicted a decisive defeat on Meng Huo 's elephant troops in Nanman . To fix the problem with Cao Cao , Sun Jian allied with Liu Bei and defeated Cao Cao 's fleet at Chi Bi .
After Chi Bi , Wu continued their conquests . Depending on the result of the fire attack , they will either attack Wei or Shu . Before either , the Wu defeat Dong Zhuo and Meng Huo 's combined forces at Chang Jiang ( " Tales " ) .
The Wu secured Xiangyang , the Nan Territory , Jiangling , and Jing Province from Wei before Shu 's Zhuge Liang could , and also defeated Meng Huo for a second ( or third ) time in the south . Their final battle against Shu is at Yiling , where they use a fire attack to force Liu Bei to retreat to Bai Di Castle , where he is then defeated ( or killed ) . If Wei has fallen first , Wu will defeat the Shu at Chengdu and occupy the lands of Shu Han , killing their officers .
Wu then faces off with Wei , taking Fan Castle with siege engines . Lu Xun , a new strategists , then defeats Wei at Shiting with a defection ploy involving Zhou Fang . Their final victory at He Fei Castle gives them control of the region . If Shu has fallen first , the Wu will proceed to Xuchang and take it after a siege .
With the land in their hands , the Wu have a victory march into the capital city .
= = = Yuan Shao Story = = =
Yuan Shao , having humbled the Yellow Turbans and the army of Dong Zhuo , proceeded to attack his rival Cao Cao . After defeating Cao Cao at Guan Du , Yuan Shao destroys Wei and kills all of their generals . With the tyrant dead , he focuses on defeating Liu Bei and Sun Jian . He fights two campaigns against them , defeating Sun Jian at Hefei and Liu Bei in Xiapi . The two heroes ' deaths let him take control of the whole land .
= = = Nanman Story = = =
The Nanman are absent from both the Yellow Turban Campaign and the War against Dong Zhuo . Instead , they are living peacefully in the south , but are defeated several times by Shu invaders . King Meng Huo is infuriated , but his wife Zhu Rong invigorates him to send them back to their lands and destroy them . After a single battle for Nanzhong , Meng Huo forces Zhuge Liang 's army out of his home .
Meng Huo 's army marches northwards to attack Liu Bei . However , his army is swept down the Changjiang and end up in the Kingdom of Wu , ruled by Sun Jian . The Nanman resolve to take Jianye from Wu , and Meng Huo kills every member of the Sun family in rapid succession . With Jianye down , Meng Huo proceeds to attack into Wei . He captures Xuchang and kills every Wei officer , although Sima Yi 's efforts to launch an attack on the Nanman supply depot cause temporary chaos .
Meng Huo and his Nanman army then march on Chengdu , the Shu capital . The Nanman troops are held back from the bridges by Zhang Bao and Guan Suo , who hold the Nanman back to defend the legacy of their fathers ( Zhang Fei and Guan Yu , respectively ) . Meng Huo kills the last of Shu 's generals and conquers the land .
= = = Lu Bu Story = = =
Lu Bu fights for Dong Zhuo at the Battle of Si Shui Gate , fighting off invaders that are supposed to depose him . Lu Bu then defeats the Coalition at Hu Lao Gate , but they are not done for yet . Also , he finds that Dong Zhuo is truly a monster , and starts a revolt in Wan Castle and cuts him down . Now in charge of Dong Zhuo 's army , he defeats Cao Cao , Liu Bei , and Sun Jian in several campaigns , and takes over the land .
= = = Dong Zhuo Story = = =
Dong Zhuo learns that the Coalition of Yuan Shao has finally started to attack , and he defeats them at Si Shui Gate and Hu Lao Gate . Afterwards , he defeats Lu Bu , who is trying to revolt against him , and defeats the rebels . His final act is to destroy Cao Cao , Liu Bei , and Sun Jian at Guandu , Xiapi , and Hefei . He rides into the capital on a victory march , taking over the land .
= = = Yellow Turban Story = = =
Zhang Jiao , leader of the Yellow Turban Rebellion , finds out that the Han army has moved at last , and they are preparing to attack him . He defeats Sun Jian , Liu Bei , and Cao Cao in a series of campaigns at Hefei , Xiapi , and Guandu , respectively . He then defeats the Han at Xiapi Castle , held by Huangfu Song , and then defeats Zhu Jun at He Nan Yin . Finally , he defeats the Coalition ( including Dong Zhuo and Lu Bu ) in Ji Province , and the Han fall to his feet . His men enter the capital , as the Way of Peace have taken over the land .
= = Development = =
Due to the success of Dynasty Warriors 3 , Omega Force began development on the sequel , Dynasty Warriors 4 , and its expansions . The fourth game in the series was the first to introduce an Empires expansion , but it wasn ’ t designed by the same person who designed Dynasty Warriors 4 , Tomohiko Sho . Although he was not the designer for all of the Dynasty Warriors games he was involved in the production for them , usually as the planner . Omega Force works under Koei as an internal development team and have mainly concentrated on the Dynasty Warriors series and the Samurai Warriors series . Similarities have been pointed out between the two series , such as the Xtreme Legends and Empires expansions , as well as a similar voice cast that has been used throughout a number of the games from each series . Repeated voices between games include Beau Billingslea , Steven Jay Blum and Richard Epcar .
= = = Audio = = =
The Dynasty Warriors series has never used the musical style commonly made in the era that the games are set in . Dynasty Warriors 4 is no different and features a similar style of music to Dynasty Warriors 3 , using a mix of rock , metal , and heavy metal with undertones of traditional Chinese music . However , this does not detract from the fact that there are a large number of varied tracks throughout the game . The ending song of the game , " Cross Colors , " is performed by Yuki Koyanagi and the music was composed by Kazuhiro Hara . The song was performed in both Japanese and English by the same singer and was released for the US and Japanese versions of the game .
= = Reception = =
Before its main release , Dynasty Warriors 4 was already looking promising after GameSpot UK ’ s preview two months before the game was released . Although still very similar to previous titles in the series , the graphics engine had been tweaked and the gameplay been expanded , featuring more characters and stages .
After its release , it had high sales rates in Japan , selling over one million copies a short time after release . Its release in the US did not create as much hype as in Japan mainly because the market for the Dynasty Warriors series is smaller there , but it still sold fairly well and together with the Japanese sales , Dynasty Warriors 4 entered into the Greatest Hits charts . In its time Dynasty Warriors 4 has managed to become IGN 's 5th best co @-@ operative game on the PS2 as well . The game is criticized for being very similar to older games in the series and retaining some of the features such as the fogging and repetitive gameplay . Even with these drawbacks , Koei went on to release two expansions for Dynasty Warriors 4 Xtreme Legends and Dynasty Warriors 4 Empires . It had also been ported to the Xbox and to the PC as a Hyper edition . Armchair Empire commented that when there is a lot happening on screen at once , the game tended to slow down
The English voice acting for the series , commonly criticized as being poor , has remained in DW4 . The English voice @-@ overs of Dynasty Warriors series uses straightforward English pronunciations for the romanized pinyin names of characters and locations . The results tend to leave errors in the dialogue , with incorrect English pronunciations of originally Chinese text .
= = Versions and expansions = =
Dynasty Warriors 4 has had two expansions and a re @-@ release . The first was Dynasty Warriors 4 Xtreme Legends and added new gameplay options and modes . The second was Dynasty Warriors 4 Empires , which added a strategy mode of gameplay to the original . It has also been re @-@ released as Dynasty Warriors 4 Hyper ( 真 ・ 三國無双3ハイパー , Shin Sangokumusou 3 Hyper ) in Japan . Hyper is a port of Dynasty Warriors 4 to Windows 2000 / Windows XP .
= = = Dynasty Warriors 4 : Xtreme Legends = = =
Dynasty Warriors 4 : Xtreme Legends ( 真 ・ 三國無双3 猛将伝 , Shin Sangokumusou 3 Moushouden ) is a PlayStation 2 Dynasty Warriors 4 expansion developed by Omega Force and published by Koei . This expansion was released in the United States on November 4 , 2003 . DW4XL , as it is sometimes abbreviated to , has slightly improved weather effects and character reflections within the overall graphics . The original DW4 game disc is needed if the player wishes to play external modes such as ' Musou Mode.'
The expansion adds new difficulty levels ( ' Beginner ' and ' Expert ' ) and new modes of play ( ' Arena Challenge ' and ' Legend ' modes ) . In ' Arena Challenge Mode , ' the player can engage one @-@ on @-@ one duels against various opponents , where they 'll be rewarded if they win . The new ' Legend Mode ' elaborates on the individual prowess of each individual warrior within Dynasty Warriors . Individual weapons are given the availability to have an 11th evolved state , increasing the weapon 's stats further . Due to the great emphasis in the duelling system in this expansion , it is at times seen as its own individual game - separate from the original Dynasty Warriors 4 .
= = = Dynasty Warriors 4 : Empires = = =
Dynasty Warriors 4 : Empires ( 真 ・ 三國無双3 Empires ( Shin Sangokumusou 3 Empires ) in Japan ) is the second expansion of Dynasty Warriors 4 , released exclusively for the PlayStation 2 on August 31 , 2004 in the United States . The game adds a new strategy mode called ' Empire Mode ' which is based on the Romance of the Three Kingdoms series . However , the gameplay during attacking or defending against opposing forces is exactly the same as the original Dynasty Warriors 4 . The main goal in Empire Mode is to conquer the land in order to beat the game , by invading and conquering all areas and territories of China . In addition , the Japanese voices were added into the PS2 version of Dynasty Warriors 4 Empires for the American version .
In ' Empire Mode , ' the player can choose a ruler for their forces , along with two main generals . Three minor lieutenants can also be chosen for support . In battle , the capture of enemy officers is possible by lowering their morale and defeating them . If , at the end of the battle , the player is victorious , it is possible to hire the captured officer or , alternatively , release them . Before every battle , the player is given the choice of using ' Political Tactics , ' such as increasing or decreasing time limit of battles or preventing enemy reinforcements from arriving during battles . The player can also secure alliances with other forces ; these alliances can change how the game progresses , such as requesting reinforcements from the allied forces against opposing forces . However , these alliances only last for a set time decided by the tactic used . There 's also an ' Archives Mode ' that shows the motions and voices of the officers . A gallery of character artworks and game movies is also presented within the Archives Mode .
= = = Dynasty Warriors 4 : Hyper = = =
The PC version of the game hosts several exclusive features , such as improved graphics , higher resolution options , more characters onscreen , improved draw distance , optional Japanese dialogue , and improved enemy AI . However , it does not contain the additional content from Dynasty Warriors 4 : Xtreme Legends .
= Eilley Bowers =
Alison " Eilley " Oram Bowers ( September 6 , 1826 – October 27 , 1903 ) was a Scottish American woman who was , in her time , one of the richest women in the United States , and owner of the Bowers Mansion , one of the largest houses in the western United States . A farmer 's daughter , Bowers married as a teenager , and her husband converted to Mormonism before the couple immigrated to the United States . After briefly living in Nauvoo , Illinois , she became an early Nevada pioneer , farmer and miner , and was made a millionaire by the Comstock Lode mining boom . Married and divorced two times , she married a third time and became a mother of three children but outlived them all .
Following the deaths of her first 2 children in infancy then her husband , with the third child dying a few short years after , and with the collapse of the Nevada mining economy , Eilley Bowers became bankrupt and destitute . Eilley reinvented herself as " The Famous Washoe Seeress " , a professional scryer and fortune @-@ teller in Nevada and California . Worth over $ 4 million at the height of the Nevada mining boom , she died penniless in a care home in Oakland , California .
= = Early life = =
Alison Oram ( sometimes spelled " Orrum " ) , commonly called Eilley , was born on September 6 , 1826 , in Forfar , Scotland . Her only brother John was born in 1821 , and it appears that her father ’ s work forced them to move frequently . John was born in Dunfermline and at some point during their childhood , they moved eighty miles southwest of Forfar to Clackmannan . It was here that she married Stephen Hunter in the Church of Scotland at the age of fifteen . Stephen soon met some Mormon missionaries and became a believer . He was baptized into the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and agreed to immigrate to America . Eilley never converted but traveled with her husband . They sailed for America on January 29 , 1849 . By the time the Hunters reached Salt Lake City , the strain on their marriage was evident . After eight years of marriage , Bowers and Stephen separated in early 1850 .
= = Remarriage and settlement in Nevada = =
In 1853 , Bowers married farmer Alexander Cowan . Two years later the couple joined a mission to Mormon Station , near the western edge of Utah Territory . They brought with them Alexander 's 12 @-@ year @-@ old nephew who had recently been orphaned by the death of Alexander 's sister . The following year , the mission relocated to Washoe Valley in a settlement they named Franktown . The Cowans purchased 320 acres ( 130 ha ) of land for $ 100 ( approximately $ 2500 today ) . The existing ranch contained a dwelling house and coral . They stayed for two seasons .
During the crisis of the Utah War in 1857 , Brigham Young recalled Mormon colonists from the western areas of the proposed State of Deseret to the core area of Mormon settlement south of the Great Salt Lake . Alexander heeded the call , leaving his wife and son in Western Utah . With Alexander gone , Bowers and Robert left the abandoned settlement of Franktown for a small mining camp called Johntown in Gold Canyon near present @-@ day Virginia City , Nevada . Bowers opened a boardinghouse and began taking care of the miners . When the threat of war passed , Alexander returned to Western Utah and settled in Johntown , but he did not wish to pursue the life of a Washoe miner . In the fall of 1858 he returned to Salt Lake City where he remained a prominent member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints . Bowers and Robert remained in Johntown .
= = = Gold Hill and the Comstock Lode = = =
As prospectors began entering the area in large numbers , they soon settled in a new town they named Gold Hill . Bowers opened a new boardinghouse , but she was also buying and selling mining claims . At this time she was also known to engage in fortune @-@ telling using a traditional Scottish " peep stone " she had brought from Forfar . Henry de Groot recorded that on his arrival in August 1859 :
Mrs Ellen Cowan was living at Gold Hill in a very rude and comfortless sort of abode . She did the washing for the miners , a business that paid well at that day , and had gathered not a little gear prior to her marriage with Sandy .
Lemuel Sanford ( Sandy ) Bowers was one of the town ’ s new | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
nickels , but develops nickel poisoning and loses his vision . Attempting to drown his sorrows , Peter visits his local bar , The Drunken Clam , with his guide dog , unaware that the bar is on fire ( caused by God trying to impress a woman ) . Discovering the bartender Horace trapped under debris , Peter saves his life and is proclaimed a hero by local newsman Tom Tucker . When told that he saved Horace from a burning building , Peter replied with disbelief , " That freakin ' place was on fire ? ! " For his inadvertent bravery , Peter is awarded a medal by the mayor and receives an eye transplant , the replacement eyes coming from a homeless man dragged to death when Peter accidentally tied his guide dog around the man 's neck thinking it was a parking meter . The end of this episode is an unconnected parody of the closing throne room scene from Star Wars Episode IV : A New Hope .
= = Production = =
During Family Guy 's third season , the show was cancelled by its network . In preparation in case the show was revived and began broadcasting again , five short scripts were written in 2001 for future episodes . Blind Ambition was developed from one of those scripts . A number of scenes in the episode were removed before broadcast and one , the reappearance of Ernie the Giant Chicken , had originally been set to broadcast in " The Cleveland – Loretta Quagmire " . The scene was moved to this episode because " The Cleveland @-@ Loretta Quagmire " already contained a lengthy fight sequence and overran its time allowance . Several of the removed scenes focused on gags showing Peter and his friends attempting to rehabilitate Quagmire , one of which saw Brian Griffin transporting a fork @-@ lift truck load of porn magazines away from Quagmire 's house . Since the episode aired , a selection of action figures have been created of Peter acting as Gary , The No Trash Cougar .
Show producer David Goodman received many telephone calls complaining about the scene where Peter attempts to seduce his son Chris , mistakenly believing him to be his wife , Lois . The scene was believed by some viewers to be encouraging child molestation . The show also received at least one letter of complaint regarding the scene where Quagmire watches Lois going to the toilet ; screenwriter Chris Sheridan comments on the DVD commentary that the number of complaints about this scene exceeded one . It is prohibited on Fox to use the term ' Jesus Christ ' without actually referring to the person himself , and so in the scene in which God vaporises a person and exclaims " Jesus Christ " , it was necessary for Jesus to physically appear before the two run away in order for the scene to be suitable for television airing .
In addition to the regular cast , actor Gary Cole , actress Gina Gershon , actor Judd Hirsch , voice actress Rachael MacFarlane and actress Lisa Wilhoit guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan , actor John G. Brennan , writer Danny Smith , and actress Jennifer Tilly made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
Stewie discovers the Keebler Elves after crashing into the tree , who plan to kill their competition : Snap , Crackle and Pop , with the help of Judd Hirsch 's nuclear weapon , which Peter views while peeking through a ball return at the bowling alley . Later on in the bar , Crackle and Pop are seen discussing an attack by the Keebler Elves which apparently resulted in Snap 's death .
Beforehand , a ship crashes through Quahog buildings , a reference to Speed 2 : Cruise Control .
In one cutaway scene , W. Frederick Gerhardt 's Cycleplane crashing is parodied .
Peter discusses Scrubs with Horace in the bar , a show for which both Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan have written .
The entire scene in which Peter receives his award from Mayor West is a reenactment of the ending of the original 1977 Star Wars film , A New Hope ; Lucasfilm permitted the reproduction of the characters , music and sounds .
The airplane that defeats Ernie the Giant Chicken in the fight is a mirror reference to the climatic scene in Raiders of the Lost Ark .
Stewie being launched into a tree is a reference to The Brady Bunch .
= = Reception = =
PopMatters ' Kevin Wong gave the episode a positive review , feeling it was better than the two previous episodes of the season . He commented on the fight scene between Peter and Ernie the Giant Chicken as " a cartoon action sequence to end all cartoon action sequences : vehicles explode and limbs flail as Peter and the chicken beat each other senseless . " " Blind Ambition " was criticized by Mike Drucker of IGN , who found that " the long fight with the chicken in Blind Ambition was funny once before , but borderline tiring here " . However , Drucker also noted that the Star Wars ending was " one of my favorite jokes in the series " .
= Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street ( 2007 film ) =
Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street is a 2007 British @-@ American musical horror comedy film directed by Tim Burton . It is an adaptation of Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler 's Tony Award @-@ winning 1979 musical of the same name and re @-@ tells the Victorian melodramatic tale of Sweeney Todd , an English barber and serial killer who murders his customers with a straight razor and , with the help of his accomplice , Mrs. Lovett , processes their corpses into meat pies .
Having been struck by the cinematic qualities of Sondheim 's musical while still a student , Burton had entertained the notion of a film version since the early 1980s . However , it was not until 2006 that he had the opportunity to realize this ambition , when DreamWorks announced his appointment as replacement for director Sam Mendes , who had been working on such an adaptation . Sondheim , although not directly involved , was extensively consulted during the film 's production .
The film stars Johnny Depp as Benjamin Barker / Sweeney Todd and Helena Bonham Carter as Mrs. Lovett . Depp , not known for his singing , took lessons in preparation for his role , which producer Richard D. Zanuck acknowledged was something of a gamble . However , Depp 's vocal performance , despite being criticized as lacking certain musical qualities , was generally thought by critics to suit the part ( see Music section below ) .
Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street was released in the United States on December 21 , 2007 , and in the United Kingdom on January 25 , 2008 , to largely enthusiastic reviews . The film won a number of awards , including the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy , the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and the Academy Award for Best Art Direction . Helena Bonham Carter was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy , and Johnny Depp was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor . Although not an outstanding financial success in the U.S. , it performed well worldwide , and has spawned a soundtrack album and various DVD releases .
= = Plot = =
In 1846 , Benjamin Barker , a barber , arrives in London , accompanied by sailor Anthony Hope . Fifteen years earlier , he was falsely convicted and sentenced to penal transportation by the corrupt Judge Turpin , who lusted after Barker 's wife Lucy . Barker adopts the alias " Sweeney Todd " and returns to his old Fleet Street shop , situated above Mrs. Nellie Lovett 's meat pie shop . He learns that Turpin raped Lucy , who then poisoned herself with arsenic . The couple 's daughter , Johanna , is now Turpin 's ward , and is the object of Turpin 's lust . Todd vows revenge , and re @-@ opens his barber shop after Mrs. Lovett returns his straight razors to him . Anthony becomes enamored with Johanna , but is caught by Turpin and driven away by his corrupt associate , Beadle Bamford .
Todd denounces faux @-@ Italian barber Adolfo Pirelli 's hair tonic as a fraudulent mix and humiliates him in a public shaving contest . A few days later , Pirelli arrives at Todd 's shop , with his boy assistant Tobias Ragg . Mrs. Lovett keeps Toby occupied while Pirelli identifies himself as Todd 's former assistant , Davy Collins , and threatens to reveal Todd 's secret unless Todd gives him half his earnings . Todd kills Collins to protect his secret , and hides his body in a trunk .
After receiving advice from Bamford , Turpin , intending marriage to Johanna , visits Todd 's shop for grooming . Todd shaves Turpin , preparing to slit his throat ; they are interrupted by Anthony , who reveals his plan to elope with Johanna before noticing Turpin . Turpin leaves enraged and Todd vents his rage by killing customers while waiting for another chance to kill Turpin , and Mrs. Lovett bakes the victims into pies . Todd rigs his barber 's chair with a pedal @-@ operated mechanism that deposits his victims through a trap door into Mrs. Lovett 's basement bake @-@ house . Anthony searches for Johanna , whom Turpin has sent to an insane asylum upon discovering her plans to elope with Anthony .
The barbering and pie @-@ making businesses prosper , and Mrs. Lovett takes Toby as her assistant . Mrs. Lovett tells an uninterested Todd of her plans to marry him and move to the seaside . Anthony discovers Johanna 's whereabouts and poses as a wig @-@ maker 's apprentice to rescue her . Todd has Toby deliver a letter to Turpin , telling him where Johanna will be brought when Anthony frees her . Toby has become wary of Todd and tells Mrs. Lovett of his suspicion .
Bamford arrives at the pie shop , informing Mrs. Lovett that neighbors have been complaining of the stink from her chimney . He is distracted by Todd 's offer of a free grooming and is murdered by Todd . Mrs. Lovett informs Todd of Toby 's suspicions , and the pair search for Toby , whom Mrs. Lovett has locked in the bake @-@ house . He has hidden himself in the sewers after seeing Bamford 's body drop into the room from the trap door above , as well as finding a human toe in a pie . Anthony brings Johanna , disguised as a sailor , to the shop , and has her wait there while he leaves to find a coach .
A beggar woman enters the shop in search of Bamford . She recognizes Todd , but upon hearing Turpin 's voice , Todd kills her and sends her through the trap door . As Turpin enters , Todd explains that Johanna had repented and offers a free shave ; when Turpin finally recognizes Todd as Benjamin Barker , Todd stabs him several times before cutting his throat . Upon seeing Johanna , Todd prepares to slit her throat as well , not recognizing her as his daughter . Hearing Mrs. Lovett scream in horror as a dying Turpin grabs her dress , Todd instead spares Johanna 's life .
Todd discovers that the beggar woman was his wife Lucy , whom he believed to be dead , and that Mrs. Lovett misled him about her death . Todd pretends to forgive her and dances with her before hurling her into the bake @-@ house oven , then cradles his wife 's dead body in his arms . Toby climbs from the sewers and Todd allows Toby to slit his throat with his own razor . He leaves the basement as Todd bleeds to death over his dead wife .
= = Cast = =
Johnny Depp as Benjamin Barker / Sweeney Todd
Helena Bonham Carter as Mrs. Lovett
Alan Rickman as Judge Turpin
Timothy Spall as Beadle Bamford
Jayne Wisener as Johanna Barker
Sacha Baron Cohen as Adolfo Pirelli
Laura Michelle Kelly as Lucy Barker / Beggar Woman
Jamie Campbell Bower as Anthony Hope
Ed Sanders as Tobias Ragg
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Tim Burton first saw Stephen Sondheim 's 1979 stage musical , Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street , as a CalArts student in London in 1980 . Burton recalled his experience of seeing the show , saying , " I was still a student , I didn 't know if I would be making movies or working in a restaurant , I had no idea what I would be doing . I just wandered into the theatre and it just blew me away because I 'd never really seen anything that had the mixture of all those elements . I actually went three nights in a row because I loved it so much . " Although not a fan of the musical genre , Burton was struck by how cinematic the musical was , and repeatedly attended subsequent performances . He described it as a silent film with music , and was " dazzled both by the music and its sense of the macabre . " When his directing career took off in the late 1980s , Burton approached Sondheim with a view to making a cinematic adaptation , but nothing came of it . In Sondheim 's words , " [ Burton ] went off and did other things . "
Meanwhile , director Sam Mendes had been working on a film version of the story for several years , and in June 2003 Sondheim was approached to write the script . Although he turned down the offer , Mendes and producer Walter F. Parkes obtained his approval to use writer John Logan instead . Logan had previously collaborated with Parkes on Gladiator , and claimed his biggest challenge in adapting the Sondheim stage play " was taking a sprawling , magnificent Broadway musical and making it cinematic , and an emotionally honest film . Onstage , you can have a chorus sing as the people of London , but I think that would be alienating in a movie . " Mendes left to direct the 2005 film Jarhead , and Burton leaped at taking over the direction after his project , Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! , fell apart due to its excessive budget .
On Burton 's hiring , he and Logan reworked the screenplay ; Logan felt they agreed over the film 's tone due to " share [ d ] stunted childhoods watching Amicus movies " . Turning a three @-@ hour stage musical into a two @-@ hour film required some changes . Some songs were shortened , while others were completely removed . Burton said " In terms of the show , it was three hours long , but we weren 't out to film the Broadway show , we were out to make a movie , so we tried to keep the pace like those old melodramas . Sondheim himself is not a real big fan of movie musicals , so he was really open to honing it down to a more pacey shape . " " Burton and Logan also reduced the prominence of other secondary elements , such as the romance between Todd 's daughter Johanna and Anthony , to allow them to focus on the triangular relationship between Todd , Mrs. Lovett , and Toby .
= = = Casting = = =
DreamWorks announced Burton 's appointment in August 2006 , and Johnny Depp was cast as Todd . Christopher Lee , Peter Bowles , Anthony Head , and five other actors were set to play the ghost narrators , but their roles were cut ( Head does appear in an uncredited cameo as a gentleman who congratulates Depp after the shaving contest ) . According to Lee , these deletions were due to time constraints caused by a break in filming during March 2007 , while Depp 's daughter recovered from an illness . Burton 's domestic partner Helena Bonham Carter was cast in October 2006 , as well as Sacha Baron Cohen . In December of 2006 , Alan Rickman was cast . In January of 2007 , Laura Michelle Kelly was cast as Lucy Barker . Timothy Spall was added to the cast , and said he was urged to audition by his daughter , who wanted him to work with Depp . He recalled , " I really wanted this one – I knew Tim was directing and that Johnny Depp was going to be in it . My daughter , my youngest daughter , really wanted me to do it for that reason – Johnny Depp was in it . ( She came on set to meet Depp ) and he was really delightful to her , she had a great time . Then , I took her to the junket – and ( Depp ) greeted her like an old pal when he saw her . I 've got plenty of brownie points at the moment . "
Three members of the cast had never been in a film before : Ed Sanders was cast as Toby , Jayne Wisener as Johanna , and Jamie Campbell Bower , who auditioned , and after four days got the part of Anthony said " I think I weed myself . I was out shopping at the time and I got this call on my mobile . I was just like , ' OH MY GOD ! ' Honestly , I was like a little girl running around this shop like oh @-@ my @-@ god @-@ oh @-@ my @-@ god @-@ oh @-@ my @-@ god . "
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began on February 5 , 2007 at Pinewood Studios , and was completed by May 11 , despite a brief interruption when Depp 's daughter was taken seriously ill . Burton opted to film in London , where he had felt " very much at home " since his work on Batman in 1989 . Production designer Dante Ferretti created a darker , more sinister London by adapting Fleet Street and its surrounding area . Burton initially planned to use minimal sets and film in front of a green screen , but decided against it , stating that physical sets helped actors get into a musical frame of mind : " Just having people singing in front of a green screen seemed more disconnected " .
Depp created his own image of Todd . Heavy purple and brown make @-@ up was applied around his eyes to suggest fatigue and rage , as if " he 's never slept " . Burton said of the character Sweeney Todd , " We always saw him as a sad character , not a tragic villain or anything . He 's basically a dead person when you meet him ; the only thing that 's keeping him going is the one single minded thing which is tragic . You don 't see anything else around him . " Depp said of the character , " He makes Sid Vicious look like the innocent paper boy . He 's beyond dark . He 's already dead . He 's been dead for years . " Depp also commented on the streak of white in Todd 's hair , saying , " The idea was that he 'd had this hideous trauma , from being sent away , locked away . That streak of white hair became the shock of that rage . It represented his rage over what had happened . It 's certainly not the first time anyone 's used it . But it 's effective . It tells a story all by itself . My brother had a white spot growing up , and his son has this kind of shock of white in his hair . "
Burton insisted that the film be bloody , as he felt stage versions of the play which cut back on the bloodshed robbed it of its power . For him , " Everything is so internal with Sweeney that [ the blood ] is like his emotional release . It 's more about catharsis than it is a literal thing . " Producer Richard D. Zanuck said that " [ Burton ] had a very clear plan that he wanted to lift that up into a surreal , almost Kill Bill kind of stylization . We had done tests and experiments with the neck slashing , with the blood popping out . I remember saying to Tim , ' My God , do we dare do this ? ' " On set , the fake blood was colored orange to render correctly on the desaturated color film used , and crew members wore bin liners to avoid getting stained while filming . This macabre tone made some studios nervous , and it was not until Warner Bros. , DreamWorks and Paramount had signed up for the project that the film 's $ 50 million budget was covered . Burton said " the studio was cool about it and they accepted it because they knew what the show was . Any movie is a risk , but it is nice to be able to do something like that that doesn 't fit into the musical or slasher movie categories . "
After the filming , Burton said of the cast , " All I can say is this is one of the best casts I 've ever worked with . These people are not professional singers , so to do a musical like this which I think is one of the most difficult musicals , they all went for it . Every day on the set was a very , very special thing for me . Hearing all these guys sing , I don 't know if I can ever have an experience like that again . " " Burton said of the singing , " You can 't just lip synch , you 'd see the throat and the breath , every take they all had to belt it out . It was very enjoyable for me to see , with music on the set everybody just moved differently . I 'd seen Johnny ( Depp ) act in a way I 'd never seen before , walking across the room or sitting in the chair , picking up a razor or making a pie , whatever . They all did it in a way that you could sense . "
Depp said of working with Baron Cohen , when asked what he was like in real life ( meaning , not doing one of his trademark characters ) , " He 's not what I expected . I didn 't look at those characters and think , ' This will be the sweetest guy in the world ' . He 's incredibly nice . A real gentleman , kind of elegant . I was impressed with him . He 's kind of today 's equivalent of Peter Sellers . "
= = Music = =
Burton wanted to avoid the traditional approach of patches of dialogue interrupted by song , " We didn 't want it to be what I 'd say was a traditional musical with a lot of dialogue and then singing . That 's why we cut out a lot of choruses and extras singing and dancing down the street . Each of the characters , because a lot of them are repressed and have their emotions inside , the music was a way to let them express their feelings . "
He cut the show 's famous opening number , " The Ballad of Sweeney Todd " , explaining , " Why have a chorus singing about ' attending the tale of Sweeney Todd ' when you could just go ahead and attend it ? " Sondheim acknowledged that , in adapting a musical to film , the plot has to be kept moving , and was sent MP3 files of his shortened songs by Mike Higham , the film 's music producer , for approval . Several other songs were also cut , and Sondheim noted that there were " many changes , additions and deletions ... [ though ] ... if you just go along with it , I think you 'll have a spectacular time . " To create a larger , more cinematic feel , the score was re @-@ orchestrated by the stage musical 's original orchestrator , Jonathan Tunick , who increased the orchestra from 27 musicians to 78 .
The Deluxe Complete Edition soundtrack was released on December 18 , 2007 . Depp 's singing was described by a New York Times reviewer as " harsh and thin , but amazingly forceful " . Another critic adds that , though Depp 's voice " does not have much heft or power " , " his ear is obviously excellent , because his pitch is dead @-@ on accurate ... Beyond his good pitch and phrasing , the expressive colorings of his singing are crucial to the portrayal . Beneath this Sweeney ’ s vacant , sullen exterior is a man consumed with a murderous rage that threatens to burst forth every time he slowly takes a breath and is poised to speak . Yet when he sings , his voice crackles and breaks with sadness . "
= = Marketing = =
The film 's marketing has been criticized for not advertising it as a musical . Michael Halberstam of the Writers ' Theatre said , " By de @-@ emphasizing the score to the extent they did in the trailer , it is possible the producers were condescending to us – a tactic which cannot ultimately end in anything but tears . " In the UK , a number of audience members walked out of the film on realizing it was a musical , and complaints that advertisements for the film were deliberately misleading were made to both the Advertising Standards Authority and Trading Standards agency . The studios involved opted for a low @-@ key approach to their marketing . Producer Walter Parkes stated , " All these things that could be described as difficulties could also be the movie 's greatest strengths . " Warner Bros. felt it should take a similar approach to marketing as with The Departed , with little early exposure and discouraging talk of awards .
= = Release = =
Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street officially opened at the United States box office on December 21 , 2007 in 1 @,@ 249 theatres , and took $ 9 @,@ 300 @,@ 805 in its opening weekend . Worldwide releases followed during January and February 2008 , with the film performing well in the United Kingdom and Japan . The film grossed $ 52 @,@ 898 @,@ 073 in the United States and Canada , and $ 99 @,@ 625 @,@ 091 in other markets , accumulating a worldwide total of $ 152 @,@ 523 @,@ 164 . In the United States , the Marcus Theaters Corporation was not initially planning to screen the film following its premiere , because it was unable to reach a pricing agreement with Paramount . However , the dispute was resolved in time for the official release .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Although Sondheim was cautious of a cinematic adaptation of his musical , he was largely impressed by the results . The film received critical acclaim , with Depp 's performance receiving critical praise from critics — the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 86 % of critics gave the film positive reviews , based on 221 reviews , and Metacritic gave the film an average score of 83 out of 100 , based on 39 reviews . Sweeney Todd appeared on many critics ' top ten lists of the best films of 2007 .
Of the reviewers , Time rated it an A @-@ minus and added , " Burton and Depp infuse the brilliant cold steel of Stephen Sondheim 's score with a burning passion . Helena Bonham Carter and a superb supporting cast bring focused fury to this musical nightmare . It 's bloody great . " Time 's Richard Corliss named the film one of its top ten movies of 2007 , placing it fifth . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave it four stars out of four , lauding Burton 's visual style . In his review in Variety , Todd McCarthy called it " both sharp and fleet " and " a satisfying screen version of Stephen Sondheim 's landmark 1979 theatrical musical ... things have turned out uniformly right thanks to highly focused direction by Tim Burton , expert screw @-@ tightening by scenarist John Logan , and haunted and musically adept lead performances from Johnny Depp and Helena Bonham Carter . Assembled artistic combo assures the film will reap by far the biggest audience to see a pure Sondheim musical , although just how big depends on the upscale crowd ’ s tolerance for buckets of blood , and the degree to which the masses stay away due to the whiff of the highbrow . " Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B @-@ plus in its Movie Reviews section and stated , " To stage a proper Sweeney Todd , necks must be slit , human flesh must be squished into pastries , and blood ought to spurt in fountains and rivers of death . Enter Tim Burton , who ... has tenderly art @-@ directed soup @-@ thick , tomato @-@ red , fake @-@ gore blood with the zest of a Hollywood @-@ funded Jackson Pollock . " She went on to refer to the piece as " opulent , attentive ... so finely minced a mixture of Sondheim 's original melodrama and Burton 's signature spicing that it 's difficult to think of any other filmmaker so naturally suited for the job . "
In its DVD Reviews section , EW 's Chris Nashawaty gave the film an A @-@ minus , stating , " Depp 's soaring voice makes you wonder what other tricks he 's been hiding ... Watching Depp 's barber wield his razors ... it 's hard not to be reminded of Edward Scissorhands frantically shaping hedges into animal topiaries 18 years ago ... and all of the twisted beauty we would 've missed out on had [ Burton and Depp ] never met . " In Rolling Stone , Peter Travers awarded it 3 ½ out of 4 stars and added , " Sweeney Todd is a thriller @-@ diller from start to finish : scary , monstrously funny and melodically thrilling ... [ the film ] is a bloody wonder , intimate and epic , horrific and heart @-@ rending as it flies on the wings of Sondheim 's most thunderously exciting score . " As with Time , the critic ranked it fifth on his list of the best movies of 2007 . Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter said , " The blood juxtaposed to the music is highly unsettling . It runs contrary to expectations . Burton pushes this gore into his audiences ' faces so as to feel the madness and the destructive fury of Sweeney 's obsession . Teaming with Depp , his long @-@ time alter ego , Burton makes Sweeney a smoldering dark pit of fury and hate that consumes itself . With his sturdy acting and surprisingly good voice , Depp is a Sweeney Todd for the ages . " Harry Knowles gave the film a highly positive review , calling it Burton 's best film since Ed Wood , his favorite Burton film , and said it was possibly superior . He praised all of the cast and the cinematography , but noted it would probably not appeal to non @-@ musical fans due to the dominance of music in the film .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street received four Golden Globe nominations for the January 2008 65th Golden Globe Awards , winning two . The film received the award for Best Motion Picture in the Musical or Comedy genre , and Depp for his performance as Sweeney Todd . Burton was nominated for Best Director , and Helena Bonham Carter was nominated for her performance as Mrs. Lovett . The film was included in the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures 's top ten films of 2007 , and Burton was presented with their award for Best Director . The film was also nominated for two BAFTA awards , in the categories of Costume Design and Make Up and Hair . Sweeney Todd further received three Oscar nominations at the 80th Academy Awards : Best Actor in a Leading Role for Depp ; Best Achievement in Costume Design ; and Best Achievement in Art Direction , which it won . Depp won the award for Best Villain at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards . He thanked his fans for " sticking with me on this very obtuse and strange road . " He also won the Choice Movie Villain award at the Teen Choice Awards ; and at Spike TV 's 2008 Scream Awards ( filmed on October 18 , 2008 , and aired three days later ) , the film won two awards : Best Horror Movie , and Best Actor in a Horror Movie or TV Show ( Depp ) .
It was listed as number 490 on Empire 's 500 Greatest films of all time .
= = Home release = =
Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber of Fleet Street was released on DVD in North America on April 1 , 2008 , and the UK on May 19 . A Blu @-@ ray was released on October 21 , 2008 . An HD DVD release was announced for the same date , but due to the discontinuation of the format , Paramount canceled this version in preference for international distribution of the Blu @-@ ray release .
The DVD was released on April 1 , 2008 and has thus far sold approximately 1 @,@ 892 @,@ 489 copies , bringing in more than $ 38 million in revenue .
Sweeney Todd officially premiered on television on BBC America in October 2010 . An edited version of the film appeared as part of " Shocktober " , a Halloween themed month event for This TV network in October 2013 .
The film premiered on British television on Channel 4 on 27 November 2010 .
= Three Sisters Tavern =
Three Sisters Tavern , sometimes abridged as Three Sisters and nicknamed " Six Tits " , was a gay bar and strip club in Portland , Oregon , United States . The bar was founded in 1964 and began catering to Portland 's gay community in 1997 following the deaths of the original owners . The business evolved into a strip club featuring an all @-@ male revue . Also frequented by women , sometimes for bachelorette parties , Three Sisters was considered a hub of Portland 's nightlife before closing in 2004 .
= = Description and history = =
Three Sisters Tavern opened in 1964 as a family business . John P. Katchis and his wife Georgia owned and operated the business until his death four months later ( 1964 ) and her death in 1997 . The couple were survived by their three daughters , one of whom , Sotiria " Sandra " Katsavopoulos , along with her husband Athanasios " Saki " Katsavopoulos , acquired ownership and began catering to Portland 's gay community , eventually turning Three Sisters into a gay bar and strip club .
The bar was located at 1125 Southwest Stark Street and featured an all @-@ male nude revue , a dance floor , and shows . The Portland Mercury described it as an " institution of stiff drinks and stiffer male dancers " , where " hot men perform theatrical and acrobatic stripteases on stage , then get naked and wag their penises in your face " . Dancers often were costumed as angels , businessmen , construction workers , cowboys , police officers , or United Parcel Service ( UPS ) delivery men . After Three Sisters closed in 2004 , some of the featured dancers began performing at other Portland venues , including Jefferson Theatre .
Three Sisters catered both to gay men and to women , who sometimes attended as part of bachelorette parties . The Oregonian described the " bachelorette bunnies " who used to frequent this bar as well as two others : Silverado and the Viewpoint . The paper 's Lee Williams wrote :
Hippoty @-@ hoppity they go – these fuzzy , suburban @-@ soft little critters jump all over Stark Street and the Viewpoint running wild to celebrate one last night of ' Sex in the City ' singledom . They crowd downtown 's male strip @-@ club stages holding dollar bills up to get a glimpse of a few last carrots before hopping down that wedding @-@ trail home . They are particularly agile small mammals , able to hold a drink and a friend 's hair while she 's throwing up .
Rufus Wainwright recalled accompanying Thomas Lauderdale , the musician known for his work with the Portland @-@ based band Pink Martini , to the club .
= = Reception = =
In their book Secret Portland , Oregon : The Unique Guidebook to Portland 's Hidden Sites , Sounds and Tastes ( 2003 ) , Ann Carroll Burgess and Linda Rutenberg called Three Sisters " the hub of Portland 's gay bar nightlife " , offering a " great " dance floor and " impressive " entertainment . The Portland Mercury 's Katie Shimer called the bar " one million percent fun " and said , " Whatever your fetish , the strippers deliver ... Make sure you stuff your pockets with singles , ' cause you 'll be spending at least a good hour at the rack . " Similarly , the Seattle alternative weekly The Stranger said the venue was " perhaps the funnest place in all the world ... especially when the fellers trot on stage in a vast array of hilarious costumes " . The paper 's Wm . Steven Humphrey wrote , " These nudie cuties were born to entertain , and prove it by leaping from stage to tabletop , hanging naked upside down ( by the tops of their FEET ! ! ) , and if you 're extremely lucky , gingerly lifting a dollar bill off your forehead with their ass cheeks . Now that 's talent ! " Byron Beck of Willamette Week said the dancers at Three Sisters " [ turned ] a quaint queer tavern into the most mouthwatering of watering holes in P @-@ town " . The paper also called the club " the best place to view wiener @-@ wiggling " .
= Kameo =
Kameo : Elements of Power is a 2005 action @-@ adventure video game by Rare and Microsoft Studios released for the Xbox 360 . The player controls the title character , an elf , who journeys to recover her elemental powers and captive family from her evil sister and the troll king . Kameo 's ten elemental powers let her transform into creatures and use their varied abilities to solve combat @-@ oriented puzzles and progress through the game 's levels .
Kameo is known for its prolonged development cycle , which spanned four Nintendo and Microsoft consoles . It was conceived as a Pokémon @-@ style game of capturing and nurturing monsters , but traded its lighthearted Nintendo overtones for darker themes more befitting of Xbox audiences when Microsoft acquired the developer . In this process , Kameo was repurposed from a fairy to an elf — a transition the game 's director later concluded was unsuccessful . While nearly finished for the original Xbox console , the title was delayed to become an exclusive launch title for the upcoming Xbox 360 . Rare used the extra time to improve the game 's audiovisuals , including Rare 's first orchestra soundtrack , and add a local cooperative multiplayer mode . Kameo released alongside the Xbox 360 launches : November 2005 in North America and several weeks later in Europe .
The game received generally favorable reviews and sales estimates ranged from subpar to par . Reviewers praised Kameo 's graphics as setting standards for the new console , and noted its vivid color palette . Their criticism focused on the gameplay , in particular its repetition , awkward controls , easy combat , disorganized introduction , and overbearing tutorial . Reviewers found the story and Kameo 's character lackluster , but largely liked the other characters and the core morphing concept . They had high praise for the orchestral score and other technical features , apart from the game 's camera . Rare released several cosmetic downloadable content packs , and a free online cooperative mode upgrade .
Retrospective reviews remembered the game for its bright and impressive graphics . Kameo was included in Rare Replay , an August 2015 compilation of 30 Rare titles for the Xbox One , alongside documentary @-@ style videos about the game 's development and its planned sequel . The latter was canceled after a few months of production due to both poor sales of the original and Microsoft 's new focus on games for its Kinect peripheral .
= = Gameplay = =
In the third @-@ person action @-@ adventure game Kameo ( pronounced " cameo " ) , the player controls the title character , an elf , who journeys to recover her ten elemental powers and captive family from her evil sister and the troll king . Kameo uses elemental powers to transform into creatures with different abilities , which she switches between to solve puzzles and advance through the in @-@ game world . The player controls the player @-@ character with the left analog stick , the game 's camera view with the right thumbstick , and the character attacks and abilities with the controller 's triggers . The Xbox 360 controller 's face buttons swap between three active , elemental powers .
These ten " elemental warriors " include a fire @-@ breathing creature who lights torches , a gorilla who climbs walls and throws foes , and a plant who punches opponents . There are two each of five element types ( fire , ice , plant , rock , water ) . Some enemies have specific weaknesses and can only be affected by specific elemental powers or hazards in the environment . The game is structured such that new character abilities unlock just as their benefits are needed to solve a puzzle . Thus the game 's puzzles depend on combat more than logic . Each of the elemental forms has several ability upgrades , which the player can redeem by collecting and delivering fruit to a sacred tome called the Wotnot book . The Kameo character , herself , can move faster than the elemental warriors but has no special ability apart from breaking crates .
The game begins as Kameo advances through a castle — with the help of three elemental powers — to rescue her family . As the tutorial prologue ends , Kameo loses her elemental powers and is ejected from the castle into the Enchanted Kingdom to grow stronger and try again . Kameo travels through four themed worlds ( water , ice , fire , and swamp ) at the outskirts of the Badlands , the overworld that connects the areas . Each of the worlds are interspersed with townsfolk and combat @-@ oriented puzzles . Kameo can either travel to the worlds through the Badlands , where the elves and trolls skirmish , or warp from the Enchanted Kingdom . A help system built into the game provides hints or direct solutions for struggling players . Throughout the kingdom , Kameo finds and defeats the ten shadow creatures each guarding one of her elemental powers .
The player can slow time by landing successive hits and kills on enemies to fill an on @-@ screen meter . The player can return to levels to attempt a higher score . The game 's action sequences , more than half of the game , require the player to defeat groups of enemies before proceeding to the next room , and ultimately leading to a boss battle . Kameo has a two @-@ player , split @-@ screen cooperative gameplay mode in which players can fight alongside each other during the action scenes . Rare added support for online cooperative play ( via Xbox Live or System Link ) as a downloadable patch following the game 's release .
= = Development = =
Rare 's protracted development of Kameo spanned four consoles : Nintendo 's Nintendo 64 and GameCube , Microsoft 's Xbox , and ultimately , the Xbox 360 . The game became known for its long development cycle — IGN wrote that the game had received more IGN editor coverage during its development than " almost any other single game " . Shortly after Rare finished work on Donkey Kong 64 , Kameo began as a game in which the player catches and evolves creatures . In lead designer George Andreas 's concept , the creatures would follow the player and act of their own volition . This version had a " Nintendo feel " and Pokémon @-@ like conceit : the player nursed little monsters into adults . Kameo spent several years in development for the GameCube and Rare shared an early version of the game at Electronic Entertainment Expo , an annual video game conference . In the meantime , Microsoft acquired Rare in 2002 for a record price of $ 377 million . Kameo lost many of its Pokémon elements when development transferred to the Microsoft 's Xbox . Rare 's Phil Tossell liked the Pokémon @-@ style concept but ultimately felt that the platform change was a positive move for the game .
The team distilled the original concept into the core gameplay mechanics that players preferred , namely the abilities to morph into characters and to fight . In what became the core gameplay , the player would use a combination of Kameo 's elemental warriors to progress through levels . Rare later expanded the conceit to that of an adventure game , though its story was secondary to the gameplay . Kameo was designed for fluidity — the team tried to minimize player chores and player waiting times . The team simplified the set of characters from a hundred to a dozen , and expanded the skill sets of those remaining . Tossell designed these characters , and started with a boulder @-@ like animal . These creature designs later became Kameo 's morphing forms . As the game transitioned and Rare attempted to distance itself from its mawkish reputation for " cute characters with big eyes " , the team struggled to repurpose Kameo into an elf from the fairy of the original concept . Tossell felt that this task was impossible , as Microsoft simultaneously wanted to widen its base while it did not give Rare the room to grow out of its cutesy design . The Kameo character transitioned through a " tribal " look before becoming an elf , and her own attacks were ultimately repurposed into the elemental warriors ' . Kameo became an Xbox 360 launch title ( alongside Rare 's Perfect Dark Zero ) and received a graphics upgrade in the process . The game had been about 80 % complete for the original Xbox , but the transition freed the game 's vision from technical constraints .
With their timeframe extended , the development team added extra attacks for the ten characters , day – night transition interactions , in @-@ game scores and leaderboards , a cooperative multiplayer splitscreen mode , and a post @-@ release update that extends the cooperative mode over online and local network . The team revisited level ideas that did not fit on the previous console , and transitioned from synthesized music and a text @-@ based story to an orchestral soundtrack and voice acting . The cooperative mode was also added retroactively , which challenged the already finalized level design . The most pronounced improvements were in the game 's graphics and upgrades . Levels on the Xbox 360 could hold thousands of characters on @-@ screen at once . The team playtested the feel of each elemental warrior and spent extra time refining the gradual difficulty increase in the opening level . In reflection , the project 's biggest influences were ultimately Nintendo , Pokémon , and Resident Evil .
Around the time of Kameo 's release , lead designer George Andreas felt that the original Kameo concept of finding and using monsters had evolved and carried through to the final product . He said that there were enough ideas for a sequel within the new intellectual property if players were interested . Years later , Andreas reappraised and said that the game should never have been released and remains a sore subject for him to discuss . Since the project was nearly finished , they had opted for launch title release instead of starting over . Andreas felt that the effort to conceal the fairy Kameo as an elf was unsuccessful and that the character did not match the Xbox 's first @-@ person shooter demographic .
Rare and Microsoft Studios released Kameo alongside the Xbox 360 console as a launch title : on November 15 , 2005 , in North America , and December 2 in Europe . The game was available for purchase in retail stores ahead of the console 's launch date . At release , it was sold at a lower price than other Xbox 360 games . In advance of its February 2 , 2006 , Japanese release , Microsoft Japan held a Kameo promotional press event with celebrities Yoshinari Tsuji and Kaori Manabe in late January 2006 . 1UP.com reported the event as " subdued " but appropriate for Japanese games journalists to test Kameo , as the Xbox 360 had been selling poorly in the region .
= = = Audio = = =
Steve Burke served as the audio lead on the Kameo project , his first at Rare , for which he composed its soundtrack and contributed to its sound effects and voiceovers . As the game was originally planned for the GameCube , the first few months of development appeared to have no support for audio above the MIDI sample @-@ style compositions characteristic of Nintendo 's previous console , the Nintendo 64 . The game 's first demo at the 2001 Electronic Entertainment Expo used this type of audio . Of the first pieces he wrote for this project in the early months of 2001 , some were scrapped . Others were re @-@ recorded as streaming audio , which plays pre @-@ recorded audio files , when the developers added support . It became Rare 's first orchestral soundtrack . Other Rare staff members contributed their talents to the recording process , such as trumpet and voice recordings .
Burke experimented with a variety of musical styles throughout the game 's development . Burke 's original compositions were lighthearted as befitting for a Nintendo game , but became darker along with other parts of the game to match the Xbox audience when Microsoft acquired Rare . The composer thought that this transition was reflected in the soundtrack , with some Nintendo @-@ style music juxtaposed against the roaring orchestral tracks . Burke estimates that he had written four hours of audio for the project and ultimately recorded 80 minutes with an orchestra and choir over four days in Prague . The team recorded the orchestra and choir separately . Sumthing Else Music Works published the soundtrack on compact disc and for download via the iTunes Store and Amazon . It was nominated for the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition award .
= = Reception = =
A year prior to Kameo 's release , GamesRadar wrote that while they highly anticipated the title and expected it to be of high quality , they thought the game 's continual delays would likely hurt the final product . Closer to release , Tom Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) added that he had expected the game to be the best among the Xbox 360 launch titles . Kameo 's core gameplay concept brought his anticipation to par with that customary for The Legend of Zelda titles , and he thought the game would reap the benefits of its long development through refined audiovisuals . Xbox executive Peter Moore announced Kameo as his favorite launch title in anticipation of the Xbox 360 's launch .
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Market research company NPD Group reported that Kameo sold 300 @,@ 000 copies while Retro Gamer reported that the game sold over 700 @,@ 000 copies . GameSpot described the NPD Group figures as significantly below expectations and the sales of Rare 's other Xbox 360 launch title , Perfect Dark Zero . Retro Gamer described its figures as " respectable ... for a new franchise " . Rare senior software engineer Nick Burton said that while Kameo and Perfect Dark Zero had reputations for poor sales , the two games " sold phenomenally well " for launch titles . Kameo continued to sell three years after its release .
Reviewers praised the game 's graphics as setting standards for the new console . Clayman ( IGN ) saw Kameo as a good demonstration of the Xbox 360 's graphical possibilities , and Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) considered the degree of detail , even at long distances and in processor @-@ intensive scenes , " unprecedented in a console game " . Though he had few points of reference for the new console , Clayman ( IGN ) wrote that the extremely detailed high @-@ definition graphics appeared worthy of the Xbox 360 's " next generation " moniker . When paired with surround sound , the experience was " almost overwhelming " . Reviewers also noted the game 's vivid color palette . Kasavin ( GameSpot ) wrote that the developers balanced the visual elements to appeal to children and adults alike . Andrew Pfister ( 1UP.com ) wrote that the game looked marvelous but was sometimes distracted by too much occurring onscreen .
Critics praised the core morphing concept but criticized its repetitive gameplay , awkward controls , easy combat , disorganized introduction , and overemphasis on tutorial . Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) wrote that though the fundamental idea was good , the repetitious combinations of elemental attacks were rarely novel and often laborious . The excitement of realizing a puzzle 's solution , Bramwell said , was often ruined by the player 's struggle to perform the task correctly . He wrote that the game 's design constrained players and " bred apathy " . For example , tutorials followed the scenes in which they would have been useful , cutscenes left no puzzle solution to imagination , puzzle solutions were rarely revisited after their first use , and character dialogue overstated the importance of simple puzzles . Bramwell was " desperate " for the freedom to experiment without forced guidance . " The game " , he wrote , " hardly ever stops telling you what to do . " Clayman ( IGN ) agreed that there was too much help but alternatively appreciated the continual challenge and activity density of Kameo 's level design , with townspeople interspersed within the level 's action . He also liked to experiment in the Badlands as a break from the puzzles . Clayman found the game 's combat easy but fun . He especially enjoyed the slowed time combat . Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) said that the " relative pleasure " of Kameo 's combat was ultimately worth little , as the player could use basic attacks and avoid most major upgrades throughout the whole game . Phil Theobald ( GameSpy ) added that character upgrades were required for maintaining interest in the gameplay , but that the game does not incentivize finding such combinations . Pfister ( 1UP.com ) too found the gameplay balance and puzzle design insipid .
Reviewers found the story and Kameo 's character lackluster , but largely liked the other characters . Andrew Reiner ( Game Informer ) said that the story tracked through every imaginable video game cliché and failed to build emotional attachment . Clayman ( IGN ) noted that he spent little time as Kameo , the character . He found the elemental warriors more useful , interesting , and original , and felt that the ten powers were balanced so as to make each worth playing . Dave Halverson agreed that the multiple character options represent a rare breadth of player choice , while Pfister ( 1UP.com ) wrote that only a few of the characters had abilities worth regularly using and called the " terrible " character design typical for the developer . Clayman ( IGN ) thought that Kameo 's character was comparatively less interesting than that of the rest of the cast . Kasavin ( GameSpot ) agreed that Kameo visually appeared " generic " while other characters and environments had exceptional and inspired style . Alternatively , Halverson ( Play ) thought of the " breathtaking female lead " as the " quintessential fantasy icon " .
Reviewers made positive remarks about the game 's orchestral score and voice acting . Kasavin ( GameSpot ) wrote that added choral tracks during intense in @-@ game moments gave the game epic overtones , though Clayman ( IGN ) thought the score made the game environments feel delusively majestic . Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) found little joy in the verbose dialogue , which he often skipped even during important scenes , but Kasavin ( GameSpot ) considered the voice acting amusing , with good quality . He also praised the level of nuance in the sound effects , such as those made as characters walked .
Clayman ( IGN ) reported that the game had no major technical issues , which was a major concern in the protracted run @-@ up to the game 's release . He also found that most of its levels did not appear to leverage the Xbox 360 's advances in areas apart from graphics . Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) , on the other hand , fought the controls and camera throughout the game . He lamented a particular issue in which the camera would spin 180 degrees when Kameo was hit , which made the path of retreat harder to see . Theobald ( GameSpy ) also lamented the camera . Kasavin ( GameSpot ) found Kameo to be technically outstanding , and praised its automatic game save features , short loading times , steady frame rates , and detailed display on both standard- and high @-@ definition televisions . Pfister ( 1UP.com ) wrote that Kameo was technically impressive to the point of overwhelming the gameplay .
Critics noted the game 's length as shorter than expected , with about ten hours of content . Clayman ( IGN ) had little desire to replay the solved puzzles and Bramwell ( Eurogamer ) was even eager for the game to end . Halverson ( Play ) planned to return to the game but wrote that he would have preferred five more hours of the single @-@ player over the Xbox Live features . Reviewers were largely unimpressed with the extra Xbox Live cooperative play and score attack features . Halverson ( Play ) had hopes for Kameo and Psychonauts to rekindle developer interest in the 3D platforming genre , but concluded that such games were likely not to return . Clayman ( IGN ) did not find the game to live up to its publicity as a competitor against The Legend of Zelda series , though Theobald ( GameSpy ) thought Kameo 's boss battles were comparable . Pfister ( 1UP.com ) noted several traditional Rare flourishes — lots of color and graphics effects , puns for character names — but ultimately wrote that Kameo was proof that Microsoft had received " exactly what they paid for " in its acquisition of Rare . Theobald ( GameSpy ) said that Rare had avoided its usual tropes of making players collect lots of items and poor character design , and made a " worthy " launch title . Nigel Kendall ( The Times ) wrote that the game was " more cerebral " than the console 's other games , which were stereotypically about driving , football , or shooting . Kasavin ( GameSpot ) noted that Kameo was the most accessible launch title to players of all ages . In summary , he thought the game was a suitable fit for players ' first experiences on the new Xbox 360 .
= = Downloadable content = =
The game released without online support for co @-@ operative play , but Rare promised to add the feature as a free patch and did so in April 2006 . The patch let two players play the story simultaneously when their consoles were connected through Xbox Live or System Link . It also added new achievements . For a fee , players could download a series of costume packs that change the visual appearance of the game 's characters . In September 2006 , Rare released the Kameo " Power Pack " , which added leaderboards , a costume pack , new achievements , and three new modes of gameplay : Expert , Time Attack , and Rune Battle . Expert Mode remasters six of the game 's levels with added difficulty . Time Attack Mode lets two co @-@ op players ( local or online ) attempt to finish levels as fast as possible . Rune Battle Mode pits two co @-@ op players against each other to collect the most rune items . Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica wrote that Rare " did a good job " of supporting Kameo with post @-@ release content . He liked the idea of the time @-@ based mode and thought that the Expert mode would allay criticism of the game 's easiness .
= = Legacy = =
In retrospect , Kotaku wrote that Kameo would be remembered as " that pretty Xbox 360 launch game " , which IGN confirmed a year after its release . While some games journalists reported unfavorable views towards Kameo , they also reported its fanbase to be dedicated . Other games journalists described the game as underrated . Kameo was among the first batch of games to be sold digitally with the Xbox 360 's Games on Demand service in August 2009 .
Kameo was later included in Rare Replay , a compilation of 30 Rare titles , released for the Xbox One in August 2015 . The game runs through the Xbox One 's backward compatibility , which emulates select Xbox 360 titles on the newer console . Kameo was among the first batch of games to be supported for the feature . The Rare Replay emulated release includes all original downloadable content for free and lets players migrate their Xbox 360 cloud saves to their Xbox One . Kameo 's performance in the Xbox One 's emulator slightly improves upon its technical performance on the Xbox 360 itself . Stephen Totilo ( Kotaku ) was surprised at his positive response to replaying Kameo on Rare Replay , having found the introductory stage off @-@ putting when he sampled it at the Xbox 360 's launch . He planned to return to the title . Chris Carter ( Destructoid ) wrote that while Kameo was not worth full price at its release , it was a welcome addition worth playing in the compilation .
A sequel to Kameo was in production but was ultimately canceled . George Andreas began work on the sequel after finishing the first game . Kameo 2 was designed to be a darker take on the original . Rare redesigned Kameo to have smaller eyes and matured the other creatures . For instance , the trolls were given steampunk designs . The sequel put a heavier emphasis on the open world , as the team was influenced by Assassin 's Creed ( 2007 ) . Rare began to use Havok physics software for smoother inverse kinematics animations , and planned to incorporate assets from an unreleased game , Black Widow , which featured a giant , mechanical spider . For creature upgrades , the team planned to let Kameo fly as an eagle so the player could experience the grandeur of a bird 's @-@ eye view . Kameo composer Steve Burke said that he worked on the sequel for a year . He wrote several new audio tracks in a Celtic style and recorded voiceovers , which together were used in a concept demo pitched to Microsoft . The project was canceled after about three months of production as Rare re @-@ focused on Microsoft 's Kinect effort . At the time , Microsoft redirected its internal studios to support the project . The original 's lackluster sales also contributed to the cancelation . The public had heard reports of its cancelation during the 2009 restructure and had seen an artwork leak in 2011 , but the cancelation was not confirmed until Microsoft Studios vice president Phil Spencer did so in 2013 . 1UP.com questioned whether Kameo needed a sequel at all . Rare released a retrospective documentary of the unreleased game as part of its August 2015 Rare Replay collection . A Kameo 2 concept artist narrated the documentary , which focuses on art that would have been included in the game apart from a brief video clip . Rare later released a follow @-@ up making @-@ of Kameo video in March 2016 . The sequel 's video did not elaborate on why Microsoft canceled the project .
= 1991 Perfect Storm =
The 1991 Perfect Storm , also known as the The No @-@ Name Storm ( especially in the years immediately after it took place ) , was a nor 'easter that absorbed Hurricane Grace and ultimately evolved back into a small unnamed hurricane late in its life cycle . The initial area of low pressure developed off Atlantic Canada on October 29 . Forced southward by a ridge to its north , it reached its peak intensity as a large and powerful cyclone . The storm lashed the east coast of the United States with high waves and coastal flooding before turning to the southwest and weakening . Moving over warmer waters , the system transitioned into a subtropical cyclone before becoming a tropical storm . It executed a loop off the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and turned toward the northeast . On November 1 the system evolved into a full @-@ fledged hurricane with peak winds of 75 miles per hour ( 120 km / h ) , although the National Hurricane Center left it unnamed to avoid confusion amid media interest in the predecessor extratropical storm . It later received the name " the Perfect Storm " ( playing off the common expression ) after a conversation between Boston National Weather Service forecaster Robert Case and author Sebastian Junger . The system was the fourth hurricane and final tropical cyclone in the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season . The tropical system weakened , striking Nova Scotia as a tropical storm before dissipating .
Damage from the storm totaled over $ 200 million ( 1991 USD ) and the death toll was thirteen . Most of the damage occurred while the storm was extratropical , after waves up to 30 feet ( 10 m ) struck the coastline from Canada to Florida and southeastward to Puerto Rico . In Massachusetts , where damage was heaviest , over 100 homes were destroyed or severely damaged . To the north , more than 100 homes were affected in Maine , including the vacation home of then @-@ President George H. W. Bush . More than 38 @,@ 000 people were left without power , and along the coast high waves inundated roads and buildings . In portions of New England , the damage was worse than that caused by Hurricane Bob two months earlier .
Aside from tidal flooding along rivers , the storm 's effects were primarily concentrated along the coast . A buoy off the coast of Nova Scotia reported a wave height of 100 @.@ 7 feet ( 30 @.@ 7 m ) , the highest ever recorded in the province 's offshore waters . In the middle of the storm , Andrea Gail sank , killing her crew of six and inspiring the book , and later movie , The Perfect Storm . Off the shore of New York 's Long Island , an Air National Guard helicopter ran out of fuel and crashed ; four members of its crew were rescued , and one was killed . Two people died after their boat sank off Staten Island . High waves swept two people to their deaths , one in Rhode Island and one in Puerto Rico , and another person was blown off a bridge to his death . The tropical cyclone that formed late in the storm 's duration caused little impact , limited to power outages and slick roads ; one person was killed in Newfoundland from a traffic accident related to the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
The Perfect Storm originated from a cold front that exited the east coast of the United States . On October 28 , the front spawned an extratropical low to the east of Nova Scotia . Around that time , a ridge extended from the Appalachian Mountains northeastward to Greenland , with a strong high pressure center over eastern Canada . The blocking ridge forced the extratropical low to track toward the southeast and later to the west . Hurricane Grace was swept aloft by its cold front into the warm conveyor belt circulation of the deep cyclone on October 29 . The cyclone significantly strengthened as a result of the temperature contrast between the cold air to the northwest and the warmth and humidity from the remnants of Hurricane Grace . The low pressure system continued deepening as it drifted toward the United States . It had an unusual retrograde motion for a nor 'easter , beginning a set of meteorological circumstances that occur only once every 50 to 100 years . Most nor 'easters affect New England from the southwest .
While situated about 390 miles ( 630 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The nor 'easter reached peak intensity at approximately 12 : 00 UTC on October 30 with its lowest pressure of 972 millibars . The interaction between the extratropical storm and the high pressure system to its north created a significant pressure gradient , which created large waves and strong winds . Between the southern New England coast and the storm 's center , the gradient was 70 mbar ( 2 @.@ 1 inHg ) . A buoy located 264 miles ( 425 km ) south of Halifax reported a wave height of 100 @.@ 7 feet ( 30 @.@ 7 m ) on October 30 . This became the highest recorded wave height on the Scotian Shelf , which is the oceanic shelf off the coast of Nova Scotia . East of Cape Cod , a NOAA buoy located at 41 @.@ 1 ° N 66 @.@ 6 ° W / 41 @.@ 1 ; -66.6 reported maximum sustained winds of 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) with gusts to 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , and a significant wave height ( average height of the highest one @-@ third of all waves ) of 39 feet ( 12 m ) around 15 : 00 UTC on October 30 . Another buoy , located at 40 @.@ 5 ° N 69 @.@ 5 ° W / 40 @.@ 5 ; -69.5 , reported maximum sustained winds of 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) with gusts to 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) and a significant wave height of 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) near 00 : 00 UTC on October 31 .
Upon peaking in intensity , the nor 'easter turned southward and gradually weakened ; by November 1 , its pressure had risen to 998 millibars ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . The low moved over warm waters of the Gulf Stream , where bands of convection around the center began to organize . Around this time , the system attained subtropical characteristics . On November 1 , while the storm was moving in a counter @-@ clockwise loop , a tropical cyclone had been identified at the center of the larger low . ( Although these conditions are rare , Hurricane Karl during 1980 formed within a larger non @-@ tropical weather system . )
By around 14 : 00 UTC on November 1 , an eye feature was forming , and the tropical cyclone reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) ; these estimates , combined with reports from an Air Force Reserve Unit flight into the storm and confirmation that a warm @-@ core center was present , indicated that the system had become a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The hurricane accelerated toward the northeast and quickly weakened back into a tropical storm . It made landfall near Halifax , Nova Scotia , at 14 : 00 UTC on November 2 with sustained winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . While the storm was approaching the coast , weather radars depicted curved rainbands on the western side of the system . After crossing over Prince Edward Island , The storm fully dissipated late on November 2 .
= = Preparations and naming = =
For several days , weather models forecast the development of a significant storm off New England . However , the models were inadequate in forecasting coastal conditions , which in one instance failed to provide adequate warning . In addition , a post @-@ storm assessment found an insufficient number of observation sites along the coast . On October 27 , the Ocean Prediction Center noted that a " dangerous storm " would form within 36 hours , with its wording emphasizing the unusual nature of the storm . The National Weather Service likewise issued warnings for the potential storm , providing information to emergency service offices as well as the media . The public however was skeptical and did not recognize the threat . The timely warnings ultimately lowered the death toll ; whereas the Perfect Storm caused 13 deaths , the blizzard of 1978 killed 99 people , and the 1938 New England hurricane killed 564 people .
From Massachusetts to Maine , thousands of people evacuated their homes and sought shelter . A state of emergency was declared for nine counties in Massachusetts , including Suffolk County , as well as two in Maine . In North Carolina , the National Weather Service offices in Hatteras and Raleigh first issued a heavy surf advisory on October 27 , more than eight hours before the first reports of high waves . That same day , a coastal flood watch and later a warning was issued , along with a gale warning . The Hatteras NWS office ultimately released 19 coastal flood statements , as well as media reports explaining the threat from the wind and waves , and a state of emergency was declared for Dare County , North Carolina . The warnings and lead times in the region were described as " very good " .
In Canada , the threat from the storm prompted the cancellation of ferry service from Bar Harbor , Maine , to Yarmouth , Nova Scotia , as well as from Nova Scotia to Prince Edward Island and between Nova Scotia and Newfoundland .
In its tropical cyclone report on the hurricane , the National Hurricane Center only referred to the system as " Unnamed Hurricane " . The Natural Disaster Survey Report called the storm " The Halloween Nor 'easter of 1991 " . The " perfect storm " moniker was coined by author and journalist Sebastian Junger after a conversation with NWS Boston Deputy Meteorologist Robert Case in which Case described the convergence of weather conditions as being " perfect " for the formation of such a storm . Other National Weather Service offices were tasked with issuing warnings for this storm in lieu of the typical NHC advisories . The OPC posted warnings on the unnamed hurricane in its High Seas Forecasts . The National Weather Service State Forecast Office in Boston issued Offshore Marine Forecasts for the storm . Local NWS offices along the East coast covered the storm in their Coastal Waters Forecasts .
Beginning in 1950 , the National Hurricane Center named officially recognized tropical storms and hurricanes . The unnamed hurricane was reported to have met all the criteria for a tropical cyclone , but it was purposefully left unnamed . This was done to avoid confusion among the media and the public , who were focusing on the damage from the initial nor 'easter , as the hurricane itself was not expected to pose a major threat to land . It was the eighth nameable storm of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season .
= = Impact = =
The Halloween Storm of 1991 left significant damage along the east coast of the United States , primarily in Massachusetts and southern New Jersey . Across seven states , damage totaled over $ 200 million ( 1991 USD ) . Over a three @-@ day period , the storm lashed the northeastern United States with high waves , causing damage to beachfront properties from North Carolina to Maine . The coastal flooding damaged or destroyed hundreds of homes and businesses and closed roads and airports . In addition , high winds left about 38 @,@ 000 people without power . The total without power was much less than for Hurricane Bob two months prior , and was fairly low due to little rainfall and the general lack of leaves on trees . Overall there were thirteen confirmed deaths , including six on board Andrea Gail , a swordfishing boat . The vessel departed Gloucester , Massachusetts , for the waters off Nova Scotia . After encountering high seas in the middle of the storm , the vessel made its last radio contact late on October 28 about 180 miles ( 290 km ) northeast of Sable Island . Andrea Gail sank while returning to Gloucester , her debris washing ashore over the subsequent weeks . The crew of six was presumed killed after a Coast Guard search was unable to find them . The storm and the boat 's sinking became the center @-@ piece for Sebastian Junger 's best @-@ selling non @-@ fiction book The Perfect Storm ( 1997 ) , which was adapted to a major Hollywood film in 2000 as The Perfect Storm starring George Clooney .
Despite the storm 's severity , it was neither the costliest nor the strongest to affect the northeastern United States . It was weakening as it made its closest approach to land , and the highest tides occurred during the neap tide , which is the time when tide ranges are minimal . The worst of the storm effects stayed offshore . A buoy 650 miles ( 1 @,@ 050 km ) northeast of Nantucket , which was 60 miles ( 97 km ) west of Andrea Gail 's last known position , recorded a 73 ft ( 22 m ) rise in wave height in 10 hours while the extratropical storm was still rapidly intensifying . Two buoys near the Massachusetts coast observed record wave heights , and one observed a record wind report . The United States Coast Guard rescued 25 people at sea at the height of the storm , including 13 people from Long Island Sound . A New York Air National Guard helicopter of the 106th Air Rescue Wing ditched during the storm , 90 miles ( 140 km ) south of Montauk , New York , after it was unable to refuel in flight and ran out of fuel . After the helicopter had attempted a rescue in the midst of the storm , an 84 @-@ person crew on the Coast Guard Cutter Tamaroa arrived and rescued four members of the crew of five after six hours in hypothermic waters . The survivors were pilots Dave Ruvola and Graham Bushor , flight engineer Jim Miolli , and pararescue jumper John Spillane . The fifth member , pararescue jumper Rick Smith , was never found . They were all featured on the show I Shouldn 't be Alive .
Following the storm 's damage , President George Bush declared five counties in Maine , seven counties in Massachusetts , and Rockingham County , New Hampshire to be disaster areas . The declaration allowed for the affected residents to apply for low @-@ interest repair loans . New Jersey governor Jim Florio requested a declaration for portions of the coastline , but the request was denied because of the funding needs of other disasters , such as Hurricane Hugo , Hurricane Bob , and the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake . The American Red Cross opened service centers in four locations in Massachusetts to assist the storm victims by providing food , clothing , medicine , and shelter . The agency deployed five vehicles carrying cleanup units and food , and allocated $ 1 @.@ 4 million to provide assistance to 3 @,@ 000 families .
= = = New England and Atlantic Canada = = =
Along the Massachusetts coastline , the storm produced 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wave heights on top of a 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) high tide . In Boston , the highest tide was 14 @.@ 3 ft ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) , which was only 1 ft ( 30 cm ) lower than the record from the blizzard of 1978 . High waves on top of the storm tide reached about 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . The storm produced heavy rainfall in southeastern Massachusetts , peaking at 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) . Coastal floods closed several roads , forcing hundreds of people to evacuate . In addition to the high tides , the storm produced strong winds ; Chatham recorded a gust of 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) . Damage was worst from Cape Ann in northeastern Massachusetts to Nantucket , with over 100 homes destroyed or severely damaged at Marshfield , North Beach , and Brant Point . There were two injuries in the state , although there were no fatalities . Across Massachusetts , damage totaled in the hundreds of millions of dollars .
Elsewhere in New England , waves up to 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) reached as far north as Maine , along with tides that were 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal . Significant flooding was reported in that state , along with high winds that left areas without power . A total of 49 houses were severely damaged , 2 were destroyed , and overall more than 100 were affected . In Kennebunkport , the storm blew out windows and flooded the vacation home of then @-@ President George H. W. Bush . The home sustained significant damage to its first floor . In Portland , tides were 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal , among the ten highest tides since record @-@ keeping began in 1914 . Along the coast , damage was worse than that caused by Hurricane Bob two months prior . Across Maine , the storm left $ 7 @.@ 9 million ( 1991 USD ) in damage , mostly in York County . More than half of the damage total was from property damage , with the remainder to transportation , seawalls , and public facilities . Although there were no deaths , there were two injuries in the state . In neighboring New Hampshire , coastal flooding affected several towns , destroying two homes . The storm destroyed three boats and damaged a lighthouse . High waves destroyed or swept away over 50 @,@ 000 lobster traps , representing $ 2 million in losses ( 1991 USD ) . Damage was estimated at $ 5 @.@ 6 million ( 1991 USD ) . Further west , high winds and coastal flooding lashed the Rhode Island and Connecticut coasts , killing a man in Narragansett , Rhode Island . Winds reached 63 miles per hour ( 101 km / h ) in Newport , Rhode Island , causing power outages .
Off the coast of Atlantic Canada , the storm produced very high waves , flooding a ship near Sable Island and stranding another ship . Along the coast , the waves wrecked three small boats near Tiverton , Nova Scotia , as well as nine boats in Torbay , Newfoundland and Labrador . In Nova Scotia , where the storm made landfall , precipitation reached 1 @.@ 18 in ( 30 mm ) , and 20 @,@ 000 people in Pictou County were left without power . The storm also caused widespread power outages in Newfoundland from its high winds , which reached 68 mph ( 110 km / h ) near St. Lawrence . There were at least 35 traffic accidents , one fatal , in Grand Falls @-@ Windsor due to slick roads . Prior to the storm 's formation , there was a record 4 @.@ 4 in ( 116 mm ) of snowfall across Newfoundland . The storm caused no significant damage in Canada , other than these traffic accidents .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic states = = =
In New York and northern New Jersey , the storm system left the most coastal damage since the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane . Numerous boats were damaged or destroyed , killing two people off Staten Island . High winds swept a man off a bridge , killing him . High waves flooded the beach at Coney Island . In Sea Bright , New Jersey , waves washed over a seawall , forcing 200 people to evacuate . Further inland , the Hudson , Passaic , and Hackensack rivers experienced tidal flooding . Outside Massachusetts , damage was heaviest in southern New Jersey , where the cost was estimated at $ 75 million ( 1991 USD ) . Across the area , tide heights reached their highest since the 1944 hurricane , leaving severe coastal and back bay flooding and closing many roads . The storm caused significant beach erosion , with 500 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 382 @,@ 000 cubic meters ) lost in Avalon , as well as $ 10 million damage to the beach in Cape May . The presence of a dune system mitigated the erosion in some areas . There was damage to the Atlantic City Boardwalk . Fire Island National Seashore was affected , washing away an entire row of waterfront houses in towns like Fair Harbor . Following the storm , there was a moratorium on clamming in the state 's bays , due to contaminated waters . Along the Delmarva Peninsula , there was widespread water damage to homes , including ten affected houses in Sandbridge Beach , Virginia . Tides in Ocean City , Maryland , reached a record height of 7 @.@ 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , while elsewhere the tides were similar to the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962 .
= = = Farther south = = =
In North Carolina along the Outer Banks , high waves were initially caused by Hurricane Grace and later its interaction with a high pressure system . This produced gale @-@ force winds and 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) waves in the town of Duck . Later , the extratropical predecessor to the unnamed hurricane produced additional high waves , causing oceanfront flooding from Cape Hatteras through the northern portions of Currituck County . Flooding was first reported on October 28 , when the ocean covered a portion of North Carolina Highway 12 north of Rodanthe ; the route is the primary thoroughfare in the Outer Banks . Nags Head , Kitty Hawk , and Kill Devil Hills had large portions covered with water for several blocks away from the beach . The resultant flooding damaged 525 houses and 28 businesses and destroyed two motels and a few homes . Damage was estimated at $ 6 @.@ 7 million ( 1991 USD ) . Farther south , the storm left 14 people injured in Florida . There was minor beach erosion and flooding , which damaged two houses and destroyed the pier at Lake Worth . In some locations , beaches gained additional sand from the wave action . Two people went missing off Daytona Beach after their boat lost power . High waves destroyed a portion of State Road A1A . Damage in the state was estimated at $ 3 million ( 1991 USD ) . High waves also affected Bermuda , the Bahamas , and the Dominican Republic . In Puerto Rico , waves of 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) affected the island 's north coast , which prompted 32 people to seek shelter . The waves swept a person off a large rock to their death .
= Siri Nilsen =
Siri Anne Nilsen ( born 12 April 1985 , Oslo , Norway ) is a Norwegian singer @-@ songwriter and voice actress . " As the daughter of two folksingers , Lillebjørn and Shari Nilsen , she grew up surrounded by music . " Nilsen is noted for the sincerity of her song writing and the clarity and range of her voice , characterized as " unique " and " beautiful " . During her first two albums she often accompanied her singing with a ukulele , which she plays in a fingerpicking style .
Nilsen made her stage debut in 2007 , and she was nominated for a Norwegian Grammy in the category of Best Female Artist in December , 2011 . Nilsen has had a career for several years as a voice actress , dubbing character roles into Norwegian for several feature films and television , mostly animation .
= = Biography = =
Siri Nilsen was born in Oslo , Norway where she grew up in the borough of Sagene . As a child she appeared in two Norwegian films , one of which , Maja Steinansikt ( 1996 ) , she co @-@ starred in .
Before deciding to devote herself to music as a career at around the age of twenty , Nilsen was a ballet dancer . At that time she turned to a " secret notebook full of songs that she had been compiling since her early teens " to express herself as an artist . Nilsen first performed publicly at Den Gode Kafe ( The Good Cafe ) in Oslo , April 2007 .
In October 2008 , Nilsen won a competition among new artists sponsored by the Norwegian record label , Grappa . In awarding Nilsen the prize for best debut artist , the jury described her as having " the courage to write simple , personal and intimate lyrics in Norwegian " . As part of the award , Nilsen received a record contract which produced 2009 's Vi som ser i mørket ( We Who See in the Dark ) .
As a voice actress in Norwegian @-@ version feature films and television , Nilsen played Carmen Cortez in Småspioner 2 ( Spy Kids 2 : The Island of Lost Dreams ) , Lisa Simpson in The Simpsons Movie , Haru in Katteprinsen ( 猫の恩返し Neko no Ongaeshi / The Cat Returns ) , among others .
= = = Vi som ser i mørket ( We Who See in the Dark ) = = =
Released on 5 October 2009 , Nilsen 's first record , Vi som ser i mørket ( We Who See in the Dark ) , features songs written mostly in Norwegian , but also in English ( Nilsen has mentioned that her American mother found it difficult to not want to proofread her English lyrics ) . The album was produced by musician Jan Martin Smørdal . Music critics were similar in their appraisal of Nilsen 's voice and lyrics . Norway 's largest newspaper , Aftenposten described Nilsen as " an artist who had already found her own voice . " It described her music as ranging from " sensitive melancholy moods to light and playful tones " , and " imparting joy and peace of mind .. " Nilsen 's lyrics are often described as " personal " . Remarking on this Nilsen has said that her songs are not completely just about herself but can also be about things that she 's observed or heard from others :
Each song is like a small movie , a little history ... Part of me is going to be in there for it to be interesting to sing about . As a person I am a little mysterious , a little direct , and so is my music too .
= = = Alle snakker sant ( They All Speak the Truth ) = = =
Siri Nilsen 's second album , Alle snakker sant ( They All Speak the Truth ) , was released 11 November 2011 . To produce , Nilsen collaborated with musicians Jens Carelius ( a solo artist also part of the group " Blues Run the Game , " with Siri Nilsen ) and Øyvind Røsrud Gundersen ( of the groups Rumble in Rhodos , Hanne Kolstø ) both of whom play on the record . Nilsen plays piano , Rhodes piano , guitar , percussion , ukulele and mini @-@ ukulele on the tracks . The album has been described as having a " distinctly modern tone " . Nilsen explained that the title ( of the album and single ) " They All Speak the Truth " refers to reconciling one ’ s gut feeling with the other messages received from the head and heart ; concluding that all three speak the truth .
Nilsen wrote the songs in the dead of winter . She said that at the time the words were meant to comfort her , but by early summer when she recorded them she was already in a different mindset ( The tracks were recorded at a rehearsal room next to where she lives ) .
Aftenposten characterized the album 's lyrics as " well written and honest " . Nilsen was described by one album reviewer as being " remarkably adept at combining bright colors with subtle hints of darkness , " adding , " this usually prevents this light , nimble music from becoming overly cute . "
Similar to the previous album , many reviewers focused on Nilsen 's voice . The single , " Alle snakker sant " , received praise in the pages of The Guardian and among Norwegian music critics . The album was released in the UK on 9 April 2012 .
= = = Skyggebokser ( Shadow Boxer ) = = =
Released in the fall of 2014 , the album 's title " refers to recurring themes in her work : the dichotomy of not feeling entirely present in your own life , and the feeling of having to fight against different aspects of yourself , while at the same time being drawn to what is fragile and raw . " Nilsen describes these songs as " more mature , darker " , and the ukulele is almost completely absent .
= = = Other work = = =
Nilsen released Siri Nilsen : Live fra Rockefeller Music Hall ( Siri Nilsen : Live from Rockefeller Music Hall ) in August 2012 . The tracks were recorded during her concert at the Rockefeller in Oslo the previous March , and features 12 tracks .
Siri Nilsen appears on the Susanna single , " Death Hanging " , along with Susanne Sundfør . It was released worldwide on 24 May 2013 .
= = Performer = =
In addition to her solo career , Nilsen is part of the Oslo @-@ based musician and poet community , " Blues Run The Game , " together with musicians Arild Hammerø and Jens Carelius , among others .
Nilsen sometimes incorporates effects pedals as part of her singing . The pedals enable her to sample elements of her singing which she then loops as a backing track while singing lead .
On 15 December 2011 it was announced that Siri Nilsen had been nominated for a Spellemannprisen ( Norwegian Grammy ) in the category of Best Female Artist for her album , Alle snakker sant – with the award ceremony being conducted at the National Theatre in Oslo on 14 January 2012 .
Nilsen performed at the annual Øyafestivalen ( Island festival ) on 10 August 2012 . The music festival is held at Middelalderparken ( Medieval park ) in Nilsen 's hometown of Oslo , Norway . Nilsen had previously performed there as a backing singer for Jens Carelius . The festival features four stages , and during Nilsen 's opening song , " Ta meg med " ( Take me with you ) , it was possible to hear the soundcheck of the black metal band , Nekromantheon , but Nilsen seemed unaffected . Among concert reviews , Nilsen was described by one writer as " a fascinating hybrid of melancholy , vulnerable sweetness and inner strength ... " This was Nilsen 's first concert since the Rockefeller in March 2012 , and since giving birth to a daughter two months previous . Commenting on the most recent phase of her life , Nilsen said , " Now I 've also got a million new things to write about , there 's so much I want to say . "
Nilsen is described as having a " strong artistic presence " and a voice which has a " large register " , which is " comfortably clear " with a " steady top and powerful down . " Concert reviews of Nilsen 's live performances note the clear softness of her voice juxtaposed against her vocal power ; and that she can convey more dimensionality with her voice live than what comes across on digitized recordings .
Nilsen performed at the SPOT music festival in Århus , Denmark on 3 May 2013 backed by an orchestra of 30 – 40 musicians performing some of Nilsen 's music such as " Brev " and " Snu , Ikke Snu . "
= = Personal life = =
As the daughter of folksingers , Nilsen grew up around music . Her father is Lillebjørn Nilsen ( born 1950 Oslo , Norway ) who first came to prominence in Norway in the early 1970s after the release of his first albums , and her mother is Shari Nilsen , who is American . Siri Nilsen first wrote a song when she was six years old , but grew up sheltered from the different aspects of the music industry . Lillebjørn tells an anecdote illustrating this point : one day Siri and her sister came home from school and sang a song to their father that they had learned that day , never realizing that it was he who had written it . ( Lillebjørn Nilsen wrote a popular song / guitar book that has been in print for decades ) .
In November 2011 , Nilsen performed with her father on the Norwegian late @-@ night talk show , Senkveld med Thomas og Harald ( Late Night with Thomas and Harald ) . She sang the single Alle snakker sant and played the ukulele while Lillebjørn accompanied on ukulele .
In June 2012 , Siri Nilsen gave birth to a daughter with Norwegian actor and comedian Anders Bye , with whom she has been in a relationship for several years .
= = Honors = =
2014 : Spellemannprisen in the class best lyricist , for the album Skyggebokser
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Live albums
2012 : Siri Nilsen : Live fra Rockefeller Music Hall
= = = Singles = = =
Featured in
2013 : " Death Hanging " ( Susanna feat . Siri Nilsen & Susanne Sundfør )
= = Voice acting roles = =
live acting role in feature film *
= Tropical Storm Arthur ( 1996 ) =
Tropical Storm Arthur caused minimal flooding in the Carolinas in mid @-@ June 1996 . The first tropical cyclone and named storm of the annual Atlantic hurricane season , Arthur originated from an area of increased convection east of the Bahamas on June 16 . Gradually , the system increased in organization , and was designated as a tropical depression on June 17 . The depression tracked north @-@ northwest and became Tropical Storm Arthur while just offshore the Southeastern United States on June 19 . Later that day , Arthur peaked with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , but weakened slightly before making landfall in North Carolina early the following day . After striking North Carolina , Arthur tracked out to sea and weakened further to a tropical depression . By June 21 , Arthur transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Overall , impact from Arthur was minimal , limited to light rainfall and moderate surf in North and South Carolina , as well as a tornado in Florida . Total damage amounted to $ 1 million ( 1996 USD ) , but no fatalities were reported . Oddly enough , 18 years later in 2014 , around the same time , another tropical cyclone with the same name impacted areas very similar to where this tropical storm impacted .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 16 , satellite imagery revealed an area of increased convection east of the Bahamas , which was believed to have been associated with a tropical wave . On June 17 , the convection increased in organization at the lower levels of the atmosphere . By 1800 UTC , the system had organized sufficiently to be designated as a tropical depression , making it the first of the season . Initially , the depression tracked north @-@ northwest under the steering currents of the low @-@ level flow around the western periphery of the Atlantic subtropical ridge . Strong wind shear due to fast upper @-@ level winds associated with a cold @-@ core low over the eastern Gulf of Mexico hindered further intensification for a time , but on June 18 , an area of deep convection developed north of the center of circulation . Based on analysis of reconnaissance data , the tropical depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arthur at 1900 UTC on June 19 .
Further strengthening occurred , as the storm attained peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . With time , Arthur gradually turned northeast and made landfall near Cape Lookout , North Carolina early on June 20 . The center moved over the Pamlico Sound and the Cape Hatteras National Seashore and exited into the Atlantic . Although the storm contained minimal deep convection , satellite imagery indicated that Arthur had a well @-@ defined low @-@ level center . The tropical storm weakened to a tropical depression about 100 mi ( 160 km ) northeast of Cape Hatteras , and accelerated towards the northeast when westerly steering currents increased . Deep convection increased once again on June 21 , although the lack of symmetry indicated that the remnants of Arthur were losing tropical characteristics . Forward speed increased to 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) and the storm subsequently lost all tropical characteristics at 1200 UTC on June 21 , while centered about 350 mi ( 560 km ) north @-@ northeast of Bermuda . The extratropical remnants tracked northeastward for 36 hours , and were last identified about midway between Newfoundland and the Azores , where it was absorbed by a much larger extratropical cyclone over the North Atlantic .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On June 18 , a tropical storm warning was issued for coastal locations from Edisto Beach , South Carolina to Cape Lookout , North Carolina . Shortly thereafter , a tropical storm watch was issued north of Cape Lookout to the North Carolina / Virginia border , including Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds . The tropical storm watch was later extended from the North Carolina / Virginia border to Cape Charles , Virginia , including Virginia Beach . By late on June 19 , all advisories were discontinued .
One tornado touched down in Florida , causing no known fatalities or injuries . As the center of Arthur passed 75 mi ( 121 km ) east of Cape Romain , South Carolina , minor increases in surf were reported . In North Carolina , swells ranged as high as 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) . Rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 85 inches ( 149 mm ) in Georgetown , South Carolina , though because it fell gradually , no significant flooding was reported , other than minor ponding of water on roads . In addition , Arthur also brought precipitation to Georgia and Virginia , though the amounts of rainfall recorded rarely exceeded 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . Sustained winds of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) were reported , and offshore , the Atlantic Huron reported a sustained wind of 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) at 1500 UTC on June 19 , while located 35 mi ( 56 km ) southeast of Arthur 's center . In addition , a C @-@ Man station located about 34 @.@ 5 mi ( 55 @.@ 5 km ) southeast of Cape Fear , North Carolina reported sustained winds of 39 mph ( 64 km / h ) and gusts up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Overall , damage caused by Arthur was minimal , totaling only $ 1 million ( 1996 USD ) .
= 2012 phenomenon =
The 2012 phenomenon was a range of eschatological beliefs that cataclysmic or otherwise transformative events would occur on or around 21 December 2012 . This date was regarded as the end @-@ date of a 5 @,@ 126 @-@ year @-@ long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar , and as such , festivities to commemorate the date took place on 21 December 2012 in the countries that were part of the Maya civilization ( Mexico , Guatemala , Honduras , and El Salvador ) , with main events at Chichén Itzá in Mexico , and Tikal in Guatemala .
Various astronomical alignments and numerological formulae were proposed as pertaining to this date . A New Age interpretation held that the date marked the start of a period during which Earth and its inhabitants would undergo a positive physical or spiritual transformation , and that 21 December 2012 would mark the beginning of a new era . Others suggested that the date marked the end of the world or a similar catastrophe . Scenarios suggested for the end of the world included the arrival of the next solar maximum , an interaction between Earth and the black hole at the center of the galaxy , or Earth 's collision with a planet called Nibiru .
Scholars from various disciplines quickly dismissed predictions of concomitant cataclysmic events as they arose . Professional Mayanist scholars stated that no extant classic Maya accounts forecast impending doom , and that the idea that the Long Count calendar ends in 2012 misrepresented Maya history and culture , while astronomers rejected the various proposed doomsday scenarios as pseudoscience , easily refuted by elementary astronomical observations .
= = Mesoamerican Long Count calendar = =
December 2012 marked the conclusion of a b 'ak 'tun — a time period in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar , used in Central America prior to the arrival of Europeans . Although the Long Count was most likely invented by the Olmec , it has become closely associated with the Maya civilization , whose classic period lasted from 250 to 900 AD . The writing system of the classic Maya has been substantially deciphered , meaning that a corpus of their written and inscribed material has survived from before the European conquest .
Unlike the 260 @-@ day tzolk 'in still used today among the Maya , the Long Count was linear rather than cyclical , and kept time roughly in units of 20 : 20 days made a uinal , 18 uinals ( 360 days ) made a tun , 20 tuns made a k 'atun , and 20 k 'atuns ( 144 @,@ 000 days or roughly 394 years ) made up a b 'ak 'tun . Thus , the Maya date of 8 @.@ 3 @.@ 2 @.@ 10 @.@ 15 represents 8 b 'ak 'tuns , 3 k 'atuns , 2 tuns , 10 uinals and 15 days .
= = = Apocalypse = = =
There is a strong tradition of " world ages " in Maya literature , but the record has been distorted , leaving several possibilities open to interpretation . According to the Popol Vuh , a compilation of the creation accounts of the K 'iche ' Maya of the Colonial @-@ era highlands , we are living in the fourth world . The Popol Vuh describes the gods first creating three failed worlds , followed by a successful fourth world in which humanity was placed . In the Maya Long Count , the previous world ended after 13 b 'ak 'tuns , or roughly 5 @,@ 125 years . The Long Count 's " zero date " was set at a point in the past marking the end of the third world and the beginning of the current one , which corresponds to 11 August 3114 BC in the proleptic Gregorian calendar . This means that the fourth world reached the end of its 13th b 'ak 'tun , or Maya date 13 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 , on 21 December 2012 . In 1957 , Mayanist and astronomer Maud Worcester Makemson wrote that " the completion of a Great Period of 13 b 'ak 'tuns would have been of the utmost significance to the Maya . " In 1966 , Michael D. Coe wrote in The Maya that " there is a suggestion ... that Armageddon would overtake the degenerate peoples of the world and all creation on the final day of the 13th [ b 'ak 'tun ] . Thus ... our present universe [ would ] be annihilated ... when the Great Cycle of the Long Count reaches completion . "
= = = Objections = = =
Coe 's interpretation was repeated by other scholars through the early 1990s . In contrast , later researchers said that , while the end of the 13th b 'ak 'tun would perhaps be a cause for celebration , it did not mark the end of the calendar . " There is nothing in the Maya or Aztec or ancient Mesoamerican prophecy to suggest that they prophesied a sudden or major change of any sort in 2012 , " said Mayanist scholar Mark Van Stone . " The notion of a ' Great Cycle ' coming to an end is completely a modern invention . " In 1990 , Mayanist scholars Linda Schele and David Freidel argued that the Maya " did not conceive this to be the end of creation , as many have suggested . " Susan Milbrath , curator of Latin American Art and Archaeology at the Florida Museum of Natural History , stated that , " We have no record or knowledge that [ the Maya ] would think the world would come to an end " in 2012 . Sandra Noble , executive director of the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies , said , " For the ancient Maya , it was a huge celebration to make it to the end of a whole cycle , " and , " The 2012 phenomenon is a complete fabrication and a chance for a lot of people to cash in . " " There will be another cycle , " said E. Wyllys Andrews V , director of the Tulane University Middle American Research Institute . " We know the Maya thought there was one before this , and that implies they were comfortable with the idea of another one after this . " Commenting on the new calendar found at Xultún , one archaeologist said " The ancient Maya predicted the world would continue – that 7 @,@ 000 years from now , things would be exactly like this . We keep looking for endings . The Maya were looking for a guarantee that nothing would change . It 's an entirely different mindset . "
Several prominent individuals representing Maya of Guatemala decried the suggestion that the world would end with the 13th b 'ak 'tun . Ricardo Cajas , president of the Colectivo de Organizaciones Indígenas de Guatemala , said the date did not represent an end of humanity but that the new cycle " supposes changes in human consciousness . " Martín Sacalxot , of the office of the Procurador de los Derechos Humanos ( Guatemala 's Human Rights Ombudsman , PDH ) , said that the end of the calendar has nothing to do with the end of the world or the year 2012 .
= = = Prior associations = = =
The European association of the Maya with eschatology dates back to the time of Christopher Columbus , who was compiling a work called Libro de las profecias during the voyage in 1502 when he first heard about the " Maia " on Guanaja , an island off the north coast of Honduras . Influenced by the writings of Bishop Pierre d 'Ailly , Columbus believed that his discovery of " most distant " lands ( and , by extension , the Maya themselves ) was prophesied and would bring about the Apocalypse . End @-@ times fears were widespread during the early years of the Spanish Conquest as the result of popular astrological predictions in Europe of a second Great Flood for the year 1524 .
In the early 1900s , German scholar Ernst Förstemann interpreted the last page of the Dresden Codex as a representation of the end of the world in a cataclysmic flood . He made reference to the destruction of the world and an apocalypse , though he made no reference to the 13th b 'ak 'tun or 2012 and it was not clear that he was referring to a future event . His ideas were repeated by archaeologist Sylvanus Morley , who directly paraphrased Förstemann and added his own embellishments , writing , " Finally , on the last page of the manuscript , is depicted the Destruction of the World ... Here , indeed , is portrayed with a graphic touch the final all @-@ engulfing cataclysm " in the form of a great flood . These comments were later repeated in Morley 's book , The Ancient Maya , the first edition of which was published in 1946 .
= = Maya references to b 'ak 'tun 13 = =
It is not certain what significance the classic Maya gave to the 13th b 'ak 'tun . Most classic Maya inscriptions are strictly historical and do not make any prophetic declarations . Two items in the Maya classical corpus , however , do mention the end of the 13th b 'ak 'tun : Tortuguero Monument 6 and La Corona Hieroglyphic Stairway 12 .
= = = Tortuguero = = =
The Tortuguero site , which lies in southernmost Tabasco , Mexico , dates from the 7th century AD and consists of a series of inscriptions mostly in honor of the contemporary ruler Bahlam Ajaw . One inscription , known as Tortuguero Monument 6 , is the only inscription known to refer to b 'ak 'tun 13 in any detail . It has been partially defaced ; Sven Gronemeyer and Barbara MacLeod have given this translation :
Very little is known about the god B 'olon Yokte ' . According to an article by Mayanists Markus Eberl and Christian Prager in British Anthropological Reports , his name is composed of the elements " nine " , ' OK @-@ te ' ( the meaning of which is unknown ) , and " god " . Confusion in classical period inscriptions suggests that the name was already ancient and unfamiliar to contemporary scribes . He also appears in inscriptions from Palenque , Usumacinta , and La Mar as a god of war , conflict , and the underworld . In one stele he is portrayed with a rope tied around his neck , and in another with an incense bag , together signifying a sacrifice to end a cycle of years .
Based on observations of modern Maya rituals , Gronemeyer and MacLeod claim that the stela refers to a celebration in which a person portraying Bolon Yokte ' K 'uh was wrapped in ceremonial garments and paraded around the site . They note that the association of Bolon Yokte ' K 'uh with b 'ak 'tun 13 appears to be so important on this inscription that it supersedes more typical celebrations such as " erection of stelae , scattering of incense " and so forth . Furthermore , they assert that this event was indeed planned for 2012 and not the 7th century . Mayanist scholar Stephen Houston contests this view by arguing that future dates on Maya inscriptions were simply meant to draw parallels with contemporary events , and that the words on the stela describe a contemporary rather than a future scene .
= = = La Corona = = =
In April – May 2012 , a team of archaeologists unearthed a previously unknown inscription on a stairway at the La Corona site in Guatemala . The inscription , on what is known as Hieroglyphic Stairway 12 , describes the establishment of a royal court in Calakmul in 635 AD , and compares the then @-@ recent completion of 13 k 'atuns with the future completion of the 13th b 'ak 'tun . It contains no speculation or prophecy as to what the scribes believed would happen at that time .
= = = Dates beyond b 'ak 'tun 13 = = =
Maya inscriptions occasionally mention predicted future events or commemorations that would occur on dates far beyond the completion of the 13th b 'ak 'tun . Most of these are in the form of " distance dates " ; Long Count dates together with an additional number , known as a Distance Number , which when added to them makes a future date . On the west panel at the Temple of Inscriptions in Palenque , a section of text projects forward to the 80th 52 @-@ year Calendar Round from the coronation of the ruler K 'inich Janaab ' Pakal . Pakal 's accession occurred on 9 @.@ 9 @.@ 2 @.@ 4 @.@ 8 , equivalent to 27 July 615 AD in the proleptic Gregorian calendar . The inscription begins with Pakal 's birthdate of 9 @.@ 8 @.@ 9 @.@ 13 @.@ 0 ( 24 March , 603 AD Gregorian ) and then adds the Distance Number 10 @.@ 11 @.@ 10 @.@ 5 @.@ 8 to it , arriving at a date of 21 October 4772 AD , more than 4 @,@ 000 years after Pakal 's time .
Another example is Stela 1 at Coba which marks the date of creation as 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 13 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 , or nineteen units above the b 'ak 'tun . According to Linda Schele , these 13s represent " the starting point of a huge odometer of time " , with each acting as a zero and resetting to 1 as the numbers increase . Thus this inscription anticipates the current universe lasting at least 2021 × 13 × 360 days , or roughly 2 @.@ 687 × 1028 years ; a time span equal to 2 quintillion times the age of the universe as determined by cosmologists . Others have suggested , however , that this date marks creation as having occurred after that time span .
In 2012 , researchers announced the discovery of a series of Maya astronomical tables in Xultún , Guatemala which plot the movements of the Moon and other astronomical bodies over the course of 17 b 'ak 'tuns .
= = New Age beliefs = =
Many assertions about the year 2012 form part of Mayanism , a non @-@ codified collection of New Age beliefs about ancient Maya wisdom and spirituality . The term is distinct from " Mayanist , " used to refer to an academic scholar of the Maya . Archaeoastronomer Anthony Aveni says that while the idea of " balancing the cosmos " was prominent in ancient Maya literature , the 2012 phenomenon did not draw from those traditions . Instead , it was bound up with American concepts such as the New Age movement , millenarianism , and the belief in secret knowledge from distant times and places . Themes found in 2012 literature included " suspicion towards mainstream Western culture , " the idea of spiritual evolution , and the possibility of leading the world into the New Age by individual example or by a group 's joined consciousness . The general intent of this literature was not to warn of impending doom but " to foster counter @-@ cultural sympathies and eventually socio @-@ political and ' spiritual ' activism . " Aveni , who has studied New Age and search for extraterrestrial intelligence ( SETI ) communities , describes 2012 narratives as the product of a " disconnected " society : " Unable to find spiritual answers to life 's big questions within ourselves , we turn outward to imagined entities that lie far off in space or time — entities that just might be in possession of superior knowledge . "
= = = Origins = = =
In 1975 , the ending of b 'ak 'tun 13 became the subject of speculation by several New Age authors , who asserted it would correspond with a global " transformation of consciousness . " In Mexico Mystique : The Coming Sixth Age of Consciousness , Frank Waters tied Coe 's original date of 24 December 2011 to astrology and the prophecies of the Hopi , while both José Argüelles ( in The Transformative Vision ) and Terence McKenna ( in The Invisible Landscape ) discussed the significance of the year 2012 without mentioning a specific day .
In 1983 , with the publication of Robert J. Sharer 's revised table of date correlations in the 4th edition of Morley 's The Ancient Maya , each became convinced that 21 December 2012 had significant meaning . By 1987 , the year in which he organized the Harmonic Convergence event , Arguelles was using the date 21 December 2012 in The Mayan Factor : Path Beyond Technology . He claimed that on 13 August 3113 BC the Earth began a passage through a " galactic synchronization beam " that emanated from the center of our galaxy , that it would pass through this beam during a period of 5200 tuns ( Maya cycles of 360 days each ) , and that this beam would result in " total synchronization " and " galactic entrainment " of individuals " plugged into the Earth 's electromagnetic battery " by 13 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 ( 21 December 2012 ) . He believed that the Maya aligned their calendar to correspond to this phenomenon . Anthony Aveni has dismissed all of these ideas .
In 2006 , author Daniel Pinchbeck popularized New Age concepts about this date in his book 2012 : The Return of Quetzalcoatl , linking b 'ak 'tun 13 to beliefs in crop circles , alien abduction , and personal revelations based on the use of hallucinogenic drugs and mediumship . Pinchbeck claims to discern a " growing realization that materialism and the rational , empirical worldview that comes with it has reached its expiration date ... [ w ] e 're on the verge of transitioning to a dispensation of consciousness that 's more intuitive , mystical and shamanic . "
= = = Galactic alignment = = =
There is no significant astronomical event tied to the Long Count 's start date . However , its supposed end date was tied to astronomical phenomena by esoteric , fringe , and New Age literature that placed great significance on astrology , especially astrological interpretations associated with the phenomenon of axial precession . Chief among these ideas is the astrological concept of a " galactic alignment . "
= = = = Precession = = = =
In the Solar System , the planets and the Sun lie roughly within the same flat plane , known as the plane of the ecliptic . From our perspective on Earth , the ecliptic is the path taken by the Sun across the sky over the course of the year . The twelve constellations that line the ecliptic are known as the zodiacal constellations and , annually , the Sun passes through all of them in turn . Additionally , over time , the Sun 's annual cycle appears to recede very slowly backward by one degree every 72 years , or by one constellation approximately every 2 @,@ 160 years . This backward movement , called " precession , " is due to a slight wobble in the Earth 's axis as it spins , and can be compared to the way a spinning top wobbles as it slows down . Over the course of 25 @,@ 800 years , a period often called a Great Year , the Sun 's path completes a full , 360 @-@ degree backward rotation through the zodiac . In Western astrological traditions , precession is measured from the March equinox , one of the two annual points at which the Sun is exactly halfway between its lowest and highest points in the sky . At the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st , the Sun 's March equinox position was in the constellation Pisces moving back into Aquarius . This signaled the end of one astrological age ( the Age of Pisces ) and the beginning of another ( the Age of Aquarius ) .
Similarly , the Sun 's December solstice position ( in the northern hemisphere , the lowest point on its annual path ; in the southern hemisphere , the highest ) was in the constellation of Sagittarius , one of two constellations in which the zodiac intersects with the Milky Way . Every year , on the December solstice , the Sun and the Milky Way , appeared ( from the surface of the Earth ) to come into alignment , and every year precession caused a slight shift in the Sun 's position in the Milky Way . Given that the Milky Way is between 10 ° and 20 ° wide , it takes between 700 and 1 @,@ 400 years for the Sun 's December solstice position to precess through it . In 2012 it was about halfway through the Milky Way , crossing the galactic equator . In 2012 , the Sun 's December solstice fell on 21 December .
= = = = Mysticism = = = =
Mystical speculations about the precession of the equinoxes and the Sun 's proximity to the center of the Milky Way appeared in Hamlet 's Mill ( 1969 ) by Giorgio de Santillana and Hertha von Deschend . These were quoted and expanded upon by Terence and Dennis McKenna in The Invisible Landscape ( 1975 ) . The significance of a future " galactic alignment " was noted in 1991 by astrologer Raymond Mardyks , who asserted that the winter solstice would align with the galactic plane in 1998 / 1999 . He wrote that this event " only occurs once each 26 @,@ 000 @-@ year cycle and would be most definitely of utmost significance to the top flight ancient astrologers . " Astrologer Bruce Scofield noted , " The Milky Way crossing of the winter solstice is something that has been neglected by Western astrologers , with a few exceptions . Charles Jayne made a very early reference to it , and in the 1970s Rob Hand mentioned it in his talks on precession but didn 't elaborate on it . Ray Mardyks later made a point of it , and after that John [ Major ] Jenkins , myself , and Daniel Giamario began to talk about it . "
Adherents to the idea , following a theory first proposed by Munro Edmonson , alleged that the Maya based their calendar on observations of the Great Rift or Dark Rift , a band of dark dust clouds in the Milky Way , which , according to some scholars , the Maya called the Xibalba be or " Black Road . " John Major Jenkins claims that the Maya were aware of where the ecliptic intersected the Black Road and gave this position in the sky a special significance in their cosmology . Jenkins said that precession would align the Sun precisely with the galactic equator at the 2012 winter solstice . Jenkins claimed that the classical Maya anticipated this conjunction and celebrated it as the harbinger of a profound spiritual transition for mankind . New Age proponents of the galactic alignment hypothesis argued that , just as astrology uses the positions of stars and planets to make claims of future events , the Maya plotted their calendars with the objective of preparing for significant world events . Jenkins attributed the insights of ancient Maya shamans about the galactic center to their use of psilocybin mushrooms , psychoactive toads , and other psychedelics . Jenkins also associated the Xibalba be with a " world tree , " drawing on studies of contemporary ( not ancient ) Maya cosmology .
= = = = Criticism = = = =
Astronomers such as David Morrison argue that the galactic equator is an entirely arbitrary line and can never be precisely drawn , because it is impossible to determine the Milky Way 's exact boundaries , which vary depending on clarity of view . Jenkins claimed he drew his conclusions about the location of the galactic equator from observations taken at above 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) , an altitude that gives a clearer image of the Milky Way than the Maya had access to . Furthermore , since the Sun is half a degree wide , its solstice position takes 36 years to precess its full width . Jenkins himself noted that even given his determined location for the line of the galactic equator , its most precise convergence with the center of the Sun already occurred in 1998 , and so asserts that , rather than 2012 , the galactic alignment instead focuses on a multi @-@ year period centered in 1998 .
There is no clear evidence that the classic Maya were aware of precession . Some Maya scholars , such as Barbara MacLeod , Michael Grofe , Eva Hunt , Gordon Brotherston , and Anthony Aveni , have suggested that some Mayan holy dates were timed to precessional cycles , but scholarly opinion on the subject remains divided . There is also little evidence , archaeological or historical , that the Maya placed any importance on solstices or equinoxes . It is possible that only the earliest among Mesoamericans observed solstices , but this is also a disputed issue among Mayanists . There is also no evidence that the classic Maya attached any importance to the Milky Way ; there is no glyph in their writing system to represent it , and no astronomical or chronological table tied to it .
= = = Timewave zero and the I Ching = = =
" Timewave zero " is a numerological formula that purports to calculate the ebb and flow of " novelty , " defined as increase over time in the universe 's interconnectedness , or organized complexity . Terence McKenna claimed that the universe has a teleological attractor at the end of time that increases interconnectedness . He believed this which would eventually reach a singularity of infinite complexity in 2012 , at which point anything and everything imaginable would occur simultaneously . He conceived this idea over several years in the early to mid @-@ 1970s whilst using psilocybin mushrooms and DMT . The scientific community considers novelty theory to be pseudoscience .
McKenna expressed " novelty " in a computer program which produces a waveform known as " timewave zero " or the " timewave . " Based on McKenna 's interpretation of the King Wen sequence of the I Ching , an ancient Chinese book on divination , the graph purports to show great periods of novelty corresponding with major shifts in humanity 's biological and sociocultural evolution . He believed that the events of any given time are resonantly related to the events of other times , and chose the atomic bombing of Hiroshima as the basis for calculating his end date of November 2012 . When he later discovered this date 's proximity to the end of the 13th b 'ak 'tun of the Maya calendar , he revised his hypothesis so that the two dates matched .
The 1975 first edition of The Invisible Landscape referred to 2012 ( but no specific day during the year ) only twice . In the 1993 second edition , McKenna employed Sharer 's date of 21 December 2012 throughout .
Novelty theory has been criticized for " rejecting countless ideas presumed as factual by the scientific community , " depending " solely on numerous controversial deductions that contradict empirical logic , " and encompassing " no suitable indication of truth , " with the conclusion that novelty theory is a pseudoscience .
= = Doomsday theories = =
The idea that the year 2012 presaged a world cataclysm , the end of the world , or the end of human civilization , became a subject of popular media speculation as the date of 21 December 2012 approached . This idea was promulgated by many pages on the Internet , particularly on YouTube . The Discovery Channel was criticized for its " quasi @-@ documentaries " about the subject that " sacrifice [ d ] accuracy for entertainment . "
= = = Other alignments = = =
Some people interpreted the galactic alignment apocalyptically , claiming that its occurrence would somehow create a combined gravitational effect between the Sun and the supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy ( known as Sagittarius A * ) , creating havoc on Earth . Apart from the " galactic alignment " already having happened in 1998 , the Sun 's apparent path through the zodiac as seen from Earth did not take it near the true galactic center , but rather several degrees above it . Even were this not the case , Sagittarius A * is 30 @,@ 000 light years from Earth ; it would have to have been more than 6 million times closer to cause any gravitational disruption to Earth 's Solar System . This reading of the alignment was included on the History Channel documentary Decoding the Past . John Major Jenkins complained that a science fiction writer co @-@ authored the documentary , and he went on to characterize it as " 45 minutes of unabashed doomsday hype and the worst kind of inane sensationalism " .
Some believers in a 2012 doomsday used the term " galactic alignment " to describe a different phenomenon proposed by some scientists to explain a pattern in mass extinctions supposedly observed in the fossil record . According to the Shiva Hypothesis , mass extinctions are not random , but recur every 26 million years . To account for this , it was suggested that vertical oscillations made by the Sun on its 250 @-@ million @-@ year orbit of the galactic center cause it to regularly pass through the galactic plane . When the Sun 's orbit takes it outside the galactic plane which bisects the galactic disc , the influence of the galactic tide is weaker . However , when re @-@ entering the galactic disc — as it does every 20 – 25 million years — it comes under the influence of the far stronger " disc tides " , which , according to mathematical models , increase the flux of Oort cloud comets into the inner Solar System by a factor of 4 , thus leading to a massive increase in the likelihood of a devastating comet impact . However , this " alignment " takes place over tens of millions of years , and could never be timed to an exact date . Evidence shows that the Sun passed through the plane bisecting the galactic disc three million years ago and in 2012 was moving farther above it .
A third suggested alignment was some sort of planetary conjunction occurring on 21 December 2012 ; however , conventional astronomy did not predict a conjunction on that date . Multi @-@ planet alignments did occur in both 2000 and 2010 , each with no ill result for the Earth . Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System ; larger than all other planets combined . When Jupiter is near opposition , the difference in gravitational force that the Earth experiences is less than 1 % of the force that the Earth feels daily from the Moon .
= = = Geomagnetic reversal = = =
Another idea tied to 2012 involved a geomagnetic reversal ( often incorrectly referred to as a pole shift by proponents ) , possibly triggered by a massive solar flare , that would release an energy equal to 100 billion atomic bombs . This belief was supposedly supported by observations that the Earth 's magnetic field was weakening , which could precede a reversal of the north and south magnetic poles , and the arrival of the next solar maximum , which was expected sometime around 2012 .
Most scientific estimates , however , say that geomagnetic reversals take between 1 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years to complete , and do not start on any particular date . Furthermore , the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration predicted that the solar maximum would peak in late 2013 or 2014 , and that it would be fairly weak , with a below @-@ average number of sunspots . In any case , there was no scientific evidence linking a solar maximum to a geomagnetic reversal , which is driven by forces entirely within the Earth . Instead , a solar maximum would be mostly notable for its effects on satellite and cellular phone communications . David Morrison attributed the rise of the solar storm idea to physicist and science popularizer Michio Kaku , who claimed in an interview with Fox News that a solar peak in 2012 could be disastrous for orbiting satellites , and to NASA 's headlining a 2006 webpage as " Solar Storm Warning " , a term later repeated on several doomsday pages .
= = = Planet X / Nibiru = = =
Some believers in a 2012 doomsday claimed that a planet called Planet X , or Nibiru , would collide with or pass by the Earth . This idea , which appeared in various forms since 1995 , initially predicted Doomsday in May 2003 , but proponents abandoned that date after it passed without incident . The idea originated from claims of channeling alien beings and is widely ridiculed . Astronomers calculated that such an object so close to Earth would be visible to anyone looking up at the night sky .
= = = Other catastrophes = = =
Author Graham Hancock , in his book Fingerprints of the Gods , interpreted Coe 's remarks in Breaking the Maya Code as evidence for the prophecy of a global cataclysm . Filmmaker Roland Emmerich later credited the book with inspiring his 2009 disaster film 2012 .
Other speculations regarding doomsday in 2012 included predictions by the Web Bot project , a computer program that purports to predict the future by analyzing Internet chatter . However , commentators have rejected claims that the bot is able to predict natural disasters , as opposed to human @-@ caused disasters like stock market crashes .
The 2012 date was also loosely tied to the long @-@ running concept of the Photon Belt , which predicted a form of interaction between Earth and Alcyone , the largest star of the Pleiades cluster . Critics argued that photons cannot form belts , that the Pleiades , located more than 400 light years away , could have no effect on Earth , and that the Solar System , rather than getting closer to the Pleiades , was in fact moving farther away from it .
Some media outlets tied the fact that the red supergiant star Betelgeuse would undergo a supernova at some point in the future to the 2012 phenomenon . However , while Betelgeuse was certainly in the final stages of its life , and would die as a supernova , there was no way to predict the timing of the event to within 100 @,@ 000 years . To be a threat to Earth , a supernova would need to be no further than 25 light years from the Solar System . Betelgeuse is roughly 600 light years away , and so its supernova would not affect Earth . In December 2011 , NASA 's Francis Reddy issued a press release debunking the possibility of a supernova occurring in 2012 .
Another claim involved alien invasion . In December 2010 , an article , first published in examiner.com and later referenced in the English @-@ language edition of Pravda claimed , citing a Second Digitized Sky Survey photograph as evidence , that SETI had detected three large spacecraft due to arrive at Earth in 2012 . Astronomer and debunker Phil Plait noted that by using the small @-@ angle formula , one could determine that if the object in the photo were as large as claimed , it would have had to be closer to Earth than the Moon , which would mean it would already have arrived . In January 2011 , Seth Shostak , chief astronomer of SETI , issued a press release debunking the claims .
= = Public reaction = =
The phenomenon spread widely after coming to public notice , particularly on the Internet . Hundreds of thousands of websites were posted on the subject . " Ask an Astrobiologist " , a NASA public outreach website , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the rules that will be enforced . Just keep in mind that , regardless of the verdict of juries , baseball is competent to protect itself against crooks , both inside and outside the game .
According to ESPN columnist Rob Neyer , " with that single decision , Landis might have done more for the sport than anyone else , ever . Certainly , Landis never did anything more important . " According to Carney , " The public amputation of the eight Sox was seen as the only acceptable cure . " Over the years of Landis 's commissionership , a number of the players applied for reinstatement to the game , notably Jackson and Weaver . Jackson , raised in rural South Carolina and with limited education , was said to have been drawn unwillingly into the conspiracy , while Weaver , though admitting his presence at the meetings , stated that he took no money . Both men stated that their play on the field , and their batting percentages during the series ( .375 for Jackson , .324 for Weaver ) indicated that they did not help to throw the series . None was ever reinstated , with Landis telling a group of Weaver supporters that his presence at the meetings with the gamblers was sufficient to bar him . Even today , long after the deaths of all three men , efforts are periodically made to reinstate Jackson ( which would make him eligible for election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame ) and Weaver ( deemed by some the least culpable of the eight ) . In the 1990s , a petition drive to reinstate Jackson drew 60 @,@ 000 signatures . He has been treated sympathetically in movies such as Eight Men Out and Field of Dreams , and Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Feller expressed their support for Jackson 's induction into the Hall . Landis 's expulsion of the eight men remains in force .
= = = = Cracking down on gambling = = = =
Landis felt that the Black Sox scandal had been initiated by people involved in horse racing , and stated that " by God , as long as I have anything to do with this game , they 'll never get another hold on it . " In 1921 , his first season as commissioner , New York Giants owner Charles Stoneham and manager John McGraw purchased Oriental Park Racetrack in Havana , Cuba . Landis insisted that they could be involved in baseball or horse racing , but not both . They sold the track .
Even before the Black Sox scandal had been resolved , Commissioner Landis acted to clean up other gambling cases . Eugene Paulette , a first baseman for the Philadelphia Phillies , had been with the St. Louis Cardinals in 1919 , and had met with gamblers . It is uncertain if any games were fixed , but Paulette had written a letter naming two other Cardinals who might be open to throwing games . The letter had fallen into the hands of Phillies President William F. Baker , who had taken no action until Landis 's appointment , then turned the letter over to him . Paulette met with Landis once , denying any wrongdoing , then refused further meetings . Landis placed him on the ineligible list in March 1921 . In November 1921 , Landis banned former St. Louis Browns player Joe Gedeon . The player had been released by the Browns after admitting to sitting in on meetings with gamblers who were trying to raise the money to bribe the Black Sox , and a minor league official asked if he was eligible . Landis settled the matter by placing Gedeon on the ineligible list .
Two other player gambling affairs marked Landis 's early years as commissioner . In 1922 , Giants pitcher Phil Douglas , embittered at McGraw for disciplining him for heavy drinking , wrote a letter to Cardinals outfielder Leslie Mann , suggesting that he would take a bribe to ensure the Giants did not win the pennant . Although Mann had been a friend , the outfielder neither smoked nor drank and had long been associated with the YMCA movement ; according to baseball historian Lee Allen , Douglas might as well have sent the letter to Landis himself . Mann immediately turned over the letter to his manager , Branch Rickey , who ordered Mann to contact Landis at once . The Giants placed Douglas on the ineligible list , an action backed by Landis after meeting with the pitcher . On September 27 , 1924 , Giants outfielder Jimmy O 'Connell offered Phillies shortstop Heinie Sand $ 500 if Sand didn 't " bear down too hard against us today " . Sand was initially inclined to let the matter pass , but recalling the fate of Weaver and other Black Sox players , told his manager , Art Fletcher . Fletcher met with Heydler , who contacted Landis . O 'Connell did not deny the bribe attempt , and was placed on the ineligible list .
In total , Landis banned eighteen players from the game . Landis biographer Pietrusza details the effect of Landis 's stand against gambling :
Before 1920 if one player approached another player to throw a contest , there was a very good chance he would not be informed upon . Now , there was an excellent chance he would be turned in . No honest player wanted to meet the same fate as Buck Weaver ... Without the forbidding example of Buck Weaver to haunt them , it is unlikely Mann and Sand would have snitched on their fellow players . After Landis ' unforgiving treatment of the popular and basically honest Weaver they dared not to . And once prospectively crooked players knew that honest players would no longer shield them , the scandals stopped .
= = = = Ruth @-@ Meusel barnstorming incident = = = =
At the time of Landis 's appointment as commissioner , it was common for professional baseball players to supplement their pay by participating in postseason " barnstorming " tours , playing on teams which would visit smaller cities and towns to play games for which admission would be charged . Since 1911 , however , players on the two World Series teams had been barred from barnstorming . The rule had been indifferently enforced — in 1916 , several members of the champion Red Sox , including pitcher George Herman " Babe " Ruth had barnstormed and had been fined a token $ 100 each by the National Commission .
Ruth , who after the 1919 season had been sold to the Yankees , and who by then had mostly abandoned his pitching role for the outfield , was the focus of considerable fan interest as he broke batting records in 1920 and 1921 , some by huge margins . Ruth 's major league record 29 home runs with the Red Sox in 1919 fell to his own efforts in 1920 , when he hit 54 . He then proceeded to hit 59 in 1921 , leading the Yankees to their first pennant . Eight major league teams failed to hit as many home runs in 1921 as Ruth hit by himself . The Yankees lost the 1921 World Series to the Giants ( Ruth was injured and missed several games ) and after the series , the outfielder proposed to capitalize on fan interest by leading a team of barnstormers , including Yankees teammate Bob Meusel , in violation of the rule . According to Cottrell ,
[ T ] he two men clashed who helped the national pastime overcome the Black Sox scandal , one through his seemingly iron will , the other thanks to his magical bat . Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis and Babe Ruth battled over the right of a ballplayer from a pennant @-@ winning squad to barnstorm in the off @-@ season . Also involved was the commissioner 's continued determination to display , as he had through his banishment of the Black Sox , that he had established the boundaries for organized baseball . These boundaries , Landis intended to demonstrate , applied even to the sport 's most popular and greatest star . Significant too , only Babe Ruth now contended with Commissioner Landis for the title of baseball 's most important figure .
Ruth had asked Yankees general manager Ed Barrow for permission to barnstorm . Barrow had no objection but warned Ruth he must obtain Landis 's consent . Landis biographer Spink , who was at the time the editor of The Sporting News , stated , " I can say that Ruth knew exactly what he was doing when he defied Landis in October , 1921 . He was willing to back his own popularity and well @-@ known drawing powers against the Judge . " Ruth , to the commissioner 's irritation , did not contact Landis until October 15 , one day before the first exhibition . When the two spoke by telephone , Landis ordered Ruth to attend a meeting with him ; Ruth refused , stating that he had to leave for Buffalo for the first game . Landis angrily refused consent for Ruth to barnstorm , and after slamming down the receiver , is recorded as saying , " Who the hell does that big ape think he is ? That blankety @-@ blank ! If he goes on that trip it will be one of the sorriest things he has ever done . " By one account , Yankees co @-@ owner Colonel Tillinghast Huston attempted to dissuade Ruth as he departed , only to be told by the ballplayer , " Aw , tell the old guy to jump in a lake . "
The tour also featured fellow Yankees Bob Meusel and Bill Piercy ( who had been called up late in the season and was ineligible for the World Series ) as well as Tom Sheehan , who had been sent to the minor leagues before the end of the season . Two other Yankees , Carl Mays and Wally Schang , had been scheduled to join the tour , but given Landis 's position , according to Spink , " wisely decided to pass it up " . Spink describes the tour as " a fiasco . " On Landis 's orders , it was barred from all major and minor league ballparks . In addition , it was plagued by poor weather , and was called off in late October . In early December , Landis suspended Ruth , Piercy , and Meusel until May 20 , 1922 . Yankee management was actually relieved ; they had feared Landis would suspend Ruth for the season or even longer . Both the Yankees and Ruth repeatedly asked Landis for the players ' early reinstatement , which was refused , and when Landis visited the Yankees during spring training in New Orleans , he lectured Ruth for two hours on the value of obeying authority . " He sure can talk " , noted Ruth .
When Ruth returned on May 20 , he batted 0 @-@ for @-@ 4 , and was booed by the crowd at the Polo Grounds . According to Pietrusza , " Always a politician , there was one boss Landis did fear : public opinion . He had no guarantee at the start of the Ruth controversy that the public and press would back him as he assumed unprecedented powers over baseball . Now , he knew they would .
= = = Policies as commissioner = = =
= = = = Major @-@ minor league relations ; development of the farm system = = = =
At the start of Landis 's commissionership , the minor league teams were for the most part autonomous of the major leagues ; in fact the minor leagues independently chose to accept Landis 's rule . To ensure players did not become mired in the minor leagues without a chance to earn their way out , major league teams were able to draft players who played two consecutive years with the same minor league team . Several minor leagues were not subject to the draft ; Landis fought for the inclusion of these leagues , feeling that the non @-@ draft leagues could prevent players from advancing as they became more skilled . By 1924 , he had succeeded , as the International League , the final holdout , accepted the draft .
By the mid @-@ 1920s , major league clubs were beginning to develop " farm systems " , that is , minor league teams owned or controlled by them , at which they could develop young prospects without the risk of the players being acquired by major league rivals . The pioneer in this development was Branch Rickey , who then ran the St. Louis Cardinals . As the 1921 National Agreement among the major and minor leagues which implemented Landis 's hiring lifted a ban on major league teams owning minor league ones , Landis was limited in his avenues of attack on Rickey 's schemes . Developing talent at little cost thanks to Rickey , the Cardinals dominated the National League , winning nine league titles in the years from 1926 to 1946 .
Soon after Landis 's appointment , he surprised the major league owners by requiring that they disclose their minor league interests . Landis fought against the practice of " covering up " , using transfers between two teams controlled by the same major league team to make players ineligible for the draft . His first formal act as commissioner was to declare infielder Phil Todt a free agent , dissolving his contract with the St. Louis Browns ( at the time run by Rickey , who soon thereafter moved across town to run the Cardinals ) ; in 1928 he ruled future Hall of Famer Chuck Klein a free agent as he held the Cardinals had tried to cover Klein up . The following year , he freed Detroit Tigers prospect and future Hall of Famer Rick Ferrell , who attracted a significant signing bonus from the Browns . In 1936 , Landis found that teenage pitching prospect Bob Feller 's signing by minor league club Fargo @-@ Moorhead had been a charade ; the young pitcher was for all intents and purposes property of the Cleveland Indians . However , Feller indicated that he wanted to play for Cleveland and Landis issued a ruling which required the Indians to pay damages to minor league clubs , but allowed them to retain Feller , who went on to a Hall of Fame career with the Indians .
Landis 's attempts to crack down on " covering up " provoked the only time he was ever sued by one of his owners . After the 1930 season , minor leaguer Fred Bennett , convinced he was being covered up by the Browns , petitioned Landis for his release . Landis ruled that the Browns could either keep Bennett on their roster for the entire 1931 season , trade him , or release him . Instead , Browns owner Phil Ball brought suit against Landis in his old court in Chicago . Federal Judge Walter Lindley ruled for Landis , noting that the agreements and rules were intended to " endow the Commissioner with all the attributes of a benevolent but absolute despot and all the disciplinary powers of the proverbial pater familias " . Ball intended to appeal , but after a meeting between team owners and Landis in which the commissioner reminded owners of their agreement not to sue , agreed to drop the case .
Landis had hoped that the large Cardinal farm system would become economically unfeasible ; when it proved successful for the Cardinals , he had tolerated it for several years and was in a poor position to abolish it . In 1938 , however , finding that the Cardinals effectively controlled multiple teams in the same league ( a practice disliked by Landis ) , he freed 70 players from their farm system . As few of the players were likely prospects for the major leagues , Landis 's actions generated headlines , but had little effect on the Cardinals organization , and the development of the modern farm system , whereby each major league club has several minor league teams which it uses to develop talent , proceeded apace . Rob Neyer describes Landis 's effort as " a noble effort in a good cause , but it was also doomed to fail . "
= = = = Baseball color line = = = =
One of the most controversial aspects of Landis 's commissionership is the question of race . From 1884 , black ballplayers were informally banned from organized baseball . No black ballplayer played in organized baseball during Landis 's commissionership ; Rickey ( then running the Brooklyn Dodgers ) broke the color line by signing Jackie Robinson to play for the minor league Montreal Royals in 1946 , after Landis 's death ; Robinson became the first black in the major leagues since the 19th century , playing with the Dodgers beginning in 1947 .
According to contemporary newspaper columns , at the time of his appointment as commissioner , Landis was considered a liberal on race questions ; two Chicago African @-@ American newspapers defended him against the 1921 efforts to impeach him from his judgeship . A number of baseball authors have ascribed racism to Landis , who they say actively perpetuated baseball 's color line . James Bankes , in The Pittsburgh Crawfords , tracing the history of that Negro League team , states that Landis , whom the author suggests was a Southerner , made " little effort to disguise his racial prejudice during 25 years in office " and " remained a steadfast foe of integration " . Negro League historian John Holway termed Landis " the hard @-@ bitten Carolinian [ sic ] Kennesaw [ sic ] Mountain Landis " . In a 2000 article in Smithsonian magazine , writer Bruce Watson states that Landis " upheld baseball 's unwritten ban on black players and did nothing to push owners toward integration " . A number of authors say that Landis banned major league play against black teams for fear the white teams would lose , though they ascribe various dates for this action , and the Dodgers are known to have played black teams in and around their Havana spring training base as late as 1942 .
Landis 's documented actions on race are inconsistent . In 1938 , Yankee Jake Powell was interviewed by a radio station , and when asked what he did in the offseason , made comments that were interpreted as meaning he worked as a police officer and beat up African Americans . Landis suspended Powell for ten days . In June 1942 , the Negro League Kansas City Monarchs played several games against the white " Dizzy Dean All @-@ Stars " at major league ballparks , attracting large crowds . After three games , all won by the Monarchs , Landis ordered a fourth canceled , on the ground that the games were outdrawing major league contests . On one occasion , Landis intervened in Negro League affairs , though he had no jurisdiction to do so . The Crawfords lost a game to a white semi @-@ pro team when their star catcher , Josh Gibson dropped a pop fly , and Gibson was accused of throwing the game at the behest of gamblers . Landis summoned the black catcher to his office , interviewed him , and announced Gibson was cleared of wrongdoing .
In July 1942 , Dodger manager Leo Durocher charged that there was a " grapevine understanding " keeping blacks out of baseball . He was summoned to Landis 's Chicago office , and after emerging from a meeting with the commissioner , alleged that he had been misquoted . Landis then addressed the press , and stated , "
Negroes are not barred from organized baseball by the commissioner and never have been in the 21 years I have served . There is no rule in organized baseball prohibiting their participation and never has been to my knowledge . If Durocher , or if any other manager , or all of them , want to sign one , or twenty @-@ five Negro players , it is all right with me . That is the business of the managers and the club owners . The business of the commissioner is to interpret the rules of baseball , and to enforce them .
In his 1961 memoir , Veeck as in Wreck , longtime baseball executive and owner Bill Veeck told of his plan , in 1942 , to buy the Phillies and stock the team with Negro League stars . Veeck wrote that he told Landis , who reacted with shock , and soon moved to block the purchase . In his book , Veeck placed some of the blame on National League President Ford Frick , but later reserved blame exclusively for Landis , whom he accused of racism , stating in a subsequent interview , " [ a ] fter all , a man who is named Kenesaw Mountain was not born and raised in the state of Maine . " However , when Veeck was asked for proof of his allegations against Landis , he stated , " I have no proof of that . I can only surmise . " According to baseball historian David Jordan , " Veeck , nothing if not a storyteller , seems to have added these embellishments , sticking in some guys in black hats , simply to juice up his tale . "
In November 1943 , Landis agreed after some persuasion that black sportswriter Sam Lacy should make a case for integration of organized baseball before the owners ' annual meeting . Instead of Lacy attending the meeting , actor Paul Robeson did . Robeson , though a noted black actor and advocate of civil rights , was a controversial figure due to his affiliation with the Communist Party . The owners heard Robeson out , but at Landis 's suggestion , did not ask him any questions or begin any discussion with him .
Neyer noted that " Landis has been blamed for delaying the integration of the major leagues , but the truth is that the owners didn 't want black players in the majors any more than Landis did . And it 's not likely that , even if Landis hadn 't died in 1944 , he could have prevented Branch Rickey from bringing Jackie Robinson to the National League in 1947 . " C.C. Johnson Spink , son of Landis biographer J.G. Taylor Spink and his successor as editor of The Sporting News , noted in the introduction to the reissue of his father 's biography of Landis ,
K.M. Landis was quite human and not infallible . If , for example , he did drag his feet at erasing baseball 's color line , he was grievously wrong , but then so were many others of his post @-@ Civil War generation .
= = = = World Series and All @-@ Star Game ; other innovations = = = =
Landis took full jurisdiction over the World Series , as a contest between representatives of the two major leagues . Landis was blamed when the umpires called a game on account of darkness with the score tied during the 1922 World Series , even though there was still light . Landis decided that such decisions in future would be made by himself , moved forward the starting time of World Series games in future years , and announced that proceeds from the tied game would be donated to charity . In the 1932 World Series , Landis ordered that tickets for Game One at Yankee Stadium only be sold as part of strips , forcing fans to purchase tickets for all Yankee home games during that Series . Bad weather and the poor economy resulted in a half @-@ filled stadium , and Landis allowed individual game sales for Game Two . During the 1933 World Series , he instituted a rule that only he could throw a player out of a World Series game , a rule which followed the ejection of Washington Senator Heinie Manush by umpire Charley Moran . The following year , with the visiting Cardinals ahead of the Detroit Tigers , 9 – 0 in Game Seven , he removed Cardinal Joe Medwick from the game for his own safety when Medwick , the left fielder , was pelted with fruit by Tiger fans after Medwick had been involved in a fight with one of the Tigers . Spink notes that Landis would most likely not have done so were the game within reach of the Tigers . In the 1938 World Series , umpire Moran was hit by a wild throw and suffered facial injuries . He was able to continue , but the incident caused Landis to order that World Series games and All @-@ Star Games be played with six umpires .
The All @-@ Star Game began in 1933 ; Landis had been a strong supporter of the proposal for such a contest , and after the first game remarked , " That 's a grand show , and it should be continued . " He never missed an All @-@ Star Game in his lifetime ; his final public appearance was at the 1944 All @-@ Star Game in Pittsburgh .
In 1928 , National League ball clubs proposed an innovation whereby each team 's pitcher , usually the weakest hitter in the lineup , would not bat , but be replaced for the purposes of batting and base @-@ running by a tenth player . There were expectations that at the interleague meetings that year , the National League teams would vote for it , and the American League teams against it , leaving Landis to cast the deciding vote . In the event , the proposal was withdrawn , and Landis did not disclose how he would have voted on this early version of the " designated hitter " rule .
Landis disliked the innovation of " night baseball " , played in the evening with the aid of artificial light , and sought to discourage teams from it . Despite this , he attended the first successful minor league night game , in Des Moines , Iowa , in 1930 . When major league night baseball began in the late 1930s , Landis got the owners to restrict the number of such games . During World War II , many restrictions on night baseball were reduced , with the Washington Senators permitted to play all their home games ( except those on Sundays and holidays ) at night .
= = = World War II , death , and legacy = = =
With the entry of the United States into World War II in late 1941 , Landis wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt , inquiring as to the wartime status of baseball . The President responded urging Landis to keep baseball open , foreseeing that even those fully engaged in war work would benefit from inexpensive diversions such as attending baseball games . Many major leaguers enlisted or were drafted ; even so Landis repeatedly stated , " We 'll play as long as we can put nine men on the field . " Although many of the teams practiced at their normal spring training sites in 1942 , beginning the following year they were required to train near their home cities or in the Northeast . Landis was as virulently opposed to the Axis Powers as he had been towards the Kaiser , writing that peace would not be possible until " about fifteen thousand little Hitler , Himmlers and Hirohitos " were killed .
Landis retained a firm hold on baseball despite his advancing years and , in 1943 , banned Phillies owner William D. Cox from baseball for betting on his own team . In 1927 , Landis 's stance regarding gambling had been codified in the rules of baseball : " Any player , umpire , or club or league official or employee who shall bet any sum whatsoever upon any baseball game in connection with which the bettor had a duty to perform shall be declared permanently ineligible . " Cox was required to sell his stake in the Phillies .
In early October 1944 , Landis checked into St. Luke 's Hospital in Chicago , where his wife Winifred had been hospitalized , with a severe cold . While in the hospital , he had a heart attack , causing him to miss the World Series for the first time in his commissionership . He remained fully alert , and as usual signed the World Series share checks to players . His contract was due to expire in January 1946 ; on November 17 , 1944 , baseball 's owners voted him another seven @-@ year term . However , on November 25 , he died surrounded by family , five days after his 78th birthday . His longtime assistant , Leslie O 'Connor , wept as he read the announcement for the press . Landis is buried at Oak Woods Cemetery in Chicago .
Two weeks after his death , Landis was voted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame by a special committee vote . The Baseball Writers ' Association of America renamed its Most Valuable Player Awards after Landis .
American League President Will Harridge said of Landis , " He was a wonderful man . His great qualities and downright simplicity impressed themselves deeply on all who knew him . " Pietrusza suggests that the legend on Landis 's Hall of Fame plaque is his true legacy : " His integrity and leadership established baseball in the esteem , respect , and affection of the American people . " Pietrusza notes that Landis was hired by the baseball owners to clean up the sport , and " no one could deny Kenesaw Mountain Landis had accomplished what he had been hired to do " . According to his first biographer , Spink ,
[ Landis ] may have been arbitrary , self @-@ willed and even unfair , but he ' called ' em as he saw ' em ' and he turned over to his successor and the future a game cleansed of the nasty spots which followed World War I. Kenesaw Mountain Landis put the fear of God into weak characters who might otherwise have been inclined to violate their trust . And for that , I , as a lifelong lover of baseball , am eternally grateful .
= William ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" William " is the sixteenth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , which originally aired on the Fox network on April 28 , 2002 . The teleplay of the episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , from a story by former series star David Duchovny , Carter , and executive producer Frank Spotnitz ; the entry was directed by Duchovny . " William " helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology . The episode received a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 8 , being watched by 6 @.@ 1 million households and 9 @.@ 3 million viewers upon its initial broadcast . It received mixed reviews from television critics , many of whom were unhappy with the episode 's conclusion .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Doggett finds a strange , disfigured man ( Chris Owens ) in the X @-@ Files office and , on his whim , they test his DNA . They learn that the man shares DNA with Fox Mulder ( Duchovny ) , and may possibly even be him . The answers become even more surprising when Scully 's son , baby William , is put on the line .
" William " marked the return of David Duchovny to the series , after his departure following the eighth season finale " Existence " . The genesis for the episode was a storyline Duchovny had developed during the series ' eighth season ; he originally pitched an idea featuring a mysteriously disfigured person introducing himself to Scully and admitting that he possessed a connection to Mulder . Chris Owens , whose character Jeffrey Spender had previously been killed off in the sixth season episode " One Son " , was asked to return to the series for the episode .
= = Plot = =
In the teaser , a couple , the Van De Kamps ( Adam Nelson and Shannon Hile ) , adopt Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) infant son , William ( James and Travis Riker ) . The episode then jumps back a week . Scully takes William out of her car while an unknown man ( Chris Owens ) watches them . Later , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) is attacked in the X @-@ Files office by the same man . After a struggle , Doggett subdues him . His face is revealed to be horribly scarred .
Later , Scully speaks with the man . He claims he received his burns due to alien testing and that he knew Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . He further elaborates that he was sent to the FBI to retrieve certain files . Scully suspects the man is lying , but asks to examine his burns to investigate his strange claims . He notes that they are the result of an injection that failed to transform him into one of the aliens . The man claims a new conspiracy has formed after the previous one was destroyed ; the new one being hidden within the government and the conspirators involved being alien . Doggett theorizes that the man is actually Mulder . Scully takes the man to her house to give him the files he seeks . Suddenly , William begins to cry , only to be quieted when the scarred man picks him up . Meanwhile , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) meets with Doggett and the two discuss the idea that the man is actually Mulder . Skinner points out the inconsistencies in Doggett 's reasoning , but a DNA test is undertaken anyway .
Scully is told by the scarred man that William is part alien and that she is being used to raise the child . Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) and Doggett tell Scully that the man 's DNA is a match to Mulder 's , but Scully refuses to believe it . While the three are talking , the scarred man quietly slips into William 's room with a syringe . Though William 's crying alerts the agents , the scarred man manages to sneak out of the room before they reach William . Reyes and Scully take the baby to the hospital and Doggett discovers the man 's syringe . The doctor reports that William is fine except for an elevated amount of iron in his blood . In interrogation , Scully confronts the scarred man about his motives . It is revealed that he is actually Jeffrey Spender , a former FBI agent supposedly killed by The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) three years earlier . Spender is also Mulder 's half @-@ brother . Spender admits his actions were a ruse and that the syringe contained magnetite meant to make William normal . He explains that the aliens need the child in order to successfully invade the world , but now they have lost him . However , he notes that the conspirators will always pursue the child , despite what he has done . Spender says that he acted out of his hatred for his father , since the new conspiracy was created by The Smoking Man after the alien rebels burned the original group .
Scully muses over Spender 's words and decides that the only way to truly protect William is to give him up for adoption so that he may have a better life . The episode then jumps to the Van De Kamps , who tuck in their new son . William looks at his mobile but he can no longer move it telekinetically , an event which happened in " Nothing Important Happened Today " .
= = Production = =
The story for " William " was written by former series co @-@ star David Duchovny , series creator Chris Carter , and executive producer Frank Spotnitz ; the screenplay was written solely by Carter , and the entry was directed by Duchovny . " William " marked the return of David Duchovny , in some capacity , to the series , after his departure following the eighth season finale " Existence " . In fact , Duchovny makes a cameo appearance in the episode , appearing as a reflection in Scully 's eye .
The genesis for the episode was a storyline Duchovny had developed during the series ' eighth season . He had originally pitched an idea featuring a mysteriously disfigured person introducing himself to Scully and admitting that he has a connection to Mulder . Reportedly , the idea for Scully to give William up for adoption was mandated by Carter and Spotnitz . Duchovny , Anderson , and executive producer John Shiban were not happy with this turn of events , due to them being parents and feeling that the action was not realistic , but " grudgingly consented " .
Three years after Spender had been written out of the series — in the sixth season episode " One Son " — and actor Chris Owens had moved to Toronto , Canada , Owens received an unexpected phone call from David Duchovny , who said that The X @-@ Files ' production crew was filming the series ' finale as well as another episode late in the season , and that he wanted to bring Spender back for these two episodes . Duchovny reassured Owens that Spender 's survival of the shooting years earlier could be explained away via the plot device of an alien injection but mentioned that the experience would not be fun for Owens , as he would be " under all that shit " ; Owens did not realize what Duchovny meant until he got to the studio and personally saw the makeup for Spender 's disfigured appearance , a sight that shocked Owens .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" William " originally aired on the Fox network on April 28 , 2002 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on March 2 , 2003 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 1 million households , and 9 @.@ 3 million viewers . " William " earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 8 , meaning that roughly 5 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , were tuned in to the episode . It was the fifty @-@ fourth most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending April 28 . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode an A – grade . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it an 8 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this was an uneven yet highly enjoyable mythology episode , far better than the episode that appears to have spawned it ( ' Trustno1 ' ) [ sic ] . I look forward to whatever directorial / writing work David Duchovny might do in the future . And if this is indeed the last we see of William , well , I ’ m not going to complain ! Still , by now , Carter and Spotnitz ought to know how to write an episode with the time constraints in mind . "
Other reviews were not as positive . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . The two criticized the idea that Scully would give her child up for adoption solely based on the word of Jeffrey Spender , noting " if she wasn 't going to give it away for the sake of its own protection after a UFO cult abducted it [ in ' Provenance ' / ' Providence ' ] , then why should she because Jeffrey Spender of all people comes along and informs her that it 's under threat ? " Shearman and Pearson , however , did praise Chris Owens ' acting , writing that he did a " great job " . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , wrote a largely negative review of the episode and derided its plot . He heavily criticized the idea that Scully would offer William up for adoption . Kessenich did however praise Duchovny 's directing , noting that " [ he ] did a masterful job of luring me back to this world of The X @-@ Files " . Aaron Kinney from Salon wrote that the episode " scuttled the entire " baby William subplot . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , praised the decision to conclude the William subplot but called the episode 's conclusion " sappy " .
= Russian monitor Charodeika =
The Russian monitor Charodeika was the lead ship of her class of monitors built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1860s . She served for her entire career with the Baltic Fleet , mostly as a training ship . She was decommissioned in 1907 , but was not broken up until 1911 – 12 .
= = Design and description = =
Charodeika was 206 feet ( 62 @.@ 8 m ) long at the waterline . She had a beam of 42 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 m ) and a maximum draft of 12 feet 7 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . The ship was designed to displace 1 @,@ 882 long tons ( 1 @,@ 912 t ) , but turned out to be overweight and actually displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew numbered 13 officers and 171 crewmen in 1877 .
The ship had two simple horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single propeller . The engines were designed to produce a total of 900 indicated horsepower ( 670 kW ) using steam provided by two coal @-@ fired rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers , but only achieved 786 ihp ( 586 kW ) and a speed of approximately 8 @.@ 5 knots ( 15 @.@ 7 km / h ; 9 @.@ 8 mph ) during her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 250 long tons ( 254 t ) of coal for her boilers .
Charodeika was initially armed with a pair of nine @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled Model 1867 guns in the forward gun turret and a pair of fifteen @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) smoothbore Rodman guns in the aft turret . The Rodman guns were replaced by a pair of Obukhov 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled guns in 1871 and all of the nine @-@ inch guns were replaced in their turn by longer , more powerful nine @-@ inch Obukhov guns in 1878 – 79 . No light guns for use against torpedo boats are known to have been fitted aboard the ship before the 1870s when she received 4 four @-@ pounder 3 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 86 mm ) guns mounted on the turret tops as well as a variety of smaller guns that included 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) Engström quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) Nordenfelt guns , single @-@ barreled QF 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns , QF 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolving cannon , and 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) Palmcrantz @-@ Nordenfelt guns .
The ship had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships and thinned to 3 @.@ 75 inches ( 95 mm ) at the bow and 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 83 mm ) at the stern . The armor was backed by 12 to 18 inches ( 300 to 460 mm ) of teak . The circular turrets were protected by armor 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) thick and the walls of the ship 's oval conning tower were also 4 @.@ 5 inches thick . Her deck was 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick amidships , but reduced to 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 – 12 @.@ 7 mm ) at the ends of the ship .
= = Construction and service = =
Charodeika ( Sorceress ) was ordered on 26 January 1865 and construction began on 10 June at the Admiralty Shipyard , Saint Petersburg , although the formal keel @-@ laying was not until 6 June 1866 . She was launched on 12 September 1867 and completed in 1869 at the cost of 762 @,@ 000 rubles . Construction was considerably delayed by late deliveries of drawings , material , and the death of her original builder . The ship served her entire career with the Baltic Fleet and was later assigned to the Mine ( Torpedo ) Training Detachment . Charodeika was reclassified as a coast @-@ defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and remained in service until 31 March 1907 when she was turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal . The ship was stricken from the Navy List on 7 April and was finally scrapped in 1911 – 12 .
= No. 82 Wing RAAF =
No. 82 Wing is the strike and reconnaissance wing of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . It is headquartered at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . Coming under the control of Air Combat Group , the wing operates F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornet multirole fighters and Pilatus PC @-@ 9 forward air control aircraft . Its units include Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons , operating the Super Hornet , and No. 4 Squadron , operating the PC @-@ 9 .
Formed in August 1944 , No. 82 Wing operated B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II . Initially comprising two flying units , Nos. 21 and 24 Squadrons , the wing was augmented by 23 Squadron in 1945 . After the war its operational units became Nos. 1 , 2 and 6 Squadrons . It re @-@ equipped with Avro Lincolns in 1948 and , from 1953 , English Electric Canberra jets . Both types saw action in the Malayan Emergency during the 1950s ; the Canberras were also deployed in the Vietnam War from 1967 to 1971 .
Between 1970 and 1973 , as a stop @-@ gap pending delivery of the long @-@ delayed General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber , Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons flew leased F @-@ 4E Phantoms . No. 2 Squadron continued to fly Canberras until it was disbanded in 1982 . After taking delivery of their F @-@ 111Cs in 1973 , Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons operated the type for 37 years through numerous upgrades , augmented in the mid @-@ 1990s by ex @-@ USAF G models . The forward air control unit joined No. 82 Wing in 2002 . In 2010 , the wing retired its F @-@ 111s and replaced them with Super Hornets as an interim force until the planned entry into Australian service of the F @-@ 35 Lightning Joint Strike Fighter . Twelve Boeing EA @-@ 18G Growlers are scheduled to augment the Super Hornet fleet from 2017 .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
No. 82 ( Heavy Bomber ) Wing — the RAAF 's first such wing — was formed at Ballarat , Victoria , on 25 August 1944 , under the command of Group Captain Deryck Kingwell . Comprising Nos. 21 and 24 Squadrons , both equipped with B @-@ 24 Liberators , the wing became operational on 11 January 1945 . By this time it was headquartered in the Northern Territory , and came under the control of the RAAF 's North @-@ Western Area Command ( NWA ) . Based at Fenton Airfield , the wing 's aircraft sank seven Japanese ships in the Dutch East Indies during March . On 6 April , all of its available Liberators joined B @-@ 25 Mitchells of No. 79 Wing in an assault on a Japanese convoy that included the cruiser Isuzu . Anti @-@ aircraft fire from the cruiser and other ships , as well as attacks by enemy fighters , resulted in the loss of two Liberators , and the crews ' standard of aerial gunnery was criticised afterwards . Allied submarines sank the damaged Isuzu the following day . Later that month , No. 23 Squadron , having recently converted to Liberators from A @-@ 31 Vengeances , was added to No. 82 Wing 's strength . The wing 's three flying squadrons identified themselves with black chevrons on the tail fins of their aircraft , No. 21 's facing backwards , No. 23 's downwards , and No. 24 's forwards .
The Liberator bombers of No. 82 Wing played both a tactical and a strategic role in the Borneo Campaign , beginning with the lead @-@ up to Operation Oboe One , the invasion of Tarakan on 1 May 1945 . During that month a detachment relocated from Fenton to Morotai , attacking targets in Celebes and Balikpapan prior to Operation Oboe Six , the invasion of Labuan . In June , while the final Allied offensive of the Borneo Campaign got under way as Operation Oboe Two , the Battle of Balikpapan , the remainder of No. 82 Wing transferred from NWA to the command of the Australian First Tactical Air Force in Morotai . In the middle of the month the wing dropped 120 tons of bombs on Balikpapan 's oil fields and surrounding areas , as well as coastal defence sites . During July it bombed targets at Celebes and Borneo , losing five Liberators for the month , including that of its new commanding officer , Group Captain Donald McLean . McLean died with most of his crew after being hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire and ditching into the sea , a notoriously risky operation in the Liberator owing to the fuselage 's tendency to break in two upon striking the water . Just before the end of hostilities in the Pacific , the recently established garrison headquarters No. 11 Group unofficially directed the wing 's operations . Following the Japanese surrender in September 1945 , No. 82 Wing 's Liberators were converted to transports and used to repatriate RAAF personnel from the South West Pacific . Over the course of its wartime existence , the wing 's personnel numbered between 3 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 , of whom more than half were ground crew . Along with its flying squadrons , its complement included No. 24 Air Stores Park , No. 6 Repair and Servicing Unit , and No. 30 Medical Clearing Station .
= = = Cold War and after = = =
No. 82 Wing moved to its present location at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , in 1946 , where it came under the control of the RAAF 's Eastern Area Command . In May that year , No. 482 ( Maintenance ) Squadron was formed from No. 4 Repair and Servicing Unit , to be responsible for repair and upkeep of the wing 's aircraft . Its flying complement now included Nos. 12 ( formerly of No. 85 Wing ) , 21 , and 23 Squadrons , but these were renumbered Nos. 1 , 2 and 6 Squadrons respectively in February 1948 . At the same time , the wartime Liberators were replaced by Avro Lincoln heavy bombers . During 1949 – 50 , some of the Lincolns were specially modified with advanced radar and other instrumentation to participate in Operation Cumulative , a joint program with the Royal Air Force gathering long @-@ range navigation and bombing data for use in potential air campaigns against the Soviet Union . Between 1950 and 1958 — for the first two years under the control of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing — the Lincolns of No. 1 Squadron were deployed for service in the Malayan Emergency , tasked with the prime responsibility for the Commonwealth 's bombing campaign against Communist insurgents . This arrangement meant that No. 82 Wing 's flying units were reduced to Nos. 2 and 6 Squadrons . From 1952 to 1957 , the wing flew observation flights in connection with British atomic tests in Australia . No protective clothing was issued to air or ground crews during these flights and , following the second such operation in October 1953 , nine of the twelve Lincolns involved were found to be contaminated , four so heavily that they were parked in a remote corner of the Amberley air base and never flown again . On 9 April 1953 , the wing wrote off three Lincolns — without loss of life — in two separate incidents that collectively became known as " Black Thursday " ; one of the Lincolns crashed on landing at Amberley during the day , and that night another Lincoln collided with one of its brethren at Cloncurry Aerodrome , Queensland .
In December 1953 , No. 82 Wing took delivery of the RAAF 's first jet bomber , the Canberra Mk.20 , 48 of which re @-@ equipped the wing 's three squadrons over the next five years . The new bombers were acquired partly for their capacity to deliver nuclear weapons , an ordnance option the RAAF seriously investigated but never implemented . Following the re @-@ equipping of Nos. 2 and 6 Squadrons with the Canberra , a Lincoln Conversion Flight was formed in July 1955 under No. 82 Wing to provide training on the older bomber for crews preparing to deploy to Malaya for service with No. 1 Squadron ; it disbanded in March 1956 . Canberras from No. 2 Squadron relieved the Lincolns of No. 1 Squadron in Malaya during 1958 . In January 1959 , No. 1 ( Bomber ) Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 1 OCU ) was established at Amberley under the control of No. 82 Wing . Its role was to convert pilots and navigators to the Canberra , and train them for operations with the three bomber squadrons . In 1964 , No. 82 Wing 's Canberras were slated for possible bombing and reconnaissance tasks against Indonesian forces under Operation Handover , a little @-@ publicised contingency plan put into effect during the Indonesia – Malaysia Konfrontasi , although no combat ensued . No. 2 Squadron Canberras saw extensive action in the Vietnam War from 1967 to 1971 , under the control of the USAF 's 35th Tactical Fighter Wing . The Canberras flew almost 12 @,@ 000 sorties and delivered over 76 @,@ 000 pounds of bombs , for the loss of two aircraft to enemy action , and gained a high reputation for their accuracy . No. 1 OCU was made independent of No. 82 Wing in April 1968 ; its sole purpose from then until its disbandment in June 1971 was to supply trained crews to No. 2 Squadron in Vietnam . Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons effectively ceased operations in 1968 , while their crews underwent conversion to the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber , which was expected to enter service soon afterwards . Between 1970 and 1973 , as an interim measure pending the delayed delivery of the F @-@ 111 , Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons flew leased F @-@ 4E Phantoms ; meanwhile No. 2 Squadron continued to operate the Canberra , mainly for aerial survey work in Australia and Indonesia , until disbanding in 1982 . The Air Force retained the option to purchase the Phantoms if the F @-@ 111C program was cancelled . Though not as sophisticated an aircraft as the F @-@ 111 , the Phantom was a significant advance over the Canberra , and was highly regarded by its RAAF crews .
On 1 June 1973 , the Officer Commanding No. 82 Wing , Group Captain Jake Newham , led the first F @-@ 111Cs in to land at Amberley , a gala occasion attended by the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Defence , Lance Barnard , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Charles Read , the Air Officer Commanding Operational Command , Air Vice Marshal Brian Eaton , and a large media contingent . Read ordered Newham to operate the F @-@ 111 with great caution initially , well within limits , lest the controversial aircraft suffer greater damage to its reputation through early attrition . Over its 37 @-@ year career with No. 82 Wing , the F @-@ 111 underwent numerous upgrades , including the Pave Tack infra @-@ red and laser @-@ guided precision weapons targeting system , Harpoon anti @-@ shipping missiles , and advanced digital avionics . Roles within the wing were demarcated such that No. 1 Squadron was the lead strike unit , while No. 6 Squadron was primarily tasked with providing crew conversion training ; No. 6 Squadron was also responsible for reconnaissance missions using specially modified RF @-@ 111Cs until these aircraft were transferred to No. 1 Squadron in 1996 , and flew leased Learjets for survey work between 1982 and 1987 . During 1982 – 83 , four F @-@ 111s from the RAAF 's original order that had been lost through accidents were replaced by four F @-@ 111As upgraded to C models . In 1992 an order was placed to augment the F @-@ 111C force with fifteen ex @-@ USAF G models , to be operated by No. 6 Squadron . No. 82 Wing was awarded the Duke of Gloucester Cup as most proficient RAAF unit of 1994 , in part for its success in introducing the F @-@ 111G with minimal additional staff . Alan Stephens , in the official history of the post @-@ war Air Force , described the F @-@ 111 as " the region 's pre @-@ eminent strike aircraft " and the RAAF 's most important acquisition . The closest the bombers came to being used in anger , however , was during the Australian @-@ led INTERFET intervention into East Timor in September 1999 . Both F @-@ 111 squadrons were deployed to RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory , to support the international forces , and remained there until December . From 20 September , when INTERFET began to arrive in East Timor , the aircraft were maintained at a high level of readiness to conduct reconnaissance flights or air strikes if the situation deteriorated . As it happened , INTERFET did not encounter significant resistance , and F @-@ 111 operations were limited to reconnaissance by the RF @-@ 111Cs from 5 November through 9 December .
No. 482 Squadron merged with Amberley 's No. 3 Aircraft Depot to form No. 501 Wing in March 1992 . The squadron completed its disbandment in June that year . In 1998 the RAAF became the only air force operating the F @-@ 111 , after the USAF retired the type . From 2001 , Boeing Australia performed all F @-@ 111 maintenance under contract . In February 2002 , No. 82 Wing came under the control of the newly established Air Combat Group ( ACG ) , formed by merging Tactical Fighter Group ( TFG ) and Strike Reconnaissance Group ( SRG ) . The reorganisation altered the wing 's responsibilities , as it transferred lead @-@ in training for the F @-@ 111s to No. 78 Wing at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , and put No. 82 Wing in charge of the strike capability of No. 81 Wing 's F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighters , also based at Williamtown . No. 82 Wing 's role was reiterated as " precision strike and reconnaissance " ; the Forward Air Control Development Unit ( FACDU ) , flying Pilatus PC @-@ 9s , was added to its strength . The merger of TFG and SRG was designed to position the Air Force to replace both the F @-@ 111 and the F / A @-@ 18 with a single Joint Strike Fighter ( JSF ) . In 2007 , the Australian government decided to retire all of the F @-@ 111s by 2010 , and acquire 24 F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets as an interim replacement , pending the arrival of the F @-@ 35 Lightning JSF then under development . The F @-@ 111 fleet was considered to be at risk due to fatigue issues , and too expensive to operate as each aircraft required 180 hours of maintenance for every hour of flying time . No. 82 Wing began re @-@ equipping with the Super Hornet in 2010 , and the last F @-@ 111s were retired on 3 December that year . FACDU was combined with the RAAF Special Tactics Project in July 2009 to form No. 4 Squadron . The following year , No. 82 Wing became home to No. 5 Flight , which was responsible for training personnel to operate the RAAF 's two IAI Heron unmanned aerial vehicles based at Kandahar in Afghanistan . The Air Force acquired a third Heron in 2011 , based in Australia and operated by No. 5 Flight . As of that year , the F @-@ 35 was not expected to enter Australian service until 2018 . The RAAF hoped to be able to sell off its Super Hornets " with very low kilometres on the clock " by 2020 , but this would depend on delivery of the replacement F @-@ 35s . In April 2013 , No. 5 Flight was transferred from No. 82 Wing to Surveillance and Response Group 's No. 92 Wing . The following month , the Federal government announced plans to purchase twelve Boeing EA @-@ 18G Growlers to supplement the Super Hornet fleet . No. 6 Squadron is expected to begin taking delivery of the Growlers in 2017 , at which point its Super Hornets will be transferred to No. 1 Squadron .
= Ice Princess ( song ) =
" Ice Princess " is a song recorded by American rapper Azealia Banks for her debut studio album Broke with Expensive Taste ( 2014 ) . It was released as the fourth single from the album on March 23 , 2015 . Production of the song was handled by AraabMuzik , while it was written by Banks , Kevin James , and Jonathan Harris . " Ice Princess " contains a sample of " In the Air " , originally produced by progressive house DJ Morgan Page . Lyrically , Banks brags about her wealth , with Jordan Sargent of Pitchfork Media describing it as Banks " spitting knotty rhymes about her diamonds " . " Ice Princess " garnered praise from music critics , with one describing the song as " Banks at her best " . To promote the song , an accompanying music video for the track was released on March 31 , 2015 . It features Banks ruling over a kingdom of ice warriors , flying through the sky destroying anything colorful while turning everything into ice .
= = Background = =
In 2011 , it was reported that Banks was working on a studio album with British producer Paul Epworth despite not having signed to a record label at that time . In January 2012 , Banks signed a record deal with Interscope and Polydor Records to work on new music , and a month later , she announced the title of the album – Broke with Expensive Taste . Approximately a year later , she handed a complete version of Broke with Expensive Taste in to the labels . Banks initially thought it would receive favorable reception from the labels ; however , the representatives told Banks that she had not recorded a " hit " single for the album . Ultimately , Banks ended the record deal with Interscope / Polydor in July 2014 . She later approached Jeff Kwatinetz and signed a contract with his company , Prospect Park . Banks eventually released the album on November 7 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
" Ice Princess " received positive reviews from critics . Pitchfork Media gave the song their " Best New Track " honor , with Jordan Sargent commenting that it displayed " Banks at her best : doing something unexpected simply because she can . " While Brennan Carley of Spin described the song as having the potential to " be the single that finally breaks the Harlem MC on the radio , and it 's about time . " Kate Beaudoin from Mic commented on the song , praising Banks ' flow , " It 's a captivating video and an even better song . Her flow is unbelievable : ' You broke honey , and they call me Banks cause I can loan money / Colder than December , my diamonds on Anna Wintour / So that 's fly ice in my life / I don 't see no limits so I strive and I shine twice , ' Banks raps . Anyone who can fit Anna Wintour into a rhyme about winter automatically gets points . "
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The video for " Ice Princess " was directed by duo WeWereMonkeys . It was released on March 31 , 2015 , via Banks ' VEVO channel . The video depicts Banks as the frozen leader of a robotic ninja army , with snakes for hair , in the style of Greek mythology 's Medusa . She leads her CGI army into battle with a volcano that produces multicolored clouds , that eventually end up destroying her . Reviews of the video were positive . Kate Beaudoin of Mic called the video " epic " , while Daily Mail 's Jennifer Pearson called it " spine @-@ tingling " and according to James Rettig from Stereogum , it 's a " slick " music video . Banks initially caused controversy with promotion for the song , posting pictures of her in makeup for the video , claiming she was in whiteface , which caused outrage on the internet . However , Banks ultimately revealed that she was trolling the media , and the makeup was not finished , being applied for the music video for " Ice Princess " . She later tweeted " Lol u crackers wish I cared enough to be doing whiteface . I 'm becoming the ICE PRINCESS YAAAAAAS " .
= = = Live performances = = =
On April 10 , 2015 , Banks performed " Ice Princess " at the Coachella Festival . On July 10 , 2015 , she performed it during her set at the Bilbao BBK Live festival in Bilbao , Spain .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Broke with Expensive Taste liner notes .
= = = Credits = = =
" Ice Princess " contains a sample of " In the Air " , a song by progressive house DJ Morgan Page .
= = = Personnel = = =
Azealia Banks – songwriting , vocals
Kevin James – songwriting
Jonathan Harris – songwriting
AraabMuzik – production
= = Release history = =
= Hurricane Bonnie ( 1986 ) =
Hurricane Bonnie caused moderate damage along the Gulf Coast of the United States in late June 1986 . The second named storm and first hurricane of the 1986 Atlantic hurricane season , Bonnie developed out of an area of low pressure over the central Gulf of Mexico on June 23 . The system gradually intensified and was declared Tropical Storm Bonnie the next day as it moved generally towards the west @-@ northwest . On June 25 , Bonnie was upgraded to a hurricane . Bonnie strengthened further and on the following day , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter , Bonnie made Landfall near High Island , Texas . Following landfall , Bonnie quickly weakened below tropical storm status and dissipated over Missouri on June 28 .
Prior to Bonnie moving ashore , 22 @,@ 000 people were evacuated in Texas and Louisiana . Upon making landfall , Hurricane Bonnie produced a storm surge peaking at 5 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) at Sabine Pass . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 13 inches ( 330 mm ) in Ace , Texas , which caused some street flooding and destroyed a small dam in Liberty County , Texas . Three fatalities were reported in the Port Arthur , Texas area ; two deaths were from separate car accidents and another occurred after a partially paralyzed woman died in a house fire . Flooding also impacted northwestern Louisiana . In the Shreveport area alone , 381 homes , 20 businesses , and 80 major highway intersections were flooded . The hurricane also spawned 11 tornadoes , destroying about 25 houses in southwestern Louisiana . Overall , Hurricane Bonnie caused $ 42 million ( 1986 USD ) in damage and five fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
In mid @-@ June , a mid @-@ level center of circulation formed in association with a quasi @-@ stationary cold front that stretched across northern Florida and the extreme northeast Gulf of Mexico . On June 20 , a weak and disorganized area of low pressure developed in conjunction with the front and it passed by Tampa Bay , Florida the following day . Upon moving into the eastern Gulf of Mexico , there was little convection on observed on satellite imagery , although a distinguishable wind @-@ shift was noted by an offshore buoy . However , by June 23 , the presence of deep convection atop a circulation had become well @-@ defined enough for the National Hurricane Center to classify the disturbance as a tropical depression , while centered 330 mi ( 535 km ) southwest of Cape Coral , Florida . Moving generally west to west @-@ northwestward across the central Gulf of Mexico , the National Hurricane Center sent a reconnaissance plane into the tropical depression at 1500 UTC on June 24 , at which time winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) were found . About three hours later , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Bonnie .
In the 24 hours after becoming a tropical storm , satellite imagery showed a substantial increase in upper @-@ level outflow as Tropical Storm Bonnie gradually intensified . A reconnaissance plane into the system shortly before 1200 UTC on June 25 revealed hurricane force winds 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) above the surface . This evidence was the basis of Bonnie 's upgrade to a Category 1 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale at 1800 UTC on June 25 . During the afternoon hours of June 26 , Bonnie reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 992 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 23 inHg ) . While accelerating towards the northwest , the hurricane retained this intensity until landfall near High Island , Texas at 1000 UTC on June 26 . Eight hours later , Bonnie weakened to a tropical storm and was downgraded to tropical depression status at 0000 UTC on June 27 . The depression persisted until 1200 UTC on June 28 , at which time it was absorbed by a frontal zone while located over the U.S. state of Missouri .
= = Preparations = =
Upon the system being classified as a tropical depression , a high risk of landfall near Port Arthur , Texas was noted , giving federal officials sufficient lead time to warn local residents about a possible approaching hurricane . As the system neared landfall , tropical cyclone watches and warnings were issued for the Gulf Coast of the United States . At 1200 UTC on June 25 , the National Hurricane Center issued a gale warning and a hurricane watch , stretching from Port O 'Connor , Texas to the mouth of the Mississippi River . A few hours later , a hurricane warning was issued for area west of Morgan City , Louisiana to Freeport , Texas . In advance of the approaching storm , roughly 22 @,@ 000 residents were evacuated , with 10 @,@ 000 from Galveston County , Texas alone .
= = Impact = =
Due to the small size of Hurricane Bonnie , damage was relatively light , totaling to $ 42 million . The storm was also attributed to five deaths , four in Texas and one in Louisiana .
= = = Texas = = =
In some areas of eastern Texas , the storm dropped 10 to 13 in ( 250 to 330 mm ) of rain , with a peak total of 13 inches ( 330 mm ) in Ace . Heavy rains caused by Bonnie also lead a small dam collapse in northeastern Liberty County , Texas , resulting in severe flooding . In Hardin County , the Pine Island Bayou overflowed , causing water to enter hundreds of homes and businesses . Several major roadways were flooded due to flooding , including Highway 59 between Livingston and Shepherd , U.S. Route 79 in Panola County , and Interstate 20 and several farm @-@ to @-@ market roads in Harrison County . The Bear Foot Lake dam overflowed , damaging some homes and forcing 200 families to evacuate . Overall , approximately 1 @,@ 300 people in southeastern Texas fled their homes due to flooding . Severe flooding left behind by the heavy rains caused $ 5 million in damage .
In addition to rain and flooding , winds damaged more homes and businesses , and a tornado was spawned a few miles southwest of Port Arthur . More than 19 @,@ 000 power outages were reported in the area near where Bonnie made landfall . Texas State Highway 87 was closed in Jefferson County due to debris and electrical poles fallen on the roadway . The storm left broken windows , scattered tree limbs , and debris filled streets in Port Arthur and Beaumont . At the latter , strong winds toppled a radio tower at the Texas Department of Public Safety building , while several schools suffered damage to the roof and windows . Marinas and boats at Lake Sam Rayburn were damaged . Hank Creek Marina , located across the lake , broke free from its moorings and floated away , while portions of were submerged . Four indirect fatalities were confirmed in Texas , two from traffic accidents , one from a house fire ignited by a candle , and another from drowning . Several injuries were also reported , including four after a truck flipped over due to strong winds .
= = = Louisiana = = =
Most of the damage in Louisiana occurred in Cameron Parish . Twenty @-@ five homes , trailers , and cabins in southwestern Louisiana were destroyed , resulting in about $ 400 @,@ 000 in damages . Two tornadoes were spawned in Webster Parish . The first caused about $ 15 @,@ 000 in damage to the roofs of three homes . The other tornado destroyed three mobile homes and severely damaged an additional two as well as three permanent homes . Damage from this tornado totaled $ 200 @,@ 000 . Just south of Blanchard , 10 @.@ 2 in ( 260 mm ) of rain fell within a 12 @-@ hour period . Interstate 20 was closed from Shreveport to the Louisiana @-@ Texas state line due to flooding , with as much as 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of standing water near Greenwood .
Torrential rains caused water inundation up to 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in some areas of Shreveport . Firefighters used boats to rescue some stranded Shreveport residents in their homes by sudden high water . Rescuers also had to bind themselves together to rescue some people stranded in a flooded trailer park . Flooding in the city forced police to barricade 50 major highway intersections . Along the shore of Cross Lake , about 80 homes were damaged by water intrusion . About 381 homes and 20 businesses in Shreveport were damaged by flooding . A tornado spawned in the city overturned an airplane at Shreveport Downtown Airport , damaged a roof from a house , and shattered a number of windows . No injuries were reported from the tornado . Damage in Louisiana from flooding alone totaled $ 11 – 13 million , with $ 4 million to highways and bridges , $ 1 – 2 million to vehicles , $ 5 million to property , and $ 1 – 2 million to boats . Three fishermen were tossed into a lake after a boat was capsized due to high winds . Two were rescued , but one perished .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Heavy rains from the remnant low @-@ pressure area of Bonnie led to heavy rains in several states in the Southeastern United States . Rainfall was generally minor in most areas , however in Arkansas , rains totaled up to 11 @.@ 75 in ( 254 mm ) at the South Arkansas Regional Airport . Several roads were washed out in Ouachita County near Elliott . A number of roads and bridges were also washed out in Union County , with damage totaling $ 200 @,@ 000 . U.S. Route 79 was closed between Magnolia and Stephens because of standing water . Three or four families evacuated near the Ouachita @-@ Union County line after the Smackover Creek overflowed its banks and flooded 20 homes . There was also a small area of heavy rains totaling up to 5 in ( 127 mm ) along the border of Tennessee and Georgia .
= Arad , Israel =
Arad ( Hebrew : עֲרָד ( audio ) ; Arabic : عِرَادَ ) is a city in the Southern District of Israel . It is located on the border of the Negev and Judean Deserts , 25 kilometres ( 16 miles ) west of the Dead Sea and 45 kilometres ( 28 miles ) east of Beersheba . The city is home to a diverse population of 24 @,@ 229 , including Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews , both secular and religious , Bedouins and Black Hebrews , as well as new immigrants . The city is notable for its clean , dry air and serves as a major attraction to asthmatics worldwide .
After attempts to settle the area in the 1920s , Arad was founded in November 1962 as an Israeli development town , the first planned city in Israel . Arad 's population grew significantly with the Aliyah from the Commonwealth of Independent States in the 1990s , and peaked in 2002 at 24 @,@ 500 residents .
Landmarks in Arad include the ruins of Tel Arad , Arad Park , a domestic airfield and Israel 's first legal race circuit . The city is known for its annual summer music festival , The Arad Festival .
= = History = =
= = = Antiquity = = =
Arad is named after the Biblical Canaanite town located at Tel Arad ( a Biblical archaeology site famous for the discovery of ostraca ) , which is located approximately 8 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) west of modern Arad . The Bible ( Judges 1 : 16 ) describes it as a Canaanite stronghold whose king kept the Israelites from moving from the Negev to the Judean Mountains , although Tel Arad was destroyed over 1 @,@ 200 years before the arrival of the Israelites . However , Shoshenq I 's chronicles seem to mention a settlement in Tel Arad . During the Byzantine period , the location was still correctly identified by Eusebius , and the name " Arad " was preserved by the Bedouins . Ancient Arad became a Christian bishopric . Stephanus , one of its bishops , was a signatory of the synodal letter of John III of Jerusalem against Severus of Antioch in 518 and took part in the 536 synod of the three Roman provinces of Palaestina Prima , Palaestina Secunda , and Palaestina Salutaris ( to the last of which Arad belonged ) against Anthimus I of Constantinople . No longer a residential bishopric , Arad is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see .
= = = British Mandate era = = =
The first modern attempt to settle the area was made by the Yishuv , the body of Jewish residents in Mandatory Palestine , on 23 February 1921 , when the British Mandate government allowed discharged soldiers from the Jewish Legion to settle in the area . Nine men and two women attempted the task , but after four months were forced to leave because water was not found in the area .
= = = State of Israel = = =
On 15 November 1960 , a planning team ( followed by a full @-@ fledged committee on 29 December ) was appointed by the Israeli cabinet to examine the possibility of establishing a city in the northeastern Negev desert and Arad region . An initial budget of 50 @,@ 000 Israeli liras was granted for the project , headed by Aryeh Eliav . On 31 January 1961 , the final location was chosen ( 3 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) southwest of Mount Kidod ) , and plans were approved for roads and water connections . In March 1961 , blueprints for a city of 10,000- 20 @,@ 000 residents were drawn up . Yona Pitelson was the chief architect and planner .
The plan took into account topography and climate , with residential buildings constructed with large inner courtyards that offered protection from the desert sun and wind . High density residential areas were built first in order to create an urban milieu and shorten walking distances .
The oil company Nefta built a work camp in the area in July 1961 , consisting of six temporary sheds , after oil was found there in commercial quantities . The town itself was established in 1962 by a group of young ex @-@ kibbutz and ex @-@ moshav members seeking an environment free of overcrowding , traffic , noise , and pollution . The founding ceremony was held on 21 November , and attended by then @-@ Prime Minister David Ben @-@ Gurion . It was one of the last development towns to be founded . According to the city website , Arad was the first pre @-@ planned city in Israel .
Until 1964 Arad had about 160 families , most of whom were natives . After 1971 Arad began absorbing olim ( Jewish immigrants ) , mostly from the Soviet Union , but also from English speaking countries and Latin America , and its population increased from 4 @,@ 000 in 1969 to 10 @,@ 500 in 1974 . During the first half of the 1990s , Arad absorbed 6 @,@ 000 immigrants from the former Soviet Union . Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin declared Arad a city on 29 June 1995 .
= = Geography = =
Arad is located mostly on the western and southwestern Kidod Range , and the Arad Plain , which marks the southwestern end of the Judean Desert . It is located 23 kilometers ( 14 @.@ 3 mi ) west of the southern end of the Dead Sea , and is by road , 45 kilometers ( 28 @.@ 0 mi ) east of Beershea , 111 kilometers ( 69 @.@ 0 mi ) south of Jerusalem , 138 kilometers ( 85 @.@ 7 mi ) south east of Tel Aviv , and 219 kilometers ( 136 @.@ 1 mi ) north of the southern @-@ most city of Eilat .
The city spans an area of 93 @,@ 140 dunams ( 93 @.@ 1 km2 ; 36 @.@ 0 sq mi ) , one of the largest municipal areas in Israel , even though its urban area is much smaller . In 1993 , the city 's jurisdiction was 73 @,@ 934 @.@ 3 dunams ( 73 @.@ 9 km2 ; 28 @.@ 5 sq mi ) , still many times larger than the urban area . The historical site of Tel Arad and the Arad Park ( also known as Ran Grove ) can also be found within its municipal area , west of the urban core . Arad also has a commercial landing strip located slightly to the south of its urban core . It borders the Tamar and Abu Basma regional councils , and the closest local municipality to Arad is the Bedouin local council Kuseife .
= = Neighborhoods = =
Each neighborhood in Arad contains streets named in a thematic manner , for example , a neighborhood where all streets are named after jewels . The exception to this are the four central quarters , which have more conventional street names , and the original two neighborhoods ( Rishonim and Ne 'urim ) . The themed neighborhoods make up the entire city north of Highway 31 . South of the highway is Arad 's industrial zone ( the northern area being the light industry zone ) . The neighborhoods are as follows :
= = Geology and topography = =
The western part of Arad is made up of Loess land , while the eastern part is made up of sedimentary rock , including chalk , flint and dolomite .
Arad 's elevation ranges between approximately 361 @.@ 5 and 631 @.@ 1 metres ( 1 @,@ 186 and 2 @,@ 071 ft ) above sea level , a notable peak being Mount Kidod ( 600 m or 1 @,@ 969 ft ) , located at the northeastern point of the city and named after Ras al @-@ Kadadeh , the Arabic name for the hill . Other peaks within the municipal borders include Mount Kina ( 635 m or 2 @,@ 083 ft ) and Mount Brir ( 537 m or 1 @,@ 762 ft ) . There are several wadis that pass through Arad , notably the Ye 'elim Stream ( which runs along Highway 31 ) and Tze 'elim Stream . Others include the Hesed , Keisan , Kidod , Kina , Malhata , Pra 'im , Tavya , and other streams .
= = Climate = =
Between 1964 and 1974 , Arad 's average temperature in January was 11 ° C ( 52 ° F ) , and 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) in July . The average yearly precipitation between 1960 and 1990 was 150 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) , and 158 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 2 in ) between 1962 and 1978 . Arad is thus situated in an arid area , where most precipitation falls in the winter months of December , January and February . It does however , on rare occasions , snow . Two examples are the massive snowstorm during the 1991 – 92 winter that swept through entire mountainous of the Negev and January 's snowstorm of 2008 .
= = Demographics = =
According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics , of Arad 's 23 @,@ 300 2005 population , 82 % were Jews , and another 17 @.@ 2 % were other non @-@ Arabs . 11 @,@ 100 ( ~ 47 @.@ 6 % ) were men and 12 @,@ 200 were women . 42 @.@ 9 % ( the second highest in the country ) were immigrants since 1990 . Arad 's population peaked in 2002 at 24 @,@ 500 . Arad 's former mayor , Moty Brill , said that the reason for the city 's decline is its failure to absorb the massive immigration from Russia . In early 2007 , a study ordered by the Israeli Housing and Construction Ministry found that Arad suffered from a negative image , and described it a " settlement that drives residents away " . In March , The Ministerial Committee on Development in the Negev and Galilee approved a plan to move the State Archives from Jerusalem to Arad and to subsidize the costs of land development for reserve soldiers , anticipating the IDF 's plan to relocate its training bases to the Negev .
In 2005 , Arad had 10 @,@ 227 ( ~ 43 @.@ 9 % ) salaried workers and 476 ( ~ 2 % ) self @-@ employed . 10 @,@ 474 were receiving children 's benefits , 290 were receiving unemployment benefits , and 2 @,@ 010 were receiving income guarantee . The average monthly income for self @-@ employed workers was NIS 5 @,@ 694 , up 10 @.@ 2 % from 2004 's 5 @,@ 165 , with salaried employees earning an average of NIS 5 @,@ 686 ( NIS 7 @,@ 531 for men and NIS 3 @,@ 904 for women ) .
The IDF 's City of Training Bases , under construction near Beersheba , hopes to bring thousands of soldiers ( mostly officers , senior NCOs and other staff ) to live in the Negev , including Arad . According to Orli Yehezkel , CEO of the Ministry for the Development of the Negev and Galilee , said NIS 4 @.@ 5 million will be invested in Arad , including a subsidy of NIS 1 @,@ 000 per family per month for two years for families of soldiers wishing to move to Arad .
The Negev and Galilee Development Ministry envisions a tripling of Arad 's population by 2025 .
= = Economy = =
Other than tourist venues , Arad 's commerce is mostly concentrated in the central commerce area , as envisioned in the original plan . There is one shopping mall in the city , the Arad Mall , in the northern block of the commerce sector . In addition to the main area , there are small shop clusters in most neighborhoods in the city , notably a building called The Star ( HaKokhav ) in the Tlalim quarter . A lone supermarket outside the center , Mega in the City , is located in the industrial zone , near the entrance to the city , and a major shopping complex is planned near it by a real estate company called Zim Centers . The Arad Market , open on Mondays , is located in the light industry zone .
Among the companies with manufacturing plants in Arad are Arad Textile Industries , one of Israel 's largest producers of towels , Flextronics Israel , A.M.S. Electronics who manufacture printed circuit boards and electronic products , El @-@ Ran Timber Industries , Jordael who manufacture cosmetic products , and a Unilever Shefa Israel cereal plant . Since 1971 , Arad has been producing phosphoric acid , made from brine collected from the Dead Sea , and phosphates from the nearby Tzefa . Rotem Amfert Negev Ltd , a subsidiary of Israel Chemicals Ltd ( ICL ) , has been planning a new phosphate plant in the Sdeh Brir area for several years . In 2008 , the Ministry of the Environment decided not to contest the company 's bid , despite studies showing it may increase air pollution @-@ related deaths in the area .
= = Tourism = =
In addition to the annual music festival , Arad 's fresh air attracts asthmatics from all over the world , and its proximity to the Dead Sea provides a less expensive accommodation alternative to the pricey hotel zone on the sea shore . The Arad municipality has begun to develop hiking and ecological tourism . Additionally , many visitors to Masada stay in Arad , which is the closest ( 22 km ( 13 @.@ 7 mi ) by road ) urban settlement to the site and provides the only access to its western side . On the outskirts of Arad , near the hotel area , there is a large white monument conceived by Yigal Tumarkin in 1968 , called Mitzpe Mo 'av ( Mo 'av Lookout ) , which also offers a view of the Judean Desert .
The Israel National Trail passes through Arad , between Mount Kina and Tel Arad , a major archeological site and national park . Although not located within Arad 's jurisdiction , the Zohar Peak ( 552 m or 1 @,@ 811 ft ) and Zohar Lookout ( Mitzpe Zohar ) are common hiking and biking destinations on the national trail . The trails codenamed 11335 and 11240 run along the national trail in this area .
= = Culture = =
Arad 's main cultural center is the Center for Culture , Youth and Sports ( Hebrew : מתנ " ס , Matnas ) , named after Samuel Rubin and located on Ben Yair Street near the city 's only mall , the Arad Mall . It was built in 1983 and contains the Arad Museum , Arad 's public library , a concert hall , a tourist information center about the Judean and Negev deserts ( called Arad Visitor Center , founded in 1989 ) , which is temporarily closed , and various related offices .
The Oron movie theater designed by the architect Menachem Cohen closed down during the tenure of Mayor Moty Brill . Eshet Lot , an artists quarter , is located in the city 's industrial zone , utilizing old warehouses . The city also has a conservatory and concert hall .
In accordance with the 7 March 2007 decision taken by the Ministry for the Development of the Negev and Galilee to move the national archive of Israel from Jerusalem to Arad , a museum is planned , which will display various gifts given to Israeli politicians over the years .
Arad was widely known for its Hebrew Music Festival , held annually since 1982 . The festival attracted Israel 's best musicians and bands until 18 July 1995 , when three teenagers were crushed to death by a falling gate during a farewell concert by the popular band Mashina . Since then the festival has become a minor event . Five of the festival 's organizers received prison sentences of up to one year .
The main public park and picnic area in Arad is the Arad Park , also called the Ran Grove ( after Ran Schochat , who was killed in the Yom Kippur War ) , which is located about 8 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) west of the city center and measures 3 @,@ 000 dunams ( 3 @.@ 0 km2 ; 1 @.@ 2 sq mi ) . Other notable parks include :
Gan HaPsalim ( a.k.a. Park HaNsharim ) , the park at the entrance to the city , with monuments of various desert animals
Gan HaHamisha ( Garden of the Five ) , a memorial park for the five residents of Arad who were killed in action in the Six @-@ Day War . Includes a monument for the soldiers , as well as a stone structure called Amud HaBulbusim ( lit . Pillar of the Potatoes , because of its shape ) , which marks Arad 's place in the desert and their residents ' control of the territory according to Bedouin tradition – designed by Yona Pitelson .
Northern Park , to the north of the Halamish neighborhood
Gan Harpatka 'ot ( Adventure Park ) , a large playground and open grass area in the Rishonim neighborhood
The main cluster of recreational facilities in the city is located in a small neighborhood known as Ayanot , also called the Sports Town ( Kiryat HaSport ) . The area contains a swimming pool , tennis courts , a country club and various playgrounds . The city 's main football stadium is located outside this cluster , on the corner of Yehuda and Palmach Streets . The stadium is home to Hapoel Arad , who currently play in Liga Bet , the fourth tier of Israeli football .
Arad has also hosted a mountain biking tournament annually since 2000 , called Riding Arad , in honor of Itamar Ilya , a soldier killed in action in Lebanon in 1997 . In March 2008 , the tournament became part of an international Union Cycliste Internationale competition , which is co @-@ hosted by Misgav and Ma 'alot . Arad 's professional course is 37 kilometers ( 23 @.@ 0 mi ) long , while the expert course is 22 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) .
= = Healthcare = =
Arad does not have a hospital , but there are numerous medical clinics , including Clalit , Leumit and Maccabi . Emergencies are handled by the single Magen David Adom station , located in the municipal compound .
A medical center was also built in the compound in 2004 , named Schaller Medical Centre after Leon and Freda Schaller from London , who were the prime donors . It serves as an emergency ward , but does not have the equipment needed to perform operations , and such patients are transferred to the Soroka Medical Center . On average , 10 % of the patients are transferred .
= = Law enforcement = =
Arad is served by a local Israel Police station , located next to the municipal compound and the Magen David Adom station . It is commanded by Superintendent Yuval Paz and has 58 members . Arad 's station also serves the Sodom area .
Arad 's police force was chosen as the exceptional force for 2007 , and awarded an award of excellence on 5 March 2008 . Among others , a severe reduction in property crime was cited . Arad 's force was able to reduce the amount of such crimes from 1 @,@ 092 in 2003 to just 168 in 2007 . On 18 July 2008 , Arad police , in a rare incident , shot dead a man threatening to kill his ex @-@ wife with a knife .
= = Education and religious institutions = =
Arad has a public elementary school in every central neighborhood ( Halamish , Tlalim , Avishur , Leva 'ot and Ye 'elim ( called Ye 'elim @-@ Ofarim ) ) , while Tlalim is a religious school . There is one public middle school , Re 'ut , located near the junction of the Yoshiyahu and HaKana 'im streets . The second middle school , Allon , was closed in 2007 and merged into ORT Arad , the city 's only public secondary school , which shares a building with the Re 'ut middle school and the former Yigal Allon school . In the 2006 – 07 school year , 57 @.@ 14 % of Arad 's 12th graders were eligible for a Bagrut ( matriculation ) certificate , compared to a national average of 45 @.@ 9 % . In the 2007 – 08 year , the number dropped to 49 @.@ 67 % , compared to a national average of 46 @.@ 3 % .
In addition , there are several private and Haredi schools in Arad , such as the Shuvu movement 's grades 1 – 8 school , and the Gerrer Haredi school . Other Haredi schools include the boys ' Beit Ya 'akov and girls ' Kol Ya 'akov in the Halamish neighborhood , the Lev Simcha Yeshiva , and the Beit Ya 'akov High School . Religious Zionist schools include the Ne 'ot Avraham Bnei Akiva Ulpana , which also provides young women with the guidance to perform volunteer activities in the community , and the Tlalim Elementary School , founded in 1971 .
Also in Arad is the Kedem Democratic School , which is an alternative school for students up through the high school level . It allows students to create their own schedules , and choose how they would like to spend their entire day at school .
SOS Children 's Village Arad ( known as Kfar Neradim ) was built in the southern outskirts of Arad and inaugurated on 27 October 1981 . It consists of twelve family houses , to accommodate up to 120 children . There is also an SOS Youth Facility to accommodate 12 to 14 youths from the SOS Children 's Village . In January 2005 , an SOS Social Centre was opened at Arad . It runs a day @-@ care center and various community outreach programmes to support socially weak families . Until fall 2008 , the World Union of Jewish Students ( WUJS ) , funded by Jews from New Jersey , had an institute in Arad which allowed post @-@ college young Jews from around the world to study Israeli society and the Hebrew language . When WUJS 's ownership changed , the institute was moved to the center of the country .
Arad has 22 synagogues , of which 11 are Ashkenazi , 9 are Sephardi , one is Yemenite , and one is Ethiopian . Both the central Ashkenazi and Sephardi synagogues are located in the Ye 'elim neighborhood . There are Gerrer synagogues in Avishur and Halamish , and a Chabad synagogue in Ye 'elim . There are two mikvehs in the city – in the Tlalim and Ayanot neighborhoods . The city also has a small Messianic community that is being accused of illegal missionary activities by the Haredim and certain right @-@ wing groups . Arad 's dead are mostly buried in the local cemetery , located in the northeastern outskirts of the city , close to the road to Masada .
= = Media = =
Arad 's local newspaper , Kidod , was published by the entrepreneurs Eli and Rochale Ziv , early founders of Arad . Kidod started as a small leaflet in December 1966 and grew to a become a full paper . At its peak , it was circulated , free of charge , in groceries , kiosks , etc . , in 3 @,@ 000 copies each week . Kidod ran for 23 years and had a key role in the cultural and community life of Arad . HaTzvi Arad is the local newspaper today .
= = Transportation = =
There are two ways to get to Arad : by air or road . The only highway connecting Arad with the rest of the country is Highway 31 , which connects it with Beersheba to the west , and the Dead Sea to the east . It has two junctions within Arad 's municipal area — the Arad Junction ( within the city itself , with Road 3199 ) , and the Tel Arad Junction ( with Highway 80 ) . The local Road 3199 connects Arad with Masada , but does not connect to the road next to the dead sea ( Highway 90 ) . It is therefore the only way to get to Masada 's western side .
Arad 's airfield , which was first used during the music festival of 1994 , is located to the south of the city , and serves domestic flights according to demand . A railway line , which would also go through the Nevatim Airbase , is in the planning stages . Its terminus will be adjacent to the central bus station .
The main bus station of Arad , Arad Central Bus Station , was located on the corner of Jerusalem ( Yerushalayim ) Street and Jeuda ( Yehuda ) Street . It has however been closed due to a legal battle between Arad 's municipality and the Egged Bus Cooperative , and its bus stops are now located nearby on Jerusalem St. Construction of the central station officially restarted 18 January 2009 . The new station will include seven platforms and a large parking lot for park and ride . The planned cost of the project is NIS 4 @.@ 5 million .
Buses in Arad are served by the Egged Bus Cooperative and , since 1 June 2007 , also the Metropoline company . A multitude of inter @-@ city bus routes are served by the main station , two more inter @-@ city Haredi routes which leave from the north , as well as five inner routes ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 11 , 12 ) . The inter @-@ city routes are as follows :
= = Local government = =
Arad has , since its inception in 1962 , been under the governance of a regional council and local council , before being designated as a city council in 1995 . Democratic elections have been held in Arad since 1966 , although only Avraham Shochat , Betzalel Tabib and Moty Brill were ever elected or re @-@ elected as the head of the municipality . The first mayor of the city of Arad was Betzalel Tabib who served as both head of the local council and city council . He was replaced by Mordechai Brill in 2003 , although due to his inability to pass a yearly budget , Brill was dismissed by the Minister of the Interior Meir Sheetrit in August 2007 , and a government @-@ appointed clerk , Gideon Bar @-@ Lev , took his place . An election took place again 13 April 2010 , won by Tali Ploskov of the Yisrael Beiteinu party . The longest serving head of Arad 's municipality was Avraham Shochat who served as head of the local council between 1967 and 1986 .
Arad 's yearly budget is over 100 million NIS and over $ 30 million USD . On 27 December 2007 , the 2008 budget was unanimously passed at NIS 123 million by the city council . The city 's total income for the year is estimated at approximately NIS 119 million .
While it is not customary for Israeli cities to have major unique / auxiliary laws , many cities have minor laws . In Arad , it is illegal to feed animals in public places . It is also illegal to sell or consume sunflower seeds , peanuts , etc. in public places , due to an anti @-@ littering law enacted in 1965 . There are in all 27 auxiliary laws in Arad , which were enacted between 1965 and 2000 .
= = = Municipal flag and emblem = = =
The emblem of Arad is a square with a hill and a flame . The hill represents Mount Kidod , a hill in the northeastern part of the city , and the flame represents natural gas , which was extracted in the area in Arad 's early days and spurred the city 's growth . The emblem was adopted on 19 May 1966 . The flag of Arad is a rectangle with a 2 : 3 ratio , which has a light blue background and shows the emblem in the center with the Hebrew text for " Municipality of Arad " at the top and the English text " City of ARAD Israel " ( or variations thereof ) and the bottom . This is the de facto flag , and there is no law or edict making it official .
= = Notable residents = =
Amos Oz ( born 1939 ) , writer
= = Twin towns — sister cities = =
Wilmington , Delaware became a sister city of Arad in 1973 , to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the State of Israel .
Dinslaken , Germany signed a twinning agreement with Arad in 1989 .
Burlington , Vermont , developed a sister city relationship with Arad in 1991 . Then Mayor Bezalel Tabib , along with Professor Walid Dajani , who represented Bethlehem , visited Burlington , Vermont to sign a three cities cooperative agreement — the first @-@ ever sister @-@ city pacts among American , Palestinian , and Israeli communities .
= Johari Window ( Fringe ) =
" Johari Window " is the 12th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode , written by co @-@ executive producer Josh Singer and directed by filmmaker Joe Chappelle , is set in a fictional upstate New York town and begins with the discovery of a seemingly deformed child by a state trooper . The Fringe investigative team of Olivia Dunham , Walter Bishop , and Peter Bishop arrives on the scene , only to discover a secret government experiment gone awry , with signs from Walter 's past .
Originally called " Edina City Limits " , the episode 's title was changed shortly before it aired . It premiered in the United States on January 14 , 2010 , on Fox , to 6 @.@ 529 million viewers and a 2 @.@ 6 share 18 – 49 . The episode received average reviews , as many critics compared it either negatively or positively to a B @-@ movie , though most agreed that it seemed to be rehashed from older The X @-@ Files episodes . Several of the main actors , however , thoroughly enjoyed the episode ; Noble named it one of his favorite Fringe episodes . Critics also noted the popular culture references to The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) , Deliverance ( 1972 ) , and Joseph Merrick .
= = Plot = =
In upstate New York , a child is picked up on the road by a state trooper . While en route , the child suddenly morphs into a deformed creature . At the station , the troopers try to decide what to do with him , and one takes his picture . Two other deformed people enter the station , kill the troopers and take the boy .
The Fringe team comes on the scene to investigate and find the boy 's photograph , along with recorded sightings of deformed people going back 30 years . They arrive in Edina , the city these sightings occurred near , and Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) hears a buzz called the " Edina hum " . The sheriff explains it is coming from a nearby military base and offers to show them case files of past sightings . While driving , the SUV containing Olivia , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , and Walter ( John Noble ) is run off the road by another vehicle , whose driver then starts shooting at them before getting shot and leaving . The FBI find the abandoned vehicle and follow a blood trail to the shooter . Peter is visibly disturbed after killing his first person , and Olivia tries to comfort him .
Agent Broyles discovers that the army did classified experiments in Edina called " Project Elephant " , but most of the records are gone . The team brings the body , along with a butterfly Walter found in the town and thought Astrid would like , back to the lab in Boston . They discover that both have transformed into deformed versions of themselves . Peter and Olivia go back to Edina to talk with the sheriff and try to locate the owner of the truck . Meanwhile , back in the lab , Walter tries to remember why the case feels so familiar . Throughout the episode Walter had been humming some strange melody , and he and Astrid realize he might previously have worked on the project with the army . The melody was a memory trick Walter used to remind himself where he stored the experiment files so many years ago . The experiment was done by the army in the late 1970s to test how electromagnetic pulses can camouflage soldiers and was conducted on the townspeople ; the army was unaware of the long @-@ term effects of the study until it was too late , and the people were stuck in a deformed state . The " hum " hides their deformities from the human eye through a massive electromagnetic pulse that runs through the town , and once they leave and are out of the pulse 's reach , their true deformities show .
Walter and Astrid find the source of the electromagnetic pulse , and begin investigating the house the pulse was built on . At the same time , Peter and Olivia go to a rural meeting place where the sheriff said they would find the truck 's owner , only to be shot at by the sheriff and his deputy , who are hell bent on keeping the town 's secret . Walter manages to turn off the pulse , and all of the townsfolk revert to their deformed appearance . The daughter of one of the army scientists saves Olivia and Peter from getting shot , and explains that her father stayed in Edina to perfect the pulse . After Walter pleads to Broyles to let the townspeople keep their secret , the Fringe team decides to not report the case so that the remaining residents can live a normal life .
= = Production = =
The episode was the second written by co @-@ executive producer and writer Josh Singer , and was the third directed by co @-@ executive producer Joe Chappelle . It was originally titled " Edina City Limits " in press and promotional items , until Fox changed it to " Johari Window " without explanation on January 5 , a week before it broadcast . A johari window is a cognitive psychological tool used to help people better understand their interpersonal communication and relationships , and may have been chosen as the episode 's title because it corresponded to the transformative nature of the plot .
The sound mixing department 's inspiration for the " Edina hum " ( the frequency hiding the deformities of the townsfolk ) came from executive producer Jeff Pinkner . Supervising sound editor Paul Curtis later recalled Pinkner 's asking for it to sound like " 100 @-@ year locusts back east " , consequently what the crew " basically ... ended up with were bugs " . They also layered in a variety of machine sounds . Sound effects editor Bruce Tanis remarked that because the background sound lasted the entire episode , it had to be handled " thoughtfully " .
" What 's weird about the Edina hum is that you hear it all over the town . It goes to the borders of this little town : indoors , outdoors , down the street , in the basement ; you hear some level of it , but you don 't want to hear that for 44 minutes of a show . It 'll drive you nuts . So you have to blend it in , pick moments , bring it up , take it down , so that people can reference it , but you 're not listening to 44 minutes of hum " .
Actor Joshua Jackson later remarked that " Johari Window " was a " stand @-@ alone " episode in an interview : " There is nothing from that thing that broadens the story , except at the heart of it , is a story about love and acceptance and family ... Which of course , for these two guys , is the entire theme of the show for them . So I think we 've done that really well " . Actor John Noble added , " Tolerance . Acceptance . I loved ' Johari Window ' . I thought it was one of my favourite stories " .
= = Cultural references = =
When Walter refuses to get out of the car to enter a supermarket , he mentions he is " learning to appreciate cowardice " and that " the lion had a point " , a reference , he explains to Peter , about the cowardly lion from The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) . Walter also mentions flying monkeys and talking lions later in the episode , both also homages to the movie . Later , Walter excitedly says he remembers someone who played the banjo and looked like the kidnapped , deformed boy , and starts humming a tune . Peter completes the tune and explains it is from the movie Deliverance ( 1972 ) , which depicts murderous , inbred , and deformed people living in rural Georgia . The army experiment was titled " Project Elephant " , a possible reference to Joseph Merrick , a deformed person known as the " Elephant Man " . When Walter shows Astrid how the moth changes back to the butterfly when they enter the town , he says , " a friend once said ' any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic . ' " This was originally said by Arthur C. Clarke , originally appearing in Clarke 's 1973 revision of " Hazards of Prophecy : The Failure of Imagination " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Johari Window " was watched by more than 6 @.@ 529 million viewers , achieving a 2 @.@ 6 share of viewers aged 18 – 49 . It rose thirteen percent from the previous week 's episode , and was the highest rated night of Fringe since the season premiere .
= = = Reviews = = =
Ramsey Isler of IGN thought there was not much original or well @-@ done about the episode , and negatively compared it to previous episodes of The X @-@ Files . He wrote the " slow ... story [ lacked ] the intrigue and excitement that other episodes in the series had , " but praised its conclusion as a " pay off " . John McCracken of TV Guide also compared it to The X @-@ Files , and thought the episode was " tedious " and " largely felt like a by @-@ the @-@ numbers B @-@ movie affair " . Jane Boursaw of TV Squad enjoyed the " B @-@ movie " aspects of the plot however , calling them " fun " . She thought the episode felt like " a thriller movie , " and praised Noble 's acting as " brilliantly " . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club gave the episode a C , explaining that " despite some good makeup effects and a few emotional moments , " Johari Window " [ was ] distressingly average " . Andrew Hanson of the LA Times enjoyed how the " Edina hum " remained in the background of every town scene , but missed the " investigation exposition " -supplying presence of Charlie Francis ( Kirk Acevedo ) . Television Without Pity graded the episode a B- .
= Whitney High School ( Rocklin , California ) =
Whitney High School is a public magnet school located in the southern Placer County city of Rocklin , California , a settlement in the northern Sacramento metropolitan area . Whitney is one of two high schools in Rocklin Unified School District ; its counterpart is Rocklin High School . The school is the district 's newest educational facility , having opened in 2005 to freshmen and sophomores ; Whitney 's first freshmen graduated at the end of the 2008 – 09 school year . That same school year , Whitney was recognized as a California Distinguished School .
The school educates its students using a modified block schedule program that alternates four periods every two days . Students are subject to eight different periods in total . Students at the school are also taught through a standard @-@ based essential skills program , where students must demonstrate mastery of all skills deemed necessary in a class before credits can be earned ; additionally , students must achieve a grade higher than C by the year 's end , as scores lower than C equate to a " No mark " , and the course must be retaken . As of the end of the 2009 – 10 school year , the high school fielded twenty @-@ three clubs , including an award @-@ winning school yearbook ( known as Details ) , a school newspaper ( known as the Roar ) , and an Emmy winning broadcast program ( known as Unleashed ) . Whitney also ran twenty @-@ three sports teams as of the 2008 – 09 school year ; the football and girls ' soccer teams were champions at the 2009 Sac @-@ Joaquin Section Championships for the respective sports .
= = History = =
Whitney 's name was a significant subject of debate , as the school 's first two proposed names were associated too closely with other schools in the area . The school was initially designated Granite Ridge High School , which was deemed too similar to RUSD 's Granite Oaks Middle School . It was then designated as Liberty High School , but the name was associated with the rival Lincoln High School . Rocklin Unified School District finally decided on " Whitney " in honor of Joel Parker Whitney , the man who suggested that his successful Boston businessman father , George Whitney , invest in the 1854 development of Placer County , which was then a major locale for gold @-@ seeking Argonauts . George Whitney would later found and develop the city of Rocklin . Additional debate revolved around the school 's mascot and colors ; deliberation around data collected via survey from the city of Rocklin and other Rocklin Unified School District entities ultimately convinced the district administration to choose the wildcat and the colors of maroon and gold . Construction began in October 2003 with preliminary site work and underground utilities ; construction of the buildings started on April 2004 .
The high school opened its doors to over 721 ninth and tenth grade students on August 22 , 2005 , while still partially under construction . Its opening relieved the strain of overcrowding that had previously affected Rocklin High School .
Whitney was recognized as a California Distinguished institution on April 1 , 2009 , four years after its opening in 2005 ; the school was noted for this achievement , and is one of six in Placer County to merit the title . On May 19 , 2009 , Whitney and other recently designated California Distinguished Schools were congratulated in a ceremony in Anaheim .
Three petitions were issued by local charter school Rocklin Academy to found a 7 – 12 grade charter school called Western Sierra Collegiate Academy in 2008 and base it on the grounds of either Whitney or Rocklin High School . Rocklin Unified School District denied the school its facilities in its first two attempts , although the academy secured a location where Rocklin 's Sierra Christian Academy once operated by 2009 .
Whitney teacher Matthew Yamamoto was arrested in September 2012 on suspicion of molesting an underage student . The school district waited two days after the arrest before informing parents . In 2013 , Yamamoto pleaded no contest to oral copulation with a minor , attempted sexual intercourse with a minor and sexual penetration with a foreign object on a minor , and pleaded guilty to one felony count of conspiracy to obstruct justice . He received the maximum sentence of five years in prison , in light of his violation of a restraining order during the investigation .
= = = Facility = = =
The 50 @-@ acre ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus was designed to accommodate 1800 students and 175 employees . The area that Whitney 's thirteen campus buildings occupy total approximately 200 @,@ 000 square feet ( 19 @,@ 000 m2 ) and includes a total of 65 classrooms , while Whitney 's sports fields encompass 20 acres ( 81 @,@ 000 m2 ) of hard court and grass athletic areas . Of all structures on the campus , the theatre was amongst the last to be completed ; construction was finished the following January . In all , the school 's construction cost $ 82 million .
Excluding Whitney 's sports fields , the school 's outdoor facilities are composed of a number of circular gathering areas ( including an amphitheatre ) that were designed for use during lunch hour and for outdoor class excursions . In addition , Whitney 's class campus structures have private workspaces for the teaching faculty from which each of the structure 's classrooms branch off .
= = Academic curriculum = =
In accordance with recommendations made by the California 's Department of Education , Rocklin Unified School District students are taught using a standards @-@ based curriculum ; each student | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
8 Squadron was re @-@ equipped with eight Beechcraft King Air 350 aircraft . The squadron is currently stationed at RAAF Base Townsville , Queensland , and is responsible for training RAAF pilots to operate King Airs , and performing light transport tasks .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
No. 38 Squadron was formed as a transport unit at RAAF Base Richmond near Sydney on 15 September 1943 . Equipped with Lockheed Hudsons , the squadron conducted its first operation on 17 December , when one of its aircraft flew from Richmond to RAAF Base Darwin . During the period No. 38 Squadron was equipped with Hudsons , it operated only within Australia .
The squadron 's activities expanded in early 1944 , when its obsolescent Hudsons were replaced with more capable Douglas Dakota transports . It received its first Dakota on 3 March 1944 , and was completely equipped with the type by the end of May . While the squadron continued to fly to locations within Australia after receiving Dakotas , it also began transporting supplies to Allied forces fighting the Japanese in western New Guinea . During return flights from New Guinea , the Dakotas typically carried wounded personnel to Australia for treatment . In October 1944 , No. 38 Squadron was given the additional task of supporting the RAAF 's Paratroop Training Unit at Richmond . The squadron moved to RAAF Station Archerfield near Brisbane in early December 1944 , but continued to maintain a detachment at Richmond . By this time No. 38 Squadron was mainly tasked with transporting supplies to the battle zone in New Guinea , which included making supply drops to Australian Army units in the field and evacuating casualties to the mainland . From 17 July 1945 , the squadron maintained a detachment at Morotai Island , which dropped supplies to Army units fighting in Borneo . No. 38 Squadron 's only loss during World War II was a Dakota that crashed on a mountain in western New Guinea while flying between Biak and Morotai ; the wreckage of this aircraft was not located until 1970 .
Following the end of the war , No. 38 Squadron flew into Singapore , Bangkok and locations in Borneo to evacuate released Australian prisoners of war . In addition , the squadron transported other service personnel back to Australia until 1946 as part of the demobilisation of the Australian military . During May 1946 , three of No. 38 Squadron 's Dakotas were assigned the unusual task of flying 25 tonnes of pig bristles from Chongqing in China to Hong Kong , from where the bristles were shipped to Australia . This mission , which was designated " Operation Pig Bristle " , took two weeks to complete and sought to rectify a shortage of paint brushes , which was hindering the Australian construction industry .
= = = Asian deployments = = =
No. 38 Squadron relocated to RAAF Station Schofields near Sydney on 15 August 1946 . It became part of No. 86 Wing , along with Nos. 36 and 37 Squadrons , which also operated Dakotas , and No. 486 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , which serviced the wing 's flying units . Commencing on 22 January 1947 , one of No. 38 Squadron 's main responsibilities was to conduct thrice @-@ weekly courier flights to Japan to support the Australian element of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force . These flights were the longest regular air route serviced by twin @-@ engined aircraft at the time , and took several days to complete . The courier flights continued until 13 January 1948 , after which chartered Qantas aircraft were used to support the force in Japan . In August 1948 , five of No. 38 Squadron 's air crews were dispatched to Europe where , as members of the RAAF Squadron Berlin Air Lift , they participated in the international efforts to fly supplies into Berlin during the Soviet blockade of the city . These personnel remained in Europe for 12 months , and their absence greatly disrupted No. 38 Squadron 's operations . Overall , twenty members of No. 86 Wing were sent to Europe ; the resulting shortage of personnel forced Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons to operate for a period as a single unit , all flying hours being attributed to No. 38 Squadron in official records . No. 86 Wing moved to Richmond between 22 June and 1 July 1949 .
In 1950 , No. 38 Squadron was selected to form part of the Australian force assigned to the Commonwealth Far East Air Force . As an element of this force , the Australian Government agreed for the unit to be tasked with courier flights across Asia and providing support for the British @-@ led counterinsurgency operations in Malaya . The squadron 's advance party arrived at RAF Changi in Singapore on 19 June 1950 , and all of its personnel and eight Dakotas were operational there by 6 July . While in Malaya the squadron came under the command of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing , along with the Avro Lincoln @-@ equipped No. 1 Squadron . Half the squadron 's aircrew were veterans of the Berlin Airlift , but none had any direct experience of tropical environments . No. 38 Squadron began flying transport missions in Malaya in early July , with British and New Zealand pilots accompanying its aircrews during the first two weeks of operations to help them become familiar with local conditions . From July 1950 until February 1951 , No. 38 Squadron 's main task was to conduct courier flights to Borneo , Ceylon , Hong Kong , Indonesia , Japan and the Philippines , and these remained an important responsibility throughout the period it was based at Singapore . Following the outbreak of the Korean War , the squadron flew British troops and supplies from Singapore to Japan and Korea , and four of No. 38 Squadron 's Dakotas were transferred to No. 30 Communication Unit in Japan during November 1950 .
After losing half its strength , No. 38 Squadron remained at Changi and conducted supply and aeromedical evacuation flights throughout Malaya to support the British @-@ led forces there . The squadron 's aircraft were also occasionally used to mark targets ahead of bombing raids and to drop propaganda leaflets . From April to July 1951 , No. 38 Squadron and an attached flight from No. 41 Squadron RNZAF was stationed at RAF Kuala Lumpur , and was the main unit tasked with dropping supplies to Commonwealth forces in the field . The squadron made another deployment to Kuala Lumpur between November 1951 and February 1952 . In February 1952 , No. 38 Squadron successfully parachuted 54 personnel from the British 22nd Special Air Service Regiment into a remote area near the Malaya @-@ Thailand border .
Supporting the Australian units in Korea placed heavy demands on the RAAF 's transport force , which was too small to fully meet its domestic and international responsibilities , and it became increasingly difficult to sustain the four Dakotas in Malaya during 1952 . As a result , the Australian Government decided in September that year to return the squadron to Australia . No. 38 Squadron left Changi for Richmond on 8 December . The squadron 's only fatality during the deployment was an airman who was killed when the No. 110 Squadron RAF Dakota he was co @-@ piloting crashed during a flight between Changi and Saigon on 31 August 1950 .
= = = Operational conversion unit = = =
After returning to Richmond , No. 38 Squadron was mainly tasked with routine transport duties . The squadron also occasionally provided aircraft for CSIRO rainmaking experiments . During the 1950s and early 1960s , No. 38 Squadron developed a reputation as a " cowboy " unit with lax flying standards . The squadron did not conduct proper conversion courses , and new Dakota pilots received only ad @-@ hoc instruction on the type while serving as the co @-@ pilot during operational tasks . On 8 March 1953 , No. 38 Squadron absorbed No. 36 Squadron 's Dakotas , after which No. 30 Transport Unit ( previously No. 30 Communication Unit ) in Japan was renamed No. 36 Squadron . From late March until September 1954 , No. 38 Squadron conducted VIP flights out of RAAF Station Canberra . In November that year , it was renamed the Transport Training Squadron and became responsible for instructing new Dakota crews and RAAF air movements personnel . It resumed its previous name on 13 June 1963 .
No. 38 Squadron was re @-@ equipped with new de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribou tactical transport aircraft during 1964 . In January 1964 the unit 's commanding officer , five other pilots and three navigators undertook conversion training on the type in Canada . At the completion of this course the personnel flew the RAAF 's first three Caribous from Toronto to RAAF Base Richmond between 17 March and 22 April . The process of fully converting No. 38 Squadron to Caribous was delayed by the government 's decision to deploy several of the aircraft to Vietnam ; at the time this decision was made , in June 1964 , the squadron had received six of its planned allocation of nine aircraft , and the next batch of three aircraft was sent directly to Vietnam . No. 38 Squadron was the last operational RAAF squadron to fly Dakotas , though several other units did so until the 1990s . After receiving its Caribous , No. 38 Squadron 's main role was to train aircrews for operational service with the RAAF Transport Flight Vietnam ( later redesignated No. 35 Squadron ) . On 1 July 1964 , one of the squadron 's Caribous suffered severe damage when it made a crash landing at HMAS Albatross ; this aircraft was subsequently written off and its fuselage used for training purposes by the Army 's 1st Commando Regiment . The squadron became an independent unit under Headquarters RAAF Base Richmond in August that year , following the disbandment of No. 86 Wing . On 13 October 1965 , Detachment A of No. 38 Squadron began operations from Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea , equipped with two Caribous . One of the detachment 's tasks was to give Caribou pilots experience in tropical and mountainous conditions , and all aircraft captains were required to complete at least one two @-@ month deployment to Port Moresby before serving with No. 35 Squadron in Vietnam . In addition to its training role , No. 38 Squadron undertook transport flights in and around Australia , taking part when required in relief efforts following natural disasters .
= = = Peacekeeping deployments = = =
The squadron undertook two operational deployments during the mid @-@ 1970s . From March 1975 until November 1978 Detachment B , comprising a single Caribou and support staff , was stationed at Rawalpindi , Pakistan , and transported personnel and supplies for the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan . From August to October 1975 , a No. 38 Squadron Caribou was assigned to transport Red Cross supplies and personnel from Darwin to East Timor after a civil war broke out in that country . On 4 September that year this aircraft was hijacked by East Timorese soldiers , who forced the pilot to fly 54 refugees to Darwin ; it remains the only RAAF aircraft ever to have been hijacked . Detachment A was no longer required after Papua New Guinea achieved independence from Australia and established its own defence force , and the unit was disbanded on 17 January 1976 . Three Caribous were lost while operating with the detachment ; A4 @-@ 202 crashed near Porgera on 3 June 1965 , A4 @-@ 147 was written off after it landed short of the runway at Tapini Airport on 6 October 1968 and A4 @-@ 233 was destroyed when it crashed at Kudjeru Gap on 28 August 1972 . The last of these crashes caused the deaths of 25 aircrew and passengers , making it the RAAF 's worst peacetime disaster ; 21 of the people killed were high school students returning from an army cadet camp . Following the end of its permanent presence at Port Moresby , No. 38 Squadron continued to fly periodic training sorties in Papua New Guinea . During the 1980s , detachments of No. 38 Squadron were established at RAAF Base Darwin and RAAF Base Pearce near Perth to provide these regions with a search @-@ and @-@ rescue capability and to exercise with Army units . The Pearce detachment was nicknamed " Blackduck Airlines " .
No. 38 Squadron moved from Richmond to RAAF Base Amberley , west of Brisbane , in October 1992 . At this time the squadron continued to be responsible for all Caribou conversion training , as well as conducting tactical transport operations . The permanent detachment of No. 38 Squadron aircraft to RAAF Base Pearce ceased in 1999 , and Detachment B of the squadron was established at RAAF Base Townsville in North Queensland during 2000 . From 1999 until early 2001 , elements of No. 38 Squadron , designated No. 86 Wing Detachment C , were stationed in East Timor and supported the international peacekeeping force which had been deployed there to end the violence that had broken out following a successful referendum on independence conducted in August 1999 . At its peak strength , four Caribous were assigned to the detachment . The air and ground crew deployed to East Timor endured difficult living conditions until their accommodation and recreation facilities were upgraded in mid @-@ 2000 , and the pilots were regularly required to fly into poorly maintained air strips . Despite the age of the Caribous and shortages of spare parts , Detachment C 's ground crew managed to maintain a high aircraft serviceability rate . In 2000 No. 35 Squadron was deactivated , leaving No. 38 Squadron the RAAF 's sole Caribou operator . By September 2002 , No. 38 Squadron was equipped with 14 Caribous . In July 2003 , two aircraft were deployed to the Solomon Islands as part of the Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands peacekeeping force . Both Caribous were based at Honiara International Airport , and a detachment remained in the country until July 2004 . All of No. 38 Squadron moved to RAAF Base Townsville during 2008 .
By the late 2000s the Caribous were becoming difficult to maintain , and were no longer capable of operating in war zones as they lacked electronic warfare systems and other forms of self @-@ protection . As a result , it was decided in late 2008 to retire the aircraft and replace them with Beechcraft King Air 350s on an interim basis until another tactical transport entered service . The Caribous were gradually retired from May 2009 , the last leaving service on 27 November that year when A4 @-@ 140 was flown to Canberra and handed over to the Australian War Memorial for preservation . By the time the aircraft were retired , No. 38 Squadron had been operating Caribous for 45 years . Three King Air 350s were transferred to No. 38 Squadron from the Army 's 173rd Surveillance Squadron on 20 November 2009 , and deliveries of a further five newly built aircraft were completed in July 2010 . In March 2015 two No. 38 Squadron King Airs were deployed to Vanuatu as part of Australia 's aid effort following Cyclone Pam . The aircraft were used to conduct flights over the affected areas to assess the extent of the damage , and also evacuated Australian and New Zealand citizens . In February 2016 it was reported that the RAAF was considering consolidating its two squadrons equipped with King Airs into a single squadron located at RAAF Base East Sale .
= = Current role = =
No. 38 Squadron is currently responsible for providing conversion training on the King Air and conducting light transport operations . The unit has a strength of 60 RAAF personnel as well as 25 aircraft maintenance contractors from Hawker Pacific . It is organised into two flights ; A Flight undertakes transport operations , and B Flight is responsible for delivering training courses . Along with Nos. 33 and 36 Squadrons , No. 38 Squadron forms part of No. 86 Wing .
The RAAF has been pleased with the King Air 's performance in the light transport role , though the aircraft cannot be deployed into combat areas . No. 38 Squadron often operates with the Army 's Townsville @-@ based 3rd Brigade , as well as the 51st Battalion , Far North Queensland Regiment , which conducts operational patrols across Far North Queensland during peacetime . The unit is also frequently tasked with transporting senior politicians and other VIPs . The King Airs often operate in Papua New Guinea , as well as other parts of the Asia @-@ Pacific region . The Australian Government ordered 10 Alenia C @-@ 27J Spartan battlefield transports in May 2012 , and these aircraft will be operated by No. 35 Squadron from 2015 . No. 38 Squadron marked its 70th anniversary in 2013 , and has the longest period of continual operation of any of the RAAF 's flying squadrons .
= Katy Hudson ( album ) =
Katy Hudson is the eponymous debut studio album by American singer Katy Hudson , who subsequently adopted the stage name Katy Perry . It was released on February 8 , 2001 by Red Hill Records . It primarily incorporates Christian rock and contemporary Christian music elements with lyrical themes of childhood , adolescence and Hudson 's faith in God . Reviews of the album were mixed and it sold fewer than 200 copies . Later , due to Hudson 's increased popularity , demand for the album increased as well .
= = Composition = =
Katy Hudson saw Hudson exploring Christian rock and contemporary Christian music ( CCM ) . Amongst what was described as an alternative direction were prominent influences of pop rock . During an interview for her official website at the time , Hudson cited artists Jonatha Brooke , Jennifer Knapp , Diana Krall , and Fiona Apple as her musical influences . " Trust in Me " , " Naturally " , and " My Own Monster " were said to capture " loneliness , fear and doubt often ascribed to teens " .
The first features " haunting " strings with " electronica effects " and " solid rock roots " . An aggressive track , " Piercing " depicts the infatuation people have with expendable things . In " Piercing " , Hudson sings : " Lord , help me see the reality / That all I 'll ever need is You " . " Last Call " was written by Hudson while reading the book Last Call for Help : Changing North America One Teen at a Time , written by Dawson McAllister . Musically , it sees Hudson going into a more jazz @-@ oriented sound . Hudson described " Growing Pains " as an anthem for children and adolescents , explaining that society shares a misconstructed image of them , often viewing them as individuals that do not believe in or do not know much about God . Written by Hudson when she was in eighth grade , the song " Spit " addresses the hypocrisy she faced in Christian school .
" Faith Won 't Fail " was inspired by faith always sufficing in Bible situations and chapters ; and Hudson commented on " Search Me " : " I was struggling with the fact that I would have the huge responsibility of how others would be affected through what I was doing or saying on stage . I don 't want to put on some kind of front that everything is good when it 's not . I wanted to keep it real , but still give people hope . " The record closes with " When There 's Nothing Left " , which has been described as a " crisp and clean ' love note ' to God " . The album was described as not being in the vein of the bubble gum pop variety rather evoking comparisons to the Christian pop songstresses Rachel Lampa and Jaci Velasquez .
= = Promotional tour = =
To promote the album Hudson went on a tour , opening for Phil Joel , Earthsuit , and V * Enna and later a 46 @-@ state solo tour .
= = Reception = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic awarded Katy Hudson three stars out of five , stating that with the album , Hudson had " betray [ ed ] a heavy , heavy debt to Alanis Morissette " . Erlewine also interpreted some of the songs ' lyrics as having sexual overtones , and identifying those as " the most interesting things " in the album , describing the record 's overall sound as " the kind of assaultive , over @-@ produced Wall of Sound that some CCM rockers do in order to prove they 're contemporary " .
Christianity Today writer Russ Breimeier was positive about Katy Hudson , highlighting Hudson 's songwriting style for being " insightful and well matched to the emotional power " of Hudson 's music . He further deemed Hudson a " young talent " and expected to hear more from her in the next year . Similarly , Tony Cummings from Cross Rhythms also considered Hudson to be a " vocal talent " , recommending readers to listen to the album . The Phantom Tollbooth 's Andy Argyrakis stated that Hudson having been reared in church had " paid off " , and noted that " Although a mere pop lightweight , it 's hard to ignore Hudson 's sincerity and lyrical maturity . " DEP from Billboard , also calling Hudson a talent , classified the record as " textured modern @-@ rock collection that is equal parts grit and vulnerability " and " impressive " . The album was a commercial failure for Red Hill Records , selling between 100 and 200 copies .
= = Musical change = =
Some time after the album 's release , the label Red Hill Records went bankrupt . Katy Hudson is the only Christian music @-@ influenced album by Hudson , who subsequently adopted Katy Perry as a stage name . After her popularity increased , copies of Katy Hudson have become a sought @-@ after item amongst her fans .
= = Track listing = =
Credits extracted from Katy Hudson liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from Katy Hudson liner notes .
= Action of 21 October 1794 =
The Action of 21 October 1794 was a minor naval engagement between Great Britain and France fought off the Breton coast of France during the second year of the French Revolutionary Wars . French frigates had been raiding British Atlantic trade routes with considerable success since the outbreak of the war , and in response the Admiralty had formed a frigate squadron to patrol the French Channel and Atlantic coasts in search of French raiders . On 13 October 1794 , the large , modern and powerful 40 @-@ gun French frigate Révolutionnaire under the command of Captain Antoine René Thévenard sailed from Le Havre for a raiding cruise against British trade routes in the Atlantic . Eight days later , while rounding the Breton headland of Ushant about 25 – 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ) miles out to sea , Révolutionnaire encountered the British frigate squadron , commanded by Commodore Sir Edward Pellew , which had secured a number of victories over French raiding frigates during the previous two years .
Pellew ordered his ships to give chase , as Thévenard fled towards the French coast before the British numerical supremacy . One British ship was faster than the others , the 38 @-@ gun HMS Artois under Captain Edmund Nagle cutting Révolutionnaire off from the shore and bringing the larger French ship to action . For 45 minutes Artois battled Révolutionnaire until support arrived , at which point the French frigate 's crew surrendered their ship in defiance of their captain 's orders . Casualties and damage were light on both sides , and Révolutionnaire was rapidly commissioned into the Royal Navy , joining the squadron that had captured her and subsequently capturing the French frigate Unité at the Action of 13 April 1796 .
= = Background = =
Following the French Republic 's declaration of war on Great Britain in February 1793 , the French Navy immediately launched squadrons , individual cruisers and privateers against British trade routes in the Eastern Atlantic . The French Atlantic fleet , based at the fortified port of Brest in Brittany , was in a state of political turmoil during the early years of the war , suffering a mutiny in August 1793 , and then defeat at the battle of Glorious First of June in 1794 . In spite of these difficulties , the independent raiders caused considerable damage to British commerce , and in response the Admiralty ordered a squadron of frigates from the Channel Fleet to cruise the French coastline in search of these raiders . This force , known as the flying squadron and initially commanded by Sir John Borlase Warren , achieved a number of successes in the first year of the war , most notably in the Action of 23 April 1794 , when a French frigate squadron was destroyed .
By the autumn of 1794 , the squadron was under the command of Commodore Sir Edward Pellew in the frigate HMS Arethusa , accompanied by HMS Artois under Captain Edmund Nagle , HMS Diamond under Captain Sir Sidney Smith and HMS Galatea under Captain Richard Goodwin Keats . All four ships had specially selected crews and equipment and the squadron formed the elite force of the Channel Fleet 's light warships . Pellew led his squadron out of Cawsand Bay on 19 October with the intention of cruising off the entrance to Brest and intercepting shipping entering or leaving the port . The French fleet , its principal squadrons blockaded in Brest , continued to send raiders to sea . One such ship , was the large newly commissioned 40 @-@ gun frigate Révolutionnaire under Captain Antoine René Thévenard with a hastily assembled and disaffected crew and a main battery of 18 – pounder cannon , which departed from the Channel port of Le Havre on 13 October , sailing westwards towards the Atlantic .
= = Battle = =
On 21 October , eight days after leaving Le Havre , and between 25 – 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ) off the island of Ushant at the tip of the Breton Peninsula , Révolutionnaire was discovered at dawn by Pellew 's squadron . Pellew immediately ordered his ships to give chase while Thévenard turned away in an effort to reach the shoreline before the larger British squadron could overwhelm his ship . Pellew 's squadron was however to windward of the French ship , thus cutting it off from the relative safety of the shore and instead Révolutionnaire swung southeast in an effort to outdistance the British squadron and pull ahead of Pellew 's ships in the hazy weather .
One British frigate , Nagle 's Artois , was however faster than the others . Artois was a strong modern frigate with a main battery of 9 – pounder cannon and 32 – pounder carronades on the quarterdeck , and Nagle was able to bring his frigate alongside the slightly larger French vessel . For forty minutes the two frigates traded broadsides , Nagle 's fire damaging the French ship 's rigging and slowing Révolutionnaire enough that the rest of Pellew 's squadron could come up . Captain Smith 's Diamond was the first to reach the combat , Smith ranging his ship up below Thévenard 's stern and firing two warning shots to indicate that unless the French ship surrendered he would fire a devastating raking broadside into the French ship 's stern . Arethusa and Galatea were close behind Diamond , and although Thévenard wished to continue the engagement , his men refused and the French captain was forced to surrender . At the point Révolutionnaire surrendered , breakers from the waves striking the Saints Rocks could be seen dead ahead .
= = = Combatant summary = = =
In this table , " Guns " refers to all cannon carried by the ship , including the maindeck guns which were taken into consideration when calculating it 's rate , as well as any carronades carried aboard . Broadside weight records the combined weight of shot which could be fired in a single simultaneous discharge of an entire broadside .
= = Aftermath = =
Casualties were light on both sides ; Révolutionnaire lost five men killed and four wounded , including Thévenard who had suffered minor wounds , while Artois was the only British ship engaged , losing two sailors and a lieutenant of Royal Marines killed and five men wounded . Pellew 's squadron brought Révolutionnaire back to Falmouth immediately , having discovered an outbreak of small pox among the prisoners of war taken from the French frigate . Subsequently , the light damage the ship had suffered enabled the Royal Navy to rapidly purchase and commission the frigate as the 38 @-@ gun HMS Révolutionnaire under the command of Captain Francis Cole and attach the ship to Pellew 's squadron . Eighteen months later , Révolutionnaire fought and captured the French frigate Unité at the Action of 12 April 1796 , and remained in the Royal Navy throughout the following 21 years of warfare . The arrival of Révolutionnaire in Britain caused a stir among naval architects as the frigate was significantly larger than those produced in Britain at the time . The ship was extensively planned and modelled and a ship was commissioned for the Royal Navy to the design of Révolutionnaire , although severe delays at the shipyards meant that HMS Forte , as the ship was eventually named , was not launched until 1814 .
In reward for his action against Révolutionnaire , Nagle was made a Knight Bachelor , and first Lieutenant Robert Dudley Oliver was promoted to commander . Pellew , in his report on the action , stated that " the cripped state of the Enemy allows me the Opportunity of saying , that her Resiliance could have been of no Avail , had the Artois been alone " , but historian William James was more reserved , noting in 1827 that the ships " would have been a well matched pair of combatants , had the Artois been alone . " The prize money was extensive : part payment of £ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 036 @,@ 111 as of 2016 ) was made in January 1795 , the reward shared between the entire squadron . Pellew , who had been knighted the previous year following the Action of 18 June 1793 , was reported to be unhappy that Nagle had been honoured for his part in this action and complained to the Admiralty about the condition and speed of Arethusa , requesting a faster vessel . The following year he would receive command of the 44 @-@ gun razee HMS Indefatigable as a result .
= U.S. Route 23 in Michigan =
US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) is a United States Numbered Highway that runs from Jacksonville , Florida , to Mackinaw City , Michigan . In the US state of Michigan , it is a major , 362 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 583 km ) , north – south state trunkline highway that runs through the Lower Peninsula ( LP ) . The trunkline is a freeway from the Michigan – Ohio state line near Lambertville to the city of Standish , and it follows the Lake Huron shoreline from there to its northern terminus . Serving the cities of Ann Arbor and Flint , US 23 acts as a freeway bypass of the Metro Detroit area . Overall , the highway runs through rural areas of the state dominated by farm fields or woodlands ; some segments are urban in character in the Ann Arbor , Flint and Tri @-@ Cities areas . The section from Flint north to Standish also carries Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) along a concurrency that includes a segment that carries almost 70 @,@ 000 vehicles on a daily basis .
The first transportation routes along what is now US 23 in the state were sections of two Indian trails . The route of what is now US 23 follows portions of two separate trails . In the early 20th century , four different auto trail names were applied to roads now a part of the highway . These roads were included as part of two state highways in the initial state highway system in 1919 . When the United States Numbered Highway System was first designated on November 11 , 1926 , the new US 23 replaced the other designations along its route . Since creation , the road has been moved and realigned several times . Through the 1930s and 1940s , the lakeshore routing was created to replace a path that ran further inland through the northern portion of the state . Starting in the early 1950s , various sections in the southeastern and central areas of the LP were upgraded to freeways , bypassing several major cities in the area . These improvements were completed by the end of the 1960s . Since then a new crossing of the Saginaw River at Zilwaukee was built to replace a drawbridge that carried the I @-@ 75 / US 23 freeway over a shipping channel .
Various memorial or tourist route designations have been applied to US 23 in the state since the 1980s . The highway has been a part of the Lake Huron Circle Tour since the creation of the Great Lakes Circle Tours in 1986 . The non @-@ freeway section was designated the Sunrise Side Coastal Highway by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) in 2004 as a part of what is now the Pure Michigan Byway Program . Since 2009 , it has been called the Huron Shores Heritage Route . The highway has also carried two memorial designations related to war veterans and a third related to local civic leaders since a 2001 consolidation of related legislation in the state . MDOT has listed two of the highway 's bridges on its historic bridge list , one of which is also on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) . Future improvements to the route of US 23 include a proposed northerly extension of the freeway from Standish to one of several locations along the Lake Huron shoreline . Another freeway has been proposed in the Flint area that could connect US 23 directly to the south end of I @-@ 475 .
= = Route description = =
US 23 runs for 362 @.@ 152 miles ( 582 @.@ 827 km ) through the LP of Michigan , serving as a freeway bypass to the west of Metro Detroit and a scenic highway through the northern portion of the state along Lake Huron . Between Flint and Standish , US 23 runs concurrently with I @-@ 75 ; the combined freeway section from Flint to Bay City can contain between six and eight lanes total while the rest of the US 23 freeway is mostly four lanes . Non @-@ freeway segments of US 23 in the state are two lanes . Like other state trunkline highways , it is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . All of US 23 in the state south of the M @-@ 32 junction in Alpena has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . From the Standish area north , the highway is also a part of the Lake Huron Circle Tour and the Huron Shores Heritage Route , a Pure Michigan Byway .
= = = Southeastern Michigan = = =
US 23 enters Michigan on a freeway northwest of Toledo , Ohio , concurrent with US 223 . This freeway runs north through farm fields in rural western Monroe County near Lambertville . About five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of the state line , US 223 leaves the freeway and turns west onto St. Anthony Road ; US 23 continues northward on the freeway . South of Dundee , US 23 crosses the River Raisin before coming to an interchange with M @-@ 50 next to the Cabela 's store west of town . North of town , the freeway passes near an industrial area . Farther north , it crosses a line of the Ann Arbor Railroad near Azalia as the trunkline runs to the east of Milan at the Monroe @-@ Washtenaw county line . North of Milan , the freeway crosses a line of the Norfolk Southern Railway .
The landscape takes on a more suburban residential character as the freeway approaches the Ann Arbor area . There are separate interchanges for US 12 ( Michigan Avenue ) and I @-@ 94 on the southeast side of the city . Between I @-@ 94 and Washtenaw Avenue , US 23 carries the Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) moniker as well . That secondary designation leaves the freeway and runs west on Washtenaw Avenue into downtown Ann Arbor and the campus of the University of Michigan . At the same interchange , a Business US 23 ( Bus . US 23 ) designation also follows Washtenaw Avenue to the west ; east of US 23 , M @-@ 17 follows Washtenaw Avenue and connects the freeway with Ypsilanti . North of this interchange , US 23 crosses the Huron River near the campus of the local community college and continues north to a junction with the M @-@ 14 freeway . The two merge and run westward along the north side of the city before US 23 turns north and M @-@ 14 curves south .
North of Ann Arbor , the freeway runs through woodlands and near several lakes . In the community of Whitmore Lake , US 23 crosses into Livingston County near the city 's namesake body of water . East of Brighton , the freeway intersects I @-@ 96 and continues north to an intersection with M @-@ 59 south of Hartland . The highway turns northeasterly by Runyon Lake and runs toward the city of Fenton . The trunkline passes through town and bends back toward the northwest , running between lakes Ponemah and Fenton . Continuing north , the environment around US 23 transitions to rural farm fields as the freeway approaches the south side of the Flint area .
= = = Flint and the Tri @-@ Cities area = = =
West of Grand Blanc , US 23 meets I @-@ 75 , and the two freeways merge near the Bishop International Airport and continue along the west side of the Flint metro area . I @-@ 75 / US 23 has an interchange with I @-@ 69 near the crossing with the Canadian National Railway line . Continuing northwards through suburban residential areas , the highway crosses the Flint River while running along the west side of the city . In Mount Morris Township , the freeway intersects the northern end of I @-@ 475 before meeting M @-@ 57 near Clio . The highest traffic totals along US 23 in the state of Michigan were recorded by MDOT near the M @-@ 57 interchange ; in 2009 an average 68 @,@ 800 vehicles used that section of freeway daily . These traffic counts are expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway .
Near Birch Run , the highway turns northwesterly next to a large outlet mall . Between here and the Saginaw area , the freeway runs through more wooded lands , crossing the Cass River near Bridgeport . I @-@ 75 / US 23 enters the Tri @-@ Cities ( named for Saginaw , Bay City and Midland ) when it bypasses Saginaw to the east . The freeway intersects M @-@ 46 in Buena Vista Township south of the junction with I @-@ 675 . North of downtown Saginaw , the freeway crosses the Saginaw River on the Zilwaukee Bridge , a " post @-@ tensioned , segmental , [ concrete ] box girder bridge " that is " infamous " for a series of " construction mishaps , cost overruns , and government foibles . "
Past the bridge , I @-@ 75 / US 23 meets the northern end of I @-@ 675 and continues through fields and woods to the Bay City area . At exit 162 , the freeway meets the eastern terminus of US 10 and the western terminus of M @-@ 25 west of downtown . The next interchange north is with the Connector M @-@ 13 ( CONN M @-@ 13 ) freeway , which was the previous northern end of US 23 's freeway in Michigan . The connector runs due northward , and I @-@ 75 / US 23 turns northwesterly to bypass around Kawkawlin . The highway veers north , crosses the Kawkawlin River and the Pinconning Creek before coming to an interchange southwest of Standish . There , US 23 curves east , separating from I @-@ 75 . US 23 continues for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) as a freeway which ends at the intersection with M @-@ 13 south of Standish . The lowest AADT along any freeway section of US 23 in Michigan is the section immediately east of I @-@ 75 ; here the traffic levels drop from 20 @,@ 763 to 4 @,@ 466 vehicles per day after US 23 separates from I @-@ 75 .
= = = Northern Michigan = = =
US 23 runs north from the end of its freeway along Huron Road through the community of Standish . The trunkline turns northeasterly through lakeshore woodlands after the intersection with Old M @-@ 76 . Northeast of this intersection , the highest , non @-@ freeway AADT level on US 23 was recorded by MDOT at 16 @,@ 757 vehicles daily . Running through Omer , the highway crosses the Rifle River and a line of the Lake State Railway . In between the two crossings , it curves due east on its way out of town . At Hale Road , US 23 meets the southern end of M @-@ 65 before it continues east to Au Gres , where it runs along the Saginaw Bay and crosses the Au Gres River . Huron Road meanders northward along the lakeshore , staying inland near Point Lookout . US 23 runs through woods as it follows the Saginaw Bays shoreline northeasterly through Alabaster to Tawas City . The highway intersects the eastern terminus of M @-@ 55 , runs north and east around Tawas Bay to East Tawas and follows the Lake Huron shoreline to Oscoda . Through this area , US 23 runs parallel to the Lake State Railway and crosses into the Huron National Forest .
Oscoda is the location of the eastern termini of both the River Road National Scenic Byway and County Road F @-@ 41 . In between those two junctions , the highway crosses the Au Sable River near its mouth , and the trunkline passes by the former Wurtsmith Air Force Base . Huron Road continues north , running next to Van Etten Lake as it leaves the national forest . Further north , it runs along Cedar Lake when it crosses into Alcona County . The highway meets the eastern termini of F @-@ 30 and M @-@ 72 in Greenbush and Harrisville respectively . It also passes Harrisville State Park in the latter community . The highway shifts a bit further inland north of Harrisville , continuing to parallel the railroad through the Mackinaw State Forest . Near Ossineke , the trunkline turns back toward the lake , running along the shoreline of Thunder Bay .
When US 23 enters Alpena , it follows State Street through town and turns northwesterly on Chisholm Street . The intersection of Chisholm and Washington streets marks the eastern terminus of M @-@ 32 . Chisholm Street runs along the Thunder Bay River and crosses the river near Lake Besser . The highway leaves town and runs through rural woodlands to the south shore of Long Lake , curving around the eastern side of the lake . Near the northern end of the lake , US 23 crosses into Presque Isle County and runs along the west shore of Grand Lake . At the north end of that lake , the highway turns west along the Lake Huron shoreline near Thompson 's Harbor State Park . The trunkline continues to Rogers City where it bypasses town to the south and west , intersecting F @-@ 21 and M @-@ 68 in the process ; Bus . US 23 runs through downtown . On the other side of Rogers City , US 23 runs along the lake past Hoeft State Park and along Hammond Bay before crossing into Cheboygan County . This area had the lowest AADT levels in 2009 at 1 @,@ 097 vehicles per day .
US 23 follows the Lake Huron shoreline through Cheboygan County through woodlands past Cheboygan State Park and Duncan Bay . On the eastern edge of Cheboygan the highway intersects F @-@ 05 before following State Street through a commercial district . State Street crosses the Cheboygan River on the Cheboygan Bascule Bridge near the mouth of the river and the dock for the USCGC Mackinaw . On the west side of the river , US 23 meets the northern terminus of M @-@ 27 at the intersection with Main Street . State Street continues westerly as C @-@ 66 as US 23 turns north on Main Street for a block before resuming west on Mackinaw Avenue . The highway continues along the lake toward Mackinaw City . As it approaches the village , it passes Historic Mill Creek State Park and several motels . At Nicolet Street in town , the highway crosses into Emmet County for the short distance to the highway 's national northern terminus at I @-@ 75 's exit 338 .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Before Michigan became a state , the first land transportation corridors were the Indian trails . The original Shore Trail ran roughly parallel to the route of the modern US 23 from the Bay City area to Cheboygan . Another section of the current highway followed the Saginaw Trail between Flint and Saginaw .
Later , during the auto trail era , the modern US 23 also coincided with the east branch of the Dixie Highway and part of the Lower Peninsula section of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway . The Dixie Highway was created by William S. Gilbreath after he developed the Lincoln Highway . The highway was designed to link the Great Lakes with the Gulf of Mexico , and to commemorate a half century of peace between the North and the South after the American Civil War . At the urging of Governor Woodbridge Ferris , the northern terminus was located at the Straits of Mackinac . The highway had two branches in the Lower Peninsula ; the eastern branch followed what later became US 23 north of Standish . The Theodore Roosevelt International Highway was named for former US president Theodore Roosevelt after his death in 1919 . Overall , this highway ran from Portland , Oregon , to Portland , Maine , by way of Michigan and the Canadian province of Ontario . In Michigan , it also followed US 23 north of Standish .
The highway was also part of the East Michigan Pike , designed to be a counterpart of the West Michigan Pike on the other side of the LP . The original route of the East Michigan Pike included a section along the coast of The Thumb between Bay City and Port Huron and used the same route as the Dixie Highway north of Bay City . Backers of this auto trail lost out in terms of name recognition to the Dixie Highway , relegating the East Michigan Pike to the list of failed auto trails . The southern part of what is now US 23 in the state was also part of the auto trail craze . The Top of Michigan Trail was designated in 1917 from the state line north to the Bay City area , before turning inland along other roadways . The name faded from shortly after the time the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) assigned the first highway numbers in the state .
The first state highways along the US 23 corridor were numbered M @-@ 65 from the Ohio line north to the Flint area and M @-@ 10 from Flint north to Mackinaw City by July 1 , 1919 . When originally designated , M @-@ 65 was in two sections : the southern segment ran from the Ohio state line north to the Dundee area ; the northern section ran between Ann Arbor and Flint by way of Brighton and Fenton . The gap between the two segments was eliminated by the middle of 1926 .
= = = United States Numbered Highways = = =
US 23 was commissioned on November 11 , 1926 , with the debut of the United States Numbered Highway System . The MSHD removed the M @-@ 10 and M @-@ 65 designations from the highway at the time . As it was originally designated , US 23 crossed into Michigan from Ohio south of Temperance and ran north to Ypsilanti via Ida and Maybee . Once the highway entered Ann Arbor , it followed the roads that preceded the modern freeway up to Flint . From Flint to Saginaw , US 23 ran concurrently with US 10 . On the way north to Bay City , the highway ran on the west side of the Saginaw River before turning north to the Standish area . From Standish to Mackinaw City , US 23 initially took a more inland route through the northeastern LP .
Starting in 1929 , MSHD started updating the route that US 23 followed through the Lower Peninsula . Late that year , the routing was moved to the east side of the Saginaw River , and M @-@ 47 was extended along the former course on the west side of the river . During 1930 , a set of changes realigned the highway 's route through the southeast corner of the state . Near Ida , US 23 was rerouted along M @-@ 50 to Dundee and north through Milan to Ann Arbor , bypassing Maybee and Whittaker . US 23 was moved from its inland routing between Omer and Tawas City via Whittemore to follow a shoreline alignment by way of Au Gres along Saginaw Bay around 1932 ; the former route through Twining and Whittemore became an extension of M @-@ 65 and the section from Whittemore east to Tawas City was added to M @-@ 55 as a part of these changes .
In 1932 , US 23 was moved closer to the lakeshore between Spruce and Alpena ; the former routing was redesignated M @-@ 171 . The highway was also moved to a route closer to the lakeshore between Tawas City and Oscoda , with part of the old inland route taking the designation Old US 23 . A few years later in 1936 , US 23 replaced M @-@ 72 between Oscoda and Harrisville and followed a new roadway north to the Spruce area . The M @-@ 171 designation was removed from its original routing and applied to the 1932 routing of US 23 by way of Mikado and Lincoln . In the middle of 1937 , US 27 was extended concurrently along US 23 between Cheboygan and Mackinaw City . Around the end of the decade , US 23 's routing was moved in another location to follow the lakeshore ; this time the highway was rerouted between Alpena and Rogers City . M @-@ 65 was extended northwards from Lachine through Posen to terminate over the former US 23 routing .
US 23 was moved to its current lakeshore routing between Rogers City and Cheboygan in 1940 , and M @-@ 33 was extended westerly from Onaway to Afton and north to Cheboygan over the former US 23 roadway while M @-@ 68 was extended eastward through Onaway to Rogers City . In early 1941 , a bridge across the Saginaw River connecting Salzburg and Lafayette avenues in Bay City was added to the route of US 23 in the city ; at the same time the former routing was redesignated Bus . US 23 . The highway was also realigned between Hartland and Fenton in 1941 . By 1945 , the northernmost segment of M @-@ 65 in downtown Rogers City was redesignated Bus . US 23 , and M @-@ 65 was truncated to its junction with US 23 southeast of town , removing the concurrency that existed since 1940 . North of Dundee , a more direct alignment to Azalia was added to US 23 , turning the former routing back to local control in late 1947 or early 1948 ; at the same time , the last gravel section of the highway was paved near Hammond Bay in northwestern Presque Isle County .
= = = Freeway conversion = = =
One of the first pieces of what would later become part of US 23 's freeway route was completed in late 1951 or early 1952 , when a two @-@ lane bypass was built around the eastern side of Milan . Two years later , a similar bypass was built from Bridgeport to M @-@ 81 on the east side of Saginaw , with the old route becoming a Bus . US 23 designation . Both bypasses would later be upgraded to four @-@ lane freeways by 1961 , with the Saginaw one later incorporated into the route of I @-@ 75 . When the Mackinac Bridge opened on November 1 , 1957 , US 23 , US 27 and US 31 were extended along the access roadways to the foot of the bridge .
The first future freeway portion of US 23 was built in 1957 from north of Ann Arbor to Whitmore Lake as a divided highway . On June 30 , 1958 , the first stretch of the " Fenton – Clio Expressway " opened , stretching from Fenton to Birch Run . The freeway connection from Dundee south to Ohio was opened on October 1 , 1959 . In late 1959 , the portion from Flint to Birch Run also gained the I @-@ 75 designation .
In late 1960 or early 1961 , a new I @-@ 75 / US 23 / US 10 freeway was built from the north end of the Saginaw bypass to Kawkawlin , utilizing the Zilwaukee drawbridge ( later replaced by the Zilwaukee Bridge ) over the Saginaw River ; when it opened , MSHD extended M @-@ 13 along the former route of US 23 from the northside of Saginaw into Bay City to the end of the freeway at Kawkawlin . Another section connected the Whitmore Lake area with Brighton in the same timeframe . General Motors was bidding in 1961 to construct an electronic highway . US 23 between Ann Arbor and Toledo was under consideration to be the location of this project ; the testing for such a roadway was ultimately done at Ohio State University instead . By the end of the year , freeway sections opened to bypass Saginaw south and ran south to Birch Run , another connected south from Fenton to Hartland , and a third connected Milan with Dundee . The remaining gaps were eliminated with additional freeway openings in 1962 : Brighton to Hartland opened in September , and Milan to Ann Arbor opened in November . The I @-@ 75 / US 23 freeway north of the Kawkawlin area to Standish opened in 1967 , and M @-@ 13 was shown on maps following US 23 's former route through Linwood and Pinconning after the change .
The MSHD requested additional Interstate Highway mileage in 1968 under the Federal @-@ Aid Highway Act of 1968 including a freeway along US 23 between Standish and Mackinaw City . This extension was rejected by Congress on December 13 , 1968 ; instead , Michigan was allotted additional mileage for an extension of I @-@ 69 to Flint . Once the last piece of I @-@ 75 was completed along the M @-@ 76 corridor in November 1973 , the I @-@ 75 designation was extended north of Bay City on US 23 .
The MSHD first proposed a realignment of US 223 in 1965 ; this change would reroute that highway to replace M @-@ 151 in southern Monroe County , and use the US 23 freeway to connect to Sylvania , Ohio . The rerouting change was made in 1977 when Michigan shifted its segment of US 223 as proposed twelve years prior . Instead of running south through Ottawa Lake , US 223 continued east to the US 23 freeway and south into Ohio .
The original bridge across the Saginaw River at Zilwaukee was built in 1960 as a bascule bridge to allow shipping traffic to use the river . Opening the drawbridge would back traffic up on I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 for upwards of four hours on holiday weekends . Approved in 1974 , construction on the replacement bridge started in October 1979 . A major construction accident in August 1982 delayed completion of the new Zilwaukee Bridge ; a bridge pier partially collapsed when contractors overloaded a section under construction . The affected 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) deck segment tilted to rest three feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) higher on one end and five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) lower on the other . The structure was originally supposed to cost $ 76 @.@ 8 million with a 1983 completion date ; in the end it cost $ 131 @.@ 3 million ( equivalent to $ 342 million in 2015 ) when the southbound span finally opened on September 19 , 1988 . The structure is the largest segmental concrete bridge in the country .
While that construction was being done , MDOT truncated US 10 at Bay City in 1986 ; this removed the concurrency between US 10 and US 23 that existed since 1926 . A few years later in 1992 , the freeway concept for the northeastern LP was revived again when MDOT initiated plans to study and build a new US 23 freeway from Standish northerly to Tawas City , Oscoda or Alpena . This proposal was brought up due to a high level of tourist traffic along the current routing since the mid @-@ 1960s . The FHWA mandated additional environmental studies for the project in 2000 , and MDOT withdrew the proposals two years later .
In 2015 , work began to reconfigure the interchange with I @-@ 96 near Brighton . The new configuration will add express lanes for I @-@ 96 in the previous median of that freeway while the existing carriageways will be converted into collector @-@ distributor lanes . Work on the project is expected to continue into 2016 .
= = Future = =
Officials in the Flint area have proposed extending a freeway to directly connect I @-@ 475 to US 23 . Such an extension , if built , would " include a new freeway coming out of I @-@ 475 , which would snake across Fenton and Cook roads before connecting into US 23 at Baldwin Road " . Proposals for the freeway connection have been around since the late 1990s , but they were indefinitely postponed in 2011 .
= = Memorial highway designations and tourist routes = =
Most of US 23 , along with US 2 in the Upper Peninsula , has been designated the United Spanish War Veterans Memorial Highway . The designation was conferred in Public Act 207 of 1945 , with companion legislation for US 2 in 1949 . Signs marking the highway were not erected until 1968 when Governor George W. Romney had them installed .
North of Standish , US 23 is a part of the Lake Huron Circle Tour ( LHCT ) . This tour was created in May 1986 as part of the overall Great Lakes Circle Tour through a joint effort between MDOT and its counterparts in Wisconsin , Minnesota and Ontario .
When the Michigan State Legislature consolidated the statutes defining the various memorial highways in 2001 , they included the Veterans of World War I Memorial Highway in the law . Defined along I @-@ 75 / US 23 between Saginaw and Bay City , the designation was included in Public Act 142 . That act also affected another previously designated moniker between the two cities . The Roberts @-@ Linton Highway was named in 1931 for local leaders who championed the construction of a highway along the Saginaw River . This name was applied to the original highway routing between Saginaw and Bay City ( now a part of M @-@ 13 ) . After the 2001 change , the name was moved to the US 23 freeway .
In May 2004 , the highway north of Standish was named the Sunrise Side Coastal Highway , a scenic highway designation through what is now called the Pure Michigan Byway Program . Since 2009 , they local committee that manages the byway designation has started using the Huron Shores Heritage Route name for the corridor . At the end of 2011 , the Northeast Michigan Council of Governments ( NEMCOG ) was working on funding a tourist promotion called " Telling Stories of the Sunrise Coast " through the US 23 Heritage Route Interpretive Program . Past efforts by NEMCOG included print media , logos , and other marketing efforts .
= = Historic bridges = =
MDOT maintains a listing of the historic bridges in the state ; along US 23 , the department has listed two structures . The bridge over the Ocqueoc River in Ocqueoc Township in Presque Isle County was built in 1937 . The 106 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 32 m ) structure is one of the last three deck truss bridges in the state . The roadway on the bridge is 38 feet ( 11 @.@ 6 m ) wide and carries two lanes of traffic . The bridge was reconstructed in 1994 .
The second bridge is the Cheboygan Bascule Bridge in Cheboygan . This bascule bridge was built in 1940 over the Cheboygan River as the last of its kind before World War II . It was built as a " two @-@ leaf bridge in a place where a single @-@ leaf bridge probably would have sufficed . " The initial construction of the structure was delayed when the contractor died , but it was completed in December 1940 . It was the second moveable bridge on the site , replacing an iron swing bridge built in 1877 . The structure is 155 feet ( 47 m ) long , composed of two 42 @-@ foot ( 13 m ) spans on either side of the central 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) span ; the roadway is 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide with four lanes for vehicle traffic . There are also pedestrian sidewalks on either side of the roadway . When the bridge is opened to allow river traffic to pass , boats have a 60 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 18 m ) channel for navigation . The bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 1 , 2000 , and reconstructed in 2003 .
= = Exit list = =
= HMS Temeraire ( 1798 ) =
HMS Temeraire was a 98 @-@ gun second @-@ rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy . Launched in 1798 , she served during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , mostly on blockades or convoy escort duties . She fought only one fleet action , the Battle of Trafalgar , but became so well known for her actions and her subsequent depictions in art and literature that she has been remembered as " The Fighting Temeraire " .
Built at Chatham Dockyard , Temeraire entered service on the Brest blockade with the Channel Fleet . Missions were tedious and seldom relieved by any action with the French fleet . The first incident of note came when several of her crew , hearing rumours they were to be sent to the West Indies at a time when peace with France seemed imminent , refused to obey orders . This act of mutiny eventually failed and a number of those responsible were tried and executed . Laid up during the Peace of Amiens , Temeraire returned to active service with the resumption of the wars with France , again serving with the Channel Fleet , and joined Horatio Nelson 's blockade of the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet in Cadiz in 1805 . At the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October , the ship went into action immediately astern of Nelson 's flagship , HMS Victory . During the battle Temeraire came to the rescue of the beleaguered Victory , and fought and captured two French ships , winning public renown in Britain .
After undergoing substantial repairs , Temeraire was employed blockading the French fleets and supporting British operations off the Spanish coasts . She went out to the Baltic in 1809 , defending convoys against Danish gunboat attacks , and by 1810 was off the Spanish coast again , helping to defend Cadiz against a French army . Her last action was against the French off Toulon , when she came under fire from shore batteries . The ship returned to Britain in 1813 for repairs , but was laid up . She was converted to a prison ship and moored in the River Tamar until 1819 . Further service brought her to Sheerness as a receiving ship , then a victualling depot , and finally a guard ship . The Admiralty ordered her to be sold in 1838 , and she was towed up the Thames to be broken up .
This final voyage was depicted in a J. M. W. Turner oil painting greeted with critical acclaim , entitled The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken up , 1838 . The painting continues to be held in high regard and was voted Britain 's favourite painting in 2005 .
= = Construction and commissioning = =
Temeraire was ordered from Chatham Dockyard on 9 December 1790 , to a design developed by Surveyor of the Navy Sir John Henslow . She was one of three ships of the Neptune class , alongside her sisters HMS Neptune and HMS Dreadnought . The keel was laid down at Chatham in July 1793 . Her construction was initially overseen by Master Shipwright Thomas Pollard and completed by his successor Edward Sison . Temeraire was launched on 11 September 1798 and the following day was taken into the graving dock to be fitted for sea . Her hull was fitted with copper sheathing , a process that took two weeks to complete . Refloated , she finished fitting out , and received her masts and yards . Her final costs came to £ 73 @,@ 241 , and included £ 59 @,@ 428 spent on the hull , masts and yards , and a further £ 13 @,@ 813 on rigging and stores .
She was commissioned on 21 March 1799 under Captain Peter Puget , becoming the second ship of the Royal Navy to bear the name Temeraire . Her predecessor had been the 74 @-@ gun third @-@ rate HMS Temeraire , a former French ship taken as a prize at the Battle of Lagos on 19 August 1759 by a fleet under Admiral Edward Boscawen . Puget was only in command until 26 July 1799 , during which time he oversaw the process of fitting the new Temeraire for sea . He was superseded by Captain Thomas Eyles on 27 July 1799 , while the vessel was anchored off St Helens , Isle of Wight .
= = With the Channel Fleet = =
Under Eyles 's command Temeraire finally put to sea at the end of July , flying the flag of Rear Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren , and joined the Channel Fleet under the overall command of Admiral Lord Bridport . The Channel Fleet was at that time principally engaged in the blockade of the French port of Brest , and Temeraire spent several long cruises of two or three months at a time patrolling the area . Eyles was superseded during this period by Temeraire 's former commander , Captain Puget , who resumed command on 14 October 1799 , and the following month Temeraire became the flagship of Rear Admiral James Whitshed .
Lord Bridport had been replaced as commander of the Channel Fleet by Admiral Lord St Vincent in mid @-@ 1799 , and the long blockade cruises were sustained throughout the winter and into the following year . On 20 April 1800 Puget was superseded as commander by Captain Edward Marsh . Marsh commanded Temeraire through the remainder of that year and for the first half of 1801 , until his replacement , Captain Thomas Eyles , arrived to resume command on 31 August . Rear Admiral Whitshed had also struck his flag by now , and Temeraire became the flagship of Rear Admiral George Campbell . By this time the Second Coalition against France had collapsed , and negotiations for peace were underway at Amiens . Lord St Vincent had been promoted to First Lord of the Admiralty , and command of the Channel Fleet passed to Admiral Sir William Cornwallis . With the end of the war imminent , Temeraire was taken off blockade duty and sent to Bantry Bay to await the arrival of a convoy , which she would then escort to the West Indies . Many of the crew had been serving continuously in the navy since the start of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793 , and had looked forward to returning to England now that peace seemed imminent . On hearing rumours that instead they were to be sent to the West Indies , around a dozen men began to agitate for the rest of the crew to refuse orders to sail for anywhere but England .
= = Mutiny = =
The first open clash between the mutineers and officers came on the morning of 3 December , when a small group of sailors gathered on the forecastle and , refusing orders to leave , began to argue with the officers . Captain Eyles asked to know their demands , which were an assurance that Temeraire would not go to the West Indies , but instead would return to England . Eventually Rear Admiral Campbell came down to speak to the men , and having informed them that the officers did not know the destination of the ship , he ordered them to disperse . The men went below decks and the incipient mutiny appeared to have been quashed . The ringleaders , numbering around a dozen , remained determined however , and made discreet inquiries among the rest of the crew . Having eventually determined that the majority of the crew would , if not actually support a mutiny , at least not oppose it , and that the Temeraire 's crew would be supported by the ship 's marines as well as the crews of some of the other warships in Bantry Bay , they decided to press ahead with their plans . The mutiny began with the crew closing the ship 's gunports , effectively barricading themselves below deck . Having done so , they refused orders to open them again , jeered the officers and threatened violence . The crew then came up on deck and once again demanded to know their destination and refused to obey orders to sail for anywhere but England . Having presented their demands they returned below decks and resumed the usual shipboard routine as much as they could .
Alarmed by the actions of the Temeraire 's crew , Campbell met with Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Andrew Mitchell the following day and informed him of the mutineers ' demands . Mitchell reported the news to the Admiralty while Campbell returned to Temeraire and summoned the crew on deck once more . He urged them to return to duty , and then dismissed them . Meanwhile , discipline had begun to break down among the mutineers . Several of the crew became drunk , and some of the officers were struck by rowdy seamen . When one of the marines who supported the mutiny was placed in irons for drunken behaviour and insolence , a crowd formed on deck and tried to free him . The officers resisted these attempts and as sailors began to push and threaten them , Campbell gave the order for the marines to arrest those he identified as the ringleaders . The marines hesitated , but then obeyed the order , driving the unruly seamen back and arresting a number of them , who were immediately placed in irons . Campbell ordered the remaining crew to abandon any mutinous actions , and deprived of its leaders , the mutiny collapsed , though the officers were on their guard for several days afterwards and the marines were ordered to carry out continuous patrols .
News of the mutiny created a sensation in England , and the Admiralty ordered Temeraire to sail immediately for Spithead while an investigation was carried out . Vice @-@ Admiral Mitchell was granted extraordinary powers regarding the death sentence and Temeraire 's marine complement was hastily augmented for the voyage to England . On the ship 's arrival , the 14 imprisoned ringleaders were swiftly court @-@ martialled in Portsmouth aboard HMS Gladiator , some on 6 January 1802 and the rest on 14 January . After deliberations , twelve were sentenced to be hanged , and the remaining two were to receive two hundred lashes each . Four men were duly hanged aboard Temeraire , and the remainder were hanged aboard several of the ships anchored at Portsmouth , including HMS Majestic , HMS Formidable , HMS Achille and HMS Centaur .
= = West Indies and the peace = =
After the executions , Temeraire was immediately sent to sea , sailing from Portsmouth for the Isle of Wight the day after and beginning preparations for her delayed voyage to the West Indies . She sailed for Barbados , arriving there on 24 February , and remained in the West Indies until the summer . During her time there the Treaty of Amiens was finally signed and ratified , and Temeraire was ordered back to Britain . She arrived at Plymouth on 28 September and Eyles paid her off on 5 October . Because of the drawdown in the size of the active navy as a result of the peace , Temeraire was laid up in the Hamoaze for the next eighteen months .
= = Return to service = =
The peace of Amiens was a brief interlude in the wars with Revolutionary France , and in 1803 the War of the Third Coalition began . Temeraire had deteriorated substantially during her long period spent laid up , and she was taken into dry dock on 22 May to repair and refit , starting with the replacement of her copper sheathing . Work was delayed when a heavy storm hit Plymouth in January 1804 , causing appreciable damage to Temeraire , but was finally completed by February 1804 , at a cost of £ 16 @,@ 898 . Command was assigned to Captain Eliab Harvey , and he arrived to take up his commission on 1 January 1804 . On putting to sea he sailed to join the Channel Fleet , still under the overall command of Admiral Cornwallis .
Temeraire now resumed her previous duties blockading the French at Brest . Heavy weather took its toll , forcing her to put into Torbay for extensive repairs after her long patrols , repairs which eventually amounted to £ 9 @,@ 143 . During this time Harvey was often absent from his command , usually attending to his duties as Member of Parliament for Essex . He was temporarily replaced by Captain William Kelly on 27 August 1804 , and he in turn was succeeded by Captain George Fawke on 6 April 1805 . Harvey returned to his ship on 9 July 1805 , and it was while he was in command that the reinforced Rochefort squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Robert Calder intercepted and attacked a Franco @-@ Spanish fleet at the Battle of Cape Finisterre . The French commander , Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve , was thwarted in his attempt to join the French forces at Brest , and instead sailed south to Ferrol , and then to Cadiz . When news of the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet 's location reached the Admiralty , they appointed Vice @-@ Admiral Horatio Nelson to take command of the blockading force at Cadiz , which at the time was being commanded by Vice @-@ Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood . Nelson was told to pick whichever ships he liked to serve under him , and one of those he specifically chose was Temeraire .
= = Battle of Trafalgar = =
Temeraire duly received orders to join the Cadiz blockade , and having sailed to rendezvous with Collingwood , Harvey awaited Nelson 's arrival . Nelson 's flagship , the 100 @-@ gun HMS Victory , arrived off Cadiz on 28 September , and he took over command of the fleet from Collingwood . He spent the next few weeks forming his plan of attack in preparation for the expected sortie of the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet , issuing it to his captains on 9 October in the form of a memorandum . The memorandum called for two divisions of ships to attack at right angles to the enemy line , severing its van from the centre and rear . A third advance squadron would be deployed as a reserve , with the ability to join one of the lines as the course of the battle dictated . Nelson placed the largest and most powerful ships at the heads of the lines , with Temeraire assigned to lead Nelson 's own column into battle . The fleet patrolled a considerable distance from the Spanish coast to lure the combined fleet out , and the ships took the opportunity to exercise and prepare for the coming battle . For Temeraire this probably involved painting her sides in the Nelson Chequer design , to enable the British ships to tell friend from foe in the confusion of battle .
The combined fleet put to sea on 19 October 1805 , and by 21 October was in sight of the British ships . Nelson formed up his lines and the British began to converge on the distant Franco @-@ Spanish fleet . Contrary to his original instructions , Nelson took the lead of the weather column in Victory . Concerned for the commander @-@ in @-@ chief 's safety in such an exposed position , Henry Blackwood , a long @-@ standing friend of Nelson and commander of the frigate HMS Euryalus that day , suggested that Nelson come aboard his ship to better observe and direct the battle . Nelson refused , so Blackwood instead tried to convince him to let Harvey come past him in the Temeraire , and so lead the column into battle . Nelson agreed to this , and signalled for Harvey to come past him . As Temeraire drew up towards Victory , Nelson decided that if he was standing aside to let another ship lead his line , so too should Collingwood , commanding the lee column of ships . He signalled Collingwood , aboard his flagship HMS Royal Sovereign , to let another ship come ahead of him , but Collingwood continued to surge ahead . Reconsidering his plan , Nelson is reported to have hailed the Temeraire , as she came up alongside Victory , with the words " I 'll thank you , Captain Harvey , to keep in your proper station , which is astern of the Victory " . Nelson 's instruction was followed up by a formal signal and Harvey dropped back reluctantly , but otherwise kept within one ship 's length of Victory as she sailed up to the Franco @-@ Spanish line .
Closely following Victory as she passed through the Franco @-@ Spanish line across the bows of the French flagship Bucentaure , Harvey was forced to sheer away quickly , just missing Victory 's stern . Turning to starboard , Harvey made for the 140 @-@ gun Spanish ship Santísima Trinidad and engaged her for twenty minutes , taking raking fire from two French ships , the 80 @-@ gun Neptune and the 74 @-@ gun Redoutable , as she did so . Redoutable 's broadside carried away Temeraire 's mizzen topmast , and while avoiding a broadside from Neptune , Temeraire narrowly avoided a collision with Redoutable . Another broadside from Neptune brought down Temeraire 's fore @-@ yard and main topmast , and damaged her fore mast and bowsprit . Harvey now became aware that the Redoutable had come up alongside the Victory and swept her decks with musket fire and grenades . A large party of Frenchmen now gathered on her decks ready to board the Victory . Temeraire was brought around ; appearing suddenly out of the smoke of the battle and slipping across Redoutable 's stern , Temeraire discharged a double @-@ shotted broadside into her . Jean Jacques Étienne Lucas , captain of the Redoutable , recorded that " ... the three @-@ decker [ Temeraire ] – who had doubtless perceived that the Victory had ceased fire and would inevitably be taken – ran foul of the Redoutable to starboard and overwhelmed us with the point @-@ blank fire of all her guns . It would be impossible to describe the horrible carnage produced by the murderous broadside of this ship . More than two hundred of our brave lads were killed or wounded by it . "
= = = Temeraire and Redoutable = = =
Temeraire then rammed into the Redoutable , dismounting many of the French ship 's guns , and worked her way alongside , after which her crew lashed the two ships together . Temeraire now poured continuous broadsides into the French ship , taking fire as she did so from the 112 @-@ gun Spanish ship Santa Ana lying off her stern , and from the 74 @-@ gun French ship Fougueux , which came up on Temeraire 's un @-@ engaged starboard side . Harvey ordered his gun crews to hold fire until Fougueux came within point blank range . Temeraire 's first broadside against Fougueux at a range of 100 yards caused considerable damage to the Frenchman 's rigging , and she drifted into Temeraire , whose crew promptly lashed her to the side . Temeraire was now lying between two French 74 @-@ gun ships . As Harvey later recalled in a letter to his wife " Perhaps never was a ship so circumstanced as mine , to have for more than three hours two of the enemy 's line of battle ships lashed to her . " Redoutable , sandwiched between Victory and Temeraire , suffered heavy casualties , reported by Captain Lucas as amounting to 300 dead and 222 wounded . During the fight grenades thrown from the decks and topmasts of Redoutable killed and wounded a number of Temeraire 's crew and set her starboard rigging and foresail on fire . There was a brief pause in the fighting while both sides worked to douse the flames . Temeraire narrowly escaped destruction when a grenade thrown from Redoutable exploded on her maindeck , nearly igniting the after @-@ magazine . Master @-@ At @-@ Arms John Toohig prevented the fire from spreading and saved not only Temeraire , but the surrounding ships , which would have been caught in the explosion .
After twenty minutes fighting both Victory and Temeraire , the Redoutable had been reduced to a floating wreck . Temeraire had also suffered heavily , damaged when Redoutable 's main mast fell onto her poop deck , and having had her own topmasts shot away . Informed that his ship was in danger of sinking , Lucas finally called for quarter to the Temeraire . Harvey sent a party across under the second lieutenant , John Wallace , to take charge of the ship .
= = = Temeraire and Fougueux = = =
Lashed together , Temeraire and Fougueux exchanged fire , Temeraire initially clearing the French ship 's upper deck with small arms fire . The French rallied , but the greater height of the three @-@ decked Temeraire compared to the two @-@ decked Fougueux thwarted their attempts to board . Instead Harvey dispatched his own boarding party , led by First @-@ Lieutenant Thomas Fortescue Kennedy , which entered Fougueux via her main deck ports and chains . The French tried to defend the decks port by port , but were steadily overwhelmed . Fougueux 's captain , Louis Alexis Baudoin , had suffered a fatal wound earlier in the fighting , leaving Commander Francois Bazin in charge . When he learned that nearly all of the officers were dead or wounded and that most of the guns were out of action , Bazin surrendered the ship to the boarders .
Temeraire had by now fought both French ships to a standstill , at considerable cost to herself . She had sustained casualties of 47 killed and 76 wounded . All her sails and yards had been destroyed , only her lower masts remained , and the rudder head and starboard cathead had been shot away . Eight feet of her starboard hull was staved in and both quarter galleries had been destroyed . Harvey signalled for a frigate to tow his damaged ship out of the line , and HMS Sirius came up to assist . Before Sirius could make contact , Temeraire came under fire from a counter @-@ attack by the as @-@ yet unengaged van of the combined fleet , led by Rear Admiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley . Harvey ordered that the few guns that could be brought to bear be fired in response , and the attack was eventually beaten off by fresh British ships arriving on the scene .
= = Storm = =
Shortly after the battle had ended , a severe gale struck the area . Several of the captured French and Spanish ships foundered in the rising seas , including both of Temeraire 's prizes , the Fougueux and the Redoutable . Lost in the wrecks were a considerable number of their crews , as well as 47 Temeraire crewmen , serving as prize crews . Temeraire rode out the storm following the battle , sometimes being taken in tow by less damaged ships , sometimes riding at anchor . She took aboard a number of Spanish and French prisoners transferred from other prizes , including some transferred from the Euryalus , which was serving as the temporary flagship of Cuthbert Collingwood . Harvey took the opportunity to go aboard the Euryalus and present his account of the battle to Collingwood , and so became the only captain to do so before Collingwood wrote his dispatch about the victory .
= = = Return to England = = =
Temeraire finally put into Gibraltar on 2 November , eleven days after the battle had been fought . After undergoing minor repairs she sailed for England , arriving at Portsmouth on 1 December , three days before Victory passed by carrying Nelson 's body . The battle @-@ damaged ships quickly became tourist attractions , and visitors flocked to tour them . Temeraire was particularly popular on her arrival , being the only ship singled out by name in Collingwood 's dispatch for her heroic conduct . Collingwood wrote
A circumstance occurred during the action which so strongly marks the invincible spirit of British seamen , when engaging the enemies of their country , that I cannot resist the pleasure I have in making it known to their Lordships ; the Temeraire was boarded by accident ; or design , by a French ship on one side , and a Spaniard on the other ; the contest was vigorous , but , in the end the combined ensigns were torn from the poop and the British hoisted in their places .
Collingwood 's account , probably based largely on Harvey 's report in the immediate aftermath of the battle , contained several errors . Temeraire had closely engaged two French ships , rather than a French and a Spanish ship , and had not been boarded by either during the action . Nevertheless , the account was popular and a print was rushed out purporting to show Harvey taking the lead in clearing Temeraire 's decks of enemy seamen .
A number of artists visited the newly returned Trafalgar ships , including John Livesay , drawing master at the Royal Naval Academy . Livesay produced several sketches of battle @-@ damaged ships , sending them to Nicholas Pocock to be used for Pocock 's large paintings of the battle . Temeraire was one of the ships he sketched . Another visitor to Portsmouth was J. M. W. Turner . It is not known whether he visited Temeraire , though he did go aboard Victory , making preparatory notes and sketches and interviewing sailors who had been in the battle . The story of the Temeraire had become firmly ingrained in the public mind , so much so that when the House of Commons passed a vote of thanks to the men who had fought at Trafalgar , only three were specifically named . Nelson , Collingwood , and Harvey of the Temeraire .
= = Mediterranean and Baltic service = =
The battle @-@ damaged Temeraire was almost immediately dry @-@ docked in Portsmouth to undergo substantial repairs , which eventually lasted sixteen months and cost £ 25 @,@ 352 . She finally left the dockyard in mid @-@ 1807 , now under the command of Captain Sir Charles Hamilton . Having fitted her for sea , Hamilton sailed to the Mediterranean in September and joined the fleet blockading the French in Toulon . The service was largely uneventful , and Temeraire returned to Britain in April 1808 to undergo repairs at Plymouth . During her time in Britain the strategic situation in Europe changed as Spain rebelled against French domination and entered the war against France . Temeraire sailed in June to join naval forces operating off the Spanish coast in support of anti @-@ French forces in the Peninsular War .
This service continued until early 1809 , when she returned to Britain . By now Britain was heavily involved in the Baltic , protecting mercantile interests . An expedition under Sir James Gambier in July 1807 had captured most of the Danish Navy at the Battle of Copenhagen , in response to fears that it might fall into Napoleon 's hands , but precipitating war with the Danes . Captain Hamilton left the ship , and was superseded by Captain Edward Sneyd Clay . Temeraire now became the flagship of Rear Admiral Sir Manley Dixon , with orders to go to the Baltic to reinforce the fleet stationed there under Sir James Saumarez . Temeraire arrived in May 1809 and was sent to blockade Karlskrona on the Swedish coast .
While on patrol with the 64 @-@ gun HMS Ardent and the frigate HMS Melpomene , Temeraire became involved in one of the heaviest Danish gunboat attacks of the war . A party of men from Ardent had been landed on the island of Romsø , but were taken by surprise in a Danish night attack , which saw most of the Ardent men captured . The Melpomene was sent under a flag of truce to negotiate for their release , but on returning from this mission , was becalmed . A flotilla of thirty Danish gunboats then launched an attack , taking advantage of the stranded Melpomene 's inability to bring her broadside to bear on them . Melpomene signalled for help to the Temeraire , which immediately dispatched boats to her assistance . They engaged and then drove off the Danish ships , and then helped the Melpomene to safety . She had been heavily damaged and suffered casualties of five killed and twenty @-@ nine wounded . Temeraire 's later Baltic service involved being dispatched to observe the Russian fleet at Reval , during which time she made a survey of the island of Nargen . After important blockading and convoy escort work , Temeraire was ordered back to Britain as winter arrived , and she arrived in Plymouth in November 1809 .
= = Iberian service = =
After a period under repair in Plymouth , Temeraire was recommissioned under the command of Captain Edwin H. Chamberlayne in late January 1810 . The Peninsular War had reached a critical stage , with the Spanish government besieged in Cadiz by the French . Temeraire , now the flagship of Rear Admiral Francis Pickmore , was ordered to reinforce the city 's water defences , and provided men from her sailor and marine complement to crew batteries and gunboats . Men from Temeraire were heavily involved in the fighting until July 1810 , when Pickmore was ordered to sail to the Mediterranean and take up a new position as port admiral at Mahón . Temeraire was thereafter based either at Mahón or off Toulon with the blockading British fleet under Admiral Sir Edward Pellew . Chamberlayne was replaced by Captain Joseph Spear in March 1811 , and for the most part the blockade was uneventful . Though possessing a powerful fleet , the French commander avoided any contact with the blockading force and stayed in port , or else made very short voyages , returning to the harbour when the British appeared .
Temeraire 's one brush with the French during this period came on 13 August 1811 . Having received orders to sail to Minorca , Spear attempted to tack out of Hyères Bay . As he tried to do so , the wind fell away , leaving Temeraire becalmed and caught in a current which caused her to drift towards land . She came under fire from a shore battery on Pointe des Medes , which wounded several of her crew . Her boats were quickly manned , and together with boats sent from the squadron , Temeraire was towed out of range of the French guns . She then sailed to Minorca and underwent repairs . During this period an epidemic of yellow fever broke out , infecting nearly the entire crew and killing around a hundred crewmen . Pellew ordered her back to Britain , and health gradually improved as she sailed through the Atlantic .
= = Retirement = =
Temeraire arrived in Plymouth on 9 February 1812 and was docked for a survey several weeks later . The survey reported that she was " A well built and strong ship but apparently much decay 'd " . Spear was superseded on 4 March by Captain Samuel Hood Linzee , but Linzee 's command was short @-@ lived . Temeraire left the dock on 13 March and was paid off one week later . Advances in naval technology had developed more powerful and strongly built warships , and though still comparatively new , Temeraire was no longer considered desirable for front @-@ line service . While laid up the decision was taken to convert her into a prison ship to alleviate overcrowding caused by large influxes of French prisoners from the Peninsular War campaigns . Conversion work was carried out at Plymouth between November and December 1813 , after which she was laid up in the River Tamar as a prison hulk . From 1814 she was under the nominal command of Lieutenant John Wharton . Despite being laid up and disarmed Temeraire and the rest of her class were nominally re @-@ rated as 104 @-@ gun first rates in February 1817 .
Temeraire 's service as a prison ship lasted until 1819 , at which point she was selected for conversion to a receiving ship . She was extensively refitted at Plymouth between September 1819 and June 1820 at a cost of £ 27 @,@ 733 , and then sailed to Sheerness Dockyard . As a receiving ship she served as a temporary berth for new naval recruits until they received a posting to a ship . She fulfilled this role for eight years , until becoming a victualling depot in 1829 . Her final role was as a guard ship at Sheerness , under the title " Guardship of the Ordinary and Captain @-@ Superintendent 's ship of the Fleet Reserve in the Medway " . This final post as flagship of the Medway Reserve involved her being repainted and rearmed , and she was used to train boys belonging to The Marine Society . For the last two years of her service , from 1836 to 1838 she was under the nominal command of Captain Thomas Fortescue Kennedy , in his post as Captain @-@ Superintendent of Sheerness . Kennedy had been Temeraire 's first @-@ lieutenant at Trafalgar .
= = Sale and disposal = =
Kennedy received orders from the Admiralty in June 1838 to have Temeraire valued in preparation for her sale out of the service . She fired her guns for the last time on 28 June in celebration of the Coronation of Queen Victoria , and work began on dismantling her on 4 July . Kennedy delegated this task to Captain Sir John Hill , commander of HMS Ocean . Her masts , stores and guns were all removed and her crew paid off , before Temeraire was put up for sale with twelve other ships . She was sold by Dutch auction on 16 August 1838 to John Beatson , a shipbreaker based at Rotherhithe for £ 5 @,@ 530 . Beatson was then faced with the task of transporting the ship 55 miles from Sheerness to Rotherhithe , the largest ship to have attempted this voyage . To accomplish this he hired two steam tugs from the Thames Steam Towing Company and employed a Rotherhithe pilot named William Scott and twenty five men to sail her up the Thames , at a cost of £ 58 .
= = Last voyage = =
The tugs took the hulk of the Temeraire in tow at 7 : 30 am on 5 September , taking advantage of the beginning of the slack water . They had reached Greenhithe by 1 : 30 pm at the ebb of the tide , where they anchored overnight . They resumed the journey at 8 : 30 am the following day , passing Woolwich and then Greenwich at noon . They reached Limehouse Reach shortly afterwards and brought her safely to Beatson 's Wharf at 2 pm . The Temeraire was hauled up onto the mud , where she lay as she was slowly broken up . The final voyage was announced in a number of papers , and thousands of spectators came to see her towed up the Thames or laid up at Beatson 's yard . The shipbreakers undertook a thorough dismantling , removing all the copper sheathing , rudder pintles and gudgeons , copper bolts , nails and other fastenings to be sold back to the Admiralty . The timber was mostly sold to house builders and shipyard owners , though some was retained for working into specialist commemorative furniture .
= = Legacy = =
The immediate legacy of the Temeraire was the use of the timber taken from her as she was broken up . A gong stand made from Temeraire timber was a wedding present to the future King George V on the occasion of his marriage to Mary of Teck , and is held at Balmoral Castle . A barometer , gavel , and some miscellaneous timber are in the collections of the National Maritime Museum , and chairs made from Temeraire oak are in the possession of the Royal Naval Museum , Portsmouth , Lloyd 's Register , London and the Whanganui Regional Museum , Whanganui . An altar , communion rail and two bishop 's chairs survive in St. Mary 's Church , Rotherhithe . A ship model of the Temeraire made by prisoners of war uses a stand made from wood taken from her , and is currently in the Watermen 's Hall in London . Other relics of the Temeraire known to exist or have existed are a tea caddy made for her signal midshipman at Trafalgar , James Eaton , and sold at auction in 2000 , the frame for an oil painting by Sir Edwin Landseer titled Neptune , and a mantelpiece made for Beatson 's office , supported by figures of Atlas supposedly taken from Temeraire 's stern gallery . The mantelpiece can no longer be traced , nor can a plaque once fixed to Temeraire 's deck commemorating Nelson 's signal at Trafalgar , nor a wooden leg made for a Trafalgar veteran from Temeraire 's wood . John Ruskin foreshadowed the fate of the Temeraire 's wood in an essay which claimed that " Perhaps , where the low gate opens to some cottage garden , the tired traveller may ask , idly , why the moss grows so green on its rugged wood , and even the sailor 's child may not answer nor know that the night dew lies deep in the war rents of the wood of the old Temeraire . "
= = = Art = = =
Temeraire features in a number of paintings and prints , the earliest commemorating her role in the battle of Trafalgar . She can be seen at least partially in paintings of the battle by Clarkson Frederick Stanfield , John Christian Schetky , Nicholas Pocock , Thomas Buttersworth and Thomas Whitcombe . A fictionalised depiction of her launch was produced by Philip Burgoyne . Later representations of the retired Temeraire were also popular . Though no known contemporary image of her in the prison ship role exists , she was painted while a guardship on the Medway in 1833 by Edward William Cooke , and by William Beatson and J. J. Williams while laid up at Rotherhithe in 1838 . More recently she has been the subject of paintings by Geoff Hunt . The most famous painting of Temeraire was made by J. M. W. Turner and titled The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken up , 1838 . Turner depicts the Temeraire on her last voyage , towed up the Thames by a small black steam tug as the sun sets ( or dawns ) . In choosing his title Turner created an enduring appellation , as previously she had been known to her crew as the " saucy " Temeraire . Turner presented it for exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1839 with an accompanying excerpt , slightly altered , of Thomas Campbell 's poem Ye Mariners of England .
The flag which braved the battle and the breeze ,
no longer owns her .
Turner 's painting achieved widespread critical acclaim , and accolades from the likes of John Ruskin and William Makepeace Thackeray . It was Turner 's particular favourite ; he only lent it once and refused to ever do so again . He also refused to sell it at any price , and on his death bequeathed it to the nation . It hangs today in the National Gallery , and in 2005 it was voted the nation 's favourite painting in a poll organized by BBC Radio 4 's Today programme .
= = = Poetry and songs = = =
The Temeraire became the subject of a number of poems and songs commemorating her life and fate . An early work by James Duff written between 1813 and 1819 referenced her role as a prison ship , and was set to music in 1857 under the title The Brave Old Temeraire . More generally , an anonymous poem entitled The Wooden Walls of Old England appeared in Fraser 's Magazine shortly after Temeraire 's arrival at Rotherhithe , and lamented the fate of the great sailing warships . Turner 's painting created an enduring interest in the story of the Temeraire and several poems appeared in the decades following her breaking up . Gerald Massey wrote The Fighting Temeraire Tugged to Her Last Berth , Herman Melville produced The Temeraire , and Henry Newbolt wrote The Fighting Temeraire , with its closing lines
Now the sunset 's breezes shiver ,
And she 's fading down the river ,
But in England 's song forever ,
She 's the Fighting Temeraire .
= Murasaki Shikibu =
Murasaki Shikibu ( 紫 式部 , English : Lady Murasaki ; c . 973 or 978 – c . 1014 or 1031 ) was a Japanese novelist , poet and lady @-@ in @-@ waiting at the Imperial court during the Heian period . She is best known as the author of The Tale of Genji , written in Japanese between about 1000 and 1012 . Murasaki Shikibu is a nickname ; her real name is unknown , but she may have been Fujiwara Takako , who was mentioned in a 1007 court diary as an imperial lady @-@ in @-@ waiting .
Heian women were traditionally excluded from learning Chinese , the written language of government , but Murasaki , raised in her erudite father 's household , showed a precocious aptitude for the Chinese classics and managed to acquire fluency . She married in her mid @-@ to late twenties and gave birth to a daughter before her husband died , two years after they were married . It is uncertain when she began to write The Tale of Genji , but it was probably while she was married or shortly after she was widowed . In about 1005 , Murasaki was invited to serve as a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting to Empress Shōshi at the Imperial court , probably because of her reputation as a writer . She continued to write during her service , adding scenes from court life to her work . After five or six years , she left court and retired with Shōshi to the Lake Biwa region . Scholars differ on the year of her death ; although most agree on 1014 , others have suggested she was alive in 1031 .
Murasaki wrote The Diary of Lady Murasaki , a volume of poetry , and The Tale of Genji . Within a decade of its completion , Genji was distributed throughout the provinces ; within a century it was recognized as a classic of Japanese literature and had become a subject of scholarly criticism . Early in the 20th century her work was translated ; a six @-@ volume English translation was completed in 1933 . Scholars continue to recognize the importance of her work , which reflects Heian court society at its peak . Since the 13th century her works have been illustrated by Japanese artists and well @-@ known ukiyo @-@ e woodblock masters .
= = Early life = =
Murasaki Shikibu was born c . 973 in Heian @-@ kyō , Japan , into the northern Fujiwara clan descending from Fujiwara no Yoshifusa , the first 9th @-@ century Fujiwara regent . The Fujiwara clan dominated court politics until the end of the 11th century through strategic marriages of Fujiwara daughters into the imperial family and the use of regencies . In the late 10th century and early 11th century , Fujiwara no Michinaga arranged his four daughters into marriages with emperors , giving him unprecedented power . Murasaki 's great @-@ grandfather , Fujiwara no Kanesuke , had been in the top tier of the aristocracy , but her branch of the family gradually lost power and by the time of Murasaki 's birth was at the middle to lower ranks of the Heian aristocracy — the level of provincial governors . The lower ranks of the nobility were typically posted away from court to undesirable positions in the provinces , exiled from the centralized power and court in Kyoto .
Despite the loss of status , the family had a reputation among the literati through Murasaki 's paternal great @-@ grandfather and grandfather , both of whom were well @-@ known poets . Her great @-@ grandfather , Fujiwara no Kanesuke , had fifty @-@ six poems included in thirteen of the Twenty @-@ one Imperial Anthologies , the Collections of Thirty @-@ six Poets and the Yamato Monogatari ( Tales of Yamato ) . Her great @-@ grandfather and grandfather both had been friendly with Ki no Tsurayuki , who became notable for popularizing verse written in Japanese . Her father , Fujiwara no Tametoki , attended the State Academy ( Daigaku @-@ ryō ) and became a well @-@ respected scholar of Chinese classics and poetry ; his own verse was anthologized . He entered public service around 968 as a minor official and was given a governorship in 996 . He stayed in service until about 1018 . Murasaki 's mother was descended from the same branch of northern Fujiwara as Tametoki . The couple had three children , a son and two daughters .
The names of women were not recorded in the Heian era . Murasaki 's real name is not known ; as was customary for women of the period , she went by a nickname , Murasaki Shikibu . Women took nicknames associated with a male relative : " Shikibu " refers to Shikibu @-@ shō , the Ministry of Ceremonials where her father was a functionary ; " Murasaki " may be derived from the color violet associated with wisteria , the meaning of the word fuji , although it is more likely that " Murasaki " was a court nickname . Michinaga mentions the names of a few ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting in a 1007 diary entry ; one , Fujiwara Takako ( Kyōshi ) , may be Murasaki 's real name .
In Heian @-@ era Japan , husbands and wives kept separate households ; children were raised with their mothers , although the patrilineal system was still followed . Murasaki was unconventional because she lived in her father 's household , most likely on Teramachi Street in Kyoto , with her younger brother Nobunori . Their mother died , perhaps in childbirth , when the children were quite young . Murasaki had at least three half @-@ siblings raised with their mothers ; she was very close to one sister who died in her twenties .
Murasaki was born at a period when Japan was becoming more isolated , after missions to China had ended and a stronger national culture was emerging . In the 9th and 10th centuries , Japanese gradually became a written language through the development of kana , a syllabary based on abbreviations of Chinese characters . In Murasaki 's lifetime men continued to write in Chinese , the language of government , but kana became the written language of noblewomen , setting the foundation for unique forms of Japanese literature .
Chinese was taught to Murasaki 's brother as preparation for a career in government , and during her childhood , living in her father 's household , she learned and became proficient in classical Chinese . In her diary she wrote , " When my brother ... was a young boy learning the Chinese classics , I was in the habit of listening to him and I became unusually proficient at understanding those passages that he found too difficult to understand and memorize . Father , a most learned man , was always regretting the fact : ' Just my luck , ' he would say , ' What a pity she was not born a man ! ' " With her brother she studied Chinese literature , and she probably also received instruction in more traditional subjects such as music , calligraphy and Japanese poetry . Murasaki 's education was unorthodox . Louis Perez explains in The History of Japan that " Women ... were thought to be incapable of real intelligence and therefore were not educated in Chinese . " Murasaki was aware that others saw her as " pretentious , awkward , difficult to approach , prickly , too fond of her tales , haughty , prone to versifying , disdainful , cantankerous and scornful " . Asian literature scholar Thomas Inge believes she had " a forceful personality that seldom won her friends . "
= = Marriage = =
Aristocratic Heian women lived restricted and secluded lives , allowed to speak to men only when they were close relatives or household members . Murasaki 's autobiographical poetry shows that she socialized with women but had limited contact with men other than her father and brother ; she often exchanged poetry with women but never with men . Unlike most noblewomen of her status , she did not marry on reaching puberty ; instead she stayed in her father 's household until her mid @-@ twenties or perhaps even to her early thirties .
In 996 when her father was posted to a four @-@ year governorship in Echizen Province , Murasaki went with him , although it was uncommon for a noblewoman of the period to travel such a distance on a trip that could take as long as five days . She returned to Kyoto , probably in 998 , to marry her father 's friend Fujiwara no Nobutaka ( c . 950 – c . 1001 ) , a much older second cousin . Descended from the same branch of the Fujiwara clan , he was a court functionary and bureaucrat at the Ministry of Ceremonials , with a reputation for dressing extravagantly and as a talented dancer . In his late forties at the time of their marriage , he had multiple households with an unknown number of wives and offspring . Gregarious and well known at court , he was involved in numerous romantic relationships that may have continued after his marriage to Murasaki . As was customary , she would have remained in her father 's household where her husband would have visited her . Nobutaka had been granted more than one governorship , and by the time of his marriage to Murasaki he was probably quite wealthy . Accounts of their marriage vary : Richard Bowring writes that the marriage was happy , but Japanese literature scholar Haruo Shirane sees indications in her poems that she resented her husband .
The couple 's daughter , Kenshi ( Kataiko ) , was born in 999 . Two years later Nobutaka died during a cholera epidemic . As a married woman Murasaki would have had servants to run the household and care for her daughter , giving her ample leisure time . She enjoyed reading and had access to romances ( monogatari ) such as The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter and The Tales of Ise . Scholars believe she may have started writing The Tale of Genji before her husband 's death ; it is known she was writing after she was widowed , perhaps in a state of grief . In her diary she describes her feelings after her husband 's death : " I felt depressed and confused . For some years I had existed from day to day in listless fashion ... doing little more than registering the passage of time ... The thought of my continuing loneliness was quite unbearable " .
According to legend , Murasaki retreated to Ishiyama @-@ dera at Lake Biwa , where she was inspired to write The Tale of Genji on an August night while looking at the moon . Although scholars dismiss the factual basis of the story of her retreat , Japanese artists often depicted her at Ishiyama Temple staring at the moon for inspiration . She may have been commissioned to write the story and may have known an exiled courtier in a similar position to her hero Prince Genji . Murasaki would have distributed newly written chapters of Genji to friends who in turn would have re @-@ copied them and passed them on . By this practice the story became known and she gained a reputation as an author .
In her early to mid @-@ thirties , she became a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting ( nyōbō ) at court , most likely because of her reputation as an author . Chieko Mulhern writes in Japanese Women Writers , a Biocritical Sourcebook that scholars have wondered why Murasaki made such a move at a comparatively late period in her life . Her diary evidences that she exchanged poetry with Michinaga after her husband 's death , leading to speculation that the two may have been lovers . Bowring sees no evidence that she was brought to court as Michinaga 's concubine , although he did bring her to court without following official channels . Mulhern thinks Michinaga wanted to have Murasaki at court to educate his daughter Shōshi .
= = Court life = =
Heian culture and court life reached a peak early in the 11th century . The population of Kyoto grew to around 100 @,@ 000 as the nobility became increasingly isolated at the Heian Palace in government posts and court service . Courtiers became overly refined with little to do , insulated from reality , preoccupied with the minutiae of court life , turning to artistic endeavors . Emotions were commonly expressed through the artistic use of textiles , fragrances , calligraphy , colored paper , poetry , and layering of clothing in pleasing color combinations — according to mood and season . Those who showed an inability to follow conventional aesthetics quickly lost popularity , particularly at court . Popular pastimes for Heian noblewomen — who adhered to rigid fashions of floor @-@ length hair , whitened skin and blackened teeth — included having love affairs , writing poetry and keeping diaries . The literature that Heian court women wrote is recognized as some of the earliest and among the best literature written in the Japanese canon .
= = = Rival courts and women poets = = =
When in 995 Michinaga 's two brothers Fujiwara no Michitaka and Fujiwara no Michikane died leaving the regency vacant , Michinaga quickly won a power struggle against his nephew Fujiwara no Korechika ( brother to Teishi , Emperor Ichijō 's wife ) , and , aided by his sister Senshi , he assumed power . Teishi had supported her brother Korechika , who was later discredited and banished from court , causing her to lose power . Four years later Michinaga sent Shōshi , his eldest daughter , to Emperor Ichijō 's harem when she was about 12 . A year after placing Shōshi in the imperial harem , in an effort to undermine Teishi 's influence and increase Shōshi 's standing , Michinaga had her named Empress although Teishi already held the title . As historian Donald Shively explains , " Michinaga shocked even his admirers by arranging for the unprecedented appointment of Teishi ( or Sadako ) and Shōshi as concurrent empresses of the same emperor , Teishi holding the usual title of " Lustrous Heir @-@ bearer " kōgō and Shōshi that of " Inner Palatine " ( chūgū ) , a toponymically derived equivalent coined for the occasion " . About five years later , Michinaga brought Murasaki to Shōshi 's court , in a position that Bowring describes as a companion @-@ tutor .
Heian Imperial court life was immensely fashionable , but also dissolute . Court women lived in seclusion , were known by nicknames and , through strategic marriages , were used to gain political power . Despite their seclusion , some women wielded considerable influence , often achieved through competitive salons , dependent on the quality of the attendants . Ichijō 's mother and Michinaga 's sister , Senshi , had an influential salon , and Michinaga probably wanted Shōshi to surround herself with skilled women such as Murasaki to build a rival salon .
Shōshi was 16 to 19 when Murasaki joined her court . According to Arthur Waley , Shōshi was a serious @-@ minded young lady , whose living arrangements were divided between her father 's household and her court at the Imperial Palace . She gathered around her talented women writers such as Izumi Shikibu and Akazome Emon — the author of an early vernacular history , The Tale of Flowering Fortunes . The rivalry that existed among the women is evident in Murasaki 's diary , where she wrote disparagingly of Izumi : " Izumi Shikibu is an amusing letter @-@ writer ; but there is something not very satisfactory about her . She has a gift for dashing off informal compositions in a careless running @-@ hand ; but in poetry she needs either an interesting subject or some classic model to imitate . Indeed it does not seem to me that in herself she is really a poet at all . "
Sei Shōnagon , author of the The Pillow Book , had been in service as lady @-@ in @-@ waiting to Teishi when Shōshi came to court ; it is possible that Murasaki was invited to Shōshi 's court as a rival to Shōnagon . Teishi died in 1001 , before Murasaki entered service with Shōshi , so the two writers were not there concurrently , but Murasaki , who wrote about Shōnagon in her diary , certainly knew of her , and to an extent was influenced by her . Shōnagon 's The Pillow Book may have been commissioned as a type of propaganda to highlight Teishi 's court , known for its educated ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting . Japanese literature scholar Joshua Mostow believes Michinaga provided Murasaki to Shōshi as an equally or better educated woman , so as to showcase Shōshi 's court in a similar manner .
The two writers had different temperaments : Shōnagon was witty , clever , and outspoken ; Murasaki was withdrawn and sensitive . Entries in Murasaki 's diary show that the two may not have been on good terms . Murasaki wrote , " Sei Shōnagon ... was dreadfully conceited . She thought herself so clever , littered her writing with Chinese characters , [ which ] left a great deal to be desired . " Keene thinks that Murasaki 's impression of Shōnagon could have been influenced by Shōshi and the women at her court because Shōnagon served Shōshi 's rival empress . Furthermore , he believes Murasaki was brought to court to write Genji | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the program himself , and drafted official proclamations honoring both Tom Cruise and L. Ron Hubbard . Describing himself as a Christian , he distanced himself from Scientology but said he believes in the Purification Rundown . Another councillor ( and chair of the Public Safety Committee ) , Peter Vallone , Jr. vocally criticized the detoxification project and argued that public money should not be spent on it . He accused Monserrate of crossing the line between " cult and state . "
The project 's publicity included favorable quotations from Senator Charles Schumer and from Michael Balboni , New York 's deputy secretary for Public Security , though Schumer later withdrew his support and Balboni denied ever making the statement . Council speaker Christine C. Quinn denounced the program as meritless . U.S. Representative Carolyn B. Maloney wrote a letter supporting the project . Dr. Bob Hoffman of the New York City Poison Control Center warned that the Purification Rundown is potentially dangerous , calling it " hocus pocus . " Mayor Doreen Ehrbar of Williston Park took part in the opening ceremony for the Long Island clinic .
Neither the police nor the fire department officially supported the project . The Uniformed Firefighters Association initially supported it , but withdrew when the connection to the Church of Scientology was revealed . Firefighter Union President Patrick Bahnken said his members ' lives had benefited from the program , and that it had involved no religious rhetoric . Deputy Fire Commissioner Frank Gribbon of the FDNY told the New York Times , " while we are aware some members of the department have availed themselves of the program , we in no way endorse it . " Officials at the department raised concerns that firefighters were giving up existing medications in order to take part . The department 's deputy chief medical officer Dr. David Prezant said , " It 's not our job to say you can 't go . All we can do is say there 's no proven evidence it works . "
Actress and radio show host Janeane Garofalo drew criticism by allowing actress Leah Remini , then a Scientologist , to promote the project on her Air America Radio show .
= = Outcomes = =
It was reported in October 2007 that 838 people had completed the program . The clinic displayed towels with colored stains , as evidence that toxic material had been sweated out in the saunas . According to its Director , Jim Woodworth , during the Purification Rundown firefighters had passed odd @-@ colored bowel movements and sweated out mercury , aluminium and magnesium . The Fire Department 's chief medical officer , Dr. Kerry Kelly , criticized the lack of objective evidence , saying , " I have trouble believing in these purple @-@ stained towels . "
An investigation by the New York Press asked a number of independent doctors about the evidence for the Purification Rundown . None of them endorsed the program 's effectiveness and some explicitly described it as dangerous . Several said that no peer @-@ reviewed research on the rundown had been published in any medical journal . Some apparently supportive studies have been published , but these lack control groups and have other scientific failings . According to Deputy Fire Commissioner Frank Gribbon , doctors investigating the program on behalf of the Fire Department concluded that it was not detoxifying . University of Georgia bioterrorism expert Cham Dallas also denied that the procedure could detoxify , saying " It sounds great and they mean well , but it just doesn 't work . "
In 2007 , James Dahlgren and colleagues published a small @-@ sample pilot study assessing the project . Dahlgren is a doctor who promotes the Purification Rundown as a method of detoxification . The study claimed to find evidence both of elevated levels of polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans ( PCDFs ) in the rescue workers and improvement during the regime . Two scientists from Cambridge Environmental , Inc. published a thorough critique of the study . They questioned the premise that WTC rescue workers needed detoxification , citing studies that had found that their blood concentration of toxins was no greater than normal .
" [ W ] ith few exceptions , people 's body burdens of PCBs and other ' dioxin @-@ like compounds ' are determined almost exclusively by the food we eat , not by the air we breathe . Firefighters may occasionally receive on @-@ the @-@ job exposures to PCBs and PCDFs , but these would be from having fought PCB @-@ containing electrical transformer fires , not from 9 / 11 . "
The paper argues that the project never properly tested its outcomes and concludes that application of the " potentially dangerous " Purification Rundown to the health problems of 9 / 11 workers is " unconscionable " .
Many of the participants spoke favorably of the program and reported improved physical and mental health . Others said they were just taking advantage of the free saunas . One Fire Department lieutenant was quoted describing colleagues as desperate for help with the distress they felt in the aftermath of the attacks , to the point that they would try anything . Fire Department officials raised concerns about the project , saying that firefighters were being required to give up inhalers , pills and other orthodox medication . Two weeks into the program , one firefighter passed out and was taken to an emergency room with severe asthma , later saying that he had been asked to stop using his inhaler . According to the clinic 's associate medical director , Dr. Kawabena Nyamekye , participants were being helped off medication at their own insistence , not at the request of Downtown Medical . A former worker at Downtown Medical told reporters that staff were discouraged from calling for an ambulance even in an emergency , and that one of them had been required to break off contact with her boyfriend because he had left Scientology . A spokesman responded that the clinic had " a clear policy of calling 911 when needed . "
= Three @-@ cent nickel =
The copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent piece , often called a three @-@ cent nickel piece or three @-@ cent nickel , was designed by US Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre and struck by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1865 to 1889 . It was initially popular , but its place in commerce was supplanted by the five @-@ cent piece , or nickel .
With precious metal federal coinage hoarded during the economic turmoil of the American Civil War , including the silver three @-@ cent piece , and even the copper @-@ nickel cent commanding a premium , Congress issued paper money in denominations as small as three cents to replace the hoarded coins in commerce . These small slips of paper became ragged and dirty , and the public came to hate " shinplasters " . After the issuance in 1864 of a lighter bronze cent and a two @-@ cent piece of that metal , both of which circulated freely , there were proposals for a three @-@ cent piece in copper @-@ nickel to replace the three @-@ cent note . The advocates were led by Pennsylvania industrialist Joseph Wharton , who then controlled the domestic supply of nickel ore . On the last legislative day of the congressional session , March 3 , 1865 , a bill for a three @-@ cent piece in copper @-@ nickel alloy was introduced in Congress , passed both houses without debate , and was signed by President Abraham Lincoln .
The three @-@ cent nickel piece initially circulated well , but became less popular when the five @-@ cent nickel was introduced in 1866 , a larger , more convenient coin , with a value of five cents better fitting the decimal system . After 1870 , most years saw low annual mintages for the three @-@ cent nickel , and in 1890 Congress abolished it . The last were struck in 1889 ; many were melted down to coin more five @-@ cent pieces . The issue is not widely collected , and prices for rare dates remain low by the standards of American collectible coinage .
= = Background = =
The great influx of bullion from the California Gold Rush and other finds caused the price of silver relative to gold to increase starting in 1848 , and silver coins were hoarded or exported for melting . In 1851 , a bill for a three @-@ cent piece in 75 % silver and 25 % copper was introduced in Congress by New York Senator Daniel S. Dickinson , who wanted to lower postage rates from five to three cents . This percentage of silver was less than the normal 90 % so that the coins would circulate at a time of hoarding . The copper large cent did not circulate in the Pacific Coast region or South due to prejudice against coins that did not contain precious metal , and some means of allowing the purchase of a postage stamp without the use of copper cents was necessary . Dickinson 's bill passed on March 3 , 1851 , and in addition to authorizing the new three @-@ cent silver , lowered rates for most domestic mails . By 1854 , the imbalance had abated , and Congress increased the silver content of the three @-@ cent piece to the standard 90 % for silver coins , though its weight was reduced .
The large cent was replaced by a smaller version made of 88 % copper and 12 % nickel in 1857 . In 1861 , the Civil War began , and when efforts to finance the war via borrowing failed , the Treasury stopped paying out gold in December 1861 . The United States shifted to a paper money @-@ based economy with little disruption . By June 1862 , the price of silver had risen to the point where coins of that metal vanished from circulation , many exported to Canada , where they were both acceptable in circulation , and could be exchanged for gold . This departure of low @-@ value coins was far more disruptive to commerce than the loss of the high @-@ denomination gold coins , and change in transactions was made by a variety of makeshifts . These included currency issues by cities and businesses , encased postage stamps , and federally issued fractional currency — paper notes in denominations as small as three cents . The low @-@ value paper currency , whether issued by government or business , were called shinplasters by the public , which disliked them . On the Pacific Coast , where paper money was not favored , silver and gold continued to circulate .
Since fractional currency in three @-@ cent denominations did not appear until late 1864 , the cent was the only means then circulating of making change from the five @-@ cent note , and came , in 1862 and 1863 , to command a premium when sold in lots , of about 4 % . The Philadelphia Mint tried to keep up with demand , limiting public purchases of cents to five dollars , and sending shipments to major cities . Despite these attempts , Mint Director James Pollock noted in his annual reports that cents were almost unobtainable , hoarded despite the fact that their metallic value remained less than one cent each . Numismatist Neil Carothers theorized that they were put aside by the public as the only circulating federal coinage , made of metal at a time when the public was forced to accept flimsy pieces of paper instead of silver and gold .
With cents from the Philadelphia Mint selling at a premium , many private token issues were issued in 1863 , and passed as cents in commerce . Mint officials took notice that the tokens , often made of bronze rather than the copper @-@ nickel alloy then being used in the cent , were not hoarded and began to consider issuing bronze coins . When Pollock proposed legislation for bronze one- , two- , and three @-@ cent pieces , it was opposed by industrialist Joseph Wharton , owner of the major source of nickel in the United States at the time , a mine at Gap , Pennsylvania . Pollock 's bill , as introduced , provided for one- and two @-@ cent pieces of bronze , and the Wharton interests opposed it . According to Carothers ,
Congress declined to compromise with the nickel interests ... In the House , its opponents managed to delay its passage for a month . Thaddeus Stevens , one of the most influential men in the House , fought it bitterly , admitting , however , that he objected to it because it adversely affected Wharton 's interests .
The Coinage Act of 1864 passed into law on April 22 of that year . After entering circulation several months later , the bronze cent and two @-@ cent piece circulated in trade without being hoarded . The bronze alloy was easier to strike than the copper @-@ nickel one , allowing details to be brought forth sharply and extending the life of coinage dies .
= = Legislation = =
Nickel , formerly used in the cent , now had no place in American coinage . This was unsatisfactory to Wharton , who sought its return . Although Pollock made no mention of further nickel coinage in his 1864 annual report , Wharton in April of that year published a pamphlet proposing that all non @-@ precious metal coinage be composed of 75 % copper and 25 % nickel . The copper @-@ nickel cents had contained only 12 % nickel , and even so had been difficult for the Mint to strike due to the hardness of the metal , the use of which damaged equipment and quickly broke dies . An alloy of 25 % nickel would be even more difficult to coin . Wharton argued that the tough alloy would be difficult to counterfeit .
Congress had by the Act of March 3 , 1863 authorized fractional currency in the denomination of 3 cents ; when these notes reached circulation the following year they proved wildly unpopular . The 1864 law which had substituted bronze for copper @-@ nickel had also outlawed " copperheads " or private token issues . Even though these could now only be issued anonymously , and so could not be redeemed , the copperheads were preferred to the 3 @-@ cent shinplasters . Some copperhead tokens even read " Substitute for shinplasters " . The notes soon became filthy and ragged , making them even more disliked . They were more difficult to value in quantity than notes with denominations divisible by five . According to Walter Breen , " This was the moment Wharton 's supporters had been waiting for . " Wharton and his advocates argued that the three @-@ cent notes should be redeemed with equivalent coins . They contended that were Congress to order a three @-@ cent bronze coin , such a piece would be as big as an obsolete large cent , and might be used to deceive the blind into accepting the pre @-@ 1857 cent rather than the more valuable coin . Pollock , previously an opponent of nickel coinage , had a change of heart and became a supporter .
There are several slightly varying accounts of why the bill for the three @-@ cent nickel passed . Breen told of the pressure advocates for nickel put on House Coinage Committee chairman John Adam Kasson , finally winning him over to the position that even 25 % nickel coins ( which would be hard on the Mint 's equipment ) would be better than the continued use of shinplasters , and presenting him with a draft of a bill for a three @-@ cent piece of that alloy . The bill made the new coin legal tender to sixty cents . The 1864 act had made the cent legal tender to ten cents , and the two @-@ cent piece to twenty ; both limits were reduced to four cents . The bill did not abolish the three @-@ cent silver piece , which was still being struck in small quantities . The new copper @-@ nickel coins would be issued in exchange for three @-@ cent shinplasters — the Currency Bureau was instructed to print no more three @-@ cent notes .
The bill passed the House of Representatives on the evening of March 3 , 1865 . At the time , it was usual to extend the final day of the congressional session in odd @-@ numbered years to noon on March 4 , and this occurred . The Senate took up the bill late on the morning of March 4 . Action was repeatedly interrupted , first by Ohio Senator John Sherman reporting progress on an appropriations bill , then by Iowa 's James Grimes stating that ticket holders for the inaugural festivities at noon were being soaked by rain outside the Capitol , causing some debate as to whether they should be admitted early . Once female guests were admitted ( males were left outside ) , the Senate passed the three @-@ cent nickel bill without debate , and it was shortly thereafter signed by President Abraham Lincoln .
Q. David Bowers said of the sudden passage of the legislation " We can only guess what happened behind the scenes " . Carothers wrote that Kasson had opposed nickel coinage , but nevertheless introduced the bill for it during the rush of the final day of the congressional session , " There was no report and no explanation ... The influences that brought about the passage of the measure in this fashion were never revealed . " Numismatic historian Don Taxay suggested that by March 3 , 1865 , " the wide circulation of the bronze cent and two @-@ cent piece had made a three @-@ cent coin superfluous . "
= = Design = =
Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre had , since 1849 , designed coins with various visages of the goddess Liberty , based on a bust , Venus Accroupie , he had seen in a Philadelphia museum on loan from the Vatican . Although the Liberty as used on the three @-@ cent nickel piece is closest to Longacre 's experimental cents of 1857 and quarter eagles of 1860 , she resembles most of the Chief Engraver 's other depictions of Liberty . On the three @-@ cent piece , she wears a coronet with her name on it , and a ribbon binds her hair . For the reverse , Longacre combined the Roman numeral III as rendered on the silver three @-@ cent piece with the laurel wreath used on the 1859 Indian Head cent reverse . Breen suggested that the similarity of design to other Longacre coins has contributed to the low level of collector interest in the three @-@ cent nickel .
According to Lange , " resourceful as always , J.B. Longacre simply revised an existing image of Liberty for the obverse of the nickel three @-@ cent piece . The same classical profile that appears on the Indian Head cent , the gold dollar , and the $ 3 piece is seen fitted with a new hairstyle and a studded coronet inscribed Liberty . " The act that authorized the three @-@ cent nickel contained a provision requiring the use of the motto " In God We Trust " on all pieces large enough to bear it , but the new coin was deemed too small . No change was made to the design of the three @-@ cent piece in nickel during its lifetime .
= = Production = =
= = = Early years ( 1865 – 73 ) = = =
The three @-@ cent nickel piece was very popular when it entered circulation in mid @-@ 1865 . More convenient than the larger two @-@ cent bronze piece , it largely replaced that coin , starting the two @-@ cent on its way to decreased popularity and abolition in 1873 . The hard alloy , though , caused high levels of die breakage . Between 1865 and 1876 , some 17 million three @-@ cent pieces were used by the government to redeem the three @-@ cent fractional currency notes .
The Wharton nickel interests were not satisfied by the issuance of the three @-@ cent piece , and soon began to agitate for the passage of a five @-@ cent coin , to be made of the same alloy as the three @-@ cent piece . The Act of May 16 , 1866 introduced the five @-@ cent nickel piece , or " nickel " , as it has come to be known . According to David Lange in his history of the Mint , the five @-@ cent piece has " become one of the mainstays of the country 's coinage " . The new five @-@ cent coin was legal tender up to a dollar .
The introduction of the five @-@ cent copper @-@ nickel piece greatly decreased the popularity and use of the three @-@ cent piece . The three @-@ cent piece had debuted in 1865 with a mintage of over eleven million and nearly five million in 1866 ; thereafter strikings declined , falling to under a million by 1871 , a figure the coin would thereafter exceed only twice . The public had preferred small bronze coins to paper money , then the three @-@ cent nickel piece rather than the bronze ; they now preferred the five @-@ cent nickel to the three . One reason for this was that the base metal five @-@ cent piece would be redeemed by the government if presented in $ 100 lots pursuant to a provision in the authorizing legislation . There was no such provision for the three @-@ cent nickel piece ; neither was there any for the other base metal coins . Following Pollock 's resignation in 1866 over his objections to President Johnson 's Reconstruction policies , the new Mint Director was Henry Linderman , who in his first annual report in 1867 , described the redemption clause in the nickel 's authorizing legislation as " a most wise and just provision " , urging its extension to the cent , two @-@ cent piece , and three @-@ cent piece . Postmasters were compelled to take three @-@ cent nickel pieces in exchange for stamps , but had difficulty in depositing them in the Treasury in payment of their obligations , as the government would take no more than sixty cents worth of them in a single transaction . Private individuals and firms similarly refused them beyond the legal tender limit ; those with a surplus of base metal coins often sold them at a discount .
Congress took no action on a redemption bill , and in 1868 Linderman wrote again in his annual report , urging that the public be allowed to redeem small @-@ denomination coins , as commerce was flooded with them . He disclosed that he had been redeeming the old copper @-@ nickel cents with three @-@ cent pieces and nickels . Carothers pointed out that exchanging the copper @-@ nickel pieces for cents violated the 1865 and 1866 acts , that stated the three @-@ cent piece and nickel could not be purchased with cents , but only for greenbacks or specie . Linderman strongly advocated a redemption law to relieve the glut of small coins :
But the government that sold these tokens at par for their face value , or paid them as money to its creditors , now turns round and refuses to receive them back in payment from its own officers ... Was there ever an act of the government of a respectable people that , for meanness , can compare with this ? An individual that practiced such a confidence game would be branded as a two @-@ penny thief , and would soon be consigned to a house of correction . A government that practices such frauds upon the people cannot hope long to receive the respect of anybody .
In 1866 , Treasury Department official John Jay Knox was sent to examine the San Francisco Mint . After his return to Washington , he submitted a report that recommended many changes to how the Mint did business , including reform of the base @-@ metal coinage . Knox complained that the various enactments for non @-@ specie coinage were " entirely disconnected and incongruous " . Linderman submitted legislation to discontinue fractional currency of less than 25 cents , and authorizing copper @-@ nickel coins of one , three and five cents , legal tender and redeemable , and in the case of the three @-@ cent piece , larger and heavier than the existing coin . Linderman 's bill was introduced by Pennsylvania Representative William D. Kelley in February 1868 . It passed the House in amended form , but was not voted on in the Senate . Kelley tried again in the following term of Congress , and the bill met the same fate as its predecessor .
Pollock returned to office as Mint Director in 1869 . Although Pollock opposed redemption , Treasury Secretary George S. Boutwell did not , and a bill allowing for redemption of base @-@ metal coins in lots of at least $ 20 was signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 3 , 1871 . By then , early versions of what became the Coinage Act of 1873 were being considered by Congress . This was a major piece of legislation that reformed the laws relating to the Mint . As introduced by Ohio Senator John Sherman on April 28 , 1870 , it included Linderman 's proposal for the use of copper @-@ nickel in the minor coins . The debate over the bill stretched over the next three years . The use of nickel was a sticking point for the legislation ; some congressmen alleged that the whole point of the bill was to benefit Wharton . Between 1870 and 1872 , different versions of the bill , with a larger three @-@ cent piece , twice passed the House and once the Senate , but differences between the houses could not be reconciled . After the second House passage , in May 1872 , the Senate Finance Committee struck the provisions for copper @-@ nickel coinage . After a conference committee met , both houses passed a version that left the cent , three @-@ cent nickel piece , and nickel unaltered , and it was signed by President Grant on February 12 , 1873 . The act eliminated the two @-@ cent piece , silver three @-@ cent piece , silver half dime and the standard silver dollar ( the last denomination was reinstated in 1878 ) . The three @-@ cent piece was made legal tender to twenty @-@ five cents , as were the other two base @-@ metal coins , the cent and nickel ( the surviving silver coins were legal tender to five dollars ) . Numismatic writer Breen deemed the decision to eliminate the silver three @-@ cent piece and the half dime , which might directly compete with the two copper @-@ nickel coins , a favor to Wharton . Carothers called the abolition of the silver three- and five @-@ cent pieces " a necessity if the 3 cent and 5 cent nickel pieces were to be continued after the revival of silver coinage " .
= = = Decline and end ( 1873 – 90 ) = = =
On January 18 , 1873 , Philadelphia Mint Chief Coiner A. Loudon Snowden formally complained to Pollock that on the new year 's coins , the digit " 3 " too closely resembled an " 8 " . Pollock ordered Chief Engraver William Barber ( Longacre had died in office on January 1 , 1869 ) to redo the logotypes for the date . Thus , most denominations of American coinage dated 1873 , including the three @-@ cent nickel piece , have varieties : the Close ( or Closed ) 3 from early in the year , and the Open 3 from after Barber made his modifications . A total of 390 @,@ 000 Closed 3 and 783 @,@ 000 Open 3 of the three @-@ cent nickel were minted .
Numismatist Bruce C. Goldstein indicated that several factors combined to keep the nickel three @-@ cent piece in decline after the passage of the 1873 act . Less and less fractional currency was being redeemed , as almost a decade had passed since the issuance of three @-@ cent notes . Rich silver strikes in the West lowered the price of that metal to the point where old silver coins emerged from hoarding and circulated again . These factors , combined with ample stocks of cents and nickels , made the three @-@ cent nickel , a non @-@ silver coin of odd denomination , less desirable . By 1876 , the mintage for circulation had declined to 162 @,@ 000 . None were struck for circulation in 1877 and 1878 , though some proof coins were minted for sale to the public .
Although more than a million were minted in 1881 , another blow to the three @-@ cent piece occurred on October 1 , 1883 , when first @-@ class mail rates were lowered from three to two cents for the first 0 @.@ 5 ounces ( 14 g ) . Although the rate for pieces weighing up to 1 ounce ( 28 g ) initially remained at three cents , the two @-@ cent rate was extended to one ounce effective July 1 , 1885 . Deprived of the original reason for the denomination 's existence , no three @-@ cent pieces were struck for circulation in 1886 ( though several thousand proof coins were produced ) , and in the three remaining years of the piece 's life , a total of less than 60 @,@ 000 circulation strikes were minted . As the production of three @-@ cent pieces dwindled , the other non @-@ specie coins prospered , with record numbers of cents being struck in the 1880s to address the need to make change , and for penny arcade machines . The nickel proved popular in slot machines and street railways , which often set fares at five cents . With silver again circulating , the three @-@ cent piece became more unpopular because it was almost the same diameter as the dime , leading to confusion and small frauds .
Beginning in 1880 , in their annual reports , the Mint Director and Treasury Secretary appealed to Congress to discontinue the three @-@ cent piece . The last three @-@ cent pieces were struck in 1889 , and the denomination was discontinued , along with the gold dollar and the three @-@ dollar piece , by the Act of September 26 , 1890 . Many of the coins from 1888 and 1889 were still held at the Treasury Department and were melted after passage of the act , the fate of millions more as they flowed back from banks . The resultant metal contributed to large mintages of the Liberty Head nickel between 1890 and 1893 .
One proposal to revive the three @-@ cent piece was made in 1911 , when Mayors Brand Whitlock of Toledo , Ohio , and Newton D. Baker of Cleveland sent a joint memorial to Congress urging its return . The following year , a subcommittee of the House Committee on Coinage , Weights and Measures held a hearing on bills to authorize a copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent piece and to change the composition of the cent to copper @-@ nickel . Mint Director George E. Roberts testified and indicated he had no objection to a three @-@ cent piece , as there was at least limited demand for a coin larger than the cent and smaller than the nickel . In 1936 , a bill for a three @-@ cent nickel was among various coin legislation considered by the Senate Banking Committee . In 1942 , Congress granted the Treasury Secretary the temporary authority to change the composition of the nickel because of wartime metal shortages , and if public demand for the five @-@ cent piece required it , the Mint could strike three @-@ cent pieces . Nothing came of any of the proposals . The three @-@ cent piece was made fully legal tender by the Coinage Act of 1965 , which proclaimed all coin and currency of the United States good to any amount for payment of public and private debt . By then , that coin had long since passed from the scene .
= = Collecting = =
According to the 2015 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins , only the pieces from 1882 to 1887 catalog for more than $ 100 in worn Good @-@ 4 condition ; common dates list for $ 18 in that condition . The highest value listed is for the 1877 , struck only in proof with a mintage of 900 , at $ 2 @,@ 000 . David F. Fanning , in his 2001 article on the three @-@ cent pieces , suggested that rarer specimens of the nickel three @-@ cent piece are relatively inexpensive compared with coins of similar mintage in more popular series , such as the Morgan dollar .
The design of the three @-@ cent nickel piece remained stable throughout its run , and there are few varieties . An overdate is known , 1887 / 6 . The die that struck those coins was originally dated 1886 , when no circulation strikes were made . So the die would not be wasted , the Mint altered the last digit from a 6 to a 7 ; evidence of both numbers is visible . Some 1865 pieces in proof condition display a wreath on the reverse that comes much closer to touching the rim than on later issues . These were most likely pattern coins but they are accepted as issued because the Mint placed them in some 1865 proof sets . Many of the three @-@ cent nickel pieces were not fully struck , and are missing details of the design ; this is because the head of Liberty is directly opposite the III , and the Mint had trouble getting the hard metal alloy to adequately flow to the high points of both sides .
= Chicxulub crater =
The Chicxulub crater ( pronunciation : / ˈtʃiːkʃᵿluːb / ; Mayan : [ tʃʼikʃuluɓ ] ) is an impact crater buried underneath the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico . Its center is located near the town of Chicxulub , after which the crater is named . The date of the Chicxulub impactor , which created it , coincides precisely with the Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary ( K – Pg boundary ) , around 66 million years ago . The crater is more than 180 kilometers ( 110 miles ) in diameter and 20 km ( 12 mi ) in depth , well into the continental crust of the region of about 10 – 30 km depth . It makes the feature the third of the largest confirmed impact structures on Earth ; the impacting bolide that formed the crater was at least 10 km ( 6 mi ) in diameter .
The crater was discovered by Antonio Camargo and Glen Penfield , geophysicists who had been looking for petroleum in the Yucatán during the late 1970s . Penfield was initially unable to obtain evidence that the geological feature was a crater and gave up his search . Later , through contact with Alan Hildebrand in 1990 , Penfield obtained samples that suggested it was an impact feature . Evidence for the impact origin of the crater includes shocked quartz , a gravity anomaly , and tektites in surrounding areas .
= = Discovery = =
In 1978 , geophysicists Antonio Camargo and Glen Penfield were working for the Mexican state @-@ owned oil company Petróleos Mexicanos , or Pemex , as part of an airborne magnetic survey of the Gulf of Mexico north of the Yucatán peninsula . Penfield 's job was to use geophysical data to scout possible locations for oil drilling . In the data , Penfield found a huge underwater arc with " extraordinary symmetry " in a ring 70 km ( 40 mi ) across . He then obtained a gravity map of the Yucatán made in the 1960s . A decade earlier , the same map suggested an impact feature to contractor Robert Baltosser , but he was forbidden to publicize his conclusion by Pemex corporate policy of the time . Penfield found another arc on the peninsula itself , the ends of which pointed northward . Comparing the two maps , he found the separate arcs formed a circle , 180 km ( 110 mi ) wide , centered near the Yucatán village Chicxulub ; he felt certain the shape had been created by a cataclysmic event in geologic history .
Pemex disallowed release of specific data but let Penfield and company official Antonio Camargo present their results at the 1981 Society of Exploration Geophysicists conference . That year 's conference was underattended and their report attracted scant attention . Coincidentally , many experts in impact craters and the K – Pg boundary were attending a separate conference on Earth impacts . Although Penfield had plenty of geophysical data sets , he had no rock cores or other physical evidence of an impact .
He knew Pemex had drilled exploratory wells in the region . In 1951 , one bored into what was described as a thick layer of andesite about 1 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) down . This layer could have resulted from the intense heat and pressure of an Earth impact , but at the time of the borings it was dismissed as a lava dome — a feature uncharacteristic of the region 's geology . Penfield tried to secure site samples , but was told such samples had been lost or destroyed . When attempts at returning to the drill sites and looking for rocks proved fruitless , Penfield abandoned his search , published his findings and returned to his Pemex work .
At the same time , in 1980 , geologist Walter Alvarez and his father , Nobel Prize @-@ winning scientist Luis Walter Alvarez , put forth his hypothesis that a large extraterrestrial body had struck Earth . In 1981 , unaware of Penfield 's discovery , University of Arizona graduate student Alan R. Hildebrand and faculty adviser William V. Boynton published a draft Earth @-@ impact theory and sought a candidate crater . Their evidence included greenish @-@ brown clay with surplus iridium containing shocked quartz grains and small weathered glass beads that looked to be tektites . Thick , jumbled deposits of coarse rock fragments were also present , thought to have been scoured from one place and deposited elsewhere by a kilometers @-@ high tsunami resulting from an Earth impact . Such deposits occur in many locations but seem concentrated in the Caribbean basin at the K – Pg boundary . So when Haitian professor Florentine Morás discovered what he thought to be evidence of an ancient volcano on Haiti , Hildebrand suggested it could be a telltale feature of a nearby impact . Tests on samples retrieved from the K – Pg boundary revealed more tektite glass , formed only in the heat of asteroid impacts and high @-@ yield nuclear detonations .
In 1990 , Houston Chronicle reporter Carlos Byars told Hildebrand of Penfield 's earlier discovery of a possible impact crater . Hildebrand contacted Penfield in April 1990 and the pair soon secured two drill samples from the Pemex wells , stored in New Orleans . Hildebrand 's team tested the samples , which clearly showed shock @-@ metamorphic materials .
A team of California researchers including Kevin Pope , Adriana Ocampo , and Charles Duller , surveying regional satellite images in 1996 , found a cenote ( sinkhole ) ring centered on Chicxulub that matched the one Penfield saw earlier ; the sinkholes were thought to be caused by subsidence of the impact crater wall . More recent evidence suggests the actual crater is 300 km ( 190 mi ) wide , and the 180 km ring is in fact an inner wall of it .
= = Impact specifics = =
Researchers at the University of Glasgow dated tektites samples from the impact as 66 @,@ 038 @,@ 000 ± 11 @,@ 000 years old .
The Chicxulub impactor had an estimated diameter of 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) or larger , and delivered an estimated energy of 420 zettajoules ( over a billion times the energy of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ) . By contrast , the most powerful man @-@ made explosive device ever detonated , the Tsar Bomba , had an energy of only 210 petajoules ( the yield of 50 megatons of TNT ) , making the Chicxulub impact roughly 2 million times more powerful . Even the most energetic known volcanic eruption , which released an estimated energy of 1 zettajoule ( the equivalent of approximately 240 gigatons of TNT ) and created the La Garita Caldera , delivered only 0 @.@ 1 % of the energy of the Chicxulub impact . The impact is estimated to have displaced almost 200 @,@ 000 cubic kilometers ( 48 @,@ 000 cubic miles ) of sediment , two orders of magnitude more than the amount displaced by the second @-@ largest instantaneous deposit , the Nuuanu debris flow in Hawaii .
= = = Effects = = =
The impact would have caused some of the largest megatsunamis in Earth 's history that would have reached all the way to Texas and Florida . A cloud of super @-@ heated dust , ash and steam would have spread from the crater as the impactor burrowed underground in less than a second . Excavated material along with pieces of the impactor , ejected out of the atmosphere by the blast , would have been heated to incandescence upon re @-@ entry , broiling the Earth 's surface and possibly igniting wildfires ; meanwhile , colossal shock waves would have triggered global earthquakes and volcanic eruptions .
The emission of dust and particles could have covered the entire surface of the Earth for several years , possibly a decade , creating a harsh environment for living things . The shock production of carbon dioxide caused by the destruction of carbonate rocks would have led to a sudden greenhouse effect . Over a longer period , sunlight would have been blocked from reaching the surface of the Earth by the dust particles in the atmosphere , cooling the surface dramatically . Photosynthesis by plants would also have been interrupted , affecting the entire food chain . A model of the event developed by Lomax et al . ( 2001 ) suggests that net primary productivity ( NPP ) rates may have increased to higher than pre @-@ impact levels over the long term because of the high carbon dioxide concentrations .
In February 2008 , a team of researchers led by Sean Gulick at the University of Texas at Austin 's Jackson School of Geosciences used seismic images of the crater to determine that the impactor landed in deeper water than was previously assumed . They argued that this would have resulted in increased sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere . According to the press release , that " could have made the impact deadlier in two ways : by altering climate ( sulfate aerosols in the upper atmosphere can have a cooling effect ) and by generating acid rain ( water vapor can help to flush the lower atmosphere of sulfate aerosols , causing acid rain ) . "
A long @-@ term local effect of the impact was the creation of the Yucatán sedimentary basin which " ultimately produced favorable conditions for human settlement in a region where surface water is scarce . "
= = = Geology and morphology = = =
In their 1991 paper , Hildebrand , Penfield , and company described the geology and composition of the impact feature . The rocks above the impact feature are layers of marl and limestone reaching to a depth of almost 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . These rocks date back as far as the Paleocene . Below these layers lie more than 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) of andesite glass and breccia . These andesitic igneous rocks were only found within the supposed impact feature , as is shocked quartz . The K – Pg boundary inside the feature is depressed to 600 to 1 @,@ 100 m ( 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 600 ft ) compared with the normal depth of about 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) measured 5 km ( 3 mi ) away from the impact feature . Along the edge of the crater are clusters of cenotes or sinkholes , which suggest that there was a water basin inside the feature during the Neogene period , after the impact . The groundwater of such a basin would have dissolved the limestone and created the caves and cenotes beneath the surface . The paper also noted that the crater seemed to be a good candidate source for the tektites reported at Haiti .
= = = Astronomical origin of asteroid = = =
In September 2007 , a report published in Nature proposed an origin for the asteroid that created the Chicxulub Crater . The authors , William F. Bottke , David Vokrouhlický , and David Nesvorný , argued that a collision in the asteroid belt 160 million years ago resulted in the Baptistina family of asteroids , the largest surviving member of which is 298 Baptistina . They proposed that the " Chicxulub asteroid " was also a member of this group . The connection between Chicxulub and Baptistina is supported by the large amount of carbonaceous material present in microscopic fragments of the impactor , suggesting the impactor was a member of a rare class of asteroids called carbonaceous chondrites , like Baptistina . According to Bottke , the Chicxulub impactor was a fragment of a much larger parent body about 170 km ( 106 mi ) across , with the other impacting body being around 60 km ( 37 mi ) in diameter . In 2011 , new data from the Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer revised the date of the collision which created the Baptistina family to about 80 million years ago . This makes an asteroid from this family highly improbable to be the asteroid that created the Chicxulub Crater , as typically the process of resonance and collision of an asteroid takes many tens of millions of years . In 2010 , another hypothesis was offered which implicated the newly discovered asteroid P / 2010 A2 , a member of the Flora family of asteroids , as a possible remnant cohort of the K / Pg impactor .
= = = Chicxulub and mass extinction = = =
The Chicxulub Crater lends support to the theory postulated by the late physicist Luis Alvarez and his son , geologist Walter Alvarez , that the extinction of numerous animal and plant groups , including non @-@ avian dinosaurs , may have resulted from a bolide impact ( the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event ) . Luis and Walter Alvarez , at the time both faculty members at the University of California , Berkeley , postulated that this enormous extinction event , which was roughly contemporaneous with the postulated date of formation for the Chicxulub crater , could have been caused by just such a large impact . The age of the rocks marked by the impact shows that this impact structure dates from roughly 66 million years ago , the end of the Cretaceous period , and the start of the Paleogene period . It coincides with the K – Pg boundary , the geological boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene . The impact associated with the crater is thus implicated in the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event , including the worldwide extinction of non @-@ avian dinosaurs . This conclusion has been the source of controversy . In March 2010 , 41 experts from many countries reviewed the available evidence : 20 years ' worth of data spanning a variety of fields . They concluded that the impact at Chicxulub triggered the mass extinctions at the K – Pg boundary . In 2013 a study compared isotopes in impact glass from the Chicxulub impact with the same isotopes in ash from the boundary where the extinction event occurred in the fossil record ; the study concluded that the impact glasses were dated at 66 @.@ 038 ± 0 @.@ 049 Ma , and the deposits immediately above the discontinuity in the geological and fossil record was dated to 66 @.@ 019 ± 0 @.@ 021 Ma , the two dates being within 19 @,@ 000 years of each other , or almost exactly the same within experimental error . The theory is now widely accepted by the scientific community . Some critics , including paleontologist Robert Bakker , argue that such an impact would have killed frogs as well as dinosaurs , yet the frogs survived the extinction event . Gerta Keller of Princeton University argues that recent core samples from Chicxulub prove the impact occurred about 300 @,@ 000 years before the mass extinction , and thus could not have been the causal factor . However , this conclusion is unsupported by radioactive dating and sedimentology .
The main evidence of such an impact , besides the crater itself , is contained in a thin layer of clay present in the K – Pg boundary across the world . In the late 1970s , the Alvarezes and colleagues reported that it contained an abnormally high concentration of iridium . Iridium levels in this layer reached 6 parts per billion by weight or more compared to 0 @.@ 4 for the Earth 's crust as a whole ; in comparison , meteorites can contain around 470 parts per billion of this element . It was hypothesized that the iridium was spread into the atmosphere when the impactor was vaporized and settled across the Earth 's surface amongst other material thrown up by the impact , producing the layer of iridium @-@ enriched clay . Similarly , an iridium anomaly in core samples from the Pacific Ocean suggested the Eltanin impact of about 2 @.@ 5 million years ago .
= = Multiple impact hypothesis = =
In recent years , several other craters of around the same age as Chicxulub have been discovered , all between latitudes 20 ° N and 70 ° N. Examples include the disputed Silverpit crater in the North Sea and the Boltysh crater in Ukraine . Both are much smaller than Chicxulub , but are likely to have been caused by objects many tens of meters across striking the Earth . This has led to the hypothesis that the Chicxulub impact may have been only one of several impacts that happened nearly at the same time . Another possible crater thought to have been formed at the same time is the larger Shiva crater , though the structure 's status as a crater is contested .
The collision of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 demonstrated that gravitational interactions can fragment a comet , giving rise to many impacts over a period of a few days if the comet should collide with a planet . Comets undergo gravitational interactions with the gas giants , and similar disruptions and collisions are very likely to have occurred in the past . This scenario may have occurred on Earth at the end of the Cretaceous , though Shiva and the Chicxulub craters might have been formed 300 @,@ 000 years apart .
In late 2006 , Ken MacLeod , a geology professor from the University of Missouri , completed an analysis of sediment below the ocean 's surface , bolstering the single @-@ impact theory . MacLeod conducted his analysis approximately 4 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 800 mi ) from the Chicxulub Crater to control for possible changes in soil composition at the impact site , while still close enough to be affected by the impact . The analysis revealed there was only one layer of impact debris in the sediment , which indicated there was only one impact . Multiple @-@ impact proponents such as Gerta Keller regard the results as " rather hyper @-@ inflated " and do not agree with the conclusion of MacLeod 's analysis , arguing that there might only be gaps of hours to days between impacts in a multiple @-@ impact scenario ( cf . Shoemaker @-@ Levy 9 ) which would not leave a detectable gap in deposits .
= = Scientific studies = =
During April and May 2016 , a joint IODP @-@ ICDP Mission Specific Platform Expedition obtained the first offshore core samples from the peak ring , the central zone of the crater . During Expedition 364 , DES drillers on the L / B Myrtle collected core for ECORD Science Party members to study how the peak ring formed and what was the total impact energy .
Their target depth was 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) below the bottom of the ocean , but reached to an acceptable 1 @,@ 300 m . The main study will be done after the cores have been shipped to Bremen , Germany . Chicxulub is the only known Earth crater with a remaining impact peak ring , but it is under 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) of sediment .
= Don 't Forget About Us =
" Don 't Forget About Us " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was written by Carey , Jermaine Dupri , Bryan @-@ Michael Cox and Johntá Austin , and released as the fifth single on December 12 , 2005 , for the re @-@ issue of her tenth studio album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . Co @-@ produced by the former three , the song is influenced by R & B and hip hop soul music genres , and lyrically chronicles the emotions felt by the protagonist after the loss of their relationship . Carey explained that the true meaning of the song is to be interpreted by the listener , therefore not disclosing its entire meaning publicly .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , with many heavily comparing it to Carey 's previous single " We Belong Together " . Several reviewers felt the song 's similarity marked Carey 's lack of creativity with it , while others embraced its radio @-@ friendly formula . " Don 't Forget About Us " became Carey 's seventeenth chart topping single on the US Billboard Hot 100 , tying the record for most number @-@ one singles by a solo artist set by Elvis Presley 36 years before . Internationally , the song topped the singles chart in Belgium and Finland , and reached the top @-@ ten in Hungary and the Netherlands .
Carey performed the song at the 33rd annual American Music Awards , and during the half @-@ time of the Thanksgiving game between the Detroit Lions and the Atlanta Falcons . Additionally , the song was included on the set @-@ lists of Carey 's The Adventures of Mimi and Angels Advocate Tours . The song 's music video chronicles the two time frames , Carey in the present , as well as the past memories she shared with her ex @-@ lover that continue to haunt her . At the 49th annual Grammy Awards , " Don 't Forget About Us " was nominated for two awards during the ceremony held on February 11 , 2007 .
= = Background and recording = =
After being branded Carey 's " comeback album " by music critics , and becoming the highest selling album of her career post @-@ Glitter ( 2001 ) , The Emancipation of Mimi inspired Carey to return to the studio , in hopes of writing and producing new material for her next studio album . During a writing session with Jermaine Dupri , Carey wrote " Don 't Forget About Us " as a possible single for her next album , reminiscent of the material on The Emancipation of Mimi . After hearing the unfinished version of the song , L.A. Reid , CEO at the time of Carey 's label Island Records , was very satisfied with the song . He convinced Carey to continue writing and producing new songs , and suggested on re @-@ releasing the album , which had already sold over four million units in the United States alone . Carey agreed to the idea of re @-@ releasing The Emancipation of Mimi , feeling eager to release the song , as well as other material to her fans , instead of making them wait for a brand new album . In an interview with MTV News , Carey discussed the decision of releasing the song immediately , as well as the re @-@ release of the album :
'Don 't Forget About Us ' was a song that Jermaine [ Dupri ] and I started writing and didn 't finish , and L.A. Reid heard it . He was excited about it and he was like , ' We should re @-@ release the album . I agreed because were trying to figure out what to do with the song because we loved it so much , and we didn 't want to wait until the next album to send it to radio .
After completing the song , Carey announced on October 13 , 2005 via her official website , that she would be re @-@ releasing The Emancipation of Mimi . Additionally , she explained how the album would contain four new songs , and would be promoted internationally by the new single , " Don 't Forget About Us " . The song was released throughout the globe as the fifth official single from The Emancipation of Mimi , and the first from the re @-@ release , tentatively titled , Ultra Platinum Edition .
= = Composition = =
" Don 't Forget About Us " is a mid @-@ tempo song lasting three minutes and fifty @-@ three seconds , while drawing influence from pop and R & B with downtempo beats music genres . Written by Carey , Jermaine Dupri , Bryan @-@ Michael Cox and Johntá Austin , and produced by the former three , the song drew comparisons to Carey 's " We Belong Together " . According to Michael Paoletta from Billboard , the song features a similar tempo , lyrical style , instrumentation and production as the latter song , and incorporates a reminiscent vocal performance from Carey . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 72 beats per minute . The song is composed in the key of G minor , with Carey 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of D3 to the high @-@ note of F6 . Lyrically , the song describes the potency of a " first love " , and features a protagonist pleading to her lover to " not forget about them " . Critics noted that the song 's lyrics both let go of a lover , as well as cherishing their memory . Carey sings " Just let it die / With no goodbyes " , indicating a relationship that has long decayed , and how she has let it drift away , while also adding " here 's only one me and you / And how we used to shine / No matter what you go through / We are one , that 's a fact / That you can 't deny " , indicating that while they are no longer together , she will continue to cherish the memory of them , and how strong their love was . According to Carey , she refrained from giving away too much of the song 's lyrical meaning , in order to allow fans to possibly interpret the song in their own way :
I try not to get too specific so that people can apply the lyrics to their own lives . When I was growing up and listening to the radio and I would hear a song that reminded me of a certain person or a situation or whatever , I would want to be able to completely connect it to that moment . And then if I heard someone explaining it and making it into something totally different , it ruined it for me . So I kind of like to keep it open for people 's imaginations . It evokes something different depending on who listens to it and at what time . " Don 't Forget About Us " could give you a good , happy memory , or you could be miserable , crying , listening to it over and over . All in all , I think it 's good to have music you can live vicariously through , and that 's what a lot of people have told me this record has been for them .
= = Critical reception = =
" Don 't Forget About Us " garnered generally positive reviews from music critics , though many compared it to , and felt it shared several similarities with Carey 's previous single , " We Belong Together " . Bill Lamb from About.com rated the song four out of five stars , who while noting the song 's careful formula , complimented Carey 's more mature and lower range vocals : " Mariah is clearly settling into a more mature style and lower range vocals than in her early career . " Additionally , Lamb commented that although not as " strong " as " We Belong Together " , the song was marginally better than another single from The Emancipation of Mimi , " Shake It Off " . Billboard 's Michael Paoletta drew heavy comparisons to " We Belong Together " , noting the song 's similar tempo , lyrical style , instrumentation and vocal stamp . He commented that although " Don 't Forget About Us " was " satisfying " on its own , it suggested that Carey had hit a creative wall . Andre Meyer from CBC News described the song as " stronger " than anything Carey released from 2001 – 2005 , and wrote " [ It ] cops the jittery R & B vibe that made Destiny ’ s Child so potent . " Reviewers from The New Yorker and Music Week were both taken aback by the single , calling it " beautiful " and " gentle " , respectively . Todd Martens from the Los Angeles Times compared it heavily to Carey 's 2008 single " Bye Bye " , describing their piano melody as " a close match " . In 2007 , " Don 't Forget About Us " was nominated for two Grammy Awards , in the " Best Female R & B Vocal Performance " and " Best R & B Song " categories , although not winning either .
= = Chart performance = =
" Don 't Forget About Us " was released as the fourth international single from The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) , and the first from its re @-@ release , the Ultra Platinum Edition . The song reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 in its eleventh week , spending two consecutive weeks at the position . " Don 't Forget About Us " became Carey 's 17th chart @-@ topping single in the United States , tying the record set by Elvis Presley for most number @-@ one singles by a solo artist ( Carey has since surpassed this record with " Touch My Body " in 2008 ) . Currently , the only act to hold more US number @-@ one singles than Carey are The Beatles , who gained twenty throughout their career . " Don 't Forget About Us " stayed in the top forty for eighteen weeks and reached number one on other Billboard component charts , including the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . The song was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 units .
Outside the United States , the song achieved moderate international charting . In Australia , " Don 't Forget About Us " debuted at its peak position of number twelve on the singles chart , during the week of December 18 , 2005 . In its second week , the song stalled at number twelve , before beginning its eleven @-@ week decent on the chart . On both the Finnish and Italian singles charts , " Don 't Forget About Us " charted for only one week , placing at number one and eleven , respectively . In both the Wallonian and Flemish territories in Belgium , the song peaked at numbers two and one , although plummeting outside the top @-@ fifty the following week . On the Dutch Top 40 chart , " Don 't Forget About Us " debuted at number ninety @-@ two during the week dated February 2 , 2006 . Spending one week at its peak position of number four , the song dropped to thirty @-@ two the following week . In New Zealand , it peaked at number twelve , and spent a total of four weeks fluctuating in the singles chart . Similarly on February 26 , 2006 , the song debuted and peaked at number nineteen on the Swiss Singles Chart , and spent a total of five weeks on the chart . On the UK Singles Chart week dated December 12 , 2005 , " Don 't Forget About Us " began its seven @-@ week run at its peak of number eleven .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
Filmed in Los Angeles , the music video reunited Carey with Paul Hunter , director of the video for her 1997 single , " Honey " . Since its release , Carey claimed it to be one of her favorite videos , due to its complex scenery and fun nature . She explained that she had wanted to work with Hunter again for some time , and was happy to be able to film another music video alongside him . In an interview with MTV News , Carey described her feelings regarding the video , as well as sentiments towards the video 's director , Hunter : " But I was so happy to work with him again ' cause ever since ' Honey ' I 've been trying to relive the splendor of that moment . It 's more of just a plain beauty piece with sentimental overtones , but it was great to work with Paul again . " Following a tale of love and separation , the video alternates between two different time frames . The first of these involves a tearful Carey in the present , while the second invokes memories of a relationship with a former lover ( played by Dolce & Gabbana model Christian Monzon ) . When questioned regarding a possible relationship with Monzon , Carey said " Erm , how do we play this ? OK , he ’ s a very nice guy , he ’ s been in a fabulous Dolce & Gabbana advert - did you see it ? And we ’ ve had some nice conversations and , um , a nice time . OK , I ’ ll say he definitely did a very good job in the video . " Additionally , Carey and Hunter placed several secrets within the video 's scenery , that would be intended for the " die @-@ hard fans " . Following the video 's completion , it premiered on MTV and several other music video channels on November 1 , 2005 . Aside from the video 's script , Carey channeled Marilyn Monroe , one of her icons growing up . During a pool scene , Carey re @-@ enacts a part from Monroe 's film Something 's Got to Give ( 1962 ) . In an interview with MTV News , Carey spoke of the re @-@ enactment :
That shot was totally and completely inspired by ' Something 's Got to Give , ' Marilyn Monroe 's last movie that never got finished . It 's an homage to her , because I 've never seen anyone re @-@ create it . So many people have emulated so many of Marilyn 's classic moments , but it 's just that I 'm a big fan of hers , and I thought it was really pretty at night with the pool . No one could ever be as fabulous as Marilyn was , but it 's in honor and homage to her .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video chronicles two alternative time frames , with the first of Carey in the present , tearful and remorseful their separation , while the other of several different past memories in which she shared with her lover . The video begins with Carey wearing a long brown blouse , laying on a sofa in an elegantly furnished home . As the song begins , she stands up and walks around the living room , while remembering and lamenting her failed relationship . As the first memory of Carey and her lover together on a soccer field is shown , she is once again shown in the present , however clothed in a large white sweater while tears trickle down her cheek . As the memory continues of that night on the soccer field , they are seen together , caressing each other and holding each other in a tight embrace . Carey , in the present , makes her way into a heated pool , where she lays her leg on the deck , re @-@ enacting a famed scene from Marilyn Monroe 's unreleased film , Something 's Got to Give ( 1962 ) . The next memory is of the pair together in the same pool , however in happier times . During the song 's bridge , the scenes alternate from Carey at her home in the present , to the duo holding each other intimately in a car . The video ends with Carey alone in the car , while wearing her lover 's jacket .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Don 't Forget About Us " music video peaked at # 1 on Billboard 's Hot Videoclip Tracks chart .
= = Remixes = =
The main remix of " Don 't Forget About Us " was produced by Jermaine Dupri and is known as the Mr. Dupri mix . It features guest appearances from rappers Juelz Santana , Krayzie Bone and Layzie Bone . The Mr. Dupri mix was added to iTunes Music Store for download , while several dance remixes ( by Ralphi Rosario & Craig J. , Quentin Harris and Tony Moran & Warren Rigg ) were produced and made available for sale at other download retailers . In January 2007 , a new remix titled the Desert Storm remix , produced by DJ Clue ( who also remixed " We Belong Together " and " Shake It Off " ) featuring Styles P and Fabolous , was released to U.S. radio . This remix appeared on DJ Clue 's album Fidel Cashflow 2006 . A video was also helmed for the Desert Storm mix and can be found on Clue 's official MySpace page ; it has shots of Carey , Styles P , DJ Clue and Fabolous in the studio and enjoying themselves .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " Don 't Forget About Us " on several televised appearances , as well on all of her tours following its release . On November 15 , 2005 , the Chicago Tribune announced that Carey would perform during the half @-@ time on the Thanksgiving game between the Detroit Lions and the Atlanta Falcons . Airing on the 24th , Carey performed " Shake It Off " , as well as her newly released single from the album 's re @-@ release , " Don 't Forget About Us " . On November 22 , 2005 , Carey opened the 33rd annual American Music Awards with a performance of " Don 't Forget About Us " , held at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles . Appearing on stage in a " sequined , silver , spaghetti @-@ strap gown slit to the waist " , Carey completed the song before accepting the first award of the evening . Dave West from Digital Spy described it as a " blistering performance " , and claimed Carey " wowed " the crowd with her live rendition of the song . Two months later , she celebrated the new year on television , placing as the featured performer at the Times Square Ball drop on New Year 's Eve in New York . The special , titled Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest , aired on ABC at 10 pm on December 31 , and featured Carey on stage wearing a short sparkling dress , and performing a selection of the album 's singles .
On Carey 's 2006 The Adventures of Mimi Tour stop at Madison Square Garden , she sang " Don 't Forget About Us " while wearing a sparkling bikini top and black leggings . She introduced the song as a " thank you " to fans for " making this my 17th number one single " . Four years later during Carey 's Angels Advocate Tour in 2010 , she had not performed the song on the first few runs of the tour . At the show in Phoenix , she told the crowd that she had forgotten the song until that night : " I had forgotten about this song the whole tour and I don 't know why . Funny I should forget it , considering the title . " Dressed in a " form @-@ fitting short dress with a flared , tutu @-@ like bottom " for the first portion of the night , Carey completed the song as the fourth on the set @-@ list .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from The Emancipation of Mimi liner notes .
Mariah Carey – songwriter , producer , vocalist
Jermaine Dupri – songwriter , producer
Bryan @-@ Michael Cox – songwriter , producer
Johntá Austin – songwriter
Brian Garten – recording
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Droungarios of the Watch =
The Droungarios of the Watch ( Greek : δρουγγάριος τῆς βίγλης / βίγλας , droungarios tēs viglas / viglēs ) , sometimes anglicized as " Drungary of the Watch " , was originally a senior Byzantine military post . Attested since the late 8th century , the droungarios commanded the Vigla or " Watch " , one of the elite professional cavalry regiments ( tagmata ) of the middle Byzantine period , and was in charge of the Byzantine emperor 's personal security . From ca . 1030 , the office was disassociated from its military origin and was transformed into a senior judicial position , thereafter usually referred to as the Grand Droungarios of the Watch ( μέγας δρουγγάριος τῆς βίγλης / βίγλας , megas droungarios tēs viglas / viglēs ) . The office continued to exist as a mostly honorific court dignity in the Palaiologan era , until the very end of the Byzantine Empire in the mid @-@ 15th century .
= = Military office = =
The Droungarios of the Watch was originally the commander of the Vigla ( " guard watch " ) or Arithmos ( " number " ) , the third of the tagmata , professional cavalry regiments headquartered in and around Constantinople , and distinct from the provincial or thematic troops . The title of droungarios itself means " commander of a droungos " , a term of Gaulish origin which came to be used as a term for a kind of tactical cavalry formation in the East Roman army of Late Antiquity . The term droungarios ( Greek : δρουγγάριος ) is not documented before the early 7th century but might have been used as an informal or unofficial designation before that date . The office and the corresponding unit appear to have initially referred to ad hoc arrangements , but during the early 7th century these were formalized , like much of the East Roman army 's rank structure .
Judging from the unit 's name and the peculiar titles of its officers , it also had a considerable ancestry , dating back to the East Roman army , but it is unknown exactly when it was constituted as a tagma . The office of the Droungarios of the Watch at any rate is first attested ca . 791 , when Alexios Mosele is recorded as " spatharios and droungarios of the Watch " . In contrast to the other tagmata , the Watch and its commanders had special duties related to the safety of the Emperor and the imperial palace . Within Constantinople , the Watch provided guards for the palace precinct , and kept a permanent garrison at the Covered Hippodrome ( also the droungarios 's seat
As detailed in the De Ceremoniis , the Droungarios of the Watch always accompanied the Emperor and was a frequent participant in various imperial ceremonies , often accompanied by his principal aide , the akolouthos . His ceremonial dress is indicated as the skaramangion tunic and a red sagion cloak , while on some occasions he bore a sword , a mace and an axe . The latter weapon was highly unusual for a Byzantine officer , and Guilland suggests that this was connected to his command of foreign troops via the akolouthos ( who later notably became the commander of the axe @-@ bearing Varangian Guard ) . In the 10th century , when several holders of the post were scions of the most prominent families of the military aristocracy , including Eustathios Argyros , John Kourkouas and Manuel Kourtikes , the droungarios occupied the 36th place in the imperial hierarchy and usually held the senior court dignities of anthypatos , patrikios or prōtospatharios .
= = = List of known holders = = =
Note : the list does not include holders known only through their seals but otherwise unidentified , or anonymous holders .
= = Judicial office = =
In ca . 1030 , the office changed from military to purely judicial , and was further distinguished by acquiring the epithet " Grand " ( megas ) in the 1070s . It seems that the droungarios took over the Court of the Hippodrome , extant since the mid @-@ 9th century and so known after its location in the Covered Hippodrome ( or , according to an alternative interpretation , in the substructures of the main Hippodrome of Constantinople ) . This was followed by the creation of new courts and the restructuring of the Byzantine judicial system , so that in the Komnenian period ( 1081 – 1185 ) , the Court of the Hippodrome or " Court of the Droungarios " ( τὸ δρουγγαρικὸν δικαστήριον , to droungarikon dikastērion ) was one of the seven superior civil courts , alongside those of the Eparch of the City , the dikaiodotēs , the koiaistōr , the epi tōn kriseōn , the prōtasēkrētis and the katholikos , who headed the court for fiscal affairs ( dēmosiaka pragmata ) . The droungarios also served as an appellate court for the decisions of the epi tōn kriseōn . The holders of the post belonged to some of the most distinguished families of the civil aristocracy , including such men as Eustathios Rhomaios , John Skylitzes and Andronikos Kamateros .
= = = List of known holders = = =
Note : the list does not include holders known only through their seals but otherwise unidentified , or anonymous holders .
= = Palaiologan era = =
Following the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 , the office 's continuity was broken , and when it reappears in the sources of the Palaiologan period , it had lost any judicial functions and resembled more its original military character : according to the mid @-@ 14th century Book of Offices of Pseudo @-@ Kodinos , the Grand Droungarios of the Watch was a subordinate of the Grand Domestic , charged with the night watch and with supervising the army 's scouts . In reality , however , it had become more of a sinecure and was essentially a court dignity devoid of any but ceremonial duties .
In Pseudo @-@ Kodinos ' work , the Grand Droungarios of the Watch ranks 24th in the imperial hierarchy , between the Eparch and the megas hetaireiarches . The Grand Droungarios 's distinctive court dress , as reported by Pseudo @-@ Kodinos , consisted of a gold @-@ brocaded hat ( skiadion ) , a plain silk kabbadion tunic and a staff ( dikanikion ) with a gilded knob on top , and covered with golden @-@ red braid below . For ceremonies and festivities , he bore the domed skaranikon , of yellow and golden silk and decorated with gold wire embroidery , and with a portrait of the emperor seated on a throne in front and another with the emperor on horseback on the rear .
The dignity survived until the end of the Byzantine Empire . The historian Sphrantzes equated the Ottoman post of Agha of the Janissaries to the Grand Droungarios of the Watch .
= = = List of known holders = = =
Note : the list does not include holders known only through their seals but otherwise unidentified , or anonymous holders .
= Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad =
The Nawabs of Bengal ( full title , the Nawab Nizam of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa ) were the rulers of the then provinces of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa . Between 1717 and 1765 , they served as the rulers of the subah ( or province ) of Bengal . However , they were subordinate to the Mughal Empire . Siraj ud @-@ Daulah , the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar . He lost to the British , who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757 , installed Mir Jafar on the Masnad ( throne ) and established itself to a political power in Bengal .
In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established , in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British . In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British . In 1793 , when the Nizamat ( governorship ) of the Nawab was also taken away from them , they remained as the mere pensioners of the British East India Company . The last Nawab of Bengal , Mansur Ali Khan abdicated on 1 November 1880 in favour of his eldest son .
Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawabs of Bengal as Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad , following Mansur Ali Khan 's abdication They got the title changed as the title of the Nawab of Bengal was abolished in 1880 . They had little or no say in the share of the revenue collected and were ceased to use any force . After Indian Independence in 1947 it was declared that the princely states must accede to either India or Pakistan ( East / West Pakistan ) . It is a fact that Murshidabad ( the capital city ) became a part of East Pakistan ( now Bangladesh ) for two days , as it had a Muslim majority . The Pakistani flag was brought down from the Hazarduari Palace and the Indian tricolour was hoisted atop the palace . After merging with India , they had no power as the Government of India took over all the princely states in India . The house of the Nawabs came to end in 1969 with Waris Ali Mirza being the last Nawab . Although he left three sons and three daughters there has been no clear successor to the title since his death as he died without declaring one .
= = Bengal = =
The term " Bengal " incorporates to delineate the ethno @-@ linguistic region of Bengal which including but not limited is all districts within the People 's Republic of Bangladesh , as well as West Bengal , India . During the first partition of Bengal in the early 20th century a new province , Eastern Bengal was created as a Lieutenant @-@ Governorship along with Assam . In 1911 , East Bengal ( now Bangladesh ) was reunited with Bengal , and the new provinces in the east became : Assam , Bengal Province , Bihar and Orissa . The Nawab thus gained rule over Bihar and Orissa , which were earlier part of Bengal . So sometimes That is why the Nawabs of Bengal were also mentioned as " Nawab of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa " or " Nawab Nazim of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa " - where Nazim ( or , Subahdar ) means the provincial governor - as they ruled over three subahs while the Nawabs of Murshidabad were the local ruler of the city of Murshidabad . The majority of modern Bengal is inhabited by Bengali people who speak the Bengali language .
= = History before the Nawab 's rule = =
= = = Sultans of Bengal = = =
The early Sultans of Bengal ruled until 1282 which was followed by the rule of several successive dynasties . Ilyas Shah founder of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty , took complete charge of the then Bengal and the capital was shifted to Sonargaon ( near present day , Dhaka in Bangladesh ) . He was one of the independent rulers of Bengal . His son , Sikandar Shah , who succeeded him , built the Adina Mosque at Pandua , near Gour , Adina Mosque in the medieval times , was considered to be the largest in undivided Bengal , as well as the entire Indian subcontinent .
= = = Mughal Empire = = =
The Mughal Empire emerged as a powerful Empire in northern India . Babur , who was related to two legendary warriors – Timur and Genghis Khan , invaded north India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty . Babur thus became the first Mughal emperor . He was succeeded by his son , Humayun . At the same time , Sher Shah Suri ( alias Farid Khan ) of the Suri dynasty rose to prominence and established himself as the ruler of the present day Bihar by defeating Ghiyasuddin Shah . But he lost to capture the kingdom because of sudden expedition of Humayun . In 1539 , Sher Khan faced Humayun in the battle of Chausa . He forced Humayun out of India . Assuming the title Sher Shah , he ascended the throne of Delhi . He also captured Agra and established control from Bengal in the east until the Indus River in the west . After his death he was succeeded by his son , Islam Shah Suri . But in 1544 the Suris were torn apart by internal conflicts . Humayun took this advantage and captured Lahore and Delhi , but he died in 1556 AD . He was succeeded by Akbar , who defeated Daud Khan Karrani of Bengal 's Karrani Dynasty ( or , Karnani Dynasty ) . After this , the administration of the entire region of Bengal passed into the hands of governors appointed by the Mughal emperors , who ruled Bengal till 1716 AD .
There were several posts under the Mughal administrative system during Akbar 's reign . Diwani was a system of provincial revenue administration under the Mughals . Nizamat ( civil administration ) and Diwani ( revenue administration ) were the two main branches of the provincial administration under the Mughals . A Subahdar ( provincial viceroy or governor ) , also called a Nizam was in @-@ charge of the Nizamat . There was a chain of subordinate officials under the Nizams on the executive side and under Diwans on the revenue and judicial side .
= = = Emergence of the Nawab Nizam of Bengal = = =
Murshid Quli Khan arrived as the Diwan of Bengal in 1717 AD . Before his arrival , there were four Diwans . And , after his arrival , Azim @-@ ush @-@ Shan held the Nizam 's office . Azim got into conflict with Murshid Quli Khan over imperial financial control . Considering the complaint of Khan , the then Mughal emperor , Aurangzeb ordered Azim to move to Bihar . Upon his departure the two posts united in one and Murshid Quli Khan became the first Nizam cum Diwan of Bengal . Murshid Khan was appointed the " Nawab Nizam of Bengal " and he emerged as the ruler of Bengal under the Mughals . Murshidabad remained the capital of the Nawabs of Bengal until their rule . The Nawab Siraj ud @-@ Daulah , was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jaffer . He lost to the British East India Company , who took installed Mir Jaffer on the Masnad ( throne ) , as a " puppet ruler " and established itself to a political power in Bengal .
In 1765 , Robert Clive , of the British East India Company , became the first British Governor of Bengal . He secured in perpetuity for the Company the Diwani ( revenue and civil justice ) of the then Bengal subah from the then Mughal Emperor , Shah Alam II and thus the system of Dual Government was established and the Bengal Presidency was formed . In 1772 the Dual Government system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British . In 1793 , when the Nizamat ( military power and criminal justice ) of the Nawab was also taken away from them , they remained as the mere pensioners of the British East India Company . After the Revolt of 1857 , Company rule in India ended and the British Crown took over the territories which were under the direct rule of the British East India Company in 1858 , which marked the beginning of the British Raj . These territories , including the territory of the Nawab Nazims came under the direct rule of the British Crown and British Raj was established in India . Thus , the Nawab Nizams remained just the titular heads of their territory , which was now ruled by the British Crown , and they had no political or any other kind of control over the territory . The last Nawab of Bengal , Mansoor Ali Khan abdicated on 1 November 1880 in favour of his eldest son .
= = History during the Nawab 's rule = =
= = = Dynasties = = =
From 1717 until 1880 , three successive Islamic dynasties – Nasiri , Afshar and Najafi – ruled what was then known as Bengal .
The first dynasty , the Nasiri , ruled from 1717 until 1740 . The founder of the Nasiri , Murshid Quli Khan , was born a poor Deccani Odia Brahmin before being sold into slavery and bought by one Haji Shafi Isfahani , a Persian merchant from Isfahan who converted him to Islam . He entered the service of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and rose through the ranks before becoming the Nawab Nizam of Bengal in 1717 , a post he held until his death in 1727 . He in turn was succeeded by his son @-@ in @-@ law , Shuja @-@ ud @-@ Din Muhammad Khan . After Shuja @-@ ud @-@ Din 's death in 1739 he was succeeded by his son , Sarfaraz Khan , who held the rank , until he was killed in the Battle of Giria in 1741 , and was succeeded by Alivardi Khan , former ruler of Patna , of the Afshar Dynasty in 1740 .
The second dynasty , the Afshar , ruled from 1740 to 1757 . Siraj ud @-@ Daulah ( Alivardi Khan 's grandson ) , the last Afshar Nawab was killed in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 . They were succeeded by the third and final dynasty to rule the whole Bengal , the Najafi .
= = = Under the Mughals = = =
Bengal Subah was one of the wealthiest parts of the Mughal empire . As the Mughal empire began to decline , the Nawabs grew in power , although nominally subordinate to the Mughal emperor . They wielded great power in their own right and finally became independent rulers of the Bengal region , for all practical purposes , by the early 1700s .
= = = Maratha expeditions = = =
Marathas undertook six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 – 1748 . Maratha general , Raghunath Rao was able to annex Orissa to his kingdom and the larger confederacy permanently as he successfully exploited the chaotic conditions prevailing in Bengal , Bihar and Orissa after the death of Murshid Quli Khan in 1727 . Constantly harassed by the Bhonsles , Orissa , Bengal and parts of Bihar were economically ruined . Alivardi Khan made peace with Raghunathrao in 1751 ceding in perpetuity Orissa up to the river Suvarnarekha , and agreeing to pay ₹ 12 lacs annually in lieu of the Chauth of Bengal and Bihar .
The treaty included ₹ 20 lacs as Chauth for Bengal ( includes both West Bengal and Bangladesh ) and ₹ 12 lacs for Bihar ( including Jharkhand ) . After this , Maratha promised never to cross the boundary of the Nawab of Bengal 's territory .
Thus , Baji Rao is hailed as the greatest Maratha chief after Shivaji because of his success in subjecting Muslim rulers of east India in states such as Bengal , Bihar and Orissa to the Maratha rule .
= = = Nawabs of Bengal under British rule and their decline = = =
The break @-@ up of the centralised Mughal empire by 1750 , led to the creation of numerous semi @-@ independent kingdoms ( all provinces of the former Mughal empire ) . Nawab Siraj ud @-@ Daulah was defeated by the British forces of Sir Robert Clive in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 . Thereafter the Nawab of Bengal became a " puppet ruler " depending on military support from British East India company to secure their throne . Siraj @-@ ud @-@ Daulah was replaced by Mir Jaffer . He was personally led to the throne by Robert Clive , after triumph of the British in the battle . He briefly tried to re @-@ assert his power by allying with the Dutch , but this plan was ended by the Battle of Chinsurah . After the defeat at Battle of Buxar and grant of the Diwani ( revenue collection ) of Bengal by the then Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II , to the British East India Company in August 1765 and the appointment of Warren Hastings by the East India Company as their first Governor General of Bengal in 1773 , the Nawabs authority became restricted . By 1773 , British East India company asserted much authority and formed the Bengal Presidency over areas ruled by the Nawabs i.e. the Bengal subah , along with some other regions and abolished the system of Dual Government . In 1793 ( during Nawab Mubarak ud @-@ Daulah 's reign ) , the Nizamat ( military power , civil and criminal justice ) was abolished , British East India company thus annexed this former Mughal province as part of their empire and took complete control of the region , and the Nawabs of Bengal became mere pensioners of the British East India Company . All the Diwan offices except the Diwan Ton were also abolished .
After the Revolt of 1857 , Company rule in India ended , and all the territories which were under the rule of the British East India Company came under the British Crown in 1858 , which marked the beginning of the British Raj . And administrative control of India came under the Indian Civil Service , which had administrative control over all areas in India , except the Princely States .
Mansoor Ali Khan ( aka Feradun Jah ) was the last Nawab of Bengal . During his reign the Nizamat at Murshidabad became involved in debts . The then Government of India involved it into an action of preventing further claims . Feradun Jah left Murshidabad in February 1869 and started living in England . The title of " Nawab of Bengal " was abolished in 1880 . He returned to Bombay in October 1880 but spent most of his time pleading his case against the orders of the Government of India . After it was not resolved the Nawab renounced his styles and titles of Nawab Nizam of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa and abdicated in favour of his eldest son at St. Ives , Maidenhead , on 1 November 1880 .
= = = Emergence of the Nawab of Murshidabad and the Nawabs post Indian independence = = =
The Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawab Nizams of Bengal , Bihar and Orissa as Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad , following Mansoor Ali Khan 's abdication Nawabs of Murshidabad were the successors of the Nawabs of Bengal . After Lord Clive secured the Diwani of Bengal from Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II in 1765 for the East India Company they did not have any effective authority . So they lavishly enjoyed their title , privileges alongside with the honours they received . They got the title changed as the title of the Nawab of Bengal was abolished in 1880 . They had little or no say and ceased to control any significant force .
After Indian Independence in 1947 , all the non @-@ princely states were subject to a test of religious majority in which the Muslim majority areas formed the Dominion of Pakistan , while the other regions formed the Dominion of India . It is a fact that Murshidabad ( the capital city for both , the Nawabs of Bengal and the Nawabs of Murshidabad ) became a part of East Pakistan ( now Bangladesh ) for two days , as it had a Muslim majority . However , it became a part of India on 17 August 1947 . The Pakistani flag was brought down from the Hazarduari Palace and the Indian tricolour was hoisted atop the palace . The Nawabs , after the takeover by the British had no actual power and after merging with India too , they had yielded power , as the Government of India took over control of all the areas that merged with India . Furthermore , with the promulgation of the Indian Constitution on 26 January 1950 , the Dominion of India was transformed into the Republic of India , and the Article 18 of the Indian Constitution ( which is a part of the Right to Equality , a fundamental right in India ) , titles were abolished . The Article prevents the state from confirming any title except those titles given by the Government to those who have made their mark in military and academic fields . Such titles and awards include the Bharat Ratna , the Padma Shri and the Padma Vibhushan ( the Supreme Court of India , on 15 December 1995 , upheld the validity of such awards ) . Thus , with the promulgation of the Constitution , the title of the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad was abolished . And although , the Nawab Waris Ali Meerza held titles such as Raes ud @-@ Daulah , they were not officially or legally recognised .
Although , the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad had no political power the office continued to be held by the second Nawab Bahadur Syed Wasif Ali Meerza Khan Bahadur , who had held the office since 1906 , and after his death in 1959 , he was succeeded by his son , Syed Wasif Ali Meerza Khan Bahadur . Waris Ali Meerza died in 1969 , survived by his three sons and three daughters . According to the Nawab ’ s law , the eldest son of the Nawab succeeded him , however , Waris Ali 's eldest son , Wakif Ali Meerza Bahadur , was excluded from the succession by his father for contracting a non @-@ Muslim marriage and for not professing the Muslim religion .
Waris Ali Meerza , the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad , died in 1969 , and he took no steps during his lifetime to establish his succession . And before declaring his successor Waris Ali died . There was no clear successor to Waris Ali .
Since then there was no clear successor to Waris Ali and the titular office / post was in dispute , and a legal battle ensued . And following this as the title was in dispute , a legal battle ensued . Abbas Ali Meerza claimed to be the legal heir of Waris Ali on the basis of being the son of the daughter of Waris Alis ' father , the second Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad , Wasif Ali Meerza ; while Sajid Ali Meerza claimed the same on the basis of being the son by mut ‘ ah marriage of Wasif Ali . The case reached the Supreme Court and finally , the Supreme Court judges , Justice Ranjan Gogoi and Justice R K Agrawal , gave their judgement on 13 August 2014 , declaring the then 72 @-@ year @-@ old Abbas Ali Meerza ( full name , Syed Mohammed Abbas Ali Meerza ) , who happened to be the son of the only daughter of Waris Ali ’ s father , Wasif Ali Meerza ( the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad ) , the successor and the legal heir to the former Nawab of Murshidabad , Waris Ali Meerza . The Court directed Abbas Ali Meerza , son of Syed Md . Sadeque Ali Meerza , to be the direct descendant of Waris Ali Meerza . However , the case against the state 's annexation of the Murshidabad Estate , which is worth several thousand crores , is still on , as of 2014 .
However , as titles have been abolished in India , the title of the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad no longer exists . However , Abbas Ali Meerza can now legally succeed Waris Ali Meerza 's office legally , but his title of the fourth Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad would be unofficial , as the title is not legally and officially recognised .
= = List of the Nawabs of Bengal = =
The following is a list of all the Nawabs of Bengal . Sarfaraz Khan and Mir Mohammad Jaffer Ali Khan ( Mir Jaffer ) were the only Nawabs to become the Nawab twice . The chronology started in 1717 with Murshid Quli Khan and ended in 1881 with Mansoor Ali Khan 's abdication .
= = List of the Nawabs of Murshidabad = =
The Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawabs of Bengal after the abdication in 1881 and the abolition of the title of Nawab of Bengal in 1880 . There have been four Nawabs of Murshidabad , as of 2014 , as follows :
= Sydney Johnson =
Sydney Johnson ( born April 26 , 1974 ) is an American college basketball coach and the current head coach at Fairfield University for the Fairfield Stags men 's basketball team . Previously , Johnson was the head coach at Princeton University from 2007 to 2011 where he led the Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team to the 2011 Ivy League Title and the 2011 NCAA Tournament . A 1997 Princeton alumnus , Johnson played for the Tigers from 1993 to 1997 .
As a player he was a member of the 1995 – 96 Ivy League champions and undefeated ( in conference ) 1996 – 97 Princeton Tigers . He earned Ivy League Men 's Basketball Player of the Year recognition for the undefeated 1997 team . He continues to hold the Ivy League record for consecutive three point shots made and the league record for most single @-@ game three point shots made without a miss as well as the Princeton Tigers record for career steals . His college career was marked by many memorable overtime performances , game @-@ winning shots and game @-@ clinching free throws . Nonetheless , his greatest recognition came for his defense .
During a seven @-@ year professional career , he won three championships in Europe . After being hired in 2007 , he has been the youngest coach in the Ivy League for his entire four @-@ year tenure there . In his fourth season , he coached the 2010 – 11 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team to a league championship . Previously as an assistant he was part of the 2006 – 07 Big East Conference champions .
= = Playing career = =
Johnson spent much of his childhood in Baltimore . He played his sophomore and junior season of high school basketball at Moorhead Senior High School in Moorhead , Minnesota . Johnson transferred from Minnesota to Towson Catholic High School prior to his senior season . During the early signing period from November 13 through November 20 , 1991 , Johnson , who was considering several Ivy League schools as well as Northeastern University , verbally committed to Boston University . On December 1 , 1991 , Boston University announced that Johnson signed a letter of intent . During his senior season , Johnson lead Towson to the Baltimore Catholic Basketball League Championship . Following the season , he earned Baltimore Catholic Basketball League All @-@ league first @-@ team recognition . He was also selected to participate in the Rodney Beasley East vs. West All @-@ Star Games , sponsored by the Baltimore Metro Coaches Association . He was also a second team All @-@ metro selection and following his 1992 graduation attended the Fork Union Military Academy in Virginia for a postgraduate year . In April 1993 , after playing a year a Fork Union , Johnson signed a letter of intent with Herb Sendek 's Miami ( OH ) team , but upon being accepted by Princeton University in June of that year , he revoked his letter .
Johnson showed strong leadership skills early at Princeton and is the only three @-@ time captain in university history . During his freshman year , he was twice named Ivy League Men 's Basketball Rookie of the Week for the 1993 – 94 team . That season the 11 – 3 Tigers could not match the Penn Quakers who were led by Jerome Allen and Matt Maloney . Johnson provided heroics for the 1994 – 95 Tigers on a couple of occasions . On December 27 , 1994 , he hit what The New York Times described as " a falling @-@ down 3 @-@ point basket with three seconds left in regulation " . The basket forced overtime . At the end of the third overtime period Johnson converted two foul shots with three seconds left to cement a 71 – 66 victory over Texas A & M. Later that season , he set a career @-@ high with a 25 @-@ point performance against Harvard in a double @-@ overtime victory . He recorded seven steals in a game against Brown on February 3 , 1995 , which is one shy of the school record . Again the Tigers could not get past Penn .
As a junior , he was named Ivy League Player of the week for the second weekend in February as he led the team on both ends of the court . The following week , he posted 21 points against Yale , which established his season @-@ high . Even after Allen and Maloney graduated , Princeton 's only two losses were to Penn . After Princeton and Penn ended the 1995 – 96 season tied as Ivy League Co @-@ Champions , Johnson made the decisive three point shot with one minute and four seconds remaining in overtime in the one @-@ game playoff , corralled a defensive rebound , added a pair of free throws with 24 seconds left and then made a steal . The win ended an eight @-@ game losing streak to Penn . The win earned the team the conference automatic bid to the 1996 NCAA Tournament and following the game head coach Pete Carril announced his retirement . The thirteen seeded team was matched against the defending national champion UCLA Bruins in its first round pairing . He was the team 's leading scorer with 11 points in the 43 – 41 first round victory over UCLA in the 1996 NCAA Tournament . The team fell behind 41 – 34 with over six minutes remaining . His 3 @-@ of @-@ 7 three point shooting performance included a shot to bring the team to within 4 . He also made the game @-@ tying layup to knot the score at 41 . He also defended Toby Bailey 's last second shot after Princeton took the lead with 3 @.@ 9 seconds remaining . During the game , UCLA jumped out to a 7 – 0 lead at the first TV timeout , and Johnson 's leadership held the team together early when UCLA looked strong .
As a senior , his new head coach , Bill Carmody described him as a shutdown defender . He was 1997 Ivy League Men 's basketball Player of the Year . Johnson earned the award for his defense and was the first winner with a single @-@ digit scoring average . He scored 15 on February 22 , when Princeton clinched the Ivy League regular season championship by defeating Dartmouth . The following week , he established Ivy League records for most consecutive three @-@ point field goals made , with 11 , and the most single @-@ game three @-@ point field goals made with no misses ( 6 for 6 ) against Columbia Lions men 's basketball on February 28 , 1997 and Cornell Big Red men 's basketball ( first 5 ) on March 1 , 1997 . He had twelve points in the regular season finale during which Princeton tied the school record with its nineteenth consecutive win . In the 1997 NCAA Tournament opening round matchup against the Cal Bears , when a final second pass was intercepted , he attempted to shoulder the blame with the press . He retired as the Princeton University all @-@ time leader in steals . His 169 total steals were fifth in Ivy League history at the end of his career and was eleventh at the end of the 2009 @-@ 10 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . He retired second in Princeton history in career three point shots and fourth in career assists .
After writing his senior thesis on Kenyan education under British colonial rule and graduating with a bachelor 's degree in history , Johnson declined the postgraduate scholarship that he was awarded and played five years in Italy followed by two in Spain . Johnson played professional basketball in the Lega Basket Serie A and Legadue Basket in Italy and Liga Española de Baloncesto in Spain , one season each for Gorizia Pallacanestro A2 , Viola Reggio Calabria , Adecco Milano / Ducato Siena , Casademont Girona and Montepaschi Siena . He played two seasons with the Avellino in Italy from 2000 – 2002 . He had a seven @-@ year professional career before becoming a coach . In 1998 , he won an Italian Second Division championship as a starter for Gorizia Pallacanestro . In 1999 , he earned another league championship with for Reggio Calabria , and in his final professional season in 2004 he earned a league title with Siena . With Reggio Calabria , he teamed with Brent Scott , Brian Oliver , and Manu Ginobili to win a championship .
= = Coaching career = =
= = = Georgetown = = =
Johnson was then brought on as an assistant to the newly appointed head coach at Georgetown , John Thompson III in 2004 . The team was coming off of a losing record and made it to a 2005 National Invitation Tournament . The team reached the Sweet Sixteen round of the 2006 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . During his tenure at Georgetown , he helped coach the team to an overall 72 – 30 record over 3 seasons and the 2006 – 07 team the 2007 Big East regular season championship , the 2007 Big East Men 's Basketball Tournament championship , and a trip to the Final Four of the 2007 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament .
= = = Princeton = = =
When Scott abandoned his struggling Princeton team to coach at Denver in 2007 , athletic director Gary Walters hired Sydney Johnson to take over the program . Johnson emerged from a field of Princeton offense veterans that included Mike Brennan , Robert Burke , Craig Robinson , Bill Carmody , Armond Hill , Chris Mooney , and Mitch Henderson . Johnson 's demeanor as a coach is said by players to be more benevolent than his predecessor , Joe Scott , who left for the University of Denver after compiling a losing record in three years at Princeton . He was regarded as an inexperienced coach because he only had three years of experience as an assistant coach . He became the youngest coach in the Ivy League . Johnson inherited a team that had gone 2 – 12 in conference the prior season and 38 – 45 overall during the prior three season . Among the lowlights that the team had achieved during the Scott era was a 21 @-@ point performance that tied the record for fewest points since the inception of the three point shot and the shot clock . The team had ranked last in the nation in scoring in both 2006 and 2007 . Although race is an issue among collegiate coaching ranks , in Johnson 's first year , he was one of six African @-@ American men 's basketball head coaches in the 8 @-@ team Ivy League . Johnson employs the Princeton offense . Former Tiger stars Brian Earl and Scott Greenman were among Johnson 's assistants at Princeton .
After a tumultuous first season of rebuilding during which it posted a 3 – 11 record , Princeton began to show great improvement in 2008 – 2009 . Even with only three games left on their schedule and a 7 – 4 conference record , they still controlled their own destiny for a possible postseason bid . They finished 13 – 14 with an 8 – 6 record in the Ivy League , which tied them with Yale for second place . Along the way , the Tigers defeated Fordham , UNC @-@ Greensboro , and Lehigh during their non @-@ conference schedule and also notched wins over Harvard twice . One highlight of the season was an early season victory over eventual Ivy League champs Cornell who had possessed a 19 @-@ game Ivy League winning streak . The Ivy League does not name a coach of the year in any sport , but Collegeinsider.com named Johnson Ivy League Coach of the Year .
During Johnson 's third season , the 2009 – 10 team rebounded from a 2 – 4 start to win 20 of its final 25 games and earn a berth in the 2010 College Basketball Invitational . Princeton 's 22 wins were its most since 1999 , as were its two postseason wins , and the postseason berth was its first since 2004 . In the March 17 , opening round game at home , Princeton defeated the Duquesne Dukes 65 – 51 . The game was Princeton 's first postseason appearance since the 2003 – 04 team went to the 2004 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament and the first postseason victory since the 1998 – 99 team won two games in the 1999 National Invitation Tournament . On March 22 , the team defeated IUPUI 74 – 68 in double overtime at IUPUI Gymnasium in Indianapolis , Indiana . The Tigers had previously won in the postseason in Indianapolis when the Johnson @-@ led 1995 – 96 team pulled off a first round upset of the national defending champion UCLA in the 1996 Tournament . In the tournament semifinals the team was defeated by Saint Louis University 69 – 59 at Chaifetz Arena in St. Louis , Missouri on March 24 . Johnson again earned Collegeinsider.com Coach of the Year .
In 2010 , Johnson tweaked the motion Princeton offense to be a bit more uptempo , resulting in more possessions and higher scores . On March 5 , 2010 , the 2010 – 11 team had a chance to clinch an outright 2010 – 11 Ivy League men 's basketball season championship , but lost to Harvard who clinched a share of the title . Following the game , Johnson made his team sit on the bench and watch the Harvard fans celebrate . On March 8 , Princeton defeated Penn to force a one @-@ game playoff at the Payne Whitney Gymnasium in New Haven , Connecticut . On March 12 , Princeton earned the Ivy League 's automatic bid to the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , making the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament for the first time since 2004 and 24th time in school history by defeating Harvard 63 – 62 . Princeton was awarded the number thirteen seed and a first round match against the Kentucky Wildcats . Kentucky had eliminated Ivy League representative Cornell the prior season . Kentucky emerged victorious by a 59 – 57 margin on a last second layup . He was named as a finalist for the Hugh Durham Award , the Ben Jobe Award , and the Skip Prosser Award .
= = = Fairfield = = =
In April 2011 , Johnson accepted a head coaching position at Fairfield University , replacing Ed Cooley . He coached the 2011 – 12 Stags to the semifinals of the 2012 CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament where they lost to Mercer , after defeating Yale , Manhattan and Robert Morris to finish with a 22 – 15 record . Mercer went on to win the tournament . For the second season in a row , he was a finalist for the Ben Jobe Award . The 2012 – 13 team started the season 10 – 10 ( 2 – 6 ) before winning five consecutive and seven out of eight Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference games . The team then lost its two final conference games to finish 9 – 9 in conference . Eventually the team finished 19 – 15 ( 9 – 9 ) .
= = Personal = =
Johnson 's history professor father , LeRoy , divorced from his mother when Johnson was young . He grew up in a series of college towns . Johnson 's father played basketball for Indiana in the early 1960s . He was also one of the first Americans to play professionally in France . His brother Steve was on the California Bears team that defeated the two @-@ time defending champion Duke Blue Devils men 's basketball team in the 1993 NCAA Tournament . While at Princeton , Johnson was a member of the Cap and Gown Club . Johnson met his wife Jennifer ( née Zarr ) Johnson when they were freshmen in Princeton 's Wilson College . When he was initially hired by Princeton the couple had two children : 2 @-@ year @-@ old son , Jalen , and newborn daughter , Julia .
Johnson had been very involved with the university as a whole during his head coaching career , participating in a task force charged with surveying the impact of Princeton 's eating clubs on campus life , and sitting with his players in the student section at many home football games .
= = Head coaching record = =
= Battle of the Chinese Farm =
The Battle of the Chinese Farm took place during October 15 to October 17 , 1973 between the Egyptian Army and the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) , as part of the Yom Kippur War . It was fought in the Sinai Peninsula , north of the Great Bitter Lake and just east of the Suez Canal , near an Egyptian agricultural research station . The farm featured specialized Japanese @-@ made machinery ; Israeli soldiers mistook Japanese characters on this equipment for Chinese , leading to the area being labeled ' Chinese Farm ' on Israeli military maps . The battle began when the IDF launched Operation Abiray @-@ Lev ( " Stouthearted Men " ) , attempting to establish a corridor to the canal and allow bridges to be laid for a crossing . Accordingly , the Israelis attacked Egyptian forces in and around the Chinese Farm .
Determined Egyptian resistance made progress extremely slow for the Israelis , who suffered heavy losses . The Israelis were repeatedly reinforced with armor but were unable to make much headway , only managing to seize an important crossroad on the second day . Suffering from a lack of infantry , the Israelis brought up paratroopers during the night of October 16 / 17 . They were tasked with clearing anti @-@ tank defenses for the armor , but they became pinned down by heavy Egyptian fire . The paratroopers drew Egyptian attention long enough for the Israelis to move bridging equipment to the canal undetected . Armored forces later extricated the paratroopers .
The Egyptians attempted to restore their defenses to their initial dispositions with an armored attack on October 17 . It initially succeeded , but was pushed back by Israeli counterattacks in an armored battle lasting the entire day . Seriously depleted by the continuous fighting , the Egyptians relinquished control of the routes to the canal , opening them up to the Israelis . The battle is remembered as one of the most costly and brutal battles of the war .
= = Background = =
On October 6 , 1973 , Egypt launched Operation Badr , intending to cross the Suez Canal and establish bridgeheads on the opposite bank of the Sinai Peninsula , which had been occupied by Israel since 1967 . Coordinated with a Syrian assault on the Golan Heights , the crossing achieved tactical surprise and was a success . Thereafter , counterattacks by Israeli reserves were unsuccessful . By October 10 , fighting along the front had come to a lull . The Egyptians dug in and hoped to wear down the Israelis by attrition , while remaining within range of their ground surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , which provided air cover from the west bank of the canal , while the Israelis focused on directing their main efforts against the Syrians in the Golan and reorganizing their battered forces . Israeli failures led to the replacement of the chief of the Israeli Southern Command , Major General Shmuel Gonen , with Chaim Bar @-@ Lev , although Gonen was retained as his aide .
The situation changed when Sadat , in the face of protests from his senior commanders , ordered an offensive to seize the strategic Sinai mountain passes , hoping to relieve Israeli pressure on the Syrians . The resulting offensive was ill @-@ planned and ill @-@ executed , culminating in heavy Egyptian losses without achieving any of its objectives . This gave the Israelis the initiative to launch a counteroffensive .
On October 14 , immediately following the Egyptian offensive , Israeli Chief of Staff David Elazar presented the general outlines of a crossing operation of the Suez Canal to the Israeli cabinet in a meeting in Tel Aviv . Elazar emphasized the military and political gains of the operation , and the expected collapse that would occur in the Egyptian forces on the east bank when their supply routes became threatened . Elazar received unanimous support from the cabinet . Later that day , Bar @-@ Lev headed a meeting attended by the senior and main division commanders in the Sinai theatre : Major Generals Abraham Adan , Ariel Sharon and Kalman Magen . Bar @-@ Lev informed the Israeli officers of the decision to begin the crossing operation on the night of October 15 / 16 , and assigned duties and responsibilities to the division commanders .
= = Operation Abirey @-@ Lev = =
According to the plan set for the Israeli crossing , Operation Abirey @-@ Halev ( Hebrew for " Stouthearted Men " ) , the designated crossing point lay near to Deversoir , at the northern end of the Great Bitter Lake on the Suez Canal . The Israelis had to open the principal route to Deversoir and secure a corridor stretching 5 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of the crossing site ( known as " The Yard " ) . Paratroopers and armor would then cross the canal to establish a 5 @-@ kilometer @-@ deep bridgehead ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) , after which the bridges would be laid , with at least one to be operational by the morning of October 16 . The Israelis would then cross to the west bank and attack south and west , with the end goal of reaching Suez , thus encircling and cutting off two Egyptian divisions on the east bank . Southern Command allotted 24 hours for the setting up of the bridgehead and 24 hours for Israeli forces to reach Suez , with the latter expected to be under Israeli control by October 18 at the latest . It would soon be shown that the execution of Operation Stouthearted Men would deviate from planning and schedules and that the time @-@ frame had been highly optimistic and extremely unrealistic .
= = = Order of Battle = = =
Major General Ariel Sharon 's 143rd Armored Division was giveen the critical tasks of opening the corridors and laying the bridges . His division included Tuvia Raviv 's 600th Armored Brigade , Colonel Amnon Reshef 's 14th Armored Brigade , and the ' Haim ' Brigade commanded by Colonel Haim Erez . Major General Abraham Adan 's 162nd Armored Division was tasked with crossing the canal and achieving an encirclement with its 300 tanks . The division included Colonel Natke Nir 's 217th Armored Brigade , Colonel Gabi Amir 's 460th Armored Brigade and Aryeh Keren 's 500th Armored Brigade . A paratrooper brigade would be transferred to Adan 's division during the course of the battle . Kalman Magen 's 252nd Armored Division would initially launch diversionary attacks elsewhere to draw attention from Sharon 's operations at Deversoir . Thereafter the division would hold and secure the corridor and bridgehead .
Egyptian forces in the area formed the southern flank of the Second Field Army . These units were the 21st Armored Division , commanded by Brigadier General Ibrahim Oraby , and the 16th Infantry Division , commanded by Brigadier General Abd Rab el @-@ Nabi Hafez . In addition to being the division commander , Hafez also commanded forces within his division 's bridgehead , which included the 21st Division . Oraby 's unit included the 1st Armored Brigade , under Colonel Sayed Saleh ; the 14th Armored Brigade , under Colonel Othman Kamel ; and the 18th Mechanized Brigade , under Colonel Talaat Muslim . Hafez 's 16th Division included the 16th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Colonel Abd el @-@ Hamid Abd el @-@ Sami ' , as well as the 116th Infantry and the 3rd Mechanized Brigades .
= = = Location of battle and deployment of forces = = =
Two main roads led to Deversoir . The first was the Tasa @-@ Tel Salam Road , codenamed Akavish by the Israelis . This road connected Artillery Road ( running north to south 15 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) east of the canal ) to Lexicon Road ( running north to south directly east of the canal ) . The Lexicon @-@ Akavish junction fell on Tel Salaam , near the Great Bitter Lake and 6 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) south of Deveroir , where Fort Lakekan ( part of the Bar Lev Line ) was located . The second road , codenamed Tirtur , ran north of Akavish . It too connected Artillery Road to Lexicon , but provided a direct route to " the Yard " . The Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junction fell on Fort Matzmed . This fortification , which consisted of two strongpoints 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) apart , had been captured on October 9 by a small assault force , while Fort Lakekan had been evacuated without any combat on October 8 . The importance of both fortifications lay in their control of the Lexicon @-@ Akavish and Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junctions . Both forts , however , were in the designated buffer zone , 35 kilometers ( 22 mi ) long , between the Second and Third Armies . It was believed this area would not need defending , as it was both adjacent to the Great Bitter Lake , a natural obstacle , and most of it lay outside the range of the Egyptian SAMs . Thus they were left unoccupied by the local Egyptian commander , who chose not to extend his defenses southwards . The Egyptian negligence to occupy and defend both forts would greatly assist the Israelis in Operation Stouthearted Men .
Just north of the Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junction was the village of al @-@ Galaa . Prior to the 1967 Six Day War , the village had been the site of an agricultural project . This agricultural station incorporated several irrigation ditches and specialized Japanese @-@ made machinery . When the Sinai came under Israeli occupation , Israeli soldiers unwittingly mistook the Japanese characters for Chinese ones , leading to the location being labeled ' Chinese Farm ' on military maps . Just north and north @-@ west of Chinese Farm was a hill mass known by its Israeli codename ' Missouri ' . During Operation Badr , al @-@ Galaa and the Chinese Farm fell within the designated bridgehead of the 16th Infantry Division . Abd el @-@ Hamid 's 16th Infantry Brigade occupied and defended these locations . After partaking in the initial canal @-@ crossing , the brigade , along with the rest of the division , faced an attack by Raviv 's brigade on October 9 . The Israelis achieved some initial gains , but were repelled by the end of the day . Also located within 16th Division 's bridgehead , as of October 13 , was the 21st Armored Division . Its units were positioned in the center and the north of the bridgehead . The 14th Brigade had been involved in the crossing and , along with the 1st Brigade , participated in the Egyptian offensive on October 14 ; as a result , it had lost half of its operational tank strength . In the aftermath , Oraby 's efforts to reorganize and replace armored losses were hampered by frequent artillery barrages and air strikes . On October 15 , there were 136 tanks in the Egyptian bridgehead , unevenly split among Oraby 's brigades : 66 with the 1st Armored Brigade , 39 with the 14th Armored Brigade , and 31 in the 18th Mechanized Brigade . Despite their heavy losses , the Egyptian forces in the bridgehead outnumbered Reshef 's force .
Early on the morning of October 15 , Adan moved his division from its positions in the north to a concentration area west of Tasa in preparation for the crossing . Sharon 's division had been in the central sector since its arrival at the Sinai Front , along with the crossing equipment and bridges since October 13 . Sharon had his headquarters in Tasa , 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) east of the canal .
= = = Israeli plan and initial maneuvers = = =
After receiving his orders late on October 14 from Bar @-@ Lev , Sharon headed to his headquarters to prepare for the operation . His division incorporated Raviv 's Brigade , Colonel Amnon Reshef 's 14th Armored Brigade , and the ' Haim ' Brigade commanded by Colonel Haim Erez . Attached to his division was the 243rd Paratrooper Brigade commanded by Colonel Dani Matt .
Sharon planned for Raviv 's brigade to attack from the east , diverting Egyptian attention away from Deversoir . Erez was tasked with transporting a pre @-@ constructed roller bridge to the crossing area at Deversoir , while one of his tank battalions would be attached to the paratroopers . Colonel Reshef was given the most critical tasks of all . Accordingly , his brigade was heavily reinforced to incorporate four armored and three mechanized infantry battalions , in addition to the division 's reconnaissance battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Yaov Brom . His brigade would conduct a turning maneuver at 6 : 00 AM on October 15 south of Akavish Road , move through the sand dunes to reach Fort Lakekan , before heading north to occupy Fort Matzmed . Reshef 's brigade would then split up to clear the Akavish and Titur Roads and seize the Chinese Farm , while occupying the crossing area and awaiting Matt 's brigade . Matt 's paratrooper brigade , containing an additional tank company and the armored battalion , would move south @-@ west via Akavish to reach Fort Matzmed . From there , it would continue on to the Yard and cross the canal at 11 : 00 PM , using rubber dinghies and rafts for the tanks .
Matt 's brigade began moving to Tasa at 4 : 30 PM on October 15 , before turning eastwards on Akavish . Heavy congestion on the roads made the brigade 's progress very slow . A little after midnight , the brigade left Akavish and moved westward to the Yard , an area 700 meters long and 150 meters wide surrounded by protective sand walls . The site had been made long before the war .
Reshef maneuvered his brigade as planned , entering into the previously discovered gap without any opposition . Leaving a combined recon and paratrooper force at the canal , he sent his tanks north and west to secure the flank of the projected crossing site and clear the Akavish and Tirtur roads from behind for the follow @-@ on bridging equipment . He seized the Lakekan and Matzmed fortifications without resistance . Reshef informed Sharon that the forts were under control and that Akavish was clear . Sharon in turn informed Southern Command of these successes , sending a wave of jubilation through the Israeli commanders , delighted that the operation had begun so smoothly .
= = Battle = =
Matt had been informed that the crossing area and its environs were clear of Egyptian forces , but out of caution , ordered his tank company to deploy at the Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junction to confront any Egyptian movements towards the crossing site , just 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) south of the crossroads . The entire company was wiped out after it was ambushed by Egyptian infantry of the 16th Brigade . The company commander was killed and most of his men were casualties , unbeknownst to Matt . Meanwhile , Israeli artillery batteries opened fire on the landing site on the west bank , delivering around 70 tons of shells and ordnance . In fact , the opposite bank was completely clear of Egyptian troops . The crossing finally got underway at 1 : 35 AM , over five hours behind schedule . By 9 : 00 AM , 2 @,@ 000 paratroopers had crossed , along with a battalion of thirty tanks . The Israelis sent raiding parties attacking Egyptian SAMs on the west bank , while securing a 4 @-@ kilometer @-@ deep bridgehead ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) without facing resistance .
Tuvia Raviv 's armored brigade began its diversionary attack against the 16th Division 's bridgehead at 5 : 00 PM on October 15 , striking at the bridgehead 's center from the east , after a fire preparation . It was repulsed by the Egyptians , as had been expected , but succeeded in its purpose . When the 16th Division 's southern flank came under increasing Israeli attack , the Egyptians assumed that the Israeli objective was to roll up the Second Army 's right flank , not to open a corridor to the west bank for Israeli forces to cross the canal . For the next 24 hours , this remained the general impression among Egyptian commanders , and they reacted accordingly . Had they discovered the Israelis ' true intentions earlier , the Egyptians would almost certainly have been able to defeat the Israeli operation , in light of the greater strength of their forces and reserves near the Deversoir area , on the east and west banks of the Suez Canal .
= = = Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junction = = =
While the paratroopers prepared to cross , Reshef was informed that Akavish had been closed again by Egyptian infantry units soon after his passing . He sent one armored battalion to clear the road and committed his remaining three armored and three mechanized battalions to push northwards and secure Tirtur and the Chinese Farm .
An infantry battalion , forming the right flank of Abd el @-@ Hamid 's 16th Brigade , was in position to defend the Lexicon @-@ Tirtur crossroads . Initially , Reshef sent two armored battalions northward on Lexicon . As the Israeli tanks neared the infantry battalion , they were met by heavy fire from anti @-@ tank weapons . They lost 27 tanks during this engagement , although seven Israeli tanks managed to break through the battalion 's westernmost position on Lexicon and advance northwards to al @-@ Galaa ' . Thereafter , ' Abd el @-@ Hamid ordered tank @-@ hunting squads – groups of ten equipped with RPG @-@ 7 rockets and RPG @-@ 43 grenades – to deploy around al @-@ Galaa ' and destroy those tanks that broke through ; he also sent a tank company to reinforce the infantry battalion .
At night , Reshef moved with his remaining forces north along the canal bank . Bypassing the 16th Brigade 's positions , the Israelis soon found themselves in the center of a huge administrative area and vehicle park . Reshef 's brigade had stumbled into the command and supply bases of the Egyptian 16th and 21st Divisions . The base was located near the canal on the assumption that it was the safest location from Israeli attacks , which was expected to come from the east , where the defenses were the strongest , not from the south , where they were the weakest . Both sides immediately opened fire , inadvertently leading to the destruction of supply trucks and SAM launchers . The Egyptians managed to organize a counterattack by units of the 21st Division ; a battalion of the 14th Brigade and a battalion ( less one company ) of the 18th Brigade . The tanks repelled the Israelis , who sustained significant losses from vastly overwhelming opposing forces .
Brigadier General Hafez , commanding the 16th Infantry Division , planned to contain the Israeli attack from the south by having the 18th Mechanized Brigade occupy defenses north of the Chinese Farm , directly behind the 16th Infantry Brigade , but without its organic tank battalion , which was designated as part of the division 's reserve . The 1st Armored Brigade moved southward to occupy positions between Lateral Road and the canal on the right flank of the 18th Brigade . Upon the brigade 's arrival , it engaged Israeli armor from Reshef 's brigade in al @-@ Galaa ' ; Egyptian armor destroyed around 15 tanks and several half @-@ tracks . At around 1 : 00 PM , sorties of Egyptian Su @-@ 7s destroyed many Israeli tanks in ground @-@ attack missions over al @-@ Galaa ' village . The 1st Brigade countered a flanking attempt on its left at 2 : 00 PM by a tank battalion , thwarting the attack and destroying ten tanks . During its engagements on October 16 , the 21st Division managed to destroy over 50 Israeli tanks and APCs , while subjected to frequent Israeli air strikes and artillery barrages . The 1st Brigade accounted for most of the kills , while suffering fewer losses .
Meanwhile , one of Reshef 's mechanized battalions , commanded by Major Nathan Shunari , was reinforced with company @-@ sized remnants of the 40th Tank Battalion , now commanded by Captain Gideon Giladi after the previous battalion commander had been wounded . Shunari was ordered to seize the Lexicon @-@ Tirtur junction . He sent the tank company ahead first , which initially reported no Egyptian units . Shunari dispatched an infantry unit in six half @-@ tracks to the junction . Upon reaching it , they discovered that the tank company had already been destroyed and Giladi killed . Soon the vehicles began came under heavy fire , stopping their advance . The unit commander reported casualties , and Shunari ordered the remainder of his battalion to aid the pinned @-@ down men . Attempts to rescue the infantry failed , and the Egyptian battalion defending the junction directed heavy firepower against the area , aided by the brigade 's artillery . The Egyptian defenders had managed to catch the Israelis in a prepared killing zone . Shunari , whose troops lacked cover and were threatened with annihilation , regrouped some of his forces and managed to escape the area in vehicles , but the infantry half @-@ track unit first sent to the crossroads remained pinned down .
Reshef sent another tank company to rescue the infantrymen . The tanks advanced towards the Chinese Farm from the south . As they neared the farm and the village , a downpour of anti @-@ tank and artillery fire forced the company to retreat . Nathan kept pleading with Rehsef to send additional support , unaware he was facing superior Egyptian forces after entering the administrative bases of the Egyptian 16th and 21st Divisions . With no help coming , the unit commander had his men carry the wounded and attempted to leave the battlefield , tasking two sections of heavy machine guns with providing cover to the force . As the Israelis slowly made their way back to their lines , a group of Egyptian tanks intercepted and wiped out the Israeli force .
Despite the debacle , Reshef remained determined to seize the junction , giving the task to the division 's reconnaissance battalion attached to his brigade . To achieve surprise , the battalion maneuvered to attack at 3 : 00 AM from the west , as the Egyptians were preparing for further attacks from the south and east . As the Israelis attacked , Lieutenant Colonel Brom was killed barely thirty meters from Egyptian positions , disrupting his battalion 's assault . The Israelis sustained losses , but managed to retreat . Soon after , a tank company attacked the crossroads at 4 : 00 AM on October 16 , but also withdrew after losing three tanks .
By 4 : 00 AM on October 16 , Reshef 's brigade , which had begun the operation with 97 tanks , had lost 56 in just twelve hours of fighting , leaving only 41 remaining . Although seizing the crossing site had been accomplished easily , stiff resistance had prevented Reshef from achieving his remaining objectives , namely opening the routes to the canal and securing a corridor . Reshef 's force would further drop to just 27 tanks by noon . As a whole , Sharon 's division suffered some 300 killed and 1 @,@ 000 wounded that night . To help Reshef secure the corridor , Sharon supplied him with two tank battalions by 6 : 00 PM , propping his numbers up to 81 tanks .
Hearing reports of the heavy fighting taking place between the junction and the Chinese Farm , Dayan suggested withdrawing Matt 's brigade and canceling the operation . He voiced concerns that the paratroopers were threatened with annihilation and noted that all attempts to open a corridor for the bridges had failed . Gonen rejected the suggestion , stating that , " If we knew in advance this was going to happen we would not have started the crossing operation , but now that we have crossed then let us follow through to the bitter end . " Bar @-@ Lev concurred with Gonen , and Dayan decided not to press his suggestion . At around 6 : 00 AM , Golda Meir telephoned Dayan to inquire about the situation . Dayan informed her that the bridges had not yet been laid and that the Egyptians had closed the routes leading to Deveroir . He also stated there were high hopes that Egyptian resistance would be overcome and that the bridges would be laid during the morning . Dayan also told her that Matt 's paratrooper brigade had crossed to the west bank without encountering resistance and that Southern Command , as yet , had no intentions of withdrawing the brigade , even if the bridge @-@ laying was delayed .
Shortly after dawn , Reshef conducted a reconnaissance of the battlefield from a hilltop . He saw that the Egyptians had set up a strong blocking position defending the junction , composed of Egyptian tanks situated in hull @-@ down positions and infantrymen in foxholes and the now @-@ dry irrigation ditches of the Chinese Farm . The infantry were from the 16th Brigade 's right @-@ flank battalion and had the support of recoilless rifles , RPG @-@ 7s , and some manually guided AT @-@ 3 Sagger missiles . Reshef discovered that the Egyptians had mined both sides of Lexicon Road , to which he had lost several of his tanks .
Reshef decided to change tactics . He personally commanded the 40th Armored Battalions , after reinforcing it with tanks salvaged and repaired from the previous night 's fighting , and maneuvered to attack from the west – from the direction of the canal – hitting Egyptian positions in the flank , while a tank company and an infantry company attacked from south to north . Reshef 's forces engaged the Egyptians from long range , picking off defensive positions from afar , while using alternate fire and movement to advance to the crossroads . The defending infantry battalion , exhausted by continuous fighting and suffering from a severe lack of ammunition , soon withdrew allowing the Israelis to at last seize the junction .
In the meantime , other difficulties were surfacing . Sharon reported to Southern Command that one section of the roller bridge , being towed by Erez 's brigade , had been damaged and that the engineers needed a few hours to repair it . He also requested additional forces to help secure the corridor , noting the stiff resistance facing Reshef 's brigade . Sharon 's report prompted Bar @-@ Lev to alert Adan to prepare to open the corridor with his division . Sharon argued for Adan 's division to cross the canal on rafts and to proceed with Operation Abiray @-@ Lev without waiting for the bridges . Both Gonen and Bar @-@ Lev rejected Sharon 's suggestion since , without a secure corridor to the canal , Israeli forces on the west bank would be threatened with encirclement . Subsequently , Bar @-@ Lev ordered that no more Israeli forces or equipment would cross to the west bank until the bridges had been laid .
After receiving reinforcements , Reshef focused on clearing the Tirtur Road . He left a battalion of around 30 tanks between the junction and the western part of the Chinese Farm , and prepared to attack with two armored battalions provided by Sharon . He concentrated on the section of the Tirtur Road defended by an Egyptian battalion forming the left flank of the 16th Infantry Brigade . One of Reshef 's battalions attacked from the north @-@ east , the other from the west . The Egyptian battalion managed to halt the advance , aided by fire from tanks and anti @-@ tank weapons on the slopes of Missouri , a hill north @-@ west of the Chinese Farm , causing Reshef to break off his attack .
This last attempt left Reshef 's brigade in a desperate situation . He had 27 tanks remaining and was running short on ammunition and supplies . Reshef requested authorization from Sharon to withdraw his brigade to Fort Lakekan to regroup his forces and regain combat effectiveness .
= = = Israeli reinforcement = = =
The unexpected Egyptian resistance forced Israeli Southern Command to change its plans . Visiting Adan 's advance command post , Gonen noted that " Sharon has disappointed us " and handed Adan the task of moving the pontoon bridge to the canal . Adan was to prepare to clear the Akavish and Tirtur Roads to deploy the bridges . Gonen informed Sharon of Adan 's new orders and tasked Sharon with capturing the Chinese Farm and Egyptian positions near the farm and the canal . Needing to | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
adiers of the 109th regiment .
From this point on , combat centered on the village of Unterhausen , 3 @.@ 8 miles ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) west @-@ south @-@ west of Neuburg center . A few French platoons drove the Austrians from the forest located between the village and the Danube with a bayonet charge by the grenadiers of the 109th . As French reserves arrived , the Austrians counterattacked and retook the woods , the heights at Oberhausen , and the village . According to Lecourbe 's account , the Austrians , " embolden by this first success , soon covered all the surrounding heights , on which they planted about twenty @-@ five or thirty pieces of cannon . " At eight o 'clock at night , after twelve hours of battle , companies of the 14th and 46th Regiments ( French ) moved along a small road on the right of the village , and another group proceeded on the left , enveloping the village . The subsequent simultaneous French attack at both flanks and the center convinced the Austrians that , despite the defensive barrages laid by their artillery in Oberhausen , the French had been massively reinforced . The attack on the village , executed without firing a shot , involved fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting in which the commander of the 46th Regiment and the First Grenadier of France , Latour D 'Auvergne , were both killed .
Outside the village , the French 46th and 14th Light Infantry mingled in combat with the Austrian cavalry , yet managed to hold their own , presumably in squares . This melee continued until about 2200 , when the Austrians withdrew from Unterhausen . Lecourbe ordered his troops not to pursue , as nightfall was on them .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle had immediate implications . General Ney established his headquarters in the castle at Neuburg , which over looks the battlefield . General Moreau ordered the establishment of a tomb on the location were the First Grenadier had fallen . Emperor Francis II dismissed Pál Kray , who had lost an impressive succession of battles , and appointed his brother , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old general major Archduke John , to command the Austrian army . To compensate for John 's inexperience , the emperor named FZM Franz von Lauer as deputy commander and the zealous Oberst ( Colonel ) Franz von Weyrother became Chief of Staff .
In the broader scheme , the series of battles beginning with the losses at Stockach and Engen and ending at Neuburg broke the Austrian control along the strategic Danube . Similarly , in Italy , French successes at the battles at Montebello and Marengo forced Austrian withdrawal to the east . With France threatening Habsburg Austria from the northwest and southwest , the Austrians agreed to a cease fire . Subsequent peace negotiations were complicated by the alliance Austria had made with Britain , and which prevented her from signing any separate peace . The British entered the negotiations to bolster their weakened ally . Initially Britain , which had successfully blockaded French ports , refused the French terms and offered counter terms in September 1800 . Napoleon later claimed that the Austrians did not negotiate in good faith , and sought only to gain time until " the rainy season " ( winter ) , when army movements would be difficult , and the Habsburgs would have an entire season to recruit .
= There 's Something About Marrying =
" There 's Something About Marrying " is the tenth episode of the sixteenth season of The Simpsons . In the episode , Springfield legalizes same @-@ sex marriage to increase tourism . After becoming a minister , Homer starts to wed people to make money . Meanwhile , Marge 's sister Patty comes out as a lesbian and reveals that she is going to marry a woman named Veronica . Marge originally disapproves of this , making Patty frustrated . When Marge accidentally discovers that Veronica is a man cross @-@ dressed as a woman , she decides to keep quiet about it knowing that Patty will be marrying a man . However , at the ceremony , she is so moved by Patty 's vow that she is forced to reveal Veronica 's secret . After the ceremony is abruptly cancelled , Marge tells Patty that she now accepts her sexuality .
This was the third time that an episode of The Simpsons focused on homosexuality . The episode — written by J. Stewart Burns and directed by Nancy Kruse — was inspired by the 2004 same @-@ sex weddings that occurred in San Francisco . According to executive producer Al Jean , the staff wanted the episode to explore what the different characters ' stances on same @-@ sex marriage were . Around the time of the episode 's original airdate , February 20 , 2005 , the same @-@ sex marriage question was a hot political issue in the United States and the episode became controversial . " There 's Something About Marrying " received a lot of criticism from conservative groups , including the Parents Television Council and the American Family Association , that claimed it was promoting gay marriage . Jean stated in response that the staff was not taking a side on the issue and that they were just examining all sides of it . Positive reaction to the episode came from , among others , the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation and the gay @-@ oriented website AfterEllen.com.
During the first airing , 10 @.@ 5 million people watched " There 's Something About Marrying " and it became the highest rated episode of the season . The episode had received a lot of publicity in the media before its broadcast — not only because of the same @-@ sex marriage controversy but also because of Patty 's outing . It was revealed in July 2004 , that a character would come out as gay in the episode , leading to much speculation from fans and the press . Bookmaker websites were even posting odds on which character it would be , with Patty receiving the best odds .
= = Plot = =
Bart and Milhouse torment a tourist named Howell Huser ( a parody of television personality Huell Howser ) , who is then chased out of town by bullies Dolph , Jimbo , and Kearney . Huser is later revealed to be a media personality , and he appears on a network 's morning television show warning tourists against visiting Springfield and giving it his lowest rating for any American location ( six out of ten ) . The Springfield tourism business collapses and Mayor Quimby holds an emergency meeting at the town hall . After many senseless suggestions , Lisa suggests that Springfield legalize same @-@ sex marriage to entice visitors to their town . All of Springfield happily agrees with Lisa 's idea , even Marge . Only one is against the idea , Reverend Lovejoy , who insists they use his ideas to keep same @-@ sex illegal and is ignored . The town makes a commercial that is broadcast throughout America , in the end of it Mayor Quimby warns viewers not to use a certain exit for God 's sake .
Hundreds of homosexual couples soon arrive to Springfield . However , Reverend Lovejoy insists that the Bible forbids same @-@ sex marriage and refuses to marry any gay couples . After hearing this Mayor Quimby says that Lovejoy is an idiot and while overhearing Quimby 's statement that ministers are paid $ 200 per couple , Homer abandons his opposition to the process and decides to become a minister himself with help from the online " e @-@ Piscopal " Church . He marries every gay couple in town , and then puts up a sign saying " Will marry anyone to anything . " While debating the issue with Lovejoy on the television show Smartline , Homer makes a case for gay marriage and mockingly joins the Bible and Lovejoy in matrimony — adding that Lovejoy is the wife and that he owes Homer $ 200 .
Meanwhile , at the Simpson family 's home , Patty comes out of the closet as a lesbian , saying that she is in love with a pro golfer named Veronica and asking Homer to perform the ceremony . This makes Marge extremely uncomfortable , even though the evidence was always there . While Homer accepts Patty 's sexuality , a furious Marge reveals that she doesn 't want her with Veronica and still insists she marries a man . Patty gets angry and points out that Marge acts very " liberal " about the issue but cannot accept her sister 's sexuality , and says she hopes to see Marge at her wedding . Before the wedding , Marge accidentally discovers Veronica is actually a man , ironically while Veronica is singing Aerosmith 's " Dude ( Looks Like a Lady ) " while shaving , and because Veronica left the toilet seat up after leaving . Happily she decides to keep quiet about it knowing that Patty will be marrying a man . But Marge is so moved by Patty 's heartfelt declaration of love for Veronica during the ceremony that she reveals Veronica 's Adam 's apple . " Veronica " explains that as the straight Leslie Robin Swisher , he posed as a woman to get onto the LPGA golf tour . He then asks Patty if she 'll still marry him , but she declines . Afterwards , Marge reconciles with Patty after telling her that she 's learned a lesson and has accepted the fact that Patty 's a lesbian ; they hug after reconciling . Patty and her other sister , Selma , then go to leave a bag at the airport unattended , as a way to meet security personnel they can date .
= = Production = =
" There 's Something About Marrying " was written by co @-@ executive producer J. Stewart Burns and directed by Nancy Kruse as part of the sixteenth season of The Simpsons . Work on the episode started in March 2004 , after the 2004 San Francisco same @-@ sex weddings , a period during February 2004 when the city was issuing marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples . This served as the Simpsons staff 's inspiration for " There 's Something About Marrying " . The plot point where Springfield tries to increase tourism by marketing towards the LGBT community also had a basis in reality . An example is Fort Lauderdale , which became a popular tourist destination for gays and lesbians in the mid @-@ 2000s . Executive producer Al Jean said they were interested in doing the episode because they could explore the various characters ' different positions on gay marriage while remaining neutral . " Lisa thinks it 's good for civil rights . The reverend of the local Protestant church is opposed to it . Other people think tourists will come to town . Mayor Quimby wants the money . We don 't take a position as much as explore everybody 's positions , " he commented .
Matt Groening , the creator of The Simpsons , stated that the staff wanted to out Patty as gay because portraying her as a " love @-@ starved spinster [ ... ] seemed old " on the show . There had previously been hints about Patty 's orientation . For example , in the season thirteen episode " Jaws Wired Shut " she is part of the Springfield Gay Pride Parade 's " stayin ' in the closet " float , though only her voice was heard and she was not seen .
= = Themes and analysis = =
The episode 's plotline revolves around homosexuality — the third time for The Simpsons . The first was season eight 's " Homer 's Phobia " , and the second was " Three Gays of the Condo " from season fourteen , both of which won Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program . This time it centered on the right for homosexuals to get married and the coming @-@ out of a character . In the episode , Homer is shown as being tolerant with homosexuality , whereas in " Homer 's Phobia " he is portrayed as being strongly homophobic . In that episode , the Simpson family gets a new friend that Homer dissociates himself from after finding out that he is gay . He also fears that the friend will have a negative influence on Bart and decides to ensure Bart 's heterosexuality by taking him to do manly things such as hunting . As James Delingpole of The Daily Telegraph writes , it was first after " Homer 's Phobia " that Homer began to be portrayed as enlightened about homosexuality . Marge , on the other hand , who had previously been portrayed as supportive of gay people on the show , is seen as disapproving of her sister 's sexual orientation .
According to the publications Zeek : A Jewish Journal of Thought and Culture and Value War : Public Opinion and the Politics of Gay Rights , it was the controversial lesbian outing of the main character ( played by Ellen DeGeneres ) in the sitcom Ellen in 1997 that paved the way for Patty 's coming @-@ out in this episode , as well as for many other gay characters on other television shows . In his book Queers in American Popular Culture , Jim Elledge noted that unlike many episodes of The Simpsons that go through a situation and then everything returns to normal during the ending , this one does not . He commented that the staff of the show could have made Patty heterosexual again at the end of the episode and leave it how it was before by having her marry Leslie . Instead , they ended it in a way that could potentially be experienced as distasteful to the heteronormative audience by having Patty exclaim " Hell no ! I like girls ! " to Leslie 's marriage proposal . The author also noted that it is possible the Simpsons staff chose Patty to come out as gay instead of a male character because lesbians were " traditionally considered more acceptable " on television . She did , however , not " adhere to the eroticized male lesbian fantasy or fit into the loveable , asexual guise of the comedy lesbian " that had previously been seen on shows such as Ellen . Instead , Patty is " rude , crude , and not ashamed of declaring her sexual preferences " , and this could make her unpalatable to some viewers according to Elledge .
Around the episode 's original broadcast in early 2005 , the same @-@ sex marriage question was one of the hottest political issues in America . It had been an especially hot topic during the then @-@ recent presidential election in the United States . Marty Kaplan , a professor at Annenberg School for Communication and radio host on Air America Radio , commented that the episode is telling " those who demonize homosexuality , or what [ these people ] call the homosexual agenda , " anything from " lighten up " to " get out of town " . This was not the first time that an episode of the show had brought up a current issue . Writing in an article about " There 's Something About Marrying " for The New York Times , Sharon Waxman said that " as television 's longest @-@ running situation comedy , The Simpsons is no stranger to hot @-@ button social , religious and political issues , mocking wardrobe malfunctions , Hollywood liberals and born @-@ again Christians , among other targets . "
= = Speculation , publicity and broadcast = =
" There 's Something About Marrying " was originally broadcast on February 20 , 2005 in the United States . It was reported a long time in advance of the episode 's airing that a major character would come out as gay during the episode . At the Comic @-@ Con convention in July 2004 , Al Jean revealed : " We have a show where , to raise money , Springfield legalises gay marriage . Homer becomes a minister by going on the internet and filling out a form . A long @-@ time character comes out of the closet , but I 'm not saying who . " This led to much media speculation and publicity in the press for the episode . The last such " mystery Simpsons storyline " , as BBC News called it , occurred with the " Alone Again , Natura @-@ Diddily " episode in which it was announced prior to the broadcast that a character would be killed in the episode , leading to weeks of speculation before the revelation that it was Maude Flanders .
There was a widespread debate among fans of the series as to who the character coming out of the closet would be , also similar to how they years earlier debated who shot the character Mr. Burns . Matt Groening joked at the Comic @-@ Con convention that " it 's Homer " . Many fans correctly guessed that it would be one of Homer 's sisters @-@ in @-@ law , either Patty or Selma , while others believed it to be Waylon Smithers . It had for a long time been hinted on the show that the Smithers character was gay and in love with his boss Mr. Burns . However , as The Baltimore Sun writes , it would have been unlikely for Smithers to be the outed character because it would not have been a surprise to fans , and his love for his heterosexual boss would prevent him from marrying another person . Patty was suspected by fans and the press because she had not often been seen dating men on the show . The tabloid newspaper The Sun revealed already in September 2004 that the character who would come out was Patty , though this was regarded as a rumor and Jean would not confirm it . Bookmakers in the United States and the United Kingdom took bets on which character would be uncovered as homosexual , and if there would be a kiss featured in the episode — BetUS laid odds at four to five that it was Patty , while Smithers had four to one odds and Ned Flanders fifteen to one odds . A kiss was given odds of seven to five . BetUS said gamblers made more than 900 bets on the coming @-@ out on their website . According to The Baltimore Sun , another betting site named PaddyPower.com " stopped taking wagers because so much money was being placed on [ Patty ] . " Jean told The Advocate that he thought it was " an insane thing for someone to take bets on a result that can be determined by other people " , referring to the Simpsons staff , " and could be changed by them at the last minute . "
The episode was heavily promoted and hyped , with some sources calling it " much anticipated " and " long @-@ awaited " . In addition to the publicity about the coming @-@ out of a character , " There 's Something About Marrying " was discussed a lot in the media before its airing because of its gay marriage theme . The entertainment website MovieWeb predicted in October 2004 that the episode would become controversial when it aired because of the large children audience and " also because it comes at a time when many states are seeking to ban same @-@ sex wedding ceremonies . " According to Knight Ridder , " some conservative groups [ ... ] growled in advance over the episode " , but most pre @-@ broadcast publicity was directed at the outing . Mark Pinsky , on the other hand , wrote in his book The Gospel According to The Simpsons that when the announcement that an episode of the show would focus on gay marriage was made , " it stoked a debate that few issues and few television shows could . " Before its original airing , Pinsky was interviewed about the episode on ABC 's World News Tonight , CNN , BBC Radio , and more , as the author of a book on religion in The Simpsons .
The Fox network , which airs The Simpsons , chose to begin the episode with a Parental Advisory warning stating that it " contains discussions of same @-@ sex marriage " and that " parental discretion is advised . " This was a first for the show , which had not received parental advisories before even when dealing with themes such as drug use , gambling addictions , theft , crime , and violence . A warning similar to the one displayed at the beginning of this episode was used in front of the gay @-@ themed " The Puppy Episode " of the Ellen series . The buzz " There 's Something About Marrying " had received attracted a lot of viewers to its broadcast , and therefore the Fox network chose to air it during the ratings sweeps . The episode was watched by 10 @.@ 5 million people in the United States , making it the highest @-@ rated episode of the sixteenth season of The Simpsons . It was up by two million from the season 's average rating .
= = Reception = =
" There 's Something About Marrying " featured the first appearance of an animated same @-@ sex marriage on network television . Television columnist Ray Richmond wrote that the episode was a cultural milestone for The Simpsons and that the " issue [ of gay marriage ] was mainstream to some degree , but now that [ the staff has ] deigned it worthy of the show it is interwoven into the popular culture . The Simpsons bestowed upon something a pop culture status it never had before , simply by being ripe for a joke . " John Kenneth White , author of the book Barack Obama 's America , similarly called " There 's Something About Marrying " a cultural barrier breaker .
The episode , dealing with " one of the most divisive issues in American society " according to The New York Times , became a subject of controversy after its broadcast . The authors of The Marriage and Family Experience called it " one of the more controversial episodes of a frequently controversial cartoon . " Several conservative groups and American Christian conservatives thought it was promoting same @-@ sex marriage . Parents Television Council president L. Brent Bozell III criticized " There 's Something About Marrying " for bringing up the issue . Even though he had not seen the episode himself , he commented that " at a time when the public mood is overwhelmingly against gay marriage , any show that promotes gay marriage is deliberately bucking the public mood . " A researcher for the American Family Association , named Ed Vitagliano , claimed the presentation of same @-@ sex marriage in the episode was " very one @-@ sided " . He said that this episode proved " Hollywood 's blatant pro @-@ homosexual bias " because despite The Simpsons being " generally kind of a wacky animated program " it was not neutral on the issue . Bozell also worried about the influence the episode would have on children , despite the parental discretion advisory at the beginning , commenting : " You 've got a show watched by millions of children . Do children need to have gay marriage thrust in their faces as an issue ? Why can 't we just entertain them ? " Similarly , Vitagliano said that many children watch the The Simpsons and Hollywood " will pull out all the stops to promote same @-@ sex marriage — and children will be influenced by it . "
Mark Washburn of Knight Ridder wrote that at the time of the episode 's broadcast , most Americans were accustomed to seeing homosexual characters on television . He said this is why Patty 's coming @-@ out did not become as controversial as the episode 's examination of the same @-@ sex marriage issue , which was more sensitive in the country then . The controversy became so big that local news programs in certain cities aired segments about it . In response to the claims that this episode was supporting gay marriage , Al Jean replied that " we don 't really take any positions for or against anything , we just like to examine all sides of an issue and I think that anyone who would get their political wisdom from a cartoon might be sadly mistaken . " Likewise , Mark Pinsky writes in The Gospel According to The Simpsons that once the episode ended , it was hard to tell what stance on same @-@ sex marriage the writers had and that " both sides of the controversy had their say , voiced by various Simpsons characters " . Jean has also cited the episode in defense to critics who say The Simpsons has lost its relevance and edginess in later years . In his book The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History , John Ortved responded to this , commenting that despite the controversies the episode was " in fact a long @-@ winded and lame exploration of the topic . "
" There 's Something About Marrying " was met with positive reception as well , particularly from gay rights groups . The Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation ( GLAAD ) was welcoming of the episode , calling it " a ray of light " . GLAAD executive director Joan Garry enjoyed seeing Marge 's transformation , from having ambivalent feelings for her sister to then supporting her . He commented that " when Marge learns that Patty 's about to marry someone who isn 't really a lesbian , she comes to realize that what her sister really deserves is to be in love with and married to a person who 's right for her . If millions of Simpsons viewers came away from last night 's episode with that little bit of moral truth , it was time well spent . " AfterEllen.com 's David Kennerley approved of the willingness of a " hit network TV show in prime time , watched by children and adults " to " serve up such a politically charged issue " . Rick Garcia , an activist of the gay rights group Equality Illinois , said to the Chicago Tribune that the episode would likely affect society in a positive way because of the iconic status of the show which " shape [ s ] our attitudes " . Unlike many of the conservative groups , Kennerley noted that " in the show 's tradition of equal @-@ opportunity lampooning , the message is not all pro @-@ gay . Irksome lesbian stereotypes abound , and Nelson the bully suggests they ' legalize gay funerals . ' And naturally , Reverend Lovejoy shutters his church to the same @-@ sex sinners . " According to Simpsons writer Mike Reiss , the episode also had supporters among conservative groups . He told Encore magazine that " gay people came out very much in favor of it and were happy with the episode , but arch conservatives and right @-@ wing Christians loved the episode , too , because they seemed to think we were making fun of gay people . We really had it both ways . "
Kennerley further wrote that " based on this episode , [ ... ] The Simpsons is in top form . It still reigns as the funniest , brashest , fastest @-@ paced half @-@ hour you 'll see on television . " Bill Gibron of PopMatters also thought the episode was funny , commenting that it " explored the often @-@ cited ' slippery slope ' of allowing matrimony to be defined outside the parameters of a man and a woman — with hilarious results . " In regards to the revelation that Patty was gay , The A.V. Club wrote that it " wasn 't particularly earth @-@ shattering " but that Marge 's initial reaction provided a good twist to the episode . J. Stewart Burns received a Writers Guild of America Award nomination in the animation category for his work on " There 's Something About Marrying " , although he lost the award to another Simpsons writer .
= Grenada at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Grenada competed in the 2008 Summer Olympics , held in Beijing , People 's Republic of China from 8 to 24 August 2008 . The country was represented by eight track and field athletes and one boxer ; of the eight track and field competitors , five were women , and three were men . Although there were no medalists , runners Allison George and Neisha Bernard @-@ Thomas progressed past the qualification rounds , and participated on behalf of Grenada in the quarterfinals of their events . Grenada 's Beijing delegation held the largest number of athletes yet sent from Grenada , encompassing nine athletes , and marked the seventh consecutive appearance of Grenada at the Summer Olympics .
Despite controversy surrounding Chinese activities in Tibet , Grenada continued to support the upholding of the Chinese Olympic Games . As thanks , the People 's Republic of China constructed a new cricket stadium on the island , among other activities .
= = Background = =
Grenada 's debut was at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , where it entered six athletes ( five men and one woman ) across two sports ; since its 1984 Los Angeles Olympics appearance and up to the 2008 Beijing appearance , Grenada sent athletes to seven consecutive Olympic games . Its appearance in Beijing marked its largest appearance yet , with nine Olympic participants ; additionally , more women participated in the Beijing Olympics on behalf of Grenada than any previous year , with five female athletes . This accounts for slightly less than half of all women who have participated in the Olympics between the 2008 Games and the Grenadan debut . Although the majority of athletes competing on Grenada 's behalf participated in track and field ( athletics ) events , Rolande Moses participated as a boxer in the welterweight category . Although Neisha Bernard @-@ Thomas and Allison George progressed to the semifinals in their respective events , further than the seven other athletes , no Grenadans medaled during the 2008 Summer Olympics .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Women 's 100 m = = =
Sherry Fletcher was the only Grenadan participant in the 2008 Olympic women 's 100m sprint event . She participated in the second heat of the 15 August qualification match against seven other competitors , including American finalist Lauryn Williams . Fletcher ran her event in 11 @.@ 65 seconds , ranking fifth place . She completed the event 0 @.@ 28 seconds slower than French runner Christine Arron , who ranked first in the heat . Overall , Fletcher ranked 40th out of the 85 athletes who ranked in the qualification round , tying with British runner Laura Turner and Vietnamese runner Thi Huong Vu . Damola Osayomi of Nigeria , who ranked first in the qualification round , was 0 @.@ 52 seconds faster than Fletcher , who did not advance to further rounds .
= = = Women 's 200 m = = =
Allison George competed for Grenada in the women 's 200 meter sprint on behalf of its delegation to the 2008 Beijing Olympics . She was placed in the sixth heat of six during the 18 August qualification round . George completed the event in 23 @.@ 45 seconds , ranking sixth in her heat . Semifinalist Nataliia Pygyda of the Ukraine ranked first in the heat , finishing 0 @.@ 54 seconds ahead of George . Out of the 46 athletes who ranked during the qualification round , Allison George ranked 30th place . She qualified for semifinals .
George was placed in heat four of four during the 19 August semifinals round . She completed the event in 23 @.@ 77 seconds , ranking eighth of eighth in her heat , 1 @.@ 17 seconds behind finalist Sherone Simpson of Jamaica , who lead the heat . Overall , George ranked last of 31 ranking athletes during the semifinal round , tying with Eleni Artymata of Cyprus . George did not advance to finals .
= = = Men 's 400 m = = =
Grenada sent two athletes , Alleyne Francique and Joel Phillip , as part of their delegation to represent it in the Men 's 400m sprint . Francique participated in the fifth heat during the 17 August qualification round , ranking sixth of eight athletes . Francique earned a time of 46 @.@ 15 seconds , which was 1 @.@ 19 seconds slower than American runner Lashawn Merritt , the first @-@ place runner in the heat , who would later earn gold in the event . Overall , Francique ranked 35th of 55 athletes . He did not progress to quarterfinals .
Meanwhile , Joel Phillip was placed in the sixth heat during the 17 August qualification race . Phillip also ranked sixth out of eight athletes in his heat , scoring a time of 46 @.@ 30 seconds , which was 1 @.@ 36 seconds behind heat leader Andrew Steele of the United Kingdom . Overall during the qualification match , Phillip ranked 39th of 55 athletes . He did not progress to quarterfinals .
= = = Women 's 400 m = = =
Trish Bartholomew represented Grenada in the women 's 400 meter run . During the 16 August qualification round , Bartholomew participated in the sixth of seven heats . She completed her event in 52 @.@ 88 seconds , taking fifth place out of eight athletes . Bartholomew was one millisecond behind Kineke Alexander of St. Vincent and the Grenadines , who ranked fourth ; and was 1 @.@ 36 seconds behind Jamaica 's Novelene Williams , who took first in the heat . Bartholomew tied with India 's Mandeep Kaur for 33rd place out of 50 athletes . She did not advance to semifinals .
= = = Men 's triple jump = = =
Randy Lewis was the only athlete who represented Grenada in the men 's triple jump event of track and field during the 2008 Olympics . Lewis was placed in the second heat of two during the 17 August qualification round . During the round , Lewis completed his event with a final distance of 17 @.@ 06 meters , ranking fifth in a heat of 18 competitors . Lewis was 0 @.@ 24 meters short of Chinese triple jumper Li Yanxi , who ranked first in the heat and later ranked tenth in finals . Overall , Lewis ranked 15th out of 37 competitors in the qualification round , and did not proceed to finals .
= = = Women 's 800 m = = =
Neisha Bernard @-@ Thomas represented Grenada in the women 's 800 meter event during the Beijing Olympics . Placed in heat four of the 14 August qualification round , Bernard @-@ Thomas ranked fifth place out of six with a time of 2 : 00 @.@ 09 . She was within a second of British runner Marilyn Okoro , Slovakian Lucia Klocova , and Australian Tamsyn Lewis , who respectively ranked second , third , and fourth place in the event . Finalist Maria Mutola of Mozambique , who ranked first in the heat , was 1 @.@ 18 seconds faster than Bernard @-@ Thomas . Overall , Bernard @-@ Thomas ranked 7th out of 40 qualifying runners .
Progressing to the semifinal round , Bernard @-@ Thomas was placed in the third heat of three on 16 August . She completed the run in 2 : 01 @.@ 84 , ranking last in her heat and falling 4 @.@ 56 seconds behind heat leader Janeth Jepkosgei Busienei of Kenya . Overall , Neisha Bernard @-@ Thomas ranked 21st out of 23 semifinalist runners , and did not advance to the final round .
= = = Women 's long jump = = =
Patricia Sylvester represented Grenada in the women 's long jump event during the 2008 Summer Olympics . Placed in the first of two heats during the 18 August qualification round , Sylvester jumped a distance of 6 @.@ 44 meters . This placed her at 11th of 19 ranking athletes in her heat . Sylvester 's performance was 0 @.@ 35 meters shorter than Maurren Higa Maggi of Brazil , who ranked first in the heat . Of 38 athletes , Patricia Sylvester tied the time of Viorica Tigau of Romania , ranking 21st . She did not advance to semifinals .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Track & road events
Field events
Women
Track & road events
Field events
= = Boxing = =
Grenada sent one boxer to the Olympic boxing tournament . Rolande Moses had fought nine boxing matches , including one at the 2007 World Championships for boxing in Chicago , since starting before he attempted the Olympic qualification event in Trinidad and Tobago . He lost in the qualifying event , although was selected by the Tripartite Commission to attend the Beijing Olympics to supplement the Grenada Olympic team , which historically had had less than six people and thus qualified for the aid .
Rolande Moses participated in the 10 August preliminaries , and was placed in the second bout versus Toureano Johnson of the Bahamas . As Olympic boxing rounds are scored by the number of successful punches scored , the end score of Moses ' bout was 18 to 3 punches , with Moses scoring only 3 punches . Because Moses lost the bout , he did not progress to the Round of 16 , which took place between 14 and 16 August .
= Alexei Kosygin =
Alexei Nikolayevich Kosygin ( Russian : Алексе ́ й Никола ́ евич Косы ́ гин , tr . Aleksej Nikolajevič Kosygin ; IPA : [ ɐlʲɪˈksʲej nʲɪkɐˈlajɪvʲɪtɕ kɐˈsɨɡʲɪn ] ; 21 February [ O.S. 5 March ] 1904 – 18 December 1980 ) was a Soviet @-@ Russian statesman during the Cold War . Kosygin was born in the city of St. Petersburg in 1904 to a Russian working @-@ class family . He was conscripted into the labour army during the Russian Civil War , and after the Red Army 's demobilisation in 1921 , he worked in Siberia as an industrial manager . Kosygin returned to Leningrad in the early 1930s and worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy . During the Great Patriotic War ( World War II ) , Kosygin was a member of the State Defence Committee and was tasked with moving Soviet industry out of territories soon to be overrun by the German Army . He served as Minister of Finance for a year before becoming Minister of Light Industry and later , the Minister of Light and Food Industry . Stalin removed Kosygin from the Politburo one year before his own death in 1953 , intentionally weakening Kosygin 's position within the Soviet hierarchy .
After the power struggle triggered by Stalin 's death in 1953 , Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader . On 20 March 1959 , Kosygin was appointed to the position of Chairman of the State Planning Committee ( Gosplan ) , a post he would hold for little more than a year . Kosygin next became First Deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers . When Khrushchev was replaced in 1964 , Kosygin and Leonid Brezhnev became Premier and First Secretary respectively . Kosygin , along with Brezhnev and Nikolai Podgorny , the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , was a member of the newly established collective leadership . Kosygin became one of two major power players within the Soviet hierarchy , the other being Brezhnev , and was able to initiate the failed 1965 economic reform , usually referred to simply as the Kosygin reform . This reform , along with his more open stance on solving the Prague Spring ( 1968 ) , made Kosygin one of the most liberal members of the top leadership .
More conservative members of the top leadership saw some of Kosygin 's policies as too radical , but they were never able to depose him as Premier , even if he and Brezhnev disliked each other . By the 1970s , Brezhnev had consolidated enough power to stop any " radical " reform @-@ minded attempts by Kosygin . In 1980 , Kosygin retired from office due to bad health , dying two months later on 18 December 1980 .
= = Early life and career ( 1904 – 1964 ) = =
Kosygin was born into a Russian working @-@ class family consisting of his father and mother , Nikolai Ilyich and Matrona Alexandrovna and his siblings . The family lived in St. Petersburg . Kosygin was baptised one month after his birth on 7 March .
He was conscripted into a labour army on the Bolshevik side during the Russian Civil War . After the Red Army 's demobilisation in 1921 , Kosygin attended the Leningrad Co @-@ operative Technical School and found work in the system of consumer co @-@ operatives in Novosibirsk , Siberia . When asked why he worked in the co @-@ operative sector of the economy , Kosygin replied , quoting a slogan of Vladimir Lenin : " Co @-@ operation – the path to socialism ! " Kosygin stayed there for six years .
He applied for a membership in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1927 and returned to Leningrad in 1930 to study at the Leningrad Textile Institute ; he graduated in 1935 .
After finishing his studies , Kosygin was employed as a textile mill director . Three years later , he was elected Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Leningrad City Soviets of Working People 's Deputies by the Leningrad Communist Party , and the following year he was appointed People 's Commissar for Textile and Industry and earned a seat on the Central Committee ( CC ) . In 1940 Kosygin became a Deputy chairman of the Council of People 's Commissars , and was appointed in 1943 as Chairman of the Council of People 's Commissars of the Russian SFSR .
Kosygin worked for the State Defence Committee during the Great Patriotic War ( World War II ) . As Deputy Chairman of the Council of Evacuation , his task was to evacuate industry from territories soon to be overrun by the Germans . He broke the Leningrad Blockade by organising the construction of a supply route and a pipeline on the bottom of Lake Ladoga . Kosygin was a candidate member of the Politburo from 1946 to 1949 , and became a full member toward the end of Joseph Stalin 's rule ; he lost his seat in 1952 . He briefly served as Minister of Finance in 1948 , and as Minister of Light Industry from 1949 to 1953 .
= = = Stalin era = = =
His administrative skills led Stalin to take Kosygin under his wing . Stalin shared information with Kosygin , such as how much money the families of Vyacheslav Molotov , Anastas Mikoyan , and Lazar Kaganovich possessed , spent and paid their staff . A Politburo member earned a modest salary by Soviet standards but enjoyed unlimited access to consumer goods .
Kosygin was sent by Stalin to each home to put their houses into " proper order " . Assignments such as these made Kosygin unpopular with certain members of the Soviet leadership . Kosygin told his son @-@ in @-@ law Mikhail Gvishiani , an NKVD officer , of the accusations leveled against his co @-@ worker Nikolai Voznesensky , then Chairman of the State Planning Committee and a First Deputy Premier , because of his possession of firearms . Gvishiani and Kosygin threw all their weapons into a lake and searched both their houses for any listening devices . They found one at Kosygin 's house , but it might have been installed to spy on Marshal Georgy Zhukov , who had lived there before him . According to his memoirs , Kosygin never left his home without reminding his wife what to do if he did not return from work . After living two years in constant fear , the family reached the conclusion that Stalin would not harm them .
Kosygin , along with Alexey Kuznetsov and Voznesensky , formed a Troika in the aftermath of the war , with all three being promoted up the Soviet hierarchy by high @-@ standing officials such as Stalin . There is a theory that Lavrentiy Beria and Georgy Malenkov plotted against them in 1950 , and initiated what became known as the Leningrad Affair , which consisted of several fabricated criminal charges against Kuznetsov and Voznesensky . Both were executed . Kosygin 's life , which was connected to Kuznetsov through marriage , was hanging by a thread . How or why Kosygin survived the show trials is unknown , but he , as some jokes say , " must have drawn a lucky lottery ticket " . Nikita Khrushchev blamed Beria and Malenkov for the innocent deaths of Kuznetsov and Voznesensky , and accused Malenkov in 1957 of having concocted the plot so that either Malenkov or Beria would succeed Stalin upon his death .
= = = Khrushchev era = = =
Following Stalin 's death in March 1953 , Kosygin was demoted , but as a staunch ally of Khrushchev , his career soon turned around . While never one of Khrushchev 's protégés , Kosygin quickly moved up the party ladder . Kosygin became an official of the State Planning Committee in 1957 , and was made a candidate member of the Politburo . He was promoted to the State Planning Committee chairmanship , and became Khrushchev 's First Deputy Premier in 1960 . As First Deputy Premier Kosygin travelled abroad , mostly on trade missions , to countries such as North Korea , India , Argentina and Italy , for instance . Later , in the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis , Kosygin was the Soviet spokesman for improved relations between the Soviet Union and the United States . Kosygin regained his old seat in the Politburo at the 22nd Party Congress in 1961 .
= = Premiership = =
= = = Brezhnev – Kosygin leadership = = =
When Khrushchev was dismissed as leader in October 1964 , Kosygin took over Khrushchev 's old post as Premier in what initially was a collective leadership , with Leonid Brezhnev as general secretary and Anastas Mikoyan , and later Nikolai Podgorny , as Chairman of the Presidium . The new Politburo had a more conservative outlook than that found under Khrushchev ; Kosygin , Podgorny and Andrei Kirilenko were the most liberal members , Brezhnev and Arvīds Pelše belonged to the moderate faction while Mikhail Suslov retained his leadership of the party 's Stalinist wing .
In October 1964 , at a ceremony in honour of Soviet cosmonauts , Brezhnev called for the strengthening of the Party apparatus . This speech was only the beginning of a large campaign directed against Kosygin . Several newspapers , such as Pravda and Kommunist , criticised the work of the Council of Ministers , and indirectly Kosygin , its chairman , for planning the economy in an unrealistic fashion , and used the highly aggressive rhetoric previously used to condemn Khrushchev against Kosygin .
Brezhnev was able to criticise Kosygin by contrasting him with Vladimir Lenin , whom Brezhnev claimed to have been more interested in improving the conditions of Soviet agriculture than improving the quality of light industrial goods . Kosygin 's support for producing more consumer goods was also criticised by Brezhnev , and his supporters , most notably Konstantin Chernenko , for being a return to quasi First World policies . At the 23rd Party Congress Kosygin 's position was weakened when Brezhnev 's supporters were able to increase expenditure on defence and agriculture . However , Brezhnev did not have a majority in the Politburo , and could count on only four votes . In the Politburo Kosygin could count on Kiril Mazurov 's vote , and when Kosygin and Podgorny were not bickering with each other , they actually had a majority in the Politburo over Brezhnev . Unfortunately for Kosygin this was not often the case , and Kosygin and Podgorny were constantly disagreeing on policy .
Early during Kosygin 's tenure , the Brezhnev – Kosygin attempt to create stability was failing on various fronts . From 1969 to 1970 discontent within the Soviet leadership had grown to such an extent that some started to doubt both former and current Soviet policies . Examples include the handling of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia ( which Kosygin initially resisted ) , the decline in agriculture production , the Sino – Soviet border conflict ( he advocated restraint ) , the Vietnam War , and the Soviet – American talks on the limitation of strategic missiles . Two summit conferences between the US and the USSR were held : the Warsaw Pact Summit Conference and the Moscow Summit Conference ; both failed to gain support for Soviet policies .
By 1970 these differences had not been resolved , and Brezhnev postponed the 24th Party Congress and the Ninth Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1971 – 1975 ) . The delay in resolving these issues led to rumours circulating in Soviet society that Kosygin , or even Brezhnev , would lose their posts to Podgorny . By March 1971 it became apparent that Brezhnev was the leader of the country , with Kosygin as the spokesman of the five @-@ year plan and Podgorny 's position within the collective leadership strengthened .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Early on in his tenure , Kosygin challenged Brezhnev 's right as general secretary to represent the country abroad , a function Kosygin believed should fall into the hands of the head of government , as was common in non @-@ communist countries . This was actually implemented for a short period , which led Henry A. Kissinger to believe that Kosygin was the leader of the Soviet Union . Kosygin , who had been the chief negotiator with the First World during the 1960s , was hardly to be seen outside the Second World after Brezhnev consolidated his position within the Politburo , but also due to Andrei Gromyko 's dislike of Kosygin meddling into his own ministerial affairs .
The Six @-@ Day War in the Middle East had the effect of increasing Soviet – American cooperation ; to improve relations even further , the United States Government invited Kosygin to a summit with Lyndon B. Johnson , the President of the United States , following his speech to the United Nations . At the summit , which became known as the Glassboro Summit Conference , Johnson and Kosygin failed to reach agreement on limiting anti @-@ ballistic missile systems , but the summit 's friendly and even open atmosphere was referred to as the " Spirit of Glassboro " . Relations between the two countries improved further when the 1970 Moscow Treaty was signed on 12 August 1970 by Kosygin and Gromyko and Willy Brandt and Walter Scheel who represented West Germany .
In 1972 , Kosygin signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the government of Iraq , building on strong Soviet ties to the Iraqi Arab Socialist Ba 'ath Party and previous close relations with Iraqi leader Abd al @-@ Karim Qasim .
Kosygin protected János Kádár 's economic reforms and his position as leader of the People 's Republic of Hungary from intervention by the Soviet leadership . Polish leader Władysław Gomułka , who was removed from all of his posts in 1970 , was succeeded by Edward Gierek who tried to revitalise the economy of the People 's Republic of Poland by borrowing money from the First World . The Soviet leadership approved both countries ' respective economic experiments , since it was trying to reduce its large Eastern Bloc subsidy programme in the form of cheap oil and gas exports . During the discussions within the Soviet leadership of a possible Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia Kosygin reminded leaders of the consequences of the Soviet suppression of the 1956 Hungarian revolution . Kosygin 's stance became more aggressive later on when he understood that the reforms in Czechoslovakia could be turned against his 1965 Soviet economic reform .
Kosygin acted as a mediator between India and Pakistan in 1966 , and got both nations to sign the Tashkent Declaration . Kosygin became the chief spokesman on the issue of arms control . In retrospect , many of Kosygin 's co @-@ workers felt he carried out his work " stoically " , but lacked " enthusiasm " , and therefore never developed a real taste for international politics .
The Sino – Soviet split chagrined Kosygin a great deal , and for a while he refused to accept its irrevocability ; he briefly visited Beijing in 1969 due to increased tension between the USSR and China . Kosygin said , in a close @-@ knit circle , that " We are communists and they are communists . It is hard to believe we will not be able to reach an agreement if we met face to face " . His view on China changed however , and according to Harold Wilson , former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Kosygin viewed China as a " organised military dictatorship " who 's intended goal was to enslave " Vietnam and the whole of Asia " .
During an official visit by an Afghan delegation , Kosygin and Andrei Kirilenko criticised Afghan leaders Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin for Stalinist @-@ like repressionist behaviour . He promised to send more economic and military aid , but rejected any proposal regarding a possible Soviet intervention , as an intervention in Afghanistan would strain the USSR 's foreign relations with the First World according to Kosygin , most notably West Germany . However , in a closed meeting , without Kosygin , who strongly opposed any kind of military intervention , the Politburo unanimously supported a Soviet intervention .
= = = Economic policy = = =
= = = = Five @-@ Year Plans = = = =
The Eighth Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1966 – 1970 ) is considered to be one of the most successful periods for the Soviet economy and the most successful when it comes to consumer production ( see The " Kosygin " reform ) . The 23rd Party Congress and the Ninth Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1971 – 1975 ) had been postponed by Brezhnev due to a power struggle within the Soviet leadership . At the 23rd Party Congress Kosygin promised that the Ninth Five @-@ Year Plan would increase the supply of food , clothing and other household appliances up to 50 percent . The plan envisaged a massive increase in the Soviet standard of living , with Kosygin proclaiming a growth of 40 percent for the population 's cash income in his speech to the congress .
The Tenth Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1976 – 1981 ) was referred to by Kosygin as the " plan of quality " . Brezhnev rejected Kosygin 's bid for producing more consumer goods during the Tenth Five @-@ Year Plan . Because of it the total volume of consumer goods in industrial production only stood at 26 percent . Kosygin 's son @-@ in @-@ law notes that Kosygin was furious with the decision , and proclaimed increased defence expenditure would become the Soviet Union 's " complete ruin " . The plan was less ambitious than its predecessors , with targets of national industrial growth no higher than what the rest of the world had already achieved . Soviet agriculture would receive a share investment of 34 percent , a share much larger than its proportional contribution to the Soviet economy , as it accounted for only 3 percent of Soviet GDP .
= = = = The " Kosygin " reform = = = =
Like Khrushchev , Kosygin tried to reform the command economy within a socialist framework . In 1965 Kosygin initiated an economic reform widely referred to as the " Kosygin reform " . Kosygin sought to make Soviet industry more efficient by including some market measures common in the First World such as profit making for instance ; he also tried to increase quantity of production , increase incentives for managers and workers , and freeing managers from centralised state bureaucracy . The reform had been proposed to Khrushchev in 1964 , who evidently liked it and took some preliminary steps to implement it . Brezhnev allowed the reform to proceed because the Soviet economy was entering a period of low growth . In its testing phase , the reform was applied to 336 enterprises in light industry .
The reform was influenced by the works of Soviet economist Evsei Liberman . Kosygin overestimated the ability of the Soviet administrative machine to develop the economy , which led to " corrections " to some of Liberman 's more controversial beliefs about decentralisation . According to critics , Kosygin 's changes to Liberman 's original vision caused the reform to fail .
Kosygin , who had for a long time been conscious of the First World 's superiority , believed that decentralisation , semi @-@ public companies , and cooperatives were keys to catching up . His reform sought a gradual change from a " state @-@ administered economy " to an economy in which " the state restricts itself to guiding enterprises " . The reform was implemented , but showed several malfunctions and inconsistencies early on .
= = = = = Results = = = = =
The salary for Soviet citizens increased abruptly by almost 2 @.@ 5 times during the plan . Real wages in 1980 amounted to 232 @.@ 7 rubles , compared to 166 @.@ 3 rubles before the 1965 Soviet economic reform and the Eight @-@ Five Year Plan . The first period , 1960 – 1964 , was characterised by low growth , while the second period , 1965 – 1981 , had a stronger growth rate . The second period vividly demonstrated the success of the Kosygin reform , with the average annual growth in retail turnover being 11 @.@ 2 billion rubles , 1 @.@ 8 times higher than in the first period and 1 @.@ 2 times higher than the third period ( 1981 – 1985 ) . Consumption of goods and daily demand also increased . The consumption of home appliances greatly increased . Refrigerators increased from a low of 109 @,@ 000 in 1964 to 440 @,@ 000 units by 1973 ; consumption declined during the reversal of the reform . Car production increased , and would continue to do so until the late 1980s . The Soviet leadership , under pressure , sought to provide more attractive goods for Soviet consumers .
The removal of Khrushchev in 1964 signalled the end of his " housing revolution " . Housing construction declined between 1960 and 1964 to an average of 1 @.@ 63 million square metres . Following this sudden decrease , housing construction increased sharply between 1965 and 1966 , but dropped again , and then steadily grew ( the average annual growth rate was 4 @.@ 26 million square metres ) . This came largely at the expense of businesses . While the housing shortage was never fully resolved , and still remains a problem in present @-@ day Russia , the reform overcame the negative trend and renewed the growth of housing construction .
= = = = = Cancellation and aftermath = = = = =
With hostility towards reform growing , the poor results , and Kosygin 's reformist stance , led to a popular backlash against him . Kosygin lost most of the privileges he had enjoyed before the reform , but Brezhnev was never able to remove him from the office of Chairman of the Council of Ministers , despite his weakened position . In the aftermath of his failed reform , Kosygin spent the rest of his life improving the economic administration through the modification of targets ; he implemented various programmes to improve food security and ensure the future intensification of production . There is no proof to back up the claim that the reform itself contributed to the high growth seen in the late @-@ 1960s , and that its cancellation had anything to do with the stagnating growth of the economy which began in the 1970s .
= = = = 1973 and 1979 reforms = = = =
Kosygin initiated another economic reform in 1973 with the intentions of weakening the central Ministries and giving more powers to the regional authorities in republican and local @-@ levels . The reform 's failure to meet Kosygin 's goal led to its cancellation . However , the reform succeeded in creating associations , an organisation representing various enterprises . The last significant reform undertaken by the pre @-@ perestroika leadership was initiated by Kosygin 's fifth government in a joint decision of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers . The " Improving planning and reinforcing the effects of the economic mechanism on raising the effectiveness in production and improving the quality of work " , more commonly known as the 1979 reform . The reform , in contrast to the 1965 reform , was intended to increase the central government 's economic involvement by enhancing the duties and responsibilities of the ministries . Due to Kosygin 's resignation in 1980 , and because of Nikolai Tikhonov 's conservative approach to economics , very little of the reform was actually implemented .
= = = Later life , resignation and death = = =
By the early to mid @-@ 1970s Brezhnev had established a strong enough power base to effectively become leader . According to historian Ilya Zemtsov , the author of Chernenko : The Last Bolshevik : The Soviet Union on the Eve of Perestroika , Kosygin " began to lose power " with the 24th Party Congress in 1971 which for the first time publicised the formula ' the Politburo led by Brezhnev ' " . Along with weakening Kosygin 's position , Brezhnev moved to strengthen the Party 's hold on the Government apparatus , weakening Kosygin 's position further . Historian Robert Wesson , the author of Lenin 's Legacy : The Story of the CPSU , notes that Kosygin 's economic report to the 25th Party Congress " pointed even more clearly to the end of struggle " between Brezhnev and Kosygin . Kosygin was further pushed aside when Brezhnev published his memoirs , which stated that Brezhnev , not Kosygin , was in charge of all major economic decisions . To make matters worse for Kosygin , Brezhnev blocked any future talks on economic reform within the party and government apparatus , and information regarding the reform of 1965 was suppressed .
Brezhnev consolidated his own position over the Government Apparatus by strengthening Podgorny 's position as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , literally head of state , by giving the office some of the functions of the Premier . The 1977 Soviet Constitution strengthened Podgorny 's control of the Council of Ministers , by giving the post of head of state some executive powers . In fact , because of the 1977 Soviet Constitution , the Council of Ministers became subordinate to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet . When Podgorny was replaced as head of state in 1977 by Brezhnev , Kosygin 's role in day @-@ to @-@ day management of government activities was lessened drastically , through Brezhnev 's new @-@ found post . Rumours started circulating within the top circles , and on the streets , that Kosygin would retire due to bad health .
Brezhnev 's consolidation to power weakened Kosygin 's influence and prestige within the Politburo . By the 1970s , when Kosygin 's position was given one blow after another , he was frequently hospitalised and at several occasions Kiril Mazurov , the First Deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers , acted on his behalf during Kosygin 's absence . Kosygin suffered his first heart attack in 1976 . After this incident , it is said that Kosygin changed from having a vibrant personality to being tired and fed up ; he , according to people close to him , seemed to have lost the will to continue his work . He twice filed a letter of resignation between 1976 and 1980 , but was turned down on both occasions . During Kosygin 's sick leave , Brezhnev appointed Nikolai Tikhonov to the post of First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers . Tikhonov , as with Brezhnev , was a conservative , and through his post as First Deputy chairman Tikhonov was able to reduce Kosygin to a standby role . At a Central Committee plenum in June 1980 , the Soviet economic development plan was outlined by Tikhonov , not Kosygin . The powers of the Premier diminished to the point where Kosygin was forced to discuss all decisions made by the Council of Ministers with Brezhnev .
Kosygin was hospitalised in October 1980 ; during his stay Kosygin wrote a brief letter of resignation ; the following day he was deprived of all government protection , communication , and luxury goods he had earned during his political life . Kosygin died alone on 18 December 1980 ; none of his Politburo colleagues , former aides , or security guards visited him . At the end of his life , Kosygin feared the complete failure of the Eleventh Five @-@ Year Plan ( 1981 – 1985 ) , claiming that the sitting leadership was reluctant to reform the stagnant Soviet economy . His funeral was postponed for three days , as Kosygin died on the eve of Brezhnev 's birthday . He was buried in Red Square , Moscow . Kosygin was praised by Brezhnev as an individual who " labored selflessly for the good of the Soviet state " . A state funeral was conducted and Kosygin was honoured by his peers ; Brezhnev , Yuri Andropov , and Tikhonov laid an urn containing his ashes at the Kremlin Wall .
= = Personality = =
Compared to other Soviet officials , Kosygin stood out as a pragmatic and relatively independent leader . In a description given by an anonymous high @-@ ranking GRU official , Kosygin is described as " a lonely and somewhat tragic figure " who " understood our faults and shortcomings of our situation in general and those in our Middle East policy in particular , but , being a highly restrained man , he preferred to be cautious . " An anonymous old co @-@ worker of Kosygin said " He always had an opinion of his own , and defended it . He was a very alert man , and performed brilliantly during negotiations . He was able to cope quickly with the material that was totally new to him . I have never seen people of that calibre afterwards . "
Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau said Kosygin was like " Khrushchev without the rough edges , a fatherly man who was the forerunner of Mikhail Gorbachev " . He noted that Kosygin was willing to discuss issues so long that the Soviet position was not tackled head @-@ on . Former United States Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger said that Kosygin was devoted , nearly fanatically , to his work . Kosygin was viewed by Western diplomats as a pragmatist " with a glacial exterior who was orthodox if not rigid " . Andrei Sakharov , a Soviet dissident , believed Kosygin to be " the most intelligent and toughest man in the Politburo " .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historical assessments = = =
Kosygin would prove to be a very competent administrator , with the Soviet standard of living rising considerably due to his moderately reformist policy . Kosygin 's moderate 1965 reform , as with Nikita Khrushchev 's thaw , radicalised the Soviet reform movement . While Leonid Brezhnev was content to maintain the centralised structure of the Soviet planned economy , Kosygin attempted to revitalise the ailing economic system by decentralising management . Following Brezhnev 's death in 1982 , the reform movement was split between Yuri Andropov 's path of discipline and control and Gorbachev 's liberalisation of all aspects of public life .
Chernenko : The Last Bolshevik : The Soviet Union on the Eve of Perestroika author Ilya Zemtsov describes Kosygin as a " Determined and intelligent , an outstanding administrator " and claims he distinguished himself from the other members of the Soviet leadership with his " extraordinary capacity for work " . Historians Moshe Lewin and Gregory Elliott , the authors of The Soviet Century , describes him as a " phenomenal administrator " . " His strengths " , David Law writes , was " his exceptional capability as an administrator " . According to Law Kosygin proved himself to be a " competent politician " also . Historians Evan Mawdsley and Stephen White claim that Brezhnev was unable to remove Kosygin because his removal would mean the loss of his last " capable administrator " . In their book , The Unknown Stalin , Roy Medvedev and Zhores Medvedev called Kosygin an " outstanding organiser " , and the " new Voznesensky " . Historian Archie Brown , the author The Rise & Fall of Communism , believes the 1965 Soviet economic reform to have been too " modest " , and claimed that Kosygin " was too much a product of the Soviet ministerial system , as it evolved under Stalin , to become a radical economic reformer " . However , Brown does believe that Kosygin was " an able administrator " . Gvishiani , a Russian historian , concluded that " Kosygin survived both Stalin and Khrushchev , but did not manage to survive Brezhnev . "
Kosygin was viewed with sympathy by the Soviet people , and is still presently viewed as an important figure in both Russian and Soviet history . Because of Kosygin 's popularity among the Soviet people , Brezhnev developed a " strong jealousy " for Kosygin , according to Nikolai Egorychev . Mikhail Smirtyukov , the former Executive Officer of the Council of Ministers , recalled that Kosygin refused to go drinking with Brezhnev , a move which annoyed Brezhnev gravely . Nikolai Ryzhkov , the last Chairman of the Council of Ministers , in a speech to the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union in 1987 referred to the " sad experiences of the 1965 reform " , and claimed that everything went from bad to worse following the reform 's cancellation .
= = = Honours = = =
During his lifetime , Kosygin received seven Orders and two Awards from the Soviet state . He was awarded two Hero of Socialist Labour ( USSR ) ; one being on his 60th birthday by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet in 1964 , on this occasion he was also awarded an Order of Lenin and a Hammer and Sickle Gold Medal . On 20 February 1974 , to commemorate his 70th birthday , the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet awarded him another Order of Lenin and his second Hammer and Sickle Gold Medal . In total , Kosygin was awarded six Orders of Lenin by the Soviet state , and one Order of the October Revolution and one Order of the Red Banner of Labour . During a state visit to Peru in the 1970s with Leonid Brezhnev and Andrei Gromyko , all three were awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun by President Francisco Morales Bermúdez . The Moscow State Textile University was named in his honour in 1981 , in 1982 a bust to honour Kosygin was placed in Leningrad , present day St. Petersburg . In 2006 the Russian Government renamed a street after him .
= Florence Fuller =
Florence Ada Fuller ( 1867 – 17 July 1946 ) was a South African @-@ born Australian artist . Originally from Port Elizabeth , Fuller migrated as a child to Melbourne with her family . There she trained with her uncle Robert Hawker Dowling and teacher Jane Sutherland and took classes at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School , becoming a professional artist in the late 1880s . In 1892 she left Australia , travelling first to South Africa , where she met and painted for Cecil Rhodes , and then on to Europe . She lived and studied there for the subsequent decade , except for a return to South Africa in 1899 to paint a portrait of Rhodes . Between 1895 and 1904 her works were exhibited at the Paris Salon and London 's Royal Academy .
In 1904 , Fuller returned to Australia , living in Perth . She became active in the Theosophical Society and painted some of her best @-@ known work , including A Golden Hour , described by the National Gallery of Australia as a " masterpiece " when it acquired the work in 2013 . Beginning in 1908 , Fuller travelled extensively , living in India and England before ultimately settling in Sydney . There , she was the inaugural teacher of life drawing at the School of Fine and Applied Arts , established in 1920 by the New South Wales Society of Women Painters . She died in 1946 .
Highly regarded during her active career as a portrait and landscape painter , by 1914 Fuller was represented in four public galleries — three in Australia and one in South Africa — a record for a woman who was an Australian painter at that time . In 1927 she began almost twenty years of institutionalization in a mental asylum , however , and her death went without notice . After her death , information about her was frequently omitted from reference books about Australian painters and knowledge of her work became obscure despite her paintings being held in public art collections including the Art Gallery of South Australia , the Art Gallery of Western Australia , the National Gallery of Australia , the National Gallery of Victoria , the Art Gallery of New South Wales and Australia 's National Portrait Gallery .
= = Early life and career = =
Florence Fuller was born in Port Elizabeth , South Africa , in 1867 , a daughter of Louisa and John Hobson Fuller . She had several siblings , including sisters Amy and Christie , both of whom subsequently became singers .
The family migrated to Australia when Florence was a child . She worked as a governess while undertaking studies in art , and first took classes at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School in 1883 , then again for a further term of study in 1888 . During this period she was a student of Jane Sutherland , referred to in the Australian Dictionary of Biography as " the leading female artist in the group of Melbourne painters who broke with the nineteenth @-@ century tradition of studio art by sketching and painting directly from nature " .
Fuller 's uncle was Robert Hawker Dowling , a painter of orientalist and Aboriginal subjects , as well as portraits and miniatures . British @-@ born , he had grown up in Tasmania and made a living there as a portraitist , before returning to his native England at age thirty . For the next two decades , his works were frequently hung at the Royal Academy . He returned to Australia in 1885 , and Fuller became his pupil . In that year , aged eighteen , Fuller received a commission from Ann Fraser Bon , philanthropist and supporter of Victoria 's Aboriginal people . The commission was for Barak – last chief of the Yarra Yarra Tribe of Aborigines , a formal oil on canvas portrait of the Indigenous Australian leader , William Barak . Ultimately , that painting was acquired by the State Library of Victoria . Although the painting is an important work regularly used to illustrate this significant figure in Australia 's history , interpretations of Fuller 's portrait are mixed : one critic noted the painting 's objectivity and avoidance of romanticising Aboriginal people , while another concluded that " Fuller is painting an ideal rather than a person " .
In 1886 , Dowling returned to his native England . Giving up her work as a governess , Fuller began to paint full @-@ time , and had opened her own studio before she had turned twenty . Dowling had intended to return to Australia and had left behind an incomplete portrait of the Victorian governor 's wife , Lady Loch . He died , however , not long after arriving in England ; Fuller then completed Dowling 's commission . Lady Loch became her patron . Other early portraits followed : two pictures of homeless children , entitled Weary ( inspired by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's poem on child labour " Weariness " ) and Desolate , in 1888 ; and Gently Reproachful circa 1889 . Weary was acquired by the Art Gallery of New South Wales in 2015 . The gallery 's curator of Australian art described the depiction of billboard posters in the painting as giving it a " sense of gritty realism that was arguably unprecedented in Australian art . "
Also in 1889 , Fuller was awarded a prize by the Victorian Artists Society for best portrait by an artist under twenty @-@ five .
= = Europe and South Africa = =
In 1892 , Fuller travelled to the Cape of Good Hope " to convalesce " , although from what illness or injury , her biographer Joan Kerr does not say . While there , she was a guest of her uncle Sir Thomas Ekins Fuller , a member of the Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope , and through him she met Cecil Rhodes , the Colony 's Prime Minister , who commissioned her to paint a landscape showing his home . Two years later , she travelled on to England and France , where she remained for a decade . In the 1890s , Australian artists studying abroad favoured Paris over London , and Fuller was no exception . Other Australians studying in France around that time included Agnes Goodsir , Margaret Preston , James Quinn , and Hugh Ramsay . Fuller studied first at the Académie Julian , where her teachers included William @-@ Adolphe Bouguereau , and later , Raphaël Collin , one of whose studios she managed for a time . Many of the French art schools had only recently opened their doors to women , and those at Académie Julian experienced poor , overcrowded conditions and contempt from the ( mostly male ) teachers . Despite this , Fuller 's skills developed , and contemporary critics commented favourably on the influence of the French training .
During her time in Europe , Fuller had great success . After a pastel portrait of hers was accepted for the Paris Salon in 1895 , two of her paintings were shown there in 1896 . That was followed by another , La Glaneuse , in 1897 , in which year she also had a work accepted by the Royal Academy in London . She exhibited in many other locations : the Royal Institute of Oil Painters and Manchester Art Gallery in England , as well as the Victorian Artists Society and the New South Wales Society of Artists , and at the Melbourne studio of Jane Sutherland . There was even a painting , Landscape , hung in the exhibition for the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of Bendigo . Not all her time was spent in Europe , however ; in 1899 she returned to South Africa to paint Cecil Rhodes. one source suggests that she ultimately prepared five portraits of the founder of Rhodesia . A later newspaper report stated that Fuller also travelled and made sketches in Wales , Ireland , and Italy .
While in Europe , Fuller painted Inseparables , which portrays the figure of a girl sitting reading a book . It was acquired by the Art Gallery of South Australia . When hanging the work as part of its exhibition The Edwardians , the National Gallery of Australia described the painting as one suggesting a love of reading . In contrast , art historian Catherine Speck regarded the work as " subversive " because of its portrayal of a young woman " gaining knowledge " . In November 1902 , the Australian Federal International Exhibition was held . It was opened by the Governor of Victoria Sir George Clarke , who spoke of its goal to advance " the industrial progress of Australia " . The event occupied the entire Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne , and was dominated by an exhibition of art , both Australian and international . Included in this extensive survey of painting were six works by Fuller .
= = Perth = =
Further recognition came with the hanging of one of Fuller 's paintings , Summer Breezes , at the Royal Academy in 1904 . Other Australian artists whose works were hung at the same time included Rupert Bunny , E. Phillips Fox , Albert Fullwood , George Lambert , and Arthur Streeton . Fuller was the only woman painter to be represented . A critic writing in The West Australian observed :
The work ... is essentially Australian in almost every detail . Standing in a sunlit Australian paddock , a lithesome Australian blonde holds her summer hat on against the rude caresses of an Australian breeze — a subject simple but grand in its simplicity ... Next to its suggestion of breezy sunshine and the incidental portrayal of willowy grace the picture is to be admired for its colour scheme ... The details of the picture disclose untiring care .
By the time Summer Breezes was on display , Fuller had returned to Australia , not to her previous home in Melbourne but to Perth in Western Australia , where she joined her sister , Amy Fuller , who was a singer . Although only in her mid @-@ thirties , Fuller 's background made her " one of the most experienced artists in Western Australia at this time " . For the next four years , she painted portraits , including one of Western Australian politician James George Lee Steere , undertaken posthumously from photographs and recollections of those who had known him . It was acquired by the gallery whose board he chaired . She also took on students , including French @-@ Australian artist Kathleen O 'Connor .
Fuller 's paintings from this period included A Golden Hour , described by the National Gallery of Australia as " a masterpiece ... giving us a gentle insight into the people , places and times that make up our history " . The painting , an oil on canvas 109 cm ( 43 in ) high and 135 cm ( 53 in ) wide , portrays a woman and a man standing together in a rural setting in late afternoon , surrounded by grass , scattered gum trees , and Xanthorrhoea . When the painting was put up for sale in 2012 , the auction house catalogue stated that it had been owned by William Ride , former director of the Western Australian Museum . It reported :
The current owners assert that Professor Ride always understood the figures in the picture were Sir John Winthrop Hackett , ( then owner of The West Australian newspaper , well known business man and philanthropist , whose gift allowed the construction of the impressive University of Western Australia buildings and St. George 's Residential College ) and his new wife , Deborah Vernon Hackett " .
In addition to appearing as the small figure of a woman in A Golden Hour , Deborah Vernon Hackett was also the subject of a portrait , painted around 1908 , again during Fuller 's time in Perth . Anne Gray , the head of Australian art at the National Gallery of Australia , observed of Fuller 's approach to the newspaperman 's wife , that :
Fuller portrayed her sitter sympathetically , capturing the young woman 's grace and charm . But she also conveyed the complexity of the young Mrs Hackett 's character through her soft , feminine , pale @-@ blue dress counterpoised by the dramatic black hat and direct gaze .
Fuller painted other works for the Hacketts . In a 1937 piece reflecting on early twentieth @-@ century art in Western Australia , a reviewer recalled :
Dr. ( later Sir Winthrop ) Hackett was a great patron of Miss Fuller , and he was a constant visitor to her dignified studio , above his office in the old West Australian Chambers . The first portrait I saw Miss Fuller working on was of Mrs. E. Chase ... The portrait was a commission from Dr. Hackett , and was destined to hang in his gallery . Miss Fuller painted Lady Hackett both before and after her marriage , and one particularly happy picture of her is as a young girl gathering wildflowers in the Darlington hills . Her portraits of the first Hackett babies were charming studies of childhood .
= = Theosophy and later career = =
Biographer Joan Kerr speculated that it may have been Jane Sutherland who introduced Fuller to Theosophy , a spiritual and mystical philosophy that teaches the unity of existence and emphasises the search for universal wisdom . Described by art historian Jenny McFarlane as " the most important counter @-@ cultural organisation of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries " , it was influential throughout Fuller 's life . She joined the society in Perth on 29 May 1905 , after hearing charismatic theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater during his lecture tour . Bessie Rischbieth was a feminist who joined at the same time , and together they influenced the movement 's development in early twentieth century Perth . Fuller was variously secretary , treasurer , and librarian of the local branch of the Theosophical Society .
In 1906 Fuller 's portrait of feminist and theosophist Annie Besant was among the paintings exhibited at the West Australian Art Society 's annual exhibition . Around the same period , she painted other portraits of the movement 's leading figures , including Henry Steel Olcott and Helena Petrovna Blavatsky . These representations departed from the academic portraiture in which Fuller had trained , as she incorporated practices of intuition and visualisation " inspired by Indian aesthetics as mediated by the Theosophical Society " .
In 1907 , Besant became the president of the Theosophical Society globally , and set to work with a major expansion of the organisation 's headquarters at Adyar , in what was then , Madras . When it was announced that Besant would undertake a speaking tour of Australia in 1908 , she was expected to stay with Fuller while in Perth . Some months later in 1908 , Fuller left Western Australia and travelled to India , staying at Adyar . Of her time in India , Fuller wrote :
I went in search not only of beauty , and light , and colour , and the picturesqueness in general , which delight the eye and emotions of all artists — but of something deeper — something less easily expressed . I spent two and a half years in a community that is quite unique — perhaps the most cosmopolitan settlement in the world — the headquarters of the Theosophical Society ... Well , I painted there , of course , but my art was undergoing a change , and I felt that it could not satisfy me unless it became so much greater .
Fuller 's time at Adyar was eventful . Leadbeater arrived around the same time as Fuller , and soon afterward he " discovered " the person he believed would become a global teacher and orator , Jiddu Krishnamurti ( then in his teens ) . Leadbetter and others tutored Krishnamurti . Fuller may have taught him photography . She also had a small studio built in the grounds , and painted . Her works from the period include a portrait of Leadbeater and Portrait of the Lord Buddha . McFarlane emphasises the significance of the latter work , pointing out that it is " strikingly modern " in comparison to all of Fuller 's other work , and more radical than compositions created by Grace Cossington Smith and Roland Wakelin , half a decade later . The painting owes much to theosophy 's emphasis on seeing the subject " through a psychic , visionary experience " .
Sources describing Fuller 's movements after her time in India sometimes are ambiguous . She arrived in England in June 1911 , where she marched with Besant in the suffragette protests associated with the coronation of George V. She continued to paint portraits , but found it difficult to realise the transformation in her art that she had conceptualised in India :
I have painted a great many portraits since I have been in England , and have been , I suppose , fairly successful — though I have done nothing in any way remarkable . The hidden inner life has not yet succeeded in expressing itself on canvas , and I can only write myself as one who aspires to a greater art , but who has not yet achieved .
Fuller subsequently travelled from London to India in 1914 . One newspaper report described her as a " visitor " to Sydney in 1916 , although McFarlane says she travelled there with Leadbeater and remained in the city . Another report stated that she visited Brisbane a year later . Both newspaper pieces indicated that Fuller had spent a period painting in Java ( at that time part of the Dutch East Indies ) , although when this occurred is not clear , and such a visit is not mentioned by McFarlane . There was at least one subsequent substantial journey , as Fuller arrived again to Sydney , via Perth , from India in 1919 . At some point following these travels , Fuller settled permanently in Mosman in Sydney 's northern suburbs , where she continued to paint , including miniatures . Her 1916 visit to Sydney had included an exhibition of a group of her miniatures , all of them portraits of theosophists including Besant and Henry Olcott , co @-@ founder of the Theosophical Society .
In 1920 , the Society of Women Painters in New South Wales established a School of Fine and Applied Arts , with Florence Fuller appointed as the inaugural teacher of life classes . At the exhibition held to mark the school 's establishment , Fuller displayed a portrait of the organisation 's founder , Mrs Hedley Parsons . When the society held a show in 1926 , a portrait by Fuller was one of those selected for favourable comment , but the general opinion of The Sydney Morning Herald reviewer was that " the exhibitors have let their style harden into a groove " . Fuller continued to be associated with the theosophical community as her health and economic circumstances deteriorated .
In 1927 , at the age of sixty , she was committed to Gladesville Mental Asylum ( as it was then known ) , where she died nearly two decades later , on 17 July 1946 . She was buried at Rookwood Cemetery .
= = Style and legacy = =
Gwenda Robb and Elaine Smith , in their Concise Dictionary of Australian Artists , considered Fuller 's art to be created in " a free painterly style indebted to Impressionism " . During the first decade of the twentieth century , reviews drew attention to her distinctively Australian style . When one of Fuller 's works was included in an exhibition of colonial artists in London ( including paintings from Canada and Australia ) , the correspondent from the Adelaide Advertiser described Fuller 's contribution as " most Australian in feeling " . Reviewing her work hung in the Royal Academy in 1904 , a Perth critic reported : " Of the 16 or 17 Australian artists exhibiting at the Academy , Miss Fuller was the only one who chose a typically Australian scene . Her picture shows a young girl in thin white , clinging , dress , standing on a bushy piece of country ... As the London Observer says , the atmosphere that bathes the graceful figure of the girl is capitally managed with its note of subtropical heat " . One reviewer thought very highly of her portraits , but was less convinced about Fuller 's approach to the Australian light , writing :
She had less success with our landscapes than with her figure subjects . That was the result of her passion for toning her pictures for ultimate indoor hanging . Thereby she lost , or illuminated , the hard Australian , hard light and shade , and startling relative values . Observable too was the influence of the English school in her rendering of our foliage ; never could she bring herself to see our trees as dim coloured as they usually are .
Art critic and curator Jenny McFarlane considered Fuller 's work to be complex , drawing not only on European modernist academic traditions and Australian subjects , but also at times , incorporating " radical stylistic innovations " that drew on Indian artistic tradition and theosophy 's ideas .
Reviewing the Western Australian Art Society 's exhibition in 1906 , the critic for Perth 's Western Mail considered Fuller 's works to be the finest on show , and that " the occasion provides another triumph for Miss Fuller " . In 1914 , it was reported that Fuller was represented in four public galleries — three in Australia and one in South Africa — a record for an Australian woman painter at that time . Yet although she experienced considerable success during her early life , Fuller subsequently became almost invisible . No obituaries appeared in the newspapers in 1946 . She is not mentioned at all in Janine Burke 's Australian Women Artists 1840 – 1940 , Max Germaine 's Dictionary of Women Artists in Australia , nor Caroline Ambrus 's Australian Women Artists . Despite this , in 2013 , Ann Gray described Fuller as " an important Australian woman artist and arguably Western Australia 's most significant artist from the Federation period " . Works by Fuller are held by the Art Gallery of South Australia , the Art Gallery of Western Australia , the National Gallery of Australia , the City of Perth , the National Gallery of Victoria , Australia 's National Portrait Gallery , the Art Gallery of New South Wales and the State Library of Victoria . Internationally , her work is held by the Newport Museum and Art Gallery in South Wales .
= Jenny Schecter =
Jennifer " Jenny " Diane Schecter is a fictional character from the American Showtime television drama series The L Word , played by Mia Kirshner . Jenny debuted on @-@ screen during the pilot episode and remained until the series ' final episode . Jenny became well documented in the media for her outlandish plots . Jenny was created by series creator Ilene Chaiken , based on herself as a younger woman living in the lesbian community . Chaiken implemented a series of changes to the character , one of which being the inclusion of a sexual abuse storyline and self @-@ harm , which some critics observed as being attempts to make her likable in the LGBT community . One storyline that gained mainstream attention was adopting a homeless dog , only to have it put down for personal gain . Other storylines include stripping , writing novels , coming out , directing a film , affairs , and her possible murder . The final season is based around the lead @-@ up to her death , during which Jenny made herself extremely unpopular with her friends , who became suspects .
Jenny 's character was unpopular with both fans and critics throughout the entire series because of her frequent narcissistic tendencies , her prima donna ways , her egotistical attitude , irresponsibility , frequent self @-@ pity and selfish persona . She has also been labeled a " love to hate " character . The majority of critics have been intrigued by her " polarising personality " and branded it as one of the main reasons to watch the series . New York magazine gave a large amount of praise to Jenny and on one occasion stated : " Jenny Schecter is The L Word , and the death of her is the death of the show . " Kirshner received critical praise for her portrayal of the character . Kirshner has stated she loved playing Jenny because she felt like a brand new character during each season . She has also stated that it is difficult for people to like the character as she can be " very despicable " and even the LGBT community does not like her because of her " duplicity and confusion " .
= = Character creation and casting = =
Series creator Ilene Chaiken created Jenny . She based her on her own past experiences of coming out and dealing with the everyday life in the lesbian community as a younger woman . Like Jenny , Chaiken had befriended a group of lesbians who ran a cafe and had her first sexual encounter with a female . Actress Mia Kirshner was cast in the role . Chaiken admitted she had been searching for the right actress to play Jenny " for a long time " . Kirshner auditioned via video tape , Chaiken recalled that upon viewing it she thought Kirshner was " stunning " . She thought Kirshner had " riveting beauty that is unlike anyone else 's , and she was so deep and intense . "
Kirshner would often express her concern that she was not challenged enough or not making Jenny as " deep enough " as she could be . Chaiken said it was these qualities that made Kirshner " the bravest and boldest of actors " and branded her " utterly fearless " in her approach to Jenny .
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterization = = =
Throughout her duration on the series , Jenny went on a journey from the very first episode , which saw her transform into a selfish egotist and many observers have perceived her as a narcissist , and even as a borderline sociopath . This latter assessment was based early on around her recurrent lying , and the fact she seems to excuse her own cheating in the first few seasons as a corollary of empowerment and as research for her book : which features an experimentalist female character who is evidently herself . Kirshner has described Jenny as mostly being duplicitous and confused . Jenny often acted " utterly impulsive " . Kirshner said it is very hard for people in the series and the viewers to like Jenny because she is " a very despicable character who lies , cheats , behaves and treats other people horribly for no reason , and is extremely selfish , self @-@ indulgent and so terribly truthful ... and she does not hesitate to hide any it . "
Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe described Jenny stating : " Dreary , confused , introverted narcissist [ ... ] downcast , secretive , almost Goth in her black moodiness , she is the epitome of an unhappy egotist . She is so consumed with the ups and downs of her own depression and self @-@ loathing , she just doesn 't have the energy to look outward . Her misery is her mirror , and she 's forever gazing into it . " New York Magazine describe Jenny as a capricious yet obnoxious type of character adding that she can be patronizing . They also observe her as looking " fabulous , fun , and sexy but her downfall is her annoying side . " Diane Shipley of The Guardian branded Jenny a " whiny egomaniac " . Lesbian magazine Curve brands Jenny a " narcissistic navel @-@ gazer " .
= = = Sexuality = = =
When Jenny is introduced on @-@ screen she arrives in Los Angeles to stay with her boyfriend Tim Haspel ( Eric Mabius ) . Tim is described as the person who makes Jenny " feel the safest in the world " . She soon becomes aware her neighbors Tina Kennard ( Laurel Holloman ) and Bette Porter ( Jennifer Beals ) are lesbians . Kirshner said that Jenny becomes intrigued by lesbians and attends their party . They introduce her to Marina Ferrer ( Karina Lombard ) , she senses that Jenny wants some danger in her life . When Marina kisses her , Jenny sees her life going into a tailspin and forces her to reckon with herself . Jenny acknowledges her passion for Marina , but realizes that being unfaithful will ruin " the one stable relationship she 's ever had " . However , they begin an affair . In the show 's companion book " The L Word : Welcome to our planet " , they describe Jenny 's confusion as leaving her " unmoored " . She was alone in battling the heartache , along with facing " an overwhelming identity crisis " in a place that was not yet her home .
Kirshner opined that the situation with Jenny was " not pretty " . Jenny loves two people at once , She is the kind of character " who will just grab experiences because of the holes inside her [ ... ] she will leave the casualties in the wake behind her . " Kirshner often pushed and encouraged for more truth . She made Jenny 's sex scenes " darker , painful , and sometimes not so pretty to watch " . Kirshner did not mind portraying sex scenes with other females . She described them as " more fun and easier " and that she genuinely felt there was " nothing to be ashamed of . " For her there was a " comfort level that is beautiful " . Kirshner had never appeared nude in previous roles , but she requested to go nude as Jenny in certain scenes to add to the reality .
Chaiken decided to keep audiences guessing about Jenny 's sexuality . She stated that whilst sexuality can be fluid , that Jenny 's sexuality " definitely exists on the edge of fluidity " . This was because she had planned to have Jenny romantically involved mostly with females , but with some males too .
= = = Sexual abuse = = =
One of Jenny 's storylines in season two was her revelation of being sexually abused as a child . The events were portrayed in a series of flashbacks and dream sequences . Yet , this left viewers confused about what actually happened to Jenny . During an interview with LGBT monthly magazine The Advocate , Chaiken commented about the storyline : " Well we all know it was an incident of sexual abuse . I had not wanted to be more explicit about it than that – one because memory of trauma is very strange . Who knows what happened to Jenny ? Jenny doesn 't necessarily know herself . "
Chaiken also didn 't want to portray Jenny 's ordeal in an explicit manner , confirming this she said : " I am loath to portray rape as a filmmaker . I think it is really hard to do it without somehow becoming complicit and exploitative . And so as much as it 's important to talk about it , I wanted to be vague and not milk it . " Chaiken has also admitted that the use of dream sequences involving Jenny were not a successful inclusion , but claimed it was necessary to portray Jenny coming to terms with her abuse . Heather Hogan of AfterEllen criticized the storyline because there was no conclusion to it , also stating it was never explored enough , leading everyone to think she was just a jerk .
= = = Transformation = = =
Jenny was negatively received amongst TV critics and viewers from the very first episode after she cheated on her nice guy boyfriend , Tim , with another woman for no clear reason . This prompted Chaiken to implement a series of changes to Jenny to help make her more likable . Chaiken defended Jenny stating : " I 'm well aware of the response to Jenny . I love the character , and I love that people are passionate about her . I know there are a lot of people who just can 't stand her . And that 's why it 's so important to have that character in the mix . " Kirshner defended Jenny stating : " Jenny 's a very controversial character . I think the great thing about her is the fact that she 's so flawed . " During season two Jenny is seen coming out , getting her hair cut and becoming best friends with Shane McCutcheon ( Katherine Moennig ) . AfterEllen.com stated that Jenny cutting off her hair was a defining moment in her development because it also symbolized her cutting all of the bad stuff that happened before out of her life . Jenny 's transition continued into season three , Chaiken stated : " We find Jenny coming together , I predict this [ ... ] that Jenny will be more likable and accessible to the audience than she has ever been . She 's recovering . "
In 2009 , Chaiken was still confused over Jenny 's bad reception , of why it might be she said : " People read into the character that she was a manipulator , self @-@ absorbed , and a trouble maker who puts other people in service of her own neurotic agenda . I think people react so strongly because Jenny is just a mess in the way that so many people are . "
Of her character 's changes after season five , Kirshner stated : " I think she 'll continue to be just like a tumbleweed and a car crash and I 'm happy for that , I don 't want it to be wrapped up . She 'll never be normal and that 's just the way it is . " Responding to the criticism Jenny has received , Kirshner states : " Well , I agree with what 's said about the character for the most part . But again ... it 's my job . So , I mean , it 's a fun character . "
= = = Murder = = =
In December 2008 it was announced that the show 's creators had decided to kill the character off . It was confirmed that Jenny would still appear throughout the season in a " flashback " format . The first episode of the final season starts with Jenny 's murder . However the final series focuses on the events leading up to her death . Chaiken revealed that each episode would focus and tease with another motive . She described how it would play out , stating : " There 's one character at the beginning of each show who comes forward with the motive of the moment . This would be my reason for killing Jenny . " The storyline was described as a " sub @-@ plot " which would define the final season , but not " overpower " it . However , when the final episode aired there was no reveal to who killed Jenny . Showtime released a mini @-@ series titled " Interrogation Tapes " online , via the official website . Each video featured a fellow character being interviewed over the death of Jenny - although the killer was still not revealed . Kate Aurthur of Los Angeles Times questioned if viewers would still want to watch the season after Jenny is killed . New York later gave a large amount of praise to Jenny commenting : " Jenny Schecter is The L Word , and the death of her is the death of the show . " Diane Shipley of The Guardian stated her death was long overdue . Websites started selling " I killed Jenny Schecter " merchandise . Lydia Martin of The Miami Herald said Chaiken was being manipulative not revealing Jenny 's killer , so viewers would watch their online series . She also wanted to know " who the fuck " killed her because it did not give a " decent " ending to the show . Heather Hogan of AfterEllen stated that Jenny 's ending was a dis @-@ service to the character having never found out who killed her .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Jenny grew up in Illinois with her mother Sandy . She disliked her step @-@ father Warren and wanted to leave home as soon as she could . Jenny became a writer of fiction at a young age , she completed her Master of Fine Arts at the Iowa Writer 's Workshop at the University of Iowa . She won a major literary award and has had one of her short stories published . Jenny dates a man named Tim who she moved to Los Angeles to start a new life with .
= = = 2004 – 09 = = =
In season one , Jenny arrives to stay with her boyfriend Tim . On her very first night in Los Angeles , Jenny attends a party with her neighbors Tina and Bette where she meets Marina . Despite knowing of her relationship with Tim , Marina ambushes Jenny in the toilet and kisses her , and they start an affair , showing Jenny fighting her feelings and questioning her sexuality . Jenny begins to outright lie to Tim and everyone else about her infidelity . When Tim finds out about the affair , he forces Jenny to marry him . She later goes back to Marina , goes on a date with Dana Fairbanks ( Erin Daniels ) and briefly dates a much older woman , Robin ( Anne Ramsay ) .
In season two , Tim decides to move out and leave town - his faith and trust in Jenny - and humanity in general - destroyed by her infidelity and outright deception . Jenny becomes best friends with Shane , and invites her to move in . She begins a relationship with Shane 's ex @-@ girlfriend Carmen de la Pica Morales ( Sarah Shahi ) , but Carmen later goes back to Shane . Jenny starts having flashbacks of her childhood in which it is revealed she was sexually abused . Jenny starts writing another book and taking a college writing class to improve her fiction skills . Jenny 's teacher accuses her of being a non @-@ fiction writer because of her prose resembling Jenny 's past . Mark Wayland ( Eric Lively ) , a filmmaker who moves into the house to help pay their rent , starts spying on Jenny , Carmen and Shane , with hidden cameras . Jenny is hurt when the truth is revealed because she trusted him . Jenny becomes depressed and in the season finale she self @-@ harms by cutting herself with razor blades .
In season three , Jenny is sent away to a clinic in Illinois home town . There she meets Moira Sweeney ( Daniela Sea ) , who is transitioning into a man . They begin a relationship and return home . Max begins to take the first steps of his transition . Max 's hormone blockers result in his temper flaring ; he starts being slightly abusive to Jenny . Jenny later decides to end their relationship . She then writes a story about all her friends for The New Yorker .
In season four , the story later gets turned into a stage play , then a film titled Lez Girls . Marina briefly returns during the play , portraying Jenny 's character . Jenny realizes she is over Marina after being propositioned by her . Jenny becomes more mentally unbalanced when she adopts a dog to get close to a female veterinarian . The vet is a girlfriend of a columnist who gave Jenny 's story a bad review . Pretending to be distraught , Jenny has the dog put down . Jenny begins secretly dating the woman as part of her plan to ruin her girlfriend 's career . When Jenny is found out , she accused of being manipulative and evil .
In season five , while filming Lez Girls , she is promoted as the director . Jenny hires Adele Channing ( Malaya Rivera Drew ) as her personal assistant . Jenny then starts a relationship with the film 's biggest star , Niki Stevens ( Kate French ) . While on a camping trip , Jenny and Niki make a private sex tape . Adele then steals the tape and makes numerous copies . Niki , who is a closeted lesbian and needs to stay in the closet for the sake of her career , is shocked when Adele reveals her plans to send the tapes to the media if Jenny doesn 't hand the director 's job to her . She stands down and asks Niki to join her ; they split up when she doesn 't join her . Shane later sleeps with Niki , leaving Jenny heartbroken .
In season six , it is revealed that Jenny is dead . The series then reverts three months before the incident , picking up from the previous series finale . Shane 's ex @-@ girlfriend Molly Kroll ( Clementine Ford ) gives Jenny a letter of apology addressed to Shane . Jenny hides the letter so Shane will not find it . Tina defends Jenny after the original film reels of Lez Girls are stolen , preventing the film from being released . Jenny later starts a relationship with Shane . Jenny steals Alice Pieszecki 's ( Leisha Hailey ) ideas for a play which sparks a feud between the pair . Alice tries to convince everyone that the ideas were hers . Jenny keeps up the pretense and convinces everyone it is an original idea . Alice tries to break Shane and Jenny up to no avail . Jenny then reveals to Dylan Moreland ( Alexandra Hedison ) that Helena Peabody ( Rachel Shelley ) and the rest of their friends are setting her up to find out if she is in love with Helena or her money . Jenny starts teasing Max by buying him feminine gifts for his pregnancy . This alienates Shane and is worsened by her trust issues involving Shane 's fidelity . Shane sleeps with Niki once more and their relationship reaches a breaking point . Helena later finds out that Jenny revealed the truth to Dylan . This makes Helena desperate for revenge on her old friend . Tina and Shane later find Molly 's letter in the loft . Tina then finds the stolen originals of Lez Girls and she goes to confront Jenny .
Jenny spends her final days putting together a film of memories for Bette and Tina . The film contains friends past and present sharing their best moments . During the going @-@ away party held for Bette and Tina , who are planning on moving to New York , they watch the film and Jenny is found dead in the swimming pool in the back yard . It is assumed that she either fell or was pushed from the landing above the back steps , which is unfinished and lacks a proper railing . Because so many people have been offended , betrayed and hurt by Jenny , there are many suspects and they are interrogated .
= = Reception = =
In the book Blood Moon 's GT Gay and Lesbian Film , Darwin Porter brands Jenny " one of the most annoying , needy characters on television " and calls her a " lost damaged soul " . Fellow cast member Leisha Hailey has commented that Jenny is at her best when she is spiraling out of control . Hillary Frey of The New York Observer opined that Jenny provided " voyeuristic pleasure " for straight females in season one . She said she believed Jenny 's confusion to whom she should be with was plausible . Also adding the fact she gradually became self @-@ obsessed – yet still conveyed the " thrill and pleasure of a fresh sexual experience " , while portraying the sadness .
Jenny was criticized by Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe for her narcissistic tendencies . Kera Bolonik of New York magazine stated that " Jenny @-@ bashing " became a spectator sport from her inception . She also described Jenny 's development as going through different stages stating : " Season 1 : Selfish Jenny , Season 2 : Victimized Jenny , Season 3 : Heartless Jenny , Season 4 : Vindictive Jenny , Season 5 : Bitchy and narcissistic Jenny , Season 6 : Dead Jenny . " New York magazine later praised Jenny stating : " We don 't condone Jenny 's narcissism , her prima @-@ donna @-@ ness , or her questionable writing skills . But she is highly entertaining — and more important , her polarizing personality exposes the people around her . " In 2009 by the time season six was on air , the magazine claimed that Jenny was one step away from a Lesbian backlash , joking : " If only she would sing an acoustic version of the show 's ear @-@ melting theme song intermittently during the next episode to ensure that the entire Sapphic nation hits the streets bearing torches and pitchforks , all calling her name . "
New York magazine also describe the series and how Jenny took on the whole character traits of the show : " Like Jenny , The L Word was , at any given moment , capricious , obnoxious , patronizing , fabulous , fun , sexy , non sequitur , overreaching , under @-@ reaching , annoying , and yes , unforgettable . Not one other character besides Jenny embodied the whole character of the show . " British lesbian magazine Diva call Jenny " the girl we love to hate . " They also opined that " poor old Jenny didn 't have much going for her from the start . " That after her failed romances with Tim and Marina , she " got all pretentious " when she became an author . They also branded her the most hated lesbian character since Joan Ferguson ( Maggie Kirkpatrick ) on Prisoner : Cell Block H , credited most of the hatred upscaling when she had her dog put down and praised Kirshner for rising to the challenge of playing her .
Jennifer Thomas of Pioneer Press compiled a list of 12 of the best TV characters of 2009 ; Jenny was number 7 on her list and stated : " Jenny is a rare combination of destruction , self @-@ destruction , naivety and insanity . You can 't help but want to strangle her , but then she goes all needy and fragile . " She also claimed that the season finale was a let @-@ down , but Jenny would have been happy that even in death she was the center of attention and meddling in her friends lives .
Thomas has also said : " Jenny has always been a complex , and fascinating character , who you occasionally want to slap and shake . ( Or , in the case of the dog , just , well , murder her . ) Without her , though , the show wouldn 't be half as interesting . Just when you think you 've seen every bit of crazy Jenny can dish out , she digs deep and finds some new neuroticism . She 's fragile , but she 's steel @-@ spined when it comes to accepting responsibility for the havoc she wreaks in her life and everyone else 's . "
Matthew Gilbert of the Boston Globe compiled his list of most annoying TV characters . Jenny came second on the list and he stated : " Wow . The gods of narcissism blessed Jenny bigtime . She was just too , too self @-@ centered . She sucked the life out of everyone who crossed her path . " He also opined that Kirshner 's portrayal of Jenny 's " vanity and chameleon @-@ like qualities " was perhaps too convincing . He perceived scriptwriters as eventually understanding the " profundity of Jenny 's annoying effect " , and decided to escalate it . Gilbert concluded that in early seasons , when writers wanted the audience 's sympathy with Jenny 's journey of self @-@ realization , he " wanted her to leave The Planet for good . " Regarding Jenny 's mental state , Lydia Martin from The Miami Herald quipped " ( Marina ) sauntered into The Planet just to fuck with Jenny 's head . As if Jenny 's head needed the encouragement " .
= 2012 Tour de France , Stage 11 to Stage 20 =
Stage 11 of the 2012 Tour de France was contested on 12 July and the race concluded with Stage 20 on 22 July . The second half of the race was situated entirely within France ; starting with a mountain stage from Albertville to La Toussuire @-@ Les Sybelles – incorporating two hors catégorie climbs during the stage – before the customary race @-@ concluding stage finish on the Champs @-@ Élysées in Paris .
Following his victory in the ninth stage individual time trial , Team Sky rider Bradley Wiggins held the lead into the second half of the race . He maintained his race lead throughout the second half of the race , holding a lead of 2 minutes and 5 seconds – transpiring from stage 9 – until the race 's final individual time trial , held on the penultimate day of the race . Wiggins won the stage by 1 minute and 16 seconds ahead of his team @-@ mate Chris Froome , and Wiggins ultimately held his lead into Paris the following day to win the race overall by 3 minutes and 21 seconds , to become the first rider from Great Britain to win a Grand Tour race . Froome finished second , while the final podium was completed by former Vuelta a España winner Vincenzo Nibali , riding for the Liquigas – Cannondale team , who was the only other rider to finish within 10 minutes of Wiggins ' final overall time .
Only Wiggins ' team @-@ mate Mark Cavendish was able to win more than one stage during the second half of the race , winning two of the final three stages including a fourth consecutive final stage victory in Paris . This victory allowed him to become the most prolific sprinter at the Tour de France with 23 stage victories , surpassing the record of 22 which had been held for 48 years by France 's André Darrigade . Three French riders – Pierre Rolland , Pierrick Fédrigo and Thomas Voeckler – each took a stage victory during the second half of the race , with Voeckler 's victory in the queen stage helping in part for him to become the eventual winner of the mountains classification . Other stage victories were taken by David Millar , André Greipel , Luis León Sánchez and Alejandro Valverde .
During the fourteenth stage of the race , Wiggins neutralised the peloton on the descent from the Mur de Péguère climb , after carpet tacks were found to be responsible for around thirty punctures on the climb itself . Among those delayed was the defending champion Cadel Evans , who suffered three punctures on the climb and had lost around two minutes before Wiggins called a truce in the main field , allowing the breakaway to finish the stage over eighteen minutes clear of the pack . Following the raid of the Cofidis team hotel during the first rest day , the second rest day was marked by a positive drugs test by RadioShack – Nissan rider Fränk Schleck , the third @-@ placed rider from the 2011 race . Schleck quit the race after traces of xipamide , a banned sulfonamide diuretic drug , were found in the A @-@ sample of his urine , and was later confirmed by the B @-@ sample .
= = Classification standings = =
= = Stage 11 = =
12 July 2012 — Albertville to La Toussuire @-@ Les Sybelles , 148 km ( 92 @.@ 0 mi )
The stage was spent entirely in the Alps with two hors catégorie climbs – the Col de la Madeleine after 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) and the Col de la Croix de Fer after 93 km ( 57 @.@ 8 mi ) ; both of which had summits at 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) or higher – before the finish at La Toussuire @-@ Les Sybelles . The Col de la Croix de Fer was the highest point reached in the Alps in the 2012 Tour , so the leader across the summit would win the Souvenir Henri Desgrange . The finish was a first @-@ category climb of 18 km ( 11 @.@ 2 mi ) at an average gradient of 6 @.@ 1 % . Much like the previous day , a large breakaway was formed after several different groups advanced clear of the main field as they approached the first climb of the day , at the Col de la Madeleine .
In total , there were 28 riders in the group at one point ; at the top of the climb , the pace picked up and the group splintered into several mini @-@ groups as Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Peter Velits scored the maximum points on offer for the climb , followed closely by Astana rider Fredrik Kessiakoff . Velits and Kessiakoff pulled out a 45 @-@ second advantage on the descent , but eight riders eventually bridged the gap and rejoined the duo before the Col de la Croix de Fer . Team Europcar had two riders in the group , with Christophe Kern setting the pace for team @-@ mate Pierre Rolland , and the tempo was again splitting the group up . Back in the peloton , young rider classification leader Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) attacked on the climb , as the benchmark for a later move by his team @-@ mate Cadel Evans . They acquired a 30 @-@ second lead at one point before Team Sky brought Bradley Wiggins back up to them . Kessiakoff just bettered Rolland for the mountains points atop the Col de la Croix de Fer , with the peloton around two minutes behind .
The group containing Wiggins and other overall contenders dropped a minute further back on the early parts of the Col du Mollard , where the breakaway consisted of Velits , Rolland , Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank 's Chris Anker Sørensen and Robert Kišerlovski of Astana , with Movistar Team 's Vasil Kiryienka later joining up . Rolland crashed on the descent from the climb , having taken first place points over the summit , while Sørensen was in difficulty to stay with the lead . Liquigas – Cannondale rider Vincenzo Nibali tried to breach the peloton on two occasions on the final climb , catching up with Lotto – Belisol 's Jurgen Van den Broeck who had escaped with eighth stage winner , FDJ – BigMat 's Thibaut Pinot . Evans cracked on the climb , losing time to Wiggins , team @-@ mate Chris Froome and other contenders . Froome put Wiggins into difficulty at one point , but backed the pace down via his team radio . Up front , Rolland was the last remaining rider of the breakaway , and soloed to his second Tour stage win , and his team 's second stage win in a row . Pinot led the yellow jersey group across the line almost a minute down , while Evans lost almost 90 seconds on Wiggins , Froome and Nibali , who filled the top three places overall at the conclusion of the stage .
= = Stage 12 = =
13 July 2012 — Saint @-@ Jean @-@ de @-@ Maurienne to Annonay @-@ Davézieux , 226 km ( 140 @.@ 4 mi )
With a parcours of 226 km ( 140 @.@ 4 mi ) , the twelfth stage was the longest of the Tour ; the race left the Alps but only after a pair of first @-@ category climbs – the 1 @,@ 188 m ( 3 @,@ 898 ft ) Col du Grand Cucheron and the 1 @,@ 134 m ( 3 @,@ 720 ft ) Col du Granier – in the first 80 km ( 49 @.@ 7 mi ) , although there was also a third @-@ category climb of the Côte d 'Ardoix within the final 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) , before the finish in Annonay @-@ Davézieux . As had been the case in the previous two stages , there was another large breakaway group that set the tempo outside of the peloton in the early running . At its maximum , the group contained nineteen riders , but it had been reduced to eleven by the time the group reached the foot of the opening climb , the Col du Grand Cucheron .
Robert Kišerlovski of Astana took the maximum points on offer for the climb , to help protect the lead of the classification , held by team @-@ mate Fredrik Kessiakoff . Cofidis rider David Moncoutié tried to bridge the gap to reach the lead group , but crashed heavily on the descent from the climb . He had to abandon the race with abrasions . Kišerlovski also took maximum points on the Col du Granier , which made Kessiakoff 's lead safe for another day . After reaching the mid @-@ stage feeding zone in Saint @-@ Joseph @-@ de @-@ Rivière , the lead group split and five riders – David Millar of Garmin – Sharp , Ag2r – La Mondiale rider Jean @-@ Christophe Péraud , Euskaltel – Euskadi 's Egoi Martínez , Kišerlovski and Cyril Gautier , looking to give Team Europcar a third win in a row – accelerated away to a near 13 @-@ minute lead at its maximum . With none of the riders being in overall contention , the peloton let the group go and decided not to chase them down before the finish .
None of the quintet attacked each other , and they remained as one into the final 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) of the stage . Kišerlovski played his hand first , launching an attack with 3 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining , but Péraud closed down the move almost immediately ; a secondary move took Martínez and Gautier out of the equation for the stage victory . Péraud accelerated again and Millar latched onto his wheel with Kišerlovski unable to follow the pair . Millar took the front inside the final 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) , but Péraud remained on his wheel until just before 200 m ( 660 ft ) to go ; he launched his attack , but Millar beat him to the line for his fourth individual stage victory at the Tour – his first since 2003 – and the fourth different British rider to take a stage win at the 2012 Tour . The peloton was led across the line almost eight minutes down by the top two in the points classification , Orica – GreenEDGE 's Matthew Goss and Liquigas – Cannondale 's Peter Sagan . Sagan protested the sprint finish of Goss , feeling that he had impeded him in the closing metres . Race officials agreed with Sagan and demoted Goss to seventh – helped in part by a one @-@ second time gap between them and the rest of the field – and penalised him 30 points in the classification , and 30 seconds overall .
= = Stage 13 = =
14 July 2012 — Saint @-@ Paul @-@ Trois @-@ Châteaux to Cap d 'Agde , 217 km ( 134 @.@ 8 mi )
This transitional stage took the Tour to the Mediterranean Sea . The day 's only categorised climb over Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Clair at Sète and the wind off the sea were two potential disruptions to the race in the final 28 km ( 17 @.@ 4 mi ) of the stage . For the celebration of Bastille Day , the breakaway had extensive French representation , with five of the eight @-@ rider move – Cofidis rider Samuel Dumoulin , FDJ – BigMat 's Mathieu Ladagnous , Jimmy Engoulvent of Saur – Sojasun , Maxime Bouet ( Ag2r – La Mondiale ) and Jérôme Pineau , representing the Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step team – from the country . The group was rounded out by Pablo Urtasun of Euskaltel – Euskadi , Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank 's Michael Mørkøv and Argos – Shimano rider Roy Curvers .
The octet made their escape in the opening 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) of the stage , and their advantage eventually stemmed to a maximum of almost 10 minutes at the 35 km ( 21 @.@ 7 mi ) mark , before Orica – GreenEDGE sent riders forward to the front of the peloton in order to bring the gap down . Urtasun led the group across the line at the stage 's intermediate sprint point in Mas @-@ de @-@ Londres , but behind , points classification leader Peter Sagan ( Liquigas – Cannondale ) was able to launch his sprint for the line before Orica – GreenEDGE 's sprinter Matthew Goss did so , and extended his lead in the standings as a result . Pineau looked to go clear with 65 km ( 40 @.@ 4 mi ) to go , but his move was anticipated by Mørkøv , before he attacked of his own accord . Mørkøv held a one @-@ minute advantage over his former breakaway companions all the way to the | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. However , the notion of a second legislative chamber was considered on two separate occasions . In 1954 , a constitutional commission headed by Sir George William Rendel rejected a proposal for a second chamber composed solely of minority representatives , citing its unsuitability in a tiny state like Singapore and arguing that it might end up being unnecessarily bureaucratic . It also asserted that such an upper House might potentially be detrimental to social cohesion . This issue was also considered by the Wee Chong Jin Commission , which rejected it on similar grounds .
The PCMR 's power to review and block the passage of Bills is regarded by some as an indication of its potential as a second chamber . The Council 's functional design , however , makes it only a very weak legislative review mechanism . The Council has no power to investigate alleged breaches of minority rights . The general public has also no right of making their views or complaints known to the Chamber . In addition , the lack of a veto power means that currently the most the Council can do is delay the passage of bills and prompt further parliamentary deliberation of the bills in question . But it has yet to do even this much . On those occasions where the Council might have rightly drawn attention to differentiating measures in proposed Bills , the legislature has pre @-@ empted this by inserting " notwithstanding clauses " in the Constitution . Such clauses declare that laws that contravene a constitutional provision are nevertheless valid .
An alternative view is that it is not the formal structure of the Council – which in theory is capable of exercising judicial , legislative and review functions – but the presence of a practically single @-@ party Parliament that drastically undermines the PCMR 's powers , restricting it solely to an advisory capacity . This may not be the case if a strong Opposition exists in Parliament to obstruct the mustering of the required two @-@ thirds voting majority required to push through legislation without the endorsement of the Council .
Besides being criticized for its limited powers , there is also some concern that the Council 's responsibilities may go too far . By taking up the function of scrutinizing existing and prospective legislation for differentiating measures and inconsistencies with fundamental liberties , the Council may be encroaching on the functions of constitutional interpretation , which is traditionally the function of courts . Even though the Council has the additional advantage of identifying potentially unconstitutional legislation at an early stage , thereby preventing unnecessary litigation in the future , there is doubt as to the ability of the Council to take on such a task . Given that constitutional interpretation is traditionally the function of lawyers and the courts , the task may be best carried out by the legally trained members of the PCMR .
= = = Legislation = = =
Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( 1999 Reprint ) .
Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act ( Cap . 167A , 2001 Rev. Ed . ) ( " MRHA " ) .
Standing Orders of the Parliament of Singapore ( 2010 Ed . ) , archived from the original on 1 October 2011 .
= = = Other works = = =
Khoo , Francis Kah Siang ( 1969 ) , " [ The Presidential Council : ] Paper III " , Singapore Law Review 1 : 14 – 19 .
Mak , Andrew Yen @-@ Chen ( 1992 ) , " The Need for a Second Chamber in Singapore " , Singapore Law Review 13 : 109 – 131 .
Marshall , David S [ aul ] ( 1969 ) , " [ The Presidential Council : ] Paper II " , Singapore Law Review 1 : 9 – 13 .
Neo , Jaclyn Ling @-@ Chien ( 2009 ) , " The Protection of Minorities and the Constitution : A Judicious Balance ? " , in Thio , Li @-@ ann ; Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] , eds . , Evolution of a Revolution : Forty Years of the Singapore Constitution , Singapore : Routledge @-@ Cavendish , pp. 234 – 259 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 43862 @-@ 9 .
Report of the Constitutional Commission , 1966 [ chairman : Wee Chong Jin C.J. ] , Singapore : Government Printer , 1966 , OCLC 51640681 .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ; Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2010 ) , " The Legislature " , Constitutional Law in Malaysia and Singapore ( 3rd ed . ) , Singapore : LexisNexis , pp. 299 – 359 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 236 @-@ 795 @-@ 2 .
Tan , Seow Hon ( 1995 ) , " The Constitution as ' Comforter ' ? – An Assessment of the Safeguards in Singapore 's Constitutional System " , Singapore Law Review 16 : 104 – 156 .
Thio , Su Mien ( 1969 ) , " [ The Presidential Council : ] Paper I " , Singapore Law Review 1 : 2 – 8 .
Wan , Wai Yee ( 1994 ) , " Recent Changes to the Westminster System of Government and Government Accountability " , Singapore Law Review 15 : 297 – 332 .
= = = Articles and websites = = =
De Cruz , Gerald ( 1969 ) , " [ The Presidential Council : ] Paper IV " , Singapore Law Review 1 : 20 – 25 .
Tan , Eugene ; Chan , Gary ( 25 September 2007 ) , " The Legislature " , The Singapore Legal System , Singaporelaw.sg , Singapore Academy of Law , archived from the original on 24 July 2011 , retrieved 30 September 2011 .
Tan , Yee Lin ( 31 October 2009 ) , The Presidential Council for Minority Rights , Singapore Infopedia , National Library Board , archived from the original on 28 September 2011 , retrieved 28 September 2011 .
= = = Books = = =
Tommy Koh , ed . ( 2006 ) , " Presidential Council for Minority Rights " , Singapore : The Encyclopedia , Singapore : Editions Didier Millet in association with the National Heritage Board , p . 422 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 4155 @-@ 63 @-@ 2 , archived from the original on 11 May 2012 .
Report of the Select Committee on the Constitution ( Amendment ) Bill [ Parl . 7 of 1969 ] , Singapore : Printed by Tan Boon Poh , Acting Government Printer , 1969 .
Tan , Kevin ( 1999 ) , " Parliament and the Making of Law in Singapore " , in Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] , ed . , The Singapore Legal System ( 2nd ed . ) , Singapore : Singapore University Press , pp. 123 – 159 , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 213 @-@ 1 .
= Basil W. Duke =
Basil Wilson Duke ( May 28 , 1838 – September 16 , 1916 ) was a Confederate general officer during the American Civil War . His most noted service in the war was as second @-@ in @-@ command for his brother @-@ in @-@ law John Hunt Morgan ; Duke would later write a popular account of Morgan 's most famous raid : 1863 's Morgan 's Raid . He took over Morgan 's command after Morgan was shot by Union soldiers in 1864 . At the end of the war , Duke was among Confederate President Jefferson Davis 's bodyguards after his flight from Richmond , Virginia , through the Carolinas .
Duke 's lasting impact was as a historian and communicator of the Confederate experience . As a historian he helped to found the Filson Club Historical Society and started the preserving of the Shiloh battlefield . He wrote numerous books and magazine articles , most notably in the Southern Bivouac . When he died , he was one of the few high @-@ ranking Confederate officers still alive . Historian James A. Ramage said of Duke , " No Southerner was more dedicated to the Confederacy than General Basil W. Duke " .
= = Early life and career = =
Basil Wilson Duke was born in Scott County , Kentucky , on May 28 , 1838 ; the only child of Nathaniel W. Duke and his wife , the former Mary Pickett Currie . He was 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) , slightly @-@ built , with a resonant voice . A relative described him as " essentially a man of the 17th century , that century in half armor , torn between chivalry and realism " .
Duke 's parents died during his childhood : Mary , when Basil was eight , and Nathaniel when Basil was 11 ; save for an instance in his Reminiscences , he seldom mentioned them . He attended Georgetown College ( 1853 – 1854 ) and Centre College ( 1854 – 1855 ) , before studying law at Lexington , Kentucky 's Transylvania University . After graduating in 1858 , he went to St. Louis , Missouri in 1858 to practice law , as his older cousin , also named Basil Duke , was practicing law there , and there were already a multitude of lawyers in Lexington .
= = Civil War service = =
When the American Civil War started in 1861 , Duke was still in Missouri , where he helped in the initial forays for Missouri 's secession from the United States . ( Missouri would have both Federal and Confederate governments during the War . ) On January 7 , 1861 , he and four others created The Minute Men , a pro @-@ secession militia @-@ like organization , in response to many pro @-@ Northern politicians being recently elected in St. Louis . Duke quickly became the leader , despite being only 23 years old . He formed the organization into five companies and sought to acquire the federal arsenal in St. Louis for the secessionist movement . He made a habit of placing secessionist flags at prominent locations , looking to start fights with pro @-@ Union forces . He would eventually be indicted for arson and treason but managed to escape back into Kentucky .
Once back to Lexington , Kentucky , Duke married Henrietta Hunt Morgan , sister of John Hunt Morgan . Their wedding took place on June 19 , 1861 . Duke would return to Missouri to help Confederate forces in Missouri under the command of Brigadier General Thomas Hindman , but would eventually return to Kentucky at Brigadier General William J. Hardee 's insistence . By October 1861 , he had enlisted in his brother @-@ in @-@ law 's ( Morgan 's ) command and was subsequently elected Second Lieutenant .
Duke was twice wounded during the War . At the Battle of Shiloh , he was swinging his saber at a Union soldier when he was shot in the left shoulder by a Brown Bess musket . The bullet exited his right shoulder , barely missing the spine . After recuperating , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and a few months later , to colonel . Duke 's second wound came at Elizabethtown , Kentucky 's Rolling Fork River during Morgan 's Christmas Raid of 1862 , when , on December 29 , he was hit by a shell fragment while leading the back guard as the rest of Morgan 's men crossed a stream ; his men initially assumed he was dead .
Duke was the principal trainer for mounted combat for Morgan 's Raiders and participated in Morgan 's audacious Ohio Raid , during which he was captured at the Battle of Buffington Island on July 19 , 1863 , while leading troops in a delaying tactic which allowed other Confederate forces either to escape across the Ohio River with Adam " Stovepipe " Johnson or to advance further into Ohio with Morgan , although shortly thereafter , he too was captured . Duke would remain in captivity until August 3 , 1864 , when he was exchanged . He could probably have escaped with Morgan and Thomas Hines but felt that to do so would hurt their chances , as Morgan was easily replaced in his cell by his brother , but no similar replacement as a temporary deception was there for Duke .
After Morgan was killed on September 4 , 1864 , Duke assumed command of Morgan 's forces and on September 15 , 1864 , was promoted to brigadier general and sent to Virginia . He was with Jefferson Davis shortly after the Confederate President fled Richmond . Duke was in the final Confederate war council at the Burt @-@ Stark Mansion in Abbeville , South Carolina , on May 2 , 1865 . Duke surrendered to Union officials on May 10 , 1865 , in Washington , Georgia .
As an officer , Duke 's way of " gently ordering " soldiers under his command allowed him to have friendly relations with his men . He loved fighting , was steadfast during difficult moments in conflicts , and was described as a " spit @-@ and @-@ polish " officer .
= = Postbellum = =
After the war , Duke moved to Louisville , Kentucky , in March 1868 , where he would live for most of his remaining life . He returned to practicing law later that year , with his primary client being the Louisville and Nashville Railroad . He served as their chief counsel and lobbyist , despite the L & N Railroad being a favorite victim of Morgan 's raiders during the war . He briefly served in the Kentucky General Assembly from 1869 to 1870 , resigning as he felt a conflict of interest being a lobbyist for the L & N. Duke also served as the Fifth Judicial District 's commonwealth attorney from 1875 to 1880 .
Duke became greatly involved in writing the history of the Civil War and related topics . He helped to found Louisville 's Filson Club ( now The Filson Historical Society ) in 1884 , writing many of their early papers . From 1885 to 1887 he edited the magazine Southern Bivouac . He also wrote three books : History of Morgan 's Cavalry ( 1867 ) , History of the Bank of Kentucky , 1792 @-@ 1895 ( 1895 ) , and Reminiscences of General Basil W. Duke ( a collection of various magazine articles he wrote ) ( 1911 ) . A prominent writer of the Southern experience , he neither advocated slavery , nor apologized for it ; although thinking it a good thing to have been abolished , he insisted that Northern claims of excessive abuse of slaves was exaggerated .
After 1900 , Duke began to withdraw from his public career . By 1903 he ceased doing work for the L & N. In 1904 he was appointed commissioner of Shiloh National Military Park by President Theodore Roosevelt , with whom he had become friendly after their having been introduced to each other at the Filson Club . Duke was devastated when , on October 20 , 1909 , his wife of fifty years , Henrietta , died of sudden heart failure . Afterward , he lived with his daughter Julia and her family in Louisville 's Cherokee Park . Prior to his death in 1916 , Duke had been one of the last surviving Confederate general officers . In his final years he spent much of his time handling requests made by those with questions about the Confederacy , even during the time that he was recovering from cataract surgery in 1914 . Two years later , during a visit to his daughter , Mary Currie , in Massachusetts , Duke underwent surgery in a New York City hospital , first , on September 1 , to have his right foot amputated and then , on September 11 , to have his right leg amputated at the knee . Five days later , on September 16 , 1916 , he died , one of the last surviving high @-@ ranking Confederate officers . Duke was buried beside his wife in front of the John Hunt Morgan grave in the Hunt family plot in Lexington Cemetery . In addition to his exploits as a Confederate commander , perhaps his lasting fame is as a master chronicler of Confederate military history .
= CFM International CFM56 =
The CFM International CFM56 ( U.S. military designation F108 ) series is a family of high @-@ bypass turbofan aircraft engines made by CFM International ( CFMI ) , with a thrust range of 18 @,@ 500 to 34 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 82 to 150 kilonewtons ) . CFMI is a 50 – 50 joint @-@ owned company of SNECMA , France and GE Aviation ( GE ) , United States . Both companies are responsible for producing components and each has its own final assembly line . GE produces the high @-@ pressure compressor , combustor , and high @-@ pressure turbine , and SNECMA manufactures the fan , gearbox , exhaust and the low @-@ pressure turbine , and some components are made by Avio of Italy . The engines are assembled by GE in Evendale , Ohio , and by SNECMA in Villaroche in France . The completed engines are marketed by CFMI . Despite initial export restrictions , it is one of the most common turbofan aircraft engines in the world , in four major variants .
The CFM56 first ran in 1974 . In April 1979 , the joint venture had not received a single order in five years and was two weeks away from being dissolved . The program was saved when Delta Airlines , United Airlines , and Flying Tigers chose the CFM56 to re @-@ engine their DC @-@ 8s and shortly thereafter it was chosen to re @-@ engine the KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker fleet of the U.S. Air Force – still its biggest customer . The first engines entered service in 1982 . Several fan blade failure incidents were experienced during the CFM56 's early service , including one failure that was a cause of the Kegworth air disaster , and some engine variants experienced problems caused by flight through rain and hail . Both these issues were resolved with engine modifications .
As of June 2016 , as the most used high bypass turbofan , it achieved more than 800 million engine flight hours , and at a rate of one million flight hours every eight days it will achieve one billion flight hours by 2020 . It have more than 550 operators and more than 2 @,@ 400 CFM56 @-@ powered jet aircraft are in the air at any moment . It is known for its dependability : its average time on wing is 30 @,@ 000 hours before a first shop visit , with the current fleet record at 50 @,@ 000 hours .
As of July 2016 , 30 @,@ 000 engines have been built : 9 @,@ 860 CFM56 @-@ 5 engines for the Airbus A320ceo and A340 @-@ 200 / 300 and more than 17 @,@ 300 CFM56 @-@ 3 / -7B engines for the Boeing 737 Classic and 737NG . CFM plans to produce 1 @,@ 700 engines in 2016 , the highest production rate in the industry , and there are 3 @,@ 000 engines in backlog .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Research into the next generation of commercial jet engines , high @-@ bypass ratio turbofans in the " 10 @-@ ton " ( 20 @,@ 000 lbf ; 89 kN ) thrust class , began in the late 1960s . SNECMA , who had mostly built military engines until then , was the first company to seek entrance into the market by searching for a partner with commercial experience to design and build an engine in this class . They considered Pratt & Whitney , Rolls @-@ Royce , and GE Aviation as potential partners , and after two company executives , Gerhard Neumann from GE and René Ravaud from SNECMA , introduced themselves at the 1971 Paris Air Show a decision was made . The two companies saw mutual benefit in the collaboration and met several more times , fleshing out the basics of the joint project .
Pratt & Whitney dominated the commercial market at this point in time . GE needed an engine in this market class , and SNECMA had previous experience of working with them , collaborating on the production of the CF6 @-@ 50 turbofan for the Airbus A300 . Pratt & Whitney was considering upgrading their JT8D to compete in the same class as the CFM56 as a sole venture , while Rolls @-@ Royce dealt with financial issues that precluded them from starting new projects ; this situation caused GE to gain the title of best partner for the program .
A major reason for GE 's interest in the collaboration , rather than building a 10 @-@ ton engine on their own , was that the SNECMA project was the only source of development funds for an engine in this class at this particular time . GE was initially considering only contributing technology from its CF6 engine rather than its much more advanced F101 engine , developed for the B @-@ 1 Lancer supersonic bomber . The company was faced with a dilemma when the United States Air Force ( USAF ) announced its Advanced Medium STOL Transport ( AMST ) project in 1972 which included funding for the development of a 10 @-@ ton engine – either to build a " limited " technology 10 @-@ ton engine with SNECMA , or a similar engine with " advanced " technology on their own . Concerned that the company would be left with only the " limited " engine in its portfolio if it did not win the Air Force contract ( for which it was competing with Pratt & Whitney and a General Motors division with its " advanced " engine ) , GE decided to apply for an export license for the F101 core technology .
= = = Export issues = = =
GE applied for the export license in 1972 as their primary contribution to the 10 @-@ ton engine project . The United States Department of State 's Office of Munitions Control recommended the rejection of the application on national security grounds ; specifically because the core technology was an aspect of a strategic national defense system ( the B @-@ 1 bomber ) , it was built with Department of Defense ( and therefore American taxpayer ) money , and that exporting the technology to France would limit the number of American workers on the project . The official decision was made in a National Security Decision Memorandum signed by the National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger on 19 September 1972 .
While national security concerns were cited as the grounds for rejection , politics played an important role as well . The project , and the export issue associated with it , was considered so important that French President Georges Pompidou appealed directly to U.S. President Richard Nixon in 1971 to approve the deal , and Henry Kissinger brought the issue up with President Pompidou in a 1972 meeting . GE reportedly argued at the highest levels that having half of the market was better than having none of it , which they believed would happen if SNECMA pursued the engine on their own without GE 's contribution . Nixon administration officials feared that this project could be the beginning of the end of American aerospace leadership .
There was also speculation that the rejection may have been , in part , retaliation for French involvement in convincing the Swiss not to purchase American @-@ made A @-@ 7 Corsair II aircraft that had been competing against a French design , the Dassault Milan . In the end , the Swiss did not purchase either aircraft , opting for the Northrop F @-@ 5E Tiger II instead .
= = = = 1973 Nixon – Pompidou meeting = = = =
Despite the export license being rejected , both the French and GE continued to push the Nixon Administration for permission to export the F101 technology . Efforts continued throughout the months following the rejection , culminating in the engine becoming an agenda topic during the 1973 meeting of Presidents Nixon and Pompidou in Reykjavík . Discussions at this meeting resulted in an agreement that allowed the development of the CFM56 to proceed . Contemporary reports state that the agreement was based on assurances that the core of the engine , the part that GE was developing from the military F101 , would be built in the U.S. and then transported to France in order to protect the sensitive technologies . The joint venture also agreed to pay the U.S. an $ 80 million royalty fee ( calculated at $ 20 @,@ 000 per engine predicted to be built ) as repayment for the development money provided by the government for the F101 engine core . Documents declassified in 2007 revealed that a key aspect of the CFM56 export agreement was that the French government agreed not to seek tariffs against American aircraft being imported into Europe .
= = = CFM International = = =
With the export issue settled , GE and SNECMA finalized the agreement that formed CFM International ( CFMI ) , a 50 – 50 joint company that would be responsible for producing and marketing the 10 @-@ ton engine , the CFM56 . The venture was officially founded in 1974 . The two primary roles for CFMI were to manage the program between GE and SNECMA , and to market , sell and service the engine at a single point of contact for the customer . CFMI was made responsible for the day @-@ to @-@ day decision making for the project , while major decisions ( developing a new variant , for example ) required the go @-@ ahead from GE and SNECMA management .
The CFMI board of directors is currently split evenly between SNECMA and GE ( five members each ) . There are two vice presidents , one from each company , who support the President of CFMI . The president tends to be drawn from SNECMA and sits at CFMI 's headquarters near GE in Cincinnati , Ohio .
The work split between the two companies gave GE responsibility for the high @-@ pressure compressor ( HPC ) , the combustor , and the high @-@ pressure turbine ( HPT ) ; SNECMA was responsible for the fan , the low @-@ pressure compressor ( LPC ) , and the low @-@ pressure turbine ( LPT ) . SNECMA was also responsible for the initial airframe integration engineering , mostly involving the nacelle design , and was initially responsible for the gearbox , but shifted that work to GE when it became apparent that it would be more efficient for GE to assemble that component along with their other parts .
= = Development = =
= = = Overview = = =
Development work on the CFM56 began before CFMI was formally created . While work proceeded smoothly , the international arrangement led to unique working conditions . For example , both companies had assembly lines , some engines were assembled and tested in the U.S. and others in France . Engines assembled in France were subject to the initially strict export agreement , which meant that GE 's core was built in the U.S. , then shipped to the SNECMA plant in France where it was placed in a locked room into which even the President of SNECMA was not allowed . The SNECMA components ( the fore and aft sections of the engine ) were brought into the room , GE employees mounted them to the core , and then the assembled engine was taken out to be finished .
The first completed CFM56 engine first ran at GE in June 1974 with the second running in October 1974 . The second engine was then shipped to France and first ran there on 13 December 1974 . These first engines were considered " production hardware " as opposed to test examples and were designated as the CFM56 @-@ 2 , the first variant of the CFM56 .
The engine flew for the first time in February 1977 when it replaced one of the four Pratt & Whitney JT8D engines on the McDonnell Douglas YC @-@ 15 , an entrant in the Air Force 's Advanced Medium STOL Transport ( AMST ) competition . Soon after , the second CFM56 was mounted on a Sud Aviation Caravelle at the SNECMA flight test center in France . This engine had a slightly different configuration with a long bypass duct and mixed exhaust flow , rather than a short bypass duct with unmixed exhaust flow . It was the first to include a " Thrust Management System " to maintain engine trim .
= = = First customers = = =
After testing the engine for several years , both in the air and on the ground , CFMI searched for customers outside of a possible AMST contract . The main targets were re @-@ engine contracts for the Douglas DC @-@ 8 and the Boeing 707 airliners , including the related military tanker , the KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker . There was little initial interest in the engine , but Boeing realized that the CFM56 might be a solution to upcoming noise regulations . After announcing that a 707 would be configured with the CFM56 engine for flight tests in 1977 , Boeing officially offered the 707 @-@ 320 with the CFM56 engine as an option in 1978 . The new variant was listed as the 707 @-@ 700 . Due to limited interest from the airlines in a re @-@ engined 707 , Boeing ended the 707 @-@ 700 program in 1980 without selling any aircraft . Despite the lack of sales , having the commercial 707 available with the CFM56 helped the engine 's competitiveness for the KC @-@ 135 re @-@ engine contract .
= = = = KC @-@ 135R = = = =
Winning the contract to re @-@ engine the KC @-@ 135 tanker fleet for the USAF would be a huge boon to the CFM56 project ( with more than 600 aircraft available to re @-@ engine ) , and CFMI aggressively pursued that goal as soon as the Request For Proposals ( RFP ) was announced in 1977 . Like other aspects of the program , international politics played their part in this contract . In efforts to boost the CFM56 's chances versus its competitors , the Pratt & Whitney TF33 and an updated Pratt & Whitney JT8D , the French government announced in 1978 that they would upgrade their 11 KC @-@ 135s with the CFM56 , providing one of the first orders for the engine .
The USAF announced the CFM56 as the winner of the re @-@ engine contract in January 1980 . Officials indicated that they were excited at the prospect of replacing the Pratt & Whitney J57 engines currently flying on the KC @-@ 135A aircraft , calling them " ... the noisiest , dirtiest , [ and ] most fuel inefficient powerplant still flying " at the time . The re @-@ engined aircraft was designated the KC @-@ 135R . The CFM56 brought many benefits to the KC @-@ 135 , decreasing takeoff distance by as much as 3 @,@ 500 ft ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) , decreasing overall fuel usage by 25 % , greatly reducing noise ( 24 dB lower ) and lowering total life cycle cost . With those benefits in mind , the United States Navy selected the CFM56 @-@ 2 to power their variant of the Boeing 707 , the E @-@ 6 Mercury , in 1982 . In 1984 the Royal Saudi Air Force selected the CFM56 @-@ 2 to power their E @-@ 3 Sentry aircraft ( also related to the 707 airframe ) . The CFM56 @-@ 2 @-@ powered E @-@ 3 also became the standard configuration for aircraft purchased by the British and French .
= = = = DC @-@ 8 = = = =
By the end of the 1970s , airlines were considering upgrading their aging Douglas DC @-@ 8 aircraft as an alternative to buying new quieter and more efficient aircraft . Following the French KC @-@ 135 order in 1978 , the April 1979 decision by United Airlines to upgrade 30 of their DC @-@ 8 @-@ 61 aircraft with the CFM56 @-@ 2 was important for securing the development of the CFM56 ; GE and SNECMA were two weeks away from freezing development had that order not materialized . This decision marked the first commercial purchase ( rather than government / military ) of the engine , and Delta Air Lines and Flying Tiger Line soon followed suit , giving the CFM56 a firm footing in both the military and commercial realms .
= = = = Boeing 737 = = = =
In the early 1980s Boeing selected the CFM56 @-@ 3 to exclusively power the Boeing 737 @-@ 300 variant . The 737 wings were closer to the ground than previous applications for the CFM56 , necessitating several modifications to the engine . The fan diameter was reduced , which reduced the bypass ratio , and the engine accessory gearbox was moved from the bottom of the engine ( the 6 o 'clock position ) to the 9 o 'clock position , giving the engine nacelle its distinctive flat @-@ bottomed shape . The overall thrust was also reduced , from 24 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 lbf ( 107 to 89 kN ) , mostly due to the reduction in bypass ratio .
Since the small initial launch order for twenty 737 @-@ 300s split between two airlines , over 5 @,@ 000 Boeing 737 aircraft had been delivered with CFM56 turbofans by April 2010 .
= = = Continued development = = =
= = = = Tech56 and Tech Insertion = = = =
In 1998 , CFMI launched the " Tech56 " development and demonstration program to create an engine for the new single @-@ aisle aircraft that were expected to be built by Airbus and Boeing . The program focused on developing a large number of new technologies for the theoretical future engine , not necessarily creating an all @-@ new design . When it became clear that Boeing and Airbus were not going to build all @-@ new aircraft to replace the 737 and A320 , CFMI decided to apply some of those Tech56 technologies to the CFM56 in the form of the " Tech Insertion " program which focused on three areas : fuel efficiency , maintenance costs and emissions . Launched in 2004 , the package included redesigned high @-@ pressure compressor blades , an improved combustor , and improved high- and low @-@ pressure turbine components which resulted in better fuel efficiency and lower nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) emissions . The new components also reduced engine wear , lowering maintenance costs by about 5 % . The engines entered service in 2007 , and all new CFM56 @-@ 5B and CFM56 @-@ 7B engines are being built with the Tech Insertion components . CFMI also offers the components as an upgrade kit for existing engines .
= = = = CFM56 @-@ 7B " Evolution " = = = =
In 2009 , CFMI announced the latest upgrade to the CFM56 engine , the " CFM56 @-@ 7B Evolution " or CFM56 @-@ 7BE . This upgrade , announced with improvements to Boeing 's 737 Next Generation , further enhances the high- and low @-@ pressure turbines with better aerodynamics , as well as improving engine cooling , and aims to reduce overall part count . CFMI expected the changes to result in a 4 % reduction in maintenance costs and a 1 % improvement in fuel consumption ( 2 % improvement including the airframe changes for the new 737 ) ; flight and ground tests completed in May 2010 revealed that the fuel burn improvement was better than expected at 1 @.@ 6 % . Following 450 hours of testing , the CFM56 @-@ 7BE engine was certified by FAA and EASA on 30 July 2010 and delivered since mid @-@ 2011 .
The CFM56 @-@ 5B / 3 PIP ( Performance Improvement Package ) engine include these new technologies and hardware changes to lower fuel burn and lower maintenance cost . Airbus A320s were to use this engine version starting in late 2011 .
= = = = LEAP = = = =
The LEAP is a new engine design based on and designed to replace the CFM56 series , with 16 % efficiency savings by using more composite materials and achieving higher bypass ratios of over 10 : 1 . LEAP is expected to enter service in 2016 .
= = Design = =
= = = Summary = = =
The CFM56 is a high @-@ bypass turbofan engine ( most of the air accelerated by the fan bypasses the core of the engine and is exhausted out of the fan case ) with several variants having bypass ratios ranging from 5 : 1 to 6 : 1 , generating 18 @,@ 500 to 34 @,@ 000 lbf ( 80 kN to 150 kN ) of thrust . The variants share a common design , but the details differ . The CFM56 is a two @-@ shaft ( or two @-@ spool ) engine , meaning that there are two rotating shafts , one high @-@ pressure and one low @-@ pressure . Each is powered by its own turbine section ( the high @-@ pressure and low @-@ pressure turbines , respectively ) . The fan and booster ( low @-@ pressure compressor ) evolved over the different iterations of the engine , as did the compressor , combustor and turbine sections .
= = = Combustor = = =
Most variants of the CFM56 feature a single @-@ annular combustor . An annular combustor is a continuous ring where fuel is injected into the airflow and ignited , raising the pressure and temperature of the flow . Other types of combustors include can combustors , where each combustion chamber is separate , and canannular which is a hybrid of the two . Fuel injection is regulated by a Hydromechanical Unit ( HMU ) , built by Honeywell . The HMU regulates the amount of fuel delivered to the engine by means of an electrohydraulic servo valve that , in turn , drives a fuel metering valve , that provides information to the full authority digital engine controller ( FADEC ) .
In 1989 , CFMI began work on a new , double @-@ annular combustor . Instead of having just one combustion zone , the double @-@ annular combustor has a second combustion zone that is used at high thrust levels . This design lowers the emissions of both nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The first CFM56 engine with the double @-@ annular combustor entered service in 1995 , and the combustor is used on " Tech Insertion " CFM56 @-@ 5B and CFM56 @-@ 7B variants .
GE started developing and testing a new type of combustor called the Twin Annular Premixing Swirler combustor , or " TAPS " , during the Tech 56 program . This design is similar to the double @-@ annular combustor in that it has two combustion zones ; this combustor " swirls " the flow , creating an ideal fuel – air mixture . This difference allows the combustor to generate much less NOx than other combustors . Tests on a CFM56 @-@ 7B engine demonstrated an improvement of 46 % over single @-@ annular combustors and 22 % over double @-@ annular combustors . The analytical tools developed for TAPS have also been used to improve other combustors , notably the single @-@ annular combustors in some CFM56 @-@ 5B and -7B engines .
= = = Compressor = = =
The high @-@ pressure compressor @-@ HPC , that was at the center of the original export controversy , features nine stages in each variant of the CFM56 . The compressor stages have been developed from GE 's " GE1 / 9 core " ( namely a single @-@ turbine , nine @-@ compressor stage design ) which was designed in a compact core rotor . The small span of the compressor radius meant that the entire engine could be lighter and smaller , as the accessory units in the system ( bearings , oiling systems ) could be merged to the main fueling system running on aviation fuel . As design evolved HPC design improved through better airfoil design . As part of the Tech @-@ 56 improvement program CFMI has tested the new CFM @-@ 56 model with six @-@ stage high @-@ pressure compressor stages ( discs that make up the compressor system ) that was designed to deliver same pressure ratios ( pressure gain 30 ) similar to the old nine @-@ stages compressor design . The new one was not fully replacing the old one , but it offered an upgrade in HPC , thanks to improved blade dynamics , as a part of their " Tech Insertion " management plan from 2007 .
= = = Exhaust = = =
CFMI tested both a mixed and unmixed exhaust design at the beginning of development ; most variants of the engine have an unmixed exhaust nozzle . Only the high @-@ power CFM56 @-@ 5C , designed for the Airbus A340 , has a mixed @-@ flow exhaust nozzle .
GE and SNECMA also tested the effectiveness of chevrons on reducing jet noise . After examining configurations in the wind tunnel , CFMI chose to flight @-@ test chevrons built into the core exhaust nozzle . The chevrons reduced jet noise by 1 @.@ 3 perceived loudness decibels during takeoff conditions , and are now offered as an option with the CFM56 for the Airbus A321 .
= = = Fan and booster = = =
The CFM56 features a single @-@ stage fan , and most variants have a three @-@ stage booster on the low @-@ pressure shaft , with four stages in the -5B and -5C variants . The booster is also commonly called the " low @-@ pressure compressor " ( LPC ) as it sits on the low @-@ pressure shaft and compresses the flow initially before reaching the high @-@ pressure compressor . The original CFM56 @-@ 2 variant featured 44 tip @-@ shrouded fan blades , although the number of fan blades was reduced in later variants as wide @-@ chord blade technology developed , down to 22 blades in the latest variant , the CFM56 @-@ 7 .
The CFM56 fan features dovetailed fan blades which allows them to be replaced without removing the entire engine , and GE / SNECMA claim that the CFM56 was the first engine to have that capability . This attachment method is useful for circumstances where only a few fan blades need to be repaired or replaced , such as following bird strikes .
The fan diameter varies with the different models of the CFM56 , and that change has a direct impact on the engine performance . For example , the low @-@ pressure shaft rotates at the same speed for both the CFM56 @-@ 2 and the CFM56 @-@ 3 models ; the fan diameter is smaller on the -3 , which lowers the tip speed of the fan blades . The lower speed allows the fan blades to operate more efficiently ( 5 @.@ 5 % more in this case ) , which increases the overall fuel efficiency of the engine ( improving specific fuel consumption nearly 3 % ) .
= = = Reverse thrust = = =
The CFM56 is designed to support several reverse thrust systems which help slow and stop the aircraft after landing . The variants built for the Boeing 737 , the CFM56 @-@ 3 and the CFM56 @-@ 7 , use a cascade type of thrust reverser . This type of thrust reverse consists of sleeves that slide back to expose mesh @-@ like cascades and blocker doors that block the bypass air flow . The blocked bypass air is forced through the cascades , reducing the thrust of the engine and slowing the aircraft down .
The CFM56 also supports pivoting @-@ door type thrust reversers . This type is used on the CFM56 @-@ 5 engines that power many Airbus aircraft . They work by actuating a door that pivots down into the bypass duct , both blocking the bypass air and deflecting the flow outward , creating the reverse thrust .
= = = Turbine = = =
All variants of the CFM56 feature a single @-@ stage high @-@ pressure turbine ( HPT ) . In some variants , the HPT blades are " grown " from a single crystal superalloy , giving them high strength and creep resistance . The low @-@ pressure turbine ( LPT ) features four stages in most variants of the engine , but the CFM56 @-@ 5C has a five @-@ stage LPT . This change was implemented to drive the larger fan on this variant . Improvements to the turbine section were examined during the Tech56 program , and one development was an aerodynamically optimized low @-@ pressure turbine blade design , which would have used 20 % fewer blades for the whole low @-@ pressure turbine , saving weight . Some of those Tech56 improvements made their way into the Tech Insertion package , where the turbine section was updated . The turbine section was updated again in the " Evolution " upgrade .
The high @-@ pressure turbine stages in the CFM56 are internally cooled by air from the high @-@ pressure compressor . The air passes through internal channels in each blade and ejects at the leading and trailing edges .
= = Variants = =
= = = CFM56 @-@ 2 series = = =
The CFM56 @-@ 2 series is the original variant of the CFM56 . It is most widely used in military applications where it is known as the F108 ; specifically in the KC @-@ 135 , the E @-@ 6 Mercury and some E @-@ 3 Sentry aircraft . The CFM56 @-@ 2 comprises a single @-@ stage fan with 44 blades , with a three @-@ stage LP compressor driven by a four @-@ stage LP turbine , and a nine @-@ stage HP compressor driven by a single @-@ stage HP turbine . The combustor is annular .
= = = CFM56 @-@ 3 series = = =
The first derivative of the CFM56 series , the CFM56 @-@ 3 is designed for Boeing 737 Classic series ( 737 @-@ 300 / -400 / -500 ) , with static thrust ratings from 18 @,@ 500 to 23 @,@ 500 lbf ( 82 @.@ 3 to 105 kN ) . A " cropped fan " derivative of the -2 , the -3 engine has a smaller fan diameter at 60 in ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) but retains the original basic engine layout . The new fan is primarily derived from GE 's CF6 @-@ 80 turbofan rather than the CFM56 @-@ 2 , and the booster was redesigned to match the new fan .
A significant challenge for this series was achieving ground clearance for the wing @-@ mounted engine . This was overcome by reducing the intake fan diameter and relocating the gearbox and other accessories from beneath the engine to the sides . The resulting flattened nacelle bottom and intake lip yielded the distinctive appearance of the Boeing 737 with CFM56 engines .
= = = CFM56 @-@ 4 series = = =
The CFM56 @-@ 4 series was a proposed improved version of the CFM56 @-@ 2 designed for the Airbus A320 family of aircraft . Competing with the RJ500 engine being developed by Rolls @-@ Royce , the -4 series was designed to produce 25 @,@ 000 lbf ( 110 kN ) and was to feature a new 68 in ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) fan , a new low @-@ pressure compressor and a full authority digital engine controller ( FADEC ) . Soon after the upgrade project was launched in 1984 , International Aero Engines offered their new V2500 engine for the A320 . CFMI realized that the CFM56 @-@ 4 did not compare favorably with the new engine and scrapped the project to begin working on the CFM56 @-@ 5 series .
= = = CFM56 @-@ 5 series = = =
The CFM56 @-@ 5 series is designed for the Airbus aircraft and has a very wide thrust rating of between 22 @,@ 000 and 34 @,@ 000 lbf ( 97 @.@ 9 and 151 kN ) . It has three distinct sub @-@ variants ; the CFM56 @-@ 5A , CFM56 @-@ 5B and CFM56 @-@ 5C , and differs from its Boeing @-@ fitted cousins by featuring a FADEC and incorporating further aerodynamic design improvements .
= = = = CFM56 @-@ 5A series = = = =
The CFM56 @-@ 5A series is the initial CFM56 @-@ 5 series , designed to power the short @-@ to @-@ medium range Airbus A320 family . Derived from the CFM56 @-@ 2 and CFM56 @-@ 3 families , the -5A series produces thrusts between 22 @,@ 000 and 26 @,@ 500 lbf ( 98 kN and 118 kN ) . Aerodynamic improvements such as an updated fan , low @-@ pressure compressor , high @-@ pressure compressor and combustor make this variant 10 – 11 % more fuel efficient than its predecessors .
= = = = CFM56 @-@ 5B series = = = =
An improvement of the CFM56 @-@ 5A series , it was originally designed to power the A321 . With a thrust range between 22 @,@ 000 and 33 @,@ 000 lbf ( 98 kN and 147 kN ) it can power every model in the A320 family ( A318 / A319 / A320 / A321 ) and has superseded the CFM56 @-@ 5A series . Among the changes from the CFM56 @-@ 5A is the option of a double @-@ annular combustor that reduces emissions ( particularly NOx ) , a new fan in a longer fan case , and a new low @-@ pressure compressor with a fourth stage ( up from three in earlier variants ) . It is the most numerous engine supplied to Airbus .
= = = = CFM56 @-@ 5C series = = = =
With a thrust rating of between 31 @,@ 200 and 34 @,@ 000 lbf ( 139 kN and 151 kN ) , the CFM56 @-@ 5C series is the most powerful of the CFM56 family . It powers Airbus ' long @-@ range A340 @-@ 200 and -300 airliners , and entered service in 1993 . The major changes are a larger fan , a fifth low @-@ pressure turbine stage , and the same four @-@ stage low @-@ pressure compressor found in the -5B variant .
Unlike every other variant of the CFM56 , the -5C features a mixed @-@ exhaust nozzle , which offers slightly higher efficiency .
= = = CFM56 @-@ 7 series = = =
The CFM56 @-@ 7 powers the Boeing 737 Next Generation series ( 737 @-@ 600 / -700 / -800 / -900 ) . The CFM56 @-@ 7 first ran on 21 April 1995 is rated with takeoff thrust from 19 @,@ 500 to 27 @,@ 300 lbf ( 86 @.@ 7 kN to 121 kN ) . It has higher thrust ranges , improved efficiency , and lower maintenance costs than its predecessor , the CFM56 @-@ 3 series . It incorporates features from the CFM56 @-@ 5 series such as FADEC , double @-@ annular combustor ( as an option ) , and improved internal design . The basic mechanical arrangement is as the -3 series , but all aspects were aerodynamically improved from that model . For example , the improved wide @-@ chord fan blades allowed the total number of fan blades to be reduced from 38 to 24 . Other improvements came from material advances , such as the use of single @-@ crystal turbine blades in the high @-@ pressure turbine .
The CFM56 @-@ 7 @-@ powered 737 is granted 180 @-@ minute Extended @-@ Range , Twin @-@ Engine Operations ( ETOPS ) approval by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration . It also powers the military versions of the Next @-@ Generation 737 , the C @-@ 40 Clipper , the P @-@ 8 Poseidon , and Boeing 737 AEW & C.
= = Reliability = =
The CFM56 have an in @-@ flight shutdown rate of 1 incident per 333 @,@ 333 hours . Record time on wing before the first shop visit was 30 @,@ 000 hours in 1996 , to 40 @,@ 729 hours in 2003 and 50 @,@ 000 hours in 2016 .
There have been several engine failures in the early service of the CFM56 family which were serious enough to either ground the fleet or require aspects of the engine to be redesigned . The engines have also suffered , periodically , from thrust instability events tentatively traced to Honeywell 's hydromechanical unit .
= = = Rain and hail ingestion = = =
There are several recorded incidents of CFM56 engines flaming out in heavy rain and / or hail conditions , beginning early in the CFM56 's career . In 1987 , a double flameout occurred in hail conditions ( the pilots managed to relight the engines ) , followed by the TACA Flight 110 incident in 1988 . Both CFM56 engines on the TACA 737 flamed out while passing through hail and heavy rain , and the crew was forced to land without engines on a grassy levee near New Orleans , Louisiana . CFMI modified the engines by adding a sensor to force the combustor to continuously ignite under these conditions .
In 2002 , Garuda Indonesia Flight 421 had to ditch in a river because of hail @-@ induced engine flameouts , killing a flight attendant and injuring dozens of passengers . Prior to this accident , there were several other incidents of single or dual flameouts due to these weather conditions . After three incidents through 1998 , CFMI made modifications to the engine to improve the way in which the engine handled hail ingestion . The major changes included a modification to the fan / booster splitter ( making it more difficult for hail to be ingested by the core of the engine ) and the use of an elliptical , rather than conical , spinner at the intake . These changes did not prevent the 2002 accident , and the investigation board found that the pilots did not follow the proper procedures for attempting to restart the engine , which contributed to the final result . Recommendations were made to better educate pilots on how to handle these conditions , as well as to revisit FAA rain and hail testing procedures . No further engine modifications were recommended .
= = = Fan blade failure = = =
One issue that led to accidents with the CFM56 @-@ 3C engine was the failure of fan blades . This mode of failure led to the Kegworth air disaster in 1989 , which killed 47 people and injured 74 more . After the fan blade failed , the pilots mistakenly shut down the wrong engine , resulting in the damaged engine failing completely when powered up for the final approach . Following the Kegworth accident , CFM56 engines fitted to a Dan @-@ Air 737 @-@ 400 and a British Midland 737 @-@ 400 suffered fan blade failures under similar conditions ; neither incident resulted in a crash or injuries . After the second incident , the 737 @-@ 400 fleet was grounded .
At the time it was not mandatory to flight test new variants of existing engines , and certification testing failed to reveal vibration modes that the fan experienced during the regularly performed power climbs at high altitude . Analysis revealed that the fan was being subjected to high @-@ cycle fatigue stresses worse than expected and also more severe than tested for certification ; these higher stresses caused the blade to fracture . Less than a month after grounding , the fleet was allowed to resume operations once the fan blades and fan disc were replaced and the electronic engine controls were modified to reduce maximum engine thrust to 22 @,@ 000 lbf ( 98 kN ) from 23 @,@ 500 lbf ( 105 kN ) . The redesigned fan blades were installed on all CFM56 @-@ 3C1 and CFM56 @-@ 3B2 engines , including over 1 @,@ 800 engines that had already been delivered to customers .
= = = Fuel flow problems = = =
Airlines have reported 32 events involving sudden instability of thrust , at various points during flight , including high thrust settings during climb to altitude . The problem has been long @-@ standing . In 1998 , two 737 pilots reported that their engine throttles suddenly increased to full thrust during flight . A very recent investigation has led to the tentative conclusion that the problem originates in the Hydromechanical unit , and may involve an unacceptable level of fuel contamination ( with water , or particulate matter , including biodegradable material that create solids in the fuel ) , or overuse of biocides to reduce bacterial growth . Boeing told Aviation Week and Space Technology that CFM International had revised its FADEC software . The new software " ' reduces the duration and degree of thrust @-@ instability events ' by cycling the FMV { fuel monitoring valve } and the EHSV ( electrohydraulic servo unit ) to clean the EHSV spool . " This software fix is not intended to be a definitive solution to the problem ; CFM claimed that no further reports have reached it after this change was made .
= = Applications = =
Airbus A320 family
Airbus A318
Airbus A340
Boeing 707 @-@ 700 ( prototype only )
Boeing 737 Classic
Boeing 737 Next Generation
Boeing 737 AEW & C
Boeing C @-@ 40 Clipper
Boeing P @-@ 8 Poseidon
Boeing Business Jet
Boeing E @-@ 3D Sentry
Boeing E @-@ 6 Mercury
Boeing KC @-@ 135R Stratotanker
Boeing RC @-@ 135
Douglas DC @-@ 8 Super 70
= = Specifications ( CFM56 @-@ 7B18 ) = =
Data from CFM International
= = = = General characteristics = = = =
Type : Twin @-@ spool , high @-@ bypass turbofan
Length : 98 @.@ 7 in ( 2 @.@ 5 m )
Diameter : 61 in ( 1 @.@ 55 m ) ( fan )
Dry weight : 5 @,@ 216 lb ( 2 @,@ 366 kg ) ( dry )
= = = = Components = = = =
Compressor : Single @-@ stage fan , 3 @-@ stage low @-@ pressure compressor , 9 @-@ stage high @-@ pressure compressor
Combustors : annular
Turbine : Single @-@ stage high @-@ pressure turbine , 4 @-@ stage low @-@ pressure turbine
= = = = Performance = = = =
Maximum thrust : 19 @,@ 500 lbf ( 86 @.@ 7 kN )
Overall pressure ratio : 32 @.@ 8 : 1
Bypass ratio : 5 @.@ 5 : 1
Air mass flow : 677 lb / s ( 307 kg / s )
Thrust @-@ to @-@ weight ratio : 3 @.@ 7 : 1
= Jean Baptiste Point du Sable =
Jean Baptiste Point du Sable ( or Point de Sable , Point au Sable , Point Sable , Pointe DuSable ) ( before 1750 – August 28 , 1818 ) is regarded as the first permanent resident of what became Chicago , Illinois . Little is known of his life prior to the 1770s . In 1779 , he was living on the site of present @-@ day Michigan City , Indiana , when he was arrested by the British military on suspicion of being an American sympathizer in the American Revolutionary War . In the early 1780s he worked for the British lieutenant @-@ governor of Michilimackinac on an estate at what is now the city of St. Clair , Michigan , before moving to settle at the mouth of the Chicago River . He is first recorded living in Chicago in early 1790 , having apparently become established sometime earlier . He sold his property in Chicago in 1800 and moved to St. Charles , Missouri , where he died in 1818 .
Point du Sable has become known as the " Founder of Chicago " . In Chicago , a school , museum , harbor , park and bridge have been named , or renamed , in his honor ; and the place where he settled at the mouth of the Chicago River in the 1780s is recognized as a National Historic Landmark , now located in Pioneer Court .
= = Biography = =
There is no known record of Point du Sable 's life prior to the 1770s ; his birth year , place of birth , and parents are unknown , though he is known from contemporary sources to have been of African descent . Juliette Kinzie , another early pioneer of Chicago , Illinois , never met Point du Sable but stated in her 1856 memoir that he was " a native of St. Domingo " ( the island of Hispaniola ) . This became generally accepted by scholars as his place of birth . Historian Milo Milton Quaife , however , regarded Kinzie 's account of Point du Sable as " largely fictitious and wholly unauthenticated " . Quaife later put forward a theory that he was of French @-@ Canadian origin . A historical novel published in 1953 ( see below ) helped to popularize the commonly recited claim that he was born in 1745 in Saint @-@ Marc in Saint @-@ Domingue ( now Haiti ) . Point du Sable married a Potawatomi woman named Kitihawa ( Christianized to Catherine ) on October 27 , 1788 in a Catholic ceremony in Cahokia , an old French missionary town on the Mississippi River . , though they were likely married earlier in the 1770s in the Native American tradition . They had a son named Jean and a daughter named Susanne .
In a footnote to a poem titled Speech to the Western Indians , Arent DePeyster , British commandant at Fort Michilimackinac from 1774 to 1779 ( a former French fort in what was by then the British Quebec Territory ) , noted that " Baptist Point de Saible " was " handsome " , " well educated " , and " settled in Eschecagou " . When he published this poem in 1813 , DePeyster presented it as a speech that he had made at the Indian village of Abercroche ( now Harbor Springs , Michigan ) on July 4 , 1779 . This footnote has led many scholars to assume that Point du Sable had settled in Chicago by 1779 , however letters written by traders in the late 1770s suggest that Point du Sable was at this time settled at the mouth of Trail Creek ( Rivière du Chemin ) at what is now Michigan City , Indiana . In August 1779 , Point du Sable was arrested at Trail Creek by British troops and imprisoned briefly at Fort Michilimackinac . From the summer of 1780 until May 1784 , Point du Sable managed the Pinery , a tract of woodlands claimed by British Lt. Patrick Sinclair on the St. Clair River in eastern Michigan . Point du Sable and his family lived at a cabin at the mouth of the Pine River in what is now the city of St. Clair .
Point du Sable settled on the north bank of the Chicago River close to its mouth at some time in the 1780s . The earliest known record of Point du Sable living in Chicago is an entry that Hugh Heward made in his journal on May 10 , 1790 during a journey from Detroit across Michigan and through Illinois . Heward 's party stopped at Pointe du Sable 's house en route to the Chicago portage ; they swapped their canoe for a pirogue that belonged to Point du Sable , and they bought bread , flour and pork from him . Perrish Grignon , who visited Chicago in about 1794 , described Point du Sable as a large man who was a wealthy trader . In 1800 he sold his farm to John Kinzie 's frontman , Jean La Lime , for 6 @,@ 000 livres ; the bill of sale , which was rediscovered in 1913 in an archive in Detroit , outlined all of the property Point du Sable owned as well as many of his personal artifacts . This included a house , two barns , a horse drawn mill , a bakehouse , a poultry house , a dairy and a smokehouse . The house was a 22 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 7 m × 12 @.@ 2 m ) log cabin filled with fine furniture and paintings .
After Point du Sable sold his property in Chicago he moved to St. Charles , Missouri , where he was commissioned by the colonial governor to operate a ferry across the Missouri River . He died in 1818 , and was buried in St. Charles , in an unmarked grave in St. Charles Borromeo Cemetery . His entry in the parish burial register does not mention his origins , parents , or relatives , it simply describes him as negre ( French for black ) . The St. Charles Borromeo Cemetery was moved twice in the 19th century , and oral tradition and records of the Archdiocese of St. Louis suggested that Point du Sable 's remains were also moved . On October 12 , 1968 , the Illinois Sesquicentennial Commission erected a granite marker at the site believed to be Point du Sable 's grave in the third St. Charles Borromeo Cemetery . In 2002 an archaeological investigation of the grave site was initiated by the African Scientific Research Institute at the University of Illinois at Chicago . Researchers using a combination of ground penetrating radar surveys and excavation of a 9 @-@ by @-@ 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m × 2 @.@ 7 m ) area did not find any evidence of any burials at the supposed grave site , leading the archaeologists to conclude that Point du Sable 's remains may not have been moved from one of the two previous cemeteries .
= = Theories and legends = =
= = = Early life = = =
Though there is little historical evidence regarding Point du Sable 's life before the 1770s , there are a number of theories and legends that give accounts of his early life . Writing in 1933 , Milo Milton Quaife identified a French immigrant to Canada , Pierre Dandonneau , who acquired the title " Sieur de Sable " and whose descendants were known by both the names Dandonneau and Du Sable . Quaife was unable to find a direct link to Point du Sable , but identified descendants of Pierre Dandonneau living around the Great Lakes region in Detroit , Mackinac , and St Joseph , leading him to speculate that Point du Sable 's father was a member of this family , whilst his mother was a slave . In 1951 a pamphlet by Joseph Jeremie , a native of Haiti , was published in which he claimed to be the great grandson of Point du Sable . Based on family recollections and tombstone inscriptions he claimed that Point du Sable was born in Saint @-@ Marc in Haiti , studied in France , returned to Haiti to deal coffee before traveling to French Louisiana . Historian and Point du Sable biographer John F. Swenson has called these claims " elaborate , undocumented assertions ... in a fanciful biography " . In 1953 Shirley Graham built on the work of Quaife and Jeremie in a historical novel of Point du Sable that she described as " not accurate history nor pure fiction " , but rather " an imaginative interpretation of all the known facts " . This book presented Point du Sable as the son of the mate on a pirate ship , the Black Sea Gull , and a freed slave called Suzanne . Despite lack of evidence , and the continued debate about Point du Sable 's early life , parentage , and birthplace , this popular story is widely presented as being definitive .
= = = Peoria = = =
In 1815 a land claim that had been submitted by Nicholas Jarrot to the land commissioners at Kaskaskia , Illinois Territory was approved . In the claim Jarrot asserted that a " Jean Baptiste Poinstable " had been " head of a family at Peoria in the year 1783 , and before and after that year " , and that he " had a house built and cultivated land between the Old Fort and the new settlement in the year 1780 " . This document has been taken by Quaife and other historians as evidence that Point du Sable lived at Peoria prior to his arrival at Chicago , however , records show that Point du Sable was living at the Pinery in Michigan in the early 1780s . In addition , the Kaskaskia land commissioners identified many fraudulent land claims , including two previously submitted in the name of Point du Sable . Nicholas Jarrot , the claimant , was involved in many fraudulent land claims , and Swenson suggests that this claim was also fraudulent , made without the knowledge of Point du Sable . Although apparently in conflict with some of the above information , some historical records contend that DuSable bought land in Peoria from J.B.Maillet in March 13 , 1773 and sold it to Isaac Darneille in 1783 when he moved to be the first " permanent " European resident of Chicago .
= = = Departure from Chicago = = =
Point du Sable left Chicago in 1800 . Point du Sable sold his property to John Kinzie and moved to Missouri , at that time part of French Louisiana . The reason for his departure is unknown . In her memoir , Juliette Kinzie suggested that " perhaps he was disgusted at not being elected to a similar dignity [ great chief ] by the Pottowattamies . " In 1874 Nehemiah Matson elaborated on this story , claiming that Point du Sable was a slave from Virginia who had moved with his master to Lexington , Kentucky in 1790 . According to Matson , Point du Sable became a zealous Catholic in order to convince a Jesuit missionary to declare him chief of the local Native Americans , and left Chicago when the natives refused to accept him as their chief . Quaife dismisses both these stories as being fictional .
In her 1953 novel Graham suggests that Point du Sable left Chicago because he was angered with the United States government , which wanted him to buy the land on which he had lived and called his own for the previous two decades . The 1795 Treaty of Greenville and the subsequent westward migration of Indians away from the Chicago area might also have influenced his decision .
= = Legacy and honors = =
= = = Founder of Chicago = = =
Point du Sable is the earliest recorded resident of the settlement close to the mouth of the Chicago River that grew to become the city of Chicago . He is therefore widely regarded as the first permanent resident of Chicago and given the appellation " Founder of Chicago " .
The expedition headed by Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette in 1673 , though probably not the first Europeans to visit the area , are the first recorded to have crossed the Chicago Portage and travelled along the Chicago River . Marquette returned in 1674 , camped a few days near the mouth of the river , then moved on to the portage , where he stayed through the winter of 1674 – 75 . Joliet and Marquette did not report any Indians living near the Chicago River area at this time , though archaeologists have since discovered numerous Indian village sites elsewhere in the greater Chicago area . Two of La Salle 's men built a stockade at the portage in the winter of 1682 / 1683 . However , in 1697 Henri Tonti , Michel Accault , and François de La Forêt received permission from Governor Frontenac to establish a fortified trading post at Chicagou managed by Pierre de Liette , Tonti ’ s cousin , a Franco @-@ Italian , which lasted until c.1705. De Liette kept a journal of his experiences living with the Illinois natives for those years he lived with them at the Chicago trading post . De Liette , describes in his writings the game of lacrosse played by the Indians on the extensive meadow behind these villages . In Chicago De Liette ran the trading post in partnership with François Daupin de La Forêt , Michel Accault , and Henri de Tonti [ located probably near today`s Tribune Tower ] which he had to close , leaving in 1705 after the king revoked his trading license .
The Mission of the Guardian Angel was somewhere in the vicinity of Chicago from 1696 until it was abandoned in around 1700 . The Fox Wars effectively closed the Chicago area to Europeans in the first part of the 18th century . The first non @-@ native to re @-@ settle in the area may have been a trader named Guillory , who might have had a trading @-@ post near Wolf Point on the Chicago River in around 1778 . After Point du Sable , Antoine Ouilmette is the next recorded resident of Chicago ; he claimed to have settled at the mouth of the Chicago River in July 1790 , a few months after Hugh Heward visited Point du Sable .
= = = Memorials = = =
By the 1850s , historians of Chicago recognized Point du Sable as the city 's earliest non @-@ native permanent settler . For a long time , however , the city did not honor him in the same manner as other pioneers . A plaque was erected by the city in 1913 at the corner of Kinzie and Pine Streets to commemorate his homestead . In the planning stages of the 1933 – 1934 Century of Progress International Exposition a number of African @-@ American groups campaigned for Point du Sable to be honored at the fair . At this time , few Chicagoans had even heard of Point du Sable and the fair 's organizers presented the 1803 construction of Fort Dearborn as the city 's historical beginning . The campaign was successful however , and a replica of Point du Sable 's cabin was presented as part of the " background of the history of Chicago . "
In 1965 a plaza called Pioneer Court was built on the site of Point du Sable 's homestead as part of the construction of the Equitable Life Assurance Society of America building . The Jean Baptiste Point Du Sable Homesite was designated as a National Historic Landmark on May 11 , 1976 , as a site deemed to have " exceptional value to the nation . " Pioneer Court is located at what is now 401 N. Michigan Avenue in the Near North Side of Chicago . In 2009 , the City of Chicago and a private donor erected there a large bronze bust of Point du Sable by Chicago @-@ born sculptor Erik Blome . In February 2016 the bust was temporarily relocated to 400 N. Michigan Ave for the construction of a new Apple Store , but will return to its original location once construction is completed . In October 2010 , the Michigan Avenue Bridge was renamed DuSable Bridge in honor of Point du Sable . Previously a small street named De Saible Street had been named after him .
A number of Chicago institutions have been named in honor of Point du Sable . DuSable High School opened in Bronzeville in 1934 . Today it is a building for three schools : Daniel Hale Williams Prep School of Medicine , the Bronzeville Scholastic Institute , and the DuSable Leadership Academy . Dr. Margaret Taylor @-@ Burroughs , a prominent African @-@ American artist and writer taught at the school for twenty @-@ three years . She and her husband co @-@ founded the DuSable Museum of African American History , located on Chicago 's South Side , which was renamed in honor of Point du Sable in 1968 . DuSable Harbor is located in the heart of downtown Chicago at the foot of Randolph Street , and DuSable Park is an urban park ( 3 @.@ 24 acres ( 13 @,@ 100 m2 ) ) in Chicago currently awaiting redevelopment . It was originally announced in 1987 by Mayor Harold Washington . The US Postal Service has also honored Point du Sable with the issue of a Black Heritage Series , 22 @-@ cent postage stamp on February 20 , 1987 .
= Olivia ( Fringe ) =
" Olivia " is the first episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Fringe . The episode was co @-@ written by J. H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , and was directed by Joe Chappelle . The third season spent its time alternating between the prime and parallel universes , and " Olivia " was placed in the latter . This is indicated in the introduction of the episode , with the same red screen used in the last season 's finale , " Over There " . " Olivia " follows the cliffhanger left by the second season , in which Olivia Dunham is trapped in the parallel universe . The episode explores the consequences of Olivia 's abduction by Walternate , and her attempt to go back to the prime universe .
Though Fox was initially worried about an entire episode set in the other universe , they soon came to appreciate the storyline . The episode included the first appearances of guest actors Andre Royo and Amy Madigan , who would both appear in several later episodes . It first aired in the United States on Fox in September 23 , 2010 , receiving almost all positive reviews due to the combination of emotional storylines , suspense , action , and humor . Many thought it was a good indicator of what the rest of the season had to offer , while others appreciated the numerous popular culture references that set the two universes apart .
= = Plot = =
In the previous episode " Over There " , Olivia ( Anna Torv ) and Walter ( John Noble ) used Olivia 's ability to cross from the prime universe into the parallel one , where Walter 's son , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , was being kept . After dealing with their respective counterparts from the parallel universe , " Fauxlivia " ( Torv ) and Walternate ( Noble ) , Olivia and Walter were able to successfully free Peter . As they prepared to return to the prime universe , Walternate ordered Fauxlivia to take Olivia 's place , returning with Walter and Peter , both unaware of the swap .
Olivia is captured by Walternate 's forces , imprisoned in the government facility on Liberty Island and put through both physical and psychological treatments by Walternate to make her believe that she is really the Fauxlivia of the parallel universe . Olivia manages to escape the facility and make it to " Manhatan " ( in the Other Side parallel universe , the island is spelled with only one " T " ) . She coerces a taxi driver named Henry ( Andre Royo ) to drive her to the Opera House where she believes she can return home , by threatening to harm his family , but by the time she arrives , an " Amber protocol " has been issued , sealing the building in " amber " , a substance that the Other Side Fringe Division deploys to envelop time fractures . She directs Henry to the address for Massive Dynamic , but finds the facility does not exist in this universe . As Henry goes to a gas station to fill his taxi , Olivia cries to herself in the station 's bathroom .
Meanwhile , the Fringe division is falsely told that their Olivia has escaped . Agent Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) , still needing hyperbaric treatment to regrow his skin after being burned , and Agent Charlie Francis ( Kirk Acevedo ) follow a tracking device on Henry 's taxi . When they arrive at the station , Olivia orders Henry to drive away , and manages to fire at a small valve on a gas tank , allowing the explosion to cover their trail . Walternate , watching the altercation on monitors , notes Olivia has gained the marksmanship ability that the alternate Olivia possesses , and begins to think the serum is working . Brandon ( Ryan McDonald ) theorizes in a later conversation that the rush of adrenaline effectively enhanced the potency of his chemical agents to brainwash Olivia .
Henry removes the tracker from his taxi , having become sympathetic towards Olivia . Olivia gives him an address to a " safe house " in a suburban area , and , once there , thanks him and allows him to go . However , Henry remains parked on a nearby street . In the home , Olivia discovers her mother Marilyn ( Amy Madigan ) , who , in the prime universe , had died when Olivia was a teenager . Olivia , seeing her mother and the memories of her mother , cries into her arms , as she is awash in Fauxlivia 's memories . By the time Charlie arrives , Olivia fully believes she is Fauxlivia , and after saying goodbye to her mother , returns willingly with Charlie to Fringe headquarters . Henry , after watching Charlie 's car pull away , drives off on his own .
The episode closes in the prime universe , where Peter explains the events of his time in the parallel universe to disinterested government agents . Meanwhile , Fauxlivia engages in idle chatter with Walter , nearly slipping and revealing her identity to him due to her lack of knowledge of the prime universe 's popular culture . When Peter leaves , he kisses Fauxlivia and the three leave to get dinner .
= = Production = =
" Olivia " was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners J. H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , and was directed by co @-@ executive producer Joe Chappelle . The producers revealed the episode title on June 30 , 2010 . After they began their search in mid @-@ June for a fifty- to sixty @-@ year @-@ old actress to play Olivia 's mother , Entertainment Weekly reported on July 2 that Amy Madigan had been cast as Marilyn Dunham for roughly four episodes , beginning with the season premiere . The character was described as " lovely and together " and deeply devoted to her daughter . Further reporting a week later revealed that The Wire actor Andre Royo had been cast for the season premiere as Henry Higgins , " a soulful taxi driver who is unexpectedly forced into a tense situation with Olivia " . Henry Higgins is also the name of a character in My Fair Lady . Even before " Olivia " aired , Royo 's guest appearance was extended to appear in a second episode . Guest actor Seth Gabel returned as the recurring character Lincoln Lee , and required four to five hours of make @-@ up in order to play a recovering burn victim .
Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman decided to alternate the episodes between the prime and parallel universes because they " thought that the best way to really thoroughly tell these stories was to dive into them wholeheartedly ... [ in order to fully explore ] the journey that our heroine is on and then come back over here because [ Altlivia ] is embedded in our team , we have point of view characters in both universes and it seemed to us the perfect opportunity to really explore in a really thorough fulsome way the alternate universe " . Wyman elaborated that he felt fans " would really appreciate a mythology in two places " , and showing both universes " just presented itself in such a natural organic way to evolution in our storytelling " . Fox however was initially worried about the premise 's sustainability , and that an episode without Peter or Walter " wouldn 't feel like our show anymore , " to which Pinkner responded that " not unlike a show like Lost , Fringe has to constantly evolve , to move and grow and go forward , otherwise we 'll get bored , the cast will get bored , the audience will get bored " . After the first three episodes , both Fox and Warner Bros. became more favorable to the storyline .
When discussing the many differences between the prime and parallel universes in an interview , Pinkner explained that " one of the big themes of the show is how small choices that you make define you as a person and can change your life in large ways down the line " . Pinkner and the rest of the Fringe production team loved the opportunity to build an entire new world , and asked themselves what life would have been like in its most mundane forms , such as within daily routines . Pinkner thought it allowed them to create and explore many " what @-@ if " moments , such as if the September 11 attacks had occurred against the White House instead of the Twin Towers , or if the Statue of Liberty still possessed its shiny copper sheen . Pinkner elaborated in another interview that when the " perfectionist " crew were writing and constructing the parallel universe , they spent a lot of time on a high " level of attention and detail " that had all of the different departments and actors weighing in . Pinkner thought that because the parallel universe is effectively breaking down with " World War II " -like conditions , these " sort of tough times forge more noble , stronger people " . To better differentiate the two universes , the producers changed the color of the opening credit sequences by making the parallel universe red and the prime universe blue . As with the opening credits in " Peter " , the episodes featuring the parallel universe displayed certain fringe science words in that world , including wormholes , speciation , pandemics , and telepathy .
= = Cultural references = =
Many differences between the two universes were related to popular culture . A photograph of Fauxlivia wearing a gold medal in marksmanship is shown , proving that unlike the prime universe , the parallel universe has that particular event in their Olympic Games . The radio in Henry 's taxi can be heard mentioning former president John F. Kennedy is stepping down from his role as ambassador , proving that he was not assassinated . On that same taxi , Dogs is depicted to be a musical in the parallel universe New York City , instead of Cats . Their mail is delivered by the " U.S. Mail Service " with a different logo , instead of the United States Postal Service , and there are apparently daily flights to the moon .
Actor Tom Cruise is mentioned for " kick [ ing ] ass " on television , implying that he is not a movie star in the parallel universe . When Olivia reminds him she knows his identification information , Henry mentions a " Jedi mind trick " , a reference to Star Wars , which is one popular culture similarity the two universes seem to share . When searching for the headquarters of Massive Dynamic , Olivia instead finds a site entitled " Martin Luther King / Eldridge Cleaver Memorial Park " , which implies that King was also not assassinated , but instead developed a close relationship with Black Panther militant and Soul On Ice author Cleaver . The park sign also reads " We Have a Dream " , which is a slight deviation from King 's " I Have a Dream " speech , and suggests that he and Cleaver wrote it together .
As Olivia enters the park , she is passed by a man riding a penny @-@ farthing bicycle . As these have not been shown elsewhere , it does not seem likely that they are a common means of transportation in the alternate universe , but rather that this is a reference to The Prisoner , in which similar mind @-@ games were used against an agent being held prisoner .
In the prime universe , Fauxlivia tells Walter that she has not seen shoes like his Wallabees ( a line of shoes from C & J Clark ) " in a while , " and asks if he is " bringing them back . " Walter responds by asking her , " Where did they go ? " indicating that they were also found in the alternate universe until some recent time ( within Olivia 's lifetime ) , but are no longer found there .
= = Reception = =
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan for grade school children focusing on the science seen in " Olivia " , with the intention of having " students learn about the types of hormones and how they are used to regulate various functions in an organism . "
= = = Ratings = = =
" Olivia " premiered to 5 @.@ 83 million viewers in the United States , with a 2 @.@ 1 rating for viewers 18 – 49 . Fringe was down thirty percent from the previous season 's premiere , " A New Day in the Old Town " . Time shifted viewing gave the premiere a 44 % increase , as its 18 – 49 rating rose to 3 @.@ 1 . Out of all the network shows , this was the largest gain of the week . Time shifted viewing also increased the total number of viewers to 7 @.@ 837 million . Fringe faced tough competition during its timeslot from the high @-@ rated Grey 's Anatomy and CSI : Crime Scene Investigation .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received critical acclaim . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly expected a big event in the vein of the second season premiere , and was pleasantly surprised to find something different : " a beautifully emotional hour with suspense , humor , and kissing ... [ that was ] superb and surprising " . Josh Wigler of MTV wrote that Fringe " proved once again that it 's one of the most the most innovative , entertaining genre shows currently airing on television , " and he couldn 't wait for next week 's episode . Jason Hughes of TV Squad enjoyed the episode , and praised how " the show 's creators have come up with a crazy , but fun , way of " showing both universes every other episode .
Brooklynne Kelly Peters from Blast Magazine praised Anna Torv 's acting , because she " brings a sensitivity to Olivia 's character that is heart @-@ wrenching but so well integrated into her character that action scenes seem totally natural for her " . The standout for her however , was John Noble 's performance , as he played " lovable and brilliant " Walter and " chillingly conniving " Walternate , both of which makes him " an even more unforgettable character " as the audience sees what Walter could have been . A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode with an A- , writing that " the third season of Fringe opened tonight with one of the strongest , boldest episodes in the whole run of the series " . Murray especially praised the " well @-@ written , acted and photographed " taxi scenes between Olivia and Henry . The Los Angeles Times ' Andrew Hanson particularly enjoyed the nine @-@ minute opening , writing that he loved the episode because of three reasons : Olivia " kicked butt " and stayed a step ahead of Walternate , her struggles with identity , and all of the careful details put into the parallel universe .
After watching the first several episodes of season three , Aaron Riccio of Slant Magazine gave the show 3 @.@ 5 / 4 stars , and praised it for making a " huge , game @-@ changing step forward " . He continued that " Hard science meets soft comedy , and the results are consistently surprising and rarely disappointing . The solid mythology and high stakes keep the series moving as forward as quickly as FlashForward and The Event , but the dual tones of the two worlds offer considerably more breadth in the stories it tells ... [ " Olivia " was ] captivating television " . Robert Bianco from USA Today praised Torv , Noble , and Jackson 's performances . He however disliked the new plotline of two Olivias , explaining " It 's hard to fault the execution of the first two episodes , which skillfully set up Fringe 's two competing universes and two misplaced Olivias ... Yet well @-@ done isn 't the same as welcome . I 'm not giving up on the show , which was one of last year 's best . But I don 't want to spend weeks watching our Olivia suffer and their Olivia make Walter and Peter suffer . You have to give writers leeway to take you where they want to go — but at a certain point , commercial entertainment has to be entertaining , or there 's no reason to watch " .
= = = Awards and nomination = = =
Anna Torv submitted " Olivia " , along with the season three episodes " Entrada " , " Marionette " , and Bloodline " for consideration in the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . She failed to receive a nomination .
= Macabeemyrma =
Macabeemyrma is an extinct genus of bulldog ants in the subfamily Myrmeciinae containing the single species Macabeemyrma ovata , described in 2006 from Ypresian stage ( Early Eocene ) deposits of British Columbia , Canada . Only a single specimen is known ; a holotype queen found preserved as a compression fossil . The specimen had no wings and small portions of its legs and eyes were faintly preserved . It was a large ant , reaching 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) in length . This ants ' behaviour would have been similar to that of extant Myrmeciinae ants , such as foraging singly in search for arthropod prey and nesting in soil or in trees . Macabeemyrma shows similarities to extinct ants in the genus Ypresiomyrma , and to the living Nothomyrmecia macrops , but has not been conclusively assigned to any tribe , instead generally regarded as incertae sedis within Myrmeciinae . However , the sole specimen lacks definitive traits , and its classification in Myrmeciinae , and even its identity as an ant , has been challenged .
= = History and classification = =
Macabeemyrma ovata is known only from a single fossil specimen : a mostly complete adult queen , preserved as a compression fossil in fine @-@ grained shale . The shale is from fossiliferous outcrops at the McAbee Fossil Beds , part of an unnamed formation in the Kamloops group which outcrops east of Cache Creek in British Columbia , Canada . The holotype specimen was collected by an unknown person and donated to Thompson Rivers University in 2002 . The specimen was described by Bruce Archibald , Stefan Cover and Corrie Moreau of Harvard University 's Museum of Comparative Zoology , with their 2006 type description of the genus and species . The generic name Macabeemyrma is a toponym of the type locality at McAbee combined with the Greek myrmex , meaning " ant " . The specific epithet ovata , from the Latin " ovatus " meaning " egg shaped " , refers to the shape of the head capsule .
Archibald and colleagues originally classified Macabeemyrma as incertae sedis ( Latin for " of uncertain placement " ) within the ant subfamily Myrmeciinae , as it could not be confidently placed into any ant tribe . However , in a 2008 paper , Cesare Baroni Urbani of the University of Basel , Switzerland , noted that the specimen shares some traits found in other ant subfamilies and some wasps , and lacks key diagnostic traits ( synapomorphies ) of the ant family , Formicidae , and thus argued Macabeemyrma could only be confidently classified as incertae sedis within the order Hymenoptera . A subsequent report describing new fossil myrmecines accepted the classification of Archibald and colleagues without comment on the views of Baroni Urbani .
The following cladograms generated by Archibald and colleagues show two possible phylogenetic positions of Macabeemyrma among some ants of the subfamily Myrmeciinae ; the cladogram on the right included three additional extinct genera compared to that on the left . They suggest that Macabeemyrma ovata and other extinct ants such as Avitomyrmex and Ypresiomyrma may be closely related to the living Nothomyrmecia macrops .
= = Description = =
The overall body of the ant is poorly preserved and much of it is indistinct . Macabeemyrma ovata is about 25 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) long with a distinct elongated oval head capsule that is about 1.5x longer than wide . The holotype is missing the wings and some portions of the legs while the eyes are very faintly preserved . It could not be confirmed whether its eyes were compound or not , but if it was to be confirmed they would share similar eye characteristics to Myrmecia . The exact shape of the mandibles cannot be properly determined , but they are elongated and not subtriangular which is normal for other members of Myrmeciinae except the genus Myrmecia . Its elongated head and mandibles distinguish this species from those in the genus Ypresiomyrma , which are otherwise thought to have a close phylogenetic relationship due to similarities . The waist consists of a single segment , and whether or not the ant has a sting cannot be fully determined due to the condition of the specimen collected .
= = Ecology = =
Archibald and colleagues suggested the life habits of Macabeemyrma ovata may have been similar to extant Myrmeciinae ants . The ant is large with long legs and elongated mandibles . It presumably had large eyes that were used to hunt for prey and navigation , and the ant was possibly equipped with a sting . Colonies most likely nested in the soil like most other Myrmeciinae , but like some Myrmecia species it is possible they were an arboreal nesting species . Workers were solitary foragers , foraging on the ground or onto vegetation while preying on arthropods . Workers most likely did not recruit other ants to food sources or lay down pheromone trails .
= Irish Mercantile Marine during World War II =
The Irish Mercantile Marine during World War II continued essential overseas trade in the conflict , a period referred to as The Long Watch by Irish mariners .
Irish merchant shipping saw to it that vital imports continued to arrive and exports , mainly food supplies to Great Britain , were delivered . Irish ships sailed unarmed and usually alone , identifying themselves as neutrals with bright lights and by painting the Irish tricolour and EIRE in large letters on their sides and decks . Nonetheless twenty percent of seamen serving in Irish ships perished , victims of a war not their own : attacked by both sides , though predominantly by the Axis powers . Often , Allied convoys could not stop to pick up survivors , while Irish ships always answered SOS signals and stopped to rescue survivors , irrespective of which side they belonged to . Irish ships rescued 534 seamen .
At the outbreak of World War II , known as " The Emergency " , Ireland declared neutrality and became isolated as never before . Shipping had been neglected since the Irish War of Independence . Foreign ships , on which Ireland 's trade had hitherto depended , were less available ; neutral American ships would not enter the " war zone " . In his Saint Patrick 's Day address in 1940 , Taoiseach ( Prime Minister ) Éamon de Valera lamented :
" No country had ever been more effectively blockaded because of the activities of belligerents and our lack of ships ... "
Ireland was a net food exporter . The excess was shipped to Britain . The Irish Mercantile Marine ensured that Irish agricultural , and other , exports reached Britain , and that British coal arrived in Ireland . Some foods such as wheat , citric fruits and tea were imported . Ireland depended on , mainly , British tankers for petroleum . Initially Irish ships sailed in British convoys . In the light of experience they chose to sail alone , relying on their neutral markings . German respect for that neutrality varied from friendly to tragic .
" Cross @-@ channel " trade , between Ireland and Britain , was from both national perspectives , the most important Irish trade route . Irish ships crossed the Atlantic on a route defined by the Allies : a line from Fastnet Rock to the Azores and then along the line of latitude at 38 ° North . Ships on the " Lisbon @-@ run " , imported wheat and fruits from Spain and Portugal , as well as goods transhipped from the Americas . They followed the line of longitude at 12 ° West , while Allied convoys to Gibraltar were 20 ° West .
There were never more than 800 men , at any one time , serving on Irish ships in the war .
= = Background = =
Following independence in 1921 , there was no state encouragement to develop the mercantile marine . " Our new leaders seemed to turn their backs upon the sea and to ignore the fact that we are an island " . Each year the fleet declined . In 1923 , the merchant fleet consisted of 127 ships . This number dropped every year until 1939 when , at the start of World War II , the fleet numbered only 56 ships . Only 5 % of imports were carried on Irish flagged vessels . There were several reasons for this decline : a consequence of the war of independence , a policy of self @-@ sufficiency , the economic depression , the lack of investment and government neglect . Foreign ships , on which Ireland had hitherto depended , were withdrawn . " In the period April 1941 and June 1942 only seven such ships visited the country " . The war of independence ( 1919 – 1921 ) , and the civil war ( 1921 – 1922 ) which followed it , left the country in near economic collapse . There had been destruction of industry and infrastructure . Many industries relocated abroad . It was often cheaper to transport by sea , within Ireland , rather than using the poor road and rail networks . To take advantage of this commercial opportunity , new coasters were acquired in the 1930s , intended to ply between Irish ports . These ships would be invaluable once hostilities began . Many of these small coasters were lost , particularly on the " Lisbon run " , a voyage for which they were never intended .
The then Taoiseach ( Prime Minister ) Éamon de Valera advocated a policy of self @-@ sufficiency . Foreign imports were discouraged . " It was an important status symbol in the modern world for a country to produce her own goods and be self @-@ sufficient . "
The global economic depression of the early 1930s impacted upon Ireland less because of the partial recovery following the civil war and because industry was protected behind tariff barriers established in the Anglo @-@ Irish Trade War ( 1932 – 1938 ) . The need for extra sea capacity was readily met by British and other foreign ships . Foreign ships were used , rather than preserving the home fleet . Banks were reluctant to lend to Irish industry , preferring British government gilts .
Although there was state support for many industries , this did not extend to shipping . In 1933 de Valera 's government established the Turf Development Board , turf became Ireland 's primary source of fuel during the emergency years and was stockpiled as imported coal was in short supply . In 1935 civil servants in de Valera 's own department warned him of the consequences a war would have on the importation of fuel . He ignored that warning . Earlier , in 1926 the Ports and Harbours Tribunal was initiated . The tribunal received " abundant evidence " of " inefficient , uneconomic and extravagant management " . It submitted a report in 1930 with recommendations which were not implemented until after the war . The tribunal observed " the public generally do not , we fear , appreciate the importance of our harbours ... " . Vickers @-@ Armstrongs liquidated their subsidiary Vickers ( Ireland ) Ltd. on 15 November 1938 ; their Dublin Dockyard had ceased operation in 1937 .
On 2 September 1939 the " realisation dawned on Ireland that the country was surrounded by water and that the sea was of vital importance to her " . By this point , however , British wartime restrictions on shipping were already in place . Historian Bryce Evans has argued that the failure of Seán Lemass and others to establish an Irish mercantile marine in the 1930s would exacerbate Irish supply problems in the Second World War .
= = = Response = = =
Seán Lemass as Minister for Industry and Commerce , and later Minister for Supplies sought to address these issues . Many infant industries were developed in the 1930s behind a protective tariff barrier . ( This is the origin of the term " Tariff Jews " , Seán Lemass from 1932 helped Jewish entrepreneurs to set up manufacturing businesses ) These industries proved valuable in the war years . They reduced the need for imports , for example in 1931 over five million pairs of shoes were imported , by 1938 this had fallen to a quarter of a million pairs . Between 1931 and 1938 , Gross Industrial Output rose from £ 55 million to £ 90 million ; and Industrial Employment from 162 @,@ 000 to 217 @,@ 000 . In 1933 the government established the Industrial Credit Corporation to finance industry . In 1938 , Life Assurers were required to hold their reserves in Ireland , to make capital available for industry ; promptly five of the six UK providers closed , lodging their business with Irish Assurance . Private enterprises established included : Grain Importers Ltd . , Animal Feed Stuffs Ltd . , Fuel Importers Ltd . , Oil and Fats Ltd . , Timber Importers Ltd . , and Tea Importers Ltd . Industry was encouraged , such as the plans for Irish National Refineries Ltd. to build an oil refinery . The former Vickers repair yard in Dublin port was reopened , in 1940 , by the Dublin Port and Docks Board . It repaired British and Irish ships . Semi @-@ state enterprises were established , including Irish Shipping in 1941 which purchased nine vessels and leased six more .
= = = War declared = = =
At the outbreak of the Second World War Ireland declared neutrality . There were a total of 56 Irish ships at the outbreak of World War II ; 15 more were purchased or leased in the conflict , and 16 were lost . Up to then most Irish @-@ registered ships had been flying the red ensign of the United Kingdom Merchant Navy . All were required by UK law to fly the Red Ensign , but some , such as the Wexford Steamship Company ships , had always travelled under the tricolour . With the outbreak of hostilities , choices were forced . The Irish government ordered all Irish ships to fly the tricolour . Some British ships were on the Irish register , such as the whalers which were Scottish @-@ owned ( Christian Salvesen Shipping ) but Irish @-@ registered in order to take advantage of the Irish whale quota . The six whale catchers and the two factory ships were pressed into British naval service , after their owners transferred them to the British registry . Some ships which could be described as British also choose the Tricolour . Kerrymore , which was registered as belonging to R McGowan of Tralee , was actually owned by Kelly Colliers of Belfast . Most of the crew had addresses in loyalist areas of Belfast . For six years they sailed under the tricolour .
The Belfast Steamship Company 's MV Munster which operated the Belfast to Liverpool route , ( both British ports ) flew the tricolour . But , no flag was a protection against mines ; Munster struck a mine approaching Liverpool and sank . There were over 200 passengers and 50 crew on board . A few hours later they were all rescued by the collier Ringwall . Four were injured ; and one died later . The L & NWR ferries Cambria , Hibernia and Scotia were Irish @-@ registered and sailed between Dún Laoghaire and Holyhead , under the Red Ensign . Their British crews were taken aback when the tricolour was hoisted . They went on strike and refused to sail until the ships were transferred to the British registry and red ensign was restored . Scotia was sunk in the Dunkirk evacuation with the loss of 30 crew and 300 troops . Hibernia had a fortunate escape on the night of 20 December 1940 . She was berthing at Dún Laoghaire when a German bomber swooped down . All lights were extinguished . Bombs fell on the nearby Sandycove railway station . The GWR ferries operated the Rosslare to Fishguard route sailed under the red ensign . Thirty lives were lost when their Saint Patrick was bombed and sunk . The British and Irish Steam Packet Company had some of its ships on the British registry with others on the Irish registry .
= = Cargo = =
= = = Exports = = =
The main export was agricultural produce to Britain . In the First World War , Ireland 's food production increased to meet Britain 's needs ; a pattern which would be repeated for the Second World War . In 1916 there were 1 @,@ 735 @,@ 000 acres ( 702 @,@ 130 ha ) under plough , this increased to 2 @,@ 383 @,@ 000 acres ( 964 @,@ 370 ha ) in 1918 , and then fell back . By the start of the trade war in 1932 tillage had fallen to 1 @,@ 424 @,@ 000 acres ( 576 @,@ 270 ha ) .
The trade war between Ireland and Britain started in 1932 , in which Britain imposed a tax on Irish products . Cattle from the Irish Republic were taxed but cattle from Northern Ireland were not . So , cattle were smuggled across the border . In 1934 / 5 , about 100 @,@ 000 cattle were " exported " in this way . The Department of Supplies was " all in favour of the smuggling and urged that nothing should be done which might stop it " . By then , Britain was anxious to secure Irish food supplies before another world war . Survival in the looming war was the spur . There were a series of agreements from the " cattle @-@ coal pact " of 1935 to the Anglo @-@ Irish Trade Agreement of 1938 which ended the dispute , on terms favourable to Ireland .
Under the " cattle @-@ coal pact " , the British set up a central authority for the purchase of cattle , under John Maynard Keynes . The prices set before the war were attractive . As the war progressed , open market prices rose dramatically . Cattle from Northern Ireland fetched a better price , so smuggling , as practised in the trade war , resumed . In answer to the demand for food in World War II , the area under plough increased from 1 @,@ 492 @,@ 000 acres ( 603 @,@ 790 ha ) in 1939 to 2 @,@ 567 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 038 @,@ 830 ha ) in 1944 . Studies are inconclusive on how vital Irish food exports were to Britain , due to the difficulties in accounting for the effect of smuggling , the unreliability of statistics , and wartime censorship . While Ireland 's food production was increasing , British food imports were falling ; for example the UK imported 1 @,@ 360 @,@ 000 tons of food in August 1941 , but only 674 @,@ 000 tons in August 1942 .
Before and during the second world war , Ireland was a net food exporter and the Irish people enjoyed a high calorie diet . ( Nonetheless the poor experienced real deprivation ) . Food was donated to war @-@ refugees in Spain . The nation did need to import certain foods , such as fruits , tea and wheat . Nearly half of Ireland 's wheat was imported from Canada . Domestic food production relied on imported fertilizer and imported animal feeding stuffs . In 1940 , 74 @,@ 000 tons of fertilizer were imported , only 7 @,@ 000 tons arrived in 1941 . Similarly 5 million tons of animal feed were imported in 1940 , falling to one million in 1941 and negligible quantities thereafter .
= = = Imports = = =
Although Ireland had a surplus of food , some foods were not grown in Ireland , as the climate was unsuitable . Only small plots of wheat were cultivated . A series of orders for compulsory tillage were enacted , with the threat that those who did not put their fields to wheat would have their land confiscated . In 1939 , 235 @,@ 000 acres ( 95 @,@ 100 ha ) of wheat were planted ; by 1945 this had increased to 662 @,@ 000 acres ( 267 @,@ 900 ha ) . Yet , a shortfall remained and imports were required.Clashes between smugglers and Customs were commonplace . In 1940 the infamous " Battle of Dowra " took place on the border of Leitrim and Fermanagh . Revenue crews from Blacklion and Glenfarne intercepted over one hundred men with donkey loads of smuggled flour . Unwilling to part with their bounty , the smugglers used cudgels , boots , stones and fists in the ensuing struggle . Most of the flour was destroyed in the fray and some Revenue people were injured .
Early in 1942 , the Allies restricted wheat deliveries to Ireland . In return , the Irish threatened to withhold the export of Guinness beer . To the great annoyance of David Gray , the United States Ambassador to Ireland , Ireland received 30 @,@ 000 tons of wheat . Gray complained of a waste of " a vital necessity for what Americans regard at the best as a luxury and at worst a poison " .
By 1944 – 45 coal imports were only one @-@ third of those of 1938 @-@ 9 and supplies of oil had almost ceased . The production of town gas , manufactured from imported coal , was so adversely affected that regulations were brought in limiting its use , enforced by the " Glimmer Man " . Britain relaxed these restrictions from 19 July 1944 .
There were plans to build an oil refinery in Dublin . In the event , this refinery was not completed . Nonetheless seven oil tankers were built in Bremen @-@ Vegesack , Germany for Inver Tankers Ltd . Each 500 feet ( 150 m ) long and capable of carrying 500 tons were on the Irish register . Britain asked Ireland to requisition the tankers , The reply was that it was not Irish policy to requisition vessels , instead offering to transfer them to the British register . They were transferred on the 6th , war had been declared on the 3rd .
Two days after the transfer , on 11 September 1939 , while still flying the Irish tricolour , Inverliffey was sunk . In spite of Captain William Trowsdale 's protestation that they were Irish , U @-@ 38 said that they " were sorry " but they would sink Inverliffey as she was carrying petrol to England , considered contraband to the Germans . U @-@ 38 's next encounter with the Irish tricolour was less gallant . U @-@ 38 shelled the fishing trawler Leukos , all 11 crew were lost . Inver Tankers ' entire fleet was lost in the war .
= = U @-@ boat encounters = =
Vizeadmiral Karl Dönitz issued a standing order to U @-@ boats on 4 September 1940 , which defined belligerent , neutral and friendly powers . Neutral included " Ireland in particular " . The order concluded : " Ireland forbids the navigation of her territorial waters by warships under threat of internment . That prohibition is to be strictly observed out of consideration for the proper preservation of her neutrality . Signed , Dönitz " . However those orders did not always protect Irish ships . Wolf Jeschonnek , commander of U @-@ 607 was mildly reprimanded " An understandable mistake by an eager captain " for sinking Irish Oak . When U @-@ 46 sank Luimneach on the Lisbon run , her commander recorded in his war diary " flying a British or Irish flag " . A supplement to Dönitz 's order found after U @-@ 260 was scuttled off Cork read : " for political reasons , Irish ships and also at times Irish convoys are not to be attacked within the blockade zone if they are seen to be such . However , there is no special obligation to determine neutrality in the blockade zone . " .
There were many encounters with U @-@ boats , some pleasant , others not so . On 16 March 1942 Irish Willow was stopped by U @-@ 753 , which signalled " Send master and ship 's papers " . As Capt Shanks hailed from Belfast and therefore legally a British subject , this was considered unwise . Chief Officer Harry Cullen and four crew rowed to the U @-@ boat . He said that his ( 39 @-@ year @-@ old ) captain was too elderly for the boat . He added that it would be Saint Patrick 's Day in the morning . They were treated to schnapps in the conning tower and given a bottle of cognac to bring back to Irish Willow . Later , Irish Willow performed a dangerous rescue of 47 British sailors from Empire Breeze .
On 20 March 1943 U @-@ 638 , commanded by Kapitänleutnant Heinrich Oskar Bernbeck stopped Irish Elm . Rough seas prevented Elm 's crew from pulling their rowboat alongside the submarine to present their papers , so the interview was conducted by shouting . In the course of the conversation , Elm 's Chief Officer Patrick Hennessy gave Dún Laoghaire as his home address . Bernbeck asked if " the strike was still on in Downey 's " , a pub near | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
4 . However , the targets included lead and bismuth impurities and hence some isotopes of bismuth and polonium were generated in nucleon transfer reactions . This , while an unforeseen complication , could give information that would help in the future chemical investigation of the heavier homologs of bismuth and polonium , which are respectively ununpentium and livermorium . The produced nuclides bismuth @-@ 213 and polonium @-@ 212m were transported as the hydrides 213BiH3 and 212mPoH2 at 850 ° C through a quartz wool filter unit held with tantalum , showing that these hydrides were surprisingly thermally stable , although their heavier congeners UupH3 and LvH2 would be expected to be less thermally stable from simple extrapolation of periodic trends in the p @-@ block . Further calculations on the stability and electronic structure of BiH3 , UupH3 , PoH2 , and LvH2 are needed before chemical investigations take place . However , ununpentium and livermorium are expected to be volatile enough as pure elements for them to be chemically investigated in the near future . The chief barrier to their chemical investigation at present is the lack of known isotopes of these elements which are long @-@ lived enough .
= Mario Golf : Toadstool Tour =
Mario Golf : Toadstool Tour , known in Japan as Mario Golf : Family Tour ( マリオゴルフ ファミリーツアー , Mario Gorufu Famirī Tsuā ) , is a 2003 sports game developed by Camelot Software Planning and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo GameCube . It is the sequel to the 1999 Nintendo 64 title Mario Golf , and is the second game in the Mario Golf series . It was released in North America on July 28 , 2003 , in Japan on September 5 , 2003 , and in the PAL region on June 18 , 2004 .
Toadstool Tour is a golf game featuring characters and elements from the Mario series . There are 16 playable characters in total , each with a set of golfing statistics defining their style of play . The game 's main mode involves the player competing in tournaments to obtain new features , although there are alternative modes consisting of training session and variations to the golf format . This includes " Ring Attack " , requiring the player to hit the ball through rings of varying sizes while remaining on or under par . Players can transfer characters between Mario Golf : Toadstool Tour and Mario Golf : Advance Tour using the Nintendo GameCube Game Boy Advance Cable .
Toadstool Tour received a positive reception from the media , gaining an aggregate score of 82 % from Game Rankings . In general , reviewers praised the game 's visuals , sound , and variety of courses , although a perceived lack of advancement from its predecessor was criticised . The game became part of the Player 's Choice label in 2004 .
= = Gameplay = =
Toadstool Tour is a golf game incorporating characters , enemies , and themes from the Mario series . As a typical golf game , the player 's objective is to hit the ball into the hole using as few strokes as possible . Prior to the swing , the player chooses a club , a general direction and range for the ball to travel . During the swing , the player determines power by timing a button press for a marker to stop at the desired point on a power meter . At this point , the player can choose to influence the direction of the ball by applying spin . Players can alternate between auto and manual shots , with the latter providing the player with more control , albeit at a higher risk of a poor shot . Many of these gameplay aspects , such as spin , are affected by the 16 characters ' individual statistics . These relate to features such as control of the ball and the general height of the character 's shot , which determines how much the character 's play is affected by the wind . At varying stages in the " Character match " mode , characters have a chance to be upgraded into " Star characters " , which grants statistical enhancements . To achieve this , the player must defeat a computer @-@ designated artificial intelligence ( AI ) opponent with a character of their choice , awarding the AI character with the upgrade for use later by the player . The opportunities are only available once an envelope appears beside a character portrait in the selection screen .
There are seven courses in the game , with the later versions featuring more complex terrain and exotic features . The more advanced courses offer a higher frequency of difficult terrain and elevation , as in bunkers , which limit the accuracy and range of shots . There are also hazards such as lava pits and thwomps , which will incur a one @-@ shot penalty if landed on . Each course takes its name from a particular Mario feature , such as " Peach 's Castle Grounds " , which is themed in particular on the Mushroom Kingdom . This course includes themed hazards such as chain chomps in bunkers , as well as warp pipes to change the location of the ball .
Toadstool Tour contains several gameplay modes and variants of golf , as well as the traditional stroke and match play . The player can choose to play the " Doubles " option in several modes , which allows two players to play alternate strokes as a team . " Coin attack " entails collecting several coins scattered on the course , while " Ring attack " requires the player to direct the ball through rings of varying locations , angles , and diameter while keeping on or under par . Some side games incorporate personal training for the player , such as the side games , which develops approaching , putting , shots , and birdie skills ( see types of shot ) . The main mode is " Tournament mode " , which involves the player competing against artificial intelligence opponents on each course to win trophies . The game features interactivity with the Game Boy Advance . Players can transfer characters between Mario Golf : Toadstool Tour and Mario Golf : Advance Tour .
= = Development = =
Toadstool Tour was developed by Camelot Software Planning , the same team responsible for the game 's predecessor , Mario Golf . During an interview with two Camelot developers , Hiroyuki and Shugo Takahashi , it was revealed that the game was developed simultaneously with the GameCube Mario Tennis title , Mario Power Tennis . According to the brothers , ideas and technology used for the development of Toadstool Tour was also used for Power Tennis . The game was displayed as a playable demonstration in the E3 convention of 2003 . Toadstool Tour became part of the Player 's Choice label in 2004 , which offers a reduced price to games that have sold more than one million copies . The music in Toadstool Tour was composed by Motoi Sakuraba , who has scored several other Mario Golf titles .
= = Reception = =
Toadstool Tour received a positive reaction from critics , although it was criticised for being too similar to its predecessor . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell commented that " Mario Golf hasn 't really grown much since its time on the N64 " , despite enjoying the game 's course design and " sense of fun " . Both GameSpot and IGN praised the game 's courses , although the later stages were preferred to the more basic initial courses . Electronic Gaming Monthly lauded the game 's physics evidenced by the use of wind , weather , and surface conditions . The game was often likened to the Tiger Woods PGA Tour games , which served as a criticism when Eurogamer noted the absence of events and player progression in the game 's single @-@ player mode . This point was shared by Jennifer Tsao of EGM , who wanted " a more compelling single @-@ player mode " that would offer a " golf pro who coaches me based on my swings " .
The game 's controls were generally well received , despite specific issues such as difficulties executing very short putts due to the game 's power meter . The accessibility of the controls in particular were lauded , although Camelot 's choice not to use the analogue swing present in many golf games was a common complaint . This specifically was compared to the analogue system present in Tiger Woods games , prompting Matt Casamassina to comment " going from Tiger Woods back to the mechanics of Mario Golf feels like going from car to horse " . The variety of modes available in Toadstool Tour was rated as " amazing " by GameSpot , who proceeded to commend the clarification provided by the game 's manual booklet and in @-@ game tutorial . Eurogamer also noted this by offering praise to " Ring attack " , but conversely rated " Coin attack " as " a bit shallow " . The game 's multiplayer offerings were highly regarded by most reviewers .
Many reviewers criticised Toadstool Tour 's use of camera , especially when the ball 's presented route would ignore obstacles . GameSpot otherwise welcomed the game 's visuals , however , arguing that the recurring Mario characters " never looked better " . IGN also lauded the graphics present in the full motion video and the rest of the game , as well as Toadstool Tour 's audio . Matt Casamassina acknowledged the characters ' voiced taunts , saying " the muttering , complaining Waluigi , never fails to bring a smile to our faces " .
Alex Trickett of BBC Sport gave it 85 % and stated , " If you like pure simulation stick with world number one Tiger Woods , but if you are ready for a wackier round of golf , let your favourite Italian plumber come to the fore . " Likewise , Marc Saltzman of The Cincinnati Enquirer gave it four stars out of five and stated that , " One of the game 's greatest assets is its intuitive control scheme . Novice and seasoned players will be able to pick up and play with little trouble . There are customizable options for manual or automatic swing modes . " However , the only negative review came from Alex Porter of Maxim , who gave it a score of four out of ten , saying , " Golfing game standards like club selection , power meter , and control of backspins and topspins satisfy , but the sometimes @-@ clunky controls and confusing camera perspectives will leave you teed @-@ off . "
Toadstool Tour sold 1 @.@ 03 million units in North America as of December 27 , 2007 .
= Greenville Bridge =
The Greenville Bridge is a cable @-@ stayed bridge over the Mississippi River carrying US 82 and US 278 between Refuge , Mississippi and Shives , Arkansas . When it opened in 2010 , it was the fourth longest cable @-@ stayed bridge in North America .
The Benjamin G. Humphreys Bridge , the first bridge to connect the two towns , had become functionally obsolete . Its narrow road had only two lanes with no shoulders . Because of its location near a sharp bend in the Mississippi River , the bridge had become a hazard to river traffic ; barges and towboats frequently collided with it . In 1994 , a study concluded that a new bridge was needed and the old one should be torn down . Construction was begun in 2001 and the new bridge opened in 2010 . In 2011 , the process of removing the old bridge began .
= = Description = =
Opened in 2010 , the Greenville Bridge carries US 82 / 278 over the Mississippi River between Refuge , Mississippi and Shives , Arkansas . It is located 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) down river from the original bridge , built in 1940 . Designed by HNTB , it is a four @-@ lane cable @-@ stayed bridge with more than 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) of bridge deck straddled by two concrete towers 425 feet ( 130 m ) feet high and anchored by concrete piers planted 120 feet ( 37 m ) below the riverbed . It has four fans of strand steel cable connected to the top of the towers which support the deck .
Each of the bridge 's four lanes is 12 feet ( 4 m ) wide . The outside shoulders are 12 feet ( 4 m ) feet wide and the inside shoulder width is 8 feet ( 2 m ) . The bridge has a main span of 1 @,@ 378 feet ( 420 m ) . At the time of its opening , it was the fourth longest cable @-@ stayed bridge in North America .
Both the old and new bridges are geographically mostly in Arkansas , as the state lines were determined prior to the shift west of the Mississippi River .
= = History = =
The first Greenville Bridge was built by the company now known as HNTB and opened to much fanfare in 1940 as the " pathway to progress " for the Mississippi Delta . It was a through @-@ truss design and had a span of 840 feet ( 260 m ) . Until 1943 , this was the longest bridge for vehicles on the Mississippi River . Over time , the bridge supported increasing volumes of highway traffic and vehicles hitting the bridge . In the 1950s , an Air Force plane crashed into the bridge . Though the bridge remained structurally sound , it was becoming functionally obsolete . It had only two narrow highway lanes and no shoulders . An accident or the crossing of very large vehicles such as a large combine could force the bridge to close .
With river traffic increasing , damage from barge collisions increased . By 1972 , the Greenville Bridge was hit more times by barges than any other bridge on the Mississippi . The bridge was located close to a sharp bend in the Mississippi ; towboats and barges had difficulty making the sharp turn and regaining their course in time to avoid a collision with the bridge . Over the years , many have not been able to make the turn quickly and have hit it . The bridge had become a danger to river traffic .
A 1994 engineering study by the Mississippi Department of Transportation explored alternatives to upgrading the crossing of US 82 and issued a report that explored a four @-@ lane crossing at Greenville . It concluded the best of several alternatives it identified was to build a new bridge 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) downriver from the old one , and to remove the old bridge . Additional studies evaluated the type of bridge to build , and by 1995 the cable @-@ stayed bridge was chosen as the best design to fit the river and soil conditions , as well as providing sufficient clearance for river navigation . Engineering plans were completed in 1999 .
= = Construction = =
HNTB , of Kansas City , Missouri , was the designer and consulting engineer for both the new bridge as well as the original Benjamin G. Humphreys Bridge . The federal government provided $ 110 million to begin building the main part of the bridge consisting long spans supported by cables . The main superstructure construction began in December 2001 . Massman Construction Company in a joint venture with Traylor Brothers , Inc. received the contract to construct two large piers in the river ; these were built using both floating caissons and open caisson construction . The construction on the last main span section of the bridge was finished in April 2006 .
Building the approaches , including shorter spans of approach bridge work and structural support systems for the bridge , was the responsibility of each state . For both states , the approach bridges are constructed of a series of three span units , each unit 120 feet ( 37 m ) long . Construction of Arkansas ' 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) mile approach of highway and bridge , costing $ 66 million , began in March 2006 ; Mississippi began its 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) approach in April , 2006 , costing almost $ 86 million . Hill Brothers Construction and Jensen Construction , in a joint venture with the Rasmussen Group , were awarded the contract for the eastern approach of US 82 in Greenville to the Mississippi River crossing . Hills Brothers Construction was awarded a $ 85 @.@ 9 million contract to work on the road deck of the Mississippi approach to the bridge , the concrete footings , and the substructure and superstructure of that portion . Austin Bridge and Road was awarded a $ 65 million contract to build Arkansas 's 4 @,@ 657 feet ( 1 @,@ 419 m ) of approach bridge and 3 @,@ 225 feet ( 983 m ) of connecting roadway which was completed in August 2009 . The remaining contract , to apply a latex surface to the bridge , add stripes , tie US 82 into the approaches , and dismantle the Humphreys Bridge , was awarded in January 2010 .
It took sixteen years from the initial developing stage begun in 1994 , until the Greenville Bridge opened to traffic on August 4 , 2010 . The entire cost of the bridge totaled $ 336 million . In 2011 , the massive process of removing the old bridge by cutting into small sections to be recycled was begun , and is expected to be completed by September 2012 . At times , the river has been closed to traffic to aid the demolition . The job is dangerous and at least two workers have died .
= Roman – Persian Wars =
The Roman – Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between states of the Greco @-@ Roman world and two successive Iranian empires : the Parthian and the Sassanid . Battles between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic began in 92 BC ; wars began under the late Republic , and continued through the Roman and Sassanid empires . They were ended by the Arab Muslim conquests , which defeated both the Sassanid and Byzantine East Roman empires shortly after the end of the last war between them .
Although warfare between the Romans and the Parthians / Sassanids lasted for seven centuries , the frontier remained largely stable . A game of tug of war ensued : towns , fortifications , and provinces were continually sacked , captured , destroyed , and traded . Neither side had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns far from their borders , and thus neither could advance too far without risking stretching its frontiers too thin . Both sides did make conquests beyond the border , but in time the balance was almost always restored . The line of stalemate shifted in the 2nd century AD : it had run along the northern Euphrates ; the new line ran east , or later northeast , across Mesopotamia to the northern Tigris . There were also several substantial shifts further north , in Armenia and the Caucasus .
The expense of resources during the Roman – Persian Wars ultimately proved catastrophic for both empires . The prolonged and escalating warfare of the 6th and 7th centuries left them exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the Caliphate , whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the end of the last Roman – Persian war . Benefiting from their weakened condition , the Arab Muslim armies swiftly conquered the entire Sassanid Empire , and deprived the Eastern Roman Empire of the territories of the Levant , the Caucasus , Egypt , and the rest of North Africa . Over the following centuries , some of the Eastern Roman Empire came under Muslim rule . As it stands , this was the longest conflict in human history , lasting approximately 721 years .
= = Historical background = =
According to James Howard @-@ Johnston , " from the third century BC to the early seventh century AD , the rival players [ in the East ] were grand polities with imperial pretensions , which had been able to establish and secure stable territories transcending regional divides " . The Romans and Parthians came into contact through their respective conquests of parts of the Seleucid Empire . During the 3rd century BC , the Parthians migrated from the Central Asian steppe into northern Iran . Although subdued for a time by the Seleucids , in the 2nd century BC they broke away , and established an independent state that steadily expanded at the expense of their former rulers , and through the course of the 3rd and early 1st century BC , they had conquered Persia , Mesopotamia , and Armenia . Ruled by the Arsacid dynasty , the Parthians fended off several Seleucid attempts to regain their lost territories , and established several eponymous branches in the Caucasus , namely the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia , the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia , and the Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania . Meanwhile , the Romans expelled the Seleucids from their territories in Anatolia in the early 2nd century BC , after defeating Antiochus III the Great at Thermopylae and Magnesia . Finally , in 64 BC Pompey conquered the remaining Seleucid territories in Syria , extinguishing their state and advancing the Roman eastern frontier to the Euphrates , where it met the territory of the Parthians .
= = Roman – Parthian Wars = =
= = = Roman Republic vs. Parthia = = =
Parthian enterprise in the West began in the time of Mithridates I and was revived by Mithridates II , who negotiated unsuccessfully with Lucius Cornelius Sulla for a Roman – Parthian alliance ( c . 105 BC ) . When Lucullus invaded Southern Armenia and led an attack against Tigranes in 69 BC , he corresponded with Phraates III to dissuade him from intervening . Although the Parthians remained neutral , Lucullus considered attacking them . In 66 – 65 BC , Pompey reached agreement with Phraates , and Roman – Parthian troops invaded Armenia , but a dispute soon arose over the Euphrates boundary . Finally , Phraates asserted his control over Mesopotamia , except for the western district of Osroene , which became a Roman dependency .
The Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus led an invasion of Mesopotamia in 53 BC with catastrophic results ; he and his son Publius were killed at the Battle of Carrhae by the Parthians under General Surena ; this was the worst Roman defeat since the Battle of Cannae . The Parthians raided Syria the following year , and mounted a major invasion in 51 BC , but their army was caught in an ambush near Antigonea by the Romans , and they were driven back .
The Parthians largely remained neutral during Caesar 's civil war , fought between forces supporting Julius Caesar and forces supporting Pompey and the traditional faction of the Roman Senate . However , they maintained relations with Pompey , and after his defeat and death , a force under Pacorus I assisted the Pompeian general Q. Caecilius Bassus , who was besieged at Apamea Valley by Caesarian forces . With the civil war over , Julius Caesar prepared a campaign against Parthia , but his assassination averted the war . The Parthians supported Brutus and Cassius during the ensuing Liberators ' civil war and sent a contingent to fight on their side at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC . After the Liberators ' defeat , the Parthians invaded Roman territory in 40 BC in conjunction with the Roman Quintus Labienus , a former supporter of Brutus and Cassius . They swiftly overran the Roman province of Syria and advanced into Judaea , overthrowing the Roman client Hyrcanus II and installing his nephew Antigonus . For a moment , the whole of the Roman East seemed lost to the Parthians or about to fall into their hands . However , the conclusion of the second Roman civil war soon revived Roman strength in Asia . Mark Antony had sent Ventidius to oppose Labienus , who had invaded Anatolia . Soon Labienus was driven back to Syria by Roman forces , and , although reinforced by the Parthians , was defeated , taken prisoner , and killed . After suffering a further defeat near the Syrian Gates , the Parthians withdrew from Syria . They returned in 38 BC but were decisively defeated by Ventidius , and Pacorus was killed . In Judaea , Antigonus was ousted with Roman help by Herod in 37 BC . With Roman control of Syria and Judaea restored , Mark Antony led a huge army into Atropatene , but his siege train and its escort were isolated and wiped out , while his Armenian allies deserted . Failing to make progress against Parthian positions , the Romans withdrew with heavy casualties . Antony was again in Armenia in 33 BC to join with the Median king against Octavian and the Parthians . Other preoccupations obliged him to withdraw , and the whole region came under Parthian control .
= = = Roman Empire vs. Parthia = = =
With tensions between the two powers threatening renewed war , Octavian and Phraataces worked out a compromise in 1 AD . According to the agreement , Parthia undertook to withdraw its forces from Armenia and to recognize a de facto Roman protectorate there . Nonetheless , Roman – Persian rivalry over control and influence in Armenia continued unabated for the next several decades . The decision of the Parthian King Artabanus III to place his son on the vacant Armenian throne triggered a war with Rome in 36 AD , which ended when Artabanus III abandoned claims to a Parthian sphere of influence in Armenia . War erupted in 58 AD , after the Parthian King Vologases I forcibly installed his brother Tiridates on the Armenian throne . Roman forces overthrew Tiridates and replaced him with a Cappadocian prince , triggering an inconclusive war . This came to an end in 63 AD after the Romans agreed to allow Tiridates and his descendants to rule Armenia on condition that they receive the kingship from the Roman emperor .
A fresh series of conflicts began in the 2nd century AD , during which the Romans consistently held the upper hand over Parthia . The Emperor Trajan invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia during 114 and 115 and annexed them as Roman provinces . He captured the Parthian capital , Ctesiphon , before sailing downriver to the Persian Gulf . However , uprisings erupted in 115 AD in the occupied Parthian territories , while a major Jewish revolt broke out in Roman territory , severely stretching Roman military resources . Parthian forces attacked key Roman positions , and the Roman garrisons at Seleucia , Nisibis and Edessa were expelled by the local inhabitants . Trajan subdued the rebels in Mesopotamia , but having installed the Parthian prince Parthamaspates on the throne as a client ruler , he withdrew his armies and returned to Syria . Trajan died in 117 , before he was able to reorganize and consolidate Roman control over the Parthian provinces .
Trajan 's Parthian War initiated a " shift of emphasis in the ' grand strategy of the Roman empire ' " , but his successor , Hadrian , decided that it was in Rome 's interest to re @-@ establish the Euphrates as the limit of its direct control . Hadrian returned to the status quo ante , and surrendered the territories of Armenia , Mesopotamia , and Adiabene to their previous rulers and client @-@ kings .
War over Armenia broke out again in 161 , when Vologases IV defeated the Romans there , captured Edessa and ravaged Syria . In 163 a Roman counter @-@ attack under Statius Priscus defeated the Parthians in Armenia and installed a favored candidate on the Armenian throne . The following year Avidius Cassius invaded Mesopotamia , winning battles at Dura @-@ Europos and Seleucia and sacking Ctesiphon in 165 . An epidemic which was sweeping Parthia at the time , possibly of smallpox , spread to the Roman army and forced its withdrawal ; this was the origin of the Antonine Plague that raged for a generation throughout the Roman Empire . In 195 – 197 , a Roman offensive under the Emperor Septimius Severus led to Rome 's acquisition of northern Mesopotamia as far as the areas around Nisibis , Singara and the 2nd sacking of Ctesiphon . A final war against the Parthians was launched by the Emperor Caracalla , who sacked Arbela in 216 . After his assassination , his successor , Macrinus , was defeated by the Parthians near Nisibis . In exchange for peace , he was obliged to pay for the damage caused by Caracalla .
= = Roman – Sassanid Wars = =
= = = Early Roman – Sassanid conflicts = = =
Conflict resumed shortly after the overthrow of Parthian rule and Ardashir I 's foundation of the Sassanid Empire . Ardashir raided Mesopotamia and Syria in 230 and demanded the cession of all the former territories of the Achaemenid Empire . After fruitless negotiations , Alexander Severus set out against Ardashir in 232 and finally repulsed him . In 238 – 240 , towards the end of his reign , Ardashir attacked again , taking several cities in Syria and Mesopotamia , including Carrhae and Nisibis .
The struggle resumed and intensified under Ardashir 's successor Shapur I , who invaded Mesopotamia . His forces were defeated at a battle near Resaena in 243 and the Romans regained Carrhae and Nisibis . Encouraged by these victories , Roman Emperor Gordian III advanced down the Euphrates but was repelled near Ctesiphon at the Battle of Misiche in 244 . Gordian III was then killed , and successor Emperor Phillip the Arab hastily negotiated a peace settlement . With the Roman Empire debilitated by Germanic invasions and a series of short @-@ term emperors , Shapur I soon resumed his attacks . He conquered Armenia and killed its king , defeated the Romans at the Battle of Barbalissos in 253 , and sacked Antioch . Between 258 and 260 , Shapur captured Emperor Valerian after defeating his army at the Battle of Edessa . He advanced into Anatolia but was defeated by Roman forces there ; attacks from Odaenathus of Palmyra forced the Persians to withdraw from Roman territory , surrendering Armenia and Antioch .
The Emperor Carus launched a successful invasion of Persia in 283 , sacking the Sassanid capital Ctesiphon for the third time . The Romans probably would have extended their conquests had Carus not died in December of that year .
After a brief peace early in Diocletian 's reign , the Persians renewed hostilities when they invaded Armenia and defeated the Romans outside Carrhae in either 296 or 297 . However , Galerius crushed the Persians in the Battle of Satala in 298 , capturing the treasury and the royal harem , an utter disgrace for the Persian monarch . The resulting peace settlement gave the Romans control of the area between the Tigris and the Greater Zab . This was the most decisive Roman victory for many decades ; all the territories that had been lost , all the debatable lands , and control of Armenia lay in Roman hands .
The arrangements of 299 lasted until the mid @-@ 330s , when Shapur II began a series of offensives against the Romans . Despite a string of victories in battle , his campaigns achieved little lasting effect : three Persian sieges of Nisibis were repulsed , and while Shapur succeeded in taking Amida and Singara , both cities were soon regained by the Romans . Following a lull during the 350s while Shapur fought off nomad attacks on Persia 's northern frontier , he launched a new campaign in 359 and again captured Amida . This provoked a major offensive in 363 by the Roman Emperor Julian , who advanced down the Euphrates to Ctesiphon . Julian won the Battle of Ctesiphon but was unable to take the Persian capital and retreated along the Tigris . Harried by the Persians , Julian was killed in a skirmish . With the Roman army stuck on the eastern bank of the Euphrates , Julian 's successor Jovian made peace , agreeing to major concessions in exchange for safe passage out of Sassanid territory . The Romans surrendered their former possessions east of the Tigris , as well as Nisibis and Singara , and Shapur soon conquered Armenia . In 384 or 387 , a definitive peace treaty was signed by Shapur III and Theodosius I dividing Armenia between the two states . Meanwhile , the northern territories of the Roman Empire were invaded by Germanic , Alanic , and Hunnic peoples , while Persia 's northern borders were threatened first by a number of Hunnic peoples and then by the Hephthalites . With both empires preoccupied by these threats , a largely peaceful period followed , interrupted only by two brief wars , the first in 421 – 422 and the second in 440 .
= = Byzantine – Sassanid Wars = =
= = = Anastasian War = = =
War broke out when the Persian King Kavadh I attempted to gain financial support by force from the Byzantine Roman Emperor Anastasius I. In 502 AD , he quickly captured the unprepared city of Theodosiopolis and besieged Amida . The siege of the fortress @-@ city proved to be far more difficult than Kavadh expected ; the defenders repelled the Persian assaults for three months before they were beaten . In 503 , the Romans attempted an ultimately unsuccessful siege of the Persian @-@ held Amida while Kavadh invaded Osroene and laid siege to Edessa with the same results . Finally in 504 , the Romans gained control through the renewed investment of Amida , which led to the fall of the city . That year an armistice was reached as a result of an invasion of Armenia by the Huns from the Caucasus . Although the two powers negotiated , it was not until November 506 that a treaty was agreed to . In 505 , Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at Dara . At the same time , the dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa , Batnae and Amida . Although no further large @-@ scale conflict took place during Anastasius ' reign , tensions continued , especially while work proceeded at Dara . This was because the construction of new fortifications in the border zone by either empire had been prohibited by a treaty concluded some decades earlier . Anastasius pursued the project despite Persian objections , and the walls were completed by 507 – 508 .
= = = Iberian War = = =
In 524 – 525 AD , Kavadh proposed that Justin I adopt his son , Khosrau , but the negotiations soon broke down . Tensions between the two powers erupted into conflict when Caucasian Iberia under Gourgen defected to the Romans in 524 – 525 . Overt Roman – Persian fighting had broken out in the Transcaucasus region and upper Mesopotamia by 526 – 527 . The early years of war favored the Persians : by 527 , the Iberian revolt had been crushed , a Roman offensive against Nisibis and Thebetha in that year was unsuccessful , and forces trying to fortify Thannuris and Melabasa were prevented from doing so by Persian attacks . Attempting to remedy the deficiencies revealed by these Persian successes , the new Roman emperor , Justinian I , reorganized the eastern armies .
In 530 a major Persian offensive in Mesopotamia was defeated by Roman forces under Belisarius at Dara , while a second Persian thrust in the Caucasus was defeated by Sittas at Satala . Belisarius was defeated by Persian and Lakhmid forces at the Battle of Callinicum in 531 . In the same year the Romans gained some forts in Armenia , while the Persians had captured two forts in eastern Lazica . Immediately after the failure at Callinicum the Persians and Romans negotiated without success . The two sides re @-@ opened talks in spring 532 and finally signed the Eternal Peace in September 532 , which lasted less than eight years . Both powers agreed to return all occupied territories , and the Romans agreed to make a one @-@ time payment of 110 centenaria ( 11 @,@ 000 lb of gold ) . Iberia remained in Persian hands , and the Iberians who had left their country were given the choice of remaining in Roman territory or returning to their native land .
= = = Justinian vs. Khosrau I = = =
The Persians broke the " Treaty of Eternal Peace " in 540 AD , probably in response to the Roman reconquest of much of the former western empire , which had been facilitated by the cessation of war in the East . Khosrau I invaded and devastated Syria , extorting large sums of money from the cities of Syria and Mesopotamia , and systematically looting other cities including Antioch , whose population was deported to Persian territory . Belisarius , recalled from the campaigns in the West to deal with the Persian threat , waged an inconclusive campaign against Nisibis in 541 . Khosrau launched another offensive in Mesopotamia in 542 when he attempted to capture Sergiopolis . He soon withdrew in the face of an army under Belisarius , sacking the city of Callinicum en route . Attacks on a number of Roman cities were repulsed , and Persian forces were defeated at Dara . In 543 , the Romans launched an offensive against Dvin but were defeated by a small Persian force at Anglon . Khosrau besieged Edessa in 544 without success and was eventually bought off by the defenders . In the wake of the Persian retreat , Roman envoys proceeded to Ctesiphon for negotiations . A five @-@ year truce was agreed to in 545 , secured by Roman payments to the Persians .
Early in 548 , King Gubazes of Lazica , having found Persian protection oppressive , asked Justinian to restore the Roman protectorate . The emperor seized the chance , and in 548 – 549 combined Roman and Lazic forces won a series of victories against Persian armies , although they failed to take the key garrison of Petra . The city was finally subjugated in 551 , but in the same year a Persian offensive led by Mihr @-@ Mihroe occupied eastern Lazica . The truce that had been established in 545 was renewed outside Lazica for a further five years on condition that the Romans pay 2 @,@ 000 lb of gold each year . In Lazica the war dragged on inconclusively for several years , with neither side able to make any major gains . Khosrau , who now had to deal with the White Huns , renewed the truce in 557 , this time without excluding Lazica ; negotiations continued for a definite peace treaty . Finally , in 562 , the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau put together the Fifty @-@ Year Peace Treaty . The Persians agreed to evacuate Lazica and received an annual subsidy of 30 @,@ 000 nomismata ( solidi ) . Both sides agreed not to build new fortifications near the frontier and to ease restrictions on diplomacy and trade .
= = = War for the Caucasus = = =
War broke out again when Armenia and Iberia revolted against Sassanid rule in 571 AD , following clashes involving Roman and Persian proxies in Yemen and the Syrian desert , and after Roman negotiations for an alliance with the Turks against Persia . Justin II brought Armenia under his protection , while Roman troops under Justin 's cousin Marcian raided Arzanene and invaded Persian Mesopotamia , where they defeated local forces . Marcian 's sudden dismissal and the arrival of troops under Khosrau resulted in a ravaging of Syria , the failure of the Roman siege of Nisibis and the fall of Dara . At a cost of 45 @,@ 000 solidi , a one @-@ year truce in Mesopotamia ( eventually extended to five years ) was arranged , but in the Caucasus and on the desert frontiers the war continued . In 575 , Khosrau I attempted to combine aggression in Armenia with discussion of a permanent peace . He invaded Anatolia and sacked Sebasteia , but after a clash near Melitene the Persian army suffered heavy losses while fleeing across the Euphrates under Roman attack .
The Romans exploited Persian disarray as general Justinian invaded deep into Persian territory and raided Atropatene . Khosrau sought peace but abandoned this initiative after Tamkhusro won a victory in Armenia , where Roman actions had alienated local inhabitants . In the spring of 578 the war in Mesopotamia resumed with Persian raids on Roman territory . The Roman general Maurice retaliated by raiding Persian Mesopotamia , capturing the stronghold of Aphumon , and sacking Singara . Khosrau again opened peace negotiations but he died early in 579 and his successor Hormizd IV ( r . 578 @-@ 590 ) preferred to continue the war .
In 580 , Hormizd IV abolished the Caucasian Iberian monarchy , and turned Iberia into a Persian province ruled by a marzpan ( governor ) . During the 580s , the war continued inconclusively with victories on both sides . In 582 , Maurice won a battle at Constantia over Adarmahan and Tamkhusro , who was killed , but the Roman general did not follow up his victory ; he had to hurry to Constantinople to pursue his imperial ambitions . Another Roman victory at Solachon in 586 likewise failed to break the stalemate .
The Persians captured Martyropolis through treachery in 589 , but that year the stalemate was shattered when the Persian general Bahram Chobin , having been dismissed and humiliated by Hormizd IV , raised a rebellion . Hormizd was overthrown in a palace coup in 590 and replaced by his son Khosrau II , but Bahram pressed on with his revolt regardless and the defeated Khosrau was soon forced to flee for safety to Roman territory , while Bahram took the throne as Bahram VI . With support from Maurice , Khosrau raised a rebellion against Bahram , and in 591 the combined forces of his supporters and the Romans restored Khosrau II to power . In exchange for their help , Khosrau not only returned Dara and Martyropolis but also agreed to cede the western half of Iberia and more than half of Persian Armenia to the Romans .
= = = Climax = = =
In 602 the Roman army campaigning in the Balkans mutinied under the leadership of Phocas , who succeeded in seizing the throne and then killed Maurice and his family . Khosrau II used the murder of his benefactor as a pretext for war . In the early years of the war the Persians enjoyed overwhelming and unprecedented success . They were aided by Khosrau 's use of a pretender claiming to be Maurice 's son , and by the revolt against Phocas led by the Roman general Narses . In 603 Khosrau defeated and killed the Roman general Germanus in Mesopotamia and laid siege to Dara . Despite the arrival of Roman reinforcements from Europe , he won another victory in 604 , while Dara fell after a nine @-@ month siege . Over the following years the Persians gradually overcame the fortress cities of Mesopotamia by siege , one after another . At the same time they won a string of victories in Armenia and systematically subdued the Roman garrisons in the Caucasus .
Heraclius deposed Phocas in 610 after sailing to Constantinople from Carthage . Around the same time , the Persians completed their conquest of Mesopotamia and the Caucasus , and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia , occupying Caesarea . Having expelled the Persians from Anatolia in 612 , Heraclius launched a major counter @-@ offensive in Syria in 613 . He was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin , and the Roman position collapsed . Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt and to devastate Anatolia . Meanwhile , the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans , bringing the Roman Empire to the brink of destruction .
During these years , Heraclius strove to rebuild his army , slashing non @-@ military expenditures , devaluing the currency and melting down Church plate , with the backing of Patriarch Sergius , to raise the necessary funds to continue the war . In 622 , Heraclius left Constantinople , entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son . He assembled his forces in Asia Minor and , after conducting exercises to revive their morale , he launched a new counter @-@ offensive , which took on the character of a holy war . In the Caucasus he inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian @-@ allied Arab chief and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz . Following a lull in 623 , while he negotiated a truce with the Avars , Heraclius resumed his campaigns in the East in 624 and routed an army led by Khosrau at Ganzak in Atropatene . In 625 he defeated the generals Shahrbaraz , Shahin and Shahraplakan in Armenia , and in a surprise attack that winter he stormed Shahrbaraz 's headquarters and attacked his troops in their winter billets . Supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz , together with the Avars and Slavs , the three unsuccessfully besieged Constantinople in 626 , while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius ' brother Theodore .
Meanwhile , Heraclius formed an alliance with the Turks , who took advantage of the dwindling strength of the Persians to ravage their territories in the Caucasus . Late in 627 , Heraclius launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia , where , despite the desertion of the Turkish contingent that had accompanied him , he defeated the Persians at the Battle of Nineveh . Continuing south along the Tigris , he sacked Khosrau 's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal . Discredited by this series of disasters , Khosrau was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavadh II , who at once sued for peace , agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories . Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem with a majestic ceremony in 629 .
= = Aftermath = =
The devastating impact of this last war , added to the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous conflict , left both empires crippled . When Kavadh II died only months after coming to the throne , Persia was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war . The Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline , heavy taxation from Khosrau II 's campaigns , religious unrest , and the increasing power of the provincial landholders . The Roman Empire was also severely affected , with its financial reserves exhausted by the war and the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs . Additionally , Anatolia was devastated by repeated Persian invasions ; the Empire 's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus , Syria , Mesopotamia , Palestine and Egypt was loosened by many years of Persian occupation .
Neither empire was given any chance to recover , as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the Arabs ( newly united by Islam ) , which , according to Howard @-@ Johnston , " can only be likened to a human tsunami " . According to George Liska , the " unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine – Persian conflict opened the way for Islam " . The Sassanid Empire rapidly fell to the Arab Muslim armies and was completely destroyed . During the Byzantine – Arab Wars , the exhausted Roman Empire 's recently regained eastern and southern provinces of Syria , Armenia , Egypt and North Africa were also lost , reducing the Empire to a territorial rump consisting of Anatolia and a scatter of islands and footholds in the Balkans and Italy . These remaining lands were thoroughly impoverished by frequent attacks , marking the transition from classical urban civilization to a more rural , medieval form of society . However , unlike Persia , the Roman Empire ultimately survived the Arab assault , holding onto its residual territories and decisively repulsing two Arab sieges of its capital in 674 – 678 and 717 – 718 . The Roman Empire also lost its territories in Crete and southern Italy to the Arabs in later conflicts , though these too were ultimately recovered .
= = Strategies and military tactics = =
When the Roman and Parthian Empires first collided in the 1st century BC , it appeared that Parthia had the potential to push its frontier to the Aegean and the Mediterranean . However , the Romans repulsed the great invasion of Syria and Anatolia by Pacorus and Labienus , and were gradually able to take advantage of the weaknesses of the Parthian military system , which , according to George Rawlinson , was adapted for national defense but ill @-@ suited for conquest . The Romans , on the other hand , were continually modifying and evolving their " grand strategy " from Trajan 's time onwards , and were by the time of Pacorus able to take the offensive against the Parthians . Like the Sassanids in the late 3rd and 4th centuries , the Parthians generally avoided any sustained defense of Mesopotamia against the Romans . However , the Iranian plateau never fell , as the Roman expeditions had always exhausted their offensive impetus by the time they reached lower Mesopotamia , and their extended line of communications through territory not sufficiently pacified exposed them to revolts and counterattacks .
From the 4th century AD onwards , the Persian Sassanids grew in strength and adopted the role of aggressor . They considered much of the land added to the Roman Empire in Parthian and early Sassanid times to rightfully belong to the Persian sphere . Everett Wheeler argues that " the Sassanids , administratively more centralized than the Parthians , formally organized defense of their territory , although they lacked a standing army until Khosrau I " . In general , the Romans regarded the Sassanids as a more serious threat than the Parthians , while the Sassanids regarded the Roman Empire as the enemy par excellence .
Militarily , the Sassanids continued the Parthians ' heavy dependence on the combination of light @-@ horse archers and cataphracts , the heavy armored cavalry provided by the aristocracy . They added a contingent of war elephants obtained from the Indus Valley , but their infantry quality was inferior to that of the Romans . The Persian heavy cavalry inflicted several defeats on the Roman foot @-@ soldiers , including those led by Crassus in 53 BC , Mark Antony in 36 BC , and Valerian in 260 AD . The need to counter this threat led to the introduction of cataphractarii into the Roman army ; as a result , heavily armed cavalry grew in importance in both the Roman and Persian armies after the 3rd century AD and until the end of the wars . The Romans had achieved and maintained a high degree of sophistication in siege warfare and had developed a range of siege machines . On the other hand , the Parthians were inept at besieging ; their cavalry armies were more suited to the hit @-@ and @-@ run tactics that destroyed Antony 's siege train in 36 BC . The situation changed with the rise of the Sassanids , when Rome encountered an enemy equally skilled in siegecraft , who made use of artillery , machines captured from the Romans , embankments , and siege towers .
Towards the end of the 1st century AD , Rome organized the protection of its eastern frontiers through a line of fortifications , the limes system , which lasted until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century after improvements by Diocletian . Like the Romans , the Sassanids constructed defensive walls opposite the territory of their opponents . According to R. N. Frye , it was under Shapur II that the Persian system was extended , probably in imitation of Diocletian 's construction of the limes of the Syrian and Mesopotamian frontiers of the Roman Empire . The Roman border units were known as limitanei , and they faced the Lakhmids in Iraq , who frequently aided the Persians in their contests with the Romans . Shapur intended a permanent defense force against other Arabs of the desert , especially those allied with Rome . Shapur also built a line of fortifications in the west on the model of the Roman system of limes , which impressed the Sassanids .
By the beginning of Sassanid rule , a number of buffer states existed between the empires . These were absorbed by the central state over time , and by the 7th century the last buffer state , the Arab Lakhmids of Al @-@ Hirah , was annexed to the Sassanid Empire . Frye notes that in the 3rd century AD such client states played an important role in Roman – Sassanid relations , but both empires gradually replaced them by an organized defense system run by the central government and based on the limes and the fortified frontier cities , such as Dara . Recent studies and assessments comparing the Sassanids and Parthians have reaffirmed the superiority of Sassanid siegecraft , military engineering , and organization , as well as ability to build defensive works .
= = Assessments = =
The Roman – Persian Wars have been characterized as " futile " and too " depressing and tedious to contemplate " . Prophetically , Cassius Dio noted their " never @-@ ending cycle of armed confrontations " and observed that " it is shown by the facts themselves that [ Severus ' ] conquest has been a source of constant wars and great expense to us . For it yields very little and uses up vast sums ; and now that we have reached out to peoples who are neighbor of the Medes and the Parthians rather than of ourselves , we are always , one might say , fighting the battles of those peoples . " In the long series of wars between the two powers , the frontier in upper Mesopotamia remained more or less constant . Historians point out that the stability of the frontier over the centuries is remarkable , although Nisibis , Singara , Dara and other cities of upper Mesopotamia changed hands from time to time , and the possession of these frontier cities gave one empire a trade advantage over the other . As Frye states :
One has the impression that the blood spilled in the warfare between the two states brought as little real gain to one side or the other as the few meters of land gained at terrible cost in the trench warfare of the First World War .
Both sides attempted to justify their respective military goals in both active and reactive ways . The Roman quest for world domination was accompanied by a sense of mission and pride in Western civilization and by ambitions to become a guarantor of peace and order . Roman sources reveal long @-@ standing prejudices with regard to the Eastern powers ' customs , religious structures , languages , and forms of government . John F. Haldon underscores that " although the conflicts between Persia and East Rome revolved around issues of strategic control around the eastern frontier , yet there was always a religious @-@ ideological element present " . From the time of Constantine on , Roman emperors appointed themselves as the protectors of Christians of Persia . This attitude created intense suspicions of the loyalties of Christians living in Sassanid Iran and often led to Roman – Persian tensions or even military confrontations . A characteristic of the final phase of the conflict , when what had begun in 611 – 612 as a raid was soon transformed into a war of conquest , was the pre @-@ eminence of the Cross as a symbol of imperial victory and of the strongly religious element in the Roman imperial propaganda ; Heraclius himself cast Khosrau as the enemy of God , and authors of the 6th and 7th centuries were fiercely hostile to Persia .
= = Historiography = =
The sources for the history of Parthia and the wars with Rome are scant and scattered . The Parthians followed the Achaemenid tradition and favored oral historiography , which assured the corruption of their history once they had been vanquished . The main sources of this period are thus Roman ( Tacitus , Marius Maximus , and Justin ) and Greek historians ( Herodian , Cassius Dio and Plutarch ) . The 13th book of the Sibylline Oracles narrates the effects of the Roman – Persian Wars in Syria from the reign of Gordian III to the domination of the province by Odaenathus of Palmyra . With the end of Herodian 's record , all contemporary chronological narratives of Roman history are lost , until the narratives of Lactantius and Eusebius at the beginning of the 4th century , both from a Christian perspective .
The principal sources for the early Sassanid period are not contemporary . Among them the most important are the Greeks Agathias and Malalas , the Persians Tabari and Ferdowsi , the Armenian Agathangelos , and the Syriac Chronicles of Edessa and Arbela , most of whom depended on late Sassanid sources , especially Khwaday @-@ Namag . The Augustan History is neither contemporary nor reliable , but it is the chief narrative source for Severus and Carus . The trilingual ( Greek , Parthian , and Middle Persian ) inscriptions of Shapur are primary sources . These were isolated attempts at approaching written historiography however , and by the end of the 4th century AD , even the practice of carving rock reliefs and leaving short inscriptions was abandoned by the Sassanids .
For the period between 353 and 378 , there is an eyewitness source to the main events on the eastern frontier in the Res Gestae of Ammianus Marcellinus . For the events covering the period between the 4th and the 6th century , the works of Sozomenus , Zosimus , Priscus , and Zonaras are especially valuable . The single most important source for Justinian 's Persian wars up to 553 is Procopius . His continuators Agathias and Menander Protector offer many important details as well . Theophylact Simocatta is the main source for the reign of Maurice , while Theophanes , Chronicon Paschale and the poems of George of Pisidia are useful sources for the last Roman – Persian war . In addition to Byzantine sources , two Armenian historians , Sebeos and Movses , contribute to the coherent narrative of Heraclius ' war and are regarded by Howard @-@ Johnston as " the most important of extant non @-@ Muslim sources " .
= 2000 – 01 S.L. Benfica season =
The 2000 – 01 season was Sport Lisboa e Benfica 's 97th season in existence , and the club 's 67th consecutive season in the Primeira Liga . It ran from 1 July 2000 to 30 June 2001 . Benfica competed domestically in the Primeira Liga and the Taça de Portugal . The club also participated in the UEFA Cup , by virtue of finishing third in that tournament the previous season .
The season is the worst in Benfica history since the start of the Primeira Liga during 1934 – 35 . The club switched managers two times . Jupp Heynckes was replaced by José Mourinho in September . Toni , who previously guided the club to a league title , took the reins in December . In the transfer market , young players like Marchena and Fernando Meira were brought in , and mixed with the experience of 31 year @-@ old , Pierre van Hooijdonk , who arrived to replace Nuno Gomes , were meant to improve the team competitiveness . However , the biggest event of the pre @-@ season was the release of João Pinto , the longest @-@ serving player on the club , and the incumbent captain . This decision was poorly received by the fans , who criticized Heynckes and the president for the move . Both would leave the club in the following months . In the league campaign , the team lacked balance year @-@ round and only briefly entered the league race , spending all but three weeks out the top three . Even the successful partnership of Pierre van Hooijdonk and João Tomás , with 36 goals between them , did not prevent the club from finishing in sixth place , 23 points behind winner Boavista . Consequently , Benfica missed out on UEFA competitions for the first time in 51 years ( since the 1959 – 60 season ) .
= = Season summary = =
= = = Pre @-@ season = = =
Preparations for a new Benfica season started in late @-@ May 2000 . Manager Jupp Heynckes remained for a second year , with more control this time in building up the squad . His choices caused immediate controversy , the biggest being the release of Benfica veteran João Pinto . Pinto was the incumbent team captain and the longest @-@ serving player , who had been at Benfica since the 1992 – 93 season . José Manuel Delgado of Record predicted a difficult season for the German manager : " ... he will have less tolerance from the fans than that offered to Artur Jorge ( three match days ) , or Manuel José ( four match days ) ... " He forwent internationals like Paulo Bento and Amaral , but indulged on Marchena , Meira and Van Hooijdonk . The last was intended to replace Nuno Gomes , who moved to Fiorentina after a successful run at Euro 2000 . All of this spending happened in spite of club @-@ wide financial difficulties , from missed salaries for Michael Thomas , to the basketball section of the club going months without pay .
The pre @-@ season started on 7 July , with a schedule of 8 games . It included a match celebrating the 50th anniversary of Olympique Lyon , and the Carlsberg Belfast Challenge against Linfield and Liverpool . Benfica ended the pre @-@ season on 11 August , with a draw against Aston Villa .
= = = August – October = = =
Benfica started their 2000 – 01 Primeira Liga campaign on the road in a Clássico match against FC Porto , on 19 August 2000 . João Marcelino stated that Porto " ... had some luck in the way they obtained their first goal ( shot from Alenichev deflected off Calado and betrayed Enke ) ... " , allowing them to manage the lead until the end . Benfica 's first home game was against Beira @-@ Mar on 27 August . At ten minutes into the second half of that game , Maniche 's goal put Benfica up 3 – 0 , setting them up for victory .
September began for Benfica with a visit to Leiria . It was a hard @-@ fought match , in which referee José Leirós gave out twelve bookings . They narrowly escaped defeat when Chano scored in stoppage time . Benfica started their European season on 14 September in Sweden , with a 1 – 2 loss to host Halmstads . Benfica won their second home game of the season , on 18 September , against Estrela da Amadora , thanks to two goals scored by Van Hooijdonk in consecutive minutes near the end of regulation time . In the post @-@ match interview , following weeks of fan pressure , club manager Heynckes lost his calm and proclaimed : " I can 't take this club anymore . If they want me gone , I 'll leave tomorrow . " He was immediately let go , and replaced with 37 @-@ year @-@ old José Mourinho . Former player Mozer joined him as assistant . It was Mourinho 's first time as manager , having previously worked only as an interpreter for Bobby Robson and Louis van Gaal . His first game as manager was on the road against Boavista , in which his team lost 0 – 1 to a goal from ex @-@ Benfica player Duda . The second leg of the UEFA Cup was a home game played on 28 September at the Estádio da Luz . It ended in a 2 – 2 draw and they were eliminated from the tournament – a result reminiscent of their 1997 – 98 season .
Benfica started October with a home game against Braga . The visitors took the lead in the first half , but João Tomás and Van Hooijdonk responded with a goal each , reversing the score in the second half . However , Braga went on to equalize with a last @-@ minute goal , costing Benfica two points . On 15 October , Benfica won its third league game of the season by defeating Belenenses one – nil behind Marchena 's goal . The team played Paços de Ferreira on the 21st , dropping two points in a 0 – 0 draw . Benfica played their last game of the month against Campomaiorense on the 29th , winning with a double from João Tomás , scored within a space of ten minutes from each other . They finished the month in seventh place on the league table , nine points behind leader Porto .
= = = November – February = = =
Benfica faced Marítimo in an away game at the beginning of November . They lost 0 – 3 , to a hat @-@ trick from Lagorio . Without a single road game victory , the team dropped to tenth in the league 's standings . They hosted Farense in the second week of November and won 2 – 1 . Van Hooijdonk and João Tomás scored a goal each , within a 4 @-@ minute interval just before the final whistle , to give their team the three points . On 18 November , Benfica played Vitória de Guimarães on the road . They took the lead near the end of the first half , with a goal from Chano . The second half saw three additional goals , all by João Tomás . It was their first win as visitors , and they climbed to sixth place in the standings . Benfica played their last game of the month , on the 26th , at the Taça de Portugal against Campomaiorense . This fourth round match was won thanks to a late goal by Sabry .
Benfica started December with a Derby de Lisboa game against Sporting . They won 3 – 0 , with a first half goal by Van Hooijdonk and two goals in a five @-@ minute span from João Tomás . Following the win , Mourinho requested a contract extension as a demonstration of faith in the work he had put in along with his assistant : " Me [ Mourinho ] and Mozer thought that the only way to end speculation and the constant threat of being sacked in the event of a bad result ... was renewing our contracts for another season . " Their proposal was not met . They parted ways with the club through an announcement in a press conference : " He [ President Vilarinho ] thought it was better not to accept our request . We understood that decision showed a lack of trust in our work , and that we should offer our resignation ... " Benfica immediately appointed Toni – a long @-@ time favourite of the President – as the new manager . On 10 December , Benfica played Alverca away from home . They opened the score sheet with a goal from João Tomás close to half @-@ time , but Mantorras equalized . Later , Milinkovic put the Ribatejo side in the lead , resulting in the fourth loss in seven matches in away games for Benfica . In the last match of the year 2000 , Benfica met a struggling Gil Vicente , who were at the bottom of the Primeira Liga standings . Unable to unlock the 0 – 0 draw , the club suffered their eighth winless league game of the season .
Early in January , Benfica played away from home , at Louletano , in a fifth round match of the Taça de Portugal . They won 3 – 1 and progressed to the next knock @-@ out stage , where they would face Porto . Benfica resumed their league campaign on the 7th , visiting Salgueiros . They won their second away game , after Van Hooijdonk scored with nine minutes remaining on the clock . They went on to win their third match in a row on 13 January , with a 5 – 1 home @-@ game win against Desportivo Aves . Benfica took an early lead with a Van Hooijdonk goal in the 15th minute , and added two more in the first half , one by Carlitos and another from an own goal . The Dutch striker added two more goals to his tally in the second half . On 17 January , Benfica received Porto for the first of three consecutive games against them . The first game was part of the Taça de Portugal and ended in a 1 – 1 draw . Maniche scored the lone Benfica goal before Maric equalized for Porto . A rematch was held to settle the tie . Four days later , on Sunday , Benfica hosted Porto for a Portuguese league match . They defeated the visitors 2 – 1 , after a goal from Van Hooijdonk in the 81st minute . This win allowed the club to climb to fourth in the league 's standings – their best position all year . The last of three games saw Benfica succumb to a four @-@ nil loss in the rematch for the Portuguese Cup . Manuel Queiroz wrote : " ... A thrashing that did not transpire what really happened in the field , because Fernando Santos ' team – in the best performance of the season – completely demolished a Benfica that never entered the game ... " Benfica 's last game of the month was played on the road on the 29th , against the Aveiro side , Beira @-@ Mar. The match ended with a 3 – 1 win for Benfica , after another double for Van Hooijdonk . João Tomás also got on the score sheet .
On 4 February , the team beat União de Leiria at home by 3 goals to 2 . Benfica took the lead with a goal from João Tomás . Roger and Van Hooijdonk increased their lead by two goals , until Nuno Valente settled the final score . With this win , Benfica climbed to second place the league , now only five points behind leader Boavista . On the 16th , Benfica played Estrela da Amadora away from home . The game ended with a 2 – 1 victory for Benfica . Along with Boavista 's loss in Braga , this further reduced Benfica 's separation from the league leader . Benfica played their last match of February on the 25th against Boavista . Benfica had an opportunity to take the top place in the league table with a victory in that game , but they were unsuccessful at breaking the 0 – 0 draw . Van Hooijdonk had the best chance in the 78th minute , but his attempt struck the goalpost .
= = = March – May = = =
Benfica began March with an away game in Braga . They lost 3 – 1 in their first league loss since December . They dropped to fourth place in the standings . On the following Saturday , Benfica visited Belenenses and lost for a second time in a row . A week later , Benfica received Paços de Ferreira at home . The match ended with a 3 – 2 win for the visitors and Benfica dropped to fifth place . They were now eleven points behind leader Boavista . In the last game of March , Benfica faced Campomaiorense on the road . With a 1 – 1 draw , the team avoided losing all of their matches in March . However , their need to get points was aggravated , especially if they wanted to qualify for the European competitions .
In April , Benfica opened at home against Marítimo , with a squad composed mainly of reserve players . A 3 – 0 win helped get closer to both Braga and Sporting in the standings . On 13 April , Benfica visited Faro . The match ended in a 2 – 2 draw despite a Benfica having a first @-@ half lead . Nine days later , Benfica played Vitória de Guimarães at home . A sole goal from Sabry in the 31st minute was enough to secure the team 's second win in April . Closing out the month , Benfica travelled to Alvalade for the second Derby de Lisboa of the season . The game ended in a 3 – 0 loss for Benfica . This was the Lions ' best result against Benfica since the 1986 – 87 season .
On 4 May , Benfica played Alverca at home , where they lost 0 – 2 , and in the writing of João Querido Manhã for Record , the fans " burst into protests at the end , after they lost patience with the errors , passivity and lack of talent of the whole team . " . On 13 May , Benfica went to Adelino Ribeiro Novo to face Gil Vicente . The game ended in a 3 – 0 defeat – their tenth loss within the league , matching their previous record in the 1996 – 97 season . As a result , the club was overtaken by Belenenses in the league table . A week later , Benfica played host to Salgueiros in Da Luz . A final score of 1 – 1 saved Benfica from a record fourth straight loss , and gave the Porto @-@ based side their first point all season against a top 7 team . Benfica played the last game of the season against Desportivo de Aves on the road . At one point in the game , the team was losing three @-@ nil , but managed to equalize and finish with a four @-@ all draw . Toni stated that " Everyone did not do their best to avoid that a historic club slipped into a position that is not accustomed . " Benfica finished in a record @-@ breaking sixth place after the 34 @-@ game season with a tally of 15 wins , 9 draws and 10 losses that , together , summed up to 54 points . They were ninth @-@ lowest league @-@ wide in goals conceded – 44 in all . On the plus side , they were fifth best in the league at goal @-@ scoring , with a total of 54 goals . Van Hooijdonk was the second most productive player in the Primeira Liga with 19 goals .
= = Results = =
Win Draw Loss Postponed
= = = Overall record = = =
= = = Primeira Liga = = =
= = = = League table = = = =
Source : ForaDeJogo
Rules for classification : 1st points , 2nd head @-@ to @-@ head , 3rd goals average ( C )
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P )
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O )
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q )
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ )
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Source : FootballPortugal.netGround : A
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = = = Matches = = = =
= = = Taça de Portugal = = =
= = = UEFA Cup = = =
= = = = First round = = = =
= = = Friendlies = = =
= = Player statistics = =
The squad for the season consisted of the players listed in the tables below , as well as staff members Heynckes ( manager ) , Mourinho ( manager ) , Toni ( manager ) and Mozer ( assistant coach ) .
Note 1 : Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
Note 2 : Players with squad numbers marked ‡ joined the club during the 2000 – 01 season via transfer , with more details in the following section .
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
= = = Out = = =
= = = Out by loan = = =
= Operation Ten @-@ Go =
Operation Ten @-@ Go ( 天號作戰 ( Kyūjitai ) or ja : 天号作戦 ( Shinjitai ) , Ten @-@ gō Sakusen ) was a Japanese naval operation plan in 1945 , consisting of four likely scenarios . Its first scenario , Operation Heaven One ( or Ten @-@ ichi @-@ gō天一号 ) became the last major Japanese naval operation in the Pacific Theater of World War II . The resulting engagement is also known as the Battle of the East China Sea .
In April 1945 , the Japanese battleship Yamato ( the heaviest battleship in the world ) , along with nine other Japanese warships , embarked from Japan on a deliberate suicide attack upon Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Okinawa . The Japanese force was attacked , stopped , and almost destroyed by United States carrier @-@ borne aircraft before reaching Okinawa . Yamato and five other Japanese warships were sunk .
The battle demonstrated U.S. air supremacy in the Pacific theater by this stage in the war and the vulnerability of surface ships without air cover to aerial attack . The battle also exhibited Japan 's willingness to sacrifice entire ships , even the pride of its fleet , in desperate kamikaze attacks aimed at slowing the Allied advance on the Japanese home islands . This extremism reportedly contributed to the US decision to employ nuclear weapons against the Japanese .
= = Background = =
By early 1945 , following the Solomon Islands campaign , the Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the once formidable Imperial Japanese Navy 's Combined Fleet was reduced to just a handful of operational warships and a few remaining aircraft and aircrew . Most of the remaining Japanese warships in the Combined Fleet were stationed at ports in Japan , with most of the large ships at Kure , Hiroshima .
As a final step before the planned invasion of the Japanese home islands , Allied forces invaded Okinawa on 1 April 1945 . In March , in briefing Emperor Hirohito on Japan 's response to the expected Okinawan invasion , Japanese military leaders explained that the Japanese Imperial Army was planning extensive air attacks , including the use of kamikaze . The emperor then reportedly asked , " But what about the Navy ? What are they doing to assist in defending Okinawa ? Have we no more ships ? " Now feeling pressured by the emperor to also mount some kind of attack , Japan 's Navy commanders conceived a kamikaze @-@ type mission for their remaining operational large ships , which included the battleship Yamato .
The resulting plan — drafted under the direction of the Commander in Chief of the Combined Fleet , Admiral Toyoda Soemu — called for Yamato and her escorts to attack the U.S. fleet supporting the U.S. troops landing on the west of the island . Yamato and her escorts were to fight their way to Okinawa and then beach themselves between Higashi and Yomitan and fight as shore batteries until they were destroyed . Once destroyed , the ship 's surviving crewmembers were supposed to abandon the ships and fight U.S. forces on land . Very little , if any , air cover could be provided for the ships , which would render them almost helpless to concentrated attacks from US carrier @-@ based aircraft . In preparation for executing the plan , the assigned ships left Kure for Tokuyama , Yamaguchi , off Mitajiri , Japan , on 29 March . However , despite obeying orders to prepare for the mission , Vice @-@ Admiral Seiichi Itō — commander of the Ten @-@ Go force — still refused to actually order his ships to carry it out , believing the plan to be futile and wasteful .
Other commanders of the Imperial Japanese Navy also had very negative feelings about the operation , believing that it was a waste of human life and fuel . Captain Atsushi Ōi — who commanded escort fleets — was critical as fuel and resources were diverted from his operation . As he was told that the aim of this operation was " the tradition and the glory of Navy , " he shouted :
This war is of our nation and why should the honor of our " surface fleet " be more respected ? Who cares about their glory ? Damn fools !
( " Surface fleet " refers to capital ships , especially battleships that " should have won the war " . )
Vice Admiral Ryūnosuke Kusaka flew from Tokyo on 5 April to Tokuyama in a final attempt to convince the assembled commanders of the Combined Fleet — including Admiral Itō — to accept the plan . Upon first hearing of the proposed operation ( it had been kept secret from most of them ) , the Combined Fleet commanders and captains unanimously joined Admiral Itō in rejecting it for the same reasons that he had expressed . Admiral Kusaka then explained that the Navy 's attack would help divert U.S. aircraft away from the Army 's planned kamikaze attacks on the U.S. fleet at Okinawa . He also explained that Japan 's national leadership , including the emperor , were expecting the Navy to make their best effort to support the defense of Okinawa .
Upon hearing this , the Combined Fleet commanders relented and accepted the proposed plan . The ship 's crews were briefed on the nature of the mission and given the opportunity to stay behind if desired — none did . However , approximately 80 crew members who were new , sick , or infirm , were ordered off the ships . The ships ' crews now engaged in some last @-@ minute intense drills to prepare for the mission , mostly practicing damage @-@ control procedures . At midnight , the ships were fueled . Reportedly , in secret defiance of orders to provide the ships with only just enough fuel to reach Okinawa , the Tokuyama personnel actually gave Yamato and the other ships almost all of the remaining fuel in the port , although this probably still was not enough to allow the force to return to Japan from Okinawa .
= = Battle = =
At 16 : 00 on 6 April , Yamato , with Admiral Ito on board , the light cruiser Yahagi and eight destroyers departed Tokuyama to begin the mission . Two submarines — USS Threadfin and Hackleback — sighted the Japanese force as it proceeded south through Bungo Suido . Although they were unable to attack ( due to the ships ' speed ) , they did spend several hours shadowing the Japanese sortie and sending updates of its course to the U.S. fleet . The submarines ' messages , which were reportedly sent uncoded , were also picked up by radio operators on the Japanese ships .
At dawn on 7 April , the Japanese force passed the Ōsumi Peninsula into the open ocean heading south from Kyūshū toward Okinawa . They shifted into a defensive formation , with Yahagi leading Yamato and the eight destroyers deployed in a ring around the two larger ships , with each ship 1 @,@ 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) from each other and proceeding at 20 kn ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) . One of the Japanese destroyers — Asashimo — developed engine trouble and turned back . U.S. reconnaissance aircraft began to shadow the main force of ships . At 10 : 00 , the Japanese force turned west to make it look like they were withdrawing , but at 11 : 30 , after being detected by two American PBM Mariner flying boats ( the Yamato fired a salvo with her 460 mm ( 18 @.@ 1 in ) bow guns using special " beehive shells " ( 三式焼霰弾 ( san @-@ shiki shōsan dan ) but could not prevent the two planes from shadowing the Japanese force ) , they turned back towards Okinawa .
Upon receiving contact reports early on 7 April , U.S. 5th Fleet commander Admiral Raymond Spruance ordered Task Force 54 , which consisted mostly of modernized Standard battleships under the command of Admiral Morton Deyo ( which were engaged in shore bombardment ) , to intercept and destroy the Japanese sortie . Deyo moved to execute his orders , but Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher , who commanded Task Force 58 ( TF 58 ) , preempted Spruance and Deyo by launching a massive air strike from his carriers , without informing Spruance until after the launches were completed .
Around 10 : 00 on 7 April , Task Groups 58 @.@ 1 and 58 @.@ 3 ( TG 58 @.@ 1 and 58 @.@ 3 ) began launching almost 400 aircraft in several waves from eight carriers ( TG 58 @.@ 1 : USS Hornet , Bennington , Belleau Wood , San Jacinto ; TG 58 @.@ 3 USS Essex , Bunker Hill , Hancock and Bataan ) that were located just east of Okinawa . The aircraft consisted of F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair fighters , SB2C Helldiver dive bombers , and TBF Avenger torpedo bombers . After being informed of Mitscher 's launches , Spruance agreed that the airstrikes could go ahead as planned . As a contingency , Spruance ordered Admiral Deyo to assemble a force of six battleships ( USS Massachusetts , Indiana , New Jersey , South Dakota , Wisconsin , and Missouri ) , together with seven cruisers ( including the battlecruisers USS Alaska and Guam ) and 21 destroyers , and to prepare for a surface engagement with Yamato should the airstrikes prove unsuccessful .
Around 12 : 00 , the first American aircraft arrived over Yamato ; these were F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair fighters , which were under orders to deal with any Japanese aircraft that might appear to defend the ships below . None did .
Since it soon became obvious that the Japanese force had no air cover , the U.S. aircraft were able to set up for their attacks without fear of opposition from Japanese aircraft . U.S. bomber and torpedo aircraft arriving over the Yamato group — after their two @-@ hour flight from Okinawa — were thus able to circle the Japanese ship formation just out of anti @-@ aircraft range in order to methodically set up their attacks on the warships below . The first wave of U.S. carrier planes were spotted by a Japanese lookout on the bridge at 12 : 32 . Two minutes later , Yamato opened fire with her 460 mm main batteries . The Japanese ships stopped zigzagging and increased speed to 24 kn ( 28 mph ; 44 km / h ) , beginning evasive maneuvers , and opened fire with their anti @-@ aircraft guns . Yamato carried almost 150 anti @-@ aircraft guns , including her massive 460 mm guns which could fire special " Common Type 3 " anti @-@ aircraft shells , known to the Japanese as " Sanshiki " . The U.S. torpedo airplanes mainly attacked from the port side so that if the torpedoes mainly hit from that side , it would increase the likelihood of the target ship capsizing .
At 12 : 46 , a torpedo hit Yahagi directly in her engine room , killing the entire engineering room crew and bringing her to a complete stop . Yahagi was hit by at least six more torpedoes and 12 bombs by succeeding waves of air attacks . The Japanese destroyer Isokaze attempted to come to Yahagi 's aid but was attacked and heavily damaged , and sank sometime later . Yahagi capsized and sank at 14 : 05 .
During the first attack wave , despite intensive evasive maneuvers that caused most of the bombs and torpedoes aimed at her to miss , Yamato was hit by two armor @-@ piercing bombs and one torpedo . Her speed was not affected , but one of the bombs started a fire aft of the superstructure that was not extinguished . Also , during the first attack wave , Japanese destroyers Hamakaze and Suzutsuki were heavily damaged and taken out of the battle . Hamakaze sank later .
At 13 : 00 exact , Yamato changed course to 180 degrees heading south .
Between 13 : 20 and 14 : 15 , the second and third waves of U.S. aircraft attacked , heavily concentrating on Yamato . During this time , Yamato was hit by at least eight torpedoes and up to 15 bombs . The bombs did extensive damage to the topside of the ship , including knocking out power to the gun directors and forcing the anti @-@ aircraft guns to be individually and manually aimed and fired , greatly reducing their effectiveness . The torpedo hits — almost all on the port side — caused Yamato to list enough that capsizing was now an imminent danger . The water damage @-@ control station had been destroyed by a bomb hit making it impossible to counter @-@ flood the specially designed spaces within the ship 's hull to counteract hull damage . At 13 : 33 , in a desperate attempt to keep the ship from capsizing , Yamato 's damage control team counter @-@ flooded both starboard engine and boiler rooms . This mitigated the danger but also drowned the several hundred crewmen manning those stations , who were given no notice that their compartments were about to fill with water . The loss of the starboard engines — plus the weight of the water — caused Yamato to slow to about 10 kn ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) . At that same moment , the Americans launched another 110 aircraft from Task Group 58 . Twenty Avengers made a new torpedo run from 60 degrees to port . Yamato started a sharp turn to port but three torpedoes ripped into her port side amidships , jamming her auxiliary rudder in position hard port .
With Yamato proceeding more slowly and therefore easier to target , U.S. torpedo aircraft concentrated on hitting her rudder and stern with torpedoes in order to affect her steering ability , which they succeeded in doing . At 14 : 02 , after being informed that the ship could no longer steer and was unavoidably sinking , Admiral Ito ordered the mission canceled , the crew to abandon ship , and for the remaining ships to begin rescuing survivors . Yamato communicated this message to the other surviving ships by signal flag because her radios had been destroyed .
At 14 : 05 , Yamato was stopped dead in the water and began to capsize . Admiral Ito and Captain Aruga refused to abandon her with the rest of the survivors . At 14 : 20 , Yamato capsized completely and began to sink ( 30 ° 22 ′ N 128 ° 04 ′ E ) . At 14 : 23 , she suddenly blew up with an explosion so large that it was reportedly heard and seen 200 km ( 110 nmi ; 120 mi ) away in Kagoshima and sent up a mushroom @-@ shaped cloud almost 20 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) into the air . Japanese survivor Yoshida Mitsuru said that her large explosion downed several U.S. planes observing her end . The explosion is believed to have occurred when the fires ignited by bomb hits reached the main magazines .
Attempting to make it back to port , Japanese destroyer Asashimo was bombed and sunk with all hands by U.S. aircraft . The Japanese destroyer Kasumi was also crippled by U.S. carrier aircraft attack during the battle and had to be scuttled by other , relatively undamaged Japanese destroyers . Suzutsuki — despite her bow being blown off — was able to make it to Sasebo , Japan , by steaming in reverse the entire way .
The remaining three less @-@ damaged Japanese destroyers ( Fuyutsuki , Yukikaze , and Hatsushimo ) were able to rescue 280 survivors from Yamato ( sources differ on the size of Yamato 's crew , giving it as between 2 @,@ 750 and 3 @,@ 300 men ) , plus 555 survivors from Yahagi ( out of a crew of 1 @,@ 000 ) and just over 800 survivors from Isokaze , Hamakaze , and Kasumi . Between 3 @,@ 700 and 4 @,@ 250 Japanese naval personnel perished in the battle . The ships took the survivors to Sasebo .
A total of 10 U.S. aircraft were shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire from the Japanese ships ; some of the aircrews were rescued by seaplane or submarine . In total , the U.S. lost 12 men . Some of the Japanese survivors reported that U.S. fighter aircraft machine @-@ gunned Japanese survivors floating in the water . Japanese survivors also reported that U.S. aircraft temporarily halted their attacks on the Japanese destroyers during the time that the destroyers were busy picking up survivors from the water .
During the battle , the Japanese Army conducted an air attack on the U.S. naval fleet at Okinawa as promised , but they failed to sink any ships . Around 115 aircraft — many of them kamikaze — attacked the U.S. ships throughout the day of 7 April . Kamikaze aircraft hit Hancock , battleship USS Maryland , and destroyer USS Bennett , causing moderate damage to Hancock and Maryland and heavy damage to Bennett . About 100 of the Japanese aircraft were lost in the attack .
= = Aftermath = =
Ten @-@ Go was the last major Japanese naval operation of the war , and the remaining Japanese warships had little involvement in combat operations for the rest of the conflict . Suzutsuki was never repaired . Fuyuzuki was repaired but hit a U.S. air @-@ dropped mine at Moji , Japan , on 20 August 1945 , and was not subsequently repaired . Yukikaze survived the war almost undamaged . Hatsushimo hit a U.S. air @-@ dropped mine on 30 July 1945 , near Maizuru , Japan , and was the 129th , and last , Japanese destroyer sunk in the war .
Maryland was kept out of the war following the kamikaze attacks .
Okinawa was declared secure by Allied forces on 21 June 1945 , after an intense and costly battle . Japan surrendered in August 1945 , after being bombed twice with atomic weapons . The apparent willingness of Japan to sacrifice so many of its people using suicidal tactics such as Operation Ten @-@ Go and in the Battle of Okinawa reportedly was a factor in the American decision to employ atomic weapons against Japan .
The story of Operation Ten @-@ Go is revered to some degree in modern Japan as evidenced by appearances of the story in popular Japanese culture which usually portray the event as a brave , selfless , but futile , symbolic effort by the participating Japanese sailors to defend their homeland . One of the reasons the event may have such significance in Japanese culture is that the word Yamato was often used as a poetic name for Japan . Thus , the end of battleship Yamato could serve as a metaphor for the end of the Japanese empire .
= Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine =
Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine is a multi @-@ platform action @-@ adventure video game by LucasArts released in late 1999 . The first 3D installment in the series , its gameplay focuses on solving puzzles , fighting enemies , and various platforming sections . The story told is set between the events of Indiana Jones and the Iron Phoenix and Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull , and puts the eponymous protagonist , the adventurer Indiana Jones , against the Soviet Union . In a race for a mythological Babylonian power source , he joins forces with the Central Intelligence Agency and collects four pieces of the Infernal Machine , an ancient device that allegedly opens a portal to another dimension .
The title was designed , written , and directed by Hal Barwood who considered the Indiana Jones franchise a perfect fit for the action @-@ adventure genre . Initially developed for the Windows 95 and 98 operating systems , the game later received an enhanced Nintendo 64 port jointly developed with Factor 5 , as well as a 2D version for the Game Boy Color created by HotGen . Infernal Machine received generally favorable reviews , having been praised for its detailed storyline and sophisticated level designs , though widely criticized for its unwieldy control scheme .
= = Gameplay = =
Infernal Machine is an action @-@ adventure and , as such , features a hybrid of various gameplay mechanics . The player sees Indiana Jones from a third @-@ person perspective and controls him through 17 levels of a fully polygonal 3D world . A recurring element of Infernal Machine are platforming sections , for which a combination of running , jumping , climbing , and the use of the protagonist 's trademark bullwhip is required . Furthermore , several human , animal and supernatural enemies are encountered during the course of the game , which the player can fight off with numerous firearms , the aforementioned whip , and a machete . In addition to these obstacles , the game largely focuses on solving puzzles and discovering treasures . Some levels include vehicle @-@ themed portions such as rafting , jeep treks , and mine cart chases . The main objective of the game is to collect four machine parts in order to complete the titular Infernal Machine .
= = Plot = =
The story of the game is set in 1947 and depicts archaeologist and adventurer Indiana Jones returning to his digging career after his involvement in World War II . Sophia Hapgood , an old friend of Indiana and now a member of the Central Intelligence Agency , visits him at his dig site in the Canyonlands , and informs him that the Russians are excavating the ruins of Babylon . Led by Dr. Gennadi Volodnikov , a physicist interested in alternate dimensions , the Soviets ' supposed objective is to find a weapon more powerful than the atom bomb , giving them a decided advantage in the Cold War .
Sophia hires Indiana to investigate what exactly the Russians are searching for , and he travels to their dig site in the Kingdom of Iraq . There , he joins up with Sophia 's boss Simon Turner and finds out that Volodnikov is looking for the Babylonian god Marduk who lives on another plane called the Aetherium . Deep in the ruins of the Etemenanki , Indiana translates some ancient tablets with cuneiform writing explaining the true story behind the Tower of Babel : 2600 years ago , King Nebuchadnezzar II was inspired by Marduk to build a great engine , but the frightened Babylonians tore the tower housing it down , leading four of the god 's disciples to escape with some parts of this " Infernal Machine " .
Indiana embarks on a journey to find these machine parts before the Soviets do , and eventually retrieves all four of them from a monastery in the mountains of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic , an active volcano on Palawan in the Republic of the Philippines , an Olmec valley in United Mexican States , and a tomb near Meroë in the deserts of the Anglo @-@ Egyptian Sudan . He is then confronted by Volodnikov and Turner who both demand him to hand over the parts as they think they would not be safe with the other side . Untrusting of his fellow Americans , but opting for the lesser evil , he gives the parts to Sophia and Turner . Volodnikov says that it was probably better this way , as Marduk would have his revenge on those who desecrated the machine .
Alarmed , Indiana travels back to the Room of the Tablets in Babylon , and finds a now @-@ opened gate leading even further into the ruins , to the core of the Infernal Machine . He catches up with Sophia and Turner , the latter of which intends to convince the other dimension to cooperate with the United States of America , and uses the machine parts to activate the engine . He then pushes the unwilling Sophia into a mystical cage as a means of sending her to the Aetherium as an ambassador . Indiana sees no other way but to kill him to reclaim all parts and rescue her . However , the activated machine goes awry , and Indiana and Sophia are sucked into a portal that leads to the other dimension . There , he defeats the malevolent Marduk and frees Sophia from her cage . Having escaped back to Babylon , the team is greeted by Volodnikov , who is curious to find out if they encountered God on the other side , which Indiana denies . In the ensuing conversation , the Soviet doctor turns out to be a lot less extremist than assumed , and the three wander off into the sunrise in search of a good bottle of vodka . A bonus level sees Indiana return to the Peruvian temple from the opening of the film Raiders of the Lost Ark , and has him find another golden idol in a secret room .
= = Development = =
Infernal Machine project leader , designer and writer Hal Barwood always thought of Indiana Jones as an action hero . Based on this notion , he decided for the game to be an action @-@ adventure , as he was particularly fond of the genre and its use of 3D worlds . Barwood also considered the Nazis to be overused as villains in the series and so instead set the title in the Cold War era with Russians as the antagonists . Originally , UFOs were planned to be used as a plot device , though George Lucas vetoed the idea , still reserving it for a then undeveloped fourth movie . In lieu thereof , Barwood became interested in ancient technology like the Antikythera mechanism , conceived the Infernal Machine as the MacGuffin , and placed it in the biblical Tower of Babel , which is believed to be identical with the Etemenanki , a temple dedicated to the god Marduk .
Developed for Windows 95 and 98 , the game uses a modified version of the Sith engine adapted for a third @-@ person view by lead programmer Paul LeFevre . Eventually , lighting , collision , rendering and tools underwent drastic rewrites to the point that the code was renamed the Jones engine . The levels were principally designed by Steven Chen , and later conceptualized with illustrations by lead artist William Tiller . Multiplayer support was planned at the beginning of the development , but ultimately dropped because it turned out to be too complex to adequately test . Instead , more emphasis was put on the design of the single @-@ player campaign with its puzzles and exploring aspect . The team implemented a hint system to lead players in the right direction . Additionally , the score system from previous Indiana Jones games , the Indy Quotient , makes a return . Apart from John Williams ' " Raiders March " , the soundtrack was newly composed by Clint Bajakian and consists of about 130 original pieces . Dubbed European language versions of the fully voice @-@ acted game were released by THQ in Germany , Ubi Soft in France , Electronic Arts in Spain and CTO in Italy .
An intended PlayStation version was canceled early after the game 's announcement . However , a team of eight Factor 5 employees teamed up with artists , level designers and a programmer from LucasArts to port Infernal Machine to the Nintendo 64 . Development of this version commenced in early March 1999 and was finished in October 2000 . Over the course of these 19 months , several improvements were made to the game , such as enhanced real @-@ time lighting , controls , camera and particle systems , as well as added lock @-@ on targeting and assigning items to three of the C buttons of the Nintendo 64 controller . Furthermore , the N64 version has some new musical pieces composed by Chris Hülsbeck , and employs sequenced music as opposed to the prerecorded audio from the PC original . The port was only released in North America and was exclusive to the Blockbuster chain of stores and the LucasArts Company Store . Electronic Arts planned to release it in Europe , but the title then saw a change of publisher to THQ . Originally scheduled for March 2001 , the PAL version became subject to continuous monthly delays and was eventually canceled in September . A 2D version of Infernal Machine with top @-@ down perspective gameplay was developed for the Game Boy Color by HotGen .
= = Reception = =
The PC version of Infernal Machine received generally favorable reviews with an average score of 73 @.@ 60 percent at GameRankings . Although some critics found it to be too similar to Tomb Raider , the game was noted for setting itself apart from the aforementioned series due to being based on the Indiana Jones franchise , and relying more heavily on puzzle @-@ solving . IGN commended the game for its intricate and intriguing storyline . Eurogamer shared the opinion and stated the plot to be " excellently woven " , enhancing the feel of " being part of a big blockbuster movie " . Computer and Video Games , Eurogamer , and IGN also praised Infernal Machine for its levels , calling them " excellently designed " and including " some of the most brilliant layouts [ ... ] seen in a game of this type " . While IGN thought the variety of puzzles provided was sufficient and applauded the inclusion of a hint system , GameSpot found many of the puzzles in the game to focus too heavily on platforming and went on to state that they become " quite repetitive - even predictable " after the first few levels . The most criticized aspect of the PC game across the majority of reviews , however , are the controls . Eurogamer described them as " infuriating at times " , mostly due to their faulty collision detection when performing certain actions . GameSpot thought the control system was too jerky , unresponsive , and unnecessarily slow because of delays between the moves .
The graphics , while low on polygons , were received well for its detailed textures and the diverse locations presented . Eurogamer called Infernal Machine " one of the best looking third person adventures " , and applauded the in @-@ engine cutscenes , claiming them to be " bordering on film quality at times " . GameSpot said the graphics were " not exactly cutting edge " , but " generally quite good " due to the " fairly smooth and convincing " animations . IGN praised the environments for having " a lot more personality than the Tomb Raider series " . Eurogamer called some of the locations " simply stunning " , and GameSpot found the levels to be " aesthetically well designed because of convincing architecture and wall decorations " . Furthermore , the soundtrack was stated by IGN to be " one of the best features of the game " , based on its adding to the dramatic impact along the way . They applauded the voice recording for being " crisp and clean " , though were disappointed with the sparsity of musical tracks and environmental sound effects . Allgame was impressed with the weapon effects and the foreign @-@ language voice overs for the Soviet soldiers , while Computer and Video Games considered the lack of Harrison Ford as Indiana Jones ' voice disappointing , though understandable given his high salary . Eurogamer found the comments of the playable character to become annoying after a while , but were impressed with the ambient sounds and music , claiming the latter to be " ace stuff " , " further enhancing the motion picture feeling of the game " .
Despite its enhancements , the Nintendo 64 version fared about as well with critics as the PC original , yielding 70 @.@ 99 percent at GameRankings and a Metacritic score of 75 out of 100 points . The control scheme of the port was well received by IGN for the addition of C button item management and Z @-@ targeting , both inspired by Ocarina of Time . Though they still considered the controls " slow " and " a little clunky " , they commended them for being " more intuitive , tighter , speedier , and all around more balanced " than those of the PC version . GameSpot did not share these sentiments and stated the adaption of the keyboard controls to the console controller to be " rather clunky and unintuitive " . IGN was impressed with the texture work and lighting , and found the title to be " one of the prettiest " on the Nintendo 64 , even more so by employing the Expansion Pak to achieve high @-@ resolution graphics . However , the graphics received criticism for its " wooden " character animations , occasional frame rate drops , and bugs such as pop @-@ ups and faulty texture placement . IGN remarked that the sound was superior to the PC version 's , while GameSpot thought it was about on par with the port 's above @-@ average graphics . Additionally , GameSpot criticized the Nintendo 64 version for the many bugs and lockups , a problem uncommon for console releases .
HotGen 's Game Boy Color version received an average score of 73 @.@ 80 percent at GameRankings . It was panned by GameSpot for its backtracking , missing puzzle hints , and lack of plot development , but lauded for its clean animations and sound effects . Allgame was disappointed with the instruction manual being mandatory to understand the game 's mostly non @-@ existent plot , and criticized the decision to make the player restart a level upon dying , as well as the password system , calling it " annoying " . Nintendo Power compared it to the N64 version saying it , " has almost as much depth as the recent N64 game and far fewer control problems . " But describing it more as a puzzle game . " You 'll find all the areas that were in the N64 game , but each location has been recreated with its own challenge on GBC . "
= Robin Starveling =
Robin Starveling is a character in William Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( 1596 ) , one of the Rude Mechanicals of Athens who plays the part of Moonshine in their performance of Pyramus and Thisbe . His part is often considered one of the more humorous in the play , as he uses a lantern in a failed attempt to portray Moonshine and is wittily derided by his audience . Scholars have argued that his amateur performance communicates many of the problems Shakespeare would have been familiar with in the theatre : heckling , lack of adequate props , and amateur acting abilities .
= = Role in the play = =
In A Midsummer Night 's Dream , Theseus , the Duke of Athens , is preparing to marry Hippolyta . Peter Quince decides to entertain her and hires a group of actors nicknamed the Rude Mechanicals to perform Pyramus and Thisbe , a love story . Robin is one of the Rude Mechanicals , the tailor , who gathers with his colleagues to prepare their production . Robin at first is told to play the part of Thisbe 's mother , but Peter Quince points out that a love story needs moonlight shining on the lovers to have any real effect on the audience . After Nick Bottom suggests looking in the almanac for a time when the Moon might shine on their performance , the players apparently decide that they will just have Robin act as Moonshine . Robin 's role as Moonshine in The Mechanical 's performance of Pyramus and Thisbe before Theseus ' court is often highlighted by scholars as among the funnier parts of the play . Although the court makes fun of all the players , Starveling is mocked the most by Hippolyta , who is very vocal in her opinion that his attempt to be moonshine is a ridiculous failure , although very humorous . He is also the only mechanical to be cut off in his monologue as opposed to being mocked afterwards , causing him to fluster and summarize his lines rather than giving them . This summary is usually played angrily or irritably , but has also been performed as the climax of Starveling 's potential stage fright . Starveling is the member of the group that seems to be afraid of just about anything . Starveling is the most ambiguous in taking sides in the power struggle between Bottom and Quince . While Snout affirms whatever Quince says and Flute always looks to Bottom for the final word on something ( Snug is too slow to be bothered ) , Starveling seems to try to agree completely with both , as impossible as it is to do so .
= = Context = =
" Starveling " is a word for a thin or poor person lacking food . " Robin " may have connections to two of Queen Elizabeth 's suitors , Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester , and Robert Devereux , 2nd Earl of Essex . Elizabeth 's pet name for both of these men was " Robin " , leading scholars to believe that Robin Starveling may be a satiric creation of Shakespeare 's in their honour ( or dishonour ) . Another suitor , Duke François ( " Francis " ) Hercule Alençon , may have similar connections with Francis Flute . It may also be a nod to the fact that tailors of the time were usually poor and skinny . Ironically in the 1935 Max Reinhardt film , he was played by the chubby , jovial Otis Harlan .
= = Analysis = =
Shakespeare constantly reflects on the problem of synecdoche in his plays , a rhetorical term meaning " the part representing the whole " . For example , in Henry V , Shakespeare 's has the Prologue beg forgiveness of the audience for attempting to portray an entire army with a few men , and for portraying so great a man as the King with a feeble actor . Shakespeare explores these same problems through Robin Starveling . The Mechanicals ' decision to use Robin as moonlight in place of actual moonlight delves into the problem of synecdoche , of trying to represent something greater than yourself . Robin 's standing there , attempting to be moonshine , does not make him so , even if he is holding a lantern to represent at least a part of the Moon . Similarly , Shakespeare seems to be arguing that no representation of anything in a play can really be completely real or truthful , no matter how hard its players may try . Rather than begging forgiveness of the viewer , he is exaggerating the problem for their entertainment .
The deriding reactions of the members of the upper class watching Robin and his colleagues ' performance would have been familiar to even the more professional actors in Shakespeare 's day . Some scholars have seen in Theseus ' words about the performance a note of sympathy and pleading the cause of the actor : " For never anything can be amiss / when simpleness and duty tender it ... "
= Backlash ( 2003 ) =
Backlash ( 2003 ) was the fifth annual Backlash professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by the World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was presented by Castrol GTX , and took place on April 27 , 2003 , at the Worcester Centrum in Worcester , Massachusetts and starred talent from the promotion 's Raw and SmackDown ! brands .
The main event and featured match of the Raw brand was the encounter of Goldberg and The Rock , where Goldberg , in his first WWE Pay @-@ Per @-@ View , defeated Rock by pinfall , following a spear and a Jackhammer . The featured match on the undercard was a WWE Championship match from the SmackDown ! brand , between John Cena and the reigning champion , Brock Lesnar , where Lesnar defeated Cena by pinfall after an F @-@ 5 . The other predominant match on the undercard was a six @-@ man tag team match from the Raw brand , between the team of Triple H , Ric Flair , and Chris Jericho facing Shawn Michaels , Kevin Nash , and Booker T. Triple H , Flair , and Jericho won the match by pinfall , after Triple H hit Nash with a sledgehammer . The predominant undercard match from the SmackDown ! brand was the encounter of The Big Show and Rey Mysterio , where Big Show pinned Mysterio after a chokeslam .
The event grossed US $ 450 @,@ 000 with 10 @,@ 000 ticket sales and had a 0 @.@ 67 buyrate . Following the event , Goldberg began a feud with Chris Jericho . At Bad Blood , Goldberg defeated Jericho via pinfall after a Jackhammer . Brock Lesnar began a storyline with The Big Show over the WWE Championship . At Judgment Day , Lesnar defeated The Big Show in a Stretcher match to retain the WWE Championship . Triple H engaged in a storyline with Kevin Nash over the World Heavyweight Championship . At Judgment Day , Nash defeated Triple H via disqualification ; due to WWE regulations , Triple H retained the championship .
= = Background = =
The main event at Backlash was the encounter of Goldberg and The Rock ; the main feud from the Raw brand heading into the event . The feud began on the March 31 , 2003 episode of Raw , where The Rock held a segment entitled The Rock Appreciation Night , a segment intended to promote his win against Steve Austin at WrestleMania XIX . During the segment , The Rock discussed the list of people he has beaten in his career including Steve Austin , wondering who would challenge him next into a match . Goldberg then made his WWE debut , as he came down to the ring and stated that he would be The Rock 's next challenge . After the confrontation , Goldberg speared The Rock . The following week on Raw , Goldberg and The Rock had another confrontation , where Goldberg provoked The Rock into answering his challenge , but The Rock refused . The Rock finally accepted Goldberg 's challenge on the April 14 , 2003 episode of Raw via satellite . The week before Backlash , the feud intensified as The Rock held another segment entitled The Rock Concert , where he mocked Goldberg with Gillberg , a wrestler whose gimmick was to parody Goldberg . Later into the segment , Goldberg appeared from the audience and entered the ring , only to have The Rock execute a Rock Bottom on him .
The predominant match at Backlash was a WWE Championship match between John Cena and the reigning champion , Brock Lesnar ; the main feud from the SmackDown ! brand heading into the event . Their feud began on February 13 on SmackDown ! , when Lesnar and Cena last fought , which ended with Lesnar almost ending Cena 's career by using the F @-@ 5 to propel his leg into a ring post . At WrestleMania XIX , Lesnar challenged for the WWE title held by then @-@ champion Kurt Angle . Toward the end of the match , Lesnar botched a shooting star press when he underestimated the distance , slamming his head into Angle 's side and ribcage . This stunned Lesnar and forced Angle to improvise the finish of the match . Lesnar then capitalized and regained the WWE title . On the April 3 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! , then @-@ General Manager , Stephanie McMahon announced a WWE Championship tournament , where the winner would receive a WWE Championship match at Backlash against Lesnar . John Cena was involved in the tournament , where he defeated Chris Benoit in the finals on the April 17 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! to earn a WWE Championship match at Backlash . The week before Backlash , the feud intensified during a main event match involving Lesnar and A @-@ Train , where Cena interfered by breaking a pinfall attempt by Lesnar . After the match , Cena hit Lesnar with his trademark chain and the WWE Championship title belt .
The main match on the undercard from the Raw brand , was a Six @-@ man tag team match involving the team of Triple H , Ric Flair , and Chris Jericho facing Shawn Michaels , Kevin Nash , and Booker T. The feud began on the March 31 , 2003 episode of Raw , in a backstage segment , where Booker T was being medically attended following his title match with Triple H at WrestleMania XIX , as Flair came into the scene to confront and taunt Booker T. Later that night , Jericho cut a promo , where he complained that he should have won his match against Michaels at WrestleMania XIX . After the promo , Booker T defeated Jericho via disqualification after Flair interfered in the match and attacked Booker T. Afterwards , Triple H came down to the ring , where he , Jericho , and Flair attacked Booker T simultaneously . The attack caused Michaels to come down to the ring to help Booker T to no avail , as Jericho locked Michaels in the Walls of Jericho and Triple H locked Booker T in an Indian deathlock . The following week on Raw , Nash entered the feud during a main event tag team match between the team of Triple H and Jericho facing Michaels and Booker T. After Booker T pinned Triple H to earn the victory for his team , Flair came into the ring and attacked Booker T , followed by Jericho attacking Michaels with a steel chair . The attack led to the return of Nash , who had been sidelined with an injury , who attacked Jericho and Flair . After the turn of events , Triple H prepared to hit Nash with a sledgehammer , only to retreat the ring soon afterwards . The week later , Nash said that he wanted Shawn and Hunter to be friends again , only for Triple H to tell him that they should side together , as Shawn turned on Nash at 1994 . Triple H and Flair fought against Booker T and the Hurricane and lost thanks to Shawn Michaels . Jericho then attacked Shawn and Nash came to the rescue , but accidentally hit Booker with the Sledgehammer . The feud intensified during the week before Backlash , during a main event World Heavyweight Championship match between Booker T , and the reigning champion , Triple H , with Michaels as the special guest referee . During the match , Michaels superkicked Triple H , resulting in Flair and Jericho coming into the ring and attacking Michaels and Booker T. Nash then came down to the ring , where he dispersed Jericho and Flair . He also helped Michaels and Triple H back to their feet , only to receive a low blow by Triple H.
The main match on the undercard from the SmackDown ! brand , was the encounter of The Big Show and Rey Mysterio . The feud began on the April 17 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! , during a tag team match pitting Mysterio and Tajiri against The Big Show and A @-@ Train . The Big Show and A @-@ Train won the match via pinfall . After the match , however , Tajiri sprayed green mist into A @-@ Train 's face , while Mysterio delivered a 619 on The Big Show , which caused him to collapse onto the floor . After the match in a backstage segment , The Big Show appeared frustrated with Mysterio for being embarrassed by him . The feud escalated during the week before Backlash , during a match between The Big Show and Tajiri . After The Big Show performed a chokeslam on Tajiri , Mysterio came down to the ring and distracted The Big Show , which caused The Big Show to chase Mysterio at ringside , resulting in Tajiri winning the match via countout .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ show = = =
Before the event aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Scott Steiner defeated Rico in a match on Sunday Night Heat , which aired on TNN .
= = = Main card = = =
The first match of the event on the main card was a tag team match for the Tag Team Championship , between Los Guerreros ( Eddie and Chavo Guerrero ) and the reigning champions , Team Angle ( Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas ) . The match began as Team Angle gained early advantage over Los Guerreros , after they performed a leapfrog stun gun on Eddie . After the double team , Benjamin and Haas prevented Eddie from tagging Chavo into the match for a period of time , but Chavo was eventually tagged into the match , where he gained the advantage over Haas . While Chavo was the legal wrestler in the match , Eddie illegally entered the ring and hit a frog splash on Haas , only for an unsuccessful pin attempt by Chavo . After the pin attempt , Eddie and Benjamin fought onto ringside , where Benjamin tripped Chavo , who was in the ring about to perform a suplex on Haas . The situation caused Haas to land on Chavo into a pin cover . Benjamin held Chavo 's leg down , preventing him from kicking out . This allowed Team Angle to retain the Tag Team Championship .
The second match of the event was Sean O 'Haire ( with Roddy Piper ) versus Rikishi . O ' Haire gained the early advantage , as he clotheslined Rikishi down to the ring mat . Soon afterwards , Rikishi was able to retaliate , as he attacked O 'Haire in the ring corner , which led to a stink face attempt . The turn of events led to the attempted interference of Piper , who tried to hit Rikishi with a coconut . Rikishi , however , grabbed the coconut and broke it over Piper 's head . The distraction allowed O ' Haire to perform the Prophecy on Rikishi , into a pinfall .
The third match of the event was a Tag team match for the World Tag Team Championship between The Dudley Boyz ( Bubba Ray and D @-@ Von Dudley ) and the reigning champions , Kane and Rob Van Dam , with Chief Morley as the special guest referee . The match began with Kane and Van Dam in control of the match , after Kane performed a spinebuster on Bubba Ray . D @-@ Von , though , gained the advantage after delivering a sidewalk slam onto Van Dam . Later in the match , Kane regained control , which proceeded into a chokeslam attempt on Bubba Ray . Morley , however , gave Kane a low blow . Afterwards , Lance Storm attempted to interfere in the match on Kane and Van Dam 's behalf , to no avail , which proceeded with a 3 @-@ D from The Dudley Boyz onto Morley , thus knocking out the official of the match . The distraction by Morley and Storm allowed Kane to successfully deliver a chokeslam , followed by a Five @-@ Star Frog Splash onto Bubba , into a pinfall officiated by a new referee . Therefore , Kane and Van Dam retained the World Tag Team Championship .
The fourth match of the event was for the Women 's Championship , where Jazz , who was accompanied by Theodore Long , faced the reigning champion , Trish Stratus . As part of the storyline , Stratus came into the match with injured ribs and was advised not to wrestle by doctors , but was forced to wrestle by Raw General Manager , Eric Bischoff . Both women wrestled a back and forth match , until Stratus gained the advantage over Jazz by performing a Stratusfaction ( springboard bulldog ) on her . During the pin attempt , Long threw his shoe onto Stratus 's head , causing the pin to be broken . The ending of the match saw Stratus attempting to perform a springboard sunset flip on Jazz , only for Jazz to counter it by sitting on her while grabbing the middle rope for the pinfall to become the new Women 's Champion .
The fifth match of the night was The Big Show versus Rey Mysterio . Throughout the match , Mysterio used his quickness against The Big Show 's size advantage , including performing three 619s on The Big Show . During the third 619 , Mysterio attempted a West Coast Pop , yet , The Big Show was able to catch Mysterio in mid @-@ air , reversing the move into a chokeslam for the pinfall . After the match , Mysterio was placed on a stretcher by EMTs . The Big Show picked up the stretcher with Mysterio still on it and slammed it against the ring post , similar to swinging a baseball bat .
The sixth match was for the WWE Championship between John Cena and the reigning champion , Brock Lesnar . Lesnar gained the early advantage over Cena by performing a suplex and hitting Cena 's head on the commentators ' broadcast table . Cena , however , retaliated as he threw Lesnar into the steel ring steps , which caused him to bleed from the head . Lesnar then delivered a spinebuster onto Cena , regaining control of the match . After a spear from Lesnar which sent Cena into the ring corner , Cena attempted to push Lesnar into the referee to no avail . The distraction , however , allowed Cena to hit a low blow on Lesnar . Subsequently , Cena attempted to hit Lesnar with a steel chain , though , the referee confiscated the chain before he used it on Lesnar . The situation allowed Lesnar to perform the F @-@ 5 on Cena into pinfall to retain the WWE Championship .
The featured ( and final ) match on the main card , was a six @-@ man tag team match between the team of Triple H , Ric Flair , and Chris Jericho facing the team of Shawn Michaels , Kevin Nash , and Booker T. The team of Triple H took the early advantage , after Triple H illegally entered the ring and performed a Pedigree on Michaels . Michaels ' team , however , took control of the match when Nash was tagged in and attacked all three opposers . As Nash wrestled Jericho , Booker T performed the scissors kick on Flair , which proceeded into Nash and Triple H brawling at ringside , Jericho and Booker T brawling at ringside , and Flair and Michaels wrestling in the ring . As Flair and Michaels wrestled , Flair was able to lock in the figure @-@ four leg lock , while Jericho illegally entered the match and performed a Lionsault on Michaels , who was locked in the hold . Nash , who continued to brawl with Triple H at ringside , noticed the turn of events and entered the ring where he delivered a Jackknife Powerbomb on Jericho and threw Flair onto the referee . As | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the referee was knocked down , Triple H hit Nash with a sledgehammer and pinned him , earning the victory for himself , Flair , and Jericho .
= = = Main event = = =
The main event of the night was Goldberg versus The Rock . Early into the match , The Rock taunted Goldberg at ringside to avoid wrestling him . As The Rock returned into the ring , Goldberg performed the Rock Bottom , The Rock 's signature maneuver , on him , gaining the early advantage . Goldberg proceeded into hitting The Rock with a spear , but he dodged the spear , resulting in Goldberg hitting the steel ring post . The Rock took advantage over the situation , as he locked Goldberg in a sharpshooter . Goldberg broke the hold by grabbing the ring ropes and performed a successful spear on The Rock . The Rock , though , was able to perform a spinebuster , Rock Bottom , and People 's Elbow on Goldberg into an unsuccessful pinfall attempt . Afterwards , Goldberg delivered two spears and a Jackhammer into a pinfall .
= = Aftermath = =
After Backlash , The Rock left WWE to focus on his acting career , as he filmed Walking Tall , a film co @-@ produced by WWE Films , released later in 2003 . As The Rock left WWE , Goldberg began a feud against Chris Jericho on the April 28 , 2003 episode of Raw , during Jericho 's first episode of the Highlight Reel , an interview show , where Goldberg was the guest . During the segment , Jericho stated that no one wanted Goldberg in WWE , sparking a feud between the two wrestlers . Less than a month later , on the May 12 , 2003 episode of Raw , a mystery assailant attempted to run over Goldberg with a limousine . The following week on Raw , Co @-@ Raw General Manager Steve Austin interrogated several Raw superstars to find out who was the assailant . One of the interrogated was Lance Storm , who admitted that he was guilty . Austin then forced Storm into a match with Goldberg , who defeated Storm via pinfall . After the match , Goldberg forced Storm to admit that Jericho was the superstar who conspired Storm into running him over . On the May 26 , 2003 episode of Raw , Goldberg yet again was a guest on the Highlight Reel , where Jericho and Goldberg agreed to a match at Bad Blood . At Bad Blood , Goldberg defeated Jericho via pinfall , after a Jackhammer .
Brock Lesnar engaged in a feud against The Big Show over the WWE Championship . The feud began on the May 1 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! , where Lesnar cut an in @-@ ring promo against Big Show , stating that he was a coward for defeating Rey Mysterio at Backlash . The Big Show later appeared on the stage , where he challenged Lesnar into a WWE Championship match . The following week on SmackDown ! , it was announced that The Big Show would face Lesnar for the WWE Championship at Judgment Day in a Stretcher match . Later that night , the feud escalated during a Handicap match between Chris Benoit and the team of The Big Show and A @-@ Train . Benoit lost via pinfall ; after the match , Benoit was double @-@ teamed by The Big Show and A @-@ Train . The double @-@ team caused Lesnar to come and assist Benoit to no avail , as The Big Show performed a chokeslam on Lesnar . At Judgment Day , Lesnar defeated The Big Show in the Stretcher match to retain the WWE Championship .
Brock Lesnar and John Cena would not have another match until Lesnar 's unexpected WWE return in 2012 on the episode of Raw the day after John Cena lost to The Rock at WrestleMania . Lesnar would start a feud with Cena culminating in an Extreme Rules match at its eponymous pay @-@ per @-@ view Extreme Rules . By this point , it was likely that no one had remembered Cena 's previous feud with Lesnar , as the WWE had seen multiple other matches between Lesnar and Cena in a time when Lesnar had been more dominant and more brutally aggressive than in his previous WWE run . Upon his return to the WWE , Lesnar had realigned himself with Paul Heyman and had established his character as " The Beast Incarnate " rather than the " Next Big Thing . " In 2014 , Cena and Lesnar had a rematch , this time for Cena 's WWE World Heavyweight Championship , a unification of the WWE and World Heavyweight championships at WWE 's Tables , Ladders , & Chairs pay @-@ per @-@ view in 2013 . Lesnar had obliterated Cena with 16 German Suplexes and a pinfall to win the WWE World Heavyweight Championship . He would retain his championship against Cena after a disqualification loss at the Night of Champions pay @-@ per @-@ view the next month and was not scheduled to reappear on television until January 2015 , the month in which he successfully defended the title in a triple threat match between Cena and Seth Rollins at that month 's Royal Rumble show . He would eventually lose the title to Rollins , who used his title contract opportunity at WrestleMania , challenging Lesnar to a match right then and there . Nonetheless , Lesnar has been once again on the road to the WWE Championship , occasionally having run @-@ ins with John Cena .
The aftermath of the six @-@ man tag team match from Backlash , was a feud over the World Heavyweight Championship between Kevin Nash and the reigning champion , Triple H. The feud began on the April 28 , 2003 episode of Raw , during a tag team match for the World Tag Team Championship involving Triple H and Ric Flair facing the reigning champions , Kane and Rob Van Dam . As Triple H attempted a pinfall on Rob Van Dam , Nash came down to the ring and chased Triple H to the backstage area with a sledgehammer . Triple H then ran towards a limousine , where Nash smashed the windows with the sledgehammer and threw it into the limousine , as it drove off with Triple H. The following week on Raw , Co @-@ Raw General Managers , Austin and Eric Bischoff announced a World Heavyweight Championship match between Nash and Triple H at Judgment Day . At Judgment Day , Triple H was disqualified to retain the World Heavyweight Championship .
= = Results = =
The tournament to determine the number one contender for the WWE Championship match was held between April 1 and April 15 , 2003 . The tournament brackets were :
= The Grove ( Maple Grove , Minnesota ) =
The Grove is a lifestyle center in Maple Grove , Minnesota , a suburb of the Twin Cities . The shopping mall opened in August 2005 and consists of 538 @,@ 000 square feet ( 50 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space , with an additional 600 @,@ 000 square feet ( 56 @,@ 000 m2 ) of medical space . The center contains nearly 30 retail tenants and is anchored by Haskell 's Liquor , Home Depot , North Memorial Medical Center , Slumberland Furniture , and Super Target . The Grove also contains a medical campus , Maple Grove Hospital .
Since its opening in 2005 , the shopping center has dealt with constant vacancy rates , despite the urbanization of Maple Grove and its surrounding communities . Many of the center 's tenants are vacant , but vacancy rates have decreased over the years . The center was originally developed and managed by Ryan Companies US , Inc . , but was acquired by Hempel Properties in January 2016 for $ 19 @.@ 2 million . Currently , the center features national chains , including Chipotle Mexican Grill , Great Clips , and Subway .
= = History = =
During development in the early 2000s , the center took up nearly 200 acres of space previously used as farmland . Ryan Companies US , Inc. funded the project , which included the construction of a medical campus and several retail options . Upon completion in August 2005 , over 20 retail tenants had been constructed with the majority of them being vacant . Several national retailers announced interest in the center , including Super Target , which announced plans to close their other Maple Grove location . OfficeMax opened a location in 2007 , but closed in November 2014 after merging with Office Depot , Inc .. Following the closure , only 14 stores remained open at the center .
Throughout the years , several expansions of the property have taken place . Aldi , a discount supermarket , expressed interest in The Grove in 2011 , before purchasing a landsite in October of the same year . Ryan Companies funded a second expansion of the medical building in 2014 ; the new building , located on the south side of the property , contained 41 @,@ 810 square feet ( 3 @,@ 900 m2 ) of rentable medical space . Despite owning the center for nearly a decade , Ryan Companies sold The Grove among other shopping centers to Hempel Properties on January 5 , 2016 , in hopes of " rais [ ing ] the occupancy levels " for several properties .
= = Design = =
According to the center 's developer , the site was " designed to replicate a picturesque village center " , complete with a " walkable shopping lifestyle " and " clocktower " . The Grove 's infrastructure contains several pedestrian trails , parklands , and wetlands , mixed with retail and office space . The architecture of The Grove includes heavy use of windows , similar to that of other office buildings in the Maple Grove community .
= Oxygen toxicity =
Oxygen toxicity is a condition resulting from the harmful effects of breathing molecular oxygen ( O
2 ) at increased partial pressures . It is also known as oxygen toxicity syndrome , oxygen intoxication , and oxygen poisoning . Historically , the central nervous system condition was called the Paul Bert effect , and the pulmonary condition the Lorrain Smith effect , after the researchers who pioneered its discovery and description in the late 19th century . Severe cases can result in cell damage and death , with effects most often seen in the central nervous system , lungs and eyes . Oxygen toxicity is a concern for underwater divers , those on high concentrations of supplemental oxygen ( particularly premature babies ) , and those undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy .
The result of breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen is hyperoxia , an excess of oxygen in body tissues . The body is affected in different ways depending on the type of exposure . Central nervous system toxicity is caused by short exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure . Pulmonary and ocular toxicity result from longer exposure to increased oxygen levels at normal pressure . Symptoms may include disorientation , breathing problems , and vision changes such as myopia . Prolonged exposure to above @-@ normal oxygen partial pressures , or shorter exposures to very high partial pressures , can cause oxidative damage to cell membranes , collapse of the alveoli in the lungs , retinal detachment , and seizures . Oxygen toxicity is managed by reducing the exposure to increased oxygen levels . Studies show that , in the long term , a robust recovery from most types of oxygen toxicity is possible .
Protocols for avoidance of the effects of hyperoxia exist in fields where oxygen is breathed at higher @-@ than @-@ normal partial pressures , including underwater diving using compressed breathing gases , hyperbaric medicine , neonatal care and human spaceflight . These protocols have resulted in the increasing rarity of seizures due to oxygen toxicity , with pulmonary and ocular damage being mainly confined to the problems of managing premature infants .
In recent years , oxygen has become available for recreational use in oxygen bars . The US Food and Drug Administration has warned those suffering from problems such as heart or lung disease not to use oxygen bars . Scuba divers use breathing gases containing up to 100 % oxygen , and should have specific training in using such gases .
= = Classification = =
The effects of oxygen toxicity may be classified by the organs affected , producing three principal forms :
Central nervous system , characterised by convulsions followed by unconsciousness , occurring under hyperbaric conditions ;
Pulmonary ( lungs ) , characterised by difficulty in breathing and pain within the chest , occurring when breathing increased pressures of oxygen for extended periods ;
Ocular ( retinopathic conditions ) , characterised by alterations to the eyes , occurring when breathing increased pressures of oxygen for extended periods .
Central nervous system oxygen toxicity can cause seizures , brief periods of rigidity followed by convulsions and unconsciousness , and is of concern to divers who encounter greater than atmospheric pressures . Pulmonary oxygen toxicity results in damage to the lungs , causing pain and difficulty in breathing . Oxidative damage to the eye may lead to myopia or partial detachment of the retina . Pulmonary and ocular damage are most likely to occur when supplemental oxygen is administered as part of a treatment , particularly to newborn infants , but are also a concern during hyperbaric oxygen therapy .
Oxidative damage may occur in any cell in the body but the effects on the three most susceptible organs will be the primary concern . It may also be implicated in damage to red blood cells ( haemolysis ) , the liver , heart , endocrine glands ( adrenal glands , gonads , and thyroid ) , or kidneys , and general damage to cells .
In unusual circumstances , effects on other tissues may be observed : it is suspected that during spaceflight , high oxygen concentrations may contribute to bone damage . Hyperoxia can also indirectly cause carbon dioxide narcosis in patients with lung ailments such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or with central respiratory depression . Hyperventilation of atmospheric air at atmospheric pressures does not cause oxygen toxicity , because sea @-@ level air has a partial pressure of oxygen of 0 @.@ 21 bar ( 21 kPa ) whereas toxicity does not occur below 0 @.@ 3 bar ( 30 kPa ) .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
= = = Central nervous system = = =
Central nervous system oxygen toxicity manifests as symptoms such as visual changes ( especially tunnel vision ) , ringing in the ears ( tinnitus ) , nausea , twitching ( especially of the face ) , behavioural changes ( irritability , anxiety , confusion ) , and dizziness . This may be followed by a tonic – clonic seizure consisting of two phases : intense muscle contraction occurs for several seconds ( tonic phase ) ; followed by rapid spasms of alternate muscle relaxation and contraction producing convulsive jerking ( clonic phase ) . The seizure ends with a period of unconsciousness ( the postictal state ) . The onset of seizure depends upon the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas and exposure duration . However , exposure time before onset is unpredictable , as tests have shown a wide variation , both amongst individuals , and in the same individual from day to day . In addition , many external factors , such as underwater immersion , exposure to cold , and exercise will decrease the time to onset of central nervous system symptoms . Decrease of tolerance is closely linked to retention of carbon dioxide . Other factors , such as darkness and caffeine , increase tolerance in test animals , but these effects have not been proven in humans .
= = = Lungs = = =
Pulmonary toxicity symptoms result from an inflammation that starts in the airways leading to the lungs and then spreads into the lungs ( tracheobronchial tree ) . The symptoms appear in the upper chest region ( substernal and carinal regions ) . This begins as a mild tickle on inhalation and progresses to frequent coughing . If breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen continues , patients experience a mild burning on inhalation along with uncontrollable coughing and occasional shortness of breath ( dyspnoea ) . Physical findings related to pulmonary toxicity have included bubbling sounds heard through a stethoscope ( bubbling rales ) , fever , and increased blood flow to the lining of the nose ( hyperaemia of the nasal mucosa ) . X @-@ rays of the lungs show little change in the short term , but extended exposure leads to increasing diffuse shadowing throughout both lungs . Pulmonary function measurements are reduced , as noted by a reduction in the amount of air that the lungs can hold ( vital capacity ) and changes in expiratory function and lung elasticity . Tests in animals have indicated a variation in tolerance similar to that found in central nervous system toxicity , as well as significant variations between species . When the exposure to oxygen above 0 @.@ 5 bar ( 50 kPa ) is intermittent , it permits the lungs to recover and delays the onset of toxicity .
= = = Eyes = = =
In premature babies , signs of damage to the eye ( retinopathy of prematurity , or ROP ) are observed via an ophthalmoscope as a demarcation between the vascularised and non @-@ vascularised regions of an infant 's retina . The degree of this demarcation is used to designate four stages : ( I ) the demarcation is a line ; ( II ) the demarcation becomes a ridge ; ( III ) growth of new blood vessels occurs around the ridge ; ( IV ) the retina begins to detach from the inner wall of the eye ( choroid ) .
= = Causes = =
Oxygen toxicity is caused by exposure to oxygen at partial pressures greater than those to which the body is normally exposed . This occurs in three principal settings : underwater diving , hyperbaric oxygen therapy , and the provision of supplemental oxygen , particularly to premature infants . In each case , the risk factors are markedly different .
= = = Central nervous system toxicity = = =
Exposures , from minutes to a few hours , to partial pressures of oxygen above 1 @.@ 6 bars ( 160 kPa ) — about eight times normal atmospheric partial pressure — are usually associated with central nervous system oxygen toxicity and are most likely to occur among patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy and divers . Since sea level atmospheric pressure is about 1 bar ( 100 kPa ) , central nervous system toxicity can only occur under hyperbaric conditions , where ambient pressure is above normal . Divers breathing air at depths beyond 60 m ( 200 ft ) face an increasing risk of an oxygen toxicity " hit " ( seizure ) . Divers breathing a gas mixture enriched with oxygen , such as nitrox , can similarly suffer a seizure at shallower depths , should they descend below the maximum operating depth allowed for the mixture .
= = = Lung toxicity = = =
The lungs and the remainder of the respiratory tract are exposed to the highest concentration of oxygen in the human body and are therefore the first organs to show toxicity . Pulmonary toxicity occurs only with exposure to partial pressures of oxygen greater than 0 @.@ 5 bar ( 50 kPa ) , corresponding to an oxygen fraction of 50 % at normal atmospheric pressure . The earliest signs of pulmonary toxicity begin with evidence of tracheobronchitis , or inflammation of the upper airways , after an asymptomatic period between 4 and 22 hours at greater than 95 % oxygen , with some studies suggesting symptoms usually begin after approximately 14 hours at this level of oxygen .
At partial pressures of oxygen of 2 to 3 bar ( 200 to 300 kPa ) — 100 % oxygen at 2 to 3 times atmospheric pressure — these symptoms may begin as early as 3 hours after exposure to oxygen . Experiments on rats breathing oxygen at pressures between 1 and 3 bars ( 100 and 300 kPa ) suggest that pulmonary manifestations of oxygen toxicity may not be the same for normobaric conditions as they are for hyperbaric conditions . Evidence of decline in lung function as measured by pulmonary function testing can occur as quickly as 24 hours of continuous exposure to 100 % oxygen , with evidence of diffuse alveolar damage and the onset of acute respiratory distress syndrome usually occurring after 48 hours on 100 % oxygen . Breathing 100 % oxygen also eventually leads to collapse of the alveoli ( atelectasis ) , while — at the same partial pressure of oxygen — the presence of significant partial pressures of inert gases , typically nitrogen , will prevent this effect .
Preterm newborns are known to be at higher risk for bronchopulmonary dysplasia with extended exposure to high concentrations of oxygen . Other groups at higher risk for oxygen toxicity are patients on mechanical ventilation with exposure to levels of oxygen greater than 50 % , and patients exposed to chemicals that increase risk for oxygen toxicity such the chemotherapeutic agent bleomycin . Therefore , current guidelines for patients on mechanical ventilation in intensive care recommends keeping oxygen concentration less than 60 % . Likewise , divers who undergo treatment of decompression sickness are at increased risk of oxygen toxicity as treatment entails exposure to long periods of oxygen breathing under hyperbaric conditions , in addition to any oxygen exposure during the dive .
= = = Eye toxicity = = =
Prolonged exposure to high inspired fractions of oxygen causes damage to the retina . Damage to the developing eye of infants exposed to high oxygen fraction at normal pressure has a different mechanism and effect from the eye damage experienced by adult divers under hyperbaric conditions . Hyperoxia may be a contributing factor for the disorder called retrolental fibroplasia or retinopathy of prematurity ( ROP ) in infants . In preterm infants , the retina is often not fully vascularised . Retinopathy of prematurity occurs when the development of the retinal vasculature is arrested and then proceeds abnormally . Associated with the growth of these new vessels is fibrous tissue ( scar tissue ) that may contract to cause retinal detachment . Supplemental oxygen exposure , while a risk factor , is not the main risk factor for development of this disease . Restricting supplemental oxygen use does not necessarily reduce the rate of retinopathy of prematurity , and may raise the risk of hypoxia @-@ related systemic complications .
Hyperoxic myopia has occurred in closed circuit oxygen rebreather divers with prolonged exposures . It also occurs frequently in those undergoing repeated hyperbaric oxygen therapy . This is due to an increase in the refractive power of the lens , since axial length and keratometry readings do not reveal a corneal or length basis for a myopic shift . It is usually reversible with time .
= = Mechanism = =
The biochemical basis for the toxicity of oxygen is the partial reduction of oxygen by one or two electrons to form reactive oxygen species , which are natural by @-@ products of the normal metabolism of oxygen and have important roles in cell signalling . One species produced by the body , the superoxide anion ( O
2 − ) , is possibly involved in iron acquisition . Higher than normal concentrations of oxygen lead to increased levels of reactive oxygen species . Oxygen is necessary for cell metabolism , and the blood supplies it to all parts of the body . When oxygen is breathed at high partial pressures , a hyperoxic condition will rapidly spread , with the most vascularised tissues being most vulnerable . During times of environmental stress , levels of reactive oxygen species can increase dramatically , which can damage cell structures and produce oxidative stress .
While all the reaction mechanisms of these species within the body are not yet fully understood , one of the most reactive products of oxidative stress is the hydroxyl radical ( · OH ) , which can initiate a damaging chain reaction of lipid peroxidation in the unsaturated lipids within cell membranes . High concentrations of oxygen also increase the formation of other free radicals , such as nitric oxide , peroxynitrite , and trioxidane , which harm DNA and other biomolecules . Although the body has many antioxidant systems such as glutathione that guard against oxidative stress , these systems are eventually overwhelmed at very high concentrations of free oxygen , and the rate of cell damage exceeds the capacity of the systems that prevent or repair it . Cell damage and cell death then result .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnosis of central nervous system oxygen toxicity in divers prior to seizure is difficult as the symptoms of visual disturbance , ear problems , dizziness , confusion and nausea can be due to many factors common to the underwater environment such as narcosis , congestion and coldness . However , these symptoms may be helpful in diagnosing the first stages of oxygen toxicity in patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy . In either case , unless there is a prior history of epilepsy or tests indicate hypoglycaemia , a seizure occurring in the setting of breathing oxygen at partial pressures greater than 1 @.@ 4 bar ( 140 kPa ) suggests a diagnosis of oxygen toxicity .
Diagnosis of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in newborn infants with breathing difficulties is difficult in the first few weeks . However , if the infant 's breathing does not improve during this time , blood tests and x @-@ rays may be used to confirm bronchopulmonary dysplasia . In addition , an echocardiogram can help to eliminate other possible causes such as congenital heart defects or pulmonary arterial hypertension .
The diagnosis of retinopathy of prematurity in infants is typically suggested by the clinical setting . Prematurity , low birth weight and a history of oxygen exposure are the principal indicators , while no hereditary factors have been shown to yield a pattern .
= = Prevention = =
The prevention of oxygen toxicity depends entirely on the setting . Both underwater and in space , proper precautions can eliminate the most pernicious effects . Premature infants commonly require supplemental oxygen to treat complications of preterm birth . In this case prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia and retinopathy of prematurity must be carried out without compromising a supply of oxygen adequate to preserve the infant 's life .
= = = Underwater = = =
Oxygen toxicity is a catastrophic hazard in diving , because a seizure results in near certain death by drowning . The seizure may occur suddenly and with no warning symptoms . The effects are sudden convulsions and unconsciousness , during which victims can lose their regulator and drown . One of the advantages of a full @-@ face diving mask is prevention of regulator loss in the event of a seizure . As there is an increased risk of central nervous system oxygen toxicity on deep dives , long dives and dives where oxygen @-@ rich breathing gases are used , divers are taught to calculate a maximum operating depth for oxygen @-@ rich breathing gases , and cylinders containing such mixtures must be clearly marked with that depth .
In some diver training courses for these types of diving , divers are taught to plan and monitor what is called the oxygen clock of their dives . This is a notional alarm clock , which ticks more quickly at increased oxygen pressure and is set to activate at the maximum single exposure limit recommended in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Diving Manual . For the following partial pressures of oxygen the limits are : 45 minutes at 1 @.@ 6 bar ( 160 kPa ) , 120 minutes at 1 @.@ 5 bar ( 150 kPa ) , 150 minutes at 1 @.@ 4 bar ( 140 kPa ) , 180 minutes at 1 @.@ 3 bar ( 130 kPa ) and 210 minutes at 1 @.@ 2 bar ( 120 kPa ) , but it is impossible to predict with any reliability whether or when toxicity symptoms will occur . Many nitrox @-@ capable dive computers calculate an oxygen loading and can track it across multiple dives . The aim is to avoid activating the alarm by reducing the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas or by reducing the time spent breathing gas of greater oxygen partial pressure . As the partial pressure of oxygen increases with the fraction of oxygen in the breathing gas and the depth of the dive , the diver obtains more time on the oxygen clock by diving at a shallower depth , by breathing a less oxygen @-@ rich gas , or by shortening the duration of exposure to oxygen @-@ rich gases .
Diving below 56 m ( 184 ft ) on air would expose a diver to increasing danger of oxygen toxicity as the partial pressure of oxygen exceeds 1 @.@ 4 bar ( 140 kPa ) , so a gas mixture must be used which contains less than 21 % oxygen ( a hypoxic mixture ) . Increasing the proportion of nitrogen is not viable , since it would produce a strongly narcotic mixture . However , helium is not narcotic , and a usable mixture may be blended either by completely replacing nitrogen with helium ( the resulting mix is called heliox ) , or by replacing part of the nitrogen with helium , producing a trimix .
Pulmonary oxygen toxicity is an entirely avoidable event while diving . The limited duration and naturally intermittent nature of most diving makes this a relatively rare ( and even then , reversible ) complication for divers . Established guidelines enable divers to calculate when they are at risk of pulmonary toxicity .
= = = Hyperbaric setting = = =
The presence of a fever or a history of seizure is a relative contraindication to hyperbaric oxygen treatment . The schedules used for treatment of decompression illness allow for periods of breathing air rather than 100 % oxygen ( oxygen breaks ) to reduce the chance of seizure or lung damage . The U.S. Navy uses treatment tables based on periods alternating between 100 % oxygen and air . For example , USN table 6 requires 75 minutes ( three periods of 20 minutes oxygen / 5 minutes air ) at an ambient pressure of 2 @.@ 8 standard atmospheres ( 280 kPa ) , equivalent to a depth of 18 metres ( 60 ft ) . This is followed by a slow reduction in pressure to 1 @.@ 9 atm ( 190 kPa ) over 30 minutes on oxygen . The patient then remains at that pressure for a further 150 minutes , consisting of two periods of 15 minutes air / 60 minutes oxygen , before the pressure is reduced to atmospheric over 30 minutes on oxygen .
Vitamin E and selenium were proposed and later rejected as a potential method of protection against pulmonary oxygen toxicity . There is however some experimental evidence in rats that vitamin E and selenium aid in preventing in vivo lipid peroxidation and free radical damage , and therefore prevent retinal changes following repetitive hyperbaric oxygen exposures .
= = = Normobaric setting = = =
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia is reversible in the early stages by use of break periods on lower pressures of oxygen , but it may eventually result in irreversible lung injury if allowed to progress to severe damage . One or two days of exposure without oxygen breaks are needed to cause such damage .
Retinopathy of prematurity is largely preventable by screening . Current guidelines require that all babies of less than 32 weeks gestational age or having a birth weight less than 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) should be screened for retinopathy of prematurity at least every two weeks . The National Cooperative Study in 1954 showed a causal link between supplemental oxygen and retinopathy of prematurity , but subsequent curtailment of supplemental oxygen caused an increase in infant mortality . To balance the risks of hypoxia and retinopathy of prematurity , modern protocols now require monitoring of blood oxygen levels in premature infants receiving oxygen .
= = = Hypobaric setting = = =
In low @-@ pressure environments oxygen toxicity may be avoided since the toxicity is caused by high partial pressure of oxygen , not merely by high oxygen fraction . This is illustrated by modern pure oxygen use in spacesuits , which must operate at low pressure ( also historically , very high percentage oxygen and lower than normal atmospheric pressure was used in early spacecraft , for example , the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft ) . In such applications as extra @-@ vehicular activity , high @-@ fraction oxygen is non @-@ toxic , even at breathing mixture fractions approaching 100 % , because the oxygen partial pressure is not allowed to chronically exceed 0 @.@ 3 bar ( 4 @.@ 4 psi ) .
= = Management = =
During hyperbaric oxygen therapy , the patient will usually breathe 100 % oxygen from a mask while inside a hyperbaric chamber pressurised with air to about 2 @.@ 8 bar ( 280 kPa ) . Seizures during the therapy are managed by removing the mask from the patient , thereby dropping the partial pressure of oxygen inspired below 0 @.@ 6 bar ( 60 kPa ) .
A seizure underwater requires that the diver be brought to the surface as soon as practicable . Although for many years the recommendation has been not to raise the diver during the seizure itself , owing to the danger of arterial gas embolism ( AGE ) , there is some evidence that the glottis does not fully obstruct the airway . This has led to the current recommendation by the Diving Committee of the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society that a diver should be raised during the seizure 's clonic ( convulsive ) phase if the regulator is not in the diver 's mouth – as the danger of drowning is then greater than that of AGE – but the ascent should be delayed until the end of the clonic phase otherwise . Rescuers ensure that their own safety is not compromised during the convulsive phase . They then ensure that where the victim 's air supply is established it is maintained , and carry out a controlled buoyant lift . Lifting an unconscious body is taught by most diver training agencies . Upon reaching the surface , emergency services are always contacted as there is a possibility of further complications requiring medical attention . The U.S. Navy has procedures for completing the decompression stops where a recompression chamber is not immediately available .
The occurrence of symptoms of bronchopulmonary dysplasia or acute respiratory distress syndrome is treated by lowering the fraction of oxygen administered , along with a reduction in the periods of exposure and an increase in the break periods where normal air is supplied . Where supplemental oxygen is required for treatment of another disease ( particularly in infants ) , a ventilator may be needed to ensure that the lung tissue remains inflated . Reductions in pressure and exposure will be made progressively , and medications such as bronchodilators and pulmonary surfactants may be used .
Retinopathy of prematurity may regress spontaneously , but should the disease progress beyond a threshold ( defined as five contiguous or eight cumulative hours of stage 3 retinopathy of prematurity ) , both cryosurgery and laser surgery have been shown to reduce the risk of blindness as an outcome . Where the disease has progressed further , techniques such as scleral buckling and vitrectomy surgery may assist in re @-@ attaching the retina .
= = Prognosis = =
Although the convulsions caused by central nervous system oxygen toxicity may lead to incidental injury to the victim , it remained uncertain for many years whether damage to the nervous system following the seizure could occur and several studies searched for evidence of such damage . An overview of these studies by Bitterman in 2004 concluded that following removal of breathing gas containing high fractions of oxygen , no long @-@ term neurological damage from the seizure remains .
The majority of infants who have survived following an incidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia will eventually recover near @-@ normal lung function , since lungs continue to grow during the first 5 – 7 years and the damage caused by bronchopulmonary dysplasia is to some extent reversible ( even in adults ) . However , they are likely be more susceptible to respiratory infections for the rest of their lives and the severity of later infections is often greater than that in their peers .
Retinopathy of prematurity ( ROP ) in infants frequently regresses without intervention and eyesight may be normal in later years . Where the disease has progressed to the stages requiring surgery , the outcomes are generally good for the treatment of stage 3 ROP , but are much worse for the later stages . Although surgery is usually successful in restoring the anatomy of the eye , damage to the nervous system by the progression of the disease leads to comparatively poorer results in restoring vision . The presence of other complicating diseases also reduces the likelihood of a favourable outcome .
= = Epidemiology = =
The incidence of central nervous system toxicity among divers has decreased since the Second World War , as protocols have developed to limit exposure and partial pressure of oxygen inspired . In 1947 , Donald recommended limiting the depth allowed for breathing pure oxygen to 7 @.@ 6 m ( 25 ft ) , which equates to an oxygen partial pressure of 1 @.@ 8 bar ( 180 kPa ) . Over time this limit has been reduced , until today a limit of 1 @.@ 4 bar ( 140 kPa ) during a recreational dive and 1 @.@ 6 bar ( 160 kPa ) during shallow decompression stops is generally recommended . Oxygen toxicity has now become a rare occurrence other than when caused by equipment malfunction and human error . Historically , the U.S. Navy has refined its Navy Diving Manual Tables to reduce oxygen toxicity incidents . Between 1995 and 1999 , reports showed 405 surface @-@ supported dives using the helium – oxygen tables ; of these , oxygen toxicity symptoms were observed on 6 dives ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) . As a result , the U.S. Navy in 2000 modified the schedules and conducted field tests of 150 dives , none of which produced symptoms of oxygen toxicity . Revised tables were published in 2001 .
The variability in tolerance and other variable factors such as workload have resulted in the U.S. Navy abandoning screening for oxygen tolerance . Of the 6 @,@ 250 oxygen @-@ tolerance tests performed between 1976 and 1997 , only 6 episodes of oxygen toxicity were observed ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) .
Central nervous system oxygen toxicity among patients undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy is rare , and is influenced by a number of a factors : individual sensitivity and treatment protocol ; and probably therapy indication and equipment used . A study by Welslau in 1996 reported 16 incidents out of a population of 107 @,@ 264 patients ( 0 @.@ 015 % ) , while Hampson and Atik in 2003 found a rate of 0 @.@ 03 % . Yildiz , Ay and Qyrdedi , in a summary of 36 @,@ 500 patient treatments between 1996 and 2003 , reported only 3 oxygen toxicity incidents , giving a rate of 0 @.@ 008 % . A later review of over 80 @,@ 000 patient treatments revealed an even lower rate : 0 @.@ 0024 % . The reduction in incidence may be partly due to use of a mask ( rather than a hood ) to deliver oxygen .
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia is among the most common complications of prematurely born infants and its incidence has grown as the survival of extremely premature infants has increased . Nevertheless , the severity has decreased as better management of supplemental oxygen has resulted in the disease now being related mainly to factors other than hyperoxia .
In 1997 a summary of studies of neonatal intensive care units in industrialised countries showed that up to 60 % of low birth weight babies developed retinopathy of prematurity , which rose to 72 % in extremely low birth weight babies , defined as less than 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) at birth . However , severe outcomes are much less frequent : for very low birth weight babies — those less than 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) at birth — the incidence of blindness was found to be no more than 8 % .
= = History = =
Central nervous system toxicity was first described by Paul Bert in 1878 . He showed that oxygen was toxic to insects , arachnids , myriapods , molluscs , earthworms , fungi , germinating seeds , birds , and other animals . Central nervous system toxicity may be referred to as the " Paul Bert effect " .
Pulmonary oxygen toxicity was first described by J. Lorrain Smith in 1899 when he noted central nervous system toxicity and discovered in experiments in mice and birds that 0 @.@ 43 bar ( 43 kPa ) had no effect but 0 @.@ 75 bar ( 75 kPa ) of oxygen was a pulmonary irritant . Pulmonary toxicity may be referred to as the " Lorrain Smith effect " . The first recorded human exposure was undertaken in 1910 by Bornstein when two men breathed oxygen at 2 @.@ 8 bar ( 280 kPa ) for 30 minutes while he went on to 48 minutes with no symptoms . In 1912 , Bornstein developed cramps in his hands and legs while breathing oxygen at 2 @.@ 8 bar ( 280 kPa ) for 51 minutes . Smith then went on to show that intermittent exposure to a breathing gas with less oxygen permitted the lungs to recover and delayed the onset of pulmonary toxicity .
Albert R. Behnke et al. in 1935 were the first to observe visual field contraction ( tunnel vision ) on dives between 1 @.@ 0 bar ( 100 kPa ) and 4 @.@ 1 bar ( 410 kPa ) . During World War II , Donald and Yarbrough et al. performed over 2 @,@ 000 experiments on oxygen toxicity to support the initial use of closed circuit oxygen rebreathers . Naval divers in the early years of oxygen rebreather diving developed a mythology about a monster called " Oxygen Pete " , who lurked in the bottom of the Admiralty Experimental Diving Unit " wet pot " ( a water @-@ filled hyperbaric chamber ) to catch unwary divers . They called having an oxygen toxicity attack " getting a Pete " .
In the decade following World War II , Lambertsen et al. made further discoveries on the effects of breathing oxygen under pressure and methods of prevention . Their work on intermittent exposures for extension of oxygen tolerance and on a model for prediction of pulmonary oxygen toxicity based on pulmonary function are key documents in the development of standard operating procedures when breathing increased pressures of oxygen . Lambertsen 's work showing the effect of carbon dioxide in decreasing time to onset of central nervous system symptoms has influenced work from current exposure guidelines to future breathing apparatus design .
Retinopathy of prematurity was not observed before World War II , but with the availability of supplemental oxygen in the decade following , it rapidly became one of the principal causes of infant blindness in developed countries . By 1960 the use of oxygen had become identified as a risk factor and its administration restricted . The resulting fall in retinopathy of prematurity was accompanied by a rise in infant mortality and hypoxia @-@ related complications . Since then , more sophisticated monitoring and diagnosis have established protocols for oxygen use which aim to balance between hypoxic conditions and problems of retinopathy of prematurity .
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia was first described by Northway in 1967 , who outlined the conditions that would lead to the diagnosis . This was later expanded by Bancalari and in 1988 by Shennan , who suggested the need for supplemental oxygen at 36 weeks could predict long @-@ term outcomes . Nevertheless , Palta et al. in 1998 concluded that radiographic evidence was the most accurate predictor of long @-@ term effects .
Bitterman et al. in 1986 and 1995 showed that darkness and caffeine would delay the onset of changes to brain electrical activity in rats . In the years since , research on central nervous system toxicity has centred on methods of prevention and safe extension of tolerance . Sensitivity to central nervous system oxygen toxicity has been shown to be affected by factors such as circadian rhythm , drugs , age , and gender . In 1988 , Hamilton et al. wrote procedures for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to establish oxygen exposure limits for habitat operations . Even today , models for the prediction of pulmonary oxygen toxicity do not explain all the results of exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen .
= = Society and culture = =
Recreational scuba divers commonly breathe nitrox containing up to 40 % oxygen , while technical divers use pure oxygen or nitrox containing up to 80 % oxygen . Divers who breathe oxygen fractions greater than of air ( 21 % ) need to be trained in the dangers of oxygen toxicity and how to prevent them . In order to buy nitrox , a diver has to show evidence of such qualification .
Since the late 1990s the recreational use of oxygen has been promoted by oxygen bars , where customers breathe oxygen through a nasal cannula . Claims have been made that this reduces stress , increases energy , and lessens the effects of hangovers and headaches , despite the lack of any scientific evidence to support them . There are also devices on sale that offer " oxygen massage " and " oxygen detoxification " with claims of removing body toxins and reducing body fat . The American Lung Association has stated " there is no evidence that oxygen at the low flow levels used in bars can be dangerous to a normal person 's health " , but the U.S. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research cautions that people with heart or lung disease need their supplementary oxygen carefully regulated and should not use oxygen bars .
Victorian society had a fascination for the rapidly expanding field of science . In " Dr. Ox 's Experiment " , a short story written by Jules Verne in 1872 , the eponymous doctor uses electrolysis of water to separate oxygen and hydrogen . He then pumps the pure oxygen throughout the town of Quiquendone , causing the normally tranquil inhabitants and their animals to become aggressive and plants to grow rapidly . An explosion of the hydrogen and oxygen in Dr Ox 's factory brings his experiment to an end . Verne summarised his story by explaining that the effects of oxygen described in the tale were his own invention . There is also a brief episode of oxygen intoxication in his " From the Earth to the Moon " .
= William Garnett Braithwaite =
Brigadier General William Garnett Braithwaite , CB , CMG , DSO ( 21 October 1870 – 15 October 1937 ) was a British Army officer who participated in the Boer War and the First World War .
Born in England in 1870 , he joined the British Army in 1891 . He served with the Royal Welsh Fusiliers during the Boer War , during which he received the Distinguished Service Order . After the war he was an instructor at the Royal Military College . In 1911 , he went to New Zealand on secondment to help with the training and administration of the New Zealand Military Forces . Following the outbreak of the First World War , he served as a staff officer in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force . He commanded the New Zealand Division 's 2nd Infantry Brigade for nearly two years on the Western Front and on occasion was acting commander of the division . In December 1917 , he was medically evacuated to England . After a period of rest , he returned to military duty with the British Army , and ended the war in command of the 16th Infantry Brigade . He retired from the army in 1925 and died in 1937 at the age of 66 .
= = Early life = =
Braithwaite was born in Kendal , Westmorland , England on 21 October 1870 . After completing his schooling at Marlborough College , he attended the Royal Military College at Sandhurst before joining the British Army in 1891 .
= = Military career = =
Braithwaite was commissioned in the Royal Welsh Fusiliers as a second lieutenant 23 May 1891 . He was promoted to lieutenant on 16 May 1894 , and to captain on 19 July 1899 . From late 1899 to 1902 , Braithwaite fought in the Boer War . As well as being appointed to the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) , he was mentioned in despatches three times for his service in South Africa . At the closing of the war he returned to the United Kingdom in March 1902 , and was appointed adjutant of the 3rd ( Volunteer ) Battalion of his regiment . He was later assigned to the Royal Military College for a period of time as an instructor .
In 1911 , now a major , he was seconded to the New Zealand Military Forces under the command of the then Major General Alexander Godley . Braithwaite was appointed General Staff Officer for the Auckland Military District and later promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel , Godley 's Chief of General Staff . At the time , Godley was restructuring the New Zealand Military Forces and creating a Territorial Force to replace the inadequate Volunteer Force . Braithwaite assisted in the establishment of the Territorial Force and was responsible for staff organisation and training . His initial three @-@ year appointment was to expire in July 1914 but earlier that year was extended a further 12 months following a request from the New Zealand government .
= = = First World War = = =
Braithwaite volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 . He left for the Middle East as the staff officer responsible for the operational planning of the NZEF . His wife , Gwendolen , whom he married in 1901 , and the couple 's three children also left New Zealand but to live in England .
= = = = Gallipoli Campaign = = = =
Following a period of training with the NZEF in Egypt , Braithwaite served as a staff officer in Godley 's headquarters . Godley was not only commander of the NZEF but also the New Zealand and Australian Division during the Gallipoli Campaign which commenced in April 1915 . Braithwaite fulfilled his duties well and was twice mentioned in despatches for his work during the August offensive . He took ill the next month and required evacuation for medical treatment . He returned to duty in October and the following month took over temporary command of the New Zealand Infantry Brigade when its nominal commander , Brigadier General Francis Johnston , went on sick leave . After the withdrawal of the Allied forces from Gallipoli , Braithwaite returned with the surviving elements of the NZEF to Egypt . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George for his work during the Gallipoli Campaign .
In December 1915 Braithwaite was promoted temporary brigadier general ( his temporary rank of lieutenant colonel was made substantive at the same time ) and took command of the newly formed New Zealand ( Rifle ) Brigade . The brigade consisted of only two battalions at this stage but would be brought up to strength with the arrival of its 3rd and 4th Battalions in March 1916 . During this time Braithwaite oversaw the training of his new command . However , within a few months , he was appointed commander of the 2nd Infantry Brigade , one of the three brigades of the newly formed New Zealand Division .
= = = = Western Front = = = =
The New Zealand Division moved to the Western Front in April 1916 . Braithwaite had a brief period in command of the division while its commander , Major General Andrew Russell , was on leave . During the division 's first major engagement , the Somme Offensive , Braithwaite led his brigade in the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette in which it incurred over 700 casualties during the capture of its key objective , the Switch Line . A few days later he planned and directed a successful nighttime attempt by the strongest battalion of his brigade to seize the neighbouring high ground at what was known as Goose Alley . After the battle , Russell assessed Braithwaite as the best performed of his brigade commanders .
In June 1917 , Braithwaite was promoted to colonel , although he remained a temporary brigadier general . His brigade had a central role in the Battle of Messines and was able to achieve its objectives with minimal casualties . However , heavy losses were incurred by his brigade later in the year during the First Battle of Passchendaele on 12 October . After his initial attack faltered and came to a halt , Braithwaite protested orders from Russell later that day to resume the attack , 2nd Infantry Brigade having suffered heavy casualties for the gain of little ground . When it became apparent to Russell that flanking units had not achieved their objectives , the orders were cancelled .
Braithwaite had a further period in command of the division while Russell was on sick leave in late October and in early December led his brigade in attacks on Polderhoek Chateau . The brigade suffered heavy losses and the attack was regarded as a failure . At this stage of the war , Braithwaite was one of the longest serving brigade commanders of the NZEF . Worn down by stresses of command , his health was so poor it forced his evacuation to England .
Following a period of convalescence , Braithwaite , rather than rejoining the New Zealand Division , resumed service in the British Army with his parent unit , the Royal Welsh Fusiliers . A popular commander amongst the New Zealanders , rumours circulated in the division that his return to the British Army was due to his refusal to continue with the 12 October 1917 attack at Passchendaele . Braithwaite returned to the front in February 1918 as a staff officer in a British Corps and was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath in June 1918 . In October 1918 , he was placed in command of the 16th Infantry Brigade when its previous commander , Brigadier General Henry Walker , was wounded in an artillery barrage , and led it through to the armistice . During the course of the First World War he had been mentioned in despatches six times .
= = Later life = =
Braithwaite remained in the British Army after the war and commanded a brigade in the British Army of the Rhine . While stationed in Germany , he wrote a foreword for one of the regimental histories of the NZEF . He relinquished his temporary rank of brigadier general in 1920 , and reverted to his substantive rank of colonel to take up a brigade command in the Territorial Force . He eventually retired from the British Army in November 1925 , with the honorary rank of brigadier general . He died in Camberley , Surrey , on 15 October 1937 , survived by his wife and children . Braithwaite Street in the Wellington suburb of Karori is named for him .
= Charles May ( Canadian politician ) =
Charles May ( June 30 , 1858 – March 1 , 1932 ) was Canadian contractor and politician . He served on the Edmonton City Council and later as Mayor of Edmonton from 1905 to 1906 .
A native of what would become the province of Ontario , May moved to Manitoba soon after completing education in his hometown . In Manitoba , he would take to briefly farming , before entering into the construction industry , which he would establish prominence in . After doing work for the railway , he would move to Winnipeg where he would join a contracting firm and become involved in the construction of many buildings . After moving west and living briefly in Carberry , Manitoba , May came to Edmonton in 1902 .
In Edmonton he would rise to be one of the city 's most prominent contractors , constructing many of the city 's landmark buildings , as well as houses for its prominent residents . Long interested in municipal affairs , he entered civic politics with his election to the Edmonton Town Council in 1903 . After an aldermanic term that saw the inclusion of Alberta as a province in Canada , in 1905 he was elected as mayor of the newly incorporated city ; during his term he would oversee many improvements and advances to the city . Retiring after one term in office and returning to his contracting firm , he would eventually leave Edmonton in 1922 for Vancouver where he would live for 10 years leading up to his death in 1932 . An active community man , May also founded and oversaw many local organizations . A Liberal in politics , he is remembered as a progressive mayor whose policies helped the accelerate development of city of Edmonton .
= = Early life and career = =
May was born in Wellington County , Canada West in 1858 , to John and Helen ( née Esson ) May . Both of his parents were immigrants who had come to Canada early in their lives , his father originally from County Londonderry , Ireland , was a veteran of the 1837 Upper Canada Rebellion , and his mother a native of Aberdeenshire , Scotland . Charles attended and completed public schooling in Wellington County , and around 1871 the May family relocated to Paisley , Ontario . Upon the death of his father shortly thereafter , May was tasked with the responsibilities of heading and providing for his family , along with a brother , Thomas .
In 1880 , after the closing of his father 's estate and sale his father 's property , he moved west to homestead and farm at Manitoba , in the Little Saskatchewan district , near Minnedosa . A few years later , he had come to the realization that farming was not an efficient means of business for him ; his farm had been situated in an area that was so far removed from a town that travel to deliver his products had been cumbersome . He then gained employment as a carpenter and builder with the Manitoba and North Western Railway , where he was tasked with building rail bridges and stations . He would later move to Winnipeg where he continued working in his field . He would join the contracting firm of Murray & McDermot , serving as foreman on various projects , including the building of the Manitoba Hotel . After some 13 years , he went to Carberry , Manitoba where he continued contracting , this time also entering the furniture business . In 1902 , he would also be involved in the construction of the Union Bank building there .
= = Career in Edmonton = =
Later in 1902 , May once again moved , this time further west to the town of Edmonton , in the North @-@ West Territory . Upon his arrival there , he would purchase several lots of land on which he would construct a series of cottages , houses and terraces that he would later sell . In Edmonton , he would establish himself as a prominent contractor , building many notable early buildings of the town , and later city . He partnered with Charles W. Sharpe and established the May @-@ Sharpe Construction company . With his firm , buildings he was involved in constructing included the town 's first Canadian Northern Railway station , a post office , the Bank of Montreal , Merchants ' Bank and Bank of Commerce buildings , the Hudson 's Bay Company store , the first provincial penitentiary building , and the residences of city notables Richard Secord , Frank Oliver and Edward Ainslie Braithwaite . He was also involved in the construction of the Clover Bar railway bridge , for which he set the concrete piers and foundation , as well as the Land Titles Building in Regina , Saskatchewan . From 1909 to 1912 , May would also construct the still @-@ standing LeMarchand mansion , atop the North Saskatchewan River Valley as well as assist in the construction of McDougall United Church . The LeMarchand mansion construction however would bankrupt him and force him to move to a cottage on Koney Island on Cooking Lake , beside the present day Edmonton / Cooking Lake Water Aerodrome in Strathcona County , until his debts were settled . In 1921 , he did work at Fort Smith , Northwest Territories , as superintendent of the Windsor Transportation Company .
= = = Civic politics = = =
Keenly interested in the well @-@ being of citizens and affairs related to the development of the growing town , he was nominated for and eventually elected to Edmonton Town Council as an alderman in 1903 , finishing first of nine candidates , with 421 votes . His term was to last two years , but was truncated by a year by Edmonton 's incorporation as a city , which meant that the entire city council was elected afresh in the 1904 election . In that election he was again elected to a two @-@ year term , finishing first of seventeen candidates , but this time resigned one year into his term in order to run for mayor in the 1905 election . May 's time on council included the time in which Alberta was incorporated as a province ; as an alderman he voiced his support for a lavish celebration to be in Edmonton , which was to be the capital city of the new province . While sitting on council , he also voted against a proposed bylaw that would have permitted suffrage for women in civic elections ; he had initially voted in favour of the law , but had later reconsidered and reversed his vote , effectively killing the bill . The vote previously had been in favour of the bill , by a margin of one vote .
As the popular choice leading into the election , he handily defeated fellow councillor Arthur Cushing by a count of 627 votes to 355 , and thus became mayor of Edmonton . He served in this capacity for one term of one year , but did not seek re @-@ election in 1906 and retired from political life thereafter . It was during May 's term as mayor in which the municipal foundations of Edmonton were set ; he oversaw the purchase of the road maintenance equipment , the city 's first telephone system as well as the upgrade of the street car system to steel rails and posts , purchase of land for municipal use , paving of roads , and negotiations for the establishment of a manufacturing plant in the city . He also travelled to Toronto to lobby for a new union railway station in Edmonton to be constructed for use by the Grand Trunk , Canadian Northern and Canadian Pacific Railways . It was also during May 's term which the Alberta Legislature Building would first open its doors , which he would participate in its opening ceremonies . In 1911 , he would be named a returning officer for Edmonton , in charge of overseeing the Canadian federal election , 1911 .
= = Personal life = =
May was active with the Masonic Order , the Presbyterian Church , and the Liberal Party of Alberta . He also was a member of the Edmonton Exhibition Association , Old Timers ' Association as well as a director and manager with the Alberta Lumber Company , founder and president of the Edmonton Kennel Club , and one of the founders of a local contractors ' association . In 1906 , May was involved in the planning of the first provincial fair in Alberta . May married Ann Galbraith at Saugeen , Ontario in 1882 ; they would have two children and remain married until she died suddenly in 1897 . He remarried in 1901 , to Margaret Henderson with whom he had three additional children . One son , Norman was killed in an accident while working on the Grand Trunk Railway in Wolf Creek , Alberta .
Charles May was also the uncle of famed aviator and flying ace Wop May , the latter being a son of his brother , Alexander Esson May . Alexander May was a former mayor of Carberry , Manitoba , postmaster of Edmonton , as well as an unsuccessful Liberal Candidate in the Canadian federal election , 1917 , in the riding of Edmonton East .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
He moved to Vancouver , British Columbia in 1922 , and following a long period of illness , he died of stomach cancer there on March 1 , 1932 , aged 73 . He was survived by his wife , a daughter and four sons . Margeret May later died in 1949 . Regarded as a progressive and energetic mayor , upon his death , the Edmonton Bulletin noted regarding his mayoral term that " his progressive and constructive policies did much to advance the progress of Edmonton " . The 1912 publication , History of the province of Alberta , praised May 's stern and ambitious personality , stating that " in the most adverse circumstances [ he ] endured with fortitude " .
= Pike Place Fish Market =
The Pike Place Fish Market , founded in 1930 , is an open air fish market located in Seattle , Washington 's Pike Place Market , at the corner of Pike Street and Pike Place . It is known for their tradition of fishmongers throwing fish that customers have purchased , before they are wrapped . After nearing bankruptcy in 1986 , the fish market owner and employees decided to become " world famous " , changing their way of doing business by introducing their flying fish , games , and customer performances . Four years later , they were featured repeatedly in the national media and television shows . The store is now a popular tourist destination in Seattle , attracting up to 10 @,@ 000 daily visitors , and is often billed as world @-@ famous .
= = History = =
The Pike Place Fish Market was purchased in 1965 by John Yokoyama , a former employee of the fish market , who bought the store to make enough money on an owner 's salary to afford the car payments on his new Buick Riviera . Initially , Pike Place Fish Market was unknown outside of the Seattle area , but Yokoyama and his staff decided to change that in a meeting with a business coach in 1986 . Prior to the meeting , the Pike Place Fish Market was near to bankruptcy , and the consultant , Jim Bergquist , was helping them to conceive of ways to save the business . A fish market employee at the meeting suggested that they not only save the business , but make it " world famous " , with the ideas for the business ' flying and thrown fish , games with customers , and staff attitudes of always enjoying their work , so that customers would as well . In an interview , Yokoyama stated , " We took a stand that we were going to become world famous . We just said it and it became so . "
Four years later , in 1990 , Ted Turner 's Goodwill Games were held in Seattle . News crews at the Pike Place Market discovered the fish market and its performances with customers , and they filmed them . Soon afterwards , the fish market appeared on Good Morning America , leading to the business and its employees being filmed by various film crews , and being featured in numerous magazines . Now , during the summer tourist season , the fishmongers will perform now in front of as many as 10 @,@ 000 visitors daily . The success of the business has been cited to its human resources and employee attitudes . The employees of the fish market will often speak to businesses , civic groups , and schools on ways to be successful , and has led to their being featured in motivational books .
A popular feature at the Pike Place Fish Market is the monkfish , which sometimes , thanks to a hidden line , is made to " snap " at customers . In 1991 , CNN named the Pike Place Fish Market as one of the three most fun places to work in America .
= = Flying fish = =
The Pike Place Fish Market is best known for their habit of hurling customers ' orders across the shopping area . A typical routine will involve a customer ordering a fish , with their fishmongers in orange rubber overalls and boots calling out the order , which is loudly shouted back by all the other staff , at which point the original fishmonger will throw the customer 's fish behind the counter for wrapping . Initially , the shouted repeating of the ordered fish began as a prank on one employee , but was enjoyed by customers , so it became a tradition . While working , the staff continually yell to each other and chant in unison while they throw ordered fish . At times , the fish market staff will throw a foam fish into the crowd to scare bystanders , or select a customer from the crowds to participate in the fish toss . Above the areas in which they throw fish , the market hangs a sign that reads , " Caution : Low Flying Fish " .
= = Films , books and popular culture = =
In 1998 , the Pike Place Fish Market was the subject of a documentary film and accompanying book , FISH ! Philosophy . The Pike Place Fish Market has also been the setting for several best @-@ selling corporate training videos , the aforementioned FISH ! , and also FISH ! Sticks , which have been used by firms such as Enterprise Rent @-@ A @-@ Car , Sprint Nextel , Southwest Airlines , Sainsbury 's , Saturn , and Scottish and Southern Energy , for employee training . The Pike Place Fish Market has been featured in a variety of television shows and commercials . These include a Spike Lee Levis jeans commercial ; MTV 's The Real World ; NBC 's Frasier , and ABC 's Good Morning America . In films , they have appeared in Free Willy . Reference to the Pike Place Fish Market is also made by American hip hop duo Macklemore & Ryan Lewis in their 2015 single " Downtown " featuring Eric Nally , Melle Mel , Kool Moe Dee and Grandmaster Caz .
= Great French Wine Blight =
The Great French Wine Blight was a severe blight of the mid @-@ 19th century that destroyed many of the vineyards in France and laid waste to the wine industry . It was caused by an aphid ( the actual genus of the aphid is still debated , although it is largely considered to have been a species of Daktulosphaira vitifoliae , commonly known as grape phylloxera ) that originated in North America and was carried across the Atlantic in the late 1850s . While France is considered to have been worst affected , the blight also did a great deal of damage to vineyards in other European countries .
How the Phylloxera aphid was introduced to Europe remains debated : American vines had been taken to Europe many times before , for reasons including experimentation and trials in grafting , without consideration of the possibility of the introduction of pestilence . While the Phylloxera was thought to have arrived around 1858 , it was first recorded in France in 1863 , near the former province of Languedoc . It is argued by some that the introduction of such pests as phylloxera was only a problem after the invention of steamships , which allowed a faster journey across the ocean , and consequently allowed durable pests , such as the Phylloxera , to survive .
Eventually , following Jules @-@ Émile Planchon 's discovery of the Phylloxera as the cause of the blight , and Charles Valentine Riley 's confirmation of Planchon 's theory , Leo Laliman and Gaston Bazille , two French wine growers , proposed that the European vines be grafted to the resistant American rootstock that were not susceptible to the Phylloxera . While many of the French wine growers disliked this idea , many found themselves with no other option . The method proved to be an effective remedy . The " Reconstitution " ( as it was termed ) of the many vineyards that had been lost was a slow process , but eventually the wine industry in France was able to return to relative normality .
= = Background = =
The aphid that was the central source of the damage in France was first noted following the growing of the European vine Vitis vinifera by French colonists in Florida , in the 16th century . These plantations were a failure , and later experiments with related species of vine also failed , although the reason for these failures appears to have been a mystery to the French colonists . It is known today that it was a species of North American grape phylloxera that caused these early vineyards to fail ; the venom injected by the Phylloxera causes a disease that is quickly fatal to the European varieties of vine . The aphids initially went unnoticed by the colonists , despite their great numbers , and the pressure to successfully start a vineyard in America at the time .
It became common knowledge among the settlers that their European vines , of the vinifera. variety , simply would not grow in American soil , and they resorted to growing native American plants , and established plantations of these native vines . Exceptions did exist ; vinifera plantations were well @-@ established in California before the aphids found their way there .
= = = Phylloxera = = =
There have been several theories proposed for why the phylloxera was ignored as the possible cause of the disease that resulted in the failure of so many vineyards , most of which involve the feeding behaviour of the insect , and the way it attacks the roots . The proboscis of the grape phylloxera has both a venom canal from which it injects its deadly venom and a feeding tube through which it takes in vine sap and nutrients . As the toxin from the venom corrodes the root structure of a vine , the sap pressure falls and , as a result , the Phylloxera quickly withdraws its feeding tube and searches for another source of food . Thus , anyone digging up a diseased and dying vine will not find Phylloxera clinging to the roots of the plant .
= = = Journey to Europe = = =
For a few centuries , Europeans had experimented with American vines and plants in their soil , and many varieties were imported from America without regulation , disregarding the possibility of pest transfer , and related problems . Jules @-@ Emile Planchon , a French biologist , who identified the Phylloxera in the 1860s , maintained that this transfer of American vines and plants into Europe greatly increased between roughly 1858 and 1862 , and this is how the Phylloxera was accidentally introduced to Europe around 1860 , although the aphid did not enter France until around 1863 . It is believed that the advent of steamships was a factor as well , as the ships were faster , and the Phylloxera were able to survive the quicker ocean voyage .
= = The blight = =
= = = Initial appearance = = =
The first known documented instance of an attack by the Phylloxera in France was in the village of Pujaut in the department of Gard of the former province of Languedoc , in 1863 . The wine makers there did not notice the aphids , just as the French colonists in America had not , but they noted the mysterious blight that was damaging their vines . The only description of the disease that was given by these wine growers was that it ' reminded them distressingly of " consumption " ' ( tuberculosis ) . The blight quickly spread throughout France , but it was several years before the cause of the disease was determined .
= = = Damage = = =
Over 40 % of French grape vines and vineyards were devastated over a 15 @-@ year period , from the late 1850s to the mid @-@ 1870s . The French economy was badly hit by the blight ; many businesses were lost , and wages in the wine industry were cut to less than half . There was also a noticeable trend of migration to , among other places , Algiers and America . The production of cheap raisins and sugar wines caused problems for the domestic industry that threatened to persist even after the blight itself . The damage to the French economy , is estimated to have been slightly over 10 billion Francs .
= = = Discovery = = =
Research into identifying the cause of the disease began in 1868 , when grape growers in Roquemaure , near Pujaut , asked the agricultural society in Montpellier for help . To investigate the disease , the society appointed a committee consisting of botanist Jules Émile Planchon , local grower Felix Sahut , and the society 's president , Gaston Bazille , among others . Sahut soon noticed that the roots of dying vines were infested with " lice " , which were sucking sap from the plants . The committee named the new insect Rhizaphis vastatrix . Planchon consulted French entomologists Victor Antoine Signoret and Jules Lichtenstein ( Planchon 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) . Signoret suggested renaming the insect Phylloxera vastatrix , due to its similarity to Phylloxera quercus , which afflicted oak leaves . In 1869 , English entomologist John Obadiah Westwood suggested that an insect that had afflicted grape leaves in England circa 1863 was the same insect afflicting grape vines ' roots in France . Also in 1869 , Lichtenstein suggested that the French insect was an American " vine louse " that had been identified in 1855 by the American entomologist Asa Fitch , which he 'd named Pemphigus vitifoliae . However , there was a problem with these suggestions : French grape lice were known to infest only a vine 's roots , whereas American grape lice were known to infest only its leaves . The British @-@ born American entomologist Charles Valentine Riley had been following news of the outbreak in France . He sent Signoret specimens of American grape lice , which Signoret concluded — in 1870 , while besieged in Paris during the Franco @-@ Prussian War — were indeed identical to French grape lice . Meanwhile , Planchon and Lichtenstein had found vines with afflicted leaves ; lice that were transferred from those leaves to the roots of healthy vines attached themselves to the vines ' roots as other French grape lice did . Also in 1870 , Riley discovered that American grape lice wintered on American grape vines ' roots , which the insects damaged , albeit less than in the case of French vines . Using American grape vines and American grape lice , Riley also repeated Planchon and Lichtenstein 's experiment , with similar results . Thus the identity of the French and American grape lice was proved . Nevertheless , for another three years , a powerful majority in France argued that Phylloxera was not the cause of vine disease ; instead , vines that were already sickly became infested with Phylloxera . Thus , in their opinion , Phylloxera was merely a consequence of the " true " disease , which remained to be found . Regardless , Riley had discovered American grape varieties that were especially resistant to Phylloxera , and by 1871 , French farmers began to import them and graft French vines onto the American rootstock . ( Leo Laliman had suggested importing American vines as early as 1869 , but French farmers were reluctant to abandon their traditional varieties . Gaston Bazille then proposed grafting traditional French vines onto American rootstock . ) However , importation of American vines did not entirely solve the problem : some American grape varieties struggled in France 's chalky soils and succumbed to Phylloxera . By trial and error , American vines were found that could tolerate chalky soils . Meanwhile , entomologists worked to unravel the strange life cycle of Phylloxera , a project that was completed in 1874 .
= = = Solution = = =
Many growers resorted to their own methods in attempt to resolve the issue . Chemicals and pesticides were used to no avail . In desperation , some growers positioned toads under each vine , and others allowed their poultry to roam free in the hope they would eat the insects . None of these methods were successful .
After Charles Valentine Riley , Missouri 's state entymologist , confirmed Planchon 's theory , Leo Laliman and Gaston Bazille , two French wine growers , both suggested the possibility that if vinifera vines could be combined , by means of grafting , with the aphid @-@ resistant American vines , then the problem might be solved . Thomas Volney Munson was consulted and provided native Texan rootstocks for grafting . Because of Munson 's role , the French government in 1888 sent a delegation to Denison to confer on him the French Legion of Honor Chevalier du Mérite Agricole .
The method was tested , and proved a success . The process was colloquially termed " reconstitution " by French wine growers . The cure for the disease caused a great division in the wine industry : some , who became known as the " chemists " , rejected the grafting solution and persisted with the use of pesticides and chemicals . Those who became grafters were known as " Americanists " , or " wood merchants " . Following the demonstrated success of grafting in the 1870s and 1880s the immense task of " reconstituting " the majority of France 's vineyards began .
= = = = Prize = = = =
The French government had offered over 320 @,@ 000 Francs as a reward to whoever could discover a cure for the blight . Having reportedly been the first to suggest the possibility of using the resistant American rootstock , Leo Laliman tried to claim the money , but the French government refused to award it , with the rationale that he had not cured the blight , but rather stopped it from occurring . However , there may have been other reasons for the government denying Laliman the prize : he was mistrusted by several notable parties , and he was thought by many to have originally introduced the pest .
= = Present day = =
There is still no remedy , as such , for the Phylloxera , or the disease it brings with it , and it still poses a substantial threat to any vineyard not planted with grafted rootstock . In fact , there is only one European grape vine known to be resistant to the Phylloxera , the Assyrtiko vine , which grows on the volcanic Greek island of Santorini ; however there is speculation that the actual source of this resistance may arise from the volcanic ash in which the vines grow , and not from the vine itself .
The events of the Great Wine Blight , and the need for European @-@ American grafting has given rise to a debate that remains unresolved today : whether self @-@ rooted vines produce better wine than those that are grafted .
There still exist some vines which have been neither grafted nor destroyed by phylloxera , including some owned by Bollinger .
= Hurricane Fabian =
Hurricane Fabian was a powerful Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that hit Bermuda in early September during the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . Fabian , the sixth named storm , fourth hurricane , and first major hurricane of the season , developed from a tropical wave in the tropical Atlantic Ocean on August 25 . It moved west @-@ northwestward under the influence of the subtropical ridge to its north , and steadily strengthened in an area of warm water temperatures and light wind shear . The hurricane attained a peak intensity of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) on September 1 , and it slowly weakened as it turned northward . On September 5 , Fabian made a direct hit on Bermuda with wind speeds of over 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . After passing the island , the hurricane turned to the northeast , and became extratropical on September 8 .
Fabian was the strongest hurricane to hit Bermuda since Hurricane Arlene in 1963 . It was both the most damaging and the first hurricane to cause a death on the island since 1926 . The hurricane 's powerful winds resulted in moderate damage and destroyed roofs throughout the island . A strong storm surge associated with the hurricane killed four people crossing a causeway on Bermuda , temporarily closing the only link between two islands . The endangered Bermuda petrel , better known as the cahow , was threatened by the hurricane , which destroyed ten nests , although volunteer work transported the species to a safer location . Strong swells resulted in damage in northern Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic , and also caused four people to drown along the United States ' Atlantic coast . In all , Fabian caused around US $ 300 million in damage and eight deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 25 , a tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa . Tracking westward , the wave developed convection over its center , and conducive conditions allowed it to develop further . The system passed through the Cape Verde islands later that day as convection steadily weakened . Early on August 27 , convection again increased and consolidated near the center , and later that day the wave developed into Tropical Depression Ten while located 420 miles ( 675 km ) west of the Cape Verde islands . Moving westward into an area of warm waters and low vertical shear , the depression steadily intensified , and was named Tropical Storm Fabian on August 28 as convection increased and banding features became more prominent .
Banding features and outflow continued to develop as a ring of convection formed around the center of Fabian , and on August 30 , the storm intensified into a hurricane while gradually slowing its motion to the west @-@ northwest . As banding features and outflow became better defined , an eye developed in the center of the deepest convection . Fabian quickly strengthened and attained major hurricane status late that day . Deep convection became very concentric around the 11 @.@ 5 mile ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) wide eye , and the hurricane reached winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) early on August 31 . At this time , the deepest convection near the eye degraded in appearance , and Fabian temporarily stopped its strengthening trend . Later that day , the eye became distinct again within a perfectly round area of deep convection . Outflow continued to expand in all directions , and Fabian intensified into a Category 4 hurricane late on August 31 . Thunderstorm activity near the eyewall became more intense , and the cloud tops in the eyewall became much cooler ; simultaneously , outflow away from the eye became much more symmetrical , both signs of an intensifying tropical cyclone . Fabian reached its peak intensity of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) on September 1 while located 345 miles ( 555 km ) east of the northern Lesser Antilles .
After maintaining its peak intensity for 12 hours Fabian degraded due to internal fluctuations , and began to weaken . The hurricane turned to the northwest on September 2 in response to a weakness in the subtropical ridge , a break caused by a mid @-@ level circulation over the southwest Atlantic Ocean . After fading back to a Category 3 hurricane , Fabian re @-@ intensified on September 4 , and regained Category 4 status for a short time . The hurricane weakened again as it accelerated northward towards Bermuda , a motion due to an approaching mid @-@ level trough . As small pockets of dry air became entrained in the eyewall , Fabian weakened slightly , passing just 14 miles ( 23 km ) west of Bermuda on September 5 as a 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane . The eastern portion of the eyewall moved over the island , resulting in a direct hit ; however , as the center did not move over the island , Fabian did not make landfall . After passing the island , the hurricane accelerated northeastward , and weakened to a 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) Category 2 hurricane on September 7 . Steady weakening occurred as the hurricane moved into an area of increasing wind shear , drier air , and progressively cooler waters . On September 8 , while located 680 miles ( 1095 km ) east @-@ northeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland , Fabian transitioned into an extratropical storm , with no deep convection remaining near the center . The extratropical remnant turned to the north on September 9 , and on September 10 it merged with another extratropical storm while located between southern Greenland and Iceland .
= = Preparations = =
Several days prior to Fabian striking Bermuda , computer models forecast a ridge of high pressure forcing the hurricane to the west of the island by 200 miles ( 320 km ) . Not expected to be a direct threat , a meteorologist at the Bermuda Weather Service expected gusty winds and potentially heavy rainfall . Each successive advisory brought the hurricane steadily closer to Bermuda , and 35 hours before Fabian made its closest approach , the Bermuda Weather Service issued a hurricane watch for the island . When a track near Bermuda became more certain , a hurricane warning was issued for the island , approximately 29 hours before Fabian made a direct hit on the island .
The Bermuda Electric Light Company recommended Bermuda residents to buy hurricane supplies such as candles , batteries , and non @-@ perishable foods , to fill bathtubs and extra containers with water , and fill gasoline tanks for automobiles . In preparation , residents formed long lines at gas stations , banks , and supermarkets . All government offices and many businesses closed on the day prior to the hurricane hitting . All schools were closed , while all flights in and out of the island were canceled . Officials opened emergency shelters , and recommended 2 @,@ 000 low @-@ lying residents to evacuate ; a hotel on the south shore of the island was evacuated as well . Several cruise ships expected to remain on the island departed early to avoid the hurricane . Local insurance companies on Bermuda experienced a great increase in business , as residents renewed lapsed policies or signed up for new policies for homes or businesses , though marine policies were stopped several days before the hurricane struck . The arrival of Fabian forced the cancellation or delay of several sports events , including a cricket match , a football game , and a dinghy race .
= = Impact = =
Throughout its path , Fabian killed 8 people and caused US $ 300 million in damages , primarily in Bermuda .
= = = Caribbean = = =
The hurricane produced storm surge damage in Antigua and Barbuda , where some boats were lightly damaged . Strong swells and high tides produced large waves on the north coast of Puerto Rico , washing out beaches in various locations . Waves knocked out a 10 ft ( 3 m ) portion of a construction site in Ocean Park , resulting in US $ 30 thousand in damage . In the Dominican Republic , the hurricane produced waves of up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in height . Due to the waves and gusty winds , boats were advised to stay at port . Several families had to be evacuated in Nagua when rough seas flooded their homes .
= = = Bermuda = = =
Hurricane Fabian produced a 10 @-@ minute average wind speed of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , while a peak wind gust of 164 mph ( 264 km / h ) occurred at Bermuda Harbour Radio . The strongest of the winds lasted approximately three to four hours , and while the eastern portion of the eyewall moved over the island , winds decreased to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Large waves battered the southern portion of the island for several days , reaching heights of 25 to 35 feet ( 7 to 10 m ) at the worst of the hurricane , and upon passing the island , the hurricane produced a storm surge exceeding 11 feet ( 3 m ) in height . Due to its fast motion , rainfall totals rose to only 1 @.@ 82 inches ( 46 @.@ 2 mm ) . There were several unofficial reports of tornadoes as well . Strong rip currents from the hurricane persisted for several days prior to Fabian passing the island ; two swimmers were caught in the currents and relied on lifeguard assistance to return to shore . As a result , rip tide warnings were posted for the island .
Strong waves caused extensive damage to the coastline , especially on the southern portion of Bermuda . The strong waves broke a boat from its moorings at Spanish Point . Not wanting to lose the ship , the owner , accompanied with two people , tried to save the vessel . One fell overboard before climbing aboard the boat . The three ventured the vessel through tornadoes and 20 @-@ foot ( 6 m ) waves , which dropped several feet of water in the ship ; however , ultimately they safely arrived at Hamilton Harbour . Five charter boats capsized from the waves , while several others crashed against reefs . Strong waves collapsed a sea wall in Hamilton , causing traffic jams for one day until it was fixed .
The winds downed numerous power lines , causing 78 % of the island 's 32 @,@ 031 power customers to experience power outages . The strong winds damaged or destroyed the roofs of numerous buildings on Bermuda . One of the areas lightest hit was around a hotel outside of Hamilton , which experienced no power outages or blown out windows , while one of the harder hit areas was Warwick . There , one resident noted , " Too many homes have lost roofs to count " . One house was entirely destroyed on Rec View Hill , while an unconfirmed tornado destroyed much of the roof of a house in Devonshire . The hurricane destroyed a restaurant in Southampton and also damaged stands and roofs at sports facilities . Strong winds from the hurricane damaged several landmark buildings , including the House of Assembly and the City Hall , both in Hamilton , and the former military headquarters in St. George 's .
Bermuda International Airport sustained $ 15 million in damages , primarily to buildings and roadways which were washed away by the storm surge . The runway escaped major damage , however , and the airport re @-@ opened the following day for emergency relief flights . Confronting the damages in the storm 's aftermath , Airport General Manager James Howes was quoted by the news media as saying , " My heart sank when I first saw the Airport that morning . There was tons of debris everywhere and all the fire alarms and security alarms were going off . There was this din of bells and horns - it was like a war zone " . Commercial airline service was suspended for three days due to heavy damage to the Terminal Building , which was flooded with 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of seawater . The airport 's ILS and radar were also damaged .
The hurricane also affected the Bermuda Weather Service , as 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) waves destroyed recording equipment . The winds severely damaged the island 's major hotels , closing five for extended periods to repair damage . One hotel that remained open experienced damage to 25 % of its rooms . The strong winds uprooted hundreds of trees along the island 's golf courses , though little damage was reported at most courses . One course experienced significant damage at its club house , temporarily closing it .
The strong winds blew down hundreds of trees , caused severe damage to vegetation , and destroyed many of the island 's indigenous plants . The hurricane washed away large sections of the nesting island for the endangered Bermuda petrel and destroyed 10 of the 70 active nests . The endangered birds were not on the island , though local residents quickly gathered to restore their habitat . Strong waves resulted in severe coastal erosion , and at one beach , the lack of sand destroyed a natural cove . The Natural Arches , a set of eroded stones resembling an arch that was popular in photographs , was destroyed by the waves . The powerful winds knocked coconuts of off several trees and scattered them across the ground .
The storm surge from the hurricane stranded one vehicle with three police officers and another with a resident on the causeway between St. George 's Parish and St. David 's Island . After a fire truck failed in its attempt to rescue them , powerful waves washed the vehicles into Castle Harbour . The United States Coast Guard and Bermuda police divers mounted a full @-@ scale search for the missing people during the worst of the storm . The strong winds and emotional issues of searching for colleagues made the search difficult . Ultimately , the vehicles and one dead body were recovered , with the others remaining missing , presumably dead . Another vehicle was on the causeway as the two cars became stranded , though the driver was able to safely cross . High winds and surf tore off the causeway 's side walls and greatly damaged the structure , temporarily closing it to automobile traffic .
As most people were well @-@ prepared , these were the only four deaths on the island . In addition , nine people sought medical attention for minor injuries . Damage on Bermuda totaled to US $ 300 million , reportedly the worst to affect the area since 1926 .
= = = Atlantic coast = = =
Swells from the hurricane produced rip currents and heavy surf along the eastern North Carolina coastline . One man drowned near Cape Hatteras from the rip currents . Fabian produced moderate surfing conditions along the East Coast of the United States , primarily from Georgia to North Carolina . Three deaths were reported in the north Atlantic when a ship , The Pacific Attitude , sank south of Newfoundland in the Grand Banks due to strong waves of over 60 feet ( 20 m ) in height .
= = Aftermath = =
Blocked roads initially caused delays to crews from the Bermuda Electric Light Company ( BELCO ) , which were attempting to restore power to the island . Of high priority among the places to be restored were the hospital , as well as hotels to accommodate tourists who remained on the island through the storm . By the second day after the storm passed the island , power was restored to 11 @,@ 000 residents . Power on Bermuda was restored to all customers within three weeks of the hurricane , but the electricity supply distribution system was greatly weakened . This resulted in a rehabilitation plan implemented in October 2003 . Days after the hurricane passed , moisture from Tropical Storm Henri resulted in thunderstorms and heavy rainfall ; this hindered recovery efforts , but did not cause any reported damage . Lack of power caused interruptions to communications . While an emergency broadcast station was installed and tested prior the hurricane , the hurricane caused a problem to the system 's back @-@ up generator . The causeway in Bermuda remained closed for several days after the hurricane as road crews made temporary repairs . Upon being opened three days after the storm , traffic was limited to one lane of the original two . However , the causeway had to be closed in the event of rain , winds exceeding 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , and at night . The bridge was fully repaired by early November 2003 .
In the days after the storm , people provided assistance for each other , especially for the elderly . Three days after the storm , for example , a radio station DJ announced a name for an elderly person in need , and within minutes someone would call to provide for their needs . Residents cleared smaller roads from debris with chainsaws , which in turn helped the power companies to make repairs quickly . As a result of damage on their homes , dozens of people stayed in five shelters or undamaged hotels . Residents purchased large quantities of gasoline in the days after Fabian , some of whom bought over US $ 500 worth . Officials assured there was no shortage , but requested drivers to conserve gas . XL Capital Ltd. shipped 250 tarpaulins , 10 electric generators , and rope supply to the island . The UK government offered help to the island with two Royal Navy ships with supplies such as tents , dried foods , and blankets . Premier Alex Scott declined the offer , believing the island could withstand on its own . World Vision also offered assistance with blankets , tents , and other supplies , while two United States companies offered to send generators . Bermuda Electric Light received aid from the Caribbean Electric Organization , which sent over 20 electricians to repair power lines .
Initially , the time for the destroyed vegetation on Bermuda to regrow was estimated to take decades . To help , the South Carolina Maritime Heritage Foundation , with support from a Boy Scout troop and nearby nurseries , delivered 1 @,@ 000 boxwood plants to the island . Following the damage to the Bermuda petrel 's habitat , Bermuda 's Department of Conservation carried out a translocation program , which involved moving the habitat to Nonsuch Island . That island , a long @-@ standing nature preserve , was much higher and safer for the birds , and by two years after the hurricane the population numbers were higher than before the storm .
Shortly after the hurricane , the American home improvement franchise This Old House , unaware of the limited extent of damage , decided to do a hurricane repair story . Upon realising that there would be little to nothing available for the Ask This Old House to repair , it was decided instead to do a renovation of an 1805 home in St. George 's . It was only the second time that the franchise had worked outside of the United States .
A memorial to the four Bermudians whose lives were claimed by Hurricane Fabian was subsequently erected near the Causeway 's east end by the airport , where the 10th anniversary of their deaths was remembered by government officials in September 2013 . The onslaught of Hurricane Gonzalo in October 2014 prompted a catastrophe modeller to revisit Fabian 's destruction , concluding that had it struck in 2014 , it would have caused around $ 650 million in damage .
= = = Retirement = = =
Due to the damage and deaths on Bermuda , the name Fabian was retired in the spring of 2004 and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane . As a result , the Bermuda Weather Service allowed residents to suggest a replacement name , with the only rule being the name had to be a male name beginning with the letter " F " , able to be easily pronounced , and not currently in use . The service received a list of over 30 names , including Forrest and Frodo , after the character in The Lord of the Rings . The Bermuda Weather Service sent three names to the World Meteorological Organization ; Fred , Ford , and Flynn . The World Meteorological Organization ultimately replaced Fabian with Fred to be on the list for the 2009 season . Fabian is one of only three tropical cyclones to have its name retired without making landfall anywhere , with the others being Klaus in 1990 and Erika in 2015 .
= Mount Kenya =
Mount Kenya is the highest mountain in Kenya and the second @-@ highest in Africa , after Kilimanjaro . The highest peaks of the mountain are Batian ( 5 @,@ 199 metres ( 17 @,@ 057 ft ) ) , Nelion ( 5 @,@ 188 metres ( 17 @,@ 021 ft ) ) and Point Lenana ( 4 @,@ 985 metres ( 16 @,@ 355 ft ) ) . Mount Kenya is located in central Kenya , about 16 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 3 mi ) south of the equator , around 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) north @-@ northeast of the capital Nairobi . Mount Kenya is the source of the name of the Republic of Kenya .
Mount Kenya is a stratovolcano created approximately 3 million years after the opening of the East African rift . Before glaciation , it was 7 @,@ 000 m ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) high . It was covered by an ice cap for thousands of years . This has resulted in very eroded slopes and numerous valleys radiating from the centre . There are currently 11 small glaciers . The forested slopes are an important source of water for much of Kenya .
There are several vegetation bands from the base to the summit . The lower slopes are covered by different types of forest . Many alpine species are endemic to Mount Kenya , such as the giant lobelias and senecios and a local subspecies of rock hyrax . An area of 715 km2 ( 276 sq mi ) around the centre of the mountain was designated a National Park and listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997 . The park receives over 16 @,@ 000 visitors per year .
= = Mount Kenya National Park = =
Mount Kenya National Park , established in 1949 , protects the region surrounding the mountain . Currently the national park is within the forest reserve which encircles it . In April 1978 the area was designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve . The national park and the forest reserve , combined , became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997 .
The Government of Kenya had four reasons for creating a national park on and around Mount Kenya . These were the importance of tourism for the local and national economies , preserve an area of great scenic beauty , conserve the biodiversity within the park and to preserve the water catchment for the surrounding area .
Kenya ’ s government has announced a project to discourage animals from straying into small holdings surrounding the Park and devastating crops . The project will see the Park enclosed by an electric fence with five electrified strands and is expected to be completed by 2014 . The fence will discharge an electric shock , but is not dangerous to humans or animals .
= = Local culture = =
The main ethnic groups living around Mount Kenya are Kikuyu , Ameru , Embu and Maasai . The first three are closely related . They all see the mountain as an important aspect of their cultures . All these cultures arrived in the Mount Kenya area in the last several hundred years .
= = = Kikuyu = = =
The Kikuyu live on the southern and western sides of the mountain . They are agriculturalists , and make use of the highly fertile volcanic soil on the lower slopes . They believe that God , Ngai or Mwene Nyaga , lived on Mount Kenya when he came down from the sky . They believe that the mountain is Ngai 's throne on earth . It is the place where Gĩkũyũ , the father of the tribe , used to meet with God . Thus according to the Kikuyu records , Gĩkũyũ is the first person on Earth to ascend the mountain . ' Mwene Nyaga ' in Kikuyu language can also translate as the " Owner of the crown " where ' Mwene ' translates to ' owner ' , and ' Nyaga ' to Crown . The snow ( in Kikuyu : Ira ) caps of the mountain symbolically represent a crown on God 's habitation and thus the crown @-@ nyaga reference . ' Nyaga ' can also translate to ' Ostrich ' . In this context , God is seen to be the owner of that very rare bird the Ostrich .
Kikuyu used to build their houses with the doors facing the mountain . The Kikuyu name for Mount Kenya is Kĩrĩ Nyaga ( Kirinyaga ) , which literally translates to that which has the Nyaga - crown and therefore the locally accepted connotation ' God 's Resting Place ' or ' Where God Lives ' , referring to Mwene Nyaga .
= = = Embu = = =
The Embu people live to the south @-@ east of Mount Kenya , and believe that the mountain is God 's home ( the Embu word for God is Ngai or Mwene Njeru ) . The mountain is sacred , and they build their houses with the doors facing towards it . The Embu people are closely related to the Ameru and Mbeere people . The Mbeere and Akamba are the settlers of the southeast side of the mountain .
= = = Ameru = = =
The Ameru occupy the east and north slopes of the mountain . They are generally agricultural and also keep livestock and occupy what is among the most fertile land in Kenya . The Meru God Murungu was from the skies . Their name for Mt . Kenya is Kirimara , which means ' mountain with white features ' . Mt . Kenya features a lot in the Ameru folklore and songs .
= = = Maasai = = =
The Maasai are semi @-@ nomadic people , who use the land to the north of the mountain to graze their cattle . They believe that their ancestors came down from the mountain at the beginning of time . The Maasai name for Mount Kenya is Ol Donyo Keri , which means ' mountain of stripes ' , referring to the dark shades as observed from the surrounding plains . At least one Maasai prayer refers to Mount Kenya :
God bless our children , let them be like the olive tree of Morintat , let them grow and expand , let them be like Ngong Hills like Mt . Kenya , like Mt . Kilimanjaro and multiply in number .
= = Geology = =
Mount Kenya is a stratovolcano that was active in the Plio @-@ Pleistocene . The original crater was probably over 6 @,@ 000 m ( 19 @,@ 700 ft ) high ; higher than Kilimanjaro . Since it became extinct there have been two major periods of glaciation , which are shown by two main rings of moraines below the glaciers . The lowest moraine is found at around 3 @,@ 300 m ( 10 @,@ 800 ft ) . Today the glaciers reach no lower than 4 @,@ 650 m ( 15 @,@ 260 ft ) . After studying the moraines , Gregory put forward the theory that at one time the whole summit of the mountain was covered with an ice cap , and it was this that eroded the peaks to how they are today .
The lower slopes of the mountain have never been glaciated . They are now mainly cultivated and forested . They are distinguished by steep @-@ sided V @-@ shaped valleys with many tributaries . Higher up the mountain , in the area that is now moorland , the valleys become U @-@ shaped and shallower with flatter bottoms . These were created by glaciation .
When Mount Kenya was active there was some satellite activity . The north @-@ eastern side of the mountain has many old volcanic plugs and craters . The largest of these , Ithanguni , even had its own ice cap when the main peaks were covered in ice . This can be seen by the smoothed summit of the peak . Circular hills with steep sides are also frequent in this area , which are probably the remains of small plugged vents . However , as the remaining mountain is roughly symmetrical , most of the activity must have occurred at the central plug .
The rocks that form Mount Kenya are mainly basalts , rhomb porphyrites , phonolites , kenytes and trachytes . Kenyte was first reported by Gregory in 1900 following his study of the geology of Mount Kenya .
The geology of the Mount Kenya area was first proposed to the Western Community by Joseph Thomson in 1883 . He saw the mountain from the nearby Laikipia Plateau and wrote that it was an extinct volcano with the plug exposed . However , as he had only seen the mountain from a distance his description was not widely believed in Europe , particularly after 1887 when Teleki and von Höhnel ascended the mountain and described what they considered to be the crater . In 1893 Gregory 's expedition reached the Lewis Glacier at 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) . He confirmed that the volcano was extinct and that there were glaciers present . The first thorough survey by Europeans was not undertaken until 1966 .
= = Peaks = =
The peaks of Mount Kenya are almost all from a volcanic origin . The majority of the peaks are located near the centre of the mountain . These peaks have an Alpine appearance due to their craggy nature . Typically of Alpine terrain , the highest peaks and gendarmes occur at the intersection of ridges . The central peaks only have a few mosses , lichens and small alpine plants growing in rock crevices . Further away from the central peaks , the volcanic plugs are covered in volcanic ash and soils . The vegetation growing on these peaks is typical for their vegetation band .
The highest peaks are Batian ( 5 @,@ 199 metres ( 17 @,@ 057 ft ) ) , Nelion ( 5 @,@ 188 m ( 17 @,@ 021 ft ) ) and Pt Lenana ( 4 @,@ 985 m ( 16 @,@ 355 ft ) ) . Batian and Nelion are within 250 m ( 270 yd ) of each other , separated by the Gate of the Mists gap ( 5 @,@ 144 metres ( 16 @,@ 877 ft ) ) . Coryndon Peak ( 4 @,@ 960 m ( 16 @,@ 273 ft ) ) is the next highest , but unlike the previous peaks it does not form a part of the central plug .
Other peaks around the central plug include Pt Piggot ( 4 @,@ 957 m ( 16 @,@ 263 ft ) ) , Pt Dutton ( 4 @,@ 885 m ( 16 @,@ 027 ft ) ) , Pt John ( 4 @,@ 883 m ( 16 @,@ 020 ft ) ) , Pt John Minor ( 4 @,@ 875 m ( 15 @,@ 994 ft ) ) , Krapf Rognon ( 4 @,@ 800 m ( 15 @,@ 748 ft ) ) , Pt Peter ( 4 @,@ 757 m ( 15 @,@ 607 ft ) ) , Pt Slade ( 4 @,@ 750 m ( 15 @,@ 584 ft ) ) and Midget Peak ( 4 @,@ 700 m ( 15 @,@ 420 ft ) ) . All of these have a steep pyramidal form .
Significant craggy outlying peaks include Terere ( 4 @,@ 714 m ( 15 @,@ 466 ft ) ) and Sendeyo ( 4 @,@ 704 m ( 15 @,@ 433 ft ) ) which form a pair of twin peaks to the north of the main plug . Together , they form a large parasitic plug . Other notable peaks include The Hat ( 4 @,@ 639 m ( 15 @,@ 220 ft ) ) , Delamere Peak , Macmillan Peak and Rotundu .
= = Glaciers = =
The glaciers on Mount Kenya are retreating rapidly . The Mountain Club of Kenya in Nairobi has photographs showing the mountain when it was first climbed in 1899 , and again more recently ; the retreat of the glaciers is very evident . Descriptions of ascents of several of the peaks advise on the use of crampons , but this is true only in some cases and at higher heights . Every year there is less new snow accumulating in winter than melting on summer , even on the Lewis Glacier ( the largest of them ) in winter , so there is no formation of new ice . It is predicted to be less than 30 years before there will no longer be ice on Mount Kenya . Glacial retreat and disappearance can be caused by change in temperature trends , or by change in precipitation trends .
The glacier names are ( clockwise from the north ) :
Northey , Krapf , Gregory , Lewis , Diamond , Darwin , Forel , Heim , Tyndall , Cesar , Josef .
The area of glaciers on the mountain was measured in the 1980s , and recorded as about 0 @.@ 7 km2 ( 0 @.@ 27 sq mi ) . This is far smaller than the first observations , made in the 1890s .
= = = Periglacial landforms = = =
Although Mount Kenya is on the equator the freezing nightly temperatures result in periglacial landforms . There is permafrost a few centimetres ( inches ) below the surface . Patterned ground is present at 3 @,@ 400 m ( 11 @,@ 155 ft ) to the west of Mugi Hill . These mounds grow because of the repeated freezing and thawing of the ground drawing in more water . There are blockfields present around 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) where the ground has cracked to form hexagons . Solifluction occurs when the night temperatures freeze the soil before it thaws again in the morning . This daily expansion and contraction of the soil prevents the establishment of vegetation .
= = Rivers = =
Mount Kenya is the main water catchment area for two large rivers in Kenya ; the Tana , the largest river in Kenya , and the Ewaso Ng 'iso North . The Mount Kenya ecosystem provides water directly for over 2 million people . The rivers on Mount Kenya have been named after the villages on the slopes of the mountain that they flow close to . The Thuchi River is the district boundary between Meru and Embu . Mount Kenya is a major water tower for the Tana river which in 1988 supplied 80 % of Kenya 's electricity using a series of seven hydroelectric powerstations and dams .
The density of streams is very high , especially on the lower slopes which have never been glaciated . The ice cap which used to cover the mountain during the Pliocene eroded large U @-@ shaped valleys which tend to only have one large stream . Where the original shape of the shield volcano is still preserved , there have been millions of years for streams to erode the hillside . This area is therefore characterised by frequent deep fluvial V @-@ shaped valleys . The gradual transition from glaciated to fluvial valley can be clearly observed .
Rivers which start on Mount Kenya are the tributaries of two large Kenyan rivers : the Tana and the Ewaso Ng 'iro rivers . A lot of Mount Kenyan rivers flow into the Sagana which itself is a tributary of the Tana , which it joins at the Masinga Reservoir . The rivers in the northern part of the mountain , such as the Burguret , Naru Moru , Nanyuki , Liki , Sirimon flow into the Ewaso Ng 'iro . The rivers to the south @-@ west , such as the Keringa and Nairobi flow into the Sagana and then into the Tana . The remaining rivers to the south and east , such as the Mutonga , Nithi , Thuchi and Nyamindi , flow directly into the Tana .
= = Natural history = =
Mount Kenya has several altitudinal ecological zones , between the savanna surrounding the mountain to the nival zone by the glaciers . Each zone has a dominant species of vegetation . Many of the species found higher up the mountain are endemic , either to Mount Kenya or East Africa .
There are also differences within the zones , depending on the side of the mountain and aspect of the slope . The south @-@ east is much wetter than the north , so species more dependent on moisture are able to grow . Some species , such as bamboo , are limited to certain aspects of the mountain because of the amount of moisture .
= = = Zones = = =
The climate of Mount Kenya changes considerably with altitude , forming belts of community types . Around the base of the mountain is fertile farmland . The tribes living around the mountain have cultivated this cool relatively moist area for centuries .
Mount Kenya is surrounded by forests . The vegetation in the forests depend on rainfall , and the species present differ greatly between the northern and southern slopes . As time has passed the trees on the edge of the forest have been logged and the farmland has encroached further up the fertile slopes of the mountain .
Above the forest is a belt of bamboo . This zone is almost continuous , but is restricted to small isolated bunches in the north because of low rainfall . The bamboo is natural , and does not require forest disturbance . Tracks are common through the bamboo . Bamboo suppresses other vegetation , so it is uncommon to find trees or other plants here .
Above the bamboo is the timberline forest . The trees here are often smaller than the trees in the forests lower down the mountain . The forest here is more intact , because it is less accessible and better protected .
When the trees can no longer grow the vegetation changes into heathland and chaparral , at around 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Heathland is found in the wetter areas , on the west side of Mount Kenya , and is dominated by giant heathers . Chaparral is found in the drier areas and grasses are more common. and bush fires still occur .
As the altitude increases the temperature fluctuations become extreme and the air becomes thinner and drier . This region is known as the Afro @-@ alpine zone . The environment here is isolated , with the only similar area nearby being the Aberdares , which are 80 km ( 50 mi ) away . Many of the species here are endemic , with adaptations to the cold and fluctuating temperatures . Typical plants here include giant groundsels ( senecios ) and giant lobelias .
The region where the glaciers have recently retreated from is nival zone . It is the area that plants have not yet been able to colonise .
= = = Flora = = =
The flora found on Mount Kenya varies with altitude , aspect and exposure . As the altitude increases , the plants have to be more specialised , with adaptations to strong sunlight with ultraviolet , lower mean temperatures and freezing night temperatures .
Plants in the Afro @-@ alpine zone have overcome these difficulties in several ways . One adaptation is known as the giant rosette , which is exhibited by giant senecio , giant lobelia and giant thistle ( Carduus ) , which use bud leaves to protect their buds from freezing . Giant rosette senecios form single @-@ aged stands that drive community structure over decades .
Many plant species in the Afro @-@ alpine zone of Mount Kenya are giant versions of lowland ( or temperate ) relatives . However , nearer the nival zone the plants decrease in size again .
= = = Fauna = = =
The majority of animals live lower down on the slopes of Mount Kenya . Here there is more vegetation and the climate is less extreme . Various species of monkeys , several antelopes , tree hyrax , porcupines and some larger animals such as elephant and buffalo all live in the forest . Predators found here include hyena and leopard , and occasionally lion .
There are fewer mammals found at high altitudes on Mount Kenya . The Mount Kenya hyrax and common duiker are able to live here , and are important to the ecosystem . Some smaller mammals , such as the groove @-@ toothed rat , can live here by burrowing into the giant senecios and using their thick stem of dead leaves as insulation . The Mount Kenya mole @-@ rat Tachyoryctes rex occurs at high altitudes , living in visible mounds . Leopards are resident in the alpine zone .
Other mammal species are only occasional visitors . Remains of elephants , monkeys and bongo have been found high in the alpine zone , and other sightings are remembered in names such as Simba Tarn ( simba means lion in Swahili ) .
Several bird species live in the Afro @-@ alpine zone , including sunbirds , alpine chats and starlings and the raptors , augur buzzard , lammergeier and Verreaux 's eagle , the latter of which specializes in hunting hyraxes . Birds are important in this ecosystem as pollinators .
= = Climate = =
The climate of Mount Kenya has played a critical role in the development of the mountain , influencing the topography and ecology amongst other factors . It has a typical equatorial mountain climate which Hedberg described as winter every night and summer every day . Mount Kenya is home to one of the Global Atmosphere Watch 's atmospheric monitoring stations .
= = = Seasons = = =
The year is divided into two distinct wet seasons and two distinct dry seasons which mirror the wet and dry seasons in the Kenyan lowlands . As Mount Kenya ranges in height from 1 @,@ 374 m ( 4 @,@ 508 ft ) to 5 @,@ 199 m ( 17 @,@ 057 ft ) the climate varies considerably over the mountain and has different zones of influence . The lower , south eastern slopes are the wettest as the predominant weather system comes from the Indian ocean . This rainfall supports dense montane forest on these slopes . High on the mountain most of the precipitation falls as snow . Combined , these water sources feed 11 glaciers .
The current climate on Mount Kenya is wet , but drier than it has been in the past . The temperatures span a wide range , which diminishes with altitude . In the lower al | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
pine zone temperature usually do not go below 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) . Snow and rain are common from March to December , but especially in the two wet seasons . The wet seasons combined account for 5 / 6 of the annual precipitation . The monsoon , which controls the wet and dry seasons , means that most of the year there are south @-@ easterly winds , but during January and February the dominant wind direction is north @-@ easterly .
Mount Kenya , like most locations in the tropics , has two wet seasons and two dry seasons as a result of the monsoon . From mid @-@ March to June the heavy rain season , known as the long rains , brings approximately half of the annual rainfall on the mountain . This is followed by the wetter of the two dry seasons which lasts until September . October to December are the short rains when the mountain receives approximately a third of its rainfall total . Finally from December to mid @-@ March is the drier dry season when the mountain experiences the least rain .
= = = Daily pattern = = =
During the dry season the mountain almost always follows the same daily weather pattern . Large daily temperature fluctuations occur which led Hedberg to exclaim winter every night and summer every day . There is variation in minimum and maximum temperatures day to day , but the standard deviation of the mean hourly pattern is small .
A typical day is clear and cool in the morning with low humidity . The mountain is in direct sunlight which causes the temperatures to rise quickly with the warmest temperatures occurring between 0900 and 1200 . This corresponds to a maximum in the pressure , usually around 10 am . Low on the mountain , between 2 @,@ 400 m ( 7 @,@ 874 ft ) and 3 @,@ 900 m ( 12 @,@ 795 ft ) , clouds begin to form over the western forest zone , due to moist air from Lake Victoria . The anabatic winds caused by warm rising air gradually bring these clouds to the summit region in the afternoon . Around 1500 there is a minimum in sunlight and a maximum in humidity causing the actual and perceived temperature to drop . At 1600 there is a minimum in the pressure . This daily cover of cloud protects the glaciers on the south @-@ west of the mountain which would otherwise get direct sun every day , enhancing their melt . The upwelling cloud eventually reaches the dry easterly air streams and dissipates , leading to a clear sky by 5 pm . There is another maximum of temperature associated with this .
Being an equatorial mountain the daylight hours are constant with twelve @-@ hour days . Sunrise is about 0530 with the sun setting at 1730 . Over the course of the year there is a one @-@ minute difference between the shortest and longest days . At night , the sky is usually clear with katabatic winds blowing down the valleys . Above the lower alpine zone there is usually frost every night .
= = History = =
= = = European sighting = = =
The first European to report seeing Mount Kenya was Dr Johann Ludwig Krapf , a German missionary , from Kitui in 1849 , a town 160 km ( 100 mi ) away from the mountain . The sighting was made on 3 December 1849 , a year after the discovery of Kilimanjaro .
Krapf was told by people of the Embu tribe that lived around the mountain that they did not ascend high enough on the mountain because of the intense cold and the white matter that rolled down the mountains with a loud noise . This led him to infer that glaciers existed on the mountain . It was Krapf who gave the mountain the name " Kenya " , but the derivation of this is not known with certainty ( see the various local names below , some of which are similar ) .
Krapf also noted that the rivers flowing from Mount Kenya , and other mountains in the area , were continuously flowing . This was very different from the other rivers in the area , which swelled up in the wet season and completely dried up after the rainy season had ended . As the streams flowed even in the driest seasons he concluded that there must be a source of water up on the mountain , in the form of glaciers . He believed the mountain to be the source of the White Nile .
In 1851 Krapf returned to Kitui . He travelled 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) closer to the mountain , but did not see it again . In 1877 Hildebrandt was in the Kitui area and heard stories about the mountain , but also did not see it . Since there were no confirmations to back up Krapf 's claim people began to be suspicious .
Eventually , in 1883 , Joseph Thomson passed close by the west side of the mountain and confirmed Krapf 's claim . He diverted his expedition and reached 1 @,@ 737 m ( 5 @,@ 700 ft ) up the slopes of the mountain but had to retreat because of trouble with local people . However , the first European exploration high onto the mountain was achieved in 1887 by Count Samuel Teleki . He managed to reach 4 @,@ 350 m ( 14 @,@ 270 ft ) on the south western slopes . On this expedition Teleki mistakenly believed he had found the crater of a volcano .
In 1892 , Teleki and von Höhnel returned to the eastern side , but were unable to get through the forest .
Finally , in 1893 , an expedition managed to ascend Mount Kenya as far as the glaciers . This expedition was traveling from the coast to Lake Baringo in the Rift Valley , and was led by Dr John W Gregory , a British geologist . They managed to ascend the mountain to around 4 @,@ 730 m ( 15 @,@ 520 ft ) , and spent several hours on the Lewis Glacier with their guide . On his return to Britain , Gregory published papers and a narrative account of his achievements .
George Kolb , a German physician , made expeditions in 1894 and 1896 and was the first to reach the moorlands on the east side of the mountain . More exploration occurred after 1899 when the Uganda Railway was completed as far as the future site of Nairobi .
= = = Mackinder 's expedition = = =
On 28 July 1899 , Sir Halford John Mackinder set out from the site of Nairobi on an expedition to Mount Kenya . The members of the expedition consisted of 6 Europeans , 66 Swahilis , 2 Maasai guides , and 96 Kikuyu . The Europeans were Campbell B. Hausberg , second in command and photographer ; Douglas Saunders , botanist ; C F Camburn , taxidermist ; Cesar Ollier , guide ; and Josef Brocherel , guide and porter . The expedition made it as far as the mountain , but encountered many difficulties on the way . The country they passed through was full of plague and famine . Many Kikuyu porters tried to desert with women from the villages , and others stole from the villages , which made the chiefs very hostile towards the expedition . When they reached the base camp on 18 August , they could not find any food , had two of their party killed by the local people , and eventually had to send Saunders to Naivasha to get help from Captain Gorges , the Government Officer there .
Mackinder pushed on up the mountain , and established a camp at 3 @,@ 142 m ( 10 @,@ 310 ft ) in the Höhnel Valley . He made his first attempt on the summit on 30 August with Ollier and Brocherel up the south east face , but they had to retreat when they were within 100 m ( 110 yd ) of the summit of Nelion due to nightfall .
On 5 September , Hausberg , Ollier , and Brocherel made a circuit of the main peaks looking for an easier route to the summit . They could not find one . On 11 September Ollier and Brocherel made an ascent of the Darwin Glacier , but were forced to retreat due to a blizzard .
When Saunders returned from Naivasha with the relief party , Mackinder had another attempt at the summit with Ollier and Brocherel . They traversed the Lewis Glacier and climbed the south east face of Nelion . They spent the night near the gendarme , and traversed the snowfield at the head of the Darwin Glacier at dawn before cutting steps up the Diamond Glacier . They reached the summit of Batian at noon on 13 September , and descended by the same route .
= = = 1900 – 1930 = = =
After the first ascent of Mount Kenya there were fewer expeditions there for a while . The majority of the exploration until after the First World War was by settlers in Kenya , who were not on scientific expeditions . A Church of Scotland mission was set up in Chogoria , and several Scottish missionaries ascended to the peaks , including Rev Dr. J. W. Arthur , G. Dennis and A. R. Barlow . There were other ascents , but none succeeded in summitting Batian or Nelion .
New approach routes were cleared through the forest , which made access to the peaks area far easier . In 1920 , Arthur and Sir Fowell Buxton tried to cut a route in from the south , and other routes came in from Nanyuki in the north , but the most commonly used was the route from the Chogoria mission in the east , built by Ernest Carr . Carr is also credited with building Urumandi and Top Huts .
On 6 January 1929 the first ascent of Nelion was made by Percy Wyn @-@ Harris and Eric Shipton . They climbed the Normal Route , then descended to the Gate of Mists before ascending Batian . On 8 January they reascended , this time with G. A. Sommerfelt , and in December Shipton made another ascent with R. E. G. Russell . They also made the first ascent of Point John . During this year the Mountain Club of East Africa was formed .
At the end of July 1930 , Shipton and Bill Tilman made the first traverse of the peaks . They ascended by the West Ridge of Batian , traversed the Gate of Mists to Nelion , and descended the Normal Route . During this trip , Shipton and Tilman made first ascents of several other peaks , including Point Peter , Point Dutton , Midget Peak , Point Pigott and either Terere or Sendeyo .
= = = 1931 to present day = = =
In the early 1930s there were several visits to the moorlands around Mount Kenya , with fewer as far as the peaks . Raymond Hook and Humphrey Slade ascended to map the mountain , and stocked several of the streams with trout . By 1938 there had been several more ascents of Nelion . In February , Miss C Carroll and Mtu Muthara became the first woman and African respectively to ascend Nelion , in an expedition with Noel Symington , author of The Night Climbers of Cambridge , and on 5 March Miss Una Cameron became the first woman to ascend Batian .
During the Second World War there was another drop in ascents of the mountain . The most remarkable ascent during this period was by three Italians who were being held in a British POW camp at the base of the mountain in Nanyuki . They escaped from camp to climb the mountain 's third peak , Point Lenana , before " escaping " back into camp . Felice Benuzzi , the team leader , retold his story in the book No Picnic on Mount Kenya ( 1946 ) .
In 1949 the Mountain Club of Kenya split from the Mountain Club of East Africa , and the area above 3 @,@ 400 m ( 11 @,@ 150 ft ) was designated a National Park . A road was built from Naro Moru to the moorlands , allowing easier access .
Many new routes were climbed on Batian and Nelion in the next three decades , and in October 1959 the Mountain Club of Kenya produced their first guide to Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro . On Kenyan independence in 1963 , Kisoi Munyao raised the Kenyan flag at the top of the mountain . He died in 2007 and was given a heroic funeral attended by Kenyan president Mwai Kibaki . In the early 1970s the Mount Kenya National Park Mountain Rescue Team was formed , and by the end of the 1970s all major routes on the peaks had been climbed .
On 19 July 2003 , a South African registered aircraft , carrying 12 passengers and two crew , crashed into Mount Kenya at Point Lenana ; nobody survived . This was not the first aircraft lost on the mountain ; there is also the wreckage of at least one helicopter that crashed before 1972 .
In March 2012 a massive fire raged on Mount Kenya , devouring thousands of hectares of ancient forests and endangered wildlife .
= = Mountaineering = =
= = = Climbing routes = = =
Most of the peaks on Mount Kenya have been summited . The majority of these involve rock climbing as the easiest route , although some only require a scramble or a walk . The highest peak that can be ascended without climbing is Point Lenana , 4 @,@ 985 m ( 16 @,@ 355 ft ) . The majority of the 15 @,@ 000 visitors to the national park each year climb this peak . In contrast , approximately 200 people summit Nelion and 50 summit Batian , the two highest peaks .
When ascended directly , Batian is usually climbed via the North Face Standard Route , UIAA grade IV + ( or 5 @.@ 6 + YDS ) . It was first ascended on 31 July 1944 by Firmin and Hicks . The route is usually climbed in two days . The Normal Route is the most climbed route up Nelion , and thence across to Batian . It was first climbed by Shipton and Wyn @-@ Harris on 6 January 1929 . It is possible to traverse between the two peaks , via the Gates of Mist , but this often involves spending a night in the Howell hut on top of Nelion . There is a bolted abseil descent route off Nelion .
Mount Kenya 's climbing seasons are a result of its location only 20 km ( 12 mi ) from the equator . During the northern summer the rock routes on the north side of the peak are in good summer condition , while at the same time the ice routes on the south side of the peak are prime shape . The situation is reversed during the southern summer . The two seasons are separated by several months of rainy season before and after , during which climbing conditions are generally unfavorable .
Mount Kenya is home to several good ice routes , the two most famous being the Diamond Couloir and the Ice Window route . Snow and ice levels on the mountain have been retreating at an accelerated rate in recent years , making these climbs increasingly difficult and dangerous . The Diamond Couloir , a steep ice couloir fed by the fusion of the upper Diamond Glacier and pioneered in 1975 by Yvon Chouinard and Michael Covington , was once climbable in summer or winter but now is virtually unclimbable in summer conditions and is seldom deemed in climbable condition even in winter . Last climbing reports describe the route very difficult , especially in the lower section . The route has changed into a modern ice climb with a very difficult 60m first pitch , starting with 8m of overhanging M7 dry tooling , followed by 50m of USA Grade V ice and by others 6 pitches of moderate climbing on good ice and finally one pitch of water ice USA Grade IV + ice at the headwall before getting to the Upper Diamond Glacier .
The satellite peaks around the mountain also provide good climbs . These can be climbed in Alpine style and vary in difficulty from a scramble to climbing at UIAA grade VI . They are useful for acclimatisation before climbing the higher peaks and as ascents in their own right .
= = = Walking routes = = =
There are eight walking routes up to the main peaks . Starting clockwise from the north these are the : Meru , Chogoria , Kamweti , Naro Moru , Burguret , Sirimon and Timau Routes . Of these Chogoria , Naro Moru and Sirimon are used most frequently and therefore have staffed gates . The other routes require special permission from the Kenya Wildlife Service to use .
The Chogoria route leads from Chogoria town up to the peaks circuit path . It heads through the forest to the south @-@ east of the mountain to the moorland , with views over areas such as Ithanguni and the Giant 's Billiards Table before following the Gorges Valley past the Temple and up to Simba Col below Point Lenana . The Mountain Club of Kenya claims that Ithanguni and the Giant 's Billiards Table offer some of the best hillwalking in Kenya .
The Naro Moru route is taken by many of the trekkers who try to reach Point Lenana . It can be ascended in only 3 days and has bunkhouses at each camp . The route starts at Naro Moru town to the west of the mountain and climbs towards Mackinder 's Camp before joining the Peak Circuit Path . The terrain is usually good , although one section is called the Vertical Bog .
The Sirimon route approaches Mount Kenya from the north @-@ west . The path splits on the moorlands , with the more frequently used fork following the Mackinder Valley and the quieter route traversing into the Liki North Valley . The paths rejoin at Shipton 's Cave just below Shipton 's Camp on the Peak Circuit Path .
The Peak Circuit Path is a path around the main peaks , with a distance of about 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) and height gain and loss of over 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . It can be walked in one day , but more commonly takes two or three . It can also be used to join different ascent and descent routes . The route does not require technical climbing .
= = = Accommodation = = =
Accommodation on Mount Kenya ranges from very basic to luxurious . The more luxurious lodges are found on the lower slopes , in and around the forest . These lodges have hotel @-@ style accommodation , often with log fires and hot running water . Many offer guided walks and other activities such as fishing and birdwatching . The huts higher on the mountain are more basic . Most have several bunkrooms with beds , and also offer somewhere to rest , cook and eat . Some also have running water . A few huts are very basic bothies only offering a space to sleep that is sheltered from the weather . Beds in the huts can be reserved at the park gates . Camping is allowed anywhere in the National Park , but is most encouraged around the huts to limit environmental impact . It is possible for campers to use the communal spaces in the huts for no extra fee .
= = Etymology = =
The origin of the name Kenya is not clear , but perhaps linked to the Kikuyu , Embu and Kamba words Kirinyaga , Kirenyaa and Kiinyaa which mean " God 's resting place " in all three languages .
In the 19th Century , the German explorer , Ludwig Krapf , recorded the name as both Kenia and Kegnia believed by some to be a corruption of the Kamba version . Others however say that this was on the contrary a very precise notation of the correct African pronunciation / ˈkɛnjə / . In any case , the name was for a long time pronounced by colonial @-@ heritage Europeans as / ˈkiːnjə / . The European pronunciation has been abandoned in modern times , in favor of the African version .
= = = Names of peaks = = =
The peaks of Mount Kenya have been given names from three different sources . Firstly , several Maasai chieftains have been commemorated , with names such as Batian , Nelion and Lenana . They commemorate Mbatian , a Maasai Laibon ( Medicine Man ) , Nelieng , his brother , and Lenana and Sendeyo , his sons . Terere is named after another Maasai headman .
The second type of names that were given to peaks are after European climbers and explorers . Some examples of this are Shipton , Sommerfelt , Tilman , Dutton and Arthur .
The remaining names are after well @-@ known Kenyan personalities , with the exception of John and Peter , which were named by the missionary Arthur after two disciples . There is a group of four peaks to the east of the main peaks named after European settlers ; Coryndon , Grigg , Delamere and McMillan .
= = Additional reading = =
Benuzzi , F. ( 1953 ) . No Picnic on Mount Kenya . Lyons Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59228 @-@ 724 @-@ 6 .
Best , Nicholas ( 2014 ) . Point Lenana . Thistle Publishing / Kindle Single .
de Watteville , Vivienne ( 1935 ) . Speak to the Earth . W W Norton and Co Inc . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 39333 @-@ 556 @-@ 9 .
Fadiman J. ( 1993 ) . When We Began , There Were Witchmen An Oral History from Mount Kenya . University of California Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 08615 @-@ 9 . Retrieved 28 June 2011 .
Kenyatta , J. ( 1962 ) . Facing Mount Kenya . Vintage Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 70210 @-@ 0 .
Mahaney , W.C. ( 1990 ) . Ice on the Equator . Ellison Bay , Wisconsin , U.S.A : Wm Caxton Ltd . ISBN 0 @-@ 940473 @-@ 19 @-@ 4 . A full survey of the long glacial and periglacial reconstructive history of Mt . Kenya , its geological and environmental settings , sequences of paleosols ( ancient soils ) and their significance in understanding the multiplicity of glaciations .
= Scotland in the Early Middle Ages =
Scotland in the early Middle Ages , between the end of Roman authority in southern and central Britain from around 400 and the rise of the kingdom of Alba in 900 , was divided into a series of kingdoms . Of these the four most important to emerge were the Picts , the Scots of Dál Riata , the Britons of Alt Clut and the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia . After the arrival of the Vikings in the late 8th century , Scandinavian rulers and colonies were established along parts of the coasts and in the islands . In the 9th century the Scots and Picts were combined under the House of Alpin to form a single kingdom which formed the basis of the kingdom of Scotland .
Scotland has an extensive coastline and large areas of difficult terrain and poor agricultural land . In this period more land became marginal due to climate change . This resulted in relatively light settlement , particularly in the interior and Highlands . Northern Britain lacked urban centres and settlements were based on farmsteads and around fortified positions such as brochs , with mixed @-@ farming largely based on self @-@ sufficiency . In this period , changes in settlement and colonisation meant that the Pictish and Brythonic languages began to be subsumed by Gaelic , English , and , at the end of the period , by Old Norse . Life expectancy was relatively low , leading to a young population , with a ruling aristocracy , freemen , and relatively large numbers of slaves . Kingship was multi @-@ layered , with different kings surrounded by their war bands that made up the most important elements of armed forces , who engaged in both low @-@ level raiding and occasional longer @-@ range , major campaigns .
One key event during the period was the expansion of Christianity from the margins of Scotland , becoming the religion of many inhabitants . Initially influenced by the Celtic tradition originating from what is now Ireland , by the end of the era it had become integrated into the organisational structures of the Catholic Church . This period produced some highly distinctive monumental and ornamental art , culminating in the development of the Insular art style , common across Britain and Ireland . The most impressive structures included nucleated hill forts and , after the introduction of Christianity , churches and monasteries . The period also saw the beginnings of Scottish literature in British , Old English , Gaelic and Latin languages .
= = History = =
By the time of Bede and Adomnán , in the late seventh century and early eighth century , four major circles of influence had emerged in northern Britain . In the east were the Picts , whose kingdoms eventually stretched from the river Forth to Shetland . In the west were the Gaelic ( Goidelic ) -speaking people of Dál Riata with their royal fortress at Dunadd in Argyll , with close links with the island of Ireland , from which they brought with them the name Scots , originally a term used to describe the inhabitants of Ireland . In the south was the British ( Brythonic ) Kingdom of Alt Clut , descendants of the peoples of the Roman @-@ influenced kingdoms of " The Old North " . Finally , there were the English or " Angles " , Germanic invaders who had overrun much of southern Britain and held the Kingdom of Bernicia ( later the northern part of Northumbria ) , in the south @-@ east , and who brought with them Old English .
= = = Picts = = =
The confederation of Pictish tribes that developed north of the Firth of Forth may have stretched up as far as Orkney . It probably developed out of the tribes of the Caledonii ( whose name continued to be used for at least part of the confederation ) , perhaps as a response to the pressure exerted by the presence of the Romans to the south . They first appear in Roman records at the end of the 3rd century as the picti ( the painted people : possibly a reference to their habit of tattooing their bodies ) when Roman forces campaigned against them . The first identifiable king of the Picts , who seems to have exerted a superior and wide @-@ ranging authority , was Bridei mac Maelchon ( r. c . 550 – 84 ) . His power was based in the kingdom of Fidach , and his base was at the fort of Craig Phadrig , near modern Inverness . After his death , leadership seems to have shifted to the Fortriu , whose lands were centred on Strathearn and Menteith and who raided along the eastern coast into modern England . Christian missionaries from Iona appear to have begun the conversion of the Picts to Christianity from 563 .
In the 7th century , the Picts acquired Bridei map Beli ( 671 – 693 ) as a king , perhaps imposed by the kingdom of Alt Clut , where his father Beli I and then his brother Eugein I ruled . At this point the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom of Bernicia was expanding northwards and the Picts were probably tributary to them until , in 685 , Bridei defeated them at the Battle of Dunnichen in Angus , killing their king , Ecgfrith . In the reign of Óengus mac Fergusa ( 729 – 761 ) , the Picts appear to have reached the height of their influence , defeating the forces of Dál Riata ( and probably making them a tributary ) , invading Alt Clut and Northumbria , and making the first known peace treaties with the English . Succeeding Pictish kings may have been able to dominate Dál Riata , with Caustantín mac Fergusa ( 793 – 820 ) perhaps placing his son Domnall on the throne from 811 .
= = = Dál Riata = = =
The Gaelic overkingdom of Dál Riata was on the western coast of modern Scotland , with some territory on the northern coasts of Ireland . It probably ruled from the fortress of Dunadd , now near Kilmartin in Argyll and Bute . In the late 6th and early 7th centuries , it encompassed roughly what is now Argyll and Bute and Lochaber in Scotland , and also County Antrim in Ireland . Dál Riata is commonly viewed as having been an Irish Gaelic colony in Scotland , although some archaeologists have recently argued against this . The inhabitants of Dál Riata are often referred to as Scots , from Latin scotti , a name used by Latin writers for the inhabitants of Ireland . Its original meaning is uncertain , but it later refers to Gaelic @-@ speakers , whether from Ireland or elsewhere .
In 563 , a mission from Ireland under St. Columba founded the monastery of Iona off the west coast of Scotland , and probably began the conversion of the region to Christianity . The kingdom reached its height under Áedán mac Gabráin ( r . 574 – 608 ) , but its expansion was checked at the Battle of Degsastan in 603 by Æthelfrith of Northumbria . Serious defeats in Ireland and Scotland in the time of Domnall Brecc ( d . 642 ) ended Dál Riata 's golden age , and the kingdom became a client of Northumbria , then a subject to the Picts . There is disagreement over the fate of the kingdom from the late 8th century onwards . Some scholars argue that Dál Riata underwent a revival under king Áed Find ( 736 – 78 ) , before the arrival of the Vikings .
= = = Alt Clut = = =
Alt Clut ( named after the Brythonic name for Dumbarton Rock , the Medieval capital of the Strathclyde region ) may have had its origins with the Damnonii people of Ptolemy 's Geographia . Two kings are known from near contemporary sources in this early period . The first is Coroticus or Ceretic ( Ceredig ) , known as the recipient of a letter from Saint Patrick , and stated by a 7th @-@ century biographer to have been king of the Height of the Clyde , Dumbarton Rock , placing him in the second half of the 5th century . From Patrick 's letter it is clear that Ceretic was a Christian , and it is likely that the ruling class of the area were also Christians , at least in name . His descendant Rhydderch Hael is named in Adomnán 's Life of Saint Columba .
After 600 , information on the Britons of Alt Clut becomes more common in the sources . In 642 , led by Eugein son of Beli , they defeated the men of Dál Riata and killed Domnall Brecc , grandson of Áedán , at Strathcarron . The kingdom suffered a number of attacks from the Picts under Óengus , and later the Picts ' Northumbrian allies between 744 and 756 . They lost the region of Kyle in the south @-@ west of modern Scotland to Northumbria , and the last attack may have forced the king Dumnagual III to submit to his neighbours . After this , little is heard of Alt Clut or its kings until Alt Clut was burnt and probably destroyed in 780 , although by whom and what in what circumstances is not known , Historians have traditionally identified Alt Clut with the later Kingdom of Strathclyde , but J. E. Fraser points to the fact there is no contemporary evidence that the heartland of Alt Clut was in Clydesdale and the Kingdom of Strathclyde may have arisen after Alt Clut 's decline .
= = = Bernicia = = =
The Brythonic successor states of what is now the modern Anglo @-@ Scottish border region are referred to by Welsh scholars as part of Yr Hen Ogledd ( " The Old North " ) . This included the kingdoms of Bryneich , which may have had its capital at modern Bamburgh in Northumberland , and Gododdin , centred on Din Eidyn ( perhaps what is now Edinburgh ) and stretching across modern Lothian . Some " Angles " may have been employed as mercenaries along Hadrian 's Wall during the late Roman period . Others are thought to have migrated north ( by sea ) from Deira ( Old English : Derenrice or Dere ) in the early 6th century . At some point the Angles took control of Bryneich , which became the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom of Bernicia ( Old English : Beornice ) . The first Anglo @-@ Saxon king in the historical record is Ida , who is said to have obtained the throne around 547 . Around 600 , the Gododdin raised a force of about 300 men to assault the Anglo @-@ Saxon stronghold of Catraeth , perhaps Catterick , North Yorkshire . The battle , which ended disastrously for the Britons , was memorialised in the poem Y Gododdin .
Ida 's grandson , Æthelfrith , united Deira with his own kingdom , killing its king Æthelric to form Northumbria around 604 . Ætherlric 's son returned to rule both kingdoms after Æthelfrith had been defeated and killed by the East Anglians in 616 , presumably bringing with him the Christianity to which he had converted while in exile . After his defeat and death at the hands of the Welsh and Mercians at the Battle of Hatfield Chase on 12 October 633 , Northumbria again was divided into two kingdoms under pagan kings . Oswald ( r . 634 – 42 ) , ( another son of Æthelfrith ) defeated the Welsh and appears to have been recognised by both Bernicians and Deirans as king of a united Northumbria . He had converted to Christianity while in exile in Dál Riata and looked to Iona for missionaries , rather than to Canterbury . The island monastery of Lindisfarne was founded in 635 by the Irish monk Saint Aidan , who had been sent from Iona at the request of King Oswald . It became the seat of the Bishop of Lindisfarne , which stretched across Northumbria . In 638 Edinburgh was attacked by the English and at this point , or soon after , the Gododdin territories in Lothian and around Stirling came under the rule of Bernicia . After Oswald 's death fighting the Mercians , the two kingdoms were divided again , with Deira possibly having sub @-@ kings under Bernician authority , but from this point the English kings were Christian and after the Synod of Whitby in 664 , the Northumbrian kings accepted the primacy of Canterbury and Rome . In the late 7th century , the Northumbrians extended their influence north of the Forth , until they were defeated by the Picts at the Battle of Nechtansmere in 685 .
= = = Vikings and the Kingdom of Alba = = =
The balance between rival kingdoms was transformed in 793 when ferocious Viking raids began on monasteries like Iona and Lindisfarne , creating fear and confusion across the kingdoms of North Britain . Orkney , Shetland and the Western Isles eventually fell to the Norsemen . The king of Fortriu , Eógan mac Óengusa , and the king of Dál Riata , Áed mac Boanta , were among the dead after a major defeat to the Vikings in 839 . A mixture of Viking and Gaelic Irish settlement into south @-@ west Scotland produced the Gall @-@ Gaidel , the Norse Irish , from which the region gets the modern name Galloway . Sometime in the 9th century , the beleaguered kingdom of Dál Riata lost the Hebrides to the Vikings , when Ketil Flatnose is said to have founded the Kingdom of the Isles . These threats may have speeded a long term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms , which adopted Gaelic language and customs . There was also a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns , although historians debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata , or the other way around . This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín ( Kenneth MacAlpin ) in the 840s , which brought to power the House of Alpin , who became the leaders of a combined Gaelic @-@ Pictish kingdom . In 867 the Vikings seized Northumbria , forming the Kingdom of York ; three years later they stormed the Briton fortress of Dumbarton and subsequently conquered much of England except for a reduced Kingdom of Wessex , leaving the new combined Pictish and Gaelic kingdom almost encircled .
The immediate descendants of Cináed were styled either as King of the Picts or King of Fortriu . They were ousted in 878 when Áed mac Cináeda was killed by Giric mac Dúngail , but returned again on Giric 's death in 889 . When Cínaed 's eventual successor Domnall mac Causantín died at Dunnottar in 900 , he was the first man to be recorded as rí Alban ( i.e. King of Alba ) . Such an apparent innovation in the Gaelic chronicles is occasionally taken to spell the birth of Scotland , but there is nothing extant from or about his reign that might confirm this . Known in Gaelic as " Alba " , in Latin as " Scotia " , and in English as " Scotland " , his kingdom was the nucleus from which the Scottish kingdom would expand as the Viking influence waned , just as in the south the Kingdom of Wessex expanded to become the Kingdom of England .
= = Geography = =
= = = Physical geography = = =
Modern Scotland is half the size England and Wales in area , but with its many inlets , islands and inland lochs , it has roughly the same amount of coastline at 4 @,@ 000 miles . Only a fifth of Scotland is less than 60 metres above sea level . Its east Atlantic position means that it has very heavy rainfall : today about 700 cm ( 276 in ) per year in the east and over 1 @,@ 000 cm ( 394 in ) in the west . This encouraged the spread of blanket peat bog , the acidity of which , combined with high level of wind and salt spray , made most of the islands treeless . The existence of hills , mountains , quicksands and marshes made internal communication and conquest extremely difficult and may have contributed to the fragmented nature of political power . The early Middle Ages was a period of climate deterioration , with a drop in temperature and an increase in rainfall , resulting in more land becoming unproductive .
= = = Settlement = = =
Roman influence beyond Hadrian 's Wall does not appear to have had a major impact on settlement patterns , with Iron Age hill forts and promontory forts continuing to be occupied through the early Medieval period . These often had defences of dry stone or timber laced walls , sometimes with a palisade . The large numbers of these forts has been taken to suggest peripatetic monarchies and aristocracies , moving around their domains to control and administer them . In the Northern and Western Isles the sites of Iron Age Brochs and wheel houses continued to be occupied , but were gradually replaced with less imposing cellular houses . There are a handful of major timber halls in the south , comparable to those excavated in Anglo @-@ Saxon England and dated to the 7th century . In the areas of Scandinavian settlement in the islands and along the coast a lack of timber meant that native materials had to be adopted for house building , often combining layers of stone with turf .
Place @-@ name evidence , particularly the use of the prefix " pit " , meaning land or a field , suggests that the heaviest areas of Pictish settlement were in modern Fife , Perthshire , Angus , Aberdeen and around the Moray Firth , although later Gaelic migration may have erased some Pictish names from the record . Early Gaelic settlement appears to have been in the regions of the western mainland of Scotland between Cowal and Ardnamurchan , and the adjacent islands , later extending up the West coast in the 8th century . There is place name and archaeological evidence of Anglian settlement in south @-@ east Scotland reaching into West Lothian , and to a lesser extent into south @-@ western Scotland . Later Norse settlement was probably most extensive in Orkney and Shetland , with lighter settlement in the western islands , particularly the Hebrides and on the mainland in Caithness , stretching along fertile river valleys through Sutherland and into Ross . There was also extensive Viking settlement in Bernicia , the Northern part of Northumbria , which stretched into the modern Borders and Lowlands .
= = = Language = = =
This period saw dramatic changes in the geography of language . Modern linguists divide the Celtic languages into two major groups , the P @-@ Celtic , from which Welsh , Breton and Cornish derive and the Q @-@ Celtic , from which comes Irish , Manx and Gaelic . The Pictish language remains enigmatic , since the Picts had no written script of their own and all that survives are place names and some isolated inscriptions in Irish ogham script . Most modern linguists accept that , although the nature and unity of Pictish language is unclear , it belonged to the former group . Historical sources , as well as place name evidence , indicate the ways in which the Pictish language in the north and Cumbric languages in the south were overlaid and replaced by Gaelic , English and later Norse in this period .
= = Economy = =
Lacking the urban centres created under the Romans in the rest of Britain , the economy of Scotland in the early Middle Ages was overwhelmingly agricultural . Without significant transport links and wider markets , most farms had to produce a self @-@ sufficient diet of meat , dairy products and cereals , supplemented by hunter @-@ gathering . Limited archaeological evidence indicates that throughout Northern Britain farming was based around a single homestead or a small cluster of three or four homes , each probably containing a nuclear family , with relationships likely to be common among neighbouring houses and settlements , reflecting the partition of land through inheritance . Farming became based around a system that distinguished between the infield around the settlement , where crops were grown every year and the outfield , further away and where crops were grown and then left fallow in different years , in a system that would continue until the 18th century . The evidence of bones indicates that cattle were by far the most important domesticated animal , followed by pigs , sheep and goats , while domesticated fowl were rare . Imported goods found in archaeological sites of the period include ceramics and glass , while many sites indicate iron and precious metal working .
= = Demography = =
There are almost no written sources from which to re @-@ construct the demography of early Medieval Scotland . Estimates have been made of a population of 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants in Dál Riata and 80 – 100 @,@ 000 for Pictland . It is likely that the 5th and 6th centuries saw higher mortality rates due to the appearance of bubonic plague , which may have reduced net population . The known conditions have been taken to suggest it was a high fertility , high mortality society , similar to many developing countries in the modern world , with a relatively young demographic profile , and perhaps early childbearing , and large numbers of children for women . This would have meant that there were a relatively small proportion of available workers to the number of mouths to feed . This would have made it difficult to produce a surplus that would allow demographic growth and more complex societies to develop .
= = Society = =
The primary unit of social organisation in Germanic and Celtic Europe was the kin group . The mention of descent through the female line in the ruling families of the Picts in later sources and the recurrence of leaders clearly from outside of Pictish society , has led to the conclusion that their system of descent was matrilineal . However , this has been challenged by a number of historians who argue that the clear evidence of awareness of descent through the male line suggests that this more likely to indicate a bilateral system of descent , where descent was counted through both male and female lines .
Scattered evidence , including the records in Irish annals and the images of warriors like those depicted on the Pictish stone slabs at Aberlemno , Forfarshire and Hilton of Cadboll in Easter Ross , suggest that in Northern Britain , as in Anglo @-@ Saxon England , society was dominated by a military aristocracy , whose status was dependent in a large part on their ability and willingness to fight . Below the level of the aristocracy it is assumed that there were non @-@ noble freemen , working their own small farms or holding lands as free tenants . There are no surviving law codes from Scotland in this period , but codes in Ireland and Wales indicate that freemen had the right to bear arms , represent themselves in law and to receive compensation for murdered kinsmen .
Indications are that society in North Britain contained relatively large numbers of slaves , often taken in war and raids , or bought , as St. Patrick indicated the Picts were doing from the Britons in Southern Scotland . Slavery probably reached relatively far down in society , with most rural households containing some slaves . Because they were taken relatively young and were usually racially indistinguishable from their masters , many slaves would have been more integrated into their societies of capture than their societies of origin , in terms of both culture and language . Living and working beside their owners they in practice may have become members of a household without the inconvenience of the partible inheritance rights that divided estates . Where there is better evidence from England and elsewhere , it was common for such slaves who survived to middle age to gain their freedom , with such freedmen often remaining clients of the families of their former masters .
= = Kingship = =
In the early Medieval period , British kingship was not inherited in a direct line from previous kings , as would be the case in the late Middle Ages . There were instead a number of candidates for kingship , who usually needed to be a member of a particular dynasty and to claim descent from a particular ancestor . Kingship could be multi @-@ layered and very fluid . The Pictish kings of Fortriu were probably acting as overlords of other Pictish kings for much of this period and occasionally were able to assert an overlordship over non @-@ Pictish kings , but occasionally themselves had to acknowledge the overlordship of external rulers , both Anglian and British . Such relationships may have placed obligations to pay tribute or to supply armed forces . After a victory , sub @-@ kings may have received rewards in return for this service . Interaction with and intermarriage into the ruling families of subject kingdoms may have opened the way to absorption of such sub @-@ kingdoms and , although there might be later overturnings of these mergers , it is likely that a complex process by which kingship was gradually monopolised by a handful of the most powerful dynasties was taking place .
The primary role of the king was to act as a war leader , reflected in the very small number of minority or female reigning monarchs in the period . Kings organised the defence of their people 's lands , property and persons and negotiated with other kings to secure these things . If they failed to do so , the settlements might be raided , destroyed or annexed , and the populations killed or taken into slavery . Kings also engaged in the low level warfare of raiding and the more ambitious full @-@ scale warfare that led to conflicts of large armies and alliances , and which could be undertaken over relatively large distances , such as the expedition to Orkney by Dál Riata in 581 or the Northumbrian attack on Ireland in 684 .
Kingship had its ritual aspects . The kings of Dál Riata were inaugurated by putting their foot in a footprint carved in stone , signifying that they would follow in the footsteps of their predecessors . The kingship of the unified kingdom of Alba had Scone and its sacred stone at the heart of its coronation ceremony , which historians presume was inherited from Pictish practices . Iona , the early centre of Scottish Christianity , became the burial site of the early kings of Scotland until the eleventh century , when the House of Canmore adopted Dunfermline near Scone .
= = Warfare = =
At the most basic level , a king 's power rested on the existence of his bodyguard or war @-@ band . In the British language , this was called the teulu , as in teulu Dewr ( the " War @-@ band of Deira " ) . In Latin the word is either comitatus or tutores , or even familia ; tutores is the most common word in this period , and derives for the Latin verb tueor , meaning " defend , preserve from danger " . The war @-@ band functioned as an extension of the ruler 's legal person , and was the core of the larger armies that were mobilised from time to time for campaigns of significant size . In peace @-@ time , the war @-@ band 's activity was centred on the " Great Hall " . Here , in both Germanic and Celtic cultures , the feasting , drinking and other forms of male bonding that kept up the war @-@ band 's integrity would take place . In the epic poem Beowulf , the war @-@ band was said to sleep in the Great Hall after the lord had retired to his adjacent bedchamber . It is not likely that any war @-@ band in the period exceeded 120 – 150 men , as no hall structure having a capacity larger than this has been found by archaeologists in northern Britain . Pictish stones , like that at Aberlemno in Angus , show mounted and foot warriors with swords , spears , bows , helmets and shields . The large number of hill forts in Scotland may have made open battle less important than in Anglo @-@ Saxon England and the relatively high proportion of kings who are recorded as dying in fires or drowning suggest that sieges were a more important part of warfare in Northern Britain .
Sea power may also have been important . Irish annals record an attack by the Picts on Orkney in 682 , which must have necessitated a large naval force : they also lost 150 ships in a disaster in 729 . Ships were also vital in the amphibious warfare in the Highlands and Islands and from the seventh century the Senchus fer n @-@ Alban indicates that Dál Riata had a ship @-@ muster system that obliged groups of households to produce a total of 177 ships and 2 @,@ 478 men . The same source mentions the first recorded naval battle around the British Isles in 719 and eight naval expeditions between 568 and 733 . The only vessels to survive from this period are dugout canoes , but images from the period suggest that there may have been skin boats ( similar to the Irish currach ) and larger oared vessels . The Viking raids and invasions of the British Isles were based on superior seapower . The key to their success , was a graceful , long , narrow , light , wooden boat with a shallow draft hull designed for speed . This shallow draft allowed navigation in waters only 3 feet ( 1 m ) deep and permitted beach landings , while its light weight enabled it to be carried over portages . Longships were also double @-@ ended , the symmetrical bow and stern allowing the ship to reverse direction quickly without having to turn around .
= = Religion = =
= = = Pre @-@ Christian religion = = =
Very little is known about religion in Scotland before the arrival of Christianity . The lack of native written sources among the Picts means that it can only be judged from parallels elsewhere , occasional surviving archaeological evidence and hostile accounts of later Christian writers . It is generally presumed to have resembled Celtic polytheism . The names of more than two hundred Celtic deities have been noted , some of which , like Lugh , The Dagda and The Morrigan , come from later Irish mythology , whilst others , like Teutatis , Taranis and Cernunnos , come from evidence from Gaul . The Celtic pagans constructed temples and shrines to venerate these gods , something they did through votive offerings and performing sacrifices , possibly including human sacrifice . According to Greek and Roman accounts , in Gaul , Britain and Ireland , there was a priestly caste of " magico @-@ religious specialists " known as the druids , although very little is definitely known about them . Irish legends about the origin of the Picts and stories from the life of St. Ninian , associate the Picts with druids . The Picts are also associated with " demon " worship and one story concerning St Columba has him exorcising a demon from a well in Pictland , suggesting that the worship of well spirits was a feature of Pictish paganism . Roman mentions of the worship of the Goddess Minerva at wells and a Pictish stone associated with a well near Dunvegan Castle on Skye have been taken to support this case .
= = = Early Christianisation = = =
The roots of Christianity in Scotland can probably be found among the soldiers and ordinary Roman citizens in the vicinity of Hadrian 's Wall . The archaeology of the Roman period indicates that the northern parts of the Roman province of Britannia were among the most Christianised in the island . Chi @-@ Rho inscriptions and Christian grave @-@ slabs have been found on the wall from the 4th century , and from the same period the Mithraic shrines ( known as Mithraea ) which existed along Hadrian 's Wall were attacked and destroyed , presumably by Christians . After the departure of the Romans it is generally presumed that Christianity would have survived among the Bythonic enclaves such as Strathclyde , but retreated as the pagan Anglo @-@ Saxons advanced , with their gods Tiw , Woden , Thor and Frig , all of whom gave their names to days of the week , and Eostre , whose name was appropriated for the spring festival of Easter . While British Christians continued to practice inhumation without grave goods , the pagan Anglo @-@ Saxons are visible in the archaeological record from their practice of cremation and burial in urns , accompanied by extensive grave goods , perhaps designed to accompany the dead to the afterlife . However , despite growing evidence of Anglian settlement in southern Scotland , only one such grave has been found , at Dalmeny in East Lothian .
The growth of Christianity in Scotland has been traditionally seen as dependent on Irish @-@ Scots " Celtic " missionaries and to a lesser extent those from Rome and England . Celtic Christianity had its origins in the conversion of Ireland from late Roman Britain associated with St. Patrick in the 5th century . In the 6th century , monks from Ireland were operating on the British mainland . St Ninian is the figure associated with a monastery founded at Whithorn in what is now Galloway , although it is generally accepted that Ninian may be a later construct . St Columba left Ireland and founded the monastery at Iona off the West Coast of Scotland in 563 and from there carried out missions to the Scots of Dál Riata and the Picts . It seems likely that both the Scots and Picts had already begun to convert to Christianity before this period . Saint Patrick referred in a letter to " apostate Picts " , suggesting that they had previously been Christian , while the poem Y Gododdin , set in the early 6th century does not remark on the Picts as pagans . Conversion of the Pictish élite seems likely to have run over a considerable period , beginning in the 5th century and not complete until the 7th .
Among the key indicators of Christianisation are long @-@ cist cemeteries that generally indicate Christian burials due to their East @-@ West orientation , although this correlation has been challenged by recent research . These burials are found between the end of the Roman era and the 7th century , after which point they become rarer . They are concentrated strongly in eastern Scotland south of the Tay , in Angus , the Mearns , Lothian and the Borders . It is generally accepted among scholars that place @-@ name element eccles- , from the Brythonic word for church , represents evidence of the British church of the Roman and immediate post @-@ Roman period , most of which are located in the south @-@ west , south and east . About a dozen inscribed stones of the 5th and 6th centuries , beginning with the so @-@ called Latinus stone of Whithorn , dating to c . 450 , indicate Christianity through their dedications and are spread across southern Scotland .
= = = Celtic Christianity = = =
Celtic Christianity differed in some in respects from that based on Rome , most importantly on the issues of how Easter was calculated and the method of tonsure , but there were also differences in the rites of ordination , baptism and in the liturgy . Celtic Christianity was heavily based on monasticism . Monasteries differed significantly from those on the continent , and were often an isolated collection of wooden huts surrounded by a wall . Because much of the Celtic world lacked the urban centres of the Roman world , bishoprics were often attached to abbeys . In the 5th , 6th and 7th centuries , Irish monks established monastic institutions in parts of modern @-@ day Scotland . Monks from Iona , under St. Aidan , then founded the See of Lindisfarne in Anglian Northumbria . The part of southern Scotland dominated by the Anglians in this period had a Bishopric established at Abercorn in West Lothian , and it is presumed that it would have adopted the leadership of Rome after the Synod of Whitby in 663 , until the Battle of Dunnichen in 685 , when the Bishop and his followers were ejected . By this time the Roman system of calculating Easter and other reforms had already been adopted in much of Ireland . The Picts accepted the reforms of Rome under Nechtan mac Der @-@ Ilei around 710 . The followers of Celtic traditions retreated to Iona and then to Innishbofin and the Western isles remained an outpost of Celtic practice for some time . Celtic Christianity continued to influence religion in England and across Europe into the late Middle Ages as part of the Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission , spreading Christianity , monasteries , art and theological ideas across the continent .
= = = Viking paganism = = =
The Viking occupation of the islands and coastal regions of modern Scotland brought a return to pagan worship in those areas . Norse paganism had some of the same gods as had been worshipped by the Anglo @-@ Saxons before their conversion and is thought to have been focused around a series of cults , involving gods , ancestors and spirits , with calendric and life cycle rituals often involving forms of sacrifice . The paganism of the ruling Norse elite can be seen in goods found in 10th century graves in Shetland , Orkney and Caithness . There is no contemporary account of the conversion of the Vikings in Scotland to Christianity . Historians have traditionally pointed to a process of conversion to Christianity among Viking colonies in Britain dated to the late 10th century , for which later accounts indicate that Viking earls accepted Christianity . However , there is evidence that conversion had begun before this point . There are a large number of isles called Pabbay or Papa in the Western and Northern Isles , which may indicate a " hermit 's " or " priest 's isle " from this period . Changes in patterns of grave goods and Viking place names using -kirk also suggest that the Christianity had begun to spread before the official conversion . Later documentary evidence suggests that there was a Bishop operating in Orkney in the mid @-@ 9th century and more recently uncovered archaeological evidence , including explicitly Christian forms such as stone crosses , suggest that Christian practice may have survived the Viking take over in parts of Orkney and Shetland and that the process of conversion may have begun before Christianity was officially accepted by Viking leaders . The continuity of Scottish Christianity may also explain the relatively rapid way in which Norse settlers were later assimilated into the religion .
= = Art = =
From the 5th to the mid @-@ 9th centuries the art of the Picts is primarily known through stone sculpture , and a smaller number of pieces of metalwork , often of very high quality . After the conversion of the Picts and the cultural assimilation of Pictish culture into that of the Scots and Angles , elements of Pictish art became incorporated into the style known as Insular art , which was common over Britain and Ireland and became highly influential in continental Europe and contributed to the development of Romanesque styles .
= = = Pictish stones = = =
About 250 Pictish stones survive and have been assigned by scholars to three classes . Class I stones are those thought to date to the period up to the 7th century and are the most numerous group . The stones are largely unshaped and include incised symbols of animals including fish and the Pictish beast , everyday objects such as mirrors , combs and tuning forks and abstract symbols defined by names including V @-@ rod , double disc and Z @-@ rod . They are found between from the Firth of Forth to Shetland . The greatest concentrations are in Sutherland , around modern Inverness and Aberdeen . Good examples include the Dunrobin ( Sutherland ) and Aberlemno stones ( Angus ) . Class II stones are carefully shaped slabs dating after the arrival of Christianity in the 8th and 9th centuries , with a cross on one face and a wide range of symbols on the reverse . In smaller numbers than Class I stones , they predominate in southern Pictland , in Perth , Angus and Fife . Good examples include Glamis 2 , which contains a finely executed Celtic cross on the main face with two opposing male figures , a centaur , cauldron , deer head and a triple disc symbol and Cossans , Angus , which shows a high @-@ prowed Pictish boat with oarsmen and a figure facing forward in the prow . Class III stones are thought to overlap chronologically with Class II stones . Most are elaborately shaped and incised cross @-@ slabs , some with figurative scenes , but lacking idiomatic Pictish symbols . They are widely distributed but predominate in the southern Pictish areas .
= = = Pictish metalwork = = =
Metalwork has found throughout Pictland ; the Picts appear to have had a considerable amount of silver available , probably from raiding further south , or the payment of subsidies to keep them from doing so . The very large hoard of late Roman hacksilver found at Traprain Law may have originated in either way . The largest hoard of early Pictish metalwork was found in 1819 at Norrie 's Law in Fife , but unfortunately much was dispersed and melted down . Over ten heavy silver chains , some over 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 2 ft ) long , have been found from this period ; the double @-@ linked Whitecleuch Chain is one of only two that have a penannular ring , with symbol decoration including enamel , which shows how these were probably used as " choker " necklaces . The St Ninian 's Isle Treasure contains perhaps the best collection of Pictish forms .
= = = Irish @-@ Scots art = = =
The kingdom of Dál Riata has been seen as a cross @-@ roads between the artistic styles of the Picts and those of Ireland , with which the Scots settlers in what is now Argyll kept close contacts . This can be seen in representations found in excavations of the fortress of Dunadd , which combine Pictish and Irish elements . This included extensive evidence for the production of high status jewellery and moulds from the 7th century that indicate the production of pieces similar to the Hunterston brooch , found in Ayrshire , but with elements that suggest Irish origins . These and other finds , including a trumpet spiral decorated hanging bowl disc and a stamped animal decoration ( or pressblech ) , perhaps from a bucket or drinking horn , indicate the ways in which Dál Riata was one of the locations where the Insular style was developed . In the 8th and 9th centuries the Pictish elite adopted true penannular brooches with lobed terminals from Ireland . Some older Irish pseudo @-@ penannular brooches were adapted to the Pictish style , for example the Breadalbane Brooch ( British Museum ) . The 8th century Monymusk Reliquary has elements of Pictish and Irish style .
= = = Insular art = = =
Insular art , or Hiberno @-@ Saxon art , is the name given to the common style produced in Scotland , Britain and Anglo @-@ Saxon England from the 7th century , with the combining of Celtic and Anglo @-@ Saxon forms . Surviving examples of Insular art are found in metalwork , carving , but mainly in illuminated manuscripts . Surfaces are highly decorated with intricate patterning , with no attempt to give an impression of depth , volume or recession . The best examples include the Book of Kells , Lindisfarne Gospels , Book of Durrow . Carpet pages are a characteristic feature of Insular manuscripts , although historiated initials ( an Insular invention ) , canon tables and figurative miniatures , especially Evangelist portraits , are also common . The finest era of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and aristocratic life of the Viking raids in the late 8th century . The influence of Insular art affected all subsequent European Medieval art , especially in the decorative elements of Romanesque and Gothic manuscripts .
= = Architecture = =
For the period after the departure of the Romans there is evidence of a series of new forts , often smaller " nucleated " constructions compared with those from the Iron Age , sometimes utilising major geographical features , as at Edinburgh and Dunbarton . All the northern British peoples utilised different forms of fort and the determining factors in construction were local terrain , building materials , and politico @-@ military needs . The first identifiable king of the Picts , Bridei mac Maelchon had his base at the fort of Craig Phadrig near modern Inverness . The Gaelic overkingdom of Dál Riata was probably ruled from the fortress of Dunadd now near Kilmartin in Argyll and Bute . The introduction of Christianity into Scotland from Ireland from the sixth century , led to the construction of the first churches . These may originally have been wooden , like that excavated at Whithorn , but most of those for which evidence survives from this era are basic masonry @-@ built churches , beginning on the west coast and islands and spreading south and east .
Early chapels tended to have square @-@ ended converging walls , similar to Irish chapels of this period . Medieval parish church architecture in Scotland was typically much less elaborate than in England , with many churches remaining simple oblongs , without transepts and aisles , and often without towers . In the Highlands they were often even simpler , many built of rubble masonry and sometimes indistinguishable from the outside from houses or farm buildings . Monasteries also differed significantly from those on the continent , and were often an isolated collection of wooden huts surrounded by a wall . At Eileach an Naoimh in the Inner Hebrides there are huts , a chapel , refectory , guest house , barns and other buildings . Most of these were made of timber and wattle construction and probably thatched with heather and turves . They were later rebuilt in stone , with underground cells and circular " beehive " huts like those used in Ireland . Similar sites have been excavated on Bute , Orkney and Shetland . From the eighth century more sophisticated buildings emerged .
= = Literature = =
Much of the earliest Welsh literature was actually composed in or near the country now called Scotland , although only written down in Wales much later . These include The Gododdin , considered the earliest surviving verse from Scotland , which is attributed to the bard Aneirin , said to have been resident in Gododdin in the 6th century , and the Battle of Gwen Ystrad attributed to Taliesin , traditionally thought to be a bard at the court of Rheged in roughly the same period . There are also religious works in Gaelic including the Elegy for St Columba by Dallan Forgaill ( c . 597 ) and " In Praise of St Columba " by Beccan mac Luigdech of Rum ( c . 677 ) . In Latin they include a " Prayer for Protection " ( attributed to St Mugint ) ( c. mid @-@ 6th century ) and Altus Prosator ( " The High Creator " , attributed to St Columba ) ( c . 597 ) . In Old English there is The Dream of the Rood , from which lines are found on the Ruthwell Cross , making it the only surviving fragment of Northumbrian Old English from early Medieval Scotland .
= Leod =
Leod ( Scottish Gaelic : Leòd ; Old Norse : Ljótr ) ( c . 1200 – 1280 ) is considered the eponymous ancestor and founder of Clan MacLeod and Clan MacLeod of Lewis . Almost nothing is known about him and he does not appear in any contemporary records . Tradition dating to the late 18th century made him a son of Olaf the Black who was King of Man ( r . 1225 – 1237 ) . Heraldic evidence , dating to the late 17th century , is considered to be the earliest evidence of descent from Olaf the Black . However , in recent years , this traditional lineage has been challenged and is no longer considered fact by historians .
According to Clan MacLeod tradition , Leod inherited some of his lands from a foster father , who was a sheriff of the Hebridean island of Skye ; other lands he inherited from his father @-@ in @-@ law , who was also a lord on Skye . MacLeod tradition also states that Leod was the father of four sons and two daughters . Two of these sons founded the two main branches of MacLeods ; branches which exist to this day — Tormod ( from whom the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan descend ) and Torquil ( from whom the MacLeods of Lewis descend ) . The traditional belief that Torquil was a son has also been challenged ; the current understanding is that he was a great @-@ grandson of Leod . In recent years , the DNA evidence of men bearing surnames equating to MacLeod has revealed that a certain proportion share a common ancestor — an ancestor considered to have been the clan 's founder .
= = Traditional ancestry = =
According to MacLeod tradition , Leod is the eponymous ancestor of the clan . However , little to nothing is known about this man ; he does not appear in any contemporary records . The earliest historical record of a MacLeod chief occurs almost a century after he is thought to have flourished — when the names of " Malcolme , son to Tormode M 'Cloyde " , and that of " Torkyll M 'Cloyd " , appear in a royal charter during the reign of David II , King of Scots ( r . 1329 – 1371 ) . Until quite recently , Leod has generally been considered to have been the son of Olaf the Black , King of Mann and the Isles ( r . 1225 – 1237 ) .
This traditional ancestry may be traced to the late 17th century when a chief adopted the designation of " McOlaus " and another was the first MacLeod to incorporate the royal Manx arms into MacLeod heraldry . In a document dating to 1630 , Iain Mòr MacLeod of Dunvegan ( chief 1626 – 1649 ) appears as " John McOlaus of Dunvegane " — McOlaus representing MacOlaf . This chief 's son , Iain Breac ( chief 1664 – 1693 ) , is the first MacLeod to have incorporated the Manx triskelion into his coat of arms . The triskelion was borne in the arms of the kings of Mann and the Isles as far back as the 13th century . The earliest known arms borne by the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan ( pictured top @-@ right ) are , however , quite different the royal Manx arms . These earliest MacLeod arms date to the mid 15th century ; recorded in a leading European armorial known as the Armorial de Berry . Accordingly , it has been suggested that these points show that 17th century belief of a descent from Olaf was not one of long standing .
There are various other points which cast serious doubt on Leod 's traditional ancestry . In 1265 , Magnus , King of Mann , the last king of this Manx dynasty died . Later in 1275 , Magnus 's illegitimate son , Godfrey died while leading a revolt . At least two women later came forward with claims for the kingdom — yet Leod and his sons did not . According to W.D.H. Sellar , it is hard to believe that a descendant of the royal line would not have put forward a claim . Another point put forward is that the MacLeods did not adopt the royal names of the 13th century Manx dynasty — names such as Godfrey ( Old Norse : Guðrøðr ; Gaelic : Gofraid ) , Ranald ( Old Norse Rögnvaldr ; Gaelic : Raghnall ) , Olaf ( Old Norse Óláfr ; Gaelic Amlaíb ) , and Harald ( Old Norse Haraldr ; Gaelic Aralt ) . Sellar illustrated his point by noting the royal names adopted by the descendants of Somerled ( d.1164 ) and his wife Ragnhild , daughter of Olaf the Red ( grandfather of Olaf the Black ) .
In the 17th century , George Mackenzie , 1st Earl of Cromartie wrote a history of the Mackenzies , which included a genealogy of the MacLeods of Lewis ( from whom he was also descended ) . Cromartie 's genealogy listed Leod as a son of Harald , son of Godred Donn . Later genealogies , however , made Leod a son of Olaf the Black — genealogies found in Sir Robert Douglas of Glenbervie 's Baronage of Scotland , of 1798 ; and the Bannatyne manuscript , which dates to about 1830 . In the Baronage of Scotland , Glenbervie stated that he had obtained information from the MacLeods of Dunvegan which was allegedly based upon information found within the mediaeval Chronicles of Mann and William Camden 's 17th century Britannia — however , neither of these two works make any mention of Leod at all . In 1977 , historian William Matheson rejected the traditional descent from Olaf the Black on the basis that it is unsupported by any facts whatsoever , and that it is also contradicted by earlier Gaelic @-@ language genealogies which may be more authentic .
= = = Traditional genealogies reconsidered = = =
In recent years , several historians have noted that within the Gaelic @-@ language genealogies and praise @-@ poetry concerning the MacLeods , Leod 's great @-@ grandfather 's name appears to equate to the Old Norse Ölvir , Olvér ; rather than the Old Norse Óláfr . There are considered to be four significant Gaelic @-@ language genealogies which concern Leod 's ancestry . These pedigree roughly agree with one another in the three generations after Leod . The greatest similarity between these genealogies are the names of Leod 's great @-@ grandfather , variously spelt Oilmoir , Olbair Snaige , Olbuir Snaithe , and Olbair Snoice . Taking into account variances in spelling , these names are now considered to represent the literary Gaelic Olbhar , and the vernacular Gaelic Olghair ; both which are in turn forms of Ölvir .
Matheson proposed that when Camden published his Britannia which included an account of the kings of Mann , genealogists saw the Latin Olavus ( a Latin form of the Old Norse Óláfr ) and concluded that it represented the Gaelic name Olbhar , Olghair . However , the Scottish Gaelic form of Olaf , Olavus , Olaus , Óláfr , is in fact Amhlaoibh , and the more modern Amhlaidh . Matheson further proposed that Leod 's father 's name also equates to Ölvir . So in Matheson 's opinion , genealogists mistakenly attached Leod 's father and great @-@ grandfather to the Manx king Olaf the Black and his own grandfather , Olaf the Red . While Matheson 's identification of the name of Leod 's grandfather is now accepted , Sellar later disagreed with him on the name of Leod 's father ; proposing instead that it was more likely the Gaelic name Gillemuire — a name which appears on one of the four Gaelic @-@ language genealogies .
Leod 's name is represented in Scottish Gaelic as Leòd . This name is a Gaelic form of the Old Norse Ljótr , meaning " ugly " . Matheson stated that this Norse name was rare in both Scandinavia and Iceland . He noted that in Scotland it was peculiar to the MacLeods , though it is almost never used within the clan . Matheson speculated that Leod 's great @-@ grandfather would have likely flourished at about the same time as Olvir Rosta was supposedly exiled to the Outer Hebrides . Matheson went even father and proposed that Leod 's great @-@ grandfather was in fact Olvir Rosta — a character from the mediaeval Orkneyinga saga . Matheson noted that while the name Ljótr is rare , Olvir Rosta 's maternal grandfather appears in the saga as Ljótr níðingr ( ' Ljótr Villain ' ) . In Matheson 's opinion , since the Gaelic @-@ language genealogies are inconsistent in the generations further back than Leod 's great @-@ grandfather , this may show that the man was a newcomer in the area . Sellar , however , rejected Matheson 's proposal , commenting that such evidence was entirely circumstantial . Sellar stated that Olvir was not such a rare name ; also , Olvir Rosta 's genealogy and family within the saga ( see above right ) has no similarity with that recorded in the Gaelic @-@ language genealogies relevant to Leod .
In contrast to Matheson 's opinion about the name Ljótr , the 20th @-@ century historian A. Morrison was of the opinion that the name may not be as rare as some people have thought . Morrison noted that the 19th century antiquary F.W.L. Thomas considered another saga character to be an eponymous ancestor of the MacLeods — this character was Ljótólfr , who would have lived on Lewis about a century before Leod 's time . Morrison considered it possible that Leod 's name could have ultimately originated from that of Ljótólfr 's ; however , while he considered it possible that Ljótólfr could have been an ancestor of Leod , he did not think it could have been in the male @-@ line .
= = Leod in clan tradition = =
= = = Clans Mackenzie , and Ross = = =
The first earl of Cromartie 's 17th century genealogical account of the MacLeods relates how Leod ( " Leodus " ) was a son of Harald , son of Godred Donn . When the Isle of Man passed into the possession of the Scots , Alexander III granted Lewis , Harris , Waternish , and Minginish to Harald . Leod later succeeded his father to the lands as his father 's only son . Cromartie 's account also states how Leod 's wife was Adama , daughter of Fearchar , Earl of Ross . However , according to Sellar , there is no record of a son of Harald named Leod , nor is there any record of a daughter of Fearchar named Adama . Sellar also noted that there is no record of the grant of lands by Alexander III . Sellar went so far as to state that Leod 's wife , father , and the grant , were nothing but figments of Cromartie 's imagination . The manuscript history of the Rosses of Balnagown also notes Leod . This account , according to the 19th @-@ century historian W.F. Skene , is older than that of Cromartie 's . The manuscript states that a King of Denmark had three sons who came to the north of Scotland — Gwine , Loid , and Leandres . Gwine conquered the braes of Caithness ; Loid conquered Lewis , and was the progenitor of the MacLeods ; and Leandres conquered " Braychat be the sworde " . Skene stated that Gwine likely was meant to refer to the eponymous ancestor of the Clan Gunn , and that Leandres refers to the Gilleandres whom " Clan Andres , or old Rosses " took their name .
= = = Clan MacLeod = = =
According to an account of MacLeod tradition written in 1797 for the clan 's chief , Olaf the Black had three sons by his third wife , Christina , daughter of the Earl of Ross — Gunn , from whom descended Clan Gunn ; Leandres , from whom descended Clan Leandres in Ross ; and Leod . The tradition goes on to say that Leod was fostered by " Pol , son of Bok " , sheriff of Skye . This Pol then gave Leod the island of Harris ; later Leod married a daughter of " McCraild Armuinn " and , in consequence , received Dunvegan and all the Skye estates which the MacLeods held in later times . In the Bannatyne manuscript , the sheriff is called " Paal Baccas " , and is stated to have owned the isle of Harris , as well as the following lands on Skye : Sleat , Trotternish , Waternish , and Snizort . The manuscript states that he had a natural son , but named Leod his heir . The " Pol , son of Bok " and " Paal Baccas " of MacLeod tradition are considered to be identical with the historical Páll , son of Bálki , who is mentioned within the Chronicles of Mann as a loyal ally of Olaf the Black . The Bannatyne manuscript states that Paal Baccas was killed in 1231 ; after which Leod peacefully succeeded to his possessions .
The Bannatyne manuscript is the main authority for information on the early chiefs of Clan MacLeod . It states that the first seven chiefs of Clan MacLeod were buried at Iona . The choir of Iona Abbey , for the most part , dates from the early 16th century . Within the centre of the choir there is a large stone which once contained a monumental brass , traditionally said to have been a MacLeod . The stone formed a matrix which at one time contained the brass inlay ( tradition states it was a silver inlay ) . It is the largest carved stone on the island , measuring 7 feet 9 @.@ 25 inches ( 2 @.@ 37 m ) by 3 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 17 m ) . The early 20th @-@ century clan historian R.C. MacLeod speculated that perhaps Leod and five of his successors were buried beneath — however , in his opinion the fourth chief , Iain Ciar , was buried elsewhere . In fact , the stone may actually mark the tomb of a MacLean , rather than that of a MacLeod .
= = = Issue = = =
According to MacLeod tradition , Leod had two sons — Tormod and Torquil . The tradition is that Tormod was the ancestor of the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan ( the chiefs of Clan MacLeod ) , and Torquil was the ancestor of the MacLeods of Lewis . The Bannatyne manuscript does not specifically state which son was the elder , and subsequently there has been debate over which branch was more ' senior ' in descent . In the late 20th century , Matheson called into question this tradition of brothers , and his work was followed up by other historians . The current view of historians is that the two were not brothers at all ; but that Torquil was actually the grandson of Tormod .
The Bannatyne manuscript also names two other sons ; however , Matheson considered the manuscript to be of dubious authority , since it is the only source for these names . It lists Leod 's third son as John , stating that John followed Bruce to Ireland . The manuscript continues that in Ireland he acquired considerable estates in Galway and was knighted ; although he was the principal man of his name there , his descendants were known not as MacLeods , but as MacElliots . The manuscript states that his daughter , and heiress , married Maurice , 2nd Lord of Kerry . According to MacLeod , the statement about John following Bruce to Ireland is a mistake , since John 's daughter couldn 't have married later than 1285 . Bruce was , however , born in 1275 , and did not go to Ireland until 1306 . Leod 's fourth son is listed by the manuscript as being Olaus . The account states that this Olaus was the reputed ancestor of the MacLewis , or Fullarton family , which originated on the Isle of Arran and that this family traced its ancestry from Lewis , or MacLoy , son of Olaus , son of Leod .
The manuscript also states that Leod also had two daughters . Again , the manuscript is the only source for the existence of these offspring and does not mention their names . It states that one of the daughters married Fergus of Galloway ; while the other married John , Lord of Mull . It is unknown who these men could have been .
= = DNA and the founder of Clan MacLeod = =
In about 2004 , a DNA project attempted to uncover the genetic origin of Clan MacLeod . The project studied the Y @-@ DNA of about 400 men who bore surnames which equate to MacLeod . The study 's findings showed that 32 % of the men tested had a common ancestor in the male line ; and that this ancestor lived about 1 @,@ 000 years ago . This particular group was by far the largest group of related men . In consequence , the project concluded that this group 's common ancestor , though he might have lived further back in time than Leod , is the genetic founder of the clan . In 2011 , the results of a much smaller study were published . Of a sample of 45 men with the surname MacLeod , 47 % were found to share a common ancestor in the male line ( the remaining 53 % of the sample contained 9 different genetic male line lineages ) . The genetic marker of the 47 % -lineage was found to be the S68 branch of Haplogroup R1b . This marker is found not only the Western Isles , but also in Orkney , Shetland , England , Norway , and Sweden . In consequence , the study concluded that the genetic origin of Clan MacLeod likely lies in Scandinavia .
= Shuffle ! =
Shuffle ! ( シャッフル ! , Shaffuru ! ) is a Japanese visual novel developed by Navel . It was originally released as an adult game for Microsoft Windows on January 30 , 2004 . It was subsequently followed by an all @-@ ages release for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) and an expanded adult release for Windows . The Windows version was localized in English by MangaGamer in 2009 . The gameplay in Shuffle ! follows a branching plot line which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios and courses of interaction and focuses on the appeal of the female main characters . Shuffle ! has been re @-@ made into an expanded version called Shuffle ! Essence + . It has expanded routes for the original five main heroines as well as new routes for six other characters . Shuffle ! also has three spin @-@ off sequels : Tick ! Tack ! , Really ? Really ! and Shuffle ! Love Rainbow .
Shuffle ! has made several transitions to other media . There have been two manga series based on the visual novel . The first was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten 's magazine Comptiq between December 2003 and 2006 . The second was a comic anthology published by Kadokawa Shoten between July 2004 and December 2005 . Two anime adaptations were produced by the animation studio Asread . The first anime was twenty @-@ four episodes in length and was broadcast in Japan between July 2005 and January 2006 . The second series was a twelve @-@ episode readaptation and was broadcast between January and March 2007 . Seven light novels , two fanbooks , nine drama CDs , and seven radio drama CDs adaptations have also been produced .
The visual novel was well received whereas the first anime adaptation received mixed reviews . Across the national semi @-@ monthly ranking of bishōjo games in amount sold in Japan , the limited edition of Shuffle ! premiered in second place at the time of its release and remained in the top 50 for an additional three and a half @-@ months . The normal edition premiered in ninth place at the time of its release and remained in the top 50 for an additional three half @-@ months . Critics of the anime series were divided between whether or not the anime series set itself apart from other series in the harem genre and as to the quality of its audio and visual aspects .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay mostly consists of reading and listening to the conversations provided . Every now and then , a " Please Select Your Destiny " event will occur , giving the player multiple choices on how to respond . The choices selected determine who will be Rin 's destined love ; depending on which route the player takes , there will be between 8 and 12 multiple @-@ choice questions . At a certain point in the visual novel , a translucent image of the destined character appears when the day changes indicating who Rin has fallen in love with after which the multiple @-@ choice events become almost nonexistent . Near the end of the game , two sex scenes will occur . After some more conversation the visual novel ends . After the visual novel has been completed at least once , players can view CG ( computer graphics ) artwork they have observed , skip to scenes or endings for characters they have viewed , and listen to music they have heard in the game .
The PlayStation 2 version varies from the PC version as all the sex scenes are removed and the player may follow two new storylines : Mayumi Thyme 's and Kareha 's . Additionally , Kareha 's younger sister Tsubomi makes her first appearance in the PS2 version during Kareha 's path .
Shuffle ! Essence + allows the player to follow the storylines of seven heroines , including four new storylines : Tsubomi 's , Sakura Yae 's , Nadeshiko Benibara 's and Daisy 's . In Daisy 's path , Erica Suzuran makes her first appearance as a secondary character and Ruri Matsuri appears as the second main heroine , but she does not have any sex scenes .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and themes = = =
The story takes place in a fictional universe where humans live in harmony with gods , resembling humans with slightly pointed ears , and devils ( demons in the English dub of the anime ) , who have more prominently pointed ears . Despite their respective positive and negative connotations , both races are equally kind and good @-@ natured . Ten years prior to the story , the gateway between the worlds of the gods and devils were opened , and since then , people from all races have been immigrating between the worlds . The characters attend the multi @-@ racial high school , National Verbena Academy ( バーベナ学園 , Bābena Gakuen ) in Kōyō @-@ chō ( 光陽町 , lit . Sunshine Town ) . This is so humans , gods and devils can interact and learn to live together in harmony with mutual understanding rather than hatred , fear and ignorance . Also , due to dimensional tears ( unknown why or how they appear ) some members of each race had been transported to one of the other worlds where they married and had children . This is how some of the students with mixed lineage are able to be older than the gateway to the human world like Mayumi Thyme , whose human parent had fallen into the world of the Devils through one of those tears years before the gateway to the Human world had been opened , or Asa 's mother , Ama Shigure , who somehow was transported from the world of the Devils to the Human world .
Shuffle ! contains a leitmotif of allusions to flowers . All of the characters ' names are references to flowers in some way , mostly genera of flowering plants .
= = = Main characters = = =
The protagonist and player character of Shuffle ! is Rin Tsuchimi , a normal seventeen @-@ year @-@ old second @-@ year high school student and the male protagonist to the series . Since a young age , he has placed the well @-@ being of others before his own and dislikes seeing people in sorrow . Since he lost his parents in his childhood , he has been living with Kaede Fuyou , a life envied by many of his classmates . One of the heroines of Shuffle ! , Kaede believes it her duty in life is to take care of Rin , which she takes upon herself in order to atone for her treatment of him in the past and bears a one @-@ sided love towards Rin . Kaede appears again as the heroine in Really ? Really ! , a sequel to Shuffle ! , that continues from Kaede 's ending in Shuffle ! . In middle school , the two meet and later befriend Asa Shigure , another heroine of Shuffle ! who is in her third @-@ year of high school . While she has a weak constitution , she makes up for it with her energetic tomboy personality and is an excellent cook . She has a habit of slapping Rin on his back .
At the onset of the story , two girls who Rin had met once during his childhood come to his school as transfer students and began living as his next door neighbours . Lisianthus , a heroine of Shuffle ! , is an energetic and enthusiastic person who is able to start a conversation with anyone . She comes to the human world as a possible marriage candidate for Rin and as the daughter of the Lord of Gods , thankful for his kindness to her in the past . Similarly , Nerine , who is also a heroine , is a reserved girl with a beautiful voice and a capable user of magic . She also comes to the human world to be a marriage candidate for Rin as the daughter of the Lord of Devils . Nerine appears again as a heroine in Navel 's game , Tick ! Tack ! , which continues from Nerine 's ending . Soon after the two daughters come to his school , Rin meets Primula , a strange , soft @-@ spoken girl who often carries a stuffed cat around .
There are two new storylines that are available in the PlayStation 2 version of the game . Mayumi Thyme is a heterochromia @-@ eyed girl who is half @-@ devil and half @-@ human . She is Rin 's classmate and is always searching for news . She takes pride in her smallest bust size , a fact often made fun of by Rin and Itsuki , claiming them to be a rarity sought after by a select group of men . Kareha is of the god race and is Asa 's friend and classmate who enjoys making sweets and taking on related part @-@ time jobs . Whenever she sees something romantic or cute , she has a habit of saying " Ma Ma Maa ! " and starts to daydream , losing awareness of her surroundings .
In Shuffle ! Essence + , there are four new storylines available in the game . Tsubomi is Kareha 's younger sister , and like Kareha , she has a tendency to space out when she see something romantic or cute . Her catchphrase is " Kya ! Kya ! Kya ! " . She 's the same age as Primula , so they easily become friends . Sakura is Rin 's and Kaede 's childhood friend , they know each other since elementary school . That 's why she knows about Rin 's and Kaede 's tragic past . Nadeshiko is Rin 's homeroom teacher . She 's quite self @-@ confident , firmly stepping on the ground , single , attractive and is frequently the victim of pickup lines , including from the Lord of Devils and Itsuki . It appears she has some martial arts training ( being able to slice a bottle with her bare hand ) . She has a habit of dealing out very strong punishments such as writing 100 @-@ page reports and dragging a tire around the track for minor offenses . However when it comes speak about romantic relationship or cuteness she can become shy , specially when someone speaks so about her . Daisy is Sia 's cousin . When they were kids they used to play a lot together , but because of some circumstances between their fathers both of them stopped playing together . Daisy remember the precious for her time she spend with Lisianthus , but Sia seems to forgotten the old days , when they were together .
= = = Story = = =
The storyline of Shuffle ! follows the life of Rin Tsuchimi , a normal seventeen @-@ year @-@ old second @-@ year high school student who finds himself sought after by a variety of girls . Eight years prior to the onset of the story , he lost his parents in a car accident that also took the life of Kaede Fuyou 's mother . From that point onwards , he began living with her . At around the same time he lost his parents , he met Lisianthus and Nerine at different times who each were accompanying their fathers on a diplomatic business in the human world . Each girl became lost after wandering through the human world . During that time , Rin befriended each girl after playing with them for a day . As a result of his kindness , Rin finds himself as the potential marriage candidate for both Lisianthus and Nerine , the daughters of the king of the gods and king of the demon worlds , who recently transfer to Rin 's school at the onset of the story .
= = Development = =
Shuffle ! is the first project developed by the visual novel developer Navel , and is the first title in the series . Shuffle ! ' s development team was largely composed of members involved with Basil 's Cherry Petals Fall Like Teardrops . The scenarios were written by Baria Ago , who had previously been in charge of writing the scenario for Cherry Petals Fall Like Teardrops and Long Cube . Art direction and character design was split between Aoi Nishimata , who had previously illustrated Cherry Petals Fall Like Teardrops , and Hiro Suzuhira . The music for the game was composed by Nachtmusik . The opening video was produced by Iris Motion Graphics .
The Limited Edition was released on January 30 , 2004 and came with a special artbook featuring original drawings of the cast by twelve guest artists and a special edition box . The Normal Edition was released on February 27 , 2004 on one DVD instead of three CDs and came with an original Shirotama & Kurotama keychain . The Standard Edition was released on December 17 , 2004 on one DVD . An Anniversary Edition was released on November 22 , 2007 and comes with a phone card of Sia and Kikyō . The PlayStation 2 version Shuffle ! On the Stage was released in two versions on October 20 , 2005 : the regular version including the game and the DX version that included a 12 cm figure of Lisianthus , a Shuffle ! On the Stage Mix soundtrack CD , and a cell phone cleaner . The development of a PC port of Shuffle ! On the Stage titled Shuffle ! Essence + was announced on May 9 , 2008 and released on October 30 , 2009 .
MangaGamer released an uncensored , English translation of the visual novel on August 15 , 2009 . It is available for download only with no physical release , and as the servers are in Europe , the payment is listed in euros . On April 26 , 2013 , MangaGamer released an English translation of its sequel Tick ! Tack ! .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Manga = = =
Written by and illustrated by Shiroi Kusaka , a manga adaptation of Shuffle ! titled Shuffle ! Days in the Bloom [ sic ] was first serialized monthly in Comptiq in December 2003 , a month before the release of the visual novel , until its conclusion in December 2006 . The twenty @-@ six chapters were then compiled by Kadokawa Shoten into six tankōbon volumes , which were later released from August 8 , 2004 to January 10 , 2007 . A second manga series , a comic anthology titled Shuffle ! Comic à la Carte ( SHUFFLE ! コミックアラカルト ) written by Comptiq 's Editorial Department , was published across five tankōbon volumes by Kadokawa Shoten between July 8 , 2004 and December 10 , 2005 . The cover illustrations were provided by Aoi Nishimata and Hiro Suzuhira .
= = = Audio dramas = = =
A total of nine drama CD adaptations were released by Lantis for Shuffle ! between 2004 and 2007 . Five CDs were released monthly between May 26 , 2004 and September 23 , 2004 , with each focused upon one of the five heroines of PC version of Shuffle ! . Each drama CD contains between four to five tracks . For the PlayStation 2 version , an additional two CDs were released on February 22 , 2006 and May 24 , 2006 , respectively , each focusing on Mayumi Thyme and Kareha , the two new heroines . For the second anime adaptation , Shuffle ! Memories , two additional drama CDs were released on July 25 , 2007 and October 24 , 2007 , focusing on Kaede Fuyou and Lisianthus , respectively . Three drama CDs appeared on the weekly Oricon albums chart of which the drama CD released for Shuffle ! On the Stage focused on Kareha ranked the highest , peaking at # 216 and remaining on the chart for one week .
A radio drama series titled Shuffle ! Charadio : Verbena Academy Broadcasting Department began broadcasting weekly in September 2005 , was hosted by Lisianthus and Nerine , and voiced by their respective voice actors . It was later released monthly by Lantis on five CDs between October 5 , 2005 and February 8 , 2006 . A shortened anthology of their tracks was then collected across a two @-@ CD compilation titled Shuffle ! Charadio : Verbena Academy Broadcasting Department Petit released by Lantis on April 5 , 2006 and June 7 , 2006 . Two of these releases charted on the weekly Oricon albums chart of which the compilation ranked the highest , peaking # 130 and remaining on the chart for one week .
= = = Books and publications = = =
A series of seven character novels was published monthly by Kadokawa Shoten between June 8 , 2004 and January 10 , 2006 each focusing on each of seven heroines of Shuffle ! , including the two introduced in the PlayStation 2 version . Each of the novels were written by Seishi Ogata and illisturated by Shiroi Kusaka with cover illustrations provided by Aoi Nishimata and Hiro Suzuhira .
A book titled " Shuffle ! First Fanbook " ( SHUFFLE ! ファーストファンブック ) ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 7973 @-@ 2649 @-@ 9 ) was published by Softbank on January 22 , 2004 containing a series of illustrations , character introductions , and a CD containing wallpapers and various messages voiced by each of the five main heroines of Shuffle ! . Enterbrain published a fifty @-@ eight @-@ page book with a CD attachement titled " Shuffle ! Visual Fanbook " ( SHUFFLE ! ビジュアルファンブック ) in Tech Gian on June 9 , 2004 . It included detailed story explanations , seventy @-@ eight illustrations for Shuffle ! , a specially drawn A3 poster , and a interviews with the creators . Softbank also published another book titled " Shuffle ! Official Illustrations and Production Materials Collection " ( SHUFFLE ! 公式原画 ・ 設定資料集 ) ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 7973 @-@ 2716 @-@ 8 ) on July 10 , 2004 collecting the computer graphics used in the game , production sketches , and information on character and world secrets . A book titled " Shuffle ! On the Stage Official Visual Guide " ( SHUFFLE ! ON THE STAGE 公式ビジュアルガイド ) ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 04 @-@ 707202 @-@ 2 ) was released by Kadokawa Shoten on December 22 , 2005 . The book contained all the production sketches , concept art , and interviews with staff relating to the PS2 version of the visual novel compiled by Comptiq . Kadokawa Shoten released an additional book on April 10 , 2006 titled " Shuffle ! Anime Complete Album " ( SHUFFLE ! アニメコンプリートアルバム ) ( ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 04 @-@ 853956 @-@ 2 ) providing an introduction to the production of the anime adaptation of the visual novel , a detailed plot overview , and interviews with staff involved in the anime .
= = = Anime = = =
Naoto Hosoda directed a 24 @-@ episode anime adaptation of Shuffle ! that was produced by Asread . A special prologue DVD was released on May 27 , 2005 . It was broadcast in Japan on WOWOW between July 7 , 2005 and January 5 , 2006 . The anime combines elements from all of the characters ' paths from the game into one plot , although it differs from the game by adding some elements , such as the idol clubs formed around Sia , Nerine , and Kaede , and removing others , such as the H @-@ scenes . The anime 's opening theme is " You " by Yuria , and the ending theme is " Innocence " by Miyuki Hashimoto . The series was released across twelve Region 2 DVD compilation volumes in Japan .
On January 1 , 2007 , Funimation Entertainment announced licensing the anime adaptation of Shuffle ! for English @-@ language dubbed release . Funimation released the series across six Region 1 DVD compilation volumes between February 26 , 2008 and September 9 , 2008 . The sixth DVD volume featured an artbox and Lisianthus ' " god " panties . Funimation later released a DVD boxset on March 31 , 2009 compiling all the six DVD volumes .
The game was again adapted by Asread into a 12 @-@ episode anime series titled Shuffle ! Memories directed by Naoto Hosoda and written by Masashi Suzuki . It was broadcast on Chiba TV and TV Saitama between January 6 and March 25 , 2007 . It is a recap of the original Shuffle ! anime , rearranging scenes from the original series into individual character specific episodes , and contains very little original content aside from the last episode . It features 13 pieces of theme music performed by Yuria , Miyuki Hashimoto , and the respective voice actors for the five heroines of Shuffle ! . It was released across seven region 2 DVD compilation volumes in Japan .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Kadokawa Shoten also released five boxsets , one for each of the five heroines of the PC version of Shuffle ! , between September 10 , 2005 and December 10 , 2005 . Each boxset was compiled by Comptiq and contained a book , clothed Figma figurines , drama CDs , and mousepad released for the visual novel , first anime adaptation , and manga adaptation for their respective characters .
= = Music = =
The visual novel features two pieces of theme music . The PC version features " Mirage Lullaby " as its opening theme . The PS2 version features " Original ! " as the opening theme . Both versions of the visual novel feature " Scramble ! " as the ending theme . Each song was performed by Yuria . Both versions also feature " In the Sky " as the ending theme to the Nerine 's path .
Several music albums for the novel and its adaptations have been released between 2004 and 2007 by Lantis . The game 's original soundtrack was released in February 2004 containing two @-@ discs with track thirty @-@ one total tracks consisting of background music , the theme songs , and bonus remixes of the opening theme . Following a month after the release of the series of five drama CDs for the PC version of the game , Lantis released an album in October 2004 containing elven tracks of character image songs , some of which were featured in the drama CD series , each performed by their respective voice actor . A remix album titled Rainbowremix followed in June 2005 released by Lantis containing eleven tracks of remixes of the opening theme for the PC version of the game by several artists . Two maxi singles containing the theme music used in the first anime adaptation titled " You " and " Innocence " were released in August 2005 . In November 2005 , a month after the initial release of the PS2 version of the game , was released its opening maxi single " Original ! " . A remix album titled Re @-@ mix Album Composition Eleven containing eleven remixes by various artists followed in December 2005 . An album titled Character Vocal Album was released in March 2006 containing thirteen new character image songs for many of the characters of the PS2 version of the game . In April 2007 , a month after the conclusion of the second anime adaptation of the game Shuffle ! Memories , an album titled Shuffle ! Memories Character Song Collection was released containing twelve tracks of character songs performed by their respective voice actors . The original soundtrack for the second adaptation of the game was released in May 2007 .
Most of the singles and albums ranked on Oricon charts with the highest ranking album being Shuffle ! Memories Character Song Collection at 104th , and the highest ranking single being " Original ! " , the opening theme for Shuffle ! On the Stage PS2 game , at 32nd .
= = Reception = =
Shuffle ! had much pre @-@ sale hype as the development team was largely composed | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
wise " , adding that " the compassionate , forgiving aspects of [ his ] beliefs " came from her .
The financial security and social prosperity that the Vonneguts once enjoyed were destroyed in a matter of years . The Liebers 's brewery was closed in 1921 after the advent of Prohibition in the United States . When the Great Depression hit , few people could afford to build , causing clients at Kurt Sr. ' s architectural firm to become scarce . Vonnegut 's brother and sister had finished their primary and secondary educations in private schools , but Vonnegut was placed in a public school , called Public School No. 43 , now known as the James Whitcomb Riley School . He was not bothered by this , but both his parents were affected deeply by their economic misfortune . His father withdrew from normal life and became what Vonnegut called a " dreamy artist " . His mother became depressed , withdrawn , bitter , and abusive . She labored to regain the family 's wealth and status , and Vonnegut said she expressed hatred " as corrosive as hydrochloric acid " for her husband . Edith Vonnegut forayed into writing and tried to sell short stories to magazines like Collier 's and The Saturday Evening Post with no success .
= = = High school and Cornell = = =
Vonnegut enrolled at Shortridge High School in Indianapolis in 1936 . While there , he played clarinet in the school band and became an editor for the Tuesday edition of the school newspaper , The Shortridge Echo . Vonnegut said his tenure with the Echo allowed him to write for a large audience — his fellow students — rather than for a teacher , an experience he said was " fun and easy " . " It just turned out that I could write better than a lot of other people " , Vonnegut observed . " Each person has something he can do easily and can 't imagine why everybody else has so much trouble doing it . " For him , that was writing .
After graduating from Shortridge in 1940 , Vonnegut enrolled at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York . He wanted to study the humanities or become an architect like his father , but his father and brother , a scientist , urged him to study a " useful " discipline . As a result , Vonnegut majored in biochemistry , but he had little proficiency in the area and was indifferent towards his studies . As his father had been a member at MIT , Vonnegut was entitled to join the Delta Upsilon fraternity , and did . He overcame stiff competition for a place at the university 's independent newspaper , The Cornell Daily Sun , first serving as a staff writer , then as an editor . By the end of his freshman year , he was writing a column titled " Innocents Abroad " which reused jokes from other publications . He later penned a piece , " Well All Right " , focusing on pacifism , a cause he strongly supported , arguing against U.S. intervention in World War II .
= = = World War II = = =
The attack on Pearl Harbor brought the U.S. into the war . Vonnegut was a member of Reserve Officers ' Training Corps , but poor grades and a satirical article in Cornell 's newspaper cost him his place there . He was placed on academic probation in May 1942 and dropped out the following January . No longer eligible for a student deferment , he faced likely conscription into United States Army . Instead of waiting to be drafted , he enlisted in the army and in March 1943 reported to Fort Bragg , North Carolina , for basic training . Vonnegut was trained to fire and maintain howitzers , a type of artillery , and later received instruction in mechanical engineering at the Carnegie Institute of Technology and the University of Tennessee as part of the Army Specialized Training Program ( ASTP ) . In early 1944 , the ASTP was canceled due to the Army 's need for soldiers to support the D @-@ Day invasion , and Vonnegut was ordered to an infantry battalion at Camp Atterbury , south of Indianapolis in Edinburgh , Indiana , where he trained as a scout . He lived so close to his home that he was " able to sleep in [ his ] own bedroom and use the family car on weekends " . On May 14 , 1944 , Vonnegut returned home on leave for Mother 's Day weekend to discover that his mother had committed suicide the previous night by overdosing on sleeping pills .
Three months following his mother 's suicide , Vonnegut was sent to Europe as an intelligence scout with the ill fated 106th Infantry Division . In December 1944 , he fought in the Battle of the Bulge , the final German offensive of the war . During the battle , the 106th Infantry Division , which had only recently reached the front and was assigned to a " quiet " sector due to its inexperience , was overrun by advancing German armored forces . The result was that over 500 members of the division were killed and over 6 @,@ 000 were captured .
On December 22 , Vonnegut was captured with about fifty other American soldiers . Vonnegut was taken by boxcar to a prison camp south of Dresden , in Saxony . During the journey , the Royal Air Force bombed the prisoner trains and killed about 150 men . Vonnegut was sent to Dresden , the " first fancy city [ he had ] ever seen " . He lived in a slaughterhouse when he got to the city , and worked in a factory that made malt syrup for pregnant women . Vonnegut recalled the sirens going off whenever another city was bombed . The Germans did not expect Dresden to get bombed , Vonnegut said . " There were very few air @-@ raid shelters in town and no war industries , just cigarette factories , hospitals , clarinet factories . "
On February 13 , 1945 , Dresden became the target of Allied forces . In the hours and days that followed , the Allies engaged in a fierce firebombing of the city . The offensive subsided on February 15 , leaving tens of thousands dead . Vonnegut marveled at the level of both the destruction in Dresden and the secrecy that attended it . He had survived by taking refuge in a meat locker three stories underground . " It was cool there , with cadavers hanging all around " , Vonnegut said . " When we came up the city was gone ... They burnt the whole damn town down . " Vonnegut and other American prisoners were put to work immediately after the bombing , excavating bodies from the rubble . He described the activity as a " terribly elaborate Easter @-@ egg hunt " .
The American prisoners of war were evacuated on foot to the border of Saxony and Czechoslovakia after General George S. Patton captured Leipzig . With the captives abandoned by their guards , Vonnegut reached a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war repatriation camp in Le Havre , France , before the end of May 1945 , with the aid of the Soviets . He returned to the United States and continued to serve in the Army , stationed at Fort Riley , Kansas , typing discharge papers for other soldiers . Soon after he was awarded a Purple Heart about which he remarked " I myself was awarded my country 's second @-@ lowest decoration , a Purple Heart for frost @-@ bite . " He was discharged from the U.S. Army and returned to Indianapolis .
= = = Marriage and early employment = = =
After he returned to the United States , 22 @-@ year @-@ old Vonnegut married Jane Marie Cox , his high school girlfriend and classmate since kindergarten , on September 1 , 1945 . The pair relocated to Chicago , where Vonnegut enrolled in the University of Chicago as a graduate anthropology student , courtesy of the G.I. Bill , and worked for the Chicago City News Bureau at night . Jane accepted a scholarship from the university to study Russian at a graduate level . Neither of them finished their degrees . Jane dropped out of the school after becoming pregnant with the couple 's first child , Mark ( born May 1947 ) , and after Kurt 's master 's thesis , which analyzed the Ghost Dance religious movement among Native Americans , was unanimously rejected , he left the university without his degree .
General Electric ( GE ) hired Vonnegut as a publicist for the company 's Schenectady , New York research laboratory . The job had required a college education , and , despite dropping out of his program , Vonnegut lied that he had a master 's in anthropology from the University of Chicago . Kurt 's brother Bernard had worked at GE since 1945 , contributing significantly to an iodine @-@ based cloud seeding project . In 1949 , Kurt and Jane had a daughter named Edith . Still working for GE , Vonnegut had his first piece , titled " Report on the Barnhouse Effect " , published in the February 11 , 1950 issue of Collier 's , for which he received $ 750 . Vonnegut wrote another story , after being coached by the fiction editor at Collier 's , Knox Burger , and again sold it to the magazine , this time for $ 950 . Burger suggested he quit GE , a course he had contemplated before . Vonnegut moved with his family to Cape Cod , Massachusetts to write full @-@ time , and left GE in 1951 .
= = = First novel = = =
On Cape Cod , Vonnegut made most of his money writing pieces for magazines such as Collier 's , The Saturday Evening Post , and Cosmopolitan . He also did a stint as an English teacher , wrote copy for an advertising agency , and opened the first American Saab dealership , which eventually failed . In 1952 , Vonnegut 's first novel , Player Piano , was published by Scribner 's . The novel has a post @-@ third world war setting , in which factory workers have been replaced by machines .
Player Piano draws upon Vonnegut 's experience as a young executive at GE . He satirizes the drive to climb the corporate ladder , one that in Player Piano is rapidly disappearing as automation increases , putting even executives out of work . His central character , Paul Proteus , has an ambitious wife , a backstabbing assistant , and a feeling of sympathy for the poor . Sent by his boss , Kroner , as a double agent among the poor ( who have all the material goods they want , but little sense of purpose ) , he leads them in a machine @-@ smashing , museum @-@ burning revolution . Player Piano expresses Vonnegut 's opposition to McCarthyism , something made clear when the Ghost Shirts , the revolutionary organization Paul penetrates and eventually leads , is referred to by one character as " fellow travelers " .
In Player Piano , Vonnegut originates many of the techniques he would use in his later works . The comic , heavy @-@ drinking Shah of Bratpuhr , an outsider to this dystopian corporate United States , is able to ask many questions that an insider would not think to ask , or would cause offense by doing so . For example , when taken to see the artificially intelligent supercomputer EPICAC , the Shah asks it " what are people for ? " and receives no answer . Speaking for Vonnegut , he dismisses it as a " false god " . This type of alien visitor would recur throughout Vonnegut 's literature .
The New York Times writer and critic Granville Hicks gave the novel a positive review , comparing it to Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World . Hicks called Vonnegut a " sharp @-@ eyed satirist " . None of the reviewers considered the novel particularly important . Several editions were printed — one by Bantam with the title Utopia 14 , and another by the Doubleday Science Fiction Book Club — whereby Vonnegut gained the repute of a science fiction writer , a genre held in disdain by writers at that time . He defended the genre , and deplored a perceived sentiment that " no one can simultaneously be a respectable writer and understand how a refrigerator works . "
= = = Struggling writer = = =
After Player Piano , Vonnegut continued to sell short stories to various magazines . In 1954 the couple had a third child , Nanette . With a growing family and no financially successful novels yet , Vonnegut 's short stories sustained the family . In 1958 , his sister , Alice , died of cancer two days after her husband , James Carmalt Adams , was killed in a train accident . Vonnegut adopted Alice 's three young sons — James , Steven , and Kurt , aged fourteen , eleven , and nine respectively .
Grappling with family challenges , Vonnegut continued to write , publishing novels vastly dissimilar in terms of plot . The Sirens of Titan ( 1959 ) features a Martian invasion of Earth , as experienced by a bored billionaire , Malachi Constant . He meets Winston Rumfoord , an aristocratic space traveler , who is virtually omniscient but stuck in a time warp that allows him to appear on Earth every 59 days . The billionaire learns that his actions and the events of all of history are determined by a race of robotic aliens from the planet Tralfamadore , who need a replacement part that can only be produced by an advanced civilization in order to repair their spaceship and return home — human history has been manipulated to produce it . Some human structures , such as the Kremlin , are coded signals from the aliens to their ship as to how long it may expect to wait for the repair to take place . Reviewers were uncertain what to think of the book , with one comparing it to Offenbach 's opera The Tales of Hoffmann .
Rumfoord , who is based on Franklin D. Roosevelt , also physically resembles the former president . Rumfoord is described , " he put a cigarette in a long , bone cigarette holder , lighted it . He thrust out his jaw . The cigarette holder pointed straight up . " William Rodney Allen , in his guide to Vonnegut 's works , stated that Rumfoord foreshadowed the fictional political figures who would play major roles in God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater and Jailbird .
Mother Night , published in 1961 , received little attention at the time of its publication . Howard W. Campbell Jr . , Vonnegut 's protagonist , is an American who goes to Nazi Germany during the war as a double agent for the U.S. Office of Strategic Services , and rises to the regime 's highest ranks as a radio propagandist . After the war , the spy agency refuses to clear his name and he is eventually imprisoned by the Israelis in the same cell block as Adolf Eichmann , and later commits suicide . Vonnegut wrote in a foreword to a later edition , " we are what we pretend to be , so we must be careful about what we pretend to be " . Literary critic Lawrence Berkove considered the novel , like Mark Twain 's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn , to illustrate the tendency for " impersonators to get carried away by their impersonations , to become what they impersonate and therefore to live in a world of illusion " .
Also published in 1961 was Vonnegut 's short story , " Harrison Bergeron " , set in a dystopic future where all are equal , even if that means disfiguring beautiful people and forcing the strong or intelligent to wear devices that negate their advantages . Fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Harrison is a genius and athlete forced to wear record @-@ level " handicaps " and imprisoned for attempting to overthrow the government . He escapes to a television studio , tears away his handicaps , and frees a ballerina from her lead weights . As they dance , they are killed by the Handicapper General , Diana Moon Glampers . Vonnegut , in a later letter , suggested that " Harrison Bergeron " might have sprung from his envy and self @-@ pity as a high school misfit . In his 1976 biography of Vonnegut , Stanley Schatt suggested that the short story shows " in any leveling process , what really is lost , according to Vonnegut , is beauty , grace , and wisdom " . Darryl Hattenhauer , in his 1998 journal article on " Harrison Bergeron " , theorized that the story was a satire on American Cold War misunderstandings of communism and socialism .
With Cat 's Cradle ( 1963 ) , Allen wrote , " Vonnegut hit full stride for the first time " . The narrator , John , intends to write of Dr. Felix Hoenikker , one of the fictional fathers of the atomic bomb , seeking to cover the scientist 's human side . Hoenikker , in addition to the bomb , has developed another threat to mankind , ice @-@ 9 , solid water stable at room temperature , and if a particle of it is dropped in water , all of it becomes ice @-@ 9 . Much of the second half of the book is spent on the fictional Caribbean island of San Lorenzo , where John explores a religion called Bokononism , whose holy books ( excerpts from which are quoted ) , give the novel the moral core science does not supply . After the oceans are converted to ice @-@ 9 , wiping out most of humankind , John wanders the frozen surface , seeking to have himself and his story survive .
Vonnegut based the title character of God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater ( 1964 ) , on an accountant he knew on Cape Cod , who specialized in clients in trouble and often had to comfort them . Eliot Rosewater , the wealthy son of a Republican senator , seeks to atone for his wartime shooting of noncombatant firefighters by serving in a volunteer fire department , and by giving away money to those in trouble or need . Stress from a battle for control of his charitable foundation pushes him over the edge , and he is placed in a mental hospital by a dishonest lawyer . He recovers , and ends the financial battle by declaring the children of his county to be his heirs . Allen deemed God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater more " a cry from the heart than a novel under its author 's full intellectual control " , that reflected family and emotional stresses Vonnegut was going through at the time .
= = = Slaughterhouse @-@ Five = = =
After spending much of two years at the writer 's workshop at the University of Iowa , teaching one course each term , Vonnegut was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for research in Germany . By the time he won it , in March 1967 , he was becoming a well @-@ known writer . He used the funds to travel in Eastern Europe , including to Dresden , where he found many prominent buildings still in ruins . At the time of the bombing , Vonnegut had not appreciated the sheer scale of destruction in Dresden ; his enlightenment came only slowly as information dribbled out , and based on early figures came to believe that 135 @,@ 000 had died there .
Vonnegut had been writing about his war experiences at Dresden ever since he returned from the war , but had never been able to write anything acceptable to himself or his publishers — Chapter 1 of Slaughterhouse @-@ Five tells of his difficulties . Released in 1969 , the novel rocketed Vonnegut to fame . It tells of the life of Billy Pilgrim , who like Vonnegut was born in 1922 and survives the bombing of Dresden . The story is told in a non @-@ linear fashion , with many of the story 's climaxes — Billy 's death in 1976 , his kidnapping by aliens from the planet Tralfamadore nine years earlier , and the execution of Billy 's friend Edgar Derby in the ashes of Dresden for stealing a teapot — disclosed in the story 's first pages . In 1970 , he was also a correspondent in Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War . Slaughterhouse @-@ Five received generally positive reviews , with Michael Crichton writing in The New Republic , " he writes about the most excruciatingly painful things . His novels have attacked our deepest fears of automation and the bomb , our deepest political guilts , our fiercest hatreds and loves . No one else writes books on these subjects ; they are inaccessible to normal novelists . " The book went immediately to the top of The New York Times Best Seller list . Vonnegut 's earlier works had appealed strongly to many college students , and the antiwar message of Slaughterhouse Five resonated with a generation marked by the Vietnam War . He later stated that the loss of confidence in government that Vietnam caused finally allowed for an honest conversation regarding events like Dresden .
= = = Later career and events = = =
After Slaughterhouse @-@ Five was published , Vonnegut embraced the fame and financial security that attended its release . He was hailed as a hero of the burgeoning anti @-@ war movement in the United States , was invited to speak at numerous rallies , and gave college commencement addresses around the country . In addition to lecturing on creative writing at Harvard University , Vonnegut taught at the City University of New York , where he was dubbed a Distinguished Professor of English Prose . He was later elected vice president of the National Institute of Arts and Letters , and given honorary degrees by , among others , Indiana University and Bennington College . Vonnegut also wrote a play called Happy Birthday , Wanda June , which opened on October 7 , 1970 at New York 's Theatre de Lys . Receiving mixed reviews , it closed on March 14 , 1971 . In 1972 , Universal Pictures adapted Slaughterhouse @-@ Five into a film which the author said was " flawless " .
Meanwhile , Vonnegut 's personal life was disintegrating . His wife Jane had embraced Christianity , which was contrary to Vonnegut 's atheistic beliefs , and with five of their six children having left home , Vonnegut said the two were forced to find " other sorts of seemingly important work to do . " The couple battled over their differing beliefs until Vonnegut moved from their Cape Cod home to New York in 1971 . Vonnegut called the disagreements " painful " , and said the resulting split was a " terrible , unavoidable accident that we were ill @-@ equipped to understand . " The couple divorced and they remained friends until Jane 's death in late 1986 . Beyond his marriage , he was deeply affected when his son Mark suffered a mental breakdown in 1972 , which exacerbated Vonnegut 's chronic depression , and led him to take Ritalin . When he stopped taking the drug in the mid @-@ 1970s , he began to see a psychologist weekly .
Vonnegut 's difficulties materialized in numerous ways ; most distinctly though , was the painfully slow progress he was making on his next novel , the darkly comical Breakfast of Champions . In 1971 , Vonnegut stopped writing the novel altogether . When it was finally released in 1973 , it was panned critically . In Thomas S. Hischak 's book American Literature on Stage and Screen , Breakfast of Champions was called " funny and outlandish " , but reviewers noted that it " lacks substance and seems to be an exercise in literary playfulness . " Vonnegut 's 1976 novel Slapstick , which meditates on the relationship between him and his sister ( Alice ) , met a similar fate . In The New York Times 's review of Slapstick , Christopher Lehmann @-@ Haupt said Vonnegut " seems to be putting less effort into [ storytelling ] than ever before " , and that " it still seems as if he has given up storytelling after all . " At times , Vonnegut was disgruntled by the personal nature of his detractors ' complaints .
In 1979 , Vonnegut married Jill Krementz , a photographer whom he met while she was working on a series about writers in the early 1970s . With Jill , he adopted a daughter , Lily , when the baby was three days old . In subsequent years , his popularity resurged as he published several satirical books , including Jailbird ( 1979 ) , Deadeye Dick ( 1982 ) , Galápagos ( 1985 ) , Bluebeard ( 1987 ) , and Hocus Pocus ( 1990 ) . In 1986 , Vonnegut was seen by a younger generation when he played himself in Rodney Dangerfield 's film Back to School . The last of Vonnegut 's fourteen novels , Timequake ( 1997 ) , was , as University of Detroit history professor and Vonnegut biographer Gregory Sumner said , " a reflection of an aging man facing mortality and testimony to an embattled faith in the resilience of human awareness and agency . " Vonnegut 's final book , a collection of essays entitled A Man Without a Country ( 2005 ) , became a best @-@ seller .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
In a 2006 Rolling Stone interview , Vonnegut sardonically stated that he would sue the Brown & Williamson tobacco company , the maker of the Pall Mall @-@ branded cigarettes he had been smoking since he was twelve or fourteen years old , for false advertising . " And do you know why ? " he said . " Because I 'm 83 years old . The lying bastards ! On the package Brown & Williamson promised to kill me . " He died on the night of April 11 , 2007 in Manhattan , as a result of brain injuries incurred several weeks prior from a fall at his New York brownstone home . His death was reported by his wife Jill . Vonnegut was 84 years old . At the time of his death , Vonnegut had written fourteen novels , three short story collections , five plays and five non @-@ fiction books . A book composed of Vonnegut 's unpublished pieces , Armageddon in Retrospect , was compiled and posthumously published by Vonnegut 's son Mark in 2008 .
When asked about the impact Vonnegut had on his work , author Josip Novakovich stated that he has " much to learn from Vonnegut — how to compress things and yet not compromise them , how to digress into history , quote from various historical accounts , and not stifle the narrative . The ease with which he writes is sheerly masterly , Mozartian . " Los Angeles Times columnist Gregory Rodriguez said that the author will " rightly be remembered as a darkly humorous social critic and the premier novelist of the counterculture " , and The New York Times 's Dinitia Smith dubbed Vonnegut the " counterculture 's novelist . "
Kurt Vonnegut has inspired numerous posthumous tributes and works . In 2008 , the Kurt Vonnegut Society was established , and in November 2010 , the Kurt Vonnegut Memorial Library was opened in Vonnegut 's hometown of Indianapolis . The Library of America published a compendium of Vonnegut 's compositions between 1963 and 1973 the following April , and another compendium of his earlier works in 2012 . Late 2011 saw the release of two Vonnegut biographies , Gregory Sumner 's Unstuck in Time and Charles J. Shields 's And So It Goes . Shields 's biography of Vonnegut created some controversy . According to The Guardian , the book portrays Vonnegut as distant , cruel and nasty . " Cruel , nasty and scary are the adjectives commonly used to describe him by the friends , colleagues , and relatives Shields quotes " , said The Daily Beast 's Wendy Smith . " Towards the end he was very feeble , very depressed and almost morose " , said Jerome Klinkowitz of the University of Northern Iowa , who has examined Vonnegut in depth .
Vonnegut 's works have evoked ire on several occasions . His most prominent novel , Slaughterhouse @-@ Five , has been objected to or removed at various institutions in at least eighteen instances . In the case of Island Trees School District v. Pico , the United States Supreme Court ruled that a school district 's ban on Slaughterhouse @-@ Five — which the board had called " anti @-@ American , anti @-@ Christian , anti @-@ Semitic , and just plain filthy " — and eight other novels was unconstitutional . When a school board in Republic , Missouri decided to withdraw Vonnegut 's novel from its libraries , the Kurt Vonnegut Memorial Library offered a free copy to all the students of the district .
Tally , writing in 2013 , suggests that Vonnegut has only recently become the subject of serious study rather than fan adulation , and much is yet to be written about him . " The time for scholars to say ' Here 's why Vonnegut is worth reading ' has definitively ended , thank goodness . We know he 's worth reading . Now tell us things we don 't know . " Todd F. Davis notes that Vonnegut 's work is kept alive by his loyal readers , who have " significant influence as they continue to purchase Vonnegut 's work , passing it on to subsequent generations and keeping his entire canon in print — an impressive list of more than twenty books that [ Dell Publishing ] has continued to refurbish and hawk with new cover designs . " Donald E. Morse notes that Vonnegut , " is now firmly , if somewhat controversially , ensconced in the American and world literary canon as well as in high school , college and graduate curricula " . Tally writes of Vonnegut 's work :
Vonnegut 's 14 novels , while each does its own thing , together are nevertheless experiments in the same overall project . Experimenting with the form of the American novel itself , Vonnegut engages in a broadly modernist attempt to apprehend and depict the fragmented , unstable , and distressing bizarreries of postmodern American experience ... That he does not actually succeed in representing the shifting multiplicities of that social experience is beside the point . What matters is the attempt , and the recognition that ... we must try to map this unstable and perilous terrain , even if we know in advance that our efforts are doomed .
The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Vonnegut posthumously in 2015 .
= = Views = =
= = = War = = =
In 2011 , NPR wrote , " Kurt Vonnegut 's blend of anti @-@ war sentiment and satire made him one of the most popular writers of the 1960s . " Vonnegut stated in a 1987 interview that , " my own feeling is that civilization ended in World War I , and we 're still trying to recover from that " , and that he wanted to write war @-@ focused works without glamorizing war itself . Vonnegut had not intended to publish again , but his anger against the George W. Bush administration led him to write A Man Without a Country .
Slaughterhouse @-@ Five is the Vonnegut novel best known for its antiwar themes , but the author expressed his beliefs in ways beyond the depiction of the destruction of Dresden . He has one character , Mary O 'Hare , opine that " wars were partly encouraged by books and movies " , made by " Frank Sinatra or John Wayne or some of those other glamorous , war @-@ loving , dirty old men " . Vonnegut made a number of comparisons between Dresden and the bombing of Hiroshima in Slaughterhouse @-@ Five and wrote in Palm Sunday ( 1991 ) that " I learned how vile that religion of mine could be when the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima " .
Nuclear war , or at least deployed nuclear arms , is mentioned in almost all of Vonnegut 's novels . In Player Piano , the computer EPICAC is given control of the nuclear arsenal , and is charged with deciding whether to use high @-@ explosive or nuclear arms . In Cat 's Cradle , John 's original purpose in setting pen to paper is to write an account of what prominent Americans had been doing as Hiroshima was bombed .
= = = Religion = = =
Kurt Vonnegut was an atheist and a humanist , serving as the honorary president of the American Humanist Association . In an interview for Playboy , he stated that his forebears who came to the United States did not believe in God , and he learned his atheism from his parents . Like his great @-@ grandfather Clemens , Vonnegut was a freethinker . Vonnegut went to a Unitarian church several times , but with little consistency . In his autobiographical work Palm Sunday , Vonnegut says he is a " Christian worshipping agnostic . " He also talked about Jesus ' Sermon on the Mount , and the Beatitudes , and made these biblical ideologies part of his own doctrine . Vonnegut laced a number of his speeches with religion @-@ focused rhetoric , and was prone to using such expressions as " God forbid " and " thank God " .
Vonnegut would often talk about religion , in his novels and elsewhere . In God Bless You , Dr. Kevorkian , Vonnegut goes to Heaven after he is euthanized by Dr. Jack Kevorkian . Once in Heaven , Vonnegut interviews twenty @-@ one deceased celebrities , including Isaac Asimov , William Shakespeare , and Kilgore Trout — the last a fictional character from several of his novels . Vonnegut 's works are filled with characters founding new faiths , and religion often serves as a major plot device , for example in Player Piano , The Sirens of Titan and Cat 's Cradle . In The Sirens of Titan , Rumfoord proclaims The Church of God the Utterly Indifferent . Slaughterhouse @-@ Five sees Billy Pilgrim , lacking religion himself , nevertheless become a chaplain 's assistant in the military and display a large crucifix on his bedroom wall . In Cat 's Cradle , Vonnegut invented the religion of Bokononism .
Vonnegut had a deep dislike for the Christian religion , often reminding his readers of the bloody history of the Crusades and other religion @-@ inspired violence . He despised the televangelists of the late 20th century , feeling that their thinking was narrow @-@ minded . Realizing that humans need a moral code by which to live , he greatly admired Christ 's Sermon on the Mount , and there are a string of references to it across his works . In Palm Sunday , he writes , " The Sermon on the Mount suggests a mercifulness that can never waver or fade . " Vonnegut , in his 1991 book Fates Worse than Death , suggests that during the Reagan administration , " anything that sounded like the Sermon on the Mount was socialistic or communistic , and therefore anti @-@ American " . Vonnegut did not however disdain those who seek the comfort of religion , hailing church associations as a type of extended family .
= = = Politics = = =
Vonnegut did not particularly sympathize with liberalism or conservatism , and mused on the specious simplicity of American politics . " If you want to take my guns away from me , and you 're all for murdering fetuses , and love it when homosexuals marry each other [ ... ] you 're a liberal . If you are against those perversions and for the rich , you 're a conservative . What could be simpler ? " Regarding political parties , Vonnegut said , " The two real political parties in America are the Winners and the Losers . The people don ’ t acknowledge this . They claim membership in two imaginary parties , the Republicans and the Democrats , instead . "
Vonnegut disregarded more mainstream political ideologies in favor of socialism , which he thought could provide a valuable substitute for what he saw as social Darwinism and a spirit of " survival of the fittest " in American society , believing that " socialism would be a good for the common man " . Vonnegut would often return to a quote by socialist and five @-@ time presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs , who went to prison for his beliefs : " As long as there is a lower class , I am in it . As long as there is a criminal element , I 'm of it . As long as there is a soul in prison , I am not free . " Vonnegut expressed disappointment that communism and socialism seemed to be unsavory topics to the average American , and believed that they may offer beneficial substitutes to contemporary social and economic systems .
= = Writing = =
= = = Influences = = =
Vonnegut 's writing was inspired by an eclectic mix of sources . When he was younger , Vonnegut stated that he read works of pulp fiction , science fiction , fantasy , and action @-@ adventure . He also read the Classics , like those of Aristophanes . Aristophanes , like Vonnegut , wrote humorous critiques of contemporary society . Vonnegut 's life and work also share similarities with that of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn writer Mark Twain . Both shared pessimistic outlooks on humanity , and a skeptical take on religion , and , as Vonnegut put it , were both " associated with the enemy in a major war " , as Twain briefly enlisted in the South 's cause during the American Civil War , and Vonnegut 's German name and ancestry connected him with the United States ' enemy in both world wars .
Vonnegut called George Orwell his favorite writer , and admitted that he tried to emulate Orwell . " I like his concern for the poor , I like his socialism , I like his simplicity " , Vonnegut said . Vonnegut also said that Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , and Brave New World by Aldous Huxley , heavily influenced his debut novel , Player Piano , in 1952 . Vonnegut commented that Robert Louis Stevenson 's stories were emblems of thoughtfully put together works that he tried to mimic in his own compositions . Vonnegut also hailed playwright and socialist George Bernard Shaw as " a hero of [ his ] " , and an " enormous influence . " Within his own family , Vonnegut stated that his mother , Edith , had the greatest influence on him . " [ M ] y mother thought she might make a new fortune by writing for the slick magazines . She took short @-@ story courses at night . She studied magazines the way gamblers study racing forms . "
Early on in his career , Vonnegut decided to model his style after Henry David Thoreau , who wrote as if from the perspective of a child , allowing Thoreau 's works to be more widely comprehensible . Using a youthful narrative voice allowed Vonnegut to deliver concepts in a modest and straightforward way . Other influences on Vonnegut include The War of the Worlds author H. G. Wells , and satirist Jonathan Swift . Vonnegut credited newspaper magnate H. L. Mencken for inspiring him to become a journalist .
= = = Style and technique = = =
In his book Popular Contemporary Writers , Michael D. Sharp describes Vonnegut 's linguistic style as straightforward ; his sentences concise , his language simple , his paragraphs brief , and his ordinary tone conversational . Vonnegut uses this style to convey normally complex subject matter in a way that is intelligible to a large audience . He credited his time as a journalist for his ability , pointing to his work with the Chicago City News Bureau , which required him to convey stories in telephone conversations . Vonnegut 's compositions are also laced with distinct references to his own life , notably in Slaughterhouse @-@ Five and Slapstick .
Vonnegut believed that ideas , and the convincing communication of those ideas to the reader , were vital to literary art . He did not always sugarcoat his points : much of Player Piano leads up to the moment when Paul , on trial and hooked up to a lie detector , is asked to tell a falsehood , and states , " every new piece of scientific knowledge is a good thing for humanity " . Robert T. Tally Jr . , in his volume on Vonnegut 's novels , wrote , " rather than tearing down and destroying the icons of twentieth @-@ century , middle @-@ class American life , Vonnegut gently reveals their basic flimsiness . " Vonnegut did not simply propose utopian solutions to the ills of American society , but showed how such schemes would not allow ordinary people to live lives free from want and anxiety . The large artificial families that the U.S. population is formed into in Slapstick soon serve as an excuse for tribalism , with people giving no help to those not part of their group , and with the extended family 's place in the social hierarchy becoming vital .
In the introduction to their essay " Kurt Vonnegut and Humor " , Tally and Peter C. Kunze suggest that Vonnegut was not a " black humorist " , but a " frustrated idealist " who used " comic parables " to teach the reader absurd , bitter or hopeless truths , with his grim witticisms serving to make the reader laugh rather than cry . " Vonnegut makes sense through humor , which is , in the author 's view , as valid a means of mapping this crazy world as any other strategies . " Vonnegut resented being called a black humorist , feeling that , as with many literary labels , it allows readers to disregard aspects of a writer 's work that do not fit the label 's stereotype .
Vonnegut 's works have , at various times , been labeled science fiction , satire and postmodern . He also resisted such labels , but his works do contain common tropes that are often associated with those genres . In several of his books , Vonnegut imagines alien societies and civilizations , as is common in works of science fiction , but unlike conventional science fiction , Vonnegut does this to emphasize or exaggerate absurdities and idiosyncrasies in our own world . Furthermore , Vonnegut often humorizes the problems that plague societies , as is done in satirical works . However , literary theorist Robert Scholes noted in Fabulation and Metafiction that Vonnegut " reject [ s ] the traditional satirist 's faith in the efficacy of satire as a reforming instrument . [ He has ] a more subtle faith in the humanizing value of laughter . "
Examples of postmodernism may also be found in Vonnegut 's works . Postmodernism often entails a response to the theory that the truths of the world will be discovered through science . Postmodernists contend that truth is subjective , rather than objective , as it is biased towards each individual 's beliefs and outlook on the world . They often use unreliable , first @-@ person narration , and narrative fragmentation . One critic has argued that Vonnegut ’ s most famous novel , Slaughterhouse @-@ Five , features a so @-@ called metafictional , Janus @-@ headed outlook insofar as the novel seeks to represent actual historical events while , at the same time , problematizing the very notion of doing exactly that at the same time . While Vonnegut does use these elements , e.g. fragmentation and metafictional elements , in some of his works , he more distinctly focuses on the peril posed by individuals who find subjective truths , mistake them for objective truths , then proceed to impose these truths on others .
= = = Themes = = =
Vonnegut was a vocal critic of the society in which he lived , and this was reflected in his writings . Several key social themes recur in Vonnegut 's works , such as wealth , the lack of it , and its unequal distribution among a society . In The Sirens of Titan , the novel 's protagonist , Malachi Constant , is exiled to one of Saturn 's moons , Titan , as a result of his vast wealth , which has made him arrogant and wayward . In God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater , readers may find it difficult to determine whether the rich or the poor are in worse circumstances as the lives of both group 's members are ruled by their wealth or their poverty . Further , in Hocus Pocus , the protagonist is named Eugene Debs Hartke , a homage to the famed socialist Eugene V. Debs and Vonnegut 's socialist views . In Kurt Vonnegut : A Critical Companion , Thomas F. Marvin states : " Vonnegut points out that , left unchecked , capitalism will erode the democratic foundations of the United States . " Marvin suggests that Vonnegut 's works demonstrate what happens when a " hereditary aristocracy " develops , where wealth is inherited along familial lines : the ability of poor Americans to overcome their situations is greatly or completely diminished . Vonnegut also often laments social Darwinism , and a " survival of the fittest " view of society . He points out that social Darwinism leads to a society that condemns its poor for their own misfortune , and fails to help them out of their poverty because " they deserve their fate " . Vonnegut also confronts the idea of free will in a number of his pieces . In Slaughterhouse @-@ Five and Timequake the characters have no choice in what they do ; in Breakfast of Champions , a character believes that he has everyone 's free will ; and in Cat 's Cradle , Bokononism views free will as heretical .
The majority of Vonnegut 's characters are estranged from their actual families and seek to build replacement or extended families . For example , the engineers in Player Piano called their manager 's spouse " Mom " . In Cat 's Cradle , Vonnegut devises two separate methods for loneliness to be combated : A " karass " , which is a group of individuals appointed by God to do his will , and a " granfalloon " , defined by Marvin as a " meaningless association of people , such as a fraternal group or a nation " . Similarly , in Slapstick , the U.S. government codifies that all Americans are a part of large extended families .
Fear of the loss of one 's purpose in life is a theme in Vonnegut 's works . The Great Depression forced Vonnegut to witness the devastation many people felt when they lost their jobs , and while at General Electric , Vonnegut witnessed machines being built to take the place of human labor . He confronts these things in his works through references to the growing use of automation and its effects on human society . This is most starkly represented in his first novel , Player Piano , where many Americans are left purposeless and unable to find work as machines replace human workers . Loss of purpose is also depicted in Galápagos , where a florist rages at her spouse for creating a robot able to do her job , and in Timequake , where an architect kills himself when replaced by computer software .
Suicide by fire is another common theme in Vonnegut 's works ; the author often returns to the theory that " many people are not fond of life . " He uses this as an explanation for why humans have so severely damaged their environments , and made devices such as nuclear weapons that can make their creators extinct . In Deadeye Dick , Vonnegut features the neutron bomb , designed to kill people , but leave buildings and structures untouched . He also uses this theme to demonstrate the recklessness of those who put powerful , apocalypse @-@ inducing devices at the disposal of politicians .
" What is the point of life ? " is a question Vonnegut often pondered in his works . When one of Vonnegut 's characters , Kilgore Trout , finds the question " What is the purpose of life ? " written in a bathroom , his response is , " To be the eyes and ears and conscience of the Creator of the Universe , you fool . " Trout 's theory is curious seeing that Vonnegut was an atheist , and thus for him , there is no Creator to report back to . Marvin comments that , " [ a ] s Trout chronicles one meaningless life after another , readers are left to wonder how a compassionate creator could stand by and do nothing while such reports come in . " In the epigraph to Bluebeard , Vonnegut quotes his son Mark , and gives an answer to what he believes is the meaning of life : " We are here to help each other get through this thing , whatever it is . "
= = Works = =
The following is an account of Vonnegut 's major works . Unless otherwise cited , this list is taken from Thomas F. Marvin 's 2002 book Kurt Vonnegut : A Critical Companion ( date in brackets is the date the work was first published ) :
= Ryan Johansen =
Ryan Johansen ( born July 31 , 1992 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre currently playing for the Nashville Predators of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Growing up , he played minor hockey in the Greater Vancouver area until joining the junior ranks with the Penticton Vees of the British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) for one season . In 2009 – 10 , he moved to the major junior level with the Portland Winterhawks of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . After his first WHL season , he was selected fourth overall by the Blue Jackets in the 2010 NHL Entry Draft . Internationally , he has competed for the Canadian national junior team at the 2011 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , where he earned a silver medal and was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team . In 2015 , he participated in the 2015 NHL Skills Competition and was named the 2015 NHL All Star Game MVP .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
Johansen was drafted into the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) 150th overall by the Portland Winterhawks in the 2007 Bantam Draft . Having been offered an athletic scholarship to play with Northeastern University , he opted to play for the Penticton Vees of the British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) in 2008 – 09 to protect his eligibility for the National Collegiate Athletics Association ( NCAA ) . He appeared in 42 games for the Vees as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , scoring five goals and 12 assists .
Convinced of his ability , the Winterhawks persuaded Johansen to forego university and join their club for the 2009 – 10 WHL season . In Portland , he joined a line with fellow 2010 NHL Entry Draft prospects Nino Niederreiter and Brad Ross . He finished the year with 25 goals and 69 points in 71 games , second among league rookies behind Kevin Connauton and second in team scoring , behind Chris Francis . Helping the Winterhawks make the playoffs one year after finishing last in the WHL , they advanced to the second round . Johansen added 18 points in 13 games , ninth in league scoring and first among rookies , despite playing in only two of four playoff rounds .
Johansen rapidly climbed prospect charts for the 2010 NHL Draft , starting the year as a potential second round selection , before rising to 16th among North American skaters when the NHL Central Scouting Bureau ( CSB ) released its mid @-@ season ranking . Johansen 's coach with Penticton noted that , as one of the younger players of his draft class , his skill was often overlooked . NHL scouts praised his speed , playmaking ability and vision on the ice but believed he needed to show more consistency and physicality . He has been compared to Ottawa Senators centre Jason Spezza , while Johansen has said he tries to model his game after San Jose Sharks centre Joe Thornton . He finished the season as the tenth ranked skater according to Central Scouting and was projected to be a top 20 pick , perhaps as high as top 10 . With the fourth overall pick in the 2010 NHL Draft , Johansen was chosen by the Columbus Blue Jackets .
A couple of months after his draft , Johansen signed with Columbus to a three @-@ year , entry @-@ level contract on September 9 , 2010 . With a base salary of $ 900 @,@ 000 , the deal could reach $ 1 @.@ 975 million per year if he achieves all his bonus incentives . Attending his first NHL training camp that month , he did not make the Blue Jackets roster and was returned to Portland on October 2 for another year of junior hockey . Back in the WHL , Johansen was chosen to represent the league at the 2010 Subway Super Series , a six @-@ game exhibition tournament featuring all @-@ stars from the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) against Russian junior players . He completed the 2010 – 11 season improving to 92 points ( 40 goals and 52 assists ) in 63 games , ranking seventh among league scorers .
= = = = Professional = = = =
Joining the Blue Jackets ' training camp for a second year , Johansen made the opening lineup for the 2011 – 12 season . He made his NHL debut on October 7 , 2011 , registering 8 minutes and 46 seconds of ice time in a 3 – 2 loss to the Nashville Predators . He registered his first NHL point , an assist on a Kris Russell goal , in a 4 – 3 loss to the Ottawa Senators on October 22 . Three days later , he scored his first NHL goal against Ty Conklin of the Detroit Red Wings . Banking the puck off of Conklin 's skate from behind the goal line , the milestone came on the power play and was the game @-@ winner . He also added an assist to help Columbus to their first win of the season , a 4 – 1 victory . After playing in his ninth game of the season , having recorded two goals and two assists in that span , Johansen was notified by Blue Jackets head coach Scott Arniel that he would remain with the team and not be returned to junior .
Due to the NHL 's decision to lock out the players at the start of the 2012 – 13 season until a new collective bargaining agreement could be reached , Johansen was reassigned to the Blue Jackets ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Springfield Falcons . On February 24 , 2013 , Johansen was re @-@ called by the Blue Jackets for the remainder of the season , which began on January 19 after an agreement was reached . In the 2013 – 14 season , Johansen had a breakout year , scoring 33 goals and 30 assists for a total of 63 points , a career high . He is the third Blue Jacket in franchise history to post 30 goals or more in one season .
During the 2015 – 16 season , on January 6 , 2016 , Johansen was traded by the Blue Jackets to the Nashville Predators in exchange for Seth Jones .
= = International play = =
Johansen was invited to take part in the Canadian national junior team 's selection camp in August and December 2011 . He was later named to the squad , competing in the 2011 IIHF World U20 Championship , held in Buffalo , New York . Making his international debut against Russia , he scored his first goal for Canada in a 5 – 3 win . In the quarterfinal against Switzerland , he was named the player of the game , having scored his second goal of the tournament . He scored again in the semifinal against the United States to help Canada advance to the gold medal game , where they were defeated 5 – 3 by Russia . Johansen finished with three goals and nine points , third in team scoring behind Brayden Schenn and Ryan Ellis , and was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team .
= = Personal life = =
Johansen was born in Vancouver , British Columbia , to Randall and Rosalind Johansen . He has a younger brother , Lucas , who plays for the Kelowna Rockets in the Western Hockey League . He played his first years of minor hockey with the Vancouver Thunderbirds organization until his family moved to the suburb of Port Moody . The relocation meant giving up playing for triple @-@ A teams in Vancouver and diminished exposure to scouts . Nonetheless , he played in Port Moody at the double @-@ A level through to bantam ( age 13 – 14 level ) , including a peewee ( age 11 – 12 ) provincial championship . In 2007 – 08 , he played with the Vancouver North East Chiefs of the British Columbia Major Midget League .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= Wings for My Flight =
Wings for My Flight : The Peregrine Falcons of Chimney Rock is a 1991 book by American wildlife biologist Marcy Cottrell Houle . The book focuses on Houle 's efforts to save the then @-@ endangered peregrine falcons from extinction . By 1975 , peregrine falcons had been reduced to 324 pairs in North America , primarily as a result of DDT , a widely used pesticide . DDT inhibited the production of calcium and caused eggs to thin and break during incubation . Recovery efforts for the peregrine have been successful : DDT was banned by the U.S. in 1972 and efforts to breed and train peregrine falcons in captivity to later release to the wild were effective . In 1999 , the peregrine falcon was removed from the U.S. Endangered Species list .
After graduating from Colorado College in the 1970s , Houle was employed by the Colorado Division of Wildlife and assigned to Chimney Rock , a prominent rock formation where one of the last pairs of peregrine falcons had been discovered . Wings for My Flight documents Houle 's observations of the Chimney Rock peregrine falcons , as well as the Chimney Rock community , in the summer of 1975 . To protect the falcons , Houle had to halt a million @-@ dollar project turn ancient Anasazi ruins in the area into a tourist attraction and faced opposition and harassment by the Chimney Rock community as a result . The community eventually showed concern for Houle , however , after her trailer was broken into and vandalized .
Wings for My Flight was originally published in hardcover by Addison @-@ Wesley in 1991 . The book was republished in 1999 by Pruett Publishing with a foreword by Robert Michael Pyle and a new preface and epilogue by Houle . The book was updated again in 2014 and republished by the University of New Mexico Press with photographs and a preface by Houle touching upon the recovery of the peregrine falcon . In May 1996 , the children 's magazine Cricket published a short story written by Houle titled " Albert " , adapted from Wings for My Flight . Reception to Wings for My Flight has generally been positive . In 1991 , the book co @-@ received the Oregon Book Award , which promotes literature by Oregon @-@ based authors . Wings for My Flight was also awarded a Christopher Award for books in 1992 , which recognizes works that " affirm the highest values of the human spirit " . The Library Journal described it as " well @-@ crafted and compelling " , while the Los Angeles Times referred to it as " heartfelt " , although " naive and overdrawn at times " .
= = Background = =
Marcy Cottrell Houle wrote Wings for My Flight in the several decades following a major decline in the peregrine falcon population , which occurred between 1950 and 1970 . During the 1930s and 1940s , an estimated 1000 breeding pairs of peregrine falcons inhabited the western United States and Mexico , coupled with 500 pairs in the eastern U.S. By the 1970s , no peregrine falcons were discovered east of the Rocky Mountains , and in the west , peregrine falcon populations had declined by 80 to 90 percent . By 1975 , the year in which the events of Wings for My Flight take place , only 324 pairs of peregrine falcons were known to reside in North America , with only seven pairs in the Rocky Mountains region , and one at Chimney Rock National Monument in southwestern Colorado .
During the peregrine falcon decline , Houle studied biology at Colorado College in Colorado Springs . The institution 's block scheduling system meant that Houle had fewer classes each day , allowing her to travel frequently to experience various ecosystems in addition to her academic studies . Upon leaving college , Houle began working for the Colorado Division of Wildlife , and her first field assignment was to observe peregrine falcon activity along the Rocky Mountains for four summers , two of which were spent at Chimney Rock . Following her experience with the peregrine falcons , Houle had to decide whether to continue pursuing wildlife biology or to commit instead to her passion of writing . Wings for My Flight combined both of Houle 's interests ; it recounted her observations of the peregrines as well as her interaction with the community at Chimney Rock during her first summer there .
The peregrine falcon became an endangered species primarily due to the use of organochlorine pesticides , especially DDT , the breakdown of which lowered estrogen levels in the female peregrine bloodstream and inhibited the production of calcium , causing eggs to grow thinner by up to 20 percent . Since peregrine falcons lay their eggs on rocky ledges rather than nests , the thinned shells break under the stress of both the rocky ledge and the weight of the parents during incubation . Following 1970 , recovery efforts for the peregrine falcon population have been successful . The agricultural use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1972 , and recovery teams in the eastern United States were successful in breeding and training peregrines in captivity to later release to the wild , a procedure called hacking . In 1999 , the peregrine falcon was removed from the U.S. Endangered Species list .
= = Content summary = =
The events of Wings for My Flight take place throughout 1975 . Marcy Cottrell Houle ( then " Marcy Cottrell " ) , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old wildlife biologist , is sent by her supervisor , Barry Layne , to the U.S. Forest Service office near Chimney Rock in Colorado , where a pair of peregrine falcons reside . The pair is one of only seven pairs remaining in the Rocky Mountains region . Mr. Preston Fitch , an administrator involved with the peregrine falcon project , criticizes Houle for her lack of experience in the field upon meeting her . Nevertheless , Mr. Fitch introduces Houle to Chimney Rock . He explains that the Forest Service spent more than half a million dollars building a road which led to Chimney Rock ; work on the road had to be discontinued upon discovery of the falcons . Further , the Chimney Rock area is home to 250 Anasazi ruins dated between 900 and 1100 . The Chimney Rock community had been planning a million @-@ dollar development to build a tourist attraction for the ruins . Houle spends several weeks with the peregrine falcons , recording her observations in her notebook . In spite of her initial attempt at maintaining an impersonal relationship with the falcons , Houle names the female peregrine " Jenny " and the male " King Arthur " . In the middle of June , after Houle had spent several days of making field observations alone and with limited equipment , Mr. Fitch introduces Houle to her teammate , Alex Porter . He also provides them with a garbage truck for transportation .
Meanwhile , Houle faces indignation and harassment from the residents of the Chimney Rock community , who view her presence as impeding the progress of the construction of a tourist attraction for the Anasazi ruins . At one point , Maurice Richards , a high @-@ ranking official of the Colorado Division of Wildlife , attempts to host a picnic on an area restricted for the peregrines . When Houle forces him to leave , Richards threatens to fire her . Later , the female peregrine , Jenny , disappears and never returns . A local resident claims she was shot and killed by a member of the Chimney Rock community.As a result of Jenny 's disappearance , King Arthur spends several days ignoring the hatchlings . After this period of " grief " , King Arthur begins to raise the young falcons singlehandedly . Following this , Houle discovers that of five nestlings hatched by the pair , only two received enough food to survive . Houle names the surviving pair of nestlings " Bold Leopold " and " Albert " after their distinct personalities ; Leopold was more courageous and was always the first to try new things , such as flying , whereas Albert was more hesitant . In spite of all the attempts to intimidate her , the people of Chimney Rock eventually sympathize with Houle after her trailer , containing valuable field equipment as well as personal items , is broken into and vandalized .
= = Publication history = =
Wings for My Flight was first published in 1991 in hardcover by Addison @-@ Wesley . Houle later wrote a short story titled " Albert " that was adapted from Wings for My Flight , focusing on Albert and Leopold 's first attempts at flying . The story was published in the May 1996 issue of the children 's magazine Cricket . Wings for My Flight was republished , this time in paperback , in 1999 by Pruett Publishing . This edition included a foreword by Robert Michael Pyle and a new preface and epilogue by Houle . In 2014 , the book was updated and republished again by University of New Mexico Press . The updated edition contained photographs of the Chimney Rock landscape , as well as a preface by Houle that addressed the recovery of the peregrine falcon population since the book was first published in 1991 . Houle highlighted the 1972 agricultural prohibition of DDT , which was the chemical primarily responsible for the peregrine decline ; the Endangered Species Act of 1973 , which allowed the pursuit of wildlife conservation to take precedence over land issues ; and successful attempts to raise peregrines in captivity and later release them to the wild . While writing the book , Houle changed the names of various people and places , explaining the choice by saying " I felt more comfortable changing the names because I worked for so long with those people , it was impossible to be honest about them if I named them " .
= = Reception = =
Wings for My Flight was generally well received . In 1991 , the book received the Oregon Book Award for literary nonfiction , co @-@ receiving the award with My Country , My Right to Serve by Mary Ann Humphrey . The Oregon Book Award , presented annually by Literary Arts , a non @-@ profit organization that promotes literature , intends to recognize the works of Oregon @-@ based authors in a variety of literary genres . Additionally , in 1992 , the book received a Christopher Award , which is presented annually by The Christophers , a non @-@ profit Christian inspirational group , and recognizes creators of books , motion pictures , and television specials that " affirm the highest values of the human spirit " .
Dolores and Roger Flaherty wrote a positive review in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , noting how " Houle blends elements of adventure , romance , humor and pathos in the story of her rookie summer as a wildlife biologist . Along the way she offers vivid descriptions of her skydiving subjects and the seductive beauty of the wilderness . " David M. Schwartz , in the May 1992 edition of Smithsonian , praised Houle 's prose in Wings for My Flight , and wrote that the story is " told with a charming simplicity in fewer than 200 pages " . Schwartz also praised Houle for including her notational system for documenting field observations , stating that it " opens a window on field biology " . Writing in the Library Journal , Henry T. Armistead referred to the book as " well crafted and compelling , a dramatization of the classic conflict between the legitimate interests of conservationists and developers " , and , " highly recommended on several levels , as science , sociology , or a story " . Andrew Gulliford , a professor of history and environmental studies at Fort Lewis College , noted in The Durango Herald the significance of Houle 's efforts to prevent " inappropriate development " at Chimney Rock , which was proclaimed a U.S. National Monument by President Barack Obama in 2012 . " Wings for My Flight is a personal story " , wrote Gulliford , " but also a chronicle of environmental success . Without a doubt , peregrines saved Chimney Rock for the rest of us . "
Freehance writer Paul De Witte wrote a mixed review in The Record ( now the Waterloo Region Record ) , writing that although the book " will certainly find its audience , its Disneyesque sensibilities will kill its broader appeal . The topics of wildlife conservation and global ecological accountability warrant a depth that the author seems unwilling to give her book . " Kirkus Reviews referred to the book as " an enlightening cautionary take " and " a charmingly personal account " , but also as " loosely organized and occasionally sparse on detail " . John Wilkes , in the Los Angeles Times , wrote , " Although naive and overdrawn at times , this heartfelt tale will bring tears and smiles to even the most stubbornly objective reader . " Donna Mitchell , writing in The Wilson Bulletin ( now The Wilson Journal of Ornithology ) , wrote that Houle 's interpretation of the falcons ' behavior is excessively " anthropomorphic " , but also that " Ms. Houle 's perseverance and dedication to the protection of the Peregrine Falcon is admirable and an incentive not only to young biologists just getting started but to those of us who get a little more than discouraged with the struggle to protect endangered species and their habitats . "
= Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey =
Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey ( Japanese : 真 ・ 女神転生 STRANGE JOURNEY ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Atlus and Lancarse for the Nintendo DS . It was published by Atlus in 2009 in Japan , and in 2010 in North America . It is the fourth entry in the Shin Megami Tensei series , which forms the core of the Megami Tensei franchise . The story follows a special task force sent by the United Nations to investigate the Schwarzwelt , a spatial distortion that appears in Antarctica and threatens to engulf the world . Players take control of an unnamed protagonist , navigating the environments of the Schwarzwelt in first @-@ person . Combat involves the player and recruited demons fighting against various enemies , with the protagonist having the option of talking with and recruiting enemies .
The game originated from the team 's wish to develop a large @-@ scale role @-@ playing game for the DS . Many of the main staff had worked on previous Megami Tensei titles in some capacity , including producer and designer Kazuma Kaneko , director Eiji Ishida , writer Shogo Isogai , and composer Shoji Meguro . The setting in Antarctica was chosen to appeal to an overseas audience . Alongside the new setting , the game featured multiple science fiction elements new to the series , taking inspiration from films such as Damnation Alley and The Thing . For the music , Meguro used grander musical styles than his previous works , incorporating choir music using a special synthesizer . Reception of the game has been generally positive for its story and gameplay , but many disliked its first @-@ person navigation .
= = Gameplay = =
Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey is a role @-@ playing game in which players control the main protagonist , who can be named by the player . The environments within the Schwarzwelt are seen and navigated from a first @-@ person perspective : the 3D environment is displayed on the top screen of the Nintendo DS , while a 2D map is displayed on the bottom screen . Explored environments are automatically mapped out , with highlights being placed for unopened containers and doorways . These environments contain traps including pits , shifting floors , and floor tiles which damage the protagonist if stepped on . Alongside the main story quests , human non @-@ playable characters and demons within the Schwarzwelt unlock side quests which yielded rewards upon completion . During the game , the protagonist 's Demonica suit can be upgraded to open new pathways , enabling entry into new areas for story progression , as well as new parts of previously explored areas .
During exploration , the player enters battle through both story @-@ based boss battles and random encounters with standard enemies . Combat is turn @-@ based , with enemies facing against a four @-@ member party made up of the protagonist and three chosen demons . Combat is governed by a derivative of the Press Turn system used in Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne : in Strange Journey , the relevant system is called the Demon Co @-@ op System . If either combatant group hits their opponent with a Critical Attack or strikes their weak point , any allied demon of the attacker 's aliment will follow up with an unblockable attack which deals high damage .
As well as fighting demons , the protagonist can negotiate with them in a variety of ways : demons can be bribed , scared away , or recruited depending on responses given during conversation . After they are recruited , different demons can be fused together to create new demons . The new demon inherits skills from its parents , and some demons can only be obtained through fusion . The game includes 300 recruitable demons , all of which take inspiration from various world mythologies including Welsh , Egyptian , Norse , and Christian . Two main alignments govern the way demons must be approached : one that represents light , neutral and dark alignments ; and one representing law , neutral and chaos alignments . The choices made in the story also effect how demons respond to player commands , and whether they will remain loyal . As with earlier titles , a Moon Phase divided into eight segments dictates how demons will behave . When the Moon is full , demons will refuse to talk . Fused demons can be shared between players using thirty @-@ two character passwords generated when a new demon is fused . These passwords can be traded between different players .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
The setting and events of Strange Journey are unrelated to any other entry in the Shin Megami Tensei series . The game is set in the early 21st century on the continent of Antarctica . During the game 's opening , a massive atomic collapse occurs at the South Pole , causing the creation of the Schwarzwelt ( シュバルツバース , Shubarutsubāsu , German for " Black World " ) , a black void which swallows anything it touches and threatens to engulf the Earth . The space within the Schwarzwelt is occupied by spaces representing the many vices of humanity , acting as a critique of them . The main bases are special amphibious vehicles : Red Sprite No. 1 , the protagonist 's vehicle , Blue Jet No. 2 , Elves No. 3 , and Gigantic No. 4 .
The central cast are part of a special task force created by the United Nations to investigate and neutralize the Schwarzwelt . Players take control of a nameless member of the task force ( Japanese in the original and American in the localization ) . Alongside the main protagonist , there are three main crew members on the Red Sprite : Commander Gore ( ゴア隊長 , Goa @-@ taichō ) , the crew 's leader ; Jimenez ( ヒメネス , Himenesu ) , an experienced American soldier who seeks rewards for his work ; and Zelenin ( ゼレーニン , Zerēnin ) , a knowledgeable Russian scientist . Other characters include Arthur ( アーサー , Āsā ) , the Red Sprite 's AI computer ; the angel Mastema ( マンセマット , Mansematto ) , who represents the forces of God ; Mem Aleph ( メムアレフ , Memu Arefu ) , a primordial mother goddess who controls the demons of the Schwarzwelt ; and Louisa Ferre ( ルイザ ・ フェレ , Ruiza Fere ) , an avatar of Lucifer who watches the protagonist 's actions .
= = = Plot = = =
As the expansion of the Schwarzwelt is threatening to destroy Earth , the United Nations send in multiple teams , led by Gore , to investigate and eradicate the phenomenon . During their attempt to enter the Schwarzwelt , all ships but the Red Sprite are destroyed . During their missions , the crew is helped by Arthur , who gradually accumulates knowledge of the Schwarzwelt and developers a personality . During an early mission within the Schwarzwelt , Gore is killed . As the protagonist and members of the Red Sprite 's crew explore the regions of the Schwarzwelt , they slowly uncover the truth behind its existence . In ancient times , humans were controlled by the forces of God . His rule over them was broken when the Mother Goddess Mem Aleph destroyed him , breaking his hold on Earth . Residing within the Schwarzwelt , Mem Aleph saw humans abusing Earth 's environment and consequently corrupting her dimension . Determined to remove those humans responsible for the corruption and return the world to its ancient state , Mem Aleph unleashed the Schwarzwelt . The remaining forces of God , mainly represented by Mastema , intend to use the Schwarzwelt to spread their influence across the world , removing free will to create a united utopia . Key items are the Cosmic Eggs , objects created by Mem Aleph that can reshape the world when combined by the core of the Schwarzwelt .
Zelenin and Jimenez respectively side with Law and Chaos , while a resurrected Gore becomes Neutral . Depending on the choices made during the game , the protagonist has the choice of allying with either Law , Chaos or following a Neutral route and continuing with the original mission . If he sides with Law , the protagonist and Zelenin defeat Mem Aleph and use the Cosmic Eggs to create a World of Law , with Zelenin worshiped as a channel to God for humanity , which is forced to surrender its free will . If he sides with Chaos , he and Jimenez help Mem Aleph and defeat Zelenin , using the Eggs to fulfill the Schwarzwelt 's original purpose and create a world where humans and demons live together in a primal world where only the strong survive . In both the Law and Chaos routes , Arthur chooses to destroy his new personality to save the protagonist after the Red Sprite is damaged by Gore . If the protagonist rejects Law and Chaos , Gore transmits the necessary information for the destruction of the Schwarzwelt to him before truly dying . After defeating Zelenin , Jimenez and Mem Aleph , the protagonist and surviving crew escape in the Red Sprite while Arthur sacrifices himself to ensure the destruction of the Schwarzwelt , although there is a chance of it reappearing if humanity continues its abuse of the Earth .
= = Development = =
Strange Journey originated during talks among Atlus staff about creating a large @-@ scale role @-@ playing game using a small development team . Kazuma Kaneko suggested a Shin Megami Tensei game for the Nintendo DS . There were two main reasons for developing the game for this platform : Kaneko felt that the portable design fitted in well with Shin Megami Tensei gameplay philosophies , fellow role @-@ playing game Etrian Odyssey had been a commercial success , it had the biggest install base among their target audience , and its nature as a portable game meant people could concentrate more on the game when knowing that they could end their play session with ease . The game 's title was originally going to be Shin Megami Tensei IV , but due to the game 's setting , it was decided to give it its own subtitle . The original inspiration behind it was the event horizon as associated with black holes . An early subtitle was " Strange Horizon " , but this had been used in a previous unspecified video game setting . After Kaneko watched Amazing Journey : The Story of The Who , he and Eishida agreed on the title Strange Journey . Despite lacking a numeral , it is still a mainline entry in the Shin Megami Tensei series .
The game was co @-@ developed by Atlus and Lancarse , the developers of the Etrian Odyssey series . Strange Journey ran on a modified version of the engine used in the original Etrian Odyssey . The Atlus staff were made up of many veterans of the Megami Tensei series : Kaneko was producer , and character and demon designer ; Ishida made his debut as a director after being chief designer for Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne ; and the scenario 's main writer was Shogo Isogai , who had worked on Shin Megami Tensei II , Shin Megami Tensei If ... , and Nocturne . The gameplay was kept firmly within the traditions of the Megami Tensei series , while evolving and sometimes changing them . For example , the fusion system was re @-@ designed to keep the game fast @-@ paced , and former restrictions on skill inheritance were loosened to encourage experimentation . In contrast , the ability to fine @-@ tune the main character 's stats was removed . The battle system design and programming were both handled by Lancarse . The battle system was designed to provide ease of player , while aspects of demon alignment directly tied to the game 's moral alignment system . The Demonica suit , which was tied into many of the game 's systems , was designed around the concept of a spacesuit that included crucial software with which new demons could become visible and new areas could be explored . The multiplayer feature was originally conceived as players having contests between their demons , but this was decided against as it did not fit the game 's atmosphere . Instead , the concept of demon exchanges was designed . Passwords were chosen over Wi @-@ fi functions as it would make password exchanges through internet forums easier .
From the outset , the game was designed with an overseas release in mind . Among the early ideas created for the title was for it to be set in New York City , inspired by John Carpenter 's 1981 film Escape from New York . This was vetoed as it would not offer much variety in its cast . To enable an international cast , it was decided to set the game in Antarctica . This choice of setting was also made to depict the danger posed by the Schwarzwelt on a worldwide scale . This setting differed greatly from previous Shin Megami Tensei games , which had taken place in Tokyo . It was also chosen as the North Pole had no widespread landmass , making it an impractical setting . When developing the character drama , the team took inspiration from another film by Carpenter , 1982 's The Thing . The moral alignment system , a staple in earlier Shin Megami Tensei entries , was reintroduced for Strange Journey to help players experience the game 's themes . The central cast acted as both a microcosm of humanity and representation of the game 's alignments . Due to the setting , the characters had to be members of a Special Forces group , as opposed to previous protagonists who had been average people . The game includes a larger presence of science fiction elements than in previous Shin Megami Tensei games . Various elements within the game were inspired by science fiction movies : the Red Sprite was inspired by the main vehicle from the 1977 film Damnation Alley , and some equipment was inspired by James Cameron 's 1986 film Aliens . The characters ' firearms were all modeled after real @-@ life guns . Elaborating on how the science fiction elements complemented rather than clashed with the mystical elements of Shin Megami Tensei , Kaneko stated that he felt that the series had always had elements of those two genres merging , commenting that some people saw a web URL as something like a magical incantation and referencing a quote from Arthur C. Clark about technology becoming so advanced that it looked like magic .
= = Music = =
The music was composed and arranged by Shoji Meguro , whose previous work for the series included Revelations : Persona and Nocturne . In contrast to his previous work on the Persona series , Meguro did not use contemporary musical elements . Instead , he created a more mature experience to reflect the game 's story and setting . To achieve this , he used militaristic orchestration , Gregorian choir , and minimalistic ambiance . The choir sounds were created using Eastwest Quantum Leap Symphonic Choir , a synthesizer which could realistically simulate a choir . An exception was the " Sorrow " theme , for which he primarily used a piano melody . For the game 's " chaos " theme , he used musical elements similar to those in Nocturne . So as to get as much music as possible on the game cartridge , Meguro used CRI Middleware 's Kyuseishu Sound Streamer compression algorithm .
Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey Original Sountrack released on November 18 , 2009 as a single CD release under the catalog number COCX @-@ 35945 . It was published by Nippon Columbia . A bonus soundtrack containing music from the game was included with launch copies of the game in North America . After the game 's release , it was discovered that the bonus disc had a manufacturing defect that made it unplayable . Once the issue was raised , Atlus and its manufacturing partner moved to enable players to receive free replacements . Reviews of the original soundtrack release have been positive , with reviewers noting its change in style compared to previous Megami Tensei games .
= = Release = =
Strange Journey released on October 8 , 2009 in Japan , and March 23 , 2010 in North America . The first information on a new title in the series appeared in the form of a teaser site created on July 16 , 2009 for the Japanese Atlus website , depicting Earth with a large hole in the bottom . Using the page 's source code and locating an unused graphic , it was deciphered the game 's title was Strange Journey and confirmed it to be a Megami Tensei title . A week later , Atlus officially announced the game for the DS , clearing up a rumor among fans that the title was an entry in the Persona series .
The game 's North American release , along with a release window , was announced in November 2009 . For its release , the ESRB rated the game " M for Mature " . This made the game the tenth game for a Nintendo DS game to earn the rating . Alongside the bonus CD , Atlus revealed a mini @-@ poster exclusive to GameStop customers who purchased the game through street stores and online . After release , Atlus USA gave away exclusive demon passwords to fans to unlock otherwise inaccessible demons during gameplay .
The localization was handled by Atlus USA , led by project editor Nich Maragos , and project lead Yu Namba . During translation , the team had a mixed experience translating the katakana names . While names such as " Williams " were easy , names such as " Skogsra " , a demon based on a Scandinavian forest spirit , proved a challenge and required specific research on the name 's origins . Some of the localization choices were made due to the team 's knowledge of Ishida 's enthusiasm for western culture . They also needed to create varied speaking styles for the various demons , from Archaic English to a more modern vernacular , which proved a time @-@ consuming process .
= = Reception = =
Strange Journey sold 97 @,@ 000 units in its first week in Japan , coming in third on the Japanese sales charts behind Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver and Wii Fit Plus . Ultimately , the game sold lower than expected : Atlus expected the game to sell 170 @,@ 000 copies , but actual sales by November had only reached 152 @,@ 000 copies .
The game has had a positive reception , earning scores of 80 % and 80 / 100 respectively from aggregate sites GameRankings and Metacritic . Famitsu gave the game a score of 36 points out of 40 , noted by IGN as being the highest score given by the magazine to a Shin Megami Tensei game up to that time . In their review , Famitsu praised the game 's consistent balancing present throughout the game as well as commenting that while the player is having fun exploring , there is always a constant tension around . They also praised the demon combination system by saying that it was " the greatest asset the game has -- they give you better results the more you use them " as they allowed the battles to remain fresh and new . Famitsu also noted that " The tutorial is helpful , and the mission goals are clear enough that you 're never really lost . "
Charles Onyett of IGN called the game 's plot " interesting " and " well @-@ developed " , concluding that there is a " surprising amount of personality in the game " . Andrew Fitch , in his review on 1UP.com , commented that the game 's story is the " same kooky MegaTen narrative fans have come to expect " , but that fans will miss the voice acting of the Persona games . Lark Anderson of GameSpot agreed , calling the plot " excessively preachy " . Phil Kollar of Game Informer said that the game " numerous troubling means of highlighting the tension between technology and nature " . Heidi Kemps , writing for GamePro , called it " a refreshingly thoughtful experience compared to most Japanese RPG plots , but it 's not for the easily offended " . Eurogamer 's Matt Edwards called the story " isn 't particularly original but is nonetheless absorbing " .
Speaking of the gameplay , Fitch called it a combination of " classically engrossing MegaTen and Etrian Odyssey " , noting that the " same sense of exploration 's still there , but there 's also a meatier plot pulling you along " . Kemps called the dungeon exploration " exciting " , but found the lack of help with demon fusion detracted from the experience . Edwards was generally positive about the battle system , which he called " an easy @-@ to @-@ understand , turn @-@ based set @-@ up " . Anderson found the gameplay dated , particularly citing the dungeon design and negotiation system , citing the former as being too repetitive to be interesting . Onyett called the combat " standard " , but praised the demon fusion and negotiation mechanics . Kollar said that the Demon Co @-@ op attack system made the game more approachable than previous Shin Megami Tensei series , but found that exploration could become tedious .
= Toyah Battersby =
Toyah Battersby is a fictional character from the British soap opera Coronation Street , played by Georgia Taylor . Toyah and her family were introduced to the serial by executive producer Brian Park in a bid to increase falling ratings . Actress and singer Toyah Willcox gave the producers permission to name the youngest member of the Battersby family after herself , since the character was said to be born during the height of her career . Taylor originally auditioned for the part of Zoe Tattersall , but was cast as Toyah instead . The role marked her acting debut . She made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 4 July 1997 .
Toyah was portrayed as cocky , naive , too trusting and occasionally needing to be " a bit more clued up " about things . Taylor called Toyah a decent person and someone who was loyal to her friends and family . Taylor initially disliked Toyah 's image , particularly her make @-@ up and clothes , which were too revealing . Toyah 's first major storyline saw her abducted by a stranger . At the time , Taylor said it was one of the hardest storylines she had to film and the Independent Television Commission believed it should have carried a warning before it was broadcast . A few months later , Toyah became the show 's first female character to be involved in a storyline surrounding the subject of under @-@ age sex . The storyline was criticised by watchdogs , but Taylor defended it , calling it educational .
Toyah began a relationship with Spider Nugent ( Martin Hancock ) in 1999 , which lasted until Hancock 's departure in July 2000 . The following year , the character was the focus of one of Coronation Street 's most controversial storylines , which saw her beaten and raped by Phil Simmonds ( Jack Deam ) . The storyline marked the first time in forty years that the show had included a rape . The storyline was criticised by some former Coronation Street cast members , who thought the producers were using the subject of rape to boost ratings . Taylor decided to leave the show in July 2002 and her character departed on @-@ screen the following year . Toyah was well received by critics and Taylor received the Best Young Actor accolade at the Inside Soap Awards and Best Dramatic Performance at The British Soap Awards .
= = Storylines = =
Toyah and her family move into 5 Coronation Street and soon upset the neighbours with their bad behaviour , most notably Curly Watts ( Kevin Kennedy ) . Toyah and her stepsister Leanne ( Jane Danson ) steal from the local newsagent and indulge in some under @-@ age drinking . Toyah develops a crush on Spider Nugent ( Martin Hancock ) and turns vegetarian to impress him . She also asks him to help save a turkey from being slaughtered for Christmas . After arguing with her mother , Janice ( Vicky Entwistle ) , and step @-@ father , Les ( Bruce Jones ) , Toyah runs away to London to find her biological father , Ronnie . However , Toyah comes across Neil Flynn ( Tim Dantay ) , who initially pretends to be her father and abducts her . Neil takes Toyah to some woods , but while he is distracted , Toyah manages to escape and she is soon found by Janice and Les .
Toyah gets a job at Roy 's Rolls , the local café , and begins dating Philip " Dobber " Dobson ( John Donnelly ) . Dobber is a bad influence on Toyah , persuading her to steal from the café and threatening to break up with her if she did not have sex with him . Toyah loses her virginity to Dobber , but she eventually sees through him and they break up . With the help of former teacher Ken Barlow ( William Roache ) , Toyah begins to improve her grades and even wins a writing competition . While spending the night watching a lunar eclipse together , Toyah and Spider have sex . They soon begin a relationship and live together at Emily Bishop 's ( Eileen Derbyshire ) house until she asks them to leave . Toyah and Spider then find themselves a bedsit . Toyah gets a second job as a barmaid at The Rovers Return . She and Spider start to drift apart and when Spider asks her to go to India with him , she turns him down . Spider then leaves Weatherfield alone . Toyah later has a one @-@ night stand with Andy McDonald ( Nicholas Cochrane ) .
After a night out with Sam Kingston ( Scott Wright ) , Toyah decides to walk the short distance home alone . She is soon set upon by an unseen assailant , who beats and rapes her . Toyah is found by Jason Grimshaw ( Ryan Thomas ) , who takes her home . Janice initially believes Toyah has been robbed and is shocked when Toyah tells her she was raped . Toyah recounts her story to the police after undergoing an examination at the hospital . Several male residents come under suspicion , particularly Peter Barlow ( Chris Gascoyne ) , but they are ruled out by DNA tests . Toyah struggles to deal with what has happened to her and she develops agoraphobia . While being comforted at home by her friend Phil Simmonds ( Jack Deam ) , Toyah recognises his voice as he calls out her name and realises that he is her rapist . Phil becomes aware that she knows and prevents her from escaping . Toyah 's screams are heard by Peter , who breaks the door down and knocks Phil unconscious . Phil is found guilty of rape and sent to prison .
Toyah has a brief romance with Sam . She also moves into a flat with Fiz Brown ( Jennie McAlpine ) and Maria Sutherland ( Samia Ghadie ) . While on holiday in Blackpool , Toyah meets Goran Milanovic ( Matt Zarb ) , an illegal immigrant . After a few dates , Goran proposes to Toyah , but she turns him down . Toyah starts dating her college tutor John Arnley ( Paul Warriner ) . She is initially reluctant to introduce him to her flatmates and when she does , they are surprised to see that he is a lot older than Toyah . John asks Toyah to move in with him and she agrees . When Toyah argues with Fiz about not liking John , Fiz reveals that he and Maria had sex , resulting in Maria becoming pregnant . Toyah confronts Maria , who gives her the impression that John forced himself on her . Remembering her rape , Toyah attacks John in front of his class . When he calms her down , Toyah breaks up with him . Toyah decides to leave Weatherfield . She reunites with Spider and they move to London .
= = Creation and casting = =
The four @-@ strong Battersby family was created and introduced to Coronation Street in a bid to increase falling ratings . News of the family 's arrival came days after the series producer , Brian Park , axed three regular characters . He stated " The Battersbys are an exciting injection of fresh blood . They follow in the great tradition of the Ogdens and Duckworths , balancing the mix of comedy and drama for which Coronation Street is justly renowned . " Actress and singer Toyah Willcox gave the producers permission to name the youngest member of the family after herself , since the character was born in 1982 at the height of her career . Willcox later regretted her decision .
Actress Georgia Taylor was cast as Toyah and the role marked her acting debut . Taylor was studying for her A @-@ levels when she originally auditioned for the part of Zoe Tattersall . She was unsuccessful , so she then auditioned for Toyah and won the role . Of her casting , she explained " When I got the call to say that I 'd got the part I just sat there open @-@ mouthed , hugging my best friend . I could barely believe it . It is all very different than being on stage – it 's not quite so intense because your audience isn 't right there in front of you . But it 's a very different type of satisfaction , working much faster with storylines and characters developing all the time . " At the time of her casting , Taylor was two years older than the character she portrayed .
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
A month before she made her debut on @-@ screen , Toyah was described as being Janice 's ( Vicky Entwistle ) fourteen @-@ year @-@ old illegitimate daughter , who would become " the scourge of every Weatherfield Comprehensive teacher " . During an interview with the Daily Record 's Polly Graham , Taylor stated " Toyah 's gobby and cocky and makes her parents ' life a misery . But it 's brilliant playing her , it 's more fun than playing somebody nice . " Graham explained that both Toyah and her stepsister , Leanne ( Jane Danson ) were well known to the police for under @-@ age drinking and burglary . Taylor said that she hated her character 's clothes , as they were too revealing for her . She explained " In the beginning , the clothes that Toyah wore were terrible . I was very conscious of my bum hanging out from these tiny mini @-@ skirts . There are a lot of girls who wear those tarty skirts , but I never felt comfortable in that sort of thing . " Taylor also disliked Toyah 's make @-@ up , which was initially bright pink lipstick , a lot of black eyeliner and no foundation .
Toyah 's image eventually began to change and she became more aware of the way she looked when she got a boyfriend and started college . Toyah also took extra English lessons from Ken Barlow ( William Roache ) in a bid to better herself . Taylor later commented that her character got on her nerves due to her naivety . She also thought that Toyah had a romantic view of love , was too trusting and occasionally needed to be " a bit more clued up " . The actress added that Toyah was " a very decent person " , who was loyal to her friends . Digital Spy 's Kris Green described Toyah as " the more mellow of the Battersbys " and thought that was due to Les ( Bruce Jones ) not being her biological father . The Daily Mirror 's Charlie Catchpole commented that Toyah went " from lumpy , sulky schoolgirl to confident , radiant young woman " .
= = = Abduction = = =
Following an argument with Janice and Les , Toyah ran away to London to find her real father , Ronnie . However , she was " led on " by Neil Flynn ( Tim Dantay ) , a stranger pretending to be Ronnie , and was later abducted by him . Taylor said the storyline was one of the hardest she had to film : " In the story , I come down to London to track down my real father and things go badly wrong . Toyah hitchhikes all the way and just leaves herself so wide open . She is so naive and trusting and open to being used and abused . " The storyline was filmed on location in the city of London in early August . An hour long episode focusing on Janice and Les ' search for Toyah was broadcast a month later .
Jones , who played Les , revealed that the runaway storyline was tough on him and he began crying when he read the script . He continued " The four of us in the Battersby family read our scripts together to work out how we are going to play our parts . On this occasion , all four of us were sobbing . It is not like a normal Coronation Street story , it 's more like a Taggart or a Cracker . " Jones thought the " scrapes " that Toyah found herself in were frightening and hoped that if the storyline could stop one teenager from running away from home , then it would be worthwhile . The storyline attracted the attention of the Independent Television Commission , who believed that the episode featuring Toyah 's abduction should have carried a warning before it was broadcast .
= = = Under @-@ age sex = = =
In October 1998 , Toyah became the first female Coronation Street character to be involved in a storyline surrounding the subject of under @-@ age sex . Toyah , who was sixteen at the time , had a holiday romance with Philip " Dobber " Dobson ( John Donnelly ) . She quickly introduced him to her parents and was prepared to do anything for him , like stealing from the local café . When Dobber asked Toyah to have sex with him , she agreed , despite knowing that she should wait . Toyah was scared that if she said no , Dobber would break up with her . Toyah was persuaded to lose her virginity to Dobber in the back of his car . The storyline was branded " controversial " and " shocking " , while watchdogs stated that it sent out the wrong ideas to young schoolgirls . Taylor defended the storyline and her character , saying " We have taken a strong moral line and are not promoting teenage sex . It 's quite the opposite . Toyah 's actions should be a lesson for other girls not to fall into the same trap . It was an educational storyline , and I feel it was done in a responsible way . "
The actress went on to explain that the storyline showed how Toyah regretted her actions and that young female viewers could learn from her mistake . She added " Anyone watching can see Dobber is just using Toyah and I hope the message gets across to other girls not to fall into the same trap . " Toyah did not use protection with Dobber , so her sister , Leanne , persuaded her to go to the doctor for the morning @-@ after pill . Taylor praised Leanne for being Toyah 's " conscience and the voice of common sense " . She thought that Leanne had given her good and responsible advice on how to deal with what happened . The Daily Record 's John Millar agreed with Taylor and wrote that the storyline was " building to a stark warning for the millions of teenagers tuning into the Street . " Millar believed at no time did the viewers get the impression that Toyah was doing something " admirable " and proclaimed that Toyah was " the sort of girl who needs care and affection , which explains why the poor soul was coaxed into losing her virginity after a holiday romance convinced her that she was in love . "
= = = Relationship with Spider Nugent = = =
Five months after moving onto Coronation Street , Toyah developed a crush on her neighbour , Spider Nugent ( Martin Hancock ) , and even turned vegetarian to try and impress him . Hancock told All About Soap 's Hilary Kingsley that Spider initially saw Toyah as " a chubby schoolgirl , a pesky brat who had a crush on him . " However , when she listened to his issues and helped him with his battles against the local supermarket and the council , Spider began to admire her instead . Hancock explained " She was so efficient and hard @-@ working that she became a friend . And then , over the summer , it hit him , " Blimey ! She 's turned out nice ! " While Spider and Toyah watched the 1999 solar eclipse together , they ended up having sex for the first time . Hancock observed that both Spider and Toyah were overcome by the excitement to the point that there was " an explosion of lust . " However , in the morning , Spider was torn about what had happened . He admired Toyah , but knew that if they became a couple , it would cause a lot of problems , particularly as there was a ten @-@ year age gap between them . Taylor explained that she was happy that her character was getting together with Spider , although their scenes together often took place in the " grottiest " of locations .
Spider decided to " dodge his responsibilities " and began staying away from Toyah , who was not happy about it as she wanted them to make a commitment . Spider eventually changed his mind and Hancock commented " The fact is that he really fancies Toyah , and he figures that he may as well be hung for a sheep as a goat . " The actor reckoned that Spider and Toyah brought out the best in each other . Spider and Toyah soon began a proper relationship and briefly lived together . However , when Spider announced that he wanted to settle down and buy a house with Toyah , the couple realised that they had started to drift apart . Spider thought that if they got a mortgage together it would help save the relationship , but Toyah did not want that at all . When Spider was offered a promotion , he realised that he did not want to work for the DSS anymore and quit . He then told Toyah that he had bought them tickets to India so that they could go and " find themselves . " However , Toyah insisted that she did not want to leave Weatherfield . Nicole Carmichael from Inside Soap wrote that while Spider did not want to lose Toyah , he felt that he could not stay and soon departed .
= = = Rape = = =
In April 2001 , Toyah was the focus of one of Coronation Street 's most controversial storylines . After enjoying a night out with her friend Sam Kingston ( Scott Wright ) , Toyah was raped , beaten and left for dead in an alleyway by an unknown assailant as she walked home alone . The storyline began during a special 45 @-@ minute episode that was broadcast during the Easter weekend . It marked the first time in forty years that Coronation Street had included a rape . Viewers saw Toyah being grabbed by her attacker , but not the actual act of rape . Instead Toyah 's " bruised body " was found by Jason Grimshaw ( Ryan Thomas ) just as he set out for an early morning run . Jason took a " traumatised " Toyah back to her house , where she told her mother what had happened . Toyah then had to repeat the story to the police and revealed that she did not know who raped her because she was semi @-@ conscious during the attack . Toyah underwent an examination and counselling at the local hospital . The scenes were shot at the St Mary 's Hospital Sexual Assault Centre in Manchester , where the writers spent four months researching victim 's experiences and working with the clinical director and the staff to get the scenario right .
The storyline was criticised by some former Coronation Street cast members , who believed the producers were using the subject of rape to gain higher ratings than rival soap opera EastEnders . Taylor defended the storyline and hoped that it would help other women who had been attacked to seek help . She stated " The main focus of the storyline is the psychological effect that the attack has on Toyah . There are many women out there who have been raped or sexually assaulted and we owe it to them to make sure that the story @-@ line is handled sensitively and accurately . There is no denying that rape is a sensitive and controversial storyline . But I have put my heart and soul into it trying to portray it accurately and I only hope that women who have experienced it will think I have given it justice . " A show spokesperson commented that the storyline would be " handled sensitively " and that it would not become " a whodunnit " . Some of the male residents came under suspicion and were forced to give DNA samples . Peter Barlow ( Chris Gascoyne ) briefly became the prime suspect , but DNA soon eliminated him from enquires .
Toyah was aware that her attacker knew her as she remembered him calling her name , but could not put a name to the voice . She also struggled to deal with her " physical and emotional scars " and soon developed agoraphobia . Toyah found support from her mother and neighbour Charlie Ramsden ( Clare McGlinn ) , who revealed that she had once been raped . Taylor told Inside Soap 's Allison Maund that Charlie 's advice really helped Toyah to start getting back on her feet . However , the process was hampered when Toyah received an anonymous phone call , which left her feeling " extremely frightened " . The phone call sparked " a terrifying event " in which Toyah 's rapist was finally revealed to be her friend Phil Simmonds ( Jack Deam ) . When Phil came round to comfort Toyah , she recognised his voice as he called out her name and realised that he was her rapist . While Toyah tried to escape , Phil grabbed her and held her hostage . Toyah 's screams were heard by Peter , who broke the door down and knocked Phil unconscious . A show spokesperson commented that Toyah would be left to worry about whether Phil would deny the rape and be convicted .
A couple of months later , Toyah received a letter from Phil asking her to visit him in prison and in return he would plead guilty to raping her . Until the letter arrived , Toyah had been piecing her life back together by getting her job back at the Rovers and starting a romance with Sam . Of how Toyah felt about the letter , Taylor told Adrian Lobb from Inside Soap , " By the time Toyah gets the letter , she has grown a little stronger . But it comes as a complete surprise . Toyah doesn 't trust Phil , obviously , and she thinks he 's playing games . While part of her wants to confront him about the attack , there 's another side of her that wants to let it go , and just leave it to the courts to deal with him . " Toyah agreed to Phil 's request to visit him and Taylor said that Toyah believed that seeing Phil in person would help her to come to terms with what happened . When Toyah came face to face with Phil , her first thought was how pathetic he looked . When Phil tried to make excuses for what he had done , Toyah did not feel any pity and told him to plead guilty , which he agreed to do . Toyah left the prison feeling " tearful , but triumphant " and Taylor commented that while she would never fully recover from her ordeal , Toyah was determined to look towards the future .
= = = Departure = = =
On 30 July 2002 , Neil Wilkes from Digital Spy reported that Taylor had quit Coronation Street after five years . Wilkes revealed that her contract would expire in October that year , but the actress had chosen to stay with the serial beyond that to give the writers time to come up with a storyline for her character 's departure . Series producer Kieran Roberts added that he was sorry to see Taylor go , but understood her decision to move on . Taylor later explained that she chose to leave because she and the writers struggled to come up with storylines for Toyah . She told the Liverpool Echo 's Janet Tansley " I was asked where she would go from there and couldn 't think what she could do . If I couldn 't see a future for her , I couldn 't play her . " Taylor filmed her final scenes on 3 January 2003 .
Despite a rumour that Toyah would become a victim of serial killer Richard Hillman ( Brian Capron ) , the producers decided that she needed " a fiery fling " before she left . Therefore , Toyah 's last storylines saw her embark on " a passionate affair " with her university tutor John Arnley ( Paul Warriner ) . However , the relationship quickly turned into a love triangle when John had an affair with Toyah 's flatmate Maria Sutherland ( Samia Ghadie ) . When Toyah discovered the affair , she decided to leave the Street and made her on @-@ screen exit in February 2003 .
= = Reception = =
In 1998 , Taylor earned the Best Young Actor accolade at the Inside Soap Awards . In 2001 , Taylor won Best Dramatic Performance at The British Soap Awards . She was also nominated for Most Popular Actress at the 7th National Television Awards . At the Inside Soap Awards , Taylor earned a Best Actress nomination , while Toyah 's rape was nominated in the Most Dramatic Storyline category .
The People 's Gavin Blyth and Jon Clarke stated that Toyah and Leanne were " rough , tough and make other streetwise teenagers look like they are fresh out of nursery . " The characters were credited with increasing the show 's ratings from 13 million to 19 million viewers . When Toyah met Dobber , the Daily Mirror 's Tony Purnell commented " If anyone was going to find Mr Wrong on holiday it was Toyah Battersby . " John Millar from the Daily Record wrote " The Street should be congratulated if the plight of Toyah Battersby – a brilliant performance by young Georgia Taylor , by the way – means just one schoolgirl says no to her lusting boyfriend . "
An Inside Soap columnist observed that during the controversy over whether the show was right to run a storyline about rape , Taylor 's " magnificent " portrayal of a rape victim seemed to have been forgotten . The Daily Mirror 's Tony Stewart also praised Taylor 's performance throughout the storyline , saying it was " so heart @-@ achingly convincing " . Stewart also wrote that Toyah 's attack was " a chilling reminder of how brutal life can be " . Stewart 's colleague , Sue Crawford , branded Toyah a " disaster magnet " . In June 2011 , Rachel Tarley from the Metro included Toyah 's rape in her list of the top 10 most controversial soap storylines .
Lorna Cooper , editor for MSN TV , included Toyah in a feature about soap 's forgotten characters . Cooper said Toyah " didn 't have the best of luck during her 1997 – 2003 stint on Coronation Street . " A writer for Virgin Media quipped " Wayward teen Toyah rampaged through The Street in the 1990s . She fell for eco @-@ warrior Spider but her life fell apart after she was raped by evil Phil Simmonds . She then followed Spider to London . " In November 2012 , Paul Millar from Digital Spy stated " Toyah Battersby was one of Coronation Street 's best @-@ loved characters – certainly the best @-@ loved Battersby – during the time in which she graced the cobbles . "
= Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev =
The full understanding of the history of the late Soviet Union and of its successor , the Russian Federation , requires the assessment of the legacy of Leonid Brezhnev , the third General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) and twice Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet . Leonid Brezhnev was the leader of the CPSU from 1964 until his death in 1982 , whose eighteen @-@ year reign was recognised as the time of social and economic stagnation in the late Soviet Union .
Despite his failures in domestic reforms , his foreign affairs and defence policies consolidated the position of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) as a superpower . His popularity among the citizenry waned during his last years , and the Soviet people 's belief in communism and Marxism – Leninism slowly withered away but support still continued to be evident , even on the eve of his death . Following his death , political wrangling led to harsh criticism of both him and his family . Mikhail Gorbachev , the last Soviet leader , drew support from communists and the Soviet population by criticising Brezhnev 's rule , and referred to his rule as the " Era of Stagnation " .
Aside from the socio @-@ economic stagnation Brezhnev left to the nation , there was also a heritage of political and personal values . When Brezhnev died he left behind a gerontocracy , a group of leaders who were significantly older than most of the adult population . Historians have largely agreed that Brezhnev 's reign was one primarily of stagnation . However , in a poll taken in 2006 , 61 percent of the people polled viewed the Brezhnev era as good for Russia .
= = Immediate legacy = =
When Leonid Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982 Yuri Andropov was elected chairman of the committee in charge of managing his funeral . According to Time magazine Brezhnev 's death was mourned by the majority of Soviet citizens . First World commentators saw this as proof that Andropov would become Brezhnev 's successor as general secretary . The political corruption which had grown considerably during Brezhnev 's tenure had become a major problem to the Soviet Union 's economic development by the 1980s . In response Andropov initiated a nationwide anti @-@ corruption campaign . Andropov believed that the Soviet economy would possibly recover if the Soviet Government was able to increase social discipline amongst workers . Brezhnev 's regime was also criticised for ideological laxness and self @-@ indulgence . The gerontocracy established by Brezhnev was slowly phased out by Andropov , and new recruits were appointed to the Party " centre " , such as future Premier Nikolai Ryzhkov and Chief Ideologue Yegor Ligachev . Soviet foreign policy had also gone awry during Brezhnev 's last years , and by June 1982 , just before his death , Ronald Reagan classified the Soviet Union as an " Evil Empire " . This hardline diplomatic stance did not wither away before Mikhail Gorbachev initiated the " New Thinking " . Support for Marxism – Leninism continued to be evident amongst the Soviet people , however , its base of support slowly withered during the Brezhnev Era . The Soviet people still remained wary of such concepts as liberal democracy and multi @-@ party systems , and because of it , Marxism – Leninism remained the leading belief in the country . Due to the large military buildup of the 1960s the Soviet Union was able to consolidate itself as a superpower during Brezhnev 's rule .
Brezhnev 's family , Yuri , Galina and Yuri Churbanov , were investigated and all , with the exception of Galina , were arrested on charges of political corruption during Mikhail Gorbachev 's administration . Churbanov , Brezhnev 's son @-@ in @-@ law , was sentenced to twelve years in prison on charges of large @-@ scale embezzlement and corruption . By December 1988 Churbanov had been stripped of all state honours , and sent to a labour camp . Galina , along with the rest of Brezhnev 's family , lost all their state privileges . The city of Brezhnev reverted to its old name Naberezhnye Chelny , and a group within the Soviet leadership wanted to rename all towns , street , factories and institutions bearing Brezhnev 's name . This was actually carried through by the authorities in December 1988 when the Soviet Government issued a decree which stated all town , streets , factories , institutions and the like bearing Brezhnev 's and Konstantin Chernenko 's were to revert to their former name . According to his grandson Andrei Brezhnev , the very name Brezhnev had become a curse for the family , and several family members had been forced out of their jobs and their friends had deserted them . Brezhnev , who had inflated his role in World War II , was rescinded the Order of Victory on 21 September 1989 in a Supreme Soviet convocation .
During the Gorbachev Era , Brezhnev 's rule was considered less successful than that of Joseph Stalin ; in an opinion measurement poll only 7 percent chose the Brezhnev Era as good , while 10 percent picked the Stalin Era as good . Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Boris Yeltsin 's subsequent market reforms , many Russians viewed the Brezhnev era with nostalgia ; they missed the stability of that era which had subsequently been lost during the Gorbachev and Yeltsin eras .
= = Historical assessments = =
Historians have expressed criticism for Brezhnev and his rule . The scholarly literature dealing with him is scarce and , with the exception of the period immediately after his death , overwhelmingly negative . Very little has been written about Brezhnev in English , and even Russian literature . According to Mark Sandle and Edwin Bacon , the authors behind Brezhnev Reconsidered , Brezhnev had attracted little attention from the media due to a consensus of his rule that was formed shortly after his death ; literally that his rule was one primarily of stagnation . When Mikhail Gorbachev , the last Soviet leader , initiated perestroika he blamed the degradation of the Soviet economic and political system on Brezhnev , and called his rule the " Era of Stagnation " . Gorbachev claimed that Brezhnev followed " a fierce neo @-@ Stalinist line " , although in a later statement Gorbachev made assurances that Brezhnev was not as bad as he was made out to be , saying , " Brezhnev was nothing like the cartoon figure that is made of him now " .
British historian Robert Service wrote in his book , Russia : From Tsarism to the Twenty @-@ First Century , that " When he [ Brezhnev ] succeeded Khrushchev , he was still a vigorous politician who expected to make the Party and government work more effectively . He had not been inactive ; he had not been entirely inflexible . But his General Secretaryship had turned into a ceremonial reign that had brought communism into its deepest contempt since 1917 . " He added that it was " hard to feel very sorry for Brezhnev " ; his socio @-@ economic policies had sent the country into an Era of Stagnation from which his successors were never able to fully recover | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
long ( 43 km ) concurrency with US 97 at a diamond interchange east of Peshastin .
US 2 and US 97 travel together on a four @-@ lane highway on the north side of the Wenatchee River heading southeast past Cashmere heading towards Wenatchee . The roadway intersects SR 285 , a short connector to downtown Wenatchee , and US 97 Alternate , an alternate route to Chelan , in Sunnyslope before crossing the Richard Odabashian Bridge over the Columbia River and into Douglas County . The two highways continue east into East Wenatchee and turn north at the western terminus of SR 28 . US 2 and US 97 continue north between the Columbia River to the west and Badger Mountain to the east , passing the Rocky Reach Dam and its reservoir , Lake Entiat before reaching Orondo . US 2 and US 97 split at Orondo , with US 97 continuing north along the Columbia River towards Chelan and US 2 traveling east up Pine Canyon onto the Waterville Plateau . The highway travels through the town of Waterville via several turns on city streets before heading due east across the Columbia Plateau , intersecting SR 172 at Farmer . US 2 becomes concurrent with SR 17 as it descends into the Grand Coulee south of Banks Lake , becoming part of the Coulee Corridor Scenic Byway .
The byway travels off US 2 and onto SR 155 east of Coulee City at Fordair , continuing north through Grant County towards the Grand Coulee Dam . US 2 travels east into Lincoln County between the towns of Hartline and Almira and becomes concurrent with SR 21 in Wilbur for several city blocks . The highway parallels the Columbia River Subdivision of the BNSF Northern Transcon through Bachelor Prairie towards Davenport , where it intersects the termini of SR 28 and SR 25 . US 2 travels into Reardan concurrent with SR 231 and enters Spokane County east of the town boundary . The highway passes Fairchild Air Force Base and becomes a four @-@ lane arterial street through Airway Heights approaching Spokane . US 2 enters the city of Spokane as a four @-@ lane freeway northeast of Spokane International Airport and intersects Airport Way before beginning its 3 @.@ 82 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 15 km ) concurrency with I @-@ 90 and US 395 at a partial cloverleaf interchange .
I @-@ 90 , US 2 and US 395 travel east into Downtown Spokane and intersects the northern terminus of US 195 , which travels south towards Pullman and Lewiston , Idaho . US 2 and US 395 split from I @-@ 90 and travel into Downtown Spokane on the one @-@ way pair of Browne and Division streets , serving the Spokane Intermodal Center and Spokane Convention Center before reaching Riverfront Park . Division Street crosses the Spokane River and the Centennial Trail on the Senator Sam C. Guess Memorial Bridge before splitting into the one @-@ way pairing of Division and Ruby streets . Division Street continues north past the NorthTown Mall and the eastern terminus of SR 291 at Francis Street before US 2 and US 395 split .
US 2 travels northeast through Country Homes on the Newport Highway to an interchange with the North Spokane Corridor , an incomplete freeway bypass of Spokane that is signed as a spur route of US 395 . The highway continues west of Mead and intersects SR 206 , a road serving Mount Spokane State Park , before becoming a four @-@ lane divided highway parallel the Kooteani River Subdivision of the BNSF Northern Transcon . US 2 travels north along the Little Spokane River through Colbert and Chattaroy before leaving Spokane County and entering Pend Oreille County . The divided highway ends at the southern terminus of SR 211 , located west of Diamond Lake . US 2 continues northeast along the Little Spokane River and enters the city of Newport , splitting into a one @-@ way pair on Washington and Union avenues . The two streets travel north through the city to the eastern terminus of SR 20 and turn east onto Walnut Street and the International Selkirk Loop , where US 2 crosses the Idaho state line at the northern terminus of SR 41 in Newport and ID @-@ 41 in Oldtown , Idaho .
= = History = =
US 2 follows the route of several wagon roads and early state highways that themselves followed the route of the Skykomish River and the Great Northern Railway , a transcontinental railroad that was completed in 1893 . A wagon road from Snohomish to Skykomish was completed in the late 1880s , while another wagon road along the Wenatchee River from Leavenworth to Sunnyslope was completed by 1904 . The state of Washington began maintaining State Road 7 in 1909 , traveling from Peshastin to Spokane on what would become the Sunset Highway and US 2 . The easternmost segment of US 2 within Washington , from Spokane to Newport , was added to the state highway system in 1915 as State Road 23 and renamed to the Pend Oreille Highway two years later . State Road 7 was renumbered to State Road 2 , part of an east – west highway connecting Seattle to Spokane . The Stevens Pass Highway was opened on July 11 , 1925 , and traveled from Everett along the Skykomish River and over Stevens Pass towards Leavenworth . The highway was transferred to state maintenance from the Department of Highways in 1931 as State Road 15 .
The United States Highway System was adopted by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) on November 11 , 1926 , and included a shorter US 2 , traveling from Bonners Ferry , Idaho to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan , and several routes along the modern route of US 2 in Washington . The corridor of US 2 was signed as US 10 from Peshastin to Spokane and US 195 from Spokane to Newport , co @-@ signed with State Road 2 and State Road 6 , respectively . The Washington primary and secondary state highway system was adopted by the Washington State Legislature on March 17 , 1937 , and the three highways that comprise the present route of US 2 were included in the system as Primary State Highway 15 ( PSH 15 ) from Everett to Peshastin , PSH 2 from Peshastin to Spokane , and PSH 6 from Spokane to the Idaho state line in Newport via a short branch route . US 10 was relocated to a southern route in 1939 , crossing the Columbia River at Vantage , and the former route was replaced by US 10 Alternate the following year . A proposal from representatives of the highway departments of Idaho and Washington to extend US 2 to Everett was considered by the AASHO 's U.S. Route Numbering Committee in January 1946 , but was vetoed . The proposal resurfaced during the committee 's meeting on December 20 , 1946 , and was approved as a replacement of US 10 Alternate from Everett to Bonners Ferry and US 195 from Spokane to Newport .
The Washington state highway system was changed to its current " sign route system " beginning in January 1963 with a state highway renumbering . Under the new system , Interstate highways , U.S. routes , and state routes replaced the primary and secondary highways and were codified under the Revised Code of Washington in 1970 . US 2 was re @-@ routed around various cities over the next several decades onto limited @-@ access highways to reduce congestion , beginning with the construction of the current westbound Hewitt Avenue Trestle east of Everett in the 1960s , moving traffic off an existing wooden trestle that would be replaced with a new eastbound trestle in 2002 . US 2 was routed north of Wenatchee onto the Olds Station Bridge , renamed in 1991 to honor Richard Odabashian , over the Columbia River in 1975 , while the former alignment was designated as SR 285 in 1977 . The present two @-@ lane expressway north and east of Snohomish was completed in 1983 and was intended to also include an unfinished bypass of Monroe . US 97 had its concurrency with US 2 extended from Sunnyslope to Orondo along the east side of the Columbia River in 1987 after US 97 was moved onto the former route of SR 151 . The Stevens Pass Greenway , which became a National Forest Scenic Byway on April 14 , 1992 , was re @-@ designated as a National Scenic Byway on September 22 , 2005 . Within Newport , US 2 had an unsigned spur route that traveled on the southbound lanes of ID @-@ 41 on the Idaho state line until 1997 , when SR 41 was created to avoid confusion . The intersection between US 2 and US 97 east of Peshastin was replaced by a new diamond interchange completed in October 2008 as part of general improvements to the two highways ' concurrency from Peshastin to Sunnyslope . The current interchange between US 2 and the North Spokane Corridor , a spur route of US 395 , was opened in November 2011 to coincide with the opening of the northernmost 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 85 km ) of the future freeway .
Recently , WSDOT began planning a series of 56 projects to improve the US 2 corridor between Snohomish and Skykomish , where the highway is two lanes wide and has been the site of over 2 @,@ 600 collisions between 1999 and 2007 that caused 47 fatalities . A study , conducted by WSDOT in 2007 , divided the corridor into four segments , each with a specialized development plan . The study suggested the expansion of the limited @-@ access highway from Snohomish to the western city limits of Monroe to four lanes , including an interchange at Bickford Avenue that is expected to be completed in fall 2013 . WSDOT planned the re @-@ routing of US 2 onto a northern bypass of Monroe with an extension of SR 522 to a roundabout with the bypass north of Monroe . From Monroe to Gold Bar , US 2 would be expanded to a four @-@ lane highway , with a roundabout connecting the highway to the city of Gold Bar , and become a two @-@ lane highway with wider shoulder lanes to Skykomish .
= = Major intersections = =
= Here Come the Warm Jets =
Here Come the Warm Jets is the debut solo album by Brian Eno , credited only as " Eno " . Produced by him , it was released on Island Records in November 1973 . The musical style of Here Come the Warm Jets is a hybrid of glam rock and art rock , similar to Eno 's previous album work with Roxy Music , although in a stronger experimental fashion . In developing the album 's words and music , Eno used unusual methods such as dancing for his band members and having them play accordingly , and singing nonsense words to himself that would form the basis of subsequent lyrics . The album features various guest musicians , including members of Roxy Music , Hawkwind , Matching Mole and Pink Fairies , as well as Chris Spedding , and Robert Fripp of King Crimson , who collaborated with Eno a year before in ( No Pussyfooting ) .
Here Come the Warm Jets peaked at number 26 on the United Kingdom album charts and number 151 on the US Billboard charts , receiving mostly positive reviews . It was re @-@ issued on compact disc in 1990 on Island Records and in 2004 on Virgin Records , and continued to elicit praise . Critic Steve Huey of AllMusic stated that the album " still sounds exciting , forward @-@ looking , and densely detailed , revealing more intricacies with every play " .
= = Production = =
Here Come the Warm Jets was recorded in twelve days at Majestic Studios in London during September 1973 by recording engineer Derek Chandler . It was mixed at Air and Olympic Studios by Eno and audio engineer Chris Thomas . The album 's title was originally described by Eno as a slang term for urination . However , in an interview with Mojo magazine in 1996 , Eno explained that it came from a description he wrote for the treated guitar on the title track ; he called it " warm jet guitar ... because the guitar sounded like a tuned jet . "
Eno enlisted sixteen guest musicians to play on the album with him , including John Wetton and Robert Fripp of King Crimson , Simon King from Hawkwind , Bill MacCormick of Matching Mole , Paul Rudolph of Pink Fairies , Chris Spedding and all the members of Roxy Music except vocalist Bryan Ferry . Eno selected them on the basis that he thought they were incompatible with each other musically . He stated that he " got them together merely because I wanted to see what happens when you combine different identities like that and allow them to compete ... [ The situation ] is organized with the knowledge that there might be accidents , accidents which will be more interesting than what I had intended " .
Eno directed the musicians by using body language and dancing , as well as through verbal suggestion , to influence their playing and the sounds they would emit . He felt at the time that this was a good way to communicate with musicians . The album credits Eno with instruments such as " snake guitar " , " simplistic piano " and " electric larynx " . These terms were used to describe the sound 's character or the means of production used to treat the instruments . After recording the individual tracks , Eno condensed and mixed the instrumentation deeply , resulting in some of the tracks bearing little resemblance to what the musicians recorded during the session .
Eno 's girlfriend at the time , potter Carol McNicoll , supervised the design of the cover for the album and it features one of her teapots .
= = Style = =
The songs on Here Come the Warm Jets reference various musical styles from the past and present . The overall style of the album has been described as " glammed @-@ up art @-@ pop " , showcasing glam rock 's simple yet theatrical crunchy guitar rock and art pop 's sonic texture and avant @-@ garde influences . In some tracks , Eno 's vocals emulate the manner of the lead singer of his former band Roxy Music , Bryan Ferry . On other songs such as " Baby 's on Fire " , they were described as " more nasal and slightly snotty vocals " . Musically , the album borrows from popular styles of the music in the 1950s such as the tinkling pianos and falsetto backing vocals on " Cindy Tells Me " , and the drum rhythm of " Blank Frank " , taken from Bo Diddley 's song " Who Do You Love ? " .
To create the lyrics , Eno would later play these backing tracks singing nonsense syllables to himself , then take them and form them into actual words , phrases and meaning . This lyric @-@ writing method was used for all his more vocal @-@ based recordings of the 1970s . The lyrics on Here Come the Warm Jets are macabre with an underlying sense of humour . They are mostly free @-@ associative and have no particular meaning . Exceptions include " The Paw Paw Negro Blowtorch " , about the historical A.W. Underwood of Paw Paw , Michigan with the purported ability to set items ablaze with his breath ; according to Eno , the song " celebrates the possibility of a love affair with the man . " Eno has attempted to dissuade fans from reading too much into his words ; he claims that the song " Needles in the Camel 's Eye " was " written in less time than it takes to sing ... I regard [ the song ] as an instrumental with singing on it " .
= = Release = =
Here Come the Warm Jets was released in January 1974 . The album was one of Brian Eno 's best @-@ selling releases , charting for two weeks and peaking at number 26 on the UK Albums Chart on 9 March 1974 , and number 151 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart . Eno planned a tour with the band The Winkies to accompany him following the release of Here Come the Warm Jets . Eno had to depart the tour after being diagnosed with a collapsed lung . After recovering , Eno played at an Island Records 1 June 1974 concert with fellow musicians Nico , Kevin Ayers and John Cale .
Here Come the Warm Jets was later re @-@ issued on Polydor in March 1977 , and again on compact disc in January 1987 . In 2004 , Virgin Records began reissuing Eno 's albums in batches of four to five . The remastered digipak release of Here Come the Warm Jets was released on 31 May 2004 in the UK and on 1 June 2004 in North America .
= = Reception = =
Initial critical reception for the album was mostly positive , praising its experimental tendencies . Critic Lester Bangs of Creem declared it " Incredible " , while Robert Christgau also of Creem gave it an " A " rating , stating that " The idea of this record — top of the pops from quasi @-@ dadaist British synth wizard — may put you off , but the actuality is quite engaging in a vaguely Velvet Underground kind of way . " Billboard wrote a positive review , stating that " ... while it all may be a bit unpredictable , and may be a longshot to do much in the U.S. market , it is an excellent LP . " The album was also placed in Circus magazine 's section for " Picks of the Month " . Cynthia Dagnal of Rolling Stone wrote an article on Eno , calling the album " a very compelling experiment in controlled chaos and by his own self @-@ dictated standards a near success . " The next month , Gordon Fletcher wrote a negative review for the album in the " Records " section of Rolling Stone , stating " [ Eno 's ] record is annoying because it doesn 't do anything ... the listener must kick himself for blowing five bucks on baloney . " In 1974 , Here Come the Warm Jets was voted one of the best albums of the year in the Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics poll for that year .
Modern assessments of the album have been positive ; AllMusic gave the album five stars , their highest rating . In 1991 , Select gave the album a five out of five rating , describing it as an album of " mind @-@ blowing diversity " and as a " classic album " . In the November 2003 issue of Rolling Stone , the album charted at number 436 in the magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums ever . In a retrospective review , Rolling Stone 's J. D. Considine gave the album four out of five stars and commented that " It may be easy to hear both an anticipation of punk and an echo of Roxy Music in the arch clangor of Here Come the Warm Jets , but what shines brightest is the offhand accessibility of the songs " , adding that " the melodies linger on [ … ] the album seems almost a blueprint for the pop experiments Bowie ( with Eno collaborating ) would conduct with Low " . In 2004 , Pitchfork ranked the album at number 24 on its " Top 100 Albums of the 1970s " list , as well as giving the re @-@ issue of the album 9 @.@ 2 out of 10 . In 2003 , Blender placed the album on their list " 500 CDs You Must Own : Alternative Rock " , stating that Here Come the Warm Jets " remains his best pop effort . His experimental touch turns basic glam @-@ rock into something sick and sinister . The free @-@ associating , posh @-@ voiced vocals are an acquired taste , but there 's method in this madness " . The Canadian music magazine Exclaim ! referred to Here Come the Warm Jets as " Arguably one of the greatest solo debuts of the 1970s ... Songs such as " Baby 's on Fire " , " Driving Me Backwards " and " Needles in the Camel 's Eye " capture the lush and sleazy underpinning narratives of the British Invasion in arrangements that sound quintessentially timeless " .
The album was included in Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Brian Eno , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= Circus Juventas =
Circus Juventas ( formerly Circus of the Star ) is a youth performing arts circus school located in Saint Paul , Minnesota , serving youth throughout the Minneapolis – Saint Paul metropolitan area . The organization was founded in 1994 by Dan and Betty Butler , and offers circus arts training to young people ranging from 3 to 21 years old .
Emulating the style of Cirque du Soleil , Circus Juventas 's first show was at Saint Paul 's Highland Fest in 1995 . From there , the school 's enrollment quickly expanded and the organization initiated a campaign to fund a $ 2 @.@ 1 million permanent big top facility , which opened in 2001 on Saint Paul parkland in the Highland Park neighborhood . That year , it began to produce annual summer performances showcasing the work of its most advanced students , each with a distinct theme .
These shows have proven popular with local audiences and have been well received critically , with reviewers praising the professionalism and fearlessness exhibited in the productions , while noting students ' occasional missteps during performances . Circus Juventas students have performed and competed both around the Minneapolis – Saint Paul area and abroad . As of 2014 , Juventas was the largest youth performing arts circus in North America . The school had tentative plans to add a second facility elsewhere in the region .
= = History = =
The founders of Circus Juventas , Dan and Betty Butler , met as teenagers at the Sailor Circus of Sarasota during the mid @-@ 1970s . Dan was a catcher on the flying trapeze , and Betty was an aerialist on the cloud swing . They began dating at age sixteen , went on to perform at Florida State University 's Flying High Circus , and married in 1980 . Dan became a successful real estate broker in Atlanta , but eventually faced bankruptcy and chemical dependency . The couple came to reside in Minnesota because Dan Butler was receiving alcohol and drug abuse rehabilitation at Hazelden . The Butlers attended Sailor Circus reunions together and after one , in April 1994 , Betty Butler wondered , " Wouldn 't it be great if we could do something in Minnesota ? "
The Butlers founded Circus Juventas as a nonprofit corporation in October 1994 , citing a desire to give back to the community as one of the reasons for its creation . It was originally known as Circus of the Star , so called for Minnesota 's nickname , The North Star State . The newly opened Hillcrest Recreation Center in Saint Paul provided the couple with inspiration for the circus program , and they asked the city if they could hold classes there . The Saint Paul Parks and Recreation Department approved the program , and assumed liability for approximately fifty children who enrolled the first year . About thirty of those students stayed with the program and performed in their first show at the 1995 Highland Fest , an annual family @-@ oriented neighborhood festival . After this performance , interest in the program increased . By 1996 , 30 more students were enrolled , and by 1997 , an additional 25 had joined the program . The circus was still based out of the Hillcrest Recreation Center 's gym , and had to work around the schedule of the other regular activities in the facility . In 1997 , the waitlist for the program was around 200 students .
With the school 's growing popularity , the Butlers saw the need for a larger space so they developed plans to build a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ seat facility . In an article published in the St. Paul Pioneer Press in 1997 , the estimated cost of the project was quoted at $ 700 @,@ 000 , with a groundbreaking planned for April 1998 . The Butlers initiated their capital campaign on February 18 , 1998 , with the goal of raising $ 1 @.@ 1 million for their new building . By August 1999 , they had raised $ 1 million of their expanded $ 1 @.@ 6 million goal for the circus expansion , with plans to break ground on the new facility that November . Part of the funding came from Saint Paul 's Sales Tax Revitalization ( STAR ) program , through which surplus funds were distributed by councilmembers to worthy organizations . A total of $ 627 @,@ 183 was disbursed for the circus through the program , split between three STAR components : $ 450 @,@ 000 as part of Neighborhood STAR which sought to fund local initiatives , $ 122 @,@ 183 as part of Cultural STAR which funded arts and culture programs , and $ 55 @,@ 000 from 3rd Ward City Councilmember Pat Harris 's discretionary Neighborhood Investment Initiative budget . Another $ 60 @,@ 000 came from an anonymous recently retired Saint Paul businessperson .
The $ 1 @.@ 6 million were raised in full by the end of April 2000 , just in time to ensure the circus received its STAR funding which would have been nullified if the Butlers had not made their fundraising goal by May 5 of that year . The Butlers had found the space for the school through coincidence ; after driving along Montreal Avenue in Saint Paul one night , they turned into a parking lot , noticed an area beneath some trees , and realized it was an ideal location for their school 's expanded facility . On August 25 , 2000 , ground was broken on the new structure . The big top took about a year to complete , during which time the school also changed its name to Circus Juventas , named for Juventas , an ancient Roman goddess of youth and rejuvenation . Ultimately , the project totaled $ 2 @.@ 1 million and by 2006 , the school was $ 700 @,@ 000 in debt . It was working with various city agencies to resolve the shortfall and faced " no looming threat . " The school relies heavily on parent volunteers to help with various operational aspects , from rigging to administrative work to set construction and decoration , and concessions sales . Betty Butler estimated that 90 percent of work on the school 's shows is done by parent volunteers . The circus operates with the equivalent of 40 full @-@ time employees .
In 2010 , the circus school enrolled students from ages 6 to 21 , with an additional enrollment of about 150 toddlers and other younger participants as young as three years old . By 2013 , the enrollment had reached over 800 and the school 's annual operating budget exceeded $ 2 million . Circus Juventas has also held circus arts fitness classes for adults , taught by the school 's regular instructors . The school is a member of the Outdoor Amusement Business Association and the Fédération Mondiale du Cirque . A listing on the latter organization 's website notes that as of 2014 , Juventas is the largest performing arts circus school for youth in the United States ; other sources indicate that it is the largest in all of North America .
= = Facilities = =
Circus Juventas 's big top is located in the Highland Park neighborhood of Saint Paul , Minnesota . It stands 40 feet ( 12 m ) tall and encompasses 21 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 951 m2 ) of floor space built on concrete slab . The structure is supported by an aluminum frame and covered with flame @-@ resistant vinyl @-@ coated cloth . The building 's 1 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 93 m2 ) lobby space was designed by Locus Architecture , Ltd . , of Minneapolis . The firm connected texteline fabric ( often used for awnings ) to the system of catwalks and supports to help " the lobby act ... as an immersion tank , rather than a threshold , to introduce spectators to the illusion of the world of circus . " Although Locus was still installing the fabric within hours of the circus 's gala opening , the company won one of the 10 honor awards distributed in 2002 by the Minnesota branch of the American Institute of Architects for their design . The circus school 's original bleachers could seat 1 @,@ 200 audiencemembers .
= = = Bleacher collapse = = =
On August 16 , 2009 , at the closing performance of the show Yulong , a set of bleachers with a carrying capacity of 450 people and holding 420 at the time collapsed , sending seven people to the hospital . In the ensuing investigation , it came to light that Juventas had not had the bleachers inspected each time they were set up , as required by their lease with the city . They had been issued a permit in 2006 for the bleachers , and had not had them inspected since . The school was fined $ 500 and shut down until the legal and safety issues could be fully investigated . It reopened about a month later and installed new bleachers with molded plastic seats the next March .
= = = Future = = =
In early 2014 , the Butlers announced plans to expand their big top facility by an additional 10 @,@ 000 square feet ( 930 m2 ) . The additional space would house a dance and theater studio , a costume shop , offices , and a 4 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 420 m2 ) gym . Naming rights for the new structure would provide a component of the $ 4 million the school hoped to raise for the $ 2 million expansion , a $ 1 million addition to the circus 's endowment , and eventual repairs to the building 's exterior , estimated at $ 1 million . Betty Butler stated that the project stemmed from the desire to create " a true professional program , a separate program " for students looking to study and perform circus arts post @-@ Juventas , even though she and her husband originally shied away from pre @-@ professional training as a core aspect of their circus school .
According to Saint Paul 's Parks and Recreation Department , the cliffside space which the expansion would occupy was deemed unsuitable for building a structure of the expansion 's proposed size . In response , the Butlers were considering building a new facility of up to 50 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m2 ) in the western suburbs of Minneapolis – Saint Paul . Construction of a new building would likely cost $ 10 million , require a capital campaign to fund , and probably not begin for five to 10 years . In the meantime , the school is performing a small expansion to its Highland Park space , on which the Circus has a lease for at least 17 more years , as of 2014 .
= = Performances = =
The school typically puts on two shows each year : a spring performance featuring less advanced students studying circus arts at beginning and intermediate levels , and a late summer show to display the talents of more advanced students . While the earliest shows were focused primarily on technique and the individual acts , by 1997 or 1998 the school began to emphasize the artistic side of performances , including integrating those acts into Cirque du Soleil @-@ style narratives . The school also hosts an annual gala in late autumn that includes portions of the year 's earlier summer performance . Circus Juventas does not utilize animal acts in its shows .
= = = Big top summer shows = = =
2001 : Mythos , a production dealing with Greek mythology was performed not only in Circus Juventas 's newly opened permanent big top facility but also at the Minnesota State Capitol on New Year 's Eve , 2001 .
2002 : Cirque Napoleon , a show that delved into the history of circus , taking place in a French circus in 1859 and honoring Jules Léotard , an early trapeze artist .
2003 : Taroq , a production set in Morocco following four traveling nomads on a quest to determine the meaning of life .
2004 : Swash , a pirate @-@ themed performance that entailed a quest for lost treasure .
2005 : Dyrnwych , a production that included " an amalgam of fairy @-@ tale types , with wicked hag witches , trolls , forest spirits , and warrior women . "
2006 : Pazzanni , a retelling of the story of Cinderella , inspired by 1500s Venetian carnivales and featuring masks designed by the maskmaker responsible for those used in the 1999 film Eyes Wide Shut .
2007 : Atlanticus , a performance set under the oceans in the domain of Poseidon .
2008 : RavensManor , a haunted house @-@ themed show , based loosely on the Haunted Mansion ride located in Disneyland . RavensManor 's story , set in New Orleans , included a tragic romance and zombies .
2009 : Yulong : The Jade Dragon ( sometimes shortened to Yulong ) , a presentation derived from Chinese legendary and circus traditions . Produced in collaboration with the Chinese American Association of Minnesota , the show spotlighted three Taiwanese guest artists and included an emphasis on Chinese circus acts such as Chinese pole and hoop diving .
2010 : Sawdust , a performance evoking the traditions of historic American circuses . Special guests in the show were veteran circus performers Willie Edleston and Tony Steele who played slightly fictionalized versions of themselves .
2011 : Grimm — Happily Ever After ! ( sometimes shortened to Grimm ) , a show retelling a number of the Brothers Grimm 's fairy tales . Characters included Rapunzel , Cinderella , Little Red Riding Hood , Hansel and Gretel , Snow White , and the Frog Prince .
2012 : Showdown , a Wild West @-@ themed show set in the fictional town of Tumbleweed . The performance included portrayals of historical figures including Lillie Langtry , Black Bart , Billy the Kid , and Wyatt Earp , and featured a seven @-@ man highwire pyramid , becoming the second youth circus to complete this trick .
2013 : Oz , based on The Wonderful Wizard of Oz . The performance retold Dorothy Gale 's travels through the Land of Oz and incorporated a " maison " trapeze , a cubic apparatus replicating Dorothy 's house that gets swept away and carried to Oz by a tornado .
2014 : Neverland , incorporating elements from the world of Peter Pan and featuring a cradle act .
2015 : 1001 Nights , a retelling of Scheherazade 's One Thousand and One Nights .
2016 's summer show is planned to be an adaptation of Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland .
= = = Other engagements = = =
In addition to shows at their Saint Paul big top , Juventas students have performed across the Minneapolis – Saint Paul metro area and at domestic and international shows and competitions . Performers have appeared at local events including the Saint Paul Winter Carnival , Minneapolis mayor R. T. Rybak 's 2002 inauguration at the Minneapolis City Hall , and at the Ordway Center for the Performing Arts as part of the Flint Hills International Children 's Festival . Students have presented their work at a variety of local public , retail , and theater spaces . Students have also participated non @-@ Juventas shows , including a 2004 Minnesota Fringe Festival production , the 2005 world premiere of Tin Forest with the Minnesota Orchestra at Orchestra Hall , the Children 's Theatre Company 's 2008 stage adaptation of Madeline and the Gypsies , and the 2012 adaptation of Jack Prelutsky 's The Dragons Are Singing Tonight at The Southern Theater . In 2010 , a cohort of Juventas students traveled to perform in Chattanooga , Tennessee at the RiverRocks Festival , Outside the United States , performers have traveled to compete , including at the International Circus Festival in Latina , Italy , and at the Circus Ring of Friendship Festival in Norrköping , Sweden , in which the troupe 's triple trapeze team garnered the gold medal .
= = Music = =
Much of the accompaniment for the big top summer shows came from Peter Ostroushko , a local mandolin player . Ostroushko , known for his work on the radio show A Prairie Home Companion , became involved in the youth circus after his daughter saw a show and decided to join . In 2005 , the Butlers discovered Ostroushko 's affinity for the mandolin and fiddle , and asked if he would play a Celtic song at the premiere of their upcoming summer big top show , Dyrnwych . He happily agreed , having expressed a lifelong dream of joining a circus , and played the track , " See It There / Con Cassidy 's " , not only at Dyrnwych 's opening but also at each of its subsequent 18 performances . The following year , he composed original music for the 2006 Juventas show , Pazzanni , and expanded his band to five members , including himself on mandolin , fiddle , and mandocello , Marc Anderson on percussion , Dan Chouinard on piano , accordion , and keyboard , Dirk Freymuth on electric and acoustic guitars , and Joel Sayles on electric and acoustic bass guitars . Ostroushko again provided a score for Atlanticus and RavensManor , continued in 2010 with Sawdust , then Grimm , and finally Showdown . Tracks from the first four shows for which he played , from Dyrnwych to RavensManor , are anthologized on the album Peter Joins the Circus , published by Borderland Productions in 2008 .
= = Reception = =
Jando Dominique , reporting for Spectacle : An Online Journal of Circus Arts , summarized audience and critical reception for Circus Juventas 's shows by describing them as " always sold out and enthusiastically reviewed by the press . " Renee Valois cited the age of the performers and the proximity between them and the audience when she asked in a St. Paul Pioneer Press review of Oz comparing the circus school with Cirque du Soleil , " Dare I say Circus Juventas is more exciting than the troupe that inspired it ? " Writing for Minnesota Monthly , Amanda Bankston commended the technical skill and professionalism of the performers in 2012 's Showdown : " There is nothing child @-@ like about the talent in this show . The budding stars fearlessly swing , flip , and soar through the air like pros . " In Spectacle , Dominique noted that Juventas 's productions consistently have " a polish and style not often seen in youth circuses , or most professional ones , for that matter . "
Susannah Schouweiler of Knight Arts wrote , " at two hours and 45 minutes , plus a 20 @-@ minute intermission , [ Grimm 's ] run time is an awfully long haul for the smallest circus @-@ goers . " Critics have also commented on the occasional misstep in a performance ; Rohan Preston noted in his review of Grimm that " there are moments – just a few stand out – when you realize that these are students , after all , in a celebrated after @-@ school program . You want them to succeed , even if they do not always . " Similarly , writing for BroadwayWorld , Elaina Lenertz stated , " Sometimes their silks routines are a bit out of sync and sometimes the show features dance routines from younger kids who are still mastering stunts . Despite this , the performance is very impressive . "
= = = Cited = = =
LeFevre , Camille ( March – April 2003 ) . " Performance Architecture " . Architecture Minnesota 29 ( 2 ) . ISSN 0149 @-@ 9106 .
Rea , Amy C. ( 2012 ) . An Explorer 's Guide : Minnesota , Land of 10 @,@ 000 Lakes ( 2nd ed . ) . Woodstock , VT : Countryman Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 88150 @-@ 954 @-@ 0 .
Rowe , Ashleigh V. ( Series producer ) ( October 7 , 2010 ) . # 209 : Lightsey Darst , Mike Wohnoutka , Circus Juventas + The Pines . Minnesota Original ( Television production ) ( Saint Paul , MN : Twin Cities PBS ) . Retrieved December 13 , 2013 .
Wall , Duncan ( 2013 ) . The Ordinary Acrobat : A Journey into the Wondrous World of the Circus , Past and Present . New York City : Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 307 @-@ 96229 @-@ 4 .
= Bill Cook =
William Osser Xavier Cook ( October 9 , 1895 – May 5 , 1986 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey right winger who played for the Saskatoon Crescents of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) and the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . A prolific scorer , Cook led the WCHL in goals twice and the NHL three times . He was named an all @-@ star seven times between the two leagues . Known as " The Original Ranger " , Cook was the first captain of the New York Rangers , scored the first goal in franchise history and led the team to two Stanley Cup championships .
Turning to coaching following his playing career , Cook led the Cleveland Barons to two Calder Cup championships and the Minneapolis Millers to a United States Hockey League championship . He coached the New York Rangers during the 1951 – 52 NHL season until his retirement in 1953 . Cook was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1952 and Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame in 1975 .
= = Early life = =
Cook was born on October 9 , 1895 , in Brantford , Ontario . He was a middle child of a large family , and the eldest of three sons , preceding his brothers Frederick ( " Bun " ) and Alexander ( " Bud " ) . The family moved to Kingston , Ontario , where he learned to skate on the Rideau Canal . He joined the Kingston Frontenacs ' junior hockey team in 1913 and played for two seasons before his career was interrupted by the First World War .
He volunteered to join the Canadian Expeditionary Force in 1915 , and served with the Canadian Field Artillery for nearly two years in France and another at the Belgian front . Cook participated in several engagements , including at Ypres , the Somme , Vimy Ridge and Hill 70 . He then fought into 1919 in Siberia as part of the allied intervention in the Russian Civil War .
Upon his return from the war , Cook rejoined the Frontenacs for one season before joining the Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds in 1920 . He led the Northern Ontario Hockey Association ( NOHA ) in both goals , 12 , and points , 19 , while the Greyhounds won the NOHA championship . He won the scoring title again in 1921 – 22 with 20 goals and 28 points .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Saskatoon Crescents = = =
Spurning offers from National Hockey League ( NHL ) teams to turn professional in the eastern league , Cook moved to Saskatchewan where he had been granted land for his service in the war . The Calgary Tigers of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) attempted to recruit him for the 1922 – 23 season but failed to sign him . Instead , he joined the Saskatoon Crescents . He recorded 25 points in 30 games in his first professional season .
Returning to Saskatoon in 1923 – 24 , Cook led the WCHL with 26 goals and 40 points . He was named the all @-@ star right wing for the first of three consecutive seasons . He scored 22 goals in 1924 – 25 . The WCHL rebranded itself the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) and the Crescents became the Sheiks in 1925 – 26 . Cook again led in both goals and points with 31 and 44 respectively , and had become known as the best right wing in hockey .
= = = New York Rangers = = =
The WHL had run into financial difficulty in its final seasons , and after 1926 , ceased operations . The Montreal Maroons intended to sign both Cook and his brother Bun to join their team for the 1926 – 27 NHL season . While the team 's manager waited in Montreal to meet the brothers , Conn Smythe , manager of the newly formed New York Rangers , travelled to Winnipeg to reach the pair first . Smythe signed both Cook brothers for $ 12 @,@ 000 . Bill Cook was officially the first player signed by the Rangers , and was named the team 's first captain . The Cook brothers joined Frank Boucher to form the " Bread Line " , one of the early NHL 's most prolific scoring lines .
The Rangers made their NHL debut on November 16 , 1926 , against the Maroons . Cook scored the franchise 's first goal , which also stood up as the winner , in a 1 – 0 victory . Appearing in 44 games , he led the league in both goals , 33 , and points , 37 . He finished as the runner @-@ up to Herb Gardiner of the Montreal Canadiens for the Hart Trophy as the NHL 's most valuable player . The Rangers finished first in the American Division , but were eliminated by the Boston Bruins in the playoffs . Cook recorded 24 points in 1927 – 28 , the seventh highest total in the league . The Rangers again qualified for the playoffs , where they defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates , Boston Bruins and Montreal Maroons to win the franchise 's first Stanley Cup championship . The Bread Line scored every Rangers goal in the 1928 Stanley Cup Finals .
Twenty @-@ three points in 1928 – 29 again placed Cook seventh in the league . The Rangers defeated the New York Americans to reach the 1929 Stanley Cup Finals , but were defeated by the Montreal Canadiens . Cook led the Rangers and finished fourth in league scoring in 1929 – 30 and 1930 – 31 with 59 and 42 points respectively . In 1931 , he was named to the NHL 's inaugural All @-@ Star Team at right wing . It was the first of four consecutive appearances ; he was placed on the first team in 1931 , 1932 and 1933 , and on the second team in 1934 . Cook 's 34 goals in 1931 – 32 tied Charlie Conacher for the league lead . The Rangers won the American Division title , and after defeating the Canadians , faced Conacher 's Toronto Maple Leafs in the 1932 Stanley Cup Final . Toronto swept the series with three consecutive victories .
Cook was again the top scorer in 1932 – 33 , leading the NHL in both goals , 28 , and points , 50 . At 36 years , 5 months old , Cook was the oldest player in NHL history to win a scoring title until 2013 when Martin St. Louis of the Tampa Bay Lightning led the NHL in scoring at the age of 39 . The Rangers reached the 1933 Stanley Cup Finals against the Toronto Maple Leafs . Cook scored the winning goal in the second game , then scored the championship winning goal , in overtime , in the fourth game . It was the first overtime power play goal in NHL playoff history . The trophy was not available on the night the Rangers won , leading the series to become known as the " Forgotten Cup " . Cook accepted the Stanley Cup on behalf of his team in November of that year , seven months after the Rangers victory .
After scoring only 13 goals in 1933 – 34 , Cook improved to 20 goals in 1934 – 35 . In a 7 – 5 victory over the Maple Leafs on January 29 , 1935 , the Bread line scored four goals and five assists to reach a combined 1 @,@ 000 points as a unit over their nine seasons together . The Bread Line was broken up in 1935 – 36 when Bun was forced out of the Rangers lineup by illness . Bill Cook scored just seven goals that season , and at the age of 40 , scored one goal in 21 games before retiring as a player during the 1936 – 37 season .
= = Coaching career = =
Turning to coaching , Cook took over as the manager of the Cleveland Barons in the International @-@ American Hockey League ( IAHL ) in the 1937 – 38 season . He inherited a team that had struggled the season before and led it to a respectable season , winning 34 of 50 games played combined between the regular season and playoffs . Cook was pressed into service as a player as a result of injuries . His team was able to dress only 10 of 17 players in the deciding game of the Barons ' playoff series against the Syracuse Stars . Cook played a regular shift in the game , but the Barons lost , 3 – 2 , in the fourth overtime period .
The Barons finished fifth overall in the IAHL standings in 1938 – 39 , but defeated the Springfield Indians and Providence Reds to reach the league championship series against the Philadelphia Ramblers . They won the best @-@ of @-@ five championship three games to one to claim the Calder Cup . Cook coached the Barons to a second Calder Cup in 1940 – 41 , defeating the Hershey Bears in the final . Cook remained behind the Barons ' bench until the conclusion of the 1942 – 43 American Hockey League ( AHL ) season . He then turned coaching duties over to his brother Bun , but remained the team 's general manager .
Cook left the Barons to join the Minneapolis Millers of the United States Hockey League ( USHL ) in 1947 . He coached the team for three seasons , leading the team to the Paul W. Loudon Trophy as league champions in 1949 – 50 . He moved on to coach the Denver Falcons , also of the USHL , in 1950 – 51 then the Saskatoon Quakers of the Pacific Coast Hockey League ( PHCL ) the following season . Cook left the Quakers midway through the season when asked by Frank Boucher , general manager of the New York Rangers , to return to the NHL club as its head coach . He coached the final 47 games of the Rangers ' 1951 – 52 season , winning 17 , losing 22 and tying 8 . He remained behind the Rangers bench in 1952 – 53 , but the Rangers missed the playoffs after winning only 17 of 70 games . Cook was replaced as coach following the season as Boucher named himself head coach . Cook then retired from hockey .
= = Legacy = =
A prolific scorer , Cook scored 317 goals and 508 points in 591 games in his 15 year professional career . Known as " The Original Ranger " , he led the team in goals six times . He was regarded as being the greatest right wing in the game 's history when he retired , an opinion former teammate Frank Boucher retained many years later : " Bill was the finest all @-@ round player in Ranger history . And he 's my choice as the best right winger hockey ever knew – despite the fact that others disagree and give their votes to Rocket Richard or Gordie Howe . I say Cook topped them both . " Cook was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1952 , and Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame in 1975 .
A popular former Ranger , Cook participated in the closing of the old Madison Square Garden and the opening of the new facility in 1968 . In recognition of his scoring the first Rangers goal in the old Garden , he was asked to " score " the first goal in the new facility as part of the opening ceremony for the new . In 1986 , he was presented with the Rangers ' Alumni Association award , the first former Ranger to receive the award through a vote of alumni membership . The Hockey News ranked Cook as the 44th greatest player in NHL history , and highest Ranger on the list , in its 1998 book The Top 100 NHL Players of All Time .
= = Personal life = =
Accepting a land grant from the federal government , Cook settled in Saskatchewan following the First World War , taking a half section of land adjacent to a similar holding of his brother Bun 's . He established his farm near Lac Vert , hunted and played baseball during hockey off @-@ seasons . He later returned to Kingston , Ontario , where he continued to farm and was nearly killed when one of his bulls gored him . Cook was married and had three children . He died of cancer in Kingston on May 5 , 1986 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Playing career = = =
= = = NHL Coaching career = = =
= Leni Riefenstahl =
Helene Bertha Amalie " Leni " Riefenstahl ( German : [ ˈʁiːfənʃtaːl ] ; 22 August 1902 – 8 September 2003 ) was a German film director , producer , screenwriter , editor , photographer , actress , dancer , and propagandist for the Nazis .
Born in 1902 into a Lutheran Protestant family , Leni Riefenstahl grew up in Germany with her brother Heinz ( 1905 – 1944 ) , who was killed on the Eastern Front in World War II . A talented swimmer and artist , she also became interested in dancing during her childhood , taking dancing lessons and performing across Europe .
After seeing a promotional poster for the 1924 film Der Berg des Schicksals ( " The Mountain of Destiny " ) , Riefenstahl was inspired to move into acting . Between 1925 and 1929 , she starred in five successful motion pictures . In 1932 , Riefenstahl decided to try directing with her own film called Das Blaue Licht ( " The Blue Light " ) . In the 1930s , she directed Triumph des Willens ( " Triumph of the Will " ) and Olympia , resulting in worldwide attention and acclaim . Both movies are widely considered two of the most effective , and technically innovative , propaganda films ever made . Her involvement in Triumph des Willens , however , would significantly damage her career and reputation after the war . The exact nature of her relationship with Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler remains a matter of debate , although a friendship is known to have existed . After the war , Riefenstahl was arrested , but classified as being a " fellow traveler " only and was not associated with war crimes . Throughout her life , she denied having known about the Holocaust , and won nearly 50 libel cases . Besides directing , Riefenstahl released an autobiography and wrote several books on the Nuba people .
Riefenstahl died of cancer on 8 September 2003 at the age of 101 and was buried at Munich Waldfriedhof . She was praised for her body of work following her death and remains one of the most acclaimed movie directors .
= = Early life = =
Helene Bertha Amalie Riefenstahl was born in Germany on 22 August 1902 . Her father , Alfred Theodor Paul Riefenstahl , owned a successful heating and ventilation company and wanted his daughter to follow him into the business world . Since Riefenstahl was the only child for several years , Alfred wanted her to carry on the family name and secure the family fortune . However , her mother , Bertha Ida ( Scherlach ) , who had been a part @-@ time seamstress before her marriage , had faith in Riefenstahl and believed that her daughter 's future was in show business . Riefenstahl had a younger brother , Heinz , who was killed at the age of 39 on the Eastern Front in Nazi Germany 's war against the Soviet Union .
Riefenstahl fell in love with the arts in her childhood . She began to paint and write poetry at the age of four . She was also athletic , and at the age of twelve joined a gymnastic and swim club . Her mother was confident her daughter would grow up to be successful in the field of art and therefore gave her full support , unlike Riefenstahl 's father , who was not interested in his daughter 's artistic inclinations . In 1918 , when she was 16 , Riefenstahl attended a presentation of Snow White which interested her deeply ; it led her to want to be a dancer . Her father instead wanted to provide his daughter with an education that could lead to a more dignified occupation . His wife , however , continued to support her daughter 's passion . Without her father 's knowledge , she enrolled Riefenstahl in dance and ballet classes at the Grimm @-@ Reiter Dance School in Berlin , where she quickly became a star pupil .
= = Dancing and acting careers = =
Riefenstahl attended dancing academies and became well known for her self @-@ styled interpretive dancing skills , traveling across Europe with Max Reinhardt in a show funded by Jewish producer Harry Sokal . Riefenstahl often made almost 700 Reichmarks for each performance and was so captivated with dancing that she gave filmmaking no thought . She began to suffer foot injuries that led to knee surgery , threatening her dancing career . It was while going to a doctor 's appointment that she first saw a poster for the 1924 film Der Berg des Schicksals ( " The Mountain of Destiny " ) . She became inspired to go into movie making , and began visiting the cinema to see films and also attended film shows .
On one of her adventures , Riefenstahl met Luis Trenker , who was an actor from Der Berg des Schicksals . At a meeting arranged by her friend Gunther Rahn , she met Arnold Fanck , the director of Der Berg des Schicksals and a pioneer of the mountain film genre . Fanck was working on a film in Berlin . After Riefenstahl told him how much she admired his work , she also convinced him of her acting skill . She persuaded him to feature her in one of his movies . Riefenstahl later received a package from Fanck containing the script of the 1926 film Der Heilige Berg ( " The Holy Mountain " ) . She made a series of films for Fanck , where she learned from him acting and film editing techniques . One of Fanck 's films that brought Riefenstahl into the limelight was Die Weisse Hölle vom Piz Palü ( " The White Hell of Piz Palü " ) of 1929 , co @-@ directed by G. W. Pabst . Her fame spread to countries outside Germany .
Riefenstahl produced and directed her own work called Das Blaue Licht ( " The Blue Light " ) in 1932 , co @-@ written by Carl Mayer and Béla Balázs . This film won the Silver Medal at the Venice Film Festival , but was not universally well @-@ received , for which Riefenstahl blamed the critics , many of whom were Jewish . Upon its 1938 re @-@ release , the names of Balázs and Sokal , both Jewish , were removed from the credits ; some reports claim this was at Riefenstahl 's behest . In the film , Riefenstahl played an innocent peasant girl who is hated by the villagers because they think she is diabolic and cast out . She is protected by a glowing mountain grotto . According to herself , Riefenstahl received invitations to travel to Hollywood to create films , but she refused them in favour of remaining in Germany with a boyfriend . The film attracted the attention of Hitler , who believed she epitomized the perfect German female . He saw talent in Riefenstahl and arranged a meeting .
In 1933 , Riefenstahl would appear in the U.S.-German co @-@ productions of the Arnold Fanck @-@ directed , German @-@ language SOS Eisberg and the Tay Garnett @-@ directed , English @-@ language SOS Iceberg . The movies were filmed simultaneously in English and German and produced and distributed by Universal Studios . Her role as an actress in SOS Iceberg would be her only English language role in film .
= = Directing career = =
= = = Propaganda films = = =
Riefenstahl heard Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) leader Adolf Hitler speak at a rally in 1932 and was mesmerized by his talent as a public speaker . Describing the experience in her memoir , Riefenstahl wrote , " I had an almost apocalyptic vision that I was never able to forget . It seemed as if the Earth 's surface were spreading out in front of me , like a hemisphere that suddenly splits apart in the middle , spewing out an enormous jet of water , so powerful that it touched the sky and shook the earth " .
After meeting Hitler , Riefenstahl was offered the opportunity to direct Der Sieg des Glaubens ( " The Victory of Faith " ) , an hour @-@ long propaganda film about the fifth Nuremberg Rally in 1933 . Riefenstahl agreed to direct the movie . She and Hitler got on well , forming a friendly relationship . The propaganda film was funded entirely by the NSDAP .
Impressed with Riefenstahl 's work , Hitler asked her to film Triumph des Willens ( " Triumph of the Will " ) , a new propaganda film about the 1934 party rally in Nuremberg . More than one million Germans participated in the rally . Initially , according to Riefenstahl , she resisted and did not want to create further Nazi Party films , instead wanting to direct a feature film based on Hitler 's favourite opera , Eugen d 'Albert 's Tiefland ( " Lowlands " ) . Riefenstahl received private funding for the production of Tiefland , but the filming in Spain was derailed and the project was cancelled . Hitler was able to convince her to film Triumph des Willens on the condition that she would not be required to make further films for the party , according to Riefenstahl . The motion picture was generally recognized as an epic , innovative work of propaganda filmmaking . The film took Riefenstahl 's career to a new level and gave her further international recognition .
In interviews for the 1993 documentary The Wonderful , Horrible Life of Leni Riefenstahl , Riefenstahl adamantly denied any deliberate attempt to create Nazi propaganda and said she was disgusted that Triumph des Willens was used in such a way .
Despite allegedly vowing not to make any more films about the Nazi Party , Riefenstahl made the 28 @-@ minute Tag der Freiheit : Unsere Wehrmacht ( " Day of Freedom : Our Armed Forces " ) about the German Army in 1935 . Like Der Sieg des Glaubens and Triumph des Willens , this was filmed at the annual Nazi Party rally at Nuremberg . Riefenstahl said this film was a sub @-@ set of Der Sieg des Glaubens , added to mollify the German Army which felt it was not represented well in Triumph des Willens .
Hitler invited Riefenstahl to film the 1936 Summer Olympics scheduled to be held in Berlin , a film which Riefenstahl claimed had been commissioned by the International Olympic Committee . She visited Greece to take footage of the route of the inaugural torch relay and the games ' original site at Olympia , where she was aided by Greek photographer Nelly 's . This material became Olympia , a hugely successful film which has since been widely noted for its technical and aesthetic achievements . She was one of the first filmmakers to use tracking shots in a documentary , placing a camera on rails to follow the athletes ' movement . The film is also noted for its slow motion shots . Riefenstahl played with the idea of slow motion , underwater diving shots , extremely high and low shooting angles , panoramic aerial shots , and tracking system shots for allowing fast action . Many of these shots were relatively unheard of 80 years ago , but Leni ’ s use caused many of them to become streamlined , and is the reason why they are still used to this day . Riefenstahl 's work on Olympia has been cited as a major influence in modern sports photography . Riefenstahl filmed competitors of all races , including African @-@ American Jesse Owens in what would later become famous footage .
Olympia premiered for Hitler 's 49th birthday in 1938 . Its international debut led Riefenstahl to embark on an American publicity tour in an attempt to secure commercial release . In February 1937 , Riefenstahl enthusiastically told a reporter for the Detroit News , " To me , Hitler is the greatest man who ever lived . He truly is without fault , so simple and at the same time possessed of masculine strength " . She arrived in New York City on 4 November 1938 , five days before Kristallnacht ( the " Night of the Broken Glass " ) . When news of the event reached the United States , Riefenstahl publicly defended Hitler . On 18 November , she was received by Henry Ford in Detroit . Olympia was shown at the Chicago Engineers Club two days later . Avery Brundage , President of the International Olympic Committee , praised the film and held Riefenstahl in the highest regard . She negotiated with Louis B. Mayer , and on 8 December , Walt Disney brought her on a three @-@ hour tour showing her the ongoing production of Fantasia .
From the Goebbels Diaries , researchers learned that Riefenstahl had been friendly with Joseph Goebbels and his wife Magda , attending the opera with them and going to his parties . Riefenstahl maintained that Goebbels was upset when she rejected his advances and was jealous of her influence on Hitler , seeing her as an internal threat . She therefore insisted his diary entries could not be trusted . By later accounts , Goebbels thought highly of Riefenstahl 's filmmaking but was angered with what he saw as her overspending on the Nazi @-@ provided filmmaking budgets .
= = = World War II = = =
When Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 , Riefenstahl was photographed in Poland wearing a military uniform and a pistol on her belt in the company of German soldiers ; she had gone to Poland as a war correspondent . On 12 September , she was in the town of Końskie when 30 civilians were executed in retaliation for an alleged attack on German soldiers . According to her memoir , Riefenstahl tried to intervene but a furious German soldier held her at gunpoint and threatened to shoot her on the spot . She claimed she did not realize the victims were Jews . Closeup photographs of a distraught Riefenstahl survive from that day . Nevertheless , by 5 October 1939 , Riefenstahl was back in occupied Poland filming Hitler 's victory parade in Warsaw . Afterwards , she left Poland and chose not to make any more Nazi @-@ related movies .
On 14 June 1940 , the day Paris was declared an open city by the French and occupied by German troops , Riefenstahl wrote to Hitler in a telegram , " With indescribable joy , deeply moved and filled with burning gratitude , we share with you , my Führer , your and Germany 's greatest victory , the entry of German troops into Paris . You exceed anything human imagination has the power to conceive , achieving deeds without parallel in the history of mankind . How can we ever thank you ? " She later explained , " Everyone thought the war was over , and in that spirit I sent the cable to Hitler " . Riefenstahl was friends with Hitler for 12 years and reports vary as to whether she ever had an intimate relationship with him . Her relationship with Hitler severely declined in 1944 when her brother died on the Russian Front .
After the Nuremberg rallies trilogy and Olympia , Riefenstahl began work on the movie she had tried and failed to direct once before , namely Tiefland . On Hitler 's direct order , the German government paid her seven million Reichsmarks in compensation . From 23 September until 13 November 1940 , she filmed in Krün near Mittenwald . The extras playing Spanish women and farmers were drawn from gypsies detained in a camp at Salzburg @-@ Maxglan who were forced to work with her . Filming at the Babelsberg Studios near Berlin began 18 months later in April 1942 . This time Sinti and Roma people from the Marzahn detention camp near Berlin were compelled to work as extras . Almost to the end of her life , despite overwhelming evidence that the concentration camp occupants had been forced to work on the movie unpaid , Riefenstahl continued to maintain all the film extras survived and that she had met several of them after the war . Riefenstahl sued filmmaker Nina Gladitz , who said Riefenstahl personally chose the extras at their holding camp ; Gladitz had found one of the Gypsy survivors and matched his memory with stills of the movie for a documentary Gladitz was filming . The German court ruled largely in favour of Gladitz , declaring that Riefenstahl had known the extras were from a concentration camp , but they also agreed that Riefenstahl had not been informed the Gypsies would be sent to Auschwitz after filming was completed .
This issue came up again in 2002 , when Riefenstahl was one hundred years old and she was taken to court by a Roma group for denying the Nazis had exterminated gypsies . Riefenstahl apologized and said , " I regret that Sinti and Roma [ people ] had to suffer during the period of National Socialism . It is known today that many of them were murdered in concentration camps " .
In October 1944 the production of Tiefland moved to Barrandov Studios in Prague for interior filming . Lavish sets made these shots some of the most costly of the film . The film was not edited and released until almost ten years later .
The last time Riefenstahl saw Hitler was when she married Peter Jacob on 21 March 1944 . Riefenstahl and Jacob divorced in 1946 . As Germany 's military situation became impossible by early 1945 , Riefenstahl left Berlin and was hitchhiking with a group of men , trying to reach her mother , when she was taken into custody by American troops . She walked out of a holding camp , beginning a series of escapes and arrests across the chaotic landscape . At last making it back home on a bicycle , she found that American troops had seized her house . She was surprised by how kindly they treated her .
= = = Thwarted film projects = = =
Most of Riefenstahl 's unfinished projects were lost towards the end of the war . The French government confiscated all of her editing equipment , along with the production reels of Tiefland . After years of legal wrangling , these were returned to her , but the French government had reportedly damaged some of the film stock whilst trying to develop and edit it , with a few key scenes being missing ( although Riefenstahl was surprised to find the original negatives for Olympia in the same shipment ) . She edited and dubbed the remaining material and Tiefland premiered on 11 February 1954 in Stuttgart . However , it was denied entry into the Cannes Film Festival . Although Riefenstahl lived for almost another half century , Tiefland was her last feature film .
Riefenstahl tried many times to make more films during the 1950s and 1960s , but was met with resistance , public protests and sharp criticism . Many of her filmmaking peers in Hollywood had fled Nazi Germany and were unsympathetic to her . Although both film professionals and investors were willing to support her work , most of the projects she attempted were stopped owing to ever @-@ renewed and highly negative publicity about her past work for the Third Reich .
In 1954 , Jean Cocteau , who greatly admired the film , insisted on Tiefland being shown at the Cannes Film Festival , which he was running that year . In 1960 , Riefenstahl attempted to prevent filmmaker Erwin Leiser from juxtaposing scenes from Triumph des Willens with footage from concentration camps in his film Mein Kampf . Riefenstahl had high hopes for a collaboration with Cocteau called Friedrich und Voltaire ( " Friedrich and Voltaire " ) , wherein Cocteau was to play two roles . They thought the film might symbolize the love @-@ hate relationship between Germany and France . Cocteau 's illness and 1963 death put an end to the project . A musical remake of Das Blaue Licht ( " The Blue Light " ) with L. Ron Hubbard , a science fiction writer and founder of Scientology , also fell apart .
In the 1960s , Riefenstahl became interested in Africa from Ernest Hemingway 's Green Hills of Africa and from the photographs of George Rodger . She visited Kenya for the first time in 1956 and later Sudan , where she photographed Nuba tribes with whom she sporadically lived , learning about their culture so she could photograph them more easily . Even though her film project about modern slavery entitled Die Schwarze Fracht ( " The Black Cargo " ) was never completed , Riefenstahl was able to sell the stills from the expedition to magazines in various parts of the world . While scouting shooting locations , she almost died from injuries received in a truck accident . After waking up from a coma in a Nairobi hospital , she finished writing the script , but was soon thoroughly thwarted by uncooperative locals , the Suez Canal crisis and bad weather . In the end , the film project was called off . Even so , Riefenstahl was granted Sudanese citizenship for her services to the country , becoming the first foreigner to receive a Sudanese passport .
= = Post @-@ war life = =
= = = Detention and trials = = =
Novelist and sports writer Budd Schulberg , assigned by the U.S. Navy to the OSS for intelligence work while attached to John Ford 's documentary unit , was ordered to arrest Riefenstahl at her chalet in Kitzbühel , ostensibly to have her identify Nazi war criminals in German film footage captured by the Allied troops shortly after the war . Riefenstahl claimed she was not aware of the nature of the internment camps . According to Schulberg , " She gave me the usual song and dance . She said , ' Of course , you know , I 'm really so misunderstood . I 'm not political ' " .
Riefenstahl claimed she was fascinated by the Nazis , but also politically naive , remaining ignorant about war crimes . Throughout 1945 to 1948 , she was held by various Allied @-@ controlled prison camps across Germany . She was also under house arrest for a period of time . Despite being tried four times by postwar authorities , Riefenstahl was never convicted in any denazification trial . She was found to be a fellow traveler only who merely sympathized with the Nazis .
Riefenstahl said that her biggest regret in life was meeting Hitler , declaring , " It was the biggest catastrophe of my life . Until the day I die people will keep saying , ' Leni is a Nazi ' , and I 'll keep saying , ' But what did she do ? ' " Even though she went on to win up to 50 libel cases , details about her relation to National Socialism generally remain unclear .
= = = Books and final film = = =
Riefenstahl began a lifelong companionship with her cameraman Horst Kettner , who was 40 years her junior and assisted her with the photographs ; they were together from the time she was 60 and he was 20 .
Riefenstahl 's books with photographs of the Nuba tribes were published in 1974 and republished in 1976 as Die Nuba ( translated as " The Last of the Nuba " ) and Die Nuba von Kau ( " The Nuba People of Kau " ) . While heralded by many as outstanding colour photographs , they were harshly criticized by Susan Sontag , who claimed in a review that they were further evidence of Riefenstahl 's " fascist aesthetics " . The Art Director 's Club of Germany awarded Riefenstahl a gold medal for the best photographic achievement of 1975 . She also sold some of the pictures to German magazines . She photographed the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich , and rock star Mick Jagger along with his wife Bianca for the Sunday Times . Years later , Riefenstahl photographed Las Vegas entertainers Siegfried & Roy . She was guest of honour at the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal , Canada .
In 1978 , Riefenstahl published a book of her sub @-@ aquatic photographs called Korallengärten ( " Coral Gardens " ) , followed by the 1990 book Wunder unter Wasser ( " Wonder under Water " ) . In her 90s , Riefenstahl was still photographing marine life and gained the distinction of being one of the world 's oldest scuba divers . On 22 August 2002 , her 100th birthday , she released the film Impressionen unter Wasser ( " Underwater Impressions " ) , an idealized documentary of life in the oceans and her first film in over 25 years . Riefenstahl was a member of Greenpeace for eight years .
Riefenstahl survived a helicopter crash in Sudan in 2000 while trying to learn the fates of her Nuba friends during the Second Sudanese Civil War and was airlifted to a Munich hospital .
= = = Death = = =
Riefenstahl celebrated her 101st birthday on 22 August 2003 at a hotel in Feldafing , on Lake Starnberg , Bavaria , near her home . However , the day after her birthday celebration , she became ill .
Riefenstahl had been suffering from cancer for some time , and her health rapidly deteriorated during the last weeks of her life . Kettner said in an interview in 2002 , " Ms. Riefenstahl is in great pain and she has become very weak and is taking painkillers " . Leni Riefenstahl died in her sleep at around 10 : 00 pm on 8 September 2003 at her home in Pöcking , Germany . After her death , there was a varied response in the obituary pages of leading publications , although most recognized her technical breakthroughs in film making .
= = Reception = =
Film scholar Mark Cousins notes in his book The Story of Film that , " Next to Orson Welles and Alfred Hitchcock , Leni Riefenstahl was the most technically talented Western film maker of her era " .
Reviewer Gary Morris called Riefenstahl , " An artist of unparalleled gifts , a woman in an industry dominated by men , one of the great formalists of the cinema on a par with Eisenstein or Welles " .
Film critic Hal Erickson of the New York Times states that the " Jewish Question " is mainly unmentioned in Triumph des Willens ; " filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl prefers to concentrate on cheering crowds , precision marching , military bands , and Hitler 's climactic speech , all orchestrated , choreographed and illuminated on a scale that makes Griffith and DeMille look like poverty @-@ row directors " .
Charles Moore of The Daily Telegraph wrote , " She was perhaps the most talented female cinema director of the 20th century ; her celebration of Nazi Germany in film ensured that she was certainly the most infamous " .
Film journalist Sandra Smith from The Independent remarked , " Opinions will be divided between those who see her as a young , talented and ambitious woman caught up in the tide of events which she did not fully understand , and those who believe her to be a cold and opportunist propagandist and a Nazi by association . "
Critic Judith Thurman said in The New Yorker that , " Riefenstahl 's genius has rarely been questioned , even by critics who despise the service to which she lent it . Riefenstahl was a consummate stylist obsessed with bodies in motion , particularly those of dancers and athletes . Riefenstahl relies heavily for her transitions on portentous cutaways to clouds , mist , statuary , foliage , and rooftops . Her reaction shots have a tedious sameness : shining , ecstatic faces — nearly all young and Aryan , except for Hitler 's " .
Pauline Kael , also a film reviewer employed for The New Yorker , called Triumph des Willens and Olympia , " the two greatest films ever directed by a woman " .
Writer Richard Corliss wrote in Time that he was " impressed by Riefenstahl 's standing as a total auteur : producer , writer , director , editor and , in the fiction films , actress . The issues her films and her career raise are as complex and they are important , and her vilifiers tend to reduce the argument to one of a director 's complicity in atrocity or her criminal ignorance " .
= = Film biographies = =
In 1993 , Riefenstahl was the subject of the award @-@ winning German documentary film The Wonderful , Horrible Life of Leni Riefenstahl , directed by Ray Müller . Riefenstahl appeared in the film and answered several questions and detailed the production of her films . The biofilm was nominated for seven Emmy Awards , winning in one category . Riefenstahl , who for some time had been working on her memoirs , decided to cooperate this documentary to tell her life story about the struggles she had gone through in her personal life , her film @-@ making career and what people thought of her . She was also the subject of Müller 's 2000 documentary film Leni Riefenstahl : Her Dream of Africa , about her return to Sudan to visit the Nuba people .
In April 2007 , The Guardian reported that British screenwriter Rupert Walters was writing a movie based on Riefenstahl 's life which would star actress Jodie Foster . The project did not receive Riefenstahl 's approval , since Riefenstahl asked for a veto on any scenes to which she did not agree . Riefenstahl also wanted Sharon Stone to play her rather than Foster , which ultimately resulted in the cancellation of the project .
In 2011 , director Steven Soderbergh revealed that he had also been working on a biopic of Riefenstahl for about six months . He eventually abandoned the project over concerns of its commercial prospects and instead pursued the pandemic thriller Contagion .
= = In popular culture = =
Riefenstahl 's filming merits are discussed between characters in the 2009 Quentin Tarantino film Inglourious Basterds .
Riefenstahl was portrayed by Zdena Studenková in Leni , a 2014 Slovak drama play about her fictional participation in the The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson . In Czech version of the play she was portrayed by Vilma Cibulková .
Riefenstahl was portrayed by Dutch actress Carice van Houten in Race , a sports drama film directed by Stephen Hopkins about Jesse Owens . It was released in North America on February 19 , 2016 . To make her sympathetic portrayal acceptable for an American audience , the film dramatizes her quarrels with Goebbels over her direction of the film , Olympia , especially about filming the African American star who is proving to be a politically embarrassing refutation of Nazi Germany 's claims of Aryan athletic supremacy .
Riefenstahl was referred to in the series finale of the television show Weeds when Nancy questions Andy for naming his daughter after a Nazi to which he replied " she was a pioneer in film @-@ making , I don 't believe in holding grudges . "
= = Works = =
= = = Films acted = = =
1925 : Wege zu Kraft und Schönheit ( " Ways to Strength and Beauty " )
1926 : Der Heilige Berg ( " The Holy Mountain " )
1927 : Der Große Sprung ( " The Great Leap " )
1928 : Das Schicksal derer von Habsburg ( " Fate of the House of Habsburg " )
1929 : Die Weisse Hölle vom Piz Palü ( " The White Hell of Pitz Palu " )
1930 : Stürme über dem Mont Blanc ( " Storm Over Mont Blanc " )
1931 : Der Weisse Rausch ( " The White Ecstasy " )
1932 : Das Blaue Licht ( " The Blue Light " )
1933 : S.O.S. Eisberg ( " S.O.S. Iceberg " )
1954 : Tiefland ( " Lowlands " )
= = = Films directed / produced = = =
1932 : Das Blaue Licht ( " The Blue Light " )
1933 : Der Sieg des Glaubens ( " The Victory of Faith " )
1935 : Tag der Freiheit : Unsere Wehrmacht ( " Day of Freedom : Our Armed Forces " )
1935 : Triumph des Willens ( " Triumph of the Will " )
1937 : Wilde Wasser ( " Wilder Water " )
1938 : Olympia
1954 : Tiefland ( " Lowlands " )
1965 : Allein unter den Nuba ( " Alone Among the Nuba " ) ( Unreleased )
2002 : Impressionen unter Wasser ( " Impressions under Water " )
= = = Books = = =
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1973 ) . Die Nuba [ The Last of the Nuba ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 13642 @-@ 0 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1976 ) . Die Nuba von Kau [ The Nuba People of Kau ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 16963 @-@ 9 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1978 ) . Korallengärten [ Coral Gardens ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 013591 @-@ 3 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1982 ) . Mein Afrika [ Vanishing Africa ] . ISBN 0 @-@ 517 @-@ 54914 @-@ X.
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1987 ) . Leni Riefenstahl 's Memoiren [ Leni Riefenstahl 's Memoir ] . ISBN 3 @-@ 8228 @-@ 0834 @-@ 2 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1990 ) . Wunder unter Wasser [ Wonder under Water ] . ISBN 3 @-@ 7766 @-@ 1651 @-@ 2 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 1995 ) . Leni Riefenstahl : a memoir . New York : Picador USA . ISBN 9780312119263 .
Review : hooks , bell ( 1997 ) . " Review : the feminazi mystique " . Transition ( Indiana University Press on behalf of the Hutchins Center for African and African American Research at Harvard University via JSTOR ) 73 : 156 – 162 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2935451 . JSTOR 2935451 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 2002 ) . Africa . ISBN 3 @-@ 8228 @-@ 1616 @-@ 7 .
Riefenstahl , Leni ( 2002 ) . Riefenstahl Olympia . ISBN 3 @-@ 8228 @-@ 1945 @-@ X.
= = = Printed = = =
= = = Online = = =
= Wilfrid =
Wilfrid ( originally spelled Wilfrith ; c . 633 – c . 709 ) was an English bishop and saint . Born a Northumbrian noble , he entered religious life as a teenager and studied at Lindisfarne , at Canterbury , in Gaul , and at Rome ; he returned to Northumbria in about 660 , and became the abbot of a newly founded monastery at Ripon . In 664 Wilfrid acted as spokesman for the Roman position at the Synod of Whitby , and became famous for his speech advocating that the Roman method for calculating the date of Easter should be adopted . His success prompted the king 's son , Alhfrith , to appoint him Bishop of Northumbria . Wilfrid chose to be consecrated in Gaul because of the lack of what he considered to be validly consecrated bishops in England at that time . During Wilfrid 's absence Alhfrith seems to have led an unsuccessful revolt against his father , Oswiu , leaving a question mark over Wilfrid 's appointment as bishop . Before Wilfrid 's return Oswiu had appointed Ceadda in his place , resulting in Wilfrid 's retirement to Ripon for a few years following his arrival back in Northumbria .
After becoming Archbishop of Canterbury in 668 , Theodore of Tarsus resolved the situation by deposing Ceadda and restoring Wilfrid as the Bishop of Northumbria . For the next nine years Wilfrid discharged his episcopal duties , founded monasteries , built churches , and improved the liturgy . However his diocese was very large , and Theodore wished to reform the English Church , a process which included breaking up some of the larger dioceses into smaller ones . When Wilfrid quarrelled with Ecgfrith , the Northumbrian king , Theodore took the opportunity to implement his reforms despite Wilfrid 's objections . After Ecgfrith expelled him from York , Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal to the papacy . Pope Agatho ruled in Wilfrid 's favour , but Ecgfrith refused to honour the papal decree and instead imprisoned Wilfrid on his return to Northumbria before exiling him .
Wilfrid spent the next few years in Selsey , where he founded an episcopal see and converted the pagan inhabitants of the Kingdom of Sussex to Christianity . Theodore and Wilfrid settled their differences , and Theodore urged the new Northumbrian king , Aldfrith , to allow Wilfrid 's return . Aldfrith agreed to do so , but in 691 he expelled Wilfrid again . Wilfrid went to Mercia , where he helped missionaries and acted as bishop for the Mercian king . Wilfrid appealed to the papacy about his expulsion in 700 , and the pope ordered that an English council should be held to decide the issue . This council , held at Austerfield in 702 , attempted to confiscate all of Wilfrid 's possessions , and so Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal against the decision . His opponents in Northumbria excommunicated him , but the papacy upheld Wilfrid 's side , and he regained possession of Ripon and Hexham , his Northumbrian monasteries . Wilfrid died in 709 or 710 . After his death , he was venerated as a saint .
Historians then and now have been divided over Wilfrid . His followers commissioned Stephen of Ripon to write a Vita Sancti Wilfrithi ( or Life of Wilfrid ) shortly after his death , and the medieval historian Bede also wrote extensively about him . Wilfrid lived ostentatiously , and travelled with a large retinue . He ruled a large number of monasteries , and claimed to be the first Englishman to introduce the Rule of Saint Benedict into English monasteries . Some modern historians see him mainly as a champion of Roman customs against the customs of the British and Irish churches , others as an advocate for monasticism .
= = Background = =
During Wilfrid 's lifetime the British Isles consisted of a number of small kingdoms . Traditionally the English people were thought to have been divided into seven kingdoms , but modern historiography has shown that this is a simplification of a much more confused situation . A late 7th @-@ century source , the Tribal Hidage , lists the peoples south of the Humber river ; among the largest groups of peoples are the West Saxons ( later Wessex ) , the East Angles and Mercians ( later the Kingdom of Mercia ) , and the Kingdom of Kent . Smaller groups who at that time had their own royalty but were later absorbed into larger kingdoms include the peoples of Magonsæte , Lindsey , Hwicce , the East Saxons , the South Saxons , the Isle of Wight , and the Middle Angles . Other even smaller groups had their own rulers , but their size means that they do not often appear in the histories . There were also native Britons in the west , in modern @-@ day Wales and Cornwall , who formed kingdoms including those of Dumnonia , Dyfed , and Gwynedd .
Between the Humber and Forth the English had formed into two main kingdoms , Deira and Bernicia , often united as the Kingdom of Northumbria . A number of Celtic kingdoms also existed in this region , including Craven , Elmet , Rheged , and Gododdin . A native British kingdom , later called the Kingdom of Strathclyde , survived as an independent power into the 10th century in the area which became modern @-@ day Dunbartonshire and Clydesdale . To the north @-@ west of Strathclyde lay the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata , and to the north @-@ east a small number of Pictish kingdoms . Further north still lay the great Pictish kingdom of Fortriu , which after the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685 came to be the strongest power in the northern half of Britain . The Irish had always had contacts with the rest of the British Isles , and during the early 6th century they immigrated from the island of Ireland to form the kingdom of Dál Riata , although exactly how much conquest took place is a matter of dispute with historians . It also appears likely that the Irish settled in parts of Wales , and even after the period of Irish settlement , Irish missionaries were active in Britain .
Christianity had only recently arrived in some of these kingdoms . Some had been converted by the Gregorian mission , a group of Roman missionaries who arrived in Kent in 597 and who mainly influenced southern Britain . Others had been converted by the Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission , chiefly Irish missionaries working in Northumbria and neighbouring kingdoms . A few kingdoms , such as Dál Riata , became Christian but how they did so is unknown . The native Picts , according to the medieval writer Bede , were converted in two stages , initially by native Britons under Ninian , and subsequently by Irish missionaries .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood and early education = = =
Wilfrid was born in Northumbria in about 633 . James Fraser argues that Wilfrid 's family were aristocrats from Deira , pointing out that most of Wilfrid 's early contacts were from that area . A conflict with his stepmother when he was about 14 years old drove Wilfrid to leave home , probably without his father 's consent . Wilfrid 's background is never explicitly described as noble , but the king 's retainers were frequent guests at his father 's house , and on leaving home Wilfrid equipped his party with horses and clothes fit for a royal court .
Queen Eanflæd became Wilfrid 's patroness following his arrival at the court of her husband , King Oswiu . She sent him to study under Cudda , formerly one of her husband 's retainers , but by that time in about 648 a monk on the island of Lindisfarne . The monastery on the island had recently been founded by Aidan , who had been instrumental in converting Northumbria to Christianity . At Lindisfarne Wilfrid is said to have " learned the whole Psalter by heart and several books " . Wilfrid studied at Lindisfarne for a few years before going to the Kentish king 's court at Canterbury in 652 , where he stayed with relatives of Queen Eanflæd . The queen had given Wilfrid a letter of introduction to pass to her cousin , King Eorcenberht , in order to ensure that Wilfrid was received by the king . While in Kent , Wilfrid 's career was advanced by Eanflæd 's cousin Hlothere , who was later the King of Kent from 673 to 685 . The Kentish court included a number of visiting clergymen at that time , including Benedict Biscop , a noted missionary . Wilfrid appears to have spent about a year in Kent , but the exact chronology is uncertain .
= = = Time at Rome and Lyon = = =
Wilfrid left Kent for Rome in the company of Benedict Biscop , another of Eanflæd 's contacts . This is the first pilgrimage to Rome known to have been undertaken by English natives , and took place some time between 653 and 658 . According to Wilfrid 's later biographer , Stephen of Ripon , Wilfrid left Biscop | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
from the shoreline are generally the optimal environment , some species appear to prefer very shallow water . On the whole , chitinozoans are less abundant in turbulent waters or reef environments , implying an aversion to such regimes when alive , if it is not an effect of sedimentary focusing . Chitinozoans also become rarer in shallower water - although the reverse is not necessarily true . They cannot survive freshwater input .
= = Stratigraphic application = =
Since Alfred Eisenack first recognised and named the group in 1930 , the Chitinozoa have proven incredibly useful as a stratigraphic markers in biostratigraphy during the Ordovician , Silurian and Devonian periods . Their utility is due to the rapidity of their morphological evolution , their abundance — the most productive samples bearing almost a thousand tests per gram — and the easy identification ( due largely to the large variation in shapes ) and short lifetimes ( < 10 million years ) of most species . They are also widely distributed and appear in a variety of marine depositional settings , making correlation easier ; better still , they can often be recognised in even quite strongly metamorphosed rocks . However , convergence of morphological form to similar environments sometimes leads to the mistaken identification of a species in several areas separated by vast differences in space and time , but sharing a similar depositional environment ; clearly , this can cause major problems if the organisms are interpreted as being the same species . Aside from the acritarchs , chitinozoans were the only reliable means of correlating palæozoic units until the late 1960s , when the detailed study of conodonts and graptolites fully unleashed their stratigraphic potential .
= Music in early modern Scotland =
Music in early modern Scotland includes all forms of musical production in Scotland between the early sixteenth century and the mid @-@ eighteenth century . In this period the court followed the European trend for instrumental accompaniment and playing . Scottish monarchs of the sixteenth century were patrons of religious and secular music , and some were accomplished musicians . In the sixteenth century the playing of a musical instrument and singing became an expected accomplishment of noble men and women . The departure of James VI to rule in London at the Union of Crowns in 1603 , meant that the Chapel Royal , Stirling Castle largely fell into disrepair and the major source of patronage was removed from the country . Important composers of the early sixteenth century included Robert Carver and David Peebles . The Lutheranism of the early Reformation was sympathetic to the incorporation of Catholic musical traditions and vernacular songs into worship , exemplified by The Gude and Godlie Ballatis ( 1567 ) . However , the Calvinism that came to dominate Scottish Protestantism led to the closure of song schools , disbanding of choirs , removal of organs and the destruction of music books and manuscripts . An emphasis was placed on the Psalms , resulting in the production of a series of Psalters and the creation of a tradition of unaccompanied singing .
Despite the attempts of the Kirk to limit the tradition of secular popular music , it continued . This period saw the adoption of the highland bagpipes and the fiddle . Ballads , some of which probably date from the Medieval period , existed as part of an distinctive oral tradition . Allan Ramsey advocated the creation of a national musical tradition and collaborated with Italian composer and cellist Lorenzo Bocchi on the first Scottish opera the Gentle Shepherd . A musical culture developed around Edinburgh and a number of composers began to produce collections of Lowland and Highland tunes grafted on to Italian musical forms . By the middle of the eighteenth century a number of Italian musicians and composers were resident in Scotland and Scottish composers of national significance had begun to emerge .
= = The court and noble households = =
In this era Scotland followed the trend of Renaissance courts for instrumental accompaniment and playing . James V , as well as being a major patron of sacred music , was a talented lute player and introduced French chansons and consorts of viols to his court , although almost nothing of this secular chamber music survives . The return of Mary , Queen of Scots from France in 1561 to begin her personal reign , and her position as a Catholic , gave a new lease of life to the choir of the Chapel Royal , but the destruction of Scottish church organs meant that instrumentation to accompany the mass had to employ bands of musicians with trumpets , drums , fifes , bagpipes and tabors . Like her father she played the lute , virginals and ( unlike her father ) was a fine singer . She brought French musical influences with her , employing lutenists and viol players in her household .
James VI ( r . 1566 – 1625 ) was a major patron of the arts in general . He rebuilt the Chapel Royal at Stirling in 1594 and the choir was used for state occasions like the baptism of his son Henry . He followed the tradition of employing lutenists for his private entertainment , as did other members of his family . When he went south to take the throne of England in 1603 as James I , he removed one of the major sources of patronage in Scotland . The Chapel Royal now began to fall into disrepair , and the court in Westminster would be the only major source of royal musical patronage . Holyrood Abbey was remodelled as a chapel for Charles I 's royal visit in 1633 and reclaimed by Charles II after the Restoration , becoming a centre of worship again during the future James VII 's residency in the early 1680s , but was sacked by an anti @-@ papist mob during the Glorious Revolution in 1688 .
These fashions permeated noble households , where resident musicians were employed , including viol and lute players . As elsewhere in Europe , musical ability became one of the major achievements expected of a nobleman or woman . Musicians were clearly employed as teachers for the children of the household , both male and female . There is evidence for the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries of lessons being given in a variety of instruments and singing , and of the purchase of sheet music and instruments ( including the virginals and harpsichords ) . In the Highlands clan chiefs continued to employ harpists , and increasingly , pipers as fili and bards , whose prowess and ability to glorify their ancestors was a key element in underlying a clan 's status and heritage into the seventeenth century . The earliest printed collection of secular music in Scotland was by publisher John Forbes in Aberdeen in 1662 . Songs and Fancies : to Thre , Foure , or Five Partes , both Apt for Voices and Viols , known as Forbes ' Cantus , was printed three times in the next twenty years . It contained 77 songs , of which 25 were of Scottish origin .
= = Church music = =
The outstanding Scottish composer of the first half of the sixteenth century was Robert Carver ( c . 1488 – 1558 ) , a canon of Scone Abbey . His complex polyphonic music could only have been performed by a large and highly trained choir such as the one employed in the Scottish Chapel Royal . James V was also a patron to figures including David Peebles ( c . 1510 – 79 ? ) , whose best known work " Si quis diligit me " ( text from John 14 : 23 ) , is a motet for four voices . These were probably only two of many accomplished composers from this era , whose work has largely only survived in fragments . Much of what survives of church music from the first half of the sixteenth century is due to the diligent work of Thomas Wode ( d . 1590 ) , vicar of St Andrews , who compiled a part book from now lost sources , which was continued by unknown hands after his death .
The Reformation had a severe impact on church music . The song schools of the abbeys , cathedrals and collegiate churches were closed down , choirs disbanded , music books and manuscripts destroyed and organs removed from churches . The Lutheranism that influenced the early Scottish Reformation attempted to accommodate Catholic musical traditions into worship , drawing on Latin hymns and vernacular songs . The most important product of this tradition in Scotland was The Gude and Godlie Ballatis ( 1567 ) , which were spiritual satires on popular ballads composed by the brothers James , John and Robert Wedderburn . Never adopted by the kirk , they nevertheless remained popular and were reprinted from the 1540s to the 1620s .
Later the Calvinism that came to dominate the Scottish Reformation was much more hostile to Catholic musical tradition and popular music , placing an emphasis on what was biblical , which meant the Psalms . The Scottish Psalter of 1564 was commissioned by the Assembly of the Church . It drew on the work of French musician Clément Marot , Calvin 's contributions to the Strasbourg Psalter of 1539 and English writers , particularly the 1561 edition of the Psalter produced by William Whittingham for the English congregation in Geneva . The intention was to produce individual tunes for each psalm , but of 150 psalms , 105 had proper tunes and in the seventeenth century , common tunes , which could be used for psalms with the same metre , became more frequent . Because whole congregations would now sing these psalms , unlike the trained choirs who had sung the many parts of polyphonic hymns , there was a need for simplicity and most church compositions were confined to homophonic settings .
During his personal reign James VI attempted to revive the song schools , with an act of parliament passed in 1579 , demanding that councils of the largest burghs set up " ane sang scuill with ane maister sufficient and able for insturctioun of the yowth in the said science of musik " . Five new schools were opened within four years of the act and by 1633 there were at least twenty @-@ five . Most of those without song schools made provision within their grammar schools . Polyphony was incorporated into editions of the Psalter from 1625 , but usually with the congregation singing the melody and trained singers the contra @-@ tenor , treble and bass parts . However , the triumph of the Presbyterians in the National Covenant of 1638 led to and end of polyphony and a new psalter in common metre , but without tunes , was published in 1650 . In 1666 The Twelve Tunes for the Church of Scotland , composed in Four Parts ( which actually contained 14 tunes ) , designed for use with the 1650 Psalter , was first published in Aberdeen . It would go through five editions by 1720 . By the late seventeenth century these two works had become the basic corpus of the psalmody sung in the kirk .
= = Popular music = =
The secular popular tradition of music continued , despite attempts by the Kirk , particularly in the Lowlands , to suppress dancing and events like penny weddings at which tunes were played . Large numbers of musicians continued to perform , including the fiddler Pattie Birnie and the piper Habbie Simpson ( 1550 – 1620 ) .
The first clear reference to the use of the Highland bagpipes is from a French history , which mentions their use at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in 1547 . George Buchanan claimed that they had replaced the trumpet on the battlefield . This period saw the creation of the ceòl mór ( the great music ) of the bagpipe , which reflected its martial origins , with battle @-@ tunes , marches , gatherings , salutes and laments . The Highlands in the early seventeenth century saw the development of piping families including the MacCrimmonds , MacArthurs , MacGregors and the Mackays of Gairloch . There is also evidence of adoption of the fiddle in the Highlands with Martin Martin noting in his A Description of the Western Isles of Scotland ( 1703 ) that he knew of eighteen players in Lewis alone .
There is evidence of ballads from this period . Some may date back to the late Medieval era and deal with events and people that can be traced back as far as the thirteenth century , including " Sir Patrick Spens " and " Thomas the Rhymer " , but for which we do not have evidence until the eighteenth century . Scottish ballads are distinct , showing pre @-@ Christian influences in the inclusion of supernatural elements such as the fairies in the Scottish ballad " Tam Lin " . They remained an oral tradition until the increased interest in folk songs in the eighteenth century led collectors such as Bishop Thomas Percy to publish volumes of popular ballads . The oppression of secular music and dancing began to ease between about 1715 and 1725 and the level of musical activity was reflected in a flood of musical publications in broadsheets and compendiums of music such as the makar Allan Ramsay 's verse compendium The Tea Table Miscellany ( 1723 ) and William Thomson 's Orpheus Caledonius ( 1725 ) .
= = Classical music = =
From the late seventeenth music became less an accomplishment of the gentle classes and increasingly a skill pursued by professionals . It was enjoyed in otherwise silent concert rooms rather than as incidental entertainment in the houses of royalty and nobles . The German flute was probably introduced into Scotland towards the end of the seventeenth century . The Italian style of classical music was probably first brought to Scotland by the Italian cellist and composer Lorenzo Bocchi , who travelled to Scotland in the 1720s , introducing the cello to the country and then developing settings for Lowland Scots songs . He possibly had a hand in the first Scottish Opera , the pastoral The Gentle Shepherd , with libretto by Allan Ramsay . Music in Edinburgh prospered through the patronage of figures including the merchant Sir John Clerk of Penicuik , who was also a noted composer , violinist and harpiscordist . The growth of a musical culture in the capital was marked by the incorporation of the Musical Society of Edinburgh in 1728 .
A group of Scottish composers began to respond to Allan Ramsey 's call to " own and refine " their own musical tradition , creating what James Johnson has characterised as the " Scots drawing room style " , taking primarily Lowland Scottish tunes and adding simple figured basslines and other features from Italian music that made them acceptable to a middle class audience . It gained momentum when major Scottish composers like James Oswald and William McGibbon became involved around 1740 . Oswald 's Curious Collection of Scottish Songs ( 1740 ) was one of the first to include Gaelic tunes alongside Lowland ones , setting a fashion common by the middle of the century and helping to create a unified Scottish musical identity . However , with changing fashions there was a decline in the publication of collections of specifically Scottish collections of tunes , in favour of their incorporation into British collections . By the mid @-@ eighteenth century there were Italians resident in Scotland , acting as composers and performers . These included Nicolò Pasquali , Giusto Tenducci and Fransesco Barsanti . Thomas Erskine , 6th Earl of Kellie ( 1732 – 81 ) was one of the most important British composers of his era , and the first Scot known to have produced a symphony .
= First Battle of Tikrit =
The First Battle of Tikrit was a battle for the Iraqi city of Tikrit following the city 's capture by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) and Ba 'athist Loyalists during the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive . The battle took place between 26 and 30 June 2014 .
In early June 2014 , ISIL took control of a number of cities in northern Iraq , including Tikrit . Tikrit has symbolic significance as the hometown of Saddam Hussein , and is also the administrative center of the Saladin Governorate . The Iraqi government responded on 26 June by launching an air assault operation to recapture the city . This initial attack was reinforced by a ground assault on 28 June . Fighting continued on 29 and 30 June , but the battle was an insurgent victory , with government forces retreating on 30 June . The defeat coincided with ISIL 's declaration of a worldwide caliphate on 29 June .
The Iraqi government made another attempt to retake the city on 15 July , but was again defeated . ISIL responded by attacking nearby Camp Speicher on 17 July . Tikrit remained under ISIL control until the Second Battle of Tikrit in March and April 2015 .
= = Background = =
In December 2013 , clashes involving tribal militias , Iraqi security forces , and the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) broke out throughout western Iraq . Then , in January 2014 , ISIL militants successfully took control of Fallujah and Ramadi , bringing much of Anbar Province under their control .
In early June , insurgents began advancing into the central and northern parts of Iraq . On 10 June , Mosul fell to ISIL , a devastating defeat given that there were 30 @,@ 000 Iraqi troops in the city facing approximately 1 @,@ 500 ISIL fighters . Most of the Iraqi Army soldiers refused to fight and fled .
On 11 June , ISIL captured Tikrit . The following day , they killed over a thousand Iraqi Air Force cadets at Camp Speicher , 8 miles northwest of Tikrit .
= = The battle = =
On 26 June , Iraqi government forces launched an airborne assault on Tikrit with three or four commando helicopters flown into a stadium at the University of Tikrit . One of the helicopters was shot down and crash @-@ landed at the stadium , while another had to conduct an emergency landing after suffering a mechanical failure . The crew of the second helicopter , which included a Lebanese pilot , was then captured by insurgents . Fierce fighting then ensued around the university compound , while army snipers positioned themselves on tall buildings in the university complex . In the early hours of the assault , a helicopter gunship struck the city 's hospital compound . By the next day , sporadic clashes continued at the university as Iranian @-@ trained Shiite militiamen were dispatched and managed to seize control of tall buildings in the university area .
On 28 June , helicopter gunships conducted dawn air strikes against insurgents who were attacking troops at the university campus . By this point , the city had been coming under continuous air strikes for three days , which included barrel bombs . An all @-@ out ground offensive was launched during the day in an attempt to capture the city . A column of troops started out from Samarra towards Tikrit to the north and by sundown had reached the edge of the city . According to Lt. Gen. Ahmed Abu Ragheef , another column was directed towards the Camp Speicher air base . There were initial claims by government sources of capturing Tikrit , but in fact Tikrit itself remained under insurgent control as heavy fighting continued to rage on the city outskirts during the night . In the evening , helicopters struck a gathering of people preparing for a wedding ceremony in the village of Al Bu Hayazi , east of Tikrit , killing four civilians .
The next day , troops pulled back away from Tikrit to the nearby town of Dijla , south of the city , in an attempt to regroup after meeting stiff resistance . Fighting also continued near the university and around the air base , which had reportedly come under army control . During the day 's battles , another Iraqi army helicopter was shot down over the city and crashed near a market , while the army sent tanks to join the fighting at the university . An Iraqi army spokesman claimed 70 militants had been killed in Tikrit in the previous 24 hours and that the government forces were in control of the university . Neither of the claims were independently confirmed . Later , fierce clashes were reported in an area about 20 kilometers from the city center , toward Samarra . Militants reportedly made an advance but were stopped about 10 kilometers south of Tikrit . That same day , ISIL declared itself a worldwide caliphate .
On 30 June , government forces attempted to move out of the air base and link up with troops at the university but failed after encountering heavy insurgent resistance in the al @-@ Deum area . A military spokesman said that government forces were massing in Samarra and would soon make another push to capture Tikrit . Meanwhile , south of Tikrit , the army managed to recapture the town of Mukayshifah in fighting that an army spokesman claimed killed 40 ISIS fighters .
= = Aftermath = =
On 3 July , an Iraqi Army spokesman claimed the military had regained control of the town of Al @-@ Awja , Saddam Hussein 's birthplace , near Tikrit . However , later in the day , two battlefield commanders contradicted him and stated fighting was still continuing on the town 's perimeter and in Al @-@ Awja itself .
During this time , troops retreated from the university complex .
On 15 July , the military launched a new assault on Tikrit from Al @-@ Awja . Soldiers and militiamen quickly entered the city , as militants were reportedly retreating , and seized the city 's hospital . Following this , the Iraqi government was preparing to declare victory in the battle for the city . However , ISIL militants sprung an ambush , with suicide bombers reportedly leaping from windows into groups of soldiers . Government troops retreated from the city before sunset four kilometers to the south under constant mortar and sniper fire . Several security force vehicles were seen abandoned , with at least one of them burnt out . 52 soldiers and 40 militants were killed in the fighting .
On 17 July , insurgents launched an assault on Camp Speicher , where an estimated 700 government soldiers and 150 Iranian or Iraqi Shiite militiamen were besieged following the failed attempt to send reinforcements to the air base . The assault included snipers and suicide bombers and the militants quickly managed to reach the runway , at which point Iraqi special forces joined the battle . The base was bombarded and mortared all night . By the next morning , according to various sources , the final pocket of government troops had collapsed , with all of the government forces either killed , executed or captured . At least 25 – 35 insurgents were also killed . Iraqi forces attempted to save the base 's aircraft by flying them out , but according to ISIL 8 – 9 helicopters were destroyed on the ground or shot down , with several armored vehicles destroyed as well . The Iraqi Army denied the alleged capture of the base with soldiers from the front line reporting that Speicher was still under their control , with only three soldiers being killed , one helicopter destroyed and two damaged . A Tikrit resident also reported continued fighting around the base . Two days later , the military reported that Iraqi special forces had re @-@ secured the base .
Though the United States participated in the battle on the Iraqi side , the Washington Post wrote that some Iranian groups accused the coalition of bombarding a pro @-@ government headquarters in the city . In response , the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad issued a statement denying the allegations .
= Billy 's Bucket List =
" Billy 's Bucket List " is the final episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan , from a story by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , and Adam Muto . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on March 17 , 2014 . The episode guest stars Lou Ferringo , Andy Samberg , and Mark Hamill ; Castuera herself also voiced a character .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Finn finds Billy 's ( voiced by Ferrigno ) bucket list and decides to complete the unfinished items , as a tribute toward the fallen hero . After completing most of the items , including giving Billy 's ex @-@ girlfriend Canyon ( voiced by Castuera ) one last motorcycle ride , and conquering his fear of the ocean , an apparition of Billy appears to Finn , telling him that Finn 's biological father is still alive .
The episode was the last to feature Castuera as a storyboard artist until her return to the series during the seventh season ; in the interim time , she focused on her art career . This episode also marked the last time Nate Cash was credited as supervising director ; he left to direct the animated mini @-@ series Over the Garden Wall . " Billy 's Bucket List " was met with critical acclaim , with one reviewer complimenting the episode 's cliffhanger and emotional growth . In addition , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 335 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
During a freestyle rap battle with Rap Bear , hosted by Party Pat ( voiced by Andy Samberg ) , Finn is approached by Billy 's ( voiced by Lou Ferrigno ) ex @-@ girlfriend , Canyon ( voiced by Ako Castuera ) . She delivers Billy 's loincloth to Finn , and Finn and she venture back to Billy 's lair to pay their respects and move on . At his cavern , Finn defeats a group of fairies and then discovers a bucket list penned by Billy . Canyon and Finn decide to complete it as a tribute to the fallen hero . The two go on a joy ride in a desert environment , and afterwards Canyon and Finn part ways . Finn soon discovers that the list contains one more item hidden at the bottom left corner reading : " Lie on my back in the ocean . Just float . "
Finn , terrified of the ocean , decides to do this final task for Billy , but the Fear Feaster ( voiced by Mark Hamill ) manifests and taunts him , until he knocks himself unconscious ; during this time , he has an intense dream of swimming through the ocean and being consumed by a whale . Eventually he wakes up , and — possibly involuntarily — uses his grass sword to slice through and destroy the Fear Feaster , ending Finn 's ocean fear for good . The spirit of Billy manifests itself before Finn in the sky , thanking him for completing his list . Before his spirit departs , he reveals to Finn that his human father is still alive , trapped in a mysterious place known only as the " Citadel " .
= = Production = =
" Billy 's Bucket List " was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan , from a story by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , and Adam Muto . This episode was the last to feature Castuera — who had been storyboarding on the show since the first season finale " Gut Grinder " — until her return to the series during the seventh season . According to Moynihan , Castuera left the show " to do something different and pursue other interests " as well as to " pursue a different path from television animation . " On September 29 , 2014 , however , Kent Osborne posted an image on Instagram , confirming that Castuera and Moynihan would again be partners for the seventh season . Art direction was handled by Nick Jennings , whereas supervising direction was cohelmed by Nate Cash and Adam Muto . This episode marked the last time Nate Cash was credited as supervising director , as he later left the series to direct the animated mini @-@ series Over the Garden Wall .
Castuera herself voiced Canyon . The episode also features the return of Lou Ferringo as the hero Billy ; Ferringo had previously appeared in the first season episode " His Hero " and the fourth season finale " The Lich " . In addition , both comedian and rapper Andy Samberg , as well as actor Mark Hamill , reprise their roles as Party Pat and the Fear Feaster , respectively . Samberg had previously voiced the character in the second season episode " Belly of the Beast " , whereas Hamill had appeared in the first season episode , " Ocean of Fear " .
The rap battle music was scored by Moynihan , who made heavy use of orchestra hits . The instrumental was later uploaded to Soundcloud and shared by the official Adventure Time production blog . In one of the episode 's background art pieces , artist Derek Ballard inserted a buried car , homemade bombs , and a hole in the side of a cliff , additions that he claims were in honor of " one of America ’ s greatest film treasures : Tremors " .
= = Reception = =
" Billy 's Bucket List " first aired on Cartoon Network on March 17 , 2014 . The episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 335 million viewers and scored a 0 @.@ 5 Nielsen rating in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episode was seen by 0 @.@ 5 percent of all households aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episode 's airing . Furthermore , the episode was the 43rd most @-@ watched cable program on the night it aired .
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " , arguing that it was an example of the series ' continued growth : he wrote , " as Finn grows , so does this series " . Sava opined that , " the final minute of “ Billy ’ s Bucket List ” drops a major plot @-@ bomb that gives the series an exciting direction for next season , and while the events leading up to the cliffhanger aren 't quite as provocative or substantial as the last few episodes , they represent all the things that make this show such a great 10 @-@ minute oasis at the beginning of the week . " Sava also noted that , " Trippy psychedelia is another major ingredient of this series , and ' Billy ’ s Bucket List ' delivers a heavy serving when Finn finds himself underwater . "
Andrea Reiher of Zap2it called the episode " a great ending to Season 5 " . Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly awarded the episode an " A " , noting that while the series " can do hilarious weirdness in its sleep , " this episode in particular " showcases its soulfulness " . He described the main plot as " oddly introspective " , and wrote that the end was " a surprise reveal — a mythology boost that could push the show in a radical new direction . "
= LW5 / 7 =
LW5 / 7 is a standing para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic skiing classification for skiers with upper extremity issues in both limbs that may include double amputation of both arms and hands or dysmelia of the upper limbs . The class has three subclasses defined by the location of the disability on the upper extremities . International classification is done by IPC Alpine Skiing and IPC Nordic Skiing . On the national level , classification is handled by national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada .
Skiers in this class use two skis and no ski poles in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic , though skiers can use mini @-@ ski poles provided they cannot hold a ski pole without the use of a prosthesis . Skiers develop techniques to ski that compensate for balance issues as a result of missing arms . A factoring system is used in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic to allow LW5 / 7 skiers to compete fairly against other skiers with disabilities . While this classification was not grouped with others at the 1984 Winter Olympics Exhibition Competition , it was grouped with other standing classes during events in the 1990s and 2000s .
= = Definition = =
LW5 / 7 is used in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . People in this class have upper extremity issues in both limbs and may include issue such as paralysis or dysmelia in both arms . The disability may be a result of double amputation of both arms and hands or dysmelia of the upper limbs .
The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) defined this classification for para @-@ alpine as " Competitors with disabilities in both upper limbs skiing with two normal skis and without poles ... The disability shall be such that the functional use of poles is not possible . Typical disability profile of the class is double @-@ arm amputation . " In 2002 , the Australian Paralympic Committee defined this classification for para @-@ Alpine as a standing skiing classification with " Two skis , no poles , disability in both arms or hands . " The IPC defined this classification for para @-@ Nordic skiing as for " those with impairment in both upper limbs without the use of prosthesis . The impairment must be such that the athlete is unable to use poles . " Cross Country Canada defined this classification for para @-@ Nordic as " Impairment in both upper limbs ( arms ) without the use of prosthesis . The impairment must be such that the athlete is unable to use poles . If the athlete is able to use a pole they must compete as LW6 or LW8 " in 2012 .
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered , including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical examination and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing . If a skier in this classification has the ability to use a ski pole of some sort , they may do so but they need to changes classes and compete in LW6 / 8 .
= = = LW5 / 7 @.@ 1 = = =
The IPC defines this para @-@ Alpine classification as " Both arms amputated above the elbow , Short stumps , no elbow joints or forearms " .
= = = LW5 / 7 @.@ 2 = = =
The IPC defines this para @-@ Alpine classification as " One arm amputated above the elbow , the other below the elbow " .
= = = LW5 / 7 @.@ 3 = = =
The IPC defines this para @-@ Alpine classification as " Both arms amputated or dysfunctional below the elbow , Both hands unable to hold or use ski poles " .
= = Equipment and technique = =
Skiers in this class use two skis and no ski poles in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic . While skiers are prohibited from using traditional ski poles , they may use mini poles so long as they are unable to hold a traditional ski pole without the use of a prostheses . Skiers are also allowed to use prostheses or orthoses in competition . FIS rules for ski boots and binding heights are followed for this class . Skiers in this class must wear a Slalom helmet in Slalom events and crash helmets during the Giant Slalom .
In the Slalom event , competitors are more likely to use a partial ski pole or a prosthetic to hold a ski pole that they may not use in other disciplines . Techniques to compensate for balance issues as a result of an upper limb disability may be corrected by using knee drives or hip motions .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position . Athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other , when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for the classic technique was 79 % and percentage for free was 87 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 para @-@ Nordic ski seasons was 79 % for classic and 87 % for free technique . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , the percentage for the 2012 / 2013 ski season was 79 % for classic and 87 % for free . Each of the subclasses with in LW5 / 7 had their own factoring for the para @-@ Alpine 2011 / 2012 skiing season . The factoring for LW5 / 7 @.@ 1 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 982 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 9777 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9851 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9809 for downhill , for LW5 / 7 @.@ 2 was 0 @.@ 9862 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 9843 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9873 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9833 for downhill , and for LW5 / 7 @.@ 3 was 0 @.@ 9882 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 9863 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 9893 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9853 for downhill .
In disability skiing events , this classification is grouped with standing classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and before sitting classes in the Slalom and Giant Slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and sitting classes . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other standing classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's standing ski group after the blind men 's group and before the blind women 's group . Women 's standing classes are advised to go last . In the biathlon , the skier is required to make sure " that the rifle touches the support in between the marked zone ( 5 cm in front of / behind the balance point ) . "
At times , skiers in this class have injured themselves while skiing . Such injuries have occurred for some in this class of the German national para @-@ Alpine skiing team between 1994 and 2006 . One incident occurred in 1997 and was a femur @-@ fracture caused as a result of a fall while skiing . Another incident occurred at the 1998 Winter Paralympics when a skier injured themselves , resulting in a partial ACL rupture .
= = Events = =
While this classification was not grouped with others at the 1984 Winter Olympics Exhibition Competition , it was grouped during events in the 1990s and 2000s . At the 1984 Winter Olympics Exhibition Competition , disciplines included on the programme were downhill and Giant Slalom , and was not grouped with others for medal events for men . At the 1996 Disabled Alpine World Championships in Lech , Austria , men 's LW1 , LW3 and LW5 were grouped together for medal events . At the 1998 Winter Paralympics , LW1 , LW3 and LW5 were put into one group for medal events in para @-@ Alpine events . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , LW3 , LW5 / 7 and LW9 were grouped for the men 's downhill , Super @-@ G , Slalom and Giant Slalom events . On the women 's side of the 2002 Games programme , LW1 , LW4 , LW5 and LW6 classes were combined for the downhill , Giant Slalom and Slalom events . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other standing skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men and women 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with standing classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 World Championships , there was one male and one female from this class the standing downhill event .
= Sanctified ( song ) =
" Sanctified " is a song by American hip hop recording artist Rick Ross , taken from his sixth studio album Mastermind ( 2014 ) . The song , produced by Kanye West , Mike Dean , and DJ Mustard , featuring guest appearances by rappers Kanye West and Big Sean . It was written by the aforementioned rappers and producers and Betty Wright sang the hook . " Sanctified " garnered critical acclaim from music critics , with most praising the production and Kanye West 's appearance . Despite not being released as a single , it is the highest charting song on Mastermind to date , debuting at number 25 on the UK R & B Chart , number 78 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 99 on the Canadian Hot 100 upon the album 's release .
= = Background and development = =
In February 2014 , a short preview of the song was released featuring the chorus , performed by Kanye West and Big Sean . Following the track list reveal for the album , on February 7 , 2014 , producer DJ Mustard revealed that he co @-@ produced " Sanctified " with Kanye West . The song was also produced by Mike Dean , along with being written by William Roberts , Sean Anderson , Kanye West , and Dijon McFarlane . Betty Wright lent her vocal talent to the song during a late night studio session she did as a favor to DJ Khaled in order for him to meet a deadline . She recorded the hook in fifteen minutes while sitting on a sofa In the song , West raps about how he feels about people playing up his earlier works and dismiss who he is now , before saying that he 's not going to worry about it . Then later he says , " Wipe my forehead with a handkerchief and wash my sins in the blood of Jesus , People sayin ' , ' Ye , we need another Yeezus . " This being a reference to his experimental sixth studio album .
Rick Ross stated that the song was one of his favorites featured on Mastermind . He said , " ' Sanctified ' was most definitely one of the favorites . It 's because how much time — Just watching Kanye put into this because it actually started as a sample . We did the sample maybe 10 different ways and then we ultimately went with a beautiful lady out of Miami , Ms. Betty Wright . She blessed us . So , just hearing that chorus . Just hearing the way it came out . All the time we put in it . It most definitely was dope . " Then after Ross ' sixth studio album Mastermind was released for free streaming on iTunes , the full version of " Sanctified " was released .
On March 6 , 2014 , Big Sean released his verse for the song that was cut from the album version of the song . Detailing the song 's recording process to MTV , Big Sean said , " Me and [ Kanye West ] was in the studio working on a whole bunch of ideas and [ Ross ] came in the conversation . And everybody know Rick Ross albums is events . So Ye pulled a track up , and I was telling him I think it 's a banger , it 's a smash , and he thought we should give it to Rozay . Me and him wrote our verses on the spot and we sent it to [ Ross ] and he did what he did to it . "
= = Live performance = =
On March 6 , 2014 , Rick Ross , Big Sean and Kanye West performed " Sanctified " on The Arsenio Hall Show backed by a live band . This was the first live performance of the song with all three rappers . West 's surprise appearance received a very large response from the audience .
= = Critical reception = =
" Sanctified " was met with critical acclaim from music critics , with most of them favoring West 's guest appearance than Ross himself . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times called it the album 's best song . Kevin Ritchie of Now named it the album 's best song , praised Betty Wright 's performance singing the hook and Kanye West 's production . Nick Catucci of Entertainment Weekly and Michael Madden of Consequence of Sound both considered the song one of the album 's best . Kellin Miller of AllHipHop stated that it " has a strong case for an early song of the year nomination . " Dan Rys of XXL praised the song 's production and called West 's appearance as show stealing . Jesse Cataldo of Slant Magazine said , " The album revives when Kanye West shows up to produce and guest on " Sanctified , " a revival song that pairs religious rebirth with monetary excess in a sort of frenzied ritual . "
Peter Cashmore of NME stated that it " is a glorious snail ’ s @-@ pace gush of braggadocio . In fact , if the album had wrapped up after " Sanctified " , rather than dribbling to a close with the weedy " Walkin ’ On Air " and " Thug Cry " , then Mastermind would be pretty much wall @-@ to @-@ wall bangers . " Craig Jenkins of Pitchfork Media gave this song the tag of " Best New Track " and stated , " ' Sanctified ' is an outstanding entry into Ross and Kanye ’ s catalogue of stunners , but it never feels like Ross ' song . " Christopher Weingarten of Rolling Stone said , the song " shines with guest singer Betty Wright 's powerful gospel rasp and Kanye West confessing his sins on a featured verse . Ross , meanwhile , ends up talking designer clothes and fellatio . " Ken Capobianco of the Boston Globe said that " Kanye West turns his host into an afterthought on the fine , gospel @-@ influenced " Sanctified " .
Sheldon Pearce of HipHopDX stated , " While Kanye is transposing himself with Muhammad Ali and washing his sins in the blood of Jesus and boldly second guessing God ’ s direct message the most grandiose thing Ross can muster is an ill @-@ fated ( and perhaps uninformed ) comparison to fallen Waco cult leader David Koresh . It feels tired and uninspired . " Nathan Slavik of DJBooth praised the song 's depth and said it featured " a rewind @-@ worthy verse from Kanye and a completely superfluous Big Sean . " Jesal Padania of RapReviews called the song riotously enjoyable , but said that Ross ' contribution did not add anything to the song .
Complex named it the second best song of the first @-@ half of 2014 . Writer Justin Charity commented saying , " While hardly their strongest verses of even the past couple years , Ross , Kanye , and Sean all come correct with the quotables here , from Sean 's opening mantra to Kanye 's aggressive confessional to post @-@ sex grilled cheese . The song 's weary gospel build @-@ up makes way for the minimal , rarefied ecstasy of that spaceship hangover melody . An arena confession I need to be shouting at the livest of live shows by year 's end : " All I wanted was a hundred million dollars and a bad bitch ! " Verdict : We need another Yeezus . " MySpace also named the song one of the 50 best songs of the same time period . A writer for them said , " ' Sanctified ' is a behemoth of a track , replete with an original vocal line from Bettye LaVette that plays like a gospel sample and an impeccable verse from ' Ye that makes up for Ross rapping , " Fellatio 's amazin ' , make grilled cheese for you , the best . " It 's simply the best gospel song masquerading as a rap jam this year . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Mastermind .
Rick Ross – lead vocals , songwriting
Kanye West – guest vocals , songwriting , production
Betty Wright – guest vocals
Big Sean – guest vocals , songwriting
DJ Mustard – co @-@ production / original production
Mike Dean – production
= = Chart performance = =
= DJ Kool Herc =
Clive Campbell ( born 16 April 1955 ) , better known by his stage name DJ Kool Herc , is a Jamaican American DJ who is credited for originating hip hop music in the early 1970s in The Bronx , New York City . His playing of hard funk records of the sort typified by James Brown was an alternative both to the violent gang culture of the Bronx and to the nascent popularity of disco in the 1970s . Campbell began to isolate the instrumental portion of the record , which emphasized the drum beat — the " break " — and switch from one break to another .
Using the same two turntable set @-@ up of disco DJs , Campbell used two copies of the same record to elongate the break . This breakbeat DJing , using hard funk and records with Latin percussion , formed the basis of hip hop music . Campbell 's announcements and exhortations to dancers helped lead to the syncopated , rhymed spoken accompaniment now known as rapping . He called his dancers " break @-@ boys " and " break @-@ girls " , or simply b @-@ boys and b @-@ girls . Campbell 's DJ style was quickly taken up by figures such as Afrika Bambaataa and Grandmaster Flash . Unlike them , he never made the move into commercially recorded hip hop in its earliest years .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Clive Campbell was the first of six children born to Keith and Nettie Campbell in Kingston , Jamaica . While growing up , he saw and heard the sound systems of neighbourhood parties called dancehalls , and the accompanying speech of their DJs , known as toasting . He emigrated with his family at the age of 12 to the Bronx , New York in November 1967 , where they lived at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue .
They encountered wide @-@ scale social disruption following the construction of the Cross Bronx Expressway by Robert Moses ( completed 1963 , with further construction continuing through to 1972 ) ; it had uprooted thousands in stable neighborhoods , displacing communities , and leading to " white flight " when property values dropped near the roadway . Many landlords resorted to arson to recoup money through insurance policies . A violent new street gang youth culture emerged around 1968 , and spread with increasing lawlessness across large parts of the Bronx by 1973 .
Campbell attended the Alfred E. Smith Career and Technical Education High School in the Bronx , where his height , frame , and demeanor on the basketball court prompted the other kids to nickname him " Hercules " . He began running with a graffiti crew called the Ex @-@ Vandals , taking the name Kool Herc . Herc recalls persuading his father to buy him a copy of " Sex Machine " by James Brown , a record that not a lot of his friends had , and which they would come to him to hear . He and his sister , Cindy , began hosting back @-@ to @-@ school parties in the recreation room of their building , 1520 Sedgwick Avenue . Herc 's first soundsystem consisted of two turntables connected to two amplifiers and a Shure " Vocal Master " PA system with 2 amazing speakers columns , on which he played records such as James Brown 's " Give It Up Or Turnit A Loose " , The Jimmy Castor Bunch 's " It 's Just Begun " and Booker T & the MG 's ' " Melting Pot " . With Bronx clubs ' struggling with street gangs , uptown DJs ' catering to an older disco crowd with different aspirations , and commercial radio also catering to a demographic distinct from teenagers in the Bronx , Herc 's parties had a ready @-@ made audience .
= = = The break = = =
DJ Kool Herc developed the style that was the blueprint for hip hop music . Herc used the record to focus on a short , heavily percussive part in it : the " break " . Since this part of the record was the one the dancers liked best , Herc isolated the break and prolonged it by changing between two record players . As one record reached the end of the break , he cued a second record back to the beginning of the break , which allowed him to extend a relatively short section of music into " five @-@ minute loop of fury " . This innovation had its roots in what Herc called " The Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round , " a technique by which the deejay switched from break to break at the height of the party . Herc told The New York Times that he first introduced the Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round into his sets in 1972 . The earliest known Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round involved playing James Brown 's " Give It Up or Turnit a Loose " ( with its refrain , " Now clap your hands ! Stomp your feet ! " ) , then switching from that record 's break into the break from a second record , " Bongo Rock " by The Incredible Bongo Band . From the " Bongo Rock " ' s break , Herc used a third record to switch to the break on " The Mexican " by the English rock band Babe Ruth . Kool Herc also contributed to developing the rhyming style of hip hop by punctuating the recorded music with slang phrases , announcing : " Rock on , my mellow ! " " B @-@ boys , b @-@ girls , are you ready ? keep on rock steady " " This is the joint ! Herc beat on the point " " To the beat , y 'all ! " " You don 't stop ! " For his contributions , Herc is called a " founding father of hip hop , " a " nascent cultural hero , " and an integral part of the beginnings of hip hop by Time .
On 11 August 1973 , DJ Kool Herc was a disc jockey and emcee at a party in the recreation room at Sedgwick Avenue . Specifically , DJ Kool Herc :
extended an instrumental beat ( breaking or scratching ) to let people dance longer ( break dancing ) and began MC 'ing ( rapping ) during the extended breakdancing . ... [ This ] helped lay the foundation for a cultural revolution .
= = = B @-@ boys and b @-@ girls = = =
The " b @-@ boys " and " b @-@ girls " were the dancers to Herc 's breaks , who were described as " breaking " . Herc has noted that " breaking " was also street slang of the time meaning " getting excited " , " acting energetically , " or " causing a disturbance " . Herc coined the terms " b @-@ boy " , " b @-@ girl , " and " breaking " which became part of the lexicon of what would be eventually called hip hop culture . Early Kool Herc b @-@ boy and later DJ innovator Grandmixer DXT describes the early evolution as follows :
" ... [ E ] verybody would form a circle and the B @-@ boys would go into the center . At first the dance was simple : touch your toes , hop , kick out your leg . Then some guy went down , spun around on all fours . Everybody said wow and went home to try to come up with something better . "
In the early 1980s , the media began to call this style " breakdance , " which in 1991 the New York Times wrote was " an art as demanding and inventive as mainstream dance forms like ballet and jazz . " Since this emerging culture was still without a name , participants often identified as " b @-@ boys , " a usage that included and went beyond the specific connection to dance , a usage that would persist in hip hop culture .
= = = Move to the streets = = =
With the mystique of his graffiti name , his physical stature , and the reputation of his small parties , Herc became a folk hero in the Bronx . He began to play at nearby clubs including the Twilight Zone Hevalo , Executive Playhouse , the PAL on 183rd Street , as well as at high schools such as Dodge and Taft . Rapping duties were delegated to Coke La Rock . Herc 's collective , known as The Herculoids , was augmented by Clark Kent and dancers The Nigga Twins . Herc took his soundsystem ( the herculords ) — still legendary for its sheer volume — to the streets and parks of the Bronx . Nelson George recalls a schoolyard party :
" The sun hadn 't gone down yet , and kids were just hanging out , waiting for something to happen . Van pulls up , a bunch of guys come out with a table , crates of records . They unscrew the base of the light pole , take their equipment , attach it to that , get the electricity – Boom ! We got a concert right here in the schoolyard and it 's this guy Kool Herc . And he 's just standing with the turntable , and the guys were studying his hands . There are people dancing , but there 's as many people standing , just watching what he 's doing . That was my first introduction to in @-@ the @-@ street , hip hop DJing . "
= = = Influence on artists = = =
In 1975 , the young Grandmaster Flash , to whom Kool Herc was , in his words , " a hero " , began DJing in Herc 's style . By 1976 , Flash and his MCs The Furious Five played to a packed Audubon Ballroom in Manhattan . Venue owners were often nervous of unruly young crowds , however , and soon sent hip hop back to the clubs , community centres and high school gymnasiums of the Bronx .
Afrika Bambaataa first heard Kool Herc in 1973 . Bambaataa , at that time a general in the notorious Black Spades gang of the Bronx , obtained his own soundsystem in 1975 and began to DJ in Herc 's style , converting his followers to the non @-@ violent Zulu Nation in the process . Kool Herc began using The Incredible Bongo Band 's " Apache " as a break in 1975 . It became a firm b @-@ boy favourite — " the Bronx national anthem " — and is still in use in hip hop today . Steven Hager wrote of this period :
" For over five years the Bronx had lived in constant terror of street gangs . Suddenly , in 1975 , they disappeared almost as quickly as they had arrived . This happened because something better came along to replace the gangs . That something was eventually called hip @-@ hop . "
In 1979 , the record company executive Sylvia Robinson assembled a group she called The Sugarhill Gang and recorded " Rapper 's Delight " . The hit song ushered in the era of commercially released hip hop . By that year 's end , Grandmaster Flash was recording for Enjoy Records . In 1980 , Afrika Bambaataa began recording for Winley . By this time , DJ Kool Herc 's star had faded .
Grandmaster Flash suggests that Herc may not have kept pace with developments in techniques of cueing ( lining up a record to play at a certain place on it ) . Developments changed techniques of cutting ( switching from one record to another ) and scratching ( moving the record by hand to and fro under the stylus for percussive effect ) in the late 1970s . Herc said he retreated from the scene after being stabbed at the Executive Playhouse while trying to intercede in a fight , and the burning down of one of his venues . In 1980 , Herc had stopped DJing and was working in a record shop in South Bronx .
= = = Later years = = =
Kool Herc appeared in Hollywood 's motion picture take on hip hop , Beat Street ( Orion , 1984 ) , as himself . In the mid @-@ 1980s , his father died , and he became addicted to crack cocaine . " I couldn 't cope , so I started medicating " , he says of this period .
In 1994 Herc performed on Terminator X & the Godfathers of Threatt 's album , Super Bad . In 2005 , he wrote the foreword to Jeff Chang 's book on hip hop , Can 't Stop Won 't Stop . In 2005 he appeared in the music video of " Top 5 ( Dead or Alive ) " by Jin from the album The Emcee 's Properganda . In 2006 , he became involved in getting Hip Hop commemorated at the Smithsonian Institution museums .
Since 2007 Herc has worked in a campaign to prevent 1520 Sedgwick Avenue from being sold to developers and withdrawn from its status as a Mitchell @-@ Lama affordable housing property . In the summer of 2007 , New York state officials declared 1520 Sedgwick Avenue the " birthplace of hip @-@ hop " , and nominated it to national and state historic registers . The city 's Department of Housing Preservation and Development ruled against the proposed sale in February 2008 , on the grounds that " the proposed purchase price is inconsistent with the use of property as a Mitchell @-@ Lama affordable housing development " . It is the first time they have so ruled in such a case .
= = = Serious illness = = =
According to a DJ Premier fan blog , The Source 's website and other sites , DJ Kool Herc fell gravely ill in early 2011 and was said to lack health insurance . He had surgery for kidney stones , with a stent placed to relieve the pressure . He needed follow @-@ up surgery but St. Barnabas Medical Center , the site that performed the previous surgery , has requested that he make a deposit toward the next surgery , because he has missed several follow @-@ up visits . The hospital said it would not turn away uninsured patients in the emergency room . DJ Kool Herc and his family set up an official website on which he describes his medical issue and the larger goal of establishing the DJ Kool Herc Fund to pioneer long @-@ term health care solutions . In April 2013 , Campbell recovered from surgery and moved into post @-@ medical care .
= = Discography = =
= = = Guest appearances = = =
Terminator X - " Herc 's Message " from Super Bad ( 1994 )
The Chemical Brothers - " Elektrobank " from Dig Your Own Hole ( 1997 )
Substantial - " Sacrifice " from Sacrifice ( 2008 )
= County Route 574 ( Erie County , New York ) =
County Route 574 ( CR 574 ) is an east – west county route north of East Aurora in Erie County , New York , in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at New York State Route 16 ( NY 16 ) and NY 78 in the town of Elma . Its eastern terminus is at Two Rod Road , a state @-@ maintained north – south highway in the town of Marilla . The entire length of CR 574 is named " Jamison Road " .
Parts of CR 574 carried a state highway designation as early as 1930 . By 1931 , the entirety of CR 574 was designated as New York State Route 422 . Ownership and maintenance of NY 422 was transferred from the state of New York to Erie County on April 1 , 1980 , and the NY 422 designation officially ceased to exist on September 25 , 1980 .
= = Route description = =
CR 574 begins at an intersection with NY 16 and NY 78 ( Seneca Street ) northwest of East Aurora in the town of Elma . The route heads eastward along Jamison Road , passing south of a predominantly residential neighborhood and north of a large industrial complex . The latter ends after 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , and CR 574 continues on to an interchange with the Aurora Expressway ( NY 400 ) . CR 574 intersects Bowen Road ( CR 242 ) and ( CR 361 ) just east of the expressway .
As CR 574 approaches the hamlet of East Elma , it meets Girdle Road ( CR 336 ) . In East Elma itself , Jamison Road intersects Creek Road ( CR 134 ) and Hemstreet Road ( CR 172 ) . Past East Elma , the land surrounding CR 574 becomes less developed and largely dominated by cultivated fields . CR 574 continues on through the open fields and into the town of Marilla , where it ends at a junction with Two Rod Road , a local arterial maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation as NY 954G , an unsigned reference route . Prior to 1982 , Two Rod Road was NY 358 .
= = History = =
The portion of Jamison Road from Bowen Road to Maple Road was originally designated as part of NY 78 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . By the following year , the entirety of Jamison Road was designated as NY 422 . NY 78 was realigned c . 1932 to follow a new routing between East Aurora and Depew while its former routing from East Aurora to Lancaster was redesignated as NY 78A . The NY 78A designation , which overlapped NY 422 between Bowen Road and Maple Road , was removed c . 1938 .
On April 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of NY 422 was transferred from the state of New York to Erie County as part of a larger highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The NY 422 designation was removed on September 25 , 1980 , allowing Jamison Road to become CR 574 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Erie County .
= Toru Takemitsu =
Toru Takemitsu ( 武満 徹 , Takemitsu Tōru , October 8 , 1930 – February 20 , 1996 ) pronounced [ takeꜜmitsɯ toːɽɯ ] was a Japanese composer and writer on aesthetics and music theory . Largely self @-@ taught , Takemitsu possessed consummate skill in the subtle manipulation of instrumental and orchestral timbre . He is famed for combining elements of oriental and occident philosophy to create a sound uniquely his own , and for fusing opposites together such as sound with silence and tradition with innovation .
He composed several hundred independent works of music , scored more than ninety films and published twenty books . He was also a founding member of the Jikken Kobo ( experimental workshop ) in Japan , a group of avant @-@ garde artists who distanced themselves from academia and whose collaborative work is often regarded among the most influential of the 20th century .
His 1957 Requiem for string orchestra attracted international attention , led to several commissions from across the world and established his reputation as one of the leading 20th @-@ century Japanese composers . He was the recipient of numerous awards and honours and the Toru Takemitsu Composition Award is named after him .
= = Biography = =
= = = Youth = = =
Takemitsu was born in Tokyo on October 8 , 1930 ; a month later his family moved to Dalian in the Chinese province of Liaoning . He returned to Japan to attend elementary school , but his education was cut short by military conscription in 1944 . Takemitsu described his experience of military service at such a young age , under the Japanese Nationalist government , as " ... extremely bitter " . Takemitsu first became really conscious of Western classical music ( which was banned in Japan during the war ) during his term of military service , in the form of a popular French Song ( " Parlez @-@ moi d 'amour " ) which he listened to with colleagues in secret , played on a gramophone with a makeshift needle fashioned from bamboo .
During the post @-@ war U.S. occupation of Japan , Takemitsu worked for the U.S. Armed Forces , but was ill for a long period . Hospitalised and bed @-@ ridden , he took the opportunity to listen to as much Western music as he could on the U.S. Armed Forces network . While deeply affected by these experiences of Western music , he simultaneously felt a need to distance himself from the traditional music of his native Japan . He explained much later , in a lecture at the New York International Festival of the Arts , that for him Japanese traditional music " always recalled the bitter memories of war " .
Despite his almost complete lack of musical training , and taking inspiration from what little Western music he had heard , Takemitsu began to compose in earnest at the age of 16 : " ... I began [ writing ] music attracted to music itself as one human being . Being in music I found my raison d 'être as a man . After the war , music was the only thing . Choosing to be in music clarified my identity . " Though he studied briefly with Yasuji Kiyose beginning in 1948 , Takemitsu remained largely self @-@ taught throughout his musical career .
= = = Early development and Jikken Kōbō = = =
In 1948 , Takemitsu conceived the idea of electronic music technology , or in his own words , to " bring noise into tempered musical tones inside a busy small tube . " During the 1950s , Takemitsu had learned that in 1948 " a French [ engineer ] Pierre Schaeffer invented the method ( s ) of musique concrète based on the same idea as mine . I was pleased with this coincidence . "
In 1951 , Takemitsu was a founding member of the anti @-@ academic Jikken Kōbō ( 実験工房 , " experimental workshop " ) : an artistic group established for multidisciplinary collaboration on mixed @-@ media projects , who sought to avoid Japanese artistic tradition . The performances and works undertaken by the group introduced several contemporary Western composers to Japanese audiences . During this period he wrote Saegirarenai Kyūsoku I ( " Uninterrupted Rest I " , 1952 : a piano work , without a regular rhythmic pulse or barlines ) ; and by 1955 Takemitsu had begun to use electronic tape @-@ recording techniques in such works as Relief Statique ( 1955 ) and Vocalism A · I ( 1956 ) . Takemitsu also studied in the early 1950s with the composer Fumio Hayasaka , perhaps best known for the scores he wrote for films by Kenji Mizoguchi and Akira Kurosawa , the latter of whom Takemitsu would collaborate with decades later .
In the late 1950s chance brought Takemitsu international attention : his Requiem for string orchestra ( 1957 listen ) , written as an homage to Hayasaka , was heard by Igor Stravinsky in 1958 during his visit to Japan . ( The NHK had organised opportunities for Stravinsky to listen to some of the latest Japanese music ; when Takemitsu 's work was put on by mistake , Stravinsky insisted on hearing it to the end . ) At a press conference later , Stravinsky expressed his admiration for the work , praising its " sincerity " and " passionate " writing . Stravinsky subsequently invited Takemitsu to lunch ; and for Takemitsu this was an " unforgettable " experience . After Stravinsky returned to the U.S. , Takemitsu soon received a commission for a new work from the Koussevitsky Foundation which , he assumed , had come as a suggestion from Stravinsky to Aaron Copland . For this he composed Dorian Horizon , ( 1966 ) , which was premièred by the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra , conducted by Copland .
= = = Influence of Cage ; interest in traditional Japanese music = = =
During his time with Jikken Kōbō , Takemitsu came into contact with the experimental work of John Cage ; but when the composer Toshi Ichiyanagi returned from his studies in America in 1961 , he gave the first Japanese performance of Cage 's Concert for Piano and Orchestra . This left a " deep impression " on Takemitsu : he recalled the impact of hearing the work when writing an obituary for Cage , 31 years later . This encouraged Takemitsu in his use of indeterminate procedures and graphic @-@ score notation , for example in the graphic scores of Ring ( 1961 ) , Corona for pianist ( s ) and Corona II for string ( s ) ( both 1962 ) . In these works each performer is presented with cards printed with coloured circular patterns which are freely arranged by the performer to create " the score " .
Although the immediate influence of Cage 's procedures did not last in Takemitsu 's music — Coral Island , for example for soprano and orchestra ( 1962 ) shows significant departures from indeterminate procedures partly as a result of Takemitsu 's renewed interest in the music of Anton Webern — certain similarities between Cage 's philosophies and Takemitsu 's thought remained . For example , Cage 's emphasis on timbres within individual sound @-@ events , and his notion of silence " as plenum rather than vacuum " , can be aligned with Takemitsu 's interest in ma . Furthermore , Cage 's interest in Zen practice ( through his contact with Zen scholar Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki ) seems to have resulted in a renewed interest in the East in general , and ultimately alerted Takemitsu to the potential for incorporating elements drawn from Japanese traditional music into his composition :
I must express my deep and sincere gratitude to John Cage . The reason for this is that in my own life , in my own development , for a long period I struggled to avoid being " Japanese " , to avoid " Japanese " qualities . It was largely through my contact with John Cage that I came to recognize the value of my own tradition .
For Takemitsu , as he explained later in a lecture in 1988 , one performance of Japanese traditional music stood out :
One day I chanced to see a performance of the Bunraku puppet theater and was very surprised by it . It was in the tone quality , the timbre , of the futazao shamisen , the wide @-@ necked shamisen used in Bunraku , that I first recognized the splendor of traditional Japanese music . I was very moved by it and I wondered why my attention had never been captured before by this Japanese music .
Thereafter , he resolved to study all types of traditional Japanese music , paying special attention to the differences between the two very different musical traditions , in a diligent attempt to " bring forth the sensibilities of Japanese music that had always been within [ him ] " . This was no easy task , since in the years following the war traditional music was largely overlooked and ignored : only one or two " masters " continued to keep their art alive , often meeting with public indifference . In conservatoria across the country , even students of traditional instruments were always required to learn the piano .
From the early 1960s , Takemitsu began to make use of traditional Japanese instruments in his music , and even took up playing the biwa — an instrument he used in his score for the film Seppuku ( 1962 ) . In 1967 , Takemitsu received a commission from the New York Philharmonic Orchestra , to commemorate the orchestra 's 125th anniversary , for which he wrote November Steps for biwa , shakuhachi , and orchestra . Initially , Takemitsu had great difficulty in uniting these instruments from such different musical cultures in one work . Eclipse for biwa and shakuhachi ( 1966 ) illustrates Takemitsu 's attempts to find a viable notational system for these instruments , which in normal circumstances neither sound together nor are used in works notated in any system of Western staff notation .
The first performance of November Steps was given in 1967 , under Seiji Ozawa . Despite the trials of writing such an ambitious work , Takemitsu maintained " that making the attempt was very worthwhile because what resulted somehow liberated music from a certain stagnation and brought to music something distinctly new and different " . The work was distributed widely in the West when it was coupled as the fourth side of an LP release of Messiaen 's Turangalîla Symphony .
In 1972 , Takemitsu , accompanied by Iannis Xenakis , Betsy Jolas , and others , heard Balinese gamelan music in Bali . The experience influenced the composer on a largely philosophical and theological level . For those accompanying Takemitsu on the expedition ( most of whom were French musicians ) , who " ... could not keep their composure as I did before this music : it was too foreign for them to be able to assess the resulting discrepancies with their logic " , the experience was without precedent . For Takemitsu , however , by now quite familiar with his own native musical tradition , there was a relationship between " the sounds of the gamelan , the tone of the kapachi , the unique scales and rhythms by which they are formed , and Japanese traditional music which had shaped such a large part of my sensitivity " . In his solo piano work For Away ( written for Roger Woodward in 1973 ) , a single , complex line is distributed between the pianist 's hands , which reflects the interlocking patterns between the metallophones of a gamelan orchestra .
A year later , Takemitsu returned to the instrumental combination of shakuhachi , biwa , and orchestra , in the less well known work Autumn ( 1973 ) . The significance of this work is revealed in its far greater integration of the traditional Japanese instruments into the orchestral discourse ; whereas in November Steps , the two contrasting instrumental ensembles perform largely in alternation , with only a few moments of contact . Takemitsu expressed this change in attitude :
But now my attitude is getting to be a little different , I think . Now my concern is mostly to find out what there is in common ... Autumn was written after November Steps . I really wanted to do something which I hadn 't done in November Steps , not to blend the instruments , but to integrate them .
= = = International status and the gradual shift in style = = =
By 1970 , Takemitsu 's reputation as a leading member of avant @-@ garde community was well established , and during his involvement with Expo ' 70 in Osaka , he was at last able to meet more of his Western colleagues , including Karlheinz Stockhausen . Also , during a contemporary music festival in April 1970 , produced by the Japanese composer himself ( " Iron and Steel Pavilion " ) , Takemitsu met among the participants Lukas Foss , Peter Sculthorpe , and Vinko Globokar . Later that year , as part of a commission from Paul Sacher and the Zurich Collegium Musicum , Takemitsu incorporated into his Eucalypts I parts for international performers : flautist Aurèle Nicolet , oboist Heinz Holliger , and harpist Ursula Holliger .
Critical examination of the complex instrumental works written during this period for the new generation of " contemporary soloists " reveals the level of his high @-@ profile engagement with the Western avant @-@ garde , in works such as Voice for solo flute ( 1971 ) , Waves for clarinet , horn , two trombones and bass drum ( 1976 ) , Quatrain for clarinet , violin , cello , piano and orchestra ( 1977 ) . Experiments and works that incorporated traditional Japanese musical ideas and language continued to appear in his output , and an increased interest in the traditional Japanese garden began to reflect itself in works such as In an Autumn Garden for gagaku orchestra ( 1973 ) , and A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden for orchestra ( 1977 ) .
Throughout this apogee of avant @-@ garde work , Takemitsu 's musical style seems to have undergone a series of stylistic changes . Comparison of Green ( for orchestra , 1967 ) and A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden ( 1977 ) quickly reveals the seeds of this change . The latter was composed according to a pre @-@ compositional scheme , in which pentatonic modes were superimposed over one central pentatonic scale ( the so @-@ called " black @-@ key pentatonic " ) around a central sustained central pitch ( F @-@ sharp ) , and an approach that is highly indicative of the sort of " pantonal " and modal pitch material seen gradually emerging in his works throughout the 1970s . The former , Green ( or November Steps II ) written 10 years earlier , is heavily influenced by Debussy , and is , in spite of its very dissonant language ( including momentary quarter @-@ tone clusters ) , largely constructed through a complex web of modal forms . These modal forms are largely audible , particularly in the momentary repose toward the end of the work . Thus in these works , it is possible to see both a continuity of approach , and the emergence of a simpler harmonic language that was to characterise the work of his later period .
His friend and colleague Jō Kondō said , " If his later works sound different from earlier pieces , it is due to his gradual refining of his basic style rather than any real alteration of it . "
= = = Later works : the sea of tonality = = =
In a Tokyo lecture given in 1984 , Takemitsu identified a melodic motive in his Far Calls . Coming Far ! ( for violin and orchestra , 1980 ) that would recur throughout his later works :
I wanted to plan a tonal " sea " . Here the " sea " is E @-@ flat [ Es in German nomenclature ] -E @-@ A , a three @-@ note ascending motive consisting of a half step and | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
perfect fourth . [ ... In Far Calls ] this is extended upward from A with two major thirds and one minor third ... Using these patterns I set the " sea of tonality " from which many pantonal chords flow .
Takemitsu 's words here highlight his changing stylistic trends from the late 1970s into the 1980s , which have been described as " an increased use of diatonic material [ ... with ] references to tertian harmony and jazz voicing " , which do not , however , project a sense of " large @-@ scale tonality " . Many of the works from this period have titles that include a reference to water : Toward the Sea ( 1981 ) , Rain Tree and Rain Coming ( 1982 ) , riverrun and I Hear the Water Dreaming ( 1987 ) . Takemitsu wrote in his notes for the score of Rain Coming that " ... the complete collection [ is ] entitled " Waterscape " ... it was the composer 's intention to create a series of works , which like their subject , pass through various metamorphoses , culminating in a sea of tonality . " Throughout these works , the S @-@ E @-@ A motive ( discussed further below ) features prominently , and points to an increased emphasis on the melodic element in Takemitsu 's music that began during this later period .
His 1981 work for orchestra named Dreamtime was inspired by a visit to Groote Eylandt , off the coast of the Northern Territory of Australia , to witness a large gathering of Australian indigenous dancers , singers and story tellers . He was there at the invitation of the choreographer Jiří Kylián .
Pedal notes played an increasingly prominent role in Takemitsu 's music during this period , as in A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden . In Dream / Window , ( orchestra , 1985 ) a pedal D serves as anchor point , holding together statements of a striking four @-@ note motivic gesture which recurs in various instrumental and rhythmic guises throughout . Very occasionally , fully fledged references to diatonic tonality can be found , often in harmonic allusions to early- and pre @-@ 20th @-@ century composers — for example , Folios for guitar ( 1974 ) , which quotes from J. S. Bach 's St Matthew Passion , and Family Tree for narrator and orchestra ( 1984 ) , which invokes the musical language of Maurice Ravel and American popular song . ( He revered the St Matthew Passion , and would play through it on the piano before commencing a new work , as a form of " purificatory ritual " . )
By this time , Takemitsu 's incorporation of traditional Japanese ( and other Eastern ) musical traditions with his Western style had become much more integrated . Takemitsu commented , " There is no doubt ... the various countries and cultures of the world have begun a journey toward the geographic and historic unity of all peoples ... The old and new exist within me with equal weight . "
Toward the end of his life , Takemitsu had planned to complete an opera , a collaboration with the novelist Barry Gifford and the director Daniel Schmid , commissioned by the Opéra National de Lyon in France . He was in the process of publishing a plan of its musical and dramatic structure with Kenzaburō Ōe , but he was prevented from completing it by his death at 65 . He died of pneumonia on February 20 , 1996 , while undergoing treatment for bladder cancer .
= = = Legacy = = =
In a memorial issue of Contemporary Music Review , Jō Kondō wrote , " Needless to say , Takemitsu is among the most important composers in Japanese music history . He was also the first Japanese composer fully recognized in the west , and remained the guiding light for the younger generations of Japanese composers . "
Composer Peter Lieberson shared the following in his program note to the Ocean that has no East and West , written in memory of Takemitsu : " I spent the most time with Toru in Tokyo when I was invited to be a guest composer at his Music Today Festival in 1987 . Peter Serkin and composer Oliver Knussen were also there , as was cellist Fred Sherry . Though he was the senior of our group by many years , Toru stayed up with us every night and literally drank us under the table . I was confirmed in my impression of Toru as a person who lived his life like a traditional Zen poet . "
In the foreword to a selection of Takemitsu 's writings in English , conductor Seiji Ozawa writes : " I am very proud of my friend Toru Takemitsu . He is the first Japanese composer to write for a world audience and achieve international recognition . "
= = Music = =
Composers whom Takemitsu cited as influential in his early work include Claude Debussy , Anton Webern , Edgard Varèse , Arnold Schoenberg , and Olivier Messiaen . ( Messiaen was introduced to him by fellow composer Toshi Ichiyanagi , and remained a lifelong influence . ) Although Takemitsu 's wartime experiences of nationalism initially discouraged him from cultivating an interest in traditional Japanese music , he showed an early interest in " ... the Japanese Garden in color spacing and form ... " . The formal garden of the kaiyu @-@ shiki interested him in particular .
He expressed his unusual stance toward compositional theory early on , his lack of respect for the " trite rules of music , rules that are ... stifled by formulas and calculations " ; for Takemitsu it was of far greater importance that " sounds have the freedom to breathe . ... Just as one cannot plan his life , neither can he plan music " .
Takemitsu 's sensitivity to instrumental and orchestral timbre can be heard throughout his work , and is often made apparent by the unusual instrumental combinations he specified . This is evident in works such as November Steps , that combine traditional Japanese instruments , shakuhachi and biwa , with a conventional Western orchestra . It may also be discerned in his works for ensembles that make no use of traditional instruments , for example Quotation of Dream ( 1991 ) , Archipelago S. , for 21 players ( 1993 ) , and Arc I & II ( 1963 – 66 / 1976 ) . In these works , the more conventional orchestral forces are divided into unconventional " groups " . Even where these instrumental combinations were determined by the particular ensemble commissioning the work , " Takemitsu 's genius for instrumentation ( and genius it was , in my view ) ... " , in the words of Oliver Knussen , " ... creates the illusion that the instrumental restrictions are self @-@ imposed " .
= = = Influence of traditional Japanese music = = =
Takemitsu summed up his initial aversion to Japanese ( and all non @-@ Western ) traditional musical forms in his own words : " There may be folk music with strength and beauty , but I cannot be completely honest in this kind of music . I want a more active relationship to the present . ( Folk music in a ' contemporary style ' is nothing but a deception ) . " His dislike for the music traditions of his own country in particular were intensified by his experiences of the war , during which Japanese music became associated with militaristic and nationalistic cultural ideals .
Nevertheless , Takemitsu incorporated some idiomatic elements of Japanese music in his very earliest works , perhaps unconsciously . One unpublished set of pieces , Kakehi ( " Conduit " ) , written at the age of 17 , incorporates the ryō , ritsu and insen scales throughout . When Takemitsu discovered that these " nationalist " elements had somehow found their way into his music , he was so alarmed that he later destroyed the works . Further examples can be seen for example in the quarter @-@ tone glissandi of Masques I ( for two flutes , 1959 ) , which mirror the characteristic pitch bends of the shakuhachi , and for which he devised his own unique notation : a held note is tied to an enharmonic spelling of the same pitch class , with a portamento direction across the tie .
Other Japanese characteristics , including the further use of traditional pentatonic scales , continued to crop up elsewhere in his early works . In the opening bars of Litany , for Michael Vyner ( first movement ) , a reconstruction from memory by Takemitsu of Lento in Due Movimenti ( 1950 ; the original score was lost ) , pentatonicism is clearly visible in the upper voice , which opens the work on an unaccompanied anacrusis . The pitches of the opening melody combine to form the constituent notes of the ascending form of the Japanese in scale .
When , from the early 1960s , Takemitsu began to " consciously apprehend " the sounds of traditional Japanese music , he found that his creative process , " the logic of my compositional thought [ , ] was torn apart " , and nevertheless , " hogaku [ traditional Japanese music ... ] seized my heart and refuses to release it " . In particular , Takemitsu perceived that , for example , the sound of a single stroke of the biwa or single pitch breathed through the shakuhachi , could " so transport our reason because they are of extreme complexity ... already complete in themselves " . This fascination with the sounds produced in traditional Japanese music brought Takemitsu to his idea of ma ( usually translated as the space between two objects ) , which ultimately informed his understanding of the intense quality of traditional Japanese music as a whole :
Just one sound can be complete in itself , for its complexity lies in the formulation of ma , an unquantifiable metaphysical space ( duration ) of dynamically tensed absence of sound . For example , in the performance of nō , the ma of sound and silence does not have an organic relation for the purpose of artistic expression . Rather , these two elements contrast sharply with one another in an immaterial balance .
In 1970 , Takemitsu received a commission from the National Theatre of Japan to write a work for the gagaku ensemble of the Imperial Household ; this was fulfilled in 1973 , when he completed Shuteiga ( " In an Autumn Garden " , although he later incorporated the work , as the fourth movement , into his 50 minute long " In an Autumn Garden — Complete Version " ) . As well as being " ... the furthest removed from the West of any work he had written " , While it introduces certain Western musical ideas to the Japanese court ensemble , the work represents the deepest of Takemitsu 's investigations into Japanese musical tradition , the lasting effects of which are clearly reflected in his works for conventional Western ensemble formats that followed .
In Garden Rain ( 1974 , for brass ensemble ) , the limited and pitch @-@ specific harmonic vocabulary of the Japanese mouth organ , the shō ( see ex . 3 ) , and its specific timbres , are clearly emulated in Takemitsu 's writing for brass instruments ; even similarities of performance practice can be seen , ( the players are often required to hold notes to the limit of their breath capacity ) . In A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden , the characteristic timbres of the shō and its chords ( several of which are simultaneous soundings of traditional Japanese pentatonic scales ) are emulated in the opening held chords of the wind instruments ( the first chord is in fact an exact transposition of the shō 's chord , Jū ( i ) ; see ex . 3 ) ; meanwhile a solo oboe is assigned a melodic line that is similarly reminiscent of the lines played by the hichiriki in gagaku ensembles .
= = = Influence of Messiaen = = =
The influence of Olivier Messiaen on Takemitsu was already apparent in some of Takemitsu 's earliest published works . By the time he composed Lento in Due Movimenti , ( 1950 ) , Takemitsu had already come into possession of a copy of Messiaen 's 8 Préludes ( through Toshi Ichiyanagi ) , and the influence of Messiaen is clearly visible in the work , in the use of modes , the suspension of regular metre , and sensitivity to timbre . Throughout his career Takemitsu often made use of modes from which he derived his musical material , both melodic and harmonic among which Messiaen 's modes of limited transposition to appear with some frequency . In particular , the use of the octatonic , ( mode II , or the 8 – 28 collection ) , and mode VI ( 8 – 25 ) is particularly common . However , Takemitsu pointed out that he had used the octatonic collection in his music before ever coming across it in Messiaen 's music .
In 1975 , Takemitsu met Messiaen in New York , and during " what was to be a one @-@ hour ' lesson ' [ but which ] lasted three hours ... Messiaen played his Quartet for the End of Time for Takemitsu at the piano " , which , Takemitsu recalled , was like listening to an orchestral performance . Takemitsu responded to this with his homage to the French composer , Quatrain , for which he asked Messiaen 's permission to use the same instrumental combination for the main quartet , cello , violin , clarinet and piano ( which is accompanied by orchestra ) . As well as the obvious similarity of instrumentation , Takemitsu employs several melodic figures that appear to " mimic " certain musical examples given by Messiaen in his Technique de mon langage musical , ( see ex . 4 ) . In 1977 , Takemitsu reworked Quatrain for quartet alone , without orchestra , and titled the new work Quatrain II
On hearing of Messiaen 's death in 1992 , Takemitsu was interviewed by telephone , and still in shock , " blurted out , ' His death leaves a crisis in contemporary music ! ' " Then later , in an obituary written for the French composer in the same year , Takemitsu further expressed his sense of loss at Messiaen 's death : " Truly , he was my spiritual mentor ... Among the many things I learned from his music , the concept and experience of color and the form of time will be unforgettable . " The composition Rain Tree Sketch II , which was to be Takemitsu 's final piano piece , was also written that year and subtitled " In Memoriam Olivier Messiaen " .
= = = Influence of Debussy = = =
Takemitsu frequently expressed his indebtedness to Claude Debussy , referring to the French composer as his " great mentor " . As Arnold Whittall puts it :
Given the enthusiasm for the exotic and the Orient in these [ Debussy and Messiaen ] and other French composers , it is understandable that Takemitsu should have been attracted to the expressive and formal qualities of music in which flexibility of rhythm and richness of harmony count for so much .
For Takemitsu , Debussy 's " greatest contribution was his unique orchestration which emphasizes colour , light and shadow ... the orchestration of Debussy has many musical focuses . " He was fully aware of Debussy 's own interest in Japanese art , ( the cover of the first edition of La mer , for example , was famously adorned by Hokusai 's The Great Wave off Kanagawa ) . For Takemitsu , this interest in Japanese culture , combined with his unique personality , and perhaps most importantly , his lineage as a composer of the French musical tradition running from Rameau and Lully through Berlioz in which colour is given special attention , gave Debussy his unique style and sense of orchestration .
During the composition of Green ( November Steps II , for orchestra , 1967 : " steeped in the sound @-@ color world of the orchestral music of Claude Debussy " ) Takemitsu said he had taken the scores of Debussy 's Prélude à l 'Après @-@ midi d 'un Faune and Jeux to the mountain villa where both this work and November Steps I were composed . For Oliver Knussen , " the final appearance of the main theme irresistibly prompts the thought that Takemitsu may , quite unconsciously , have been attempting a latterday Japanese Après @-@ midi d 'un Faune " . Details of orchestration in Green , such as the prominent use of antique cymbals , and tremolandi harmonies in the strings , clearly point to the influence of Takemitsu 's compositional mentor , and of these works in particular .
In Quotation of Dream ( 1991 ) , direct quotations from Debussy 's La Mer and Takemitsu 's earlier works relating to the sea are incorporated into the musical flow ( " stylistic jolts were not intended " ) , depicting the landscape outside the Japanese garden of his own music .
= = = Motives = = =
Several recurring musical motives can be heard in Takemitsu 's works . In particular the pitch motive E ♭ -E @-@ A can be heard in many of his later works , whose titles refer to water in some form ( Toward the Sea , 1981 ; Rain Tree Sketch , 1982 ; I Hear the Water Dreaming , 1987 ) .
When spelt in German ( Es @-@ E @-@ A ) , the motive can be seen as a musical " transliteration " of the word " sea " . Takemitsu used this motive ( usually transposed ) to indicate the presence of water in his " musical landscapes " , even in works whose titles do not directly refer to water , such as A Flock Descends into the Pentagonal Garden ( 1977 ; see ex . 5 ) .
= = = Musique concrète = = =
During Takemitsu 's years as a member of the Jikken Kōbō , he experimented with compositions of musique concrète ( and a very limited amount of electronic music , the most notable example being Stanza II for harp and tape written later in 1972 ) . In Water Music ( 1960 listen ) , Takemitsu 's source material consisted entirely of sounds produced by droplets of water . His manipulation of these sounds , through the use of highly percussive envelopes , often results in a resemblance to traditional Japanese instruments , such as the tsuzumi and nō ensembles .
= = = Aleatory techniques = = =
One aspect of John Cage 's compositional procedure that Takemitsu continued to use throughout his career , was the use of indeterminacy , in which performers are given a degree of choice in what to perform . As mentioned previously , this was particularly used in works such as November Steps , in which musicians playing traditional Japanese instruments were able to play in an orchestral setting with a certain degree of improvisational freedom . However , he also employed a technique that is sometimes called " aleatory counterpoint " in his well @-@ known orchestral work A Flock Descends Into the Pentagonal Garden ( 1977 , at [ J ] in the score listen ) , and in the score of Arc II : i Textures ( 1964 ) for piano and orchestra , in which sections of the orchestra are divided into groups , and required to repeat short passages of music at will . In these passages the overall sequence of events is , however , controlled by the conductor , who is instructed about the approximate durations for each section , and who indicates to the orchestra when to move from one section to next . The technique is commonly found in the work of Witold Lutosławski , who pioneered it in his Jeux vénitiens .
= = = Film music = = =
Takemitsu 's contribution to film music was considerable ; in under 40 years he composed music for over 100 films , some of which were written for purely financial reasons ( such as those written for Noboru Nakamura ) . However , as the composer attained financial independence , he grew more selective , often reading whole scripts before agreeing to compose the music , and later surveying the action on set , " breathing the atmosphere " whilst conceiving his musical ideas . One notable consideration in Takemitsu 's composition for film was his careful use of silence ( also important in many of his concert works ) , which often immediately intensifies the events on screen , and prevents any monotony through a continuous musical accompaniment . For the first battle scene of Akira Kurosawa 's Ran , Takemitsu provided an extended passage of intense elegiac quality that halts at the sound of a single gunshot , leaving the audience with the pure " sounds of battle : cries screams and neighing horses " .
Takemitsu attached the greatest importance to the director 's conception of the film ; in an interview with Max Tessier , he explained that , " everything depends on the film itself ... I try to concentrate as much as possible on the subject , so that I can express what the director feels himself . I try to extend his feelings with my music . "
= = Awards = =
Takemitsu won awards for composition , both in Japan and abroad , including the Prix Italia for his orchestral work Tableau noir in 1958 , the Otaka Prize in 1976 and 1981 , the Los Angeles Film Critics Award in 1987 ( for the film score Ran ) and the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition in 1994 ( for Fantasma / Cantos ) . In Japan , he received the Film Awards of the Japanese Academy for outstanding achievement in music , for soundtracks to the following films :
1979 Ai no borei ( 愛の亡霊 )
1986 Ran ( 乱 )
1990 Rikyu ( 利休 )
1996 Sharaku ( 写楽 )
He was also invited to attend numerous international festivals throughout his career , and presented lectures and talks at academic institutions across the world . He was made an honorary member of the Akademie der Künste of the DDR in 1979 , and the American Institute of Arts and Letters in 1985 . He was admitted to the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 1985 , and the Académie des Beaux @-@ Arts in 1986 . He was the recipient of the 22nd Suntory Music Award ( 1990 ) . Takemitsu was posthumously awarded the fourth Glenn Gould Prize in Autumn , 1996 .
The Toru Takemitsu Composition Award , intended to " encourage a younger generation of composers who will shape the coming age through their new musical works " , is named after him .
= = Notable compositions = =
= = Literary works = =
Takemitsu , Toru ( 1995 ) . Confronting Silence . Fallen Leaf Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 914913 @-@ 36 @-@ 0 .
Takemitsu , Toru , with Cronin , Tania and Tann , Hilary , " Afterword " , Perspectives of New Music , vol . 27 , no . 2 ( Summer , 1989 ) , 205 – 214 , accessible at JSTOR , ( subscription access ) [ 5 ]
Takemitsu , Tōru , ( trans . Adachi , Sumi with Reynolds , Roger ) , " Mirrors " , Perspectives of New Music , vol . 30 no . 1 ( Winter , 1992 ) , 36 – 80 accessible at JSTOR , ( subscription access ) [ 6 ]
Takemitsu , Toru , ( trans . Hugh de Ferranti ) " One Sound " , Contemporary Music Review , vol . 8 , part 2 , ( Harwood , 1994 ) , 3 – 4 , accessible at informaworld ( subscription access ) [ 7 ]
Takemitsu , Tōru , " Contemporary Music in Japan " , Perspectives of New Music , vol . 27 no . 2 ( Summer , 1989 ) , 198 – 204 accessible at JSTOR , ( subscription access ) [ 8 ]
= = Listening = =
Toru Takemitsu : Air , John McMurtery , flute
Toru Takemitsu : Voice , John McMurtery , flute
Toru Takemitsu : Guitar , Shin @-@ Ichi Fukuda , guitar
= Saxbe fix =
The Saxbe fix / ˈsæks.biː / , or salary rollback , is a mechanism by which the President of the United States , in appointing a current or former member of the United States Congress whose elected term has not yet expired , can avoid the restriction of the United States Constitution 's Ineligibility Clause . That clause prohibits the President from appointing a current or former member of Congress to a civil office position that was created , or to a civil office position for which the pay or benefits ( collectively , " emoluments " ) were increased , during the term for which that member was elected until the term has expired . The rollback , first implemented by an Act of Congress in 1909 , reverts the emoluments of the office to the amount they were when that member began his or her elected term .
To prevent ethical conflicts , James Madison proposed language at the Constitutional Convention that was adopted as the Ineligibility Clause after debate and modification by other Founding Fathers . Historically , a number of approaches have been taken to address the problem posed by restriction ; these have included choosing another nominee , allowing the desired nominee 's elected term of office to expire , ignoring the clause entirely , or reducing the offending emoluments to the level prior to when the nominee took office . Although Congress passed the mechanism reducing emoluments in 1909 , the procedure was named " Saxbe fix " after Senator William Saxbe , who was confirmed as Attorney General in 1973 after Congress reduced the office 's salary to the level it had been before Saxbe 's term commenced . The Saxbe fix has subsequently become relevant as a successful — though not universally accepted — solution for appointments by presidents of both parties of sitting members of the United States Congress to the United States Cabinet . Members of Congress have been appointed to federal judgeships without any fix being enacted ; court challenges to such appointments have failed .
There were four Saxbe fixes for appointees of presidents prior to Barack Obama . The first two rollbacks concerned appointees of Republicans William Howard Taft and Richard Nixon , and the last two were implemented for appointees of Democrats Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton . Congress approved two more in the weeks preceding Obama 's presidency in preparation for his designated Cabinet nominees . Since the 1980s , Saxbe fixes have only been temporary , extending to the conclusion of the term for which the sitting member of Congress was elected . The Clause has received relatively little scholarly or judicial attention ; the sparse extant debate centers on whether the reduction of salary satisfies the Ineligibility Clause , or whether affected members of Congress are ineligible for appointment in spite of the reduction .
= = Background = =
In his notes of the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 , James Madison expressed the fear that members of Congress would create new federal jobs , or increase the salaries for existing jobs , and then take those jobs for themselves . Madison wrote that corrupt legislative actions , in the form of the unnecessary creation of offices and the increase of salaries for personal benefit , were one of his greatest concerns . The delegates who were present agreed that no member of Congress should be eligible to be appointed to an executive position while serving in Congress . Madison originally proposed a one @-@ year length on such a bar . However , Nathaniel Gorham , James Wilson , and Alexander Hamilton wanted no bar at all at the conclusion of congressional service . Eventually , Madison proposed a compromise : " that no office ought to be open to a member , which may be created or augmented while he is in the legislature " ; this led to extensive debate .
The delegates eliminated the prohibition on a member of Congress 's assuming holding state office based on the rationale that there might be times when it might be in the best interest of the nation to allow such service . They eliminated the one @-@ year ban because they judged it to be ineffective in protecting the Constitution . Charles Cotesworth Pinckney moved that the states vote and the prohibition carried by vote of 8 states to 3 . Robert Yates noted that the clause " which shall have been created , or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased " was an amendment passed in his absence , and that he did not place much faith in it as he felt unscrupulous politicians would circumvent it by creating new positions for persons who would subsequently place a member of Congress in a vacancy that they and not Congress created . Madison moved that the phrase " or the Emoluments whereof shall have been augmented by the legislature of the United States , during the time they were members thereof , and for one year thereafter . " This motion failed 2 – 8 , with one state divided . The clause was limited to " civil " offices so as not to restrict military service . Accordingly , the clause was passed in its current form without an explicit time consideration .
Article 1 , Section 6 , Clause 2 of the United States Constitution therefore prohibits self @-@ dealing legislation and is intended to protect the " separation of power " of the various branches of government . Corruption such as previously seen in the British Parliament was a consideration during debate by the framers of the Constitution . Legal scholars have accorded this clause little attention in their academic writings and there have been no cases which directly applied the clause , as no plaintiff has been able to establish legal standing . In fact , some general guides to Constitutional research , such as the clause @-@ by @-@ clause The Constitution of the United States : A Guide and Bibliography to Current Scholarly Research , do not discuss the Ineligibility clause . Most scholarly texts on the Constitution ignore the clause . Although the Saxbe fix is named for Nixon nominee William Saxbe , the device 's first intentional use predates him by several decades . As a matter of historical tradition , the Saxbe fix is considered sufficient to remove the disqualification of the Ineligibility Clause .
= = History = =
The Ineligibility Clause has interfered with appointments as far back as 1793 . President George Washington attempted to appoint William Paterson to the Supreme Court on February 27 , 1793 , after the resignation of Associate Justice Thomas Johnson . However , Paterson , who was serving as Governor of New Jersey , had previously been elected to serve a Senate term that would expire at noon on March 4 , 1793 . Washington withdrew the nomination and withheld it until the afternoon of March 4 , when the term for the disqualifying office had expired .
= = = 19th century = = =
In 1882 , a formal opinion by the Attorney General concluded that resignation from Congress does not free a member to be appointed to civil office because the Clause speaks to the term for which a member was elected , and that term still exists , even if a member resigns . Therefore , as in the Paterson matter nine decades earlier , Iowa Governor Samuel J. Kirkwood , who had resigned a Senate seat with a term that did not expire until March 1883 , was ineligible for appointment to the position of United States Tariff Commissioner . In 1896 , the Comptroller of the Treasury determined , after the fact , that former Senator Matthew Ransom 's appointment as Minister to Mexico was invalid , as that office 's salary had been increased during Ransom 's term ; the belated discovery precluded Ransom from drawing a salary .
The practice of barring members of Congress from serving in other civil offices was not without exception . Ransom , after all , was in fact appointed . In another case , there may have been an inadvertent Saxbe fix . Senator Lot M. Morrill began serving a six @-@ year term in 1871 , and in 1873 , as part of the Salary Grab Act , Congress increased Cabinet officers ' salaries from $ 8 @,@ 000 to $ 10 @,@ 000 ; it repealed the increase in 1874 , and two years later — before the end of his term — Morrill was appointed United States Secretary of the Treasury . The repeal of the " salary grab " was motivated by reaction to public outrage rather than concerns about a member 's eligibility for office , but Acting United States Attorney General Robert Bork would later cite the Morrill case in his opinion about the Saxbe appointment .
= = = 20th century = = =
In 1909 , President @-@ elect Taft announced his intent to nominate Senator Philander C. Knox to be Secretary of State . Shortly after the announcement , the Clause emerged as a problem that caught those involved by surprise : Knox had been elected to serve a term that would not end until 1911 , and during that term Congress had voted to increase executive branch pay . Members of Congress considered reverting the fix after the appointed nominee had resigned and assumed the post so that Knox would not have to forgo any emoluments . Members of Congress also discussed reverting the salaries of all United States Cabinet members . At the suggestion of the Senate Judiciary Committee , Congress passed a bill reducing only the Secretary of State 's salary to the level it had been at before Knox 's term began , believing this would cure the problem . The Senate passed the bill unanimously , but there was much more opposition in the U.S. House of Representatives , where the same measure failed to get a required two @-@ thirds vote under a motion to suspend the rules and pass , a procedure normally reserved for uncontroversial matters . After a different procedural rule was applied , it passed by a 173 – 115 majority vote and President Roosevelt subsequently signed the bill . On March 4 , the first Saxbe fix became effective when the salary of the Secretary of State ( but not that of other Cabinet members ) was reverted from $ 12 @,@ 000 to $ 8 @,@ 000 . The Senate confirmed all of Taft 's Cabinet appointees on March 5 , and Knox took office on March 6 .
In 1922 , the boundaries of the Clause were further defined when Senator William S. Kenyon was allowed to accept an appointment by President Warren G. Harding as circuit judge for the Eighth Circuit . Attorney General Harry M. Daugherty concluded that no disqualifying event had occurred because the increase in emoluments to that office had occurred in a term prior to the one Kenyon was serving at the time of the nomination . ( Daugherty 's opinion would later be reaffirmed by the Clinton administration when Representative Bill Richardson was nominated as U.N. Ambassador . ) No rollback was attempted when Senator Hugo Black was appointed to the Supreme Court , and in Ex parte Levitt , the court rejected , for lack of legal standing , an attempt to prevent Black from taking his seat based on Ineligibility Clause objections . The movant in the Black case , Albert Levitt , only had an interest in the case as a United States Citizen and a member of the Supreme Court bar , which the Court found to be insufficient .
The Nixon administration skirted the Ineligibility Clause during its first year , when Nixon named Representative Donald Rumsfeld as Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity in 1969 . Although the salary for that office had been increased to $ 42 @,@ 500 during Rumsfeld 's term in Congress , Rumsfeld was not paid a salary for the position . Rather , Rumsfeld was dually employed as Assistant to the President at the same $ 42 @,@ 500 salary , a position presumably outside the scope of the Clause .
The rollback device gained its name when President Richard Nixon sought to appoint Senator William Saxbe as Attorney General following the Saturday Night Massacre . Elliot Richardson resigned on October 20 , 1973 and Nixon nominated Saxbe on November 1 . Saxbe was chosen in large part because , despite the confrontations of the ongoing Watergate scandal , Nixon felt the Senate would want to confirm one of their own . Saxbe had been a senator in 1969 when the Congress passed a pay increase from $ 35 @,@ 000 to $ 60 @,@ 000 for Cabinet members . According to 2 U.S.C. § 358 , " After considering the report and recommendations of the Commission submitted under section 357 of this title , the President shall transmit to Congress his recommendations with respect to the exact rates of pay , for offices and positions within the purview of subparagraphs ( A ) , ( B ) , ( C ) , and ( D ) of section 356 of this title , which the President considers to be fair and reasonable … " The President transmitted " Salary Recommendations For 1969 Increases " to Congress on January 15 , 1969 following the first Commission Report submitted to him under Pub.L. 90 – 206 in December 1968 . ( 34 F.R. 2241 ; 83 Stat . 863 ) . Saxbe had become a Senator on January 3 , 1969 and on February 14 the legislation became law when Congress took no action to veto the proposal that raised the salary of top executive branch officials , the judicial branch and members of Congress .
As with the Knox instance , the Clause complication caught both Saxbe and the Nixon administration by surprise after the nomination had been announced . In early November 1973 Nixon requested a reduction in emoluments to pre @-@ 1969 levels as a remedy to the problem . The Senate Judiciary Committee held several days of hearings on how to properly interpret the Ineligibility Clause , with conflicting opinions being given by constitutional law professors about whether the proposed remedy was constitutional . The Senate then acted upon the advice of acting Attorney General Robert Bork that reducing the Attorney General 's salary to its pre @-@ 1969 level by enacting H.R. 11710 ( Pub.L. 93 – 178 ) would cure the ineligibility . S. 2673 passed in the Senate by a 75 – 16 roll @-@ call vote on November 28 after it was approved by the Senate Post Office and Civil Service Committee and sharply criticized by the Senate Judiciary Committee .
Although passage in the House was less controversial than it was in the Senate because the constitutional issues did not dominate consideration , the bill met with other procedural obstacles . At the time , Congress was under siege for what was widely perceived as abuse of members ' franking privileges . In April , the House had approved H.R. 3180 to clarify what was and was not proper use of franking , and the Senate amended the bill on October 11 . The House requested a conference , but the Senate delayed . Supposedly , Senate Post Office and Civil Service Committee Chairman Gale McGee was delaying the franking bill until the Senate @-@ passed post card voter registration bill ( S. 352 ) was put to a House vote . Thus , at first the House inserted franking language in its Saxbe fix bill . On December 3 , it suspended its rules to pass the bill 261 – 129 . The Senate then passed the Saxbe fix bill ( H.R. 11710 ) on December 6 without the franking language . The House agreed to the amended bill on December 7 . On December 10 , Nixon officially submitted the Saxbe nomination . The Judiciary Committee approved Saxbe on December 13 and the full senate confirmed him on December 17 by a 75 – 10 vote . Ten Democratic senators cited constitutional concerns in opposing this move . Senator Robert C. Byrd , who felt the bar was not avoidable by legislation , explained his position at the time : " [ The Clause is ] so clear that it can 't be waived … . We should not delude the American people into thinking a way can be found around the constitutional obstacle . " Saxbe did not resign his Senate seat until January 4 , 1974 , when his wife became eligible for survivor benefits after the completion of his fifth year of service . This delayed his transition to the Cabinet because the Clause expressly prohibits dual service . Saxbe later wrote that although he needed the additional salary he lost ( he was earning $ 42 @,@ 500 per year as a senator ) , he was still willing to serve as Attorney General and would get by financially . His biggest fear was that the fix would be ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court several months after he had been in office , and he would have to repay salary already spent .
Subsequently , Jimmy Carter became the first Democratic president to use a Saxbe fix when he appointed Senator Edmund Muskie as his Secretary of State . Cyrus Vance had resigned on April 28 , 1980 . ( Ironically , Muskie had been one of the ten senators voting against Saxbe 's confirmation . ) Carter nominated Muskie on April 29 , and the Senate confirmed Muskie on May 7 by a 94 – 2 vote . Unlike the Knox and Saxbe fixes , the salary reduction to allow Muskie 's appointment was temporary , reducing the salary only for the duration of Muskie 's tenure . When Carter appointed Representative Abner Mikva to the D.C. Circuit , a lawsuit challenging the appointment based on Ineligibility Clause objections again failed for lack of standing .
Upon the retirement of Supreme Court Justice Lewis F. Powell , Jr. in 1987 , President Ronald Reagan considered appointing Senator Orrin Hatch to fill his seat . But Congress had , during the term which he was still serving , enacted a salary increase for the judiciary . In July 1987 , Bork was nominated instead , although it is not clear how important a role the Ineligibility Clause issue played in the selection . Two months later , Assistant Attorney General Charles J. Cooper rejected the Saxbe fix in a written opinion , concluding that it did not resolve the Ineligibility Clause issue . ( The Bork nomination was rejected by the Senate , and the seat ultimately went to Anthony Kennedy . ) According to Jan Crawford Greenberg , the Justice Department had previously done the same to Senator Hatch the year prior when Hatch put forth his name as a replacement for retiring Chief Justice Warren Burger . According to Greenburg , Michael Carvin used the Ineligibility Clause as a pretext to allow the White House to quietly say no to Hatch .
On January 5 , 1993 , S.J.Res. 1 , a bill to reduce the salary of the Treasury Secretary from $ 148 @,@ 400 to $ 99 @,@ 500 ( the pre @-@ 1989 level ) , passed by a voice vote in the Senate and by the House on January 6 . On January 19 , President George H.W. Bush signed a bill enacting a temporary Saxbe fix so that Senator Lloyd Bentsen could move from the Senate to take the job of Treasury Secretary during the newly elected Clinton administration . S.J. RES . 1 ( 1993 ) , which canceled emolument increases for the remainder of Bentsen 's term , a term set to expire at noon on January 3 , 1995 , had been passed by both Houses without objection . However , in a law review article , University of Minnesota Law School Professor Michael Stokes Paulson rejected the Bentsen fix as unconstitutional . In 1994 , President Bill Clinton received approval to use a Saxbe fix to appoint United States Senate Majority Leader George J. Mitchell to the Supreme Court , but Mitchell withdrew his name from consideration for reasons unrelated to his eligibility .
= = = 21st century = = =
The term " Saxbe fix " reentered the public lexicon in 2008 with the speculation that Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton was President @-@ elect Barack Obama 's preferred nominee to be Secretary of State , fueled by Obama 's confirmation of his intent to nominate Clinton December 1 , 2008 . Clinton 's relevant Senate term began with the seating of the 110th United States Congress on January 3 , 2007 , following her 2006 re @-@ election . During that time , United States Cabinet salaries were increased from $ 186 @,@ 600 to $ 191 @,@ 300 in January 2008 , and to $ 196 @,@ 700 in January 2009 . These pay raises were by executive order in accordance with cost of living adjustment statutes , as noted by legal scholar Eugene Volokh on his blog , The Volokh Conspiracy . Before the January 2009 pay increases , secretaries made $ 191 @,@ 300 compared to Members of Congress who earned $ 169 @,@ 300 .
Without a Saxbe fix , Clinton would have been ineligible to serve in the Cabinet until the conclusion of the 112th United States Congress in January 2013 , near the end of Obama 's elected term . The Senate passed Saxbe @-@ fix legislation on December 10 , 2008 , acting by unanimous consent to reduce the Secretary of State 's salary back to its January 1 , 2007 level of $ 186 @,@ 000 , taking effect at 12 : 00 noon on January 20 , 2009 . President George W. Bush signed the resolution into law on December 19 , cancelling all emolument increases made or to be made during Clinton 's Senate term between noon of January 3 , 2007 , and noon of January 3 , 2013 .
The conservative advocacy group Judicial Watch announced after the nomination that it believed a Saxbe fix was unconstitutional and that Clinton could not become Secretary of State until 2013 at the earliest . After the Saxbe fix was passed , Judicial Watch said it might seek to halt Clinton 's appointment via litigation . On January 29 , 2009 , a week after Clinton had been sworn into the position , Judicial Watch filed the lawsuit Rodearmel v. Clinton in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia , on behalf of David Rodearmel , a U.S. Foreign Service Officer and State Department employee . The suit claims that Clinton is " constitutionally ineligible " to serve as Secretary of State due to the Ineligibility Clause and that Rodearmel cannot be forced to serve under her , as it would violate the oath he took as a Foreign Service Officer in 1991 to " support and defend " and " bear true faith and allegiance " to the U.S. Constitution . On February 6 , a panel of three judges was appointed to hear the case . On May 20 , the Obama administration Office of Legal Counsel filed an opinion with the district court saying that Clinton 's appointment did not violate the Ineligibility Clause , and that an " on net " view of the Clause " presents an entirely natural interpretation of the [ Constitution 's ] language . " On October 30 , 2009 , the District Court dismissed the case , stating " Because Rodearmel has failed to allege that Clinton has taken any action — much less an action that has aggrieved him — he does not come within the ' zone of interests ' protected by the Secretary of State Emoluments Act . "
Senator Ken Salazar , the Secretary of the Interior , also required a Saxbe fix by the 111th United States Congress . Salazar was given a temporary Saxbe fix on January 6 , 2009 as part of S.J.Res. 3 . This resolution rolled back the salary of the Secretary of the Interior to the January 1 , 2005 level , effective January 20 , 2009 . The resolution canceled all emolument increases for this office made or to be made between noon of January 3 , 2005 , and ending at noon of January 3 , 2011 . The bill was sponsored by Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid , was introduced on January 6 , 2009 , and became the first public law enacted by the 111th Congress ( Pub.L. 111 – 1 ) . There are currently three Cabinet members serving who were sitting members of the House or Senate when appointed , two of whom ( Clinton and Salazar ) have required Saxbe fixes . The May 2009 Office of Legal Counsel brief also asserted the constitutionality of Salazar 's appointment .
= = Legality = =
Over time , the Saxbe fix has become politically uncontroversial . Both Democratic and Republican Presidents have used the fix , and indeed Republican outgoing President George H. W. Bush helped Democratic incoming President Bill Clinton execute the fix by signing it into law on the eve of Clinton 's inauguration . The fixes that have been enacted for Obama 's cabinet have passed in both the House and the Senate without amendment and by unanimous consent . Outgoing Republican President George W. Bush signed the Saxbe fixes for both Hillary Clinton and Ken Salazar into law for the incoming Democratic Obama administration .
The constitutionality of the fix has been much debated , however , and the U.S. Supreme Court has never directly ruled on it . Critical review of the clause begins with a study of the terms in the plain language of the clause : " No Senator or Representative shall , during the Time for which he was elected , be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States , which shall have been created , or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time .... " All of the terms have been at issue in past controversies and many of the terms have been well @-@ settled . Historically , the excluded class of individuals affected by the clause has not been an issue : all scholars have agreed that the clause refers exclusively to all members of Congress . The clause uses the verb " elected " . If a senator serving under an appointment to fill a vacancy in an unexpired term accepted a nomination to federal office before the expiration of his or her term , this might be an issue .
The phrase " During the time for which he was elected " has not been controversial . Justice Joseph Story has expounded in his Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States that the disqualifying event expires at the conclusion of the elected term in which it occurred . This view is commonly accepted . Moreover , Department of Justice memoranda , outlining official opinions by United States Attorney General , hold that " the Ineligibility Clause covers only increases during the term that a Member of Congress is [ or would be ] currently serving " . This principle was applied , for example , to the question of whether President Clinton could appoint Representative Bill Richardson as Ambassador to the United Nations despite a salary increase prior to his current term , and whether President Harding could appoint Senator William Kenyon as a Judge despite the Congressional increase of judicial salaries during his previous term . Opinions issued by the Clinton administration Office of Legal Counsel often presupposed the application of the clause , and conceded that " [ t ] he tradition of interpreting the Clause has been ' formalistic ' rather than ' functional ' " . Another clarification came in 1969 , when newly re @-@ elected Representative Melvin Laird was President @-@ elect Nixon 's choice for Secretary of Defense and Congress was expected to raise the pay of Cabinet members in the new term . Attorney General Ramsey Clark gave an official opinion , which Laird followed , that Laird could be sworn in and serve in the new term from January 3 to January 20 ( when Nixon would take office ) without running afoul of the Clause , as long as he joined the cabinet before the pay raise went into effect .
= = = Arguments for its constitutionality = = =
One way to interpret the clause is by the intentionalist view . As stated by University of North Carolina School of Law professor Michael J. Gerhardt , this is the position that " the critical inquiry is not whether the letter of the law has been broken ( it has ) but rather whether the problem that the clause exists to preclude — conflicts of interest in nominating a member of Congress who has been able to vote himself or herself a raise — has been avoided " . The commonly used term for this spirit of the law argument is " net increases " . According to conservative constitutional law attorney Bruce Fein , " The so @-@ called fix fits the purpose of the clause like a glove . "
If the Saxbe fix is a solution for the primary problem of self @-@ dealing , a relevant fact is that Congress has not voted to increase any Cabinet salary or benefits since the 1990s , when it granted that power to the president in the form of an across @-@ the @-@ board cost of living adjustment by executive order . However , the Ineligibility Clause does not distinguish between increases in emoluments by legislation , and increases by executive order . Perhaps the most lenient interpretation of self @-@ dealing was made during the 1973 Saxbe hearings by Duke University School of Law professor William Van Alstyne , who argued that the ineligibility clause only applied to new offices created during a congressional term , not to appointments to existing offices .
Some scholars think that the phrase " shall have been increased during such time " is ambiguous and allows different interpretations . For instance , it could be interpreted as meaning either " shall have been increased at least once " or " shall have been increased on net " . In the latter case the Saxbe fix would be constitutional .
= = = Arguments against its constitutionality = = =
Another way to interpret the clause is through the lens of textualism , that is , giving primary consideration to what the law says rather than to its purpose . Most legal scholars who take this view argue that the Saxbe fix does not address the constitutional problem . Because to textualism believers the language of the rule is an absolute prohibition , law professor and textualist Michael Paulsen has said , a " ' fix ' can rescind the salary , ... but it cannot repeal historical events . The emoluments of the office had been increased . The rule specified in the text still controls . " Most textualists agree that the spirit of the Ineligibility Clause would be addressed by a Saxbe fix , but they dispute that a clause 's " spirit " overrides its text .
This view is not confined to textualists ; for example , law professors Jack Balkin and Mark Tushnet share it , with Tushnet observing that the Saxbe fix " smacks of clever manipulation " and does not adequately address the issue because " rescinding the increase does not mean that the salary ' shall not have been increased ' ; it simply means that the salary shall have been both increased and reduced during the term . " Some intentionalists interpret the Ineligibility Clause as a safeguard against escalation of the size and scope of the federal government and its corresponding budget , in addition to being a safeguard against self @-@ enrichment . They argue that reverting salary increases does not prevent members of congress from engaging in conduct that would bloat the government .
Another argument presented during the Saxbe nomination hearings was that the constitutional framers wrote the Ineligibility Clause to prevent Congress from enacting laws to benefit one of its own members . Any Saxbe fix is such a law and should be disallowed based on this fact alone .
= = = Challenges = = =
Once Congress approves a salary reduction and the nominee is confirmed , legal experts conclude that in practice it is unlikely that an appointment would be successfully challenged in the courts . The most likely claimant would be an individual who has been adversely affected by a discretionary decision under the nominee 's authority — for example someone denied a passport . It is unlikely that anyone would be found to have standing to contest the appointment . The Supreme Court has become less solicitous of standing since retreating from the most expansive level of United States v. SCRAP . In particular , it has been unwilling to grant standing for a generalized constitutional injury other than to a plaintiff who is protected by a statute or when a statute grants standing .
It has already proven difficult to be recognized as having standing when a fix is not used for a controversial appointment . The courts have dismissed suits contesting the appointments of Justice Hugo Black ( Ex parte Levitt , 302 U.S. 633 ( 1937 ) ) and Judge Abner Mikva ( McClure v. Carter , 454 U.S. 1025 ( 1981 ) ) , each a member of Congress ( Black of the Senate , Mikva of the House of Representatives ) prior to appointment and each appointed without a Saxbe fix , due to failure to establish legal standing . Other than these cases , most attempts to gain standing have been considered frivolous lawsuits brought by fringe groups .
= = = Precedents = = =
There are several nuances to the Ineligibility Clause that determine the necessity of fixes in specific situations :
It applies to those members who have actually taken their seats , not to those who were elected but not yet sworn in .
According to Marbury v. Madison , " appointed " means at the moment of nomination for civil office , not at the time of approval . Although Chief Justice John Marshall stated that appointments by the President are completely voluntary , there are restrictions on his statutory authority . For example , the duty to commission officers of the United States is enjoined by the constitution and he must nominate with the advice and consent of the Senate .
The bar cannot be evaded by resignation from Congress . In a written opinion of Attorney General Benjamin H. Brewster , the clause applies for the term " for which he was elected , " not the time during which the member actually holds office .
According to United States v. Hartwell , " Civil office " is one in which the appointee exercises an authoritative role . It does not apply to temporary , honorific , advisory , or occasional postings . The terms civil office and civil officer are used only once each in the Constitution and civil office is never defined therein .
According to McLean v. United States , " Emoluments " means not only salary , but also includes other benefits such as forage and rations .
Under Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Jimmy Carter , the United States Department of Justice determined that it did not matter when Congress passed legislation increasing the salary for an office , so long as the former member of Congress was nominated before the salary increase went into effect .
= Sinclair Scientific =
The Sinclair Scientific calculator was a 12 @-@ function , pocket @-@ sized scientific calculator introduced in 1974 , dramatically undercutting in price other calculators available at the time . The Sinclair Scientific Programmable , released a year later , was advertised as the first budget programmable calculator .
Significant modifications to the algorithms used meant that a chipset intended for a four @-@ function calculator was able to process scientific functions , but at the cost of reduced speed and accuracy . Compared to contemporary scientific calculators , some functions were slow to execute , and others had limited accuracy or gave the wrong answer , but the cost of the Sinclair was a fraction of the cost of competing calculators .
= = History = =
In 1972 , Hewlett @-@ Packard launched the HP @-@ 35 , the world 's first handheld scientific calculator . Despite market research suggesting that it was too expensive for there to be any real demand , production went ahead . It cost US $ 395 ( about GB £ 165 ) , but despite the price , over 300 @,@ 000 were sold in the three and a half years for which it was produced .
From 1971 Texas Instruments had been making available the building block for a simple calculator on a single chip and the TMS0803 chipset appeared in a number of Sinclair calculators . Clive Sinclair wanted to design a calculator to compete with the HP @-@ 35 using this series of chips . Despite scepticism about the feasibility of the project from Texas Instruments engineers , Nigel Searle was able to design algorithms that sacrificed some speed and accuracy in order to implement scientific functions on the TMS0805 variation .
The Sinclair Scientific first appeared in a case derived from that of the Sinclair Cambridge , but it was not part of the same range . The initial retail price was GB £ 49 @.@ 95 in the UK , and in the US for US $ 99 @.@ 95 as a kit or US $ 139 @.@ 95 fully assembled . By July 1976 , however , it was possible to purchase one for GB £ 7 .
The Sinclair Scientific Programmable was introduced in August 1975 , and was larger than the Sinclair Scientific , at 73 by 155 by 34 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 9 in × 6 @.@ 1 in × 1 @.@ 3 in ) . It was advertised as " the first ... calculator to offer a ... programming facility ... at a price within the reach of the general public , " but was limited by having only 24 program steps .
Both the Sinclair Scientific and the Sinclair Scientific Programmable were manufactured in England , like all other Sinclair calculators except the Sinclair President .
= = Design = =
= = = Sinclair Scientific = = =
The HP @-@ 35 used five chips , and had a been developed by twenty engineers at a cost of a million dollars , leading the Texas Instruments engineers to think that Sinclair 's aim to build a scientific calculator around the TMS0805 chip , which could barely handle four @-@ function arithmetic , was impossible . However , by sacrificing some speed and accuracy , Sinclair used clever algorithms to run scientific operations on a chip with room for just 320 instructions . Constants , rather than being stored in the calculator , were printed under the screen .
It displays only in scientific notation , with a five digit mantissa and a two digit exponent , although a sixth digit of the mantissa was stored internally . Because of the way the processor was designed , it uses Reverse Polish notation ( RPN ) for inputting calculations . RPN meant that the difficult implementation of brackets , and the associated recursive logic , was not necessary to implement in the hardware , but the effort was instead offloaded to the user . Instead of an " Equals " button , there is an " Enter " button that tells the calculator when a value has been entered , and then the operators are entered in after the operands . For example , on some devices to evaluate " ( 1 + 2 ) x 3 " , the sequence entered would be " 3 enter 2 enter 1 + x . " The Sinclair Scientific entry procedure is slightly different as it lacks an enter key and has a limited number of internal registers .
To fit the program into the 320 words available on the chip , some significant modification was used . By not using regular floating point numbers , which require lots of instructions to keep the decimal point in the right place , some space was freed up . Trigonometric functions were implemented in about 40 instructions , and inverse trigonometric functions are almost 30 more instructions . Logarithms are about 40 instructions , with anti @-@ log about 20 on top of that . The code to normalize and display the computed values are roughly the same in both the TI and Sinclair programs .
The design of the algorithms meant that some calculations , such as arccos0.2 , could take up to 15 seconds , whereas the HP @-@ 35 was designed to complete calculations in under a second . Accuracy in scientific functions was also limited to around three digits at most , and there were a number of bugs and limitations .
Ken Shirriff , an employee of Google , reverse engineered a Sinclair Scientific and built a simulator using the original algorithms .
= = = = Assembly kit = = = =
The assembly kit consisted of eight groups of components , plus a carry case . The build time was advertised as being around three hours , and required a soldering iron and a pair of cutters . In January 1975 , the kit was available for US $ 49 @.@ 95 , half the price at the time of introduction a year earlier , and in December 1975 it was available for GB £ 9 @.@ 95 , less than a quarter of the introductory price .
= = = = Giant Scientific = = = =
A version of the Scientific , with all the same functionality , was made to be 30 by 68 centimetres ( 12 in × 27 in ) , and was known as the Giant Scientific . It was powered by 240V AC , and used discrete LEDs for its display .
= = = Sinclair Scientific Programmable = = =
The Sinclair Scientific Programmable was introduced in 1975 , with the same case as the Sinclair Oxford . It was larger than the Scientific , at 73 by 155 by 34 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 9 in × 6 @.@ 1 in × 1 @.@ 3 in ) , and used a larger PP3 battery , but could also be powered by mains electricity .
It had 24 @-@ step programming abilities , which meant it was highly limited for many purposes . It also lacked functions for the natural logarithm and exponential function . Constants used in programs were required to be integers , and the programming was wasteful , with start and end quotes needed to use a constant in a program .
However , included with the calculator was a library of over 120 programs that that performed common operations in mathematics , geometry , statistics , finance , physics , electronics , engineering , as well as fluid mechanics and materials science . The full library of standard programs contained over 400 programs in the Sinclair Program Library .
= = = Calculations Using the Sinclair Scientific = = =
The Sinclair used a slightly different Reverse Polish Notation method ; lacking an enter key , the operation keys enter a number into the appropriate register and the calculation is performed . For example , " ( 1 + 2 ) * 3 " could be calculated as : C 1 + 2 + 3 × to give the result of 9 @.@ 0000 00 ( 9 @.@ 0000 × 100 , or 9 ) . The " C " key performs a clear ; pressing it sets the calculator to a state with zero in the internal registers . Pressing " C " followed by number keys then " + " effectively adds the number entered to the zero and stores it internally to be worked on in subsequent calculations . If the " - " key is pressed instead , the number is subtracted from zero , effectively entering a negative number .
All numbers are entered in scientific notation . After entering the mantissa part of the number the " E " exponent key is pressed prior to entering the integer exponent of the number . Respect for the order of operations is placed on the user , and there are no bracket keys . The display shows only five digits , but six digits can be entered . As an example 12 @.@ 3 * ( -123.4 + 123 @.@ 456 ) could be entered as C 1 2 3 4 E 2 - 1 2 3 4 5 6 E 2 + 1 2 3 E 1 × for a displayed result of 6 @.@ 8880 -01 ( representing 6 @.@ 8880 × 10 − 1 , or 0 @.@ 68880 ) .
Four constants are printed on the calculator case for easy reference . For converting to and from base 10 logarithms and natural logarithms the natural logarithm of 10 ( 2 @.@ 30259 ) and e ( 2 @.@ 71828 ) are printed on the case . Pi ( 3 @.@ 14159 ) and 57 @.@ 2958 ( 180 / Pi ) are also on the case for trigonometry calculations . There was not enough internal memory to store these constants internally . Angles are computed using radians ; degree values must be converted to radians by dividing by 57 @.@ 2958 . As an example , to calculate 25 sin ( 600 * 0 @.@ 05 ° ) one would enter C 6 E 2 + 0 0 5 × 5 7 2 9 5 8 E 1 ÷ ▲ + 2 5 E 1 × to get a result of 1 @.@ 2500 01 ( representing 12 @.@ 5 which is equal to 25 sin ( 30 ° ) ) . Sine is selected with the combination of the " ▲ " key followed by the " + " key . The " ▼ " ( down ) and " ▲ " ( up ) arrow keys are function select keys . The four operation keys ( " - , + , ÷ and × " ) all have two other function activated by using one of the arrow keys . The function available are Sine , Arcsine , Cosine , Arccosine , Tangent , Arctangent , Logarithm and Antilogarithm .
= Ratanakiri Province =
Ratanakiri ( Khmer : រតនគិរី IPA : [ ˌreə ̯ ̆ ʔ taʔ ˈnaʔ ki ˈriː ] " Mountain of Jewels " ) is a province ( khaet ) of Cambodia located in the remote northeast . It borders the provinces of Mondulkiri to the south and Stung Treng to the west and the countries of Laos and Vietnam to the north and east , respectively . The province extends from the mountains of the Annamite Range in the north , across a hilly plateau between the Tonle San and Tonle Srepok rivers , to tropical deciduous forests in the south . In recent years , logging and mining have scarred Ratanakiri 's environment , long known for its beauty .
For over a millennium , Ratanakiri has been occupied by the highland Khmer Loeu people , who are a minority elsewhere in Cambodia . During the region 's early history , its Khmer Loeu inhabitants were exploited as slaves by neighboring empires . The slave trade economy ended during the French colonial era , but a harsh Khmerization campaign after Cambodia 's independence again threatened Khmer Loeu ways of life . The Khmer Rouge built its headquarters in the province in the 1960s , and bombing during the Vietnam War devastated the region . Today , rapid development in the province is altering traditional ways of life .
Ratanakiri is sparsely populated ; its 150 @,@ 000 residents make up just over 1 % of the country 's total population . Residents generally live in villages of 20 to 60 families and engage in subsistence shifting agriculture . Ratanakiri is among the least developed provinces of Cambodia . Its infrastructure is poor , and the local government is weak . Health indicators in Ratanakiri are extremely poor ; men 's life expectancy is 39 years , and women 's is 43 years . Education levels are also low , with just under half of the population illiterate .
= = History = =
Present @-@ day Ratanakiri has been occupied since at least the Stone or Bronze Age , and trade between the region 's highlanders and towns along the Gulf of Thailand dates to at least the 4th century A.D. The region was invaded by Annamites , the Cham , the Khmer , and the Thai during its early history , but no empire ever brought the area under centralized control . From the 13th century or earlier until the 19th century , highland villages were often raided by Khmer , Lao , and Thai slave traders . The region was conquered by local Laotian rulers in the 18th century and then by the Thai in the 19th century . The area was incorporated into French Indochina in 1893 , and colonial rule replaced slave trading . The French built huge rubber plantations , especially in Labansiek ( present @-@ day Banlung ) ; indigenous workers were used for construction and rubber harvesting . While under French control , the land comprising present @-@ day Ratanakiri was transferred from Siam ( Thailand ) to Laos and then to Cambodia . Although highland groups initially resisted their colonial rulers , by the end of the colonial era in 1953 they had been subdued .
Ratanakiri Province was created in 1959 from land that had been the eastern area of Stung Treng Province . The name Ratanakiri ( រតនគិរី ) is formed from the Khmer words រតនៈ ( ratana " gem " from Sanskrit ratna ) and គិរី ( kiri " mountain " from Sanskrit giri ) , describing two features for which the province is known . During the 1950s and 1960s , Norodom Sihanouk instituted a development and Khmerization campaign in northeast Cambodia that was designed to bring villages under government control , limit the influence of insurgents in the area , and " modernize " indigenous communities . Some Khmer Loeu were forcibly moved to the lowlands to be educated in Khmer language and culture , ethnic Khmer from elsewhere in Cambodia were moved into the province , and roads and large rubber plantations were built . After facing harsh working conditions and sometimes involuntary labor on the plantations , many Khmer Loeu left their traditional homes and moved farther from provincial towns . In 1968 , tensions led to an uprising by the Brao in which several Khmer were killed . The government responded harshly , torching settlements and killing hundreds of villagers .
In the 1960s , the ascendant Khmer Rouge forged an alliance with ethnic minorities in Ratanakiri , exploiting Khmer Loeu resentment of the central government . The Communist Party of Kampuchea headquarters was moved to Ratanakiri in 1966 , and hundreds of Khmer Loeu joined CPK units . During this period , there was also extensive Vietnamese activity in Ratanakiri . Vietnamese communists had operated in Ratanakiri since the 1940s ; at a June 1969 press conference , Sihanouk said that Ratanakiri was " practically North Vietnamese territory " . Between March 1969 and May 1970 , the United States undertook a massive covert bombing campaign in the region , aiming to disrupt sanctuaries for communist Vietnamese troops . Villagers were forced outside of main towns to escape the bombings , foraging for food and living on the run with the Khmer Rouge . In June 1970 , the central government withdrew its troops from Ratanakiri , abandoning the area to Khmer Rouge control . The Khmer Rouge regime , which had not initially been harsh in Ratanakiri , became increasingly oppressive . The Khmer Loeu were forbidden from speaking their native languages or practicing their traditional customs and religion , which were seen as incompatible with communism . Communal living became compulsory , and the province 's few schools were closed . Purges of ethnic minorities increased in frequency , and thousands of refugees fled to Vietnam and Laos . Preliminary studies indicate that bodies accounting for approximately 5 % of Ratanakiri 's residents were deposited in mass graves , a significantly lower rate than elsewhere in Cambodia .
After the Vietnamese defeated the Khmer Rouge in 1979 , government policy toward Ratanakiri became one of benign neglect . The Khmer Loeu were permitted to return to their traditional livelihoods , but the government provided little infrastructure in the province . Under the Vietnamese , there was little contact between the provincial government and many local communities . Long after the fall of the Khmer Rouge regime , however , Khmer Rouge rebels remained in the forests of Ratanakiri . Rebels largely surrendered their arms in the 1990s , though attacks along provincial roads continued until 2002 .
Ratanakiri 's recent history has been characterized by development and attendant challenges to traditional ways of life . The national government has built roads , encouraged tourism and agriculture , and facilitated rapid immigration of lowland Khmers into Ratanakiri . Road improvements and political stability have increased land prices , and land alienation in Ratanakiri has been a major problem . Despite a 2001 law allowing indigenous communities to obtain collective title to traditional lands , some villages have been left nearly landless . The national government has granted concessions over land traditionally possessed by Ratanakiri 's indigenous peoples , and even land " sales " have often involved bribes to officials , coercion , threats , or misinformation . Following the involvement of several international non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) , land alienation had decreased in frequency as of 2006 . In the 2000s , Ratanakiri also received hundreds of Degar ( Montagnard ) refugees fleeing unrest in neighboring Vietnam ; the Cambodian government was criticized for its forcible repatriation of many refugees .
= = Geography and climate = =
The geography of Ratanakiri Province is diverse , encompassing rolling hills , mountains , plateaus , lowland watersheds , and crater lakes . Two major rivers , Tonle San and Tonle Srepok , flow from east to west across the province . The province is known for its lush forests ; as of 1997 , 70 – 80 % of the province was forested , either with old @-@ growth forest or with secondary forest regrown after shifting cultivation . In the far north of the province are mountains of the Annamite Range ; the area is characterized by dense broadleaf evergreen forests , relatively poor soil , and abundant wildlife . In the highlands between Tonle San and Tonle Srepok , the home of the vast majority of Ratanakiri 's population , a hilly basalt plateau provides fertile red soils . Secondary forests dominate this region . South of the Srepok River is a flat area of tropical deciduous forests .
Like other areas of Cambodia , Ratanakiri has a monsoonal climate with a rainy season from June to October , a cool season from November to January , and a hot season from March to May . Ratanakiri tends to be cooler than elsewhere in Cambodia . The average daily high temperature in the province is 34 @.@ 0 ° C ( 93 @.@ 2 ° F ) , and the average daily low temperature is 22 @.@ 1 ° C ( 71 @.@ 8 ° F ) . Annual precipitation is approximately 2 @,@ 200 millimetres ( 87 in ) . Flooding often occurs during the rainy season and has been exacerbated by the recently built Yali Falls Dam .
Ratanakiri has some of the most biologically diverse lowland tropical rainforest and montane forest ecosystems in mainland Southeast Asia . One 1996 survey of two sites in Ratanakiri and one site in neighboring Mondulkiri recorded 44 mammal species , 76 bird species , and 9 reptile species . A 2007 survey of Ratanakiri 's Virachey National Park recorded 30 ant species , 19 katydid species , 37 fish species , 35 reptile species , 26 amphibian species , and 15 mammal species , including several species never before observed . Wildlife in Ratanakiri includes Asian elephants , gaur , and monkeys . Ratanakiri is an important site for the conservation of endangered birds , including the giant ibis and the greater adjutant . The province 's forests contain a wide variety of flora ; one half @-@ hectare forest inventory identified 189 species of trees and 320 species of ground flora and saplings .
Nearly half of Ratanakiri has been set aside in protected areas , which include Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary and Virachey National Park . Even these protected areas , however , are subject to illegal logging , poaching , and mineral extraction . Though the province has been known for its relatively pristine environment , recent development has spawned environmental problems . The unspoiled image of the province often conflicts with the reality on the ground : visitors " expecting to find pristine forests teeming with wildlife are increasingly disappointed to find lifeless patches of freshly cut tree stumps " . Land use patterns are changing as population growth has accelerated and agriculture and logging have intensified . Soil erosion is increasing , and microclimates are being altered . Habitat loss and unsustainable hunting have contributed to the province 's decreasing biodiversity .
= = Government and administrative divisions = =
Government in Ratanakiri is weak , largely due to the province 's remoteness , ethnic diversity , and recent history of Khmer Rouge dominance . The provincial legal framework is poor , and the rule of law is even weaker in Ratanakiri than elsewhere in Cambodia . Furthermore , government services are ineffective and insufficient to meet the needs of the province . The Cambodian government has traditionally accepted substantial support from NGOs in the region .
Thon Saron is the provincial governor . Commune councils in Ratanakiri are composed of 223 members representing the CPP , 30 members representing the Sam Rainsy Party , and 7 members representing the Funcinpec Party . Political scientist Caroline Hughes has suggested that the CPP 's overwhelming dominance in rural areas such as Ratanakiri stems from the central government 's ability to suppress collective action , which in urban areas is offset by international donors and NGOs that provide support for opposition parties . Fifty @-@ one commune council members in Ratanakiri ( 20 % ) are women , and 98 % of Ratanakiri 's government staff was Khmer as of 2006 . Bou Lam , a member of the CPP , represents Ratanakiri in the National Assembly of Cambodia .
Village government in Ratanakiri has both traditional and administrative components . Traditional forms of government , namely village elders and other indigenous institutions , are dominant . Members of each village designate one or more community elders to manage village affairs , mediate conflicts , and ensure that villagers follow customary laws , particularly about land and resource use . Elders do not play an autocratic role , and are instead primarily respected advisors and consensus builders . Village elders are generally male , but women also play a role in the management of the community and its resources . A village may also have a village chief , i.e. , a local government person who is appointed by a higher governmental official . The village chief serves as a liaison between the village and outside government officials , but lacks traditional authority . The role of the village chief in village governance may be poorly defined ; in one Kreung village , residents told a researcher that they were " very unclear exactly what the work of the village chief entailed . "
The province is subdivided into nine districts , as follows :
= = Economy and transportation = =
The vast majority of workers in Ratanakiri are employed in agriculture . Most of the indigenous residents of Ratanakiri are subsistence farmers , practicing slash and burn shifting cultivation . ( See Culture below for more information on traditional subsistence practices . ) Many families are beginning to shift production to cash crops such as cashews , mangoes , and tobacco , a trend that has accelerated in recent years . Ratanakiri villagers have traditionally had little contact with the cash economy . Barter exchange remains widespread , and Khmer Loeu villagers tended to visit markets only once per year until quite recently . As of 2005 , monetary income in the province averaged US $ 5 per month per person ; purchased possessions such as motorcycles , televisions , and karaoke sets have become extremely desirable .
Larger @-@ scale agriculture occurs on rubber and cashew plantations . Other economic activities in the province include gem mining and commercial logging . The most abundant gem in Ratanakiri is blue zircon . Small quantities of amethyst , peridot , and black opal are also produced . Gems are generally mined using traditional methods , with individuals digging holes and tunnels and manually removing the gems ; recently , however , commercial mining operations have been moving into the province . Logging , particularly illegal logging , has been a problem both for environmental reasons and because of land alienation . This illegal logging has been undertaken by the Cambodian military and by Vietnamese loggers . In 1997 , an estimated 300 @,@ 000 cubic meters of logs were exported illegally from Ratanakiri to Vietnam , compared to a legal limit of 36 @,@ 000 cubic meters . John Dennis , a researcher for the Asian Development Bank , described the logging in Ratanakiri as a " human rights emergency " .
Ratanakiri 's tourist industry has rapidly expanded in recent years : visits to the province increased from 6 @,@ 000 in 2002 to 105 @,@ 000 in 2008 and 118 @,@ 000 in 2011 . The region 's tourism development strategy focuses on encouraging ecotourism . Increasing tourism in Ratanakiri has been problematic because local communities receive very little income from tourism and because guides sometimes bring tourists to villages without residents ' consent , disrupting traditional ways of life . A few initiatives have sought to address these issues : a provincial tourism steering committee aims to ensure that tourism is non @-@ destructive , and some programs provide English and tourism skills to indigenous people .
Ox @-@ cart and motorcycle are common means of transportation in Ratanakiri . The provincial road system is better than in some parts of the country , but remains in somewhat bad condition . National Road 78 between Banlung and the Vietnam border was built between 2007 and 2010 ; the road was expected to increase trade between Cambodia and Vietnam . There is a small airport in Banlung , but commercial flights to Ratanakiri have long been discontinued .
= = Demographics and towns = =
As of 2013 , Ratanakiri Province had a population of approximately 184 @,@ 000 . Its population nearly doubled between 1998 and 2013 , largely due to internal migration . In 2013 , Ratanakiri made up 1 @.@ 3 % of Cambodia 's total population ; its population density of 17 @.@ 0 residents per square kilometer was just over one fifth the national average . About 70 % of the province 's population lives in the highlands ; of the other 30 % , approximately half live in more urbanized towns , and half live along rivers and in the lowlands , where they practice wetland rice cultivation and engage in market activities . Banlung , the provincial capital located in the central highlands , is by far the province 's largest town , with a population of approximately 25 @,@ 000 . Other significant towns include Veun Sai in the north and Lomphat in the south , with populations of 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 respectively .
In 2013 , 37 % of Ratanakiri residents were under age 15 , 52 % were age 15 to 49 , 7 % were age 50 to 64 , and 3 % were aged 65 or older ; 49 @.@ 7 % of residents were male , and 50 @.@ 3 % were female . Each household had an average of 4 @.@ 9 members , and most households ( 85 @.@ 6 % ) were headed by men .
While highland peoples have inhabited Ratanakiri for well over a millennium , lowland peoples have migrated to the province in the last 200 years . As of 2013 , various highland groups collectively called Khmer Loeu made up approximately half of Ratanakiri 's population , ethnic Khmers made up 36 % , and ethnic Lao made up 10 % . Within the Khmer Loeu population , 35 % were Tampuan as of 1998 , 24 % were Jarai , 23 % were Kreung , 11 % were Brou , 3 % were Kachok , and 3 % were Kavet , with other groups making up the remaining one percent . There are also very small Vietnamese , Cham , and Chinese minorities . Though the official language of Ratanakiri ( like all of Cambodia ) is Khmer , each indigenous group speaks its own language . Less than 10 % of Ratanakiri 's indigenous population can speak Khmer fluently .
= = Health , education , and development = =
Health indicators in Ratanakiri are the worst in Cambodia . Life expectancy is 39 years for men and 43 years for women . Malaria , tuberculosis , intestinal parasites , cholera , diarrhea , and vaccine @-@ preventable diseases are endemic . Ratanakiri has very high rates of maternal and child mortality ; in Ratanakiri and neighboring Mondulkiri ( whose figures were combined in the most recent survey ) , over 10 % of children die before the age of five . Ratanakiri also has the country 's highest rates of severe | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
malnutrition . Ratanakiri residents ' poor health can be attributed to a variety of factors , including poverty , remoteness of villages , poor quality medical services , and language and cultural barriers that prevent Khmer Loeu from obtaining medical care . The province has one referral hospital , 10 health centers , and 17 health posts . Medical equipment and supplies are minimal , and most health facilities are staffed by nurses or midwives , who are often poorly trained and irregularly paid .
As of 1998 , Ratanakiri had 76 primary schools , one junior high school , and one high school . Education levels , particularly among Khmer Loeu , are very low . A 2002 survey of residents in six villages found that fewer than 10 % of respondents had attended any primary school . Access to education is limited because of the expense of books , distance to schools , children 's need to contribute to their families ' livelihood , frequent absence of teachers , and instruction that is culturally inappropriate and in a language foreign to most students . Only 55 % of Ratanakiri adults were literate as of 2013 ( compared to 80 % in Cambodia overall ) . Bilingual education initiatives , in which students begin instruction in native languages and gradually transition to instruction in Khmer , began in Ratanakiri in 2002 and appear to have been successful . The programs aim to make education more accessible to speakers of indigenous languages , as well as to give Khmer Loeu access to national political and economic affairs by providing Khmer language skills .
Ratanakiri is one of the least developed provinces in Cambodia . As of 2013 , the average home had 1 @.@ 9 rooms , and only 14 @.@ 9 % of buildings in the province had permanent roofs , walls , and flooring . Relatively few households ( 27 @.@ 8 % ) had toilet facilities . The largest share of households ( 38 @.@ 0 % ) obtained water from springs , streams , ponds , or rain ; much of the remainder obtained water from protected ( 23 @.@ 9 % ) or unprotected ( 15 @.@ 1 % ) dug wells . Only 21 @.@ 6 % of Ratanakiri residents obtained water from sources that are considered safe ( purchased water , piped water , or tube / piped wells ) . Household water sources were within the home for 28 @.@ 0 % of households , near the home for 39 @.@ 1 % , and away from the home for 32 @.@ 9 % . The most common source of light was battery power ( 39 @.@ 5 % ) , followed by government @-@ provided power ( 25 @.@ 5 % ) , and kerosene ( 16 @.@ 5 % ) . Most households ( 85 % ) used firewood as the main fuel for cooking . A variety of NGOs , including Oxfam and Health Unlimited , work to improve health and living conditions in the province .
= = Culture = =
Khmer Loeu typically practice subsistence slash and burn shifting cultivation in small villages of between 20 and 60 nuclear families . Each village collectively owns and governs a forest territory whose boundaries are known though not marked . Within this land , each family is allocated , on average , 1 – 2 hectares ( 2 @.@ 5 – 5 acres ) of actively cultivated land and 5 – 6 hectares ( 12 @.@ 5 – 15 acres ) of fallow land . The ecologically sustainable cultivation cycle practiced by the Khmer Loeu generally lasts 10 to 15 years . Villagers supplement their agricultural livelihood with low @-@ intensity hunting , fishing , and gathering over a large area .
Khmer Loeu diets in Ratanakiri are largely dictated by the food that is available for harvesting or gathering . Numerous food taboos also limit food choice , particularly among pregnant women , children , and the sick . The primary staple grain is rice , though most families experience rice shortages during the six months before harvest time . Some families have begun to plant maize to alleviate this problem ; other sources of grain include potatoes , cassava , and taro . Most Khmer Loeu diets are low in protein , which is limited in availability . Wild game and fish are major protein sources , and smaller animals such as rats , wild chickens , and insects are also sometimes eaten . Domestic animals such as pigs , cows , and buffaloes are only eaten when sacrifices are made . In the rainy season , many varieties of vegetables and leaves are gathered from the forest . ( Vegetables are generally not cultivated . ) Commonly eaten fruits include bananas , jackfruit , papayas , and mangoes .
Houses in rural Ratanakiri are made from bamboo , rattan , wood , saek , and kanma leaves , all of which are collected from nearby forests ; they typically last for around three years . Village spatial organization varies by ethnic group . Kreung villages are constructed in a circular manner , with houses facing inwards toward a central meeting house . In Jarai villages , vast longhouses are inhabited by all extended families , with the inner house divided into smaller compartments . Tampuan villages may follow either pattern .
Nearly all Khmer Loeu are animist , and their cosmologies are intertwined with the natural world . Some forests are believed to be inhabited by local spirits , and local taboos forbid cutting in those areas . Within spirit forests , certain natural features such as rock formations , waterfalls , pools , and vegetation are sacred . Major sacrificial festivals in Ratanakiri occur during March and April , when fields are selected and prepared for the new planting season . Christian missionaries are present in the province , and some Khmer Loeu have converted to Christianity . The region 's ethnic Khmer are Buddhist . There is also a small Muslim community , consisting mainly of ethnic Cham .
Because of the province 's high prevalence of malaria and its distance from regional centers , Ratanakiri was isolated from Western influences until the late 20th century . Major cultural shifts have occurred in recent years however , particularly in villages near roads and district towns ; these changes have been attributed to contact with internal immigrants , government officials , and NGO workers . Clothing and diets are becoming more standardized , and traditional music is being displaced by Khmer music . Many villagers have also observed a loss of respect for elders and a growing divide between the young and the old . Young people have begun to refuse to abide by traditional rules and have stopped believing in spirits .
= Carl Berners plass ( station ) =
Carl Berners plass is an underground rapid transit station located on the Grorud Line of the Oslo Metro , and a tram stop on the Sinsen Line of the Oslo Tramway . The square also has a bus stop for lines 20 , 21 , 31 , 33 and 57 . Located at Grünerløkka in Oslo , Norway , the area has a mixture of apartment buildings and small businesses . The station is the first metro station on the Grorud Line after it branches off from the shared Common Tunnel . North of the station , the Ring Line branches off from the Grorud Line . The station is served by lines 5 and 6 of the metro and Line 17 of the tramway , with eight and four hourly departures during regular hours . The tram operates every 10 minutes during regular hours .
The square was taken into use as a tram stop on 1 February 1923 . The station took the name after the square , which is again named for the 18th and early 19th @-@ century politician Carl Berner . From 6 February 1949 , Line 20 of the Oslo trolleybus started serving the square . From 2 January 1955 , the Rodeløkka Line of the tramway was rerouted to run via Carl Berners plass , although it was closed again on 1961 . The underground metro station opened on 16 October 1966 , and the trolleybus service was replaced by diesel buses in 1968 . From 20 August 2006 , the metro station also started serving the Ring Line ( Line 6 ) .
= = Facilities = =
Carl Berners plass is a combined metro , tram and bus station located at the square Carl Berners plass , from which it takes its name . The underground station is actually located a couple of hundred meters off the square , with ground @-@ level entrances on either side of the heavily trafficked Grenseveien as that road ascends from the square towards the east . The underground metro station is on the Grorud Line , and is located 3 @.@ 3 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) from Stortinget in the city center . The tracks are 50 @.@ 3 meters ( 165 ft ) above sea level . The area around the station is mostly dense residential and small businesses . South of the station is Tøyen Park .
= = Service = =
The rapid transit station is served by lines 5 and 6 of the Oslo Metro . The lines have a 7 @.@ 5 and 15 @-@ minute headway respectively during the day , with reduced frequency in the late evenings . Heading south towards the city center , both lines operate through the Common Tunnel — Line 5 continues along the Ring Line and Line 6 along the Kolsås Line . Northwards , the line splits with Line 6 continuing to Sinsen and the Ring Line , while Line 5 continues to Hasle and the Grorud Line . The metro is operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter .
The tram stop is served by Line 17 of the Oslo Tramway . It has a ten @-@ minute headway during the day , with half the frequency during evenings and in the weekends . Travel time to Jernbanetorget in the city center is nine minutes , while it is five minutes northwards to Grefsen Station . The service is provided using SL95 trams operated by Oslo Sporvognsdrift on contract with Ruter . Carl Berners plass is one of eight transfer points between the tramway and the metro .
The bus stop serves three full @-@ time services , no . 20 , 21 and 31 , and two reduced @-@ time services , no . 33 and 57 . The latter serves as a shuttle bus to the Løren area . The bus services are operated by private contractors on contract with Ruter .
= = History = =
Carl Berners plass became a public transport station on 1 February 1923 , when the then single @-@ track Sinsen Line of the tramway opened as a branch of the Rodeløkka Line . The station took its name from the square it was located at , Carl Berners plass , which is again named for the politician Carl Berner . The station was served by the newly created Line 13 that operated through the city center and ran every twelve minutes , and since 29 June 1924 every fifteen minutes . The line was built by Kristiania Sporveisselskap , but they were taken over by the municipality in 1924 , and the line became part of Oslo Sporveier . On 28 June 1938 , the line was rebuilt to double track . From 19 December 1939 , the line was extended along Trondheimsveien to Sinsen ; this section was built with double track . In 1948 , the tracks at Carl Berners plass was rebuilt to run through the roundabouts at both ends of the square . The station was served by various services numbers along the Sinsen Line , including 1 , 3 , 7 , 13 and 17 , although not all at the same time . At the most , three services operated to the station , giving a five @-@ minute headway .
On 6 February 1949 , Oslo trolleybus lines were installed to cross the tram lines at Carl Berners plass to allow Line 20 to be electrically operated . The original Rodeløkka Line was closed in 1949 , but new branch line to Rodeløkka was opened on 2 January 1955 , because the tram gave lower operating costs than the bus . The line ran from Carl Berners plass down Dælenengata . From 1959 , the Rodeløkka Line was reduced to a rush @-@ hour only service and was terminated on 23 April 1961 . The tracks were removed from 1962 to 1964 . The metro station at Carl Berners plass was opened along with the Grorud Line on 16 October 1966 . The metro station was designed by Per Qvam . In 1968 , the trolleybus lines were removed from Carl Berners plass and Line 20 to a diesel service .
The Sinsen Line was among those proposed for closure in 2002 when the tram company attempted to save money by transferring the traffic to buses . A city grant of 25 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) saved the line along with several others . The metro station was for many years in bad need of rehabilitation , with dim lighting at the platforms , grimy walls , and broken roof tiles leaving piping and wiring exposed . Architect Reiulf Ramstad , who was in charge of the renewal project , compared the station to the scenery of a horror movie . The 2006 renovation involved making the station brighter lit , and a new entrance was built which attempted to make the station more visible from outside . Upgrading of the station included letting parts of sculpture exhibitions by the Norwegian Sculpturer Society be placed inside the station area . From 20 August 2006 , Carl Berners plass also started serving the Ring Line of the metro . The line branches off from the Grorud Line north of Carl Berners plass , and the station thereby became the transfer station between the Ring Line and the Grorud Line . From 2008 , the square itself was rebuilt to become more pedestrian @-@ friendly .
= Burney Relief =
The Burney Relief ( also known as the Queen of the Night relief ) is a Mesopotamian terracotta plaque in high relief of the Isin @-@ Larsa- or Old @-@ Babylonian period , depicting a winged , nude , goddess @-@ like figure with bird 's talons , flanked by owls , and perched upon two lions . The relief is displayed in the British Museum in London , which has dated it between 1800 and 1750 BCE . It originates from southern Iraq , but the exact find @-@ site is unknown . Apart from its distinctive iconography , the piece is noted for its high relief and relatively large size , which suggest that it was used as a cult relief , making it a very rare survival from the period . However , whether it represents Lilitu , Inanna / Ishtar , or Ereshkigal , is under debate . The authenticity of the object has been questioned from its first appearance in the 1930s , but opinion has generally moved in its favour over the subsequent decades .
= = Provenance = =
Initially in the possession of a Syrian dealer , who may have acquired the plaque in southern Iraq in 1924 , the relief was deposited at the British Museum in London and analysed by Dr. H.J. Plenderleith in 1933 . However , the Museum declined to purchase it in 1935 , whereupon the plaque passed to the London antique dealer Sidney Burney ; it subsequently became known as the " Burney Relief " . The relief was first brought to public attention with a full @-@ page reproduction in The Illustrated London News , in 1936 . From Burney , it passed to the collection of Norman Colville , after whose death it was acquired at auction by the Japanese collector Goro Sakamoto . British authorities , however , denied him an export licence . The piece was loaned to the British Museum for display between 1980 and 1991 , and in 2003 the relief was purchased by the Museum for the sum of £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 as part of its 250th anniversary celebrations . The Museum also renamed the plaque the " Queen of the Night Relief " . Since then , the object has toured museums around Britain .
Unfortunately , its original provenance remains unknown . The relief was not archaeologically excavated , and thus we have no further information where it came from , or in which context it was discovered . An interpretation of the relief thus relies on stylistic comparisons with other objects for which the date and place of origin have been established , on an analysis of the iconography , and on the interpretation of textual sources from Mesopotamian mythology and religion .
= = Description = =
Detailed descriptions were published by Henri Frankfort ( 1936 ) , by Pauline Albenda ( 2005 ) , and in a monograph by Dominique Collon , curator at the British Museum , where the plaque is now housed . The composition as a whole is unique among works of art from Mesopotamia , even though many elements have interesting counterparts in other images from that time .
= = = Physical aspect = = =
The relief is a terracotta ( fired clay ) plaque , 50 by 37 centimetres ( 20 in × 15 in ) large , 2 to 3 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick , with the head of the figure projecting 4 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) from the surface . To manufacture the relief , clay with small calcareous inclusions was mixed with chaff ; visible folds and fissures suggest the material was quite stiff when being worked . The British Museum 's Department of Scientific Research reports , " it would seem likely that the whole plaque was moulded " with subsequent modelling of some details and addition of others , such as the rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbols , the tresses of hair and the eyes of the owls . The relief was then burnished and polished , and further details were incised with a pointed tool . Firing burned out the chaff , leaving characteristic voids and the pitted surface we see now ; Curtis and Collon believe the surface would have appeared smoothed by ochre paint in antiquity .
In its dimensions , the unique plaque is larger than the mass @-@ produced terracotta plaques – popular art or devotional items – of which many were excavated in house ruins of the Isin @-@ Larsa and Old Babylonian periods .
Overall , the relief is in excellent condition . It was originally received in three pieces and some fragments by the British Museum ; after repair , some cracks are still apparent , in particular a triangular piece missing on the right edge , but the main features of the deity and the animals are intact . The figure 's face has damage to its left side , the left side of the nose and the neck region . The headdress has some damage to its front and right hand side , but the overall shape can be inferred from symmetry . Half of the necklace is missing and the symbol of the figure held in her right hand ; the owls ' beaks are lost and a piece of a lion 's tail . A comparison of images from 1936 and 2005 shows that some modern damage has been sustained as well : the right hand side of the crown has now lost its top tier , and at the lower left corner a piece of the mountain patterning has chipped off and the owl has lost its right @-@ side toes . However , in all major aspects , the relief has survived intact for more than 3 @,@ 500 years .
Traces of red pigment still remain on the figure 's body that was originally painted red overall . The feathers of her wings and the owls ' feathers were also colored red , alternating with black and white . By Raman spectroscopy the red pigment is identified as red ochre , the black pigment , amorphous carbon ( " lamp black " ) and the white pigment gypsum . Black pigment is also found on the background of the plaque , the hair and eyebrows , and on the lions ' manes . The pubic triangle and the areola appear accentuated with red pigment but were not separately painted black . The lions ' bodies were painted white . The British Museum curators assume that the horns of the headdress and part of the necklace were originally colored yellow , just as they are on a very similar clay figure from Ur . They surmise that the bracelets and rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbols might also have been painted yellow . However , no traces of yellow pigment now remain on the relief .
= = = The female figure = = =
The nude female figure is realistically sculpted in high @-@ relief . Her eyes , beneath distinct , joined eyebrows , are hollow , presumably to accept some inlaying material – a feature common in stone , alabaster , and bronze sculptures of the time , but not seen in other Mesopotamian clay sculptures . Her full lips are slightly upturned at the corners . She is adorned with a four @-@ tiered headdress of horns , topped by a disk . Her head is framed by two braids of hair , with the bulk of her hair in a bun in the back and two wedge @-@ shaped braids extending onto her breasts .
The stylized treatment of her hair could represent a ceremonial wig . She wears a single broad necklace , composed of squares that are structured with horizontal and vertical lines , possibly depicting beads , four to each square . This necklace is virtually identical to the necklace of the god found at Ur , except that the latter 's necklace has three lines to a square . Around both wrists she wears bracelets which appear composed of three rings . Both hands are symmetrically lifted up , palms turned towards the viewer and detailed with visible life- , head- and heart lines , holding two rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbols of which only the one in the left hand is well preserved . Two wings with clearly defined , stylized feathers in three registers extend down from above her shoulders . The feathers in the top register are shown as overlapping scales ( coverts ) , the lower two registers have long , staggered flight feathers that appear drawn with a ruler and end in a convex trailing edge . The feathers have smooth surfaces ; no barbs were drawn . The wings are similar but not entirely symmetrical , differing both in the number of the flight feathers and in the details of the coloring scheme .
Her wings are spread to a triangular shape but not fully extended . The breasts are full and high , but without separately modelled nipples . Her body has been sculpted with attention to naturalistic detail : the deep navel , structured abdomen , " softly modeled pubic area " the recurve of the outline of the hips beneath the iliac crest , and the bony structure of the legs with distinct knee caps all suggest " an artistic skill that is almost certainly derived from observed study " . A spur @-@ like protrusion , fold , or tuft extends from her calves just below the knee , which Collon interprets as dewclaws . Below the shin , the figure 's legs change into those of a bird . The bird @-@ feet are detailed , with three long , well @-@ separated toes of approximately equal length . Lines have been scratched into the surface of the ankle and toes to depict the scutes , and all visible toes have prominent talons . Her toes are extended down , without perspective foreshortening ; they do not appear to rest upon a ground line and thus give the figure an impression of being dissociated from the background , as if hovering .
= = = The animals and background = = =
The two lions have a male mane , patterned with dense , short lines ; the manes continue beneath the body . Distinctly patterned tufts of hair grow from the lion 's ears and on their shoulders , emanating from a central disk @-@ shaped whorl . They lie prone , their heads are sculpted with attention to detail , but with a degree of artistic liberty in their form , e.g. , regarding their rounded shapes . Both lions look towards the viewer , and both have their mouths closed .
The owls shown are recognizable , but not sculpted naturalistically : the shape of the beak , the length of the legs , and details of plumage deviate from those of the owls that are indigenous to the region . Their plumage is colored like the deity 's wings in red , black and white ; it is bilaterally similar but not perfectly symmetrical . Both owls have one more feather on the right @-@ hand side of their plumage than on the left @-@ hand side . The legs , feet and talons are red .
The group is placed on a pattern of scales , painted black . This is the way mountain ranges were commonly symbolized in Mesopotamian art .
= = Context = =
= = = Date and place of origin = = =
Stylistic comparisons place the relief at the earliest into the Isin – Larsa period , or slightly later , to the beginning of the Old Babylonian period . Frankfort especially notes the stylistic similarity with the sculpted head of a male deity found at Ur , which Collon finds to be " so close to the Queen of the Night in quality , workmanship and iconographical details , that it could well have come from the same workshop . " Therefore , Ur is one possible city of origin for the relief , but not the only one : Edith Porada points out the virtual identity in style that the lion 's tufts of hair have with the same detail seen on two fragments of clay plaques excavated at Nippur . And Agnès Spycket reported on a similar necklace on a fragment found in Isin .
= = = Geopolitical context = = =
A creation date at the beginning of the second millennium BCE places the relief into a region and time in which the political situation was unsteady , marked by the waxing and waning influence of the city states of Isin and Larsa , an invasion by the Elamites , and finally the conquest by Hammurabi in the unification in the Babylonian empire in 1762 BCE .
300 to 500 years earlier , the population for the whole of Mesopotamia was at its all @-@ time high of about 300 @,@ 000 . Elamite invaders then toppled the third Dynasty of Ur and the population declined to about 200 @,@ 000 ; it had stabilized at that number at the time the relief was made . Cities like Nippur and Isin would have had on the order of 20 @,@ 000 inhabitants and Larsa maybe 40 @,@ 000 ; Hammurabi 's Babylon grew to 60 @,@ 000 by 1700 BCE . A well @-@ developed infrastructure and complex division of labour is required to sustain cities of that size . The fabrication of religious imagery might have been done by specialized artisans : large numbers of smaller , devotional plaques have been excavated that were fabricated in molds .
Even though the fertile crescent civilizations are considered the oldest in history , at the time the Burney Relief was made other late bronze age civilizations were equally in full bloom . Travel and cultural exchange were not commonplace , but nevertheless possible . To the east , Elam with its capital Susa was in frequent military conflict with Isin , Larsa and later Babylon . Even further , the Indus Valley Civilization was already past its peak , and in China , the Erlitou culture blossomed . To the southwest , Egypt was ruled by the 12th dynasty , further to the west the Minoan civilization , centred on Crete with the Old Palace in Knossos , dominated the Mediterranean . To the north of Mesopotamia , the Anatolian Hittites were establishing their Old Kingdom over the Hattians ; they brought an end to Babylon 's empire with the sack of the city in 1531 BCE . Indeed , Collon mentions this raid as possibly being the reason for the damage to the right @-@ hand side of the relief .
= = = Religion = = =
The size of the plaque suggests it would have belonged in a shrine , possibly as an object of worship ; it was probably set into a mud @-@ brick wall . Such a shrine might have been a dedicated space in a large private home or other house , but not the main focus of worship in one of the cities ' temples , which would have contained representations of gods sculpted in the round . Mesopotamian temples at the time had a rectangular cella often with niches to both sides . According to Thorkild Jacobsen , that shrine could have been located inside a brothel ( see below ) .
= = = Art history = = =
Compared with how important religious practice was in Mesopotamia , and compared to the number of temples that existed , very few cult figures at all have been preserved . This is certainly not due to a lack of artistic skill : the " Ram in a Thicket " ( see image below ) shows how elaborate such sculptures could have been , even 600 to 800 years earlier . It is also not due to a lack of interest in religious sculpture : deities and myths are ubiquitous on cylinder seals and the few steles , kudurrus , and reliefs that have been preserved . Rather , it seems plausible that the main figures of worship in temples and shrines were made of materials so valuable they could not escape looting during the many shifts of power that the region saw . The Burney Relief is comparatively plain , and so survived . In fact , the relief is one of only two existing large , figurative representations from the Old Babylonian period . The other one is the top part of the Code of Hammurabi , which was actually discovered in Elamite Susa , where it had been brought as booty ( see image ) .
A static , frontal image is typical of religious images intended for worship . Symmetric compositions are common in Mesopotamian art when the context is not narrative . Many examples have been found on cylinder seals . Three @-@ part arrangements of a god and two other figures are common , but five @-@ part arrangements exist as well . In this respect , the relief follows established conventions . In terms of representation , the deity is sculpted with a naturalistic but " modest " nudity , reminiscent of Egyptian goddess sculptures , which are sculpted with a well @-@ defined navel and pubic region but no details ; there , the lower hemline of a dress indicates that some covering is intended , even if it does not conceal . In a typical statue of the genre , Pharao Menkaura and two goddesses , Hathor and Bat are shown in human form and sculpted naturalistically , just as in the Burney Relief ; in fact , Hathor has been given the features of Queen Khamerernebty II ( see image and article ) . Depicting an anthropomorphic god as a naturalistic human is an innovative artistic idea that may well have diffused from Egypt to Mesopotamia , just like a number of concepts of religious rites , architecture , the " banquet plaques " , and other artistic innovations previously . In this respect , the Burney Relief shows a clear departure from the schematic style of the worshiping men and women that were found in temples from periods about 500 years earlier ( see image ) . It is also distinct from the next major style in the region : Assyrian art , with its rigid , detailed representations , mostly of scenes of war and hunting ( see image ) .
The extraordinary survival of the figure type , though interpretations and cult context shifted over the intervening centuries , is expressed by the cast terracotta funerary figure of the 1st century BCE , from Myrina on the coast of Mysia in Asia Minor , where it was excavated by the French School at Athens , 1883 ; the terracotta is conserved in the Musée du Louvre ( illustrated left ) .
Comparisons
Compared to visual artworks from the same time , the relief fits quite well with its style of representation and its rich iconography . The images below show earlier , contemporary , and somewhat later examples of woman and goddess depictions .
Contemporaries
= = = Iconography = = =
Mesopotamian religion recognizes literally thousands of deities , and distinct iconographies have been identified for about a dozen . Less frequently , gods are identified by a written label or dedication ; such labels would only have been intended for the literate elites . In creating a religious object , the sculptor was not free to create novel images : the representation of deities , their attributes and context were as much part of the religion as the rituals and the mythology . Indeed , innovation and deviation from an accepted canon could be considered a cultic offense . The large degree of similarity that is found in plaques and seals suggests that detailed iconographies could have been based on famous cult statues ; they established the visual tradition for such derivative works but have now been lost . It appears , though , that the Burney Relief was the product of such a tradition , not its source , since its composition is unique .
= = = = Frontal nudity = = = =
The frontal presentation of the deity is appropriate for a plaque of worship , since it is not just a " pictorial reference to a god " but " a symbol of his presence " . Since the relief is the only existing plaque intended for worship , we do not know whether this is generally true . But this particular depiction of a goddess represents a specific motif : a nude goddess with wings and bird 's feet . Similar images have been found on a number of plaques , on a vase from Larsa , and on at least one cylinder seal ; they are all from approximately the same time period . In all instances but one , the frontal view , nudity , wings , and the horned crown are features that occur together ; thus , these images are iconographically linked in their representation of a particular goddess . Moreover , examples of this motif are the only existing examples of a nude god or goddess ; all other representations of gods are clothed . The bird 's feet have not always been well preserved , but there are no counter @-@ examples of a nude , winged goddess with human feet .
= = = = Horned crown = = = =
The horned crown – usually four @-@ tiered – is the most general symbol of a deity in Mesopotamian art . Male and female gods alike wear it . In some instances , " lesser " gods wear crowns with only one pair of horns , but the number of horns is not generally a symbol of " rank " or importance . The form we see here is a style popular in Neo @-@ Sumerian times and later ; earlier representations show horns projecting out from a conical headpiece .
= = = = Wings = = = =
Winged gods , other mythological creatures , and birds are frequently depicted on cylinder seals and steles from the 3rd millennium all the way to the Assyrians . Both two @-@ winged and four @-@ winged figures are known and the wings are most often extended to the side . Spread wings are part of one type of representation for Ishtar . However , the specific depiction of the hanging wings of the nude goddess may have evolved from what was originally a cape .
= = = = Rod and ring symbol = = = =
This symbol may depict the measuring tools of a builder or architect or a token representation of these tools . It is frequently depicted on cylinder seals and steles , where it is always held by a god – usually either Shamash , Ishtar , and in later Babylonian images also Marduk – and often extended to a king .
= = = = Lions = = = =
Lions are chiefly associated with Ishtar or with the male gods Shamash or Ningirsu . In Mesopotamian art , lions are nearly always depicted with open jaws . H. Frankfort suggests that The Burney Relief shows a modification of the normal canon that is due to the fact that the lions are turned towards the worshipper : the lions might appear inappropriately threatening if their mouths were open .
= = = = Owls = = = =
No other examples of owls in an iconographic context exist in Mesopotamian art , nor are there textual references that directly associate owls with a particular god or goddess .
= = = = Mountains = = = =
A god standing on or seated on a pattern of scales is a typical scenery for the depiction of a theophany . It is associated with gods who have some connection with mountains but not restricted to any one deity in particular .
= = Identification = =
The figure has initially been identified as a depiction of Ishtar ( Inanna ) but almost immediately other arguments have been put forward :
= = = Lilitu = = =
The identification of the relief as depicting " Lilith " has become a staple of popular writing on that subject . Raphael Patai ( 1990 ) believes the relief to be the only extant depiction of a Sumerian female demon called lilitu and thus to define lilitu 's iconography . Citations regarding this assertion lead back to Henri Frankfort ( 1936 ) . Frankfort himself based his interpretation of the deity as the demon Lilith on the presence of wings , the birds ' feet and the representation of owls . He cites the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh as a source that such " creatures are inhabitants of the land of the dead " . In that text Enkidu 's appearance is partially changed to that of a feathered being , and he is led to the nether world where creatures dwell that are " birdlike , wearing a feather garment " . This passage reflects the Sumerians ' belief in the nether world , and Frankfort cites evidence that Nergal , the ruler of the underworld , is depicted with bird 's feet and wrapped in a feathered gown .
However Frankfort did not himself make the identification of the figure with Lilith ; rather he cites Emil Kraeling ( 1937 ) instead . Kraeling believes that the figure " is a superhuman being of a lower order " ; he does not explain exactly why . He then goes on to state " Wings [ ... ] regularly suggest a demon associated with the wind " and " owls may well indicate the nocturnal habits of this female demon " . He excludes Lamashtu and Pazuzu as candidate demons and states : " Perhaps we have here a third representation of a demon . If so , it must be Lilîtu [ ... ] the demon of an evil wind " , named ki @-@ sikil @-@ lil @-@ la ( literally " wind @-@ maiden " or " phantom @-@ maiden " , not " beautiful maiden " , as Kraeling asserts ( see below ) ) . This ki @-@ sikil @-@ lil is an antagonist of Inanna ( Ishtar ) in a brief episode of the epic of Gilgamesh , which is cited by both Kraeling and Frankfort as further evidence for the identification as Lilith , though this appendix too is now disputed . In this episode , Inanna 's holy Huluppu tree is invaded by malevolent spirits . Frankfort quotes a preliminary translation by Gadd ( 1933 ) : " in the midst Lilith had built a house , the shrieking maid , the joyful , the bright queen of Heaven " . However modern translations have instead : " In its trunk , the phantom maid built herself a dwelling , the maid who laughs with a joyful heart . But holy Inanna cried . " The earlier translation implies an association of the demon Lilith with a shrieking owl and at the same time asserts her god @-@ like nature ; the modern translation supports neither of these attributes . In fact , Cyril J. Gadd ( 1933 ) , the first translator , writes : " ardat lili ( kisikil @-@ lil ) is never associated with owls in Babylonian mythology " and " the Jewish traditions concerning Lilith in this form seem to be late and of no great authority " . This single line of evidence was taken as virtual proof of the identification of the Burney Relief with " Lilith " may have been motivated by later associations of " Lilith " in later Jewish sources .
The association of Lilith with owls in later Jewish literature such as the Songs of the Sage ( 1st century BCE ) and Babylonian Talmud ( 5th century CE ) is derived from a reference to a liliyth among a list of wilderness birds and animals in Isaiah ( 7th century BCE ) , though some scholars , such as Blair ( 2009 ) consider the pre @-@ Talmudic Isaiah reference to be non @-@ supernatural , and this is reflected in some modern Bible translations :
Isaiah 34 : 13 Thorns shall grow over its strongholds , nettles and thistles in its fortresses . It shall be the haunt of jackals , an abode for ostriches . 14 And wild animals shall meet with hyenas ; the wild goat shall cry to his fellow ; indeed , there the night bird ( lilit or lilith ) settles and finds for herself a resting place . 15 There the owl nests and lays and hatches and gathers her young in her shadow ; indeed , there the hawks are gathered , each one with her mate . ( ESV )
Today , the identification of the Burney Relief with Lilith is questioned , and the figure is now generally identified as the goddess of love and war .
= = = Ishtar = = =
50 years later , Thorkild Jacobsen substantially revised this interpretation and identified the figure as Inanna ( Akkadian : Ishtar ) in an analysis that is primarily based on textual evidence . According to Jacobsen :
The hypothesis that this tablet was created for worship makes it unlikely that a demon was depicted . Demons had no cult in Mesopotamian religious practice since demons " know no food , know no drink , eat no flour offering and drink no libation . " Therefore , " no relationship of giving and taking could be established with them " ;
The horned crown is a symbol of divinity , and the fact that it is four @-@ tiered suggests one of the principal gods of the Mesopotamian pantheon ;
Inanna was the only goddess that was associated with lions , for example a hymn by En @-@ hedu @-@ ana specifically mentions " Inanna , seated on crossed ( or harnessed ) lions "
The goddess is depicted standing on mountains . According to text sources , Inanna 's home was on Kur @-@ mùsh , the mountain crests . Iconographically , other gods were depicted on mountain scales as well , but there are examples in which Inanna is shown on a mountain pattern and another god is not , i.e. the pattern was indeed sometimes used to identify Inanna . ;
The rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbol , her necklace and her wig are all attributes that are explicitly referred to in the myth of Inanna 's descent into the nether world .
Jacobsen quotes textual evidence that the Akkadian word eššebu ( owl ) corresponds to the Sumerian word ninna , and that the Sumerian Dnin @-@ ninna ( Divine lady ninna ) corresponds to the Akkadian Ishtar . The Sumerian ninna can also be translated as the Akkadian kilili , which is also a name or epithet for Ishtar . Inanna / Ishtar as harlot or goddess of harlots was a well known theme in Mesopotamian mythology and in one text , Inanna is called kar @-@ kid ( harlot ) and ab @-@ ba- [ šú ] -šú , which in Akkadian would be rendered kilili . Thus there appears to be a cluster of metaphors linking prostitute and owl and the goddess Inanna / Ishtar ; this could match the most enigmatic component of the relief to a well known aspect of Ishtar . Jacobsen concludes that this link would be sufficient to explain talons and wings , and adds that nudity could indicate the relief was originally the house @-@ altar of a bordello .
= = = Ereshkigal = = =
In contrast , the British Museum does acknowledge the possibility that the relief depicts either Lilith or Ishtar , but prefers a third identification : Ishtar 's antagonist and sister Ereshkigal , the goddess of the underworld . This interpretation is based on the fact that the wings are not outspread and that the background of the relief was originally painted black . If this were the correct identification , it would make the relief ( and by implication the smaller plaques of nude , winged goddesses ) the only known figurative representations of Ereshkigal . Edith Porada , the first to propose this identification , associates hanging wings with demons and then states : " If the suggested provenience of the Burney Relief at Nippur proves to be correct , the imposing demonic figure depicted on it may have to be identified with the female ruler of the dead or with some other major figure of the Old Babylonian pantheon which was occasionally associated with death . " No further supporting evidence was given by Porada , but another analysis published in 2002 comes to the same conclusion . E. von der Osten @-@ Sacken describes evidence for a weakly developed but nevertheless existing cult for Ereshkigal ; she cites aspects of similarity between the goddesses Ishtar and Ereshkigal from textual sources – for example they are called " sisters " in the myth of " Inanna 's descent into the nether world " – and she finally explains the unique doubled rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbol in the following way : " Ereshkigal would be shown here at the peak of her power , when she had taken the divine symbols from her sister and perhaps also her identifying lions " .
= = Authenticity = =
The 1936 London Illustrated News feature had " no doubt of the authenticity " of the object which had " been subjected to exhaustive chemical examination " and showed traces of bitumen " dried out in a way which is only possible in the course of many centuries " . But stylistic doubts were published only a few months later by D. Opitz who noted the " absolutely unique " nature of the owls with no comparables in all of Babylonian figurative artefacts . In a back @-@ to @-@ back article , E. Douglas Van Buren examined examples of Sumerian [ sic ] art , which had been excavated and provenanced and she presented examples : Ishtar with two lions , the Louvre plaque ( AO 6501 ) of a nude , bird @-@ footed goddess standing on two Ibexes and similar plaques , and even a small haematite owl , although the owl is an isolated piece and not in an iconographical context .
A year later Frankfort ( 1937 ) acknowledged Van Buren 's examples , added some of his own and concluded " that the relief is genuine " . Opitz ( 1937 ) concurred with this opinion , but reasserted that the iconography is not consistent with other examples , especially regarding the rod @-@ and @-@ ring symbol . These symbols were the focus of a communication by Pauline Albenda ( 1970 ) who again questioned the relief 's authenticity . Subsequently the British Museum performed thermoluminescence dating which was consistent with the relief being fired in antiquity ; but the method is imprecise when samples of the surrounding soil are not available for estimation of background radiation levels . A rebuttal to Albenda by Curtis and Collon ( 1996 ) published the scientific analysis ; the British Museum was sufficiently convinced of the relief to purchase it in 2003 . The discourse continued however : in her extensive reanalysis of stylistic features , Albenda once again called the relief " a pastiche of artistic features " and " continue [ d ] to be unconvinced of its antiquity " .
Her arguments were rebutted in a rejoinder by Collon ( 2007 ) , noting in particular that the whole relief was created in one unit , i.e. there is no possibility that a modern figure or parts of one might have been added to an antique background ; she also reviewed the iconographic links to provenanced pieces . In concluding Collon states : " [ Edith Porada ] believed that , with time , a forgery would look worse and worse , whereas a genuine object would grow better and better . [ ... ] Over the years [ the Queen of the Night ] has indeed grown better and better , and more and more interesting . For me she is a real work of art of the Old Babylonian period . "
In 2008 / 9 the relief was included in exhibitions on Babylon at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin , the Louvre in Paris , and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York .
= Southworth House ( Cleveland , Ohio ) =
The Southworth House is a Classical Revival and Italianate house in Cleveland , Ohio , United States that was built in 1879 . Named for its first owner , W.P. Southworth , a leading resident of late nineteenth @-@ century Cleveland , the house has been used for a variety of commercial purposes in recent decades . One of many historic sites in its eastside neighborhood , it has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1984 .
= = Construction = =
The house was built in 1879 by William Palmer Southworth , a Cleveland businessman who established W.P. Southworth Co . , a leading Cleveland grocery , in the 1850s . He and his wife Louise were prominent in Cleveland society ; while she was a leader of the women 's suffrage movement , his store ( located in Public Square downtown ) was significant enough that its destruction by fire in 1882 prompted a front @-@ page story in the New York Times .
The house is built on a stone foundation with a basement , with walls of brick ; the architect 's name is not known . Its three floors were divided into nineteen rooms , and by 1904 Southworth had installed an elevator . The elevator remains today .
= = After Southworth = =
In August 1906 , a group of Cleveland Baptists incorporated an organization , the Baptist Home of Northern Ohio , to establish a retirement home for elderly Baptists . Ten months later , Southworth sold his house to the organization , which was supported financially by industrialist and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller , who was a Baptist . With the aid of local churches , the home was opened on October 16 , 1907 . According to the 1910 census , the Baptist Home served fourteen residents at the end of 1910 , at which time the entire property was worth $ 15 @,@ 000 . The former Southworth residence was not long a retirement home : the Baptist Home moved to a new location in 1919 and sold the Southworth House in the same year . Since that time , the house has been used for a wide range of purposes .
During the 1950s and 1960s , various businesses had offices in the house , which was then called the " Edelmar Building " or the " Accountants Building . " In 1973 , the Southworth House was purchased by Pi Sigma Tau Alpha , a fraternity based at the nearby Cleveland State University ; it later served as the fraternity house for Cleveland State 's chapter of Delta Sigma Phi . The house has changed hands several times since its fraternity days . In 1997 , a health care company bought it ; in 2005 , after the company was found to be fraudulent and the owner imprisoned , a historic preservation company bought the property at auction , and it too has since sold the house . Currently , the Southworth House is the location of offices for organizations such as an actual health care company and a local of the Laborers ' International Union of North America .
= = Preservation = =
The Southworth House is recognized as a landmark both locally and nationally . Along with many other properties along Prospect Avenue , it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 1 , 1984 as part of the " Upper Prospect Multiple Resource Area . " It was included both for its distinctive combination of Classical Revival and Italianate architecture and for its association with Southworth . As the " Delta Sigma Phi Fraternity House , " it has been designated a Cleveland Landmark by the city of Cleveland . Since being listed on the Register in 1984 , the Southworth House has been the focus of both publicly funded and privately funded historic preservation efforts . In late 1996 , as Sunrise Home Health Care prepared to buy the Southworth House , Cleveland City Council provided over $ 250 @,@ 000 to help purchase and renovate the property . Architects Scott and Analia Dimit began a restoration of the house for developer Michael Chesler , and continued to guide its restoration when it was purchased by Laborers Union Local 860 in 2005 . The construction workers made it their union hall , completing the work in October 2007 . In October 2009 , the National Trust for Historic Preservation recognized the restoration with its Honor Award . Today , the house features wrought ironwork and a distinctive Italianate facade .
= Armed Forces Special Weapons Project =
The Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) was a United States military agency responsible for those aspects of nuclear weapons remaining under military control after the Manhattan Project was succeeded by the Atomic Energy Commission on 1 January 1947 . These responsibilities included the maintenance , storage , surveillance , security and handling of nuclear weapons , as well as supporting nuclear testing . The AFSWP was a joint organization , staffed by the United States Army , United States Navy and United States Air Force ; its chief was supported by deputies from the other two services . Major General Leslie R. Groves , the former head of the Manhattan Project , was its first chief .
The early nuclear weapons were large , complex and cumbersome . They were stored as components rather than complete devices and required expert knowledge to assemble . The short life of their lead @-@ acid batteries and modulated neutron initiators , and the heat generated by the fissile cores , precluded storing them assembled . The large quantity of conventional explosive in each weapon demanded special care be taken in handling . Groves hand @-@ picked a team of regular Army officers , who were trained in the assembly and handling of the weapons . They in turn trained the enlisted soldiers , and the Army teams then trained teams from the Navy and Air Force .
As nuclear weapons development proceeded , the weapons became mass @-@ produced , smaller , lighter , and easier to store , handle and maintain . They also required less effort to assemble . The AFSWP gradually shifted its emphasis away from training assembly teams , and became more involved in stockpile management and providing administrative , technical and logistical support . It supported nuclear weapons testing , although after Operation Sandstone in 1948 , this was increasingly in a planning and training capacity rather than a field role . In 1958 , the AFSWP became the Defense Atomic Support Agency ( DASA ) , a field agency of the Department of Defense .
= = Origins = =
Nuclear weapons were developed during World War II by the Manhattan Project , a major research and development effort led by the United States , with participation from the United Kingdom and Canada . From 1942 to 1946 , it was under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , of the US Army Corps of Engineers . It created a network of production facilities , most notably for uranium enrichment at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , plutonium production at Hanford , Washington and weapons research and design at the Los Alamos Laboratory in Los Alamos , New Mexico . The nuclear weapons that were developed were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 .
After the war ended , the Manhattan Project supported the nuclear weapons testing at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads in 1946 . One of Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal 's aides , Lewis Strauss proposed this series of tests to refute " loose talk to the effect that the fleet is obsolete in the face of this new weapon . " The nuclear weapons were handmade devices , and a great deal of work remained to improve their ease of assembly , safety , reliability and storage before they were ready for production . There were also many improvements to their performance that had been suggested or recommended , but that had not been possible under the pressure of wartime development .
Groves 's biggest concern was about people . Soldiers and scientists wanted to return to their peacetime pursuits , and there was a danger that wartime knowledge would be lost , leaving no one who knew how to handle and maintain nuclear weapons , much less how to improve the weapons and processes . The military side of the Manhattan Project had relied heavily on reservists , all of whom were eligible for separation . To replace them , Groves asked for fifty West Point graduates from the top ten percent of their classes to man bomb assembly teams at Sandia Base , where the assembly staff and facilities had been moved from Los Alamos and Wendover Field in September and October 1945 . He felt that only such high quality personnel would be able to work with the scientists who were currently doing the job . They were also urgently required for many other jobs in the postwar Army . When General Thomas T. Handy turned down his request , Groves raised the matter with the Chief of Staff of the Army , General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower , who similarly did not approve it . Groves then went over his head too , and took it to the Secretary of War , Robert P. Patterson , who agreed with Groves . The personnel manned the 2761st Engineer Battalion ( Special ) , which became a field unit under the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) .
Groves hoped that a new , permanent agency would be created to take over the responsibilities of the wartime Manhattan Project in 1945 , but passage of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 through Congress took much longer than expected , and involved considerable debate about the proper role of the military with respect to the development , production and control of nuclear weapons . The act that was signed by President Harry S. Truman on 1 August 1946 created a civilian agency , the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) , to take over the functions and assets of the Manhattan Project , but the commissioners were not appointed until October , and AEC did not assume its role until 1 January 1947 . In the meantime , the Military Appropriation Act of 1946 gave the Manhattan Project $ 72 @.@ 4 million for research and development , and $ 19 million for housing and utilities at Los Alamos and Oak Ridge .
The Atomic Energy Act provided for a Military Liaison Committee to advise the AEC on military matters , so Patterson appointed Lieutenant General Lewis H. Brereton , who became chairman , along with Major General Lunsford E. Oliver and Colonel John H. Hinds as Army members of the Military Liaison Committee ; Forrestal appointed Rear Admirals Thorvald A. Solberg , Ralph A. Ofstie and William S. Parsons as its naval members .
= = Organization = =
Chiefs of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project
Patterson asked Groves to create a new agency to take over responsibility for the aspects of nuclear weapons that still remained under the military . It was to be jointly staffed by the Army and Navy , and on 29 January 1947 , Patterson and Forrestal issued a memorandum that formally established the AFSWP . Its chief would be appointed jointly by the Chief of Staff of the Army and the Chief of Naval Operations , along with a deputy from the opposite service . Both would be members of the Military Liaison Committee , because the Atomic Energy Act stipulated that the Military Liaison Committee was the sole military body that dealt with the AEC . In February 1947 , Eisenhower and Chief of Naval Operations Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz appointed Groves as head of the AFSWP , with Parsons as his deputy . Accordingly , Groves was appointed to the Military Liaison Committee , although the newly appointed AEC chairman , David E. Lilienthal , told Patterson that he did not think that it was a good idea , because Groves had run the Manhattan Project by himself for four years , and was not used to having to compromise .
Groves and Parsons drafted a proposed organization and charter for the AFSWP , which they sent to Eisenhower and Nimitz for approval in July 1947 . Groves did not get everything that he asked for ; he wanted a status equal to that of a deputy to the Chief of Staff and Chief of Naval Operations , but the most that Eisenhower and Nimitz would allow was a status equal to that of the heads of a technical service , although Groves still reported directly to them . They also characterized his role as a staff post rather than a command , although Groves was already exercising the functions of a commander at Sandia . After the National Security Act of 1947 created an independent Air Force , Groves reported to the Chief of Staff of the Air Force as well , and was given a second deputy chief from the Air Force , Major General Roscoe C. Wilson , who had worked on the Silverplate project during the war .
Groves initially established the headquarters of the AFSWP in the old offices of the Manhattan Project on the fifth floor of the New War Department Building in Washington , DC , but on 15 April 1947 it moved to the Pentagon . As AFSWP headquarters expanded , it filled up its original accommodation , and began using office space in other parts of the building , which was not satisfactory from a security point of view . In August 1949 , it moved to 18 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 700 m2 ) of new offices inside the Pentagon . This included space for a soundproof conference room , a darkroom , and vaults where its records and films were stored .
The 2761st Engineer Battalion ( Special ) at Sandia was commanded by Colonel Gilbert M. Dorland , and consisted of a headquarters company , a security company ( Company A ) , a bomb assembly company ( Company B ) and a radiological monitoring company ( Company C ) , although Company C was never fully formed . For training purposes , Company B was initially divided into command , electrical , mechanical and nuclear groups , but the intention was to create three integrated 36 @-@ man bomb assembly teams . To free the bomb assembly teams from having to train newcomers , a Technical Training Group ( TTG ) was created under Lieutenant Colonel John A. Ord , a Signal Corps officer with a Doctor of Science degree from Carnegie Institute of Technology who had directed the training of thousands of radar technicians at the Southern Signal Corps School during the war . The battalion was redesignated the 38th Engineer Battalion ( Special ) in April 1947 , and in July it became part of the newly created AFSWP Field Command , under the command of Brigadier General Robert M. Montague . The TTG was soon reporting directly to Montague as well .
The first bomb assembly team was formed in August 1947 , followed by a second in December and a third in March 1948 . Experience with assembling the bombs convincingly demonstrated the requirement , in Sandia if not in Washington , for a much larger unit . Groves reluctantly approved a 109 @-@ man special weapons unit , and Montague converted the three lettered companies of the 38th Engineer Battalion into special weapons units . In 1948 , they began training a Navy special weapons unit , as the Navy foresaw delivery of nuclear weapons with its new North American AJ Savage bombers from its Midway @-@ class aircraft carriers . This unit became the 471st Naval Special Weapons Unit on its certification in August 1948 . Two Air Force units were created in September and December 1948 , which became the 502d and 508th Aviation Squadrons . An additional Army special weapons unit was created in May 1948 , and in December , the 38th Engineer Battalion ( Special ) became the 8460th Special Weapons Group , with all seven special weapons units under its command . The four Army units were then renamed the 111th , 122d , 133d and 144th Special Weapons Units . During the late 1940s the Air Force gradually became the major user of nuclear weapons , and by the end of 1949 , it had twelve assembly units , and another three in training , while the Army had only four , and the Navy three , one for each of the three Midway @-@ class carriers .
In March 1948 , the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , General Carl Spaatz , proposed that the Air Force take over the AFSWP , on the grounds that the Key West Agreement had given it responsibility for strategic bombing . This would have simplified command of the AFSWP , as it would have been answerable to only one service chief instead of three The Army cautiously supported the proposal , but the Navy was strongly opposed , fearing that the Air Force 's confusion of atomic bombing and strategic bombing would impede or even prevent the Navy from having access to nuclear weapons , which it felt was necessary to accomplish its primary maritime mission . Another series of talks was held at the Naval War College in Newport , Rhode Island , from 20 to 22 August 1948 , which resulted in the Newport Agreement , under which the Navy agreed to drop its opposition to the AFSWP being placed under the Air Force temporarily , in return for the Air Force recognizing the Navy 's requirement for nuclear weapons . When the Air Force moved to make the temporary arrangement permanent in September 1948 , the Army and Navy objected , and the Military Liaison Committee directed that the AFSWP should remain a tri @-@ service organization answerable to the three service chiefs .
= = Field operations = =
Groves and the wartime director of the Los Alamos Laboratory , Robert Oppenheimer , had begun the move of ordnance functions to Sandia in late 1945 . The laboratory 's ordnance engineering division , known as Z Division , after its first director , Jerrold R. Zacharias , was split between Los Alamos and Sandia . Between March and July 1946 , Z Division relocated to Sandia , except for its mechanical engineering ( Z @-@ 4 ) section , which followed in February 1947 . Z Division worked on improving the mechanical and electrical reliability of the Mark 3 Fat Man bomb , but this work was disrupted by the Crossroads tests .
The 1947 nuclear stockpile consisted of nuclear weapons components , not weapons . Meeting with Truman in April 1947 , Lilienthal informed him that not only were there no assembled weapons , but there were only a few sets of components , and no fully trained bomb assembly teams . By August 1946 , Sandia Base held electrical and mechanical assemblies for about 50 Fat Man bombs , but there were only nine fissile cores in storage . The stockpile of cores grew to 13 in 1947 , and 53 in 1948 . Oppenheimer noted that the bombs were " still largely the haywire contraptions that were slapped together in 1945 . " With a half @-@ life of only 140 days , the polonium @-@ beryllium modulated neutron initiators had to be periodically removed from the plutonium pits , tested , and , if necessary , replaced . The cores had to be stored separately from the high explosive blocks that would surround them in the bomb because they generated enough heat to melt the plastic explosive over time . The heat could also affect the cores themselves , provoking a phase transition to a different allotrope of plutonium . They had to be periodically inspected by technicians wearing gloves and respirators . The bomb 's electrical power for its radar fuzes and detonators came from a pair of lead @-@ acid batteries similar to those used in cars . These had to be charged 24 hours before use . After a few days , the bomb had to be partially disassembled so that they could be re @-@ charged ; and three days after that the batteries had to be replaced .
The 38th Engineer Battalion 's electrical group studied the batteries , the electrical firing systems and the radar fuzes which detonated the bomb at the required altitude . The mechanical group dealt with the exploding @-@ bridgewire detonators and the explosive lenses . The nuclear group moved to Los Alamos to study the cores and initiators . As part of their training , they attended lectures by Edward Teller , Hans Bethe , Lise Meitner and Enrico Fermi . The electrical and mechanical groups at Sandia , although not the nuclear group , completed their training around the end of October 1946 and spent the next month devising the best methods of assembling a Fat Man , drawing up detailed checklists so that later bomb assembly teams could be trained . They also drew up a proposed table of organization and equipment for an assembly team . It took two weeks for them to assemble their first bomb in December 1946 .
Most of 1947 was spent planning for a field exercise in which a bomb team would deploy to a base and assemble weapons under field conditions . A 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) portable building was acquired and outfitted as field workshops that could be loaded onto a C @-@ 54 or C @-@ 97 transport aircraft . In November 1947 , the 38th Engineer Battalion carried out its first major field exercise , Operation Ajax . It drew bomb components , except for fissile cores , from the AEC , and deployed by air to Wendover Field , Utah . This was the home of the 509th Bombardment Group , which was the only unit operating Silverplate B @-@ 29 bombers , and therefore the only B @-@ 29 group capable of delivering nuclear weapons . To simulate operational conditions , they took a roundabout route via New England and Seattle . Over the following ten days , they assembled bombs and flew training missions with them , including a live drop at the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern , California .
This was followed by other exercises . In one exercise in March 1948 , the base personnel successfully fought off an " attack " by 250 paratroopers from Fort Hood , Texas . In another exercise in November 1948 , the 471st Special Weapons Unit flew to Norfolk , Virginia , and practiced bomb assembly on board the Midway @-@ class aircraft carriers .
= = Nuclear testing = =
In addition to assembly of weapons , the AFSWP supported nuclear weapons testing . For Operation Sandstone in 1948 , Groves ordered Dorland to fill every possible job with his men . He did this so well that Strauss , now an AEC commissioner , became disturbed at the number of AFSWP personnel who were participating , and feared that the Soviet Union might launch a sneak attack on Enewetak to wipe out the nation 's ability to assemble nuclear weapons . The successful testing in Operation Sandstone was a major leap forward . The new Mark 4 nuclear bomb that the AEC began delivering in 1949 was a production design that was much easier to assemble and maintain , and enabled a bomb assembly team to be reduced to just 46 men . Kenneth D. Nichols , the wartime commander of the Manhattan District , now " recommended that we should be thinking in terms of thousands of weapons rather than hundreds . "
After Operation Sandstone , only relatively small numbers of AFSWP personnel were involved in nuclear testing . The AFSWP was heavily involved in the planning , preparation and coordination of tests , but it had limited participation in the tests themselves , where the bomb assembly function was usually undertaken by scientists . During Operation Buster @-@ Jangle , AFSWP personnel showed films and gave lectures to 2 @,@ 800 military personnel who had been selected to witness the test , explaining what would occur and the procedures to be followed . This was expanded to cater for the more than 7 @,@ 000 personnel who were involved in Operation Upshot @-@ Knothole in 1953 .
= = Custody of nuclear weapons = =
When the AEC was formed in 1947 it acquired custody of nuclear components from the Manhattan Project on the understanding that the matter would be reviewed . In November 1947 , the Military Liaison Committee requested that custody of the nuclear stockpile be transferred to the military , but Lilienthal believed that AEC custody of the stockpile was an important aspect of civilian control of nuclear weapons . He was disturbed that the AFSWP had not informed the AEC in advance of Operation Ajax . For his part , Groves suspected that the AEC was not keeping bomb components in the condition in which the military wanted to receive them , and Operation Ajax only confirmed his suspicions . Reviewing the exercise , Montague reported that " under the existing law , with the AEC charged with procurement and custody of all atomic weapons , there was no adequate logistic support for the weapon . " He recommended a larger role for the military , a recommendation with which Groves concurred , but was powerless to implement .
Groves retired at the end of February 1948 , and Nichols was designated as his successor with the rank of major general . At the same time , Forrestal , now the Secretary of Defense , reorganized the Military Liaison Committee . A civilian , Donald F. Carpenter , replaced Brereton as chairman , and there were now two members from each of the three services . On 11 March , Truman summoned Lilienthal , Nichols and Secretary of the Army Kenneth C. Royall to his office , and told them that he expected the AFSWP and the AEC to cooperate .
Nichols 's position was the same as Groves 's and Montague 's : that nuclear weapons needed to be available in an emergency , and the men who had to use them in battle needed to have experience with their maintenance , storage and handling . Norris Bradbury , who had replaced Oppenheimer as the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in December 1945 , argued that rapid transfer could be accomplished by improved procedures and that the other difficulties could best be resolved by further development , mostly from the scientists . Forrestal and Carpenter took the matter up with Truman , who issued his decision on 21 July 1948 : " I regard the continued control of all aspects of the atomic energy program , including research , development and the custody of atomic weapons as the proper functions of the civil authorities . "
With the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 , air transport resources were put under great strain , and it was decided to reduce the requirement for it by pre @-@ positioning non @-@ nuclear components at locations in Europe and the Pacific . That way , in an emergency , only the nuclear components would have to be flown out . In June , Truman ordered the transfer of 90 sets of non @-@ nuclear Mark 4 components to the AFSWP for training purposes . In December , he authorized the carriage of non @-@ nuclear components on board the Midway @-@ class carriers . In April 1951 , the AEC released nine Mark 4 weapons to the Air Force in case the Soviet Union intervened in the war in Korea . These were flown to Guam , where they were maintained by the Air Force special weapons unit there . Thus , at the end of 1951 , there were 429 weapons in AEC custody and nine held by the Department of Defense .
In the light of this , a new AEC @-@ AFSWP agreement on " Responsibilities of Stockpile Operations " was drawn up in August 1951 , but in December , the Joint Chiefs of Staff began a new push for weapons to be permanently assigned to the armed forces , so as to ensure a greater degree of flexibility and a higher state of readiness . On 20 June 1953 , Eisenhower , now as president , approved the deployment of nuclear components in equal numbers to non @-@ nuclear components , and the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 amended the sections of the old act that gave exclusive custody to the AEC . By 1959 , the nuclear stockpile had grown to 12 @,@ 305 weapons of which 3 @,@ 968 were in AEC custody and the remaining 8 @,@ 337 were held by the Department of Defense . The total yield of the stockpile was now in excess of 19 @,@ 000 megatons of TNT ( 79 @,@ 000 PJ ) .
As Bradbury had promised , with research and development , nuclear weapons became smaller , simpler and lighter . They also became easier to store , assemble , test and maintain . Thus , while under Eisenhower 's New Look policy the Armed Forces became more heavily involved with aspects of nuclear weapons than ever , the role of the AFSWP diminished . It began moving away from training assembly teams , which were increasingly not required , as its primary mission , and became more involved in the management of the rapidly growing nuclear stockpile , and providing technical advice and logistical support . In 1953 , the AFSWP Field Command had 10 @,@ 250 personnel . On 16 October 1953 , the Secretary of Defense charged the AFSWP with responsibility for " a centralized system of reporting and accounting to ensure that the current status and location " of all nuclear weapons " will be known at all times " . The Atomic Warfare Status Center was created within the AFSWP to handle this mission .
= = Conversion to Defense Atomic Support Agency = =
In April 1958 , Eisenhower asked Congress for legislation to overhaul the Department of Defense . Over a decade had passed since the legislation which had established it , and he was concerned about the degree of inter @-@ service rivalry , duplication and mismanagement that was evident in many programs . In ballistic missile development , the Soviet Sputnik program had demonstrated that country 's technological lead over the United States . The Army and Air Force had rival programs , PGM @-@ 19 Jupiter and PGM @-@ 17 Thor respectively , and the additional cost to the taxpayers of developing two systems instead of one was estimated at $ 500 million .
The Defense Reorganization Act of 1958 was signed by Eisenhower in August 1958 . It increased the authority of the Secretary of Defense , who was authorized to establish such defense agencies as he thought necessary " to provide for more effective , efficient and economical administration and operation " . The first field agency established under the act was the Defense Atomic Support Agency ( DASA ) , which replaced the AFSWP on 1 May 1959 . The new agency reported to the Secretary of Defense through the Joint Chiefs of Staff , and was given responsibility for the supervision of all Department of Defense nuclear testing , which had hitherto been handled by the individual services . Otherwise , its role and organization remained much the same , and its commander , Rear Admiral Edward N. Parker , remained as its first director . Eisenhower 's proposed nuclear testing moratorium ultimately fundamentally changed DASA 's mission , as nuclear testing was phased out , Cold War tensions eased , and nuclear disarmament became a prospect .
= 2001 – 02 Arsenal F.C. season =
The 2001 – 02 season was the 104th season of competitive football played by Arsenal . Having ended the previous season as FA Cup finalists and league runners @-@ up to Manchester United , the club went one better in this campaign , by completing the domestic double – their second in four years and third overall . Arsenal won the Premier League by a seven @-@ point margin , were unbeaten away from home and managed the unique feat of scoring in every league game . They lost only three times in the division , all of which at home . At the Millennium Stadium , Arsenal beat Chelsea 2 – 0 to win the 2002 FA Cup Final . In Europe however , they fared poorly as they were eliminated in the second group stage of the UEFA Champions League .
In the transfer window , Arsenal sold several fringe players , notably Nelson Vivas to Internazionale and Sylvinho to Celta Vigo ; goalkeeper John Lukic was released following his decision to retire . Goalkeeper Richard Wright was signed as an earmarked understudy to David Seaman , while midfielder Giovanni van Bronckhorst and striker Francis Jeffers were purchased in big money moves from Rangers and Everton respectively . Perhaps the marked signing for Arsenal was the acquisition of defender Sol Campbell , who moved from local rivals Tottenham Hotspur on a free transfer .
Manager Arsène Wenger was named Barclaycard Manager of the Year and midfielder Fredrik Ljungberg received the player equivalent – the Barclaycard Player of the Year , in recognition of the team 's achievement . Winger Robert Pirès was given the accolade of being the Football Writers ' Association Footballer of the Year , while Thierry Henry ended the campaign as club and the league 's top goalscorer , the latter for which he was awarded the Premier League Golden Boot . At the end of the season , club captain Tony Adams announced his retirement from football ; he was followed by fellow defender Lee Dixon and club goalkeeping coach Bob Wilson .
= = Background = =
In the 2000 – 01 season , Arsenal finished second in the Premier League for the third consecutive season – this time ten points behind Manchester United . The title race was as good as over by February , when Arsenal lost 6 – 1 to United at Old Trafford . The season gave priority to cups , with the best chance of ending their three @-@ year wait for a trophy being in the FA Cup ; Arsenal beat Tottenham Hotspur in the semi @-@ finals and met Liverpool in the final . Although they dominated most of the match and went a goal up , they succumbed to two late Michael Owen goals and lost 2 – 1 .
= = = Transfers = = =
The cup final defeat prompted manager Arsène Wenger to admit new players would be brought in during the transfer window . To fill the seemingly void left by Emmanuel Petit in the centre of midfield , Giovanni van Bronckhorst was signed from Rangers for £ 8 @.@ 5 million . Teenager Francis Jeffers was purchased from Everton in an initial £ 8 million deal . Junichi Inamoto and Richard Wright were also recruited , with Nelson Vivas and Sylvinho departing the club . After a protracted transfer saga , which involved him questioning Arsenal 's ambitions and being linked to a move with Manchester United , midfielder Patrick Vieira remained at the club .
Perhaps the marked signing of the summer was defender Sol Campbell , who moved from rivals Tottenham Hotspur on a Bosman ruling . The player 's wage demands seemed to have extinguished Arsenal 's chances of signing the player at one point . Campbell was unveiled at a midday news conference on 3 July 2001 , which journalists " presumed had been called to announce goalkeeper Richard Wright 's arrival from Ipswich . " Wenger described Campbell as the " best " , adding : " I felt we could not compete on financial basis with the top clubs but we could give him a football challenge . "
= = = = In = = = =
= = = = Out = = = =
= = Premier League = =
= = = August – October = = =
Arsenal 's league campaign started on 18 August 2001 , with an away fixture at Middlesbrough . Thierry Henry scored the opening goal in the 43rd minute , before teammate Ray Parlour was sent off in the second half for a second bookable offence . In spite of the man disadvantage , Arsenal was awarded a late penalty which was converted in by Robert Pirès – it was conceded by Ugo Ehiogu for a trip on Ashley Cole , who subsequently was sent off . Substitute Dennis Bergkamp added two goals in two minutes , in what finished a 4 – 0 victory . At home to Leeds United , Arsenal conceded within the half @-@ hour after Ian Harte ’ s " low , left @-@ footed free @-@ kick " beat goalkeeper Seaman . Although Sylvain Wiltord equalised moments after , striker Mark Viduka in the second half collected a pass from Harry Kewell and used his strength to beat Tony Adams and score for the visitors . In spite of an attacking formation change and Leeds going down to nine men , as Danny Mills and Lee Bowyer were dismissed , Arsenal was unable to break down their defence . Goals from Ljungberg , Wiltord , Henry and Kanu against Leicester City moved Arsenal into third place , a point behind joint @-@ leaders Everton and Leeds .
The team could only manage a draw against Chelsea on 8 September 2001 , in a game described by The Guardian writer David Lacey as one where " the teams simply battered away at each other until one cracked . " Henry scored the winning goal away to newly promoted outfit Fulham ; the 3 – 1 victory moved Arsenal to the top of the league for the first time in the campaign . Against Bolton Wanderers , Arsenal was held to a 1 – 1 draw after Jeffers goal was cancelled out by Michael Ricketts . A win at Derby County , where Henry scored two goals was followed by an identical scoreline against Southampton at the new St. Mary 's Stadium . At home to Blackburn Rovers , midfielder Keith Gillespie gave the visitors the lead , before Pirès equalised and Bergkamp put Arsenal in front . A mistake by Lauren presented David Dunn the chance to shoot " from 25 yards " and score . Henry 's controlled effort looked to have been the winner for Arsenal , until a pass by Tugay caused goalkeeper Wright to " race out of his goal " – the loose ball was collected by Dunn who shot into the empty net . Although Wenger was disappointed with the manner of the defeat , he saw some encouragement : " What 's positive for everyone is that Manchester United are dropping points as well . But we need to rectify the fact we concede goals at home . " October ended with a draw against Sunderland , where notably former Arsenal player Stefan Schwarz equalised for the home side and Patrick Vieira missed a penalty .
= = = November – February = = =
Arsenal 's first fixture of November was at home to Charlton Athletic . The team conceded four goals in 20 minutes and blew several chances to " kill the game " , in what was the club 's biggest home defeat in the league under Wenger . An away trip to local rivals Tottenham Hostpur became magnified with interest , given it marked the return of Campbell following his move to Arsenal . An 81st @-@ minute goal scored by Pirès put Arsenal into the lead , before a lapse by Wright in goal allowed Gus Poyet ‘ s shot to squirm from his grasp and enter the goalnet . Arsenal then faced league champions Manchester United and in spite of conceding inside 14 minutes through a Paul Scholes ’ strike , Ljungberg equalised for them " with a wonderful chipped finish , following Gary Neville 's wretched error . " Arsenal improved in the second half but scored in unforeseen fashion : United goalkeeper Fabien Barthez passed the ball directly into the feet of Henry , who profited from the error and scored . Five minutes later , Barthez 's failure to grasp the ball presented Henry the chance to score his second , which he did . Both Henry and Wenger defended the opposition goalkeeper , with the former , his international teammate saying : " Of course I was happy to score the goals but it was strange . He 's my good friend and I feel sorry for him ; I would rather have got them another way . "
Arsenal beat Ipswich Town on 1 December 2001 to put the club second in the league table . A week later the team played Aston Villa , . Goals from ex @-@ Arsenal midfielder Paul Merson and Steve Stone gave the visitors a deserved lead before Arsenal produced an " enthralling " fight back , capped off by Henry , who scored the winner in stoppage time . The team drew 1 – 1 at West Ham United and lost more ground at the top of the league table following a comprehensive home defeat to Newcastle United . Arsenal began the Christmas period with a fixture against Liverpool and the team were without Vieira , who was suspended . Striker Michael Owen thought he had scored his 100th goal for Liverpool , which was acrobatically cleared off the line by Cole . Vieira 's replacement Giovanni van Bronckhorst was sent off in the 35th minute for a dive but the man disadvantage did not stop Arsenal " catching their opponents on the break " . The team scored the first goal of the match – a penalty , converted by Henry minutes before the interval and " uncharacteristic slackness " by Steven Gerrard allowed Pirès to beat his defender and cross the ball from the left @-@ hand side ; it was met by Ljungberg , who nipped in at the far post to double Arsenal 's lead . Jari Litmanen pulled a goal back for Liverpool but Arsenal hung on to record their first win at Anfield in Wenger 's tenure . On Boxing Day Arsenal recorded a win against Chelsea and two days after , earned three points at home to Middlesbrough , courtesy of a headed winner by Cole .
In their first league match of 2002 , Arsenal hosted Liverpool at Highbury . The match brought " little but frustration " for the home side as Liverpool scored an equaliser six minutes after Ljungberg gave Arsenal the lead . More ground was lost and the initiative was handed to Manchester United , following a second successive stalemate in the league , this time away to Leeds on 20 January 2002 . With results going in Arsenal 's favour that midweek however , the club moved second in the table after a 3 – 1 win against Leicester City . Victory away to Blackburn Rovers , where Oleg Luzhny was sent off in the second half and his defensive partner Campbell " provided the sort of display usually described as sterling " , kept Arsenal in @-@ touch of Manchester United .
A Jo Tessem equaliser for Southampton earned the visitors a point against Arsenal on 2 February 2002 ; in hindsight this proved to be the last time they dropped points in the league season . Wiltord scored the winning goal against Everton and Arsenal moved back to second place , which was obtained by Liverpool , following a 4 – 1 win at home to Fulham .
= = = March – May = = =
Arsenal recorded a 2 – 0 win against Newcastle United on 2 March 2002 . The opening goal scored by Bergkamp was described as a " really clever goal " by opposition manager Sir Bobby Robson . The move involved the striker receiving a low pass from Pirès and under pressure from his marker Nikos Dabizas , he controlled the ball with one flick and went around before placing the ball into the right @-@ hand corner . Arsenal moved to the top of the table three days after , as they beat Derby County by one goal to nil . They were displaced by Manchester United the following night , albeit with the reigning champions having played a game more . An inspired performance by Pirès against Aston Villa on 17 March 2002 kept a point behind top spot ; the win was followed up by a comprehensive defeat of Sunderland , where all three Arsenal goals were scored in the first half .
Henry scored a brace against Charlton Athletic to move Arsenal back to first spot , one clear of Liverpool with a game @-@ in @-@ hand . They then played Tottenham Hotspur on 6 April 2002 and took the lead in the opening half through Ljungberg , via a deflection off goalkeeper Kasey Keller . Teddy Sheringham equalised for Spurs from the penalty spot , before Arsenal was awarded a spot kick when Henry was adjusted to have been fouled by Dean Richards . With Henry receiving treatment and normal penalty takers Edu and Bergkamp substituted , Lauren stepped up to take the responsibility and scored what was the winner . Victory against Ipswich Town and five days later at home against West Ham United , where Ljungberg and Kanu scored meant Arsenal was two wins away from securing the title . The team beat Bolton Wanderers at the Reebok Stadium , which mathematically ruled out Liverpool 's chances of winning the league and meant Manchester United needed to beat Arsenal the following game to have any chance of retaining it . Ruud van Nistelrooy was surprisingly named on the bench for Sir Alex Ferguson 's side , with Arsenal missing Adams and Henry . Having withstood pressure from the home side in the first half , Wiltord scored for Arsenal in the second half , receiving a pass from Ljungberg in the build up . The win secured the double for the second time in four seasons and prompted Wenger to acclaim a " shift of power " in the league . On the final day of the season , Arsenal beat Everton by four goals to three , in a match where defender Lee Dixon and goalkeeping coach Bob Wilson received warm send @-@ offs from the crowd .
= = = Match results = = =
= = = Classification = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C )
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P )
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O )
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q )
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ )
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results summary = = = =
Source :
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Source : Ground : A
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = FA Cup = =
Arsenal entered the FA Cup in the third round , in which they were drawn to play Watford of the First Division . They took the lead in the eighth minute , where good play by Kanu allowed Henry to round goalkeeper Alec Chamberlain and tap the ball into the net . The lead was doubled two minutes later : Kanu again found Henry , who " unselfishly squared the ball to midfielder Freddie Ljungberg for another tap @-@ in . " Gifton Noel @-@ Williams moments afterwards halved the lead , when Arsenal failed to deal with a corner ; Noel @-@ Williams headed the ball in from a Gary Fisken cross . After squandering numerous chances to increase their lead , Arsenal added a late third and fourth goal from Kanu and Bergkamp before Marcus Gayle scored what was a mere consolation for Watford in stoppage time . Arsenal faced cup holders Liverppol the following round , whom they lost to in the 2001 FA Cup Final . A solitary goal scored by Bergkamp in the 27th minute was enough for Arsenal to progress , in a match layered with controversy : Martin Keown , Bergkamp and Liverpool 's Jamie Carragher were sent off in the space of ten minutes – the latter footballer for hurling back a coin at the crowd . Against Gillingham in the fifth round , Arsenal twice had their lead cancelled out , before Adams , making his long awaited return , scored the match @-@ winning goal .
Arsenal played league challengers Newcastle United in the sixth round , on 9 March 2002 . The timing of the game , influenced by the television schedulers , angered Wenger , who threatened to field a weakened side , to prioritise on their Champions League progress : " The BBC have put us in this position of playing at 5.35pm on Saturday night instead of a noon kick @-@ off . I don 't know whether Newcastle would have played the game earlier on the Saturday but what can I do about the BBC ? I feel it 's being very unfair as we are the only side left in all three competitions . " It was the second meeting between both teams in a week , and in spite of Arsenal winning the first fixture and scoring the opener in the cup tie , Newcastle found " new reserves of energy and determination " to draw level and created numerous opportunities to win the game outright . With the game ending in a draw , a replay was scheduled two weeks later . Arsenal won 3 @-@ 0 , but more concerningly lost Pirès , who was carried off and subsequently ruled out for the remainder of the season with medial knee ligament damage . An own goal by Middlesbrough 's Gianluca Festa , from an Henry free @-@ kick in the semi @-@ finals was enough to send Arsenal to their 15th FA Cup final .
= = = Final = = =
Arsenal contested the final against Chelsea on 4 May 2002 . Wenger recalled Seaman in goal from the previous fixture , in place of Wright while Campbell was paired up with Adams in central defence . For Chelsea , Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink and Graeme Le Saux passed late fitness tests and were named in the first team ; John Terry filled the substitutes bench , having woken up with a virus . Chelsea threatened early with goal efforts from Le Saux and midfielder Frank Lampard , before Bergkamp fashioned the first real chance of the match – he headed the ball over the top , which caught goalkeeper Carlo Cudicini off his line . In the 70th minute Arsenal took the lead : Adams found Wiltord in space , who in turn passed the ball towards Parlour – he kicked " from just beyond the arc " , which flew into the top right corner . Ten minutes after , Ljungberg increased the lead , running from the half @-@ way line and shrung off a late challenge by Terry to curl the ball past Cudicini . The win meant Arsenal completed one half of an expected double ; Wenger was pleased with the team 's performance , adding : " We were very frustrated last year . We have shown a lot of strength to come back here – beating Liverpool and Newcastle on the way . "
= = Football League Cup = =
In the third round of the Football League Cup , Arsenal faced Manchester United at Highbury . With both managers making several first team changes to give their younger and fringe players game time , it was Arsenal who came out on top , with Wiltord scoring a hat @-@ trick . A 2 – 0 win against First Division outfit Grimsby Town , who knocked out competition holders Liverpool in the previous round followed , but Arsenal was eliminated in the fifth round , losing 4 – 0 to Blackburn Rovers on 11 December 2001 . Wenger shrugged off the significance of the defeat and suggested that a spot in Europe , given to the winners of the competition , should instead be allocated to the Premier League : " I would give one more place to the championship because it 's more difficult to play in the championship . But , as long as there is a European place at stake , we will play in the competition . "
= = UEFA Champions League = =
= = = Group stage = = =
Arsenal 's qualification into the UEFA Champions League was ensured as league runners @-@ up the previous season . The club were drawn in Group B , along with German opposition Schalke 04 , Panathinaikos of Greece and Spain 's Mallorca . In the opening match against Mallorca on 11 September 2001 , Cole was handed a straight red card , as he was adjudged to have brought down striker Albert Luque in the penalty box . Vicente Engonga scored from the resulting penalty , which proved to be the winning goal , in spite of Wenger making attacking substitutions that threatened to go close . A 3 – 2 victory against Schalke 04 , where Henry scored two goals was followed by a defeat away to Panathinaikos . In the reverse fixture , Arsenal held on to win 2 – 1 and secured their passage to the second group stage with victory over Mallorca . With nothing to play for , Wenger fielded an understrength Arsenal team against Schalke 04 , who " ... produced next to nothing in attack , looked poor in defence and were beaten by the time Sylvain Wiltord scored from Ray Parlour 's cross . "
= = = Second group stage = = =
First half goals scored by Roy Makaay and Diego Tristan inflicted defeat for Arsenal in their opening group game against Deportivo La Coruña . The team responded with a 3 – 1 win against Italian champions Juventus ; Ljungberg 's second goal of the match and Arsenal 's third involved a " wonderful piece of individual skill " by Bergkamp , as he held off two markers , before twisting and turning to find the Swede . What looked to be a priceless win against Bayer Leverkusen at the BayArena as Arsenal for much of the second half were down to ten men , in fact turned into a draw , as Ulf Kirsten scored in stoppage time to cancel out Pirès 56th @-@ minute goal . In spite of winning the reverse fixture , defeat at home to Deportivo La Coruña and away at Juventus meant Arsenal finished third in the group with seven points .
= = Awards = =
In recognition of the team 's achievement , Wenger was awarded the Barclaycard Manager of the Year , in addition to being named the League Managers Association Manager of the Year . Ljungberg , who scored in five of Arsenal 's last eight league matches , as well as the second goal in the cup final , was given the Barclaycard Player of the Year accolade . Pirès was named the Football Writers ' Association Footballer of the Year , with five votes separating himself from Ruud van Nistelrooy ; he said it was " a great honour " to receive the award , adding : " Times have been difficult with my injury , but this has given me something to smile about . "
For his goal against Newcastle United , Bergkamp received the Goal of the Season award , as voted by viewers of ITV 's The Premiership . Henry earned the Premier League Golden Boot , scoring 24 league goals – one more than van Nistelrooy , while Paul Burgess was named " Premier League Groundsman of the Year " .
= = Player statistics = =
[ R ] – Reserve team player [ L ] – Out on loan [ S ] – Sold
Source :
= New York State Route 12E =
New York State Route 12E ( NY 12E ) is a state highway located entirely within the northwestern part of Jefferson County in northern New York in the United States . Officially , the southern terminus of NY 12E is at NY 12 in the city of Watertown ; however , its signed terminus is at NY 12F in the village of Brownville . Its northern terminus , both signed and official , is at NY 12 in the village of Clayton . While NY 12 follows a direct north – south routing between Watertown and Clayton , NY 12E diverges westward to follow the shoreline of Lake Ontario . The portion of NY 12E north of its junction with NY 180 is part of the Seaway Trail , a National Scenic Byway .
Most of modern NY 12E was originally designated as part of NY 3 in 1924 . NY 3 was moved onto its current alignment east of Watertown as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , at which time its former routing between Watertown and Clayton became NY 12E . From Watertown to Limerick , what is now NY 12E was originally NY 12F . The alignments of the two routes were flipped in the late 1930s . In 1980 , Jefferson County assumed maintenance of NY 12E between the Watertown city line and Brownville as part of a highway maintenance swap between the county and the state . This section is now county @-@ maintained as County Route 190 ( CR 190 ) .
= = Route description = =
= = = Watertown and Brownville = = =
NY 12E begins at the intersection of West Main and Bradley ( NY 12 ) streets in the city of Watertown . It initially proceeds northwest on West Main Street as a four @-@ lane residential and commercial street ; however , it becomes a two @-@ lane divided highway at a CSX Transportation railroad overpass just six blocks from NY 12 . Past the crossing , the road follows the Black River across the city line and into the town of Pamelia , where it becomes co @-@ designated as CR 190 . The highway soon passes under Interstate 81 and narrows to a two @-@ lane undivided road before turning westward into the riverside village of Glen Park . It retains its Main Street name through the community , following a two @-@ lane residential street through the village center and eventually into the adjacent village of Brownville .
In Brownville , the route intersects with the northern terminus of Bridge Street ( unsigned NY 971H ) , a short north – south connector leading to NY 12F on the south bank of the Black River . At this point , the CR 190 co @-@ designation ends and maintenance of the route becomes the responsibility of the state . Through Brownville , NY 12E remains a two @-@ lane residential and commercial street , intersecting with the southern terminus of CR 54 ( Brown Boulevard ) near the Brownville Hotel , a National Register of Historic Places @-@ listed ( NRHP ) property . At the western edge of the village , NY 12E passes Brownville Cemetery before leaving for the surrounding town of Brownville and losing the Main Street name . The highway parallels a former railroad right @-@ of @-@ way as it heads through the town of Brownville , becoming a two @-@ lane rural highway and gradually bending northeastward away from the riverbank .
About 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the center of Brownville , NY 12E intersects with CR 53 ( Cemetery Road ) , an east – west highway linking the state route to the nearby village of Dexter . NY 12E continues on , passing just east of Dexter Cemetery and traversing an undeveloped rural area to reach the hamlet of Limerick . Within the community , it serves mostly residential areas and remains two lanes wide . In the center of the hamlet , the highway intersects with NY 180 , a road leading to Dexter in the south and the Thousand Islands region in the north . Also present at the junction is the Seaway Trail , a National Scenic Byway that enters from the south on NY 180 and exits to the west on NY 12E . NY 12E leaves Limerick after this junction and continues through the town of Brownville , bending slightly to the northeast at a junction with CR 59 ( North Shore Road ) 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Limerick at the Brownville – Lyme town line .
= = = Lyme and Cape Vincent = = =
After this junction , NY 12E crosses Guffin Creek on its way into the village of Chaumont . Here , NY 12E becomes Main Street again as it transitions from a rural highway back to a residential street . In the southern part of Chaumont , the route connects to CR 125 , at which point NY 12E begins to pass by a mix of commercial and residential properties . It crosses over a small creek leading away from Chaumont Bay before turning slightly westward and entering the Chaumont Historic District . Just past the district , the route intersects with CR 179 ( Evans Street ) , formerly part of NY 179 . After this junction , NY 12E crosses over the Chaumont River and leaves the village limits at a junction with CR 8 ( Johnny Cake Road ) .
Through the surrounding town of Lyme , NY 12E reverts to a two @-@ lane rural highway as it proceeds west into the hamlet of Herrick Grove , located 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Chaumont . Here , the highway heads along a short commercial strip and intersects with the southern terminus of CR 5 ( Depot and Church streets ) off the shore of Chaumont Bay . After leaving Herrick Grove , NY 12E enters the nearby hamlet of Three Mile Bay , which comprises a few homes and a junction with CR 57 ( Carrying Road ) . Past Three Mile Bay , the route makes a gradual bend to the northwest , leaving Lyme for the town of Cape Vincent , where NY 12E intersects with Bedford Corners Road ( former CR 56 ) roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the town line . Heading northwest through the rural town , the route crosses over Kents Creek and intersects with CR 4 on its way into the village of Cape Vincent , located at the point where Lake Ontario meets the St. Lawrence River .
Inside the village limits , NY 12E becomes known as Market Street . It heads north as a two @-@ lane residential street , passing the NRHP @-@ listed John Borland House on its way to the south bank of the St. Lawrence River . Here , it intersects with Broadway , an east – west village street connecting to CR 6 west of the village . NY 12E turns northeastward on Broadway , passing through the Broadway Historic District and serving the NRHP @-@ listed Vincent LeRay House . Two blocks from Market Street , NY 12E intersects with James Street , which leads to Wolfe Island via Horne 's Ferry . At its north end , the ferry connects to what was once Highway 95 in Ontario , Canada . Past James Street , NY 12E follows Broadway through a commercial area that continues to the eastern village limits .
= = = St. Lawrence River corridor = = =
Outside of the village of Cape Vincent , NY 12E loses the Broadway moniker , passing St. Vincent of Paul Cemetery and a mobile home park as it runs northeastward along the St. Lawrence River . About 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the village , the route passes an intersection with Carleton Drive , which serves a ferry linking Carleton Island to the river 's south bank . After Carleton Drive , the route continues northeast through the town of Cape Vincent , passing another mobile home park and Burnham Point State Park . The route continues on , entering the adjacent hamlets of Sunnybank and Millins Bay . In the latter , NY 12E intersects with CR 7 , a riverside highway serving a small community located between the river and NY 12E .
At the northern end of Millins Bay , CR 7 merges back into NY 12E , and the latter highway continues along the St. Lawrence River through the northern reaches of the town . Not far from the eastern town line , the route intersects with CR 9 ( Sand Bay Road ) and passes the Cape Vincent Correctional Facility and Cedar Point State Park , located on opposite sides of the highway . After the correctional facility , NY 12E crosses into the town of Clayton , where the route remains a two @-@ lane rural riverside highway . Roughly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) into the town , the route bends slightly to the east and intersects with the northern terminus of CR 4 ( Fish Pond Road ) , which intersected NY 12E back in the town of Cape Vincent .
Past the junction with CR 4 , NY 12E bends back to the northeast , passing more riverside residences and a handful of farms before entering the village of Clayton . In the village , NY 12E becomes known as State Street as it crosses over an inlet from the St. Lawrence River . The bridge over the waterway brings the route into Clayton 's downtown portion , where it intersects with NY 12 ( James Street ) . This intersection serves as the northern terminus of NY 12E , as State Street continues northeastward as part of NY 12 .
= = History = =
In 1924 , NY 3 was assigned to the New York portion of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway , an auto trail that extended from Portland , Maine , to Portland , Oregon . In New York , it connected North Tonawanda ( near Niagara Falls ) in the west to Plattsburgh in the east via Rochester and Watertown . In Jefferson County , the trail and NY 3 entered Watertown on modern U.S. Route 11 and exited on what is now NY 12F . At Dexter , NY 3 turned north to follow current NY 180 and NY 12E to Clayton , where it continued eastward on modern NY 12 .
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 3 was rerouted to exit Watertown to the east on its modern alignment . The former alignment of NY 3 from Watertown to Clayton was redesignated as NY 12E . At the same time , an alternate route of NY 12E extending from the modern junction of NY 12E and NY 180 to downtown Watertown along the northern bank of the Black River was designated as NY 12F . The alignments of NY 12E and NY 12F east of what is now NY 180 were swapped c . 1939 , placing both routes on their current alignments .
On August 1 , 1979 , maintenance of NY 12E between Bridge Street in Brownville and the Watertown city line was transferred from the state of New York to Jefferson County as part of a larger highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . In return , the state assumed maintenance of Bridge Street in Brownsville and the town of Hounsfield , among other highways . Following the swap , the segment of NY 12E between Bridge Street and the Watertown city limits became concurrent with CR 190 while Bridge Street became NY 971H , an unsigned reference route . The section of NY 12E within the city of Watertown is locally maintained .
Current signage along NY 12E indicates that the route has been rerouted east of Bridge Street to follow NY 971H across the Black River to a terminus at NY 12F . However , the 2012 New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) description of routes in New York and the 2008 NYSDOT Traffic Data Report both indicate that NY 12E 's southern terminus is still located at NY 12 in downtown Watertown .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Jefferson County .
= New Zealand Labour Party leadership election , 2011 =
The New Zealand Labour Party leadership election , 2011 was held on 13 December 2011 to choose the thirteenth leader of the New Zealand Labour Party . A deputy leader and a senior and a junior whip were also elected . Following the Labour Party 's loss in the 2011 general election , leader Phil Goff and deputy leader Annette King resigned , prompting the leadership election , which was conducted as a secret ballot of the Labour caucus .
David Cunliffe , David Shearer and David Parker stood for the leadership , and Nanaia Mahuta and Grant Robertson contested the deputy position . Cunliffe and Mahuta ran as a ticket . During the campaign Parker pulled out of the race and endorsed Shearer . Shearer and Robertson won the votes for their respective positions . Chris Hipkins and Darien Fenton were chosen as the senior and junior whips , respectively .
= = Background = =
At the 2008 general election , the Fifth Labour Government , led by Helen Clark , was defeated by John Key 's National Party . Following Clark 's election @-@ night resignation , Phil Goff was unanimously elected as the party 's leader , with Annette King as deputy , and Darren Hughes and Steve Chadwick as the senior and junior whips , respectively . The party lost more support in the 26 November 2011 general election ; its popular vote dipped to 27 % – its worst @-@ ever result under the mixed @-@ member proportional representation system – and its number of MPs was reduced from forty @-@ three to thirty @-@ four . On 29 November 2011 , Goff and King announced their resignations , effective 13 December . New whips also had to be chosen because Rick Barker ( who replaced Hughes as the senior whip in April 2011 , following Hughes leaving Parliament ) and Chadwick were not re @-@ elected to Parliament .
= = Candidates = =
Former Cabinet ministers David Cunliffe ( MP for New Lynn ) and Nanaia Mahuta ( Hauraki @-@ Waikato ) ran as a ticket for the leadership and deputy leadership , respectively . Former minister and list MP David Parker and Mount Albert by @-@ election , 2009 winner David Shearer were candidates for the party leadership , and Wellington Central representative Grant Robertson sought the deputy leadership . Shane Jones considered standing for the deputy leadership , but in the end did not run . Parker stated his preference for Robertson as deputy leader . Shearer did not indicate a preferred deputy .
Shearer was viewed as unlikely to win the election ; Claire Trevett of The New Zealand Herald originally expected that only Cunliffe and Parker would run for the leader 's role , and The Dominion Post 's Vernon Small wrote that " Mr Shearer 's bid is seen as a way to lift his profile " . Political commentator Bryce Edwards said that Cunliffe was the more appealing candidate to the public , and described Parker and Robertson as " sort of Phil Goff clones " .
= = Campaign = =
Labour Party president Moira Coatsworth stated that the leadership contest would be a " robust contest of ideas " , and suggested to the party 's caucus that a series of meetings with party members be held around New Zealand . These were held from 6 to 11 December in six major cities — Hamilton , Palmerston North , Wellington , Christchurch , Dunedin and Auckland . The party membership was then encouraged to give feedback to the party caucus , who would vote in the election . On 30 November Cunliffe , Parker and Shearer were interviewed by Mark Sainsbury on the current affairs programme Close Up . The television show held a text message poll in which viewers voted for their preferred leader of the party . Over 7 @,@ 500 people took part ; Shearer received 50 % of the support , Cunliffe 31 % and Parker 19 % . The following day , Parker pulled out of the leadership race and put his support behind Shearer . Shearer and Cunliffe were interviewed by Guyon Espiner on political talkshow Q + A on 4 December . During the interview , both candidates indicated their support for the introduction of a capital gains tax , which was a key part of Labour 's tax policy during the 2011 general election campaign . Both also disagreed with the 2008 Employment Relations Amendment Act ( 90 @-@ day workplace trial ) , and wanted New Zealand to invest further in research and development ; Shearer mentioned striving for a more green economy . On 9 December , Horizon Research released a demographically @-@ weighted survey which found that 35 @.@ 4 % of adult New Zealanders supported Shearer 's bid for the leadership , and 19 @.@ 9 % backed Cunliffe .
= = Outcome and aftermath = =
The election took place on 13 December 2011 and comprised a secret ballot of the thirty @-@ four Labour caucus members , meaning a candidate had to receive the support of eighteen MPs to win . Shearer was elected the party leader , Robertson the deputy leader , Chris Hipkins the senior whip and Darien Fenton the junior whip . Upon election , Shearer stated , " I am a fresh face for Labour and I represent a fresh start for New Zealand . " Espiner reported that Shearer received about twenty @-@ two of the thirty @-@ four votes for the leadership position , and a 3 News source claimed a similar number ; however , Coatsworth stipulated that the election was secret and that she was the only person who had access to the ballot papers , which were destroyed . Robertson and Jacinda Ardern publicly supported Shearer , and Carmel Sepuloni backed Cunliffe .
On 19 December , Shearer announced a reshuffle of the Labour front bench — Parker replaced Cunliffe in the finance portfolio and number three ranking , Ardern took the number four spot as social development spokesperson , while Cunliffe moved down to number five and gained the economic development portfolio . Clayton Cosgrove ( number six ) became responsible for state owned enterprises and commerce , Jones ( number seven ) took regional development and fisheries and Mahuta ( number eight ) picked up education . Shearer himself took the science and innovation portfolio , while Robertson was made environment spokesperson .
= M @-@ 189 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 189 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It serves as the continuation of Highway 139 ( WIS 139 ) from Wisconsin into Michigan , connecting to US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) in Iron River . M @-@ 189 has been largely unchanged since being designated in the 1930s , although a new bridge over the Brule River at the state line was built in 1988 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 189 starts at the Wisconsin state line in the middle of a bridge crossing the Brule River that connects to WIS 139 . The highway runs to the northeast away from the river through forests . The trunkline turns north and curving to the east to run past Laurel Lake . The highway forks at the junction with Caspian Cutoff Road ( County Road 651 ) ; M @-@ 189 takes the northwesterly fork and runs around the west side of Caspian . The roadway passes the Iron River County Club as the highway begins to parallel the Iron River . M @-@ 189 follows Selden Road north through the southside of the city of Iron River , continuing as 4th Street into downtown . The trunkline ends at a junction with US 2 ( Adams Street ) in the middle of town .
No part of M @-@ 189 is listed on the National Highway System . In 2009 , the Michigan Department of Transportation conducted a survey to determine the traffic volume along the highway , reported using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . The department determined that 892 vehicles a day used the highway near the state line while 5 @,@ 308 vehicles used the central section through Caspian . The northernmost segment near US 2 had an AADT of 4 @,@ 079 vehicles .
= = History = =
The Michigan State Highway Department designated M @-@ 189 as a state trunkline highway in late 1932 or early 1933 . During the latter half of 1936 , the department paved the highway in its entirety . The route has remained the same since . The current bridge across the Brule River was built in 1988 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Iron County .
= Blackburn Olympic F.C. =
Blackburn Olympic Football Club was an English football club based in Blackburn , Lancashire in the late 19th century . Although the club was only in existence for just over a decade , it is significant in the history of football in England as the first club from the north of the country and the first from a working @-@ class background to win the country 's leading competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup ( FA Cup ) . The cup had previously been won only by teams of wealthy amateurs from the Home counties , and Olympic 's victory marked a turning point in the sport 's transition from a pastime for upper @-@ class gentlemen to a professional sport .
The club was formed in 1878 and initially took part only in minor local competitions . In 1880 , the club entered the FA Cup for the first time , and three years later defeated Old Etonians at Kennington Oval to win the trophy . Olympic , however , proved unable to compete with wealthier and better @-@ supported clubs in the new professional era , and folded in 1889 .
Most of Olympic 's home matches took place at the Hole @-@ i ' -th @-@ Wall stadium , named after an adjacent public house . From 1880 onwards , the club 's first @-@ choice colours consisted of light blue shirts and white shorts . One Olympic player , James Ward , was selected for the England team and six other former or future England internation | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
locations included Wembley , Borough Market , Hayes and Stonehenge . Alexander tweeted that principal photography wrapped on December 14 , 2012 . Disney spent $ 237 @.@ 6 million on Thor : The Dark World but $ 37 million of this was offset by payments from the UK tax authority .
Kramer Morgenthau , who worked with Taylor on Game of Thrones , was brought in as the director of photography . Morgenthau said , " We wanted a grittier , boots @-@ on @-@ the @-@ ground feeling , inspired by what Alan and I had done on Game of Thrones . We wanted the realms to feel grounded , like a real place , while at the same time respecting the magical ' planet of the Gods ' feeling and theme . " Thor : The Dark World was Morgenthau 's first time shooting a feature film digitally . For the film , Morgenthau chose the Arri Alexa Plus , although he tested with the Sony F65 but found the Alexa to be more pleasing . In addition to the Alexa , Red Epic and Canon EOS 5D Mark II cameras were used for second unit filming . With the Alexa , Morgenthau used Panavision anamorphic lenses . Morgenthau said , " The lenses brought some of the magic and mystery of photochemical back to digital , that big @-@ movie look . " Morgenthau also stated that Thor : The Dark World was easily the most technically complex project that he has worked but said , " It 's all the same concept and the same principles as in a smaller film . You just scale it up . You do a lot more prep . We had three months of prep and loads of time to pre @-@ rig stages . Part of it is having a really good crew — it 's definitely not a one @-@ man show . "
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
In July 2013 , Dennings told reporters that the film was about to head into reshoots . In August , Taylor said he shot extra scenes with Hiddleston and was about to shoot more with Hopkins . Taylor explained that it was all a part of the " Marvel process " saying , " We 're doing full scenes , scenes that were not in the movie before . We 're adding scenes , creating scenes , writing scenes for the first time . The one [ involving Loki ] was a fun connective scene ... We realised how well Loki was working in the movie , and we wanted to do more with him . So it was that kind of thing , it was like , ' Oh , we could do this , we could jam this in here ' because he 's such a wonderful guy to watch do his stuff . " Also in August , IMAX Corporation and Marvel Entertainment announced that the film would be digitally re @-@ mastered into the IMAX 3D format and released into IMAX 3D theatres internationally beginning October 30 , 2013 .
Taylor said Marvel 's The Avengers writer / director Joss Whedon rewrote several scenes in the film explaining , " Joss came in to save our lives a couple of times . We had a major scene that was not working on the page at all in London , and he basically got airlifted in , like a SWAT team or something . He came down , rewrote the scene , and before he got back to his plane I sort of grabbed him and said , ' And this scene and this scene ? ' And he rewrote two other scenes that I thought had problems . " In October 2013 , Tony Curran tweeted that he would be portraying Odin 's father , Bor , in a flashback sequence . In November 2013 , Feige stated that the film was intended to be the conclusion of the " Loki trilogy " , which examined the relationship of Thor and Loki throughout Thor , The Avengers and this film . The film 's mid @-@ credits scene was directed by James Gunn , the director of Marvel Studios ' Guardians of the Galaxy .
The film 's visual effects were completed by seven special effects studios , including Double Negative and Luma Pictures . Blur Studio was the lead studio behind the film 's prologue sequence taking place 5 @,@ 000 years before the start of the film , on the Dark Elves homeworld of Svartalfheim . The sequence consisted mostly of computer graphics with live @-@ action shots interwoven throughout . The use of CG allowed for greater freedom of movement by the characters as the live @-@ action costumes were too constrictive .
Taylor wanted Asgard in this film to have a more natural look than its predecessor . To achieve this , crews filmed the coast of Norway with an Arri Alexa camera for three days in a helicopter , capturing six hours of footage . Double Negative then embedded their CG rendering of Asgard on shots of the natural landscape . Double Negative visual effects supervisor Alex Wuttke said , " The benefit of that is that you have some real world terrain to work with – so you have buildings that have to convey natural features . Then from there we went in there populating the terrain with different buildings . " For scenes taking place on Svartalfheim , production filmed in Iceland with Double Negative adding ruins , mountains , Dark Elf ships , and skies .
For the shot of the levitating truck , which was used in the film to demonstrate the strange phenomena brought on by the coming of the alignment of the worlds , filmmakers attached a cement truck to a large hydraulic rig , which could be programmed to change speed and movement . In order to create Algrim 's transformation into Kurse , Double Negative morphed live action performances of Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje as both Algrim and Kurse . Double Negative then added in smoke and lava @-@ like effects .
The film 's climatic battle sequence takes place through the nine worlds by the use of portals . Visual effects supervisor Jake Morrison said , " We ended up calling this ' time toffee ' , so as you punch through from one realm to another it 's almost like cling film or a slightly gelatinous membrane you have to pass through . It bends a little bit then rips and spits the person out . The other thing we wanted to do was to make sure it was quite fast from an editorial point of view . In the fight scenes there are times when Thor and Malekith are portaling all over the place , quite frankly . We made sure we always kept up the momentum and never stopped the fight . It was a way of making sure the audience weren 't conscious there was an effect going on . "
= = Music = =
In August 2012 , Patrick Doyle said that he had discussions with the director about potentially returning to score the film . By April 2013 , Carter Burwell had been hired to compose the score , but by the following month he left the film over creative differences . In June 2013 , Marvel hired Brian Tyler , who scored Iron Man 3 , to replace Burwell . Tyler said the previous film had an " attitude and [ was ] grounded in limitations " whereas the Thor film allowed for " all @-@ out regal themes that could be as epic as I could make them . " The composer described The Dark World as " science fiction meeting classic medieval war " , leading to a score that drew from works of both genres such as Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings . Azam Ali is a featured vocalist on the score . The soundtrack was released digitally on October 28 , 2013 .
= = Release = =
The world premiere of Thor : The Dark World took place on October 22 , 2013 , at the Odeon Leicester Square in London . The film was released theatrically in the UK eight days later , on October 30 . The film held its North American premiere at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , and was released into U.S. theaters on November 7 , 2013 .
= = = Marketing = = =
In March 2013 , Marvel announced the release of a two @-@ issue comic book prelude by writers Craig Kyle and Christopher Yost and artist Scot Eaton in June 2013 . In April 2013 , Marvel released the first trailer for Thor : The Dark World . Forbes said , " This trailer fits nicely into that larger marketing push for Marvel 's brand . It puts all of the recognizable characters from the first film front and center , presents the action as a team event reminiscent of the Avengers , and once again Loki — who was quite popular with audiences — makes an appearance . " The Los Angeles Times said , " Evident throughout the trailer is director Alan Taylor 's influence ; the Game of Thrones director 's hand can be seen in the battle sequences , and Asgard — a bright and shiny kingdom under Thor director Kenneth Branagh — seems grittier in the sequel . " In July at the 2013 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Hiddleston introduced footage from the film to audiences in character as Loki . Also in July , Gameloft announced that a mobile video game titled , Thor the Dark World : The Official Game , would be released in conjunction with the release of the film in November .
The theatrical poster for the film was released in early August 2013 . Kirsten Acuna of Business Insider criticized the poster for its lack of originality , noting its similarities to one of the posters of Iron Man 3 , both of which included the female lead clinging to the male lead , with both looking in opposite directions , antagonists prominently displayed in the background and supporting characters featured " on the side " . Additionally , Marvel released a second trailer for the film as part of YouTube 's Geek Week . Forbes said , " this 150 @-@ second trailer is basically just an extended version of last April 's 106 @-@ second teaser " and that " this trailer fails to showcase what 's new this time around ... making audiences question if they really don 't have much else to offer . " The Los Angeles Times said , that the trailer suggests " an ominous , epic scale for the sequel " and that " the collaboration between Thor and Loki promises to be especially interesting . " Later in the month , producer Kevin Feige and cast members Tom Hiddleston , Natalie Portman and Anthony Hopkins presented additional footage at Disney 's D23 Expo .
Also in August 2013 , Disney announced plans to promote the film with an attraction at Disneyland . The attraction called Thor : Treasures of Asgard , located next to the Stark Industries exhibit inside Innoventions in Tomorrowland , opened on November 1 , 2013 and features displays of Asgardian relics and transports guests to Odin 's throne room , where they are greeted by Thor . The eighth episode of Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , titled " The Well " , takes place in the aftermath of the events of Thor : The Dark World . It first aired on November 19 , 2013 . Jaimie Alexander reprised her role as Sif in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode " Yes Men " , which aired on March 11 , 2014 .
= = = Home media = = =
Thor : The Dark World was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment for digital download on February 4 , 2014 , and on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD on February 25 , 2014 . The physical media release includes deleted scenes , extended scenes , a gag reel , audio commentary by the cast and crew , and a Marvel One @-@ Shot short film entitled All Hail the King , featuring Ben Kingsley reprising his role as Trevor Slattery from Iron Man 3 .
The film was also collected in a 13 @-@ disc box set , titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase Two Collection " , which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on December 8 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Thor : The Dark World earned $ 206 @.@ 4 million in North America and $ 438 @.@ 2 million in other markets for a worldwide total of $ 644 @.@ 6 million . It surpassed the gross of its predecessor after just 19 days of its release . Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $ 139 @.@ 4 million , when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film .
= = = = North America = = = =
Thor : The Dark World made an estimated $ 7 @.@ 1 million in Thursday night showings , more than double the midnight gross of its predecessor . On Friday , November 7 , 2013 , the film topped the box office with $ 31 @.@ 9 million ( including Thursday night earnings ) , which is 25 % higher than the original film 's opening @-@ day gross . Through Sunday , the film remained at the No. 1 spot with $ 85 @.@ 7 million , which is a 30 % increase over its predecessor 's opening weekend . This was the largest November opening for a film distributed by Disney , surpassing The Incredibles . Thor : The Dark World topped the box office in North America during its first two weekends , before being overtaken by The Hunger Games : Catching Fire in its third weekend .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
On its midweek opening day of Wednesday , October 30 , 2013 , Thor : The Dark World earned $ 8 @.@ 2 million from 33 territories , including the UK and France , where it opened higher than its predecessor . During its first three days , the film earned $ 45 @.@ 2 million , and by the end of the weekend , after expanding into three more territories , it totaled $ 109 @.@ 4 million over five days , finishing in first place in all 36 countries . Its largest openings were recorded in China ( $ 21 @.@ 0 million ) , the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 13 @.@ 8 million ) and France and the Maghreb region ( $ 9 @.@ 94 million ) . It topped the box office outside North America on its first three weekends of release . In total earnings , its largest markets are China ( $ 55 @.@ 3 million ) , Russia and the CIS ( $ 35 @.@ 4 million ) and the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 31 @.@ 4 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 67 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 2 / 10 based on 245 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " It may not be the finest film to come from the Marvel Universe , but Thor : The Dark World still offers plenty of the humor and high @-@ stakes action that fans have come to expect . " Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 54 out of 100 based on 44 reviews , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an " A- " average , based on a grading scale ranging from A + to F.
Ben Child of The Guardian said , " Thanks to Hiddleston and Hemsworth 's impressive collective charisma , Thor : The Dark World is far from a franchise killer . " Justin Chang of Variety wrote , " This robust , impersonal visual @-@ effects showpiece proves buoyant and unpretentious enough to offset its stew of otherwise derivative fantasy / action elements . " Alonso Duralde of The Wrap said , " Thor : The Dark World delivers the goods — action , otherworldly grandiosity , romance , humor — above and beyond its predecessor " . Simon Abrams , writing for RogerEbert.com said , " There 's just enough tension and humor in Thor : The Dark World to make the film 's otherwise listless proceedings worth watching , but only just . " Echoing other critics ' sentiments , Frank Lovece of Film Journal International wrote , " Is it wrong that the best relationship in Thor : The Dark World is between the titular Norse @-@ god superhero and his adoptive brother Loki ? To take nothing away from Oscar @-@ winner Natalie Portman , ... it 's the complicated love @-@ hate between Thor and the trickster god Loki that you can 't turn your eyes from . "
Conversely , Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph said , " It feels entirely made by committee — the definition of house style , without a personal stamp in sight . " Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter said , " Although director Alan Taylor manages to get things going properly for the final battle in London , the long stretches before that on Asgard and the other branches of Yggdrasil are a drag , like filler episodes of Game of Thrones but without the narrative complexity , mythical heft or all @-@ pervading sexiness . " Michael Phillips of the Los Angeles Times described Thor : The Dark World as having the " same old threats of galaxy annihilation spiced with fairly entertaining fish @-@ out @-@ of @-@ water jokes " . Jeannette Catsoulis of The New York Times said , " the battle scenes are as lacking in heat and coherence as the central love story " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences placed Thor : The Dark World on its shortlist of potential nominees for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects but ultimately did not nominate it for the award .
= = Sequel = =
Thor : Ragnarok is scheduled to be released on November 3 , 2017 , directed by Taika Waititi . Stephany Folsom will write the screenplay , with Kevin Feige again producing . Hemsworth , Hiddleston , Alexander , Hopkins and Elba will reprise their roles as Thor , Loki , Sif , Odin , and Heimdall , respectively , while Mark Ruffalo will appear as Bruce Banner / Hulk reprising his role from previous MCU films . Cate Blanchett , Tessa Thompson , Jeff Goldblum and Karl Urban join the cast as Hela , Valkyrie , Grandmaster , and Skurge , respectively .
= Curt Roberts =
Curtis " Curt " Benjamin Roberts ( August 16 , 1929 – November 14 , 1969 ) was an American baseball second baseman who played three seasons for the Pittsburgh Pirates in Major League Baseball from 1954 to 1956 . He was signed by the Boston Braves as an amateur free agent before the 1951 season , and obtained by Pittsburgh a year later . After two seasons in the Pirates farm system , Roberts was the first black Major League player for the Pirates . After becoming the starting second baseman for the Pirates in his rookie year , Roberts ' playing time decreased and he was out of the Majors within three seasons . He played for multiple teams in the minor leagues before retiring from professional baseball in 1963 .
A native of Pineland , Texas , but raised in Oakland , California , Roberts was considered short by Major League standards , standing 5 ft 8 in ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) . Roberts was a skilled defensive player who could not hit with enough proficiency to remain in the major leagues . Roberts died when an automobile struck him while he was changing a tire on his car . His former Pirates teammates only learned of his death 20 years later when being interviewed for a newspaper article . Although Roberts ' career was short , it paved the way for other black players to debut for the Pirates , the most notable of whom was future Baseball Hall of Famer Roberto Clemente .
= = Early professional career = =
Roberts was born in Pineland , Texas but grew up in Oakland , California . He attended McClymonds High School in West Oakland , the same high school future professional athletes Frank Robinson , Vada Pinson , Bill Russell and Curt Flood all went to within a few years of each other . Soon after finishing high school at the age of 17 , Roberts began his professional career with the Kansas City Monarchs in the Negro Leagues . He played four seasons ( 1947 – 1950 ) with the Monarchs , where his teammates included Satchel Paige , Hilton Smith , Buck O 'Neil and Elston Howard . Roberts was signed by the Boston Braves in 1951 by the recommendation of scout Andy Cohen , who saw him play in the Mexican League during the 1950 off @-@ season . They sent Roberts to their minor leagues affiliate in the Western League , the Denver Bears where Cohen was the manager . Prior to the 1952 season , the Bears became an affiliate of the Pittsburgh Pirates , and as part of a working agreement between the Braves and the Pirates , Roberts became a member of the Pirates organization for a $ 10 @,@ 000 sum . Originally a shortstop in the Negro Leagues , he became a second baseman during his tenure with the Bears , and started to build a reputation as an excellent fielder , leading all minor league second basemen in fielding percentage in 1953 . He stayed with the Bears for the next two seasons , playing a combined total of 280 games with 15 home runs and a .285 batting average .
= = Major League career = =
Prior to the 1954 Pittsburgh Pirates season , the local black community in Pittsburgh pressurized the team to integrate their roster , as other teams such as the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants had done . To speed up the integration , the black community began to protest against the Pirates and boycotted Pirate home games . The general manager of the Pirates at the time was Branch Rickey , who seven years earlier as general manager of the Dodgers signed Jackie Robinson , the first black Major League Baseball player . After playing two years in the Pirates minor league system , Roberts made his major league debut on April 13 , 1954 at Forbes Field , against the Philadelphia Phillies to become the first black player in Pirates ' history . Prior to the game Rickey gave a speech to Roberts and his wife that was similar to that he gave to Robinson before his first game in 1947 . In the speech , Rickey explained to Roberts that he needed to have a " very even temper " in order to succeed in the Major Leagues as racial abuse from the spectators was a common occurrence . Rickey later said that he selected Roberts to become the Pirates first black player owing to his skills and calm demeanor . In his first major league at bat , Roberts tripled against starting pitcher Robin Roberts . He also had a double in the game . Roberts hit his only career home run off St. Louis Cardinals starter Joe Presko in an 8 – 5 win on June 11 . He scored three runs , including the winning run in an August 6 game against the Cincinnati Reds . On September 8 , Roberts ' two errors against the Milwaukee Braves proved costly , as the Braves won their 10th game in a row . Roberts finished the 1954 season as the primary starter at second base , batting .232 with one home run and 36 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 134 games .
Roberts started the 1955 season in a slump . In his first six games , Roberts only had two hits in 18 at @-@ bats for a batting average of .118 . On April 17 , in one of the few games he started that season , Roberts ' wild throw to third base led to a Brooklyn Dodgers run , the decisive factor in a 3 – 2 Pirates loss . It was thought that the racial pressure on Roberts was affecting his ability , so to help him , Dodgers second baseman Jackie Robinson wrote a letter to Roberts discussing how to handle his emotions and offering words of encouragement . However , Roberts was soon demoted back to the minor leagues and spent the rest of the 1955 season with the Hollywood Stars in the Pacific Coast League . While with the Stars Roberts broke the Pacific Coast League record for most consecutive games without an error at second base with 40 . He also missed playing time after suffering a concussion when he was hit by a pitch delivered by Bubba Church .
Roberts and teammate Johnny O 'Brien competed for the second base job prior to the 1956 season . Roberts played 31 games at the beginning of the year , hitting .177 with four runs batted in , mostly in a backup role , before losing his job to future Baseball Hall of Famer Bill Mazeroski . On May 1 , Roberts succeeded in getting a game @-@ winning , two @-@ RBI , ninth @-@ inning double off " Vinegar Bend " Mitzell of the St. Louis Cardinals . Two days later , Roberts made his last career RBI , a double in the fourth inning in a 5 – 1 victory over the Cincinnati Reds .
= = Later career = =
Roberts was traded to the Kansas City Athletics with pitcher Jack McMahan for Spook Jacobs and $ 5 @,@ 000 cash . He never played a game with the Athletics , who soon sent him to the Columbus Jets of the International League in late June 1956 . Neither Jacobs nor McMahan lasted beyond the 1956 season in the Majors . After being traded to the Athletics , Pittsburgh 's main black newspaper , the Pittsburgh Courier , protested that Roberts never had a real chance in the Majors . However , Pirates general manager Joe L. Brown replied that Roberts was a " fine young man , but a marginal Major Leaguer " . On August 28 , Roberts hit four home runs in one game against the Havana Sugar Kings , becoming only the fifth player in International League history to do so . He had struck only four home runs in 69 previous games with the Jets . Prior to the 1957 season , Roberts was traded to the New York Yankees as the player to be named later in a trade that sent former American League Most Valuable Player Bobby Shantz to the Yankees . In 1957 Roberts played with the New York Yankees minor league affiliate in Denver . At the end of the season , Roberts received several votes in the final tally for Most Valuable Player of the American Association , finishing behind Carl Willey of the Wichita Braves . Roberts never again reached the Majors , becoming a journeyman in the minor leagues and at one point played baseball in Nicaragua .
Roberts played with the Montreal Royals of the International League in 1959 , where he led the league in fielding percentage with .987 and was named the Royals Most Valuable Player . He was also selected to the International League All @-@ Star game that season . In 1960 , Roberts was acquired by the Spokane Indians , a Dodger affiliate after he was made expandable by the Royals when they acquired Chico Carrasquel . He was selected to the Pacific Coast League All @-@ Star squad in 1961 . One week later Roberts suffered a broken leg after colliding with teammate Duke Carmel on the field during a game , practically ending his career . He played two more seasons in the minors , but his playing ability was diminished by the injury and Roberts retired from baseball after the 1963 season .
= = Post @-@ baseball and death = =
Roberts was married with six children . When his baseball career ended , he worked as a security guard for the University of California , Berkeley . He died at the age of 40 in Oakland , California when he was hit by a drunk driver while changing a flat tire on his car . A major piece written by Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette journalist Ed Bouchette discussed Roberts ' career and struggles , calling him a " forgotten pioneer " . Prior to the piece , most of Roberts ' old teammates were unaware that Roberts had died nearly 20 years earlier . His son Curt Roberts Jr. supposedly was working on a book about his father 's life in 1987 .
= = Playing style and statistics = =
Roberts was considered by critics to be an excellent fielder . By 1960 , Roberts was considered to be one of the best second baseman in the minor leagues , primary because he was a " slick fielder " . Former teammate Nellie King called Roberts the best handler of " chopper [ s ] " ( a slang for a ground out ) he had ever seen . According to King , the main reason why Roberts had a short career in the Majors is that the Pirates " didn 't gave him enough time " to develop his skills .
Roberts could not hit with enough proficiency to remain in the Major Leagues . He had a reputation of not " hitting the big @-@ league curve " . In his three seasons with the Pirates , Roberts had a career .223 batting average ( 128 @-@ for @-@ 575 ) with one home run , four runs batted in , 54 runs scored , and an on @-@ base percentage of .299 . In his 164 appearances at second base , he handled 856 out of 883 total chances successfully for a fielding percentage of .969 , a little lower than the league average during his era .
= = Legacy = =
Despite Roberts ' short major league career , he paved the way for other black players to debut for the Pirates , the most notable of whom was future Baseball Hall of Famer Roberto Clemente . He befriended Clemente , teaching him how to handle the racial abuse and the huge pressure that Roberts had suffered with the Pirates . That helped Clemente ease his transition from the Dodgers minor league system , in which they had a decent number of black and Hispanic players , to the main roster of the Pittsburgh Pirates , in which only he , Roberts and third baseman Gene Baker were black . Journalist Tom Singer of MLB.com mentioned that Roberts ' legacy arose mainly from his unsuccessful career with the Pirates . Singer claimed because Roberts was a " flop " , it showed that the public perception of black players having to be a " superstar " to be a member of a Major League club was incorrect , thus making the integration process more " humanized " and easier for black players . With the eight previous players who broke the color barrier for their respective teams , four were later elected to the Hall of Fame , and the other four were stars in their own right .
In 1997 , 28 years after his death , the Pittsburgh Pirates honored Roberts as part of the festivities for Jackie Robinson Day . Roberts was honored again in 2006 for the opening of the Pirates Highmark Legacy Square Negro League exhibit in PNC Park . The families of several Negro League players , including Roberts attended the ceremony . A park in his hometown of Pineland , Texas was dedicated in his honor in 2007 .
= Bramhope Tunnel =
The Bramhope Tunnel is a railway tunnel 2 @.@ 138 miles ( 3 @.@ 441 km ) long , owned by Network Rail on a route currently operated mainly by Northern Rail . It was constructed during 1845 – 1849 on the Harrogate Line , carrying rural and commuter passengers between Horsforth and Arthington in West Yorkshire , England . It is notable for its length , for its crenellated north portal , which is Grade II listed , and for the deaths of 24 men during its construction , commemorated in Otley churchyard with a castellated replica of the north portal .
It was constructed by Thomas Grainger , engineer and James Bray , overseer , who set up two sighting towers and then twenty shafts along the line of the tunnel . Men dug horizontally from these shafts until the diggings joined up in 1848 . Thousands of navvies lived locally in bothies with their families , and dug in dangerous and wet conditions to facilitate the grand opening in 1849 .
= = History = =
The tunnel was first proposed in 1843 with an estimate of £ 800 @,@ 000 approved in 1845 , though the final cost by 1849 was £ 2 @,@ 150 @,@ 313 and the lives of 24 men . Thomas Grainger was the engineer and James Bray was the contracted overseer in 1845 for the construction of the Horsforth – Arthington tunnel under Bramhope and the ridge between Airedale and Wharfedale . Bray was a Leeds iron and brass founder , and previously constructed the Thackley Tunnel , Bradford .
Two sighting towers were built for the engineers to keep the line true , then from 20 October 1845 twenty shafts were sunk to enable access for tunnelling . Tunnelling started after the foundation stone was laid at the bottom of No. 1 airshaft in July 1846 . The separate diggings first joined up into one long tunnel on 27 November 1848 , and it was completed in summer 1849 .
The southern entrance or portal is usually described as plain , but is admired by some . The north portal is castellated , and after it was finished was lived in for a while by railway workers . The north portal was listed Grade II in 1988 . The finished tunnel is 2 miles , 243 yd or 2 @.@ 138 miles ( 3 @.@ 441 km ) long ; 25 @.@ 5 feet ( 7 @.@ 8 m ) wide by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high . It is a double track tunnel , with a gradient of 1 in 94 ( 0 @.@ 01 % ) down from Horsforth to Arthington and at its deepest point , just to the north of Breary Lane , it is 290 feet ( 88 m ) below the surface . The construction was for the Leeds Northern Railway and the East and West Yorkshire Junction Railway , which together later became the North Eastern Railway . The grand opening was 9 July 1849 , but the first train went through on 31 May in the same year , full of Leeds and Thirsk railway officials , and pulled by Bray 's locomotive Stephenson .
= = = Working conditions = = =
There were possibly up to 2 @,@ 300 navvies plus their families , with 400 horses brought in for the work . That is said to include 188 quarrymen , 102 stonemasons , 732 tunnel men , 738 labourers and 18 carpenters . For four years they lived in 200 wooden bothies with their families in a field opposite Bramhope cemetery , alongside offices and workshops . There were 100 more bothies elsewhere along the line of the tunnel . Day – and night – shifters were said to take turns to use the beds , as was normal for sailors of the time . However , sailors had their own bedding to unroll onto the bare bunk or hammock , whereas many navvies may have had little of their own . This tunnel was built at the height of the Hungry Years , and many poor Irish refugees were working on the railways .
Many of the navvies were farm labourers from the Yorkshire Dales , North East England , East Anglia and the Fenlands as well as from Scotland and Ireland . Men were lowered by bucket down the airshafts to dig by candlelight . They were paid £ 1 @.@ 50 per week to shovel 20 tons ( 20 @.@ 32 tonnes ) of rock and earth per 12 – hour shift , seven days a week . Conditions were constantly wet , with foul air and gunpowder fumes plus the danger of roof – collapse . This was because the tunnel cuts through hard sandstone , shale and clay , and there are seven major faults in the rock near the centre point . Metal sheets had to be used to divert water inside the tunnel . A public waterworks scheme with reservoirs and aqueduct was proposed but not implemented .
= = = Human cost = = =
The work was dangerous because the rock at the Horsforth end was difficult to blast , and there was frequent flooding and subsidence . It is suggested that up to 1 @,@ 563 @,@ 480 @,@ 000 gallons ( 7 @,@ 107 @,@ 580 @,@ 080 litres ) of water were pumped out between 1845 and 1849 . Five men died in 1846 ; 12 died in 1847 ; seven more had died by 1849 , making 24 in total . In Otley churchyard is a monument in the shape of the north portal , dedicated to the 24 men who lost their lives . Records of death and injury were kept from 1847 to 1849 , and Leeds Infirmary had a special spring cart to ferry the injured to hospital from the site to Leeds .
The sadness of the harsh conditions of those days is captured by the simple epitaph on the gravestone of James Myers who is buried in the Methodist Cemetery at Yeadon behind the Town Hall . James was a married man just 22 years old who ' died by an accident in the Bramhope Tunnel on the 14th day of April , 1848 ' . Next to him lies the body of his 3 years old daughter who died two weeks later of some unspecified illness . Cllr Philip Sunderland
= = = Alcohol and water = = =
Drunkenness and fighting was such that Jos Midgeley , a railway police inspector , was hired for £ 1 @.@ 25 per week to keep order . At one time he was attacked by a group of men , and at another there was a riot at Wescoe Hill in which a man died , all because the contractors tried to cut off the beer supply .
Water was taken at first from Bramhope 's town well , opposite St Giles Church , but the excessive demand diminished the supply and spoiled the quality . The tunnellers ' water was then pumped from a site near the Dyneley Arms crossroads . But at the same time the tunnel itself was draining away the local farmers ' natural irrigation , and the source of Bramhope town well . Litigation on this subject continued for some years .
= = = Education and religion = = =
The number of workers ' children overwhelmed that of the local children in Bramhope 's school – however this was before the Elementary Education Act 1870 which provided for education for all , up to the age of 12 years . Poor children would have been educated at the parochial school in Eastgate , where the memorial gardens are now . The workers and their families attended St Ronans Methodist chapel at Bramhope , and the Methodist chapel at Pool @-@ in @-@ Wharfedale . The Leeds Mission spread Bibles and tracts in the shanty – town .
= = What is visible today = =
Four of the twenty shafts remain as ventilation shafts . These are : the first to the north of the Leeds – Otley A660 near the Scout hut in Bramhope ; the second behind Park House , Bramhope ; the third opposite Camp House Farm and the fourth near Cookridge and Horsforth . The ventilation shafts measure 40 feet ( 12 m ) by 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) – wider than the tunnel itself . One of the two sighting towers remains , in the field opposite Bramhope cemetery . It is a tall , cylindrical structure , two metres in diameter with four vertical slits near the top and flat coping stones . The coursed sandstone tower is a grade II listed structure . The other one , now demolished , was behind Dyneley Hall . 250 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 190 @,@ 000 m3 ) of spoil still lies along the line of the tunnel . One of a number of tips is in an area around the scout hut to the north of the Leeds – Otley road ; a second is the Knoll near to Parklands and on to the field facing Bramhope cemetery ; a third is on land adjacent to None – Go – Byes Farm .
= = = North and south portals = = =
The listed southern portal is a plain sandstone horseshoe @-@ shaped arch with rusticated voussoirs below a cornice and parapet . It is approached by a slightly curved 300 @-@ metre cutting faced with retaining walls of sandstone . The listed walls have a concave batter , slightly @-@ projecting piers at regular intervals and are topped with square coping stones .
The Gothic north portal was said to have been built to please the landowner William Rhodes , who wanted to use one of the towers as a belvedere . It is built of rock – faced sandstone and has three side towers with turrets , and a horseshoe – shaped archway . The keystone features a portrait of a bearded man who is said to resemble the aforesaid landowner . There is a crenellated parapet with a carved cartouche in the centre featuring a wheatsheaf , fleece and fish .
Both portals are on Network Rail land with no public access .
= = Accident = =
A southbound passenger train and a pilot engine left Arthington station on 19 September 1854 heading for Leeds . A pilot engine had travelled northbound through the tunnel earlier the same day with no problems but this time the train ran into a pile of stone debris and was derailed when it was three @-@ quarters of the way into the tunnel . The debris was from a roof fall that affected both tracks . The train engine collided with the pilot engine tender causing considerable damage .
= = Recent repairs = =
Trains have been cancelled or delayed frequently in recent years , due to flooding in the Bramhope Tunnel . Water still runs fast into the tunnel , and in the 1960s a train was derailed by a 3 @-@ ton ( 3 @.@ 3 tonne ) icicle . Major repair work was done in 2003 and 2006 , with the Victorian drainage culvert replaced , and the track lowered to allow larger passenger and freight stock , costing £ 10 million . The sixteen closed airshafts were deteriorating and had to be re @-@ capped . In 2003 the excavated material from the works was recycled to shore up the railway embankment near Castley .
= Bookwheel =
The bookwheel ( also written book wheel and sometimes called a reading wheel ) is a type of rotating bookcase designed to allow one person to read a variety of heavy books in one location with ease . The books are rotated vertically similar to the motion of a water wheel , as opposed to rotating on a flat table surface . The design for the bookwheel originally appeared in a 16th @-@ century illustration by Agostino Ramelli , at a time when large books posed practical problems for readers . Ramelli 's design influenced other engineers and , though now obsolete , inspires modern artists and historians .
= = History and design = =
The bookwheel , in its most commonly seen form , was invented by Italian military engineer Agostino Ramelli in 1588 , presented as one of the 195 designs in Le diverse et artificiose machine del Capitano Agostino Ramelli ( The various and ingenious machines of Captain Agostino Ramelli ) . To ensure that the books remained at a constant angle , Ramelli incorporated an epicyclic gearing arrangement , a complex device that had only previously been used in astronomical clocks . Ramelli 's design is unnecessarily elaborate , as he likely understood that gravity could have worked just as effectively ( as it does with a Ferris wheel , invented centuries later ) , but the gearing system allowed him to display his mathematical prowess . While other people would go on to build bookwheels based on Ramelli 's design , Ramelli did not in fact ever construct his own .
To what extent bookwheels were appreciated for their convenience versus their aesthetic qualities remains a matter of speculation according to modern American engineer Henry Petroski . Ramelli himself described the bookwheel as a " beautiful and ingenious machine , very useful and convenient for anybody who takes pleasure in study , especially for those who are indisposed and tormented by gout . " Ramelli 's reference to gout , a condition that impairs mobility , demonstrates the appeal of a device that allows access to several books while seated . However , Petroski notes that Ramelli 's illustration lacks space for writing and other scholarly work , and that the " fanciful wheel " may not have been appropriate for any activity beyond reading .
While the design of the bookwheel is commonly credited to Ramelli , some historians dispute that he was the first to invent such a device . Joseph Needham , a historian of Chinese technology , stated that revolving bookcases , though not vertically oriented , had their origins in China " perhaps a thousand years before Ramelli 's design was taken there . "
= = Influence and legacy = =
The bookwheel was an early attempt to solve the problem of managing increasingly numerous printed works , which were typically large and heavy in Ramelli 's time . It has been called one of the earliest " information retrieval " devices , and has been considered a precursor to modern technologies , such as hypertext and e @-@ readers , that allow readers to store and cross @-@ reference large amounts of information . Other inventors , such as French inventor Nicolas Grollier de Servière ( 1596 – 1689 ) , proposed their own variations on Ramelli 's design .
In contemporary times , the bookwheel is valued for its historical importance , decorative appeal , and symbolic significance . Ramelli 's design has been recreated by artists such as Daniel Libeskind , and inspired the name of the Smithsonian Library 's blog " Turning the Book Wheel " .
The mechanical concept of the epicyclic gears used to keep each book level as it rotates was later used for the Falkirk Wheel boat lift , although its designer claims to have found it independently .
= Meteorite ( song ) =
" Meteorite " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her fourteenth studio album , Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse ( 2014 ) . It was composed by Carey and Q @-@ Tip . A disco track , it contains a sample of the recording " Goin ' Up in Smoke " written by Allan Felder , Norman Harris , and Ron Tyson , all of whom received songwriting credits for " Meteorite " as a result . It also quotes an observation by Andy Warhol that everyone will achieve fame for 15 minutes . " Meteorite " garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praised the disco influence and highlighted it as one of the album 's best tracks . The song peaked at number 70 on the international download chart in South Korea . Carey performed " Meteorite " at the 2014 World Music Awards , for which she was criticized for arriving over an hour late , and included it on the set list of her 2014 tour , The Elusive Chanteuse Show .
= = Production and composition = =
In an interview with Fuse in August 2012 , Q @-@ Tip confirmed that he was working with Carey on material for her fourteenth studio album . In April 2014 , Carey confirmed that she and Q @-@ Tip had worked together on a song which was yet to be mixed in an interview with Radio.com. Of the collaboration , Carey said " He 's angry with me because he thinks that I didn 't allow him to do his mix , but really it 's okay . He loves me , we 're going to make this work . And that 's good because it 's one of my favorite songs . I 'm going to call him soon ... I think we need to get that ready . " She also stated that it was the first time they had worked together since composing " Honey " for Carey 's sixth studio album , Butterfly ( 1997 ) .
" Meteorite " was written and produced by Carey and Q @-@ Tip . It was recorded by Brian Garten and Blair Wells at several locations , including Rapture Studios in Bel Air , Metrocity Studios and Jungle City Studios in New York City , and Pon de Islands Studio in Antigua . Rob Sucheck served as the assistant during the recording sessions . Manny Marroquin mixed the song at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , and was assisted by Chris Galland and Delbert Bowers . " Meteorite " is a disco song with influences of dance music and 1980s style pop music , which lasts for a duration of three minutes and 59 seconds . Mike Wass of Idolator noted that Carey has dabbled with disco music since the release of " Fantasy " in 1995 , but " never as faithfully " as she does on " Meteorite " and another album track " You Don 't Know What to Do " . The song begins with an observation by Andy Warhol that everyone will achieve 15 minutes of fame which is followed by a rocket launch blast off sound effect .
Instrumentation consists of bass performed by Louis Cato , keyboards by Ray Angry and Q @-@ Tip , and Chris Sholar on guitar . Lewis Corner for Digital Spy noted that is also makes use of a " rattling " percussion and a 1970s style " cosmic " synth line . Carey provided her own background vocals . Courtesy of permission granted by Motown Records , the song incorporates a sample of Eddie Kendricks ' 1976 song " Goin ' Up in Smoke " , written by Allan Felder , Norman Harris and Ron Tyson ; all three received songwriting credits for " Meteorite " as a result . Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse was available to stream for free on iTunes prior to its release . During this time , an alternate version of the song called the " Meteorite Q @-@ Tip Remix " was released by Q @-@ Tip on May 23 , 2014 to stream on Spotify . It features a different arrangement and mix to that of the version included on the album , and has a " galloping beat " according to Rap @-@ Up .
= = Critical reception = =
" Meteorite " received mostly positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Eric Henderson for Slant Magazine noted that " Meteorite " , along with " You Don 't Know What to Do " , are two of Carey 's " most serious @-@ minded performances " on the album , describing them as " galaxies away " from her 2008 single " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " . Of " Meteorite " , he wrote " The chugging midnight soul train to gorgeous ' Meteorite ' burns bright on the still @-@ potent embers of Eddie Kendricks 's urgent masterpiece ' Goin ' Up in Smoke ' " . PopMatters writer Devone Jones complimented Carey taking " a brave step into untouched territory " in recording a 1980s style song . Labeling the track a " breezy banger " and an album highlight , Corner wrote that the song embodies an " oddly other @-@ worldly " feel .
Fashion designer Donatella Versace and friend of Carey 's told Vogue that " Meteorite " is " upbeat " and " has the power to lift your mood " . Jim Farber of New York Daily News complimented the track , writing that the disco beat and the Warhol quote was reminiscent of Studio 54 . John Sargent for Pitchfork Media was less impressed with the song , simply commenting that the song " is a gloopy scoop of Cher schmaltz " . AXS writer John Shetler was critical of " Meteorite " and included it on his four worst songs list from the album , writing " ' Meteorite ' gets bonus points for opening with an Andy Warhol quote , but that ’ s not enough to save the non @-@ descript dance track with a grating , repetitive chorus and unimaginative lyrics about shooting stars and burning up the night sky . "
= = Live performances = =
Carey opened the 2014 World Music Awards with " Meteorite " in May 2014 . In addition to performing , she was attending the event to collect a Pop Icon award for having sold 200 million records worldwide and for having the most number one songs for a solo artist in the United States . Carey was criticized for arriving at the ceremony over an hour late and delaying the show . Carey performed underneath disco balls while dancers skated around her on roller skates . Both Rap @-@ Up and Vibe described the performance as " dazzling " , with the former writing that " Carey [ lit ] up the stage " . The show was due to air on NBC and was later cancelled by the network , though the ceremony later aired on August 3 through 4Music . " Meteorite " was included on Carey 's 2014 tour , The Elusive Chanteuse Show .
= = Charts = =
" Meteorite " debuted at number 70 on the South Korea International Download Singles Chart for the week ending May 31 , 2014 , with sales of 3 @,@ 088 units .
= Hjúki and Bil =
In Norse mythology , Hjúki ( Old Norse , possibly meaning " the one returning to health " ) and Bil ( Old Norse , literally " instant " ) are a brother and sister pair of children who follow the personified moon , Máni , across the heavens . Both Hjúki and Bil are solely attested in the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . Scholarly theories that surround the two concern their nature , their role as potential personifications of the craters on the moon or its phases , and their relation to later folklore in Germanic Europe . Bil has been identified with the Bilwis , an agriculture @-@ associated figure that is frequently attested in the folklore of German @-@ speaking areas of Europe .
= = Attestations = =
In chapter 11 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of High states that two children by the names of Hjúki and Bil were fathered by Viðfinnr . Once while the two were walking from the well Byrgir ( Old Norse " Hider of Something " ) — both of them carrying on their shoulders the pole Simul ( Old Norse , possibly meaning " eternal " ) that held the pail Sæg between them — Máni took them from the earth , and they now follow Máni in the heavens , " as can be seen from the earth " .
Hjúki is otherwise unmentioned , but Bil receives recognition . In chapter 35 of Gylfaginning , at the end of a listing of numerous other goddesses in Norse mythology , both Sól ( the personified sun ) and Bil are listed together as goddesses " whose nature has already been described " . Bil appears twice more in the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál . In chapter 75 , Bil appears within another list of goddesses , and her name appears in chapter 47 in a kenning for " woman " .
= = Theories = =
= = = Identification and representation = = =
As the two are otherwise unattested outside of Snorri 's Prose Edda , suggestions have been made that Hjúki and Bil may have been of minor mythic significance , or that they were made up outright by Snorri , while Anne Holtsmark ( 1945 ) posits that Snorri may have known or had access to a now lost verse source wherein Hjúki and Bil personified the waxing and waning moon . Holtsmark further theorizes that Bil may have been a dís ( a type of female deity ) .
Scholars have theorized that Hjúki and Bil may represent lunar activity , including that they may represent the phases of the moon or may represent the craters of the moon . 19th century scholar Jacob Grimm rejects the suggestion that Hjúki and Bil represent the phases of the moon , and states that Hjúki and Bil rather represent the craters on the moon seen from the earth . Grimm says that the evidence for this " is plain from the figure itself . No change of the moon could suggest the image of two children with a pail slung over their shoulders . Moreover , to this day the Swedish people see in the spots of the moon two persons carrying a big bucket on a pole . " Grimm adds that :
What is most important for us , out of the heathen fancy of a kidnapping man of the moon , which , apart from Scandinavia , was doubtless in vogue all over Teutondom , if not farther , there has evolved itself since a Christian adaptation . They say the man in the moon is a wood @-@ stealer , who during church time on the holy sabbath committed a trespass in the wood , and was then transported to the moon as a punishment ; there he may be seen with the axe on his back and the bundle of brushwood ( dornwelle ) in his hand . Plainly enough the water @-@ pole of the heathen story has been transformed into the axe 's shaft , and the carried pail into the thornbrush ; the general idea of theft was retained , but special stress laid on the keeping of the christian holiday ; the man suffers punishment not so much for cutting firewood , as because he did it on Sunday .
Grimm gives further examples from Germanic folklore until the time of his writing ( the 19th century ) and notes a potential connection between the German word wadel ( meaning the full moon ) and the dialectal employment of the word for " brushwood , twigs tied up in a bundle , esp [ ecially ] fir @-@ twigs , wadeln to tie up brushwood " , and the practice of cutting wood out in the full moon . Benjamin Thorpe agrees with the theory of Hjúki and Bil as the personified shapes of moon craters .
Rudolf Simek states that the obscurity of the names of the objects in the tale of Hjúki and Bil may indicate that Snorri derived them from a folktale , and that the form of the tale of the Man in the Moon ( featuring a man with a pole and a woman with a bushel ) is also found in modern folklore in Scandinavia , England , and Northern Germany .
In both the story Hjúki and Bil found in the Icelandic Prose Edda and the English nursery rhyme " Jack and Jill " , two children , one male and one female , fetch a pail of water , and the pairs have names that have been perceived as phonetically similar . These elements have resulted in theories connecting the two , and the notion has had some influence , appearing in school books for children from the 19th century and into the 20th century . A traditional form of the rhyme reads :
Jack and Jill went up the hill
to fetch a pail of water
Jack fell down and broke his crown
and Jill came tumbling after .
Up Jack got and home did trot
as fast as he could caper .
He went to bed to mind his head
with vinegar and brown paper .
= = = Bilwis = = =
A figure by the name of Bilwis is attested in various parts of German @-@ speaking Europe starting in the 13th century . Scholar Leander Petzoldt writes that the figure seems to stem from the goddess and over time saw many changes , later developing " an elfin , dwarfish aspect and the ability to cripple people or cattle with the shot of an arrow " ( such as in Wolfram von Eschenbach 's 13th century poem " Willehalm " ) . Petzoldt further surveys the development of the figure :
During the course of the thirteenth century , the Bilwis is less and less frequently treated as the personification of a supernatural power but becomes increasingly identified as a malevolent human being , a witch . Still later , with the rise of the witch persecution at the end of the Middle Ages , the Bilwis was demonized ; she becomes an incarnation of the devil for the witch and sorcerer . A final development has taken place since the sixteenth century , especially in northeast Germany , the Bilwis has been conceived of as a grain spirit bringing wealth ; yet this latest manifestation of the Bilwis has its harmful side , the Bilwis @-@ cutter , who is blamed for the unexplained patterns that are formed among the rows of standing grain . The cutter is a sorcerer or witch that cuts down the corn with sickles that are fastened to its feet . He is classified as an essentially malevolent Corn Spirit . Thus , the Bilwis is exceedingly polymorphous , taking on many appearances and meaning in all German @-@ speaking areas throughout the Middle Ages . The Bilwis is one of the strangest and most mysterious beings in all folklore ; its varying forms reflect the concerns of a farm culture , and it serves to explain the eerie appearance of turned @-@ down rows of plants in cornfields .
= = = Toponyms = = =
The village of Bilsby in Lincolnshire , England ( from which the English surname Billing derives ) has been proposed as having been named after Bil .
= Mythmaker =
Mythmaker is the tenth studio album by industrial group Skinny Puppy . It was released on January 30 , 2007 .
Lead vocalist Nivek Ogre said the band took a simplified approach , but that it was a difficult record to make . It charted on a number of billboard charts , and received mostly positive reviews , with critics focusing on whether it was stylistically similar to previous albums .
Tracks from the album were featured in the Saw V soundtrack and Jackass video game . The band supported the album with the Mythrus Tour later the same year it was released .
= = Background = =
Nivek Ogre stated that making the album was very difficult due to dealing with a personal relationship and other events in Los Angeles during the time the album was being made , but that those events were incorporated into the album itself. cEvin Key , while acknowledging Ogre 's personal difficulties , said that while the extended writing process of the album could make one feel " stranded within your head space " , having more time to write , and writing more songs than usual , helped the album .
Ogre called style of the music on Mythmaker " simplified " and said the band " stayed truer to cEvin 's compositions " . He continued that the album had a new sound , but also retained elements of the " archetypal " Skinny Puppy sound , and the production was superior to previous albums . Key stated that he would write songs , and then send them to Mark Walk , who would make changes and send them back . Key said that it " open [ ed ] a door for me to hear it differently " . Ogre said that album 's themes were control and mythology .
Mythmaker marks the third occasion on which a Skinny Puppy album cover was created by an artist other than long @-@ time collaborator Steven R. Gilmore , though he continues to do the sleeve design and layout for the band . The cover uses a painting by Manuel Ocampo entitled " Why I Hate Europeans " , which has been altered for the cover .
= = Release = =
Mythmaker was released on January 30 , 2007 . The album barely broke into the Billboard 200 at No. 200 , but charted in three other Billboard charts , reaching No. 4 on the Independent Albums Chart , No. 5 on the Dance / Electronic Albums Chart , and No. 17 on the Heatseekers Chart . It peaked in all four charts in the same week of February 17 , 2007 .
The soundtrack for the 2008 movie Saw V featured the song " Ugli " . It is the third time a Skinny Puppy song has been used on a soundtrack for a Saw film , with Saw II and Saw IV previously including tracks by the band . The song " politkiL " was featured in the Jackass video game .
The " Mythrus Tour " , the title of the Skinny Puppy tour in support of Mythmaker , took place in 2007 in North America and Europe . The live band consisted of Ogre ( vocals and theatrics ) , Key ( keyboards and electronics ) , and Justin Bennett ( percussion ) . " Mythrus " was originally intended to be spelled " Myth @-@ R @-@ Us " , according to Ogre , who stated " the word Mythrus ; I wanted it ' Myth @-@ R @-@ Us , ' like ' Toys @-@ R @-@ Us . ' That idea got shot down , though . " He also said that while the tour was going to be more intimate rather than a spectacle , he still wanted it to be theatrical .
= = Critical reception = =
Opinions about the album varied between claims of both little and significant change from previous work . Greg Prato of Allmusic said of Mythmaker , " Skinny Puppy always aligned themselves more with electro @-@ dance , and they continue to do so . " He goes on to say that " Nivek Ogre and cEvin Key obviously know what their following wants to hear , " and finishes by reiterating , " Not a lot has changed in the world of Skinny Puppy circa Mythmaker . "
Christa Titus of Billboard said , " ... Mythmaker radiates impending doom . " She notes that certain elements leave the listener " to appreciate how beautiful Skinny Puppy can be when it follows a more emotive , ambient trail , " but comments that there are some " industrial chargers " as well .
Ilker Yücel of ReGen Magazine said " Mythmaker certainly continues along the path paved by The Greater Wrong of the Right , representing an embrace of modern electronic music and pushing it to its limits . " Discussing individual songs , he said the first track , " Maginifishit " , was " a testament to Mark Walk 's impressive abilities to use Ogre 's voice as an instrument unto itself . " Yücel stated that " Jaher " is " full of dark atmosphere that is at once soothing and nightmarish " and called it " arguably the best track " on the album . He called " Politikil " " a somewhat more rock & roll type of track " with " chugs and churns of overdriven synths and guitar @-@ like tones , and a rocking rhythm " that is " sure to be a highlight when played live " . Yücel also said , " Many will still chide the band for not returning to the sound of past successes like Last Rights or Too Dark Park , but it 's this type of purist viewpoint that ultimately stagnates a band 's progress . "
Jarosław Jerry Szprot of Metal Storm , in comparing the album to their previous set , said " Mythmaker is basically more of the same . " He stated that while the band was doing a lot of experimenting , something was still missing , but continued that newcomers would probably find the album quite interesting and original . Trey Spencer of Sputnik Music described the album as a blend of elements from many of their previous albums , and also said it would be a good first album for new listeners to buy .
Erika Szabo of Rocknworld said , " Skinny Puppy provides listeners with more of the same thing with the slightest of changes . " She was positive about half the songs , but called the other half " less stimulating " . She also said the album was " expansive and expressive ... even if ... recycled " .
= = Track listing = =
Tracks from Allmusic .
All music composed by Ogre / Key / Walk .
= = Personnel = =
All credits from Allmusic .
= = = Musicians = = =
Ogre – vocals , keyboards
cEvin Key – synthesizers , keyboards , drums
Mark Walk – synthesizers , bass , guitar
= = = = Additional personnel = = = =
Otto von Schirach – sound design ( 7 )
Dre " Databomb " Robinson – percussion ( 2 , 10 )
Ken " Hiwatt " Marshall – synthesizers , electronics ( 5 , 6 , 8 )
Saki Kaskas – acoustic guitar ( 5 ) , guitar ( 12 )
Traz Damji – piano , synth ( 5 , 12 )
= = = Production = = =
Producers – Mark Walk , Ken " Hiwatt " Marshall , Scaremeister
Mixing – Ken " Hiwatt " Marshall
Mastering – Stephen Marcussen
Art direction , design – Steven R. Gilmore
Painting – Manuel Ocampo
= = Chart positions = =
= Tupolev Tu @-@ 85 =
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 85 ( USAF / DoD reporting name ' Type 31 ' , NATO reporting name Barge ) was a Soviet prototype strategic bomber based on the Tu @-@ 4 , an unlicensed reverse engineered copy of the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress . It was the ultimate development of the B @-@ 29 family , being over 50 % heavier than its ancestor and had nearly double the range . Only two prototypes were built before the program was canceled in favor of the Tupolev Tu @-@ 95 bomber which was much faster and had the same range .
= = Development = =
Neither the Tu @-@ 4 nor the Tupolev Tu @-@ 80 was a true intercontinental strategic bomber as they both lacked the range to attack the United States from bases in the Soviet Union and return . The Tu @-@ 85 was designed to achieve the necessary range by use of more powerful and fuel @-@ efficient engines , a redesigned wing to increase the lift / drag ratio and the addition of more fuel . A large number of engines were considered before settling on the 4 @,@ 500 @-@ horsepower ( 3 @,@ 400 kW ) Shvetsov ASh @-@ 2K , essentially two air @-@ cooled ASh @-@ 82 radial engines paired together and the liquid @-@ cooled 4 @,@ 300 @-@ horsepower ( 3 @,@ 200 kW ) Dobrynin VD @-@ 4K six @-@ bank inline engine , similar in configuration to the failed German Junkers Jumo 222 . Both engines were given turbochargers and power @-@ recovery turbines which converted them into turbo @-@ compound engines . The Shvetsov design was preferred , but was not yet mature enough for use , and the VD @-@ 4K was selected . A lot of effort was put into refining the design of the wing in collaboration with TsAGI . It had an aspect ratio of 11 @.@ 745 and a taper of 2 @.@ 93 for optimum lift at high @-@ altitudes . The Tu @-@ 85 carried 63 @,@ 600 litres ( 16 @,@ 800 US gal ) of fuel in 48 flexible tanks .
Much of the armament and equipment was derived from those of the late @-@ model Tu @-@ 4 , including the four remotely controlled dorsal and ventral turrets and the tail turret , each with two 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Rikhter NR @-@ 23 cannon . But the Tu @-@ 85 's tail turret had an Argon ranging radar and each of the two bomb bays was enlarged to hold a 9 @,@ 000 kg ( 20 @,@ 000 lb ) FAB @-@ 9000 bomb .
Actual design work began in August 1949 and was ratified by a directive from the Council of Ministers dated 16 September that required the first prototype to be ready for manufacturer 's tests in December 1950 . Construction of the first aircraft began in July 1950 and was completed in September . It first flew on 9 January 1951 and the manufacturer 's tests lasted until October 1951 . On 12 September the first prototype flew 9 @,@ 020 km ( 5 @,@ 600 mi ) with a bomb load of 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) and landed with enough fuel remaining to have covered 12 @,@ 018 km ( 7 @,@ 468 mi ) . The second prototype , sometimes referred to as the 85D ( Russian : dooblyor ) or 85 / 2 , incorporated the lessons learned from the first aircraft , including revision and reinforcement of the airframe and a variety of changes to its equipment and systems . It was first flown on 28 June 1951 and its trials lasted until November 1951 . Series production was approved on 23 March 1951 at three factories where it would succeed the Tu @-@ 4 on the production line , but this was reversed later in the year and the program was cancelled : in the Korean War Soviet MiG @-@ 15s brought down many US B @-@ 29 bombers , showing that there was no future for piston aircraft in combat use . Priority was given to the higher performance turboprop Tu @-@ 95 ' Bear ' , as its own turboprop powerplants , the TV @-@ 12 prototype series for the Kuznetsov NK @-@ 12 turboprops that power the Tu @-@ 95 to this day , was already generating 12 @,@ 000 shp as early as 1951 .
= = Specifications ( Tu @-@ 85 / 1 ) = =
Data from Gordon , OKB Tupolev : A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft
General characteristics
Crew : 11 – 12
Length : 39 @.@ 306 m ( 128 @.@ 96 ft )
Wingspan : 55 @.@ 96 m ( 183 @.@ 6 ft )
Height : 11 @.@ 358 m ( 37 @.@ 26 ft )
Wing area : 273 @.@ 6 m ² ( 2 @,@ 945 ft ² )
Empty weight : 54 @,@ 711 kg ( 120 @,@ 364 lb )
Loaded weight : 76 @,@ 000 kg ( 167 @,@ 200 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 107 @,@ 292 kg ( 236 @,@ 534 lb )
Powerplant : 4 × Dobrynin VD @-@ 4K turbo @-@ compound radial engines , 3 @,@ 200 kW ( 4 @,@ 300 hp ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 638 km / h ( 344 kn , 396 mph )
Range : 12 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 500 nmi , 7 @,@ 457 mi )
Service ceiling : 11 @,@ 700 m ( 38 @,@ 376 ft )
Rate of climb : 17 m / s ( 3 @,@ 280 ft / min )
Wing loading : 277 kg / m ² ( 57 lb / ft ² )
Power / mass : 170 W / kg ( 0 @.@ 10 hp / lb )
Armament
Guns : 10 × 23 mm Nudelman NR @-@ 23 cannons , two each in four turrets plus tail barbette
Bombs : up to 18 @,@ 000 kg ( 40 @,@ 000 lb ) of bombs
= Pennsylvania Route 183 =
Pennsylvania Route 183 ( PA 183 ) is a 31 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 51 @.@ 0 km ) route that runs north to south in southeastern Pennsylvania . The southern terminus is at U.S. Route 422 Business ( US 422 Bus . ) in Reading in Berks County . Its northern terminus is at PA 61 near Schuylkill Haven in Schuylkill County . The road passes through developed areas near Reading before continuing north through rural areas , crossing from Berks County into Schuylkill County at Blue Mountain . PA 183 serves the communities of Bernville , Strausstown , and Cressona .
Much of what is now PA 183 was originally designated as part of Pennsylvania Route 83 in 1927 , a route that ran from US 30 / PA 1 in Devon northwest to US 120 / PA 42 ( now PA 61 ) near Schuylkill Haven . PA 83 was realigned to a more direct route in northern Berks County by 1960 , bypassing a jog to the west through Rehrersburg . By 1966 , PA 83 was renumbered to PA 183 to avoid duplication with Interstate 83 ( I @-@ 83 ) and the southern terminus was cut back to its current location in Reading . The alignment of PA 83 between Devon and Reading became a part of other state routes , with some portions becoming unnumbered .
= = Route description = =
= = = Berks County = = =
PA 183 begins at US 422 Bus. in the downtown area of Reading in Berks County . The northbound direction begins at the intersection of North 3rd Street and Franklin Street and heads west concurrent with westbound US 422 Bus. on one @-@ way Washington Street , carrying three lanes of traffic . Southbound PA 183 ends at the intersection of 2nd Street and Penn Street , following US 422 Bus. westbound south on North 2nd Street , a one @-@ way street with four lanes of traffic . Past the concurrency with US 422 Bus . , PA 183 heads west on the two @-@ lane undivided Washington Street , passing to the north of Reading Area Community College . The route passes through commercial areas before turning north onto Front Street and entering residential areas . At the intersection with Walnut Street , PA 183 splits into a one @-@ way pair that carries two lanes in each direction , with the northbound direction remaining along Front Street and the southbound direction following Schuylkill Avenue . Front Street heads north while Schuylkill Avenue angles northwest , with the one @-@ way pair continuing through areas of homes and passing over Norfolk Southern 's Harrisburg Line . Schuylkill Avenue becomes a two @-@ way , two @-@ lane road at the Green Street intersection . Northbound PA 183 turns west on two @-@ way , two @-@ lane Windsor Street to rejoin southbound PA 183 on four @-@ lane undivided Schuylkill Avenue . Along this one @-@ way pair , northbound PA 183 is city @-@ maintained . The highway heads northwest , passing over a Norfolk Southern railroad line and the Schuylkill River on a bridge .
The roadway passes commercial establishments before coming to a bridge over Norfolk Southern 's Reading Line , at which point it enters residential areas . PA 183 comes to an interchange with the PA 12 freeway ( Warren Street Bypass ) that is connected via local streets . Here , the roadway narrows to two lanes . A short distance later , the route enters Bern Township and becomes Bernville Road , passing through a golf course before heading past a mix of homes and businesses in Greenfield Manor . The road passes to the south of Reading Regional Airport , gaining a center left @-@ turn lane before heading past industrial parks and St. Joseph Medical Center . PA 183 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it comes to an interchange with the US 222 freeway .
Past the US 222 interchange , the route narrows back into a two @-@ lane undivided road and passes businesses and homes in the community of Leinbachs . Farther northwest , the roadway heads into a mix of farmland and woodland with development . PA 183 heads west and crosses into Penn Township , continuing through more rural areas with some homes . The route passes through Pleasant Valley and passes to the north of Blue Marsh Lake , curving to the northwest . The road continues through wooded areas and fields with some residences as it continues along the northeastern side of the lake . Past Blue Marsh Lake , PA 183 enters Bernville and passes to the west of residential and commercial development in the town . The road leaves Bernville , at which point it briefly passes through Jefferson Township and Penn Township again before continuing back into Jefferson Township . The route passes through agricultural areas with some trees and development , curving to the north .
PA 183 enters Upper Tulpehocken Township and heads northwest again through more rural areas of farms and woods as an unnamed road . Farther northwest , the roadway passes along the northeastern border of Strausstown , at which point it crosses Old Route 22 . Continuing through more of Upper Tulpehocken Township , the route comes to an interchange with I @-@ 78 / US 22 . Past this interchange , PA 183 passes through more areas of farmland and development before curving west into forested areas and entering Bethel Township , where it comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of PA 419 . Following this , the road heads north and ascends Blue Mountain .
= = = Schuylkill County = = =
At the summit of Blue Mountain , PA 183 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway , crossing the Appalachian Trail and entering Wayne Township in Schuylkill County , The route descends the mountain and becomes a three @-@ lane undivided road with two southbound lanes and one northbound lane . The road narrows to two lanes and continues north through wooded areas with some farm fields and residences , coming to an intersection with PA 895 . The route heads through more rural areas with some homes , passing through Reedsville . PA 183 comes to a junction with PA 443 and heads northeast through more farms , woods , and homes . The route crosses into North Manheim Township and becomes Chestnut Street , where it curves to the east . The road passes through more rural areas , becoming the border between Cressona to the north and North Manheim Township to the south before fully entering Cressona .
At this point , PA 183 heads into residential areas before coming to a bridge under a Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad line . A short distance before passing under the railroad , PA 183 Truck splits to the north to bypass the low @-@ clearance underpass . Past the bridge , the route curves north and becomes Sillyman Street , passing commercial establishments before heading past homes . PA 183 turns east onto Pottsville Street , with PA 901 and PA 183 Truck continuing north on Sillyman Street . The route curves northeast and continues past more residences before heading east and crossing a Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad line . At this point , PA 183 heads back into North Manheim Township , where it passes businesses and crosses the Schuylkill River before coming to its northern terminus at an intersection with PA 61 near Schuylkill Haven .
PA 183 has a total length of 31 @.@ 6 miles ( 50 @.@ 9 km ) . In 2010 , PA 183 had an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 15 @,@ 000 vehicles between US 222 and Bernville to a low of 5 @,@ 300 vehicles between I @-@ 78 / US 22 and PA 419 . None of PA 183 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
When Pennsylvania designated legislative routes in 1911 , what is now PA 183 was not given a legislative number . In 1927 , PA 83 was designated to run from US 30 / PA 1 in Devon northwest to US 120 / PA 42 ( now PA 61 ) near Schuylkill Haven . The route headed north from Devon to Valley Forge on Devon State Road , where it continued northwest concurrent with PA 23 through Phoenixville . Northwest of here , PA 83 headed northwest parallel to the Schuylkill River to Reading , where it turned north to follow Poplar Neck Road and 9th Street before heading west along US 22 / PA 3 on Penn Street . From Reading , PA 83 followed the current alignment of PA 183 to northwest of Bernville , where it headed to the west to Rehrersburg before heading north . In Schubert , the route continued north along the current alignment of PA 183 to Schuylkill Haven . PA 83 followed the alignment of Legislative Route 201 between Valley Forge and North Coventry Township and Legislative Route 147 between North Coventry Township and Reading . The route had a total length of about 72 miles ( 116 km ) .
When first designated , all of PA 83 was paved except the portion between Rehrersburg and the intersection with PA 443 . The remaining unpaved portion was paved by 1940 . PA 83 was split into a one @-@ way pair in downtown Reading by 1953 , being rerouted from following US 422 on Penn Street to following Chestnut Street westbound and Franklin Street eastbound , where it ran concurrent with US 422 Alt . By 1960 , PA 83 was realigned to a more direct alignment between Bernville and Schubert , passing through Strausstown . PA 83 was renumbered to PA 183 by 1966 to avoid conflict with I @-@ 83 , which was located in South Central Pennsylvania . Also , the southern terminus was cut back to US 422 Bus. in Reading . The former alignment of PA 83 between Devon and Reading became an unnumbered road between Devon and the intersection with PA 252 , PA 252 between there and Valley Forge , solely PA 23 between Valley Forge and Phoenixville , PA 724 between Phoenixville and southeast of Reading , and an unnumbered road between there and Reading . The PA 83 designation is not currently used in Pennsylvania .
= = Major intersections = =
= = PA 183 Truck = =
Pennsylvania Route 183 Truck ( PA 183 Truck ) is a 1 @.@ 6 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) truck route of PA 183 that bypasses a low @-@ clearance bridge under the Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad in Cressona . The truck route follows Wilder Street north and curves to the northwest out of Cressona into North Manheim Township . PA 183 Truck turns north onto Beckville Road and heads east , crossing the railroad tracks at @-@ grade . The route turns northeast and crosses over the West Branch Schuylkill River before it comes to an intersection with PA 901 . At this point , PA 183 Truck heads south to form a concurrency with PA 901 along Gordon Nagle Trail , heading back into Cressona and becoming Sillyman Street . The truck route and PA 901 both end at an intersection with PA 183 .
= John Keats 's 1819 odes =
In 1819 , John Keats composed six odes , which are among his most famous and well @-@ regarded poems . Keats wrote the first five poems , " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Indolence " , " Ode on Melancholy " , " Ode to a Nightingale " , and " Ode to Psyche " in quick succession during the spring , and he composed " To Autumn " in September . While the exact order in which Keats composed the poems is unknown , some critics contend that they form a thematic whole if arranged in sequence . As a whole , the odes represent Keats 's attempt to create a new type of short lyrical poem , which influenced later generations .
= = Background = =
Early in 1819 , Keats left his poorly paid position as dresser ( or assistant house surgeon ) at Guy 's Hospital , Southwark , London to completely devote himself to a career in poetry . In the past , he had relied on his brother George for financial assistance from time to time , but now , when his brother appealed to him for the same aid , the cash @-@ strapped poet was unable to help and was overwhelmed with guilt and despair . He decided to forsake the life of a poet for a more lucrative career – but not before allowing himself a few months of poetic indulgence .
It was during the months of spring 1819 that he wrote many of his major odes . Following the month of May 1819 , he began to tackle other forms of poetry , including a play , some longer pieces , and a return to his unfinished epic , Hyperion . His brother 's financial woes continued to loom over him , and , as a result , Keats had little energy or inclination for composition , but , on 19 September 1819 , he managed to squeeze out To Autumn , his last major work and the one that rang the curtain down on his career as a poet .
= = Structure = =
After writing " Ode to Psyche " , Keats sent the poem to his brother and explained his new ode form : " I have been endeavouring to discover a better Sonnet stanza than we have . The legitimate does not suit the language well , from the pouncing rhymes ; the other appears too elegiac , and the couplet at the end of it has seldom a pleasing effect . I do not pretend to have succeeded . It will explain itself . "
Writing these poems had a particular influence on Keats , as Walter Jackson Bate explains :
However felicitous he may have been in writing them , these short poems of one of the greatest of English lyrists are the by @-@ product of other efforts ; and those habits of both ideal and practice left him more dissatisfied than he would otherwise have been with the pressure of most lyric forms toward quick , neat solution [ ... ] The new ode form appealed also because it was sufficiently confining to challenge his conscience as a craftsman . Finally , the union of amplitude and formal challenge offered unique opportunities as well for the concentrated intensity and concreteness of idiom that he had begun to master in Hyperion
In " Ode to Psyche " , Keats incorporated a narrative structure that sets the scene , gives background information , and then ends with a conclusion . Of these structural elements , the preface was discontinued in his next odes and the setting is reduced within the other odes until the scene is merely implied .
= = Poems = =
The exact chronological and interpretive orders of the six 1819 poems are unknown , but " Ode to Psyche " was probably written first and " To Autumn " last . Keats simply dated the others May 1819 . However , he worked on the spring poems together , and they form a sequence within their structures .
= = = Ode on a Grecian Urn = = =
" Ode on a Grecian Urn " is a lyric ode with five stanzas containing 10 lines each . The first stanza begins with the narrator addressing an ancient urn as " Thou still unravished bride of quietness ! " , initiating a conversation between the poet and the object , which the reader is allowed to observe from a third @-@ person point of view . By describing the object as a " foster @-@ child of silence and slow time " , the poet describes the urn as both a silent object , a theme which reoccurs throughout the poem , and a stone object that resists change .
Throughout the first two stanzas , the speaker addresses the urn as a single object , taking note of its silence at several points as he discusses unheard melodies and tunes heard not by the sensual ear ( line 13 ) . In Keats , Narrative , and Audience , Andrew Bennett suggests that the discussion between the poet and the urn at the beginning of the poem leaves the reader to examine more than just the relationship between the two but also his place as a third @-@ party observer . With line 17 , the second stanza begins to change tone as the poet shifts his focus from the urn as a whole to the individuals represented in the artwork . The two lovers , whose image the unknown artist has created through his craftsmanship , appear to the poet as a couple who cannot kiss yet do not grow old . Again the narrator discusses the urn in terms of its unaging qualities by saying , " She cannot fade , though thou hast not thy bliss " ( line 19 ) , but he also focuses on the inability of the lovers to ever obtain sensual pleasure due to their static nature .
As the poem comes to a close , the narrator once again addresses the urn as a single object . However , his tone becomes sharper as he seeks answers from the work of art that it appears unable to answer . In the final couplet , the poet provides a line for the urn , which complicates the narrative and has generated a multitude of critical responses as to the author 's intent : " Beauty is truth — truth beauty / that is all ye know on earth and all ye need to know " ( lines 49 – 50 ) .
= = = Ode on Indolence = = =
" Ode on Indolence " comprises six stanzas containing ten lines each . The poem discusses a morning of laziness on the part of the narrator , during which his attention becomes captivated by three figures he sees in a vision . Beginning with an epitaph taken from Matthew 6 : 28 , the poet introduces the theme of indolence through an excerpt of Jesus 's suggestion that God provides for the lilies of the field without making them toil . The poem describes the three figures as wearing " placid sandals " and " white robes " , which alludes to the Grecian mythology that commonly appears in the 1819 odes . The images pass the narrator three times , which causes him to compare them to images on a spinning urn ( line 7 ) . In line 10 , the narrator uses the word " Phidian " again as a reference to the Elgin marbles , whose creation was thought to have been overseen by Phidias , a Grecian artist . As the poem progresses , the narrator begins to discuss the intrusion upon his indolence by the figures of Love , Ambition , and Poesy , and he suggests that the images have come to " steal away " his idle days . In the final stanzas , the figure of Poesy is described as a daemon which Helen Vendler suggests poses a direct threat to the idleness the poet wishes to retain . In the final lines , the poet once again rejects the three images : " Vanish , ye phantoms , from my idle spright , / Into the clouds , and never more return ! " ( lines 39 – 40 ) with the intention of once again enjoying the laziness from which the poem obtains its title .
= = = Ode on Melancholy = = =
" Ode on Melancholy " is the shortest of the 1819 spring odes at three stanzas of 10 lines . Originally , the poem contained four stanzas , but the original first stanza was removed before publication in 1820 for stylistic reasons . The poem describes the narrator 's opinions on melancholy and is addressed specifically to the reader , unlike the narrative of many of the other odes . The lyric nature of the poem allows the poet to describe the onset of melancholy and then provides the reader with different methods of dealing with the emotions involved . Using personification , the poem creates characters out of Joy , Pleasure , Delight , and Beauty , and allows them to interact with two other characters which take the shape of a male and his female mistress mentioned ( line 17 ) . Keats himself fails to appear as a character in the poem , as there is no mention of the poet himself suffering from melancholy . In the final stanza , the poet describes the mistress as dwelling in Beauty , but modifies the beauty by saying that it " must die " ( line 21 ) . Harold Bloom suggests that this provides the poem with a hint of Keats 's philosophy of negative capability , as only the beauty that will die meets the poem 's standard of true beauty . The image of the bursting of Joy 's grape ( line 28 ) gives the poem a theme of sexuality . According to critics , the bursting of the grape alludes to the passing from the moment of ultimate sexual pleasure to the decreased pleasure of a post @-@ orgasmic state .
= = = Ode to a Nightingale = = =
" Ode to a Nightingale " is the longest of the 1819 odes with 8 stanzas containing 10 lines each . The poem begins by describing the state of the poet , using negative statements to intensify the description of the poet 's physical state such as " numbless pains " and " not through envy of thy happy lot " ( lines 1 – 5 ) . While the ode is written " to a Nightingale " , the emphasis of the first line is placed upon the narrator rather than the bird , and Helen Vendler suggests that the negation of the reader as a party in the discourse happens just as the song of the nightingale becomes the " voice of pure self @-@ expression " . In the third stanza , the poet asks the nightingale to " Fade far away " , casting it off just as the narrator in " Ode to Indolence " rejects the Love , Ambition , and Poesy and the poet in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " banishes the figures on the urn to silence . In the fourth stanza , the poet states that he will fly to the nightingale rather than it to him , moving upon the " wings of Poesy " , which leaves Walter Jackson Bate to believe that while the poet intends to identify with the bird by describing the poem as being " to " it , the real identification in the narrative exists between the poet and his perceptions of the nightingale 's song . In its closing , the poem questions whether the bird 's song has been real or part of a dream : " Was it a vision , or a waking dream ? / Fled is that music : — do I wake or sleep ? " ( lines 79 – 80 ) , and the theme of imagination once again arises as the poet appears , according to Timothy Hilton , unable to distinguish between his own artistic imagination and the song which he believes to have spurred it into action .
= = = Ode to Psyche = = =
" Ode to Psyche " is a 67 @-@ line poem written in stanzas of varying length , which took its form from modification Keats made to the sonnet structure . The ode is written to a Grecian mythological character , displaying a great influence of Classical culture as the poet begins his discourse with " O GODDESS ! " ( line 1 ) . Psyche , a creature so beautiful that she drew the attention of Cupid himself , draws the attention of the narrator , whose artistic imagination causes him to dream of her : " Surely I dream 'd to @-@ day , or did I see / The wingèd Psyche with awaken 'd eyes " ( lines 5 – 6 ) . As he relates himself to the mythical character of Cupid , he confuses the god 's emotions with his own and imagines that he too has fallen in love with the woman 's beauty . The poet does , however , understand the temporal difference between the characters of ancient Greece and his own as he declares , " even in these days [ ... ] I see , and sing , by my own eyes inspired " ( lines 40 – 43 ) . In line 50 , the poet states " Yes , I will be thy priest , and build a fane " , which , Harold Bloom suggests , implies that the poet himself becomes a " prophet of the soul " as he regards the beauty of Psyche and attempts to place himself within Cupid 's personage. according to T.S. Eliot , it is the most prominent ode among the six great odes .
= = = To Autumn = = =
" To Autumn " is a 33 line poem broken into three stanzas of 11 . It discusses how autumn is both a force of growth and maturation , and deals with the theme of approaching death . While the earlier 1819 odes perfected techniques and allowed for variations that appear within " To Autumn " , Keats dispenses with some aspects of the previous poems ( such as the narrator ) to focus on the themes of autumn and life . The poem discusses ideas without a progression of the temporal scene , an idea that Keats termed as " stationing " . The three stanzas of the poem emphasize this theme by shifting the imagery from summer to early winter and also day turning into dusk .
= = Critical reception = =
Keats 's use of the odal hymn in his six odes , along with his use of the odal hymn with a responsal voice in " Ode to a Grecian Urn " and " Ode to a Nightingale " , created , according to Walter Jackson Bate , " a new tone for the English lyric . " Bate , when speaking about the 1819 odes , wrote : " The productivity of the three and a half weeks that begins on April 21 is difficult to parallel in the career of any modern writer . Yet to Keats it was not even a new beginning . It was rather a matter of becoming more alive in preparation for the next beginning . " In addition to this , Bate argued that " It is because " To Autumn " is so uniquely a distillation , and at many different levels , that each generation has found it one of the most nearly perfect poems in English . We need not be afraid of continuing to use the adjective [ ... ] The ' Ode to a Nightingale , ' for example , is a less ' perfect ' though a greater poem . " Charles Patterson argued the relationship of " Ode on a Grecian Urn " as the greatest 1819 ode of Keats , " The meaningfulness and range of the poem , along with its controlled execution and powerfully suggestive imagery , entitle it to a high place among Keats 's great odes . It lacks the even finish and extreme perfection of " To Autumn " but is much superior in these qualities to the " Ode to a Nightingale " despite the magic passages in the latter and the similarities of over @-@ all structure . In fact , the " Ode on a Grecian Urn " may deserve to rank first in the group if viewed in something approaching its true complexity and human wisdom . " Later , Ayumi Mizukoshi argued that early audiences did not support " Ode to Psyche " because it " turned out to be too reflexive and internalised to be enjoyed as a mythological picture . For the same reason , the " Ode on a Grecian Urn " drew neither attention nor admiration . Herbert Grierson believed " Nightingale " to be superior to the other odes because it and " To Autumn " were more logical and contained stronger arguments . Although the poet is gazing round the surface of the urn in each stanza , the poem cannot readily be consumed as a series of ' idylls ' . "
= Weymouth , Dorset =
Weymouth / ˈweɪməθ / is a seaside town in Dorset , England , situated on a sheltered bay at the mouth of the River Wey on the English Channel coast . The town is 11 kilometres ( 7 mi ) south of Dorchester and 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) north of the Isle of Portland . The town 's population is 52 @,@ 323 ( 2011 ) . The town is the third largest settlement in Dorset after the unitary authorities of Bournemouth and Poole .
Weymouth is a tourist resort , and its economy depends on its harbour and visitor attractions ; the town is a gateway situated halfway along the Jurassic Coast , a World Heritage Site on the Dorset and east Devon coast , important for its geology and landforms . Weymouth Harbour is home to cross @-@ channel ferries , pleasure boats and private yachts , and nearby Portland Harbour is home to the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy , where the sailing events of the 2012 Olympic Games and Paralympic Games were held .
The A354 road bridge connects Weymouth to Portland , which together form the borough of Weymouth and Portland . The history of the borough stretches back to the 12th century ; including involvement in the spread of the Black Death , the settlement of the Americas , the development of Georgian architecture , and preparations for World War II .
= = History = =
Weymouth originated as a settlement on a constricted site to the south and west of Weymouth Harbour , an outlying part of Wyke Regis . The town developed from the mid 12th century onwards , but was not noted until the 13th century . By 1252 it was established as a seaport and became a chartered borough . Melcombe Regis developed separately on the peninsula to the north of the harbour ; it was mentioned as a licensed wool port in 1310 . French raiders found the port so accessible that in 1433 the staple was transferred to Poole .
Melcombe Regis is thought to be the first port at which the Black Death came into England in June 1348 , possibly either aboard a spice ship or an army ship . In their early history Weymouth and Melcombe Regis were rivals for trade and industry , but the towns were united in an Act of Parliament in 1571 to form a double borough . Both towns have become known as Weymouth , despite Melcombe Regis being the main centre . The villages of Upwey , Broadwey , Preston , Wyke Regis , Chickerell , Southill , Radipole and Littlemoor have become part of the built @-@ up area .
King Henry VIII had two Device Forts built to protect the south Dorset coast from invasion in the 1530s : Sandsfoot Castle in Wyke Regis and Portland Castle in Castletown . Parts of Sandsfoot have fallen into the sea due to coastal erosion . During the English Civil War , around 250 people were killed in the local Crabchurch Conspiracy in February 1645 . In 1635 , on board the ship Charity , around 100 emigrants from the town crossed the Atlantic Ocean and settled in Weymouth , Massachusetts . More townspeople emigrated to the Americas to bolster the population of Weymouth , Nova Scotia and Salem , Massachusetts ; then called Naumking . There are memorials to this on the side of Weymouth Harbour and near to Weymouth Pavilion and Weymouth Sea Life Tower .
The architect Sir Christopher Wren was the Member of Parliament for Weymouth in 1702 , and controlled nearby Portland 's quarries from 1675 to 1717 . When he designed St Paul 's Cathedral , Wren had it built out of Portland Stone , the famous stone of Portland 's quarries . Sir James Thornhill was born in the White Hart public house in Melcombe Regis and became the town 's MP in 1722 . Thornhill became an artist , and coincidentally decorated the interior of St Paul 's Cathedral .
The resort is among the first modern tourist destinations , after King George III 's , brother the Duke of Gloucester built a grand residence there , Gloucester Lodge , and passed | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
editor 's note identifying Cather as the author . David Stouck , professor emeritus of English at Simon Fraser University , writes that the Christian Science church 's Mary Baker Eddy Library holds the original manuscript of the book and that Cather 's handwriting is evident on it , in notes and edits for the typesetter . Several of Cather 's later characters were reportedly modeled on her portrait of Eddy , including Mrs. Cutter in My Ántonia ( 1918 ) .
= = = Cather 's letters = = =
Cather denied that she was the main author in letters to Genevive Richmond in 1933 and Harold Goddard Rugg in 1934 ; she told them she had only helped to organize and rewrite the material . According to Stouck , she minimized her role in part because she wanted to distance herself from journalism , and in part because the Christian Science church and Eddy were angered by the articles . Brent Bohlke writes that Cather regarded the book as poorly written ; he adds that it contains some excellent writing and character analysis , but that it is not well @-@ structured . He attributes this to poor editing that failed to rid the book of the serialized nature of the original McClure 's pieces .
Cather identified herself as the author in a letter to her father in December 1906 ; she told him the articles beginning February 1907 ( at that time written , but not yet published ) were hers . She also referred to her authorship in a letter to S.S. McClure in June 1912 .
She acknowledged her authorship fully on November 24 , 1922 , in a letter to Edwin H. Anderson ( 1861 – 1947 ) , director of the New York Public Library and an old friend of hers . She told him that she had written the entire book except for the first chapter . S.S. McClure had purchased Milmine 's research , Cather wrote , including newspaper articles from the 1880s , court records , and a first edition of Science and Health , all of which were hard to obtain . Apparently when McClure 's was sold , the new publisher threw away the research , including the first edition .
Cather told Anderson that Burton J. Hendrick had written the first installment , but that it had been largely based on rumor . S.S. McClure asked her to complete the series because she was regarded as impartial . For the rest of the installments , she wrote that no expense was spared in verifying Milmine 's material , and that S. S. McClure had promoted her to managing editor on the basis of her work on the articles . She ended the letter by asking Anderson to regard the information as confidential . She wrote that she had not told the truth about it to anyone previously , Bohlke writes , but that she felt someone ought to know the true story . Cather 's letter to Anderson can only be paraphrased , not quoted , because she left a clause in her will forbidding the publication of her letters and private papers . The correspondence will enter the public domain in 2017 , 70 years after her death .
= = Reception = =
= = = Church response = = =
Peter Lyon wrote in Success Story : The Life and Times of S.S. McClure ( 1963 ) that when the articles first appeared , three Christian Science officials arrived at the McClure 's offices and asked McClure to allow them to edit the rest of the articles before publication . When he refused , they said he would soon notice a loss of advertising .
The church purchased the original manuscript of the book and there were rumors that the plates had been destroyed . In June 1920 the church also purchased some of McClure 's research notes from a New York manuscript dealer . There were stories that Christian Scientists were buying and destroying copies of the book , and removing them from libraries to keep them out of circulation . Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant wrote in 1953 that copies had become scarce even in libraries . The book 's copyright expired 28 years after publication . Baker Book House , a Christian publishing house , republished it in 1971 " in the interest of fairness and objectivity , " according to its back cover .
Caroline Fraser writes that the church tried to stop the University of Nebraska Press from republishing the book in 1993 . The university was interested in doing so , with a new introduction by David Stouck , because the articles and book were Cather 's first extended work , and therefore important in her development as a writer . According to Fraser , the head of the church 's Committee on Publication ( its media office ) called the Nebraska Press and told them the reprint might damage the church 's and Eddy 's reputation . The Press said the church representative " felt it was his responsibility to try to bully us into stopping publication or into saying that the book was worthless . "
Stouck made clear his view in the book 's preface that Willa Cather was " indisputably the principal author of The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science . " But , according to Fraser , there were fears for the jobs of the church researchers who had helped make the Cather – Milmine manuscript available for examination . Stouck therefore agreed to add a statement to the book :
Since the re @-@ issue of The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science went to press new materials have come to light which suggest that Eddy 's enemies may have played a significant role in organizing materials for the " Milmine " biography . New information about Georgine Milmine , moreover , suggests that she would have welcomed biased opinion for its sensational and commercial value . The exact nature of Willa Cather 's part in the compiling and writing of the biography remains , accordingly , a matter for further scholarly investigation . "
The " enemies " Stouck refers to relate to the so @-@ called " Next Friends " lawsuit , which was being prepared during the McClure 's serialization . The lawsuit was brought by Eddy 's relatives , who said that she was unable to manage her own affairs ; had it succeeded she would have lost control of the church and her fortune . According to Fraser , the suit was organized in 1907 by Joseph Pulitzer ( 1847 – 1911 ) , owner of the New York World ( 1860 – 1931 ) ; his motive was to engineer a story about Eddy to rival that of McClure 's . Gillian Gill , in her Mary Baker Eddy ( 1998 ) , wrote that the New Hampshire Historical Society holds documents that show the McClure 's journalists were in touch with the litigants and that both sides were feeding each other information .
According to Fraser , an official from the church 's Committee on Publication made the following statement at its 1993 annual meeting :
A major corrective opportunity this year involved the rerelease of one of the earliest malicious biographies of Mrs. Eddy , The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science by Georgine Milmine . Dating from the yellow journalism period , this book was published in an attempt to discredit her . The current publisher , after much correspondence with our office , instead issued a statement accurately characterizing its bias . The book has received almost no attention in the public , proving if Truth isn 't spoken , nothing is said .
= = = General reception and influence = = =
The articles and book became key primary sources for most of the biographies of Eddy that have been published independently of the church . Gill wrote that in any publication not written by a Christian Scientist , the material is regarded as the single trustworthy source on Eddy , especially on the first half of her life . It influenced Edwin Franken Dakin 's Mrs. Eddy : The Biography of a Virginal Mind ( 1929 ) , Ernest Sutherland Bates and John V. Dittemore 's Mary Baker Eddy : The Truth and the Tradition ( 1932 ) , Martin Gardner 's The Healing Revelations of Mary Baker Eddy ( 1993 ) , and Caroline Fraser 's God 's Perfect Child ( 1999 ) .
The New York Times wrote in 1910 that the book " ranks among the really great biographies – or would were its subject of more intrinsic importance " :
Since this Life first appeared in McClure 's Magazine not one important statement as of fact in it has been disproved or even seriously questioned . It is a product of much and highly intelligent labor , and were Christian Scientists open to argument or amenable to reason the wretched cult would not have survived its publication for a single month . It is unanswerable and conclusive , and nobody who has not read it can be considered well @-@ informed as to the history or nature of Eddyism .
Gill disagreed that the book offers an accurate portrayal of Eddy . She argued , for example , that the story of Eddy having " fits " as a child to get her own way , or rather the way McClure 's described them , was " invented more or less out of whole cloth " by McClure 's journalist Burton Hendrick , and that the accounts of her as " hysterical " were misogynist . ( That Eddy would fall and lose consciousness as a child is supported by Robert Peel ( 1909 – 1992 ) , who worked for the church and wrote a sympathetic three @-@ volume biography of Eddy . )
The journalist Adela Rogers St. Johns ( 1894 – 1988 ) , who was a minister in the Church of Religious Science ( a closely related belief system to Christian Science ) , wrote in 1974 that Cather was " a fine – maybe our finest – American woman novelist , " but that she was a " lousy unscrupulous reporter . " She argued that Cather had " stirred with grim fancy the most vicious and inaccurate of all the attacks on Mrs. Eddy . " David Stouck , in his introduction to the University of Nebraska Press edition , wrote that Cather 's portrayal of Eddy " contains some of the finest portrait sketches and reflections on human nature that Willa Cather would ever write . "
= = Publication details = =
" Editorial announcement " , McClure 's , December 1906 , introducing the series .
Georgine Milmine , " Mary Baker G. Eddy : The Story of Her Life and the History of Christian Science " , McClure 's , January 1907 – June 1908 ( 14 installments ) .
Georgine Miline , The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science , Doubleday 1909 ; also at archive.org.
Georgine Milmine , The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science , Baker Book House , 1971 ( introduction by Stewart Hudson ) .
Willa Cather and Georgine Milmine , The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science , University of Nebraska Press , 1993 ( introduction by David Stouck ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 6349 @-@ X
= Seekers ( novel series ) =
Seekers is a children 's novel series written by a team of authors under the pseudonym Erin Hunter , who also wrote the Warriors series . Seekers follows the adventures of four bear cubs : Kallik ( a polar bear ) , Lusa ( a black bear ) , Ujurak ( a small grizzly bear who can shape @-@ shift into any animal ) , and Toklo ( also a grizzly bear ) . Led by Ujurak , the four bears search for a place where they can live in peace without human interference and harassment . The first book The Quest Begins was released on May 27 , 2008 and was followed by Great Bear Lake , Smoke Mountain , The Last Wilderness , Fire in the Sky , and Spirits in the Stars , released on February 8 , 2011 . The series has been well received , with critics praising the realistic behavior of the characters , the excitement in the novels , and the descriptions of the bears ' world .
= = Inspiration and origins = =
Similarly to the Warriors series , Seekers began as a request from HarperCollins to Victoria Holmes to develop another series about a group of animals , but not cats . Dogs were considered , but rejected because they were too close to cats in their hierarchical social organization , pack and hunting lifestyles , and territoriality . This was expressed by Victoria Holmes later in an online chat , where she stated that she " was reluctant to create stories that ... would be quite similar to Warriors . Dogs live in packs , they hunt for their food , they have a strict hierarchy within their communities , they guard their territories " . Horses , otters and dolphins were considered , but were dismissed : Holmes felt that horses tended to run away rather than stay and fight , and that dolphin battles would be slow without " the all @-@ action excitement that Erin loves so much " . In the end , the company left the decision to Holmes and she opted for bears ; in the later author chat she notes that bears " live much more solitary lifestyles than cats , they are wild through and through with no history of domestication whatsoever ( performing bears don 't count ) , and they are much bigger animals , with a whole lot more potential for fighting " . The series took inspiration from Inuit beliefs and Native American languages . Holmes found that Native Americans and bears are very closely linked to the natural environment . The names of the bears are taken from several different Indian languages . Lusa , for example , means " black " in Choctaw .
Holmes drew inspiration from Inuit beliefs and the Native American languages which are spoken in the area which the bears live . Holmes developed Ujuark 's shape @-@ shifting powers after reading up on shamans , who are supposed to be able to transform into other animals . Holmes liked the idea and decided to have one of the bears have the same ability , which allowed him to " infiltrate a human community without them guessing the truth . " Later , Holmes " needed to establish what sort of beliefs each bear would have , " so after finding that bears are closely linked to their environment just like Native Americans , Holmes centered her research around the Natives . The names of the bears are from Native American languages ; Lusa means midnight or black in Choctaw , while Kallik means lightning in Inuktitut , Silaluk means storm in Inuktitut , Taqqiq means moon , Toklo means two in Chicksaw , and Ujurak means rock .
= = Books = =
= = = First series = = =
The series takes place over the span of six books , which are : The Quest Begins , Great Bear Lake , Smoke Mountain , The Last Wilderness , Fire in the Sky , and Spirits in the Stars . The story follows four young bears . Lusa , a black bear , Kallik , a polar bear , Toklo , a grizzly bear and Ujurak , who is able to shape @-@ shift into any animal , but remains a brown bear most of the time .
The first book , The Quest Begins , shows how each of the four bears are either abandoned or separated from their parents . Kallik is separated from her mother and brother when a pod of orcas ( killer whales ) eat her mother , while her brother was still on the other side of the canal , thinking they were both dead . After this , Kallik travels to find her brother . Toklo is abandoned by his mother after his brother , Tobi , dies and his mother sees how the salmon is disappearing , and left Toklo to travel alone . Lusa was born and raised in a zoo . Her story intertwines with Toklo 's after his mother is brought to the zoo and Lusa hears of the wild . Hoping to leave her home , she escapes the zoo and looks for Toklo . Meanwhile , Toklo finds Ujurak injured and helps him ; they begin to travel together . They meet up with Lusa at the end of the book . By Great Bear Lake , the four bears have joined together and they try to go to the Arctic . Although Kallik finds her brother Taqqiq , he has joined a group of bullying bears who kidnap a black bear cub . Taqqiq sees that what he did was wrong and joins the questing bears but he soon leaves the group in the third book when he feels he does not belong with them . The remaining four cubs learn of a place called the Last Great Wilderness in the third book , where there is plentiful food and shelter . After defying hardships such as hunger and bear hunters , they finally make it to the Last Great Wilderness . However , even though they are there , Ujurak , who leads the journey , feels that they need to go further , into the Arctic . In Fire in the Sky , the bears leave the Last Great Wilderness and travel towards the Arctic . In the sixth and final book of the first series , Spirits in the Stars , the four bears make it to Star Island , a place where many polar bears live . They find a sick mother polar bear and her cub . The mother dies from sickness and the four bears look after her cub . Toklo finds that he also struggles with his urge to become a brown bear and travel alone . The bears save the polar bears that inhabit Star Island by destroying an oil rig that was poisoning the seals that they eat , but Ujurak dies in an avalanche while saving the others . Yakone , a young white bear who lived on the strange Star Island with the sick bears , is added to the group of bears on the last page of the book .
= = = Return to the Wild = = =
The series takes place over the span of six books , five of which have been released . The books that have been released to date in this series are Return to the Wild : Island of Shadows , Return to the Wild : The Melting Sea , Return to the Wild : River of Lost Bears , Return to the Wild : Forest of Wolves , Return to the Wild : The Burning Horizon , and Return to the Wild : The Longest Day . The story follows Toklo , Kallik , Lusa , and Yakone as they return home but struggle between leaving the only family they 've ever known or returning home , where they haven 't been for so long .
= = = Other books = = =
Seekers has also been published in original English @-@ language manga form . The books are drawn by Bettina Kurkoski , who also drew The Rise of Scourge . The first one , Toklo 's Story , was released on February 9 , 2010 , the same day The Last Wilderness was released . The second , featuring Kallik , called Kallik 's Adventure was released on February 8 , 2011 . The third one was going to be called Lusa 's Tale , But Tokyopop , the graphic novel company , decided not to make any more books for the USA . Unless Erin Hunter creates it herself , the book may not come out at all .
= = Themes = =
The main theme emphasized in the series is the environment . Holmes says that by " coming up with a series about a different animal gave me a chance to explore some themes that don 't fit so easily into Warriors . In particular , the environment . " Holmes says that she has always been keen on recycling and saving the planet so she wanted to explore the ways bears and other animals might react to humans destroying their homes and habitats . Many reviewers have picked up the theme . Publishers Weekly found that " readers will appreciate the bears ' struggle to survive , along with Hunter 's environmental theme . " Booklist also commented on each separate story of the three bears touch on environmental problems and issues . School Library Journal noted that " The bears ' declining habitat is evident , and often throughout their journey the animals have to dodge cars and humans with guns . "
A review from Children 's Literature picked up the environmental theme , but commented on themes such as " youth versus age , new versus tradition and the discovery that foreign others are often not very different from oneself . " This also ties into a theme of racism noted by a Kidreads.com reviewer . He notes that " [ Hunter ] also cleverly deals with the theme of racism through a unique and honest approach — three bears of different color , different backgrounds and different beliefs turn to each other for survival and friendship . " Despite differences between the bears they still work together .
= = Publication history = =
The first series contains a total of six books . It was originally to be called " The Clawed Path , " as the journey the four bears make through all six books in the series is referred to as " the clawed path . " At the very last moment , the title was changed so that it would look similar to the Warriors series . Holmes was initially unhappy with the change , but has since said that she has come to like it and the way it looks on the books .
The first novel of the series , The Quest Begins , was first featured on the HarperCollin 's FirstLook Program in November 2007 . Readers who signed up for the program had a chance to read an early edition of this book , an Advanced Reader 's Copy , before it was published in stores . The Quest Begins was released in the US on May 27 , 2008 . The book was also released as a paperback on February 10 , 2009 and an e @-@ book on October 6 , 2009 . The US has published the fifth book and published the sixth on February 8 , 2011 .
The books have also been released in the UK and Canada . Canada received the first book on May 25 , 2008 . Canada has published up to the sixth book . The UK releases have different covers than the Canadian and US covers . In the UK , only the first , second , third and fourth books were released . The first three books have also been translated into Russian .
= = Critical reception = =
Seekers has received generally positive reviews . Publishers Weekly praised the suspenseful ending of the first book and thought readers would find great interest in the bears ' struggle to survive . Booklist found the plot of the first book to have an " interesting balance of cute anthropomorphic characterization and realistic attention to bear behaviors . " School Library Journal wrote " from the first page , this story is exciting and refreshing " and " [ t ] he plot is fast paced , and the author is apt at creating and sustaining the adrenaline @-@ charged mood of these youngsters on their own . " Kirkus Review found that " Hunter creates a richly sensuous world filled with cruelty , beauty , tenderness , savagery and just enough underlying legendary background to add mystery . " However , the reviewer also felt that too much detail went into developing the characters and setting and there was very little plot . In a review for the second and third books , Horn Book Review felt that readers might experience some confusion about the mountain , but they would still enjoy the fantasy adventure and the descriptions of the animals .
= Krusty Gets Kancelled =
" Krusty Gets Kancelled " is the twenty @-@ second and final episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 13 , 1993 . In the episode , a new show featuring a puppet named Gabbo premieres in Springfield and competes with Krusty the Clown 's show . Krusty 's show is soon cancelled , and Bart Simpson decides to help Krusty get back on the air by staging a comeback special .
John Swartzwelder wrote the episode and David Silverman served as director . Following the success of " Homer at the Bat " , the writers wanted to try a similar guest star heavy episode , except with celebrities instead of baseball players . The episode proved quite difficult as many of the actors asked to guest star declined at the last minute and the comeback special portion was nearly scrapped . Johnny Carson , Hugh Hefner , Bette Midler , Luke Perry and the Red Hot Chili Peppers ( Flea , Anthony Kiedis , Arik Marshall and Chad Smith ) all guest star as themselves and appear on Krusty 's special . Elizabeth Taylor and Barry White , both of whom guest starred in previous episodes this season , make cameo appearances .
= = Plot = =
One afternoon while watching television , Homer and Bart see a highly distracting commercial for something named " Gabbo " . The advertisement is the start of a viral marketing campaign around Springfield to build interest in whatever " Gabbo " is . Finally , " Gabbo " is revealed to be a ventriloquist 's dummy . Ventriloquist Arthur Crandall announces that Gabbo 's new program will air in direct competition with the established Krusty the Klown Show on each afternoon at 4 p.m. Gabbo 's catchphrase — " I 'm a bad wittle boy " — instantly charms his intended audience , and this has a negative impact on Krusty and his show . The clown vows to withstand the competition from the new program , but Gabbo 's cutthroat tactics quickly attract Krusty 's audience . Krusty tries to fight back with a dummy of his own , but due to its gruesome appearance and poor condition , it falls apart , and scares off many of the children in the audience . Even The Itchy & Scratchy Show abandon Krusty , move to the Gabbo Show , and are replaced with the strangely incomprehensible Eastern European cartoon " Worker and Parasite " ( in the style of Priit Pärn ) with characters resembling them . Eventually , Krusty 's ratings hit rock bottom , and then his show is cancelled .
Left without work and without having built a nest egg , Krusty falls on hard times and begins suffering from depression . Meanwhile , Bart and Lisa , all along unimpressed with Gabbo , decide to try to help Krusty . When Bart sneaks into the studio where they are filming Gabbo , he overhears Gabbo referring to children of Springfield as " S.O.B. ' s " while the cameras are switched off . He manages to distract the cameraman and turns the cameras back on as Gabbo continues this rant . This adversely affects Gabbo 's reputation , and Kent Brockman reports it on the news . But he repeats the same " S.O.B. ' s " gaffe , is fired from his job , and Gabbo escapes unscathed . Meanwhile , Krusty is still down in the dumps without a job . After visiting his house and seeing photos of Krusty 's celebrity friends , Bart and Lisa suggest he host a comeback special . They begin recruiting major celebrities to appear on Krusty 's special : Bette Midler , Johnny Carson , the Red Hot Chili Peppers , Hugh Hefner , and Luke Perry ( Krusty 's " worthless half @-@ brother " ) . They also try to recruit Elizabeth Taylor , but her agent declines the invitation before they can speak to her .
Bart and Lisa return to Krusty to declare their success , only to find him morbidly obese from drinking several milkshakes after believing them to be weight @-@ loss shakes . Fortunately , the entire Simpson family helps get him back into shape before the special airs .
Krusty 's comeback special features his reunion with Sideshow Mel , Perry getting shot out of a cannon , the Red Hot Chili Peppers singing " Give It Away " in their underwear , Carson lifting a 1987 Buick Skylark over his head and Krusty and Midler singing " Wind Beneath My Wings " . The show is a great success and Krusty 's career gets back on track . While watching the special at home , Taylor remarks to herself that she should fire her agent . Afterwards , everyone heads to Moe 's for an after party , where they toast Krusty and watch Carson as he plays the accordion while balancing Grampa and Jasper on a bench on his head .
= = Production = =
The idea of The Krusty the Clown Show being cancelled was pitched by writer John Swartzwelder . The rest of the writers decided this would be an opportunity to include a group of celebrity guest stars . They had done a similar episode the year before called " Homer at the Bat " which starred nine Major League Baseball players and had hoped to emulate its success . At that point , the writers had a list of celebrities that had wanted to do a guest spot on the show and decided to use this episode to burn through some of them . However , the episode was described by executive producer Mike Reiss as " a nightmare " because several guests pulled out at the last minute and the script had to be changed several times . One of the goals for the episode was to have an ex @-@ President of the United States . They wrote " very respectful but cute " parts for each then @-@ living ex @-@ president ( Nixon , Ford , Carter , and Reagan ) at the time , but they all turned them down . Only Ronald Reagan responded , sending a politely worded reply .
All of the guest stars were recorded over a period of several months . One of the writers ' goals was to get a musical act to appear , but several performers , including The Rolling Stones and Wynonna Judd , turned the role down ( although the Stones did eventually appear in Season 14 's " How I Spent My Strummer Vacation " ) . The Red Hot Chili Peppers finally accepted , and were directed by George Meyer who told them to ad @-@ lib many of their lines . The celebrity aspect of the episode was almost canceled because the producers were unable to get an obligation before the record deadline . Johnny Carson appears in the episode , and it was one of the few televised appearances he made after he retired from The Tonight Show . He recorded his lines the night after the 44th Primetime Emmy Awards . The original role pitched for Carson was one where he visited the Simpson family 's house and mooched off them . Carson felt this role was too degrading , so instead the writers took the opposite route and portrayed him as extremely versatile and multi @-@ talented . Bette Midler 's condition for guest starring was that the show promoted her anti @-@ littering campaign . Elizabeth Taylor guest starred as herself and also recorded a part as Maggie in " Lisa 's First Word " on the same day . Luke Perry was one of the first guest stars to agree to their part .
The short cartoon " Worker and Parasite " is a reference to Soviet cartoons . To produce the animation , director David Silverman xeroxed several drawings and made the animation very jerky . The scene where Krusty sings " Send in the Clowns " was very tricky for the animators because it involves two shots of the same scene from different angles . Parts of the scene were animated by Brad Bird .
= = Cultural references = =
Folk singer Judy Collins ' 1975 rendition of the song " Send in the Clowns " is parodied in the episode , and Krusty sings the altered lyrics : " Send in those soulful and doleful , schmaltz @-@ by @-@ the @-@ bowlful clowns " in a musical number of his comeback special . Gabbo 's name comes from the 1929 film The Great Gabbo . He was originally designed to be more square , but the second design was made to be " a demented Howdy Doody " . His voice was based on Jerry Lewis . The sequence with Gabbo 's song contains several references to the 1940 film Pinocchio . Krusty mentions that he beat Joey Bishop . Bishop was an entertainer who had his own show , The Joey Bishop Show , which ran opposite of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson . Bette Midler 's serenading Krusty is a reference to the way Bette sang to Johnny Carson on the penultimate episode of Carson 's The Tonight Show . The scene in which Krusty instructs the Red Hot Chili Peppers to change the lyrics to the song " Give It Away " is a reference to Ed Sullivan instructing The Doors to change the lyrics to the song " Light My Fire " . The poses of the Red Hot Chili Peppers in the scene are based on the movie The Doors . Flea , the bassist of the Red Hot Chili Peppers , is mistakenly seen playing a guitar during the performance of " Give It Away " . Several scenes in Krusty 's special are based on Elvis Presley 's ' 68 Comeback Special . The musical piece that Hugh Hefner plays on the wine glasses is from Peter and the Wolf and was composed by Sergei Prokofiev .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Krusty Gets Kancelled " finished 24th in ratings for the week of May 10 – 16 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 3 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Married ... with Children .
In 2006 , Bette Midler , Hugh Hefner , Johnny Carson , Luke Perry and the Red Hot Chili Peppers were listed at number four on IGN 's list of the best Simpsons guest stars . They all also appeared on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars . In 2007 , Vanity Fair named " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as the ninth best episode of The Simpsons . John Orvet felt , " This is Krusty 's best episode — better than the reunion with his father , or the Bar Mitzvah episode , which won an Emmy much later on . The incorporation of guest stars as themselves is top @-@ notch , and we get to see the really dark side of Krusty 's flailing showbiz career . Hollywood , television , celebrities , and fans are all beautifully skewered here . " Brien Murphy of the Abilene Reporter @-@ News classed " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as one of his three favorite episodes of The Simpsons , along with " Behind the Laughter " and " The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase " . Though Jim Schembri of The Age put the episode among his top 10 episodes of the series , he also noted " Unfortunately , this signaled the beginning of the show 's obsession with star cameos . " An article in the Herald Sun placed " Krusty Gets Kancelled " among the top 20 episodes of The Simpsons , and characterized " The sight of Krusty 's feeble attempt to fight back with his own gruesome ventriloquist doll , which falls apart on his lap on air " as the highlight of the episode . In 1997 , TV Guide named " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as the second greatest Simpsons episode and the 66th greatest TV episode . In 2009 , it was named the 24th Greatest TV Episode of All @-@ Time .
In an article about the 2003 DVD release in The Independent , " Krusty Gets Kancelled " was highlighted along with episodes " When You Dish Upon a Star " , " Lisa the Iconoclast " , " Dog of Death " , " Homer Badman " , and " Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy " . In a 2004 review of the release of The Simpsons season four on DVD , Andrew Pulver of The Guardian highlighted episodes " Kamp Krusty " and " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as part of " TV art at its peak " . Mike Clark of USA Today also highlighted " Kamp Krusty " and " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as better episodes of the season , along with " A Streetcar Named Marge " and " Lisa the Beauty Queen " . Jen Chaney of The Washington Post described episodes " A Streetcar Named Marge " , " Mr. Plow " , " Marge vs. the Monorail " , and " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as " gems " of The Simpsons ' fourth season . Spence Kettlewell of The Toronto Star described season 4 episodes " Krusty Gets Kancelled " , " Kamp Krusty " , " Mr. Plow " , and " I Love Lisa " as " some of the best episodes " of the series . Forrest Hartman of the Reno Gazette @-@ Journal wrote that the large number of celebrity appearances detracted from the episode , commenting : " The result is a boring hodgepodge of scenes with Bette Midler , Johnny Carson , the Red Hot Chili Peppers and more where we 're supposed to laugh simply because famous people are interacting with Krusty . " The episode is one of co @-@ executive producer Tim Long 's three favorites , including " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " and " A Milhouse Divided " .
In 2000 , the episode was released as part of a Twentieth Century Fox boxed set The Simpsons Go Hollywood , commemorating The Simpsons ' 10th anniversary . The set included " some of the series ' best spoofs of movies and TV " , and also included episodes " Marge vs. the Monorail " , " A Streetcar Named Marge " , " Who Shot Mr. Burns " , Parts 1 and 2 , and " Bart Gets Famous " . The episode was included in a 2003 release of The Simpsons Classics on DVD by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment .
= Battle of the Eastern Solomons =
The naval Battle of the Eastern Solomons ( also known as the Battle of the Stewart Islands and , in Japanese sources , as the Second Battle of the Solomon Sea ( 第二次ソロモン海戦 ) ) took place on 24 – 25 August 1942 , and was the third carrier battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II and the second major engagement fought between the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Guadalcanal Campaign . As at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway , the ships of the two adversaries were never within sight of each other . Instead , all attacks were carried out by carrier @-@ based or land @-@ based aircraft .
After several damaging air attacks , the naval surface combatants from both America and Japan withdrew from the battle area without either side securing a clear victory . However , the U.S. and its allies gained tactical and strategic advantage . Japan 's losses were greater and included dozens of aircraft and their experienced aircrews . Also , Japanese reinforcements intended for Guadalcanal were delayed and eventually delivered by warships rather than transport ships , giving the Allies more time to prepare for the Japanese counteroffensive and preventing the Japanese from landing heavy artillery , ammunition , and other supplies .
= = Background = =
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. Marine Corps units ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and the Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases to threaten supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and secure the islands as launching points for a campaign with an eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
The Allied landings were directly supported by three U.S. aircraft carrier Task Forces ( TF ) : TF 11 ( USS Saratoga ) , TF 16 ( USS Enterprise ) , and TF 18 ( USS Wasp ) , their respective air groups , and supporting surface warships , including a battleship , cruisers , and destroyers . The overall commander of the three carrier task forces was Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher , who flew his flag on Saratoga . The aircraft from the three carriers provided close air support for the invasion forces and defended against Japanese air attacks from Rabaul . After a successful landing , they remained in the South Pacific area charged with four main objectives : ( 1 ) guarding the line of communication between the major Allied bases at New Caledonia and Espiritu Santo ; ( 2 ) giving support to Allied ground forces at Guadalcanal and Tulagi against possible Japanese counteroffensives ; ( 3 ) covering the movement of supply ships aiding Guadalcanal ; and ( 4 ) engaging and destroying any Japanese warships that came within potential range .
Between 15 and 20 August , the U.S. carriers covered the delivery of fighter and bomber aircraft to the newly opened Henderson Field on Guadalcanal . This small but hard @-@ won airfield was a critical point in the entire island chain , and both military sides strategically considered that control of the airbase offered potential control of the local battle area airspace . In fact , Henderson Field and the aircraft based upon it soon resulted in telling effects on the movement of Japanese forces in the Solomon Islands and in the attrition of Japanese air forces in the South Pacific Area . Historically , Allied control of Henderson Field became the key factor in the entire battle for Guadalcanal .
Surprised by the Allied offensive in the Solomons , Japanese naval forces ( under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto ) and army forces prepared a counteroffensive , with the goal of driving the Allies out of Guadalcanal and Tulagi . The counteroffensive was called Operation Ka ( Ka comes from the first syllable for Guadalcanal as pronounced in Japanese ) with the naval forces having an additional objective of destroying Allied warship forces in the South Pacific area , specifically the U.S. carriers .
= = Battle = =
= = = Prelude = = =
On 16 August 1942 , a convoy of three slow transport ships loaded with 1 @,@ 411 Japanese soldiers from the 28th " Ichiki " Infantry Regiment as well as several hundred naval troops from the 5th Yokosuka Special Naval Landing Force ( SNLF ) , departed the major Japanese base at Truk Lagoon ( Chuuk ) and headed towards Guadalcanal . The transports were guarded by light cruiser Jintsu , eight destroyers , and four patrol boats , led by Rear Admiral Raizo Tanaka ( flag in Jintsu ) Also departing from Rabaul to help protect the convoy was a " Close Cover force " of four heavy cruisers from the 8th Fleet , commanded by Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa . These were the same relatively old heavy cruisers that had defeated an Allied naval surface force in the earlier Battle of Savo Island ( with the subtraction of the Kako , which had been sunk by an American submarine ) . Tanaka planned to land the troops from his convoy on Guadalcanal on 24 August .
On 21 August , the rest of the Japanese Ka naval force departed Truk , heading for the southern Solomons . These ships were basically divided into three groups : the " Main Body " contained the Japanese carriers — Shōkaku and Zuikaku , light carrier Ryūjō , and a screening force of one heavy cruiser and eight destroyers , commanded by Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo in Shōkaku ; the " Vanguard Force " consisted of two battleships , three heavy cruisers , one light cruiser , and three destroyers , commanded by Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe ; the " Advanced Force " contained five heavy cruisers , one light cruiser , six destroyers , and the seaplane carrier Chitose , commanded by Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō . Finally , a force of about 100 IJN land @-@ based bombers , fighters , and reconnaissance aircraft at Rabaul and nearby islands were positioned for operational support . Nagumo 's main body positioned itself behind the " Vanguard " and " Advanced " forces in an attempt to more easily remain hidden from U.S. reconnaissance aircraft .
The Ka plan dictated that once U.S. carriers were located , either by Japanese scout aircraft or an attack on one of the Japanese surface forces , Nagumo 's carriers would immediately launch a strike force to destroy them . With the U.S. carriers destroyed or disabled , Abe 's " Vanguard " and Kondo 's " Advanced " forces would close with and destroy the remaining Allied naval forces in a warship surface action . This would then allow Japanese naval forces the freedom to neutralize Henderson Field through bombardment while covering the landing of the Japanese army troops to retake Guadalcanal and Tulagi .
In response to an unanticipated land battle fought between U.S. Marines on Guadalcanal and Japanese forces on 19 – 20 August , the U.S. carrier task forces under Fletcher reversed back towards Guadalcanal from their positions 400 mi ( 350 nmi ; 640 km ) to the south on 21 August . The U.S. carriers were to support the Marines , protect Henderson Field , engage the enemy and destroy any Japanese naval forces that arrived to support Japanese troops in the land battle on Guadalcanal .
Both Allied and Japanese naval forces continued to converge on 22 August and both sides conducted intense aircraft scouting efforts , however neither side spotted its adversary . The disappearance of at least one of their scouting aircraft ( shot down by aircraft from Enterprise before it could send a radio report ) , caused the Japanese to strongly suspect that U.S. carriers were in the immediate area . The U.S. , however , was unaware of the disposition and strength of approaching Japanese surface warship forces .
At 09 : 50 on 23 August , a U.S. PBY Catalina flying boat ( based at Ndeni in the Santa Cruz Islands ) initially sighted Tanaka 's convoy . By late afternoon , with no further sightings of Japanese ships , two aircraft strike forces from Saratoga and Henderson Field took off to attack the convoy . However , Tanaka , knowing that an attack would be forthcoming following the PBY sighting , reversed course once it had departed the area , and eluded the strike aircraft . After Tanaka reported to his superiors his loss of time by turning north to avoid the expected Allied airstrike , the landings of his troops on Guadalcanal was pushed back to 25 August . By 18 : 23 on 23 August , with no Japanese carriers sighted and no new intelligence reporting of their presence in the area , Fletcher detached Wasp ( which was getting low on fuel ) and the rest of TF 18 for the two @-@ day trip south toward Efate Island to refuel . Thus , Wasp and her escorting warships missed the upcoming battle .
= = = Carrier action on August 24 = = =
At 01 : 45 on 24 August 1942 , Nagumo ordered Rear Admiral Chūichi Hara ( with the light carrier Ryūjō , the heavy cruiser Tone and destroyers Amatsukaze and Tokitsukaze ) to proceed ahead of the main Japanese force and send an aircraft attack force against Henderson Field at daybreak . The Ryūjō mission was most likely in response to a request from Nishizo Tsukahara ( the naval commander at Rabaul ) for help from the combined fleet in neutralizing Henderson Field . The mission may also have been intended by Nagumo as a feint maneuver to divert U.S. attention allowing the rest of the Japanese force to approach the U.S. naval forces undetected as well as to help provide protection and cover for Tanaka 's convoy . Most of the aircraft on Shōkaku and Zuikaku were readied to launch on short notice if the U.S. carriers were located . Between 05 : 55 and 06 : 30 , the U.S. carriers ( mainly Enterprise augmented by PBY Catalinas from Ndeni ) launched their own scout aircraft to search for the Japanese naval forces .
At 09 : 35 , a Catalina made the first sighting of the Ryūjō force . Later that morning , several more sightings of Ryūjō and ships of Kondo 's and Mikawa 's forces by carrier and other U.S. reconnaissance aircraft followed . Throughout the morning and early afternoon , U.S. aircraft also sighted several Japanese scout aircraft and submarines , leading Fletcher to believe that the Japanese knew where his carriers were , which actually was not yet the case . Still , Fletcher hesitated to order a strike against the Ryūjō group until he was sure there were no other Japanese carriers in the area . Finally , with no firm word on the presence or location of other Japanese carriers , at 13 : 40 Fletcher launched a strike of 38 aircraft from Saratoga to attack Ryūjō . However , he kept aircraft in reserve from both U.S. carriers potentially ready should any Japanese fleet carriers be sighted .
Meantime , at 12 : 20 , Ryūjō launched six Nakajima B5N2 " Kate " bombers and 15 A6M3 Zero fighters to attack Henderson Field in conjunction with an attack by 24 Mitsubishi G4M2 " Betty " bombers and 14 Zeros from Rabaul . However , unknown to the Ryūjō aircraft , the Rabaul aircraft had encountered severe weather and returned to their base earlier at 11 : 30 . The Ryūjō aircraft were detected on radar by Saratoga as they flew toward Guadalcanal , further fixing the location of their ship for the impending U.S. attack . The Ryūjō aircraft arrived over Henderson Field at 14 : 23 , and tangled with Henderson 's fighters ( members of the Cactus Air Force ) while bombing the airfield . In the resulting engagement , three " Kates " , three Zeros , and three U.S. fighters were shot down , and no significant damage was done to Henderson Field .
Almost simultaneously , at 14 : 25 a Japanese scout aircraft from the cruiser Chikuma sighted the U.S. carriers . Although the aircraft was shot down , its report was transmitted in time , and Nagumo immediately ordered his strike force launched from Shōkaku and Zuikaku . The first wave of aircraft ( 27 Aichi D3A2 " Val " dive bombers and 15 Zeros ) was off by 14 : 50 and on its way toward Enterprise and Saratoga . Coincidentally about this same time , two U.S. scout aircraft finally sighted the main Japanese force . However , due to communication problems , these sighting reports never reached Fletcher . Before leaving the area , the two U.S. scout aircraft attacked Shōkaku , causing negligible damage .
At 16 : 00 a second wave of 27 " Vals " and nine Zeros was launched by the Japanese carriers and headed south toward the U.S. carriers . Abe 's " Vanguard " force also surged ahead in anticipation of meeting the U.S. ships in a surface action after nightfall .
Again coincidentally about this same time , the Saratoga strike force arrived and attacked Ryūjō , hitting and heavily damaging her with three to five bombs and perhaps one torpedo , and killing 120 of her crew . Also during this time , several U.S. B @-@ 17 heavy bombers attacked the crippled Ryūjō but caused no additional damage . The crew abandoned the heavily damaged Japanese carrier at nightfall and she sank soon after . Amatsukaze and Tokitsukaze rescued Ryūjō 's survivors and the aircrews from her returning strike force , who ditched their aircraft in the ocean nearby . After the rescue operations were complete , both Japanese destroyers and Tone rejoined Nagumo 's main force .
At 16 : 02 , still waiting for a definitive report on the location of the Japanese fleet carriers , the U.S. carriers ' radar detected the first incoming wave of Japanese strike aircraft . Fifty @-@ three F4F @-@ 4 Wildcat fighters from the two U.S. carriers were directed by radar control towards the attackers . However , communication problems , limitations of the aircraft identification capabilities of the radar , primitive control procedures , and effective screening of the Japanese dive bombers by their escorting Zeros , prevented all but a few of the U.S. fighters from engaging the Vals before they began their attacks on the U.S. carriers . Just before the Japanese dive bombers began their attacks , Enterprise and Saratoga cleared their decks for the impending action by launching the aircraft that they had been holding ready in case the Japanese fleet carriers were sighted . These aircraft were told to fly north and attack anything they could find , or else to circle outside the battle zone , until it was safe to return .
At 16 : 29 , the Japanese dive bombers began their attacks . Although several attempted to set up to attack the Saratoga , they quickly shifted back to the nearer carrier , Enterprise . Thus , Enterprise was the target of almost the entire Japanese air attack . Several Wildcats followed the " Vals " into their attack dives , despite the intense anti @-@ aircraft artillery fire from Enterprise and her screening warships , in a desperate attempt to disrupt their attacks . As many as four Wildcats were shot down by U.S. anti @-@ aircraft fire , as well as several Vals .
Because of the effective anti @-@ aircraft fire from the U.S. ships , plus evasive maneuvers , the bombs from the first nine " Vals " missed Enterprise . However , at 16 : 44 , an armor @-@ piercing , delayed @-@ action bomb penetrated the flight deck near the aft elevator and passed through three decks before detonating below the waterline , killing 35 men and wounding 70 more . Incoming sea water caused Enterprise to develop a slight list , but it was not a major breach of hull integrity .
Just 30 seconds later , the next " Val " planted its bomb only 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) away from where the first bomb hit . The resulting detonation ignited a large secondary explosion from one of the nearby 5 in ( 130 mm ) guns ' ready powder casings , killing 35 members of the nearby gun crews and starting a large fire .
About a minute later , at 16 : 46 , the third and last bomb hit Enterprise on the flight deck forward of where the first two bombs hit . This bomb exploded on contact , creating a 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) hole in the deck , but caused no further damage . Four " Vals " then broke off from the attack on Enterprise to attack the U.S. battleship North Carolina , but all of their bombs missed and all four " Vals " were shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire or U.S. fighters . The attack was over at 16 : 48 , and the surviving Japanese aircraft reassembled in small groups and returned to their ships .
Both sides thought that they had inflicted more damage than was the case . The U.S. claimed to have shot down 70 Japanese aircraft , even though there were only 42 aircraft in all . Actual Japanese losses — from all causes — in the engagement were 25 aircraft , with most of the crews of the lost aircraft not being recovered or rescued . The Japanese , for their part , mistakenly believed that they had heavily damaged two U.S. carriers , instead of just one . The U.S. lost six aircraft in the engagement , with most of the crews being rescued .
Although Enterprise was heavily damaged and on fire , her damage @-@ control teams were able to make sufficient repairs for the ship to resume flight operations at 17 : 46 , only one hour after the engagement ended . At 18 : 05 , the Saratoga strike force returned from sinking Ryūjō and landed without major incident . The second wave of Japanese aircraft approached the U.S. carriers at 18 : 15 but was unable to locate the U.S. formation because of communication problems and had to return to their carriers without attacking any U.S. ships , losing five aircraft in the process from operational mishaps . Most of the U.S. carrier aircraft launched just before the first wave of Japanese aircraft attacked failed to find any targets . However , two SBD Dauntlesses from Saratoga sighted Kondo 's advanced force and attacked the seaplane tender Chitose , scoring two near @-@ hits which heavily damaged the unarmored ship . The U.S. carrier aircraft either landed at Henderson Field or were able to return to their carriers after dusk . The U.S. ships retired to the south to get out of range of any approaching Japanese warships . In fact , Abe 's " Vanguard " force and Kondo 's " Advance " force were steaming south to try to catch the U.S. carrier task forces in a surface battle , but they turned around at midnight without having made contact with the U.S. warships . Nagumo 's main body , having taken heavy aircraft losses in the engagement and being low on fuel , also retreated northward .
= = = Actions on 25 August = = =
Believing that two U.S. carriers had been taken out of action with heavy damage , Tanaka 's reinforcement convoy again headed toward Guadalcanal , and by 08 : 00 on 25 August they were within 150 mi ( 130 nmi ; 240 km ) of their destination . At this time , Tanaka 's convoy was joined by five destroyers which had shelled Henderson Field the night before , causing slight damage . At 08 : 05 , 18 U.S. aircraft from Henderson Field attacked Tanaka 's convoy , causing heavy damage to Jintsu , killing 24 crewmen , and knocking Tanaka unconscious . The troop transport Kinryu Maru was also hit and eventually sank . Just as the destroyer Mutsuki pulled alongside Kinryu Maru to rescue her crew and embarked troops , she was attacked by four U.S. B @-@ 17s from Espiritu Santo which landed five bombs on or around Mutsuki , sinking her immediately . An uninjured but shaken Tanaka transferred to the destroyer Kagerō , sent Jintsu back to Truk , and took the convoy to the Japanese base in the Shortland Islands .
Both the Japanese and the U.S. elected to completely withdraw their warships from the area , ending the battle . The Japanese naval forces lingered near the northern Solomons , out of range of the U.S. aircraft based at Henderson Field , before finally returning to Truk on 5 September .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle is generally considered to be a tactical and strategic victory for the U.S. because the Japanese lost more ships , aircraft , and aircrew , and Japanese troop reinforcements for Guadalcanal were delayed . Summing up the significance of the battle , historian Richard B. Frank states :
The Battle of the Eastern Solomons was unquestionably an American victory , but it had little long @-@ term result , apart from a further reduction in the corps of trained Japanese carrier aviators . The ( Japanese ) reinforcements that could not come by slow transport would soon reach Guadalcanal by other means .
The U.S. lost only seven aircrew members in the battle . However , the Japanese lost 61 veteran aircrew , who were hard for the Japanese to replace because of an institutionalized limited capacity in their naval aircrew training programs and an absence of trained reserves . The troops in Tanaka 's convoy were later loaded onto destroyers at the Shortland Islands and delivered piecemeal , without most of their heavy equipment , to Guadalcanal beginning on August 29 , 1942 . The Japanese claimed considerably more damage than they had inflicted , including that Hornet — not in the battle — had been sunk , thus avenging its part in the Doolittle Raid .
Emphasizing the strategic value of Henderson Field , in a separate reinforcement effort , Japanese destroyer Asagiri was sunk and two other Japanese destroyers heavily damaged on 28 August , 70 mi ( 61 nmi ; 110 km ) north of Guadalcanal in " The Slot " by U.S. aircraft based at the airfield . The battle for the island settled into a two @-@ month @-@ long stalemate , punctuated by an intense land battle at Edson 's Ridge on 13 September and a large surface naval engagement at Cape Esperance and a bombardment of Henderson Field by two Japanese battleships from Truk in early October .
Enterprise traveled to Pearl Harbor for extensive repairs , which were completed on 15 October 1942 . She returned to the South Pacific on 24 October , just in time for the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and her rematch with Shōkaku and Zuikaku .
= Siegfried @-@ class coastal defense ship =
The Siegfried class was a group of six coastal defense ships built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( " Imperial Navy " ) in the late 19th century . The ships were intended to protect the German coastline from naval attacks . The class comprised the lead ship Siegfried , along with her sisters Beowulf , Frithjof , Heimdall , Hildebrand , and Hagen . All six ships were named after Norse mythological figures . Two further vessels , the Odin class , were built to a similar design but were not identical .
The Siegfried @-@ class ships were obsolete by the outbreak of World War I , and saw only limited service in their intended role before they were withdrawn from active duty . The ships then served in a variety of secondary duties , including barracks ships , target ships , and in the case of Beowulf , an icebreaker in the Baltic Sea . All six ships were struck from the naval register on 17 June 1919 , days before the Treaty of Versailles was signed . Five of the ships were sold for scrapping immediately after they were struck from the register , but Frithjof was purchased by a shipping company , and converted into a freighter . She served in this capacity until she too was scrapped in 1930 .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Siegfried class were 76 @.@ 40 meters ( 250 ft 8 in ) long at the waterline and 79 m ( 259 ft 2 in ) long overall . The ships had a beam of 14 @.@ 90 m ( 48 ft 11 in ) and a draft of between 5 @.@ 51 m ( 18 ft 1 in ) forward and 5 @.@ 74 m ( 18 ft 10 in ) aft . All six ships were heavily rebuilt , each undergoing refits at various times between 1898 and 1904 . During the rebuilding , the ships were lengthened , to 84 @.@ 80 m ( 278 ft 3 in ) at the waterline and 86 @.@ 13 m ( 282 ft 7 in ) overall . The ships ' beams remained the same , but their draft was slightly decreased , to 5 @.@ 45 m ( 17 ft 11 in ) forward and 5 @.@ 47 m ( 17 ft 11 in ) aft . The ships had a designed displacement of 3 @,@ 500 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 400 long tons ; 3 @,@ 900 short tons ) , and a maximum displacement of 3 @,@ 741 t ( 3 @,@ 682 long tons ) . After the reconstruction , the displacement was increased to between 4 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 436 t ( 3 @,@ 937 to 4 @,@ 366 long tons ) , depending on the ship .
The ships used transverse and longitudinal steel frames in the hull . They had eight watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 60 % of the hull . After the refits , one more watertight compartment was added . The ships were described as good sea boats ; they had gentle motion and were very responsive to commands from the helm . The ships lost significant speed in heavy seas , however . The ships had a crew of 20 officers and 256 enlisted men , with an additional 6 officers and 22 men when serving as a flagship . The refit increased crew requirements , to an additional 31 sailors normally , and the extra flagship crew increased to 9 officers and 34 men . The ships carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one pinnace , two cutters , one yawl , and one dinghy .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were powered by two sets of 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines , each in its own engine room . These engines drove a pair of three @-@ bladed screws that were 3 @.@ 50 m ( 11 ft 6 in ) in diameter . The ships had eight marine type boilers , with the exception of Hagen , which was equipped with eight Thornycroft boilers . The ships had similar maximum speeds , with Beowulf the fastest at 15 @.@ 1 knots ( 28 @.@ 0 km / h ; 17 @.@ 4 mph ) and Heimdall the slowest at 14 @.@ 6 knots ( 27 @.@ 0 km / h ; 16 @.@ 8 mph ) . Each ship had three electric generators that provided between 29 – 26 kilowatts at 67 volts . The ships stored up to 220 t ( 220 long tons ; 240 short tons ) of coal and 220 t ( 220 long tons ; 240 short tons ) of fuel oil , which enabled a range of 1 @,@ 490 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 760 km ; 1 @,@ 710 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . At 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , the ships could only steam 740 nmi ( 1 @,@ 370 km ; 850 mi ) . With the refit , fuel bunkerage was more than doubled , to 580 t ( 570 long tons ; 640 short tons ) of coal and 500 t ( 490 long tons ; 550 short tons ) of oil . This dramatically increased the sailing range , to 3 @,@ 400 nmi ( 6 @,@ 300 km ; 3 @,@ 900 mi ) at 10 knots and 1 @,@ 940 nmi ( 3 @,@ 590 km ; 2 @,@ 230 mi ) at 14 knots .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' primary armament consisted of three 24 @-@ centimetre ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) K L / 35 guns . In an arrangement very unusual for such large guns , two of which were mounted in a pair of MPL C / 88 turrets forward side @-@ by @-@ side , while the third was mounted in a single turret aft . The guns could train 150 degrees to either side of the centerline , and depress to − 4 degrees and elevate to 25 degrees . This enabled a maximum range of 13 @,@ 000 m ( 43 @,@ 000 ft ) . The guns had an ammunition storage of 204 rounds , or 68 shells per gun . The guns had a rate of fire of around 2 shells per minute . The 1895 design for the armor @-@ piercing shell weighed 140 kg ( 310 lb ) .
The ships also had a secondary battery of eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 guns with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , though Siegfried only had six of these guns . After the refit , this was increased to ten 8 @.@ 8 cm guns , and the munition storage correspondingly increased to 2 @,@ 500 rounds . The 8 @.@ 8 cm gun fired a 10 kg ( 22 lb ) projectile at a muzzle velocity of 590 m / s ( 1 @,@ 936 m / s ) . The guns could sustain a rate of fire of approximately 15 rounds per minute . Six machine guns were temporarily fitted .
The ships were also equipped with four 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes . One tube was mounted in the stern in an above @-@ water swivel mount , two were placed laterally , also above water , and the fourth was in the bow . The torpedo tubes were supplied with a total of 10 torpedoes . After the refit , the stern and lateral tubes were replaced with 45 cm ( 18 in ) weapons , but the lateral torpedo tubes were submerged . They had 8 torpedoes between them . The bow tube was retained , but also moved below the waterline ; it had three torpedoes .
= = = Armor = = =
The ships ' armor consisted of compound steel for the first three ships and Krupp armor for the last three , coupled with teak . The upper section of the main armored belt was 240 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) thick in the central portion of the ship and reduced to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) at either end . This was mounted on 330 mm ( 13 in ) of timber . The lower section of the belt was 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick in the central area , and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) on the bow and stern . This portion of the armored belt was mounted on 290 mm ( 11 in ) of timber . The main armored deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , though on Hagen and Heimdall this was increased to 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) . The conning tower had a roof that was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick and sides that were 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; the armor protection on the conning tower sides was also increased on Hagen and Heimdall , to 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Construction = =
The six ships of the Siegfried class were built by a combination of private and government shipyards . Siegfried was laid down at the Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel in 1888 . The ship was ordered as the coast defense ship " O " under construction number 44 . She was launched on 10 August 1889 and commissioned into the fleet on 29 April 1890 . Beowulf was built at AG Weser in Bremen from 1890 to 1892 . She had been ordered as " P " , under construction number 100 . Beowulf was launched on 8 November 1890 and commissioned on 1 April 1892 . Frithjof was also built at AG Weser , under construction number 101 and the provisional name " Q " . She was launched on 21 July 1891 and commissioned into active service on 23 February 1893 .
Heimdall , Hildebrand , and Hagen were all built at Imperial Navy dockyards , with Heimdall at the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven and the latter two at the Kaiserliche Werft Kiel . Heimdall was laid down in 1891 under construction number 14 and the provisional name " U " ; she was launched on 27 July 1892 and commissioned on 7 April 1894 . Hildebrand and Hagen were ordered as " R " and " S " , respectively . Hildebrand was laid down in 1890 , launched on 6 August 1892 , and commissioned on 28 October 1893 . Hagen , the last ship of the class , was laid down in 1891 , launched on 21 October 1893 , and completed on 2 October 1894 .
= = Service history = =
The ships of the Siegfried class saw only limited service in their intended roles . The revolutions in capital ship building in the first decade of the 20th century rapidly made these ships obsolete . The Second Naval Law , passed on 27 March 1908 , reduced the service life of all capital ships from 25 years to 20 years . This meant that the Siegfried @-@ class ships , along with a number of other vessels , were to be replaced as soon as possible . Siegfried , Beowulf , and Frithjof were replaced by the Helgoland @-@ class battleships Helgoland , Thüringen , and Oldenburg . Heimdall , Hildebrand , and Hagen were replaced by the Kaiser @-@ class battleships Kaiser , Friedrich der Grosse , and Kaiserin , respectively .
As the new battleships were intended for offensive operations , the Siegfried class was still retained for coast defense duties . The ships served in this capacity through the start of World War I , until they were withdrawn from active service in 1915 . Afterward , all six ships served in a variety of secondary roles , primarily as barracks ships . All six ships were struck from the naval register on 17 June 1919 , shortly before the Treaty of Versailles , which ended the First World War , was signed . Siegfried was a barracks ship in Wilhelmshaven from 1916 . She was intended to be rebuilt as a salvage ship , but this plan was abandoned and the vessel was sold to H. Peters , Wewelsfleth in 1919 for 425 @,@ 000 marks . She was broken up in 1920 in Kiel . Beowulf served as a target ship for U @-@ boats from 1916 to 1918 , when she transitioned to ice @-@ breaking duty in the Baltic Sea . Frithjof was a barracks ship in Danzig after 1916 . Following her removal from navy service , she was sold to A Bernstein in Hamburg . She was rebuilt as a freighter by Deutsche Werke , and served in this capacity until she was broken up in 1930 . She was the longest serving Siegfried @-@ class ship .
Heimdall was a barracks ship for the crews of U @-@ boats and the Ems coast defense flotilla based in Emden . Like Siegfried , Heimdall was intended to be reconstructed as a salvage ship , and this was likewise abandoned . She was broken up for scrap metal in 1921 . Hildebrand was a barracks ship in Windau after she was removed from active duty . She was sold to a Dutch ship @-@ breaking firm in 1919 , but while en route to the scrapyard , she became grounded on the Dutch coast . The wreck was blown up in 1933 , and eventually scrapped in situ . Hagen was a barracks ship in Libau , Danzig , and Warnemünde during the remainder of World War I. She was sold for scrapping to Norddeutsche Tiefbauges after the end of the war .
= U.S. Route 195 =
U.S. Route 195 ( US 195 ) is a north – south United States Highway , of which all but 0 @.@ 65 miles of its 94 @.@ 42 miles ( 1 @.@ 05 of 151 @.@ 95 km ) are within the state of Washington . The highway starts in rural Idaho north of the city of Lewiston as a state highway in an interchange with US 95 . As the road crosses into Washington it becomes a state highway that connects communities in the Palouse region of Eastern Washington . US 195 travels north , serving the cities of Pullman , Colfax and Rosalia in Whitman County before continuing into Spokane County to its terminus in the city of Spokane at an interchange with Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) .
The first section of US 195 designated as part of Washington 's state highway system was codified in 1913 from Colfax to Spokane as the Inland Empire Highway and from the Idaho state line to Pullman as the Second Division of the Eastern Route of the Inland Empire Highway . The two highways were included as part of State Road 3 in 1923 and US 195 during the creation of the US Highway System on November 11 , 1926 . Originally , the northern terminus of the highway was at US 95 in Sandpoint , but was truncated to Spokane after US 2 was extended west from Bonners Ferry in 1946 . US 195 was cosigned with Primary State Highway 3 ( PSH 3 ) from US 95 to Spokane and PSH 6 from Spokane to Newport from the creation of the primary and secondary state highways in 1937 until the 1964 highway renumbering . US 195 was extended south into Idaho after the relocation of US 95 , designated as the North and South Highway in 1916 , onto its present freeway in 1975 . Bypasses of Pullman , Rosalia , and Plaza were completed during the early 1970s , converting portions of US 195 into a divided highway .
= = Route description = =
US 195 runs 93 @.@ 95 miles ( 151 @.@ 20 km ) in Idaho and Washington and is listed in its entirety as part of the National Highway System , a system of roads crucial to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility . As a state highway in both states , the roadway is maintained by the Idaho Transportation Department ( ITD ) and Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) .
= = = Idaho = = =
US 195 travels within Idaho for 0 @.@ 577 miles ( 0 @.@ 929 km ) from an interchange with US 95 to the Washington state line , entirely north of Lewiston atop the Lewiston Hill in unincorporated Nez Perce County . ITD surveys the roads under its control on a regular basis to measure the amount of traffic using the state 's highways . These traffic counts are expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . A July 2011 survey reported average daily traffic of 6 @,@ 761 vehicles being served the US 95 interchange .
Administratively , US 195 does not exist in Idaho . According to ITD 's milepoint log , both carriageways are officially US 95 ramps into Washington state .
= = = Washington = = =
US 195 travels 93 @.@ 37 miles ( 150 @.@ 26 km ) north through the Palouse region of Eastern Washington , from the Idaho state line north to Spokane . The highway serves as an important link between Pullman and Spokane as well as part of the Palouse Scenic Byway and a main north – south route in the region alongside State Route 27 ( SR 27 ) . US 195 enters Washington north of Clarkston in unincorporated Whitman County and travels west to an intersection with its 0 @.@ 61 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 98 km ) spur route , providing a connection to US 95 northbound towards Moscow . The highway continues northwest through farmland and the towns of Uniontown and Colton along Union Flat Creek towards Pullman . US 195 intersects SR 27 , also part of the Palouse Scenic Byway , and travels west of Pullman on a highway bypass of the city . The bypass travels through the termini of SR 194 and SR 270 as it leaves the Pullman area heading north towards Colfax along the South Fork Palouse River . US 195 becomes Main Street within Colfax and travels through the town along a WSDOT rail line to the eastern terminus of SR 272 and SR 26 . The highway continues north along Pine Creek and the WSDOT rail line past the northern terminus of SR 271 , a diamond interchange south of Rosalia , before leaving the Palouse Scenic Byway at the Spokane County border . The roadway heads north through a diamond interchange in Plaza and along Spangle Creek past the community of Spangle . US 195 enters the city of Spokane as a four @-@ lane highway along Hangman Creek and ends at a partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 90 , cosigned with US 2 and US 395 .
US 195 is defined by the Washington State Legislature as SR 195 , part of the Revised Code of Washington as § 47 @.@ 17 @.@ 380 . Every year , WSDOT conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of AADT , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of US 195 within Washington was in Hangman Valley before the I @-@ 90 interchange in Spokane , serving 19 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section was between Pullman and Colfax , serving 3 @,@ 100 vehicles . The entire route of US 195 is designated as a Highway of Statewide Significance by WSDOT , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
The Inland Empire Highway was originally a collection of gravel county roads that have existed since 1898 in the Spokane area and 1905 in the Pullman area . The highway was added to the state highway system in 1913 , traveling within the Palouse region between Colfax and Spokane . The Second Division of the Eastern Route of the Inland Empire Highway was also established in 1913 , traveling northwest from Sampson Trail Y at the Idaho – Washington state line to Pullman . The Idaho portion of US 195 became part of the North and South Highway in 1916 and was not numbered under Idaho 's state highway system in 1953 . The gap in the Second Division between Pullman and Colfax was named by Whitman County as a highway of importance the following year and was not built until 1925 as part of State Road 3 . State Road 23 , connecting Spokane to Newport , was designated in 1915 before it was renamed to the Pend O 'Reille Highway and renumbered to State Road 6 in 1923 . The Inland Empire Highway was numbered as State Road 3 in 1923 and retained the designation as PSH 3 in 1937 , while State Road 6 became PSH 6 .
The United States Highway System was established on November 11 , 1926 , during its adoption by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) and included US 195 , traveling north from US 95 within Washington through Pullman and Spokane before ending at US 95 in Sandpoint , Idaho . The present four @-@ lane divided highway along Hangman Creek in Spokane was constructed in 1939 as part of general improvements to Eastern Washington highways , relocating the route of the creek and a nearby Northern Pacific Railway line . The section of US 195 between Spokane and Sandpoint was replaced by an extension of US 2 from Bonners Ferry , Idaho to Everett , Washington in 1946 , truncating the highway to US 10 and US 395 . During the 1964 highway renumbering , Washington converted its highways to the present state route system , to take effect in 1970 . US 195 replaced PSH 3 and its branches along its present route , with its southern terminus at US 95 atop Lewiston Hill in Idaho and its northern terminus at I @-@ 90 in Spokane at an interchange that was opened in 1969 .
The State Department of Highways completed construction of three highway bypasses between 1973 and 1975 , avoiding the cities of Pullman , Rosalia , and Plaza , using funding originally intended for the canceled Bay Freeway project in Seattle . US 95 was relocated onto its present freeway , bypassing Washington state , in 1979 and US 195 was extended south into Idaho to the new interchange with a spur route traveling towards northbound US 95 . The highway between Uniontown and Rosalia was designated as part of the Palouse Scenic Byway on December 19 , 2002 , as part of the Washington State Scenic and Recreational Highways program . WSDOT is , as of March 2013 , upgrading US 195 within Spokane in Hangman Valley to a limited @-@ access highway by constructing diamond interchanges and a single point urban interchange at four intersections to be completed in late 2013 . The project began with engineering studies in 1999 and progressed to limited access plans in 2002 and construction beginning in 2013 on the interchange with Cheney @-@ Spokane Road .
= = Spur route = =
US 195 has a 0 @.@ 61 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 98 km ) spur route at its southern terminus on the Washington – Idaho state line that travels east from US 195 to serve US 95 northbound atop Lewiston Hill . The highway was established in 1979 on the former alignment of US 95 as it passed briefly through Washington before it was moved onto its present freeway . WSDOT included the road in its annual AADT survey in 2012 and calculated that 100 vehicles per day used the spur route . ITD designates the spur route as US 95 Spur in their milepoint log .
= = Major intersections = =
= Len Waters =
Leonard Victor ( Len ) Waters ( 20 June 1924 – 24 August 1993 ) was the first Aboriginal Australian military aviator , and the only one to serve as a fighter pilot in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . Aborigines at the time suffered significant discrimination and disadvantages in Australian society , such as restrictions on movement , residence , employment , and access to services and citizenship . Born in northern New South Wales and raised in Queensland , Waters was working as a shearer when he joined the RAAF in 1942 . Training initially as a mechanic , he volunteered for flying duties and graduated as a sergeant pilot in 1944 . He flew P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific theatre , where he completed 95 missions , mainly close air support . By the end of the war he had risen to the rank of warrant officer . Following his discharge from the RAAF in 1946 , he attempted to start a regional airline but was unable to secure financial backing and government approval . He went back to shearing , and died in 1993 at the age of 69 .
= = Early life = =
The fourth of 11 children to Donald and Grace Waters ( née Bennett ) , Len Waters was born at Euraba Mission , near Boomi in northern New South Wales on 20 June 1924 . He grew up at Nindigully , near St George , Queensland , and was educated to the seventh grade at Nindigilly State School . Hearing tales of pioneering aviators Charles Kingsford Smith , Amy Johnson , Bert Hinkler and Charles Lindbergh , and reading stories of Biggles , Flash Gordon , and Buck Rogers , he had , as he put it , his " head in the clouds " from an early age . Waters left school when he was 14 to support his family , working alongside his father as a ring barker . He was paid 10 shillings per week , for a seven @-@ day week , less than one @-@ sixth of the average wage at the time . In 1939 , he began working as a shearer .
= = RAAF career = =
Although the military had officially barred or restricted the recruitment of Aborigines in earlier periods , these impediments were significantly relaxed after Japan entered World War II , and Australia came under direct attack for the first time . Waters volunteered for service in the RAAF on 24 August 1942 , at Brisbane , and was accepted . He began training as an aircraft mechanic , but later volunteered for flying service , and commenced initial training at Somers , Victoria , in December 1943 . The aircrew interviewer thought he looked " a bit rough " but " should make a fighter " . Waters believed his lack of education would be a disadvantage , and studied nights to make up for it . Keen to be a pilot , he was concerned that he would be allocated to duty as a wireless operator because he showed an aptitude for Morse transmission early on . He was also asked to imagine himself as the tail gunner in a Lancaster or Halifax heavy bomber , to which he replied , " I had a very disappointed look on my face , sir ! " So convinced was he that he would not achieve his dream of becoming an aviator , Waters made three separate bets against himself being selected , and had to pay out £ 15 when he was nevertheless chosen .
Waters undertook his basic flight instruction at No. 1 Elementary Flying Training School in Narrandera , New South Wales , where he flew De Havilland Tiger Moths . He completed his training on CAC Wirraways and received his wings as a sergeant pilot at No. 5 Service Flying Training School in Uranquinty . Posted to No. 2 Operational Training Unit at Mildura , Victoria , he converted to P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters . Once , while he was on leave , Waters was reportedly gaoled in Moree , New South Wales , for not carrying an identity card , which was one of the racially discriminatory institutions affecting Aborigines at the time . On 14 November 1944 , he was posted to No. 78 Squadron , a fighter unit based on the island of Noemfoor , off Dutch New Guinea . When he arrived , he was allocated a P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk . By chance , a previous pilot had nicknamed the plane " Black Magic " and painted those words on its nose . Waters found the name of his plane an amusing coincidence and chose to retain it .
By this stage of the war , Japanese aircraft were almost non @-@ existent in the South West Pacific theatre ; No. 78 Squadron 's main role was ground attack , bombing and strafing enemy positions . Waters flew 95 sorties from Noemfoor , and later from the air bases at Morotai and Tarakan , in Borneo . During one mission , his aircraft was struck by a 37 mm cannon shell that embedded itself behind him in the cockpit without detonating . He flew for another two hours , with the possibility of the shell exploding at any time , a situation he likened to having a loaded gun against his head . " I 'll tell you what " , he said after returning to base , " that was the best landing I ever made " . On 1 January 1945 , he was promoted to flight sergeant . By the end of the war , Waters was commanding operations which included commissioned officers . A colleague described him as a " gaunt , genial figure , humble despite his daring feats " . In addition to his combat flying , Waters also held the RAAF middleweight boxing title .
One of Len Waters ' brothers , Donald Edward ( Jimmy ) Waters , had served as an infantryman with the Australian Army during the war . With the end of the Pacific War in September 1945 , Len considered volunteering for the Australian component of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan , if his brother did also . Jim declined at the time ( he later changed his mind ) , so Len returned to Australia and left the air force with the rank of warrant officer on 18 January 1946 .
= = Post @-@ war life and legacy = =
After returning to Australia , Waters attempted to start a regional airline serving South West Queensland . However , he was not able to secure finance or bureaucratic agreement . He reportedly wrote four letters seeking government approval , but never received a reply . He never flew a plane again . While racism in the military during World War II was considered to be minimal , Waters and other Aborigines who had served their country found that the skills they had acquired were not valued in peacetime . He wrote later that , having put off his uniform , he simply " returned to being a blackfellow " .
Four weeks after his discharge from the Air Force , Waters married Gladys Saunders , with whom he had six children . He worked as an automotive mechanic , but was forced to cease by union rules , which required him to serve an apprenticeship . Waters was then briefly employed by a local council in Queensland as a road worker , before returning to shearing , which took him away from his family to properties stretching from North Queensland to Victoria . He personally estimated that he sheared a million sheep during his life .
Waters applied for housing commission accommodation and was allocated a house at Inala , Brisbane , in August 1956 . He eventually bought the property and lived there for 33 years . He died on 24 August 1993 at the age of 69 in Cunnamulla , and was buried in St George Cemetery .
In 1995 – 96 , Waters was commemorated in several ways : Australia Post depicted his portrait on a stamp and that of his P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighter " Black Magic " on an aérogramme , as part of its Australia Remembers series ; Black Magic Port was named after his personal Kittyhawk ; Len Waters Place , a park in Inala , was opened ; Moree Plains Shire Council dedicated Leonard Waters Park in Boggabilla , New South Wales ; and Len Waters Street in Ngunnawal , Australian Capital Territory , was named after him . In 2003 , Balonne Shire Council erected a monument to Waters and another local RAAF identity , Squadron Leader John Jackson , in St George . In 2011 , the Sutherland Shire Council recognised Len Waters ' memory and achievements by dedicating Len Waters Park , with a memorial plinth and plaque , at Timbrey Circuit , Barden Ridge , New South Wales .
= Casino Night =
" Casino Night " is the second season finale of the American comedy television series The Office , and the twenty @-@ eighth episode overall . Written by Steve Carell , who also acts in the show as Michael Scott , and directed by Ken Kwapis , the episode originally aired in the United States on May 11 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest stars Nancy Carell as Carol Stills and Melora Hardin as Jan Levinson .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , the office hosts a casino night , to which Michael Scott ( Carell ) inadvertently invites two dates . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) decides to transfer to Dunder Mifflin 's Stamford branch and reveals to Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) his feelings for her .
The episode was the first of the series to run as a " supersized " episode , featuring twenty @-@ eight minutes and twenty seconds of content rather than the standard twenty minutes and thirty seconds . In addition , the episode was the first of the series to be written by Carell ; he had suggested the idea for the episode to executive producer Greg Daniels , who thoroughly enjoyed the idea and green lit the script . " Casino Night " also introduces the musical exploits of Kevin Malone , played by Brian Baumgartner . The episode received wide acclaim from television critics and earned a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 9 in the 18 – 49 demographic , being seen by 7 @.@ 7 million viewers . It is generally considered by both critics and audiences to be one of the show 's greatest episodes .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) organizes a casino charity event in the warehouse , and unwittingly winds up with two dates for the evening , his boss Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) and his real @-@ estate agent Carol Stills ( Nancy Carell ) . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) go through audition tapes for her wedding band and discover that colleague Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) has his own band . Jim , upset about Pam 's impending marriage to Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) , tells the documentary crew that he met with Jan about transferring to the Stamford , Connecticut branch of Dunder Mifflin because he has " no future here . "
During Casino Night , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) wins a game of craps and kisses Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) on the cheek , disregarding their attempts to keep their intimate relationship a secret . She slaps him and walks away , the two quietly enjoying the experience . Jan and Carol share an awkward conversation when they realize Michael has invited them both . Jim tells Jan that he 's made a decision about the transfer . After Roy leaves , Jim tells Pam that he is in love with her . After a stunned pause , she states she cannot be with him . He tells her he wants to be more than friends , but she is sorry he " misinterpreted things . " Jim apologizes for misinterpreting their friendship and discreetly wipes a tear from his cheek as he walks away . Jan leaves Michael and Carol , noticeably upset at the night 's events , and it is revealed she packed an overnight bag in her car , implying she had planned to spend the night with Michael . Pam returns to the office and talks to her mother over the phone about Jim 's statement , eventually saying " Yeah , I think I am . " It remains unknown to this date what Pam 's mother asked her , with fans speculating that two plausible lines were " Are you in love with Jim ? " or " Are you still going to marry Roy ? " ( But in a flashback in " Gay Witch Hunt " and " Cocktails " it is shown she must have feelings for Jim . ) Jim enters the room and approaches her as she hastily hangs up . She begins to say something but Jim kisses her , and after hesitating , she returns the kiss . The two stare at each other in silence as the episode ends .
= = Production = =
" Casino Night " was the first episode of the series written by Steve Carell . Initially , Carell suggested to executive producer Greg Daniels that an episode should revolve around a casino night . When it came time to plan the finale for the show , Daniels chose the idea and picked Carell to write the script . Parts of the script were fleshed out during the flights to and from New York when the show was filming the earlier episode " Valentine 's Day " . Later , Carell had only one weekend to write the bulk script . Daniels was very happy with the rough script and noted " came in with a great draft " . Jenna Fischer admitted that filming the episode was a relief because she had " been carrying around the secret cliff @-@ hangers for two months " . Toby Flenderson , who is portrayed by writer Paul Lieberstein , stated during the episode " I 'm gonna chase that feeling " after winning at a game of poker . The line was originally intended to lead to a subplot wherein Toby develops a gambling addiction , but the storyline was later abandoned .
The episode was the fifth episode of the season and the seventh of the entire series directed by Ken Kwapis . During the editing of the episode , executive producer Greg Daniels publicly addressed NBC in an interview , stating , " I 'd like to get a supersized episode , because it ’ s a really long script with a lot of good stuff . " In response , fans of the show set up an online petition to " supersize " the season finale . The website generated over 2 @,@ 800 signatures . On April 20 , NBC announced it would be extending the season finale by ten minutes . Although other NBC shows Will & Grace and My Name Is Earl that aired on the same night had extended episodes , cast members David Denman and John Krasinski credited in interviews the petition for the extended time . Denman and Krasinski both believed that the petition was partially responsible for the other two shows getting extended times as well .
The filming of the episode 's ending caused a " huge divide among the writing staff and the director and the cast " . Carell , Kwapis , and the actors wanted the moment when Pam and Jim kiss to " follow the characters and the emotion of the moment " by having the action captured in full by the show 's cameramen . The writing staff , on the other hand , wanted Pam and Jim 's moment to be private and only heard via the mics ; Daniels explained , " The writing staff was itching to do something kind of weird [ with the scene ] and have it be a private moment that the doc crew didn 't know was going to happen and so only heard on their mics and came running around the corner to film . " Eventually , both versions were filmed , but the former was broadcast . The alternate version has never been released .
The episode features Kevin Malone playing the drums in a band , which had been an idea circulated since the first season , when allusions to him being in a Steve Miller tribute band were written ; the scenes had to be removed from the series due to issues negotiating with the singer . The crew later decided to have Kevin be in a Police tribute band called Scrantonicity because he " talks so low , and has very little expression , and there is no band that sings higher and with more expression than the Police . " While Kevin was always intended to be the band 's lead singer , executive producer Greg Daniels approached Baumgartner about possibly playing an instrument , but the actor replied he could not play anything . Daniels and Baumgartner then discussed instruments that would be " funny " to play and brought up harmonicas , saxophones , and drums . They ultimately decided on the latter because they deemed a " drumming lead singer [ to ] be the funniest choice , " regardless of the fact that the actor had " absolutely no drumming experience , and it 's a difficult instrument . "
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael creating Dunder Mifflin Mad Libs , Dwight and Jim choosing their charities , Dwight considering Jim 's telekinetic powers , an extension of Michael 's scene with Darryl , Pam finding planning a wedding stressful , Meredith and the casino dealer sharing a past .
= = Cultural references = =
On the phone with Jan , Michael compares the performance of the Scranton branch of Dunder Mifflin to the biblical story of David and Goliath . He later tells her that she 's the " Eva Peron to his Cesar Chavez " . He later calls answers his phone while talking to her and says " Jan Levenson , I presume " , a reference to " Dr. Livingstone , I Presume " . Michael reasons that the money from the casino night should benefit the Boy Scouts of America because " They don 't have cookies like the Girl Scouts ! " He later states that he will donate all of his charity winnings to Comic Relief , a British charity . Kelly reasons that she would donate her winnings to Kobe Bryant 's foundation , only because he bought his wife a large ring .
When Michael mentions donating money to " Afghanistanis with AIDS " , the conversation gets confused , and the various office workers being talking about Afghanis , Afghans , and the nonsensical " Afghanistanannis " . In a talking head , Michael notes that AIDS is not a humorous disease , and is one of the many things that is off @-@ topic in comedy , including the assassination of John F. Kennedy and The Holocaust . However , he notes that the assassination of Abraham Lincoln recently became funny . While looking through the various cover bands , Jim and Pam stumble upon a Kiss tribute and Jim tells Pam that her wedding should have three stages like Lollapalooza . Kevin 's band is playing a cover of " Don 't Stand So Close to Me " by The Police .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Casino Night " originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 11 , 2006 . The episode received a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 7 million viewers , and retained 93 percent of its lead @-@ in " My Name is Earl " audience . For his work on this episode , Steve Carell was nominated for and won the Writers Guild of America Award for Television : Episodic Comedy .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Casino Night " received widespread critical acclaim from television critics . Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad stated that " This episode , the season finale , was , in a word , brilliant . You could not ask for a better way to tie up story lines that occurred over the course of a season while opening up new ones at the same time . " Sciannamea went on to praise Carell 's writing , as well as the progression of the relationship arcs in the show . Brian Zoromski of IGN said that " ' Casino Night , ' was full of great character development , awkward situations and laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments . " Zoromski enjoyed the unfolding of the Jim @-@ Pam relationship during the latter half of season two , and the climax of it in the season finale . He also enjoyed and praised the development of two minor characters , Kevin Malone and Creed Bratton , the latter played by the actor of the same name . He ultimately awarded the episode a ten out of ten , denoting a " Masterpiece " . Jacob Cliffton of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A " . Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly noted that , unlike other shows that featured resolved sexual tension , The Office was in no worry of being cancelled . She based this deduction on the fact that the show " isn 't based entirely on the endearing flirtation between " Jim and Pam . In a 2011 poll conducted by fansite OfficeTally , fans voted " Casino Night " as their favorite of all Office episodes that had been aired at that time .
= The One with the Rumor =
" The One with the Rumor " is the ninth episode of the eighth season of the American television situation comedy Friends , which aired on NBC on November 22 , 2001 . It continues the series ' annual Thanksgiving @-@ themed episode tradition , and guest @-@ stars cast member Jennifer Aniston 's then @-@ husband Brad Pitt in the uncredited role of Will Colbert , who reveals that he and Ross ( David Schwimmer ) were part of an " I hate Rachel " club . The two of them hated Rachel Green ( Aniston ) and got the exchange student from Thailand to join their club . Will revealed that they spread a rumor in high school that Rachel ( Aniston ) was a hermaphrodite .
The episode was directed by Gary Halvorson and written by Shana Goldberg @-@ Meehan . It was nominated for multiple Primetime Emmy Awards , but was criticized as " insulting " by a national intersex education group . Pitt admitted his appearance was mainly to promote his upcoming film , Spy Game .
= = Plot = =
Monica ( Courteney Cox ) tells her friends that she will not be cooking a turkey for Thanksgiving because of the large amount of leftovers it will create . Chandler does not eat turkey as a result of his dislike of all Thanksgiving foods ( a result of childhood trauma ) , Pheobe ( Lisa Kudrow 's character ) is a vegetarian and Rachel was having an aversion to poultry from her pregnancy . This left only Monica , Ross and Joey to eat the enormous turkey . Joey ( Matt LeBlanc ) protests , and announces that he will eat the entire turkey himself if necessary . Monica agrees , and Joey finishes the nineteen @-@ pound turkey by the end of the episode . Monica tells Rachel that she has invited over an old high @-@ school friend of hers and Ross 's called Will Colbert ( Brad Pitt ) . Rachel does not remember him , and he reacts with total disgust when he finds out Rachel will be joining them for dinner .
Throughout dinner , Will is hostile to Rachel . Will , like Monica , has lost a great deal of weight since high school and looks great . When Will keeps ignoring her advances and is continuously hostile , he reveals that she was horrible to him in high school . Will also eventually reveals that during high school , he and Ross initiated the episode 's titular rumor : that Rachel is a hermaphrodite , which was spread throughout their entire high school , and even went so far as to reach Chandler 's high school . Rachel reacts tearfully , claiming she never hurt Ross in high school , until Monica reminds her that she started a rumor of her own that Ross made out with the school 's 50 @-@ year @-@ old librarian , though Ross shockingly reveals that this is in fact true , much to everyone 's amusement and disgust . Monica comforts Rachel , saying that despite the rumor , she was still the most popular girl in their high school , and reminds Ross and Rachel that they are having a baby together and that some things are more important than high school . Will feels betrayed that Ross had a relationship with Rachel but then that turns to a high five when he discovers that Ross " knocked her up but did not marry her . " Ultimately the characters settle their differences . The episode culminates in Joey finishing off the turkey wearing Phoebe 's @-@ turned @-@ Rachel 's maternity pants and getting the meat sweats . After being extremely full , Joey still had room for pie .
= = Production = =
It was reported by Entertainment Weekly that Pitt would don a fat suit for flashback scenes to his fat childhood , though this was unfounded as Will 's weight was merely referred to on screen . Pitt frequently visited Aniston at the studios before and after his appearance , though he did not go onto the set for fear of distracting the audience . When questioned about his appearance in the show , Pitt said it was to promote his upcoming film Spy Game , though added that he liked the series anyway . The episode was taped on November 2 , following four days of rehearsals .
= = Reception = =
As the series finale drew close in 2004 , Eric Deggans of St. Petersburg Times ranked Pitt as one of the worst guest stars in Friends : " Stilted reactions , overly exaggerated comedy , near @-@ palpable self @-@ consciousness - despite his cred as a film actor , Pitt knew he was out of his depth on a sitcom stage . After five minutes ' viewing , the audience did , too . " His work on set is admired by the main stars ; Schwimmer recalls Pitt was " definitely [ ... ] going against type " and LeBlanc called him " really great on the show " . USA Today rates Will 's line " Look at her standing there with those yams . My two greatest enemies , Ross . Rachel Green and complex carbohydrates " one of the best of the episode .
The eponymous rumor drew criticism from the intersex community , a member of which wrote a strongly worded letter of complaint to NBC , calling the episode " ignorant , insulting , degrading , and absolutely unprofessional " . The member urged the network to learn about intersex individuals via the Society 's website and read an on @-@ air apology before future episodes .
= = = Primetime Emmy Award nominations = = =
Pitt was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his appearance in the episode . Additionally , Nick McLean was nominated for Outstanding Cinematography for a Multi @-@ Camera Series , while Stephen Prime was nominated for Outstanding Multi @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Series , for their work on the episode .
= Biman Bangladesh Airlines =
Biman Bangladesh Airlines ( Bengali : বিমান বাংলাদেশ এয ় ারলাইন ্ স ) , partly transcribed from English into Bengali and the other way around , commonly known as Biman ( Bengali : বিমান ) , is the flag carrier of Bangladesh . Its main hub is at Shahjalal International Airport in Dhaka and it also operates flights from its secondary hubs at Shah Amanat International Airport in Chittagong and Osmani International Airport in Sylhet . The airline provides international passenger and cargo services to its destinations ; as of April 2015 , it has air service agreements with 42 countries , but flies to just 16 of them . The airline 's headquarters , Balaka Bhaban , is located in Kurmitola , Dhaka . Annual Hajj flights ; transporting tourists and non @-@ resident Bangladeshi workers and migrants ; and the activities of its subsidiaries form an integral part of the airline 's business . The carrier is currently facing stiff competition from a number of domestic Bangladeshi private airlines as well as some international carriers , which offer greater flexibility targeting Bangladesh 's air transport sector which is experiencing an 8 % annual growth rate , thanks to a large number of tourists and non @-@ resident Bangladeshi travellers .
Created in February 1972 , Biman enjoyed an internal monopoly in the aviation industry of Bangladesh until 1996 . In the decades following its founding , the airline expanded its fleet and destinations but it was adversely affected by corruption and mismanagement . At its peak , Biman operated flights to 29 international destinations , extending from New York City in the west to Tokyo in the east . The airline was wholly owned and managed by the government of Bangladesh until 23 July 2007 , when it was transformed into the country 's largest public limited company by the Caretaker Government of Bangladesh . Since becoming a public limited company in 2007 , the airline has reduced staff and begun to modernise its fleet . The airline has made a deal with Boeing for ten new aircraft along with options for ten more . Biman Bangladesh Airlines is certified as safe to fly in Europe by the European Aviation Safety Agency and it also successfully passed the IATA Operational Safety Audit and since then , the airline has resumed flights to some of its previous destinations in Asia and Europe .
= = History = =
Biman Bangladesh Airlines was established on 4 January 1972 as Bangladesh 's national airline under the Bangladesh Biman Ordinance ( Presidential Order No. 126 ) . The initiative to launch the flag carrier was taken by 2 @,@ 500 former employees , including ten Boeing 707 commanders and seven other pilots of Pakistan International Airlines , who submitted a proposal to the government on 31 December 1971 following the independence of Bangladesh . The airline was initially called Air Bangladesh but was soon changed to its current name .
On 4 February 1972 , Biman started its domestic services , initially linking Dhaka with Chittagong , Jessore and Sylhet , using a single Douglas DC @-@ 3 acquired from India . Following the crash of this DC @-@ 3 on 10 February 1972 , near Dhaka , during a test flight , two Fokker F27s belonging to Indian Airlines and supplied by the Indian government entered the fleet as a replacement . Shortly afterwards , additional capacity was provided with the incorporation of a Douglas DC @-@ 6 , loaned by the World Council of Churches , which was in turn replaced with another Douglas DC @-@ 6 , a DC @-@ 6B model leased from Troll @-@ Air , to operate the Dhaka @-@ Calcutta route . On 4 March 1972 , Biman started its international operations with a weekly flight to London using a Boeing 707 chartered from British Caledonian . The short haul fleet was supplemented by a Fokker F27 from India on 3 March 1972 ; the aircraft was employed on a daily scheduled flight between Calcutta and Dhaka on 28 April 1972 . Three additional Fokker F27s were acquired during March and September of that year . In the first year of operation , Biman operated 1 @,@ 079 flights carrying just over 380 @,@ 000 passengers .
Four Fokker F27s joined the fleet in 1973 , enabling Biman to double the frequency of the Kolkata flight to a twice daily service . A Boeing 707 was added to the fleet in September and the flight to London became twice @-@ weekly , while a Chittagong – Kolkata flight also began operating . In 1974 , operations were extended to Kathmandu ( February ) , Bangkok ( November ) and Dubai ( December ) . In 1976 , Biman sold two of its Fokker F27s and bought another Boeing 707 to extend international services to Abu Dhabi , Karachi and Mumbai . Singapore was added to Biman 's list of international destinations , when a third Boeing 707 was purchased in February 1977 , followed by Jeddah , Doha and Amsterdam the following year , which also saw the purchase of its fourth Boeing 707 . In 1977 , Biman was converted into a public sector corporation to be governed by a board of directors appointed by the government . The airline broke even for the first time in 1977 – 78 , and made a profit the following year . International destinations expanded to include Kuala Lumpur , Athens , Muscat and Tripoli in 1979 , followed by Yangon , Tokyo and Dhahran in 1980 . Biman took delivery of its first 85 @-@ seater Fokker F28 @-@ 4000 in 1981 . In 1983 , three Douglas DC @-@ 10s joined the fleet and the airline started to phase out the Boeing 707s . The flight network expanded further to include Baghdad ( 1983 ) , Paris ( 1984 ) and Bahrain ( 1986 ) . On 5 August 1984 , Biman faced its worst accident ever when a Fokker F27 flying in from Chittagong crashed near Dhaka , killing all 49 on board . The long haul fleet was then supplemented by the purchase of two new Airbus A310s in 1996 , followed by the addition of two more in 2000 , from Singapore Airlines and Air Jamaica , and another in 2003 .
= = Corporate affairs = =
= = = Key people = = =
As of June 2016 , the chairman position is held by Air Mshl Muhammad Enamul Bari ; A. M. Mosaddique Ahmed is the managing director ( MD ) and chief executive officer ( CEO ) .
Kevin John Steele , who served as MD and CEO of Biman from March 2013 to April 2014 , was the first foreign national in the airline 's history to be appointed CEO and MD of Biman . He was chosen from a pool of 42 local and foreign candidates after a competitive selection process . Steele is a British citizen who has many years of experience working in management and administrative positions at British Airways and other airlines around the world . Steele resigned to Biman 's MD and CEO positions in December 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 12 ) citing health issues . Steele left office on 19 April 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 04 @-@ 19 ) . Kyle Haywood took office as Biman 's MD and CEO on 5 January 2015 ( 2015 @-@ 01 @-@ 05 ) . A British national , Haywood was the second foreign national to hold the airline 's CEO position after Kevin Steele .
= = = Ownership = = =
The airline was wholly owned by the Bangladeshi government through the Bangladesh Biman Corporation since its inception . In 1977 , Biman was converted into a public sector corporation which afforded Biman limited autonomy , led by a government @-@ appointed board of directors . The authorised share capital was increased to BDT 2 billion in 1987 , and Biman was transformed into a public limited company , the largest in Bangladesh , in 2007 .
= = = Privatisation = = =
= = = = 1980s = = = =
During the late 1980s , Hossain Mohammad Ershad , President of Bangladesh at the time , served as president of Biman . After an early period of expansion and growth , Biman entered an era of nose @-@ diving profits and slow growth , exacerbated by incompetent and corrupt management , who padded purchases , falsified repair bills , and kept unprofitable routes in operation for political reasons . Research conducted in 1996 found that Biman had 5 @,@ 253 non @-@ flying personnel , 30 percent more than Singapore Airlines , a carrier who operated a fleet almost ten times the size of Biman 's . The report described Biman as " poorly managed , overstaffed , undercapitalized , and subject to excessive political interference in its day @-@ to @-@ day management . "
= = = = 1990s = = = =
In the 1992 – 93 fiscal year , accounts under the Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism revealed that BDT 22 million in tax was not paid to the government . The audit carried out in 1999 , also showed that Biman was owed BDT 2 @.@ 2 million by travel agents from the proceeds of ticket sales , most likely with the collusion of Biman officials . Additionally , BDT 2 @.@ 4 million was overpaid as incentive commissions to the sales agents in violation of Biman policies . In 2007 , the caretaker government launched an anti @-@ corruption drive . This was shortly followed by the forced retirement of 35 other employees and officials , some of whom were close aides of Shamim Iskander . In 2008 Iskander , younger brother of former premier Khaleda Zia , was sent to jail over charges of concealing information regarding his wealth and not for his connection with Biman .
Faced with growing losses from the late 1990s onwards , the government offered 40 percent of Biman to foreign airlines in 2004 , hoping a buyer would take over the management of the carrier . However , the proposal demanded that many decision @-@ making rights remain within the Bangladesh government , and the offer was ignored by outside airlines . A similar initiative in 1998 cost Biman $ 1 @.@ 6 million in consultancy fees with no positive results .
= = = = 2000s = = = =
In the 2005 – 06 fiscal year , Biman carried 1 @.@ 15 million passengers , a growth of 70 % over the previous decade . With the rise of private domestic carriers in Bangladesh , however , Biman 's market share for domestic passengers dropped by 35 % over the previous ten years ' average , with only 162 @,@ 000 passengers travelling with Biman in the domestic sector in the 2005 – 06 fiscal year . During the same period , Biman reported its biggest annual loss of over US $ 120 million ( BDT 8 @.@ 3 billion as of 2010 ) , with a US $ 100 million ( BDT 6 @.@ 9 billion as of 2010 ) loss reported the following year . Biman also fell behind on millions of dollars in payments to its fuel supplier , the Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation ( BPC ) , with debts that rose to BDT 15 @.@ 64 billion in late December 2006 ( 2006 @-@ 12 ) .
= = = = Public limited company = = = =
In May 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 05 ) , the caretaker government approved plans to turn Biman into a public limited company with shareholdings split between seven public sector organisations . As a part of the restructuring , the government put in place a voluntary retirement scheme ( VRS ) to reduce the man @-@ equipment ratio ( MER ) of 367 : 1 ( ratio of manpower to aircraft ) . The industry average at the time was 200 : 1 , and other Asian airlines operated with MERs of about 150 : 1 . The VRS provided compensation based on length of service , at a cost to the government of over BDT 2 @.@ 97 billion borrowed from the World Bank . Biman management expected to reduce its workforce by 1 @,@ 600 , but 2 @,@ 162 applications were received , many from employees who expected to be dismissed with little or no severance pay if the quota was not met . Biman accepted between 1 @,@ 863 and 1877 applications , and affirmed that key personnel would not be allowed to leave the organisation via VRS .
On 23 July 2007 , Biman Bangladesh Airlines became the largest public limited company in Bangladesh . Earlier suggestions that the airline should be renamed Bangladesh Airlines were rejected . The government is the sole shareholder of the 1 @.@ 5 billion shares , but intends to offer 49 percent to the private sector while retaining majority ownership . The previous managing director , Dr. Abdul Momen , was appointed as the chief executive officer ( CEO ) and managing director of the new organisation . The six directors were appointed from the ministries of energy , commerce , finance , civil aviation , foreign affairs , and the cabinet division , with the cabinet secretary taking on the role as chairman of the board of directors . The six secretaries and a joint secretary to the civil aviation ministry were made the seven shareholders of the new PLC . In September 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 09 ) , the government appointed Air Commodore Zahed Kuddus ( retd ) to replace Dr. Momen as CEO . From 2002 to 2005 Kuddus had been chair of the Civil Aviation Authority of Bangladesh ( CAAB ) , before which he had held various posts in the Bangladesh Air Force .
Following the privatisation , an initiative was launched by ex @-@ Biman employees , who left the organisation via the VRS , to set up a competing airline . Names proposed for the airline included Air Bangla International , Biman Employees Airlines and Balaka . They were joined by previous managing directors of Biman , along with the former president of the Bangladesh Airline Pilots ' Association . However , nothing further was heard of regarding the proposed venture .
The airline made profits in FY 2007 – 08 ( BDT 60 million ) and FY 2008 – 09 ( BDT 150 million ) ; In FY 2009 – 10 , however , the carrier incurred in a net loss of BDT 800 million .
= = = = 2010s = = = =
In FY 2010 – 11 it made losses of BDT 2 billion , despite the government exempting it a debt of about BDT 11 @.@ 94 billion and BDT 5 @.@ 73 billion owed to the BPC and the CAAB , respectively . In FY 2011 – 12 it made a loss of BDT 6 @.@ 06 billion ( US $ 75 million ) ; in FY 2012 – 13 unaudited figures show a loss of BDT 2 billion . The airline plans to be fully profitable by FY 2014 – 15 . As of December 2013 , Biman owed BDT 15 @.@ 60 billion to different sources ; of which BDT 3676 @.@ 2 million to CAAB and BDT 8 @.@ 50 billion to Padma Oil Company , its fuel supplier . Biman made a profit of BDT 2 @.@ 72 billion in FY 2014 – 15 .
= = = Subsidiaries = = =
Biman 's subsidiaries are associated with aircraft ground handling , aviation engineering , aviation training and flight catering . There are five wholly owned subsidiaries , including :
Since 1972 , BGH provides ground @-@ handling services for all airports in Bangladesh ; the company reported a profit of BDT 4 @.@ 5 billion for the FY 2011 – 12 . The wholly owned subsidiary BFCC was set up in 1989 to provide in @-@ flight meals . It is one of Biman 's profitable operations , supplying food to Saudia , Etihad , Malaysia Airlines , Thai Airways , Emirates , Dragon Air , China Southern Airlines and Regent Airways , along with casual orders from other airlines operating into Bangladesh . The BFCC consumes 90 % of the eggs and chickens from the BPC , another profit @-@ making subsidiary of Biman formed in 1976 and put into operation in November 1980 to rear poultry at farms in Dhaka . Bird flu was detected at one of the farms in March 2007 , and many of the birds were culled . This was the first incident of bird flu in Bangladesh .
= = Services = =
Biman is notable for disruptions to its flight schedule and poor customer service . In 2007 , Biman faced strong criticism from major international airports including London Heathrow Airport and Dubai International Airport for its failure to maintain flight schedules . Heathrow Airport operator BAA wrote to Biman providing evidence which showed Biman had not achieved the minimum 80 % usage of its allocated landing slots at Heathrow , as required by EU and International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) regulations , during the summer of 2007 . Biman should , therefore , not expect slot allocations at Heathrow for the summer of 2008 and should look to Stansted or Gatwick airports if it wished to continue serving London . Following discussions with BAA , however , Biman obtained landing slots for the summer of 2008 on condition that it achieved 80 % usage . Delays continued unabated and in September 2008 , Biman 's Dhaka – London direct flight utilising a DC @-@ 10 aircraft was diverted and landed at Gatwick when it did not have sufficient fuel to remain in a holding pattern over Heathrow following arrival over three hours after the scheduled time . In a 10 September 2008 article published in The Times , Biman was labelled the worst performer for punctuality at Heathrow , with flights delayed on average by three hours . In 2008 , the United Nations advised its staff not to fly with Biman , citing both safety and security concerns and Biman 's unreliable flight schedules . It was made clear that UN staff who flew with Biman did so at their own risk , and would be ineligible to make claims on insurance . Biman 's then newly appointed managing director said he was unaware of the UN directive , but admitted that Biman did face problems in managing its flight schedules . He expected the situation to improve with the procurement of aircraft in the coming months .
In 2013 , Biman signed agreements with SITA and Mercator to provide infrastructure support and revenue accounting services to the airline .
In 2014 , Biman launched advance seat reservation system on its website . The airline also offers online meal selection option , where the passenger can choose from diabetic meals , vegetarian meals , Asian vegetarian meal , child meal and Muslim meal , that will be served on board .
= = = Flight classes = = =
A two @-@ class service ( J and Y ) is operated on all of Biman 's airliners . The Business Class cabin on its Boeing 777 are arranged in a 2 – 3 – 2 configuration , while economy class cabin is set up in a 3 – 3 – 3 configuration . The narrow @-@ body Boeing 737 @-@ 800s ' Business Class is set up in a 2 – 2 configuration while Economy Class is in a 3 – 3 arrangement . The older Airbus A310s have a 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 configuration in Economy Class ; 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 2 in Business Class .
= = = In @-@ flight amenities = = =
Biman relaunched its inflight magazine re @-@ branded as Bihanga in September 2013 . The bi @-@ monthly magazine , previously known as Diganta , and prior to that Jatri , is published by Subcontinental Media Group . The magazine is available in both Bengali and English , covering topics about Bangladesh and Biman 's destinations . English and Bengali language newspapers are also available on board in the aircraft .
The newer Boeing 777s are equipped with modern in @-@ flight entertainment . Every seat is fitted with personal touch screen displays provided by Thales . It is loaded with movies , songs and games . It also has high resolution moving maps and live flight information . It is in two languages – English and Bengali .
Biman launched in @-@ flight duty free sales in March 2014 , branded as Biman Boutique . The duty @-@ free products include : perfumes , cosmetics , jewelleries , watches , children 's gifts , chocolate and tobacco .
In 2014 , Biman launched amenity kit for children on @-@ board which include coloring books , stationery , dolls and jigsaw puzzle .
= = = Frequent @-@ flyer program = = =
Biman launched a frequent @-@ flyer program , named Biman Loyalty Club , in November 2013 . It offers rewards such as tiered benefits , mileage bonuses , extra baggage , lounge access and priority check @-@ in at airports .
As of July 2014 , the frequent @-@ flyer program had 8 @,@ 000 members .
= = = Ticketing = = =
An agreement was signed with Amadeus in 2007 to upgrade Biman 's ticketing system with an e @-@ ticketing solution to comply with IATA rules , which set out a deadline of 31 December 2007 for all member airlines to switch over their ticketing systems . E @-@ ticketing has enabled major airlines to provide online check @-@ in facilities , reducing the need to queue up at check @-@ in counters . However , Biman has not made any attempts to improve customer service through the adoption of e @-@ ticketing , although it has been able to reduce its own costs . In 2005 , Biman had briefly stopped using the Amadeus ticketing system when the government suspended the operation of a local Amadeus subsidiary following a court order , after allegations of money laundering . The suspension , however , lasted only a month , and was lifted after the writ was appealed in the High Court .
In 2013 , Biman signed an agreement with German e @-@ ticketing company Hahn Air , enabling Biman 's tickets to be purchased from anywhere around the world .
= = = Biman Cargo = = =
Biman also operates a cargo service using the cargo holds of its passenger aircraft to ship freight to international destinations . It has established Cargo Village at Shahjalal International Airport where the cargo is packaged and labelled before being loaded onto its aircraft .
While the air cargo industry in Bangladesh grew by 16 @.@ 5 % in the fiscal year 2003 – 04 , Biman 's cargo operations remained stagnant when private operators such as Bismillah Airlines , Best Aviation and Air Bangladesh produced a 108 % growth from the previous year . The private operators increased their share of the cargo market by 10 @.@ 6 % and were responsible for handling 24 % of the total 99 @,@ 000 tonnes of cargo at the expense of both Biman and foreign airlines which saw a reduction in their shares by 4 @.@ 6 % and 6 @.@ 0 % respectively . Foreign airlines handled 47 % of the total cargo with Biman taking on the remaining 29 % .
As with its passenger service and management , corruption has also been rife at Biman Cargo . An investigation in 2004 uncovered irregularities in a number of Biman 's Middle East operations which deprived the government of millions of dollars in revenue . Biman officials in Dubai were found to have been " extending special privileges " to the main freight handler in exchange for bribes . The smuggling of foreign currency and gold bars is reported to have taken place at the Biman Cargo Village by Biman and CAAB employees . A number of arrests were made but the perpetrators evaded punishment through lack of evidence and pressure from the CAAB union .
= = Destinations = =
As of November 2014 , Biman serves 21 destinations , 18 of them international . However , the carrier has air service agreements with 43 countries leaving room for expansion for which it lacks aircraft . The airline operates flights to several destinations in the Middle East , some destinations in South and South East Asia ; London and Rome in Europe .
The airline announced intentions to commence flights to Guangzhou and Kunming in China in summer 2014 . Former Biman board director Kazi Oahedul Alam criticised the expansion as poorly planned and not commercially viable .
= = = New York and Manchester = = =
From 1993 to 2006 , Biman operated flights to John F. Kennedy International Airport , New York City , from Dhaka via Brussels . New York was Biman 's farthest and most prestigious destination , and was kept operational despite heavy financial losses to maintain a landing slot in the US which , if cancelled , could be difficult to regain . To curb the losses , Biman reduced the service to one flight per week and re @-@ routed it through Manchester Airport , UK , capitalising on travel demands from the expatriate Bangladeshi community in the north of England . On 8 April 2006 , Biman 's inaugural flight to Manchester landed at Manchester Airport en route to JFK . However , the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) had placed the Civil Aviation Authority of Bangladesh ( CAAB ) into Category 2 ( does not meet International Civil Aviation Organization standards ) according to its International Aviation Safety Assessment Program , which placed additional restrictions on the country 's airlines when flying to the US . A former CAAB assistant director made scathing remarks about the CAAB in an opinion article in the Aviatour , a monthly travel and tourism supplement of Bangladeshi news magazine Weekly Holiday . For Biman , this meant that it could continue flying to the US , but could not expand or make alterations to its routes , such as changing the transit from Brussels to Manchester . The FAA fined Biman for breaching its rules , and flights to New York were again re @-@ routed through Brussels .
The FAA had already warned Biman to replace its ageing DC @-@ 10s by December 2005 . According to experts , these aircraft were inadequately equipped to safely cross the Atlantic . On 13 May 2006 , the FAA refused permission for Biman flight BG001 ( Dhaka – Brussels – JFK ) to enter its airspace , citing safety concerns over the ailing DC – 10 aircraft used on the route . The flight was diverted to Montréal @-@ Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport in Canada , where the passengers were provided with alternative airline options to complete their journey . Canadian authorities inspected the aircraft and gave it a clean bill of health after which the aircraft returned to Dhaka without any passengers . The FAA eventually admitted it was mistaken and apologised for the error .
The incident put an end to the route , which had been losing US $ 80 @,@ 000 per flight , owing to its use of obsolete DC @-@ 10s . Biman decided to axe the route along with a number of other regional and domestic routes to curb the huge losses being incurred by the airline each month . However , in October 2007 , Biman was directed by the then caretaker government to resume flights to New York . Biman was given until 25 October 2008 ( extended from an earlier deadline of 23 March 2008 ) to resume flights to the airport by the JFK airport authority , after which it would have lost the landing slot permanently .
The resumption of flights to the United States may take place in 2015 , this depending on the FAA upgrading the category of the CAAB which is still category 2 , as of May 2015 .
= = = Hajj flights = = =
The annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca for the Hajj is undertaken by thousands of Bangladesh 's predominantly Muslim population . Biman has been the sole Bangladeshi airline permitted by the government to provide flights for pilgrims to King Abdulaziz International Airport , Jeddah . Every year , the commencement of these | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
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